FORSHEE PEOR TE
FOR EDVCATION
PORTS CUENGCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM
OF

NATURAL HISTORY

AND

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

opal Society of Victoria.

VOR xX.

Edited under the Authority of the Council of the Society.

THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE
OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.

MELBOURNE :
STILLWELL & KNIGHT, PRINTERS, 78 COLLINS STREET EAST.
Issued February 1874.

AGENTS TO THE SOCIETY.
Wittiams and Noroats, 14 Henrimrra Srrenr, Covent GarpEN, Lonpon.

To whom communications for transmission to the Royal Society of Victoria
from all parts of Europe should be sent.

ae Me WA
Da (hy Jatt

(MW. AA / Sif hun

ey elt Aue it:

Tue Councit has to express its great regret that it
was impossible to issue any Transactions before, as
from the unexpected withdrawal of the Government
Grant in 1868, there were no funds to do so, or even
to pay the printer for the volume last issued.

A sum having now been granted by the liberality
of the present Government, the present volume has
been prepared as soon as the great difficulty in
collecting the papers rendered it possible. Unfor-
tunately some are altogether wanting; several having
been returned to their authors, as there was no
immediate possibility of their being printed, and
some of them are not recoverable.

There is now a prospect of greater regularity in
the issue of the Transactions for the future.

Presipent’s Appress, 1870

CONTENTS OF VOL.

PresipEnt’s Appress, 1871
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1872

Art. I.

0.

XIU.

XVI.

Notes on the Harthquake in Gippe Land, by
R. L. J. Huuery, Esq. ..

Notes on the Quality of Hartley hel Getis Shale
for the Manufacture of Gas, together with a
description of the new Coal Seam at ee by
A. K. Surra, C.H., F.R.8.S.A., &e. &e.. ;

yn Argis and surrounding Mepale, by A.
Sunur, Esa. : F

Decay of Gaspipes in agian Soils by Guanes
Foorp, Esq. te

On 7 Argis and ae s Spectrum, by A. Lin
Sueur, Hsa.

Notes on a Simplification of a Eheeeritn
Process used with Self- Reais Instruments,
by R. L. J. Hutery, Esa. .

On the Brilliant Aurora of “he 5th ae ‘1870, by
R. L. J. Hunery, Esq. ..

Notes on the occurrence of hates or bay aie
Stones at Beechworth, by EH. J. Dunn, Esa.

On Street Odours and Neglect of Neen by
Wm. Wanner, Esa. ats

Hand v. Machine broken Metal, aan nM to
their comparative value for the construction

LE

and repair of city and suburban streets and

roads, by A. K. Suir, Esq.

On the Melbourne Great oe by H. hs
Severn, Esa.

Some Notes on the Cultus of Gr in Gis
Land, by Josnpu Bosisto, Esq. .. é ¢

On Hydrogenium, by Gzuorce Foorp, Eso.

On the Melbourne Great eee os A. Lr
Suzvr, Esa. -

On Railway Working Wipensee in Victoria, by
F. C. Curisty, Eso.

On the Ventilation of Ships,
Waker, Esa. ue

ty ae

Ghee
. XiX—xxxil
xxxv—lili
lvii—lxxi
1—4
5—11
1116
16—23
23—27
28—31

32

32—35

35

36-—388

39

39—42
42—46

46

46

47

XVII.

XVIII.

XXXVI.

XXXVI.
XXXVIUT.

XXXIX.

XL.

—_— ee

Contents.

A Proposition for the Improvement ana Extension
of the Wharfage Accommodation on the Yarra
River, by M. ApotpHE Caranpat, C.H. France

On Colonial Timber Trees, and some European
Trees, which have been proved to be suitable
to the Colony of Victoria, by F. C. aa
Esa., C.H.

On the late Te eCetRR cee a reader
of Auroras, by R. L. J. Hutery, Hsa.

On a New Form of Bae by R. L. J.
Huuery, EHsa. 2

Some Notes of Dieervance with ke Mabonens
Great Telescope, by Fartz Macezores, Hsa.

Notes on Enhydros found at Beechworth, ne
GrorGE Foorp, Esa.

On a Self- thas Hydrostatic Chime oh Gare:

weight, by A. K. Surru, Esq., C.H., M.R.S.8.A.

On Gun Cotton as an Explosive eget by. R. L. J.
Eiwiery, Esq., F.R.C.S8: ..

On some Hydraulic
MaccroreGe, Esa. ..

Clock Weights, by F.

Suggestions for the Improvement of the Mined: s

Compass, by E. J. Wurtz, Esa. .. oe
On a Direction Rain Gauge, by Prormssorn Witson
A Method for the Manufacture of Chloride of

Aluminum and Calcium, for use as a Disin-
fectant, by J. Cosuo Newsery, Hsq.

Ocean Waves and their Action on Brean
Bodies, by 8. R. DEVERELL, Esq.

On a Linear Method of Finding the Pie of
Ships, by EH. K. Horne, Hsa.

Abstract of a Paper on Aboriginal Art in Pee

asia, Polynesia, and Oceanica, and ats) Decay,
by H. EH. Patn, Esa.

On 7 Argis and Nebula, by F. Nie Esa.

Areometer, by GrorcEe Foorp, Hsa.

On a Method of Combining Marsh’s Test fon
Arsenic with Reinsch’s, by Rey. W. Kenny

On the Cultivation of Mentha Piperita, or True
Peppermint, in Victoria, based on a Report
received from England ete to its Oil
value, by J. Boststo, Hsa.

Patents and their enc hee by roan ie
son, Esa. 7

On Meat Preserving, De Re Gea so.

On Biangular Co-ordinates,
Patrick Forp, Esq., M.A.
Self-acting Safety Regulator and Coal Huan ile

for Steam Engines, by F. Poouman, Esq.

Improved Fire-Plug, by A. K. Surrn, Esq., C.H.

contributed by

Pace

AT
47—56
56—64
64
65—71
71—76
76—78
78

79
79—80
81

81
82—99
99
100—105
106—113
113

116
116—120
121—125
125

125
125—127
127—128

XI.

XLIX.

LIV.

Contents.

Notes on Sirius and its Companion Stars (Greet
Telescope), by F. Macenorez, Hsq.

Note on the Cranbourne Meteorite, by eae
W. Giszons, Hsq., F.C.8., &e. .. As

On a Specimen of Native Copper recently joan
at Footscray, near Melbourne, by G. Foorp, Esa.

On Yan Yean Water, by Sypnry W. GIBBONS, Bae Er
F.C.8., &.

The Use of Bisulphide of Carbon as a Soin att in
the Extraction of ee ee by J. Cosmo
NEwsery, Hsa.

On Siemen’s Universal Caicanon bie: for ‘Testing
Telegraphic Lines, by R. L. J. Hutery, Esq.

Notes on the Mechanical ack of eee Wy
GrorcEe Foorp, Hsa.

On an Kasy and Eixpeditious Method of venice
a Ship’s Position on a Coast when only one
Object on Shore can be seen either in the Day
or Night, by the use of i 's Anti-Collision
Dial, by C. J. Perry a:

On the Treatment of Conall in ATT to
Science, by H. K. Rusden

On a Kaleidograph, by M. O. PritcHarp

On Matter—A Mode of re 2. Farte Mac-

GEORGE, Esq.

On Ocean Wave Power Machinery, by 8. R.
DEVERELL, Esq.

The Classificatory System of Kinship, by Rav.
Lorimer Fison Se C

Air and Water Poisoning in Peers L
Sewage, by Sypnny W. Gipzons, Hsq., F.C.S8., &e.

Air and Water Poisoning in Melbourne— Part II.
On the Possible Pollution of the Yan Yean
Reservoir by the Drainage from een ee: by
Sypney W. Gipsons, Hsq., F.C.S., &e. .

ProckEDines, &c., 1872

MEMBERS

Vil

PAGE
128—130
130—131
131—135
135
135—138
139
139—147
147

147

147

147
148—154
154—179
180—195
195202
205—216

217—220

Royal Society of Victoria,

S67 08

qo atron.
HIS EXCELLENCY VISCOUNT CANTERBURY.

Presivent.
R. L. J. ELLERY, Ese.

Vice- Presidents,
PROFESSOR F. M‘COY. | PROFESSOR G. B. HALFORD.

Trewsurer.
THOS. H. RAWLINGS, Hsq., J.P.

How. Seevetarp.
H. K. RUSDEN.

Mrbrvarian. Custos of Collections.
DR. NEILD. J. COSMO NEWBERY, Usa.
Gowncil.
DR. E. BARKER, J. T. RUDALL, Esq, F.R.C.8.
DR. JAS. CORRIGAN. A. K. SMITH, Esq., C.E.
PROFESSOR M. H. IRVING. H. G. TURNER, Esq.
8. W. M‘GOWAN, Esa. G. H. F. ULRICH, Esq.
J. MARSHALL, Ese. ROBT. WILLAN, Ese.

REV. ISAAC MOORE. PROFESSOR W. P. WILSON.

opal Society of Victorin.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS

OF
Ghe President,
Mr. R. L. J. ELLERY, F.R.AS., Government Astronomer.

[Delivered to the Members of the Royal Society, at their Annual
Conversazione, held on July 10, 1870.]

GENTLEMEN OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA,

_ We meet to-night to inaugurate the 15th session. The
last occasion upon which I had the honour to deliver an
annual address was in March, 1868. This gap in the usual
order of things was brought about by the alterations in the
building, which occupied many months last year.

During the past two sessions we have held 24 ordinarf
meetings, at which many very valuable and interesting
papers were read, of which eight pertained to physical
science; seven to geology, mineralogy, and palzontology ;
one to natural history ; three to medical science ; one to
social science ; and four to arts and manufactures.

The first part of the volume containing the transactions of
the Society during the first half of 1868 bas been published,
I regret, however, to state that, owing to the great draft on
our funds occasioned by the alterations in the building and

furnishing, the printing has been in abeyance.
C2

XX President's Address

Our intercourse with kindred societies has still further
increased, and we are now receiving most valuable con-
tributions in the shape of books and pamphlets from nearly
a hundred learned bodies. This fact renders the temporary
cessation of the publication of our transactions doubly a
matter of regret, as we are thus unable to keep up that
regular exchange which these societies have a right to
expect. I trust, however, we shall soon be in a position to
resume the quarterly or half-yearly issue of our transactions.

On occasions like these it is more usual to review the
past year’s progress in science and arts generally, than
dwell at length upon what has been done within our own
Society, which is familiar to you all. I shall therefore not
detain you with any further details of our two last sessions,
but invite your attention to several matters of interest
cognate to the objects of our Society, which refer to the
progress of knowledge, both in this colony and abroad.

In the first place I would bring under your notice the two
years’ history and present state of our several public
scientific establishments. Botanical science is largely
indebted to the labours of our member, Dr. Von Mueller,
the head of the Botanical department of Victoria. One of
the prominent results of Dr. Mueller’s investigations is the
publication of the Universal Flora of Australia (under the
editorship of Mr. Bentham), to which Dr. Mueller is the
principal contributor; the fifth volume has, by this time,
passed the press in London. This work, when completed,
will be the only one extant that deals universally with the -
flora of a large division of the earth’s surface. It will form
a permanent basis of all future research with respect to the
adaptability of Australian plants to medicine, the arts, or
other useful purposes.

You will be glad to learn that Dr. Mueller is about to
establish a permanent phytological collection in our new

for the year 1870. xxi

industrial museum, which will comprise objects illustrative
of our natural resources in the vegetable kingdom, and of
materials used in the industries obtained from plants in this
country as well as other parts of the globe. Such a collection
properly arranged and accessible to the public will
undoubtedly prove a valuable and instructive addition to the
industrial museum, more especially if at the same time
Dr. Mueller fulfils a project he has in contemplation of
publishing in a popular form a volume on the culture of
utilitarian plants in the colony not indigenous to it, as well
as of plants likely to add to the resources of countries lying
under similar latitudes to our own.

The preservation and perpetuation of our more extensive
forests is already become a question of serious import. A
few years ago we thought our forests inexhaustible; but
already the bad effects of the indiscriminate stripping of our
mountain ranges are becoming visible. The immense and
increasing draft on our forests for fuel and other purposes has
already denuded the land in the vicinity of towns and other
centres of population of its former covering of timber. This,
unless replaced by artificial planting, will eventually leave
our hills bare, and in all probability the climate will suffer
in proportion. Dr. Mueller, in introducing and rearing very
large numbers of forest trees that will be useful in them-
selves for the wood and bark, has exercised a wise
forethought, of which the colony will reap the fruit in
years to come, when the cork oaks, hickories, red cedars,
and firs shall have in part replaced our eucalypti, mimosa,
and other far less useful trees.

I regret to have to state that the progress of our national
museum, which has been attaining to such perfection under
the directorship of Professor M‘Coy, has been seriously
retarded by the withdrawal of the necessary assistants and
a diminution in the annual grant for contingent expenses.

XXil President's Address

Our observatory has been engaged with its usual work in
astronomy, meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, and general
physics. Considerable progress has been made in the
Melbourne portion of the survey of the southern heavens ;
the sky lying between the 60th and 52nd parallels of
declination has been carefully surveyed, and the positions of
38,905 stars established and catalogued, of which 29,633
have been reduced to the epoch agreed upon, namely, 1875,
and their positions at that date computed. Our staff of
selfregistering meteorological instruments may now be con-
sidered complete, and consist of three magnetographs (that
is for declination, dip, and horizontal intensity), a
thermograph, a barograph, electrograph, and anemograph.
With these instruments a continuous and unceasing record
is obtained by the aid of photography of all the variations in
the force and direction of the earth’s magnetism, of the
temperature of the air, and of evaporation, of the state and
variations of the pressure of the air, atmospheric electricity,
as well as of the direction, changes, and force of the wind.

Since my last address both the 1st and 3rd volumes of the
Melbourne Observations have been published. The first
contains all the results obtained at Williamstown before the
Observatory was removed to Melbourne; and the third
pertains entirely to astronomical work done at the Melbourne
Observatory in the years 1866, 1867, and 1868. The great
Melbourne telescope, as you are aware, arrived in Melbourne
in November, 1868, and was erected a few months after-
wards. It has now been fairly at work for about 10 months,
and some of the results obtained have andy, been laid
before you by Mr. Le Sueur.

An impression appears to have got abroad that there is
something wrong with the great telescope, and it has even

been whispered that itis a failure. The efforts, on the one —

hand, to counteract this impression by statements of the

for the year 1870. XXiil

true state of the case, and, on the other, to strengthen it by
magnifying its defects, or asserting the existence of
imaginary ones, have left the public mind in a state of doubt
on the point. When it was decided by the committee of the
Royal Society of London that the Melbourne telescope was
to be a four-feet reflector, it was hoped, as is our wont, we
should get one better than any other; but although our
hopes are not fully realised in that respect, we know we
have the result of the best efforts of one of the most
renowned opticians, and may feel satisfied that if it does not
excel, it quite equals, every other of its size that has yet been
made. ‘There are only about three telescopes in the world of
like dimensions, all reflectors; there is none similar in form
to ours except in much smaller size, so the experience both
in the construction and use of such giant instruments is
extremely limited.

Large telescopes always disappoint dilettante observers, and
often at first even experienced astronomers. It is only when
in the hands of the patient, plodding, discriminating worker,
that they reveal the mysteries of deep space, and that often
fitfully, perhaps for a few seconds only in the course of hours.
Each short moment, however, when the cylinder of
atmosphere through which the star (or nebula) light passes
to the mirror is favourable for its transmission, becomes to
such astronomers the opportunity for result and discovery.

The Great Melbourne Telescope, like Mr. Lassell’s Lord
Rosse’s, Sir John Herschel’s reflectors, the Dorpat and
Harvard refractors, is not a perfect telescope. No perfect
telescope, large or small, has ever yet been constructed. The
small appear comparatively more perfect from the less light
they collect, and the less power that can be used with them,
and consequently the less effect of atmospheric influence; but
if a similar perfection of figure as belongs to the best
achromatic or reflector ever constructed.on a small scale be

XXiV President's Address

obtained on a four-feet surface, it would, I am confident, fall
far short of the perfection of the large mirrors already in
existence. It is only when the surface is large that the
imperfections, insignificant on small ones, become so
apparent.

- No one in the colony can have any interest in
overpraising or bolstering up our great telescope, those
most closely concerned in it least of all. Their duty is to find
out its defects and perfections, remedy and eliminate the
former as far as possible, and set it to the work for
which it was obtained, and when necessary give their honest
opinions of its merits and faults, unbiassed by any con-

siderations whatever; and this has been done. In closing my

remarks on this subject, I wish to point out that the
fact of this instrument not being perfect does not in any
way warrant the assumption that it is.a failure. Between
perfection and failure there are many grades, the higher of
which are seldom reached by human handicraft. Jam quite
satisfied that our reflector will compare favourably with the
only two large ones now in use, namely, Lord Rosse’s and
Mr. Lassell’s ; and in our present state of practical optics we
cannot reasonably ask more.

The trigonometrical operations of the geodetic survey have
now spread a network of carefully-measured triangles over
nearly the whole face of the colony. The coast line, from
the boundary of South Australia to Cape Howe, has been
measured by it, and with the exception of the north-west
portion of the colony, known as the Mallee or Upper
Wimmera District, nearly every district has been enmeshed
by the geodetic surveyors.

Among the results of these operations the determination
of true distances between point and point, place and place,
and the latitudes and longitudes of all the mountain and
hill tops used as trigonometrical stations, as well as of

for the year 1870. XXV

townships and surveys in their neighbourhood, constitute
the most important and valuable. These form stock-in-
trade for the further survey and settlement of the colony,
and the everlasting references for the adjustment of disputes
with reference to boundaries and areas of land property.
The survey has been fast approaching its completion, but
you will reeret to learn that retrenchments in the public
expenditure have fallen so heavily on this branch of the
service as to very seriously cripple its progress.

The most important and interesting operation of late has
been the determination of the termini of the boundary
between New South Wales and Victoria, with the view of
marking it on the ground. The act of Parliament by which
Victoria became a separate colony defines her boundaries in
certain terms—that between South Australia and Victoria
is named the “14Ist meridian of longitude ;” that separat-
ing us from New South Wales, “The River Murray, from
the intersection of the 141st meridian to the branch or
source nearest to Cape Howe, and thence by a line bearing
S.E. to Cape Howe. The boundary between South
Australia and Victoria was marked in 1847, as nearly coin-
ciding with the 141st meridian as was then known from the
mouth of the Glenelg to the Murray.

The Murray gives us all our northern boundary, but no
line from the eastern sources of the Murray to Cape Howe
has ever been marked, and consequently over 100 miles of
frontier is in the position of “No Man’s Land,” with its
uncertain jurisdiction and unpaid rents. The definition of
this boundary at the jot expense of the two colonies, by
the geodetic surveyors of Victoria, was some time since
agreed upon, and three survey parties have been actively
engaged for many months on the work necessary to accom-
plish it. The particular source of the Murray to form
the N.W. terminus, as well as the particular point

XXV1 President's Address

on the coast to be considered as Cape Howe being deter-
mined upon, it became necessary to run a line from
one point so as to strike the other at a distance of

over 100 miles. To do this, the true difference of —

latitude and longitude of both points had to be determined.
This demanded an extension of the triangulation to Cape
Howe and Gabo Island on the one hand, and to Forest-hill,
the Pilot, and Mount Kosciusko on the other—operations of
a most difficult and expensive character, involving great
hardships and often great danger to those engaged on it. It
has, however, been accomplished, and the true bearing of a
line started from Forest-hill in the N.W. that will strike
Cape Howe in the S.E., has been computed in accordance
with the best knowledge we possess of the figure of the
earth.

The difficulties besetting the inception and growth of the
industries of a new country, and the progress made in the
face of such impediments, is well illustrated by the progress
of our manufacture of preserved meats. In Victoria, for
many years to come, the supply of animal food must prove
in excess of the local demand, while its export in an unpro-
tected condition is prevented by the liability of the material
to rapid putrefactive decay. Our lists of patented inven-
tions show that considerable spirit and enterprise have been
devoted to working out some new processes for meat

preservation more efficient than those already in use; but

these newly-proposed methods—those by refrigeration, by
injecting the entire carcase with preservative fluids, by

investing the meat in paraffin, and, in fact, by other ,

methods, which appear feasible enough if we regard only the
broad principles of each, have as yet presented such formid-
able difficulties opposing their reduction to practice, that
the well-known method of Appert, of cooking and hermetic-
ally sealing the meat in tins, is, notwithstanding its

for the year 1870. XXV1i

comparative expense, and perhaps some other drawbacks,
in increasing use by the local meat-preserving companies.

No doubt improved methods will before long be reduced
within practicable limits, but in the meantime the vitality
of the enterprise is shown by its steady growth, unassisted
as yet by any available new method.

A requirement, subsidiary to the new meat-preserving
industry, of considerable importance on account of its
economic sense and sanatory bearings, concerns the
disposal of the waste meat and animal refuse, a con-
siderable bye-product of the manufacture. The recently-
patented method of Mr. George Foord deals with this sub-
ject. The method, I am informed, is about to be put in
operation by the firm of Messrs. James Macmeikan and Co.,
who are building a large factory, and providing powerful
plant for carring it on.

The sanatory bearing of the action employed in this
patented process of Mr. Foord, by which putrefactive and
fermentative decays are suppressed by the use of sulphuric
acid, does not appear to have been hitherto recognised. It
may in the future admit of important applications in various
matters of public hygiene.

In looking back on the progress of science generally dur-
ing the past two years, it cannot but be remarked that out
of all the rest the additions to our knowledge of solar physics
stand out the most prominent. On the occasion of our last
inaugural meeting, I called your attention to the then
approaching total solar eclipse of May, 1869, which would
be visible over a part of India and the Indian seas. This
eclipse, as you will remember, was a remarkable one, from
the long duration of the total obscuration, which offered an
unusually favourable opportunity for the examination of the
strange phenomena generally witnessed on such occasions.
The eclipse was successfully observed, the results were

XXVill Presidents Address

extremely satisfactory, and the mystery of those wonderful
red or rose-coloured prominences which during the moments
of totality have been seen to jet out from or hover over the
sun’s edge, and which had hitherto puzzled astronomers and
physicists, was to a great extent unravelled.

The spectroscope revealed in their light the well known
lines of hydrogen. Every observer told the same story—
hydrogen lines, the light of incandescent hydrogen. These
beautiful rose-coloured prominences, therefore, appear to be
jets and clouds of red-hot hydrogen of enormous dimensions,
some of which are sometimes projected nearly 100,000 miles
into space.

Almost immediately after the eclipse two astronomers—
M. Janssen im India, and Mr. Lockyer in England—
independently discovered that these red flames could be
seen at almost any time, and that no total eclipse was
necessary to render them observable and measurable, and to
bring them within the reach of the searching analysis of the
prism. With the spectroscope specially arranged on a
telescope these phenomena could be seen almost at any time.
This discovery gave a new impetus and direction to the
physical investigation of the sun’s surface, and opened up
new fields and methods of research which have added very
largely to our knowledge of the physical constitution of our
oreat luminary.

It had long since been shown by spectrum analysis in
the hands of Kirchhoff, Bunsen, and others, that the visible
surface of the sun or photosphere contained the incandescent
“vapours of many of the metals, earths, and gases, which exist
in our globe; and careful observers have noted the mobile
condition of it, more especially in the neighbourhood of spots,
where the vaporous masses are often seen to move with
terrific speed in cyclonic whirls. Now, the behaviour of
these vapours can be seen in profile around the sun’s edge.

for the year 1870. XoM

From the observations of Lockyer, Huggins, Janssen,
and others, it appears that surrounding the photosphere is
an envelope of far less luminosity, which has been styled
the chromosphere. The spectra of this chromosphere is,
with the exception of a yellow line, identical with that of
hydrogen, and like that of the red prominences. The
spectra of magnesium and barium were also observed
occasionally in the chromosphere, as if injected into it from
the photosphere. From this it may be inferred that the
hydrogen flames or red prominences are portions of the
chromosphere thrust out into space by eruptive forces from
beneath. .

The spots on the sun have also been the subject of
unceasing inquiry, both as to their constitution, their cause,
and the mysterious influence they appear to exert on the
magnetic and electrical condition of the earth and air. The
opinion seems to have gained ground that they are down-
rushes, cyclones, or maelstroms, by which the light-bearing
vapours of the photosphere are whirled or sucked into
enormous depressions laying bare a cooler or more light-
absorbing substratum. These spots, as you are aware, are
more prevalent during some years than others, and it is now
pretty well established that the maximum period recurs
about every 10°6 years.

It is also found that the maximum disturbances of
terrestrial magnetism, or periods when magnetic storms
become prevalent, take place at the time of the sun-spot
maximum, and at such times frequent and very bright
auroras occur. At this present moment the sun is passing
through one of its “spotted fevers,” and the magnificent
aurora, with the magnetic storm which preceded and
accompanied it, was one of those “wonderful sympathetic
shudders by which our globe testifies its subordination to
solar forces.

Xxx Presidents Address

On September 2, 1859, just about 10.4 years ago, one of
_the most magnificent auroras ever seen in Melbourne
occurred, and is, I have no doubt, well remembered by many
present. Large spots were visible on the sun, and at the
very time when we were watching the gorgeous rose coloured
streams shooting zenithwards, and forming their beautiful
corona, a strange occurrence in the sun’s surface was
witnessed independently by two astronomers in England.
In the neighbourhood of one of the large spots an intensely
brilliant outburst of light was observed, and swept like a
cloud across it. It was seen for nearly five minutes, during
which period it was estimated to have travelled at least
35,000 miles. At the same time also, the earth was under a
violent magnetic convulsion, and grand auroras were visible
in both hemispheres.

Electric currents in both the air and earth were so intense,
that, as Sir John Herschel remarked, “the telegraph wires
struck work.” The puny force furnished by their batteries
was overwhelmned by the rich supplies from the fountain
head itself. In the last aurora our wires also surrendered
themselves to the air currents, and for moments telegraphic
messages could actually be transmitted by their aid; as a
rule, however, they are fitful and violent, often injuring the
more delicate telegraphic instruments by their great
intensity.

The spectrum of auroral light has been frequently
observed, more especially by M. Angstrom, of Upsala. In
nearly every case it has been described as consisting of two
lines or bands in the green part of the spectrum, near to the
position of the green calcium lines. During the most
brilliant display in April last, I was able to obtain a very
bright spectrum of the light with a wmicrospectroscope.
Unfortunately the dispersion was small, but the light was so
intense as to admit of a very narrow slit.

jor the yer 1870. XXXi

The spectrum obtained from the red streamers consisted
of a strong red band or line (which I estimated was rather
more refrangible than C line), and bands in the green, which
I believe to be the same as described by Angstrom. The
spectrum of the green light which formed the lower arch of
the aurora, however, contained no red band, and the appear-
ance of it as the spectroscope was passed up and down, so as
to receive the light from the streamers or green arch, was
very marked indeed. I am not aware of this red band or
line having been noticed by any previous observers ; and
had it not been so clear and prominent, far brighter than the
green ones—and had I not proved that it belonged to the
red streamers, and not to any other of the auroral light, by
the method referred to—I might have been doubtful as to
the real existence of a line not hitherto noted in the spectra
of aurora.

It is to be regretted, but it is nevertheless true, that
meteorology is stillin the dark—an occult science. After
years of careful observing, and the accumulation of hundreds
of ponderous volumes of observations, the laws which
govern the weather are almost as deeply hidden from us as
ever. In astronomy, phenomena can be predicted centuries
beforehand, yet it cannot be foretold what shall be the
weather to-morrow. But, admitting this, careful observers
cannot divest themselves of the belief that the greater
climatic events, such as dry or wet, hot or cold, seasons,
recur in cycles, or are brought about by some great telluric
or more general cosmical causes, which may yet be traced
out. Nor do I think there is anything unreasonable in the
belief. If such causes are ever traced, I think they will be
found extraneous to our globe, and probably in the varying
conditions of the sun itself. Every time the more violent
disturbances take place in that body the earth’s magnetic
forces tremble in sympathy—the normal electric conditions,

XXXii President's Address.

of its surface are frequently and violently disturbed and
reversed—these apparent and measurable effects are most
probably accompanied by others that cannot yet be traced in
their complexity.

The amount of total sun force acting upon the earth must
vary considerably between the sun-spot maximum and
minimum ; the area occupied by the sun-spots and their
penumbra often reaches to a fiftieth of the sun’s disc, and on
some occasions they have occupied as much as a thirtieth.
It can scarcely be conceived that the modification and,
perhaps, obliteration of so much of the sun-force acting
towards the earth can occur without some change in the
condition of her surface and atmosphere. The further physical
Science advances, the closer and more numerous seem the
relations existing between the sun and terrestrial phenomena,
and to my mind it appears quite probable that solar physics
will, eventually, be found to be the true key to meteorology.

Ropal Society of Victoria,

LY) dhe

Qutron.
HIS EXCELLENCY VISCOUNT CANTERBURY.

Arvesident.
R. L. J. ELLERY, Esq.

Vice- Dresidents.
A. K. SMITH, Eso., C.E. | PROFESSOR W. P. WILSON.

Crensurer.
ROBERT WILLAN, Eso.

Hon. Secretary.
H. K. RUSDEN.

Librarian. Custos of Collections.
DR. NEILD. H. E. PAIN, Esq.
CGonneil.

DR. E. BARKER. S. W. M‘'GOWAN, Esq.
C. G. CASEY, Esa. JOHN MARSHALL, Esq.
J. FLANNAGAN, Esa. } FREDERICK POOLMAN, Esa.
PROFESSOR G. B.. HALFORD. J. T. RUDALL, Esq., F.R.C.S. |
EDWARD HOWITT, Eso. H. G. TURNER, Esq.
PROFESSOR M. H. IRVING. Gq. H. F. ULRICH, Esq.

Roywl Society of Victorin.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS

y OF
Che President,
Mr. R. L. J. Evuery, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer.

[Delivered to the Members of the Royal Society, at the Annual
Conversazione, held on August 14, 1871.]

GENTLEMEN OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,

This evening we meet to commemorate the sixteenth year
of existence of this Society, and, in accordance with time-
honoured custom, it devolves upon me, as your President, to
deliver an address to you on its past year’s history and
progress. At our former annual gatherings it has been
usual also to review briefly the progress achieved by the
various public institutions devoted to science or art in the
colony, as well as to advert to a few of the more prominent
and interesting instances which mark the past year’s
advance in knowledge, and I think we could not do better
than still to adhere to this custom. |

Our last anniversary meeting was held on the 8th July,
1870. Since that date twelve ordinary meetings have been
held, at which many valuable contributions to science and
art were read or laid before you, leading in several instances
to interesting and instructive discussions.

At the July meeting, last year, Mr. Le Sueur read some

notes on the Great Melbourne Telescope, which were for the

¢) an

XXXVI President's Address

most part in reply to certain statements contained in a former
paper by a member who had spoken of the performance of
the telescope most unfavourably. Mr. Le Sueur showed that
the conclusions of the writer were arrived at upon insufficient
knowledge, and were, in fact, erroneous.

At the August meeting, Mr. Walker read a paper on
“Street Odours,” in which he endeavoured to prove that the
foul odours emanating from. street channels and gutters
were not noxious in themselves, contending that more
mischief was done to health by want of ventilation in
dwelling houses than by the foul smells which frequently
pervade populous and ill-drained localities.

At the October meeting, Mr. Walker read a paper on the
“ Ventilation of Ships,” the principle proposed for adoption
being the leading of galvanised iron tubes of large diameter,
with full collecting apertures, under the decks, and
terminating in the funnels of the galley fires.

In November, a paper contributed by Mons. Carandel was
read. It described a scheme for the improvement of the
river banks and wharfage, in the construction of which a
peculiar kind of beton, made from the excavated material,
was to be used instead of stone or wood. Mr. Rawlinson
also gave an oral account of some of the extinct volcanoes of
the Western District he had visited.

At the December meeting, Mr. Christy read a paper
entitled ‘The Useful Woods of the Colony,” in which he
dealt with the durability of our native timbers and the
adaptability of them for various purposes. He also
enumerated many timber trees not indigenous which were
fitted by their usefulness, hardiness, and quick growth for
planting in the colony. At the same meeting I also read a
short paper on “The Late Exceptional Season and Frequency
of Auroras.” The great number of auroral displays, coupled
with unusual weather, as well as with the remarkable

for the year 1871. XXXVii

frequency and number of sun spots, had induced me to
compare the periods of magnetic disturbances and auroras
with the prevailing weather.

At the March meeting I described a new form of automatic
spectroscope which I had devised some ten months pre-
viously. The arrangement provided that a train of prisms
should be adjusted to the position of minimum deviation by
the act of pointing the observing telescope to any required
portion of the spectrum. Mr. MacGeorge also made some
notes on ‘Observations with the Great Melbourne
Telescope,” in which he pointed out that still further changes
had taken place in the nebula of HKta Argus since Mr.
Le Sueur’s last observations.

Mr. G. Foord contributed a very interesting paper at the
April meeting on the “Fluid Contents of Enhydros,” in
which he gave the results of an analysis of the liquid con-
tained in these strange productions, as well as a description
of the microscopic appearances of the inner and outer
surfaces of the walls of the cavities, suggesting a theory of
their formation.

At the May meeting, Professor Wilson called the attention
of the members to the total eclipse which would be visible in
the northern part of Australia in December next, and
suggested the propriety of an endeavour on the part of the
Society to organise an expedition to observe it, and a
committee was appointed to carry this suggestion into
effect. At the same meeting Mr. A. K. Smith described and
illustrated a new hydrostatic chain and clock weight.

Three papers were read at our June meeting—one by
myself, on Gun Cotton, in which I described the various
kinds of gun cotton, their properties, methods of use, as well
as the results of some experiments I had made with the
material; Mr. White read a paper on “ Improvement of the
Mariner’s Compass,” in which he recommended the abandon

XXXVI President's Address

ment of the style of compass-reading by points as cumbrous,
imperfect, and leading to mistakes, and the substitution of
“circular readings ;” Mr. MacGeorge exhibited drawings of
some remarkable sun spots, and read a paper on and
described a plan for “ Hydraulic Clock Weights.”

At our last meeting, in July, Professor Wilson exhibited
and described a very simple and effective form of direction
Rain Gauge ; and Mr. Cosmo Newbery gave a short account
of anew method of preparing Chloralum (the new disin-
fectant and styptic) from kaolin.

I regret to say that these contributions to science and art
are not yet printed. Since the withholding of the small state
assistance the Society enjoyed up to within the last two or
three years, coupled with a recent monetary loss, our financial
condition has not been sufficiently flourishing to enable your
council to proceed with printing the transactions. This is
the more to be regretted, as we are unable to reciprocate
regularly with the kindred societies in Europe, America,
and other parts of the world, who continue regularly to
forward to us their transactions and publications, as well as
with public institutions from whom the Society receives
frequent valuable additions to its library. The funds of
the society under the careful management of our present
treasurer and secretary, have however considerably improved,
and the council hope to resume publishing the transactions
before very long.

Our library has been largely increased during the past
~ year by contributions and donations from abroad, which
have been conveniently classified and arranged by our hon.
librarian, Dr. Neild. In accordance with an alteration in our
rules last year, the session of this year did not commence
till March, instead of January as heretofore, allowing two
months’ vacation. This arrangement will, no doubt, be
found satisfactory to the members.

for the year 1871. XXxIx

Returning to the subject of the solar eclipse, it may be
mentioned that the committee appointed at our meeting in
April last, to endeavour to organise the expedition to Cape
York to witness the total ectipse in December next, have
held several meetings, made many of the necessary inquiries,
and communicated with kindred societies in the neighbour-
ing colonies. The eclipse will take place on the 12th
December next. The path of totality crosses the northern
portion of Australia. The nearest avaliable portion of this
path for an expedition starting from here will be about Cape
Sidmouth, somewhat south of Somerset, Cape York. The
proposition is to charter a large and powerful steamer to
proceed from Melbourne at the end of November, calling at
Sydney, Newcastle, Brisbane, and Rockhampton, so as to
reach Cape Sidmouth a few days before the 12th of
December. The approximate cost of a large steamer for the
trip is estimated at £2,000, which will include everything
usually supplied to first-class passengers in our best inter-
colonial steamers—and it is thought that if a sufficient
number of passengers offered themselves the cost to each
would not exceed £25, and would probably be less. The |
expedition is to be open, not only to members of this and
kindred societies in other colonies, but to any others who
may offer and be approved of by the Eclipse Committee.
It is estimated the trip would occupy from 25 to 30 days,
and it has further been suggested that the return trip might
be made wid Fiji. This Society has not in any way under-
taken to carry out this expedition unless a sufficient num-
ber of passengers offer themselves ; and it must be borne
in mind that to effectually organise it, two months,
or six weeks at least, will be necessary; and if the
list of passengers be insufficient by the middle or at
latest the end of September, the scheme will have to be

abandoned.

x] President's Address

By the last mail I received a telegram from Sir Edward
Sabine, president of the Royal Society of London, asking if
Australia intended to do anything with respect to the eclipse,
and also if we would use instruments if sent. I consulted
the hon. the Chief Secretary as to the reply I should make
to this, and informed him what the Society had done
towards organising an expedition. He thought the offer of
Sir Edward Sabine should be accepted, and gave me to
understand that if the Eclipse Committee would place him
in possession of the details of their proposition, the probable
cost, and the portion of it likely to be raised from such as
would join in the expedition, he would probably be ina
position to ask Parliament for some aid in the matter, and
signified his readiness to communicate with the Govern-
ments of the other colonies, with a view of obtaining help
from them also.

There are many men scientifically engaged to whom an
opportunity of witnessing and carefully observing this, one
of the grandest of all phenomena, would be invaluable ;
there are more who, it is expected, would gladly seize the
chance of a summer trip in a comfortable steamer, coupled
with the prospect of seeing once in their lives the splendid
spectacle of a total eclipse; and beyond all this, the
last total eclipse expeditions of various countries to the
Mediterranean were only partially successful owing to
the bad weather, and some most important problems
with respect to that wonderful appearance the corona
remain unsolved. If Australia should be able to con-
tribute observations which shall lead to this solution it
will place her still higher than her already well-recog-
nised position as a contributor to the world’s scientific
advancement. |

The past year’s history of our several scientific depart-
ments, although unmarked by any very startling achieve-

for the year 1871. xli

ments, will not be found barren of results. Our Observatory
has been fully occupied with its usual work in astronomy,
meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, and other physical inves-
tigation. -The great telescope, having passed through its
ordeal of criticism, is now quietly doing the work for which it
was intended ; how well it does it will best be estimated by
those veterans in astronomical research who have com-
menced the work now being continued with this instrument.
One of these capable judges—I may say the chief one—has,
I regret to say, passed away but lately—one whose early
labours form the groundwork and reference of what is now
being done in nebular astronomy at our Observatory—I
refer to the celebrated Sir John Herschel, who died 11th
May, 1871, at the good old age of 79. He was a member of
the Committee of the Royal Society of London to whom the
whole question of the construction of our great telescope
was entrusted, and, having been the first to thoroughly
scrutinise and depict some of the large Southern nebule, he
had watched with great interest for the results of its
revelations concerning them. He lived to see the first
instalments only, but still sufficient, I hope, to assure him
that this grand instrument, retracing the paths of his
research in the skies, would faithfully record the present
form and condition of these the objects of his labour at the
Cape of Good Hope.

The most prominent result of the work with the telescope
is the certainty that some of the large nebule, especially of
Argus, are undergoing very marked and rapid changes. No
photography has yet been done with it, as the necessary
apparatus arrived but lately, and the requisite arrangements
about the building have yet to be made. It is expected that
these, however, will be completed before the summer
commences, when a regular campaign of lunar photography

will be opened.

xiii President's Address

The more precise astronomical work undertaken by our
Observatory—the accurate determination of the positions of
the stars of the Southern skies—is progressing well, and the
value of the contributions of the Melbourne Observatory to
stellar astronomy, especially that pertaining to the Southern
heavens, is now fully acknowledged by scientific individuals
and societies of Hurope and America. Unusual disturbances
in terrestrial magnetism and frequent occurrence of auroras
have marked the past year, and have presented a most
favourable opportunity of comparing the simultaneousness of
magnetic disturbances in both northern and southern
hemispheres.

Professor Heis, of Munster, in Westphalia, whose name is
associated with this branch of physics, having obtained from
Mr. Carl Moerlin, the second assistant at our Observatory,
the dates at which auroras had been seen here, as well as
the times of magnetic disturbances on which no aurora was
seen, has lately returned to him a pamphlet containing a
comparison of such occurrences in Melbourne with similar
ones in Europe, from which the interesting facts appear that
whenever an aurora australis was seen here the aurora
borealis was also seen in some part of the northern hemis-
phere, and the dates of great magnetic disturbances in
Melbourne, on which, however, no aurora australis was
observed, coincided in most cases either with great magnetic
disturbances in the northern hemisphere or with the
occurrence of the aurora borealis combined. I can” hardly
pass over this circumstance without pointing it out as an
instance of the importance of combined observations of
physical phenomena of this character, and of the greater
results that come out of a free communication between
scientific men engaged in research in different parts of the
world.

The members will be sorry to learn that the progress of our

for the year 1871. xliii

National Museum has been brought almost to a standstill
during the past year. I am informed, by the director
(Professor M’Coy) that this is owing to the change of
management from the director and chief secretary to an
enlargement of the Public Library trust, which now includes
the National Museum, and that in consequence of a great
reduction of the means hitherto at his disposal for the care,
preservation, and additions to the collections, his efforts at
progress have, for a time at least, been paralysed. The
whole of the collection of machinery and mining, which were
intended to facilitate the formation of a mining and
agricultural school at the University, have been removed to
the technological collection at the Public Library.

The geodetic survey, I informed you in my last address,
had been reduced by the Government to exceedingly small
dimensions. The limited staff left were then engaged in
marking the boundary line between New South Wales and
Victoria, which, as you are aware, has hitherto been an
imaginary line joining Forest Hill and Cape Howe.

At the date of our last anniversary meeting the
geographical positions of the termini had been determined,
and a line started from Forest Hill to emerge at Cape Howe,
the azimuth of which had been computed from the geo-
graphical positions of the termini, and from the best available
data of the figure of the earth. Although the final line has
not yet reached Cape Howe by several miles, the pioneer
line shows that it will intercept the mark fixed about 18
months ago as the south-east terminus, by the surveyor
general of New South Wales and myself, within a few feet—
probably not exceeding 12. This, on a line of about 115
miles running, bearing south-east, is an achievement which
can only be properly appreciated by astronomers and
surveyors, and reflects the greatest credit on the officers who
have been engaged on the work.

xliv President’s Address

Concerning the botanical department, under the direction
of our esteemed fellow-member, Dr. F. von Mueller, there is
also something to say. During the past year the seventh
volume of the Fragmenti Phytographie Australis has been
completed, and considerable’ progress has been made with
the arrangement of material and elaboration of the notes for
the sixth volume of the Flora of Australia. This volume
will contain the rest of the Monochlamydie, and a portion
of the M onocotyledonecw. Dr. Mueller has placed before the
public, in the Technological Museum, a large number of
technological and medicinal articles derived from plants.
These are all beautifully arranged, and cannot fail to be of
the greatest value. It includes various kinds of timber
(indigenous and foreign), drugs, oils, fibres, dyes, tars, paper
materials, acids, &c. All these are named and labelled in a
way that conveys clear information as to the source from
whence the samples were obtained.

I am happy to inform you that Dr. Mueller contemplates
issuing a work on such industrial cultures as can be pursued
in our climatic zone with advantage. For such a publication
the necessity has gradually arisen through the great increase of
agricultural settlement, and it appears that there is now
some hope that the necessary monetary help for such an
undertaking will be afforded.

In an appendix to a report of the Acclimatisation Society
Dr. Mueller has already given a list of such indigenous and
foreign timber trees as seem particularly eligible for
industrial culture and for establishing new forests, or for
enriching those which exist.

As regards the progress achieved in the arts and manufac-
tures in the colony during the past year, there are one or
two points worthy of special note. The preservation of meat
for exportation is especially becoming of great importance—
on the one hand to the Australian colonies, which are

for the year 1871. xlv

eminently fitted for producing a large supply of flesh food
beyond their home requirements ; and on the other, to the
more densely-populated countries where such food is not only
scarce and dear, but where also cattle appear to be unusually
liable to disease and deterioration. ‘The Australian preserved
meats are rapidly growing in favour in Europe. Although
at first they met with a cautious reception and frequent
unfavourable comparisons, samples of these recently returned
to the colony by our agent-general, along with samples of
the best dockyard preserved meats, were opened and tried
here, and were ascertained by impartial judges to be mark-
edly superior to dockyard samples. The verdict in England,
however, was the other way.

It ought to be explained that the judges in Melbourne did
not know which were Australian and which were dockyard
- samples until after their decision had been arrived at and
announced ; while at the dockyard trials the circumstances
were different in this respect, the judges deciding upon
samples of known origin. The preservation of meat promises
to become one of the largest industries in Victoria, and
although prices in Hurope have declined since the war,
there can be no doubt of the ultimate prosperity and extent
of the enterprise as long as the manufacturers maintain
the reputation they have already achieved.

While on this subject, I might mention that in October,
1857, Mr. Sizar Elliott read a paper before this Society
on the preservation of animal substances, and opened
a tin of meat which had been put up 10 years
previously. The contents were declared by those present
to be of excellent quality; and it appears My. Elhott had
carried on the preservation of meat on a commercial
scale in New South Wales as early as 1846 and 1847,
and we see his name mentioned on several occasions as
having obtained first-class medals for his preserved beef,

xlvi President's Address

mutton, turtle, &c., and at our exhibition in 1867 he received
a medal for preserved meat and vegetables 20 years’ old,
There can be little doubt that Mr. Elliott may be considered as
the Australian pioneer in this now very important industry.

The utilisation of waste flesh, carcases, and offal for manure,
is another item of our progress worthy of note. In my last
address I referred to a method invented by our member
Mr. Geo. Foord, for rapidly and economically converting
all such material into high class manures, which was then
about to be carried out upon a manufacturing scale. This
is now an accomplished fact, and the method may be
seen in operation at works specially constructed for the
purpose, and carried on by Messrs. MacMeikan and Co. at

Footscray. The process mainly consists of breaking down

first the soft tissues and ultimately the bony fabric of
carcases by the agency of oil of vitriol at a high temperature.
The vitriol is manufactured in the contiguous works of Mr.
Robert Smith, and with this facility entire droves of animals
or the refuse of the meat preserving works can be converted
into merchantable manure, separating the tallow in a
marketable form, in three hours, without any contamination

of the air.
I may be pardoned perhaps for alluding to the completion

- of our Post-office clock as a small instance of our progress in

the mechanical arts; it is the first instance of any clock of
large dimensions being made in Australia, and, I believe, in
the southern hemisphere. The time-keeping: part, you are
aware, was completed some time ago; but the striking
mechanism was only erected in its place a few weeks since,
and must be considered as still upon its trial, masmuch as
the probation such machines usually undergo in the workshop
in this instance takes place in its final position.

At the time the clock was stopped for the purpose of erecting
bells and striking machinery, I advised the Public Works

for the year 1871. xlvii

’ department to substitute a mercurial compensation pendulum
for the lead and wood compensation hitherto in use. I
am glad to say the suggestion was adopted, and the clock
is now furnished, I believe, with the best two seconds
pendulum in the world, The going of the clock since the
alteration is all that could be desired, and, could the barometer
be persuaded to always stand at 30in., I do not think the
clock would vary two seconds from the true time from one
year’s end to the other, the first stroke of the hour bell being
usually within two seconds of the true Melbourne time.

The pendulum is a steel rod 15 ft. 8 in. long, carrying at
its lower extremity a cast-iron cylinder 54in. high, which
contains 210lb. mercury. The calculation for the dimensions
of the column of mercury contained in a cast iron cylinder
were made with great care by Mr. White, the chief assistant
at the Observatory, and, so far as can be seen from the
changes of temperature that have occurred since the pendulum
was erected, the compensation appears perfect.

On reviewing the progress in science achieved throughout
the world generally during the past year, there is little that
stands very prominently amidst the year’s result. This
might easily be without being in any way a sign of relaxing
effort, for we must bear in mind that the brain, thews, and
sinews of two of the greatest nations in Europe, renowned
in arts and sciences, have been absorbed in war. For all
this, there are some noteworthy results of observation and
research, which may be selected from among the marks of
intellectual advancement, one or two of which I would now
briefly refer to.

A total eclipse of the sun occurred in December last. The
path of totality passed over the south of Europe, the
Mediterranean, and the northern-most part of Africa. The
results obtained from the observations of the Indian eclipse
in 1868, which I referred to in a former address; and the

x] vill President's Address

later one, visible in North America, had left one or two
important points with respect to the chromosphere and
corona still doubtful. Expeditions from England, America,
and several European countries, eagerly availed themselves
of this opportunity of settling these doubts and furthering
our knowledge of solar physics. These expeditions chose
separate parts of the path of totality for their labours, but
unfortunately cloudy weather was so prevalent that only a
few of the many observing parties -were able to obtain
satisfactory observations. The results still leave some mat-
ters undecided, which it was hoped would have been cleared
up, but they go far to confirm the observations of the
American astronomers in 1869, which had been received
somewhat doubtfully by some physicists.

The great question of the true character of the coronal
light is still unsolved, yet the observations obtained are
sufficiently conclusive to render the theories held by some

_ untenable. I do not think any doubt now remains in the

minds of astronomers as to its being a truly solar phenomenon,
and neither lunar nor belonging to the earth’s atmosphere, as
had been advanced. The observations with the polariscope
show that a large proportion of the coronal light is reflected,
and it appears that some of this reflection has taken pees in
our atmosphere, though not by any means all.

One great result at this eclipse was the obtaining a set of
magnificent photographs of the corona, notably one by Mr,
A. Brothers, of Manchester. This forms a most valuable
achievement. I see that Mr. Brothers is publishing true
copies of this, both on paper and as transparencies for pro-
jection, and I hope before long to be able to show you
specimens of both.

The principal object observers of the total eclipse next
December will have in view will be obtaining more photo-
graphs, further spectroscopic observations directed to special

for the year 1871. xlix

points, and very careful examination of the polarisation of
the coronal light.

Recent applications of the spectroscopic science include the
employment of the salts of lithium for determining questions
concerning sewage, contamination of drinking water, and the
possible spreading of cholera, typhoid fever, and like diseases,
The spectrum of lithium, as you are aware, is of an exceed-
ingly well marked and unmistakeable character. It is,
moreover, readily obtained from the slightest traces of the sub-
stance. To the suspected cesspool or sewer an addition of a salt
of lithium is made, after which, by examining contiguous
supplies of drinking water in the spectroscope, the presence
or absence of the lithium line shows unequivocally whether
contamination by infiltration has or has not taken place.

Among works of art paintings are remarkable for their
perishable character, their decay in many instances arising
from the very nature of the pigments and vehicles employed.
The works of Sir Joshua Reynolds and those of the great
Turner afford lamentable instances of decay resulting from
the empirical handling of the painter’s materials, but to the
present hour little or nothing has been done to set the
manufacture and use of pigments upon a proper chemical
basis. Within the last year, however, a step has been made
by the Royal Academy of Great Britian, which has founded
a professorship of chemistry in its application to the fine arts,
from which we may hope that the evil referred to will be
gradually overcome.

Early last year the scientific world were very much
interested in the results of some experiments by Professor
Tyndall on the dust which pervades the air we breathe. We
had been accustomed to look upon the numberless motes which
can be seen floating in the air wherever a beam of strong
light traverses it as merely dust—organic, or inorganic, but
at least, innocuous matter; but Professor Tyndall showed

i

] President's Address

that it consisted, not only of dust, but of débris of animal
tissues, and, most important of all, of germs of living
organisms. He pointed out the high probability that the
inhalation of these organic impurities was the cause of much
disease, and he adduced many startling instances of the rapid
spread of parasitic organisms in wounds and delicate surfaces
of the human frame which had been unduly exposed to these
impurities of the air.

Preceding and contemporaneous with Professor Tyndall’s
researches in this direction, we find many well-known and
able men engaged in work and discussion of what is known
as “The Germ Theory,” which may be briefly defined as a
question ‘“‘ whether living things of a necessity spring from
living things or no?” Results of numberless experiments
and patient research have been advanced for both sides of
the question by Darwin, Huxley, Bastian, Frankland,
Calvert, and others ; but I believe it will be admitted that
the evidence against the spontaneous generation theory, and
in favour of the necessary pre-existing germ, is at the present
moment by far the strongest, and getting stronger. \

But the portion of the germ question I wish to draw your
attention to more especially is that which affects us more
directly—the question whether germs which can float, and
be wafted in the air, are capable of planting themselves in
our bodies, and there give rise to disease. Professor Tyndall,
in the lecture above referred to, pointed out how readily these
organisms could be filtered from the air we breathe by respiring
through a handkerchief or through cotton wool, and the value
of sucha precaution in malarious and disease-stricken localities.

And several travellers have since certified to the value of
sleeping under muslin or fine mosquito tents in the fever
districts of Africa and India, and the immunity from fever
enjoyed by those adopting this precaution. Professor Tyndall
again lectured on this subject in June last, and gave sume

for the year 1871. hi

remarkable instances of the effect of the absence of this “air
dirt” in retarding decay and putrefaction. . He tells us of a
method of vaccination adopted by a Mr. Ellis, which is likely
to be a great improvement on the old mode. He forms a
little bleb, or blister, with cantharidin, and having pricked
this, he lets out the drop of fluid and inserts his vaccine
point; after a minute he withdraws it, and the epidermis fall
back on the skin, excluding the air and its germs. From
the results of hundreds of cases it appears this method avoids
most of the troubles incident upon ordinary vaccination,
especially secondary abscess. Mr. Ellis attributes the com-
parative safety of his method chiefly to the exclusion of the
air and what it contains.

Professor Tyndall is strong in his conviction that many of
these germs are disease seeds, and that most contagious
diseases are spread by their own special seeds wafted in the
air. Hesays: “It is not on bad air or foul drains that the
attention of the physician will primarily be fixed, but upon
disease germs, which no bad air or foul drains can create, but
which may be pushed by foul air into virulent energy of
reproduction. You may think I am treading on dangerous
eround—that I am putting forth views that may interfere
with salutary practice. Nosuch thing. Ifyou wish to learn
the impotence of medical science and practice in dealing with
contagious diseases, you have only to refer to a recent Har-
veian oration, by Dr. Gully. Such diseases defy the physician
—they must burn themselves out.” Professor Tyndall’s
views are shared by many scientific men, both medical and
others, and are strongly advanced by some of the most
eminent physicians and surgeons.

The most successful surgical treatment is that where
exclusion of air and destruction of germs are carefully attended
to; and more perfect methods of accomplishing these will
be undoubtedly attended with equivalent good results,

E 2

li President's Address

For avoidance of germs of malaria and contagious diseases
in infected districts, the filtration of air by cotton-wool
respirators or simple handkerchief appears to be all-sufficient.
In hospitals and crowded localities applicable methods for
ridding the air of them have been proposed, and tried
with more or less success ; but a thoroughly effective one does
not appear yet to have been reached. Professor Tyndall has
been blamed for going beyond his own particular province in
these lectures, and trespassing on the precincts of medical
science. Those who have blamed him are no true lovers of
progress, for if medical art is ever to become more than an art
of rule and experience—if it is to be a true science—it will
be accomplished, I am convinced, only by the aid of
physical and chemical research. |

Unfortunately, a sound knowledge of physical science is
not considered necessary to the acquirements of a medical
man by many of that profession ; and I very much regret to
say that a proposition to include a little of it in the
curriculum of the medical students at our University was
rejected by the council some time since; and it is for the.
present practically decided that a sound knowledge of the
various forces to which the human system is subjected, and
of which it and its well or ill being are for the most part the
result, shall not be essential for the granting of a licence to
practice and experiment upon human systems generally.
He must know his medical botany, his pharmacy, his bones ;
he must be up in physic; but “ physics or mathematics ” for
the present are not wanted.

I have been given to understand that this decision was
arrived at, not from any undervaluation of the importance of
these branches of science, but that the curriculum of the
student was already too heavy ; yet, valuable as a knowledge
of medical botany and pharmacy is, might not a little traiing
in physical and mathematical science be substituted for them,

for the year 1871. liti

with considerable advantage both to the student and to his
future patients? I may, probably, like Professor Tyndall, be
blamed for meddling with such things ; but as a large portion
of my life was spent in the studying and practising of
medicine and surgery, and the rest in studying natural
philosophy and mathematical science, the right to speak as I
have may be conceded to me. I know most of the members
of this Society hold like views. I know many of our most
eminent medical men do so also, and I have heard more than
one veteran member of the faculty bitterly regret that both
mathematical and physical science had not formed a larger
part of medical education in their day. Let us hope, for the
saké of medical science, that this state of things will soon be
mended.

Loyal Society of Victoria.

UI te) 7/ We

qatron.
HIS EXCELLENCY VISCOUNT CANTERBURY.

Avesident.
R. L. J. ELLERY, Esq.

Vice-residents,
A. K. SMITH, Esq., C.E. l PROFESSOR W. P. WILSON.

Crensurer.
ROBERT WILLAN, Ese.

How. Secretary.
H. K. RUSDEN.

Hibrarian. Custos of Collections.
DR. NEILD. H. E. PAIN, Esq.
Gouncil. .

DR. E. BARKER. REV, WILLIAM KELLY, 8.J.
JOSEPH BOSISTO, Ese. 8. W. M‘GOWAN, Eso.
C. G. CASEY, Eso, BARON VON MUELLER, C.G.M.G.
J. FLANNAGAN, Eso. FREDERICK POOLMAN, Esa.
GO. FOORD, Visa. J. T. RUDALL, Esq., F.R.C.8.

EDWARD HOWITT, Ese. G, H. F. ULRICH, Ese.

doyal Society of hist

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS

OF
Che President,
Mr. R. L. J. ELLERY, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer.

[Delivered to the Members of the Royal Society, at their Annual
Conversazione, held on July 8, 1872.]

GENTLEMEN OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,

We have now entered upon our fifteenth session, and as
you have done me the great honour to again choose me as
your president, it devolves on me, in accordance with our
rules, to address you on the past year’s history and progress
of the Society ; and also to call your attention to some of the
more noteworthy facts which mark the last year’s history
of general scientific progress. First, then, in reference to
our own business, I regret to have once more to inform you
that, since the last publication of the Transactions of the
Society, the funds have not been in a sufficiently flourishing
condition to enable the council to resume the printing. For
many years past the only revenue of the Society has been
that derived from entrance-fees and subscriptions of mem-
bers. From this, not only the current expenses but the
interest on money borrowed for carrying out the alterations
and additions to our buildings have to be paid; and although
our income will amply meet these demands if the annual
subscriptions of members are regularly paid, there has

lviti President's Address

hitherto been an insufficient sum left to print our T’rans-
actions without other aid. The Government has been
solicited for help every year since 1867, when the
last aid was granted to us by Parliament. The council
hope, however, that their request this year will be
acceded to. I am happy to state, moreover, that
(many arrears of subscriptions having been received of
late) the financial condition of the Society is just now better
than it has been for years. It is intended therefore, at all
events to at once print the arrears of Transactions, and the
council trust that they may be able to henceforward publish
promptly and regularly the proceedings of our meetings,
which they will be quite able to do if the Parliament —
resumes its small annual grant-in-aid.

Our last anniversary meeting was held on August 14,
1871. Since that time the Society has held eight ordinary
meetings. On September 11, a valuable paper “On Ocean
Waves, and their Action on Floating Bodies,” was con-
tributed by Mr. Deverill. Mr. MacGeorge also read a paper,
contributed by Mr. Horne, of Adelaide, “On a Linear
Method of Finding the Stability of Ships ;’ and Mr. Pain,
on “Aboriginal Art and its Decadence in Australasia,
Polynesia, and Oceanica.” The meeting of October 9 was
occupied with Mr. MacGeorge’s account of “ Changes in Hta
Argts,” and Mr. G. Foord’s “ Areometer for Measuring
Specific Gravities.” On November 13, our next meeting,
the Rev. W. Kelly and Mr. Bosisto contributed papers, the
former “On a Method of Combining Marsh’s Test for
Arsenic with Reinsch’s, so as to secure very reliable results ;”
the latter “On the Cultivation of Mentha Piperita in
Victoria.” On November 22, it will be remembered, the
Australian Eclipse Expedition started from Melbourne.
Our next meeting was a special one held on January 22, and
was devoted to matters connected with the Lclipse Expedi-

for the year 1872. lix

tion, and to the approaching elections of council and office-
bearers, which took place at our next meeting, on March 11.
In April, Mr. Harrison read a paper “ On Patents and their
Utilisation.” Mr. Caldwell contributed one on “ Meat-
preserving,” and Mr. P. F. Ford on “Biangular Co-ordinates.”
On May 13, Mr. F. Poolman read a description of his “Self-
acting Safety Reoulator and Coal Economiser for Steam
engines,” and Mr. A. K. Smith exhibited and described “ An
Improved Valve for the Fire Plugs in Water Pipes,” the
object being to prevent the entry of sewage water into the
pipes when the pressure was off—a thing that might occur
with the ordinary fire-plug valves. At our last meeting, on
June 10, Mr. MacGeorge contributed the “Results of
Observations on Sirius and its Companions” with the great
Melbourne telescope. Mr. White exhibited some new five-
figure logarithm cards which he had arranged, and Mr.
Gibbons read a few “ Notes on M. Berthelot’s Analysis of
the Cranbourne Meteorite.”

Perhaps the most noteworthy fact in connexion with the
past year’s history of the Society is the organisation of an
expedition for observing the total eclipse of December 12,
1871, near Cape York, and, although the expedition met
with a total disappointment of its main object through
cloudy weather, the effort made cannot but redound to the
honour of the Australian colonies. It will be unnecessary
for me to recapitulate every step of the organisation of this.
expedition, it will suffice to briefly refer to the leading: facts:
Professor Wilson in May, 1871, first directed the attention
of the Society to the occurrence of a total eclipse over North
Australia in December, and suggested that an endeavour
should be made by the Society to organise an expedition for
observing it. Government aid was asked, and liberally
granted, not only by our own colony, but by New South
Wales, Queensland, and South Australia. On November 22

|x President's Address

the Australian expedition sailed from Melbourne to Cape
Sidmouth (lat. 13 deg. 25 min. §., long, 143 deg. 37 min. E.,
and about 176 miles south of Cape York, on the east coast
of Australia), vid Sydney, at which place the Queensland
Government steamer the Governor Blackall was ready to
receive them. The Victorian party consisted of an observ-
ing party of eight, and 13 passengers. At Sydney these
were joined by the New South Wales observing party of
six, and three passengers, these (numbering 30), with the
officers and crew, and three or four mechanics and assistants,
made up a party of 72souls. The expedition left Sydney on
the eve of November 27, and arrived off Cape Sidmouth on
December 6, after a rapid and exceedingly pleasant and
varied passage. The character of the navigation within the
Barrier Reef rendered it necessary to anchor before night,

- and this was generally done under some of the numerous

and beautiful islands which stud the seas in the immediate
neighbourhood of the east coast of Australia.

On several occasions we anchored early enough to permit
of landing upon and exploring the island. Instead of Cape
Sidmouth itself, an island known as No. 6 of the Claremont
group was selected for an observing station. The chief
reasons for preferring it to Cape Sidmouth were these—the
water is very shoal for over two miles seaward at Cape
Sidmouth, which would have made it very ditticult to land
the instruments safely, and rendered communication
between the shore and the ship very tedious. The 8. E.
trades were still blowing, it was therefore a lee shore, and
the aboriginals were known to be numerous in that part,
and are often troublesome at night. The coral islands,
on the other hand are generally “steep to,” affording good
anchorage close in on the lee side, and there is generally
good landing for boats ; these facts induced us at all events
to examine No. 6 Isiet first.

for the year 1872. | Ixi

We found it afforded good anchorage on the sheltered side,
perfectly good and safe boat landing ; it was, moreover, in
almost the same latitude as Cape Sidmouth, and the central
line of totality passed within four miles of its centre. In
other respects, however, it was a most uninviting place—a
mere sandbank, over which an 8 ft. tide would have swept,
clothed only with a few miserable bushes, and infested with
myriads of rats. At low water the reef was exposed, and
the island became six miles long, and two broad; at high
water it collapsed to 200 yards wide by about half a mile
long. However, it suited well for landing our instruments,
and for observing, and it was selected as the observing
station. On December 7 we commenced erecting our
observing tents and instruments, and finished in time to
give us about a day and a half for rehearsals; most of the
passengers in the meantime employing themselves in boat .
excursions, in collecting shells, coral, and béche-de-mer on the
reefs at low water, while some made a voyage to the main
land, at Cape Sidmouth, about 15 miles to the westward.

Up till the 11th December the weather had been on the
whole fine, and promising of clear skies; but on that day
the wind fell, and heavy thunderstorms came on during
the afternoon and evening, which continued all night.
Next day broke gloomy, overcast, and raining. Now and
then came a slight break, and a peep of the sun for a
moment to tantalise us. Every instrument was set and
ready, every observer at his post, and prepared—hoping
against hope—till our time-keeper called out that the
eclipse had commenced, warning us from time to time of the
approach of totality and its progress, but impenetrable
clouds hid all from us. Once for a moment a break showed
us the last thin cresent just before totality—and that is all
the Australian Eclipse Expedition saw of the total eclipse of
December 12, 187].

Ixii Presidents Address

A schooner engaged in pearl-shell fishing anchored along-
side us in the evening of the same day. The captain report-
ed having witnessed the eclipse about 18 miles north of us ;
_ but on inquiry it was evident that it had only been visible
for a few moments through thin clouds. Next day we
steered homewards, calling at several islands and at
Cardwell. We arrived at Brisbane on the 20th, where the
expedition was most royally received ; and I cannot let this
opportunity pass without recording the great hospitality
and kindness which was shown to every member of the
Australian Eclipse Expedition by the Government and
people of Brisbane. After three day’s stay there, we steam-
ed south again, reached Sydney on December 25, and
Melbourne on January |.

Although disappointed of its principal hoped-for results,
the expedition did not return quite empty-handed. The
Botanical and Naturalist members obtained some valuable
collections, and a regular series of meteorological observa-
tions throughout the voyage was made ; the geographical
position of Hclipse Island, the magnetic declination, dip and
horizontal force, were also determined. The true position of
the Observatory station, deduced from his observations by Mr.
White, is lat. 13° 29° 36° 1” S. and 143° 46’ 30” E. The
detailed results of the several other Eclipse expeditions,
which took up their positions in India and Ceylon, have not
yet fully transpired, but the fact that four out of five of the
observing parties were favoured with clear skies, and were
highly successful with their observations, is now well
known.

So far as can be gathered from the fragmentary accounts
that have yet reached us, it appears that the coronal light
is not that of the sun or surrounding chromosphere
reflected, as has been supposed by some, but is a true solar
envelope, containing at least cooler hydrogen and an

jor the year 1872. Ixiii

unknown substance, which, as appears to be probable, is
identical with that which produces the spectrum observed in
auroras, and which is specifically marked by a line known as
K 1474 in the green. The spectrum of the chromosphere was
characterised by the hydrogen C line, which predominated ;
a line known as 1474 of Kirchoffs scale in the green part
of the spectrum; and the blue hydrogen line F. The
corona was observed to be of a clearly radiated structure, or,
as Mr. Lockyer says, ‘the rays were built up of innumer-
able bright lines of different lengths, with more or less
dark spaces between them; near the sun the structure
was lost in the brightness of the central ring.” He tried
the spectrum of a streamer above the point at which the sun
had disappeared. He says: “I got a vivid hydrogen
spectrum with. line K 1474 . . . . the line C was
very vivid,. . . the spectrum was undoubtedly the
spectrum of glowing gas.” .

I have but little of more than ordinary interest to record
of the past year’s history of our several science or art
institutions. The Technological Museum attached to the
Public Library has made considerable progress ; not only
have the Commissioners established classes of chemistry,
mineralogy, and practical mining, but have organised even-
ing courses of lectures on popularised science and art.
These have always been so well attended that it is
to be regretted that a larger lecture-room than the one which
was built for class teaching has not been erected. The
earlier courses of these lectures have been printed and
circulated by the Commissioners. They appear to have
attracted considerable attention in England and on the
Continent, especially those by Baron Von Mueller on Forest
Culture, and the purely technological series of Mr. George
Foord. Professor Negri, president of the Royal Geogra-
phical Society of Italy, in referring to Baron Von Mueller’s

lxiv President's Address

lecture, said he wished the Italian Government would have it
translated into Italian and circulated throughout the country.
A telegraph class for ladies has also been established in
connection with the museum, at which pupils are instructed
in the manipulation and ordinary use of the Morse telegraph
instruments. It is intended, I believe, to hold periodic
examinations of the pupils, and to grant certificates to such
as prove themselves to be competent. ‘The most recent step
in the right direction the commissioners have taken is the
appointment of a gentleman of undoubted ability to conduct
classes in geometry and mathematics.

The additions that have been made from time to time to
our national gallery of pictures now form a most valuable
and beautiful collection, and it seems well adapted to fulfil
one of its principal objects—the foundation of a school of
painting. Already we have seen in Melbourne copies after
pictures in our national collection of no small merit, and
giving good promises of future excellence. For so young a
colony as ours the number of students is even now large,
and is, I hear, increasing. The National Museum at the
University, under the care of Professor M‘Coy, is becoming
more complete and perfect every year; the space that has
become available, through the removal of many of the
mining and machinery models to the Technological
Museum will be most advantageously bestowed upon
numerous beautiful specimens and collections which hitherto
have appeared somewhat too crowded.

Botanical science in the colony, represented by our fellow
member Baron Von Mueller, has made considerable progress
during the past year. I have already referred to his lectures
on forest culture, in which he clearly set forth the more
important and lasting objects of a botanical department in a
new country, and, to quote his own words,“ a botanic garden
has not merely to gratify the passing hour, but has to fulfil

for the year 1872 Ixv

great objects of the whole community, as well for this as for
the coming generation.” Baron Von Mueller, I am glad to
say, intends shortly to issue some popular works on
Australian botany; the first, I believe, is to be devoted to
the ferns, and it is intended to illustrate it by photo-litho-
graphy. I have been also informed that Count Castlenau,
the well-known zoologist, has prepared a descriptive essay
on the fishes of Victoria, which is to be issued with the
report of the Acclimatisation Society. I refer to these
points, although they do not belong to our past year’s
history, because they indicate scientific vitality and progress ;
and although the fruition may belong te another year of
this Society, the work evidently belongs to this.

In our Observatory one of the most interesting results of
the past year’s work is the establishment of the fact that the
nebula in Eta Argtis has not only undergone marked
change since the time it was observed and drawn by the
late Sir John Herschel at the Cape of Good Hope, but has
also exhibited notable change since the erection of the great
telescope at Melbourne. Drawings of it made at intervals
of only a few months, as was pointed out by Mr. MacGeorge
in the paper he read before you at our October meeting,
present such differences that we can now hardly escape from
the conclusion that observable changes in this nebule take
place very rapidly.

Several observers in the southern nemisphere have
devoted a good deal of attention and observation to this
celestial object—notably, Mr. F. Abbott, of Hobart Town ;
Mr. H. C. Russell, director of the Sydney Observatory ; Mr.
Tebbutt, of Windsor, New South Wales; and Lieut.
Herschel, of India. Mr. Abbott, I believe, was the first to
draw attention to the fact that it no longer appeared as
drawn by Sir John Herschel. Mr. Russell made a very
eareful drawing of the nebula as seen with the Sydney 7}in.

¥

Ixvi President's Address

refractor. Mr. Abbott also made some drawings from
observations with a 44 in. refractor and Lieut. Herschel by
aid of a 12in. reflector. They have all indicated that the
general appearance of the nebulz differed considerably from
that represented by Sir John Herschal’s drawings, although
none of the apertures used could in any way pretend to
reach the more minute details grasped by Herschel’s 2 ft.
reflector. Several of the drawings which reached home had
evidently not been executed with that precision which is so
necessary to establish a fact of this kind in the minds of
astronomers who are unable to see for themselves. There
has arisen, therefore, in the minds of many of our most
renowned observers in England and elsewhere, doubts as to
the real existence of these changes. For it must be
remembered that the immense distance of the nebule from
us—probably far beyond the most distant stars—makes it
necessary that changes such as these described, to be visible
to us even with the aid of such light-gathering apertures
and optical power as is possessed by our large telescope,
must be stupendous in the highest degree and almost
beyond comparison with the more ordinary cosmical
changes with which we are familiar.

Now, since the great telescope has been erected special]
attention has been given to this object. Mr. Le Sueur
devoted a great deal of time, extending over long periods,
to examination and drawings, repeating his observations again
after the lapse of many months. He constantly referred to me
to establish or throw doubt on his observations, so that I
often observed with av unbiassed eye for this purpose. The
stars down to the 16th magnitude were carefully plotted
(those to the 12th magnitude with the micrometer), to form
an unchanging groundwork for the mapping. He announced

_on several occasions in this Society and elsewhere that there

were unmistakable changes since SirJohn Herschel’s drawings

for the year 1872. Ixvii

Mr. MacGeorge, who succeeded Mr. Le Sueur, and who has
also observed and drawn the nebule constantly, pointed out
to you in his paper in October last the progressive changes
that had been noted. The diagram he then exhibited I had
photographed and sent home to Dr. Robinson (one of the
Great Telescope Committee), with a copy of Mr. MacGeorge’s
paper. The paper got home first, and Dr. Robinson says, in
a letter I received last mail, “I lose no time in forwarding
the paper to Sir E. Sabine, Mr. Lassell, and Mr. Warren De
la Rue. . . . Mr. Lassell seems to cling to the idea
which he published some time ago, that there was no
change whatever in Eta Aretts. He justifies this suspense of
opinion by not being able to refer to the drawings, a
difficulty which I hope you will soon be able to remove. I
think his real difficulty is an opinion that nebule must be
at a distance much greater than that even of small stars,
and hence an incapability of conceiving the possibility of
such changes as could be visible to us.” The photographs
reached him by next mail, and he then writes—‘“ The
photographs are very remarkable, and I think it is im-
possible to look at them and doubt the reality of the
immense changes that have taken place. Are these changes
periodical? I send one of the photographs by this post to
Sir Ed. Sabine, with request to forward it to Messrs. Lassell
and De La Rue.”

It is to be regretted that the minute and careful draw-
ings made by Messrs. Le Sueur and MacGeorge have not
yet been engraved, as they establish the fact beyond all
doubt, as the photographs sent home were from a some-

what rough diagram intended only to show the principal

features of the observed changes. No one accustomed to

observing could fail to be convinced of change going on

if he only saw the nebule with a power of six or seven

hundred on the great telescope on good nights at intervals
F 2

lxvili President's Address

of three or four months. Mr. MacGeorge reports from
observations made only two months since that still further
changes were evident. The full significance of these changes
can hardly yet be estimated, but they overthrow many of
our hitherto received notions of the conditions. of these
tenants of space. It is a subject of the highest interest in
physical astronomy, and one that will demand unremitting
observation and drawing for its further elucidation.

Tam glad to inform you that Government has given me the
authority to publish every month the results of our observa-
tions in meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, and of other
phenomena; the numbers from the commencement of the
year till the end of May are already before the public. By
this means all the useful information derivable from the
Observatory work in these branches of investigation is made
quickly and generally available. Photography of celestial
objects has been commenced with the great telescope, and
some exceedingly fine and promising negatives of the moon
were taken, enlargements from which ‘have already been
exhibited at one of our meetings. Since April the weather
has been too unfavourable to proceed with this work.
Attempts to obtain photographs of planets and nebule have
since been made, but while those of the planets promise
well, no impression whatever of the brightest nebulze could
be secured.

Among the many subjects which have occupied a
larger share of attention of scientific circles in the older
world, and which mark indelibly the progress of scientific
research during the past year, there is one which appears to
me of surpassing importance. The Royal Astronomical
Society awarded its gold medal this year to Professor
Schiaparelli, director of the observatory at Milan, principally
on account of his researches on the relations that exist
between comets and shooting stars. You will remember in

for the year 1872. Ixix

a former address I had the honour of delivering to
you, I spoke of the ‘meteor shower” which fell in
Europe in November 1866, and that it had been
established beyond a doubt that these bodies travelled in
orbits intersecting that of the earth at different points;
that one coterie intersected it in November, another in

August, and so forth. Since then, however, it has been —

found from observation that the number of these meteor

rings is very large, and that they intersect the earth’s orbit, .

at numerous points. And it may be stated generally, that
all falling or shooting stars, at the time we see them,
are, or have been very recently, members of groups travelling
in true orbits, and not merely stray wanderers in space.
Professor Schiaparelli has concluded from his researches
that “celestial matter may be divided into the following
classes: 1. Fixed stars. 2. Agolomeration of small stars
(resolvable nebula). 3. Similar bodies, invisible except
_ when approaching the sun (comets). 4. Small particles,
composing a cosmical cloud.” He thinks the last occupy a
large portion of space, and have motions similar to fixed
stars. The latter are the sources of falling stars:. Brought
by the motion of our system in space within the sphere of
our sun’s attraction, they become in a measure part of his
family and subject to him. If, while making their sun
journey, they approach a planet—the earth for instance—
they get disturbed in their orbits, and, becoming subject to the
earth’s mass, liable to enter the upper regions of our atmo-
sphere, under which condition they appear to us as “ shooting
stars.” “Thus meteors and other celestial phenomena of
like nature, which a century ago were regarded as
atmospheric phenomena—which La Place and Olbers
ventured to think came from the moon, and which after-
wards were raised to the dignity of being members of the
planetary system—are now proved to belong to the stellar

Ixx 3 President's Address

regions, and to be in truth falling stars. They have the
same relation to comets as the asteroids have to the planets ;
in both cases their small size is made up by their greater
number. Lastly, we may presume that it is certain that
falling stars, meteors, and aerolites differ in size only and not
in composition ; therefore we may presume that they are
an example of what the universe is composed of. As in
them we find no elements foreign to those of the earth,
we may infer the similarity of composition of all the
universe—a fact already suggested by the revelations of the
spectroscope.”

Professor Schiaparelli had noticed a remarkable likeness
between the elements of the orbits of some of these meteor
groups to those of some well-known comets, the perihelion
passage occurring approximately at near dates, the
direction of their motion alike, the point they intersect
the ecliptic, and their inclination to it very similar, while
the distances of their nearest approach to the sun, and
their period of revolution, have also a marked like-
ness. The relations are very remarkable and Professor
Schiaparelli concludes one of his last memoirs on this subject
in these words: “These approximations need no comment.
Must we regard these falling stars as swarms of small
comets, or rather as the product of the dissolution of so
many great comets? I dare make no reply to such a
question.” The conclusions of Professor Schiaparelli are of
the highest interest, and suggest some new and interesting
questions on the constitution of the universe. Are the
irresolvable nebulze systems of these cosmical particles? If
so it will add a fresh interest to our observations of the
changes going on in that of Eta Argts.

In a new country, such as ours, in which all are so
fully engaged in business pursuits, it would be un-
reasonable to expect so large an annual crop of scientific

for the year 1872. Ixxi

facts as are realised in the older countries; but as the
field for original observations in a new country is really
wider in many respects than in the older, it is of
course of the first importance that what we do obtain
should be properly recorded and disseminated. I have
mentioned that the Society's Transactions, the printing
of which has been too long suspended, will be immediately
resumed, and I believe I may confidently state that
the present prospects of the Society are such as to
warrant the belief that they will henceforth appear with
regularity. It should be remembered that although this
Society has now existed for so many years, its ranks are
still thin, wanting both workers and supporters. It has
been recently proposed in your council, as a means of
strengthening and increasing the utility of the Society, that
a rule should be adopted to admit of residents at a distance
joiming us as country life-members, on the same scale as
ordinary members are now admitted, by payment of half the
usual subscription. This will entitle such members to the
society's publications, and all the privileges of membership
when it Melbourne. I have chosen the earliest occasion for
announcing this proposition, which will no doubt be
presently adopted by the generality of members. I also
wish to remove an impression which I believe holds some
ground, that advanced scientific attainments are indispen-
sable qualifications for membership. The object for which
our Society was founded was the promotion of literature,
science, and art in the colony. Whoever can assist in this
is, so far, eligible for membership.

Art. 1L—Notes on the Earthquake in Gipps Land.
By R. L. J. Every, Esa.
[Read 30th August, 1869.]

The Australian Colonies are fortunately seldom visited
with earthquakes of any severity, the worst rarely causing
more damage than the rattling of crockery and the alarm
of the more nervous of the inhabitants. The Rev. W.
B. Clarke, of Sydney, in a paper he read before the Royal
Society of New South Wales, on September 2, 1868, gave a
catalocue of 160 earthquakes that had been noted in Australia
between the years 1773 and 1868, and although none of
these were of alarming intensity, this veteran observer justly
remarks—“ Looking at the condition of Australia, so far as
is known, and to the history of such shocks as have been
before recorded, we are, I hope, at present, physically
considered, in no fear of any such great convulsion as has
often overthrown cities and desolated vast regions in a few
moments; and yet when we read the records of such disasters
as have been chronicled, we have no right to presume that
this country may never be so affected.”

Our knowledge of the cause of earthquakes and of their
relation, if any, with other telluric or cosmical conditions,
however, has never yet been sufficient for founding a tenable
hypothesis; and it is only by carefully noting the peculiarities
of these disturbances, in connection with other phenomena,
that we are likely to get more knowledge. And this will
be my excuse for occupying your time with a few dry notes
concerning the earthquake felt in Gipps Land in August;
for, in doing so, all that is now known of this occurrence
becomes recorded for after reference and use.

Mr. Mallet (the highest authority upon the subject) has
so thoroughly systematised what is known, that searchers
after earthquake information cannot do better than consult
his exhaustive reports on earthquakes, in the proceedings of
the British Association.

On August 30, I received the following telegram from Mr.
Saxe, the telegraph manager at Bairnsdale :—“ About 4.50
this morning two severe shocks of earthquake were felt here.
The first shock lasted about a second ; then an interval of a
second, and then another shock of quite thirty seconds’

B

2 Notes on the Earthquake in Gipps Land.

duration. A rumbling noise was heard for about three
minutes after the shocks. The wave seemed to travel from
west to east. Many persons ran out of their houses, fearing
that they would fall.” Two days after I received the following
information from Mr. John Oliver, Deptford, Gipps Land :—
“| think it may interest you to know that we felt a smart
shock of an earthquake at this township this morning
at twelve minutes to five o'clock. It lasted fully one
minute, and was followed about ten minutes afterwards
by a sound which I supposed to be distant thunder.
While the earthquake shock lasted, a dull deep sound was
heard; the earth trembled, and everything indoors shook.
I was up at the time, and looked at my watch immediately
I heard the sound passing. The morning was dark, and a
drizzling rain falling. To-day thunder has been rolling
about. Any further information you may want, if I can
supply it, I will gladly send you. Quarter-past eight o’clock
Monday night: I had just written so far when we had
another shock, which lasted about thirty seconds. The
night is very dark and cloudy; people here are rather
alarmed. Tuesday: Raining heavily all day with thunder,
accompanied with hail showers. Wednesday: Fine warm
day.” In reply to some questions I asked, Mr. Oliver
subsequently informed me that “The trembling and
rumbling noise felt and heard by us was continuously
apparent through the whole of the minute. It shook the
earth and everything inside my dwelling; and the noise
was quite loud. It seemed to increase as it passed, and died
away just as a wind comes over the tree tops, blows hard,
and speeds on. The second shock occurred as I was writing
my note to you. It was of the same character as the one in
the morning, and shook the seat I was sitting on and the
writing table. I can only liken the sound to that of a
heavy goods’ train passing a wooden bridge. I feel convinced
that it came from the west and travelled to the east; but
I would not say it was due west and east, because I am not
sure.”

Mr. Turton, geodetic surveyor, who was camped at Little
Ram Head, about 22 miles west of Cape Howe, sent me the
following :—* Mr. Newton reports that when at the Snowy
River, on August 30 at five am., he felt a very sharp shock
of an earthquake. He was awoke by a loud rumbling noise,
and immediately afterwards the building and all it contained
began to rock violently; the inmates were much frightened.”

Notes on the Earthquake im Gipps Land. 3

“Tt did not extend as far east as my camp at the Little Ram
Head, nor to Wingan Inlet. But there was something very
peculiar in the atmosphere; I could not sleep, and was
walking about from midnight to daylight. The air was very
still, but I did not notice the slightest tremor of the earth.
One of the party was camped out at Wingan Inlet, and he
was up at four am., but did not perceive any indication of
the earthquake.”

From the Ovens and Murray Advertiser we ascertain
that “a smart shock of an earthquake was felt at Beechworth,
between four and five on Monday morning 30th. The wave
appeared to pass from the south-west towards the north-east,
and was accompanied by a dull rumbling noise, not unlike
the sound of a train in motion. In several houses the
occupants were awakened by the jingling of the glass and
crockery on the shelves, whilst others were aroused from
their slumbers by the shaking of the beds, and an unpleasant
Swaying motion given to the buildings. The shock, which
is variously described to have lasted from three to fifteen
seconds, seems to have been felt over a large extent of the
hill country, but not, so far as we have heard, on the plains.
A telegram from Bright informs us that a smart vibration
was felt in that locality at a quarter to five o’clock, much
about the same time it was experienced in Beechworth.”
It was also felt at the Buckland and at Albury.

The direction of the earthquake appears from the evidence
to be very doubtful, as it always is. Mr. Oliver, who seems
to have noted the occurrence carefully, feels confident of its
having approached from a westerly direction. At Beech-
worth it was noted to have approached from the south-west,
Mr. Saxe says from “ west to east.” At Albury, it is stated
to have travelled “north and south,’ that perhaps means
from south to north. The time of the first shock was not
given precisely, except by Mr. Saxe and Mr. Oliver. Mr. Saxe
says 4.50 am.; Mr. Oliver, 12 minutes to five. At Beech-
worth, between four and five is named. Any estimation of
the direction from the difference of times noted is therefore
out of the question. But I think we may safely assume
that the direction was nearly north and south, probably
8.S.W. to N.N.W., and that the line of principal intensity
extended from the coast line, somewhat west of the Lake’s
entrance, northwards through Buckland and Bright, between
the Buffalo and Bogong Ranges to Yackandandah, Beech-
worth and Albury. The weather at the time was generally

4 Notes on the Earthquake i Gipps Land.

described as calm and somewhat sultry. Mr. Turton
remarks, “something peculiar in the atmosphere.” At
Deptford, “drizzlmg rain was falling.” No sign of
the shock was experienced at Port Albert, at which
place the barometer stood at 29.88, with light winds from
the N.E.

A careful examination of the various magnetic and
meteorological records at the time of the earthquake dis-
covers no trace whatever of any disturbance of terrestrial
magnetism, or of any marked atmospheric change. The
barometer at the time was steady, and about 29.80 inch.
From 9 a.m. till 7 pm. on the day previous there was a
disturbed state of the barometer, with a downward tendency ;
but this was accounted for by a strong northerly wind,
which was blowing till 5.15 p.m., when it shifted to the
S.W. with heavy squalls and a little rain. Although the
magnetograms (exhibited) show a very marked and consider-
able disturbance in terrestrial magnetism for some twelve or
fourteen hours prior to the time of the earthquake, yet this
had quieted down by about 2 am.; the earthquake
occurring at 5.50 a.m.

The state of atmospheric electricity as shown by the
electrogram was almost quiescent at the time, although
preceded, as in the case of the barometer, by great disturb-
ances, principally of negative tension, as is usually the
case with strong, dry northerly winds.

The length of time over which the rumbling noise was
heard appears remarkable for a case of such slight disturbance.
At first I doubted the correctness of the statement that the
vibration continued for over a minute; but Mr. Oliver, in his
' second letter, replies especially to a query I sent him on this
point. He says, “it was continually apparent through the
whole of the minute. The second shock also experienced in
the evening of the same day lasted thirty seconds.”

In this earthquake we have not, as is very frequently the
case, a low barometer. It was not high, but 29.80 is but
slightly below the average height. The state of the atmo-
sphere was generally reported to have been unusually calm.
I heard of no notable disturbance of the sea, nor any
unusual wave; if there had been any I believe it would
not have escaped notice, either at the mouth of the Snowy
River or at the Lake’s entrance.

' Arr. I1—WNotes on the Quality of Hartley and Greta
Shale for the Manufacture of Gas, together with a
Description of the New Coal Seam at Greta. By
A. K. Smita, C.E., F.R.S.S.A., &. &e.

[Read 4th October, 1869.]

I have been recently engaged in a neighbouring colony
testing some of the coals and shales from the districts of
Hartley and the Hunter River, in New South Wales,
principally for ascertaining their value for luminiferous pur-
poses. J now beg to submit a brief account of the results
arrived at.

I may premise that the experiments were made at the
request of the provisional committee of the Consumers’ Gas
and Oil Company, Sydney, for the sole purpose of deter-
mining the value of Hartley shale for the manufacture of
gas, to be used either by itself or to enrich (by mixture)
the gas obtaimed from the ordinary Hunter River (New-
castle) coal.

EXPERIMENT WITH HARTLEY SHALE.

Having examined the shale, I had it broken up into small
pieces, and carefully weighed 224 lbs., with which I charged
two fireclay retorts, first having noted the index of the
station-meter to be standing at 5,586,294. Charging the
retorts commenced at 10h. 27m. 40s. a.m., and finished at
10h. 30m. a.m.. thus occupying 2m. 20s. in the operation.
At—

Mins. h. m.
7 10.37 the meter indicated the production of 100 feet gas.
95 10.463 ” ” ” 200 ”
10 10.564 A 93 55 5 SK0) ig,
10 11. 64 5 Ps Po 400 ,,
10% 11.17 = a i 200% Miss
114 11.283 ‘3 sy ; 600s,
124 11.41 5 FA 3 TOD og
13 11.54 ‘5 i o 800s,
eee 2... 7 i , re SOON ass
19 12.26 95 , is ONO 5
24 12.50 s yi a TOO: x,
Ze Ld i A bs NAS)

—_———_

63
2 165 = 2h, 45m.

6 Notes on the Quality of Hartley and
At Ih. 13m. the station meter indicated 5,587,420 feet.

At the commencement Bi ... 0,086,294 ,,
L126 33

A reference to the above times and quantities will show,
that the first 100 feet of gas was given off in seven minutes
from the time of closing second retort, or nine minutes and
twenty seconds from commencement of charging the first
retort.

The second in 94 minutes.
», third % 10 i
3; fourth A 10 3
er iiith: Ms LO
Be Sixdihi es ae as
» seventh eis yes
» eighth 29 13 ”
» ninth a 13 4
» tenth - 19 ms
» eleventh ,, 24 <5
» twelvth -26 ,, 23 Re
1126 feet 165m, 20s. = 2h. 454m.

thus showing the total quantity of gas made from 224lbs.
of shale to be 1126 cubic feet, or at the rate of 11,260 feet
per ton.

The retorts were at a fair average heat and burned out or
exhausted the charge in 2h. 454 mins.

In making this experiment I had intended taking the
‘illuminating power of the gas as it was produced, but on
account of the light from the burner consuming five feet per
hour, being abnormally large and above the power of my
photometer to register, I lost a few minutes in procuring a
small burner: this, to a certain extent, destroyed the
accuracy of the experiment; and although I continued
taking the quality of the gas, I thought it advisable to set
aside the results, which were on the whole slightly in excess
of those subsequently obtained (the actual difference being
as 51:58 is to 51°51.)

I then commenced the second experiment, with the same
quantity of shale—viz., 224 lbs,, with which I charged three
clay retorts—

Retort. Commenced at. Finished. Time Occupied.
ham) is: Jay any! Fh

1st So th Ig Oras 1 19 383 p.m. 33 seconds.

2nd Sey) eh EO) AO i PAM). 0) 40 ai

3rd. Mee Wie 20 22 )).%5 2 ee OMe 48 30

Greta Shale for the Manufacture of Gas. 7

Averaging forty seconds for the time expended in charging
each retort, The total quantity produced amounted to 1,128
cubic feet from 224 lbs. coal in 2 h. 29 min., or at the rate
of 11,280 feet per ton of shale, thus showing a very close
approximation to the quantity produced in the first experi-
ment, the difference being only an increase of 20 feet, or at
the rate of one foot per ewt,

You will observe that the time occupied was less than in

the former experiment. This arose from the quantity being
used in three retorts instead of two, thereby reducing the
quantity in each retort.

Previous to commencing this experiment I had prepared a
small burner, and had carefully weighed and noted the
weight of the sperm candle to be used. At the conclusion
of the experiment I found the experimental meter indicated
a consumption of 2:2 cubic feet per hour, and that the candle
had been burning 136 grains per hour. At various times
during the distillation of the coal I tested the quality of the
gas, and recorded its illuminating power.

Each value I noted was the average of ten observations,
and resulted in showing an average “illuminating power of
20°014 candles (say 20 candles) then as—

220 : 5 :: 20 to 45-45

However, as the candle consumed 136 grains per hour,
instead of the standard quantity of 120 grains, it was
required to find what number of standard candles was
represented by 45°45, thus—

L200 SG 4545) ollcandiles:

After making various other experiments, both as to quality .

and quantity, | obtained the following results as the average
of the whole, viz. :—That the shale produces marketable gas
at the rate of 11:280 cubic feet per ton ; that 5 cubic feet of
the said gas gave a light equal to that derived from or
afforded by 51°51 sperm candles, each consuming at the rate
of 120 grains per hour ; and that one foot of gas gave a light
equal to that derived from 1,23624 grains of sperm ; and
finally that one ton (2,240 Ib.) of Hartley shale produces
the same amount of light as 1,992 lb. of sperm candles.
Subsequently I weighed off 100 lb. shale, and after
carbonizing the same, Tl carefully weighed the coke, &c.,
and found that it amounted to 324 lb., thus showing that
the volatile matter given off in the destructive distillation

8 Notes on the Quality of Hartley and

of Hartley shale amounted to 674 per cent. I also experi-
mented upon another description of shale, with the following
results :—It produced 14,136 cubic feet per ton; 5 feet gave
a light equal to 3762 candles ; one foot was equal to 902'88
grains of sperm ; and one ton gave a light equal to 1,823°3 lb.
sperm candles. In order that you may compare the Hartley
shale with Bog Head cannel coal, | now append the value of
that coal, as given by the agents in their circular to gas
companies, and as published in the journal of gas lighting :-—

Bog Head cannel coal, or Torbane Hill mineral, produces
13,500 feet per ton.

One foot equal to 84 sperm candles, or 1,020 grains.

One ton equal to 1,967-14 sperm candles.

In the Agents’ circular it is stated to be equal to 1,990 lb.
sperm candles ; but when worked out according to the above
description, the result is, as before stated, 1,967:14 lb.
Ordinary British Newcastle caking coal is only equal to
420 lbs. of sperm candles.

The other description of shale I experimented upon,
although not quite so rich as the Hartley shale, is still of
great value ; and thinking that a brief account of the seam
from which it was taken would be of interest to the members
of this Society, I procured copies of the Reports of William
Keene, Esq., F.G.S., Examiner of Coal-tields, N.S.W., from
which the following are extracts :

“ Newcastle, 14th January, 1869.
“To Michael Fitzpatrick, Esq.,
“Under Secretary of Lands, Sydney,

“Sir,—I have the honour to forward herewith, for the
further information of the Honorable the Secretary for
Lands, plan and sections showing the great seam opened
by me in Anvil Creek, at Greta, in which petroleum oil
coal, and other varieties of coal, are found in a thickness
altogether of 22 feet.”

The following is a description of a section of the seam
opened in the creek, and subsequently proved by a trial
shaft at a depth of 40 feet :-—

Greta Shale for the Manufacture of Gas. 9

Description.

Shale

Bituminous Coal
Bright Coal
Resurite
Petroleum Oil Coal
Bright Coal

Splint Coal
Woody Coal (good)
Brown Clay Band
Woody Coal (good)
Fire Clay

Coaly Band

Fire Clay

Coaly Band

Fire Clay (grey)
Brown Fire Clay
Coal (excellent)
Brown Shale

Coal (excellent)

DW} MPWRORSOHDWORKBAMRWONMWOL FF

PRE OASOHOOOHHORENHOONO F

Fire Clay
Boz Grit and Conglomerate Rocks
1 0 Petcoleun Oil Coal
18 9 Coal
Clam Fire Clay, Coaly Band, &c.
27 8

Subsequently, on the 4th July, 1869, Mr. Keene reports
tothe Under Secretary for Lands, Sydney :

“ Sir—I have the honour to report to you for the infor-
mation of the Minister for Lands, under the date of the 30th
April, 1868, the discovery of petroleum coal in the Greta
field.

“A continuation of this research has led to the further
discovery in the last few days of what I believe to be the
bottom seam of the Carboniferous Deposit in our coal field,
and this coal, like to that of the seam above it, and
which contains the petroleum coal, is of most excellent
quality. I have not yet been able to ascertain the thickness
of this bottom seam

“ Signed. “tanner Ean
«Examiner of Coal Fields.”

=

10 Notes on the Quality of Hartley and Greta Shale.

I now produce samples of the Greta or Anvil Creek coal,
and petroleum shale, together with the section of the seam.

Of the quality of the shale for gas making purposes I have
before spoken, but the small slips I have sawn from the
specimens before you will show that they can be easily
ignited, and that they burn like a candle or vesta match.

Next to their quality, perhaps the most important feature
respecting the shale and coal from this seam is the statement
that they can be put on board at Newcastle at the same (or
a little less) cost as the ordinary coal mined within two
miles of the port.

The supply of coal to Melbourne and its suburbs is now
becoming of great importance. The quantity used by the
Government railways, engineering establishments, flour mills,
paper and sugar manufactories, distilleries, breweries, and
other industries requirmg steam power, shows a rapidly
increasing demand; a demand that is accelerated on
account of the distance from which firewood has to be
brought, and its consequently enhanced price. Coals are
also being used extensively for domestic purposes, especially
im houses of the better class, and therefore the quality and
price is an object of general interest, and one that demands
occasional investigation.

The quality of the coals in New South Wales changes
very much. For instance, coals that I tested five years ago
for the Melbourne Gas and Coke Company, were then of a
very superior description, lately, the coals from the same pit
I find are much deteriorated, containing more impurities,
less gas, and that of a very inferior quality. As the coals
here referred to are used for the generation of steam, the
change in their quality must have prejudicially affected
them for that purpose; also, the demand for gas coal has
now reached about 30,000 tons per annum, and this demand
may be expected to still further increase, if gas should be
employed for cooking purposes.

Mr. Lewis Thompson, the celebrated analytical chemist,
in a pamphlet published by him, refers as follows to the use
of gas as a calorific agent :

“To obtain a perfect estimate of the relative money values
“of gas and coal as calorific agents we must begin by tak-
“ing a comprehensive view of the contingencies inseparably
“attached to both, and perhaps when the expense and |
“inconvenience arising from soot, smoke, and ashes, are
“added to the cost of coal in the shape of labour for cleans-

yn Argis and surrounding Nebula. Lt

“ine rooms, furniture, and chimneys, together with the
“damage thus created, we shall find no great reason for con-
“cluding that the general use of gas as a heating agent, is
“either an impossible or an improbable event in the pro-
“ oressive march of real civilization.”

Mr. Thompson’s remarks are made for, and applied to, a
climate much colder than that of these colonies, and where
heat at most seasons of the year is enjoyable rather than
otherwise; but a cheap supply of good gas for heating and
cooking purposes is a matter of more importance here than
in the British Isles, inasmuch as in this climate, where the
temperature ranges in summer from 70° to 100° Fah., the
principal desideratum is to avoid as much as possible the
use of fire for cooking purposes. In the country districts
fires can be, and are, generally made out of doors; and thus
the heating of dwelling-house apartments is avoided. How-
ever, in the city, this can rarely be done, on account of the
danger and inconvenience of open-air fires. It only requires
a little time to prove beyond all doubt that ordinary culinary
operations can be performed at less cost with gas, in con-
junction with the use of Norwegian heat-retaining stoves, -
than by any other means; that is if freedom from dust, a
longer duration of heat, a greater economy of time, and a
less necessity of unremitting attention, be considered of any
monetary value. .

Art. IIl—y Argis and surrounding Nebula. By
_A. Le Susur, Esq.
[Read 14th February, 1870.]

At the request of your president I have drawn up the
following account of some observations which I have lately
made with the great Melbourne telescope.

One important fact elicited may be stated in few words ;
the spectrum of the star 7 Argis is crossed by bright lines.

The abnormal variations in magnitude to which this star
is subject gave reason to expect that some peculiarity in its
light would be revealed by the spectroscope ; as soon, there-
fore, as the instrumental and atmospheric conditions were
sufficiently favourable, a careful examination was made.

The first night employed was fortunately a good one, so
that the bright line character, which might otherwise have
easily escaped notice, was at once suspected.

12 n Argis and surrounding Nebula.

Many stars (mostly variables, I believe) give spectra
whose dark lines are arranged in bands, leaving more or less
bright spaces between them. It became, therefore, of im-
portance to ascertain whether or not the appearance of the
spectrum of 7 Argts was due to such peculiarity.

Stars of about equal magnitude were therefore examined ;
in some spectra, notably in that of the red variable R Leporis,
there appeared to be a condensation in the yellow, but in
none was the general phenomenon so sharply marked as in
n Argiis.

Besides this evidence, the fact (as will be seen in the
sequel) that the bright lines in 7 Argts are readily and rea-
sonably accounted for in their proper positions, leaves very
little doubt that the majority of them are real.

Moreover it is quite an open question whether the band
character of spectrum spoken of may not be partly due to
the condition which produces bright lines. In a Orionis, for
instance, it seems at least as plausible to assume the presence
of that condition which produces bright hydrogen lines, as to
deny the presence of hydrogen altogether. .

The phenomenon is necessarily delicate, but by careful
manipulation the lines may be handled in a sufficiently
satisfactory manner to determine their refrangibilities within
not wide limits.

For the purpose of comparing a known spectrum with
that of a star, the spectroscope is furnished with a reflector
in front of the slit. A small hole in this reflector permits
the passage of the star pencil, and the comparison light may
at the same time be reflected through the apparatus.

In this way five lines have been determined more or less
satisfactorily.

One in the red coincides with C, one in the blue with F,
thus indicating the presence of hydrogen.

A third line in the yellow apparently comcides with D
sodium line, two in the green with the chief nitrogen line
and 6 respectively ; a sixth line suspected beyond F, may be
the third hydrogen line Hy.

It should be remarked that with the dispersion used, and
the width of slit required to see the lines at all satisfactorily,
the limits of error may be sufficiently great to brig in two
or more competitors for a particular line ; recourse must then
be had te collateral evidence.

In the cases of the red and blue lines there are no suffi-
ciently marked competitors in the immediate neighbourhood,

7 Argis and surrounding Nebula. 13

the apparent coincidence with C F’ leaves, therefore, little
doubt that these lines in the star are due to hydrogen.

For the yellow line there were at first three candidates.
D, a nitrogen line on less refrangible side of D, and the sun
protuberance line; instrumental evidence has pretty satis-
factorily narrowed the competition by eliminating the nitrogen
line; whether or not the star line is due to sodium or to the
substance whatever it be found in sun flames, cannot at
present be said; a higher dispersion, when the star has
sufficiently increased in brilliancy, will probably settle the
point.

One of the green lines is probably due to nitrogen, for
although the limits of error might bring in iron as a com-
petitor, the iron line in that position is nota bright one, and
would therefore not be seen alone of the large number of
lines which iron produces.

The second green line is involved in the group b, and may
be accounted for by magnesium or nitrogen ; the already
assumed presence of nitrogen might perhaps lead us to infer
that this second line is also due to it, but we know that

nitrogen may be certainly indicated by the chief green line |

alone. Moreover if the conditions were such as to make
others of its large number of lines visible, the second green
one would not be the first to appear.

On the whole, therefore, it would seem that the bright
lines seen in the spectrum of 7 Argts, indicate the presence
of hydrogen, nitrogen, sodium, and magnesium.

No dark lines have been seen with certainty, one is
strongly suspected in the red, and occasionally there is an
appearance as if the whole spectrum were crossed by a mul-
titude; this is probably the case (the lines escaping our notice
from faintness of the general light), for no star sufficiently
bright to give a fairly visible spectrum has been found
without dark lines ; Secchi has lately seen a bright line in
the variable A at its maximum. Inthe case of T Corone,
both dark and bright lines were seen by Messrs. Huggins
and Miller.

As these physicists remark, it is difficult to imagine the

condition of a body producing light of this description; we .

seem driven to the conclusion that the star consists of a solid
nucleus, a gaseous envelope cooler than the nucleus pro-
ducing the dark lines, and a second envelope, hotter than
the nucleus, accounting for the bright ones.

14 9 Argis and surrounding Nebula.

The sun is not a case in point, for there the bright and
dark lines are not seen together. The former are visible
only on a small annulus of the disc, and are due to gases
cooler than the continuous spectrum giving nucleus, as
proved by the fact that on the surface of the sun the corre-
sponding lines are dark.

In the absence of direct evidence from dark fines in its
spectrum, we are unable to tell what are the constituents of
7» Argts, other than those revealed by the bright lines ; on the
supposition, however, that the other substances belong to the
series already discovered in the sun, stars, and nebule, it is
not unimportant to notice that the constituents of the stars in
question more or less certainly indicated by the bright lines
would, from mechanical considerations, be high up in its
atmosphere.

Hydrogen (on a supposition) would mount far above the
rest at the extreme limits thereof; nitrogen, sodium, mag-
nesium would follow next in order. It is probable that the
bright line character of the spectrum of 7 Argts, indicates a
commencement of increase in brilliancy; whether or not,
however, the star at its mimimum retains a condition capable
of producing such a spectrum, there can be little doubt
that the gases to which the now seen bright line belongs,
play a prominent part in the star’s variability. |

The nebula surrounding y Argts has been frequently ex-
amined ; its spectrum consists of the three well-known bright
lines indicating a gaseous constitution, similar to that of the
nebula in Orion.

The comparison of a sketch representing part of the nebula
as seen last year in the Melbourne reflector, with Sir J.
Herschell’s Cape drawing has afforded interesting results.

It is well known by those who have devoted much atten-
tion to nebula work, that even from the hands of a most
accomplished draughtsman minute details are not to be
implicity trusted ; when, moreover, to the imperfect represen-
tation of the eye-view as seen with a particular instrument
is added the disturbing effect of difference of aperture, much
caution is required in drawing conclusions from the evidence .
of observations made with widely different instruments. _

In the case before us the sketches differ very widely, not
in minute detail only, but in general character over a large
space.

oi the Cape drawing the star y is immersed in bright
nebula; as seen with the Melbourne telescope, it les on a

n Argis and surrounding Nebula. 15

background almost completely black, and the contour of the
nearest bright nebula is pretty sharply marked.

In the Cape drawing the curious lemniscate vacuity is a
conspicuous feature, and has its borders almost equally well
marked throughout; in the Melbourne sketch the lemnis-
cate is still conspicuous, but the south end is not clearly
indicated, for the surrounding nebula in that direction is
extremely faint.

Mr. Abbott of Hobartown in the year 1864, and Mr.
Powell of Madras, about the same time called attention to
the fact that the star 7 was completely outside the bright
nebula, and that the south end of lemniscate had disappeared.

The instruments used by these observers were, however,
so inferior in power to Sir. J. Herschell’s 18 inch, that it
was not unreasonable to suppose the change merely apparent,
due regard being had to the fact that the difference in the
representation was precisely of a nature to be accounted for
by the difference of instrumental means employed.

With the Melbourne telescope the conditions are reversed,
yet Sir J. Herschell saw bright nebula where with a much

more powerful instrument, either none at all isseen, or a very.

faint one barely suspected.

The presence of a bright star has, however, a large dis-
turbing effect (increased by aperture) in apparently obliterat-
ing even bright nebula in its immediate neighbourhood ;
and although the effect could not possibly spread over such
a large space as that over which change appears to be indi-
cated, it was not unimportant to get some further proof of
the nature of the background on which y is situated. The
spectroscope here comes to our aid; the excessively faint
nebulosity over the region in question is incompetent to
show even a trace of bright lines, and when by shifting the
spectroscope the bright lines do appear, it 1s in positions
which indicate that the eye-view configuration represents the
actual facts.

These proved facts, tnerefore, being that the star y is on
a background almost completely dark; that the south end
of the lemniscate opens out into a space almost as vacuous
as itself; it is difficult to imagine any conditions instrumental
or atmospheric which could produce an appearance at all
approaching to that seen by Sir J. Herschell at the Cape.

We have, therefore, evidence entitled to much weight
that enormous changes have taken place in the nebula since
the year 1838.

EE

16 Decay of Gaspipes wn certain Sorts.

Besides the difference in general features above considered,
there are others, notably the presence in the Melbourne
sketch of a pair of bright wings at the N. extremity of
the lemniscate, which are not indicated in the Cape drawing ;
this, however, and other differences of detail are in the direc-
tion to be accounted for by difference of aperture used, no
certain conclusion can therefore be yet drawn therefrom.

Art. IV.—Decay of Gaspipes in certain Sorls.
By G. Foorp, Esa.
[Read 14th February, 1870.]

In September, 1867, it became the duty of the writer of
this note to inquire into the cause of the decay of a gas-
main, the property of the city of Melbourne Gas Company.
The scope of the question submitted did not, at that date,
extend beyond its purely commercial sense; but as there.
appears good reason for regarding the particular case as
typical, and significant in reference to the broad subject
of the “life” of gas and water mains, and because the
subject has a scientific interest quite apart from its purely
economic sense, I venture to lay before your Society such
results as happen to be at this date at my command. In
doing this, I wish to state that the particulars which
I have to communicate are slight and imperfect ; that no
pretentions to a close investigation are set up; and that I
should not have risked the presentation, for registration, of
so imperfect an account of a fact of confessedly great intrinsic
interest, if I had not been encouraged by your President with
the assurance that your Society is always ready and anxious
to receive and record matters of fact and scientific interest,
even though the observations may happen to be of a dis-
jointed and casual character. I confess a personal concurrence
in those views, for in our new continent, over the expanse of
which promising objects, inviting observation, are so abun-
dant, but in which the number of precise observers are,
relatively to the field of inquiry, so few, doubtless for some
time to come, observation, as distinguished from methodical
research and experiment, must take the lead ; and the record
of casual observations, even when unsupported by any
extent of continuous inquiry or systematic experiment, must
prove ultimately valuable. It is this conviction, coupled
with the personal assurance of your President, which tempts

Decay of Gaspipes in certain Soils. 17

me to present to your Society as a “laboratory note” what
would otherwise remain in its place among the daily memo-
randa of laboratory work.

_ The facts of the case are the following :—Close to the site
of the Melbourne old Exhibition building it has been found
that the gas-mains are subject to an unusually rapid decay.
The ground in which this quick decay occurs is at a high
level (no less than one hundred feet above high-water mark
in Hobson’s Bay). Itis one of the highest points in the city ;
the position, in fact, affords an excellent panoramic view of
Melbourne. It would, therefore, appear to be favourably
situated for drainage by percolation through the porous soil.
The pipes, the subject of this note, are laid eighteen inches
below the surface, in a nearly white mottled clay, which to
mere inspection shows no external evidence suggestive of
any constituents favourable to a rapid destruction of the

ipes.

The sample of decayed pipe as received by me presented
the following characters :—In some places it had entirely lost
its metallic properties; it had passed out of the metallic state,
but had retained its original form. In other places, an inner
shell of unconverted cast iron remained. In one of the
samples, which I submit, the converted portion is indicated by
the mark A, and the unchanged part by the mark B. Sample
C is wholly converted. D shows that the wrought-iron plugs
are almost or quite exempt from the change. # is a sample
of the substance of the converted pipe reduced to powder in
a mortar ; an impalpable odorous brown powder.

It may be here pointed out that the continuity of the
changed parts, the continuity of the unchanged metallic
portions, and the unchanged conditions of the wrought-iron
plugs, are facts suggestive of a gradual conversion of the cast
iron, progressive in space, and that the conversion proceeds
under a galvanic agency, in which the graphite of the cast
iron probably plays the part of the electro-negative element
in a simple circuit of two solids and one fluid. The decay
takes place from without inwardly.

The specific gravities of the decayed and unaltered or
slightly altered portions of the pipe, are significant.
The specific gravity of the sounder portions of the pipe

was ascertained to be a ae 599
That of the decayed or converted portion ... peo
A sample with thin inner shell of metallic iron Bee rates.
Gray cast iron (for comparison) being ne Area |

C

SS

18 Decay of Gaspipes wn certain Soils.

The decayed portion had lost to some extent, but not
altogether, its magnetic properties. It is easily reduced to a
greenish-brown powder, approaching the tint of raw umber.
On solution in hydrochloric acid, it. evolves no hydrogen—a
fact which shows that it contains no residue of iron in the
metallic state ; when thus dissolved it leaves a bulky residue
of graphite with silicon—carbon—and sulphur—compounds
of iron and manganese.

The converted portion of the pipe, when newly taken from
the ground, is soft, but hardens on exposure. During this
induration shrinkage takes place, the converted portion
separates from the unconverted, and cracks appear im the
mass.

But another interesting manifestation takes place when
the pipe is exposed to the air; after it has lost the greater
part of its free-moisture, droplets of a solution of protochloride
of iron are extruded from its pores. The drops of pale green
fluid soon become covered with a rust-red film of hydrated
sesquioxide of iron; the little fluid drops soon disappear by
evaporation, leaving hollow shells of iron oxide, with possibly
some oxychloride. It is pretty clear that in the fluid forming
these drops the chlorine of the chloride of iron acts chemically
as a “carrier,” and is conducive to the ultimate conversion
of the iron to the state of oxide; it is also clear that the
chlorine, by combining with the iron and forming a soluble
salt with it, enables the water to remove the metal through
sensible distances of space. In pseudomorphic changes of
the kind considered, this purely mechanical transposition of
the materials is always an essential part of the process of the
rebuilding, in new chemical forms, of the old materials.

The general composition of the altered portion of the pipe
is shown by the followimg figures :—The powdered material
gives off over. 13 per cent. of moisture when heated, and it
‘leaves as undissolved residue 28 per cent. of its original
weight when digested in hydrochloric acid. The iron solu-
tion obtained by thus treating it contains protochloride of
iron equal to oxide and chloride of iron in the decayed pipe
to the extent of a little over half its weight.

How far these contents of the altered pipe account for all
or only a portion of the original constituents of the metallic
cast iron, or what proportion of the metal is removed in
solution, I have not ascertained ; the low specific gravity of
the altered portion would imply either removal or expansion,
probably both have taken place.

<<. -~ ——
= ee
-?

Decay of Gaspipes in certain Soils. 19

Water boiled with the powdered material of the pipe
showed evidence of both sodium and chlorine abundantly
present in solution—in fact, it is to the presence of common
salt with concomitant agencies that the rapid transmutation
of the cast-iron main may be attributed.

When the clay in which the pipe was imbedded is
examined two points become conspicuously apparent—Ist.
The clay, retentive of moisture, is also so harsh and porous as
to be permeable to air. In this sense it is the very opposite
of “ fat,” water-tight, and consequently air-excluding clays.
A block of this clay air-dried, when placed in water, rapidly
falls, crumbling away in a surprising manner, at the same
time releasing much air, and forming a gruel-like magma at
the bottom of the water. A pipe of cast iron laid in this clay
is, on account of the properties just mentioned, subject to the
continuous and joint action of moisture and atmospheric
gases. 2nd. But this clay has also another characteristic, it
is charged with common salt. If we place it on a filter, wash
it with distilled water, and evaporate the filtrate, a crop of
cubic crystals of common salt is obtained. Results of experi-
ments indicate 13 ounces of common salt per cubic yard of
clay ; the actual contents may somewhat exceed this propor-
tion, for it is well known that clayey matters will obstinately
keep in quasi-mechanical adhesion substances which would
be, excepting for the presence of the clay, easily removed in
solution in water. ;

That an alkaline chloride will promote the rusting of iron
is instanced in the common iron-rust cement of the machinist.
A dense network of iron turnings, moistened with solution of
salammoniac, conforms to all the requisite conditions—per-
meability to air, the simultaneous presence of moisture, and
a suitable soluble alkaline chloride, provided as an oxygen
carrier.

In the case described we have almost identical conditions,
with one exception. Our alkaline chloride is the chloride of
a fixed, and not of the volatile alkali; we have chloride of
sodium instead of chloride of ammonium, and it is not so
easy to see how the chlorine forsakes-its most intimate rela-
tions with the sodium to take up with the iron. The writer
cannot pretend to anything approaching a discussion of this
question on the basis of facts now presented. The subject is
certainly a matter of great interest, which has not yet been
fully discussed, and on which methodical experiment might
he profitably expended, At present the writer contents him-

c 2

20 Decay of Gasprpes vm certain Sorls.

self with mentioning that, apart from the influence of voltaic
decomposition, in which the graphite, iron and brine form the
circle, there are conditions which are admittedly sufficient for
bringing about the change, by enlisting only the simplest
chemical means. Solutions of bi-carbonate of ammonium
and chloride of sodium produce by interchange bi-carbonate
of sodium and chloride of ammonium. ‘This decomposition
formed the subject of a remarkable invention patented about
30 years since by Hemming and Dyer. On it was based the
process of the British Alkali Company ; and although it did
not succeed in an economic direction, the chemical change
itself can be easily demonstrated by experiment, on the small
or large scale, as an indisputable chemical fact. In the soil
and porous clays we have a supply of both ammonia and. car-
bonic acid, so that there is nothing wanting for brmging
about a change of the kind considered. Moreover, the cast
iron is permeable to gases, and the contained coal gas,
although holding but little carbonic acid gas, is at all times
a source of ammonia available for the chemical decomposition
in point. The French chemists, investigating on behalf of
agriculture, have also shown how, by means quite distinct
from those just mentioned, common salt in a soil may be
dissociated so as to yield sodium salts of an organic acid. In
advancing these statements it is desired that the object be
understood as that of showing that the conditions for possible
chemical changes of the requisite kind do exist, and it is
also wished that it should be understood that no assertion
is advanced favouring any particular course of chemical
exchange as that which actually takes place, of putting
forward any agencies as those certainly concerned in such
changes.

We know quite well that a conversion of cast iron, very
similar to the one under notice, takes place in the sea, and
iron pipes or pumps drawing salt water from mines have
peen found to decay from a similar cause. There is the case
of a pipe in a coal mine, quoted by Dr. Henry. The specific
gravity of the decayed pipe was 2:08 to 2155, and the water
of the mine contained of saline matter, chloride of sodium,
chloride of magnesium, chloride of calcium, sulphate of lime,
and bi-carbonate of lime, 64 grains to the wine pint. Of
course where chloride of magnesium is abundantly present,
the aspect of the chemistry of the case is modified. Berzelius,
in accounting for the corrosion under sea water, has not
included the chlorides among the agents concerned ; but to

Decay of Gaspipes in certain Soils. a1

our instance we cannot apply the views of Berzelius, for
protochloride of iron sweating out of the pores of our pipe shows
that the chlorine is implicated. Moreover, the Cranbourne
meteorite, that known as Bruce’s, sweated drops of chloride of
iron, and showed on the outer surface symptoms of having
suffered a considerable wasting by oxidation. The sweating
and the rusting are, in the particular instance, connected by
the fact that the drops of iron chloride solution, coming out
from newly-polished artificial surfaces of the metal, rapidly
corroded the surface, forming a crust of oxide of iron. In a
letter received from England, it is stated that Professor
Maskeleyne bad expressed concern as to the future of the
Bruce meteorite, on account of the decay to which it
appeared subject. In the gaspipe and in the meteorite, two
very different instances, we have the presence of iron proto-
chloride accompanying, and apparently the disposmg agent
in effecting the passage of iron from the metallic state to the
state of oxide.

It appears that the decay of cast-iron mains,’ due to salt in

the soil, has been noticed elsewhere. Dr. John Smith,

professor of chemistry in the Sydneye University, has men-
tioned to the writer of this note a case occurring in India in
which the mains, water-pipes it is believed, laid in swampy
salt ground, perished so rapidly (@n a few years in fact) that
the engineer employed on the question proposed as the best
remedy the use of steel mains laid in air, supported on piers.
It was calculated that the additional strength of the proposed
material over that of cast iron would allow of the use of steel
pipes of so light a substance that their cost would not greatly
exceed that of the quickly-perishing cast iron.

In the recent commission for inquiry concerning the City
of Sydney Waiter Supply, this property of salt soil has not
been overlooked—indeed the occurrence of salt ground has
been regarded as a cogent reason against what might
otherwise have been material to a practicable scheme for a
high-level service.

That gas and water mains of cast-iron will, under ordinary
circumstances, last in the ground for a great number of
years is established by a wide experience, but that cases of
an opposite nature occur is shown by the example brought
forward. The writer has no personal knowledge concerning
the average “life” of water and gas mains, but he observes
in the little treatise on “‘ Gasworks,” by Hughes, that 1} per
cent. has been allowed for this deterioration in the case of

22 Decay of Gaspipes in certain NSorls.

gas mains. ‘I'his would make the life say 66 years, or nearly
two-thirds of a century, according tv which computation
renewal of the gas mains laid at the beginning of the present
century, when gas lighting was coming into general use,
would now be falling due. Recently, in Melbourne, for
business purposes—that is to say, as the basis of a
commercial transaction—a duration of 50 years was
arbitrarily assumed and accepted as the “life” of local gas
mains. Between the normal rate, if approximated in these
quotations, and that which may take place in a salt soil, the
difference is very great, and the subject is therefore one
deserving of a full investigation. In laying down a service
like that of the Yan Yean, we are, perhaps, too apt to regard
the work as of an absolutely permanent character. Several
years ago, the writer recommended, in reference to that
particular service, that sample portions of the pipes should
be set aside, properly labelled, so as to afford the means of
future comparisons. He would now suggest the possibility. —
of decay of cast-iron buried in the soil taking place at an
accelerating, rather than an uniform rate—in a manner, for

“example, comparable go what takes place in the decay of

timber. It might be well worth while to ascertain something
concerning the earliest stages of molecular and chemical
changes of cast-iron mains; when their conductivity for
sound, for heat, and for electricity is first measurably affected ;
when the specific gravity is first sensibly altered; when the
strength is first in any sensible degree impaired; and when
the proportion of carbon, silicon, &e., to that of iron, is first
measurably altered? Notwithstanding the inquiries of
Hallet, under the auspices of the British Association,
concerning the oxidation of iron, and admitting the value of
the various researches by other workmen, if we are to judge
from what appears in the books on this important subject,
there is yet an ample field and much promise for those who
will devote their time to a further opening of the inquiry.
Anyone devoting effort to this particular subject of the decay -
of gas and water mains would, it is believed, reap results of
great value and interest.

Apart from this larger work, there is a set of observations
of another class, easy of performance, and which would
always repay attention—that, namely, of ascertaining
the nature of ground opened for the reception of mains,
particularly as to saltness or freedom from salt. The writer
is inclined to the belief that salt soils are far more common

On y Argus and Jupiter's Spectrum. 23

than is generally believed: the Plenty river, at its source in
the ranges where the water first oozes out of the mossy
ground, already shows evidence of chlorides in solution ;
the clay, 7n situ, at the Old Exhibition Reserve, in which
the sample of gaspipe exhibited has decayed, retains
13 oz. of salt, at least, per cubic yard, although it is ofa —
highly porous character, although situated at one of the
highest levels in Melbourne, and doubtless after occupying
its present position high above the sea for a long continuance
of centuries, subject all the time to the influence of rain
soaking into it, and having a greater or less power of
dissolving and removing the salt. It is true that the
subsoil partakes something of the nature of a barrier, the
drainage escaping in many cases over it rather than through
it, so that soluble saline matters travelling down into the
subsoil may be thus cut off from the further transporting
influence of drainage.

I will close these statements and suggestions with an
incidental remark concerning the salting of land—namely,
that it does not necessarily follow that the salt is in all cases
derived directly from the- sea, that the salt is that which
was in the soil or clay or rock at the time when it formed a
sea bottom, and was submerged in brine. The atmosphere
may be ascertained to perform an important office in this
respect intermediate between the sea and the land. There
is reliable evidence that the atmosphere performs this func-
tion in some degree. To measure the extent to which the
- air acts as a distributor of sea-water constituents over the
land would be a work replete with interest. It is a question
which may prove itself closely related to the sciences of
hygiene and agriculture, and even with geology.

Art. V.—On y Argtis and Jupiter's Spectrum. By
A. LE Sueur, Esq.
[Read 14th March, 1870.]

I take this opportunity of mentioning that since the last
meeting, the star 7 Argts has been examined with the
original apparatus, modified so as to admit of a larger
dispersion.

With this new arrangement the red line keeps its place
and character, the yellow is seen to be slightly less refran-
gible than D.

24 On » Argis and Jupiter's Spectrum.

The green lines, difficult before, become almost unmanage-
able; considering, therefore, that mere extra dispersion in-
stead of diminishing ‘the visibility of real lines should, if
anything, make them more conspicuous, the latter observa-
tions throw some doubt on the conclusions originally arrived
at. In the paper read at the last meeting it was noticed
that there were two ways of accounting for the appearance
of the spectrum of y Argts. 1st. That it is a spectrum of
groups of dark lines separated by more or less bright spaces.
2nd. That the bright lines are real and not due merely to
comparative absence of absorption.

The former supposition was discarded in favour of the
latter, which was supported by strong collateral evidence.

The behaviour of the red line,* with the larger dispersion,
is strongly in favour of the original conclusion that the star is,
even at the present low magnitude, enveloped by an atmo-
sphere of hydrogen at high temperature, but the diminished
visibility of the green lines points to the possibility that the
appearance of this part of the spectrum is due merely to
comparative absence of dark lines over moderately wide
spaces.

There seems to be no reason for objecting to this double
nature of the spectrum, all red variables suttciently bright
to bear a fine slit, are found to have a spectrum of groups,
and some variables in certain phrases (T coronee at maximum
for instance) develop bright hydrogen lines. Spectroscopic
observations of small stars is so very difficult that we can
hardly hope to obtain more satisfactory evidence until y
Argis has increased in brightness.

The spectrum of the star near maximum may, from phy-
sical causes, differ somewhat in character from that seen at
present, but evidence will no doubt be then adduced
whereby the appearance at the lower stages may be more
certainly accounted for.

Spectrum of Jupiter.

In the spectrum of Jupiter, the principal Fraunhofer lines
are, as might be expected, readily seen; besides these there
are lines of absorption, one of which is decisively proved by
Mr. Huggins’ observations to have its origin in Jupiter's
atmosphere.

* Of the blue line I cannot speak with as much confidence, the faintness
makes it difficult of observation, but I think it is as well seen with the larger
dispersion as it was at first.

On » Argds and Jupiter's Spectrum. 25

With the Melbourne Reflector we have command of con-
ditions more favorable than those under which Mr. Huggins’
worked, but the conditions may be considerably varied at
pleasure, and when by such variation the light was reduced
to an intensity probably much less than that at Mr, Hugeins’
disposal, the line in question (914 of Mr. Huggins’ diagram)
was still conspicuous ; so unexpectedly conspicuous, indeed,
that until its position had been accurately determined, the
line was mistaken for an atmospheric one strongly marked
in low sun spectra, but, as was afterwards found, not readily
visible on Jupiter when at considerable altitudes.*

Considering therefore that the line or rather group, escaped
Mr. Huggins’ notice with his earlier apparatus, there is good
reason for supposing that the absorption by Jupiter’s atmo-
sphere of that particular kind of light varies considerably. If
this should prove to be the case, it will be interesting to note
the degree of absorption in connection with the character of
J upiter’s visible disc.

With reference to this point, 1 may remark that the
appearance of Jupiter last year was somewhat unusual, the
principal peculiarity being a change in the colour of the
central band from white to yellow, and I believe a greater
yellowness of the general surface.

A sufficient reason for increase of visibility in the Jupiter
line may be found in a diminution or depression of cloud,
whereby the ight would have to traverse greater thickness
of atmosphere ; the greater yellowness of the surface is also
fairly accounted for on the same supposition.

Jupiter was taken in hand principally to note any pecu-
liarity in the light from different parts of the surface, for
which purpose the Melbourne Reflector, owing to its great
focal length, is specially suited.

The method generally adopted was to place the slit of the
spectroscope perpendicular to Jupiter's equator; by this
arrangement a spectroscopic picture of the surface is pre-
sented to the view, and an admirable opportunity afforded
of comparing the spectra of the different zones, and of noting

* 882 of Mr. Huggins’ diagram (the numbers throughout refer to this
diagram accompanying Mr. H.’s paper on Jupiter.)

This line was well seen together with 914 when Jupiter was near the
horizon.

882 was nearly as dark as 914, which did not seem to have increased from
the additional absorption of the earth’s atmosphere ; this was not unexpected,
for the corresponding group in low sun spectra is very faint.

26 On yn Argis- and Jupiter's Spectrum.

the behaviour of the known Jupiter lines as they cross these
ZONES.

The diagram represents Jupiter and the corresponding
spectrum, as seen on the night of 11th December, 1869 ; the
general features were the same during November and
December.

NV P was slightly yellow and crossed by fine hair lines.
P Q white, the brightest part of the surface.

@ & dusky yellow.

R T white.

T S faintly yellow.

P Q&T dark brown.

In the spectroscope image P Q was conspicuous through-
out the length of the spectrum, from its brightness.

N P, TS beyond being less bright than P @, showed no
marked peculiarity, the more refrangible end was well seen,
probably somewhat absorbed, but of this there was no
certain evidence.

On Q & the absorption at the more refrangible end was
strongly marked, gradually fading away to about H, from
which point Q, R were seen separately with a spectrum
between them of nearly the same brightness as the cor-
responding part on the polar segments.

* P was readily seen throughout the spectrum as a dark
line. |

* T was conspicuous only at the red end.

The absorption lines, especially 914, were narrowly watched,
but gave no certain indications ; the narrowness of the dark
belts was unfavorable to the inquiry, so that with respect to
these the negative evidence is of little weight, but the north
and south segments and the zones between the dark belts
were sufficiently wide to afford an opportunity of detecting
any marked peculiarity in the spectral line as it crossed them.

Somewhat contrary to expectation, the line retained an
apparently constant character throughout.

We are therefore led to infer that the light from the
different parts of the visible surface had passed through not

* On some of these belts a greenish and occasionally a reddish tinge was
suspected.

On » Argis and Jupiter's Spectrum. 27

widely unequal thicknesses of atmosphere, or, perhaps with
greater reason, that the least thickness was sufficient to
produce a maximum absorption on light of the retrangibility
of 914.

According to the generally received opinion, in P Q R and
similar dark belts, we obtain views of the body of the planet;
the other phenomena are also fairly accounted for on the sup-
position that P @ is a dense stratum of cloud ; that the light
from other parts of the disc is also reflected mainly from
cloud, less dense, however, and more interrupted, affording
partial views of the body of the planet ; hence the duskiness
of @ R, the yellowness of this zone, and.the same but less
marked colour of the polar segments being due to the general
absorption of the violet end of the spectrum* by aqueous or
other vapours.

We have yet no certain evidence as to what substance or
substances absorb light of the refrangibilities covered by the
group 914, but it would seem that aqueous vapour cannot
be largely concerned in the production of this group, for its
darkness on the zone @ Ff accuses a very considerable thick-
ness of the particular absorbents above that cloud band, and
if aqueous vapour existed there to any great extent, we
might expect the zone to be less distinctly white.

The observations of Mr. Huggins are very strongly in
favour of the supposition that another line (838) has its
origin in Jupiter's atmosphere, the evidence adduced here
by repeated comparison of the spectra of Jupiter and the
Moon at considerable and nearly equal altitudes, leave little
doubt of the truth of this supposition.

This line is near C, and in low sun spectra is much more
conspicuous than 914; as the reverse holds on Jupiter, it
would seem that these two lines are due to different
absorbents.

From the researches of Messrs. Angstrom and Jansen it
appears that 838 belongs to aqueous vapour. On this sup-
position, if the foregoing explanations of the phenomena
observed on Jupiter is true, we might expect to find the line
less distinctly marked on the white zone than on the other
parts of the surface; the line, however, was so little con-
spicuous on any part that no certain evidence could be
elicited.

* Combined with the selective absorption at the less refrangible end,
evidenced by the dark lines, and the apparent obliteration of the extreme
red (not seen perhaps merely on account of faintness).

28 On a Photographic Process.

Art. VI.—WNotes on a Simplification of a Photographic
Process used with Self-registering Instruments.
By R. L. J. Eiuery, Esq.
[Read 14th March, 1870.]

Since the adoption of photography as a means for obtain-
ing continuous and automatic records of magnetic meteoro-
logical and other phenomena, the observatory work in those
branches of physical science has undergone almost a com-
plete revolution. A fair knowledge of the theory and
practice of photography has now become essential to the
observer, and no public observatory of any pretensions
can be considered complete without its photographic room.

The photographic method of registration was first adopted
in our observatory in August, 1867, in connection with an
instrument (which I have already described) for measuring the
force and variations of atmospheric electricity, and subse-
quently for the magnetic instruments, the self-registerig
barometer, and lately also for wet and dry bulb thermo-
meters. At the present time about 20 sheets (6 inches by
13 inches) are prepared, developed, and finally treated every
week. Artificial light, either from gas, oil, or kerosene, is’
always used in this kind of photography—in our observatory
the former is used. .

The instruments are so arranged that the light, from a
peculiar kind of burner, falls on to mirrors affixed to the
movable and sensitive parts of the apparatus, or passes
through transparent spaces which move with the indicators
of the particular instrument, after which it is focussed or
condensed, so as to fall on to the photographic paper in the
form of an intense dot or line of light. In the Electrographs
and Magnetographs, the light first passes through a narrow
slit and an achromatic lens, then falls on to the mirror, which
reflects it as a line of light towards a cylinder, around which
the sensitive paper is fixed; it is intercepted, however, by
a cylindrical lens, which converges the line of light to a dot
on the paper. As the mirror moves with the magnets or
electrograph pendulum the dot will fall on different parts of
the cylinder, which is caused to revolve once in 24 or 48
hours by clockwork—a curve or crooked line is therefore
traced on the paper, showing the deviation of the magnets,
&e., in the 24 or 48 hours. In the Barograph the light
passing through the vacuum above the Mercury Column, is
converged to a sharp line on the cylinder, and is elongated or
shortened as the mercury rises or falls ; in the Thermographs

On a Photographic Process. 29

it passes through a small air space in the mercury of the
thermometers, and by means of lenses a bright image of this
space is focussed on to the cylinder. The photographic results
obtained are simple, consisting of straight or curved lines, or
a regularly blackened surface without toning or shading of
any kind, as will be seen by specimens on the table.

It is, however, merely to the methods of preparing the
sensitive paper that I wish to direct your attention to-night.
At first the method we adopted was that known as Crooke’s
modification of the old wax-paper process of Gray ; a modifi-
cation arrived at after considerable experiment to ascertain
what particular salts of silver, and their proportion, would be
most sensitive to ordinary artificial hghts. The method is
fully described in the British Association report of 1859, and
was that subsequently adopted at the observatories at Kew
and Oxford. In this process the paper is first soaked in
melted wax, and superfluous wax afterwards removed by hot
pressing. By this means it was intended to give the paper a
closer and smoother surface, and also to render it transparent,
so that copies of any pictures or impressions on it might be
photographically obtained.

The paper thus prepared and cut to the proper size is
immersed in a bath composed of proper proportions of Iodide
and Bromide of Potassium, with enough free Iodine added
to render the solution of a port wine colour. After immer-
sion for several hours in this bath the paper becomes of a dark
reddish brown, and can be kept in this state for almost any
length of time. The next part of the process is to render the
paper sensitive to the action of light, which is accomplished
by floating them ina bath of Acetic Nitrate of Silver on
which, after a few minutes, they become of the delicate straw
colour of Iodide and Bromide of Silver; in this state they
can be preserved in the dark for some days without much
deterioration, but in practice they seldom keep so much
as a week before using. It is in this condition they are
placed upon the cylinders for registering.

When removed from the cylinder, after the 24 or 48 hours’
exposure to the dots or lines of light, the paper appears
just the same as when placed upon them, no impression
is visible till after the next process, development. This is
done by floating them upon a solution of Gallic Acid with
Nitrateof Silver and Acetic Acid [a film of which is poured on
an accurately levelled sheet of plate-glass], for a period of time

varying from two to three hours, depending on the tempera-

30 On a Photographic Process.

ture, when the trace of the dots of light appear as black
lines more or less, or as.a blackened surface in the case of
Barograph. It only now remains to dissolve out the
unchanged Iodide of Silver by Hyposulphate of Soda, and
thoroughly free the papers from every trace of the latter salt
by washing, and the registers are complete.

In this process many precautions are requisite ; in the dif-
ferent stages of preparing the paper they are the same as must
always be observed in photography ; and the development
especially requires great care. To secure good evenly waxed
papers in the first place was found with us to be no easy
matter, and required considerable time and frequent hot
pressings, care being taken that the temperature was not
higher than 212°. With every precaution, however, dark or
spotted papers frequently resulted with us, and we seldom
got a paper that, after fixing, returned any of its pristine
whiteness on the unaffected parts.

Frequent comparative failures of this kind led me to ex-
periment, especially to obtain similar conditions of paper by
other materials than wax, and I found by far the best
result was got by using parafiin. The process was easier
and quicker, the papers were cleaner and of a better colour,
and best of alJ, the time occupied in the various processes of
sensitizing, developing, &c., was very much shortened.

Parafiin has a lower melting point than wax, consequently
it can be kept fluid more easily, it permeates the paper much
quicker and more evenly, and one or two pressings in the hot
press are sufficient to get rid of all superfluous paraffin, and
render the whole batch nicely and evenly translucent. Both
—waxing and paraflining papers—are done by having a tin
tray (large enough to hold a full sheet of photo-paper) fitted
on to a large water-bath ; in this tray the wax or paraffin is
melted and the papers dipped. A pile of paper is then made
up by placing one waxed or parafiined between six or seven
plain, and in the hot press the whole becomes evenly
saturated.

Paraffin has the advantage over wax on many other points :
it is less sticky, the papers can therefore be separated more
easily after coming from the press, and very few are torn;
they are also less greasy, and take the baths more quickly
and evenly, and when prepared are decidedly more sensitive.

A few modifications in the preparation were suggested.
By experience it was found better to use a larger quantity of
free iodine in iodizing the papers, and not quite so strong a

On a Photographic Process. 31

developer, otherwise the process was exactly similar to
Mr. Crooke’s.

Some time since it occurred to me that, as one of the
reasons for waxing the papers was to obtain a good surface,
and thatthe paper we new obtain has such an excellent sur face,
it was quite probable, so far as that particular object was con-
cerned, the waxing or paraflining might be dispensed with ;
and further, that any necessity for leaving the papers trans-
lucent for copying was rather the exception than the rule ;
and if it were desirable to copy any, those particular ones
could be paraftined at any time, or reduced copies could be
obtained by the ordinary Collodion process. I therefore tried
paper plain and simple, with results excelling those with

araffin ; every part of the process was shortened con-
siderably ; the percentage of defective papers was again
greatly lessened, the records are whiter and clearer, and the
fime and trouble ot the first preparation, which even in
the case of paraffin was considerable, is done away with
altogether.

The time occupied in the different processes is here set
down, and as in these days “time is money, the saving is
worthy of note.:

Todizing, Sensitizing. Developing.
Wax . . 4 hours. 20 minutes 24 hours.
aman) s., A. |, TOM as eas
[Piz ae Dit as 40 min.

Therefore the saving of time by using plain paper instead
of waxed, taking into consideration that part of the process
can be done by the batch, and others by the single papers only,
will be at least 30 minutes for each paper, or 10 hours per
week. I have here some samples of the different kind of
paper before and after using; also, of the records obtained
from the several instruments now in use at the Observatory.
The importance of any simplification of the photographic
methods used by those engaged in practical and experimental
science will I am sure be so fully appreciated by them, that
no apology on my part will be necessary for occupying
your attention with apparently so trivial a matter.

32 On the occurrence of Enhydros.

Art. VIL—On the Brilliant Aurora of the 5th April, 1870.
By R. L. J. Every, Esq.
[Read 11th April, 1870.]

Art. VIII.—WNotes on the occurrence of Enhydros or Water
Stones at Beechworth. By EK. J. Dunn, Esa.
[Read by G. H. F. Unricu, Esq., on 11th April, 1870.]

The locality in which the enhydros occur, is on Spring
Creek, on the south side and close to the town of Beechworth.

The rock is fine grained granite, with a small outlier of
silurian ; this was originally covered by 10 or 12 feet of
drift, but in the course of mining operations the rock was
laid bare.

A miner who worked this portion of the creek 10 years
since informed me that he had observed large numbers of
enhydros in clearing the bottom of the claim, and showed
me some he had saved; after his party had ceased working,
another started, and cut a tail race through the granite, the
more effectually to drain and work the ground in the bed of
the creek. It was in the cutting of this tail race that they
were again brought to light in June 1864.

A tunnel has recently been driven in the line of section

A B on tracing, about 18 feet below the surface of the rock,
giving an excellent opportunity for observation, and it is
quite obvious from what the tunnel and cutting have laid
open, that this has been in the line of great dislocating
forces of which the dyke marked on the tracing was most
probably the centre.

This dyke is of singular formation. It is composed of
fragments of granite and occasional pieces of sandstone
cemented by crystallised quartz, and thereare also large masses
of coarse chalcedony. ‘The whole appearance of this dyke
suggests the idea of a chasm filled with small loose fragments
of rock mto which a siliceous solution had penetrated,
coating each piece with quartz and gradually cementing
them into a solid mass.

The silurian outlier is a yellowish brown and bluish grey
sandstone, soft near the surface, but very hard near the
granite, and full of joints. It is intersected by numerous
blue quartz vems and straight veins of chalcedony scales
with clay.

Ry
aii ry

PULL ON \ ys) '
; /! / ae i

\
/ ‘ JxZ7/]! } ib
bs = al? 0 oy, Ao De yi y j
= —= p wee ay , ,
A N = is, . if / | / }f
: : , Ds | ‘ a | / (inva ea J i
a i : : | | j j ,
: reat 4 hee ‘ ‘ } f ht fia,
Off F Qo 8 Sa a Hh A fan fiat } / / {
: | ‘ ( 7 ! as <p oan) [PEE AES YD aT Yo Hf /
1 ‘ / / es ie 6 oY yf |
7) > OF 5 : . . =, / i /

|

NW

|

NY
S

y

|

\

[

i

|

B Section

Plan and Sections

of the locality in whi

ch the Enhydros occur

Scale, 4 Chams to | inch

LZ, SA Dunn; Beeckwarths

VO Mgrih S870

On the occurrence of Enhydros. 33

At the spot marked 1 (on the outlier) the stones were first
met with. It was the widening of a vein bearing about
N. 30 HE. and dipping to the north, forming an irregular
cavity about 2 feet wide by 3 feet long, the small vein still
continuing.

This nest was filled with scales of chalcedony and fine
clay, interspersed with the enhydros generally in groups,
their planes being in contact with the planes of others,
forming what appeared a solid lump ; it required, however,
but very little force to separate them into distinct perfect
stones. There were sometimes 10 or 15 thus joined.

Some parts of the cavity were filled with scales and clay

“only, the scales being nearly in the same direction, the
edges looking like those of pieces of mica with frayed edges.

The appearance of the scales might be accounted for by
supposing the cavity to be filled with a solution of silica,
holding in suspension fine clay. The rough walls would be
first coated with coarse chalcedony, then—from'an excess of
clay—a fine film of it might have been deposited, then a thin
coat of silica, forming a scale and so alternating until the
cavity became filled.

Another place in which the enhydros occur (marked 2 in
plate) is in soft fine grained granite. The vein is about
+ inch thick, expanding to a few inches in one place. This
one is very regular in its strike (W 5° S) and dips to the N.
The stones found here were unusually large, some as much

as 5 inches across, but very dark in colour and nearly all :

broken ; not more than one in ten is perfect in either vein,
the large ones are almost invariably imperfect.

There seem to have been three distinct movements of the
rocks. During the first and probably most violent one the
fissures in the silurianand hard granite were filled with quartz.
During the next movement the chalcedony was deposited as
solid veins from } to 1 inch thick, in the hard granite, and
as scales; and enhydros later in the silurian and soft granite.
The last movement dislocated these veins, and accounts for so
many broken waterstones. This seems to have been the
course of events, as the quartz veins are cut through by the
chalcedony ones, and these again in places show signs of
displacement.

The enhydros consist of chalcedony with a hardness
equal to topaz; they are many-sided and irregular in form,
bounded by true planes. ‘Their colour varies from dark
brownish yellow and nearly opaque to quite colourless and

D

34 On the occurrence of Enhydros.

transparent. Some of the planes are striated, others are
covered with small pits. In such cases the corresponding
plane has similar striation or pits. These pits seem to be
the halves of air bubbles similar to those occurring in glass,
and that this is most probably the truth is proved by one
piece found, that shows unmistakable bubbles in the solid
chalcedony.

The enhydros vary in size from 5 inches across to the
size of a split pea, containing fluid and a moveable bubble of
gas. In many cases they show no indication of a bubble
until unearthed for a few days. ‘The bubbles also some-
times increase and decrease in a mysterious manner, and
occasionally the fluid gradually disappears altogether.

The shells vary in thickness from 4 inch to the thinness of |
note paper, so thin, in fact, that they may be crushed
through holding them incautiously.

The interior of. some of the shells is quite smooth, others
have drops of chalcedony on the inside, and a great many
are coated with, or quite filled by quartz crystals. These
erystals are generally minute, but sometimes } inch in
diameter. They have grown so close together that the
prismatic planes are scarcely discernible, but the pyramidal
ones are perfect.

The larger enhydros are seldom coated with crystals, and
the fluid in such cases seems to be denser than in those
so coated.

Is it not probable that the hardness of these stones might
be accounted for by their containing a small porportion of
alumina in combination, and—to account for the quartz
crystals—by supposing the solution, as soon as it became
imprisoned, gradually to have deposited its impurities and
then to have formed the pure quartz crystals ?

In some of the cavities, in addition to the fluid there are
specks of dirt and clay that move about on turning the stone.
In one specimen hexagonal prisms of some mineral have
penetrated from one side of the shell to the other ; over these
a coating of silica has formed, subsequently the mineral has
decomposed, and the casts are now filled with white clay.
In another specimen there is a cavity not larger thana pin’s
head containing a scarcely discernible moveable bubble.

The following minerals occur in the granite about 100
yards south of the enhydros.

Mica, black, white, and green, the latter in Stellate forms.
Chlorite, Garnet, Black Tourmaline, Chalcedony, Iron

On Street Odours and Neglect of Ventilation. 35

Pyrites, Felspar, in small crystals,Semi-opal, Quartz Crystals,
Green Fluorspar, and Apatite (2)

E. J. Dunn, Beechworth.
To G. H. F. Ulrich, Esq., Melbourne.

CaTALOGUE OF SPECIMENS.

Chalcedony—shell filled with quartz.
—_—__— Chalcedony.
Shells with drops of Chalcedony inside.
Do. smooth inside.

Do. coated with quartz crystals.

Do. nearly opaque.

Enhydros with crystals and fluid inside.

OND Om 99 bo

Scales from the vein in soft granite.
10. Vein of chalcedony in granite.

ll. Do. in silurian sandstone.

12. Do. in hard granite.

Mr. ULricH remarked, that enhydros such as those
described in Mr. Dunn’s paper, which he had just read, were
unknown elsewhere, excepting only in Carolina, U.S. When
he was in England, in 1867, he was shown similar polyhedral
enhydros of somewhat lighter colour, by Professor Maskelyne,
at the British Museum, who said they had occurred, like
those at Beechworth, beneath drift. In fact, the stones from
Carolina could only be distinguished from those from
Beechworth by the slight difference in colour. :

Art. 1IX.—On Street Odours and Neglect of Ventilation.
By Wm. WALKER, Esa.

[Read 11th April, 1870.]

The object of this paper was to show that the evils of bad
ventilation were too commonly neglected or subordinated to
those of bad drainage, and that offensive odours are not
nearly so deleterious as air which, from defect of quantity,
had to be re-breathed.

The accuracy of Mr. Walker’s view as to the comparatively
greater importance of ventilation as compared with drainage,
was generally contested by the members present, and the
discussion was continued at a subsequent meeting.

Dagan

—

|

36 Hand v. Machine Broken Metal.

Art. X.—Hand v. Machine Broken Metal, with regard
to their comparative value for the construction and
repair of city and suburban streets and roads. By
Mr. A. K. SMITH. .

[Read 9th May, 1870.]

After dwelling upon the importance of good and cheap
road communication, and referring to the methods adopted
by the Romans and other nations of antiquity, he expressed
his opinion that no country in the world had done so much
in opening up roads as Victoria, where the cost of carriage
was reduced thereby to one-twentieth of the maximum price
charged in past years. He proceeded to give a series of
statistics in reference to Victorian roads, including a
statement that during the 18 years ending in 1868, the
Government spent £6,331,717 in making roads, and then
addressed himself to his main subject. He traced the use of
broken stone in road making from the earliest historic times,
and, arguing that the Roman system was the best ancient
method, pointed to the fact that in the city of Melbourne an
improvement had recently been effected by laying channel-
pitchers upon a foundation of concrete, instead of sand as
formerly, thus re-adopting the old Roman fashion. Turning
to English roads, he described the main differences between
the various systems in.vogue there, as also on the Continent,
and showed, by a series of figures prepared by himself, that
in the matter of density and weight of stone we were
supplied with road material of the best quality in the world.

- Comparing hand-broken with machine-broken metal (samples
of which were exhibited), he went on to give the results of

a succession of experiments and observations which he had
made during the past few years, and gave their final effect in
the fact that a cubic foot of hand-broken metal (24 in. gauge)
weighed 85lb., while machine-broken metal of the same size
weighed no less than 96lb. As a member of the Public

- Works Committee of the City Council, he had also made

many other experiments, the leading points of which he
detailed at considerable length, and their results tallied with
those which had previously impressed him in favour of the
machine-broken metal. He then described the way in
which stone-breakinv machinery was introduced to Victoria
by Mr. Appleton, the original Victorian patentee, and took
special occasion to offer his tribute to the memory of the
late Enoch Chambers, to whose skill and enterprise the

Hand v. Machine Broken Metal. on

colony was mainly indebted for the improvements by means
of which proper machine-broken metal was made obtainable
here. After stating how machine-broken metal had been
applied in making and mending Melbourne streets, he stated
that its chief superiority lay in the fact that it formed
almost immediately a hard, durable road of even surface,
and effected an immense saving of traction labour. More-
over, seeing that the leading modern authorities on roads
concurred in recommending the use of small metal—of 1 in.
gauge, for instance—it was only by mechanical means that
the material could be economically and properly produced.
Machine metal could be supplied at 7s. per yard, and also
gave a good top-dressing for footpaths at 5d. per square
yard. He deeply regretted to find so many blind to this
patent superiority, that city councillors, when before their
constitutents, were often made to pledge themselves in
favour of hand-broken metal, but he expressed a fervent
hope that this feeling would soon give way, and that the
degrading drudgery of breaking stones would be spared to
the next generation altogether. It was true that pro-
fessional opinion was to a certain extent divided on the
point ; but in this respect a rapid change was taking place,
and it would assuredly be much accelerated as the greater
merits of the machine-broken material became known.

Mr. A. K. Smith concluded his paper by adducing opinions
in favour of machine-broken metal. First, those given by
various professional and other authorities before the Road
Maintenance Committee of the City Council in 1865; then
the opinions of Mr. John Reilly and Mr. R. Adams, the past
and present city surveyors, who both avowed that they had
been converted by experience from the directly contrary
convictions which they had previously entertained ; and
lastly, those expressed by a great number of engineers
officially connected with various local governing bodies
throughout the country. Finally, he stated a series of
propositions, the effect of which was that, by the proper use
of stone-breaking machinery, roads might be made at one-
half their present cost.

Mr. WiLtiAM WALKER referred to several opinions of
French engineers against the use of machine-broken metal,
and contended that the streets of Melbourne were the worst
he had ever seen. For proof of this he pointed to the
condition of Elizabeth-street after three days’ rain, and said
that if that street were subjected to a tropical rain, it would

38 Hand v. Machine Broken Metal.

become impassable. He also denied that the pulverised stone
acted as a good binder. As for the degradation of hand
stone-breaking, he complained that machinery was driving
the poor from the labour market.

Mr. A. K. Suitu desired to observe that he had advanced
no general opinion on the excellence of the Melbourne
streets. As to the opinion of French engineers, he had
quoted several in favour of the system he advocated.

Mr. WitL1AM WALKER reiterated his opinions.

Mr. R. ADAms (city surveyor) declared that the idea of the
pulverised metal being turned into sludge by rain was
simply absurd. His opinion had for many years been
decidedly against machine-broken metal, and it was derived
from observation of several hundreds of thousands of yards
of metal broken for railway purposes, but that had now
given way toa larger experience of the machine stuff. It
had also several cther advantages not yet mentioned, such
as superior cleanliness, and the rapidity with which a road
might be formed thereby.

Mr. Bosisto had been forced by his municipal duties to
pay attention to the subject, and he fully endorsed Mr.
Smith’s statement, that machine-bruken metal would make
rapidly a smooth road, which was also cheaper than one of
hand-broken metal; but he doubted its durability. This
last opinion was derived from experience gathered in ~
Richmond. He still advocated the use of machine-broken
metal for light traflic.

Mr. W. CRooxE argued that the want of a good foundation
had proved most disastrous to many roads.

My. CuristTiz admitted the cheapness of machine metal,
but denied that it- had the proper cubical form, by which
alone it could be made to bind.

Mr. A. K. Smiru urged that even hand-broken metal was
not perfectly cubical. He pointed to specimens lying on
the table to show how perfectly solid machine-broken metal
would bind, and reminded his hearers that experience of
roads of machine metal extended over no more than four
years.

On the Culture of Opiwm. 39

Art. XI—On the Melbowrne Great Telescope By
H. A. Severn, Esq.

(Read 18th June, 1870.]

Art. XII.—Some Notes on the Culture of Opium im Gipps
Land. By Joserx Boststo, Esa.
[Read 8th July, 1870, at a Conversazione.]

Two enterprising young men, Messrs. George and Arthur
Turpin, engaged in agricultural pursuits on the Macallister
River, in Gipps Land, finding the expenses attendant ‘on
forwarding their cereal products to a market to be very
great, thereby leaving no remuneration for their labour,
sought out the farming of other vegetation that would give
them hope for better results. One was, on my suggestion,
the sleeping poppy—Papaver somnifera—the plant which
supplies the opium of commerce.

The specimen of opium I have the honour to exhibit this
evening is part of a quantity produced by them during last
December and January, and which obtained a very ready
sale in Melbourne.

Opium is the concentrated sap obtained from the head or
capsule of the sleeping poppy, from which we obtain the
well-known principle—morphia—besides narcotina, codeia,
and others.

The therapeutical or medicinal effect of opium and its
preparation are in small doses stimulating, and in larger
doses soothing and tranyuillising. Opium for centuries has
received and continues to receive special notice from medical
practitioners throughout the civilized world. The demand,
therefore, is very great.

The quality of opium is judged chiefly by its percentage
of morphia, and a fair sample should not give less than
8 per cent. Climate, soil, and temperature, affect its nature
much ; hence we have a variety of qualities obtained from
the one kind. Standard opium is considered to be that
grown in the Levant, and as opium grown in other parts
approach this standard so is its value and quality judged.

Some parts of Australia, where the poppy has been grown,
have given inferior kinds, and have been recorded by home

40 On the Culture of Opium.

chemists as being very deficient in morphia. When, there-
fore, any portion of Victoria produces an opium possessing
morphine properties of good standard, I think we should
fail in our duty did we not draw attention to the fact. The
opium in question, moderately dry, gave me on analysis
10 per cent. of morphia and 8 per cent. narcotina. Sample
of each I have the honour to exhibit.

The cost of its growth and labour to collect in Victoria
is not now the time to discuss; it is sufficient for our
purpose to point out that opium can be grown in Gipps Land
—rich in active principles of fine aroma and colour, and
greatly soluble.

An outline of the mode of cultivating and collecting the
opium, as employed by these young men and witnessed by
myself, may be interesting, and may give some idea as to the
probable amount of labour needed if grown in large quantity.

The amount of land under cultivation was one acre im
one of the mountain valleys by the Macallister River, the
soil being very loamy, rich in decayed vegetation, of a
chocolate colour, and very deep. The first sowmg took
place in the latter part of July, and the second in
September. Half the acre was set apart for each sowing, in
drills, two and a-half feet apart, and each plant nine inches.
The plants grew freely and attained the height of sixand seven
feet ; the number of capsules on each plant varied from four to
eight. These did not arrive at maturity together, so giving
great facility for the thorough exhaustion of each capsule.
The exact time when to commence tapping a capsule was
known by the petals falling off from the green pericarp.
The seed sown in July were full grown plants and ready
for optum collecting during the following December, and
those sown in September during January following.

The capsules were fine and well rounded. The collecting
season was exceedingly hot; but the great height of the
plants shaded the collectors, and so dense was the foliage
that a person working in one row could not see the person
collecting in the next. The time of the day for collecting
commenced at four o'clock in the afternoon and continued
until dark, from eight to nine o'clock. The person tapping
chose out his capsules, and if for the first collection would,
with an instrument containing five lancet points, cut them
longitudinally sufficiently deep so as not to penetrate
through ; if for the second collection, would cut diagonally,
and if for the third, transversely. Three tappings appeared

On the Culture of Opium. 4]

to exhaust each head. An interval of two or three days
occurred between each collection from off the same capsule.

The capsules bled freely, exuding a thick milky fluid,
which did not concrete on the outside, thereby necessitating
the immediate following up of the collector, who with the
forefinger of the right hand took it from off the capsule and
placed it into a vessel. About half a teaspoonful was
obtained from off a poppy-head at each collection.

The vessel when filled was emptied into shallow plates
and placed in a shaded room, the fluid being allowed to
thicken by evaporation at the ordinary temperature, which
varied during every twenty-four hours between 75° F. to
120° F. After the lapse of a few days the opium was of
moderate consistence, and was made up into balls, weighing
about six ounces each, each ball being covered with the
poppy leaf. It was observed that when the fresh milky
fluid was exposed to the full light of day it became very
black ; under shadow it assumed and retained a lively
chocolate colour.

The collecting season occupied about five weeks; the sap
then ceasing to flow and the pericarp changing in colour.

The bleeding or tapping of the poppies was usually per-
formed by an adult, care being required not to pierce through
the capsule. The collecting of the sap was performed by
children.

It will be observed that the time of day adopted in, Gipps
Land for collecting the opium is the evening. In other
parts of the world it is said to be collected in the
morning ; also, the height of each plant is also stated
not to exceed four feet ; here it reached from six to seven
feet.:

The morning dews on the Macallister are very great,
rendering it almost impossible at that time of the day to
work between the rows, the plants being so wet and the
capsules high. From observation it was found that the sap
considerably increased towards evening, and that the morn-
ing dew greatly increased the flow. When there was no
' dew in the morning the sap-drops were few in the evening.
For purposes of collection, therefore, the evening was
chosen.

The yield of opium per acre gave at the rate of 40lbs.
weight ; but the whole of the plants sown on the acre were
not worked upon, as the collection depended on a sparse
population. One-third of the acre was well worked, and

42 On Hydrogenvum.

this gave 15 lbs. weight of opium, and realised readily forty-
two shillings per pound in Melbourne.* The want of assist-
ance caused the remaining portion of the plants to be
worked over hurriedly. One product was entirely neglected,
namely, the collection of the seed; this, on expression,
yields an oil useful in culinary purposes; also, for paints,
being a drying oil, and for soaps, being soft and lubricating.

We have here another instance of a valuable product
being obtained from off Victorian soil, and also, as in this
case, where the question of carriage is concerned, the locale
being in the mountain ranges, the cultivation of such
vegetation would prove of great service to the mountaineers,
being small in bulk, nil in carriage, and of high marketable
value.

Art. XIII.—On Hydrogennwm. By Gro. Foorp, Esq.

[A popular notice, read at the Society’s Annual Conversazione on the
8th July, 1870.)

By the kindness of Colonel Ward, R.E., I have the pleasure
of showing an object which will doubtless prove of considerable
interest to both visitors and members. It is a medal pre-
sented tv Colonel Ward by Dr. Thos. Graham, the late Master
of the Mint ; and as coming from Graham’s hands it is a
memento of one of Great Britain’s greatest physical
philosophers. This, however, is only a portion of the
interest resident in this little metallic disc, for it is alsoa
tangible illustration of the very last of the life-long series
of Graham’s remarkable discoveries.

It is struck in an alloy of two rare metals: of palladium,
a scarce metal of the platinum group, discovered by our
countryman Wollaston, and of hydrogenvwm, or consoli-
dated metallized hydrogen gas, which it was the last triumph
of Dr. Graham’s almost alchymical powers to transmute
and chain down into the form of a metallic alloy with
palladium. ;

It has been often maintained on chemical grounds that
hydrogen gas is the vapour of a highly volatile metal,
(these are Graham’s own words) ; and hydrogen is equivalent
to a metal in all its chemical relations. It replaces metals
in one class of chemical changes, and it is replaced in its

= Opium imported into Victoria bears a duty of 10s. per Ib.

On Hydrogenium. 43

- combinations by metals in another clays of changes. By
elevation of temperature all metals can be reduced to the
fluid condition, and many are easily converted into invisible
vapours. Liven silver has been distilled, as water or spirit
is distilled, although at a much higher temperature. Mer-
cury is an instance of a metal fluid at common tempera-
tures, but which can be frozen into a solid ; and there is an
alloy of sodium and potassium which is also a fluid under
normal conditions. Why then should we not have a metal .
which is gaseous under ordinary circumstances? There
appears to be no valid reason ; but until Dr. Graham showed
us this alloy of palladium and the consolidated hydrogen,
we have never been able to catch a glimpse of hydrogen in
either the liquid or solid form. Many gases liquify under
intense pressure, and become even solid when the combined
effects of both pressure and cold are employed; but
hydrogen. has resisted every attempt to squeeze it into a
liquid by pressure from without; and it was not until
Graham employed force in a different direction that any
positive result of the compression .of hydrogen was
obtained.

Graham’s results were obtained by making palladium the.
negative pole or cathode of a voltaic battery, decomposing
water. In the arrangement, the hydrogen, one of the con-
stituents of the resolved water, is set free in contact with
the palladium, and as the latter has an affinity for the
hydrogen, besides other physical peculiarities favourable to
the fixation of the gas, the hydrogen, instead of rising in
bubbles and escaping through the fluid, passes into the
palladium. The hydrogen does not pass into the pores of
the metal, if we understand the word pore in its everyday
sense. It does not pass into any crevices or tubular
openings into which moisture could enter, but it penetrates
in the most intimate way the substance of the palladium,
a metal denser than steel, having a specific gravity of
12°38, in fact, more than half as heavy again as cast-steel.
The hydrogen passes into the palladium much as
carbon is carried into the substance, between the atoms, of
iron during the process of steel-making by cementation.
The hydrogen passes in and is compressed, not’ by a pressure
from without, but by an attractive force exerted from
within. By this force the hydrogev is drawn to the inner-
most parts of the plate of palladium, and it is compressed
and solidified into what shows strong evidence of being a

44 On Hydrogenium.

true alloy of hydrogenium, and whose white metallic aspect
is due alike to the hydrogenium and the palladium: it is
compressed into a space something less than the eight
thousandth part of that which it occupied as a gas, say at a
pressure of over eight thousand atmospheres, or of 123810 lbs.
per inch, or over 55 tons per inch.

In this case we may, as I have said. set altogether aside
the idea of visible cavities or pores in the palladium, such as
fluids might pass through, as through a sieve or grating ;
for the chemist is cognisant of abundance of interspace
between the atoms of matter, spaces quite invisible to the
eye, even when aided by the most powerful microscopes,
but not less real on that account. And notwithstanding
all that is understood concerning the impenetrability of
matter, there appears to be quite an open road in the structure
of even the most dense solids, through which the atoms or
molecules of other kinds of matter can enter whenever
their chemical affinities dispose them for this kind of
interpenetration.

In this way 23 parts of sodium, which is quite a solid
metal can absorb 24 parts of oxygen and 6 parts of carbon ;
considerably more than its own weight of these substances,
and the resulting carbonate of sodium occupies less space
than the original metal. Here is a sort of stereo-diagram
intended to show the composition of the chloride of
sodium contained in a gallon of sea-water; it repre-
sents a sphere of sodium of something under 1.9
inches diameter, also a sphere of chlorine gas of over
‘142 inches diameter. When, then, this relatively enor-
mous atmosphere of chlorine, weighing about one and
a-half times the weight of the sodium sphere is absorbed by
the latter, the resulting sphere of common salt (of rock salt
let us say) 1s but little larger than the original metallic sodium,
so great is the power of condensation due to the affinity of
the sodium for the chlorine, and so facile is the interpene-
tration of these constituent elements of the rock salt. But
in this latter example, although the condensation is so great,
there is, you will observe, a slight increase of bulk in the
product over that of the original metallic sodium. The
salt sphere measures nearly 2 inches diameter.

The condensation of the hydrogen into the substance of
the palladium is also of the character of a chemical com-
bination, but the compound formed is an alloy of two metals
instead of a haloid salt. An enormous condensation takes ~

On Hydrogeniwm. AB

place, and there is also, as in the former example of the
formation of common salt, a measurable increase in the size
and in the weight of the product. Graham has investigated
these changes with such precision and minuteness as to show
exactly what takes place. The palladium can absorb into
its substance not less than 936 times its volume of hydrogen
gas; that is to say, a small disc of the solid palladium
of the diameter of this tube (showing a glass tube over

three feet in length), and th of an inch thick, something
nearly approaching the size of this little gem of a medal,
would condense within its atoms the whole contents of this
tube of hydrogen gas. If we regard the little disc as a
piston closely fitting the tube, and if we regard this con-
densation of the hydrogen as the result of a pressure
exerted from without, it would require a force equal to more
than eight thousand atmospheres, a pressure of over 55 tons
on the inch, to force this piston down in the tube until the
palladium and condensed hydrogen together occupied the
same bulk as they do in the alloy, by virtue of the force of
attraction exerted from within.

When the combination of the palladium and hydrogenium
is effected, the resulting alloy is of larger bulk than a very
great increase of temperature of the palladium itself would
occasion ; but the palladium itself in the alloy is actually
squeezed into a smaller space at the time of combination.
This is shown by its occupying less than its original space,
if the hydrogenium be distilled out of it, and by certain
experiments, the results of which prove that this diminu-

tion of bulk does not take place at the time of the expulsion

of the hydrogenium.
That the combination is of the nature of an alloy is
deduced from measurements of its tenacity and electrical

_ conductivity, both very near to those of pure palladium,

and, which is very remarkable, by the hydrogenium in the
alloy proving measurably a magnetic metal. The two con-
stituents stand in atomic proportions, and the solidified
hydrogen, the hydrogenium, has chemical properties differ-
ing from those of hydrogen gas, differing very much as the
properties of ozone do from those of oxygen. From a
solution of corrosive sublimate, the alloy of hydrogenium
and palladium precipitates mercury and calomel, a change
which hydrogen itself is quite incapable of effecting. A mix-
ture of hydrogen and chlorine gas remains permanently
unchanged as long as it is kept in the dark ; but exposed to

46 On Railway Working Expenses in Victoria.

the influence of daylight these gases combine ; but hydro-
genium combines with chlorine in the dark. Hydrogenium
- reduces persalts to the state of the protosalts of iron. It
converts red prussiate into yellow prussiate of potassium,
and it has generally considerable deoxidizing power.

The results of Dr. Graham’s precise experiments allow of
a computation of the specific gravity of hydrogenium as it
exists in the alloy. According to his latest figures, its gravity
may be taken at "7; it is therefore of greater specific
gravity than lithium (taken at 59); indeed the collective
evidence is so much in favour of regarding the combination
as an alloy, that the case may be regarded as parallel to
that of the fluorides. We know fluorine very well in its
combinations ; but we cannot yet properly succeed in isolat-
ing fluorine from fluor spar or any other of its compounds,
so as to obtain a private interview with it, and in the same
way we now know hydrogenium as a metal alloyed with
palladium, although we cannot yet isolate little silvery
globules of the hydrogenium itself.

Art. XIV.—On the Melbourne Great Telescope. By
A. LE Sueur, Esq.
[Read 11th July, 1870.]

In this paper Mr. Le Sueur showed that the disparagement
of the Melbourne Great Telescope by Mr. Severn in his late
paper was unfounded, and arose from ignorance of the
subject.

Art. XV.—On Railway Working Expenses in Victoria.
By F. C. Curisty, Esq., C.H.
[Read 15th August, 1870.]

In this paper Mr. Christy adduced evidence to show that
the Victorian Government Railways were worked at half the
cost of working American lines, and from 13 to 30 per cent.
lower than English lines. This he attributed to the
superiority of the road bed, of the rolling stock, of the
climate, and to the excellent system of repairing promptly
and economically. ;

On Colonial Timber Trees. 4.7

Art. XVI—On the Ventilation of Ships. By Witi1aM
‘ WALKER, Esq.
[Read on 24th October, 1870.]

In this paper it was proposed to fix eight-inch galvanised
iron pipes fore and aft under the upper deck, and on each side
of the central portion. These pipes to be freely pierced with
slot holes, six by one and a-half inches in size, and to
terminate in the ship’s galley and aft deck galley furnaces,
to secure a strong upcast draft, with modifications according
to circumstances.

Art. XVIL—A Proposition for the Improvement and
Eatension of the Wharfage Accommodation on the
Yarra River. By M. ADOLPHE CARANDAL, CE.
France.

[Read 14th November, 1870.]
The proposition embodied in this paper was, that em-
bankments and wharves should be constructed on both sides
of the River upon the monolith plan, by a combination of

M. Coignet’s system of “ Béton Agglomerés,” with a process ©

patented in Melbourne by the author, for the manufacture
of brick and artificial stone from any kind of soil containing
a little clay. The earth excavated was proposed to be used
as the principal ingredient in the bricks to be used, as well
asin the béton, which it was stated would be in solidity
and durability second only to good granite or bluestone.
The great rapidity with which the material could be prepared
and used was one strong ground of recommendation.

Art. XVIII.—Paper wpon Colonial Timber Trees, and some
European Trees, which have been proved to be suitable
to the Colony of Victoria. By F. C. Curisty, Esq.

[Read 4th October, 1870.]

I have ventured to write a short paper upon some
of the useful timber trees indigenous to this colony, and
have added a few remarks relative to some Kuropean trees
which have come under my notice as being particularly
adapted to this climate.

As the object of this paper is to supply information of a
practical rather than of a scientific character, I shall confine

———— ee

| 48 On Colonial Timber Trees.

myself to the popular names of the different timbers by
which they are known commercially and to the artizan,
instead of giving the botanical names, as the timber desig-
nated alone by its botanical name would be nearly unknown
in the timber market.

It is quite evident, most timber merchants requested to
supply certain timber designated by its botanical name,
would be at a loss to understand what timber was required ;
for instance, if an order were given for 1000 cubic feet of
English Ash, and it was described as 1000 cubic feet of
Fracinus Excelsior, the timber merchant would look with
astonishment, and perhaps think he was being hoaxed ; so
it is here, the timber is generally known by its colonial name,
and to those names I propose to confine myself.

The first object of this paper is, to arrive at the proper
time for felling the various timber trees.

In other countries, the opinion is that all timber should
be felled when the tree is in its most dormant state. There
is little doubt that the fittest time for felling is when
the tree is most dormant, and as it is termed, when the
sap is down; this assumed, there are two periods of the
year when the colonial timber trees are in that state, viz.,
at midsummer and midwinter, but both these periods may
vary a month or so, according to the late or early rains, for
most of the trees make growth early in the spring, when
they bloom, and then seed about midsummer, push a second
growth early in autumn, and are slightly dormant about
the early part of winter; but the latter period is rather
indefinite.

As there always will be a difficulty in determining in winter
when the tree is positively dormant, I propose felling at
midsummer, that is when the seed is ripe upon the tree.

The different timber trees will vary slightly in their time
of seeding, as also in the various localities, but not to any
great extent.

I am of opinion the trees should remain six or twelve
months after felling ; in their bark, to prevent the sun acting
on the timber and splitting it. ;

It is a prevalent opinion that the sap should be drawn -
from the timber by immersing it in water ; but with this I
differ, as I believe the congealed sap in the timber is the
strongest preservative, because timber that I have seen used
which has been steamed, and the sap so drawn out, has
decayed in a few years.

On Colonial Timber Trees. 49

If the sap is extracted by any means, the pores of the
timber should be refilled by some preservative.

I do not think any of the colonial timber can be fairly tested
until it has been felled at the fittest period and carefully sea-
soned before being used. I proposed some time since, to make
a series of experiments with various timbers, and I do not
know any subject which is of more importance to the State.

The importance will be seen when the amount of timber
is considered which is being used for our railways, &c., if by
judicious felling, seasoning, &c., 25 per cent. longevity can
be obtained, that is, one-fourth more durability. Of course
the difference of durability is at present unknown, but as
many of the ordinary gum-wood railway sleepers have
decayed in from five to seven years, it is to be hoped that
some considerable improvement may be effected.

The sleepers alluded to were supposed to have been blue
coum, but I believe them to have been ordinary mountain
eum, which is known as bastard box, or bastard peppermint.
These timbers blend in appearance so much from circum-
stances of locality, that it is most difficult to decide between
them, even when growing, and utterly impossible when sawn.

The various kinds of timber best known in Victoria as
being most distinct, are the red gum, ironbark, stringybark,
box, blackwood, mountain or white gum, messmate,’ and
peppermint ; the latter three are those which blend and
most assimilate one another; as also what is termed the
bastard box, which sometimes assumes the appearance of the
box, and sometimes more nearly the peppermint.

The true Box has fine and thin bark, small leaves, slightly
curled or wavy grain, and is generally found on quartz or
schistose ranges. The box, when obtained from these ranges,
where the growth of the tree has not been rapid, is, I believe,
a valuable timber; I have seen some of it used in railway
rolling stock, and it stood well.

The Peppermint is of little use; the messmate is used
chiefly for rough fencing; the stringybark (Lucalyptus
obliqua) is used for clean fencing, also for shingles and
palings, and is, in my opinion, a valuable timber for beams,
flooring joists, &c, as it is a very strong wood, very straight
in the grain, and only, I think, requires more care in felling
and seasoning to become a favourite timber.*

* Since writing this paper, I have seen Dr. Von Mueller, and he has

advised ine not to give the Botanical names without a careful identification,
as there are several species of peppermint and box.

50 On Colonial Timber Trees.

The Stringybark requires no description, as it is so distinct
that it is impossible to confuse it with any other timber,
excepting the messmate, which in appearance looks lke a
link between the stringybark and peppermint, and is
generally found in the localities between the peppermint
and stringybark. It is also a curious fact, that the messmate
on the flats, near the peppermint, partakes of the character
of the peppermint, and as it approaches the ranges and the
stringy bark, it assimilates in character the stringybark timber.

The Blackwood is a most useful timber; valuable for
furniture and all indoor work, as also for the upper part or
bodies of railway and other carriages, but it will not bear
exposure to the weather without protection by varnish, &e.

The blackwood has one most remarkable quality, and that
is, a very small amount of shrinkage; I have seen it used
in furniture and carriage building nearly green, and it has
stood splendidly, with scarcely any perceptible shrinkage.

The greatest drawback to all gum timbers* is their inclina-
tion to shrink, in fact they shrink endways of the grain,
and cast and pine in every possible way. The want of
attention to fellmg and seasoning may have a great deal to
do with this. It must be borne in mind that the blackwood
(Acacia melonoxylon) is not one of the eucalypti, but an
acacia ; several of the acaciz make good furniture.

The Mountain or White Gum (Hucalyptus gurocalyx)
when freely or luxuriantly grown is of little use, except
for palings or shingles ; when grown slowly, it assumes more
the appearance of the blue gum, is cut for blue gum, and
sawn for the ordinary hard wood.t-

The Ironbark (£. sideroxylon) is a fine wood for some
purposes, but is apparently very heavy in proportion to its
strength; it has been used in the building of railway
waggons, but did not stand well; the timber does not
appear to last under constant exposure to weather, and is in
itself too non-elastic to bear the concussion to which it is
subjected in rolline stock on railways; I have had no
experience of it for railway sleepers.

The Red Gum (Lucalyptus rostratu) appears to be one of
the most valuable of timbers, but it also varies exceedingly ;

* Dr. Mueller makes 137 species of gums in Australia, 27 of which are
found in Victoria.

+ Dr. Mueller states, that the blue gum of Tasmania (#. Gilobulus) is
found plentifully in many of the ranges of Victoria, and at the You Yangs
and Western Port.

On Colonial Timber Trees. 51

when grown in a swampy district luxuriantly the timber is
straight in the grain and what is termed more free, and I
believe less durable. The red gum is not valuable for
furniture, except when used as veneer; sometimes it is so
used, and is very beautiful in figure and colour. The chief
use which red gum is put to is for any work that is exposed
to the weather, as it appears to be the most durable timber
we have under severe exposure. Used as posts, for fencing,
it stands from twelve to fifteen years, and I should expect
it to last from ten to twelve years for railway sleepers.

All the gum timbers have one strange appearance when
decaying, the wood separates across the grain, as if it had
been affected by fire and charred; I account for this from
the non-elasticity of the timber, because when subjected to
expansion and contraction, caused by moisture in winter and
excessive heat in summer, the fibre of the wood breaks,
and so fissures across the grain make their appearance.

The common wattle (Acacia dealbata) and other woods
are useful for the manufacture of casks, &e., but as these are
of minor importance they have not been introduced in this

aper.

The Blue Gum (Hucalyptus globulus)* should be largely

planted, as the timber is one of the most useful of those

indigenous to these colonies.

Some of the European trees will doubtless be a great
acquisition to this country ; the following are a few of which
experience has proved their ‘suitableness to the soil and
climate of Victoria.

The English Ash (Fraximus excelsior + grows luxuriantly,
stands the hot winds well, near Melbourne, and probably
would grow even better in some of the damp gullies in the
ranges ; the timberas most valuable.

The Elms do well; some of them are exceedingly useful
as timber trees, the common English Elm (Ulnws cam-
pestris) is used for boat-building, waggon-wheels, and many
other purposes where toughness is required.

The English Oak (Quercus rubra) also thrives well. The
value of this timber can be scarcely over-estimated.

The Poplars adapt themselves to this climate, and are
luxuriant in damp situations. The timber is one of the

* Dr. Mueller says this gum is common in Victoria.

+ Dr. Mueller has distributed large quantities of the various species of
ash, considering them important as timber trees growing so well in this
country.

z 2

Aa On Colonial Timber Trees.

most useful for making barrows, waggons, and all other
purposes requiring a light, tough wood.

The Willows grow here as the old adage implies, “ Grow
like a willow.” This timber is useful for fencing, gates,
hurdles, chip-baskets, and a thousand other purposes.

The Walnut thrives in deep soils, not too wet ; but, like
the oak and other trees with strong tap roots, should not
be transplanted. The nut should be set, and the tree allowed
to grow from the nut. The walnut timber is valuable for
furniture, gun-stocks, We.

The English Box appears to suit this climate, as it grows
freely and apparently as quickly as in England, where it is
of very slow growth ; but as the wood is much esteemed for
printers’ use, and other purposes, it would pay probably for
erowing.

The Limes (Tilia Europea) will doubtless thrive in some
situations, but they require a deep soil and moisture. The
timber is valuable, being the white wood of commerce, used
so much for coach-pannels, fancy boxes, We.

Many of the Pines and Firs seem to flourish here, and
are of rapid growth ; but the timber is not in each variety
equally valuable ; one of the most valuable, the Larch fir
(Laria Huropea), does not appear to thrive near Melbourne,
and should be tried on the snow-clad ranges in its native
conditions.

There are other varieties of the pine and fir, the timber
of which is imported into this colony very extensively , and
up to the present time it does not appear that any other
timber has been discovered which is so generally useful.

The following are the timbers of commerce, which there
is little doubt would thrive well in many parts of this
colony. The greatest danger to the forests of such timber
would be fire, as all these timbers are highly charged with
turpentine.

The Yellow Deal of Europe is produced by the Scotch
fir (Pinus sylvestris); the white deal of Norway by the
Spruce fir (Abzes excelsa); from the latter the scaffold-
poles and small masts are made; and from the Larch the
best flooring-boards, We.

In Germany and Switzerland the Silver Fir (Abies picea)
is said to produce the largest amount of timber, and in Spain
the Pinus pinaster.

The most valuable pine timber of America is the pitch
pine (long leaved-vine—Pinus Australis) ; next, the yellow

On Colonial Timber Trees. 53

pine (Pinus mitis), and then the white pine (clear pine and
lumber) which is obtained from the Weymouth pine (Pinus
strobus). To this may be added, Pinus Rigida, as furnish-
ing a large proportion of the American pitch.

The Oregon timber is chiefly obtained from Abies
Douglasii. When it is considered that the number of
species of the pine tribe amount to about 500, as Dr. Mueller
has informed me, it is not surprising that out of so large a
number, there are many others besides those mentioned
which will yield valuable timber.

The species which are so much esteemed for their timber
should be largely cultivated, and experimental planting tried
with as many others as are found to be of robust habit and
suited to this climate.

Before leaving this subject, it is well to mention that
there is no timber in any part of Australia, Tasmania, or
New Zealand, that can be effectually substituted for the
European and American fir and pine timber; the Kaurie
pine (Dammara Australis) is perhaps the nearest. This
is a very useful and fine timber, and should be largely
planted if found to succeed here, as there is reason to believe
it will. The Huon pine is also good timber, but not so
strong in proportion to its weight. The Murray pine
(Frenela Verrucosa) I havenot alluded to, as it scarcely attains
sufficient dimensions to become ever a very valuable timber.

To prevent the danger of fire in the pine plantations I
would suggest the planting of belts of poplars and willows
intersecting the pines. I do not think fire would pass
through them, and I am of opinion that they would not
readily burn, as they are generally very full of sap and
moisture.*

It is, perhaps, not out of place to refer to the extraor-
dinary condensation of dew, which takes place with some
of these trees; by the poplar, in particular, from its glazy
leaves hanging perpendicularly, the dew is attracted, con-
densed, and conducted to the earth. Gilbert White. in
his “ History of Selborne,” mentions this, and refers to a
pond surrounded by trees upon the top of a hill) He says
this pond was never dry, although other ponds in the neigh-
bourhood during dry summers were. I observed near
Melbourne, in the middle of summer last year, at night,

* The robust kinds of Mesembryanthemum, if planted amongst the young
trees, would completely cover the ground, prevent the growth of grass and
scrub, and check the spread of fire.

54 On Colonial Timber Trees.

almond trees condensing the dew so fast that it was dripping
from the leaves.

In selecting sites for planting, attention sbould be paid to
the soil and situation, as most trees have some peculiarity.
Pines do not like a wet substratum, whilst ash, elm, and
oak will flourish in it. In the county of Kent (Kngland)
my father planted a large tract of poor, chalky hill-side with
larch and Scotch fir; they had been planted about fifteen
years when I left, holes were opened, and the young trees
planted without any preparation of the soil; the larch grew
rapidly and were making fine trees, but the Scotch firs did
not succeed. So it will be here; one species of tree will
thrive whilst another will die by its side, and yet both
species may grow well in different situations and different
composition of soil. Iam of opinion that a certain amount
of drainage is necessary before any young trees can be
established. When once established, the trees will not
suffer so much from a wet subsoil.

Cedars and Cypresses grow freely, but the timber differs
in value according to the variety or species.

Although this paper is scarcely intended to include the
various causes of decay and deterioration of timber, it may
not be thought out of place, perhaps, to mention that I
believe there is no timber in this colony exempt from the
attack of the teredo, nor of the white ant. ‘The red gum is
attacked in its growing state by the termites or white ants,
as may be seen when the trees are cut. Frequently the
heart of a tree is completely eaten out; but I am not sure
that the heart had not partially decayed previously to the
attack. JI have not known any sound, seasoned red gum
attacked by the white ant; not so with pine and deal.
Near Melbourne I have observed pine and deal attacked by
the white ant and completely destroyed ; the whole of the
inside eaten, leaving nothing but a thin outside shell. I
think it will be found that many of the wooden houses
around Melbourne will be so destroyed, and when the white
ants begin they do not stop, but commence at the founda-
tion and eat up to the roof.

The teredo is also very destructive, especially in Hobson’s
Bay. I cannot speak positively to any attack upon red
eum, but I have observed English oak completely destroyed
as well as blue gum and most other woods; and I have
no reason to believe red gum to be in any degree exempt
from its attacks.

On Colonial Pimnber Trees. 55

There is one subject, which, although it may appear
scarcely consistent with the title of this paper, is of such
vast importance that I hardly like to conclude without a
brief reference to it. The subject alluded to is the effect of
forest country upon climate.

I have already mentioned the attraction and condensation
of dew by trees, but reference has not been made to the
retention of water in the soil under trees in consequence of
the spongy nature of vegetable earth, or in other words a
deposit of leaves, causing the formation of leaf mould.

This is particularly noticeable in all woods where decidu-
ous trees prevail; but large deposits of leaf mould occur in
pine forests ; in fact, it is asserted as a feature in the growth
of the pine, that it thrives best in rocky mountainous
districts in shallow soils accumulated from the constant
deposit and decay of the leaves of the pines.

T think I may say that it is a well-ascertained fact that
trees (deciduous in particular) growing in high situations
and formed into forests, so attract the moisture of the
atmosphere, condense it and again breathe it out as it were,
that those districts are generally the sources of streams and
springs. Again, referring to “White’s Selborne,” he says,
“that in some of our smaller islands in the West Indies,
where there are no springs or rivers, the people are supplied
with water by some tall trees in the bosom of a mountain
which keep their heads constantly enveloped with fogs and
clouds, from which they dispense their never-ceasing
moisture, and so render those districts habitable by con-
densation alone; and further on he says, “Trees perspire
“ profusely, condense largely and check evaporation so much
“that woods are always moist; no wonder, therefore, that
“ they contribute much to pools and streams.”

“That trees are promoters of lakes and rivers appears
“ from a well-known fact in North America ; for, since the
“woods and forests have been grubbed and cleared all
“bodies of water are much diminished; so that some
“ streams that were very considerable a century ago will not
“ now drivea common mill, Besides, most woodlands, forests,
“and chases with us abound with pools and morasses; no
“ doubt for the reason given above.”

There can be little doubt that climates-of different
countries are much influenced by the features of the country
and the special vegetation. The countries which have large
surface deposits of vegetable earth and forests consisting of

56 On the late Hauceptional Season.

pines and deciduous trees are traversed by extensive never-
failing rivers, are provided with constant springs and lakes ;
the climate is less variable than that of Australia, droughts
less frequent, and floods not so severe, in fact the climate is
moderated and ameliorated.

The Hucalyptz, or gum trees, shed their leaves principally
during summer, which do not then readily decay, being of
a dry, harsh nature, and charged with resinous matter ; but
deciduous trees shed their leaves in autumn at a time when
bush-fires are not prevalent, during the rainy reason, and
therefore, readily decay and produce vegetable soil. The
vegetable soil on the ranges here is greatly produced by the
decay of tree-ferns. It is questionable whether the leaves
of the gum trees respire moisture to the same extent as
deciduous trees, the gum leaves being so dry and filled with
resin or oil.

As tree planting, timber producing, and forest conserving
is a study worthy of the engineer, much attention is given
to it in Europe, and the engineers of woods and forests are
there appointed, because drainage is necessary and irrigation
in some instances advantageous. Drainage is absolutely
necessary to ensure the growth of the tree when young, and
it should be borne in mind that if a tree becomes stunted
when young it scarcely ever recovers, but either dies or
remains a stunted unshapely tree quite unfit for timber.

I believe Dr. Mueller has recommended the establishing
of forest boards in all the districts, similar in constitution
to the road and shire boards, and to these the forests of the
district should be entrusted, for the purpose of preventing
unnecessary destruction of timber, for enriching the forests,
and for their future preservation by the proper planting and
introduction of fresh and new trees.

Art. XIX.—On the late Exceptional Season and Frequency
of Auroras. By R. L. J. ELiery, Esa.
[Read 12th December, 1870.]

The late season, from April last to the present date, has
been of so exceptional a character, occurring moreover
at one of the sun-spot periods, when our luminary
has been labouring under one of his exanthematous
paroxysms, when auroras and great disturbances of the

On the late Exceptional Season. 57

magnetic conditions of the earth have been unusually
frequent, that it not unnaturally suggests itself that there
may possibly be some connection between the sun’s
condition and these climatic changes.

We know that during these spot periods the sun’s surface
is often teeming with spots frequently of large dimensions.
Spots and penumbree, sometimes cover from a 60th even to
as much as a 30th of the sun’s visible hemisphere ; and it can
easily be imagined that the modification, if not obliteration, of
so much sun force, must largely affect the conditions of the
earth and its atmosphere, although in what manner or to
what extent remains to be ascertained. The influence of
these changes is evident enough so far as the earth’s
magnetism is concerned, and instances are on record where
a rapid change on the sun’s surface has been accompanied
by almost simultaneous quivers of the earth’s magnetism.
It is, moreover, now pretty well established that our
maximum of magnetic disturbances agrees with the
maximum of sun spots recurring about every ten years, and
the probable relation between large disturbances of the
earth’s magnetism and the state of the weather has already
been several times suggested.

Some years ago, Dr. Balfour Stewart suggested that
“ Aurora displays might be secondary electric currents due
to small but rapid changes, caused by some unknown
- influence in the magnetism of the earth;” he compared the
earth and its atmosphere to a Ruhmkorffs machine, the moist
upper strata of the earth as well as the upper strata of the
atmosphere composing the secondary conductors in which
currents will take place whenever the magnetism of the
earth changes from any cause.”

* He further states, “These views would appear to be con-
firmed by the very interesting records of earth currents
obtained by Mr. Airy at the Greenwich Observatory, in which
it is found that during times of very great magnetic disturb-
ance, there are strong earth currents alternating from positive
to negative, the curves lying nearly equally on both sides of
the Zero.” In the Phil. Mag. of Feb. 1870, Dr. Balfour
Stewart, referring again to this subject, says, “A further
development of this idea has lately occurred to me, in
consequence of a remark of my friend Mr. Lockyer, that the
Zodiacal light may possibly be a terrestrial phenomenon, and
may therefore be somehow connected with the phenomena
of terrestrial magnetism. For not only will secondary

58 On the late Exceptional Season.

currents be caused in a stationary conductor in presence of a
magnetic core of variable power, but also in a conductor
moving across the lines of force of a constant magnet. The
question arises, have we on the earth such moving
conductors? In answer to this, let us reflect what takes
place at the equator. When once the anti-trades have
reached the upper regions of the atmosphere, they will
become conductors from their tenuity ; and as they pass
rapidly over the lines of the earth’s magnetic force, we may
expect them to be the vehicles of an electric current, and
possibly to be lt up as attenuated gases are when they
conduct electricity. May not these form the Zodiacal light ?

“Such moving currents will, of course, re-act on the
magnetism of the earth, We may therefore suppose that
somewhat sudden and violent changes are likely to take
place in the earth’s magnetism at those seasons at which
the earth’s great wind-currents change most rapidly. May
not this account for the excess of disturbances at the .
equinoxes ?

“ Besides the anti-trades, there are also, no doubt, ‘“ con-
vection-currents,’ caused by the daily progress of the sun,
taking place in the upper regions of the earth’s atmosphere.
May not these also be the vehicle of currents as they cross
the lines of the earth’s force, and account, to some extent at
least, for the daily variations of terrestrial magnetism? and
may not this be the reason of the likeness observed by
Mr. Baxendall, between the curves denoting the daily
progress of the wind, and those denoting the variation of
the declination magnet? Such currents (in as far as they
are electric conductors), taking place in the upper regions of
the atmosphere, would not be felt by the earth-current wires
at Greenwich, and I think Mr. Airy has noticed that this is
the case. But the tidal wave represents a motion of a-
conductor on the earth’s surface, with two periods in: one-
lunar day. This motion cannot produce*a very great
secondary current; but may it not be. sufficient to account -
for the lunar-diurnal magnetic variation, which is also very ~
small 2 /

“Such a current taking place in a conductor electrically
connected with the earth’s upper surface ought’to be felt by
the Greenwich wires; and, if I am not mistaken, Mr. Airy
has detected a current of this nature.

“ May we not also imagine that there are two varieties of
aurora—one corresponding to stationary conductors under

On the late Exceptional Season. SBD

a very rapidly changing core, and the other to rapidly
moving conductors under a constant core? And might not
an aurora of the latter kind indicate the approach of a
change of weather ?

“These remarks are thrown out in order to invite comment
and criticism, and they will have served their purpose if
they direct attention to the part that may be played by
moving conductors in the phenomena of terrestrial magnet-
ism. It will be noticed that these remarks do not touch
upon the mysterious and interesting connexion believed to
exist between magnetic disturbances and the frequency of
solar spots.”

The last six years may be considered as constituting a
period of unusually dry seasons.

The first radical change in this order of things occurred
in the beginning of April, this year, shortly after the
occurrence of one of the most brilliant auroras ever witnessed
here, and which was general in both hemispheres, appear-
ing with great splendour in the north; from this time
cloudy skies, and unusually frequent and copious rains became
the ordinary state of climate, until a few weeks ago. I have
since then frequently noticed that several of the brightest
auroral displays were quickly followed by what we usually
call bad weather—storms of wind, with thunder and rain.
This has appeared so marked, that I sometimes found myself
unwisely venturing a prediction of bad weather, simply
because of the occurrence of an aurora..

These coincidences brought to my mind Dr. Balfour
Stewart's suggestions, and I have lately examined our
meteorological and magnetic records for the several months
under review in order to ascertain to what extent auroras
have been followed by marked changes in weather, and
although the results are not quite conclusive, they appear
‘sufficiently, eonfirmatory to warrant me drawing attention
to them, and to encourage careful observation in this
direction. :

The following information has been gathered solely from
the records of our own observatory, but I intend comparing
these with observations made over the rest of the Australian
continent, Tasmania, and New Zealand, so soon as the whole
year’s records are available, and bringing the results under
your notice in a supplementary paper at some early meeting.

In looking over the magnetograph papers for the last
twelve months, a series of disturbances of greater or less

60 On the late Exceptional Season.

extent is manifest nearly throughout that period, compara-
tively few days only being quite free; the vibratory
movement of the declination, and in a smaller degree of the
horizontal force also, which mostly takes place during the
summer months, and which occurs generally towards
midnight and also towards sunrise, being particularly
conspicuous by its frequency and extent from November,
1869, till the beginning of April, 1870; from June and
during the winter months the extent of the disturbances
decreased, and were even comparatively small, until August
when they again became more frequent.

The greater disturbances, which are of the nature
generally accompanying auroral light, occurred on the
following dates (of which sample papers are given); the
dates upon which auroras were actually observed are also
given.

Year. | Month. Auroras.

Magnetic
Disturbance,

1870 | Jan. z
8 | Also reported by Mr. Todd, of Adelaide, as a
fine display.
Feb. | 1 | Visible from 8 to 10 p.m.; shortly after 9 p.m.
some magnificent streamers.
10
ii
Mar. | 20
21

April} 5 | Visible all through the evening; at times very
brilliant, and particularly at 10.30 p.m.

20 | Faint only ; at 10.30 showed more distinct.

Year.

1870

Month.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov. |

On the late Haceptional Season. 61

Magnetic
Disturbance.

Auroras,

Shortly before 7 p.m. some fine streamers visible.

Visible in early evening until after 8 p.m., but
not brilliant.
Visible from 9 p.m.; most brilliant at 11 p.m.
On the evenings of the 24th, 25th, and 26th, a very fine

display of the Aurora Borealis was observed by
Prof. Neumayer in Germany (Palatinate).

Traces only visible.

Traces only visible in 8.E.

Streamers 30 deg. to 40 deg. high at 10.30 p.m.

Shortly after midnight a beautiful display,
though cloudy.

Visible night and evening ; fine red streamers,
though bright moonlight.

Auroral light visible, but no streamers.
Visible for a short time at 9.30 p.m.
Ai a during the evening.
5 A », at 9.20 p.m.
fine streamers.

At 11 p.m. traces visible; at 10 minutes past
midnight on 21sta fine display, with streamers

extending from 8. to S.W.

Nore.—Mr. Gilbert, the journalist, reports to have seen a
splendid Aurora shortly after 4 a.m. on the 21st, the
whole extent of the southern sky from the horizon
upward being illuminated by a reddish light, and
terminating in something like a corona, but no
streamers at all were visible. The whole appearance
vanished instantaneously when a severe clap of
thunder occurred at about 20 minutes to 5 a.m.

Visible between 11 and midnight.

62 On the late Exceptional Season.

Year. | Month.

Magnetic
Disturbance,

| Auroras.
|
|
|

| 1870 | Nov. | 23 ' Traces visible during the evening.
24, | a3 a 23 ”

28 | Slight Aurora from 8.30 to 10 p.m.
29 |
Dec. | 5 |

g | Faint streamers.
10 |
ial

The following table shows the dates upon which auroras
were distinctly observed during 1869 and 1870, and the
kind of weather that followed in each case.

1869. Jan. 10.—Traces of an Aurora; no change in weather.
20.—Aurora reported from Guichen Bay.
21.—Aurora seen at Melbourne; the 5 days succeeding
very hot and boisterous, with thunderstorms.
Feb. 3.—Aurora seen at Melbourne ; no marked change.
April 15.—Very fine display; nearly a week after weather
Bocuse boisterous and showery, but only for a few
ays. :
Sept. 4.—Aurora seen; 2 days afterwards heavy squalls and
rain showers for about 3 days.
1870. Jan. 8.—Aurora seen; hot and oppressive weather a few days
afterwards.
Feb. 1.—Aurora seen; hot and boisterous for 2 days after. °
April 5.—Vine Aurora; hot and sultry for a few days after, with
rain, thunder, and lightning—followed a week after
by heavy and steady rain, with frequent showers.
May 20.—Faint Aurora; no change in weather until the end of
May, when it became dull and showery, which
lasted nearly through the whole of June.
Aug. 22.—No marked change.
Sept. 21.—Very boisterous and squally weather setting in the
day after, with heavy rain, and lasting several days.
24.) Auroras; boisterous and showery weather, continu-
25. ing until the 29th.
Oct. 21.—Warm and sultry weather for a few days afterwards.
26.—Steady rain the day after, and hot and boisterous;
with thunder and lightning and rain showers the
2 following days.

On the late Haxceptional Season. 63

Nov. 9.—Hot and sultry for 26 days afterwards, with thunder
and lightning on the 11th, and heavy rain and
squaliy and showery 2 following days.

During this time weather generally fine, but dull and
sultry, with thunderstorm on the early morning of
: the 21st, followed in the afternoon by heavy squalls

15
nz:
18
20. and rain showers and cold, boisterous weather,
21. lasting until the morning of the 23rd.

3

5

Nov.

a Boisterous and squally weather, with rain showers on
25.) the 25th, 26th, and 27th.

29.—Boisterous and squally, with rain showers on the 30th.

It may be remarked with reference to the first table, that
the number of magnetic disturbances recorded of a nature
generally accompanying auroras, is greater than that of
observed auroral phenomena ; it is very probable, however,
that on many of these occasions auroras occurred, but by
reason of cloud, haze, or moonlight were not observed here.
During 1869 and early part of 1870, the Zodiacal light was
very frequently seen, and sometimes of considerable bright-
ness. Since the great auroral period has set in (April 5),
it has only been observed faintly on one or two occasions.

The mean temperature, humidity, and rainfall, for each |

month of this auroral period, as compared with the means
of the same months for the last twelve years, is as follows :

TEMPERATURE: | Houmipity. RAINFALL.
Monts. Sas i | Sex 2
eee ir iey0)) |e 8 |. 1870.1) AVeaea est 1870.
1 <q SH | <4 i
| | Amount, Re te Amount, Dae
lena). (66.5 | 67.3 |. .64 .60 1.684 | 8 3.150 A
Feb. .| 65.4 66.5 | .66 62 1.874 8.2 | 0.025 1
March .| 64.1] 64.6 .66 67 1.525 7.6 | 0.388 3
mpril, .| 58.9 '|..60.8,) .72 78 WOO LOS | ANS 78 |) a5
Meme ioe | 51.3) .78 | .81 |. 2.184) 138 2.784 | 10
anes |) 49:4) 50,3 | (81 83 SOGM saul ware lo )iL
aly 47-0 | 46.6 | 81 .82 1.896°| 14:8 | 3.161 |° 14
August.| 50.1 | 48.9 | .76 78 WD) |) We |), eae ys) 15
Peer O8.4)) 51.5 | 172 78 NSS) WV valisaye |) Brteiitsy || alii
October | 57.1 | 58.0 | .70 76 ALO aR We absyevl ale)
Move. || GL | 59.3 | .65 ie 1.870 | 10 5,229) 18
Wee. |) 63.5 — 64. — 2.843 9.7 — —

I lay these simple facts before you without venturing
upon any deductions. We know too little about the matter

64 ~ On a New Form of Spectroscope.

yet. On a former occasion I stated to you emy belief that
the key to our more general meteorological changes and
conditions of the earth’s surface would eventually be found
in the variations of the condition of the sun, and if one may
be allowed to draw a broad inference from the facts I have
brought under your notice, it would in some degree go to
support this belief. Such rapid strides have of late years
been made in our knowledge of solar physics, and in the
means of observing every state and change of our luminary,
that if the relations suggested really do exist, we may
reasonably hope that at no very remote period they may be
traced out from their intricate involvement.

Art. XX.—On a New Form of Spectroscope.
By R. L. J. ELuery, Esq.
[Read 12th March, 1871.]

This was an oral description of a new form of a seven
prism, Spectroscope which was exhibited to the meeting.
The instrument in its general construction did not materially
differ from other large spectroscopes. ‘The new feature was
the method adopted for adjustment of the prisms to
minimum deviation, which could be accomplished by simply
pointing the observing telescope to any desired part of the
spectrum ; and it was so arranged that any number of
prisms, from one to seven, could be used and adjusted by
the mechanism.

The accompanying diagram will fully explain the
arrangement, pp? p’?p*p>p® p’ are the prisms attached
to the link work joimted at abcdefg. The first
prism is pivoted to the table at the pomt Ff, and to
the last prism is attached a right-angled piece A A,
pivoted at the jomt h. By moving the arm A of the right-
angled piece, the whole series of prisms is moved, the link
work expanding or contracting by the slotted radial arms,
moving over the centre pin C, which again travels in the slot
S Sin the table. It will readily be seen, therefore, that all
the parts being properly gauged and made, the whole series
of prisms will be moved symmetrically by moving the arm
A, which is rigidly fixed to the observing telescope, and it
follows that by pointing the telescope to any desired part of
the spectrum, the prisms will all move proportionally, and

¢

PRISM PLATE OF NEW FORM OF SPECTROSCOPE

=e ¥ i
| r B
:
e ie
¢ “ eee
2 i ;
sole Fs : “3
S —— on
, ‘Ne
. Fr a
= /
x we :
es Sea ; ; :
x ¢ og 3 ; 2 2 es
, s] x z * Fr +

Observations with the Melbourne Great Telescope. 65

be in a position for minimum deviation. The pivot at h is
removable, so that the right-angled arm A R, can be fixed
at g f, ¢ b, &., as one or more prisms are required, the other
prisms of course being removed.

Art, XXI.—Some Notes of Observation with the Melbourne
Great Telescope. By Farte Maccerores, Esa.
[Read 12th March, 1871.]

Mr. Le Sueur’s last recorded observations were on the 9th
May, 1870, and from that time until the lst August, 1870,
when the Great Telescope was entrusted to me, there appears
to have been a period of almost uninterrupted bad weather,
during which Speculum A was repolished by Mr. Le Sueur.
With that speculum, whose performance has been perfectly
satisiactory, the observations from which I now make a
few extracts have been made.

A Comet (2 of 1870?) of which the elements are supplied
in the d stronomische Nachrichten of June 1870, appearing
to be tolerably favorably situated after perihelion for
observation from the Melbourne Observatory, Mr. Le Sueur
having computed its place from the elements furnished
by that journal, turned the Great Telescope upon it at 7 p.m.
13th August, 1870. It was then in the constellation
Centaurus in about RA 10h. 45m. 8.P.D. 38° 29’, but from
the want of a convenient star of reference no differential
place could be obtained on that evening. It corresponded
with the usual description of telescopic comets, being nearly
round, tailiess, condensed towards an ill-defined nucleus of a
few seconds diameter nearly central, and thinning away
outwards until lost against the sky, the approximate total
diameter being about 3’ 0”. The Spectroscope showed the
usual cometic lines, one faint band reading 26-9-3 of the
Grubb Spectroscope about midway between the F and the b
groups which with same adjustment read 25-7-3 and 27-5-5
respectively. At each side of this, faint glimpses of still
fainter bands once or twice appeared, but both Mr. Le Sueur
and myself failed, after long watching, to obtain a reading of
either, and on subsequent occasions the object had become so
faint that no spectrum whatever could be obtained,
appreciable to the eye. The central line appeared, however,

to fall approximately into the position of the brightest of

the Nitrogen lines.
F

66 Notes of Observations with

On the 22nd, 25th, 26th, 27th, 28th, 29th, and 31st Aug.,
the comet was observed and a number of differential places
obtained with the Great Telescope, some also with the small
equatorial refractor. The weather then again broke up, and
as the comet set early, or rather became too low for observa-
tion, and had not risen sutticiently to observe before daylight
in the morning, no fair chance of seeing it again occurred

until the 14th Sept, when it was searched for without

success, the evening not being good. On the 15th I again
found it and obtained a number of differential readings by
means of the Grubb micrometer and the chronograph. On
the 20th and 21st, the comet appearing exceedingly faint and
aurora interfering I obtained a number of similar differential
readings, but the position became continually worse for
observation. On the 27th Sept. it was again with difficulty

observed, and on the 11th Oct. the last glimpses of this

visitor were obtained only by sweeping the telescope rapidly
over its computed place and so gaining the effect of quick
contrast with the sky ; but, of course, no differential place
could be recorded. The great light-collecting power of a
4 ft. aperture, however, showed to great advantage in these
observations ; by which the object was followed for a month
longer than was possible to the other instruments available
at the Observatory.

Moon.—One half of each lunation being lost for the
purposes of work upon the nebulee—the special work of the
great equatorial, owing to the quantity of diffused moonlight
which obliterates nebular details, ] have endeavoured, as
much as possible, to utilise these moonlight evenings by
devoting such part of them as can be spared from public
visitors to occasional work upon the moon itself, the planets,
and double stars—conducted under some difficulty, as no
means have been yet provided for screening the eye from
the painful glare of the moon, or for reducing or altering
the shape of aperture to obtain clear definition and ease to
the eye for micrometer measurements. But I give a few
extracts which may prove interesting.

Copernicus.—2nd Dec., 1870—-Terminator (or line of
sunrise), 50 miles beyond Copernicus, which has four central
peaks nearly on lunar parallel; the two most easterly close
together. Several other peaks of inferior, altitude appear
under higher illumination, the whole group standing on a
floor which gradually rises from the foot of the interior slope
of the vast ring 50 miles in diameter. Seven or eight consecu-

the Melbourne Great Telescope. 67

tive ranges rise terrace-like from the floorto the summit of this
rmg. The bright rays (of which Copernicus forms a centre)
are visible for hundreds of miles in every direction up to the
very edge of terminator, where, although any difference of
level of 10 feet would produce a visible shadow, these rays
still neither receive nor throw a shadow. Some parts of
them appear dislocated by the crossing of ranges, &c., over
their path. They seem evidently dykes—selenologically
speakino—of a more reflective kind of rock or rock of a
lighter color than the country through which they pass, and

which they have ruptured and supplanted. In one place a -

ray passes completely over the side of a crater-ring, yet
conforms itself to the general surface of the crater; it
intersects, indicating apparently that the surface must have
been still in a plastic state after the date of Copernicus, and
the radiating streaks from it, and at the time of the formation
of the latter crater-ring.

Copernicus.—5th Dec., moon nearly full—Copernicus
under full illumination shows terraces of varying brilliancy
arguing different dates of formation. The bright rays not
more conspicuous than when on edge of terminator, but
‘having a more cloudy look—four central peaks of same
appearance still.

Maria.—Swept the Telescope over the different plains,
and was unexpectedly struck with the green tint in many
places pervading them, apart from the uncorrected
chromatism of the eyepiece (power 255).

Aristarchus.—The crater Aristarchus is about 100 miles
from terminator. It appears many times more bright than the
brightest object elsewhere—a painful brilliancy which gave,
unlike all other lunar craters, the impression of heat as well as
light. The shadow from the western wall of the ring is almost
obliterated by the apparently inherent light of the interior.
The steep central hill appears to-night to have a minute
crater on its summit, very apparent at times, at others dim
and vapoury-looking. A range visible beyond Aristarchus to
the N.£., stretching as it were across the horizon 50 to 70
miles distant, and round the two terminating bluffs of this
range extended avapourous-looking film, which encircled, also,
Aristarchus. at a distance of, say 30 miles. Within this girdle
of haze, Aristarchus, and the range, Herodotus, ce.
appeared sharply detined—sharply comparatively speaking
only, for these objects are all near the limb, and in the Great
Telescope all objects near the moon’s limb appear less distinet

F 2

68 Notes of Observations with

than those near the centre. Hven the terminator line itself
grows manifestly less distinct as it approaches the moon’s
limbs; an appearance difficult to explain apart from a
supposition of a lunar atmosphere of some kind. Yet the
Spectroscope appears to negative such a supposition.

Spect. Arist.—7th Dec., Spectroscope on Aristarchus shows
at same time three spectra—one from central hill, and one
from each side of the ring, side by side, brighter than from
rest of moon, yet with no lines indicating incandescence, or
additional absorption lines beyond those due to the earth’s

own atmospheric absorption, as far as I could observe with

certainty.

Karthshine.—25th Dec. Terminator on Mare Crisium.
Turned on the dark, or rather earth-lit portion of the
moon, of which I was surprised to find that the large light-
collecting power of the Great Telescope enabled me to
distinguish all the chief features, the well marked boundaries
of the plains, and the craters down to the middle size.
Aristarchus comparatively as bright as ever but no appearance
of intrinsic light, a broad bright ray shooting off S.E. b
Herodotus. The shadow of the western side of the crater
Aristarchus was visible on the floor, and the eastern interior
slope was brightly illuminated by the earthshine. Grimaldi
and Plato appeared as dark proportionately as at full moon, and
indeed all parts appear much the same relatively as at the full,

Copernicus.—Copernicus conspicuous with its system of
bright rays divergent—the one which intersects the wall of
Lambert precisely the same.

Rays.—These rays appear, in fact, of the same brightness,
relatively at whatever angle of illumination they are viewed,
suggesting shade or tint peculiarity, more than peculiar
reflective properties.

Photometry.—Systematic photometric comparisons at
varying angles of illumination would probably bring out
interesting analogies with earth formations.

Appenines.—The Appenines also come out well in
Earthshine and stand up in bold relief—a splendid range.
To-night, as on former occasions, I looked long and carefully
for Schreeter’s supposed twilight-streaks from the bright
cusps of the Moon, but did not see anything to be sure of.
The blaze of light from the bright portion of the Moon so
illuminated the field in the vicinity of the cusps that it is
hard to say whether the apparent twilight is or is not real.

the Melbourne Great Telescope. 69

Lunar Atmosphere (?)—Upon the same question of
atmosphere in the moon, I note on the same evening :—

“While observing the dark disc of the moon I saw a-star
of medium magnitude approaching, so I closely watched its
occultation. On reaching the limb at a slightly indented
part, it appeared for an instant to flatten itself out along
the surface and then suddenly to disappear. I state, of course,
the effect upon my eye for what it is worth, as a single
instance. ‘This occultation took place about 3h. 30m.,,
sidereal time (26th Dec. 1870), moon pretty low.”

_Sirius.—Not knowing when to look for Lassell’s com-
panion of Sirius, I proceeded to note all the faint stars
which I saw in its vicinity, very difficult to make out owing
to the excessive brilliancy of this star in so large a telescope,
and on the 9th Dec., 1870, after a series of micrometer
measures of the faint star now called d, I note as follows :—
“Calling distance between S* and d = 10 parts, x
20 mag., 15 parts dist. from S, and making angle of 5°
preceding line joining S and d, referred to d. Another x
20 mag. 45° following same line, 4 parts dist. from d, very
difficult, with 6th power (881), definition indifferent.” Two
months afterwards, in looking over some miscellaneous
observations of Lassell’s, I fell upon the one relating to his
discovery which, with your permission, I will now supply:
it is at page 38 of vol. 36, Mems. R. Astronomical Society,
and it is as follows :—

“1865, Jan. 13. The Comes strikingly plain ; angle of
position 76°67 by 6 measures, with power 678. While
trying to measure the distance, the images became greatly
confused, and I had in consequence to give up observation.
Mr. Marth afterwards endeavoured, on some abatement of
the disturbance, to obtain some measures of distance, but
without success. The remaining observations relating to
this object are entirely by him.

“While trying to get a measure I remarked to my
surprise a star nearer to Sirius than the star “d,” which I
had not seen before. (Mr. Lassell, Prof. Struve, and I had
not perceived last year any star beside Clark’s Comes nearer
to Sirius than the.star d.) This new star has perhaps half
the brightness of d, and is considerably fainter than Clark’s
Comes. A rough observation with power 405 gave its
position 126°6, and the star d, 164°6, distance about 2’.
The perpendicular line from the new star upon the line of

70 Observations with the Melbourne Great Telescope.

Sirius to d, cuts it about midway, but I could not get an
exact estimate, and clouds put an end to further trials.

“1865, Jan. 14. The new star of yesterday is very plain.

Position Angle of Comes 77°63 by 3 measures.
Ke New Star 127:03 2 as
a d 163°89 ies
‘Interrupted by clouds. which had been threatening for
some time ; and I was obliged to close in all haste, to save
the speculum from the rain which shortly began to fall.
“Feb. 4. Clark’s Comes very plain; 11th magnitude ;
but is too windy for measures. The star of the 18th
January very faint, but certainly seen.
“March 23. Image of Sirius too confused for observa-
tion. Comes and star of 13th January very plainly seen.
“March 24. The image struck me as having never been
better. Comes very plain; position by 6 measures with
405, 76°31; but the star is two hours from the meridian.
The star of 15th January, though faint, is undoubtedly
seen.”

From this it appears that the new star noted by Lassell
with his four feet, at Malta, corresponds with the one last
noted by me. From this it seems that a star which had
hitherto escaped such keen observers as Struve, Lassell, and
Mr. Marth, had yielded on an indifferent evening at once
to the Great Telescope here of the same aperture, without
the eye being directed to it, or biassed by any previous
information. Yet it has been said that the definition of the
Great Telescope is faulty! I have now had some practical
acquaintance with it, and have found that the definition
is in direct ratio with the goodness of the evening. On
one or two occasions the highest powers have been borne
with perfect definition, showing that the defects are
atmospheric ones not instrumental.

Micrometer measurements of Alvan Clark’s Comes,
Lassell’s Conup” d, &c., have been executed, and the existence
of three new stars, which I designate for convenience f g and
k on several occasions suspected. They are all nearer S than
the star d of Lassell’s note. Another one suspected by Mr.
Le Sueur, h, I have also occasionally suspected, but these
objects are so exceedingly faint, if existent, that further
observation on some nights of first-rate definition is neces-
sary before making any positive statement.

On Enhydros found at Beechworth. 71

» Argus.—The Great Nebula about » Argus was first
observed by the Great Telescope on 27 Dee. last, and I then
note :—“ Hvident changes in y nebula since Le Sueur’s
sketches, and I notice a small bright duplicate nebulosity,
s.f.1, like a small nebulous double star. It is too bright to
have escaped previous notice, and is not noted by Le Sueur.”

Subsequent observation has corroborated this statement,
and itis now beyond a doubt, that the enormous physical
changes are still taking place, particularly about the
lemniscate, and suspected also in the star y itself. But
these changes may form the subject of a future paper, and
could be best illustrated by a reference to the sketches made
at successive periods by Mr. Le Sueur and myself—
_ comparing also with the drawing executed by Sir John
Herschel.

Some observations on Jupiter and Saturn, also. may on a
future occasion be worthy of your notice, as also, some on
the nebula about @ Orionis and others.

Art. XXIIl—Wotes on Enhydros found at Beechworth.

By Gero. Foorp, Esq.
[Read April 12, 1871.]

The great mineralogical interest attaching to the curious
natural productions called ‘“‘ KEnhydros” or “water stones,”
and the mode of their formation remaining, in many essen-
tial particulars, without any adequate explanation, are
circumstances which have induced me to believe that any
contribution to the knowledge of them, however slight,
would prove acceptable, and therefore I offer the following
brief note on the subject to your Society.

The sample, the subject of experiment, was a large
Specimen, weighing over 900 grains, having for its largest
section a form closely approaching an equilateral. triangle,
measuring a little over twu inches on each of the sides.
For this specimen I am indebted to the kindness of
Mr. George H. F. Ulrich. It was, I am informed, obtained
from the same site as those described by Mr. Dunn, and
it possessed the usual characteristics. The specimen
clearly included two separate chambers; in fact, dur-
ing the course of experiment it was cloven_ into
two separate water stones, of pretty nearly equal dimen-

72 On Enhydros found at Beechworth.

sions; one of which appears to be quite filled up with
quartz crystals, the other containing, besides an inner lining
of quartz crystals, also a mobile fluid, and a bubble of air.
The air bubble was transferable from place to place within
the cavity, as the position of the specimen was altered.
The remains of the specimen, which I submit for your
inspection, are still in such a state as to convey a fair idea
of its original form and character.

To extract the fluid, a fragment was first broken from
one of the corners of the stone. This disclosed a fine open-
ing or pore in the quartz lining, connected with the inner
cavity. ‘The specimen was now placed under the receiver of
an air-pump, and as the exhaustion proceeded the air bubble
in the water stone expanding extruded the fluid, drop by |
drop, through the pore. In all fully eighteen drops of
fluid were thus collected in a carefully-cleaned test-glass.
The fluid, thus extracted, was perfectly pellucid, but
contained a few minute angular transparent fragments,
apparently splinters of quartz.

The fluid is water, but slightly mineralized. A single
drop evaporated on glass leaves a slight residue, forming a
gummy annular outline, but affording distinct evidence of
crystallization when examined under the microscope.
When 15 drops of the fluid were evaporated in a watch-
glass over oil of vitrol in vacuo, the fluid froze, giving out
air-bubbles, which vesiculated the icy crust; the ice gradually
disappearing left a small residue, nearly white in colour,
non-crystalline, and wrinkled on the surface. A few small
crystals and some larger (possibly hexagonal plates) were
observed in the mass when examined microscopically.

A small crop of beautiful microscopical crystals was
obtained on re-solution and spontaneous evaporation.
Among these, cubic crystals and crystals pertaining to
the cubic system were recognized. On dissolving up
the crystals a delicate impress of their form was left
—white on a delicately pale yellow ground, as though
a deposit of colloidal ferruginous silica remained, with
colourless cavities where the crystals had occupied position.

On testing the redissolved saline matter it gave a distinct
white flocculent precipitate with nitrate of silver, imme-
diately soluble in ammonia. It also gave a granular pre-
cipitate with chloride of barium. With ammonia and
oxalate of ammonia a very slight granular precipitate was
obtained after some time ; and with ammonia, chloride of

On Enhydros found at Beechworth. 73

ammonium and phosphate of soda, a relatively abundant
crystalline precipitate, tufts or stellate groups of acicular
crystals, was obtained.

A drop of the fluid examined in the spectroscope showed
vividly the sodium double line, but no indication of potassium,
lithium, calcium, nor itideed of any other metal was apparent.
Although the results thus recorded were quite distinct, it
is yet to be remembered that the quantity operated upon
was but a few drops of water, and that this small quantity
was but feebly mineralized. Probably examinations con-
ducted with larger quantities of the fluid of these “enhy-
dros” may show additional reactions. The subject is certainly

‘of sufficient importance to invite further inquiry, if only a
sufficient supply of these specimens containing water can be
obtained.

As far as my results are to be trusted they show that the
fluid in the enhydros is limpid water feebly mineralized with
chlorides and sulphates of sodium, magnesium, and calcium,
and that a soluble form of silicic acid is also present.

I have heard of some of these stones having an apparently
viscid fluid within them. Of course I am unqualified to
speak concerning specimens which I have not seen ; but,
from the motion of the fluid in the few specimens which
have come under my notice, and from the perfect limpidity
and liquidity of the fluid extracted in two instances, I am
inclined to the opinion that the contents as found in the
specimen now described will prove characteristic for the
whole ; especially as a bubble of fluid, moving from end to
end within the stone, between closely approaching walls of
the enhydros, serrated all over with the summits of quartz
erystals, would be much impeded in its motion. It appears
to my mind that water moving under these conditions
would bear the appearance of sluggish oil.

I have one or two remarks to make concerning the silice-
ous substance of which these water stones are composed.
When the two members originally forming the complete
specimen were separated from each other, the cleavage sur-
face presented thin and minute patches of a white substance,
—a kind of bloom, mapped over it. When this bloom is
removed, the surface of chalcedony beneath is found to be
curiously marked with outlines, showing where each little
patch has been attached, and the chalcedony is further seen
to be laminated in places ; in fact, these thin lamin can be
easily detached. When one of these laminz is examined

74 On Enhydros found at Beechworth.

under the microscope, under an amplification of 90
diameters, it is found that besides this impress of the super-
ficially attached bloom, the horny chalcedony shows also
distinct and beautiful indications of regular crystalline
structure,—a net-work like a geometrical carpet pattern:
extending over the whole field.

Now it has occurred to me as possible that this erystal-
line structure in the chalcedony may afford the key
to an explanation of the formation of these paradoxical
enhydros, and if speculation, founded however on obser-
vation of physical facts, be permissible, I should like
to add a few words hinting what these crystalline
demarcations have suggested to my own mind. ‘The ~*
enhydros have this in common with agates, namely, an
exterior of silica in the horny state, for the most part
colloidal silica, and an inner layer of quartz crystals. The
successive layers in both instances have been deposited from
without inwardly ; that is to say, the chalcedony or agate
first, the interior quartz crystals last; and ‘in the case of
agate each layer of agate successively from the exterior
layers to the interior ones. ‘The enhydros also agree with
agates in showing points of infiltration, some of the
enhydros leaking at one of the solid angles.

Now, with agates, it is at least conceivable that water
charged with silica and depositing it in a cavity in the
amorphous form, would, if the supply were kept up, con-
tinue so to deposit it, layer on layer, as long as a full water-
way existed ; but when eventually by the deposit of this
chalcedony or agate, this way is stopped up, thereafter
any silica in solution entering into the central cavity
must be dialysed by liquid diffusion through the mois-
ture filling the pores of the amorphous silica. For
this to take place a solution of silica in both the
crystallme and amorphous states is requisite; but this
necessity is in agreement with the composition of chalce-
dony, which is generally admitted to be an intimate
mixture of amorphous and crystalline silicic acid. The
crystalline character is masked by the colloidal—masked,
but not therefore necessarily altogether suppressed. This,
indeed, is the point upon which my suggestion hinges.

If the crystalline texture observed in the thin laminz
from the outer layers of these enhydros is due to erystalline
quartz, we may then ask whether chalcedonies do not differ
in the proportions of the amorphous and crystalline consti-

G ry stalhme Structure af nhydro S

A thin lamine fromthe exterior of one of the water stones viewed under a magmiying power of 90 diameters.

>

On Enhydros found at Beechworth. 75

tuents, and whether the deviations are not attended with
alterations of external characters; the amorphous character
being most strongly asserted in those examples in which the
erystalloid is at a minimum, symptoms of the crystalline
character budding out whenever the crystalloid prepon-
derates. We may ask (experimentally, I mean) whether
chalcedony, which is stalactitic and dendritic, does not owe
this form to a proportion of erystalloidal silica larger than
that of agate, which deposits layer on layer on the wall of
the geode without any tendency to arboresce above it;
whether, in other words, the agate is not deposited after the
manner of a varnish, while there is something approaching
crystallization in the form of the chalcedony.

If this variation of habit can be asserted for different
proportions of the two forms of soluble silica, it would
thence almost certainly follow, that with the crystalloidal
silica at a maximum, or rather sufficiently preponderating,
the deposit would assume something very nearly approach-
ing the crystalline form, instead of stalactitic and dendritic
form; it would interlace the cavity with thin planes in which

_ the crystalline character would be discernible on close

inspection, and the space thus being divided into regular
chambers, all the consequences of an inner deposit of
quartz crystals and other results as we find them would
naturally follow. The thin lamination of the chalcedony
exterior to the proper walls of the enhydros, the foliation
of the material, so to speak, appears to favour the view that
the property of forming plane plates resides in the material
itself, and is not due to moulding.

There is, in the Melbourne Public Library Museum
collection of rocks, a specimen in which a chalcedonic
deposit has taken place, forming septa, which while
they are comparable to those of the water stones, show
a remarkable difference, apparently very much to the
point in reference to what is now suggested. In these
septa there is an approach to the formation of plane sur-
faces, but yet the deviation is so considerable as to suggest
an intermediate character, possibly due to an intermediate
proportion between the crystalloidal and colloidal silica of
which they are composed.

I put forward these suggestions merely for what they may
prove worth, and as suggestive of direct experimental
inquiry ; and, in conclusion, I will mention a fact showing
that the juxtaposition of crystalloidal and colloidal quartz has

76 On a Self-acting

a positive significance in the formation of mineral deposits.
In a reef near Wellington, New South Wales, I discovered
quartz traversed by thin veins of agate, and with fortifica-
tion agate in small geodes in the mass. Inside one of these
geodes was a lining of quartz crystals, and concerning this,
to my mind, remarkable example, I think you will admit
that there is something very interesting to be unriddled in
those natural changes which can fill the crevices and in part
the cavities of a massive quartz reef with colloidal silica,
and afterwards fill up the interior of the colloidal deposit
with crystals of quartz.
EXPLANATION OF ACCOMPANYING PLATES.
FIRST PLATE.

1. Annular residue, from evaporation of a drop of water from interior of
enhydros; real size.

2 and 3. Microscopic view of portions of the margin of this residue.

4, Examples of crystalline forms, obtained by recrystallizing the residue
obtained from fifteen drops of water from enhydros.

5. Residue of silicic acid, patches left on the glass capsule, as though a
pellicle of colloidal silica had dried up. This residue is insoluble, or
nearly so, in distilled water.

6. The same film broken up, and floa‘ing in shreds in water added to it.

7. Impress of crystals in this coloured colloidal residue.

The parallel ruled lines, in figures 6 and 7, represent a pale ochreous
tint in the original drawing.

The second plate shows crystalline structure of laminz forming walls of
the enhydros.

Art. XXIII.—On a Self-Acting Hydrostatic Chime and
Clock Weight. By Avex. K. Suiru, CE, F.RS. S.A.
[Read 8th May, 1871.]

A considerable amount of time and labour, and conse-
quently expense, is required under the system at present
in use, to wind up the heavy driving weights of large
clocks, chimes, &c.; the expense being further increased
by the necessity of making special preparation for a long
descent of the driving-weights in the tower or building
where the’ clock or chimes are situated; and as the
weights are in most instances very heavy there is more
or less danger attending their use.

During the time that clocks and chimes for the New
Post Office and Town Hall were under consideration, I
thought over the subject at some length, with the view of
altogether dispensing with the laborious process of winding
up the heavy driving-weights generally used, and for that
special purpose designed the plan I now submit to you.

Whilst the Post Office clock was being constructed under

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the superintendence of our worthy President, I made
known the plan to him; but the work was too far
advanced for its introduction there. Subsequently, at the
request of the President, I prepared the plan I now
exhibit for the last conversationé of this Society, together
with a brief description of my invention; but owing to
the numerous objects of interest then exhibited, it was not
then alluded to.

In proceeding to describe the self-acting hydrostatic
weight I may preface my observations by stating that it
can only be applied where there is a supply of water under
pressure.

The accompanying sketch will assist in explaining its
action :

The upper cistern A is supplied by two small services
from the street-mains, either of them being capable of
supplying the demand, and the use of two services is simply
to guard against any stoppage through accident to one.

The ends of the service-pipes inside the tank are fitted
with the ordinary ball-cock and lever for regulating the
supply, and practically keeping the tank full up to the level
of the overflow-pipe.

A little above the bottom of the cistern A a small pipe
is fixed with a stop-cock marked B, regulated by a micro-
meter-screw. From this stop-cock a small pipe conveys the
water towards the buckets D D D. At the outer end of this
pipe there is a small piece of vulcanised indian-rubber tube
attached CU, by means of which the buckets are supplied.

These buckets may be constructed as shown upon the
drawings, or of any other required shape ; their number and
capacity being regulated by the work they are required to
perform, and their driving-power made equal to the heaviest
weight required for driving town clocks and the striking-
gear of large bells and chimes.

In each of these buckets the height and weight of the
water used is regulated and determined by an overflow pipe
& attached to the bottom of each bucket; the top of this
overflow-pipe being lower than the upper edge of the bucket,
not only keeps a constant weight of water in each bucket,
but effectually prevents any waste or dropping outside.

A small groove or channel is made in each bucket as
shown, into which the end of the flexible indian-rubber
hose fits, thereby enabling each bucket to receive its supply
of water without splash or waste.

78 On Gun Cotton as an Explosive Agent.

The buckets are fixed to the chain web G at every alter-
nate hinged portion, as shown. ‘This chain is composed of a
series of plates with joints projecting internally to gear
in with corresponding indentations in the angles of the
octagonal revolving drums H and J above and below and
round which the chain-weh passes.

The framing carrying these drums may be mounted on
the lower tank 1G the buckets, as they revolve, empt
themselves into this tank, which is kept constantly full of
water to the level of the overflow L.

The shaft 1, on which the drum is keyed, transmits the
power for driving the clock, Ge., the pendulum of which
regulates the descent of the full buckets in the same manner
as with an ordinary weight.

This apparatus can be kept at any reasonable distance
from the clock, above or under it, or in the corner of the
clock-room itself, as circumstances may best determine, and
when once set going, will continue as lone as the materials
last and the water is supplied.

The plan now exhibited is for driving the works of a
large clock, such as that required at the Town Hall. A
slight modification of this plan would also adapt it to
striking hours and chimes.

As before stated, this system of weights would be self-
acting, so long as the supply of water was continued; but
as street-mains are liable to contingencies, I have, in order
to make this scheme thoroughly complete, introduced a
small force-pump V between the two cisterns A and K ; and,
as the cistern K is kept full up to the level of the overflow,
all that would be required in the event of the street-main
being under repair, would be to pump the water from K to
A until such repairs were effected.

There are no cities or towns of any note in the Austra-
lasian colonies without a high-pressure water supply fitted
for the purpose I have here described.

Art. XXIV.—On Gun Cotton as an Explosive Agent. By
Ros, Ruuery, Hse. PRS.
[Read 12th June, 1871.]
In this paper the President gave a brief account of the

properties and manufacture of gun cotton, with a few
illustrative experiments.

Suggestions for Improvement of Mariner’s Compass. 79

Art. XXV.—On some Hydraulic Clock-weights. By
F. MacGzorcs, Esq. ;
[Contributed 12th June, 1871.]

This was an oral description, illustrated by a diagram of
a method of winding up turret clock-weights by water
power. The principal features in the proposition were, an
arrangement by which water was admitted into a cylinder
as soon as the clock-weights had descended to a certain level.
The piston was thereby raised, lifting the clock-weights the
length of its stroke again ; so soon as the weights reached
their highest position, the inlet valve was closed and outlet
opened, when the piston would fall to the bottom of cylinder,
leaving the weights free to act on the clock. The winding
up of the going barrel of the clock was done by a counter-
poise weight sufficient to draw back the barrel against the
friction of the spindle and ratchet click. The fall of the
weight would be of course regulated by the stroke of the
piston, and the writer proposed that a fall of one or two
hours would probably be found most convenient in practice
for ordinary turret clocks.

Art. XXVI —Suggestions for the Improvement of the
Mariner's Compass. By HK. J. Wutrez, Esa.
(Read, 12th June, 1871.] ;

The recent loss of the Queen of the Thames steamship,
owing, in a great degree, it is said, to the erroneous action
of the compasses, has led me to consider whether an
improvement could not be made in’ what I may term the
mathematical part of the subject; that is in the division
and notation of the card. The present system was adopted
at a time when the compass was supposed to point always
to the true north, and was, perhaps, under this condition
simple enough for the purpose. We have now, however, so
many corrections to be applied to the reading of the com-
pass before we can determine the true course, that it is quite
astonishing how the present cumbrous method should have
held its ground so long. The system of dividing circles,
which have to be read round the whole circumference, into
quadrants, or semi-circles, has been abandoned by astro-

80 Suggestions for Improvement of Mariner's Compass.

nomers for some time, and thus a fruitful source of mistakes
has been removed ; as, I think, everybody acquainted with
the subject will readily admit. The first essential, then, for
simplicity is that the points of the compass should be named
consecutively right round the circumference, commencing at
north, and increasing towards the east.. As to the number
of points, it would be convenient to have 36, so that each
would represent 10 degrees; this, however, would be too
great an Innovation, and is so subordinate to the principle
of consecutive readings, that I would retain the present 32
points with numbers marked by promiment figures at the
end of each; between these the quarter points might be
marked as at present. The convenience of this system
would be very great; the corrections for variation, local
deviation, instrument, and leeway would then be a matter of
simple addition and subtraction, instead of at present, as In
the words of the celebrated navigator, Lieut. Raper, R.N., one
of considerable perplexity. The two methods may be best
illustrated by an example. Suppose a vessel to be steering
N.N.E. 4 E., the variation to be 24 points E., and the local
deviation 3 points W.; at the same time suppose the vessel
to be on the starboard tack, and to be making half-a-poit of
leeway. The true course, in the old method, would be found
by this process of reasoning; variation, allow 24 to the
right ; deviation, 3 to the left, and leeway half-a-point to
the left; that is, on the whole, 1 point to the left, so that
the true course would be N. by E. 4 E. In the proposed
method, the compass course would be 24, to which must
be added 23 for variation, and 34 subtracted for deviation
and leeway, leaving 14 for the true course. If the proposed
change were once introduced, I think few would be willing
to revert to the old system, and the boxing of the compass,
which is now a matter of tedious education to our young
sailors, and in which I have found some old salts not quite
proficient, could be learned at sight by a mere child. With
regard to the deviation of the compass, caused by local
attraction, I have very little to say, except to impress upon
masters of vessels the necessity of getting amplitudes at
every opportunity, and not to depend for any length of time
upon a table formed from swinging the ship; also, in thick
weather, of sending a small compass aloft, out of the way
of the iron of the ship; or, if the circumstances be favour-
able, of letting a boat out astern, with a compass in it, and
getting reciprocal bearings.

On a New Disinfectant. 81

Art. XXVII—On a Direction Rain Gauge.
By Proressor WILSON.
[Read 10th July, 1871.]

This was an oral description of a Rain Gauge—its uses—
and the value of the record furnished by it.

Art. XX VIII—A Method for the Manufacture of Chloride
of Aluminum and Caleiwm, for use as a Disinfectant.
By J. Cosmo NEWBERY.

(Read 10th July, 1871.]
ABSTRACT.

Mr. J. Sullivan, a pupil in the laboratory of the Techno-
logical Museum, has successfully manufactured a hydrated
chloride of aluminum and calcium for use as a styptic and
antiseptic. The chief ingredient used is the kaolin from
Bulla Bulla, a township a few miles north-west of Mel-
bourne. Mr. Sullivan mixes the kaolin,a silicate of alumina,
with lime, forms this mixture into bricks of a convenient
size, and burns them in a furnace or kiln. When the decom-
position has taken place, the bricks are crushed and treated
with hydrochloric avid, then evaporated to dryness to
separate the silica from the soluble chlorides, which are
washed out with water.

The solution being made of any desired strength, when
desired for medical purposes it is proposed to crystallize the
chlorides, so that solutions may be made of known strengths.
Many trials have been made with these solutions with
great success, showing it to be a very valuable styptic and
disinfectant, having all the properties of the “Chloralum,”
a disinfectant lately introduced in England. It has been
tried by several of the leading medical men of Melbourne,
both in hospital and private practice, and their testimonials
are submitted.

Drs. Neild and Blair spoke of their successful experiments
with this disinfectant.

82 Ocean Waves

Art. XXIX.—Ocean Waves and ther Action on Floating
Bodies. By S. R. DEVERELL, Esq.

[Read 11th September, 1871.]

1. According to Professor Rankine, the “energy of a
wave is half actual, half potential.” Whatever be the exact
inference to be attached to this, it is plain that the power of
ocean waves is the impressed force of the wind. The wind
dies away, but its power still lives in the wave. Ocean
waves, in fact, are vast reservoirs of power, or fly-wheels so
to speak. When once set in motion, friction alone brings
a wave to an end; theoretically, the motion would continue
to be imparted from particle to particle for ever. How small
the friction is, is evident from the distance to which waves
visibly extend when a stone is dropped into a still lake ;
and it has been computed to be so small that the whole
circumference of the earth would, in free water, be insuffi-
cient to destroy a wave sixty feet in height. Thus, in a
calm at sea, we may witness huge rollers, known by seamen
as a ground swell, progressing with undiminished force and
velocity for weeks together, though there be no fresh
impulse all the time; and the earthquake waves which
receive their only impetus on the South American coasts,
travel with destructive effect as far even as the Australian
and Asiatic shores.

2. Until of late years, the theory of waves received very
little attention, which fact is singular, considering the im-
portance of the subject in ship-building, the construction of
harbors, navigation, &c. (Art. Harbors, Hnc. Brit. 8th ed.)
Professor Airy refers the difficulty of mastering the subject
to the imperfection of mathematics (Art. Tides and Waves
Ene. Met.)* Even as late as the time of the construction of
Eddystone lighthouse, Smeaton spoke of waves as being
“amongst those powers of nature which admit of no
calculation.”

3. In contravention of Smeaton’s opinion, is to be con-
sidered, that the production of waves is purely a dynamic
process, and as such, a matter for calculation, as much as
are the laws of falling bodies. In fact, the researches of
Froude and Rankine have, despite the difficulties of the sub-

* For a similar remark, see an article on the Pendulum, by Mr. Sang,
Enc. Brit. 8th Ed.

and their Action on Floating Bodies. 83

ject, placed it on too sound a basis for further controversy.
They have shown that, amongst other properties,

4, The orbit of each particle of water in wave-motion is
an ellipse ; the form of which depends in a known law on
the depth of water, so that in the ocean, the depth of which
1s approximately infinite, the orbit is circular.*

5. That the wave-surface is trochoidal in shape : (Rankine,
Manual of Applied Mechanics’ first published in 1858: “On
exact form and motion of waves,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. 1862)
such trochoidal profile being generated by rolling on the
under side of a horizontal straight line, a circle whose
radius is equal to the height of a conical pendulum, which
revolves in the same period with the particles of liquid.

6. The hydrostatic pressure at each particle is the same
as if the liquid were still. From these propositions, viz., 4,
5, and 6, which, for the sake of distinction, may be called
Rankine’s laws, there follow that—-

7. Ifh be the height of a wave in deep water, its length
is never less than zh.

. 8. The undulations of waves are performed in the same
time as the oscillations of a pendulum whose length is equal
to the breadth of the wave, or to the distance between two
neighbouring cavities or eminences (see Art. Hydrodynamics
Eine. Brit. 8th ed. p. 162.) Now the oscillations of
pendulums being as the square roots of their radu, it hence
follows that .

9. The periods of waves are as the square roots of their
lengths.+

* Jn the propositions which follow, ocean-waves only are referred to. AS
in this paper frequent reference is made to previous passages, it has been
found necessary to number them throughout.

+ The length of the seconds pendulum at the Pole is 39-218 inches; at
the Equator 39-018, whence the mean length = 89:118. Now the length of
a pendulum whose period of oscillation is ¢ = 39:118¢ in inches; conmse-
quently if the length of a wave = b in feet, and v be its velocity in feet

per second, we shall have 6 = 326722 and v = 3:26¢; alsot = V he
from which equations all problems relating to cycloidal or breaking waves
(which are those to which Smeaton’s dogma more immediately referred)

may be solved. If for b we substitute its value, 3:1416/, then ¢ =
/ 0.963 h. Or finally—
b= 31916h.
t = 03103 Vh where ¢t = time the wave transverses space — its own length.
v = 10116 vh.

By which it appears that the velocity of a cycloidal wave per second is
very nearly — square root of its height in feet

G 2

84 Ocean Waves

10. With regard to the origin of ocean-waves, Professor
Airy observes, “it is to be understood that either from
preceding disturbances or from trifling irregularities in the
action of the wind while the water is smooth, there are very
shallow undulations on the water.

Now, with all due deference to so great an authority, this
surely attributes these stupendous and invariable results
primarily to an accident. Tor, be it observed, every wave,
no matter how enormous, must have had origin in a primary
wavelet: to say it started into being at any other stage, is
merely to enlarge the supposed magnitude of such first
wavelet. In fact, the word regularities might be justly
substituted for irregularities in the above remark ; for the
Professor’s own mode of demonstration shows how the force
of the wind acting in the direction of a tangent to the
surface may produce the initial wavelet.

Let a b (fig. 1, plate 1) be the smooth surface of water, ¢ a
particle of a column of air moving in the direction of the arrow ;
d ea stationary column of air. When the breeze commences,
the particle ¢ is pressed against the particle d, which being
stationary, reacts the pressure in all directions, shown by
the dotted lines. Thus, a downward pressure is produced,
and also a retrogressive pressure in the resulting hollow, in
accordance with the theoretical motion of the particles of
water; while the particle ¢ being reinforced, the column
d e yields, and the onward motion of the wavelet takes

lace.

i Regarding the wind as a constant force, it now increases
the result, viz., the initial wavelet, in volume and velocity.
But this acceleration in the magnitude of the wave has its
practical limit, for the wave recedes from the advancing air,
and the wind, although a constant, being thus also a follow-
ing force, its wiupulsive effect on the wave becomes retarded
with the increase in the magnitude, and therefore, the
velocity (9) of the wave ; so that, if the maximum force of
the wind be known, the maximum dimensions of waves
may be ascertained. The observed results agree in the main
with theory. Were it not for the cause stated, it is obvious
that, in a continuous gale of wind, waves would go on
increasing to indefinite dimensions.

11. The force resident in a wave then is to be considered
not as the received strength of the wind simply, but as the
aggregated impulse from the time of its commencement.
The wave becomes in fact a storehouse of power, retaining,

and their Action on Floating Bodies. 85

like a vast fly-wheel, the acquired momentum of the air.
Assuming the great forces which set the atmosphere in
motion to be derived from heat, we may conceive the sun to
be the prime source of power, and the ocean probably as the
mightiest reservoir of its force upon earth. There is no
cessation of its giant activity, and it may without error be
said, that from the time an ocean vessel leaves one port to
the time she enters the next, she is heaving upon perpetual
waves.

12. To instance the force thus aggregated in waves, there
is mentioned that at Port Sonachan in Loch Awe, with the
diminutive fetch of only 13 or 14 miles, a stone weighing
4 ton was torn out of the masonry of the landing slip, and
overturned by a wave (Hnc. Brit. Art. Harbors, 8th ed.),
and a stone $ ton weight was similarly moved and over-
turned at Buffalo (Stevenson’s Lngineering of North
America). At Barrahead, one of the Hebrides, a wave was
seen to strike a block of granite of 50 tons weight, and
move it several feet. In November, 1817, the waves of the
German Ocean, where the fetch is 600 miles, overturned,
just after it had been finished, a column of freestone 36 feet
high, 17 feet base, and at the point of fracture 11 feet in
diameter (Hine. Brit. Art. Lighthouses). The prodigious
impulse requisite to do this is shown in the height to which
waves ascend against cliffs and headlands. Such effects are
witnessed in their utmost grandeur in the islands on the
west coast of Scotland, on the sides of icebergs, and at many
points on the South African and Australian shores. So also
at lighthouses ; at Bell Rock and Skerryvore, waves are
known to dash completely over the summit of the
edifices ; and a magnificent spectacle is presented at Cape
Northumberland in South Australia, where a massive rock,
said to be from 70 to 100 feet in height, is swept by every
sea during a gale of wind.

13. In the German Ocean, with a fetch of 600 miles, the
height of waves varies from 13 to 20 feet : the Mediterranean
with the same fetch, gives the same results. But these
proportions sink into insignificance in comparison with the
great mid-ocean waves of the Atlantic and South Pacific.
Dr. Scoresby (Brit. Assoc., 1850) states, the maximum
height of waves off the Cape of Good Hope to be 48 feet:
other writers make it considerably more, and it has even
been estimated that, from summit to summit of these

enormous masses of water, a distance of nearly the fourth

86 Ocean Waves

of a mile may sometimes intervene.* In the presence
of such colossal forces, a vessel is like a toy ; nor on reflec-
tion is it less than wonderful that an object comparatively
so fragile, can make her way amidst them unchecked and
unharmed.

14. By an instrument called the Marine dynamometer,
the force of waves at Bell Rock (North Sea) has been ascer-
tained to be 14 tons per square foot, and at Skerryvore
lighthouse in the Atlantic, 3 tons per square foot. That is,
if a plate a foot square were inserted in the summit of a
wave, these pressures would be exerted on it. A practical
example of this gigantic force is shown in those occurrences,
often disastrous enough, when a ship is “struck” by a sea,
that is, when she meets a wave without rising to it. On
such occasions, the vessel seems to hang motionless for an
interval as if stunned, every bolt and timber quivering from
stem to stern. In running or nearly so before a wind, a ship
so struck is liable to be forced round by the huge impulse,
and if there be great way upon her, to broach-to, to the
almost certain destruction of a spar or spars. Another
frequent occurrence is that known.as “settling,” common to
ships laden with shifting or loose cargo. A fleet of sugar
ships coming in port sometimes presents a ludicrous
appearance from this cause, the masts of the vessels inclining
in various angles and directions.

An instance of this kind was witnessed by the writer, in
the China seas, in 1851. During the prevalence of a dead
calm, accompanied however with enormous rollers or ground
swell, the result of a typhoon a week previously, the vessel
—which was one of 1,200 tons—having no headway, wascaught

* Latterly, in 1869, waves have been measured in the English Channel,
with a height of 43 feet ; itis probable, therefore, that Dr. Scoresby’s estimate
for deep ocean waves is sometimes greatly exceeded. The reference to the
measurement here stated has unfortunately beon mislaid. Maury, who, in
his exhaustive work on the Physical ‘Geography of the Sea, does not treat
distinctively of the waves, yet refers in enthusiastic terms to those of the
great Southern Ocean. ‘To appreciate, he says, the force and volume of
these polar bound winds in the Southern Hemisphere, it is necessary that one
should ‘run them down’ in that waste of waters beyond the parallel of 40°
south, where ‘the winds howl and the seas roar.’ The DLillows there lift
themselves up in long ridges with deep hollows between them. They run
high and fast, tossing their white caps aloft in the air, looking like the
green hills of a rolling prairie capped with snow, and chasing each other in
sport; still their march is stately and their roll majestic. 'The scenery
among them is grand, and the Australian-bound trader after doubling the
Cape of Good Hope, finds herself followed for weeks at a time by these
magnificent rolling swells, driven and lashed by the ‘brave west wind’
furiously.” —Physical Geography of the Sea, p. 361.

and their Action on Floating Bodies. 87

broadside on one of these waves with such force as caused
the cargo, consisting for the greater part of sugar, to settle
bodily on the port side. Ascending the next undulation, the
loosened mass settled with still greater violence on the star-
board side and was again thrown over to the port side,
where it remained during the voyage, the vessel retaining a
port list of about 15°. All this may be said to have taken
place during the passage of one wave.

17. To arrive at the nature and extent of the wave forces
affecting a floating body, it is necessary to investigate
the theoretical motions of such a body. For this purpose,
suppose the body to be of perfect buoyancy, that is a body
which, its magnitude being inconsiderable with respect to
that of the wave, possesses equal mobility with the particles
of water on which it rests, so that it accompanies the
particles in their motion. This it can only do, if absolutely
inconsiderable, but we may suppose a very small object,
such as a cork for instance, to approximate towards the
motion of a particle of water. From the laws thus deduced,
we shall be able to obtain modified views with respect to
floating bodies of imperfect buoyancy, that is, of bodies
which, being large with respect to the wave, possess unequal
mobility with the particles of liquid on which they rest,
and which therefore move relatively to them.

18. The direction of the force of buoyancy is always at
right angles to the nearest surface of the water, whether
that surface be horizontal, as in the case of smooth water,
oblique, as in a descending stream, or variable, as in waves.*

Thus, let (fig. 2, plate 1) e frepresent the surface of smooth
horizontal water, B a floating body in it. Now, the water
pressing upon all sides of the body, as shown by the arrows,
the lateral pressures on the sides ¢ 2 and d & counteract each
other, and the upward force of buoyancy is counteracted by
and is equal to the weight of B. But, suppose the water
became a descending stream whose inclined surface is « b ;
the lateral pressures are now m 7 and 71k ; take p 7 equal to
n k, then the preponderating lateral pressure m p will turn

* The wording of Archimedes’ law, viz.: “that if a solid body be either
wholly or partially immersed in a liquid, it is pressed upwards with a force
which is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced, and whose point of
application is the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid”’ is incorrect, if
by upward is meant vertically upward. A cork, for instance, immersed in
a wave, will proceed to the nearest point in the wave surface, not necessarily
in a vertical direction.

88 Ocean Waves

the body round upon its centre of gravity g, until the lateral
pressures or immersions of the sides are equal ; that is until
1 k is parallel to a 6.

The body then assumes the position shown in (fig. 3, plate 1)
Let g s bea vertical line representing the weight of the body :
this is equivalent tv two forces g 7 parallel with, and g ¢ at
right angles to the surface of the liquid a b: consequently,
t g at right angles to the surface will represent the force of
buoyancy.* Hence by parity of reasoning the force of
buoyancy acts everywhere at right angles to the surface of
wave, and therefore,

19. A body floating on a wave will assume a position at
every point such that the plane of flotation will be parallel
to the wave surface at that point: the deviation of the mast
from the vertical being equal to the angle which the tangent
to the trochoidal surface at that point forms with the horizon.
Thus, (fig. 4, plate 2) different objects placed in the five points,
abcde will assume the angular positions shown. And one
object, suppose that at a, will, during the passage of a wave,
assume these positions successively. For from the defini-
tion (17)—

20. A body floating ona wave travels in the same circular
orbit as the surface particles on which it rests. (Fig.5, plate1.)
Suppose the wave proceed from right to left, as shown by the
large arrow. During its passage the body at a performs
the circle abcd, and at the same time has an angular
motion or oscillation about its centre of gravity, such that
the plane of flotation is everywhere a tangent to the surface;
for instance, at b and d the plane is tangential to the curve
at e and f on the same level. The velocity with which the
body is carried round is of course uniform, and in deep
water is always less than the horizontal velocity of the
wave.

21. The absolute motion or locus described by a given
point of the floating body is an epicycloidal curve
resembling an ellipse, one of whose axes is the diame-
ter of the orbital circle. For instance, (fig. 6, plate 2) if a b
c ad be the orbital circle as before, the mast-head will

* Hence it appears that the common proposition that a floating body
displaces its own weight of water is incorrect, except in the case when the
the surface of the water in which it floats is horizontal. If 6 represent the
angle of inclination of the surface, and B the weight of the body, 5 cos @ is
the true weight of the displaced water. Hence also, a body on the side of a
wave, is less immersed than when in the trough or on the summit.

and their Action on Floating Bodies. 89

describe approximately the ellipse h e f g. The diameter
of the orbital circle is here the major axis, the given point,
viz. the mast-head, being above the centre of gravity of the
body. Butif it be below, as suppose by the projection of
the mast beneath, the ellipse 77 & lis described, in which
the diameter of the orbital circle k 7 is equal to the menor
axis. The other axis is the distance between the two
positions which the given point occupies, at the approaching
and departing mid-points of the wave.

22. The axis of the angular motion is parallel to the ridge
of the wave.

Fig.7. Letaarepresenttheridge of the waveadvancing inthe
direction shown by the arrow ; A and 5 two floating bodies.
Now, as the solid form of the wave may be supposed to be
generated by the motion of the trochoidal surface curve
along the straight line of the ridge, the water is level at
every point of the diameter bc cf the body A drawn
parallel to a @; the force of buoyancy therefore affects the
parts on either side of this line, whence 6 cis the axis of
angular motion. Similarly, in the cubic body B, the line
d e passing parallel to a a through the centre of gravity of
the body, is the axis of the angular motion of B. For the
sake of distinction call this axis of motion, parallel to the
ridge, the resultant or wave axis: and the inclination upon
it the wave angle.

Fig.8. Ifthe bodybean polonees ure of inconsiderabledimen-
sions, as at C, and it be required { to refer the angular motion
on the wave axis di ¢ to angular motions on the axis 7 7 and
g h of the body, in order to determine the oblique position
of the body with respect to the ridge of the wave, call 7
the pitch axis, g h the rolling axis. Let the whole angle of
inclination on the wave axis be 6; the required inclinations
on g h and 7), or the rolling and pitch angles respectively
equal to ¢ and yy; then, by a well-known theorem of
spherics cos 6 = cos ¢ cos ¥.

If a plummet be suspended from the mast, the angle
between the mast line and plummet line is equal to the
wave angle.

23. The greatest angle of inclination of the body is at the
mid point of the wave, and is less than half a right angle.
In the figure 5, paragraph 20, let b be the mid-point on the
circle corresponding to the position ¢ on the wave. Now, it
is a property of this curve that a tangent at the point e is
parallel to a chord dc of the rolling circle, and this chord

90 Ocean Waves

being that of 90° it forms with the horizontal line d b e an
angle of 45°, which is therefore the maximum slope angle
at the point e.*

24, The whole motion of the body is compounded of
three oscillations, viz.: a bodily horizontal oscillation, or

sway, thus >> :; a bodily vertical oscillation, or

heave, thus ; and an angular oscillation, or roll, thus

af

In the upper semicircle (figure 5, paragraph 20) the bodily
sway is from right to left, the angular motion of the mast
from left to right, and these are reversed in the lower
semicircle. Hence we have for general rules that—

When a body rises on a wave it is swayed horizontally
first against the wave and then with it, but when falling on
a wave, first with it and then against it.

A floating body on the upper part of a wave is swayed
with the wave ; on the lower part against it.

The sway is equal to the heave or vertical rise and fall on
approach and departure of the wave.

During the passage of a wave, there are two oscillations
of the plummet equal to twice the wave angle; or four half
oscillations equal to the wave angle.

_ These laws are universal, for though they are deduced

on the assumption that the floating body is inconsiderable
in magnitude with respect to the wave, they hold in a
modified degree in the case of large bodies. For instance,
if one end of a vessel rises to a wave, it is certain that the
part which rises sways first against the advancing wave and
then with it, and in falling, first follows the receding wave
and then leaves it.

25. A ship, one diameter of whose plane of flotation is
greater than the other, buoyed upon a wave or different parts
of a wave, is acted on variously by their forces, which, as the
vessel is a rigid body, in a great measure neutralise each
other ; her actual motion of course is in accordance with the

around the wave axis or centre of gravity.

* By slope angle in future will be intended the greatest inclination or
maximum angle attained by a vessel of any magnitude during an oscillation.
It is customary for shipwrights to denote this angle by 0 as above.

and their Action on Floating Bodies. 91

resultant of these forces. Hence the angle of inclination
which she assumes will determine her position upon the
resultant wave.

Fig.9. Forinstance, suppose A beasmall body upon thelower
part of a wave, a b progressing from right to left. A being
inconsiderable the force of buoyancy isin the single direction
shown by the arrow d (18), and being in the lower part of
the wave, the body partakes singly of the moving force of
the wave in the retrogade direction, shown by the arrow e
(22). Now, suppose a very large body 6 B of similar figure
to A, and whose centre of gravity is in the same point, be
held in a similar position to A as shown in the figure. The
body B covers the whole wave surface ¢ a b, and is acted on
by the force of buoyancy in all the various directions shown
by the small arrows at right angles to the surface; the
resultant of which is such that B cannot maintain the same
position as A ; for resolving the force of buoyancy into the
hydrostatic pressure on the sides b if gand g ¢, and taking
g h equal to b f, the force of buoyancy, that is the pressure
of the water to fill up the displacement, acts on the sides f g
and h ¢ (since b f and hg neutralise each other) will force
the body round by virtue of the preponderating force on hi ¢.
Again, since B covers the summit as well as the trough, the
moving force of the wave urges it on at the summit and
backward in the trough (23). On account of these con-
flicting actions, the body B moves only partially with the
particles of water in which it floats, and therefore as the
positions of the waves constantly shift with respect to it, the
motion of a large body floating on waves may be described
as a ceaseless attempt to obtain an equilibrium which it
never acquires.*

26. Fig. 10. But, whatever be the composite motion of the
body B, this motion will be regular, that is it will be regularly
repeated on the same system of waves. For, suppose the
body 6 rest upon a series of parallel waves a a, b b, ¢¢,
progressing in the direction shown by the arrow, and in the
position shown, the mast will assume an angle with the ver-
tical equal to 6. Then the waves being uniform when 0 has
progressed to c, a has progressed to b; the relative position
on the waves being similar ; ; consequently, as like causes
produce like effects, the mast will assume the same angle
with the vertical as before. Nor will the result be affected

* See the footnote, 2 46.

92 Ocean Waves

if the vessel be moving uniformly on her course : the periods
of the oscillations only will be affected : her angular position
with respect to the ridges remaining the same.

Fig.11. Next, suppose the vessel be acted on by two systems
of waves, viz., a a, bb, cc, as before, and p p, 7 q, 7 7, &., pro-
gressing obliquely to them: and in the position denoted the
mast assume an angle with the vertical equal to 6. Now, if
the system a @ progress with the same velocity as the system
p p Qn which case they must be equal in magnitude {8} ye
when the wave a has progressed ‘to the position b, p has
progressed to the position qg, and the two systems are in the
same position as before with respect to the vessel: whence
the same inclination @ will be repeated with the passage of
each wave.

If, however, the velocity of one system be 2 times that of
the other, n of the large (and therefore more rapid) waves
will have to pass before the next less one brings the two
systems into the same relative position with the body. In
this case therefore the vessel will repeat the same cycle of
movements ; hence, universally, if a floating body however
great float upon two or more systems of waves, and keep
the same course or angle with respect to them, her motions
upon them will be performed in regular cycles, each cycle
comprising as many passages of the largest system of waves
as is equal to the least common multiple of the velocities of
all the systems.

27. The wave motions of a vessel of any size, steering a
uniform course at sea, therefore, instead of being irregular
follow these exact laws. In fact, we may imagine a resultant
wave and the position and oscillations of a floating body of
any magnitude or shape to be referable to those of an incon-
siderable body upon this resultant wave. The orbit of the
particles in such a wave would be elliptical, the elements of
the wave being peculiar to each vessel, according to her
magnitude and build. These elements can be accurately
obtained by observations on bodies entirely withinboard, as
will be subsequently shown. The period, dimensions, and
position of the hypothetical wave being thence deducible.

Of course there are disturbing influences, such as imme-
diate effects of the wind, variations in the wave elements,
in the vessel’s course, &c. Making allowances for these,
however, a long series of experiments would furnish reliable
if not very exact data for measurement of the mean elements
of resultant waves. .

$$$ at ee SSS eae
eee

and their Action on Floating Bodies. 93

28. With regard to the action of wave forces on a floating
body, let us first take the case of a body of inconsiderable
magnitude.

Thus, if the body be at the point B; it is acted on by the
force of gravity, in the direction Ba; by the force of
buoyancy in the direction Bd ; perpendicular to the tangent
of the wave surface at B; and by the moving force of the
particles in the direction Bf; tangential to the orbital circle

-at B. Now, resolve the forces of gravity into the two forces
Be and Bb, tangential with and perpendicular to the
trochoidal surface. Then the constituent bb and the force
of buoyancy bd neutralise each other, and Be the resultant
of Be and Bf, will be the resultant force, the locus corres-
ponding to which is the orbital circle; gravity being the
only one of the forces which is constant in direction. Hence,
therefore, the bodily motion of a floating body on a wave is
the resultant (variable) of three forces, viz.: the force of
oravity, the force of buoyancy, and the moving force of the
particles of water.

Now, the same proposition holds in the case of a body of
considerable magnitude, the only difference being, that the
force of buoyancy and the moving force of the particles are,
in this case, themselves resultant forces (25).

The angular motion of the body round its centre of gravity
or waye axis, 1s due to the force of buoyancy alone, acting
in a variable direction by the shifting of the wave surface.
The force of buoyancy is consequently exerted in two ways, viz.:
in oscillating the body round its wave axis, and in moving
the axis bodily. Now, the force tending to move any point
within a vessel, is compounded of these: the part is moved
by the resultant of all the wave forces, and of the force of
gravity acting upon that part.

29. The momentum of a floating body on a wave, is equal
to the momentum of the displaced water. For, as the body
displaces a weight of water equal to the force of buoyancy
(18), the result is the same as if the immersed part consisted
of particles of the liquid, or were part and parcel of the
wave. The wave force, therefore, exerted on floating bodies,
is proportional to the masses of such bodies. A large body
which subtends several waves, is of course acted upon by
more forces than is a less body ; the rigidity of the body, in
fact, serves to oppose or unite the various forces.

Thus, if the immersion of a body be ten times as great as
that of another body, and the direction of the level of the

94 Ocean Waves

water be changed, the force of buoyancy to rectify the
position of the larger body will be ten times as great as that .
exerted on the less, but it has, of course, ten times the mass
to move, and in the latter case, the force partially opposes
itself, as illustrated in the figure, (fig. 7) paragraph 22.

30. But the motion of a floating body, however large,
being simply due to the resultant of all the forces acting
upon it, the actual motion of such body in space, is a
measure of the mechanical effect exerted on it. Thus, if a
vessel of 1,200 tons, by the action of wave forces, be raised
or heaved two feet in a second; the mechanical effect is
equivalent to a weight of 1,200 tons raised two feet per
second, or 144,000 tons raised one foot per minute, which is
nearly equal to 10,000 horse power. Such, for instance,
would represent the gigantic impetus or force of the blow
with which a vessel so circumstanced would be dashed
against a rock.

In regard to the angular motion, the prodigious effort of
the force of buoyancy acting upon a surface of the eighth or
even the fourth of an acre, is on the same stupendous scale.

It follows from the preceding considerations that every
portion of a body floating upon waves tends to move in the
same orbit as the particles of water which would occupy
its place were there no floating body. The rigidity of the
ship unites or opposes these tendencies, and the whole mass
moves only in accordance with their resultant ; the stability
of the vessel depending on the degree with which these
tendencies are counteracted by her magnitude and build.
But it hence follows that the straining of a vessel in a sea-
way wmereases in proportion with the wmerease im her
stability. 1 think this somewhat important distinction
should not be forgotten in the general eagerness to produce
stable ships. The greater the freedom with which a vessel
rides on the waves, the less will she be strained by the
action of their forces. Nothing can be more certain than
that if a vessel does not heel on a wave, the wave must
strike her; and no vessel is so strong as to withstand, with-
out detriment, for a lengthened period the continuous and
unwearying assault of those gigantic forces by which she is
surrounded. If a vessel is too unstable, she is liable to
overset; but if her stability be increased to an undue
amount she may be unsafe from another cause, namely,
excessive straining, possibly eventuating after a long time
in unlooked-for leakage or fracture. Between these two

. and their Action on Floating Bodies. 95

risks there must be a certain degree of stability which com-
bines the maximum of safety. It would, perhaps, be small
consolation for a man to know he had assured himself from
the danger of being capsized by an extra liability, of going
straight down, and it may fairly be useful to apprehend the
condition that a safe ship is one which partially opposes the
wayes, and partially evades them by obeying them.

In like manner a very steady ship is not necessarily the
most comfortable one. The frequency with which the seas
must visit her decks, and the constant creaking of her frame
by the enormous moving force of water which she opposes
are considerations in a long voyage. Whether these or
greater freedom of motion on the waves be the less objec-
tionable is of course matter for individual judgment.

It is certain, however, that very excessive steadiness will
never be attained; the magnitude of ocean waves being
too great in comparison with the possible size of ships to
- render it feasible. For instance, a wave only ten feet in
height (and the surface of mid-ocean, in calm or storm is
seldom if ever free from rollers of this magnitude) has a
breadth of never less than thirty feet; so that we may
easily perceive the huge effect which the force of buoyancy
of such a wave must exert in shifting from one side to

another, even of a vessel of fifty feet beam. The largest vessel

yet constructed, the Great Eastern, is a notable example of
this remark. She follows the waves heavily in a sea-way.
The investigations herein will tend to show that the
oscillation of a vessel on waves is the resultant of three
simultaneous oscillations. I think, therefore, that the
natural period of rolling of vessels when heeled over in
smooth water, which seems to be the basis of the extensive
experiments in ship-building now being made in England,
and which we are told other governments are closely watch-
ing, will be found to be at variance with the natural period
at sea. A more practical method would appear to be to deter-
mine by a course of wide-spread observations obtained in
selfregistering instruments, the actwal movements of vessels
during their voyages. For this purpose an instrument has
been devised, by the assistance of which it is hoped also to
establish definitely the mean elements of ocean waves ; but
ag its action depends upon what I have called the principle
of independent inertia, a somewhat abstruse subject, I will,
with your permission, reserve its consideration for another

paper.

96 | Ocean Waves

How far the largest vessels are influenced by wave motion
is shown by the early attempts to lay submarine telegraph
cables, in which the wave motion of the ship was not pro-
vided for. Of the first Atlantic cable, we are told “the
stern of the Niagara was down in the trough of a sea, and
the extra strain caused by her rising was the immediate
cause of the cable’s parting.’—(London Times, August 15,
1857.)

The Agamemnon also, was so seriously damaged by
the shifting of a coil of the cable, as to cause
serious apprehensions for her safety (‘‘ Prescott’s Electric
Telegraph,” p. 180). The first Mediterranean cable was also
destroyed from the same cause, viz.: the plunging of the
ship (New York Times, August 28, 1857). Improved
machinery, of course, now averts these disasters, but the
facts show the extent of wave influence on vessels, so
great as are employed in these undertakings.

The facts also show the singular inattention* bestowed on
the great phenomenon of waves in itself. Thus, Lieut.
Raper (“ Practice of Navigation”) repeatedly refers to the
sudden rise of a heavy swell “without any known cause,
generally very quickly and subsiding very soon, and which
constitutes a formidable danger.” H.M.S. Julia was wrecked
in a calm at Tristen d’Acunha in a few minutes. More
recently, very severe loss was experienced at St. Helena.
The U.S. Exploring Expedition anchored off San Francisco,
Noy. 1, 1841; the Vincennes being in seven fathoms and
three miles off shore; About 10 p.m., the rollers got up and
broke with the continued roar of a surf. At midnight, a
sea broke heavily on board the Vincennes, a ship of 780
tons, displaced the booms and boats, and killed a man.”

Now, these occurrences admit of easy explanation on
referring to what has been here said on the permanence of
waves (1); such rollers being the product of a sudden and
transient squall, perhaps hundreds of miles distant, and
whose existence may have ceased many days before
the waves propagated reached the point of observation.
Thus, we are told that “H.MS. Jsis, 450 miles to the

* There is perhaps no other subject which has so excited the universal
attention and awe of mankind, as that of the waves of the ocean. From
time immemorial poets have delighted in portraying the magnitude of the
powers which work the deep and rule the highway of nations. Yet, it is not
a little curious that this subject, which, of all others, would be thought most
likely to éngage the common interest, should only just now be entering into
the ken of scientific research.

and ther Action on Floating Bodies. 97

N.W. of Rodriguez, met with an enormous sea rolling from
the S.E., about the time of the hurricane at that island in
Feb., 1844.” (Thomson, “ Law of Storms ”)’

Why does a wave break? On a reference to the diagram
in Section 20, the reason will soon become clear. It
will be seen that, as the wave approaches in one
direction, the particles of water before it proceed towards
it in the opposite direction; in other words, while an
advancing wave leaves behind it the particles which
it has raised; it sucks up its supplies for the advance
of the shape from the waters in front of it. Hence, if the
waters in front are insufficient fully to supply the form of
the wave; the form there becomes vacant, and the volume
of particles in the rest of the wave being still impelled
onward, fall over in their accustomed orbit into this vacant
space. A breaker, in fact, is but a visible demonstration of
the orbital motion of the particles, which may be observed
with advantage against a shelving beach; the breaking being
simply the completion of the movement in the unsupplied
portion of the wave.

Now, if there be good depth of water, there can be no
lack of front water; because the particles beneath will
instantly supply the place of those in front. A wave in
deep water therefore meeting with a steep down rock. does
not break ; that is, curl over, but smashes against it ; the
shock being the same as that which a vessel sustains in
seine struck by a sea. Thus, of one of the seas which
struck the steamship London, and caused her ultimate loss.
We are told that “100 tons of water fell on board.” The
phraseology is correct: it is the body of a wave which
strikes a ship, and as in this case bursts upon her. Such
occurrences, not perhaps so calamitous, are common enough at
sea. An equally disastrous one was that which befel the U.S.
ship Sun Francisco, in 1853. The vessel, on account of her
superior stability, had been selected by the American
Government for conveyance of troops from New York to
California. On the voyage, she was boarded by a mighty
wave, which, in a moment and wnawares, washed overboard
179 of the soldiers and officers. Although the unfortunate
vessel was afterwards spoken. by two others, and these par-
ticulars gained from her, she was never subsequently seen ;
so that it is probable the damage inflicted by the terrible
stroke caused her to sink.

Breaking, then, arises from the absence of a sufficient

H

98 Ocean Waves.

depth of front water. In thus arriving at the cause, appre-
hension of danger from the breaking of waves in deep water
is dispelled ; it being impossible, according to natural laws,
for deep, or what is now called blue water to break. There
is, however, a slight partial breakage from what may be
justly called practical causes. All the preceding inferences are
based on the supposition that the waves are of the same
_ size; but from the variable nature of the wind this is not
the case. When a large wave (known by seamen as a
master wave) follows a smaller one, there is a deficiency of
front water ; which is, however, instantly made up from the
particles beneath. Now, however rapidly such adjustment
takes place, it occupies an appreciable amount of time ; con-
sequently, a trifling imperfection or vacuum in the shape of
the advancing wave takes place, and a correspondingly —
slight breakage occurs; so slight, however, on account of the
rapidity with which particles of water replace each other as
to amount to no more than a ridge of foam on the crest,
dangerous perhaps to a very small boat, but not to a large
one if well managed. These considerations should be an
assurance to those who, in the hour of peril, are obliged to
entrust themselves to the mercy of the waves ; as they point
out that a boat has a much ereater chance of living in a
wild sea (always premising deep water) than fears might
suggest or has generally been supposed ; and, as a matter of
fact, the truth of the proposition has been borne out by
numbers of instances. As a rule, blue water is a guarantee
of safety.

A more general cause for the partial breakage or foam-ridge
of deep sea waves is the superior impetus which the particles
on the summit receive. The surface of the wave spreads
like a sail to catch the force of the wind. If, therefore, the
velocity of the wave be less than that of the wind, the back
and summit particles in the instant of imparting the extra
impetus to those before, will be pushed out of their place
and so break slightly. When, however, the waves have
attained their maximum velocity in accordance with the
strength of the wind (10) the partial breakage due to this
cause will have declined. ‘The general appearance, therefore.
of lines of foam or foam-ridges, familiarly termed by seamen
“ Neptune’s teeth,” is a sion that the wind 7s increasing, or
that the magnitude of the waves will increase ; and their
general decline shows either that the wind has decreased or
the magnitude of the waves increased.

LIinear Method of finding the Stability of Ships. 99 ©

Although sometimes agitated to a greater extent than at
others, the surface of mid-ocean is never free from the action
of waves. A recent authority* has declared that were the
whole ocean to be still or stagnant for a few days, all life
would be destroyed, both in it and upon the earth. The
extraordinary permanence of deep ocean-waves, as a con-
servator of power, would seem to be specially adapted in
accordance with the conditions which this statement sug-
gests: the whole surface may in fact be said to constantly
rotate in an average orbit.

The actual velocity of the particles in wave motion being
less than the apparent velocity of the wave, the mechanical
effect is the same as if the body of the wave moves actually
with a part of the velocity, as it seems todo. Let us take
the case of a great storm wave forty feet in height, 600
through at the base, and conceive a volume of water
contained in the section of such a wave moving with
a velocity of six feet per second, or 360 feet per minute.
Or consider an ordinary ocean wave sixteen feet in
height and 180 feet at the base; and multiply the
power requisite to move a section of this body of water 240
feet per minute by a thousand such and we may form an
idea of the magnitude of the energy engaged in stirring the
waters. These are the giant forces which are perpetually
traversing the surface of the ocean.

¥

Art. XXX.—On a Linear Method of finding the
Stability of Shups.

By E. K. Horne, Esa.

[Read by Mr. MacGrores, on 11th September, 1871.]

* The reference has been mislaid, but the assertion is that of an eminent
Continental naturalist.

H 2

100 On Aboriginal Art

Art. XXXI.—Abstract of a Paper on Aboriginal Art um
Australasia, Polynesia, and Oceanica, and its Decay.
By Mk. PAIn.
[Read 11th September, 1871.]

Mr. Pain commenced his paper by stating that his atten-
tion had been directed to the subject, about to be considered,
for many years past; he referred to its present general
interest, and to the increased “importance which it would
acquire at a future date, when the aboriginal races shall have
passed away, and when their works, treasured in museums,
shall have become records of a condition of things no longer
existing on the face of the globe.

It was pointed out that these primitive people and their
works formed an interesting chapter, an essential link in
the history of the human race. The rapid decay of the
native arts was also viewed from a sympathetic point of
view, regretting that such simple and beautiful specimens
of the skill of nature’s children, at present attainable if due
effort were made, should so soon pass beyond recovery.

The comprehensive nature of the subject was urged, and
as the limits of time available for the present paper pre-
cluded its consideration in detail, it was proposed that a
few of the many otherwise available facts be received as
examples of the whole.

Mr. Pain stated that, with the object of rendering his paper
as Interesting as possible, he had selected from his ethnological
collection, some of those rare and beautiful objects of
aboriginal handicraft, pertaining to Australasia, Polynesia,
and Oceanica* ; and that he trusted their exhibition would
have a stimulating effect ; that they would prove the means
of creating a desire to collect, while there is yet opportunity,
such specimens of the works of these peoples as are unique
in character; unique, because although still obtainable,
they are not now reproduced as formerly. They are not
reproduced in the same number, or in the same degree of
tasteful elaborate ornamentation.

The asserted decline of native art is attributable
chiefly to the social change to which these people are
subject, “a change by some styled civilization ; a process

* orneee were Banged a the room at ie ee s all, in which
Mr. Pain’s paper was read.

and its Decay in Australasia. 101

by which they become indoctrinated in many of the most
odious and degrading vices of Europeans, and by which
they at the same time lose the beautiful simplicity of
aboriginal character and much of the ingenuity which has
_ hitherto distinguished them as workmen.”

Further detailed reasons for this decline were advanced.
It was argued that the better class of workmen or experts
fall most readily into the habits and customs of Europeans ;
that they are the readiest, under the new conditions,
to change and to abandon their primitive notions of
ornamentation. The pre-eminent imitative faculty disposes
the individual possessor of this power to procure and
imitate the novelties introduced by the whites. The more
inquiring minds of these highly-skilled natives are most
susceptible of distraction, and their attention when once
courted by new objects and European styles of ornament
becomes thenceforth diverted from the original course. The
old characteristic styles of work are left for execution by
the less expert, but also less changeful native artizan.

Mr. Pain proceeded to state the fact that ever since the
advent of Huropeans among them, these natives have ceased
to work as of old. Their best efforts have given place to such
rude and trashy specimens (now produced expressly for
barter), as appear worthless when compared with older and
genuine examples.

“ Tf we examine one of the early art-productions of the
Fijians or New Zealanders—a carved weapon for instance,
we shall find the work to consist wholly of an ingenious
massing of ornament: the composition beautiful; the out-
line truthful; the detail elaborate; the finish exquisite.
With Nature as their guide and director, and their powers
of design being restricted, they have acquired a skill, almost
hereditary, enabling them to carry out these designs with
a degree of precision and nicety of workmanship seldom
surpassed in even the more civilized parts of the globe.
Indeed, some of their works of a century past would, at
the present day, bear favourable comparison with the finest
specimens of Kuropean art.”

The distinguishing characters of the ornamental works of
these different families are thus referred to :—
“J will now refer to the typical characters of their orna-

mental styles. The feature distinguishing between the
works of the Fijian and the New Zealander is one in which

102 On Aboriginal Art

they are diametrically opposed to each other. The Fijian
usually adopts an angular style of ornament; the New
Zealander generally employing a convoluted design. These
people are equally opposed in their respective manners of
making fabrics for articles of clothing, Wc., the Fijian being
far behind the New Zealander in this respect. This you
will see to be fully proved by the specimens which I have
this evening placed before you. The New Zealander excels
in the latter point, but, on the other hand, I would also
point out the advantage possessed by the Fijian in the
manufacture of pottery ; an art which seems to be almost
unknown to the New Zealander. Throughout these woven
and fictile manufactures they each adhere to their peculiar
designs, and to distinguishing features of ornamentation.”

“Tt matters not upon whatever work these people are
engaged, whether in the construction of their houses, the
building of their canoes, in the making of their weapons,
or their ornaments for personal wear, each invariably
adheres to a style which is one of the distinguishing peculi-
arities of the race. This practice is studiously borne out,
and belongs to the majority of the races inhabiting the
South Pacific Islands. Again, closer distinguishing features
may be detected in the works of the various tribes com-
prising the different races; each tribe strictly adhering to
some special design of its own ; usually some characteristic
carving on the énd of their weapons of war; some adopting
a convex, others a concave form, either with or without
ornament ; others affect a flat or square surface, so that it
requires a long acquaintance with their works‘to be enabled
to class them.”

Frequently I have observed specimens obtained from
one locality or race of people which have obviously been
produced in other islands. This occurrence may be easily
accounted for, by the fact of sea-faring men bartering them,
and even by the barter which these different native people
effect, at times, among themselves.”

Mr. Pain shows that errors originating from causes of the
kind alluded to have been promulgated in works of an
otherwise reliable character.

“In further illustration of these views I may refer to
Owen Jones’ beautiful and elaborate grammar of ornament.
Its first three pages are devoted to illustrations of aboriginal
art, and are copied from specimens in the United Service

and its Decay in Australasia. 103

Museum. Among these illustrations I find several speci-
mens wrongly described. One specimen certainly charac-
teristic of the natives of Tahiti is attributed to the New
Zealander. Another specimen, strictly New Zealandic in
character, cannot be placed at all, although very little know-
ledge of style would enable any one to identify it with its
producers.”

Native Wood Carving.— “The New Zealander ‘proceeds
thus: A block of wood is procured and rudely fashioned to
the required size and shape; it is then saturated with any
oily or fatty substance at command. The block is then
carefully smoked over a fire, then again. oiled, and again
smoked, and so on, until its outer surfaces are rendered
vulnerable to the very primitive tools at command of the
native artizan, namely, fragments of flint, obsidian, shell or
their celebrated green stone (jade or axestone), by means of
which their ideas are realized by a kind of etching, or, more
properly speaking, a system of scratching and scraping.”

“Another peculiarity belonging to the work of these
people is that they perfect their designs in the mind prior
to the commencement of any portion of the execution.
When the design has been thus created, a portion only of
the work is carried into execution by scratching out only so
much as it is calculated can be completed within a given
time. The workman trusts to his truly woydrous memory
which carries him faithfully through to the finish, without
misapplying a line, and this though many of their works
are of such extent as to occupy years for completion.”

The Comparative Skill of the Different Growps.—“ My
reason for selecting the aboriginals of the Fijian and
the New Zealand groups as examples, is on account of the
universal opinion which places them foremost in the ranks
of ingenious and clever native workmen ; because, indeed,
they have no rivals among the inhabitants of the Southern
Archipelago. I ought, however, to add that many clever
tribes still exist among the Tongans, the Tannaese.(?), the
Samoans, the inhabitants of Tahiti, and the New Hebrides
group; among the whole of whom the same rapid decline
of constructive and decorative art is perceptible, and their
cease is identical in this respect with that of the Fijian and
the New Zealander.”

The Nutive Arts of Samoa—*The natives of Samoa to
a great extent still hold their own in that peculiar class of

104 On Aboriginal Art

work for which they have been from our first knowledge of
them, remarkable, namely, in the building of canoes. The
old. double war canoe of these people, as it was built
generations back (a model of which, executed by them, I
now produce), was throughout of such excellence as would
do credit to a civilized people. Alas! these have now
departed, making way for the single canoe and outrigger,
which although decidedly a decadence must yet be con-
sidered a creditable performance.

Their canoes range from 20 to 40 feet in length, and they
are seldom more than three feet in width, which necessitates
an outrigger. They are rudely fashioned from the body of
a tree, and are attached by two poles in a way similar to
that formerly employed for the double canoes. These canoes
are in many instances lavishly ornamented with shells and
mother-of-pearl, yet never display any such beautiful traced
or carved ornament as those emanating from the Fijian
or the New Zealander. When the French navigator,
Bougainville, visited this group of islands in 1768, he was
struck with the large fleet of canoes with which his vessel
was immediately surrounded ; and hence he designated them
“the Navigators ;’ Samoa being the native name of the
group.”

New Caledonia. — If we compare the works of the
natives of New Caledonia with those produced by the
Samoans, we shall find that the two styles are almost
identical, excepting the particular item of canoe building.
In each case the manufactures are of an useful and substan-
tial character, the most esteemed weapons of war being
in many cases totally destitute of ornament. Neither of
these races possesses high ability in ornamentation. A slight
advantage may be justly awarded to the New Caledonian
for his production of a rude kind of pottery; it is, however,
of such an inferior kind as to be in no respect comparable to
the fine and most useful fictile works of the Fijian.”

Mr. Pain having instanced his views hy the examples
above given, and having pointed to the Fijian and New
Zealander as. the most energetic and skilful of these
aboriginal races, contrasts them with the Australian and
Tasmanian natives, whom he characterizes as the most
indolent, and as occupying the lowest grade of intelligence,
and especially of constructive ability, of all these races ; so
low, indeed, as to show scarcely sufficient capacity or skill

and its Decay in Australasia. 105

for making even a slight covering for themselves. The
Tasmanian he places even lower than the Australian, pro-
ducing absolutely nothing beyond one or two primitive
weapons. Reeret is expressed concerning the Tasmanian, for
the small interest generally manifested towards collecting
such relics as could have been recently, and such as might
yet be obtained for preservation in museums ; and especially
as one last remaining female survivor is all that now
remains of this once relatively numerous people. Allusion
is made to the deceased king Billy, who was the last male
of the Tasmanian native race, and to the unseemly proceedings
attending his demise; and two highly typical and accurate
life-size busts of Wanroddy, and Treginney his wife (parents
of King Billy), were exhibited in illustration of remarks
concerning the mode in which the Tasmanian native was
made to retreat before the footsteps of the white man. It
was stated how Wanroddy and Treginney became instru-
ments towards this end, decoying their own people and
betraying them into the hands of the Government autho-
rities, and how a small pension was the reward for this base
service. Mr. Pain explained further how the whole residual
Tasmanian race, thus handed over, was shipped off and con-
centrated in Flinder’s Island, and how, thus localized, they
have rapidly diminished and are now in the last act of
dying out, leaving the seantiest vestiges in evidence of their
career,

Mr. Pain’s paper concluded with a few hints concerning
a scheme for collecting and preserving a museum of high
class native art, which he proposed should be attached to
this Society ; concerning which proposition it may be
remarked that there is at least one other institution in
Melbourne in which such a collection has been already com-
menced, and moreover that the acquisition and care of an
ethnological art-series is certainly at present beyond the
scope of this Society’s business.

ee a a eee

106 On » Argis and Nebula.

ArT. XXXIT—On y Argds and Nebula. By
F. MACGEORGE.

[Read 9th October, 1871.]

The admirable sketch and description of this wonderful
object given by the late Sir John Herschel, and the catalogue
of the stars comprised in it, form together—as far as the
power of his 18-inch aperture could reach—a complete
record of the appearance of 7 Argtis and Nebula, between
the years 1834—1838. In that description he gives the
position of certain stars on the borders of the lemniscate or
central vacuity, close to the star y, in these words: “ Four
stars, Nos. 686, 603, 589, and 670=w of the catalogue, are
placed precisely on its edges, and will serve as excellent
detectors of change in its form, should any occur. The
stars No. 607=¢, 664=v, and 616, though near the edge,
are yet fairly immersed in the Nebula. On the other hand,
No. 634, situated in the contraction of the oval towards its
middle, is yet fairly within the vacancy, and so situated,
that the slightest shifting of the nebulous contour at its
preceding side, cannot fail to be rendered sensible.” This
piece of precise word-painting, added to the evidence of
the published engraving in Sir John’s Cape observations, is

most valuable, since a comparison with the nebula, as seen .-

in 1871, will shew beyond doubt or cavil, the inapplicability
of such a description, and such a drawing to tlie present
appearance of the lemniscate outline in the Great Telescope.
The rough chalk sketch marked 4, is a copy from part of
the inverted drawing of Herschel, re-inverted to suit ordinary
telescopes ; and I hope it will be distinctly understood that
this and the other five rough copies from the working
drawings are the work of one hour, and only intended to
shew the salient points and the two or three stars referred
to, the rest being unimportant.

From 1838 to 1869 no observations of the nebula around
7 of a trustworthy character could be made—owing to the
want of a telescope of sufficient power—although most
interesting and important observations of the star 7 itself,
and of the surrounding stars, have been made with small
apertures, and Mr. Tebbutt of New South Wales, in
particular, has in the Astr. Soc. Monthly Notices, for May last
given a list of magnitudes of » Argus from 1854 to 1870, which

On » Argds and Nebula. . 107

seems to shew that small periodical fluctuations of its light
are still in progress, presaging possibly another outburst of
this wondrous variable.

Mr. Le Sueur’s first glance through the great Telescope
at y Areus, in April 1869, revealed important changes, shewn
in sketch 1 ; y, which in 1838 was involved in dense nebula,
was seen on bare sky—the nebula having disappeared for
some distance around it—and the southern loop of the lemnis-
cate, consisting of equally dense nebula in 1838, had grown
so faint as almost to disappear. The preceding side of the
lemniscate had bulged out into the vacuity and stretched
itself out into a bridge or isthmus, which, after a bend
towards a projecting cape on the other side which seemed to
stretch into the vacuity to meet it, passed northwards and
jomed ‘the other loop of the lemniscate. The overlying
streak or veil alluded to by Herschel, and shewn in his
chart, had divided into a V shaped appendage to the V end
of the V p loop of the lemniscate, and in July following,
Mr. Le §. notes that a faint bridge existed, joining the S
end of the isthmus with the nebula on the f side, across the
vacuous channel.

As 7 Argis has no sensible parallax, and in all probability
is in physical connection with the nebula, we may assume
every second of arc upon the rough drawings supplied, to
represent at the least twice the diameter of the earth’s orbit,
and as each of the sides of the squares shown upon the
drawings represents 180 seconds of are, a rough scale is
supplied by which to estimate changes whose magnitude and
rapidity have no parallel in astronomic record; yet these
changes as they are followed through their cycle, may
remind the observer more or less forcibly of internal changes
not very dissimilar, which are so frequently exhibited in
sun-spots.

Still more wonderful im its rapidity appears the change
represented by Mr, Le 8’s next drawing of January 1870,
only six months later, readily shewn in sketch 2. The
isthmus of nebula has detached itself from the north side of
the lemniscate, and withdrawn itself through 90 seconds of
arc to form a broader peninsula of nebula, with such
rapidity, that the severed end of the isthmus would appear
to have travelled at a rate, per month, of 30 times the
diameter of our orbit. These distances are of course esti-
mated at right angles with the visual ray, and the real
distances will in all cases be greater, since the various parts

108 ° On y Argus and, Nebula.

of this nebula are doubtless situated at widely different
distances from the observer.

This second sketch of Mr. Le Sueur’s contains little else
that differs from his first, except that in the corner he makes
a memorandum : “Noticed a bridge at + Jan. 31, 70—
never sure (?) before—may be small stars.” But as he notes
on his first sketch : “ Bridge at ¢ in channel—no doubt at all
-—April—July, 1869.” The truth probably is that a bridge
existed at both these periods, which had been withdrawn in
the interval, as my subsequent notes may explain.

Last month, after concluding my year’s observations on
this nebula—then becoming too low sub polo to observe—I
unexpectedly came upon a third sketch (No. 3) of Mr. Le

. Sueur’s, among some of his stray papers. Although un-

finished—indeed, just commenced—I look upon it as the
most valuable of the three, for, so far as it goes, it entirely
corroborates the evidence of one change since observed by
myself in the nebula, and sketched by me in entire ignorance
of this sketch, thus supplying so unexpected yet stringent a
link between his observations and mine, that hereafter no
suspicion of optical bias as affecting the more important
changes observed can enter my mind.

After dotting down on his sketch all the stars observed
near 7— nearly three times outnumbering Herschel’s in that
space—which agree entirely with my latest sketch, even to
the position of a minute triple star 7 f and close to 7 shown
double by H., and triple, but differently placed in 1871
by Mr. Bussel, of Sydney Observatory, Mr. Le Sueur
proceeds about March ’70, to pencil the outline of the lem-
niscate, and at 2’ 30” » 1’ N of 7 shews the outline of a gulf
or cleft commencing at the star 634 H. This star is one of
those landmarks described by H. in the year 1838 as being
near the margin. Mr. Le Sueur’s sketch shows it nearly in
mid-channel ; 616 H, however, being still involved in nebula.
Here probably Mr. Le Sueur saw the commencement of the
intricate changes since observed by me in the 7 ~p loop of the
lemniscate, and paused to unravel them before proceeding.

In December, 1870, 7 was again sufficiently high to observe,
and I took the first opportunity of turning upon it on the
27th, when, on comparison with Mr. Le Sueur’s sketches 1
and 2—for No. 3 had not then been found—showed marked
changes in the nebula, and I at once commenced my first
sketch, No. 4, confining myself to the neighbourhood of
the lemniscate, where the most important changes seemed to

On y Argis and Nebula. 109

be taking place, and where, from the brightness of the nebula
and the amount of varying detail, the best field offered for
the powers of the Great Telescope. For the changes of which
I have spoken, and those of which I have yet to furnish a
description, are utterly beyond the powers of detection of
every other instrument in the southern hemisphere. With-
out the Great Telescope another thirty years might have
elapsed without producing changes sufficiently great to be
within the compass of ordinary observatories.

Ignorant then of Mr. Le 8.’s third sketch, and diffident of
describing and drawing what I saw from the mere mag-
nitude of the changes which had appeared in so short a
time, I made a rapid sketch of the nebular portion of the
lemniscate and neighbourhood, only putting in such stars
as were necessary to guide the eye. The gulf at 634 H was
one of the first features sketched, and my drawing shews
not only that this star is in mid-channel, but that 616 H
also is left nearly clear of nebula. The promontory which
Mr. Le 8.’s second sketch shews still remaining, has detached
its extremity to form an island of nebula, in which I note a
star-like nucleus, and this, with the remnant of the
promontory, seems to direct itself still more towards the
opposing cape, which, however, does not appear so prominent
as in Sketch 2. This, and the neighbouring parts of this
margin of the lemniscate appears to keep the same hard
deiinite outline which is presented by Sir J. H. but at 14 »
3 =side of each square, 14 NV, the outline seems encroaching
upon the lemniscate, and leaving a little nearer 7 an oval
patch of thinner nebula than that which surrounded it.
Southwards also, the nebulous outline seems to be curdling
and breaking up, and is evidently much less dense than
drawn by 7D and a little less so than drawn by Le 8.

But in the V p loop of the lemniscate changes perhaps still
more evident are going on. ‘The outline preceding HT 670,
which in Sketch 1 largely bulged into the lemniscate to meet
the isthmus, and which in Sh. 2 and Sk. 3 is slowly with-
drawing itself has still further retracted in a NV p direction ;
the outline p this is withdrawing also in a NV p direction,
and two condensations are taking place in the faint nebula
which fills the V p loop of the lemniscate. The curved NV p
arm of the V shaped appendage has turned itself into a V
and S direction, and both arms appear straighter than in
Sk’s land 2. A faint branch of nebula also appears 14 V
of 7, and proceeds in a f direction, giving an appearance

¢

110 On » Argtis and Nebula.

again approaching nearly to that drawn by H. in 1838.
The very faint nebula S p », does not appear at all until 2’
dist. where the outline of the faint nebula now seems to
commence. ‘The outlying portions preceding lemniscate
also show slight changes, but to these I have not devoted so
close an attention, deeming it better to keep a close and
unremitting watch over the central portions, than to distract
the mind with too great a variety of details, and what I
have sketched, however carefully, I confirm by verbal
description in my notes on the spot, and add any impressions,
however trivial, which strike me at the time, as such
impressions are sometimes found to prove of the greatest
value in retrospect.

On the 17th January, of this year, I note: Power 520
shows distinct nebulosity surrounding 7 itself much con-
densed towards y chiefly in direction of lemniscate. The
margins of the channels and lemniscate come out in good
distinct relief, just as I have already sketched them ; the
vacant spaces showing almost black.

Spectrum of nebula very faint, with usual lines ghostly
and fitful.

Spectrum of 7» hazy and unsatisfactory, with diffused
light, although other stars appear distinct enough. Could
not see the slightest appearance of bright lines, but fancied
I detected with wide slit absorption bands in position of
nebular lines, but too chaotic and indistinct for measurement
although attempted frequently.

Can 7's light be absorbed by surrounding nebula? At
the time Le Sueur observed (December 1869), he says, “ No
nebula is apparent about y, although sky did not appear so
black as in lemniscate spaces, and 7 gave bright lines.”

Next evening (18th January) Mr. Ellery confirmed my
observations and verified sketch. Neither he nor Professor
Smith, who was also present, recognised the spectrum of 7
when shown in the telescope as the same which they had
seen the year before, and could find no bright lines. I
again imagined I saw the same ghosts of absorption lines
in the positions of the usual bright lines of the nebula.

On the 18th May my notes describe the appearance of a
small star in the oval space WV. p. y before described (owing
to the nebula becoming still thinner in that spot) forming
the head-star to a sort of miniature Orion of minute stars :
a pentagon enclosing seven stars, five of which were seen by
Le Sueur, none by H. The notes then proceed: “The

:
|

———E

On » Argtis and Nebula. 111

small nucleus or involved star at a. (The zsland) in sketch
appears brighter than in December (Le Sueur does not show
this star at all) and could not be missed by a casual observer,
and there is a general appearance of change going on which
I have not time to note to night.” A close triplet of stars
very minute, and never before seen by any one, appeared in
mid-channel of lemniscate, and faint bridges between the
island to cape before mentioned and the island and margin
S. f: also appear.

On the 17th June, the “island” star appears in the new
channel between the island and the promontory to which it
lately belonged, and is noted as being for the first time
indubitably a star. These changes appear to indicate the
movement of the island away from the promontory and
towards the opposing capes. On 21st June, among other
minute changes, I note that the island is nearer the cape
than before observed ; but that the star is again becoming
obscured by nebula in new channel, and then proceed.
“The triplet V fy shown by H. as double only, by
Le Sueur not at all, seems freer from nebula than before,
indeed may be said to be positively free from it: the new
star of the ‘Orion’ is r f again, only apparent at
intervals.”

On the 22nd, “Opened up 5 p.m. on 7 Arets with excel-
lent definition powers 230 and 520. Island appears hard
and defined at S f edge as before ; but 520 shows a narrow
channel between this and the main nebula, instead of bridge
before noted. Power 1300 shows this also more clearly,
and confirms beyond a doubt the existence of a bridge at
100” p and 60” N of ». Many new stars.appear also around
y and elsewhere, y quite involved in nebula, condensed in
neighbourhood of 7; notch ” in WV f side of this net in
which the triplet shows clearly. The definition with power
1300 is magnificent, and I used it with great effect for an
hour.” |

On the 17th June—I ought to mention—change had
proceeded so fur that I had determined not to alter sketch 4,
my first one, but to commence a new one; which I accord-
ingly did, and commenced now to map (Sketch 5) every star
I saw in and around the lemniscate as well as the nebular
details. Besides the island now in mid-channel yet almost
touching either shore there exist at the period of this last
sketch—still incomplete—three instead of two areas of
condensation in the NV p loop of the lemniscate, and the

112 On » Argis and Nebula.

northern outline of this loop is moving north, proceeding so
as to approximate this outline more to its appearance in
1838 than any previous drawings show it. Yet this outline
is so faint that owing to the brightness of the included
nebula the eye traces it with difficulty and at first takes the
boundary of the included nebula as that of the lemniscate
which viewed thus would appear to be much more narrowed
than it has really been.

The S margin of the gulf has retired still further from 634
and 616 H., and left 634 in mid-channel (a close double star
as the Great Telescope now shows it), and 616 well clear of
the nebula. The fading away of nebula is still extending
around y as a centre, although that star is still apparently
nebulous, and a very faint nebulous bridge only joined to the
nebula, north preceding. The oval patch seems to be
changing its form and closing up, and the head star of the
minute ‘‘ Orion” is now never seen, and the Vp star of
the pentagon rarely so. This configuration of stars has on
several occasions given the vivid impression of being ‘“‘ set”
on the nebula, with the exception of the two just mentioned,
and I incline to think that the latter are on the other side
of the nebula, the former on the side next the earth. :

It may be interesting to add that on many occasions, and
these always of the best definition, the nebula gave a dis-
tinct stereoscopic impression to my eye, particularly when
under high powers. The margin of the lemniscate always
appearing the thickest part, and the vacuity appearing like
a huge snowy cave with uneven woolly sides.

With the kind assistance of Mr. Martin, an amateur in
astronomy, | have commenced a catalogue of the stars
observed, 109 of which have been observed within the th
of a square degree immediately surrounding 7. Within this
space Herschel’s 18 inch aperture recorded only 39.

Since reading the above paper at the Royal Society of
Victoria, I have had four opportunities of re-examination of
this nebula, now rising into position in the evenings, and its
appearance is in the main that represented by my last
drawing and description, no important change having since
occurred. The lemniscate has apparently gone through a
cycle of changes, and has now become once more stationary.

Learning from Mr. Russell that he intends to revise his
paper, published in 1871, I may defer remark upon it until
then, except to corroborate Mr. Russell’s remarks as to the
alleged colours of stars near 7 observed by Mr. Abbott. I

Btyokr afi.
Pye ar Ge 14¢
Oa;

D (Wine

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SSS SSS SS SSS SESS SSS SSS SSSI SSS SESE ESSSSS

PAW

CHU SS

ARE OMETER

Avreometer. 113

also have been unable to detect decided colour with any
telescope, beyond a ruddy tinge in one or two, certainly no
colour to compare even remotely with those of « Crucis.
And the magnitudes and positions of the stars around y, as
seen in the Great Telescope, agree in most cases sufficiently
well to enable the discrepancies to be assigned to ordinary
errors of observation and reduction. Where any important
differences occur they are generally found among small stars,
which, although palpable enough in a four feet aperture,
must have been at the extreme limit of vision in Sir John’s
18-inch reflector.

It does not seem to have been before remarked of the
stars which are in optical connection with the nebula, that
they cluster most about those parts where the nebula is, or
has been, most condensed. This appears from Sir John
Herschel’s drawing and catalogue as well as my own, and is
suggestive of physical connection between stars and nebula.

Art. XXXIII.—Avreometer. By Grorct Foorp, Esa.
[Read 9th October, 1871.]

The instrument which I have now the pleasure of sub-
mitting to your inspection involves no new principle, and
ean scarcely lay claim to novelty of form; it is in fact no
more than a modification or expansion of what has been
already described. I beg to remind you that occasionally
during the Society’s meetings, when the papers read have
happened to make a somewhat short evening’s sitting, it
has been felt that some light supplementary subject would
fulfila want, by extending the business to a convenient
duration. It is in this sense that I now venture to place this
form of areometer before you, premising that in Lehmann’s
Physiological Chemistry,—the English edition, published by
the Cavendish Society, at page 437 of vol. i of that
work, occurs the following passage :—“ Among the different
areometers there is only one which deserves any special
notice; but this instrument, which is constructed by
Alexander, of Munich*, yields, according to my experience,
much more accurate results than one might be disposed to
expect, a prior, from its construction. It is arranged in
the following manner: —‘two parallel graduated tubes,

* Polytechn. Centralb., 1847, Heft 6, 5. 361,
I

114 A reometer.

both open at one end and communicating with each other
at their other ends, at which is a small syringe, are intro-
duced, the one into water, the other into the liquid to
be examined. The air in the tubes is now slightly rarified
by means of the syringe, when, by comparing the elevation
of the water and of the other liquid in the tubes, the ratio
of their specific gravities is given. ‘This is the best of all
the instruments for rapidly determining the density, as the
influence of temperature and of atmospheric pressure are
here almost eliminated.”

The instrument before you conforms in principle and in
general arrangements with the description quoted. We
have, you will observe, two glass tubes, each about three feet
long and of very nearly the same internal diameter, namely,
three-quarters of an inch. The lower ends of these tubes
are open; the upper ends, also open, are contracted, and
fashioned for juncture with caoutchouc tubular couplings.
Two wooden rods, each four feet long, are fixed on a stout
wooden base, so as to occupy a vertical position with an
intervening space of twelve inches between them, and near
their tops a light cross piece of wood connects these rods
and preserves their parallel position. On the top cross-piece
is fixed, in cork mountings, a tubular + shaped glass con-
necting piece, to each of the two lower openings of which is
appended by a caoutchouc junction one of the before-men-
tioned vertical glass tubes ; and to the upper opening of this
glass junction piece is in the same manner connected a pewter
tube, which arches over, is carried down one of the vertical
wooden rods, and at its lower extremity, which is again
curved upwards, is affixed a caoutchouc syringe—that is
to say—a bulb of india-rubber with valves, and which
will pump air when alternately compressed by hand pressure
and allowed to expand.

Two matched ordinary glass beakers are placed under the
pendant three feet glass tubes, and are blocked up to a
proper height by wooden blocks, so that the lower opening
of each glass tube is half an inch or less above the bottom
of its beaker. A screw-clip is attached to the caoutchoue
coupling over the branched glass tube at the top of the two
vertical measuring tubes, and this completes the arrange-
ment. .

If mercury be poured into one of the beakers and
distilled water into the other, so as to seal off the air
contained in the two vertical tubes from direct contact with

Areometer. 115

the exterior atmosphere, and if a few strokes of the syringe
be now effected, a portion of air will be pumped out of the
tubes, and in consequence the fluids—the mercury and
the water—will rise in their respective tubes. The heights
of the columns thus raised will be inversely as the specific
eravities of the liquids; thus, in round numbers, with
mercury having a specific gravity of thirteen and six-tenths,
for one inch of column of mercury, we shall have a column
of distilled water measuring thirteen and six-tenths inches,
or for any given height of mercury that of distilled water
will be thirteen and six-tenths times as great; always
measuring from the surface of the fluid in the beaker to the
top of the column standing in the tube. The measurements
are made with the cathetometer, by the vernier of which
the five-hundredth part of an inch is measurable, and
when the utmost attainable accuracy is required, the mean
of several measurements may be taken. Results are thus
obtained with great rapidity, and the arrangement appears
to promise some special advantages in comparing the
specific gravities of fluids through a range of varying tem-
peratures, as well as in the case of fluids of more or less
viscous character, such, for instance, as blood and other
animal fluids. One point of interest in reference to this
mode of taking specific gravities is the fact that the
measures are in a certain sense absolute, for although mere
linear measurement, as an indication of mass, will not com-
pare with the decisions of the balance ; yet, on the other
hand, we have no corrections to” "make for the altered
capacity of the containing vessel following change of tem-
perature, as in taking the specific gravity of fluids in the
balance by means of the ordinary specific gravity bottle.

It is true that capillary action is an influence to be taken
into account in interpreting results obtained with this
areometer ; and it is also true that with certain fluids, as
with oil-of-vitriol and water for example, the one will in
time distil over, even at ordinary temperatures, and will
sooner or later vitiate the fluid with which it is compared,—
the water will thus distil over and dilute the oil-of-vitriol ;
but these are not disturbing causes of such a character as
to forbid the readily obtaining reliable and valuable results’
by employment of this instrument. As a means of demon-
strating, from the lecture table, the relative specific gravities
of different fluids, this arrangement certainly possesses very
notable advantages.

leg

116 On the Cultivation of Mentha Piperita,

Art. XXXIV.—On a method of combining Marsh’s Test
for Arsenic with Reinsch’s. By Rev. WM. KELLY.
[Read 13th November, 1871.]

The Rev. Wm. Kelly, S.J., explained in this paper a
method which had suggested itself to him, by which Marsh’s
test and Reinsch’s could be immediately combined, so as to
ascertain and guarantee the absolute purity of the testing
reagents, and to make the two great tests immediately
corroborate each other. He relied on the well-known fact
that the copper of Reinsch’s test is entirely dissolved in
presence of Chlorate of Potassa, and pointed out that this
action which is often treated as an objection to the test,
may be made to confirm it. If a portion or the entire of
the copper thus completely dissolved be introduced into
Marsh’s apparatus, it will produce the characteristic clouds,
spots, and stains; the troublesome frothing incident to
organic substances being entirely avoided. Pieces of porce-
lain and glass shewing the results of experiments were
handed round. The reverend gentleman explained in detail
many of the advantages which would arise from this com-
bination, which he believed had not been suggested in any
of our toxicological treatises.

Art. XXXV.—On the Cultivation of Mentha Piperita or
True Peppermint, im Victoria, based on a Report
received from England relating to vts Oil value.

By Mr. JosepH Bosistvo.
(Read 13th November, 1871.]

Amongst the auxiliary industries serviceable to Victoria,
there is one at the present moment deserving of an intro-
duction, viz., the cultivation of Mentha Piperita, or true
Peppermint.

The Mentha genus is well represented in Victoria, several
species are to be found in abundance on the banks of the
rivers and creeks, and also in moist and swampy places.
Some time ago I examined many of these, and reported
accordingly, forwarding their ottos to the International
Exhibition 1862, where they met with favorable notice by the
Jurors; this held out the hope that when the higher species

or True Peppermint. 117

of the mint genus would be cultivated, a good result might
be expected; this has been accomplished, and the reports
received from gentlemen in England capable of giving an
opinion on Oil of Peppermint, I will presently lay before
you.

The Mentha Piperita (a specimen on the table) is a plant
needing no description, it being generally well known,
although some confound it with the ordinary garden mint.
The soil and climate of some parts of Victoria, offering to
my mind facilities for the growth of Peppermint, I forwarded
to those districts a number of plants with directions as to
its cultivation, and obtained results all more or less en-
couragine. The districts of Melbourne, Mount Macedon,
and North Gipps Land, have each had a trial in its cultiva-
tion; at present there can be no doubt that North Gipps
Land carries the palm.

In cultivating Peppermint for the purpose of obtaining
its volatile oil, attention must be paid to position and soil ;
its habitat being in loamy and moist lands, if this be
neglected, it will soon loose its fragrance and flavour, for the
lower species, such as the spearmint and pennyroyal. As an
example of this fact, one of the late numbers of the
Gardener's Chronicle mentions that “some peppermint
plants from the Mitcham fields were introduced into a _ plan-
tation at Singapore, in a situation fully exposed to the
tropical sun; they grew very well, but not to the height
they usually grow in England; moreover, they refused to
flower, and almost as soon as they arrived at full growth,
they dried up, having the appearance of being burnt. They
were also found to yield not more than half the usual quan-
tity of essential oil, and that of a dark claret colour and of
an inferior odour.” The difference in the quality of pepper-
mint oil is very great. England produces the best, Scotland
the next, then America, afterwards France. Even in Eng-
land, the counties. produce different qualities, none equal
that grown in and around Mitcham, in Surrey, although
Hertfordshire and Cambridge follow close after. The price
varies accordingly ; thus Mitcham oil realises 40s. per lb. ;
Cambridge, 33s. per lb.; American, 16s. per lb.; French,
10s. per lb.

The oil upon which the accompanying report ig based,
is from the plant grown in Gipps Land, between
Stratford and Sale, and also in a mountainous district
beyond Glen Maggie. On my visiting that part last year, I

118 On the Cultivation of Mentha Piperita,

submitted the plant to distillation, and being of the opinion
that its quality was excellent, I forwarded samples to
several competent judges in England, with the accompanying |
letter :—

“T herewith send you a sample of an Essential Oil of Peppermint,
distilled from the green and cultivated plant grown in the mountainous
district of Victoria, with the request that you will favour me with an
opinion as to its quality and marketable value if forwarded in large
quantities. I may add, that being aware of the cost of labour
attendant on its growth, I value its minimum price delivered in London,
at 25s. per lb. The oil was distilled from the growing plant when in
flower, and may be relied on as representing any future quantity in
bulk. Sp. Grav. 904.”

The following are the reports received :—

Messrs. Meggeson and Co. :—

“Tt is quite as strong as either the English or American, and
although better flavour than American, not so good as what we use of
Mitcham growth; it is very similar in flavour to the Oil grown in
Scotland.”

Mr. Wilson, or rather his successor, Mr. Cooper, says :—

“We can hardly say what its value really is, but have no doubt if
climatic influence permit, it will be an article of commerce in the not far
distant future. There is a pungency about it above the American,
but the flavour is weedy, which will soon be remedied by attention,
and we should not be surprised to find it competing some day with our
Mitcham growth.”

Messrs. Quincey and Son report :—

“We have examined the sample of Oil of Peppermint, thinkit good,
but we think you had better rely on the report of Messrs. Meggeson
and Co., as regards the actual quality as compared with English,
upon which will depend its market value.”

Messrs. Homer and Son report :—

“We have examined the Oil of Peppermint distilled in Australia,
the quality seems very good, we consider, at first, it would not bring
more than 25s.; but, in time, as it became appreciated, it might bring
more money. Messrs. Langton. Scott and Co., consider it the best
foreign oil they have seen, but doubt if at first it would fetch 25s.”

Messrs. Bush and Co. report :—

«We consider it very good quality, about equal to our Cambridge
Mint; we had submitted to us lozenges made by Meggeson and Co.,
three kinds, one lot containing Mitcham Oil, another lot containing
Australian, and another containing Hatchkiss’ American; we picked
out those made with the American at once as the worst, but were wrong
with the other two, for we judged the Australian Oil made lozenges to
be the Mitcham and vice versa; we think 25s. to be an outside price to
be expected at first, but will afterward improve in price. There is a
herby flavour about it which may be got over by cultivation.”

or True Peppermint. 119

Messrs. Price and Hickman report :— -

«We have examined the Australian Oil of Peppermint, and consider
it to be of excellent quality, and but little inferior to Mitcham Oil. If
it could be produced a trifle less yellow in colour, we have no doubt
we could dispose of it in this market at about 27s. 6d. per lb. In
its present state, we think it would be worth 25s.”

Another firm report :—

“Tt certainly is the best foreign oil we have seen, but still it is
foreign, and we doubt if at first it can compete with English; we think
it will scon take a high place.”

These reports certainly establish the fact that, notwith-
standing prejudices to be overcome, we can produce an Oil
of Peppermint, which, with care and attention, will vie with
the choicest known ; and my object in bringing this subject
before this Society is, that it may become known that this
interesting and minor industry is deserving of cultivation ;
but the general indifference existing amongst cultivators of
the soil to enter upon the growth of anything which is apart
from that generally undertaken in Victoria, renders it difficult
to produce a new export, which, like the present article, has
a world-wide market. The information frequently sought
by these farmers and obtained, often remains without further
use, and if advanced a step, ends there. The plant now
under notice, so far as my experience goes, has not been an
exception ; some attention was bestowed in the districts I
have mentioned at planting, yet, as the herb grew, it was
allowed to be surrounded with weeds, and almost forsaken ;
on submitting it therefore to distillation, it could not be
entirely freed from weeds, rendering it difficult to obtain an oil
of fine aroma; the report mentions ‘a slight weedy odour.”
This, I think, must show the “expert” judging the oil, and
also the reliable character of the opinions expressed.

The demand in England and in most parts of the world
for Peppermint Oil is very great, and the closer it resembles
in flavour and aroma that of Mitcham, the greater is the
preference given.

I have seen it noticed that about 4,000 acres of Pepper-
mint are annually under cultivation in England, and Piesse
states that about 6,000 acres of it are annually under culti-
vation in America. One acre will produce from ten to
twelve pounds of oil. From my own observation, the best
method to promote the growth of the plant is to plant the
roots about six inches apart in rows, and the rows about

Se

120 On the Cultivation of Mentha Piperita.

fifteen inches from each other; the hoe can then be used
freely between them, keeping down the weeds and checking
the tendrils. The soil should be brought three inches high
along each side of the plants, so as to stay the formation of
leaf in the low portion of the stock; the leaves will then
become very thick, well developed, and full of oil. The
time for planting is the early part of September, and that of
reaping in February, when just bursting into bloom.

Peppermint should be distilled in its fresh state, and the
process adopted should be either with water or steam. Steam
is certainly the best and should always be used where there
is quantity; the aroma is finer, there is less resin and colour-
ing substance in the oil, and it is also a much cleaner process.
The grower should therefore be guided in adopting water or
steam according to the quantity grown.

The want of some little knowledge in the distillation of
oil-producing plants militates in no small degree against
the farming of this class of vegetation ; but with very little
care and observation, this knowledge can easily be obtained ;
the only general instruction which can be given is, to be
careful to retain an equable temperature, never exceeding 212°.
All volatile oils obtained from vegetation of delicate aroma
are very evanescent, and require a low temperature to secure ~
them, but those, in character with peppermint, where
stearessence or stearoptene exist, require the temperature
indicated.

The apparatus need not be expensive for the purpose of
distilling peppermint; £30 would supply the requisite for
20 or 50 acres.

To avoid any difficulty in keeping the distilling apparatus
on the farm between the seasons, the ready aid rendered .
by the Government to native industries, would assist in
making some arrangement with the distilleries department
for the police stations to take charge of the still head and
worm during the months when not required.

To my mind, the farming of this plant in Victoria is very
interesting ; interesting inasmuch as we actually find our-
selves competing with England in the production of an
article in which she has always excelled, and approaching a
position which she has hitherto held without a rival.

On Patents and their Utilization. 121

Art. XXXV1L—Patents and their Utilization.
By Tuomas Harrison, Esa.

(Read 8th April, 1872.]
ABSTRACT.

That it is not desirable that patent laws should be
abolished, will appear, I think, from the following considera-
tions :—

Ist. Advantages secured under the circumstances of such
abolition—that is by each inventor hiding from the public
what he had discovered—must, of necessity, be often distri-
buted in an unequal and unsatisfactory manner. A
discoverer would reap his reward, not as a result of his
having conferred a benefit upon society, but as a consequence
of his discovery being of such a kind that its nature could
be easily concealed.

2nd. A system of trade-secrets has decidedly a demoral-
izing tendency.

3rd. The system of protection by secret is decidedly
inimical to public interests. An illustration of this is given
in an article relative to patent laws, appearing in the
Mechanics Magazine for August, 1865, p. 96. <A Mr.
Bessemer, some twenty-five years previously, had commenced
the secret manufacture of bronze powder by machinery.
His machines produced the article at a cost of six, which, by
hand-labour, was made and sold for eighty, shillings per Ib. ;
and even then, nine years after the patent would have
expired, the material could be sold for one-third of the price
he was making, and yet yield ordinary profits! The public
is now entirely ignorant of his method of manufacture, the
article is comparatively little used, and the high prices are
maintained. |

4th. It is not the public alone that suffers by such a
system; the possessors of the hidden secret are often
sufferers likewise; or, at any rate, they: often fail to
reap the benefits that might accrue to them, were their
own empirical and concealed processes open to be inves-
tigated and improved upon by science, and by better work-
men than themselves.

The expediency of recognizing the rights of invention is
acknowledged by many objecting to the present system,
only the methods of rewarding suggested in the majority of
instances are not a little smgular. Among these is that
proposed by the late Mr. Brunel, who, before a select com-

122 On Patents and their Utilization.

mittee of the House of Lords appointed to inquire into the
working of the Patent Laws, said, “I believe it would be
better for all parties, employer and employed, inventor and
practical man, if patent rights were abolished. If a work-
man, who thinks he has discovered a new process, would go
to his master, divulging his secret, the master might reward
him with £1 or £5, and the man would be able to go about
something else.” ;

Setting aside that this would be simply instituting a
system of trade secrets in a modified form—the secret being
in the hand of the master and the man, not the man alone;
it lies open to the very serious objection, that the reward
eiven would scarcely ever satisfy the person who received it.

John Stuart Mill, alluding to this subject, speaks of the
advisability of substituting, for patent rights, a system of
public rewards to those who had really developed some really
useful invention. It is questionable, however, whether any
such system might not prove altogether impracticable on an
extended scale. The decision upon the merits of all the
patents deposited in England, France, or America, would
prove a task at once Herculean and invidious; and no
amount of fairness displayed, in respect to conclusions
arrived at, could possibly prevent suspicions of favouritism
existing to an extent that would inevitably prove an evil
to the community.

Some argue against patents that the-present laws
benefit no one but the capitalist who purchases the inven-
tion, and that the real inventor generally remains a poor
man. At present, the capitalist, there is no doubt, tries to
make the best possible bargain; but let him be ever so
anxious to do so, he cannot adopt a legally-registered inven-
tion, for which he is in treaty, until the person treating with
him is a consenting party. On the other hand, were there
no patent laws, the moment a secret was in the hands of the
capitalist such person might show the inventor to the door,
taking advantage of the discovery and avoiding everything
in the shape of payment at the same time.

It is further urged that inventions are seldom single ; that
when any person makes a discovery he is generally only one
of many who have been contemporaneously pursuing the
same inquiries, and have, perhaps independently of each
other, each arrived at the same result. In such a case the
granting of a patent rewards the one, leaving the claims of
the other's altogether unrecognized. The case appears a hard

On Patents and their Utilization. 123

one, but at the same time seems to be a stern necessity. In
all natural and in all human laws we find parallel cases.
Those persons who object to patent rights on the ground
that all monopolies ought to be abolished, are best answered
by the statement that a patent right is no monopoly at all ;
but merely an arrangement—to use the words of J. Stuart
Mill—“ by which the originator of an improved process is
allowed to enjoy, for a limited period, the exclusive privilege
of using his own improvement. This is not making the
commodity dear for his benefit, but merely postponing a
part of the increased cheapness, which the public owe to the
inventor, in order to compensate and reward him for the
service.” The Government, in fact, buys the invention for
the public benefit, and the temporary privilege conceded to
the originator is the price received by him for his secret.
Taking this view of the case governments are especially
careful that before a patent is issued the nature of the

invention, for which it is granted, shall be so explicitly and

plainly stated by the patentee that ‘any ordinary skilled
workman shall be able to make the patent article, at the
expiration of the term, by simply following the directions
given, without following contrivances of his own.” This,
then, is the real object of the specification, which is not, as
many persons imagine, a mere definition necessarily depo-
sited that the patentee may be enabled to indicate before a
court of law that his invention has been adopted by some
one else.

Patent specifications being of this nature, the patent office
of a country becomes the depository of a vast amount of
technical information of the very highest importance to
those interested in the advancement of art, science, and
manufactures. As an example, between the years 1711 and
1852 specifications accumulated in the English patent-oftice
to the number of 12,977, and since that period the rate of
increase has varied from two to between three and four
thousand annually. In this collection are records of Watt’s
steam-engine, Arkwright’s loom, and other important con-
trivances too numerous to be specified. To utilize this mass
of information, the English Government commenced, some
twenty years since, the careful indexing and publication of
all specifications, &¢, in their custody; a plan which
has been followed up by the authorities in many other
countries.

Besides these publications, yet other means of disseminat-

124 - On Patents and their Utilization.

ing scientific information are resorted to, by the English
and American Governments, through the mediumship of the
patent-office machinery. Attached to the London office is
an extensive museum of models, specimens, &e., together
with a library containing upwards of twenty thousand
volumes. The cognate department at Washington, also, has
its library open to the public, laboratories for the use of
officials, and last, but not least, an immense museum, one
of the lions of the city.

Following the example of these several countries, the
Government of Victoria has not remained idle with respect
to the issue of a similar kind of facts. During the period
elapsing between 1854 and 1866, 999 specifications had
accumulated in the Melbourne office. These were supple-
mented in 1867, 68, 69, 70 and 71 by 99, 125, 139, 119 and
133 respectively. By the last list issued in the Government
Gazette, the total number up to the present date is 1,616,
besides some twenty others enrolled under the old law.

The arrangement of the Victorian subject matter Index,
however, was somewhat modified ; a very brief description
of the nature of the invention, omitted in the corresponding
English Index, being inserted to facilitate the making of
searches. This plan was carried out until the issue of the
last volume (the Index for 1869), when the descriptions were
omitted in the subject matter, and much longer ones inserted
in the Chronological, now termed the Chronological and
Descriptive Index. To this latter diagrammatic drawings are
now attached, so that the difficulty of making searches, for
any given invention, is now reduced to a minimum.

In the publication of specifications by the Victorian
Government a plan has been adopted differmg somewhat
from both the English and the American systems. The
specifications are often necessarily somewhat shortened, but
never to such an extent but that every item of important
information in the original is conveyed to the reader. In
cases wherein the original is only moderately concise the
words of the patentee are allowed to stand, the stereotyped
beginning and ending of the specification as a legal document
bemg alone omitted. When the original is unnecessarily
lengthy much extraneous matter is left out; but only in
cases wherein it is quite certain that the patentee’s meaning
is clearly understood, and that the abridgement in every
respect conveys such meaning without the possibility of
misconstruction.

a res ee ee
ywWof | = gow a], ‘oywye

SLIJIOGT UvDazy JO sia dung Jo Gurylom
oy) Of panddy sv topyoynhory un.iydorg Cuyov -pas Qua SUDUMIJOOT ff

I es SS eee ———

Self-acting Safety Regulator and Coal Economiser. 125

In preparing the necessary drawings for these abstracts the
photo-lithographic process has been resorted to, by which a
great saving of expense is effected. Since the use of photo-
lithography by the Victorian Government to illustrate

patent publications, the same method has been similarly»

adopted by the Washington office, and, it is said, with
the most satisfactory results.

Art. XXXVIL—On Meat Preserving.

Contributed by RoBerRT CALDWELL, Esa.
[Read 8th April, 1872.)

In this paper was described the process of Meat Preserv-
ing adopted by the Melbourne Meat Preserving Company,
and some improvements recommended by Mr. Caldwell.

Art. XXX VIIIL—On Biangular Co-ordinates.
Contributed by Patrick Forp, Hsq., M.A.
[Presented 8th April, 1873.]

Art. XXXIX.—Self-acting Safety Regulator and Coal
Economiser for Steam Engines. By F. Poorman,
Esq.

[Read 13th May, 1872.]

The frequency of steam boiler explosions in Melbourne
and on the gold-fields, induces me to lay before you the
following paper, descriptive of an apparatus invented and
patented by me in April 1863, for the prevention of explo-
sions from careless firing, and for the saving of fuel;
requiring less skill and labour from the fireman. _

It is called a Self-actmg Safety Regulator and Coal
Economiser.

The apparatus has the extreme of simplicity to recommend
itself, is very inexpensive, costing only a few shillings per
horse-power of steam boiler ; can be manufactured by any
ordinary blacksmith; and in practice, is found to cost

126 Self-acting Safety Regulator and Coal Economiser.

nothing to keep it in repair. It consists of an automaton
damper or regulator, and is worked in the following manner:
A cast iron dish or basin is fitted across its largest diameter
with a diaphragm of india-rubber, and is screwed by means
of a wrought iron ring on the top of the diaphragm, and
fastened with wrought iron screw bolts and nuts. To the
centre of diaphragm is secured a connecting rod, by means
of plates and screws; to the other end of this connecting
rod is attached a lever or levers, which is again connected
to the common damper, throttle valve—or regulator.

A bent tube is screwed into the bottom of the cast-iron
basin, with its other end attached to the steam pipe or
boiler.

The bent portion of the tube and the basin is filled with
water from condensed steam, which acts as a divider between
the steam and india-rubber, and preserves the latter from
destruction by the extreme heat of steam.

The pressure of steam required for working steam-engine,
etc., being given, the lever on top of regulator is weighted
accordingly ; and as soon as this amount is exceeded, the
diaphragm being raised by the pressure of the water, im-
parts its motion to the damper or regulator, and cuts off
the communication between the boiler and the chimney ;
thus at once putting a stop to the burning of the fire and
the generating of steam, and notifying to the fireman, by
the whole of the smoke of furnace being driven out through
the fire doors, that the working pressure of his boiler is
attained, and for the time no more firing is needed.

The damper will remain closed, and no more steam be
generated until the demand for steam has reduced the
pressure in the boiler, when the water being unable to
sustain the weight on the end of lever, the diaphragm
descends, the damper opens, and the fire again burns.

By this means steam boiler explosions from careless or
excessive firing can never take place; and a great saving in
fuel is effected, as it is beyond the power of the most careless
fireman to raise the steam sufficiently high to blow off at
the safety valve.

The apparatus was first erected at the sugar works, Sand-
ridge, in the early part’ of 1863, and its performance has
been perfectly satisfactory, up to the present moment.
One was erected at the Argus Office in 1865, and thirteen
months after, the manager wrote as follows: ‘‘ An apparatus
invented by Mr. F. Poolman, and entitled by him ‘ A Patent

x0

a

my

A. Ky SMETDES
PATENT IMPROVED FIRE PLUC

qi

=
FIG. Ill |,

6,
en

qatetig:
4
wid

ey

Inuproved Fire-Plug. 127

Simplified Safety Diaphragm Regulator and Coal Economiser,’
has been in use in the engine-room of the Argus for the last
thirteen months, and has given great satisfaction. It consists
of a convoluted iron tube, opening into the boiler, in which
is a column of water, which, under pressure of steam, acts
upon a lever, and damps the furnace fire when the pressure
reaches the point beyond which it is not desired it should
rise. By moving a weight the apparatus can be made
to regulate the pressure to ten, twenty, thirty, or any other
number of pounds that may be required. It effects a con-
siderable economy of fuel, by obviating those frequent
blowings off of steam which occur through ignorant or
careless firing, and its use materially lessens the risk of
accident through neglect or inexperience in engine-driver or
stoker. The apparatus is inexpensive, and simple in its
construction, costing only a few shillings per horse-power of
boiler employed. It may be made by an ordinary black-
smith, and judging from our experience, costs very little to
keep in repair, that in use on our own premises having cost
nothing since it was fitted, more than a year since.”

One! erected at Mr. Buckley’s flour mills, Sandhurst,
proves equally effective.

And one at the Melbourne Orphanage, Emerald Hill, has
been in use since 1867, and has, so far, maintained its
reputation as being effective, and costing nothing to keep
In repair.

Art. XL—Improved Fire-Plug.* By A. K. Smiru, C.E.
(Read 13th May, 1872.)

It was found that in the City and suburbs, when the
pressure was off from the Yan Yean water mains, the gutta-
percha balls of the ordinary fire-plugs fell down, and that,

* This invention consists of introducing a spring A, beneath the ordinary
gutta-percha, or other ball B, as shown in jigs. 1 and 2, and which, by its
elasticity forces the ball against the india-rubber washer C, closing the
orifice against the admission of sewage, or other matter, liquid or solid, into
the water mains when they are empty (from any reason), and thus preventing
the contamination and waste of water when the mains are refilled.

Cram.—The manufacture and use of a coiled or other spring of iron,
steel, brass or any other material, or elastic substance, or their mechanical
equivalent, for securely closing the orifice of fire- plugs during the absence
of internal pressure in the water-mains.

Fig. 3 shows the brass cup and spindle as indicated in jigs. 1 and 2,

128 Notes on Sirius

as many of the fire-plugs were laid in and on a level with
the street water-channels or gutters, sewage and other
objectionable matters ran down into the empty pipes, and so
contaminated the water used for drinking and domestic
purposes. To remedy, or remove, the great danger of
spreading disease by the use of such foul water, Mr. A. K.
Smith’s invention consists of applying a coiled or other
spring of steel, brass, or other elastic substance, for effectually
closing the orifice, at low levels, against the admission of
sewage and other impurities during the absence of internal
pressure. The author also suggested that in all lines of main
where they were used, there should be at the highest level
an ordinary air-valve, so that the air could escape when the
pipes were filling with water; such air-valve or ordinary
hydrant to be kept at a higher level, so that no fluid or solid
matter could enter the orifice.

The Society learns with satisfaction that since Mr. Smith
has called public attention to the danger arising from the
contamination of the water in the street-mains by sewage
entering at the fire-plugs, the Government has removed
such fire-plugs from the bottom of the channels, to a
position more distant, and higher, to obviate the danger
pointed out.

Art. XLI—Notes on Sirius and its Companion Stars.
(Great Telescope.) By F. MacGrorce, Esa.
[Read 10th June, 1872.]

Mr. President and Gentlemen,—Last year was brought
before you the fact that some minute stars had been
observed in the optical vicinity of Sirius, and it has been
thought that it may interest you to hear the detailed notes
of these and subsequent observations of this star.

First will be read two notes of observation of Mr. Le
Sueur, made while the mirror was not in so good working
order as it is at present.

1869, Dec. 6th.—‘<Sirius very unsteady. Looked for

Lassel’s companion. Can see nothing at all. Do not know
where companion is.

“Spectrum: F, C, and very fine lines too unsteady. F
is very conspicuous, and remains clearly visible by the sky
glare, when the star is removed from the slit.”

AA Maar 5
eRe

ae

ee

And its Companion Stars. 129

Dee. 23rd.—“ y about 2" off, a completely in the large
star but unmistakable, 8 suspected (jig. 1), and seen by
Mr. Ellery.

“ Spectrum very unsteady. Ci G-very marked, especially
FG. Cannot see any other lines at all.”

The remaining observations have been made by Mac-
george with the great speculum repolished by Le Sueur.

After some observations of the spectrum (on several
evenings) of Sirius, the following notes of faint stars
surrounding Sirius were made (9th Dec. 1870), “Calling
distance from Sirius to companion =10, (fig. 2) 20 mag. 15
parts distance from S and making angle 5° with line joining
S and its companion preceding d; another star, 20 mag.
about 30° following same line, about 4 parts dist. from d;
very difficult with power 880 ; definition indifferent.

On Jan. 7th, 1871, is noted: “Still see supposed Lassel’s
companion detected last night; it is about 12” following
(jig. 3), and as nearly as possible at right angle with former
supposed Companion (y of Le Sueur); best with lowest
power; but no changes of eye-piece affect the observation.”

On 9th January.—“ On comparing my observations of
Sirius with Le Sueurs I see that he made Lassell’s com-
panion in the same position as I did on Saturday, so there
can be little doubt of it. I had, until this morning, the
impression that Le Sueur had not been able to detect
Jassell’s companion, having missed the entry referring to it.
I see that he imagined he saw another small star (6) in rays
on other side of Sirius (fig. 4). It is singular that I also
had this impression once or twice, but concluded I was mis-
taken upon re-examination, blaming the eye-piece for the
appearance.”

Jan. \4th.—Sirius, splendid definition, no more to be
desired ; position of Lassell’s companion as sketched making
angle between a and y = 93°, and 12’+, distant from Sirius
a (jig. 5). These positions are estimated only, as there is too
much wind for micrometer work. The companion is blue
apparently, and very steady and distinct.

Could not see Le Sueur’s supposed £, which I also at first
imagined I saw. The definition is ‘so good that I am sure
both he and I must have been mistaken. Sometimes I
imagine to night that I see a very faint star in direction of
Le Sueur’s y ; but I generally find that a ray points in that
direction, which may deceive the eye. Cleared a little again
12.30, and I tried the small equatorial on Sirius ; the colour

K

130 Note on the Cranbourne Meteorite.

is very annoying, after the reflector, and the spurious dise is
very large ; image larger than in the great telescope, and
definition decidedly worse ; even y not visible.

Jan. 15th.—Micrometer measures made; the results of
which are given in fig. 6. The Companion WV fin Lassel’s
observations just seen in P 7 proves to be Alvan Clark’s
comes, not Lassell’s companion, which is the faint star
nearly following, and 1’ 0’ distant, too indistinct to-night for
measures, Le Sueur’s y is Lassell’s d.

Jan. 17th.—“ Lassell’s and Alvan Clark’s companion
visible ; 8 again suspected.”

Jan. 18th.—Both companions visible, and £ suspected
again by Mr. Ellery and myself.

Feb. 2nd.—Sirius definition indifferent. A. Clark’s com-
panion, very plain, also d Lassell’s companion (fig. 7.) with
care also. I see vv / star at g, another near f Sometimes
suspect one near 4 CC; power 520. Group also near K.

Feb. 3rd.—Definition pretty good; d, e, Le Sueur’s ¢, A.
Clark’s c, K, &c., distinctly visible; 7, g, 7, sometimes h not
at all.

Feb. 4th — Sirius; power 230; definition tolerable; ef
and g occasionally visible; h and 2 not so. Power, 520;
same result.

Feb. 13. AR and Decl" micrometer measures of Sirius and
companion, during which my eyes gave way, and I was
unable to observe again so bright an object, until—

23rd Feb., 1872, when I note positions of stars near Sirius
as (fig. 8). All visible (f m and g) by glimpses.

From which it may be inferred that little doubt exists as
to the existence of all but 6 and m, and the probabilities
are in favour of their actual existence as noted.

Art. XLII.—WNote on the Cranbourne Meteorite.

By SYDNEY GIBBONS.
[Read 10th June, 1872.]

This was a short note embodying some recent observations
by Berthelot, who reports in the Comptes Rendus,* that the
Cranbourne Meteorite contains, among other things, frag-
ments of pyrites, and a certain quantity of amorphous
carbon, which was separated in the form of a greenish

* Ixxiil., 494.

Fig 7

oe
S e
ae yo
a So S YQ
SS %
~ ee oan

On a Specumen of Native Copper. 13]

graphitic oxide resembling that furnished by the graphite
which crystallises from molten cast iron, but differing from
that which plumbago yields to the same processes. The
author quoted suggests that bisulphide of carbon, acting
on the iron at a high temperature, may have been instru-
mental to the deposition of this graphite.

Mr. Gibbons, in commenting on these observations, and
referring to the so-called graphitic acid of Brodie, showed
some fine specimens of the crystalline laminze of graphite
(Kish) from cast iron.

a

Art. XLIU.—On a Specimen of Native Copper recently
found at Footscray, near Melbourne, Victoria.
By G. Foorp, Esq.
[Read at Annual Converzationé, July 1872.]

I have the pleasure of directing the notice of our visitors
and of the members of our Society to a recently discovered
mineral specimen, which presents certain points of interest.

It is a specimen of native copper; a weighty mass of
nearly pure metallic copper, of an arborescent form ;
it was picked up close to the works of Messrs.
McMeikan and Co. on the banks of the Yarra, at Footscray,
near the junction of the Saltwater River. It was accidentally
discovered among loose fragments of weathered basalt or
trap, of which the bank of the river at that point is com-
posed ; and Messrs. McMeikan and Reed have kindly placed
it at my disposal for exhibition this evening.

On picking up a metallic mass of this kind the first
question forced upon the mind is that of its origin ;
we ask, “how came it there?” and among possible solu-
tions will naturally occur the suggestion of its having
formed part of acargo of a ship, and of its having-been acci-
dentally discharged during adjustment of the ship’s ballast,
on the spot. We think of Adelaide copper ores; of ships bear-
ing them in past times to New South Wales, and putting in at
Port Phillip, on their way to Great Britain. But then occurs
also the idea of vich copper ores discoverable on the spot
whence our specimen is derived ; and in deciding between
these and other possibilities, the evidence, if any, afforded
by the specimen itself, ought to be very carefully weighed.
“Ts this individual lump of metallic copper derived from

K 2

132 On a Specimen of Natwe Copper.

the basaltic rocks, among the débris of which it has been
found, or has it been transported to this position ?””—that is.
the question to which, ina manner as concise as possible, I
wish now to direct your attention.

We all know that basalt (“bluestone” as it is com-
monly called in Victoria) is a natural rock whose chemical
composition is comparable to that of the coarser kinds
of glass, such as black bottle glass,—that it has been
spumed out in a molten state from the interior through the
outer crust of the earth, just as the lavas of Vesuvius are
seen to be poured out in devastating volumes at the present
day. But these basalts present very little of the physical aspect
of glass. ‘They have been poured out in a molten condition,
gravitating and fillimg up the valleys, and forming vast
plains of molten vitreous material, which by slow cooling
has gradually solidified, and has also undergone a well
recognised change, to which glassy matters when slowly
cooled are known to be subject. Ceasing to be vitreous, the
basalt by slow cooling, has become crystalline, and most of the
basalts, as we find them, have undergone further changes
of decay, due to atmospheric influences, to which all
rocks, even the hardest, are more or less subject. This
concise explanation concerning the origin of basaltic rocks
and their daysteal condition will, I trust, prepare the
way for what I have in the next place to advance; and it
will now be very much to the point if we ask, whether the
occurrence of native metals in the basalts has been in any
instance ascertained? To this question I may at once
answer that such occurrences are known, and I may add
that the recorded instances are of a most interesting
character.

In the first place, let me mention that it has been pointed
out by Professor Andrews of Belfast (a most reliable
authority), that metallic iron is very commonly present, in
minute proportions, in such rocks. If iron be placed in a
solution of blue vitriol or sulphate of copper, the iron is
dissolved and its solution is accompanied by a corresponding
precipitation of metallic copper. Dr. Andrews, employing
this precipitation of copper as a test of the presence of
minute particles of metallic iron; immersing his powdered
rock specimens in the sulphate of copper solutions,
examined them under the microscope, and observed little
arborescent tufts of metallic copper, often two or three such
deposits in the field of the microscope at one time.

Se ee

On a Specimen of Native Copper. 133

But Ludwig Becker obtained a specimen of metallic zine
from a cavity 1 in the basalt at Brunswick (near Melbourne) ;
doubts were expressed at the time concerning the genuine-
ness of this discovery ; in one of the English scientific

journals it was compared to the spurious nuggets stated as

being so commonly manufactured on the Australian goldfields.
There are no doubt many among our visitors now present
to whom Becker was personally known, and who have a
vivid recollection of his zeal and attainments ; I believe it is
needless to speak of personal reliability ; but I may be
permitted to add that I had opportunity of examining his
specimen, and that its hackled fracture, its crust with a
peach-blossom tint, and indeed its characters generally, left
no doubt on my mind of its being a mineral, intact and in
its native state—a new mineral species.

Admitting these examples as showing that native metals

do occasionally occur in basaltic rocks, then we arrive at the

particular question, namely, does native copper ever occur
under such conditions? The answer to this is, that copper
mines pertaining to trap formations appear to have been
worked from the time when the Phoenicians traded
with Cornwall for tin, and that such deposits of.
mative copper are worked at the present day. At
Take Superior, native copper, thus geologically related,
is found in masses of what would seem as almost a fabulous
weight. Dr. Daniel Wilson, in his work, “ Prehistoric
Man,” states, that in the veins of the copper regions of Lake
Superior, the native metal occurs in enormous masses
weighing hundreds of tons, and many loose blocks of con-
siderable size have been found on the lake-shore, or lying

detached on the surface. He describes a visit to these

mines, and speaks of passing in some cases literally through
tunnels made in the solid copper. He describes the floors
of the levels strewed with the copper shavings struck off
in the effort to detach blocks of the metal from the solid
vein, and in cutting them down to dimensions sufficiently
small for transport. One mass of copper quarried from the
cliff mine has been estimated to weigh eighty tons. It was
sufficiently detached from its rocky. matrix, without injur-
ing its original formation, to admit of its dimensions being
obtained with considerable accuracy, and it was found to
measure fifty feet long, six feet deep, with an average of
about six inches of thickness—a wall of solid copper.
In London, thirty years since, I myself saw a mass of

134 — On a Specimen of Native Copper.

Lake Superior copper of not less than half a cubic yard
bulk.

But with this Lake Superior copper, metallic silver is.
also found, not in alloy, but distributed in isolated patches.
and crystals through the copper mass ; and I should lke to
point out that this peculiar relation of the silver to the
copper appears to be indicative rather of after changes of
an electro-chemical nature, as the origin of these metallic
masses, than of their presence in the original molten silicates
when first spumed out. This would certainly apply to the
silver, and I beg to lay stress on the probability of its also: -
applying to the copper, the precipitation of which would
certainly result from the percolation of water charged, how-
ever feebly, with copper salts, through fissures in which
metallic iron (as Andrews has shown it to exist) was originally
present. Very similar conditions to those which produce
the common haloid compounds of copper—copper pyrites
for instance—in the veins of the Cornish mines, would
in basalts originally charged with metallic iron, produce
deposits of metallic copper, and ultimately those also of
metallic silver, as found at Lake Superior, silver salts bemg
present in the mine waters.

But returning to this specimen from Footscray, it may be:
now asked whether there is any physical proof in the
specimen itself connecting it with the facts pertaining to the
copper-bearing trap rocks of Lake Superior? I confess that
when I first handled the specimen I could not resist the temp-
tation presented by a small and delicately attached portion of
it; a slight pressure of the thumb detached this fragment from
the mass. (I may mention that Mr. McMeikan was present
when this happened.) JI examined this detached fragment
for silver, but failed to detect the precious metal, so that
this correspondence is so far wanting. I do not say that
silver is altogether absent from the mass, but the point is
one which would require a further trespass on Messrs..
McMeikan’s indulgence and a more extensive inroad on the
specimen for its solution.

There is, however, another fact,—the hollows of the
specimen contain a portion of the attached but altered
matrix. I have taken liberties with this portion, and
have ascertained that it is of a steatic nature—a silicate:
of alumina and magnesia—a composition pointing to a
basaltic origin ; in fact, the position in which the specimen
was found, the nature of the rocky débris with which it was:

- Bisulphide of Carbon as a Solvent. 135

associated, and the nature of the adherent matrix, appear to
indicate that its occurrence belongs to a class of natural
facts in which the existence of metallic iron, zine, silver, and
copper in basaltic rocks are included.

There are rich copper mines in the basaltic rocks of Lake
Superior, and derived from the basalt of Footscray a sample
of native copper has been found: of course the latter is
interesting scientifically, but what I wish to say in con-
clusion, is, that this specimen found at Footscray is but an
isolate example of what elsewhere exists on a grand scale,
and that outlay of capital in searching for a copper mine at
Footscray, or a zinc mine at Brunswick, would be hardly
warranted by the limited discoveries already made.

Art. XLIV.—On Yan Yean Water.

By SyDNeEy W. Gippons, Esa.
[Read 8th July, 1872.]

This paper consisted of a few notes descriptive of the
results of a microscopic examination of Yan Yean Water.

Art. XLV.—The Use of Bisulphide of Carbon as a Solvent
im the Extraction of Vegetable Oils, &c. By J. Cosmo
NEWBERY, Esq.

[Read 12th August, 1872.]

My paper this evening is a summary of a series of experi-
nents made in the chemical laboratory of the Industrial and
Technological Museum by Mr. J. L. Graham, who has been
attending the chemical class devoting his time to the
malyis and manufacture of manures, and the extraction of
valuable substances from the refuse of our factories.

Mr. Graham does not claim any new chemical or manu-
facturing discoveries ; yet I think his practical results are
of sufficient importance from an industrial point of view, to
be brought before this Society, and so be made generally
known, especially at this time when so much attention is
being given to the question of novel industries.

Amongst other substances the refuse of the meat pre-
serving companies was experimented upon, with the view

136 Bisulphide of Carbon as a Solvent.

of drying, deodorismg and preparing it for market as a
manure that could be dealt with in the same manner as
bone-dust or guano.
After a series of experiments it appeared that the tallow
remaining in the refuse was one of the causes of failure, and
attempts were made to remove it by boiling in water. A
mean of four experiments on different samples of refuse
proved that 7.34 per cent. of tallow could be extracted b
this means alone. ‘Tallow was still found in the boiled
| refuse. The solvent power of bisulphide of carbon-was
tested on a fresh sample, and the result was 26-87 per cent.
of tallow. The experiments were continued on refuse
obtained from different factories, and the conclusion arrived
at was that an average of 14 per cent. of tallow is lost in
meat preserver’s refuse ; that 7 per cent. can be removed by
loeliing in water, and the whole by bisulphide of carbon.
Some idea of the immense loss of tallow may be formed
from the fact that every thousand sheep gives about three
tons of this refuse.
The refuse after being treated with the bisulphide of
carbon comes out as a moist cr umbling mass, the fragments
of bones are softened and easily reduced to powder by
pressure; and the whole may be easily dried, forming | an
almost inodorous powder.
) The next experiments were with greasy ane wool. It
was found that when treated with the solvent the wool
| quickly and perfectly eave up its grease and waxy sub-
: stances (suint) contained in it, So perfectly that by simply
| rinsing in cold water the whole of the dirt was removed.

|

| The first sample tried gave suint - -' 17.53 per cent: |
| Dirt removed by cold water = = - 24,74 4 |
Clean dry wool a toe =) on ATS eae
100.00

To test the process a second sample was divided into tw«
parts ; one treated with the solvent, and the other washed
with water heated to 135°F. |

The one with which the solvent was used gave swint |
39.82 per cent ; dirt, 16.02 per cent.; and wool, 44.16 per |
cent.

The portion washed with water gave dirt and suint
52.89 per cent. ; wool, 47.11 per cent. Suint is valuable as
a source of gas “for illumination, and also of potassium salts
which are obtained from the residue.

j
a
:
5
:

Bisulphide of Carbon us a Solvent. 137

What I consider the most important results of these
experiments are those which relate to the extraction of the
oil from seeds such as linseed, rape, olive, turnip, colewort,

gold of pleasure, poppy, sunflower, and some others.

The monthly average imports of linseed oil during 1871
was—13,562 gallons of colza; of olive, 1,967 gallons ; these

are from the United Kingdom. There are also very large

imports of castor oil from Calcutta. Chinese oil is largely
imported. The imports of vegetable oils are over 300,000
per annum. And I am informed the quantity of these oils
imported is steadily increasing.

By the following experiments I think I shall be able to

show that the process could be profitably carried out ;

accepting the statements that our climate and soil are well

adapted for the growth of oleaginous seeds, and that our

agriculturists are much in -want of paying rotation crops.

The first experiment made was with a sample of sun-
flower-seeds by the Hon. Captain Cole, at Brighton. The
result of two trials was—First sample, 25.9 per cent. of oil;
and the second, 25.82 per cent. of oil. This is fully 10 per
cent. more than the amount given by the English autho-
rities. The residual meal is nutritious for cattle, We.

Four determinations were made of the oil in linseed, with

the following results: First, 35.98 per cent. ; second, 44.27

per cent. ; third, 41.92 per cent. To check the accuracy of
the work the three samples were mixed and tried as a whole,
giving an amount of oi equal to 39.56 per cent.; the
average of the previous separate determinations, 40.72
per cent.

Musprat gives the yield of oil from linseed in England at
from 11 to 22 per cent.

“Ure's Dictionary” gives, as the highest yield obtained,

27 per cent. ; while Dr. Voelcker states that 34 per cent. has

been obtained.

These results show that the quality of the seed treated in
England must vary much, and that to bring these results
at all near those of Mr. Graham, we must add the amount

of oil left in the cake, which appears to be about the same

whether the seed contains much or little oil. All the recent
authorities give English linseed cake as containing from
114 to 13 per cent. of oil.

Five samples of rape or colza seed were tried with the
following results: First, 42.64 per cent.; second, 49.86 per

cent, ; third, 59.11 per cent. ; fourth, 42.86 per cent. ; fifth,

138 Bisulphide of Carbon as a Solvent.

40.54 per cent. of oil. The variation between the amounts
obtained from the five samples is to be accounted for by the
fact that two varieties of rape seed were tested in the winter
(Brassica Napus), and also the summer rape (Campestris).

Some analyses of rape seed grown in Holstein give from
40 to 70 per cent. of oil.

A sample of long radish seed gave 39 per cent. of oil.
This is less than the quantity given in Musprat’s table.

American pea-nuts (Arachis hypogea) having 34.95 per
cent. of husk gave 37.97 per cent. of oil.

Colonial grown pea-nuts having 30 per cent. of husks.
gave 40.42 per cent. of oil.

The seeds of New Zealand flax (Phormium tenaxz) gave
16 per cent. of oil.

Other experiments were made, but these are sufficient to
show the value to the manufacturer of the process which
may be summarised as given by Wagner when comparing
the solvent process with the ordinary oil-mill as follows:
First, from 10 to 12 per cent. more oil is obtained from the
same quantity of seed; second, the cost of plant is much
less ; third, the amount of labour required is less; fourth,
the meal is equal to the cake for cattle-food; and, lastly,
that seed containing only 6 to 8 per cent. of oil can be
profitably treated by this system, while it cannot be by
any other process.

To the agriculturist there can be no doubt that the
establishment of oil-works would be a great boon ; and with
works established on the solvent process and seeds giving
the quantities of oil I have stated they could obtain as.
-good, and, I believe, a better price for these crops of
oleaginous seeds than they now obtain per acre for wheat;
besides obtaining from the works the meal, as food, for their
cattle.

The rich nitrogenous constituents of linseed meal give it
a feeding value of 3s. per cwt. more than maize meal, the
food with which it would enter into competition in this
colony.

The residual meal of seeds, not fit for feeding purposes,
would be returned to the soil as manure.

Mechanical Assay of Quartz. 139:

Art. XLVI.—On Siemen’s Universal Galvanometer for
testing Telegraphic Lines.
By, ke iL J. Bury, Ese:
(Contributed 12th August, 1872.]
The President exhibited a Siemen’s Universal Galvano-

meter, and gave an oral description of its use and the
method of testing with it telegraphic lines.

Art. XLVII.—Wotes on the Mechanical Assay of
Quartz. By G. Foorp, Esq.
[Read 9th September, 1872.]

The brief note, concerning the mechanical assay of quartz,
which I am now prepared to read, was entered in our
Secretary's list as part of the business of the Society’s last
general meeting. It was intended to fulfil a requirement
which similar brief explanations of mine have on former
occasions fulfilled: namely, to come in, after the regular
paper of the evening had been read and discussed, as a
supplement, extending the proceedings of an otherwise short.
evening to a suitable length. The course of events, how-
ever, gave occasion for its postponement, and now, to
prevent undue expectations and consequent disappointment,
I think it best to explain, at the outset, that I cannot claim
a very great importance or novelty for what I have to
advance, nor can I say that I have devoted any amount of
workmanship to the notes themselves, now offered to your
notice. On the other hand, I feel some confidence in making
a statement concerning the assay of quartz for gold, because
it is a subject which has engaged my particular attention.
Moreover, I trust that the point which I am about to
urge, is one of practical significance, which it would be
useful to promulgate ; and, although the facts themselves
may be familiar enough to the metallurgist, it seems to me
that they may yet possess a degree of novelty to some at
least of the members whom I meet here this evening. In
this light, I ask you, Mr. President and gentlemen, to receive
what I have to say,as a mere brief note, embodying
a point of useful application.

The assay of auriferous quartz is the key to the extraction
of the precious metal on the great scale ; and there are two.

140 Mechanical Assay of Quartz.

occasions on which the indications of the assay are most
required, namely :—

Ist. When we have found a quartz reef, and before we
have commenced to work it.

And 2nd. After the extraction in the ‘mill, when we
especially require to assay the quartz tailings, so as to find
out how much gold we have left in them.

Let me suggest that there is one particular in which gold
extraction differs from the treatment of the ores of most
other metals; namely, in the small proportion which the
gold bears to the matrix. An iron ore may contain thirty,
or even seventy two per cent. of metallic iron, while pay
able quartz may hold no more than a few pennyweights
of gold to the ton. If 5 dwts. per ton is the contents,
the proportion in this instance is 5 times 24, equal to
120 grains, in the 15 millions 680 thousand grains con-
stituting the ton avoirdupois; about one part of gold in
130,000 of the ore.

The gold, it is true, is in the metallic state, in isolated
particles distributed through the stone ; and the distinctive
physical properties of quartz and gold are such as to be, on
the whole, favourable even for the separation of so small a
proportion of metal from so large a relative proportion of
matrix. But oftentimes other minerals, arsenical iron, iron
and copper pyrites, and many other species are present in —
the quartz, and it is a fact that from these natural admixtures
and from other causes, the whole of the gold is not extracted
on the large scale. A proportion only is obtained from the ore,
and a proportion is left in the tailings ; indeed, the technical
problem is rather how to obtain the largest profit inworking a
given sample of quartz, than how to extract, at all cost, the
whole of its gold. If the last pennyweight which passes out
of the mill could be extracted at an additional cost of four
shillings, we do better to abandon it, instead of bearing a
loss which would be incidental to its recovery. The
original gold contents of the ore. expresses rather the
extreme possibilities of its yield, than the return which we

ought to expect from its treatment, but, nevertheless, there
is no more valuable guide to the quartz- mill owner, or miner,
than the assay, especially the assay of the tailings, collected
as they pass out of the mill.

In the assay of a sample of quartz, all the gold which it
contains can be separated, because there is not the same
limitation of expense as that obtaining on the large scale ;

Mechanical Assay of Quartz. 141

we deal at most with pounds weight, and not with hundreds.
of tons, and the expenditure of time devoted to the work is
afar more serious item than that incurred for chemicals
instruments and fuel. I wish to convey a discriminative
* view of this point; I wish you to understand that all the
resources of the laboratory are available for the assay ; that
with the small quantities operated on in such trials, means
are available, which would prove far too expensive for use
on the large scale: but I must also add, that the quartz
assay, which to be valuable must be accurate and wholly
reliable, is not so accessible as could be desired. It isa
valuable key to the operations of quartz mining and crush-
ing, but yet is used only to a limited extent. In a large
proportion of cases the quartz assay is beyond reach ; the
prospector in the ranges is remote from the metallurgical
laboratory, and in other cases the cost of the assay is:a
hindrance ; a certain cash outlay for what may be considered
(justly or otherwise, according to circumstances), a possible
and perhaps remote advantage.

Let me endeavour to convey to those members who have
not a practical acquaintance with the subject, a general
notion of the way in which a quartz assay is usually
conducted. I will endeavour to do so in the fewest words.
T will suppose a few stones which collectively are regarded
as fairly representing the reef. Of course the fairness of
this representation involves the whole question at issue, and
a good deal might be said on this point, but I will not
digress to take up your time with that matter. I will
suppose that no gold is discoverable by mere inspection in
the newly found reef; that none is seen in the sample of
stone selected ; the stones are regarded as a fair sample, but.
that is a mere matter of probability and judgment, and it is
deemed advisable to find out, before proceeding further, what
gold this sample contains. I will suppose that the specimens
are quartz for the most part, with admixture of clay slate,
oxides of iron and brassy iron pyrites; quite a common
combination.

The gross weight of this sample is taken, it is then
pulverized finely and passed through a wire sieve of fine
mesh. Of course, as gold is malleable and as the quartz.
and its other accompaniments are brittle, any coarse gold
existing in the sample, and separated by pounding it, may ‘
remain on the sieve, and should such make its appearance,
its weight is referred to the gross weight of the stone

142 Mechanical Assay of Quartz.

operated on ; while for anything finer than such coarse gold,
we depend on the assay of a fair sample of the pulverized
specimen. We weigh out a sample of the pulverized sieved
stone ; in choosing the amount we are about to operate upon,
_ we find it convenient to take a definite fraction of a ton:

say, a five-thousandth part of a ton, which is 3136 grains.
Employing this quantity, we can easily refer our result to
the ton of stone, by merely multiplying the weight of gold
obtained by 5,000. We take this S00 of a ton, and roast it
in a cast iron or shallow earthenware tray, in a muffle or
oven, at a dull red heat. The iron pyrites and other com-
pounds of sulphur and arsenic, Gc, in the quartz are
inimical to the extraction of the gold, and one of the
ways of eliminating them is this process of roasting; we
burn out the sulphur and oxidize the iron with which
it is combined at so low a temperature as to avoid melting
any of the constituents of our sample, and this prepares us
for the next operation, the fusion.

I will endeavour to convey an idea of this fusion process
(which in reality involves something more than mere fusion)
by reference to what takes place during the manufacture of
flint glass. You know that quartz sand forms the basis of
ordinary flint glass; that in the manufacture the quartz
sand, or silica, 1s used with oxide of lead and with alkali,
and that by the combination of these the glass is produced.
It is just so in the fusion of a quartz assay ; oxide of lead
and alkali (carbonate of soda for instance) are added so as
to form a fusible compound with the quartz, so indeed
that the quartz is wholly dissolved. If quartz containing
gold were thus converted into a molten glass, it might be
presumed that the heavy gold would gravitate through the
bath of lighter molten glassy material, and so it would
if the gold happened to exist in the form of coarse grains or
nuggets; but very fine particles of gold do not very readily
collect together at the bottom of such a bath, and therefore
other means for the collection of the gold are involved in
this fusion process.

If charcoal be heated with oxide of lead, the charcoal is
consumed, and metallic lead is revived from the oxide. . One
part of pure carbon will thus revive thirty-four and a half
times its weight of lead from the protoxide. Nitre on the
other hand oxidizes about five times its weight of metallic
lead, forming oxide of lead as the result of this change. In
the opposing action of these two materials, the reducing

Mechanical Assay of Quartz. 143

carbon and the oxidizing nitre, we have the means of
liberating any desired quantity of metallic lead in our bath
of fused quartz, &c. However much the minerals accom-
panying the quartz might otherwise interfere with such a
result, we can reduce metallic lead by the addition of char-
coal and we can counteract the undue reduction of lead by
addition of nitre, so as to obtain a convenient quantity of
reduced lead and no more.

We intimately mix our roasted quartz with oxide of
lead in excess and charcoal, we add carbonate of soda, we
may increase the fusibility of our bath by addition of borax
or similar flux; and exposing this mixture, in an earthen
crucible, to a red heat, the mixture melts, metallic lead is
produced throughout the bath, the globules of lead pick
up and alloy with the gold and oravitate to the bottom,
forming a button of lead in which all the gold of the quartz
is contained. The lead globules immersed in the molten
bath havea perfectly bright metallic surface, and being under
these conditions very greedy of gold, and being generated
in every part of the mass during incipient fusion, no
particle of gold can escape contact with, and alloy
with the lead. We obtain a button of auriferous -lead,
and a superposed layer of glassy substance or slag, quite
free from gold. We break the cold crucible, separate the
lead button, and submit it to cupellation,—that is to say, we
expose this lead to a full red heat in an oven of earthenware,
on a little porous cup or cupel made of the ash of burnt
bones; the lead and any base metals which it may
contain are again oxidized, the fusible oxide of lead
with other oxides of the base metals are absorbed by
the cupel, and any gold or silver derived from our sample of
quartz is left as a brilliant globule on the cupel. This
globule of precious metals is often very minute, and if the
ascertaining the contents in gold only is our object, we may
add a little pure silver to the lead on the cupel and this
will ensure a residue of convenient size: we obtain a
tangible bead of silver, in which all the gold collected from
the quartz by the reduced lead is concentrated. This bead,
dissolved in aquafortis, leaves the gold as brown powder or
flocks; these we can wash with two or three affusions of
distilled water, carefully dry, and heat to redness, whereby
the full metallic aspect of gold is produced, and then the
weight of this residue of gold multiplied by 5,000 gives the
contents of the stone expressed in terms of the ton avoirdupois,

144 Mechanical Assay of Quartz.

Other modifications of the assay, somewhat less operose,
are practised, but the method described gives unimpeachable
results, and from the sketch I have presented you will,
I trust, easily understand that this kind of assay requires
a certain amount of skill and knowledge, and therefore
involves expense,--expense which in many cases is prohibi-
tive of its use.

Let us now contrast this method with the mechanical
assay of quartz, and in the first place, let me suggest that
the ordinary treatment of quartz in the mill is itself a kind
of mechanical assay ; the quartz is pulverized under the
stamper, in a current of water, the lighter portion,—the.
quartz particles, are carried forward in the stream, while the
gold by virtue of its greater specific gravity remains behind,
accumulating in the ripples of the mill. .The specific gravity
of quartz is 2.65, that of native gold of high quality may
be stated at 18.5, in other words the gold is seven times as
heavy as its own bulk of quartz. T he associated minerals,
the pyrites, &c., are of intermediate specific gravity, so that
these are also more or less liable to be retained with the
gold. There are impediments in the practice of quartz
crushing preventing a perfect extraction. The quartz is
comparatively speaking only coarsely pulverized ; it is never
as fine as the meal of flour for instance. Some quartz is
mostly held back by the gold retained in the mill, and some
gold is carried away in the escaping quartz tailings, as a
result of this merely coarse pulverization.. The pyrites
when separated is found to contain always some gold, at
times a not insignificant proportion of the whole contents ;
for this reason, namely, that the gold and pyrites when
existing together in the stone are mostly in immediate
contact: and on rewashing the tailings, fragments may be
discovered, which, when examined under the microscope, are
seen to consist in part of gold, in part of pyrites, and
possibly also in part of quartz; and these compound particles
will behave in accordance with the mean specific gravity
which they possess. There isa point in the pulverization
beyond which the practical treatment of quartz on the large
scale does not go, and this degree of pulverization does not
admit of a perfect mechanical separation of the gold.

But although there is this limit in the treatment on the
large scale, there is no practical impediment in the way of
a more complete pulverization, when, for experiment, we
treat a mere handful of quartz. With a few appropriate

Mechanical Assay of Quartz. 145

tools and a little patience we can grind our sample until it
is almost impalpably fine. We must bear in mind that the
quartz, the arsenical pyrites, all the contained minerals,
excepting the gold, are brittle, and that the gold alone is
malleable, and this reminder should be kept in view in
considering the example to which I beg in the next place to
refer.

I had visited a reef in the neighbourhood of Wellington,
New South Wales: a bold reef cropping out of the ground
like a string of mile or tombstones stretching across country.
The quartz contained strings and geodes of agate, as well as
copper carbonates, copper pyrites and other minerals,—a well
mineralized reef, in which, however, no gold was visible.
Feeble attempts had been made to work it, and after inquiry
I obtained from a person living close to the spot one small
specimen from this reef in which @ minute speck of gold
was visible by aid of the pocket lens: this gold particle
detached and fell out before my return with it to Melbourne.
Shortly after my return, I obtained a box of the stone of
this reef, and I carefully assayed it in the fire, with a result
equal to 15 dwts. of gold to the ton. I was surprised at
this relatively large yield from stone showing no gold, and
repeating the trial I again obtained exactly the same result
of 15 dwts. So close a coincidence in the results of these
assays would suggest that the gold was very uniformly
distributed in a very fine state of division throughout the
stone. I then took a sample of the stone, pulverized it very
finely, and treating it in a way which I will presently
describe, I obtained the result of numerous flattened particles
or spangles of gold, all visible with the naked eye, but so
minute as to be much better seen and identified under the
microscope. Here then was a practical illustration of what
Tam about to advance, namely, that the auriferous nature
or otherwise of quartz may be readily ascertained by means
for the most part mechanical; and in the instance just
adduced you will observe that we gain an insight into the
mode of occurrence of the precious metal, and consequently
as to the treatment which such a quartz would require in
the mill. ;

My mode of procedure was simply this. I first pulverized
the sample in a very large cast iron mortar; this mortar
has a very stout bottom, the pestle, which is of wrought
iron, is 4 feet long, weighs 13 lbs., and the upper part of this
pestle for preservation of the hands is covered with a short

L

146 Mechanical Assay of Quartz.

piece of india-rubber hose pipe. I employed a sieve of
brass wire of fine mesh (say about nine hundred to
the square inch), and after all the sample had passed
through the sieve, I ground the powder still finer in
a shallow cast iron mortar of about 11 inches diameter
and 5 inches deep: this mortar was cast from the
pattern of a Berlin porcelain druggists’ mixing mortar, and
has proved a most useful tool. I ‘then submitted a weighed
quantity of the very finely ground sample to careful washing
in a porcelain dish, and éventually obtained a residue con-
sisting almost entirely of the metallic sulphides of the ore.
These, small in bulk in proportion to that of the original
quartz sample, were now transferred to a large agate mortar,
again ground and washed alternately, until at last a small
gray residue showing no gold was all that remained. This
gray residue consisted almost entirely of particles of cast and
wrought iron abraded during the preceding operations. They
may be easily separated. A darning needle or a steel pen is
magnetised by drawing it once or twice, always in the same
direction, over the surface of an ordinary horse-shoe magnet,
and to the little steel magnet thus obtained, the particles of
iron will attach themselves, and may be freed from any
entangled particles of gold by drawing them backwards and
forwards thr ough the water with which the agate mortar is
filled. Imay mention that the agate mortar is pre-eminently
suitable for this final work ; the smallest particle of gold
can be seen against the dull surface of the agate; the
hardest materials can be ground impalpably in the little
vessel and it serves the double capacity of mortar and wash-
bowl; we can wash and grind alternately to the close of the
operation,

When the gold is finally separated in spangles or flattened
particles in the agate mortar, accessory chemica! means for
refining and collecting the precious metal into a globule may
be employed. The gold residue may be wrapped in a
morsel of sheet-lead, and cupelied betore the blowpipe; and
from the diameter of the resulting minute spherical bead of
fused gold thus obtained, its weight may be easily computed.
Such operations are familiar to the chemist in the labora-
tory, but, I fear, would in. most cases prove inapplicable in
the hands of the miner in the field. I refrain, therefore,
from troubling you with further details of a treatment which
must be regarded as extrinsic to the purely mechanical
assay, especially as the fullest particulars of all operations of

Matler—a Mode of Motion. 147

the kind are to be found in the numerous treatises on the
metallurgical use of the blowpipe.

By the purely mechanical treatment, the miner would
ascertain whether the sample tried was auriferous or not, and
even without attempting to weigh the separated gold, he
would be able to draw valuable conclusions from its aspect
in the mortar, concerning the comparative richness of the
stone.

Art. XLVIIL—On an Easy and Expeditious Method of
verifying a Ship's Position on a Coast when only
one Object on Shore can be seen either in the Day or
Night, by the use of Perry’s Anti-Collision Dial.

By ©. J. PERRY.
[Read 14th October, 1871.]

Art. XLIX.—On the Treatment of Criminals wm Relation
7 to Science.

By H. K. RuspEN.
[Read 11th November, 1872.]

Art. L.—On a Kaleidograph.

By M. O. PrircHaRp.
[Read 11th November, 1873.]

Art, LL—On Matter—a Mode of Motion.
_ By Farte MacGeorce, Esq.
(Read 11th November, 1872.]

Tee

‘148 Ocean Wave Power Machinery.

Art. LIL—On Ocean Wave Power Machinery.

By 8. BR. DEVERELL, Esq.
[Read 9th December, 1872.]

This invention for utilising ocean wave power on board
sea going vessels consists—in its most abstract form—of a
heavy mass freely poised in all directions upon a medium of
compressed air, or other elastic medium, (or by atmospheric
pressure acting against a vacuum,) so that it is abso-
lutely independent of the motion of the ship. This perfect
freedom is obtained by referrmg it to three dimensions at
right angles to each other; viz, a direction fore and aft,

called the first dimension (the terms vertical and horizontal
being clearly inapplicable to a vessel oscillating on waves) ;
a, direction athwart t ships (called the second dimension) ; and
a third dimension at right angles to the two former or to
the plane of the deck, and corresponding to the term vertical
in its land signification. Thus, every movement of the
vessel in whatever direction, produces a counter relative
impulse of the freely poised mass in the opposite direction,
the force being jointly proportioned to the mass employed,
and the resultant of all the wave forces acting upon the
ship. The movements in the three separate dimensions, and
which of course are irregular in their character, are reduced
to a uniform direction, and added together by double action
ratchet wheels and epicyclic gearing, the combined move-
ment bemg made to merge in the rotation of a single
shaft constantly in one direction.* This shaft compresses.
air into a receiver, and the compressed air so stored up is
then used in the same manner as steam in a high pressure
engine, with the usual appliances for regulating the supply
and action.

Hach movement of the vessel, however slight, thus con-
_ tributes a volume of compressed air, the magnitude of which,
owing to the hugeness of the force which moves the ship,
can be controlled within. .

From this elementary statement of the principle it will
be seen that the mass is opposed only in all directions by
the resistance or work to be done ; and valves for preserving,
increasing, or diminishing the density of the compressed air,

* Wheels may be altogether dispensed with, and valves substituted
in their place, water being employed as an incompressible medium in
compressing the air, in the Same manner as in the appliances used in the
Mont Cenis railway tunnel.

Ocean Wave Power Machinery. 149

at all times furnish a ready means of regulating such resist-
ance either by self-action or at will.

For the same reason there can be no shock to the
machinery, for the principle of action being perfect freedom
in all directions, no matter how violent the shock which the
vessel sustains from the waves, the mass or independent
load pursues its relative motion until gradually dispossessed
of its force by the compressed air. Any shock to the
machinery would in fact imply that the principle of the
invention had not been carried out, and that the mass should
have freedom in that direction.

In actual practice it is proposed to insert intermediate
mechanism between the independent mass and the com-
pressed air, to produce a mechanical advantage for economy
of space in the volume of the air receiver. No other
advantage is gained by this: the source of power, viz. the
oscillations of the vessel, being of course the same.* But it
will be thus apparent that the mechanical forms of applica-
tion of the principle may be as infinitely diverse as
machinery itself.

An idea of the ultimate principle of action may be gained
by balancing a heavy cube of metal by elastic springs
attached perpendicularly to the six faces of the cube; every
force actuating the outer or containing body will be exerted
upon the springs in the opposite direction by the cube, the
resultant of the relative forces thus expanding or com-
pressing the springs being equal to the whole relative force
resident in the cube, or to its independent inertia. Some
idea of the magnitude of the force thus engaged may be
had from witnessing the movements of the ponderous balance
beams employed in pumping deep mines, such for instance
as are commonly used at Bendigo. Yet, such an impulse
illustrates the operation of the force in one dimension only.

It has been asked what would be the effect upon the ship,
of so heavy a mass moving within board, If the movements
in the three dimensions be referred to three axes at right
angles to each other, the pressure being transferred to the
fixed bearings, the effect upon the ship is the same as if the
mass had no motion, but were a rigid part of the ship at

* By oscillation is not meant the angular oscillation only, as has been
supposed, but the resultant of the vertical, the horizontal, and the angular
oscillations, which makes a large difference in the right conception of the
nature of the power.

+ Fluidity is itself a mode of independent inertia, and forms of the
invention may be constructed in which it is the agent.

150 Ocean Wave Power Machinery.

the bearings, and actually stationary at those points.* But
reference to the theory of action will show that such an
arrangement is practically unessential.

For the motion or play of the mass, or load, is resisted at
all points only by the work to be done. The actual play or
movement may consequently be reduced at pleasure by
increasing the resistance or work imposed upon it: every
such governance being selfacting ; in accordance with the
fundamental principle of dynamics, that the mechanical
efficiency, or work done, is not diminished by diminishing
the play and increasing the resistance. The play, therefore,
of a few inches is equally as efficacious as if the mass have
almost untrammelled motion. The movement may, there-
fore, be made so small as to be wholly inappreciable in regard
to its effect upon the ship ; and a double purpose so served
in economy of space. For as the dead weight which has
to be carried in a ship may be employed as the moving
mass, the loss of space is the extent of the movement
only, which may be thus indefinitely reduced. In practice
it 1s proposed in such a case to employ a moveable deck or
frame carrying fifty tons or upwards of dead weight, with
an allowed movement of no more than twenty inches.+

The mode in which it is absolutely confined between fixed.
limits is by directly connecting the movement of the mass
with throttle valves, which cut off the space into which the
air is compressed; and by a governor regulating the
outflow of compressed air into the engine.

By these means the density of the air is sustained at a
degree proportional to the power supplied, ze, to the
violence of the oscillations, so that resistance increases in
proportion to the magnitude of the force represented:
by the oscillations ; or, in other words, the work imposed is
kept precisely equal to the power supplied, and the extent.
of the movement thereby controlled. In fact, if the resist-
ance be increased so much by wholly or partially closing the
valves, as to equal the relative force in the mass arising from
the action of the wave forces, the movement would be

* As some misconception has been published on this subject, it may be
as well to state definitely, that when so referred to three axes at right angles
to each other, it is mathematically impossible for the movements of the
independent load to affect in the slightest degree in any way, the stability
of the ship, other than if it (the load) were rigidly fixed.

+ The machinery itself will occupy the same space as the engines and
boilers of a steam engine; the parts being analogous, the saving being in
the large space occupied by coals.

——

Ocean Wave Power Machinery. 151

reduced to zero, 7.¢e., n0 work would be done and the mass
would move absolutely with the ship, as a rigid part of her.

It will be seen that in the application of the principle,
compressed air is proposed to be used for three several purposes.

Ist. As an elastic medium on which the load is poised. -

2nd. For storage of power.

3rd. For regulating velocity.

It is not however absolutely essential to the principle,
and other means for effecting these objects can be employed.
It is however cheap and always accessible ; but on the other
hand, its alternate expansion and contraction will engender
differences of temperature necessitating the use of further

machinery to overcome; unless indeed the difference of
temperature itself be applied to a useful purpose.

Instead of freedom in three dimensions, the apparatus
may be so constructed as to have freedom only i in any one
or two dimensions. Thus, in a combination of the first and
second dimensions, the independent mass would be free to
move in the plane of the deck only or upon curved surfaces
upon the plane of the deck by the apparent action of gravity ;
apparent only because the relative rise or fall may be abso-
lutely the reverse. The actual motions of any point in a
vessel oscillating on waves, and the relative motions of a
body free to move within her at that point, include many
difficult problems too abstruse to be briefly mentioned here,
but the investigation of which, with the result of actual
experiments on ‘the subjects now beige prepared, will be
shortly submitted. In a paper previously read (at the Royal
Society of Victoria,) 1t was however shown that the oscilla-
tion of a ship amongst waves is compounded of three
simultaneous oscillations, vertical, horizontal, and angular ;
and there can be no oscillation at all in which any one of
these three be absent. That is, for instance, a vessel or
any part of her cannot oscillate vertically without also a
horizontal sway and an angular deviation and vice versa.
Hence, as the whole oscillations of a vessel are practically
unceasing as long as she is on the open ocean, so also are
each of these. This fact is of great consequence in esti-
mating the efficacy of the various forms of construction
which the principle may assume; ‘the writer having
experienced a good deal of difficulty im removing the
prevailing error, that the mere roll of a vessel is equivalent
to her whole oscillation. The rolling is only a part of the

152 Ocean Wave Power Machinery.

movement into which the whole oscillation is divided ; and
any estimates based on this somewhat tenacious fallacy are
of course erroneous.

The degree of independence or freedom of the mass is
jomtly proportional to the volwme and the density, of the
elastic medium on which it is poised. Hence, the power
will be estimated by assuming perfect independence and
multiplying the result by the co-efficient of elasticity.

By observations made expressly during three voyages in
vessels of 300, 800, and 1,200 tons respectively, it is esti-
mated that an ordinary sea-going vessel on a deep-ocean
voyage averages six oscillations per minute, with the average
angular inclination of 9° thus compounded, viz., 8° 39’ on the
longitudinal or rolling axis, and 2° 30’ on the transverse or
pitching axis ; and that the whole movement constantly to be
relied on, represents an efficient force of independent inertia,
combined upon the three dimensions, equivalent to the whole
mass raised at the rate of 14 inches per second; so that if
the mass or independent load be represented by M, the
working effect will be equivalent to 47 Mf horse power or
upwards of 44 horse power per ton of weight employed.*

The storm efficiency is of course very much greater ;
indeed to those acquainted with the behaviour of ships in
heavy seas, little demonstration is necessary to show that in
a vessel labouring amongst waves 20 or 30 feet in height,
the prodigious force accumulated will exceed practical
requirement, and the movements of the load may be reduced
almost to zero.

In a forthcoming analysis of the principle of action, it
will be shown that it is precisely the same as if the vessel
remained motionless, and the inverted movements of the ship
were transferred to the independent load ; the working power
consisting of the force requisite to stop such a movement.

It will thus be seen that as the movement of the ship is
the resultant of all the wave forces acting within the total
displacement, the entire vessel presents the surface from
which the force is gleaned. In other words, she is the
receptacle of the moving force of all the particles of water
which she displaces ; a power so enormous as to be practically
infinite in respect of any tax which can be imposed upon it
from within board, so that it may not be too much to assert

* The computation on which this result is based will hereafter be
shown.

Ocean Wave Power Machinery. 153

that the maximum power derivable on this principle is
limited ultimately only by the strength of materials.*

Be it remembered that this vast power is most active and
available precisely in those emergencies when it is most
needed, when human effort is futile and a vessel is at the
mercy of the waves. If indeed we consider the effect of a
sluggish stream upon a water-mill and compare the ceaseless
progress of the waves of the ocean, the various uses to
which the huge power conserved in them could be applied,
it may surely be regarded as remarkable that a power,
probably the greatest and most universally spread in the
world, should remain unapplied, and that fleets of vessels
should be annually destroyed by the very force which can
be employed to their preservation.

Ocean wave-power in itself is the aggregated force of the
winds instead of their direct force as represented in sail-
power, and the advantages sought to be obtained in its
application are: Ist. That the power is more continuous and
reliable than the direct action of the winds or of sail power ;
it having been conclusively proved that on the open ocean
wave action never ceases during the most continued calms of
wind. 2nd. That, constituting a compromise between sail
and steam-power, its adoption would reduce very considerably
the cost of heavy and expensive rigging. 3rd. That its
action is independent of contrariety of winds. 4th. The
average actual power is greater than in the direct action of
the winds: it being an essential distinction that whereas
sail power employs surface to catch the force, this, viz. the
indirect or automatic application of wave power engages

* The idea of utilising ocean wave power is almost as old as the present
century ; and vessels have been repeatedly saved from foundering by its
meaus. ‘The power in such cases has been derived from the direct action of
the waves by means of spars or moving frames placed overboard, and taking
advantage of the vertical oscillations of the waves. It is obvious that, apart
from the generally impracticable character of such arrangement, the power
is proportional only to the section of the float or frame employed; the
essential distinction of the present application being that the apparatus
is wholly within board or automatic, and the power is derived from the
forces acting upon the entire vessel.

Notwithstanding these signal advantages, some of the old plans have
been revived since attention was drawn to the subject by the present writer ;
and previous instances of automatic appliances have been cited; the latter,
however, in apparent ignorance of the nature and source of power, and
therefore applying only a part of the principle. In point of fact the force
is and a/ways has been used constantly by seamen empirically. Every seaman
knows, for instance, the right moment when to run in with the slacking
strain on a rope—and the mere loweriig of a cask to the lee side affords a
practical exemplication.

154 The Classificatory System of

mass for the same purpose. Lastly, the force can be applied
to a large number of purposes, viz., pumping, the extinction
of fires, ventilation, reduction of ‘temperature and others,
as well as to auxiliary propuision.

The comparison is made with sailing ships, neaaten on.
account of the great cost and inconvenience of fuel for
steam-power at sea, sailing ships still successfully carry on
the bulk of the world’s commerce; and if their only draw-
back, viz. the unreliability and contrariety of the winds
which impel them can be overcome, as is proposed to be done
on this principle, by applying the indirect but cumulated
force of those winds, it may, notwithstanding unreasoning
prejudices which such an assertion may elicit, be found
unnecessary to import fuel from the land, when nature has
provided a never ending supply of the vastest force ever at
hand on the highway of the ocean.

Art. LIIL—The Classificatory System of Kinship. By
Rev. LORIMER FISON.

[Read 9th December, 1872.]

About the year 1848, the Hon. Lewis H. Morgan, of
Rochester, New York, found among the Iroquois Indians a
most extraordinary system of relationship widely differing
from that with which we are familiar. He then supposed
it to be an invention of, and confined to that particular tribe.
But in the year 1857, having occasion to re-examine the
subject, there occurred to him the possibility that it might
prevail among other Indian tribes, and if so, how important
a use might be made of it for ethnological purposes. —
Extending therefore his inquiries during the following
summer, he found precisely the same system among the
Ojibwa Indians, of Lake Superior. Every word used by
them as a term of kinship was radically different from the
corresponding term in the Iroquois; and yet in every case
the meaning was the same. Before 1860, having found the
system throughout the five principal stock languages
eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and having moreover
discovered traces of it in the Sandwich Islands, and. in
Southern India, he was encouraged to prosecute his
researches on a more extended scale. He therefore solicited

Kinship. 155

the co-operation of the various missionary societies, “which,”
he remarks, “was cordially promised, and the promise
amply redeemed.” The Smithsonian Institution also and the
Department of State gave him their aid, and his printed
circulars went forth fortified by letters of commendation to
men of science from the former ; and to the various consular
agents of the United States, from the latter. Those who,
perhaps naturally enough, turn a deaf ear to the most urgent
entreaties of a private individual, are often willing to lend
their aid at the bidding of a great literary association, or of
men in high position, whence in a few years Mr. Morgan
found that he had abundant materials to his hand. He
himself was the most diligent worker of all; and by
personal investigation discovered the Iroquois system
among upwards of seventy North American Indian
nations, speaking as many different dialects. Besides
these, his extended inquiries through his foreign
correspondents furnished him with the systems of
many tribes in Hurope, Asia (where the system was
found to prevail among all the Tamil and Telugu tribes,
numbering near thirty millions), Central Africa, and
the Pacific Islands. The results of these researches were
tabulated by him, and published last year by the Smiths-
onian Institution in a large quarto volume of some 600
pages ; a copy of which was sent to me several months ago,
but I grieve to say that, through some untoward mishap, it
has not yet reached me.

About three years ago, I being then in Fiji, Professor
Goldwin Smith sent me one of Mr. Morgan’s circulars and
blank schedules, with a request that I would write down
therein the Fijian system, which the United States Consul for
Fiji had neglected to furnish, although requested to do so by
General Cass of the Department of State. In reading over
Mr. Morgan’s circular, I was astounded to find that the
characteristics of the system were set forth by him in the
very words which one would use in describing those of the
Fijian. So startling, indeed, were the facts disclosed, that
before I got to the end of the circular, I actually turned the
page over again, to assure myself by looking at the pre-
liminary remarks, that I was not reading an account of the
Fijian system. “Here,” said I, “is something worth
inquiring into. Similarities of language and customs may
lead us into endless mistakes and bewilderment ; but the
fact of an intricate system, such as this, being found among

156 The Classificatory System of

tribes so widely scattered, is conclusive in its evidence
beyond all question.”

I lost no time in searching out the Fijian system, my
schedule of which, together with that of the Tongans, or
Friendly Islanders, also made out by me, reached America
just in time to be inserted in Mr..Morgan’s great work.
Afterwards I ascertained the systems of thirteen Fijian
tribes, of Rotuma and of Samoa,* and since my return to the
colonies I have made diligent inquiries among the Australian
Aborigines, resulting in discoveries which are considered to
be of the greatest importance. “I am more and more
impressed,” writes the leader in these inquiries to me, “ by
each communication I receive from you, with the vast
importance of your present field of research. In Australia
and Polynesia, you are several strata below barbarism into
savagism, and are nearer to the primitive condition of man
than any other investigator.”

Having thus introduced my subject, and stated my”
connexion with it, I will now endeavour to lay before you
the peculiarities of the systems of kinship hitherto ascer-
tained. It must be observed that-in no tribe, as far as I am
- aware, has the system which the terms of kinship reveal,
been found in actual operation at the present day.
Polygamy, which is a progressive not a retrogressive step,
has done away with the old license ; but the evidence of the
former existence of that license is fossilized, as it were, in
those terms ; and herein lies their great value.

The Malay system, whereof the Hawaiian may be taken
as the type, is the simplest yet discovered ; nor is it possible
to imagine one simpler, for it is but one remove from utterly
unrestricted and indiscriminate intercourse. Its specific
terms by which the various degrees of kinship are
designated, give us the following characteristics :—

1, All my grandfather's brothers are my grandfathers.
All his sisters are my grandmothers.

2. All my father’s brothers are my fathers; and all his
sisters are my mothers. They all call me their child.

3. All my mother’s sisters are my «mothers; and all
her brothers are my fathers. All these call me their
child.

* The Rotuman system was furnished by the Rev. John Osborne, and
the Samoan by the Rey. W. Brown. Both these gentlemen are Wesleyan
Missionaries.

Kinship. 157

4. The children of my father’s brothers are called my
brothers and sisters. So also are the children of my father’s
sisters, as well as those of my mother’s sisters, and those of
my mother’s brothers. In other words, I address as my
brothers and sisters, not only my own brothers and sisters
according to our system, but. all my cousins also.

-

5. All the children of my brothers are called my children.
They address me as “ father.” So also with the children of
my sisters.

6. All the grandchildren of my brothers, and all the
grandchildren of my sisters, I call my grandchildren. They
call me grandtather.

&

7. There are double terms for the relationship of brother
and sister—one for the elder, and another for the younger.
Whence there is no term by which I can designate all my
brothers or all my sisters, unless I be either the eldest or the
youngest of the family.

This seventh pecuharity I have found more or less
modified in every tribe with whose system I have been able
to make myself acquainted. It prevails among all the
North American Indians, the Tamil and Telugu peoples of
South India, the Polynesian tribes, and the Aborigines of
Australia.

These characteristics reveal to us a Communal Family
founded on the cohabitation of brothers and sisters. This
family begins with a number of brothers living in
promiscuous intercourse with a number of women who
are .their sisters. As they live so their children live,
and the family is thus an infinite series of the nearest blood
relations, no divergence into the collateral line being
possible. An examination into the characteristics now
given, will at once show that they all (excepting the last,
which, though not in any way at variance with the communal
idea, does not appear to be the necessary outcome of it) can
be satisfactorily accounted for on this supposition, and that
they can be no otherwise explained.

For instance, I being male, all my brothers’ children are
called my children, and they call me “ father.” This can be
accounted for no otherwise than on the supposition that I
cohabit with all my brothers’ wives.

Again, I call my sisters’ children my children, and they
address me as “father.” The evident reason of this is, that

I cohabit with my sisters ; for, if I recognise the child .of a —

158 ' The Classificatory System of

woman as my child, and it recognises me as its father, the
irresistible inference is that I cohabit with its mother.

In the Communal Family a child addresses any and every
male of the generation next above its own as “father,”
because all those males cohabiting with all the females of
that generation, among whom its mother is one, any one of
them may be its father; and though it can, of course,
distinguish its own mother from among those females, yet it
calls them all ‘‘ mother,” because they are all the wives of
the men whom it ‘calls “ father.”

The Communal Family then appears to consist of a
number of men banded together for the purpose of securing
to themselves against the ageression of males outside the
family the exclusive possession of a number of women all of
whom are theoretically their sisters. I say theoretically,
because it is evident at a glance that not all these women
are own sisters to the males, those whom we should eall
cousins being included among them. And supposing the
human race to have begun with a single pair; supposing,
moreover, the absence of a purer teaching from without, or
(what would have the same effect) the persistent disregard,
resulting in utter forgetfulness, of that purer teaching, this is
precisely that which we should expect to be the earliest form
of the family. A nation might be either one such family, or
a number of such families banded together for mutual
protection.

We now come to the Barbaric Family, of which we have
found two forms, called, for the sake of convenience, the
Turaman and the Ganowanian, the latter term being
compounded of two North American Indian words, gano, an
arrow, and waano, a bow. ‘This form of the family has been
found by Mr. Morgan among all the North American
Indians, the Tamil and Telugu tribes of South India, and
among many other nations; but not having yet received
his book from the Smithsonian, I cannot state the extent
of his discoveries. I myself have found it among the
Fijian, the Friendly Islanders, and more or less modified
among several Australian tribes. This system is founded
upon the Malayan, and is a most important advance upon
it. Its chief characteristics are as follow :—

1. Grandparents, as in the Malayan.

2. All my father’s brothers are my fathers. All my
mother’s sisters are my mothers. This also is Malayan. But

Kinship. 159

3. All my father’s sisters are my aunts. All my
mother’s brothers are my uncles. This is the key to the
whole system.

4. I being male, all my brothers’ children are my
children ; but all my sisters’ children are my nephews and
nieces.

5. I bemg female, all my sisters’ children are my
children ; but all my brothers’ children are my nephews and
nieces.

6. The grandchildren of all my brothers, and those of all
my sisters, are my grandchildren.

7. The double terms of the fraternal relationship, as in

the Malayan.

From these characteristics it will be perceived that the
Turanian system allows a divergence into the collateral line
in the second generation, but returns to the lineal in the
third. The Barbaric Family is therefore an alternate series
Gf I may be allowed the term), continually diverging from
the direct line in one generation, and returning to it in the
next.

The explanation of this is beautifully simple ; the advance
from the Malay system resulting from the breaking up of
the inter-marriage between brothers and sisters, which is
effected in the simplest manner by the tribal organisation,
an institution whose object seems to be nothing more nor less
than to effect this purpose.

Suppose a nation to have the Malay system. It consists
of a number of Communal Families, or of one such family
whose children always inter-marry within the family. Sup-
pose this nation to accept the tribal organisation. The effect
of this important step is to break up these inter-marriages of
brothers and sisters, by the simple process of dividing the
Communal Family into tribes, and removing all the “male
children, or all the female, into another tribe, ‘which gives its
own in exchange. In the former case, ere fie male
children are thus removed, the child is of the mother’s tribe,
as among the North American Indians, the Kamilaroi-
speaking Aborigines of New South Wales, and the tribes of
of Mathuata, Fiji; and the system is that which we call the
Ganowanian. In the latter case, where the female children
are thus removed, the child is of the father’s tribe, as among
the Tamils, the Fijians (with the single exception, as far as

160 The Classificatory System of

I know, of Mathuata), the Tongans, and the Narrinyeri, a.
South Australian Tribe; and the system is that which we
call the Turanian.

A nation, therefore, which has the Barbaric form of the
family consists, or did at one time consist, of two or more
tribes which exchange their sons or their daughters.

Thus, A and B being two tribes under the Ganowanian
system, A gives its sons as husbands to the daughters of B,
taking in exchange S's sons as husbands for its own
daughters. Under the Turanian system, A gives its
daughters as wives to the sons of 6; and in return, B gives
its daughters to A’s sons. (Observe throughout this paper
T use the words “ husband,” “ wife,” and “ marriage,” in an
accommodated sense.) Hence it is evident that the males of
A are brothers to the wives of the males of B, and that the
males of B are brothers to the wives of the males of A. The
only change in the Malay system effected by this step, is the
prohibition of intercourse between brother and sister. The
old license of polyandry and polygynia is still preserved, the
family consisting of a number of men, all brothers m theory,
who live in promiscuous intercourse with a number of
women, all sisters in theory, that is, sisters to one another,
but not sisters to the males, who are their husbands. All
the children of a tribe are called brothers and sisters; and
since either all the male children, or all the female, are
removed from the tribe, a man’s matrimonial choice is
restricted to the daughters of his father’s sisters, and to
those of his mother’s brothers ; but as many of these -women
as there are, so many wives has he. Accepting this theory,
we have a ready explanation of all the peculiarities of the
system.

For instance, I bens male, all my brother’s children
are my children, because my brother and I have our wives
in common; but my sister's’ children are my nephews
and nieces, because I am restricted from intercourse with
her, and therefore they cannot be my children. So also,
I being female, my sister’s children are called my children, ~
because my sister and I have our husbands in common; but -
my brother’s children are my nephews and nieces, because I
am removed from him into another tribe. Whence his
children cannot be my children.

The return of the collateral line into the lineal, in the
third generation, is equally easy of explanation. Let A and
B represent two males of different tribes. Under the

Kinship. 161

Ganowanian system or the Turanian, the sister of A is B’s
wife, and therefore B’s son is A’s nephew.

But A gives his daughter to the son of B, who is A’s
nephew.

The child of A’s nephew therefore is the child of A’s
daughter, and consequently A’s grandchild by the mother’s
side.

All the other characteristics of the system are satisfactorily
accounted for by this theory.

The simplest form of the tribal organisation, is the
division of the whole nation into two families, tribes, or
classes, which exchange their sons or their daughters ; and
this is doubtless the earliest form which the tribal organi-
sation assumed. Thus I am informed by Mr. D. Stewart,
that the tribe of Mount Gambier, South Australia, is divided
into two such classes, which are distinguished by the names
Kumite and Krokee for males, Kumitegor and Krokeegor for
females. Every man is either Kumite or Krokee, every
woman is either Kumitegor or Krokeegor. Kumite and
Kumitegor of the same generation are brother and sister, so
also with Krokee and Krokeegor. Kumite must always
marry Krokeegor, and Krokee Kumitegor.

Mr. Chas. G. N. Lockhart, Commissioner of Crown Lands,
Wentworth, New South Wales, tells me in a most
interesting letter, that the Darling River tribes have the
following tradition: There was originally but one man.
This man had two wives, whose names were Kilpara and
Mookwara. Kilpara’s children were all Kilparas, so also are
all their descendants. Mookwara’s children were all
Mookwaras, so also are all their descendants. A man may
not marry a woman of his own class. A Kilpara man must
always marry a Mookwara woman, and a Mookwara man a
Kilpara woman. Even in cases of forcible abduction, this
rule is strictly observed.*

The Rev. R. H. Codrington, of the Melanesian Mission,
informs me that among the natives of Mota, an island of the
Banks group, there are two divisions called “veve,” which
is the word for mother. “A man,” says Mr. Codrington,

* With the above-named gentlemen, and with several others who have
supplied me with valuable information, I was brought into communication
by means of a letter which was published in The Australasian ; and I most
gladly avail myself of this opportunity of publicly expressing my thanks to
the courteous gentleman who edits that paper for the aid which he has
afforded me, by admitting my letter into his columns,

M

162 The Classificatory | System of

‘“‘must always marry into the other veve.” Remembering that
veve means mother, we see that “marrying into the other
veve,” means “ marrying a child of the other mother.” In
other words, this is exactly the arrangement effected by the
Kumite and Krokee, of the Mount Gambier natives, and
by the Kilparas and Mookwaras, of the Darling River
tribes.

Mr. Codrington says, “there are no tribes, properly so-
called, in all the Melanesian Islands; nor are there any
hereditary chiefs having political power, excepting in the
small Polynesian Colonies.” The natives rise in rank by
“payment of money and pigs,” a singular custom, which
shows that the Melanesians have a sort of aptitude for the
so-called political economy of the day. Mr. Codrington,
when he said there are no tribes among the Melanesians,
doubtless had in his mind the Polynesian tribe, with its
‘recognised chiefs of various grades, and its sharply defived
castes ; but where we find the effect of the tribal organisa-
tion, we must suspect the existence, either present or past,
of the cause ; and it is abundantly evident that the division
into the two veve is tribal.

This partition of the whole nation into two tribes or
classes, is the simplest form of the organisation which has
for its purpose the breaking up of the intermarriage between
brothers and sisters. We find, however, that there has been
a tendency to subdivisions of the two principal classes.
Various causes may have combined to produce this
tendency ; but it seems to me that the tribal organisation,
once introduced, must have brought with it a progressive ~
impetus, which would continually impel towards further
change, by generating an idea which slowly but surely grew
into that of the acquisition and personal possession of
property.

This idea must have been altogether foreign to the
Communal Family, and that it was of painfully slow growth,
is evident from the fact that even at the present day it is
but imperfectly developed in nations such as the Fijians,
who advanced from the Malay system, through the Turanian,
into polygamy “who can say how many ages ago?
Nevertheless, slow as the growth of the idea undoubtedly
was, it certainly had its effect in increasing the number of
subdivisions in the tribe. For the first division must have
necessitated a partition of the common property, of women,
of hunting grounds among the nomad tribes, and of arable

Kinship. 163

land among the agricultural. In the Communal Family, all
property must have belonged to the common stock. The
first division, by limiting the number of owners, introduced
a new idea, which tended ceaselessly to still further limita-
tion, and finally under the guidance of the law of the
stronger culminated in polygamy, the highest form of
intersexual law yet discovered among savage “nations. Not
until this stage had been reached, “could there be trans-
mission by inheritance of either property or rank.
Consequently, we may perhaps infer that the Melanesians,
who have no hereditary chiefs, are nearer to the Malay
system than the Polynesians, who have both castes and
chiefs by descent.

In some eases, the smaller tribes or subdivisions are
distinguished by the names of certain animals, as wolf, bear,
elk, tortoise, and so forth, among the North American
Indians; and kangaroo, opossum, blacksnake, emu, bandicoot,
&e., among the Australian Aborigines. It is a singular
fact that, as far as I have been able to ascertain, tribes thus
distinguished by totems or animal names, have for their
system of kinship the Ganowanian, as distinguished from the
Turanian, 7.¢., they remove the boys from the tribe, and not
the girls ; whence, the son is of the mother’s tribe, not of
the father’s. He does not inherit the father’s rank or
property. These are given to the father’s sister’s son.
Thus, an American Indian does not inherit even his father’s
scalps, his weapons of war, or his medal. -He goes forth
from his tribe into that whence his father came ; and from a
passage in Dr. Livingstone’s expedition to the Zambesi, we
may conclude with certainty that this custom, and
consequently the cause of the custom, prevail among some
at least of the Central African tribes.

My researches among the Australian Aborigimes have
revealed a curious and novel classification, resulting in a
system of kinship which seems to be intermediate between
the Malayan and the Ganowanian. We are, however,
not yet quite clear as to the precise form which it will
take.

During my stay in Sydney last year, I became acquainted
with the Rev. W, Ridley, M.A., a Presbyterian clergyman,
who was for some years a saneesoinene y to the'blacks, and who
has a knowledge of the language of the tribes among whom
he laboured. From him I learned that the Kamilaroi
speaking tribes are divided into four classes, by means of

M 2

164 The Classificatory System of

certain names, one of which every blackfellow bears. These
are :—

be)

Class 1. Ippai, male. Ippatha, female.
he Wilbert .Matha a
Bi gular |, Kubbdtha ,,
4. Kumbo ,, Butha

Tppai and Ippatha of the same generation are brother and
sister ; so also with the other pairs.

Upon this classification, certain laws of marriage and
descent are founded.

1. Ippai marries Kubbotha. Their children are Murri
and Matha.

2. Murri marries Butha. Their children are Ippai and

Tppatha.

3. Kubbi marries Ippatha. Their children are Kumbo
and Butha.

4. Kumbo marries Matha. Their children are Kubbi
and Kubbotha

Assuming as a_ postulate what subsequent inquiry
verified as a fact, that all men of the same class-name in the
same generation are brothers in theory, and that all women
of the same class-name in the same generation are sisters in
theory, I elaborated from these class-names and the laws
founded upon them the whole kinship system of these
natives, which I found to present the Ganowanian character-
istics. My memoranda thereon have since been published
by the Smithsonian; and I have recently had the intense
gratification of receiving from the Rev. E. Fuller, of Fraser’s
Island, Queensland, one of my printed schedules filled up
with the system of a Queensland tribe, which on the more
important points, beautifully confirms my theory; though
it presents one strange anomaly which is very puzzling.

It is evident at a glance that this classification must
break up the Communal Family, inasmuch as it prohibits
intermarriage between brothers and sisters; for you will
observe that a man must always marry into a class other
than his own; and if the system accept all the logical
consequences of this law, it must be identical with the
Ganowanian. I have, however, reason to suspect that
among those natives, the seed of progress fell on stony
ground, and did not bring forth fruit to perfection.

A gentleman named Lance, of Bungawalbyn, on the Upper

Kinship. 165

Clarence, who first called Mr. Ridley’s attention to the
class names, and kindly took the trouble to correspond with
me on the subject,* assured me that all the men of a class
considered as their wives all the women of the class
appropriated to them in marriage. Thus, for instance, that
every Ippai would look upon every Kubbotha in the light
of his wite; and that even if he met a strange Kubbotha, he
would claim the privileges of a husband, which claim would
be allowed, or at least not violently resented, by her tribe.
This is just what we might expect to find in a nation
wherein the Ganowanian usages had not been altogether
done away with by the influence of polygamy.

He gave me, moreover, another piece of information,
which happily led to a very important discovery. ‘‘ Some-
times,’ he said, ‘the marriage law was crossed and
complicated in a manner which he did not understand.” He
had met with a couple whose cohabitation seemed to be at
variance with the rules already given: an Ippai having an
Ippatha to wife; and on being questioned by him, the
woman had said, “ What for you stupid? This Ippai is not
a Blacksnake like other Ippais, but an Emu. That explains
ib.”

It immediately occurred to me that we had here a clue to
a valuable discovery. I suspected the existence of
subdivisions in the four classes already mentioned—sub-
divisions marked by totems, or animal names, as among the
North American Indians. Fortunately, just about this time,
a despatch arrived from Lord Kimberley to the Governor of
New South Wales, enclosing a letter from Max Miiller,
asking that certain philological inquiries should be made
among the Aborigines. My friend, Mr. Ridley, was deputed
by the Government to make these inquiries, and at my
suggestion kindly engaged to search for the subdivisions
whose existence I suspected. His success was beyond my
hopes. He found that the four classes were subdivided
into six others, each of which bore a totem as its dis-
tinguishing mark.

The Ippais and the Kumbos, together with their
respective sisters, are subdivided into the Emus, the
Blacksnakes, and the Bandicoots. The Murris and the
Kubhbis, together with their respective sisters, are subdivided
* I thus mention the names of my informants, because I am unwilling,
even in appearance, to claim as my own discoveries the facts which have
been made known to me by the kindness of others.

166 The Classificatory. System of

into the Iguanas, the Paddy-melons,* and the Opossums.
Every blackfellow has three names, two of which are
classificatory. First, the name of his class, as Ippai,
Muri, &c. Second, his totem or animal name. His third
name does not appear to be classificatory. It is simply a
distinguishing title singling him out from among those who
bear the same class-name and totem.

These subdivisions affect the law of marriage, but not the
law of descent.

They affect the law of marriage thus—Every Ippai (e.g.)
may cohabit not only with Kubbotha, who is his wife
according to the law of marriage, but also with an Ippatha
who has a totem other than his own, though never with an
Ippatha who bears his totem. Thus, Ippai the Emu may take
to wife Ippatha the Blacksnake, but not Ippatha the Emu.
We should expect the law of descent to be affected by this
extended license ; and if it were so affected, endless complica-
tions and confusions must necessarily arise ; but in point of
fact it is not affected at all, the confusion being avoided by
a very simple arrangement. The children of such a
connexion take always the class-names which are borne by
the children of their mother by her proper husband
according to the law of marriage. This being so, and since
in every case the child takes its mother’s totem, not that of
its father, it is evident that the law of descent is not
affected. Thus, the children of Ippai the Emu and Ippatha
the Blacksnake are Kumbo the Blacksnake, and Butha the
Blacksnake, as are the children of their mother by her proper
husband Kubbi. Moreover, since the child takes its mother’s
totem, and since these totems are evidently tribal, it follows
that the child is of the mother’s tribe, not of the father’s, and
that the system of kinship tends towards the Ganowanian.

From this extended matrimonia! privilege, we gather that
the system of the tribes speaking the Kamilaroi language
permits a man to marry his half-sister by the father’s side,
but not his half-sister by the mother’s side, nor his full
sister. In other words, he may cohabit with the daughter
of his father by a woman other than his mother, for though
she may have his class-name, yet she cannot have his totem,
her totem being that of her mother; but he may not
cohabit with the daughter of his mother, even though she
were begotten by a man other than his father; for she

* Paddy-melon is a sort of Kangaroo.

Kinship. 167

would have her mother’s totem, which he also bears. Of
this reculation we find traces in Old Testament History, and
in the Laws of Solon.

The marriage of Abram with Sarai was of this class ; and
even as late as David's time, we note its influence still
prevailing, though it was distinctly ferbidden by the Mosaic
Law. ‘Tamar’s objection to Ammon’s advances was not that
there was any inseparable bar to their union in the nearness
of their blood, but that the previous formalities necessary to
honourable marriage had not been observed. “Now,
therefore,” said the poor girl, “I pray thee speak to the
king, for he will not withhold me from thee.”

Further inquiry is necessary in order to determine the
exact place of this system ; but as far as I can see at present,
it seems to be intermediate between the Malayan and the
Ganowanian. ‘The females and their children in the female
line remain in the tribe, while the male children pass out of
it into that whence their fathers came, as among the North
American Indians. So far the tribe is complete. But an
_ American Indian has unlimited range in the selection of a
wife beyond his own tribe ; whereas there seem to be certain
restrictions connected with the totems of the Kamilaroi
speaking tribes, which narrow the range of selection. But
inasmuch as my information on this point is incomplete, I
prefer to await the result of further inquiry, before stating
the theory I have formed as to these restrictions. Suffice it
to say, that the Kamilaroi system appears to be an arrested
development of the Ganowanian.*

Extending our inquiries northward from Sydney, we find
the class-names in tribe after tribe ; and though the names in
use in certain tribes are words radically different from those
of the Kamilaroi, and the totems also vary, nevertheless,
the arrangement effected by them, as far as my information
goes, is precisely the same ; but as we advance southward,
we lose all trace of the class-names. My informants
positively assure me that they are unknown to the South
Australian tribes ; and this assertion is confirmed by the
fact that in those tribes the child is of the father’s tribe not
of the mother’s, as among the Kamilaroi.+

* It is a singular fact, that two at least of the stock languages spoken by
the tribes holding this system—the Kamilaroi and the Wiraithari—derive
their title from the negative, which is in the former case Kamil, and in the
latter Wirai.

+ This requires qualification. The Mount Gambier Kumite and Krokee
are classificatory, and make the child of the mother’s tribe.

168 The Classificatory System of

The terms of kinship used by one of those South
Australian tribes, the Narrinyeri, have been partially
furnished to me by the Rev. Geo. Taplin, of the Point
Macleay Mission. The information which he gives me is so
extremely valuable, as far as it goes, that I am filled with
regret because it goes no farther. Narrinyeri is a word
signifying ‘“‘ belonging to men,” and is arrogated to them-
selves by that tribe as their exclusive right. They consider
other nations to be unworthy of the title, and speak of them
contemptuously, as merkani, or wild. Here we have
amusingly reproduced the BapBapau of the Greeks, and the
undertone of contempt which is heard in our own
“foreigner.” Human nature is the same all the world over,
and every nation says in its heart, “ We are the people.”
As far as I can judge from the terms of kinship supplied by
Mr. Taplin, the Narrinyeri system is Turanian. It has the
following specific terms: Maiyanowe or Mutthanowe, my
grandparent ; Nanghai, my father ; Nainkowa, my mother ;
Wanowi, my uncle; Barno, my aunt; Gelanowe, my elder
brother; Maranowe, my elder sister; Tarte, my younger
brother or sister ; Porlean, my child, Nanghare, my nephew
or niece, a male speaking; Mbari, my nephew or niece, a
female speaking ; Maiyarare or Mutthari, my grandchild ;
together with a number of terms whose exact meaning I am
unable at present to ascertain; but which are probably
either resolvable into the terms already given, or traces of
new regulations restricting the old license. It is possible,
however, that we may find in them evidences of an arrested
development of Turanian ideas.

One remarkable peculiarity of the system is that I call
my son-in-law and my daughter-in-law “ my grandchildren,”
and they call me “grandfather.” This peculiarity I find in
the Fraser’s Island system also, which was furnished to me
by the Rev. E. Fuller. Now among all the Australian
Aboriginal tribes concerning which I have been able to
gather information, there exists a singular taboo between a
man and his mother-in-law. “When a blackfellow is
brought into accidental contact with his mother-in-law,”
says one of my correspondents, “his mingled shame, fear,
and wrath, are quite ludicroug to behold.” “If a native is
compelled t» speak to his mother-in-law,” writes another,
“they will turn back to back, and shout as if they were far
distant the one from the other.”

If this taboo prevail between a woman and her father-in-

Rimship. 169

law, as well as between a man and his mother-in-law, we
have a singular explanation of this peculiarity in the system.
It is simply a separation of the tabooed kin by a wider
interval, brought about by a theoretical insertion of an
additioual generation between them.

In the terms given by the Rev. G. Taplin, we see the
necessity of the very greatest care and patience in
examining an Australian system, as well as the all but utter
impossibility of success, unless the inquirer is well versed in
the native tongue ; for the native words suffer such extra-
ordinary changes in their inflexions and combinations, that it
is very difficult to guard against endless mistakes and con-
fusion in making our inquiries. Thus, I learn from Mr. Taplin,
that my father is Nanghai, your father, Ngaiowe ; his
father, Yikowalle ; my mother is Nainkowa, your mother is
Nainkowi, his mother is Narkowalle. What man ignorant
of the native tongue could suspect Yikowalle to be the same
word with Nanghai, allowing for the difference in the
possessive pronoun? or Narkowalle to have but a pro-
nominal difference from Nainkowa ? *

I cannot resist the temptation to make a short digression
here. The advocates of the’theory of man’s gradual develop-
ment by his own inherent and unaided energy, have drawn
an argument from language, which seems to be not only
altogether unsupported, but flatly contradicted by fact.
Thus, Biichner im his furiously materialistic Kraft und Stoff
asserts that the language of savages is little removed from
the inarticulate sounds made by the lower animals, whereas
the unvarying testimony of the facts collated by these
researches of ours, is to the effect that the languages spoken
by savages are far more elaborate as to their grammatical
forms and inflexions than are those of civilised nations;
complex forms being dropped one by one in the line of
advance, as too cumbrous to be borne in a rapid march. <A
very few facts will be amply sufficient in support of this
assertion : The Narrinyeri nouns have two cases more than
the Greek nouns have, and are inflected throughout all the
eases. The Kamilaroi verbs have at least three forms of the

* J have not found these complications in other Australian dialects,
concerning which I have been able to gather information. Elsewhere the
possessive pronoun is not incorporated with the term of kinship, but simply
follows it. These dialects offer to the philologist a wide and important field,
which must be explored now or never, for the native races are dying out with
a fearful rapidity. The facts relating to their decrease given me by some of
my correspondents are positively appalling.

170 The Classificatory System of

Imperative, each form being an inflexion of the verb, one
expressing command absolute, as “spear ;” another command
defiant, as “spear, if you dare;” and a third command with
delay in execution, as “spear, by and bye.” The Tongan
has two sets of possessive pronouns, the active and the
passive, each set being subdivided into two others, the
definite and the indefinite. The Fijian has two sets of
personal pronouns, at least in the first person, the inclusive
and the exclusive ; whereof the former includes the persons
addressed, while the latter excludes them. This peculiarity
is found in the North American Indian languages also.
Moreover, while all, or almost all, the Polynesian dialects, and
the Australian also, have three numbers, the Fijian has no
fewer than four, singular, dual; trinal, and plural. It has
three sets of possessive pronouns, one for ordinary possession ;
another for possession of eatables, which their possessor
either is going to eat or has eaten ; and yet another for the
possession n of drinkables, which their possessor is either going
to drink or has drunk ; while to words expressing parts of a
whole, it posttixes its possessive pronouns in an abbreviated
form. I may observe in passipg, that under the blessed
influence of civilisation, caused by contact with the superior
race, resulting in acquaintance with its strong waters, these
drinking pronouns are coming into much more frequent use
than of yore.

Having set before you the principal systems hitherto
discovered among savage nations, I propose now to examine
as briefly as possible, certain terms of kinship in the
language of one particular nation, with a view to summon, as
it were, those terms as witnesses in the case, to cross-examine
them, and to extract from them the information which the
degrees wherein they are used, and, where it can be
ascertained, their etymology, ought to disclose. For this
purpose I take the Fijian system, because it is that with
which Iam best acquainted, and especially because, being
thoroughly familiar with the Fijian tongue, I can draw from
its terms of kinship the evidence which their etymology
affords. This evidence is not a little curious, and it is, to me
at least, extremely interesting.

Under a system which allows promiscuous intercourse of a
number of males with a number of females, or where the
influence of such a system is still lingering in spite of
advanced regulations, we should naturally expect to find the
terms by which the conjugal relationship is expressed to be

Kinship. 171

loose and vague, wanting in that precision which is found in
our own terms, and most certainly giving forth no hint of a
sacred obligation. This is exactly what we do find.

The Fijian term wati, which is common to both sexes,
_ like our “spouse,” is very far from expressing our idea of
conjugal relationship. It means nothing more than “one
with whom I may cohabit.” A Fijian rarely uses it in
speaking of his wife. He seems to be withheld from using
it by a sense of shame, and usually speaks of her as Nongeu
Alewa, my woman. Precisely similar is the Tongan term
Unoho, and the Kamilaroi Gulia. The Hawaiian has Kana
for husband, and Wahine for wife ; but these terms mean
no more than male and female. The Tongan Unoho tells a
tale from which we instinctively shrink; but it is so
strikingly illustrative of my subject, and so fearfully
expressive of degradation, that I cannot pass it by, even
though I must ‘apologise for dragging it into light and
exposing its shame.

Unoho is compounded of two words, Unu and Oho.
Unu=insero. Oho=vehementer © admoveo - ; and with a
causative prefix, Unoho is used as a verb to express the act
of taking the sow to the boar. Whence, we see that there
is not the faintest hint of the sanctity of the marriage tie
in this word. It is nothing more than a brutal expression
of sexual intercourse.

Next we have the fact that the term Wati, or spouse, is
used by a man to designate his brother’s wives as well as
his own. He thus addresses not only the wives of his own
brothers according to our system, but those also of all the
men who are his brothers according to the Turanian system,

, the sons of his father’s brothers, and those of his
mother’s sisters. A woman thus addresses the husbands of
all the women who are her sisters, according to the Turanian
system. In this fact we have conclusive evidence of the old
license under that system, and we see this evidence surviving

‘ fo)
in the terms of kinship, though the practice which it records

was long since prohibited by the advance into polygamy.
The terms used when the practice was allowed have long.
survived the practice.

In one of the Fijian tribes, I found “my brother’s wife”
a male speaking, and “my sister’s husband” a female speak-
ing, rendered by Nonggu Ndaku, my back. This term, how-
ever, 1s used interchangeably with Wating gou, my spouse. In

another tribe, speaking a dialect widely “differing from that

172 The Classificatory System of

spoken by the former, I found the term to be Eku Tambu,
my forbidden one. These terms appear to me to be historic,
and to point to the bringing in of a new law forbidding the
old license. The significance of Kku Tambu, my forbidden
one, 1s discernible at a glance, for surely such a word could
never have been chosen as a specific term of kinship, unless
that which is now forbidden were formerly allowed. Nor is
Nonggu Ndaku less significant to one who is versed in the
language. It cannot be one of the original terms of kinship,
because every one of those terms takes the possessive pronoun
postfixed in an abbreviated form, as Wati, spouse ; Watingeu,
my spouse; Tama, father ; Tamange u, my ‘father; ; Luve, child:
Luveng rou, my child, Ge. I have already said that the posses-_
sive pronouns are thus combined with those words which
express parts of a whole; and it is to be noted that these
are the only words wherewith they are so combined. In the
tribal idea we see the reason why the terms of kinship are
words of this class. The savage does not look upon himself
as an individual. The tribe is the individual—the body—
the great whole, whereof he and all his kinsfolk are the
component parts. Herein we have an explanation, if not a
justification, of savage acts of revenge; and, extravagant
as my words may sound, I do not hesitate to say that the
fact of these possessive pronouns being postfixed to the
terms of kinship, points unerringly to the cause of that
lamentable tragedy which took from God’s army on earth
one of His best and bravest captains. I allude to the
murder of Bishop Patterson. But this a digression.
Nonggu Ndaku does not mean my back in the sense of my
own back ; that would be Ndakungeu; it means “ somebody
whose back is turned towards me,” or “towards whom my
back is turned”; and it appears to me to be an evident trace
of the bringing in of a new law. But though this law must
have been in force among the Fijians ever since the
introduction of polygamy among them—z.e., from time
immemorial—yet we see even at “the present day, together
with an outward conformity to the rule, a secret disregard
of it; which shows, as it seems to me, that it was enforced
upon them by an external authority, and that it has not
even yet produced in their minds the idea of a moral
obligation. Whence we see clearly that immense periods of
time must have been required for the gradual development
of the changes wrought by the tribal organization. In
point of fact, even at the present day (at least among the

Kinship. 173

heathen and among those tribes also which have been
but partially brought under the purifying influence of
Christianity), a man’s treating his brother’s wife as his wife
is looked upon with a lenient eye, and the offender’s tribe
becomes virtuously indignant only when the offence is known
beyond the tribe. The cuilt of the offence seems to lie in
its being found out. I questioned on this subject a very
amusing but intolerably garrulous old native of Rewa,
willingly submitting for the sake of the information which I got
from him to his endless reminiscences of the two great chiefs
of his nation, Ndakuwanka and Mbativuaka (in English,
“Back on Fire” and “ Pio’s Tooth” his brother), whose faithful
henchman he was. “Tell me,” I asked, “how was it before
Christianity came to Rewa? What was done to a man who
took his brother’s wife?” Whereupon he informed me that
the husband would not be angry, “ Ena vakavinavinaka
ga.” He would say “It’s all right,” replied my old friend,
in an indulgent tone and with a careless wave of his hand.
But he would also say, “Bring hither our mother, that she may
reprove this youth.” I asked, “ Which of their mothers, for
they might be many?” and my informant answered, “'The
mother of him who had entered his brother’s house ”—this
being the euphemistic phrase for the offence. He then went
on to tell me that the mother would remonstrate with the
offender somewhat as follows: “How is it my son, that you
act thus foolishly ? Have you then no house of your own, that
you must enter your brother's? Cease, I pray you, these
doings, lest our townsfolk hear thereof and drive us away.”
“ But why should they drive them away?” I cried. “ They
would do the same thing among themselves?” ‘True, sir,
true,” replied the old man, “but they would drive them
away, because the thing is forbidden.”

Here we have a curious and most significant trace of the
old license existing even now, side by side with the authority
which forbids it—the forbidden practice winked at by those
most nearly concerned, and yet punished if publicly known
by the very people who secretly allow themselves the same
indulgence. Was there ever such a keeping up of
appearances since the day when the Pharisees, who wanted
to put to death the woman taken in adultery, had to sneak
away one by one, none daring to cast the first stone ?

The next significant fact to which I wish to call your atten-
tion is, the singular taboo prevailing between brother and sister
among the Fijians, which is precisely that existing between a

174 The Classificatory System of

man and his mother-in-law among the Australian Aborigines.
The term used to express the fraternal relationship is
“ Ngane,” a word whose primary meaning is to shun, or
avoid ; and in Fiji, brother and sister shun one another with
all the anxious care shown by an Australian Aborigine to
avoid his mother-in-law. As soon as a boy arrives at the
hobbedehoy stage he is removed from his father’s house to
the Mbure, or bachelors’ hall, whereof there is one at least
in every village, the avowed object of this removal being
the separation of brother and sister. He may not eat with
his sister ; he may not touch her; it is considered positively
indecent for him to address her; and he must not even
speak of her by the proper term of kinship. If he be
compelled to refer to her, he will not use the term Nganengeu,
my sister, but Tathingou, my brother, or Wekangsu, one of
my kinsfolk. This sense of shame is not mer ely a hypocritical
putting on of false modesty. That it is thoroughly real, I
have fully convinced myself by repeated tests; and I was
once not a little amused by the perplexity of one of our
missionaries, who, being ignorant of the taboo, and having
translated into Fijian the child’s song, “1 have a father in
the Promised land, &c.,” was beyond measure puzzled by the
strange phenomenon which manifested itself when he was
teaching Fijian children to sing it. They got on very well
till they came to the verse “I havea brother in the promised
land,” at the giving out whereof the boys lifted up their voices
and sang lustily ; but the girls hung down their heads and
were silent. At the next verse “I have a sister, &c.,” 1t was
the girls who sang, while the boys were voiceless ; and no
persuasion could induce boy or girl to sing the objectionable
line. What is the meaning of all this? To me these facts
seem to point to a time when intercourse between brother
and sister, which had been commonly practised, was
forbidden by some authority powerful enough to enforce the
most stringent regulations to put down the practice; for
surely for no other purpose could regulations so stringent be
required. Moreover, 1 conclude that this authority must
have been first exercised at some immeasurably remote
epoch, ages before the first, prohibition of intercourse with a
brother’s wife ; inasmuch as it is not looked upon like the
latter as a law whose evasion is excusable, but as a moral
obligation, to break which would be the most shameful
crime a man could possiby commit. .

The word for my sister's husband, a male speaking, is in

|

Kinship. | 175

the Fijian, Tavalenggu. The word for my brother’s wife,
a female speaking, is Ndauvengeu. Iam unable to explain the
etymology of Ndauvengeu, but thatof Tavalengeuis significant
enough. ‘The word is made up of Ta, a negative particle ;
vale, house; and nggu, the possessive suffix. Tavalenggu, then,
means “not of my house.” Now, the Rev. R. H. Codrington,
of the Melanesian mission, after informing me of the two
veve, or divisions, of Mota, tells me that a man always
speaks of those of the other veve as ‘‘Tavala ima,” or
“belonging to the other side of the house.” One cannot
but he forcibly struck with the similarity between the
Tavala of Fiji, and the Tavala ima of Mota, especially since
strong linguistic affinities are observable in other words.
The word for “father” is the same in both languages, and
they both have the postfixed possessive pronouns.

These terms naturally connect themselves in our minds
with the enormous houses which travellers have met with
among various tribes not only in bygone times but even at
the present day. Such for instance as the massive edifices
of the Village Indians of Mexico and Yucatan, which, as
Mr Morgan states in a paper read by him before the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, being large enough
to accommodate from fifty to a hundred families, “have
given rise to fables of palaces,” but were most probably the
dwellings of Communal families.

In the Mota term “'Tavala ima ”—the other side of the
house—we have perhaps a trace of the first progressive
movement caused by the tribal organization ; and in the
Fijian Tavalenggu—not of my house—we may trace
the further development of the new idea. In the former
we see the Communal family split up into two divisions
occupying opposite sides of the common dwelling; and in
the latter we have the separation made more complete, by
the removal of one division to another house. Unless I am
much mistaken, we shall find the immense houses which
travellers have seen in New Guinea, and elsewhere in the
South Pacific, to be of this character.

I being a wale in a nation holding the Turanian system,
the contemporaries of my father in the tribe to which
I look for my wife are my mother’s brothers, whose wives
are my father’s sisters. And since their female children
come into my tribe as the wives of my brothers and myself,
one would expect that I should address these females by the
term Watinggu, my wife. The fact is, that I address any one

176 The Classificatory System of

of them as Ndavolanggu, a term which I translated in my
rendering of the Fijian system by our word “cousin.” As
I gained a fuller knowledge of the system, I grew more and
more dissatisfied with this translation, and long since became
fully convinced that the system does not recognise the
relationship of cousin at all, but that Ndavolangeu is no more
than a synonym for Watingeu, my spouse. By this term
Ndavolangeu, a man addresses the daughters of his father’s
sisters and those of his mother’s brothers. Thus also a
woman addresses the sons of her father’s sisters and those
of her mother’s brothers. These males and these females are
said to be Veindavolani to each other, and it is only within the
Veindavolani that marriage is allowed. Let us examine these
terms and see what evidence we can extract from their
etymology. Wdavo means to lie down; La is a terminal
particle of no particular meaning, whereof there are many
in the language; Vei is a prefix which gives a reciprocal
force to the word with which it is combined. Thus, Vathw is to
strike with the fist; Veivathu is to box; Ravu is to slay ;
Veiraravui is mutual slaughter ; Tamana is to be a father
to; Veitamani expresses the relationship between father
and child. Nganenais to shun ; Vernganeni means those who
shun one another, and is the word used to express the
relationship between brother and sister. So also, Vdavo being
to lie down, Veindavolant means those who lie down
together. 'The term Ndavolanggu then simply indicates the
person with whom the speaker has the right of cohabitation.

The important question now arises, how may we account
for the prevalence of these systems of kinship among tribes
so widely scattered? They could not have borrowed one
from another, because of the distance which has separated
them from time immemorial. We cannot entertain for a
moment the theory of invention, or spontaneous growth of
the same system, in every nation in whose language we find
its terms. For, since the Turanian system has in it more
than twenty independent characteristics, it is in the highest
degree improbable that any two unconnected tribes should
have invented, or gradually developed, the same system ;
and this improbability increases with every successive tribe
among whom we have discovered the system, until it arrives
at an utter impossibility long before we come to the end of
our list. Moreover, not only have the main characteristics
of the system been found among many widely scattered
tribes ; what is still more remarkable, the anomalous terms

Kinship. 177

of one tribe are reproduced in another, which is separated
from it by half the circumference of the globe.

Take for instance the following peculiarity of that South
Australian tribe, the Narrinyeri. Grandparent and grand-
child address one another by the usual terms; but great
grandfather and great grandchild call one another “brother.”
The great grandfather calls his great grandson “my younger
brother,” and the great grandchild calls his great grandfather
“ my elder brother.” So also the great g orandmother is called
the elder sister of her great grandchild. If we were to find
this strange peculiarity in, say, an Asiatic tribe, we should
at once suspect that tribe to have been connected with
the Narrinyeri at some time or other. We could not
suppose that each tribe had invented the anomaly
independently of the other. Now, I have not discovered
this peculiarity in any other tribe than the Narrinyeri,
and I state it here because I wish to call attention
to it, in the hope of thereby leading to further discovery ;
but we have found peculiarities to the full as strange as this
among nations equally remote. Thus in the Tamil system,
I call my father’s elder brother, Periya takappan, my great
father ; but my father’s younger brother, I call Seriya
taképpan, my little father. The Fijian system repeats this
peculiarity to the letter, calling my father’s elder brother
“Tamangeu levu,” my great father ; and my father’s younger
brother, ““Tamangeu lailai,” my little father.* Again; in the
Tongan system, { call the son of my father’s brother “my
elder brother,” or “my younger brother,” irrespectively of
our ages, but accordingly as his father is younger or older
than mine: that is, 1 call the son of my father’s elder
brother “ my elder brother,” even though he be my junior;
I call the son of my father’s younger brother “ my younger
brother,’ even though he be my senior. And this very
peculiarity I have found reproduced in the Narrinyeri
system.

Taking, then, into consideration that we find the numerous
independent characteristics of the system among the mul-
titudinous tribes which have already been reached by our

* So also does the Japanese. Moreover, the Rev. Mr. Homan, pastor of
the Lutheran Church, Adelaide, informs me that these terms are reproduced
in the system of the Diri, a Cooper’ s Creek tribe.

+ A. W. Howitt, Esq., of Bairnsdale, Gipps Land, to whom I am indebted
for an extremely valuable communication, informs me that this peculiarity
is found among the tribes in his neighbourhood. .

N

178 The Classificatory System of

researches, and more especially since we find the peculiarities
of one tribe reproduced with startling fidelity in another
tribe far distant from it, we are, as it seems to me, irresistibly
impelled to the conclusion that there must have been a time
when all these widely separated nations belonged to one race
and were inhabitants of the same land, and every fresh
discovery made by our researches proclaims ever more clearly
that ‘‘God hath made of one blood all nations of men to
dwell on all the face of the earth.”

Our discoveries are pointing more and more emphatically
in the direction wherein many other lines of evidence have
long been converging, viz., to Asia, as the fatherland and
starting place of all these tribes.

As far as I am aware, no Asiatic nation has been found
having the terms of kinship which reveal the Malay system.
It is quite possible that this system may yet be discovered
among the mountain tribes ; but hitherto the least advanced
in civilization of all the Asiatic families, are found to
have reached the Turanian system. But the Malay system
appears In very many Polynesian tribes; whence we may
infer that, supposing Asia to be the starting place, the great
Malayan emigration took place before the introduction of
the tribal organization into Asia, resulting in the advance to
the Turanian system. We need not be surprised at the
Malayan system being found among Polynesian races,
although it has altogether disappeared from the land whence
they came; for insular life is always more stationary than is
continental, because it is less exposed to external impulse—
of course I speak of insular life as it is found among the
Pacific Islands. Moreover, since we find Turanian character-
isticsamong the Fijiansand the Tongans, and taking for granted
that the first emigrants from Asia brought the Malay system
with them, we must infer either that, at the time of their
emigration, both the Malayan system and the Turanian pre-
vailed in Asia, and that some of the emigrants had one
system and some the other ; or, that there must have been
two successive waves of emigration separated by an interval
wide enough to allow of the development of the Turanian
system in Asia before the second wave left its shores. The
latter theory seems to me the more probable of the two, and
I have found curious confirmation of it in the glimpses I
have been able to get of the kinship system prevailing
among the heathen mountaineers of Navitilevu, the largest
island in the Fiji group. Long before my attention was

Kinship. ' Uris)

called to these researches, various facts, especially lincuistic
peculiarities, led me to think it probable that the moun-
taineers were the aborigines of that island, and that they
‘had been driven into the hills by the present occupiers of
the coastline. If this theory be correct, and if there were
two successive emigrations from Asia, the hillfolk probably
came with the first, and the coast tribes with the second.
We should then expect to find traces of the Malay system
among the mountaineers, and of the Turanian among the
coast tribes. And this is precisely what I have found.

When we consider the immense area over which we have
discovered the system within the past twenty years, together
with the traces which we gather of it from ancient writers,
such as Herodotus, bk. i. cap. 216; and especially Cesar,
who, in his Commentaries, book v., cap. 14, speaks of our
own ancestors as having wxores inter se communes ; and
when we take into consideration also how painfully slow of
erowth and development are progressive ideas, especially
when those ideas tend to purification by limiting self-
indulgence, we cannot but feel that these researches carry
us back far beyond the historic times into the very remotest
antiquity. They are far-reaching and intelligent guides
across that which without them is a trackless waste. By
their aid we have struck and followed a broad and well-
defined trail, where formerly we could discover but .an
uncertain footmark here and there. In them we have a
voice speaking clearly and distinctly to us from that which
has hitherto been a land of silence, and they shed a strong
leht on what was heretofore a region of darkness, showing
us the forms of that shadowy host who bring up the rear in
the onward march, whereof we now are leading the van.
Thus at least it appears to me.

180 ‘ Air and Water Poisoning

Art. LIV.—Air and Water Poisoning in Melbourne.
By SypNnEy Grpsons, F.CS., ete.
[Read 22nd November, 1869.]

N some important subjects con-
nected with the public health
as it is affected by sewage and
water supply, and by their
effect on the atmosphere, I have
made some observations and
experiments, which I propose to
lay before the Society in the
present paper. The subjects
are so intimately. connected,
that, divide them how we will,
the aivisiots “il have much in common, and it will not be
easy to avoid a little iteration. Perhaps it will be best to
adopt the two headings already noted,.viz.: Sewage and
water supply, as main lines, and to digress from the one to
the other as occasion may require.

PART L.
CITY SEWAGE.

During the last year (1868), when the city health officer (to
whose activity we are already so much indebted) was
exerting himself to reduce in some degree the evils to which
we are exposed by our system, or rather no-system of
disposing of sewage, he found that in many places excre-
mentitious matters were systematically discharged into the
street channels. Powers exist by which the offenders can
be punished, and the practice stopped when detected ; but
the contrivances employed frequently baffled the inspector,
and no wonder ; for the work was generally done at night,
there was seldom any external indication, and even if
observed in the day-time, a certain conclusion could
not always be arrived at. The plan, which is called “ flush-
ing,” consists m turning a waterpipe into the cesspit,
which is then connected with the common drain. It is
obvious that by using a large amount of water the materials
are so masked that they cannot be recognized, and it was
often necessary to break up drains and to enter houses in
order to detect the arrangement. A few places had long
been suspected, but at the time of these experiments it was

am Melbourne. 181

found to be a growing practice to build houses with drains
and pipes of this kind; and the double offence of wasting
water and turning the street into a cesspit, or the cesspit
_ into the street, was common and familiar. The labour was
in finding out the cases, and in watching the offenders after-
wards to see that they did not recur to the practice, as was
often done.

But still greater difficulties were presented by a refine-
ment which stood w loco parentis to the practice just
described. I allude to the filtration system, of which
Dr. Tracy was the apostle. This gentleman (and others who
adopted the plan) professed, and no doubt believed, that it
fulfilled all the required conditions. How they could
possibly arrive at such a conclusion it is difficult to conceive ;
and it may be doubted if many who adopted the method
troubled themselves with any view at all. But Dr. Tracy
publicly recommended it as efficacious, and spent much
- money in fitting up his own; and it was also introduced
into a public institution where he holds a prominent posi-
tion. The existence of filters, examples of which were
tolerated for a time, encouraged the construction of others,
and what was still worse, furnished to many persons a
pretext for flushing, under the pretence of filtering.

In view of all these and other difficulties that beset the
endeavour to stop these practices, the City Health Committee
did me the honor to desire an investigation and report upon
the several branches of the subject. The experiments made
and observations recorded while carrying out these instruc-
tions are embodied in the present paper.

After conference with the health officer, I visited, at
different times, several places that required examination in
connection with this subject, in order to select and obtain
the necessary samples for analysis.

Instead of limiting myself to the examination of a number
of samples to be furnished to me, I preferred visiting the
places myself, and when dome so, took a large number of
samples, and made such use of each as I deemed judicious
for the advancement of the objects in view, viz. :—

First. The determination of the efficiency or non-efficiency
of the filtering system of cesspit draining; and secondly,
the detection of sanitary evils which, not Thea detectable
by ordinary methods, did not come under the common
description of nuisances.

I do not therefore confine myself here to the bare state-

182 Air and Water Poisoning

ment of the existence of feecal matters in the fluid which
had passed through the filters; but add to my notes on that
head some other matters intimately connected therewith,
and bearing on the conditions which follow the discharge of
this liquid into the street channels.

It is not necessary to record all the inspections ; the places.
finally selected, and the samples taken are as follow :

I. Miers’ Bakery, 203 Bourke-street west.
II. Dr. Tracy’s filter.
III. Lying-in Hospital filter.
a. A filter at 11.30 a.m. before communicating
with the officers of the establishment.
b. 1 p.m. after notice.
ce. Liquid from surface of opened filter.
d. Contents of cesspit liquid.
é. faves ih solid.
IV. Street gutter, Hlizabeth-street, west side, south
of Little Collins-street.
VY. Street gutter, Swanston-street, east side, south of
Bourke-street.
VI. Gully in Fitzroy Gardens, draining Albert-street
and Victoria Parade.
VII. Yan Yean water from service for comparison.

Before going into further particulars I make the following
notes :

Case I. The liquid taken from Miers’ was extremely
foetid. It oozed from a crevice on the wall abutting on a
right-of-way. It contained fecal matters, but as I after-
wards learned that, on examination of the interior of the
premises, it was found to proceed directly from the overflow
of a cesspit under the foundation and not from a filter, I
may economise space by omitting further mention of it.

Case IT. Dr. Tracy courteously assisted us in making the
requisite inspection, and explained the arrangements of his
filter, which, on the hypothesis that the system was effectual,
appeared to be complete and well-planned. It may be worth
while to expend a brief space in describing these arrange-
ments. The water-closet was supplied by Yan Yean service
and by the bath water of the house, to the exclusion of
kitchen slops. The cesspit, at a short distance from the
closet, was a large stone chamber furnished with an iron

an Melbourne. 183

erating, and a partition wall dividing it into two parts
except at the bottom. The dejecta were thus comminuted
by the force of the stream of water beating against the
partition wall and the grating, so that before they reached
the filter the whole was a homogeneous liquid. The filter,
at the bottom of which the mixture entered, was a covered

. pit with an iron grating at a short distance above the bottom

and another near the top. Between the two were layers of
road metal, oyster shells, and charcoal, both animal and
vegetal. This constituted the filtering material. Its effect
remains to be considered.

Case III. The next place visited was the Lying-in Hospital,
from which several samples were taken at different times,
and under different circumstances. The first step was to
take a sample of the water flowing from the filter drain
before the object of the visit was announced. It was well
that this step was taken, for on subsequent visits made by
appointment, a much larger flow of water was observed, and
also the presence of a quantity of chloride of lime. Here
the opportunity was afforded us of seeing the inside of the
cesspit and filter, which were obligingly opened for the
purpose. Here were wanting the breaking diaphragm and
erating already described under No. II., consequently, the
comminution was not so complete, and took place more
slowly. Added to this difference, is the fact that the kitchen
slops flowed in on the top of the cesspit, and with its
contents passed through the filter, where the presence of any
grease was of course prejudicial. The samples taken here
were five in number, and were variously used in the course
of the experiments, the most important observations being
made with No. A. After the completion of the experiments,
I went to the place alone a little before midnight. Abund-
ance of water was flowing from the filter, and an offensive
smell, of which no other source appeared than the gutter,
was distinctly noticeable.

Case IV. It was considered, both by the Health Officer and
myself, very desirable to examine some of the waters flowing
in the street channels, although they did not come under
my official instructions. Accordingly, the Inspector of
Nuisances was directed to supply me with a sample, which he
took in Elizabeth-street at 11 p.m. I had myself observed
a disgusting stench proceeding from a gutter in Bourke-
street near the Theatre Royal on the same evening, and with

184 Air and Water Poisoning

the desire to add to my store of material and of information,
I sallied forth with the Inspector after midnight, and
inspected several places, including various premises in
and off Bourke-street. One of these deserves to be
mentioned, as it contributes largely both to the flow of
water and to the too familiar stench of Bourke-street east.
It was the public-house called the “ Australian Felix,” at
the N.E. corner of Bourke and Russell-streets. At the time
of this visit the bilge was being pumped out, and the smell
was so disgusting and so strong, that at a short distance it
might have been mistaken for that arismg from the opera-
tions of nightmen. I do not know the internal arrangements
of the premises in question, but a great part of the nuisance
is easily explicable. The cellarage of this house is the
lowest point in a thickly peopled block, containing some of
the veriest hovels that disgrace the city. The water and
filth, faecal and otherwise, with which the soil is saturated,
percolate the ground into these cellars, from which the
pestiferous liquid is nightly pumped into the street.

Case V. The sample which I took on that occasion for
the purpose of examination was from the gutter in Swanston-
street on the east side, and south of Bourke-street. This
gutter drains nearly the whole of Bourke-street east, and
the blocks lying to the north of it. It affords therefore, a
good sample of genuine sewage of a populous district, and
it was studiously taken at a pomt where no individual
interest was immediately concerned, as I wished it a
illustrate the general question.

Case VI. After this was finished, and when I was about
* commencing to draw up my report, the Health Officer drew
my attention to a serious evil existing in Fitzroy Gardens,

where an open sewer, for it is nothing else, traverses this
popular place of resort. It is not generally known, but
ought to be published, that the gully running through the
Gardens from north to south, and forming in its route what
have been humorously termed the Fallah Falls, is nothing
more nor less than the sewer draining a portion of the Victoria
Parade, but more particularly the blocks on the south side
between that thoroughfare and the Gardens.. The occasion
of our visit appeared to be a general washing day, and the
character of the liquid wasmasked by soapsuds; but the sample \
brought to me by the serjeant on a Saturday evening, when

it was assumed to be free from such adventitious dilution,

wn Melbourne. 185

was very fcetid and betrayed its origin even to the unaided
senses.*

Case VII. In order better to determine the quantity and
nature of the matters added to the water in its passage
through the filters, cesspits, and other places whence the
samples proceeded, it was desirable to make a similar exami-
nation of the Yan Yean water. This step was also a
necessary precaution to take, lest, in the event of any legal
proceedings being undertaken, the absence of such informa-
tion might cause a case to fall through, as an advocate in
defence might pretend that the matters detected existed in
the water supply. It was therefore essential to be provided
with the means not only of declaring that the noxious
agents and indications of decomposition hereinafter to be
described, did not exist in the Yan Yean water, but also of
distinguishing between the organic inhabitants of that water
and those found in the samples examined. I also examined
the water of the Yarra, taken within the town boundary,
but before receiving the sewage.

I now proceed to enumerate in order the results obtained
from each of the principal samples examined, noting the
following particulars.

The residues of both kinds estimated quantitatively.

The products as indicative of decomposition and of
the presence of excrementitious matters.

The character of the microscopic organisms contained.

Tn these analyses, I determined the comparative amounts of
solid residue, of organic and inorganic matter, for the purpose
of contrasting them with each other and with the Yan Yean
water, which in every instance formed the bulk of the fluid. ,
For the detection of faecal matters, &c., I relied chiefly on
the presence of nitrogenous compounds already in solution,
as ammonia and nitric acid, or in the form of albuminoid
substances yielding nitrogen by decomposition; on the evolu-
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid; and also
on the character of the vegetable and animal bodies revealed by
a searching microscopic analysis. All the samples were
allowed to settle for a sufficient time before examination, so
that grit and other heavy inconsequential substances were
eliminated.

* At the date of this paper, the gully also received the sewage of the
Government Printing Office.

186 Air and Water Poisoning

Case II. (Dr. Tracy’s.)—Characters. Clear, only a whitish
turbidity, and that but slight, no conspicuous odour at first.

Residue per gallon - - 18-016 grains. |
Non-vyolatile organic matter 6240 _,,
Inorganic - = ee =) Loe

It contained sufficient decomposing and decomposable

animal matter to yield marked reaction of carbonic acid and
ammonia. Sulphuretted hydrogen was readily evolved.
The microscopic examination yielded specimens of the

following organised substances, plants, and animals. The
liquid soon settled clear, and a film gradually appeared at

the top. The fungi grew in clusters at the bottom.
Fibres of flax, &c.; fragments of vegetal tissues, various.
Confervee; filaments of mucedinous fungi (abundant),

which grew rapidly on standing; Desmids, cosmarium
tetra-ophthalmum ; sporangia, various.

Acarus (only one seen, dying) ; query acarus dysenteriee .
rotifer vulgaris many; kolpoda; paramecium; bursaria
many ; loxodes, very abundant in the film which appeared
on the top; trichodiscus with ova; dileptus; monads,
various.

See Photograph, Plate IL., fig. 1.

Case III. (Lying-in Hospital.)—Most of the experiments.
were made with the sample A, but some of the characters

of the others were also noted. The liquids were at first
nearly clear, with a little sediment, but large clusters of

fungi soon appeared, with the odour of decomposition. Some

solid matters were found which had escaped through the
channels in the filter. (One piece apparently a lump of fat

meat (undigested) measuring $x ?x4-inch was preserved
for illustration.) It contained—

Solid residue, per gallon - - 9°120 grains.
Fixed organic matter, do. - - 27560 _,,
Mineral matter, do. - - - - 6°'560

3)

“It yielded carbonic acid, ammonia, and sulphuretted hydro-

gen, and the same general conditions obtained which have
been detailed under No. II. The microscopic examination
detected the following organisms :
Fibres of cotton, confervee, mucedinous fungi, spores,
monads, various. :
Desmids—Micrasterias furcata, staurastrum Dickiei and

%

Gibbons on Waters, &c.

PLATE 1—WHOLESOME.,

Fig. 1.—YAN YEAN, 1858.— x 250 diam.

Fig. 2—YAN YEAN, 1868.—x 125 diam

Gibbons on Waters, &c.

Pirate I1.—CONTAMINATED.

Tig. 3.—MELBOURNE SHWAGH.—x 125 diam.

Fig. 4—MELBOURNE STREET GUTTERS.—x 125 diam.

in Melbourne. 187

paradoxum, docidium Ehrenbergu, arthrodesmus sp., closte-
rium intermedium.

Rotifer vulgaris, many; anguillule (mostly dead in A,
but very abundant and lively in another sample), parame-
cium abundant, bursaria, euplotes, kolpoda, vorticella
microstoma, acineta or podophrya, loxodes, peridinium,
leucophrys.

Sample V. (Swanston-street gutters)—Turbid, depositing
much earthy and other suspended matter, which was dis-
regarded, smell filthy and fecal. (The Elizabeth-street
Sample IV. had similar characters, but less strongly marked.)

Solid residue, per gallon - - 43°680 grains.
Fixed organic matter, do. - - 11120 _,,
Inorganic matter, do. - - - 32560 _,,

The evidences of the presence of carbonic acid, ammonia,
and sulphuretted hydrogen were very decided.

The microscopic objects contained were as follows :

Vegetal tissues various, woody fibre, hair decaying,
mucedinous fungi, confervee, desmid, staurastrum brevispi-
num, vorticella microstoma, uvella abundant, bursaria,
trepomonas, monads various, disoma many, enchelys,
astasia bodo, leucophrys, trichoda angulata, paranmecium,

kolpoda.
See Photograph, Plate II., fig. 2.
Sample VI. (Fitzroy Gardens gully. )—General characters
as the last sample. Very foetid and turbid.

- Solid residue, per gallon - - 28°368 grains.
Fixed organic matter, do.- - 10°880 __,,
Inorganic matter,do - - - 17,488 _,,

Carbonic acid, ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen
strongly marked ; sulphurous acid was also found.

The microscopic matter was similar in character to the
last sample ; most of the same organisms and fragmentary
structures being found.

Sanvple VII. (Yan Yean water from service. )—Clear and
sweet, very minute bright green deposit on long standing,
the water being then quite bright.

Solid residue, per gallon - - 8°736 grains.
Organic matter,do. - - - - 2152 ,,
Inorganic matter, do.- - - - 6584 i

No ammonia or sulphuretted hydrogen.

188 Air and Water Poisoning

The suspended organic matter as shown on microscopic
examination consisted entirely of those plants and puts
which live in pure water, viz.:—Monads, rotifers.

Desmids, micrasterias furcata and pinnatifida, stauras-
trum gracile, paradoxum and orbiculare, arthrodesmus incus,
docidium gy. truncatum, &c.

Their were no fungi or confervee of any kind, and the
absence of all animalcules of the kolpod group was also
marked.

I proceed now to collate these results, and to consider how
far they afford material for arriving at definite conclusions
relative, first to the efficacy or value of the filtration cess-
pits (the principal question submitted to me), and after-
wards to some points bearing on the relation of the present
system of drains and cesspits to the public health, as illus-
trated by this investigation.

Two filters were examined, and one of them (the largest)
was sampled several times. It was also opened, that its
internal arrangements might be seen, and their condition
and operation noted, as I had reason to doubt whether, in
the strict sense of the term, it was a filter at all, or only a
strainer. The suspicion that 1t was chemically inoperative,
and mechanically incomplete, was fully borne out. Pieces of
solid matter, meat, were seen proceeding from it, and one of
them which, when moist, was as large as a filbert was pre-
served. It appeared that the current of water had worked
channels through the whole body of the filter. These
channels were many in number, and the water flowing
through, carried with it portions of the charcoal of which
the filter was in part composed, and there was a layer of
this charcoal on the top of the upper grating, outside the
filter, which was said to be composed of 6 cwt. animal char-
coal, 12 bags wood charcoal, and | load of oyster-shells,
with a layer of road-metal at top and bottom, the whole
enclosed by the two iron gratings. A stick was inserted
and easily stirred about for a depth of a foot in the filter,
showing its disintegration. The cesspit in connection with
this filter (the lower one) received, in addition to the con-
tents of the closets, the washings of the kitchen. I was in-
formed that the present filter (IIL) was relaid 18 months before
the examination, and that when it was then opened the
cesspit only contained 34 feet deep of solid matter, repre-
senting the excreta of sixty or seventy persons! At the
time of the present inspection the rough test of taking

of

As ‘Ps,
Cah os

Gibbons on Waters, Sc.

COLOURING MATTER

ee en

Fig. 5.—DESMIDIZ—PRINCIPAL FORMS IN YAN YBAN.
x 250 diam.

am Melbourne. 189

soundings with a tin vessel attached to a pole led to the
conclusion that not more than 3 feet of solid matter lay at.
the bottom, and it may be doubted whether there would
have been so much if the apparatus had been fitted with the
disintegrating contrivance which has been mentioned as
forming part of Dr. Tracy’s filter. I should mention here
that portions of solid excrement were seen in the street.
channel adjacent to and below the outlet of the filter drain.
These were not actually seen by me to proceed from the:
drain, but whether they did or not is of little importance ;
they, might easily have done so. Such matters are not
likely to be efficiently arrested by an arrangement which
allowed free passage to lumps of solid meat as large as
filberts. The small amount of solid matter left behind
showed plainly that enormous quantities had gone through,
and that in fact the filter was no filter at all; it was a mere
strainer which only delayed the passage of the excremen-
titious matters until they were sufficiently broken up to
pass through the blowholes. In a newly-laid filter, before
these blowholes are formed, the contents of the cesspits.
require to be completely comminuted before they can escape,
for the mass has to be reduced to the state of a liquid in
which the insoluble particles are so finely diffused as to
simulate solution; and this appeared to be the case in
Dr. Tracy's, which was better constructed, but even then I
learned that the amount left behind was very small. That.
this comminution’ does take place, even with the more
refractory paper and rags, is plainly shown by the abundance
of cotton and flax fibres and other vegetal tissues found, on
microscopic examination of the clear colourless water that
passes off The escaping matters are frequently masked to.
the senses of sight and smell by the immense volume of
water in which they are suspended. A stream of water was
constantly flowing, and on occasions when inspection was.
made by appointment the flow was much stronger. Thus,
then, the filtering process appears to fail of its object, even
if regarded solely asa mechanicalagent. A larger proportion
of the solid matter becomes soluble as a result of fermen-
tation and decomposition, and the question only appears to
be whether it shall undergo a part of this change in the
primary receptacle, in the streets of the city under the noses.
of its inhabitants, or in the river, which exhales its fogs and
vapours fraught with the volatile portions of the filth that
is poured into it.

190 Air and Water Poisoning

The characteristic products of the decomposition of human
excreta now demand notice, and attention might have been
limited to these if I had not detected the mechanical defects
which allowed so much fecal matter to be carried into the
streets before decomposition set in, and thus to escape
detection, in samples taken immediately from the outflow.
The products on which I chiefly relied were carbonic acid,

ammonia, and sulphide of hydrogen, which occur free and ©

combined. Carbonic acid and sulphide of hydrogen are
yielded by feeces, ammonia and carbonic acid by the decom-
position of urine, and all these by albuminous substances.
The association of these bodies, especially when, as was the
case, nitric acid and sulphurous acid are also found, are
satisfactory evidence of the decomposition of excreta, and
they were found in every instance. I have not thought it
necessary to offer a quantitative determination of either,
some would not admit of it, and in no case would a deter-
mination have afforded any useful information. I found
that there was no constancy in any of the conditions; that
they were found in greater or less amount in every sample
examined, and I have therefore no hesitation in pronouncing
that the water discharged into the thoroughfares of the city
from the closet filters contains more or less of excretal
matter in a state of decomposition, and still more which
awaits that: inevitable natural process. The quantitative
results given do not represent all these matters, the free
ammonia and other gaseous and volatile matters are given
off in the process of estimation.

My conclusions were further assisted by the microscopic
analyses, which, though laborious, were to my mind of too
great importance to be neglected. They are, in fact, as
essential as the chemical examinations, for the substances

found show whence the water came, and the varieties of —

plants and animals indicate its condition. Now those few
organisms which inhabit the Yan Yean water are all healthy,
and indicate a sweet pure water, as well by their pre-
sence as by the absence of others which are uniformly
associated with the decomposition of organic matters of
various kinds. In the fresh filtered sewage, on the other
hand, the higher organisms of each class appeared in propor-
tion to the amount of dilution, and as decomposition set in
they gradually died out and were replaced by the lower
grades. Thus several of the desmidie and the highly
organised rotatoria are found in the fresh sewage from the

im Melbourne. 191

Lying-in Hospital, where a large body of pure water is being
constantly passed through, while in Dr. Tracy’s, where the
flow was slower and the filter is in better order, scarcely any
were seen. In their place arises a new growth of fungi,
anguillule, and numerous species of the kolpod and allied
groups, all of which specially affect decomposing and offen-
sive solutions. Rotifers were found, though in decreasing
number, in most of the liquids ; but this is explained by the
wonderful tenacity of life which characterizes these singular
animals. The changes here briefly described, and the effect
of natural selection were observed. The extent of dilution
in each case is well shown by the residues which are quanti-
tatively stated, and the several sets of data evolved in the
course of the investigations form a beautiful chain of con-
ditions, from which the history of the samples might almost
have been predicated, even without any previous information.

After having thus minutely discussed the question of the
filters, I may speak more concisely of the liquid taken from
the several street gutters, to which most of the preceding
observations will apply. It is simply sewage, differing only
in age from that which flows in London sewers. Our sewer
is on the roadway instead of under it, and its contents are
carried off more rapidly. Moreover the gases it evolves,
instead of being confined in covered drains, and smelt only
through occasional gratings, are here diffused in the atmo-
sphere, to be breathed by the residents and passers by, and
only observed when they are more than usually noisome,
as in Bourke and Swanston-streets at night. ‘Then it is a
ready-made pestilence. Fortunately, however, it is not long
stagnant in the main thoroughfare, and the stench is a
warning to get out of its way. The smell is only a slight
part of the evil, but it is an intimation that the material of
typhus lurks behind it. A stink, as I have long since
declared, is Natures monitor, that something noxious
requires removal, and this is the view now generally held
by those who are regarded as authorities.

The arrangement of the water-plugs, which admits of
water entering the mains from the street-gutters whenever
the pressure is removed, has before attracted attention.
This was of course always an evil, but the magnitude of it
was not known until now. The practice of flushing cess-
pits into the street isa recent one, and has of late become a
system. To the amount of filth thus deliberately discharged
into the public thoroughfares must be added a large and

192 Avr and Water Poisoning

increasing amount proceeding from soakage. Few of the
cesspits are well constructed ; indeed, it is difficult to make
a cess-pit watertight. Hven cement is acted on by the liquid
contents. Nitric acid is formed during the decomposition
of the urine, &c., and a portion of the lime of the cement is
reduced to a soluble condition, leaving the rest in
a porous state. To so great an extent does this occur
that a process founded on these changes has long been em-
ployed for the manufacture of nitric acid. By the soakage of
cess-pits the soil of a large portion of the city has become
so saturated with sewage that although many of the final
results of decomposition are odourless, the characteristic
smell often appears directly the ground is broken. Very much
of the disgusting smell which pervades some of our
thoroughfares is traceable to this source. An illustrative
case has already been cited.

The morbificcharacter of the matters under consideration the
health officer has already dealt, and [need not therefore dwell
much on them. But I may remark (as the determination of
this point was one of the principal questions submitted to me)
that between the filthy practice of flushing and the more
refined process of filtering, there is not so much difference
as has been supposed. Very little matter, and that not the
most noxious, 1s retained by the filters, as has been seen ;
but the discharge being so largely diluted, rarely offends the
senses, and so escapes notice ; but this very condition spreads
it over a wider area, and were it not that the stream is con-
stant and washes the matter rapidly away, it is doubtful
whether the evil would not be magnified. The constructors
of filters have evidently been under the impression that the
charcoal would act as a disinfectant, but the power of char-.
coal to absorb gases is limited, and almost entirely ceases
when it is wetted. As an absorbent of sewer gases it is, in
the dry state, invaluable, but even then it requires frequent
renewal. es

In my report to the Health Committee, I offered the
following suggestive remarks: The percolation of liquid
sewage through the soil, and the difficulty of keeping even
well-built cesspits water-tight in the presence of urie have
already been noted. It is clear that the storing of urine
in the cesspit is a question fraught with annoyance as well
as danger. ‘“ What,’ it will be asked, “is to be done with
the liquid when we have no sewer-pipes?” I reply that
its discharge into the gutters in the first instance is a far less

in Melbourne. 193

evil than storing it in open pits adjacent to our dwellings,
there to ferment and to set other and more offensive matters
fermenting; and, as the change proceeds, to eat its way
through the walls of the pits and saturate the ground under
our parlour and kitchen floors, and to kill us with typhus,
cholera, diphtheria, and a host of other diseases, not counting
the intolerable nuisance. This occurs more or less every-
where in the city, but is worst where, as in nine cases out of
ten, the closet closely adjoins the house, and the ground falls
to ward the street.

In a very illustrative case that lately came under my
nutice, the floor of the closet which joined the house was
two feet above that of the front parlour. It was only
emptied when its contents neared the floor. When this
observation was made the level of the contents had advanced
little, if at all, during some months. For some time an
offensive smell had been noticed in the lower part of the
house whenever the doors and windows were closed, but as
it was known that there was no drain underneath, it was
supposed that some of the neighbours had been poisoning
rats. Lately, however, the smell assumed a character that
unmistakably betrayed its origin, and the cause was then
found out. The next neighbour had filled up the cess-pit
with chamber slops ; the fermented urine had eaten its way
through the mortar of the cess-pit walls, and the liquid
then containing in solution and suspension other matters
incomparably more offensive and more injurious than itself,
had saturated the ground under the house, and in all time
to come will probably require the constant and liberal use
of disinfectants.

The recital of this case, which is a typical one, suggests
another point, not indeed, within my immediate province,
but so germane to the subject that I may be excused for
advancing it. It is the abominable practice of building one
cess-pit between two adjoining houses. <A tenant so situated
has no chance of keeping his premises clean, sweet, or
wholesome. He is at the mercy of his neighbour who may
be filthy, mean, or dishonest. He may forbid in his house-
hold the nasty practice of throwing slops into the cess-pit ;
he is flooded out, and consequently stunk out by his less
cleanly neighbour. He may disinfect; the neighbour, having
an expansive mind, may increase the nuisance in proportion

to the capacity of the disinfectant. He gains nothing by’

emptying at his sole cost, for the neighbour presumes on
©)

194 Air and Water Poisoning

this, continues the practice, and refuses or evades his share
of the expense. And if the landlord undertakes the
responsibility of emptying, it too often happens, in addition
to the above evils, that the matter is allcwed to rest until
to wait another day would be to risk an indictment. In
the mean time children die off by scores, or grow up hope-
less invalids, while adults are lucky if they escape with the
gradual undermining of their health and strength, and
people wonder that such things are.

Still the question will be repeated : “ Would you counsel
the issue of permission to discharge chamber slops into the
street gutters?” I unhesitatingly reply: “Yes, at least
until we have underground sewers.” Urine itself contains a
ferment which very speedily promotes the transformation
of its principal constituents into two innoxious gases—
ammonia and carbonic acid. The evolution of these gases
during the change is certainly offensive, chiefly because
other odorous matters are vapourised with them. Witness
the smell of a stable (that from carnivorous animals is much
worse.) That this soon goes off, and is not perceptible when
the liquid is much diluted, as chamber slops always are. As
it is, much of this finds its way into the gutters, as, reoula-
tions notwithstanding, no one who understands anything
of the matter and cares for his family’s health would allow
slops of this kind to be thrown into the cess-pit. Yet the
smell is never noticeable except in the vicinity of a public
urinal, and not then if there is a moderate supply of water.
Although the change takes place very soon the rapid flow of
our gutters would often carry it out of sight and out of
mind before it became offensive, and if it did not, we have
comfort in the fact that after the transformation has taken
place there is very little further putrefactive change. Of
course it would be better if the liquid could be got rid of
by putting it out of view altogether. But this attempt to
do so by keeping it in cess-pits 1s a signal failure, and is the
cause of the saturation of the ground with liquid excrement,
and of the air with the germs of disease. The idea of
throwing slops into the street may not be pleasant as an
idea, although commonly done without being noticed ; but
I would plainly ask: “Js it not better to have the least of two
evils than to have both ?” for both we must and do have under
existing methods. I would do more than prevent it. I
would interdict the other proceeding, and thus reverse the
regulations now in force, which were made when the pre-

in Melbourne. 195

sent condition of things did not exist, or, existing, was not
known. It might possibly be thought advisable to place a
limit on the capacity of cess-pits, even for their legitimate
purposes, by fixing a relation between the level of the
adjacent ground and buildings and that of the contents, and
attaching a penalty to the filling of a pit beyond that limit.
But my concern with the legislative and engineering
relations of this difficult subject is limited to investigating
and expounding the chemical and physiological conditions
which the legislator and engineer must keep in view.

I have the satisfaction to conclude this portion of my
subject by intimating that both flushing and filtration of
sewage have now been stopped in every known instance ;
and I have the pleasure to know that my conclusions
were favourably received by high scientific authorities in
England.

Art. LV.—Air and Water Poisoning vm Melbourne.
By SYDNEY GIBBONS.
[Read 13th December, 1869.]

PARE IF.

ON THE POSSIBLE POLLUTION OF THE YAN YEAN RESERVOIR
BY THE DRAINAGE OF WHITTLESEA.

Let me now recur for a few moments to the observations
recorded under Case VII., on the Yan Yean water, which
for convenience I here repeat :—

“Case VII. Yan Yean water from service, clean and
sweet.—Very minute bright green deposit on long standing ;
the water being then quite bright. A sufficient quantity
of the deposit for microscopic examination was obtained
by allowing successive portions of the water to subside in
a large conical glass.

“ Solid residue (total per gallon) . . 8736 grains.
«Organic volatile matter,do. . . . 2152 ,,
Siriotcanic. do., (Onis) sss) ees O'DOA IN.

«(The separation of the inorganic matters did not con-
cern the question then in hand, nor is it connected with the
present inquiry.)

/ 0 2

196 Avr and Water Poisoning

“No ammonia, nitrates or sulphuretted hydrogen were
found.

“The suspended organic matter, as shown on microscopic
examination, consisted entirely of those plants and animals.
which live in pure water only, viz. :—

“Monads.

“ Rotifers.

“ Desmids—Micrasterias, furcata and pinnatifida, Stancas-
trum, gracile, paradoxum, and orbiculare, Arthrodesmus
incus, docidium (?) truncatum.

“There were no‘fungi or conferve of any kind, and the
‘absence of all animalcules of the oles group was also
marked.”
See Plate I., opposite page. :

I have on other occasions found other organisms ; but the
general observation as to their character has always held

ood.
: The recent report of the City health-officer, and the com-
ments of Dr. Richardson, have made this analysis important
evidence in a direction not before contemplated. Nearly
three months since, Mr. Girdlestone, having a suspicion
that there was at least a risk of the Yan Yean reservoir
receiving the drainage from Whittlesea township, even if it
had not aiready done so, determined on investigating the
matter himself, and invited Dr. Richardson and myself to
accompany him, and to assist in the inspection. At first I
hesitated to make any deliverance on the subject, from a
motive of delicacy, considering it as his vase, and even when
Dr. Richardson’s paper appeared,. I determined to let them
‘enjoy all the xddos ; but now that they have been stigmatized
as alarmists, and the proceeding treated in some “quarters
with mixed slight and derision, I think it only fair to take
my share of the responsibility, especially as I may be able
.to throw a little light on the matter from a direction not
hitherto considered.

I examined the water while investigating the subject of
.Sewage, &c., in order to satisfy myself and the Health
Committee that the noxious matters detected in the other
cases cited proceeded entirely from the suspected sources.
With my own knowledge of the Yan Yean water, which I
have so repeatedly had occasion to analyse I regarded this
examination as little more than a necessary formality, but I
‘am now very glad that I made it. . My friend Mr. Johnson
has lately published an analysis of the water, which agrees

2

in Melbourne. 197

pretty exactly with that given above; the differences being
less than I have myself found to occur between samples of
my own taken at different times. But Mr. Johnson’s report,
as published, does not give us the precise information we
now require. The determinations given afford us no idea
of the presence or absence of the noxious products of decom-
position, nor of the nature, physical or chemical, of the
organic matter. These all-important particulars I now
endeavour to supply ; and, although many of the experi-
ments were made more than twelve months since, they are
still significant.

Now it must be conceded that, as Mr. Johnson argues, a
dead bullock or so would bear a very small proportion to the
large volume of water in the reservoir, and the cold infusion
of the beef and its products would not of necessity be
detectable by the unaided senses, or even, perhaps, by the
ordinary chemical tests. And I can hardly help thinking
that this rather detracts from the sedative effect which his
report might otherwise have on our minds after Mr.
Girdlestone’s revelation.

But there are chemical methods which are pursued when
the senses cease to give any indication, and when even the
processes in common use fail ; and these methods, or some
of them, are specially used in cases of this kind, and are
found to give satisfactory indications that cannot be obtained
in any other way. They are tedious and operose, but leave
taste and smell, lead solutions and platinum salts, far behind.
Beside these delicate chemical processes, the microscope
furnishes evidence of a very remarkable character. Certain
organisms, animal and vegetal, inhabit water of different
kinds, and containing different kinds of matter in solution
or suspension. I have in the former division of this paper
referred to some of these. Jf any matter is introduced
which is unfavourable to any of these organisms, they die
out and are replaced by others. In some of these cases the
change may be metamorphic, in others total substitution by
the introduction or development of other germs. Such
changes are familiar to those who interest themselves in
this branch of science, and have been often observed by
myself.

“Tt may be a law of Nature,” says Kenrick,* “that the
-altered condition of the elements shall be slowly followed

* Primeval History.

198 Aw and Water Poisoning

by changes of organs and structure which at length amount
to specific or even generic differences; . . . to bring
into beme new races, whenever the earth, in its progress
from its ~ primeval to its present state, was prepared to
receive them. On either supposition, the correspondence:
between the world and its inhabitants, at any given period,
is the result of adaptation.”

And the observation is of equal weight when applied
to our aquatic microcosm. .

Now, the organisms found by me in the Yan Yean water
on the occasion noted, and on others when I have subjected
it to microscopic analysis, were uniformly those which prefer
sweet pure water, and most, if not all, of them were such
as would disappear with greater or less rapidity on the con-.
tamination of the water by decomposing animal matters or
refuse ; by such matters, I mean, as contain nitrogen, especi-
ally in albuminoid compounds, or sulphur, either unoxidised
or in a low state of oxidation. The other examinations
recorded above show that these same organisms did actually
die out of this same water on the addition of very small.
quantities of such noxious matter. Consider, for example,

the case of the Lying-in Hospital (Case IIT.), when the Yan
_ Yean was running through it, full bore, by day and night ;
so that the contents of the cesspit itself were nearly inodor-.
ous in the bulk, and only became offensive after having
been bottled for some weeks, then of course they were bad
enough, simply because the matters which had not reached
the putrefactive stage when the sample was taken attained.
it in the bottles without further dilution or change of liquid.
To me this part of the investigation was of extreme interest,
and you may judge from the number of species .determined
then, I spared no pains to make the evidence complete.

I shall now be asked how I build on these observations a
diagnosis on the subject of the alleged contamination of the
Yan Yean.

i have conceded to Mr. Johnson that a drowned bullock
or two would not produce any very marked effect, and might.
escape notice altogether unless an analyst suspected it, and
laid himself out accordingly. I have pronounced that up. to:
a recent period no such contamination was detectable in the
water, even by specially devised means; nay, farther, that
the microscopic evidences are almost incompatible with its.
existence ; and yet I now take part with those gentlemen
who have announced that the Whittlesea drainage falls

in Melbourne. 199

toward the Reservoir, and now tell all who are interested—
as who is not ?—that if active measures are not soon taken
to remedy the evil, our water supply, now so pure and
sweet, will one day become a poison. When the time comes
—it may not be in our day (we shall poison our children,
but may escape ourselves)—the evil will be past remedy.

I fancy that I can advance these propositions with a
tolerably good grace, as from the opening of the supply I
have been an advocate of the Yan Yean. I battled for it
when all I got for my pains was ungenerous detraction from
some, and silly banter from others, because 1 knew it to be
good. I analysed it many times; visited the place myself ;
sampled private taps, public hydrants, and the reservoir
itself. It was always wholesome. It had no inherent fault
the removal of which would not have been of doubtful
policy even if it had been practicable. I always maintained
that it would go on improving ; and to show concisely some
of this improvement that has already taken place, I append,
side by side, an analysis of my own in 1858, the best of
several made in that year, and that lately published by
Mr.. Johnson.

Gibbons, Gibbons, Johnson,
1858. 1868. 1869.
Organic matter . 2°82 2:152 1-65
Soluble Salts é : 3:56 4-45
Karthy compounds . j 1.22 6-584
Silica . ; 5 : : 2-12 2:20
Tron and Alumina 2-14
Total Residue . 6 11.86 8-736 8:30

I have not perhaps yet sufficiently shown what I mean
by the apparent paradox when I say that the water is pure
now, or was but lately, that it is exposed to contamination,
and that in time there will be little chance of a remedy. If
it were merely that the reservoir was getting saturated,
there might be hope, for the worse it got in that way
the sooner fallow, fresh air, and sunlight would purity
it. But if my former remarks on the soakage of
sewage have received attention, my meaning will become
plain. It is this—That Whittlesea drainage is “going” to
the reservoir there is no room to doubt. It may be disputed,
that goes for nothing. Messrs. Girdlestone and Richardson

200 Air and Water Poisoning

have already announced it to the Civic authorities and to
the Medical Profession, and the journals have transmitted
the information to the public.

I now place on the records of this Society, briefly, that we
tracked the drains of Whittlesea, such as they are, house,
land and swamp, till we found ourselves at the inlet sluice
of the reservoir; we then started back, and ran up all the
creeks and gullies one by one, and found them to rise in
Whittlesea or the surrounding homesteads and pasturages.
I was surprised, and by no means well pleased, to find my
favorite Yan Yean endangered by such evil communications.

I believe the real state of the case to be this: Whittlesea
drainage is literally “going” to the Yan Yean reservoir.
But only literally, it has not gone into it yet, or, if at all,

only lately to an unappreciable extent and under the least

injurious conditions, as in flood. Happily swamps and flat
country with much porous soil intervene. This land is
gradually soaking up the filth discharged upon it. When it
is saturated it will be a never failing source of water poison,
and those who are then living may have to abandon the
costly and splendid work whence we now derive that
invaluable blessing, a copious supply of good wholesome
water. The remedy must be applied now, if ever.

More than eleven years ago I offered, in a voluminous
report which I was called on to prepare for the Commission
of Water Supply, some suggestions for the improvement and
preservation of the water. One of them, a plan for clearing
off the suspended impurities which were an unavoidable
accident of a newly opened work, was promptly adopted
with satisfactory results; and another, for stocking the
reservoir with fish, frogs, and snails, at a time when the
quidnuncs were crying out against the water because it
already contained living beings, was I believe acted on,
though not to the extent that I desired.

The effect of another suggestion made at the same time
will be judged of when I quote it. The report already cited
concludes with these words:

“T sincerely hope that the Government will not, for the
sake of a small present return in the shape of land sales,
sanction so great a prospective and urremediable evil.as the
formation of townships on, or even near, the banks of the
reservour.”

. I have spoken strongly because I feel earnestly that the
several evils which I demonstrate are fraught with danger,

in Melbourne. 201

and that the difficulty of removing them increases with
delay so rapidly, that there is risk of its becoming one day
insurmountable if now neglected. The frequent use of the
first person was difficult to avoid under the circumstances—
it is not egoism.

Note.—I avail myself of the scanty leisure which I have
had since the adjournment of this paper, to offer some
additional notes.

Some of our writers have anticipated and misunderstood
the object of the paper, and have supposed from the fact
that the water has lately been in bad order, that it was
going to be denounced as containing a direful amount of
filth. For some time past the water of the Yan Yean has
been a high and certainly not attractive colour, and has
been more or less turbid. This condition has no necessary
connection with the question above discussed. It was
observable when the supply was newly opened, and from
very similar causes. We have had a season of drought, the
contents of the reservoir were reduced far below the mean
level, and subsequent heavy rains have stirred up the bottom,
and diffused flocculent debris through.» the whole bulk of
the liquid, which debris being only slightly heavier than the
water does not quickly subside. Moreover, the floods carried
with them into the reservoir a large amount of peaty matter in
solution, as well as other substances in suspension. But
during the past month’s comparative quiescence the water
has regained much of its original character; its colour is
now much better ; it cleans itself much more rapidly ; and
the spontaneous precipitate is not only much smaller, but
is recovering its colour, the healthy green tint before alluded
to being now noticeable. I hope to illustrate this part of
the subject on a future occasion, The minute vegetal
ao (Desmidiz) are illustrated by the photograph,

gd.

I regret to have seen advertisements setting forth as
recommendatory of certain filters that the Yan Yean con-
tained some objectionable substances mentioned by name,
and that the filters in question, and those only, would
remove them. I know nothing of the firm so advertising, and
am quite willing to assume that its filters are very good, but
I deem it right in the public interest to declare that the nox-
ious substances mentioned do not and never did exist in the
water, and that if they did exist, no filter would remove
them. It is not the function of a filter to remove matters

202 Air and Water Poisoning in Melbourne.

in solution, and no filter as such will do so. And I protest
here, as I have often done before, against the practice of rais-
ing bugbears to frighten the public unnecessarily. There is
quite enough to find fault with, and quite enough to guard
against, without resorting to sensational fictions. I might
say more, but as I only wish to condemn the practice, with-
out assuming the position of antagonism toward any
individuals, this brief reference to the subject must suffice.

1872.

PROCEEDINGS.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.

ANNUAL MEETING.
1lth March, 1872.

The President R. L. J. Ellery, Esq.,in the chair. After the minutes
had been read, Mr. Daniel Kennedy and Mr. J. E. Gilbert were
duly elected, by ballot, members of the Society.

DONATIONS.

The Hon. Librarian (Dr. Neild) announced the receipt of the
following publications :—‘‘The Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society” for Nov. 1871 ; ‘‘ Nature” for Nov. 30, Dec. 7, Dec. 14,
Dec. 21; “ List of Members of the Geological Society,” Nov. 1871 ;
* Monthly Notices of the Meteorological Society of Mauritius,”
March, April, Nov. 1871 ; “Transactions and Proceedings of the
New Zealand Institute,” vols. 2 and 3; ‘ Historical Notes on
the Earthquakes of New England”; ‘ Appendix to Benj. Ander-
sons Journey to Musadu”; “Transactions of the Connecticut

Academy of Arts and Sciences,” vol. 2, part 1; “ Annual Report ~

of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution” for
1869; ‘‘Report of the Superintendent of the United States
Coast Survey” for 1867; ‘Annuaire de lAcademie Royale des
Sciences des Lettres et des Beaux Arts de Belgique,” 1871 ;
* Bulletins de Academie Royale des Sciences, &c., de Belgique,”
1870 ; ‘‘ Memoire de Sir John F. W. Herschel,” par M. A. Quetelet ;
“ Catalogue de la Bibliothéque de la Société Impériale des Sciences
Naturelles de Cherbourg”; Memoires de la Société Impériale des
Sciences Naturelles de Cherbourg,” tome 15; ‘“‘ Annales Meteoro-
logiques de Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles,” 1870 ; “‘ Recherches
sur les Monnaies des Indigénes de l’Archipel Indien ”; ‘‘ Berichte
iiber die Verhandlungen der Koniglich Sachsischen Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften zu Leipzig,” 1869, 1870 ; “ Bloemlezing uit Male-
ische Geschriten eerste stuk door,” G. K. Neimann, 1870-71 ;
“‘Bijdragen tot de taal-land-en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch
Indie,” 1871 (6 parts). Analysis: English, 6 ; British Possessions, 5;
American, 5 ; French, 8; German, 1 ; Dutch 8—total, 33.

206 Proceedings, &c., for 1872.

AwnnuaL Report.

The subjoined report of the Council for the session of 1871 was
read by the Secretary :—

“‘ Your Council desires to bring most prominently under notice the
reasons why it has been unable to incur during the past year any
expenditure for the purpose of printing the Transactions of the
Society. In the first place your Council has had to discharge several
accounts incurred in previous years for furnishing, binding, &c., and
has not been able even to reduce the account, £106 lls. 6d., for
printing the last number of the Transactions published at the end of
1868. That debt was only incurred in the anticipation that the
hope held out, when £100 was granted by the Government in 1867,
that the subsidy would thenceforward be made annually, would be
fulfilled. It was upon this understanding that the list of learned
societies in Europe and America, with whom the Society exchanges
publications, was so largely extended ; and your Council considers
that it is deeply to be deplored that for want of such a trifling
yearly subsidy, the engagements thus entered into have not been
carried into execution, The invitations to exchange publications
with this Society met with a most liberal response ; and scientific

journals and publications of the highest value have since been

regularly received from every part of Europe, America, India, &e.
Inquiries have also been received latterly as to numbers of this
Society’s Transactions which were presumed to have miscarried.
“The position of the Royal Society of Victoria, in being deprived
of state support, is altogether singular. In all the neighbouring
colonies the local scientific bodies are more or less liberably
subsidised, and your Council trusts that measures may be successfully
adopted by its successor to secure by a Government grant the means
of continuing the exchange of publications, the commencement of
which has placed the Society under a distinct obligation to do so if
practicable. Notwithstanding the great disadvantage of being
unable to print the Transactions, your Council is pleased to be
able to report that the proceedings of the Society have not been
wanting in interest, nor has its reputation otherwise been allowed to
suffer. The monthly meetings during the session were fully
occupied with interesting papers, and the successful organisation of
the Eclipse expedition has contributed to maintain its reputation
abroad, and this affords ground for satisfaction, although the actual
results to science in general were of the smallest. After the business
in connexion with the expedition was confided to your Council, eight
special, and several ordinary meetings, with a more than average
attendance, were almost entirely devoted to completing the
negotiations for the purpose. Owing to the exertions of your
Council, and particularly of your president, and to the liberal con-
tributions of various Australian Governments, the expedition was
provided with ample means of profiting by the occasion to the

Proceedings, &e., for 1872. 207

fullest extent. As this fact will become known throughout the
world, it will doubtless redound largely to the credit of the Society,
and tend to dissipate unfavourable impressions which the suspension’
of the publication of the Transactions may have created.

“¢ An official statement of the progress and results of the expedition
will be laid before you at the next ordinary meeting, by which time
it is hoped that all accounts in connexion with it will. be finally
closed and paid.

‘‘ A list of the papers which have been read at the Society’s
meetings has been prepared for the consideration of the new Council,
to be elected to-night, and it is to be hoped that means may soon be
found of publishing at least a selection from them, as none have been
published since January 1869. The list of papers on hand at the
beginning of the last session has since received the following
additions:—On the 13th March, 1871, the President exhibited and
described ‘A new form of Spectroscope,’ and Mr. MacGeorge read
‘Some notes of Observations with the Melbourne Great Telescope of a
variety of objects.’ On the 17th April Mr. George Foord read a paper
On Enhydros and their Contents,’ giving results of his chemical and
microscopical examination thereof. On the 8th May Mr. A. K.
Smith read a paper ‘ On self-acting Hydrostatic Chime and Clock-
weights. On the 12th June the President read a paper ‘On Gun-
cotton as an Explosive Agent’; ‘Mr. MacGeorge produced a plan
and described ‘A Method of applying Hydraulic Power to the
Striking of very large Clocks’; Mr. White also read a paper, in
which he proposed improvements in the construction of the cards
used in mariners’ compasses at sea. On the 10th July Professor
Wilson exhibited and described a ‘Rain Guage,’ and Mr. Newbery
read ‘Some Notes upon a New Disinfectant (Chloride of Aluminum).’
On the 11th of September the President read a paper, contributed
by Mr. 8. R. Deverell, ‘On Ocean Waves and their Action on Floating
Bodies’ ; Mr. MacGeorge read another, presented by Mr. E. K. Horne,
‘On a Linear Method of finding the Stability of Ships’; and Mr.
H. E. Pain read a third, ‘On Aboriginal Art and its Decay in
Australasia, Polynesia, and Oceanica.’ On the 9th October Mr.
MacGeorge read a paper, ‘On Eta Argus and the surrounding
Nebule’; and Mr. Foord exhibited and described an ‘ Areometer.’
On the 13th of November the Rev. Wm. Kelly read a paper, ‘On
a Method of combining Marsh’s Test for Arsenic with Reinsch’s, so
as to secure very reliable results’; and Mr. Bosisto read a paper,
‘On the Cultivation in Victoria of Mentha Piperita, or true pepper-
mint.’ Besides these sixteen papers there are nineteen previously on
hand from 1870, from which a selection for printing may be
advantageously made.

“With reference to the Treasurer’s balance-sheet for the past year,
£53 7s. 8d. of this expenditure was incurred in previous years, and
the item of commission (£14 12s, 9d.) also belongs chiefly to 1870.

208 Proceedings, &c., for 1872.

On the other hand, your Council regrets to observe that though the
estimate made last year of the probable income from rent of the
hall, entrance fees, and subscriptions due for previous years, was
under the sum actually realised ; the amount of ordinary subscrip-
tions paid has fallen short considerably. There is, in fact, due to
the Society a sum of £112 7s. for sundry subscriptions from 1868
to date. It isto be hoped that this amount will be paid up at once.
It was upon the faith of the subscription list that the debentures
were issued, and considerable debts incurred; and it is obviously a.
matter of vital importance that it should be known who are to be
counted upon as bond fide members of the Society, and who are not.
Your Council therefore trusts that the indebted members will
recognise the propriety of promptly paying their arrears, and also of
formally intimating their wishes as to the maintenance of their
connexion with the Society. The Secretary has been desired to
write. to them accordingly, and invite replies.

“Thirteen new members have joined the Society during the session,
two more have been balloted for this evening, and two more have
been duly nominated. The members’ list now comprises 130 names.
Of these, eight are honorary and twenty-seven life members; the
remainder are twelve country and eighty-three yearly subscribers,
who should produce an income of £186 18s. per annum; £111 6s.
is, however, all that has been received for 1871, the balance of the
£139 13s. shown in the balance-sheet being arrears for previous
years, and three subscriptions for the current year. There is £112
7s. now due for previous years, as far back as 1868.

‘“‘In its estimate of ways and means for the ensuing session, your’
Council has taken credit for no more than sixty full yearly sub-
scriptions, though certainly entitled to reckon on eighty-nine. A
discouraging experience may have led your Council to do an
injustice to the members, and it is to be hoped that the appeal now
made to them may result in the subscription representing more
accurately the financial position of the Society. In the estimate of
expenditure for the current year your Council has included the
item £106 11s. 6d. due to Messrs. Stillwell and Knight since 1868.
It will, of course, be for the incoming Council to decide whether it
will adopt the programme therein set forth. The other items, being
nearly a counterpart of the expenses of the past year, will bear witness
to the strict economy which your Council has desired to practise.
The Librarian has periodically acknowledged the receipt of the pub-
lications received for exchange from all parts of the world, and
testifies to the value as well as the extent of the growing library.
The number of publications received during the year is 210.”

The Treasurer’s balance-sheet stands as follows :

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210 - Proceedings, &c., for 1872.

An estimate of ways and means for 1872 showed a probable
revenue of £237 16s., which would exceed by £8 the probable
expenditure.

Professor Wilson moved, and Mr. A. K. Smith seconded, the
adoption of the Report and Balance-sheet.

The motion was carried.

ELECTION oF OFFICERS.

The following elections were made :—President, Mr. Ellery
(unopposed); Vice-Presidents, Professor Wilson, Mr. A. K. Smith ;
Treasurer, Mr. R. Willan (unopposed) ; Secretary, Mr. H. K. Rusden
(unopposed) ; Librarian, Dr. Neild (unopposed) ; Custos of Collec-
tions, Mr. H. E. Pain. Six Members of Council, in place of those
who retired by rotation :—Mr. George Foord, Mr. J. Bosisto, Rev.
W. Kelly, Baron von Mueller, Mr. G. H. F. Ulrich, and Dr. Barker.

The above, with the following, who hold office for the current
year without re-election on the present occasion, constitute the
Council :—Messrs. C. G. Casey, J. Flannagan, E. Howitt, S. W.
M‘Gowan, F. Poolman, and J. T. Rudall.

(Signed) R. L. J. Euuery.
8th April, 1872. :

8th April, 1872.
The President in the chair.

Mr. W. Mansfield Cook and the Rev. Wm. Potter were elected
members of the Society.

Mr. Thomas Harrison read a paper “On Patents and their
utilization. (See Transactions, Art. No. xxxvi.)

Discussion ensued.

Mr. Thomas Caldwell, a non-member introduced by the President,
then read a paper “ On Meat Preserving.”

Discussion ensued, after which a vote of thanks was passed to
Mr. Caldwell for his paper.

The President presented a paper contributed by Mr. Patrick
Ford, “ On Biangular Co-ordinates.”

(Signed) R. L. J. ELGERY.
13th May, 1872.

13th May, 1872.
The President in the chair.
The following contributions were acknowledged by the Libra-
rian :—‘‘ Nature,” Feb. 15, 22, 29, and March 7 ; “ The Quarterly

Journal of the Geological Society ” for February ; ‘“‘ Journal of the
Royal Society of Dublin,” XL.; “The Fishes of New Zealand,”

Proceedings, &c., for 1872. 211

by James Hector, M.D. F.R.S.; “Fragmenta Phytographize
Australiz,” LVIII. ; ‘‘ Monthly Record of Observations in Meteor-
ology,” Jan. Feb. ind March ; ‘‘ Statistics of the Colony of Recon,
1870”; “Patent Office Report, WES SSO iaols men yaa.
Sitzungs berichte der Kaiserlichen Aicademie der Wiss senischaften
Mathematisch 1 ehluwiseeneg te Lise Classe,” 1869, 12 Nos., 1870,
12 Nos., 1871, 8 Nos.; “ Monatsberichte der Kéniglich Preussischen
Akademie der Teen i

Mr. Fredk. Poolman read a paper describing an apparatus invented
and patented by him in April 1863, and called “‘A Self-acting
Safety Reoulator and Coal Economiser for Steam Engines.” (See
Transactions, Art. No, xxxix.)

Discussion ensued.

The President produced some superior photographs of the moon,
taken by means of the Great Telescope.

Mr. A. K. Smith produced and described “ A new Water Pressure
Valve.” (See Transactions, Art. No. xl.)

(Signed) R. L. J. ELLERY.

~

10th June, 1872.

10th June, 1872.
The President in the chair.

Mr. H. J. Browne, Mr. A. Hope, Mr. L. L. Keogh, and Mr.
8. 8. Ritchie were duly elected, by ballot, members of the Society.

The Secretary reported that a Life Membership of the Society
had been presented by the Council to Mr. Sydney W. Gibbons, who
acknowledged the favour.

The following contributions to the Library were acknowledged :—
“‘ Nature,” March 14 to April 4; “Journal of the Royal Society of
Dublin,” Vol. VI., No. 1; “Journal of the Anthropological
Institute,” Vol. L, No. 3; “ Quaritchs Catalogue” for April;
Monatsberichte der Kéniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wis-
senchaften zu Berlin,’ January 1872; ‘‘ Monthly Record of
Observations in Meteorology,” Melbourne, April; ‘ Abstracts of
Specifications of Patents, Metals,” Part I ; “‘ Melbourne Statistics of
Victoria, 1870,” Parts VIII. and IX. ; ‘‘Census Returns Victoria,
1371.”

Mr. MacGeorge read a paper, “‘ On Sirius and his Companions.”
(See Tran sactions, Art. No. xli.)

Discussion ensued,

Mr. Sydney Gibbons read “Some Notes respecting the Cran-
bourne Meteorite.” (See Transactions, Art. No. xlii.)

(Signed) R. L. J. Every.
8th July, 1872.
Le

‘
;

212 Proceedings, &c., for 1872.

8th July, 1872.

Conversazione. (See President’s Address for 1872.)

Mr. Sydney Gibbons read, ‘‘Some Notes on Yan Yean Water.”

Mr. George Foord read, “Some Notes on a piece of Native
Copper found at Footscray.” (See Transactions, No. xliii.)

(Signed) R. L. J. ELLERY.
12th August, 1872. :

12th August, 1872.
The President in the chair.

Dr. W. Bone, Mr. H. R. Caselli, and Mr. A. J. Skene were duly
elected, by ballot, members of the Society.

Mr. Howitt gave notice of motion to alter the Laws.

Mr. Newbery read a paper, ‘‘ On the Extraction of Vegetable
Oils. (See Zransactions, Art. No. xlv.)

The President exhibited and explained, “‘ The Use of Siemen’s
Universal Galvanometer for Testing Telegraph Lines.”

(Signed) R. L. J. ELuery.
9th September, 1872.

9th September, 1872.
The President in the chair.

The following publications were acknowledged :—“ Journal of
the Statistical and Social Enquiry Society of Ireland,” Part LXI. ;
“ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,” May; “‘ Nature,”
9th May to 27th June; “Quaritchs Catalogue” for June; 17
French Monographs on Medical Subjects from Bailliere, Paris ;
“ Le Névé de Justidal et les Glaciers,’ par 8S. A. Saxe ; ‘‘ Catalogue
General de Bertrand”; “R. Comitato Geologico d'Italia,” No. 3
and 4; “ Verhandlungen des Naturhistorisch medizinischen Vereins
zu Heidelberg band 6; “ Monatsberichte der Koniglich Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,” Jan., Feb., and March ;
“‘Morkinskinna af C. R. Unger”; ‘‘ Quellen zur Geschichte des
Taufsymbols und der Glaubensregel von Dr. C. P. Caspari” ; “ Geo-
logical Surveys of Ohio, 1870,” with 5 maps; ‘Records and
Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 1870-1,” 15 parts ;
“* Abstracts of Specifications of Patents in Victoria Metals,” Part I. ;
““ Census of Victoria,” Parts I. II. and III.; Statistics of the Colony
of Victoria, 1872,” Parts I. II. III. and IV. ; ‘‘ Monthly Record of
Results of Meterological Observations, Melbourne, June 1872 ;
“The Origin and Destiny of Comets,” by James Macdonald.

Mr. Howitt submitted proposals to alter Laws V. X. XXV. and
XXVL., and moved that a special meeting be convened to consider
them. Seconded by Mr. Willan, and carried.

eS Ae.

:
|
:
:

Proceedings, &c., for 1872. 213

Mr. Geo. Foord then read some “ Notes on the Mechanical Assay
of Quartz.” (See Transactions Art. No. xlvii.)
After some discussion the meeting adjourned.

(Signed) R. L. J. ELuERy.
14th October, 1872.

(SrectaL MEETING.)
14th October 1872.
The President in the Chair.

Mr. Howitt moved the following alterations in the Laws:

Laws V. and X.—That the words “‘ Custos of Collections” be
expunged.

Law XXVI.—That in lieu of the last sentence, the following be
substituted : “ Members resident in Melbourne or within ten miles
“thereof, may compound for all Annual Subscriptions of the
“current and future years, by paying twenty-one pounds, and
“members residing beyond that distance, may compound in like
““manner, by paying ten pounds ten shillings.”

Seconded by Dr. Barker and carried.

Law XXV.—Also, that the word “ten” be substituted for the
word “ fifty ” in the second line.

Seconded by Dr. Barker and carried.

And the meeting adjourned.

(Signed) R. L. J. Every.

ORDINARY MEETING.
14th October, 1872.
The President in the chair.

Mr, Thomas Burrows was duly elected a member of the Society.

Captain C. J. Perry (by permission of the meeting, he not being a
member of the Society) read a paper “ On an easy and expeditious
method of verifying a ship’s position on a coast where only one
object on shore can be seen, either in the day or night,” by the use
of Perry’s Anti-Collision Dial, and illustrated it with diagrams.

After discussion, a vote of thanks was accorded to Captain Perry
for his paper, on the motion of the President and Dr. Barker.

And the meeting adjourned.

(Signed) R. L. J. ELuery.
11th November, 1872.

214 Proceedings, &c., for 1872.

11th November, 1872.
The President in the chair.

The President announced the retirement of the following office-
bearers under the [Xth Law :—President, R. L. J. Ellery, Esq. ;
Vice-Presidents, A. K. Smith, Esq., and Professor Wilson ; Treasurer,
R. Willan, Esq.; Secretary, H. K. Rusden ; Librarian, Dr. Neild.
Members of the Council, C. G. Casey, Esq., J. Flannigan, Esq.,
E. Howitt, Esq., 8. W. McGowan, Esq., F. Poolman, Esq., J. T.
Rudall, Esq. Non-retiring Members of Council being Dr. Barker,
J. Bosisto, Esq., G. Foord, Esq., the Rev. Wm. Kelly, Baron Von
Mueller, and G. H. F. Ulrich, Esq. Nominations to the vacant
offices to be made at the following meeting in December, or by
letter before the lst March, 1873. The elections to be made by
ballot at the Annual Meeting on 11th March, 1873.

The receipt of the following publications was acknowledged :—
“ Nature,” July 4 to 25; “Journal of Applied Science,” Ist Nov.
71 to 1st Aug. 72; “ Quaritch’s Catalogue”; ‘‘ Journal of Statis-
tical Society,’ June to Dec. 1871; ‘Proceedings of the Royal
Society,’ 119 to 129; “Journal Royal Geographical Society of
Treland” for 1871; “Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh,” 1870-1; “ Blanford’s Geology of Abyssinia,” pre-
sented by the Government of India ; ‘‘ Transactions and Proceedings
of the Botanical Society”; ‘On Constituent Minerals of the
Granites of Scotland,” by the Rev. S. Haughton; “On the
difference between a Hand and Foot,” by the Rev. 8. Haughton ;
“Nineteenth Annual Report of the Liverpool Free Library”;
“‘ Magnetical and Meteorological Observations in Batavia,” Vol. I. ;
“United States Coast Survey,’ 1868; “ United States Patent
Office Reports,’ 1868, 4 vols.; “Smithsonian Report,” 1870 ;
“ Etudes sur les Races Indigénes de Australie”; “‘ Bulletin de la
Société Imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscow,” 1871; ‘“‘ Memoirs de
la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord,” 1868—9, 4 numbers ;
“Tahresberichte der Pollichia;’ “ Abhandlungen herausgegeben
vom Naturwissen schaftlichen Verein zu Bremen ;” “‘ Verhandlungen
der K. K. geologischen Reichsanstalt,” No. 14 1871, No. 1 1872 ;
“ Mittheilungen der geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien,” No. i-14;
“‘ Jahrbuch der Kais. Keenigl. Geologischen Reichsantalt,’ 1871-
1872 ; 3 Nos. “‘ Abhandlungen des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins
zu Bremen;” “ Statistische Mittheilungen tiber den Civilstand der
Stadt Frankfurt,” 1870; ‘‘ Die Echnoiden von Dr. Laube”; ‘‘'Tillceg
til Aarboger fu Nordisk old kyndighed og Historie,” 1867-9 ;
“‘ Oversigt over det Kongiliqu Dunske Videnskab ernes Selskabs,”
1870-1; Aarboger fu Nordisk old Kyndighed og Historie,” 1867-70 ;
“Theomochemische Undersogelsen ved Julius Thomson”; “ Nova
Acta Regia Societatis Upsaliensis,’ ’71; ‘Bulletin de la Sociéte
Imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscow,” ’70-1; ‘“ Monatsbericht

Proceedings, &c., for 1872. 215

der Kénig. Preussischen Akad. der Wissenchaften zu Berlin,” April
1872; “ Reizen van Australie neeur Java erz,” 1872 ; “ Proceedings
of Zoological and Acclimatization Society of Victoria,” 1 ;
“Monthly Record of Results of Observations in Meteorology,”
July 1872; “‘Statistics of the Colony of Victoria,” 1871, Parts V.
and VI.; “ Results of 5 years’ Meteorological Observations Hobart
town”; “ Monthly Notices of Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Tasmania,” 1871; ‘Nature,’ Nos. 144-7; “‘ Proceedings Royal
Geographical Society,” Nov. ‘70 to Dec. 71, 7 Nos.; “Journal
Linnean Society,” from Oct. 1870 to May 1872, 15 Nos. ; “ Pro-
ceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow,” 1871 and ’72;
““ Medical Directory ” for 1870, presented by Dr. Martin ; “‘ Monthly
Record of Observations in Meteorology Melbourne Observatory,”
Aug. and Sept. ; “ Patents and Patentees,’ Vol. V.; ‘‘ Statistics of
the Colony Victoria” for 1871, Part VII.

The President mentioned the wish of the Council to hold extra
meetings of the Society, at which exhibitors at the Intercolonial
Exhibition might bring under notice the peculiarities and advantages
of their exhibits; and on the motion of Dr. Barker and Mr. Pool-
man, it was resolved “That extra meetings should be held, if
required, every Monday evening while the Exhibition should remain
open.’

Mr. Rusden then read a paper on “ The Treatment of Criminals
in Relation to Science.”

Discussion followed.

Mr. O. Pritchard exhibited a “ Kaleidograph,” and explained the
process which he had invented for fixing the patterns.

Mr. MacGeorge read a paper on “‘ Matter a mode of motion.”

And the meeting adjourned.

R. L. J. ELuery.

9th December, 1872.

Extra MEETING.
18th November, 1872.

The President in the chair, and explained the objects of the
extra meetings and the advantages to be derived from them.

Mr. Robert Bell exhibited his ‘‘ Newly-invented and Patented
Australian Printing Press,” which earned high commendation.
No. 945 Exhibition Catalogue.

Mr. Matthews described his ‘ Colonial-made Pianoforte.”
No. 1,386.

Mr. Pillard produced and described his “ nk Steelyard.”
No. 966 A.

—_——————

216 Proceedings, &c., for 1872.

ExrrRa MEETING.
25th November, 1872.
The President in the chair.

Mr. Joachimi described ‘A Machine for Preparing Tea.”
No. 1,142.

Mr. Sullivan produced his “ Disinfectant,” described its advan-
tages and exhibited testimonials. No. 1,165.

Mr. Carter described the progress and operations of the Victoria
Porcelain Comvany, and exhibited samples, which were pronounced
excellent. No. 1,479—1,499.

Mr. Ainley’s “ Force and Lift Pump, without Leather Valves,”
was then described. No. 942.

Extra MEETING.
2nd December, 1872.
The President in the chair.

Mr. Rasche described his “Steam Engiue and Direct-acting
Steam Battery for Quartz Crushing.” No. 966.

Mr. Bowman described his “ Method of Crayon Painting with
Colonial Clays,” and executed an effective sketch, to shew the
expedition with which pictures could be completed. No. 112 to 114.

Mr. Lambert exhibited his ‘Colonial India-rubber Stamps.”
No. 597.

Mrs. Ann Timbrell’s “ Report on Sericulture in Victoria” was
then read. No. 364.

Mr. Joseph described his ‘‘ Magneto-Electric Clock,” and explained
its advantages. No. 1,141.

This closed the extra meetings for exhibitors.

9th December, 1872.
The President in the chair.

The President again announced the names of the retiring officers,
and that nominations of new office-bearers would be received during
the evening.

Mr. W. T. Deverell (by permission) read a paper by Mr. 8. R.
Deverell, “‘ On Ocean Wave Power aaaen (See Transactions,
Art. No. lii.)

Discussion ensued.

The Rev. Lorimer Fison then read a paper, ‘‘On various Kinship
Systems.” (See Zransactions, Art. No. liii.)

A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Fison for his interesting
paper.

And the meeting adjourned.

R. L, J. ELLERY.

10th March, 1873.

MEMBERS

OF

Ghe Royal Society of Victorin.

Allan, Alex. C., Esq., The Observatory.

Barker, Edw., Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S., Latrobe-street East, Melbourne.

Barnes, Benjamin, Esq., Rosslyn-street, West Melbourne.

Barton, Robert, Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint.

Beaney, J. G., Esq., F.R.C.S. Ed., Collins-street East, Melbourne.

Bear, J. P., Hon., M.L.C., Brighton.

Blair, John, Esq., L.R.C.S., M.B. Syd., Collins-street East, Mel-
bourne:

Bland, R. H., Esq., Clunes.

Bone, William, M.D., Castlemaine.

Bonwick, James, Esq., F.R.G.S., St. Kilda.

Brown, Edwin, Esq., C.H., Camberwell.

Brown, H. J., Esq., 33 Victoria Parade, Melbourne.

Brown, H. Y. L., Esq., Yorick Club, Collins-street, Melbourne.

Burrows, Thos., Esq., Burwood Road, Hawthorn.

Casey, C. G., Esq., M.R.C.8.H., Timperley Lodge, Brighton.
Caselli, H. R., Esq., Ballarat.

Clarke, Wm., Esq., Elizabeth-street, Melbourne.

Comber, P. F'., Esq., Royal Mint.

Cook, W. Mansfield, Esq., Crown Lands Office, Melbourne.

Danks, John, Esq., Bourke-street West, Melbourne.

Dixon, 8. E., Esq., Education Office, Melbourne.

Duerdin, James, Esq., LL.B., Yorick Club, Collins-street East,
Melbourne.

Ellery, R. L. J. Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., The Observatory.

Fitzpatrick, Rev. J.. D.D., St. Patrick’s College, Melbourne.
Foord, George, Esq., F.C.8., Royal Mint.

Gilbert, J. E., Esq., The Observatory.
Goold, J. A., D.D., Right Rev. Bishop, St. Patrick’s College,
Melbourne.

Q

218 List of Members.

Groves, G. W., Esq., Crown Lands Office, Melbourne.
Grut, P. de J., HEsq., HE. S. and A. C. Bank, Gertrude-street, Fitzroy.

Haddon, F. W., Esq., The Argus Office, Melbourne.

Harrison, Thomas, Esq., Registrar-General’s Office.

Henderson, A. M., Esq., Reed and Barnes’, 3 Elizabeth-street.

Henderson, J. B., Esq., Sandhurst.

Higinbotham, T., Esq., C.E., Engineer-in-Chief, Railway Depart-
ment.

Howitt, E., Esq., Yorick Club, Collins-street East.

Hope, A., Esq., Greville-street, Prahran.

Hopkins, D. M., Esq., Haglehawk, Sandhurst.

_ Hunt, Robert, Esq., Royal Mint.

Irving, M. H., Esq., M.A., Wesley College, St. Kilda Road.

Kane, H, P., Rev., M.A., Darling-street, South Yarra.
Kelly, William, Rev., 8. J., St. Patrick’s College, Melbourne.
Kennedy, Daniel, Esq., McKenzie-street, Sandhurst,

Keogh, L. L., Esq., 20 Market.street, Melbourne.

Kernot, W. C., Esq., M.A., Mining Department,

Lewis, George, Esq., Collins-street Hast, Melbourne.
Linacre, A., Esq., Lygon-street, Carlton.
Lynch, William, Esq., Collins-street West, Melbourne.

McCoy, F., Professor, F.G.S., University, Melbourne.
McGillivray, P. H., Esq., M.A., M.R.C.S., Sandhurst.
McGowan, 8. W., Esq., General Post Office, Melbourne.
Manton, C. A., Esq., The Treasury, Melbourne.
Marshall, John, Esq., M.A., Hotham.

Miller, F. B., Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint.

Moerlin, C., Esq., The Observatory, Melbourne.
Morrison, R., Esq., M.A., Scotch College, Melbourne.
Moors, Henry, Esq., Office Chief Commissioner Police, Melbourne.
Munday, J., Esq., Clunes.

Muntz, T. B., Esq., Town Surveyor’s Office, Prahran.

Neild, J. E., Esq., M.D., Collins-street East, Melbourne.

Newbery, J. Cosmo, Esq., B.Sc., Technological Museum, Melbourne.
Nicholas, W., Esq., Mining Department, Melbourne.

Noone, J., Esq., Lands and Survey Office, Melbourne.

Officer, S. H., Esq., Swan Hill, Murray.
Permezel, E., Esq., B.A., Grey-street, Hast Melbourne.

Perry, Right Rev. Bishop, D.D., M.A., Bishop’s Court, Hast Mel-
bourne.

Inst of Members. 219

Pirani, F. J., Esq., M.A., University, Melbourne.
Poolman, F., Esq., Sugar Works, Sandridge.
Potter, Wm., Rev., Baptist Parsonage, Emerald Hill.

Rees, D. C., Esq., Registrar-General’s Office, Melbourne.
Ritchie, 8. 8., Esq., 56 Queen-street, Melbourne.

Robin, J. De Q., Esq., B.As Neil-street, Soldier’s Hill, Ballarat.
Rudall, J. T., Esq., F.R.C.S.E., Collins-street East, Melbourne.
Rusden, H. K., Esq., Tivoli Place, South Yarra.

Sherrard, L. J., Esq., Little Flinders-street East, Melbourne.

Skene, A. J., Esq., A.M., Lands and Survey Office, Melbourne.

Stawell, Sir William, M.A., Chief Justice of Victoria, Supreme
Court.

Steele, W. H., Esq., Public Works Office, Melbourne.

Taylor, W. F., Esq., M.D., Claremont, Queensland.
Thomson, W., F.R.C.S.E., South Yarra.

Ulrich, G. H. F., Esq., F.G.S., Yorick Club, Collins-street East.

Walker, William, Esq.

Ward, Colonel, R.E., Royal Mint.

Waugh, J.S., Rev., St. Kilda.

Wigs, H. C., Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S8.E., Grattan-street, Carlton.
Wilkins, A., Esq., 31 Market-street, Melbourne.

Wilkins, John, Esq., M.R.C.S., Collins-street East, Melbourne.
Willan, R., Esq., 39 Queen-street, Melbourne.

Williams, W., Esq., M.U.A., St. Kilda.

Wyatt, A., Esq., M.A., Yorick Club, Collins-street East.

Honorary MEMBERS,

Bowen, His Excellency, Sir G. F., K.C.B, Governor of Victoria,
Patron.

Clarke, Sir Andw., Colonel, C.B., R.E., London.

Goeppert, H. R., M.D., Ph. D., Breslaw.

Haast, Julius, Esq., Ph. D., F.G.S., Canterbury, New Zealand.

Neumayer, Geo., Professor, Ph. D., &c., Bavaria.

Scott, W., Rev., M.A., F.C.P.S., Sydney.

Smith, John, Esq., M.D., University, Sydney.

Todd, C., Esq., C.M.G., F.R.A.S.,. Adelaide.

220 Inst of Members.

Litt MEMBERS.

Barkly, His Excellency Sir Henry, K.C.B., Mauritius.

Barry, His Honor Sir Redmond, M.A., Chancellor of the Univer-
sity, Supreme Court.

Bennison, R., Esq., Sale.

Bleasdale, J. J., Rev., D.D., F.G.S., St. Patrick’s College, Mel-
bourne.

Bosisto, Joseph, Esq., Bridge-road, Richmond.

Butters, J. 8., Esq., Fiji.

Detmold, William, Esq., 44 Collins-street East, Melbourne.

Eaton, H. F., Esq., The Treasury, Melbourne.

Elliott, S., Esq., 88 Collins-street West, or East Brighton.

Hlliott, T. 8., Esq., Railway Department, Spencer-street.

Flannagan, J., Eisq., Collins-street Hast, Melbourne.

Gibbons, 8. W., Esq., F.C.., Collins-street East, Melbourne.

Gillbee, Wm., Esq., M.R.C.S.E., Collins-street East, Melbourne.

Higinbotham, Hon. George, M.A., Chancery-lane, Melbourne.

Tffla, S., Esq., L.F.P.S.G., Emerald Hill.

Kay, Captain, R.N., F.R.S., Government House.

Mueller, Baron Von, Ph. D., C.M.G., F.R.S., Government Botanist.

Nicholson, G., Esq., Collins-street East, Melbourne.

Rawlinson, T. E., Esq., C.E., Temple Court, Melbourne.

Reed, Thomas., Hisq., Fiji.

Reed, Joseph, Esq., 3 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne.

Smith, A. K., Esq., C.E., F.R.S.S.A., &c., Leicester-street, Carlton.

Thompson, H. A., Esq., Lucknow, New South Wales.

Were, J. B., Esq., Collins-street West, Melbourne.

Wilkie, D. E., Esq., M.D., Collins-street East, Melbourne.

Wilson, W. P., M.A., Professor, University, Melbourne.

White, E. J., Esq., F.R.A.S., The Observatory, Melbourne.

STILLWELL AND KNIGHT, PRINTERS, MELBOURNF.

TRANSACTIONS

AND

PROCEEDINGS

opal Society of Victoria.

didited under the Authority of the Council of the Society.

THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE
OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THERDIN.

x
where a

MELBOURNE :
STILLWELS: & KNIGHT, PRINTERS, 78 COLLINS STREET HAST.
Issued February 1874.

AGENTS TO THE SOCIETY.
Witriams anp Noraate, 14 Henrierra Srrent, Covent GarprEn, Lonpon,
To whom comznunications for transmission to the Royal Society of Victoria
from all parts of Europe should be sent,

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