ee ie ee ae Pee ey ol cae smadaieaanaheadmneennes OTE AGED EPR ARN IE ONO NTO I a CN mATET eet erent to Re Oe aia ae NI arte ATER ARI: eh oe OETA ATEN Oe pee eH 4 ORE aT ee eS. apes agUnaueasy a ibe mcie few a nee wg re OP staemawes ert w re Ao pene retin ree: " y organ ewe <8 agp CIN wT YEE © ete RING Ent” M r gen pia ee eeatnatadvniuastel poe rep Ra eres eee LA: Ger O48 tient Po SUR EM eI A A ONDE OTT opemeseseramrrr rat Oe Kem R ge od” MMe Rat of . pee ee 9 BON Ny” POM MUNA TE Hed ORO LAI ech eae: and Ora wee Tire regret aa ae ere ee AT Se tg a NAN acai Pr meno Ce ie ida n ret F0- pes ome pan nee SOE ES ONS EI > ote ete te on eidlinan a bibebinen aie om ee Te Eel Sou nee a gree po Ree erG waters ex mewrnws conan Oe Te wre “ -~ _ ——— - oN eee a egry™ we tim © Sh ee oe ee Pees wr petet ee aan tei a ak od a ee ee n gate ee OR ee eT et nt ae ean = ~ : ee AO Sat SAO of eh Eee re = -Egeerd® ee she een El eae nk a hetitel eae Rem Ft ee a COP it tet ee NE ONS Ae Meee ee aa ; =e neat a ~ Se age TN aE EO TOT = + 8 egret = QP eres y ne ph REMY My AT Mate me payne rm CALE Ste me atin deniiniddnamndl eke held et am AIOE NA Oe eee Lt oa et a aT Pe VN OE ee ere ae Re “—— ae aie atte le Ty gg NMED FO Peg RPG mw al ano) NEST Ne ata Tn erate eee a els POSE tides RO ee ehasutativaielied aah Ne ere aA WOTTON APO FAG NAOT TE A pu sine foruaivenaae4 SeAR Ig ee 1 ET dw He cde aetna Adel Se ey a 5 ee ata Pad a ee aoe 4 \ CLARO LOLA LA AO OY yr utenh te eee Owe 8 eT pee ana died weit e ergbenan.; , Senge ewer ere” renens Pon oo Oe eters Fe a + terre nes ee Peng en Or et SNe aadeditedeid oe ad C2 a OF THE (INCORPORATED). oe i Oa LV TY [Witn Forty-two PuLatTes, AND SIXTY-sIx f FieurEs 1n THE TExt.| _ EDITED BY PROFESSOR WALTER HOWCHIN, F.G.S.. Assistep By ARTHUR M. LEA, F.E.S. @ | Parnrep BY GuiuineHaM, Swann & Co., Lrp., 106 anp 108, Currie STREET, ADELAIDE, eee Wukeus. Parcels for transmission to the Royal Society of South Aus- tralia from the United States of America can be forwarded es “through the Smithsonian mainder satan Washington, D.C, ONS AND PROCEEDINGS OVAL SOCIETY of SOUTH AUSTRALIA f 4 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE HOYAL SOCIETY of SOUTH AUSTRALIA (INCORPORATED). ——— Me Sai Ta VL. [With Forty-two PLATES, AND SIXTY-sIx FIguRES IN THE TEXT. |] EDITED BY PROFESSOR WALTER HOWCHIN, F.G.S.. Assistep By ARTHUR M. LEA, F.E.S. PRICE, TWENTY-TWO SHILLINGS Adelarwe : PUBLISHED BY THE SociETY, Royat Society Rooms, Nortu TrErRrRacz, DECEMBER 22, 1922. _ PRINTED BY GILLINGHAM, Swann & Co., Lrp., 106 anp 108, CurRIE Street, ADELAIDE, SourH AUSTRALIA. Parcels for transmission to the Royal Society of South Aus- tralia from the United States of America can be forwarded through the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Vi. Ropul Society of South Australia (INCORPORATED). Patron: . HIS EXCELLENCY LIEUT.-COL. SIR G. T. M. BRIDGES, K.C.M.G., C.B., D.S.O. p tee OFFICERS FOR 1922-23. President : R. H. PULLEINE, M.B., Ch.M. Vice=Presidents: |p SIR JOSEPH C. VERCO, M.D., F.R.C:S. : R. S. ROGERS, M.A., M.D. ‘ibon. Treasurer : . . B. S. ROACH. : tbon. Secretary: WALTER RUTT, C.E. Assistant thon. Secretary: E. H. ISING. — fidembers of Council: PROF. JOHN B: CLELAND, M.D. PROF. WALTER HOWCHIN, F.G.S. (Editor). PROF. F. WOOD JONES, M.B., B.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Dise (Representative Governor). CAPT. S. A. WHITE, C.M.B.0O.U. PROF, 3) 664 APPENDICES : — Field Naturalists’ Section: Annual Report, etc. — 667 Thirty-third Annual Report of the Native Fauna and Flora Protection Committee... 669 INDEX -<.. a ye Nee fe bah ee a Pe: bar taae e INDEX TO THE TRANSACTIONS. The following works can be had, at the prices mentioned, by applying to the Hon. Secretary of the Royal Society, Royal Society Rooms, North Terrace, Adelaide :— INDEX TO THE TRANSACTIONS, PROCEEDINGS, AND REPORTS OF THE Roya Society or Sovutu AUSTRALIA, Vols. I. to XXIV., 1877-1900. InDEX 10 tHE TRANSACTIONS, PRockEDINGS, Rwports, AND Memoirs OF THE Roya Socrery or SovutH AUSTRALIA, Vols. XXV. to XLIV., 1901-1920. Price: Five Shillings each volume; to Fellows and Members, hialf-price. THE Transactions OF The Royal Society of South Australia (Incorporated.) ‘Vol. XLVI. A NOTE ON THE PATHOLOGICAL MORPHOLOGY OF CINTRACTIA SPINIFICIS (LUDW.) MCALP. By T. G. B. Ossorn, D.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of Adelaide. [Read November 10, 1921.] Puare 2. The fungus now known as Cintractia spinificis was described, in 1893, by Ludwig from material collected by Mr. J.G.O. Tepper, near Port Adelaide. In the original descrip- tion the fungus, which was placed in the genus Ustilago, was stated to occur on the female inflorescences, destroying the ovaries. In his monograph on ‘‘The Smuts of Australia’’ (1910) McAlpine redescribed the fungus, transferred it to the genus Cintractia, and gave an account of the method of spore forma- tion and germination. The purpose of this note is twofold—first, to place on record the presence of the fungus in the male inflorescences; . and, second, to describe certain modifications of the host, occurring in both male and female inflorescences, due to the presence of the parasite. Cintractia smnificis was first noted on the male inflores- cences of Spinifex hirsutus, in February, 1918, at Wright Island, Encounter Bay. The season was then far advanced, and almost all of the spores were shed; there was, however, sufficient evidence to determine the fungus provisionally. In subsequent seasons—January, 1919 and 1920—it has been found in abundance at Victor Harbour, occurring on the male as frequently as on the female inflorescences. It has also been found at Grange, not far from the type locality in which 2 Tepper first collected it on the female. The smut is less con- spicuous on the male inflorescences, nor is so large a spore mass formed, which may account for it being overlooked by previous collectors. PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN THE Host. The inflorescences of the ‘‘spiny rolling grass’’ are common and conspicuous objects along the coastal dunes of South Australia. The salient features of the normal inflorescences will first be described, then the pathological changes noted. The normal male inflorescence is a roughly spherical head, about 15 cms. in diameter, borne on a stout upright stem. It consists of an aggregation of stiff secondary axes, each arising in the axil of a bract, upon which the spikelets are borne. Below the terminal head there is usually one, sometimes two, smaller lateral clusters of secondary axes. Each secondary axis is a stout structure about 7 or 8 cms. long, bearing a group of 10 to 20 irregularly spirally arranged spikelets distributed over the middle third of its length. The upper and lower portions of the axis bear no spikelets, the upper part terminating in a stiff tapering spine. The spikelet is composed of two sterile glumes and two flowering glumes, or three sterile and one flowering glume. The flower consists of glume, pale, two broad lodicules, and three stamens. The axis of the flower ends abruptly with the stamens: no ovary rudiment has been seen in the flowers examined. The smutted male inflorescences are much slenderer and more diffuse (pl. 1., fig. 1). The main differences are: — (a) Greater elongation of the internodes of the upright stem. In the smutted specimens the average length of internode between the terminal head and the small lateral cluster, next below it, was 9°4 cms. as against 6°7 cms. in healthy specimens. (6) Reduction in the number of secondary axes bearing spikelets in the inflorescence; an average of 16 per head in the smutted specimens as against 64 in the healthy specimens. | (c) The closer aggregation of the spikelets and an increase in their number per secondary axis. The smutted male spikelets consist of the two sterile glumes and two florets. Each has the fertile glume, pale, and three stamens. No lodicules were seen (text fig. 1), the anthers are about normal length, but contain no pollen, and the filaments do not elongate. No ovary recognizable as such is present, but the axis of the flower elongates above the point of stamen insertion, producing an irregular conical mass 3 1-7 mm. long. This, in the ripe smut gall, consists of a central core of host tissue coated by the spore mass, which is bounded externally by the usual white skin seen in Cintractias. As is well known, the normal female inflorescence of Spinifec hirsutus is a large globular head, consisting of radiating spines, 40 cms., or even more, in diameter. This is borne, terminally, on a stout erect stem, and below it is one, or sometimes two, small lateral groups of secondary axes, bearing flowers. The head itself is not more than 4 or 5 cms. above the node below, and when ripe is readily detached by snapping off the axis at an absciss region immediately above the node. It then blows away, distributing the fruits as it breaks up. The head is a complicated system of secondary ‘axes, arising in the axils of chaffy bracts, about 8 cms. long. The majority of these axes are long tapering spines, averaging "17 cms. (13°5-20 cms.), which are sterile. They are borne in groups of 6-12 or more, each group representing a branch system with exceedingly short internodes. These spines form the spring-like “‘legs’’ of the tumble weed, and are a most characteristic feature of the plant. In each group of sterile spines are a few (1-4) shorter and stouter spines, 10-12 cms. long (text fig. 2). These are the fertile secondary axes, each of which has a single spikelet at its extreme base. The spikelet consists of three sterile glumes (or two sterile and one abortive male flower) and one fertile glume. The flower has glume, pale, three stamens with minute anthers borne on filaments as long as the ripe grain, and an ovary. The diseased female inflorescence is strikingly different from the normal (pl. i., fig. 2). The main differences are: — (a) Elongation of the internode below the terminal head. (6) Complete absence of the long sterile spines which are so obvious in the normal inflorescence. A few sterile spines may be present, but these are shorter than the fertile spines, of which the head is largely built up. (c) The spikelets are borne 1°5-4 cms. above the base of the fertile secondary axes, which are half as long again as normal, z.e., up to 15 cms. The smutted female spikelet consists of two sterile glumes and two fertile. Both the florets are much modified by the fungus (text fig. 4), but the modifications are the same in each flower, 1.e., the lower floret, normally an abortive male, behaves like a female. The florets have glume and pale, both longer than usual, the latter being often involved in the smut gall. No stamens have been recognized, the whole of each floral axis above the pale being one elongate, rarely purarcate, smutty mass (text fig. 5). Fig. 1. Smutted male spikelet with two flowers; the glumes are all cut away. The stamens are sterile, the filaments do not elongate, but the anthers are not smutted. A central smut-body has formed (stippled). x5. Fig. 2. Normal female secondary axis, with spikelet at its extreme base. About natural size. Fig. 3. Smutted female secondary axis, of greater length than normal, with the diseased spikelets 2 cms. above the base. About natural size. Fig. 4. Smutted female spikelet with two flowers, the glumes all being cut away. The pales are left, that of the upper flower being smutted. Note the elongate smut mass that replaces the ovary (stippled). x95. Fig. 5. Smutted femalé spikelet as above. The lower sterile glume is removed and the lower fertile glume is partly cut away. The upper pale is hypertrophied and involved in the smut gall. The galled ovary of this flower is bifureate. x5. 5 GENERAL. Various observations as to the effect of parasitic fungi upon the flowers of the host are summarized by von Tubeuf.® Owing to the extent of gall formation induced by the fungus, it is not possible to say if ovaries are actually developed in male flowers of Sponifex hirsutus (ef. the cases cited by Tubeuf of Carex praecox with U. caricis, Buchlée dactyloides with 7. buchléeana, and Andropogon provineialis with U. andropogoms). But in place of the normally abbreviated floral axis a more or less extensive smut gall is developed, resembling that formed in the female flower, except that in the male inflorescences it is usually somewhat smaller. A similar prolongation of the axis is seen in the axil of the third glume of the female spikelet. This glume, it will be remem- bered, is either sterile or subtends a male flower in the healthy inflorescence. ‘Bas ; In a paper on Tilletia foetens, Barrus() cites observa- tions by Edler, Appel, and Miczynski upon wheat affected by stinking smut to the effect that the diseased heads are looser | than normal and of greater length, though Barrus’ own observations showed that the infected heads were’ rather shorter. He notes that more grains are found in a smutted ear of wheat than in a normal one of equal length, there being more ovaries per spikelet in the former case. So in Spinfex hirsutus two smut masses form per female spikelet, though the healthy flower has but a single ovary. The most obvious pathological deformation is the com- plete absence of the long sterile axes or spines of the normal female inflorescence. Thus the smutted head has not the same potentiality for distribution as the healthy one, for it cannot roll about in the same way. It was probably this feature that led to the earlier recognition of the fungus on the female plants. More interesting is the development of structures resembling those formed in female flowers upon the male, which, though they are not so definite as in the case of the smuts, referred to above, yet seem to merit brief description. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE TI. _ Fig. 1. Male inflorescence of Spinifex hirsutus infected with Cintractia spinificis, showing the reduced number of spikelet- bearing axes and an increase in the number of spikelets above the normal. : Fig. 2. Female inflorescence of S. hirsutus with C. spinificis, showing the looser structure, the absence of long sterile spines, and the spikelets some 2 cms. above the base of the spikelet- bearing axes, abnormalities due to the presence of the fungus. (1) Tubeuf and Smith, ‘‘Diseases of Plants,’’ 1897, pp. 26-29. (2) Barrus, M. F., ‘“‘Observations on the Pathological Morph- plony of Stinking Smut of Wheat,’’ Phytopathology, vi., pp. 21-28, 916. OCCURRENCE OF REMAINS OF SMALL CRUSTACEA IN THE PROTEROZOIC (?) OR LOWER CAMBRIAN (?) ROCKS OF REYNELLA, NEAR ADELAIDE. _ By Proressor T. Epceworta Davin, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., F.R.S., Hon. D.Sc. Oxford and Manchester. (Read November 10, 1921.] Puate IT. ‘DESCRIPTION OF FOSSILS. Through the kind assistance of Professor Walter Howchin, F.G.S., I was enabled, over a year ago, to examine some good sections of the siliceous limestones underlying the Brighton limestone, at Reynella, 17 miles southward of Ade- laide. The siliceous limestone, as exposed in several of the — small quarries belonging to the South Australian Portland Cement Company, and nearest to Reynella, on the left bank _ of the Field River, shows curious small ochreous bodies in a bluish-grey ground-mass. The limestone is mostly oolitic in structure. These yellowish-brown to ochreous bodies are seen under the microscope to be distinctly of organic origin, and there can be little doubt that they are referable to some kinds of minute crustacea. Their Bee appearance is shown on fig. 3 of pl. u. The larger object shown on the left side of fig. 3, and about 2 mm. in length, has all the appearance of being a swimming paddle. The object marked (f) is possibly part of a spiral gill. The remainder of the objects in fig. 3 are probably locomotary appendages. Fig. 2 probably represents a small carapace. Fig. 1 is the only specimen which shows some bilaterally symmetrical organization. At the top are traces of what may be antennae or antennules, followed below by two pairs of small processes, and below these is a pair of stouter appendages, probably claws. The spiral object to the right of the claw (?) may be one of the spiral gills. A pair of possible parapodia follow, and then two fragments of what may have been a somite, or body ring. The remainder of the dark objects seen are quite problematical. Similar but less well-preserved objects occur in the overlying Brighton limestone. 7 GEOLOGICAL Horizon. The siliceous limestones of Reynella are about 2,500 ft., possibly more, below the base of the Cambrian limestones con- taining Archaeocyathinae at Sellick Hill, 35 miles southerly from Adelaide. The siliceous limestones of Reynella and the Brighton limestones, together with those of Burra (on the horizon of the Brighton limestones north of Adelaide) are singularly like those of the Nullagine series in Western Aus- tralia, and called by the Government Geologist (Mr. A. Gibb Maitland) the Carawine limestones. The thick reddish- purple slate beds of the Adelaide region immediately above the Brighton limestone have a close analogy in the reddish- purple slates and shales of the Hamersley Range of the Fortescue River area of Western Australia and the reddish- purple slate series underlying the Irwin River coal measures (Greta coal measures), both occurring in the Nullagine series of Western Australia. The black shales, at least 1,500 ft. thick, which at Sellick Hill underlie the Archacocyathinae limestones, and there con- tain small chalcedonic nodules, appear to correspond closely with the black shales with chalcedonic nodules at the top of the Nullagine series of Western Australia, as seen in the hills about 16 miles northerly from Roy Hill Station, on the Fortescue River. No fossils have, as yet, been found in the Nullagine series, and Mr. A. Gibb Maitland classifies them now as Proterozoic. With the exception of some doubtful radiolaria, figured by Professor Howchin and myself from the horizon of these siliceous limestones near Hallett Cove,@® and a problematical calcareous fossil found by Professor Howchin apparently weathered out of the purple slate beds near Hallett Cove, no organic remains have previously been recorded from these beds in South Australia: Mr. A. Gibb Maitland, as already stated, classes the Nullagine series as Proterozoic, while Professor Howchin classes these equivalents (in my opinion) of the Nullagine series of Western Australia as Lower Cambrian. I would tentatively suggest that all the strata from the base of the Archaeocyathinae limestones to the basal conglomerates overlying the Archaean (?) schistose rocks of Aldgate, in the Adelaide region, be given some local name such as ‘‘the Adelaide series,” and, (1) Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1896, pt. 4, pp. 571-583, pis. xxxix.-xl. 8 for the present, I would suggest that they may be classed, provisionally, as Proterozoic(?). It is quite possible that more than one series of rocks are included in the suggested Adelaide series. If the crustacean remains, referred to in this paper, are really, as I believe, Proterozoic in age, it would be of quite extraordinary interest to secure a complete fossil specimen. What appear to be casts of annelid burrows can be discerned in the weathered outcrops of those remarkable ‘‘varve’’ rocks, the Tapley Hill shales, near Adelaide, which occur several hundreds of feet below the Reynella horizon. There is, there- fore, convenient to Adelaide, a considerable thickness of strata containing traces of obscure organisms, and it is to be hoped that patient search by local geological workers will soon be rewarded by the discovery of some complete specimens. Such a discovery would doubtless Pe of priceless value to the palaeontologist. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II. Remains of small Crustacea from the Proterozoic (?) or Lower Cambrian (?), Adelaide Series, Reynella, near Adelaide. Fig. 1. Bilaterally symmetrical organism, probably Crusta- cean, showing antellules, claws, spiral gill, parapodia(?), ete. Fig. 2. Probably a small carapace. Fig. 3. Various small appendages, probably locomotary, but — (f) may be portion of a spiral gill. NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN POLYPLACOPHORA, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE NEW SPECIES AND Two NEW VARIETIES. By Epwin Asupy, F.L.S., M.B.O.U. [Read April 13, 1922.] Puate IIT. Genus AcanrHocuitTon (Gray, 1821, em.). In our paper of October, 1898 (Trans. Roy. Soc. 8S. Austr.), and subsequent papers, Dr. Torr and the writer followed Dr. Pilsbry in adopting the name for this genus of 4 canthochites, Risso, 1826. In Proc. Mal. Soc., vol. xi., pt. i1., pp. 126 and 127, June, 1914, Mr. Tom Iredale draws attention to the fact that E. Gray’s name of Acanthochitona (Lon. Med. Repos., vol. xv., 1821) antedates Risso’s name by five years, and he therein also points out that in the name commonly used, Risso’s spelling has been amended. Iredale followed this in July, 1915 (Trans. N. Z’d Inst., vol. xlvii., p. 422, 1914), by amending Gray’s name in dropping the terminal ‘‘a’’ and writing the genus ‘“‘Acanthochiton (Gray, 1821, em.)”. It will also be seen that Dr. Pilsbry, /.c., while adhering to Risso’s name, gives “Acanthochiton, Herrmannsen, Indicis Generum Malacozoorum Primordia, i., p. 2; Acanthochiton of Carpenter and many modern authors.’’ While several Australian workers have adopted Gray’s name in place of Risso’s, as pointed out by Iredale, /.c., it is regrettable that they have not followed Iredale in the amended spelling, changing Acanthochitona into Acanthochiton. In all my papers, in 1918 and since, I have adopted Iredale’s spelling for the following reasons: —(1) The terminal “Chiton’’ is in keeping with so many other genera.. (2) The two words, ‘‘Acantho’’ and ‘“‘Chiton,” are both masculine, and Gray seems to have tacked on to these two Greek words a Latin feminine terminal, thereby producing what my friend the classical professor terms, a ‘‘mongrel word.’’ It is pos- sible that Gray added the ‘‘a’’ to make his new genus agree with a certain specific name, a course that can hardly be justified ; anyhow, I cannot see how we can do otherwise than adopt Iredale’s suggestion and drop the unfortunate terminal. This course seems to be the commonsense one, and is probably the only correct one, and, as Iredale says, there are plenty of precedents. 10 ACANTHOCHITON (NOTOPLAX) GABRIELI, n. sp. Differs from A. costatus, Ad. and Ang., in having deep, broken, longitudinal grooving in the dorsal area, whereas 4. costatus has smooth, except for the transverse ribs following the lines of growth. The pustules in the diagonal ribs of the species under description are larger, more rounded, and irregular than in costatus, and in addition on some of the valves there are evidences of a second coarsely pustulose rib on the posterior margin of the median valves, in this respect approaching its Western Australian ally, A. sub-viridis, Torr. Remarks.—The specimen described above has been kindly lent to me for description in this paper by my friend Mr. Gatliff; it is from Caloundra, in Queensland, and the type, which has not been disarticulated, remains in Mr. Gatliff’s collection. I am naming it after my friend Mr. Charles J. Gabriel, who has for so long been associated with Mr. Gatliff in the excellent conchological papers they have jointly pro- duced. While I suspect this form should hold sub-specific rank only, it is as much entitled to the higher rank as are some of its allies referred to in the discussion following. ACANTHOCHITON costTaTus, Ad. and Ang., and its allies. (Ad. and Ang., P.Z.S., 1864, p. 194; Angas, l.c., 1867, p. 224.) The examination of the preceding species from Caloundra and, subsequently, the loan of a specimen from Port Philip, Victoria, measuring 74 mm. in length, by Mr. Gabriel, has made it necessary to go into the whole question of the respective relationships of several nearly-related species. My series of A. costatus include three from Sydney, 6, 12, and 19 mm., respectively; several from Tasmania, up to 36 mm. in length; and one from South Australia, 21 mm. All have minute, slender, girdle spicules, easily detached ; all have several ribs composed of coarse pustules, behind the mucro, in tail valve, but in the smallest this feature is repre- sented only by a single large pustule at the outer edge; all probably, in the quite juvenile stage, possess none of these posterior ribs. In the larger specimens the original form of the dorsal area in the juvenile is not quite clear, but in the three from Sydney Harbour, 6, 12, and 19 mm. respectively (dry), it certainly commences with a prominent, broad, rounded beak, the area rapidly widening with sundry jags at each side, giving the pinnatifid character. On reaching a total length of the whole shell of 6 to 10 mm., the dorsal area may slightly contract or continue in two parallel lines, forming in the adult a narrow raised dorsal ridge. On collecting the 11 small specimen at the Quarantine Station, Sydney, in 1918, I at first thought it a different species owing to its wide diverging dorsal area, but at last noted that it was only a juvenile character. Mr. Gabriel’s small shell from Port Philip, about 74 mm., which I understand has been recorded as A. rubrostratus, Torr, is similar to the juvenile costatus in having small spicules clothing the girdle and in having the broad dorsal area of the juvenile, but it differs in not having coarse pustulose ribbing behind the mucro and in the pustules of the diagonal ribs being small; in these two respects only does it resemble rubrostratus and speciosus. I believe that had it attained a larger growth it would have been quite similar to typical costatus in these respects. It may be that in Victoria a race of costatus is living that attains the senile characters at a later age than is common to that species. Throughout this paper all measurements given are of dry specimens. I have two specimens collected by myself in Gulf St. Vincent, measuring 8 and 18 mm. long, and I have com- pared them with Dr. Torr’s type and co-type of A. rubro- stratus, and find them con-specific; the girdle is covered with coarse white spicules, similar in size to those clothing the girdle of A. speciosus, H. Adams, but appear less irregular in their attachments and show between the valves in a much less degree; the dorsal area is similar in the two, except that the pinnatifid character is more continuous in rwbrostratus ; neither have ribs behind the mucro, although one of Dr. Torr’s latter shows three waves or undulations corresponding with the posterior ribbing of costatus, nor have either the coarse pustules of that species in the diagonal ribs. The width of-the girdle of rubrostratus is less than that of speciosus, and the beak of speciosus is less pronounced, but when it is considered that the whole of our specimens of rubrostratus are smaller than the smallest of our specimens of the other species, is it not possible that the slight differences enumerated may be due to the juvenility, and that rwubro- stratus is really the young of A. speciosus. In conclusion.—As before mentioned, I have been much indebted to Dr. Torr for the opportunity of examining speci- mens in his collection, but until a much larger series of all the species, in all stages of growth, is available, I do not like to make a final decision, but I am inclined to think that ultimately we shall be able to recognize A. costatus as the dominant species, with two sub-species—gabrieli, Ashby, from Queensland, and sub-viridis, Torr, from Western Australia— A. costatus, sub-species, being found in New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia; A. speciosus, 12 H. Adams, as a dominant species with rubrostratus, Torr, either as a sub-species or as a synonym, being the name distin- guishing the juvenile form. It should be mentioned that some of the forms above referred to show sub-cutaneous lining and others short longi- tudinal rows of shallow holes near the beak on the dorsal area. The following reswmé may be helpful : — _ Minute, slender, girdle spicules: gabrieli, costatus, sub- viridis. Coarse, girdle spicules: speciosus, rubrostratus. | Broad, pinnatifid, dorsal area in juvenile: gabrielt and costatus. Narrow, pinnatifid, dorsal area: speciosus, rubrostratus, sub-viridis. | Small pustules and no ribs behind mucro: speczosus and rwbrostratus. ACANTHOCHITON MAYI, 0. sp. Introduction.—A number of median valves of a rather striking Acanthochton were dredged by Mr. W. L. May in various parts of Tasmania, in depths varying from 60 fms. to 100 fms. It is such a distinct species and the valves are so well preserved that one seems well justified in describing it without waiting for the discovery of the whole shell. I have much pleasure in calling it after Mr. W. L. May, the dis- coverer, and a gentleman who has done such splendid work in conchology. Specimen No. 1. Type. Median valve.—Colour pale cream, very strongly carin- ated, prominently beaked, dorsal area well defined, fairly broad but sides almost parallel, 2.e., after attaining half-growth the sides of this area do not diverge. The central ridge and the two sides of this area continue as smooth ribs the whole length of the valve; the space between is cut up by short, deep, longitudinal grooves, reminding one of cuneiform characters. These deep grooves make the ribs, before referred to, jagged at their margins. The lateral area is separated from the pleural by a fold surmounted by extra large pustules, which are widely spaced. The first three rows next the beak are composed of minute pustules which quickly lose themselves in the lateral rib of the dorsal area, before referred to; the fourth row of pustules is composed of three minute and six large ones placed diagonally in the row which is parallel to the dorsal area, beyond the ninth pustule. In this row the sculpture is con- fluent, forming a broad flat rib for about one-third of the total length of the valve. The rest of the valve is decorated with five rows and one-half row of elongated, much raised, 13 flat pustules, widely spaced, and the rows widely separated from one another. All pustules are placed on the diagonal, and the rows themselves become more and more diagonal as the margin of the shell is approached. Slit 11 modified into a deep groove, with raised edges on the upper side of the articulamentum. Measurements.—-3 mm. longitudinally, 3°75 mm. laterally. Habitat.—A number of valves dredged 7 miles east of Cape Pillar, North-west Tasmania, in 100 fms.; one valve, about the same depth off Schouten Island; one valve, coloured red, off Port Arthur, South-east Tasmania, in 60 fms. Specimen No. 2. Co-type. This median valve was likewise dredged in the same depth east of Cape Pillar. While corresponding, in the main, with the preceding valve, it differs in that the dorsal area is uni- formly covered with short, deep, wedge-shaped, longitudinal grooves. Also the fold separating the pleural from the lateral © area is very strongly raised, and the pustules in the rows, where they pass over this fold, are larger and broader than anywhere else, for a width of two pustules. If these pustules had not been so widely spaced one would have described the valve as possessing a wide diagonal rib composed of two rows of pustules. In method of sculpture and shape of the pustules the two valves described are otherwise identical. In conclusion.—The type is being presented to the Tas- manian Museum and is figured from a drawing. The co-type is figured from a photograph taken by the writer and remains in my own collection. In a paper on Polyplacophora of Tas- mania, by W. L. May and Dr. Torr (Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1912, p. 35), a note is made that the valves described above were wrongly identified by Hedley and May (Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. vii., No. W, 1908) as Acanthochiton crocodilus, Torr and Ashby. | ACANTHOCHITON SHIRLEYI, Nl. sp. ‘ Specimen No. 1. Type. General appearance.—Broad, girdle wide, densely and coarsely spiculose, shell flat and low, the spicules of the girdle standing up above the shell. Colour.—Some valves are darkhorn-colour, others are creamy-white; the dorsal area is creamy-white in some valves. Anterior valve.—I cannot notice any rays or undula- tions. The sculpture on this valve is largely eroded, but it 1s evidently well covered with circular pustules. Insertion plate long, slits 5, notch very short but continued on upper side in 14 a broad groove to the tegmentum, colour white tinged with blue. Measures 34 x34 mm. Posterior valve.—Tegmentum very small, about two- fifths of total width of valve, anterior portion semi-circular, mucro posterior, dorsal area rather narrow, wedge-shaped, rugose; the wrinkles following the growth-lines are continued across the anterior portion of the dorsal area. The shell behind the mucro is very flat, and shows little sculpture; such as there is, is composed of shallow broken wrinkles following the growth-lines. The dorsal area and the portion behind the mucro creamy-white, side areas dark horn and sculptured with rows of irregular, flat, more or less circular pustules, following the growth-lines and, in places, especially towards the outer margin, coalescing. Insertion plate long and very broad, slit 11, sutural laminae small and produced forward with a deep inward bent between them and the wings of the insertion plates. This feature is very marked. A. bednalli has a somewhat similar inward fold at the slits, but this species has this fold on the opposite side of the wing of the insertion plate. Sinus broad, the semi-circular margin of the tegmentum only occupies half the width. Colour of articula- mentum, pale bluish; the slits are continued half-way to the tegmentum in a deep, almost semi-circular groove. This valve measures, longitudinally 3 mm., laterally 44 mm. Median valve.—The following is a description of valve 4:—The dorsal area is smooth except for growth-wrinkles which are continued from the side areas; this area consists of a shallow wedge-shaped depression (this feature is common to all valves except valve 2, in which this area is arched; a similar variation occurs in a second specimen described here- under), some of the growth-wrinkles are in this area broken, suggesting an ill-defined string of granules. The lateral and pleural areas are not separated but are studded with rows of flat circular pustules, following the growth-lines. The slope of the sides below the elevated fold that margins the dorsal area is slightly curved. Inside, as well as the insertion plates and sutural laminae, pale blue, slits 11, sutural laminae produced forward, sinus narrow and rounded. This valve measures 44 x 44 mm. Girdle-—Densely covered with long, coarse, cream- coloured spicules; the fringe spicules are a little more slender ; sutural tufts long, porcelain-white, and pointed. Measurement of dried shell, 15 x6 mm. Habitat.—North-west Reef, Barrier Reef, Queensland. Remarks.—I am indebted to Dr. John Shirley for the opportunity of examining and describing this A canthochiton, 15 and I have much pleasure in naming it after him. The speci- mens submitted to me were badly encrusted and, in parts, eroded; the true characters only became visible on disarticu- lation and cleaning. The shape of the articulamentum both in median and tail valves, the fact that the dorsal area is usually concave, and the girdle densely spiculose, easily separates this Acanthochiton from any other Australian species. The type belongs to the Queensland Museum. Specimen No: 2. Co-type. The second specimen, which I am calling the co-type, differs from the type in that the centre of the dorsal area, in the median valves, is slightly convex, becoming flat or slightly concave before the pustulose sculpture is reached. Also the pustulose character’ of the sculpture is more limited in area, anteriorly the pustules, which are very flat, become sub- _ obsolete and confluent following the course of the growth-lines. The co-type remains in my collection. ACANTHOCHITON RETROJECTUS, Pilsbry, var. pustulosus, n. var. (A retrojectus, Pils., Naut., vii., p. 107, Jan., 1894; Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. of Phil., 1894.) Introduction.—In November, 1918, I collected a very long series of A. retrojectus, Pilsbry, in the Quarantine Sta- tion, Sydney Harbour. And early in 1919 the following notes on this somewhat difficult species were written. At first one concluded that there were at least two or three different species represented in the series collected from the one spot. Many had similar sculpture in the dorsal area to that of the other areas, but in some this area was smooth, and, again, while many had the regular, evenly-rounded, pustulose sculpture described by Dr. Pilsbry; in others a large part of the shell was ornamented with large tear-drop pustules. On fuller investigation it was found that there was a complete series of intermediate forms. All are similar in the character and structure of the girdle, the shape and lamina- tion and slitting of valves, the tail valve and position of mucro; throughout these features seem consistent, and the extreme divergence of sculpture does not, in my opinion, warrant the separating of them into distinct species. Never- theless, at the suggestion of my friend, Mr. W. L. May, I propose a distinct varietal name for the form with coarse pustules, calling it var. pustulosus. Girdle is densely covered with minute scales or short blunt-ended spicules, these are mottled, the white ones often 16 placed in rings, x65; this ring resolves itself into a string of blunt-ended scales, set in a circle. Owing to the minute nature of these scales the general appearance of the girdle, except under a high power, is spongy. The sutural tufts are white and well defined. Dorsal area.—Broadly wedge-shaped. In typical shells it is ornamented with longitudinal rows of strongly-raised cir- cular pustules, set bilaterally in divergent lines, thus forming a V with the apex in the centre of the area. But in different specimens these pustules vary from circular, well-raised pustules to those that are mitre-shaped, or even to long flat dashes. Again, in some specimens this area is absolutely smooth except in the margins, but this variation appears somewhat rare. Pleural and lateral areas.—These, in typical specimens, are not distinctly differentiated and are ornamented with longitudinal rows of strongly-raised circular pustules, gradu- ally increasing in size towards the girdle. The varient, which I suggest should be known as variety pustulosus, Ashby, has the first row or so of pustules from the dorsal area, more or less round, but fully half the valve is decorated with a few large tear-drop-shaped pustules, some of them being fully three or four times as long as wide. In some, the regularity of the longitudinal rows is preserved; in others, this system of sculpture is lost, these tear-drop pustules being irregularly placed, widely separated, and very raised. Colour.—While most specimens are mottled pale green and black, there are some that are pale green throughout, and others that are uniformly rufous; in some the dorsal area only is reddish-brown, in others it is pink. When disarticu- lated and cleaned the shells are transparent and, usually, both tegmentum and articulamentum are green. Habitat.—While very numerous at Port Jackson, New South Wales, it appears less common in Victoria, and I have not taken it in South Australia, where its place is taken by the allied form, A. kombert, Torr. This latter I also met with in Western Australia. Probably the Sydney shell has extended down the east coast and then turned towards the west, along the Victorian coast; the allied form, A. kimberz, has come in from the west and somewhat overlaps A. retrojectus in Victoria. I am indebted to Messrs. Gatliff and Gabriel for the opportunity of examining a number of specimens from their respective collections. They were from Western Port, Port Philip Head, Point Nepean, Torquay, and San Remo, all in Victoria. They show 17 a good deal of variation, mostly of the large pustulose variety. Some of the shells were larger than any I secured at Port Jackson, and amongst them were certainly some representa- tives of A. kimbert. Some forms of A. retrojectus are very difficult to separate from that species, unless the specimens are very perfect. In conclusion.—Dr. Pilsbry, J.c., founded the sub-genus Meturoplax for the reception of this species, chiefly on the character of the dorsal area, ‘‘dorsal area indistinctly differentiated’’; while, in typical specimens, this may be true, this feature is not constant, and makes one hesitate to adopt his sub-generic name at this stage. ; ACANTHOCHITON CORNUTUS, Torr and Ashby, and A. ExILIS, Torr and Ashby. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxii., pp. 217-219, Oct., 1898.) Until last year A. cornutus was only known from the unique type taken by the writer at Marino, in South Aus- tralia; but on January 24, 1920, I took a second at Cape Jervis. Messrs. Gatliff and Gabriel each lent me a very fine specimen that they had identified as A. eaxilis. I noted that ‘they were con-specific with my type of A. cornutus, and, later, compared them with the type of A. ezalis which is in Dr. Torr’s collection, and found that A. ezilis is simply the juvenile form of cornutus. I find a note in my note-book, made a couple of years back, that these two forms were very close to one another. ’ The largest specimen of the series dredged by Dr. (now Sir) Joseph Verco was selected as the type of exilis, and was only 3 mm. long; all the specimens were much curled and somewhat bleached, whereas the type of cornutus was over 10 mm. long and well preserved. There are slight differences between the two, but not more than can be attributed to immaturity; the minute curled extlis certainly looked very different from the fine specimen of cornutus, but they are undoubtedly the same species. As cornutus was described on an earlier page than extlis, it has that priority, and A. ezilis is a synonym thereof. In the addendum to our paper, lJ.c., reference is made to apparent ‘‘eyes’’ on the dorsal area of A. cornutus. It is interesting to note that small black specks are visible in the shells of the three recently discovered specimens, before referred to; but I have not yet been able to determine whether they are true eyes, or some other sense organ. The deter- mination of their true character must be left to future investigation. . 18 ACANTHOCHITON cOxI, Pilsbry. (Naut., vii., p. 119, Feb., 1894; Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1894, p. 80, pl. ili, , figs. "21-26, pl. iv., fig. 834; A. lachrymosa, May aud pe P. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. , 1912, pp. 36 and 37, pl. i., gs. 1-4 The identification of this Acanthochiton has always been a difficulty with me. In July, 1919, I wrote the Australian Museum for the loan of a specimen, and at their suggestion Mr. Bassett Hull very kindly sent me a shell which, on exam- ination, I found could not possibly be A. coai, but, strangely enough, it was a worn specimen of a species described by Dr. Torr and the writer in October, 1898, under the name of A. crocodilus, and which, up till the identification of Mr. Hull’s specimen from New South Wales, was only known to occur in South Australia, and limited to the pair originally described, which were side by side on the same rock, at low water, at Marino. Later on I received specimens from Dr. Torr’s collection and the Queensland Museum, labelled A. coz, but in both cases they were misidentifications and referable to well-known species. Through some oversight, although I again applied to the Australian Museum for the loan of their co-type, it was never sent for my inspection. | In correspondence with Professor Dr. J. Thiele, of Berlin, I mentioned my desire to see coat, and he was good enough to send me a specimen from Balmoral, which I conclude is the place of that name in North Borneo. The specimen was marked “‘identification uncertain.’’ If it had come from Tas- mania one would have no hesitation in identifying it as a slight variant of A. lachrymosa, May and Torr. It differs from the Tasmanian shells, slightly, in the arrangement of the pustules, and the spicules on the girdle are slightly coarser. On writing Mr. W. L. May he advised me that he had some years ago seen the co-type of cozz in the Australian Museum and had made a note that it was very close to Jachrymosa. In October last, Mr. May brought over a very fine series of lachrymosa from the type locality. We found that the sculpture varied from long, slender, flat, finger- like processes to short oval discs, or elongated tear-drop pustules. Most in the juvenile stage have quite small pus- tules, but even in this they are not consistent. They also vary very much in the spacing of the pustules; mostly they are crowded, as is so well shown in the figures accompanying May and Torr’s description, J.c. A comparison of these figures with the figures in Dr. Pilsbry’s paper on ‘‘Port Jackson Chitons,’’ /.c., will explain the difficulty we have all laboured under in identifying 4. 19 coxt, Pilsbry. The description in Pilsbry’s paper would do — for lachrymosa. In conclusion.—While all previous records of A. lachry- mosa have been confined to about 150 yards of beach, on Frederick Henry Bay, southern Tasmania, the writer was able some time ago to extend its range to Sulphur Creek, north-western Tasmania; and, more recently, Mr. May has found it on Bruny Island, and now Mr. May and myself are satisfied that it is con-specific with A. cozi, Pilsbry. . We have the record of two specimens taken by the late Dr. Cox, at Port Hacking, New South Wales, and, finally, Dr. Thiele’s specimen extends its range far into the tropics. Thus a species that has hitherto been considered one of the most restricted in its range is found to have a most extended range north and south, probably greater than any other of our known specimens. It certainly appears very local in its occurrence, the reasons for which must await further. elucidation. I have sent two specimens to Dr. Pilsbry, asking -him to kindly compare with his type of A. coxi,.and advise whether he can find any justification for retaining the Tas- manian shell as a sub-species of A. cozt, Pilsbry. Notr.—Since the foregoing was written I have received Dr. Pilsbry’s reply, which is as follows:—“‘‘I have carefully compared the specimens of A. lachrymosa, May and Torr, with the type of A. coz. I am satisfied that there is no specific difference. A sub-specific difference may be indicated by (1) the difference in colour, my form being pink within, yours greenish; (2) the wider central areas of valves 3-8 in my specimen. This is exaggerated in the figures, which were done on stone by a commercial lithographer from my pencil drawings.”’ This fully confirms our opinion, and in face of the variability of this species we are hardly justified in making a sub-species of the southern form. A. lachrymosa, May and Torr, is therefore a synonym of A. cozz, Pilsbry. The pitting of CaLLocHITON PLATESSA, Gould, var. fossa, nov. (Proc. Bost. Soc. N.H., ii., 1846, p. 143.) ’ Some years ago I noted that one of the shells belonging to this species, that I had collected in Gulf St. Vincent, showed six deep pits, immediately in front of the lateral area of the seventh valve. On January 24, 1920, I collected a second specimen in which the same valve shows a similar number of pits. A few months back, when going through the collection of the Polyplacophora in the South Australian Museum, with a view to determining the species, I noticed a 20 similar specimen with pitting confined to the same valve; all these were taken in this State. In going through a score of specimens in my own collection from New South Wales, © Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia, and New Zealand, with the exception of one specimen 25 mm. long from Sydney, which is pitted in the seventh valve, all are typical unpitted shells. Mr. W. L. May has sent me for examination three large and handsome specimens from Watson Bay, New South Wales, all of which show similar pitting on _ the seventh and eighth valves, and the largest one, which is over 40 mm. long, has incipient pitting in the sixth valve as well. In this specimen I counted 12 pits in the seventh valve. These pits commence high on the ridge in the juvenile shell. The pits are deep and only a little longer than broad, in fact very similar to the pits near the ridge of Rhyssoplax oruktos, Maughan, but there the likeness ends—they are not as regular in shape nor developed to the same length as in that species. Again, the character of the pitting is quite different from C. rufus, Ashby. I have compared it with » the type and with the juvenile form from the Bracebridge Wilson collection ; the grooving of rufus can hardly be termed pitting, but is really longitudinal grooving, and is present to an equal extent in all the valves except the first. In concluston.—The existence of these pits and their occurrence consistently on the seventh valve, and in the case of the Watson Bay specimens.on the eighth valve as well, suggests a definite tendency to vary in this direction. At first I thought of suggesting that deep-water specimens may have a greater tendency to develop this form of sculpture, and that C. rufus (which is only known from dredge specimens) may have been derived from such a pitted race of C. platessa. On more careful examination, however, I do not feel justified in advancing such a.hypothesis. It will be well worth while for collectors to keep their eyes open for this variant, which may well be known as Callochiton platessa, var. fossa, Ashby. SYPHAROCHITON PELLIS-SERPENTIS, Quoy and Gaimard, 1835. (Chiton pellis-serpentis, Quoy and G. Voy, Astrol., ii., 381, pl. 74, f. 17-22; Man. Conch. (1), xiv., 173,-pl. 37, f. 14-17; Bee Mal. Soc., ii., 195, c. Squamosus, L. Wissel, Zool. Jahrb., xx., 619, not of Linne (Anatomy); Tate and May, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1901, pt. 3, pp. 412-415; May and Torr, P. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1912, pp. 38 and 39. Type, Mus. Hist., Paris.) SYPHAROCHITON SINCLAIRI, Gray, 1843. (Dief., N. Z’d, ii., 263; Man. Conch. (1), xiv., 174,«pl. 36, f. 1-3; Proc. Mal. Soc., ii., 196; Wissei, Zool. Jahrb., xx., 627, pl. 23, f. 38-44, pl. 24, f. 45-48 (Anatomy). Type, Brit. Mus.) 21 SYPHAROCHITON MAUGEANUS, Iredale and May. (Proc. Mal. Soc., vol. xii., pts. 11. and iii., p. 114-115, Nov:, 1916.) In October, 1921, Mr. W. L. May, of Tasmania, and the _ writer jointly examined a fairly large series we had collected in different parts of Tasmania with shells in my collection from New South Wales and New Zealand. My New Zealand specimens were from various localities, but the S.. senclairi, Gray, were from Doubtless Bay, collected by Mr. Albert E. Brookes, and from Te Onepote, collected by the late Mr. Suter. We cannot agree with Iredale and May in separating the Tasmanian shells from the New Zealand ones, or from those from New South Wales. Pilsbry, in his paper on ‘‘Port Jackson Chitons’’ (1894), also states that he ‘‘was unable to detect any difference between New South Wales and New Zealand shells.’’ Therefore S$. maugeanus, Ire. and May, becomes a synonym of S. pellis-serpentis, Quoy and Gaimard. Further, we find that the smooth shells living in company with the more sculptured ones, in Frederick Henry Bay, Tas- mania, are con-specific with S. sinclair, Gray, 1843, the New Zealand shells being similar to the Tasmanian ones. In both: S. pellis-serpentis varies from the somewhat flat highly- sculptured shells so common in Port Jackson, New South Wales, to those that are almost smooth in all areas. We therefore consider that S. senclairi is a smooth variant of S. pellis-serpentis, and is certainly common to New Zealand and Tasmania, and, on the authority of the late Dr. Cox, we must conclude, of New South Wales as well, although neither Mr. May nor the writer has seen the smooth variety from New South Wales. Mr. May sends me the following note in reference to the foregoing:—‘“‘I agree with all you have written. The shell varies very much in height, some being very flat, others high and round backed, with all grades between; they also vary greatly in size in different localities. My largest, from - Wedge Bay, is 56 mm. long; they may be almost white, black, or of varying patterns of black and white, etc.”’ In conclusion.—We find that Sypharochiton pellis- serpentis, Quoy and Gaimard, is an extremely variable shell in Tasmania, New Zealand, and New South Wales, varying from a highly-sculptured form to an almost smooth one, which must be known as variety sinclairi, Gray, the intermediates still living ; and Iredale and May’s S. maugeanus is a synonym of S. pellis-serpentis, Quoy and Gaimard. 22 LorIcELLA ANGASI, H. Adams and Angas. (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1864, p. 193.) In my paper on the above genus (Trans. Roy. Soc. 8S. Austr., vol. xliii., 1919, pp. 59-65) reference is made to the ‘‘finger-like processes’’ being noticeable in the anterior portion of the girdle, and the ‘‘spear-head spicules’ being set opposite them and apparently having some relation thereto. in January, 1920, I collected a very well-preserved specimen at Marino, South Australia, which was free from the usual foreign growth. In this specimen, which is 60 mm. in length, the finger-like. processes of the girdle extend right round, and the remarkable ‘‘spear-head spicules’’ are placed opposite these, right round the girdle. In a letter, dated October 17, 1921, Mr. S. Stillman Berry, of Redlands, Cali- fornia, writes me in answer to a letter of mine referring to some remarks that had been made in reference to these strange spicules on Loricella:—‘‘I have worked on those Loricella and Komonella spicules just enough to know that I want to go into the matter of their structure a great deal more meticulously, which will mean a lot of work in the preparation of slides and so on. I cannot understand how anyone can interpret chiton setae as algae.’’ DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III. ; Fig. la. Acanthochiton mayi, Ashby, portion of median valve. Type. rm, “i 4 », median valve. Co-type. x abt. 13 times. Sp i shirleyi, Ashby, portion of posterior valve. Type. 5° 2203 59 iN » portion of median valve. Type. A a2e. 3 3 » median valve. Co-type. x abt. 11 times. sien aoe is gabrieli, Ashby, portion of median valves showing longitudinal striae in dorsal area. Type. » 4. Callochiton platessa, var. fossa, Ashby, portion of 7th valve showing pits. 23 A NEW ISOPOD FROM CENTRAL AUSTRALIA BELONGING TO THE PHREATOICIDAE. By Cuaries Cuitton, M.A., D.Sc., C.M.Z.S., Professor of Biology, Canterbury College, New Zealand. (Communicated by Professor F. Wood Jones). [Read April 13, 1922.]| In this paper I describe a new and most interesting fresh-water Isopod kindly sent to me by Professor F. Wood Jones, of Adelaide University. It was collected in June, 1920, in artesian water from the Hergott (Marree) bore, in Central Australia, a little south of Lake Eyre. The animal proves to belong to the Phreatoicidae and comes sufficiently near the typical genus Phreatoscus to be placed in it. The Phreatoicidae is a family of fresh-water Isopods of which the first member was described in 1883, from the underground waters of the Canterbury Plains in New Zealand. Later on other species of the genus, and of closely allied genera, were described from the surface and under- ground waters of Australia, and, still more recently, Barnard (1914, p. 231) recorded a species of Phreatoicus from the ‘mountain streams of Cape Colony, South Africa. The family is quite distinct from all the other families of the Isopoda, and forms, by itself, the sub-order Phreatoicidae, marked by some primitive characters and by a striking but superficial resemblance to the Amphipoda. The characters and distri- bution showed that the family must be an ancient one, and in 1918 this was proved by the discovery of a fossil species from the Triassic beds of New South Wales. The fossil form is not very different from some of the existing species, and, apparently, members of the family have been living in fresh waters on some part of the Australian continent from Triassic times up to the present. The discovery of another quite dis- tinct species in Central Australia is most interesting and important as confirming the conclusions already arrived at. Further details of the history of the family will be found in my paper describing the fossil species (Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. 51, p. 383). The mode of occurrence of the new species is worthy of note. In his first letter, Professor Wood Jones said :— ‘‘Hergott is a pure artesian bore; the water is hot, and the creatures were in thousands swimming in the hot water near the bore head.’”’ The specimens sent were found to possess well-developed eyes and to be of a dark-slaty colour, so that 24 they evidently had not come up the bore from underground waters. On my pointing this out and asking for further par- ticulars, Professor Wood Jones wrote: —‘‘Now I have asked everyone who knows, and I am assured that all the water is bore water pure and simple.. At Hergott there are natural springs—that is why the place sprang into existence. I have never seen the springs; they are some three miles away from the place where the bore was sunk. . . . The bore is just on the desert—the water flows on the desert where pre- viously no water was (there is no old watercourse into which the bore water has found its way, as at Clayton and Dul- canina).’’ It is no wonder, therefore, that it is the popular belief that the animals came up the bore, for this is, as Professor Wood Jones says, ‘‘the local story of all bore-water fauna.’’ He adds that it is curious that though every party that has gone into the centre of Australia has based on Hergott, no one has noticed or collected the Isopod, although the hot water of the bore is full of them. When he was there they were in countless numbers, all swimming against the hot current. He did not take the temperature of the water, but says, ‘“‘It is very hot; steam arising from it.”’ Like other Isopods, the Phreatoicus carries its eggs in a brood pouch underneath the body till the young are hatched out and, probably, for some time longer, the young then being similar in form to the adults. It is, therefore, a little difficult to see how they have got from the spring, or other natural water from which they must have come, to the bore water in which they exist in such numbers. It is, of course, possible that when the natural water dries up they become encased in the dried-up mud, retaining the power of vitality and resuming activity as soon as the water reappears, but that does not explain how they have got from the natural springs, situated near Marree, to the bore water, three miles distant. It is, however, clear that they must be widely dis- tributed and abundant in springs and natural waters in the district, for Professor Wood Jones, in a letter dated October 5, 1921, states that in a recent trip he collected specimens from the mound springs, near Coward, just to the westward of Lake Eyre south. There are, he says, many of these springs, and they vary greatly in salinity and temperature, but the animal was found in all the springs, from Bullakaninna to Coward, an area of some 30 miles. In this connection it is worthy of note that another mem- ber of the family, Phreatoicopsis terricola, Spencer and Hall, was found in burrows on the banks of the Upper Gellibrand River (Spencer and Hall, 1896, p. 13). This species has since been recorded from the Otway forest; from Mount William, 25 near Ararat; and from the Grampians (Raff, 1912, p. 70). Another species, Hypsimetopus intrusor, Sayce, occurs in the burrows of the land crayfish, Engaeus cuniceularius, in Tas- mania (Sayce, 1902, p. 218). The remaining species of the e family appear to be genuinely aquatic, being found in surface or underground fresh-water streams. Although the species under consideration is being placed for the present under the genus Phreatorcus, it differs from the other members of the genus in at least two characters. The more evident of these, though not the more important, is the greater expansion of the basal joints of the last three pairs of peraeopoda, as shown in figs. 1 and 10. In the other species of the genus these joints are comparatively narrow, as in most Isopods™; but in the present species the ex- pansion is fully as great as that in most Amphipoda, and still further increases the resemblance to an Amphipod, caused from the laterally compressed form of the body. It may be men- tioned, however, that the next joint, the ischium, is com- paratively long—longer than the succeeding joint, the merus— while, as I have elsewhere pointed out (1894, p. 205), in Amphipoda, with broadened basal joints, the ischium is usually quite short. The other point of difference, though less evident, is of more real importance, viz., the apparent absence of the coxal joints of all the peraeopoda. In other species this coxal joint, though small, is quite well marked and can be readily recog- nized as the first joint of the limb, for it is not flattened into a side plate or “‘epimeron,’’ as it is in most Amphipoda. In P. latipes the pleura of the first four segments are pro- duced downwards and outwards so as to hide the base of the leg, and even when the attachment of the limb to the inner side of the pleuron is examined, nothing is seen that can be definitely recognized as the coxal joint. Consequently it must either have become fused with the pleuron, but if so without any suture or mark indicating its presence, or it is quite absent. Calman (1909, p. 202) has some interesting remarks on the development of the coxal joint of the peraeopoda in various Isopods, and gives examples in which it appears to replace the pleural expansion of the segment, though, in that case, it is marked off from the segment on the dorsal surface by a distinct suture, except in the first segment, where there is no suture, and in some of the Oniscoidea in which the suture on the other segments also may disappear. () The basal joints are slightly broadened in ‘Phreatoicus australis. B 26 The species of Phreatovcus now under consideration may be described as follows : — PHREATOICUS LATIPES, 0. sp. Figs. 1-14. Specific diagnosis.—Body stout. Peraeon (fig. 2) broad, not laterally compressed, moderately convex with the pleural | portion of the first four segments projecting outwards and slightly downwards so as to conceal the basal joints of the legs. Pleon short, about half the combined length of the cephalon and peraeon, moderately compressed laterally, pleural portions of the segments produced downwards, their lower margins being rounded and fringed with a few setae. First segment of peraeon short and immovably joined with the head but with the suture well marked, pleural portion of segment free and produced anteriorly about half-way along the lower margin of the head, those of the second and third segments less pro- duced anteriorly. Hye well developed, irregularly rounded or subtriangular, black. Surface of the body covered with small scattered setae, nearly smooth but with slight wrinkles or irregularities on most of the segments. Sixth segment of peraeon United with the terminal segment, or telson, but distinctly marked off from it by a well-defined suture running obliquely backwards from the upper pleural portion of the fifth segment to the base of the uropod (fig. 4). Terminal segment strongly arched above, sides widely separate below, the mid-dorsal end portion showing as a slight process in side view and when seen from above having a median indentation between two rounded lobes, each of which bears three or four setules. (Fig. 3.) First antenna more than half the length of the second, joints of the flagellum not broadened. Second antenna nearly as long as the head and first two segments of the peraeon. The mouth parts do not differ greatly from those of Phreatoicus australis. In the mandibles the palp is rather short, the third joint being quite short and bent at right angles to the second. There are two strongly chitinized cut- ting edges in the left mandible; in the right the inner one is small and colourless, as in P. capensis. The first. maxilla has about six plumose setae at the apex of the inner lobe. In the second maxilla the two outer lobes are very slender, bearing long pectinate setae; the inner lobe is broader and rounded, densely setose, and fringed along its inner margin with a very regular and distinct row of long setae. In the maxilliped, the epipod is nearly circular, thin; the second joint bears a very distinct row of plumose setae projecting inwards towards the mouth cavity ; the palp is of the usual structure. Fic.2 FIGs All the figures refer to Phreatoicus latipes and are taken from a male specimen. Fig. 1. Side view of the whole animal. P- >», 2 Dorsal view of body. ,, 3 Dorsal view of end portion of terminal segment. ; ,, 4. Side view of pleon, straightened out to show the anterior segments more clearly. 28 First pair of legs strongly subchelate; second and third similar to one another, feebly subchelate; fourth pair more. slender and not specially modified in the male; fifth, sixth, and seventh pairs increasing progressively in length, their _ basal joints: flat and greatly produced posteriorly into a rounded lobe similar to that in many Amphipoda, the lobe marked off from the joint proper by a distinct ridge, posterior margin of the lobe entire (fig. 10). Uropods short, not projecting much beyond the end of the terminal segment, outer branch slightly shorter than the inner. Colour.—Dark slaty-grey. In some young specimens the ~ surface of the body is lighter in colour with dark pigmented spots much more widely separated from one another than in the adult. Length of body (in curved position), about 15 mm. Greatest breadth of peraeon, about 6°5 mm. Locality.—In hot water from Marree (Hergott) bore, and in springs and streams near Coward, Central Australia. Collected by Professor F. Wood Jones, Adelaide University. Remarks.—Although in the flattened character of the peraeon and the greatly broadened basal joints of the last three pairs of legs this species differs markedly from other species of Phreatoicus, there seems to be a fairly close resemblance in the various appendages, so that it will not be necessary to give a very detailed account of these. The first antenna (fig. 5) is slender, the first and third joints of the peduncle similar and considerably longer than the second; the flagellum is about the same length as the peduncle and contains about ten joints, which bear short simple setae and a few olfactory setae. The second antenna (fig. 6) is considerably longer and stouter than the first; the first two joints of the peduncle are short, the third about twice as long as the second and subequal with the fourth, the fifth longer and more slender; the flagellum is subequal in length with the peduncle and contains about nineteen joints, the basal ones being somewhat stout and bear- — ing tufts of numerous short simple setae. In the male the legs of the first pair (fig. 7) are strongly subchelate, the propod being subtriangular and greatly broadened at the base, the finger not reaching beyond the straight palm. In general appearance this appendage is similar to that of P. australis. The second and third pairs of legs (fig. 8) are similar, longer, and more slender than the All the figures refer to Phreatoicus latipes and are taken from a male specimen. ig. 5. 6. & 8. o: First antenna. Second antenna. First peraeopod. Third peraeopod. Fourth peraeopod. 30 first; the propod is not broadened, but the finger is very long, slightly curved, and when flexed reaches back as far as the basal portion of the carpus, forming apparently an efficient grasping organ. The fourth leg (fig. 9) is slightly longer than the third with the joints more slender, and it is not sub- chelate but simple, the finger not longer than the propod. This appendage is the same in both male and female, although in some other species of Phreatoicus the legs of the fourth pair are modified in the male to form a special grasping organ. The fifth, sixth, and seventh pairs are quite similar, increasing progressively in length posteriorly. The basal joint in each is very greatly expanded behind into a rounded lobe pro- jecting backwards and downwards, reaching two-thirds of the way to the distal end of the ischium. This expansion is marked off from the joint proper by a distinct ridge running parallel to the anterior margin; the posterior margin of the lobe is entire and bears no setae; the ischium is distinctly longer than the merus and, like it, broadened somewhat distally ; the carpus and propod are cylindrical; the finger is straight, acute; these joints show setae of varying sizes, as indicated in the figure (fig. 10). The male appendages (fig. 11) on the seventh peraeon segment are slender, tapering, curved inwards towards one another, slightly swollen at the base, and apparently grooved on the posterior surface. The pleopods show a close general resemblance to those of P. australis. The first pleopod has the basal joint or protopod short, the endopod and exopod subequal, each form- ing an irregular oval lobe, the margin of the endopod being smooth and without setae, as in all the pleopods, the outer margin and apex of the exopod being fringed with fine setae. The second pleopod in the male (fig. 13) has the basal joint broader and bearing a few long setae at its inner margin; the endopod is similar to that of the first pleopod, but bears on the inner side the penial appendage, which is four-fifths as long as the exopod, broadened near the base and apparently © grooved on its upper or anterior surface; the exopod is larger than the endopod and consists of two joints, the basal one about as long as the endopod and produced at its outer proximal angle into a broad rounded lobe; the terminal joint is small, oval, and has its margins fringed with long setae, a few long setae being also present on the distal portion of the outer margin of the basal joint. The third (fig. 14), fourth, and fifth pleopods are similar to the second, except for the absence of the penial appendage, and they all bear attached to the outer margin of the basal joint a large All the figures refer to Phreatoicus latipes and are taken Fig. 23 2) be) 3 from a male specimen. Seventh peraeopod (less highly magnified than figs. 7, 8, and 9). Male appendage. First pleopod of male. Second pleopod of male. _ Third pleopod of male. 32 well-developed oval “‘epipod,’’ the margins of which are fringed with long setae. The uropods are similar to those of other species of © Phreatoicus, having the basal joint subequal in length with the branches, its upper margin fringed with stout setae, the upper margin of each branch being similarly fringed. A ffinitces.— Until it is possible to make a revision of the Phreatoicidea this species may be left’ under the genus Phreatoicus. It shows a good general resemblance to P. australis, but differs markedly from that species, and indeed from all the members of the tribe, in the absence of the coxal joints of the peraeopoda. It resembles P. australis in having the first peraeon segment short and more or less fused with the head, in this character agreeing also with Phreatoicopsis terricola, Spencer and Hall. It agrees with the latter species and differs from Phreatorcus australis in the fact that the fourth peraeopod is not specially modified in the male. The sixth segment of the pleon, although fused with the terminal segment, or telson, appears to be more distinctly marked off from it by a distinct suture than in the other species; in Phreatoicus australis there is a suture present, but this ex- tends anteriorly only a short distance from the base of the uropod and does not reach the posterior margin of the fifth — segment. In most Isopods, except the Anthuridae, the sixth segment is completely fused with the telson without any apparent suture to indicate the line of juncture. I am greatly indebted to my assistant, Miss E. M.. Herriott, M.A., for preparing the drawings for this paper, and to ‘Professor F. Wood Jones for the opportunity of describing this interesting species. List oF REFERENCES. Barnard, Keppel H. 1914—1. Contributions to the Crustacean Fauna of South Africa. 2. Description of a New Species of Phreatoicus (Isopoda) from South Africa. Ann. South African Mus., vol. x, pp. 231-240, pls. 23 and 24. Calman, T. W. 1909—Crustacea, in Ray Lankester’s Treatise on Lor IBY part vu., Appendiculata, 3rd Fascicle. Chilton, C. 1894—The Subterranean Crustacea of New Zealand, with some general remarks on the Fauna of Caves and Wells. Trans. Linn. Soc., Zool., vol. 6, pp. 163-284, pls. 16-23. 33 1918—A fossil Isopod belonging to the fresh-water genus Phreatoicus. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. 51, ; pp. 365-388, with text figures. Raff, Janet W. 1912—Notes on the Isopod, Phreatoicopsis terricola, Spencer and Hall. Victorian Naturalist, vol. 29, pp. 70-72. Sayce, O. A. 1902—A new genus of Phreatoicidae. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. 14, pp. 218-224, pls. 18 and 19. Spencer, B., and Hall, T. 8. 1896—Description of a new genus of Terrestrial Isopoda : allied to the genus Phreatoicus. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. 9, pp. 12-21, pls. 3 and 4. 34 THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NuyT’sS ARCHIPELAGO AND THE INVESTIGATOR GROUP. NO. 1-THE AMPHIPODA AND ISOPODA. By Cuar.es Cuitton, M.A., D.Sc., C.M.Z.S., Professor of Biology, Canterbury College, New Zealand. (Communicated by Professor F. Wood Jones.) [Read April 13, 1922.] The crustacea referred to in this short paper were collected by Professor F. Wood Jones, of Adelaide University, in an expedition made towards the end of 1920 to the Investigator Group and the Nuyt’s Archipelago, lying to the west of Eyre Peninsula, South Australia. The whole of the species here mentioned were, however, obtained at the Nuyt’s Archipelago, most of them in Smoky Bay. They are all referred to species already known, though in some cases they have not been hitherto recorded from South Australia. In addition to these species numerous specimens of terrestrial Isopods, belonging to Cubaris and allied genera, were collected from several localities. These have been sent for determination to Dr. W. E. Collinge, York Museum, England. Several shore Amphipoda (Orchestia, etc.) were obtained at various places, but they are all too immature for determination. AMPHIPODA. LEUCOTHOE SPINICARPA (Abildg.). Tebeniiee spinicarpa and L. miersi, Stebbing, 1906, p..165. Leucothoe commensalis, LL, diemenensis, and L. gracilis, Stebbing, 1910, p. 636. Leucothoe spinicarpa, Chilton, 1912, p. 478, and 1921, p. 59; Barnard, 1916, p. 148. Locality.—Smoky Bay, South Australia, 3°5 to 4 fms. Two specimens; length, 10 mm. In my report on the Amphipoda collected by the F.I.S. ‘‘Endeavour,’ I have given reasons for considering all the forms mentioned above as belonging to the cosmopolitan species, L. smnicarpa (Abildg.). The species seems to be com- mon at numerous places on the Australian coasts. Barnard - has given some further particulars of specimens from South Africa, and has added L. muiersi, Stebbing, to the list of synonyms, as I had already done in my MS. notes. — 35 GRUBIA SETOSA (Haswell). Amphithoé setosa, Haswell, 1879, p. 270; Chilton, 1885, p. 1040. Grubia setosa, Stebbing, 1906, p. 644, and 1910, °p. 649. Locality.—Mangrove Creek, Smoky Bay. Several specimens. I refer these specimens to the species named with some doubt, for they are all small and immature, and the species itself is imperfectly known. The typical species of the genus, G. crassicorms, is known from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, and a South African one has been described by Barnard under the name G. australis. It will be necessary to compare adult specimens of these three species before any- thing can be said about their affinities. ISOPODA. Dero marina (Chilton). Deto marina, Chilton, 1915, p. 444, pl. 39, figs. 19-23. Deto marina, Chilton, 1917, p. 399, figs. 15-21. Localities.—Smoky Bay, 21-xi.-20. Two specimens. Laura Bay, 23-xi.-20. Five specimens. Eyre Island, Smoky Bay, 21-xi.-20, Several specimens. Unnamed guano island, Laura Bay, 22-xi.-20. Two specimens. This species was originally described under the name Philougria marina from specimens collected at Coogee, New South Wales, in 1884. No further specimens were obtained from the type locality until towards the end of 1920, when several were obtained by Mr. F. A. McNeill, of the Aus- tralian Museum, Sydney. It had been collected at Kangaroo Island, South Australia, by W. H. Baker, in 1915; and I have since had specimens from Tasmania, collected by A. M. Lea, of the Adelaide Museum. Apparently it is fairly common in the localities examined by Professor F. Wood Jones, and was obtained at the four places mentioned above. The speci- mens agree closely with the description given of those from Kangaroo Island. . Mr. F. A. McNeill, who collected the specimens from Coogee, states that they were found on the damp under- surfaces of stones which formed heaped accumulations of small sandstone boulders at highest tide mark,and ended among the dark crevices and overhanging shelves of larger rocks, from 10 to 15 ft. further back. He further states that the animals are ‘“‘slow in movement, often lying motionless in the irregularities on the surface of the stones; the older examples rarely move away until disturbed previous to capture,’’ and he contrasts their slow movement with the active movements of Ligia australiensis, which was found at the same time and 36 place, and was so active that it was very difficult to capture. I had noticed the same characteristic habits in the species Deto bucculenta, Nicolet, found on the shores of Paterson Inlet, Stewart Island, New Zealand (1917, p. 404). In my paper on the genus (1915) I have drawn attention to the distribution of the different species on islands and other land masses in southern seas. PaRIDOTEA UNGULATA (Pallas). Idotea ungulata, Miers, 1881, p. 52; Chilton, 1890, p. 196. lias ungulata,. Stebbing, 1900, p. 538; Collinge, 1918, p. 8l. Locality.—Mangrove Creek, Smoky Bay. Four speci- mens; length of largest, 40 mm. : Colour (in spirit).—Olive-green with lighter patches some- what irregularly arranged in longitudinal rows. These specimens agree, generally, with New Zealand specimens referred to this species, though the colour is a little different, and the first segment of the pleon seems rather more distinct and slightly longer in the median line; in the New Zealand specimens this segment is less distinctly marked and in the median line is nearly concealed beneath the last seg- ment of the peraeon. Collinge (1918, p. 82) has established a new variety, atrovirens, for specimens from Victoria, Aus- tralia, having the ‘‘whole of the body a very dark olive-green, almost black.’”’ From the details given by Miers and by Stebbing the colour appears to vary considerably in this species. Most of the New Zealand specimens that I have been able to examine in the living condition are a light green, corresponding with the colour of the green seaweeds on which they are usually found. This colour disappears in spirit specimens, leaving them a yellowish-brown. Some of my specimens, however, still have (in spirit) the whole body more or less darkly coloured ; sometimes the whole body, sometimes certain portions only, being finely dotted with black. The mouth parts have been described by Stebbing, and also by Collinge, the two descriptions showing considerable differences. I have a slide with the-mouth parts of a small New Zealand specimen mounted about the year 1890. In it the first maxilla has the inner plate narrower than in Col- linge’s figure and with: only three plumose setae at its extremity. Collinge found four and Stebbing (apparently describing South African specimens) found ten; the outer lobe of this maxilla bears about ten stout spines with one or two more slender ones agreeing on the whole with Collinge’s figure, though the arrangement differs a little in detail. The maxilliped agrees pretty closely in general shape with the figure given by Collinge, but the parts corresponding to the 37 second and third joints of the palp, as described -by him, are almost completely fused, the suture between them being very indistinct compared with the articulations of the other seg- ments ; consequently the palp appears four- “Jointed as described by Stebbing. Distribution.—The species is very widely distributed in southern seas. Idotea excavata, Haswell, comes near to this species, and I referred it to Paridotea ungulata in 1890, though, at the same time, pointing out several slight differences. CyMODOCE LONGICAUDATA, Baker. Cymodoce longicaudata, Baker, 1908, p. 188, pl. ii., figs. 1-11. Locality.— Mangrove Creek, Smoky Bay. Four specimens. These specimens agree well with Baker’s description, though in the largest (length of body with terminal spine, 15 mm.) the terminal spine, the branches of the uropoda, and the side-plates of the peraeon are longer and more acutely produced than in his figure. A specimen of this species has recently been sent to me by Professor F. Wood Jones, labelled ‘‘Onkaparinga River, Mt. Lofty,’’ presumably in fresh water. ZUZARA VENOSA (Stebbing). Zuzara venosa, Baker, 1910, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxiv., p. 83, pl. XXiii., figs. 13-16, and pl. xxiv., figs. 1-3. Several specimens, es on oe shore of onal Bay, South Australia. Of these, three are fully adult males; the others, females or immature males, showing different: stages in the development of the process in the seventh segment of the peraeon. This species was redescribed and well figured by Mr. W. H. Baker in 1910. He states that it is one of the commonest marine Isopods of the shores of South Australia. PORCELLIO LAEVIS, Latreille. ie laevis, Chilton, 1905, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. 16, p. ae obtusifr ons, Haswell, Cat. Austr. Crust., p. 284. Two specimens, taken on the shore of Streaky Bay. This is an introduced species which is now almost cosmopolitan. I have given some notes on its distribution in Australia in the paper quoted above. METOPONORTHUS PRUINOSUS fprandty, Metoponorthus pruinosus, Chilton, 1905, l.c.; p. 431. One specimen, on the shore of Streaky Bay. This is another introduced species that is now very widely distributed. ¢ 38 Synonyms and notes on its distribution are given in the paper quoted. List oF REFERENCES. Baker, W. H. 1908—*“Notes on some Species of the L[sopod Family Sphaeromidae from the South Australian Coast, Part I.’’ Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxii., pp. 138-162, pls. in. to x. Barnard, K. H. 1916—‘‘Contributions to the Crustacean Fauna of South Africa. 5. Amphipoda.’’? Ann. South African Mus., vol. 15, pp. 105-301, pls. 26-28. Chilton, C. 1885—‘“‘Notes on a few Australian Edriophthalmata.”’ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. 9, pp. 1035-1044, pls. 46 and 47. 1890—‘‘Revision of the New Zealand Idoteidae.” Trans. N.Z. Institute, vol. 22, pp. 189-204. 1912—‘‘The Amphipoda of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition.’ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 48, pp. 455-519, pls. 1. and ii. 1915—‘‘Deto, a Subantarctic Genus of Terrestrial Isopoda.”’ Jour. Linn. Soc., Zool., vol. 32, pp. 435-456, pls. 39 and 40. 1917—‘‘Notes on Australian Isopoda: (b) on Deto marima.’’ Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xli., pp. 399-404, with text figures. 1921—Report on the Amphipoda obtained by the F.I.8S. “Endeavour” in Australian Seas. Fisheries: Biological Results, etc., vol. v., part 2. Collinge, W. E. 1918—On the Oral Appendages of certain Species of Marine Isopoda. Jour. Linn. Soc., Zool., vol. 34, pp. 66-92, pls. 7- 9. Haswell, W. A. 1879—On Australian Amphipoda. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. iv., pp. 245-279, pls. 7-12. Miers, E. J. 1881—Revision of the Idoteidae. Jour. Linn. Soc., Zool., vol. 16, pp. 1-88. Stebbing, T. R. R. 1900—South African Crustacea, Part I. 1906—Amphipoda. 1. Gammaridea. Das Tierreich, 21 Lieferung. 1910—Amphipoda- of the ‘‘Thetis’” Expedition. Mem. Austr. Mus., No. IV., pp. 567-658, pls. 47*-60*. 39 THE EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF POUCH EMBRYOS OF MARSUPIALS. NO. 3-/SOODON BARROWENSIS. By £. Woop’ Jones,*D.Sc.,. F.Z.8., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Adelaide. [Read April 13, 1922.] Of this bandicoot I have so far obtained but three embryonic stages for description. For all these specimens I am indebted to the authorities of the Perth Museum. As opportunities for obtaining further material may be long delayed, and as the three stages (17 mm., 77 mm., 92 mm.) examined are representative of a long cycle of pouch life, it has been thought worth while to record such details as are ascertainable from the study of these specimens. Har.—Hair is evidently late in development, there being no appearance of general body hair at the 77 mm. stage. In the embryo of 92 mm. the general body hair is developed, and is of the characteristic hispid type and bright tan in colour. : Har Tracts.—In general disposition the stiff harsh hair of the 77 mm. embryo exhibits the utmost simplicity. With the exception of one field, the whole of the hair of the head, body, and tail slopes uniformly backwards (see fig. 1). The exceptional area, which may be defined as the gular field, is situated beneath the throat, extending from the angle of the mouth to the root of the neck. In this field the hair trend is completely reversed. The anterior convergent region beneath the chin is marked by the interramal papilla and its vibrisca ; the posterior divergent region is situated at the posterior extremity of the base of the skull. The lateral margins of the area are very definite, and they extend backwards from the angle of the mouth practically along the lines of the rami of the mandibles (see fig. 2). * Upon the hmbs the flow is distal and towards the post- axial margin, but in the case of the fore limb a reversal takes place at the post-axial margin between the wrist and the elbow. Hair is continued to the base of the ungual phalanx of both fingers and toes (see fig. 3). The sole of the foot is hairy and the arrangement of the hair tracts is very definite. A central divergent area is pre- sent upon the sole opposite the first digit. Behind this point the hair is arranged in two streams running backwards to the heel and towards the mid line. This backwardly-directed 40 stream meets around the heel with the descending stream from the leg. In front of the central point the streams are directed forwards along the syndactylous digits, and the fifth digit, respectively (see fig. 11). The hair colour of the specimen in which hair is uniformly developed (Perth, B, 92 mm.) is a bright tan, the dorsal surface being of-a darker tint than the ventral surface. — SUNOA TAL! py ivy MUNG / Wy Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Hair tracts of the head (from Gular hair tracts (from ~ Specimen Male B, Perth). Specimen Male B, Perth). CUTANEOUS PAPILLAE AND VIBRISCAE. Facial Vibriscae.—The sensory vibriscae and papillae are not very conspicuous. By far the largest papilla is the genal which gives origin to some six backwardly-directed vibriscae. The mystical set is arranged in five rows, of which a single papilla constitutes the upper row. The vibriscae are fine and ‘(qpiog ‘ ee, Uewtoedg utoay) Apog oyy Jo Souq ICE eG Oly 42 pale in colour. A single vibrisca springs from the interramal papilla. The submental vibriscae are short and insignificant. The supra orbital papilla gives rise to two backwardly-directed tactile hairs (see fig. 4). Fig. 4. Facial vibriscae (from Specimen Male A, Perth). Brachial Vibriscae.—The ulnar carpal papilla gives origin to a single very elongated bristle as well as to an unusually short one. A_ single well-developed anconeai vibrisca is present (see fig. 5). Brachial vibriscae (from Specimen Male A, Perth). There are no crural vibriscae or papillae present on any of the embryos that I have examined. There are no specialized cloacal vibriscae. Rhinarium.—The rhinarium is naked and elongated. The middle line sulcus of the upper lip is well marked and grooves the rhinarium to the posterior extremity of its dorsal surface. The naked surface is flesh coloured, and it is granulated in a 43 regular manner suggesting mosaic. The slit-like narial apertures are directed laterally, and their margins are entirely naked. The posterior limit of the rhinarium becomes more defined in later embryos as the snout region becomes pubescent (see fig. 6). Rhinarium (from Specimen Male A, Perth). External EFar.—In no embryo of the genus /soodon that I have so far had the opportunity of examining is the ear laid forward at the younger stages. In J. barrowensis the pointed ear stands well out from the side of the head with the Fig. 7. The form of the external ear (Embryo Male A, Perth). tip directed backwards. The processus antihelicis (the so- called metatragus) is large in all stages; the characteristic adult twist in its length becoming more pronounced as growth ad proceeds. Nearer to the external auditory meatus than the metatragus of the taxonomist is a second and smaller process of the antihelix which, by becoming separated from the main process with the enlargement of the auricle, leads, in the adult, to the formation of a pit. between the two processes. The ‘‘deep hollow” described in this area of the adult ear is, however, a secondary feature formed by the relative growth of the surrounding parts. , ‘ Two genuine pockets are, however, present in the auricle. The first is the common mammalian pocket in the posterior portion of the helical margin, and which is generally known as the sulcus auris posterior. The second pocket is a remark- able one (marked A in figs. 7 and 8) in the centre of the developing tragus. This tragus pocket becomes covered by the hair of the cheeks in the adult, nevertheless it remains a permanent and remarkable feature of the external ear. Manus.—The digital formula is 2=3>4>5>1. Claws are developed at the 17 mm. stage upon digits 2, 3, and 4; but 1 and 5 are clawless. The digits are fusiform, tapering towards their distal extremities; there are no definitely developed apical pads. Three basal pads are developed, one Fig a8: Form of the external ear (from Specimen Male B, Perth). being opposite the base of each clawed digit. The skin of the palm is granular (see fig. 9). — Pes.—The digital formula is ASS HS 20> 1. The outstanding features of the foot are the great size of the fourth digit and the reduced condition of the first, which bears no claw. The digits are fusiform. Three basal pads are present, one being at the base of digit 5, a larger one at the base of 4, and a small one at the base of the syndactylous elements. ‘ws -rs Creek ae <. , XIV. Mount Lyall ... 70 XV. From Wirrealpa to the “Big Hil? on the Ras to Blinman 72 XVI. Visit to the Gemdeenne TRemeas. Balcoraca Creek, and the Wilkiwillina — et See ene XVII. Lithologic Features ... ae ee XVIII. Tectonic Phenomena hove an ae Fe ae In 1906 the present writer crossed the Flinders Range from Parachilna, westerly, to the eastern slopes border- ing on the Lake Frome plains. The journey was done mostly on foot. Publication of results was deferred with the hope that opportunities might arise by which the geology of the country could be still further investigated and descriptions made more complete. As this is now unlikely, the present notes are placed before the Society as a summary of the work done at the date mentioned, incidental to defects which must necessarily accompany observations made on a single traverse of the region. (1)Some preliminary notes of this journey were included in a paper by the author, read at the Adelaide meeting of the Aus. Assoc. for Adv. of Science (1907), on ‘‘A General Description of the Cambrian Series of South Australia,’ pp. 414-422. 47 The typical structure exhibited by the Flinders Ranges takes the form of broad anticlinal and synclinal folds which, by complicated directions of pressure, frequently produce peri- clinal domes with complementary saucer-shaped depressions, the latter being locally known as ‘‘pounds.’”’ The geological section, now under description, is transverse to one of the most extensive dome-structures in the ranges, the centre of the dome being situated, approximately, near the township of Blinman, with the superior beds dipping away in circles around this centre. A few miles to the south of Blinman is the Wilpena Pound, formed by a complete circle of mountains with the gap made by the Wilpena Creek, the only means of ingress and outlet to the basin. At Mernmerna, on the great northern line, the hills on the eastward side of the line form very steep escarpments with rugged peaks, forming the western limits of the Elder and Wilpena Pound Ranges. This precipitous face continues, northwards, to Parachilna, as a fault-scarp, making the eastern boundary of the great rift valley of South Australia in that direction. As the present paper is based on a single visit to the locality, and an interval of about sixteen years has passed since the observations were made, the paper is practically limited to the itinerancy and the field notes made at the time. The Geological Section, published herewith, was drawn soon after the author’s return to Adelaide. The newer, southerly road was followed going out, and the older, northerly road on returning, when the journey was made by coach. I. PARACHILNA GORGE. ENTRANCE TO THE GORGE. The Parachilna railway station is situated on the plains skirting the eastern side of Lake Torrens, about seven miles from the foot of the ranges. The gap in the ranges, east of the railway station, has been cut by the Parachilna Creek, forming a narrow and very picturesque gorge. In approaching the gorge the first rocks met with are limestones that outcrop on the road, near an old house in ruins. These are sub- crystalline, of a coarse-marble kind, much broken and penetrated by veins (dip S. 20° W. at 46°), underlying which are limestones containing Archaeocyathinae. The country: along the face of the great escarpment is much faulted. Following the western escarpment, going south, in a second spur, the fossils gradually disappear in a dolomitic matrix, the fossils occurring in every stage of alteration as they become absorbed into the matrix. [On this spur is an isolated group of sandstone boulders, some of which are of great size.]| In following the line of outcrop, southwards, there is a narrow 48 belt of dark-coloured oolitic and laminated limestone, apparently brought in, as a repetition of the strata, by a strike fault. The limestones can also be traced up to the great pinnacle of quartzite which cuts them off on the southern side, by a dip fault, the quartzite having an apparent dip of 85°, westerly, on its abrupt face to the west. The outlier of oolitic and laminated limestones, brought in by the strike fault;(has.a dip.S.. 30° W «at, o0e. gots NM. The junction of limestone against §.E, the quartzite on the fault plane, is a rotten brecciated rock. The last solid rock on the limestone side, is a marble (see fig. 1). THE GORGE. On entering the gorge the lime- stones are seen to outcrop on both sides of the creek, mostly on the 4 AV) southern side, where they form a ridge about 200 ft. high and make a spur, running westward, to the plains, where they pass from view under alluvium and sand. The lime- stone facing the plains has a strike Outlier by complex fault- BE. 25° S., dip 45° westerly. The i2g of limestones pinched gorge road intersects the limestones ‘” betes eae obliquely to the strike of the beds and supplies an interesting section, as detailed below : — (a) The bottom series in the limestone belt begins about half a mile from the entrance of the gorge, resting on thick quartzites which rise to a great height: dip S. 30° W. at 60°. The beds are characterized by a series of dark-coloured oolitic limestones, separated by earthy bands, or beds, which continue as a cliff facing the creek for a distance of 300 yards: dip 60°-75°. (6) Blue and buff limestones, dolomitic; nodular, stalactitic, laminated; more rarely, finely oolitic in struc- ture; white crystalline limestone, passing into white to brown dolomitic marbles, with reduced angle of dip. About 300 yards of outcrop. A small tributary creek dissects the cliff at this point, making a gap 36 yards wide, but the limestones continue up this creek. (c) Pink and yellow marbles continue for a distance of about 50 yards, passing up into very solid and continuous white to buff marbles. Width, 90 yards. Another wash-out by a small tributary creek, 75 yards wide, with limestones passing up the creek. 49 Granular marble shows again in cliffs on opposite side of wash-out. Dip S.W. at 40°. These beds continue for 180 yards to another small affluent, where the Archaeocya- thinae beds make their appearance with a strike EK. 20° S. (d) Archaeocyathinae limestones, showing extensive development near the outlet of the gorge. The base of these beds cannot well be determined as the fossils gradually dis- appear, losing their organic structures by conversion into marble or dolomite. This occurs both at the base of the fossiliferous beds as well as at their upper limits.. Immediately on the eastern side of the great limestone series, the Parachilna Creek has broken through a great wall of quartzite, which towers to a great height on either side. There follow, in descending order, thick shales with some flags (dip 70°-80°) up to the prominent and peaked hill of quartzite, near the reservoir; underlying which are shales having a strike almost parallel with the road, and a dip of 90°. These shales are often sharply curved and continue in the section to the mouth of the Oratunga Creek, having a dip of from 80° to 90°. From this point, by a sharp bend in the road, the latter follows the strike of the beds, which there have a dip of 75°. The road then crosses the creek and takes a sharp curve round a spur of quartzite, 50 ft. in thickness, with a dip from 70° to 80°. In this angle there is a fault associated with strong V-shaped contortions, the beds being shales with hard, thin quartzites having a dip of 45°. Ata short distance from the preceding the road crosses the creek, -a second time, where shales have a dip of 60°. At the third, and last time that the road crosses the creek, the shales have a dip of 80° to 85°, with a wavy structure. At a distance of three miles from the mouth of the gorge limestones once more begin to show themselves in the section. At a sharp angle of the road, just past Mount Mary, there are beds of pink-coloured limestone seen on the road. Shales, with a dip of 45°, occur for a distance of three-quarters of a mile to the ‘‘Dairy,’’ where the road is close to the Parachilna Creek and is at the foot of the ‘‘Big Hill.’’® The dip decreases towards the ‘“‘Dairy.”’ Calcareous grits and arenaceous (oolitic) limestones occur very commonly on the western side of the ‘‘Big Hill.’’ There also occur thick flaggy quartzites, 200 ft. in thickness, over- lain by pure limestone and gritty oolitic limestone: dip S.W. at 25°. These gritty limestones have a great development on the creeks which pass between the road and the Parachilna (2) This is quite distinct from a hill of the same name situated between Blinman and Wirrealpa. 50 Creek, and these, interbedded with flags and quartzites, represent a series some hundreds of feet in . thickness. Leaving the ‘‘Dairy,’’ going east, the road follows the creek, taking the rise of the “‘Big Hill,’”’ showing, in suc- cession, for about a mile, shales (dip 45°); blue lmestone, seen in creek; shales (dip 15°-20°); lhmestone (dip 15°); calcareous grits (dip 15°-20°). The road reaches its greatest elevation between the Gorge and Blinman at the north turn, or bend, known as the “Big Hill,” or the ‘‘Seven-mile Hill” (measured from Blinman). At this point there is a reef of iron and lime carbonates crossing the road. The Seven-mile Hill is chiefly marked by quartzites, 100 ft. in thickness, with a dip S.W. at from 10° to 15°. [Top-bed (?) calcium- carbonate.| On the eastern side of the ‘‘Big Hill” is the “Snake Bend,’ and at 6? miles from Blinman, an arenaceous limestone, 5 ft. 6 in. in thickness, interbedded with flaggy quartzites, occurs. At 6 miles from Blinman, a small quarry is worked in a siliceous limestone, by the side of the road: dip S.W. at 35°. The stone is used for road metal. Il. Horne’s Camp. On the evening of the first day out I reached a spot known as “Horne’s Camp,’’ situated on a creek, tributary to Parachilna Creek,‘5) that crosses the road about 4 miles to the westward of Blinman. A party of Government ‘‘road- men’’ was camped on the creek, with whom I found accom- modation for the night, and spent the following day examining the creeks in the locality. Facing the camp, from the southward, is a long escarp- ment that follows the strike and has the appearance of a great rampart giving a clear exposure of the beds. The latter consist of argillaceous and arenaceous flags that split per- fectly on the bedding planes. They can also be studied in the creek banks, near the camp. Here bluish quartzites with partings of softer material outcrop with a dip S., and S. 20° E. at 30°. Followed the creek, downwards. At about 400 yards from the camp, a 4-ft. banded limestone occurs that splits up easily into flags. At two-thirds of a mile, in the same direction, dark-coloured fissile flags occur, much like Willunga ‘“‘slate,” having a dip S.W. at 20°. Here the stream that I was following joined a larger creek which came in from the east. At three-quarters of a mile from the above junction, going down stream, a quartzite is met with, 50 ft. in thickness,” passing in its upper portions (3) The Pastoral Map on which is shown the two creeks referred to is entirely unreliable as to their respective directions. 51 into flags with a wavy structure, slightly false-bedded. The dip varies from 17° to 20°. The beds that follow are a lenticular dolomite, in quartzite, situated near sharp bend of the stream (seen on the rise); calcareous bands, in flag- “stones, showing lamination by weathering; the flagstones, in ascending series, become more calcareous and pass into calcareous flagstones. A waterfall, having a height of about 20 ft., occurs on this creek, about one-eighth of a mile before ‘its junction with Parachilna Creek. The section continues in flagstones, quartzites, gritty limestones, and calcareous grits: dip S.W. at 20°. Some of the gritty beds are from 10 ft. to 15 ft. in thickness, and, in places, show ripple marks. The hill, adjacent to waterfall, consists mainly of gritty limestones, and has a height of from 200 ft. to 300 ft. In the main creek, around a westerly and southerly bend, there is a sudden change in the dip, passing into intense folding and a throw down, by fault, at 90°. The fault area is well defined by walls that are vertical and 14 ft. apart— the fault area is filled by fault-rock. On the eastern side of the fault the dip is N. 65° W. at 40°. On the western side of fault the dip is S.W. with numerous small thrust folds, which extend for 100 yards. At the next bend, one-eighth of a mile below the previous observation, the dip is W. at 30°. At one-eighth of a mile, further down, rapids are formed by a bar ofgritty lmestone, overlain by flags, and include a thin bed of volitic marble, 1 ft. in thickness, and having a dip W. at 30°. At another one-eighth of a mile distance, a second strong bar of gritty limestone occurs, making a cliff-bank 500 ft. in height: dip S. 60° W. at 30°. The beds form a synclinal fold. The beds underlying the synclinal curve are oolitic limestones, 20 ft. in thickness, and inferior to these there are impure wavy limestones, with a dip S.W. at 20°. At this point I left the main creek and followed up a small tributary which drains in from the north-east. In this _ ereek a striking fold occurs which crosses the stream, on the eastern side, the dip is W. at 14°; and on the western side, the dip is N.W. at 80°, in flagstones. Higher up the creek, there is another throw down to N.W. at 67°-80°; the section showing dolomitic limestone in beds from 12 ft. to 18 ft. in thickness. At the head of the creek there are thick quartzites which rise to a crest of about 300 ft. in height, with a shoulder of quartzite, at a lower level; and a yet lower one, of flagstones, which, latter, come down to the level of the road about half a mile westward of the camp. Spent the second night in camp with the road-men. Next day cut across country to Blinman. Examined travertine 52 near camp. It is exposed in cliffs of the creek both above and below where the road crosses the creek. The beds are horizontal and up to 12 ft. in thickness; the base of the beds is, usually, a few feet higher than the normal level of the creek. The limestone varies from soft, loosely-cemented- globular concretions to a compact rock, often finely brecciated. Went up small creek, adjacent to the camp, going north. At. a distance of 200 vards, up the creek, the rocks were found to be argillaceous flags: dip S. 20° W. at 75°, increasing to 85°. At a further distance of 200 yards, further up, thick beds of dolomitic limestone, in rolling folds, with an average dip of 40°. These beds show some extraordinary effects of crush—laminated, contorted, broken, passing into crush conglomerate in which dolomitic limestones and shales are mixed together. This broken area extends for a width of 50 yards, giving no evidence of dip, and is underlain by con- torted slaty flags, with a‘dip S. 20 E. at 80°. A little higher up the creek, another bed of dolomite (or dolomitic limestone), 9 ft. in thickness, is included in disturbed and broken slates which are in vertical position. Thick quartzites follow a ridge that forms the crest of a very pointed and conspicuous hill on the north side of the camp, and are underlain by very thick dolomite, with a dip of 25°. These beds occupy the creek for one-eighth of a mile, are finely crystalline in texture, and, in quantity, sufficient to rebuild the Westminster Houses of Parliament. The thick dolomite is followed, in descending order, by laminated shales, at a dip of 80°, including a bar of dolomite, and these are underlain by a dark-coloured contact (garnet) rock, which has undergone alteration by contact with an igneous dyke. | A greenish, basic dyke, 24 yards wide, runs up the face of the hill on the eastern side of the creek, and outcrops on top, on the south-western side of the saddle from which rises the precipitous peak of quartzite, already referred to. It is 20 yards wide at the top of the hill and throws out lateral dykes. ts Higher up the creek the section shows rotten purple shales having a strike S. 20° W. with dip at 90°. The country now becomes more or less reticulated with basic dykes, over a breadth of a quarter of a mile, or more. One very prominent dyke that intersects the creek is 25 yards wide, bordered by shales on the one side and quartzites on the other, which show contact metamorphism. Followed up the main north-eastern creek for a while. In the alluvial of this and other creeks were pebbles of brecciated limestones, as well as ‘“‘greenstones’’ derived from intrusive dykes. Crossing the low range, on the eastern side, 53 basic dykes outcrop with a strike east and west. Further intrusive dykes were seen on the next range, 2 miles distant from the most westerly outcrops that were noted. Similar intrusions were observed crossing the old Blinman road in several places, in one case giving a width of 60 yards. The sedimentary rocks met with in this cross-country journey to Blinman were some prominent outcrops of quartzite, flaggy sediments, and small dolomitic limestones. TII. BuinmaN AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. The Blinman township, according to official figures, -is situated 2,020 ft. above sea level and 1,555 ft, above the Para- chilna plain. The mine is in disturbed country, and the copper ores occur mostly in a dolomitic limestone near its junc- tion with flaggy slates. These features can be well seen in the open cut where the limestone makes the foot wall and the slates the hanging wall. The dip varies from 65° to 75°. The cap- tain in charge stated that the shaft cut the limestone at a depth of 50 fathoms and passed diagonally through it to the 70-fathom level. The ore in the upper part is in the form of copper carbonates and black oxide, which intersect the lime- stone by reticulation of large and small veins. The average width of the payable cupriferous zone is 14 ft. The ore sometimes lies in flat shoots, the thickest part of the shoot being from 1 to 2 in. The ore body seems to be limited by a eross-fault with an east and west strike on the southern side of the mine. From the nature of the ore distribution the whole of the mineralized country is worked as stock- works and smelted. As the ore is carried in limestone, ores of a siliceous nature are bought, when possible, for fluxing purposes, and sandy shales are also quarried and used for a similar purpose. [Since -my visit the mine has been, unfor- tunately, closed. | The hills on the eastern side of the Blinman Mine consist of shaly flags and crushed dolomitic rock. One hill, just east of the mine, exhibits a small syncline on its summit, best seen from the southern side: dip N. 65° E. at 75°, and S. 20° E. at 60°. Half a mile to the northward of the mine is an igneous dyke, 18 yards wide, with a strike 20° S. of W. On the north side of the dyke there are strong flaggy quartzites that make a prominent hill and carry a thick band of lamellar hematite. A similar quartzite follows around the western side of the mine, and at a distance of one-eighth of a mile from the mine, in the same direction, there are strong beds of dolomitic lmestone, much crushed, in association with igneous intrusions, of which there are three circular bosses (? chimneys), forming, by position, a triangle, about 100 54 yards distant from each other, each having a re of about 50 yards. Crossed country to creek, on road to Parachilna, one mile east of Horne’s Camp, and followed the road and creek back to Blinman. Laminated shales are seen in creek, on southern side of road, with a dip 8.W. at 15°; which suddenly increases, by a twist, to 73°; and, further up, to 85°; then swings around to E. .20° S. at 50°. Where the creek crosses the road the shales are intensely broken and reunited in large angular pieces. Following which, where the creek forms a loop on the southern side of the road, the shales, which are at first much shattered, pass into a synclinal fold with a high dip, and then to a lower angle with dip S. A suc- cession of basic igneous dykes formed the chief feature for some distance on the same line of section. /urst dyke occurs at bend of the road in creek, on northern side, and is 40 yards wide with a dip of 85° W. The hanging wall to the dyke, on the western side, consists of laminated shales, that are not disturbed, having a dip S.W. at 45°. The dyke is under- lain, on the eastern side, by shales which are greatly crushed and broken up. This broken rock shows an outcrop, up- creek, of 45 yards; then follow laminated, decomposed, yellow shales, with dip N.W. at 80°; underlain by thinnish dolomitic rock, which is broken. Second dyke, situated 200 yards higher up than the first dyke (14 miles from Horne’s Camp). It is fine-grained and very basaltic like, is 60 yards wide, and a strike E. It is bordered by shales that are brecciated, with dip S. 20° W. at 83°. A little further on the road, a strong outcrop of quartzite is seen to come down the hill face on the western side of the road, but is cut off at the creek, and in its place, on the eastern side of the creek, is a fault rock, much broken for 30 yards, followed by dolomitic rock, with dip W. 20° N. at 75°. This, again, is followed by laminated quartzites, with dip N.E. at 60°; then swings around to N. Third dyke, situated about 2 miles from Horne’s Camp, is 42 yards wide, with a strike W. 20° N., follows a small creek, and can be traced across larger creek, into hill, on the western side. Fowrth dyke, situated about 200 yards beyond the third dyke, is 5 yards wide. There is a great show of crush rock on hill, on the eastern side, down to the road, consisting of shales and dolomitic rock in a mixed condition. For the next 200 yards on the road, shales and some dolomitic limestones occur. Fifth dyke, 24 miles from Horne’s Camp 120 yards wide. Junction of rock on southern side gives dip E. 20° N. at 65°. Two hundred yards further, blue limestone is seen on road, dip S.E. at 50°, with crushed dolomitic rock on top. Quartzites in shales, 55 - with dip N. at 45°, make a low rise in the ground. One and a quarter miles from Blinman there is a high and bold ridge of slaty dolomitic rock, somewhat broken in places, underlain by shales: dip S.W. at 80°. Last prominent ridge, on the eastern side of road, in a direction N. 20° E., consists of laminated shales, thin quartzites, and dolomitic rock in places. At one mile from Blinman are shales, dip 8.W., with broken beds of slaty dolomitic rock. From this point the ground is low, undulating, and grassy. ITV. BLINMAN TO REAP-HOOK RANGE. Trip southward (4 miles) to Reap-hook Range. So called from its resemblance to the tool—a handle, and great curve for blade. Also known as Patterton Hill and Mount Emily. Drove out to Patterton Spring and then went one mile across to Reap-hook Range. The latter has a very striking rock face 500 ft. in height. The top beds consist of 25 ft. of impure arenaceous limestone having a vertical scarp: dip E. 25° 8. at 5°. Beneath which is a steep scarp of purple shales and laminated flaggy shales. The latter are also seen at the Patterton Spring (mentioned above), where they dip S. 20° E. at 10°. In retracing my steps, on foot, from the Springs to Blinman, underlying the slates, just mentioned, is a dolomitic rock, then a limestone which weathers with a dark-coloured smooth surface, similar to the Archaeocyathinae limestone, but has arenaceous lines in relief that follow, generally, a circular outline; then an arenaceous limestone, showing an outcrop of about 100 yards, with dip at a low angle. A thin quartzite occurs in the limestone series, which is underlain, again, by thick arenaceous limestones; then ochreous limestone with vein of siderite. For the next half- mile there were noted calcareous beds, separated by thin beds of shale; then quartzites and calcareous grits: dip S.E. at 12°. There follows a relatively flat country, in which shales are first met with, then solid limestone showing wavy struc- ture and is sometimes arenaceous, which continues to small creek, three-quarters of a mile before reaching Youangera Spring. On the Blinman side of the creek another strong limestone is seen on a prominent rise, just before sharp bend in the road (between Sections 64 and 69), with shale on top and is underlain by quartzite, with a dip S.E. These beds are followed by a somewhat lower hill, consisting of flaggy shales; and then, strong calcareous grits passing into brecci- ated limestone, which latter makes a bold ridge that crosses a creek that is tributary to the Blinman Creek, about a quarter of a mile above the road crossing. Some fine springs occur in the creek a few yards above the crossing. 56 Soft shales are on the flat skirting the eastern side or — the limestone range, just mentioned (dip E. 20° N.), and these are faulted against shales with thin beds of ferruginous limestones which dip 8. 20° W. Both these sets of outcrops are at high angles, as seen on the flat, and are also much curved. At the road crossing the tributary creek, near the Youangera Spring, flaggy shales dip E. 20° S., at from 40° to 45°. Here a very curious white limestone is seen resting unconformably on the shales. The limestone rolls a little, with anticlinal and synclinal curves, and is eroded where the curve passes above the normal level of the ground. It is compact, somewhat nodular, .and includes numerous frag- ments of shale. It is veined with crystalline matter and has manganese oxide stains. The question as to its origin carries some doubt, but it is most probably a travertine limestone with certain unusual features. It is seen on the north side . of the creek, and can be traced to the junction of the two creeks, a distance of about 100 yards, beyond which I did not continue my observations. The bed does not seem to rest on calcareous rocks; it is from 6 to 8 ft. in thickness— limestones occur on the scarp face about one-eighth of a mile to the eastward. It seems probable that it is a travertine deposit laid down, at a somewhat distant period, by spring waters fed from the calcareous beds of the scarp that exists on the eastern side, perhaps before the scarp had retreated as far as at present. The creek that has cut its way through this peculiar limestone gives no evidence of carrying any quantity of calcium carbonate in solution at the present time. On the western side of the crossing, in the same creek, there are similar laminated shales as occur above the crossing and are dolomitic, in places: dip E. at 40°. There is also an overlying limestone, on this side, but it is not so developed or so compact as in the higher position in the creek, described above. The road, after crossing the creek, has a trend more to the west and passes over a ridge of shales, sometimes cal- careous, which pass under the limestones of the scarp, described above: dip S.E. at 50°. Beyond the last-named ridge, a 12-ft. bed of limestone occurs in the shales, followed by flaggy quartzites, which make a bold hill on the western side of the road: dip E. 20° S. at 75°, increasing to 90°. On the other side of the range—in lower ground—the rocks are somewhat broken and have an easterly dip. Passing into the valley of the Blinman Creek, shales and flaggy quartzites form the outcrops, the quartzites carrying the fine dark lines similar to those seen in the quartzites on Don 57 hill west of South Blinman, and also west of the Blinman Mine. THE BLINMAN CREEK. The Blinman Creek, near the townships of North and South Blinman, supplies exposures illustrating crush-rock to an extreme degree. The purple shales, particularly, are con- verted into crush-breccias and crush-conglomerates in which the original bedding is entirely obliterated, or is present only in isolated fragments. The locality is also greatly inter- sected by intrusive dykes. | Going south from South Blinman (in creek) the purple shales are overlain by flaggy shales: dip W. 10°:S. at 80°. (1) A great basic dyke crosses the creek forming a pro- minent ridge 30 ft. in height and 100 ft. in width. The dyke cuts across cupriferous flaggy shales, the latter having a dip of 70° W. of N. at 60°. (2) Two hundred yards lower down the creek another dyke crosses the stream—on the eastern side, measuring 15 ft. in height and 90 ft. in width. On the southern side of the dyke purple shales form a cliff face in the creek and are intensely broken and brecciated. The dyke crosses to the western side, where it is seen on the rise of the hill. The strike is N.E., and follows along the slack ground. (3) On the western side of the creek, about midway between the two dykes just referred to, is a circular outcrop of igneous rock, 100 yards in circumference. The stone is scoriaceous, in parts; whether the vesicular structure is due to gas cavities, or spaces left by the decomposition and removal of included crystals, is not quite clear, but the cavities have been subsequently filled, in some instances, with Fe CO, and other crystals. The circular outline of the outcrop suggests the possibility of its being an old volcanic ‘‘neck.’’ The prominent hill that is on the western side of South Blinman has quartzites at its summit, and, for the most part, on its southern face also: dip 10° S. of W. at 75°. The quartzite carries dark lines (a common feature in the quartzites of the Upper Cambrian series), and there is- also a dolomitic limestone, much contorted and irregular, that outcrops on the southern and south-eastern flanks of the same hill. The dolomitic bed has a rolling strike of N.W. and 8.E. A ridge of hills runs parallel with the road between South Blinman and North Blinman, on the eastern side, consisting of flaggy shales and quarizites, with dip N.E. at 75°. ’ Following the Blinman Creek to North Blinman, a great development of crush-rock occurs both in the creek and on the flanks of the low ranges on the western side. The rocks consist of siliceous shales and thin dolomitic hmestones, in C 58 which the ‘strike and dip vary with every few yards, from horizontal to vertical, the dip tending east and west. From the Government well, situated in the creek, the beds become more regular (going north), the siliceous shales showing a dip N.E.-at 50°. On the bank of the creek are some very large spheroidal masses of siliceous quartzites, and these occur again, higher up the creek, containing dark lines, and have a dip N. 20° W. at 45°. This spheroidal weathering in homogeneous siliceous rocks, as well as the dark lines, often cross-bedded, are very characteristic features of the Upper Cambrian beds of the Flinders Range. V: Trre Five Mites Norty or BLinMAN. Followed the road on the eastern side of the mine, which passes over a flat and trends in a north-westerly direc- tion. Dr. Lander drove me to Little Willigon Creek, which is separated from the Willigon by a ridge, at about 5 miles from Blinman. Left the conveyance and proceeded on foot. The Little Willigon Creek cuts through the ridge mentioned, in a small gorge, with shales on the one side and limestone on the other. The limestone, which makes the ridge, at the gorge, shows a structure of concentric lines like globules 1 in. to 2 in. in diameter, which weather into depressions ; it has also inclusions of shale in angular fragments. It is underlain by flaggy shales that dip N. at 35°. By climbing the ridge between the Little Willigon Creek and the main Willigon Creek (a distance of about three- quarters of a mile), from its highest point the geological structure of the country could be well seen. An imposing range on the north side (4 miles distant) marks the limit of vision in that direction with a steep scarp face on the southern side, apparently composed of flaggy shales with interbedded — impure limestones. Then followed an inner range of rounded hills covered with green feed, approximately 2 miles wide. From the physical features I concluded that this area was composed of purple shales. Another range, at a shorter dis- tance, occupied the space down to near the Willigon Creek, and showed a steep face to the southward composed of flags and thin limestones. All these outcrops to the north of the creek could be distinctly seen to dip northwards, giving a section of 4 miles in diameter. On the southern side of Willigon Creek there is a suc- cession of hills increasing in altitude towards Blinman, con- sisting chiefly of impure limestones with some flaggy shales. About one mile from the gorge of the Little Willigon Creek the road crosses a small tributary of the latter in which 59 limestones make a great development on the northern part of the hill, with a dip N. 20° E. at 23°. The limestone has a concretionary structure and is very brittle with a spheroidal fracture. The limestone is underlain by shaly flags. At a quarter of a mile further the road crosses the tributary stream again, at a bar formed by another limestone that is impure, carrying streaky lines and reticulations of an earthy nature, in relief, as well as small stones. This limestone outcrop is 53 yards wide, with a dip N. 20° E. at 30°. Within a few yards it is followed by another hmestone, quite as thick as the preceding, and forms a scarp face which runs parallel to the stream and road for 14 miles; the road then takes a southerly turn. On the southern side of the great limestone. series there follow, in descending order, a thick series of flaggy shales -with ferruginous dolomitic limestones and grits in prominent edges ({?]2 miles across the strike). The road rises to a high point, where the shales dip N. 20° E. at 30°, and are overlain by grits and a ferruginous dolomitic rock. Coming down the hill on its eastern side the strike swings round a little, with a dip N.E. at 25°, which has the effect of bringing the limestone once more across the road, where the latter crosses a large creek. The road continues on the line of junction between the limestone and shales for over a mile. The road crosses the creek for the last..time, where the shales have the same dip as in the last reading, viz., N.E. at 25°. | The road now curves round to tke south towards Blinman. Flaggy shales continue on low ground. About one and a half miles from the Blinman Mine, situated near the road, in a small wash, there are gritty rocks, much broken and twisted, in an apparently vertical position, and, mixed with these broken beds, is a deposit of small quartz crystals, separately developed, making a width of 10 yards, and extends still further in patches. About a mile from the Blinman Mine, on the western side of the road, there is a great spread of ‘eritty limestones on the flat, making an outcrop 200 yards in width, underlain by flaggy shales, best seen on the rise of the hill, having a dip N. 30° E. at 25°. The same shales are seen in the creek on the eastern side of the rise, with a dip N-E. at 27°. The gritty limestone, just referred to, appears to be cut off by a strike fault on the eastern side and is probably a repe- tition of the limestone of the range seen to the north. The disturbed strata in the valley (referred to above) may be regarded as suggestive of such a fault. The associated shales “pass up into quartzitic rocks on the rise, with shales on the c2 60 other side in a much disturbed condition: dip 8. 20° E. at from 40° to 50°. On the next flat (and, apparently, on the rise to the west) there is a thick limestone with concentric structure, in an outcrop of about 200 yards. This bed is underlain by rotten shales, seen in a small quarry on the top of the rise on the road, above the township, with a dip N. at 45°. On going down the slope to Blinman there are evidences of dolomitic limestones, which probably may be correlated with a similar bed at the mine. VI. Trip tro PatrawarRta HItu. Patawarta, as seen from Blinman, looking northwards, has the appearance of a great wedge-shaped pinnacle, rising conspicuously above all the surrounding hills, being the highest point of a bold range of quartzite having its scarp face to the south and dip slope to the north. Mr. J. V. Whyte, of Angorigina Station, kindly drove me out a dis- tance of 12 miles to visit this interesting hill, which official Survey Reports state to be 3,060 ft. in height. The road lay through the Nildottie Gap, up the valley of the Artimore Creek, past Artimore Head Station, and over the shoulder of the Patawarta Hill, on its western side. The journey took in country seen to the north on my trip to the Willigon Creek. | At the base of the hill, on its southern (scarped) side, there are calcareous shales and thin limestones, in vertical position, having a strike E. 20° N. Thin beds of quartzite follow, divided by partings, or thin beds of purple shales, with gradually lowering dip, at 85°, 75°, 65°, 45° N., a few degrees E. -The hill itself is a mountain of almost solid quartzite, which, near the summit, has a dip N. 10° H. at 23°. The stone is softish to hard, siliceous, and, in colour, white to reddish. About half-way up, the quartzite contains a number of siliceous concretions, in the form of balls, ranging in size from that of marbles up to cricket balls. These have a rounded or flattened shape, sometimes possessing an equatorial ring, and are harder than the matrix in which they occur. The great hill is almost bare of vegetation (see Howchin’s ‘‘Geology of South Australia,” fig. 49, p. 66). A course was followed over the western shoulder of the hill and through a gorge on its northern side, where the quartzite showed a dip N. 10° W. at 27°. The path was followed for about 2 miles over the saddle and through the foot hills on its northern side. A magnificent view of the country lying to the north was obtained from this vantage ground. Immediately in front was a flat, about 24 miles 61 in width, drained by the Molkegna Creek, that takes its rise in the Patawarta Range. Beyond this river valley is a relatively level tableland into which the Molkegna Creek has cut, giving the tableland a steep scarp on its southern limits. The scarp shows dark-coloured beds at the top and shaly beds beneath. In outline, this scarp face very much resembles the “‘Reap- hook’’ Range (or Patterton Hill) to the southward of Blinman, and carries the same name from its peculiar shape. Still further north, at a distance of 12 miles from Pata- warta, the southern portions of the Angepena system of hills were in view. They form a remarkable circle, 8 miles in diameter, the dip of the rock being towards the centre of the area, forming a “‘pound,’ similar to the Wilpena Pound. Several creeks take their rise within the enclosed area, uniting to form the Waukawoodna Creek, which finds its outlet at the Waukawoodna Gap. The Patawarta Range appears to be greatly disturbed near the great hill. The dip on the southern side is vertical, while on the eastern side the range is broken, forming a jumble which passes into a bifurcation of the range; the northern section running east, with a few degrees south, to Point Well (on Point Creek), a distance of 6 miles, where it abruptly ends at Ann’s (“Trig.’”’) Hill. The southern branch trends in a south-easterly direction, and when, at about the same distance east as the northern branch, by a swing round to the southward, it converges to the nearly parallel Nildottie Range (or The Bunkers), so that the two ranges, at the point of convergence, are only separated by the Nil- dottie Gap through which the Artimore Creek passes. On the western side of Patawarta, the range curves round to the north-west, and then to the north-east, including Mount Tilley and Mount Hack, both of which are “‘trig.’’ hills, and continues to Angipena Head Station, a distance of 20 miles or further. The Artimore valley widens out from the ‘““gap” in a north-westerly direction, until due south from Patawarta, where it is 2 miles wide. The interval separating the Nildottie (Bunkers) and Patawarta Ranges is occupied by flags, calcareous shales, and thin limestones, with dips from E. to N.E. At the Artimore Head Station, situated within half a mile of the big Nildottie Ranges, outcrops show flags and purple shales with a dip N.E. at 30°. - For several miles, on the return track, the course was along the strike of the purple shales, along the Arti- more Creek, with the Nildottie Range on the southern side and the southern branch of the Patawarta Range on the northern. The former possesses very striking features —it has a dip slope of hard quartzite on its northern side, 62 dipping slightly E. of N. at 45°-50°. This hard back is underlain by softer beds, which, by weathering, cause a nick in the summit, and is followed by another hard quartzite bed, at a somewhat oblique angle to the range, which makes a second peak, followed by softer beds with a second nick at the summit. By these alternating hard and soft beds placed on the oblique the range is cut down, at intervals, to about half its height, forming a succession of house-roof structures, giving the range the appearance of the teeth of a gigantic saw. The supposed resemblance of the depressed area between the peaks to a succession of ‘‘bunks’’ has suggested the name “Bunkers.”’ Mount Lucius, a “trig.’”’ hill, is the highest point of the range. On the southern side of the Nildottie Range, the hills have a rounded form from the weathering of purple shales; they are free from trees but covered with herbage. A little further to the north-west, in the neighbourhood of the Wil- — ligon Creek (mentioned above), the quartzites form the southern side of the range and make a great southern escarp- ment. At the Nildottie Gap, where the two ranges converge, the rocks are much broken, with very steep dip slopes on the Nildottie Range, to the eastward, and a throw-up of calcareous beds between the converging ranges. There has been a contraction of the earth mass, producing folding of the valley beds and the bringing together of the two ranges at the “‘gap,’’ which has been kept open by the erosive action of the Artimore Creek. Strong limestones outcrop in the Angorigina Creek on the eastern side of Blinman. VII. WESTERN SIDE OF BLINMAN. About 1 mile from the mine, on the more northern road from Blinman to Parachilna, there is an outcrop of gneissic granite in large rounded boulders, and on the western side of the granite is a wide basic igneous dyke. Other basic intrusions are seen at intervals going west. About 24 miles from the mine is another outcrop of granite, in large spheroidal boulders, and a basic dyke, run- ning east and west, apparently as a continuation of the same line of igneous activity as that mentioned in the previous paragraph. The associated rocks are greatly altered. Close to the granite is a broken and altered dolomitic bed, which is intimately permeated with hematite and a little copper. About a mile (or little more) to the south-west of the above outcrops is a very large deposit of lamellar hematite (specular iron) in beautiful crystals mixed with siderite. The adjoining country rock consists of dolomitic limestones and flags. 63 As the high range, which runs in a south-west and north- east direction, is approached, foot hills consisting of dolomitic rock and quartzite flags are met with, forming the mouth of the gorge, and basic igneous dykes are seen on both sides of the road, averaging a distance of about a quarter of a mile apart. The one on the southern side of the road makes a prominent outcrop, about 30 ft. in width, but soon either runs out or is obscured by surface drift. The other, on the northern side of the road, is about 25 yards wide and strikes N. 20° W., and, at half a mile, crosses the road. Shortly before this it appears to bifurcate, the two branches with the sedimentary interval having a width of about 100 yards. Shortly before reaching the road it crosses a small creek, near a dolomitic limestone which has a breadth of outcrop of 6 yards, and is much altered by contact with the dyke. The gap in the ranges is about 44 miles from Blinman. The first definite range is composed entirely of quartzite, which, on weathering, breaks up into flags: dip N. 20° W. - at 65°. Mount Elkington is the highest point in this range. The next range, in the same gap, at a distance of 5 miles from Blinman, is more flaggy, with a dip N. 10° E. at, 55°. VIII. SoutH BLINMAN AND RoapD TO WIRREALPA. At a half-mile distance from South Blinman there is a low outcrop, on the right hand, consisting of flagstones with similar rocks forming a prominent range on the left, with a considerable discordance of dip in relation to each other. The beds on the right-hand side of the road show a dip S.E. at 55°, and are overlain by thick.dolomitic limestones ; while those on the left hand make escarpments, facing the west, at a dip N. 70° E. at 35°, and have a gradual slope to the east. Beyond this range, to the eastward, is a considerable plain, 2 miles across, with numerous outcrops of dolomitic rock, interspersed with shales, apparently flat, and even with the ground, or nearly so. The variations of outcrops on the plain are as follow:—Near the last-mentioned range, at its eastern base, are thick limestones almost even with the ground. At 1 mile from the range there are limestones that show a * kind of pseudo-vermiculate structure, with a dip of 15° E. At the end of the next half-mile is a ridge, 20 ft. to 30 ft. in height, consisting of limestones with oolitic structure, and includes some sandstone bands: dip E. 25° S. at 10°. For about another mile the road is on purple shales that form low exposures, the road following very nearly the line of strike. The road passes into Paddy’s Creek, at the head of which are flagstones and shales, with a dip of 17°. 64 ' At 3 miles from South Blinman, dolomitic limestones can be seen on top of range, on the left hand, which pass down to level and cross the creek. At 4 miles from South Blinman, in Paddy’s Creek, a very thick and confused mass of dolomitic limestones and shales come down from the ridge to the creek, the two kinds of stone being crushed together: dip 55° to 90°. These are overlain by soft shales that are greatly contorted. Next follow thin quartzites separated by shale partings: dip E. 10° N. at 45°. At 5 miles distance, a hill on the north side of the creek, about 300 ft. in height, consists of dolomitic beds, in part crushed. Shales occupy the opposite side of the creek : dip E. at 50°. At one-eighth of a mile further, a quartzite bar crosses the creek and forms escarpments on each side of the creek at a spot where the road finally leaves Paddy’s Creek. In the creek are seen indurated shales, with dip N.E. at 60°, while flaggy shales that show on the hill above, and overlie those seen in the creek, have a dip to S.E. at a low angle. This discordance is probably caused by faulting. For the next 2 miles the road follows the strike of purple shales, and a great development of these shales is seen in ranges to the southward, while to the northward the view is bounded by great escarpments of quartzite. At the 7-mile stage, the purple shales are still in evidence (dip N. at 55°), and the road continues on the strike of these beds almost to the Erengunda Creek. At 94 miles from South Blinman, the purple shales, on the southern side of the road, have a dip of 85°, and are faulted. Within a quarter of a mile of Erengunda Creek there is a thick dolomitic bed (not much above the general level), then follow purple sandstones (dip N. 65° EH. at 45°), which rise into a high escarpment on the eastern side of the road (?500 ft.). This is probably the same bed which makes bold escarpments seen on the northern side of the purple shales, as described above. On the northern side of the purple sandstones there is a _ very thick series of limestones, forming a low range on the - southern side of the above-mentioned creek, 90 yards wide, and includes a great variety of dolomitic rocks. The creek has cut its way through these limestones (dip 80° E. of N. at 55°), which cover the whole width of the creek (probably 100 yards), and extend to 38 yards beyond, on the northern side, where they are overlain by calcareous shales. On the Wirrealpa side of the Erengunda Creek is the 65 ‘“‘Half-way Hill’ (otherwise called the “Big Hill’). At 200 yards up this hill there is a quarry in shales that exhibit ‘a small syncline, or kink, in the beds, ending in a dip at 20°. MHalf-way up the hill the beds consist of thin dolomitic limestones, separated by earthy nartings, the latter being indurated by cementation show differential weathering, and stand out from the limestones in relief: dip N.E. at 40°. In the upper part of the hill, on the road, the dolomitic beds become thicker and are separated by shaly partings: dip N. 10° E. at 42°. Near the top of the series are Archaeocya- thinae beds. Quartzites are on the northern side of the great dolomitic belt, and these are succeeded and intercalated with more dolomitic beds. [For descriptions of the section from the ‘‘Big Hill’’ to Wirrealpa, see under Section XV., as that part of the journey was made from Wirrealpa. | IX. WIRREALPA AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. The Wirrealpa Head Station stands on purple sandstone flags which underlie a series of thin-bedded limestones. The general strike of the country is north-easterly, with a south- easterly dip. Behind the station house, soft decomposing flags can be seen’ in the small creek, with a dip E. 20° S. at 70°, the beds making a curve round at the homestead. Within a short distance of the house, bands of oolitic limestone occur in calcareous and sandy shales. These bands are of much interest, as they include layers, up to a few inches in thick- ness, of broken and thickly-matted shells of Obolella, Pteropods, and Trilobites. These beds have every appearance of being shore deposits, their oolitic structure and the frag- mentary condition of the organic remains, closely matted together, all point in that direction. Associated with the same beds are some very fine-grained and laminated sandy layers, which show worm burrows and casts; the burrows are in the form of vertical tube-like passages, ‘while the worm- casts are seen on the flat surfaces of the slabs: dip 8S. 20° EH at 70°. Ata slightly lower position in the series is a remark- able layer of limestone, up to 6 in. in thickness, which is thickly crowded with flattened and spheroidal nodules of Girvanella, up to an inch and more in diameter. Their determination was made by thin microscope sections by which the typical structure of this organism was shown. Some of the nodules thus examined, however, failed to give a clear definition of structure; the very minute form of the tubes had, by molecular rearrangement, become more or less blended with the matrix. 66 A stronger bed of limestone, 10 ft. in thickness, under- lies the fossiliferous beds, just mentioned, and makes a low ridge that can be followed by the eye for a long distance. The limestone has undergone differential weathering from the pre- sence of siliceous material which shows in relief as blotches, casts, and reticulations of an arenaceous character. No organic structure could be detected in these objects in relief, but some of them strongly suggested casts of Pteropods and other organisms. The limestone is laminated at some levels and is subnodular.. Near the homestead, on its northern side, the bed has a dip to the S.E., from which point it gradually curves round to the S., then S.W., then W. 20° S. at 20°, then W. 20° N. at 40°, from which point it makes a strike, for about a mile, parallel with the eastern side of the old road, then makes a sharp twist in the form of the letter S. At 14 miles from the homestead, at a small creek where the road makes a sharp turn to the north, the beds dip W. 20° S. at 80°. About 100 yards from this point the beds are cut by a dip fault and the purple flags are thrown against the faulted face. The purple shales dip S. 20° W. at 65°. The limestone is thrown 53 yards to the S.W., when the dip is S. 20° W. at 70°. On the southern side, the oolitic lime- stones and Gurvanella bed that occur near the Wirrealpa homestead, show on the rise, with a dip W. 20° N. at 65°. These overlying beds are evidently faulted against the lower, as the strike is divergent. On the low rise situated between the small creek and a larger one, at this point, a great number of fragments of the Archaeocyathinae limestone occur, no doubt brought down with the alluvium of the creeks. X. Up a TRIBUTARY OF WIRREALPA CREEK. The main creek passes the station house on its south- eastern side, the bed of which is thickly strewn with boulders and gravel. Near the bottom end of small creek that is a tributary to the Wirrealpa Creek, on the western side of the “Trig’’? Hill, bleached and rotten purple shales have a dip of 90°. In going up the creek the dip decreases. A few hundreds of yards up, shelving purple sandstones, etc., are seen in quarry, with a dip S. at 23°. Massive purple sand- stones dip 8.W. at 18°. Higher up, where the creek bifur- cates, the right-hand branch exposes a 15-in. bluish limestone and a 3-ft. earthy limestone, with a shale bed between: dip W.N.W. at 34°. At 300 yards up the left-hand branch there is a bar of limestone with wavy and concentric structure having a dip W.N.W. About a quarter of a mile up this creek, several large loose stones, up to 2 ft. in diameter, con- taining Archaeocyathinae remains, rest on a bar of limestone, © but the latter does not appear to contain similar remains. 67 At half a mile up this creek a thick limestone with wavy structure occurs (dip W. 10° S.), and is overlain by purple shales. The latter are overlain by other thick wavy limestones that form a prominent hill and cross the creek near a group of gum trees; the dip in creek is S.W. At 300 yards further up another bed of wavy limestone crosses the creek, near the centre of which a large block of blue lime- stone (3ft. in length) thickly studded with Archaeocyathinae rested, but it had no stratigraphical relationship with the bed im situ. Overlying the last-named limestone are more purple shales, and, by folding, the same wavy limestone, underlying the. purple shales, is brought into the creek again, higher up. The creek in which the above observations were made is a small tributary of the main Wirrealpa Creek, which latter passes close by the Wirrealpa Head Station, and according to the pastoral map, is a continuation of the Artimore Creek, which takes its rise at the Patawarta Hill. Numerous loose examples of the Archaeocyathinae limestone were observed both in the wash of the small creek and on the shelving banks that bordered the creek. While I could not locate the parent rock, they are, possibly, local in their origin, as the creek in which they occur is only about 2 miles in length. They may have been derived from some of the thinnish beds of limestone that cross the creek, and which are much broken up, or, possibly, from the main Archaeocyathinae limestone further afield. The country, for miles around, is composed of purple shales, sandstones, and limestones. One piece of fossiliferous rock picked up in the creek was composed almost entirely of long lath-like organisms, the nature of which has not been determined. The creek will well repay further investigation. XI. Tae OBoLELLA LIMESTONE ON THE ROAD TO THE OLD WIRREALPA STATION. Followed the Blinman road for half a mile to the junction of the track leading to the old Wirrealpa station buildings, passing over purple shales, with dip W. 20° N. Following the old road over the first rise (low), flags outcropped, with a dip W. at 33°. Second low rise, thin impure limestones (dip W.). that are neither oolitic nor fossiliferous. Several such thin-bedded impure limestones occur interbedded with the purple shales and arenaceous flags. The strike becomes S. 20° W. (dip W. 20° N.). The road crosses a tributary of the Wirrealpa Creek in which good sections of purple shales and flags are seen: dip N.W. at 30°. In a low rise to the westward of this creek impure streaky limestones occur. In a second small tributary (east of the high rise) calcareous 68 flags strike W. 20° S. (dip S. 20° E. at 25°), and as the road rises above the valley a distinct fault line can be seen on the road that has the effect of splitting the purple shales which dip at a high angle: strike of fault W. 10° 8S. A little further on flags are seen in a washout: dip S. 20° E. at 35°. At about 24 miles from the Wirrealpa Station, a con- siderable rise of flaggy quartzites occurs, in which is situated the Wirrealpa Copper Mine. The mine, which is a small and new venture, is a bedded lode of shale, 2 ft. in width, lying between two beds of quartzite, each being about a foot in thickness: strike W. 10° S. (dip S. 10° E. at 40°). Over the rise in which the copper mine is situated the country gets a twist in which flags strike S. 20° E. (dip W. 20° S. at 28°). This rise forms a bold scarp to the west, at three-quarters o* a mile distant, where the beds are seen to gradually swing round to the strike and dip last quoted. On the top of the next rise on the road, 34 miles from the present station house, the fossiliferous (Obollela) lime- stone occurs. It is evidently the same bed as that which carries Obolella in such numbers near the head station. The limestone is about 5 ft. in thickness and is more solid than the outcrops near the house. The fossils are found mostly in the upper portions of the bed and are rare in the lower por- tions. The rock is almost completely oolitic in structure, and while it carries a diversity of organic remains it is particu- larly characterized by the presence of the brachiopod Obolella. Slabs can be got which are formed by one mass of the valves of this shell: strike of the bed W 20° S. (dip 8. 20° E. at 15°). . en 150 yards across the valley, to the northward, another limestone makes a prominent outcrop. This is the limestone which accompanies the Obolella limestone near the head station. It is known as the ‘‘ridge’’ limestone, or the ‘“‘5-mile ridge,’’ as it makes a prominent feature across the country for 5 or 6 miles. This ridge limestone and the Obolella limestone cut the road at a right angle. Following the fossiliferous limestone westward, the beds cross the Wirrealpa Creek within a few hundred yards of the road, with a strike W. 20° S. and dip S. 20° E. at 20°. Shortly after crossing the great creek the beds swing round sharply to S. 20° W. and dip E. 20° S., passing under the escarpment of red sandstone, mentioned above, which is the same range in which the copper mine is situated. Returning to the road I followed the outcrops of the fossiliferous beds in an easterly direction. Here the dip swings round to the south, then S. 20° W., then S.W. at 23°. 69 At about half a mile from the road the ridge is suddenly broken and twisted over a distance of 150 yards, when the beds again form a ridge as an isolated hill: strike N. 20° W. (dip W. 20° S. at 28°). The ridge is maintained for about 200 yards, when it ends abruptly—cut by a fault—while the limestones are thrown at nearly right angles to their former direction: strike E. 10° S. (dip at 35°). So far as the beds could be followed, by sight, they continue on the same strike ; then, at a mile distant, they appear to curve round towards the east, or some point south of east. _ Starting again from the Obolella bed that crosses the road to the old station, 34 miles from the present Wirrealpa Station, going north, a limestone ridge forms the foot hills of the main escarpment range, and has its strike in the direction of the old station, and appears to be faulted. A very much brecciated limestone occurs between this ridge and the great Archaeocyathinae limestone which outcrops in the creek, a little higher up, where it is exposed in great spheroidal masses. The brecciated limestone {which shows bedding planes) has a dip W.S.W. at 50°, and contains angular fragments of purple quartzites, etc. XII. THe Otp WIRREALPA STATION. At the old Wirrealpa station (7 miles north of the present _ station) there is a great show of the Archaeocythinae lime- stone series, making 100 yards of outcrop: dip W.S.W. at 55°. There is an extraordinary break up of the rocks which are seen in the Wirrealpa Pass. The great quartzite range, which forms a high peak at Wirrealpa Hill, comes to an abrupt end near the old station buildings, and the beds in the valley, as well as much of the thick limestone on the opposite side, have been reduced to a breccia. Towards the centre of the valley the beds are mostly quartzitic, and are so crushed that they form a fault rock of great width. The great quartzite hill disappears—cut off by a fault—on the north-eastern side - of the station ; the limestone on the opposite side of the valley forms a conspicuous peak, which can be seen from a great distance. At the old station the beds dip to the 8.W. Following _ up the creek the beds make a curve. At half a mile distance they dip W. 10° S. at 35°; then a little further, the lime- stone gives a reading of W. 20° S. at 75°, which has the appearance of being almost at right angles to the dip of a conspicuous hill (marked ‘‘First Hill’? on map), with lime- stone near its summit, situated in a direction to the 8.S.W. As near as could be determined, the beds of this distant hill have a dip W. 20° N. at 40°. 70 The country gives every evidence of great and conflicting earth movements. The Wirrealpa Hill, which forms the terminal point of the Mount. Lyall Range (which extends in a north-easterly direction), is the exact counterpart of the Parachilna quartzite escarpment. The dip of this hill is also on the curve. The southern side of its termination dips south-west ; whilst, on the opposite side, the dip is W. 20° N. The Archaeocyathinae limestone overlies the quartzite at the base of the hill (as it also does in the Parachilna Gorge): dip in the centre of the curve is W. at 45°.. The last ex- posure of the quartzite, in the big creek, on its eastern side, has a dip S.W. at 40°. The Archaeocyathinae beds have some features of special interest. In one part the rock is of a light colour and very pure, and although the larger forms of organic remains are somewhat scarce at this horizon, those that are there are well preserved, and the rock mass is largely made up of small sponge spicules, which can only be detected in microscope pre- parations and do not admit of further determination. XIII. Visit to Mount CHAMBERS CREEK. Mount Chambers is an important “trig.’’ hill situated about 23 miles to the south-eastward of Wirrealpa. The inter- vening country is mostly low. Mount Chambers Creek comes in from the north-west and penetrates the mount, where it makes a bold and rugged: gorge with nearly vertical faces. The mount has a limestone cap, formed into a shallow syncline. The lmestone is somewhat impure, resting on purple shales, which show a sudden increase of dip. A fault is probably present, as the rocks, extending over a large out- crop, are in the condition of breccia. In one of the outcrops the shales have a bluish colour: dip W.N.W. at 27°. The limestone underlies thick purple quartzites, which can be seen in the gorge, and also in a small tributary creek that flows into Chambers Creek. In this small tributary there is a remarkable amphitheatre in the rocks, almost hid from view, in which is a spring of good water, and the walls, above the height where a man could reach, are well covered with native drawings, cut into the rock faces: dip W.N.W. at 24°. At a lower stage in Chambers Creek, about 2 miles lower down than Mount Chambers, is an important outcrop of the Archaeocyathinae limestone. XIV. Mount Lyatt. Travelling from the present Wirrealpa Head Station, by the Tea-tree Well road, at half a mile distant beyond the gate which admits to the Woolly Paddock, a small lime- 71 stone is exposed; it has a laminated structure and is under- going change to manganic and ferric oxides: dip S. 10° W. at 30°. 7 3 : The Mount Lyall Range extends from the old station, in a north-easterly direction, for a distance of about 3 miles. At Mount Lyall (fig. 2) it forms a sharp angie with a range that comes down from the north. At the angle is a prominent hill, about 150 ft. in height, which shows a scarp face to the south-east. This hill is a solid mass of limestone, brownish in colour, dolomitic, and very compact. The section repre- sents the lower beds of the Archaeocyathinae series. These beds follow the strike of the northern range of hills, but they appear to run out to the northward. It is probable that the scarp face of the hill is a fault plane. The hill just mentioned has a dip at the summit N. 10° E. at 15°. From the top of the hill it could be seen that the beds on the north 4 Cy AM ett as ° I] <= Cig a aie Caan pe ee ee oS Me Lyart w ta] 4) see AES S > RG Ry aa UT, SOO eon : cy - CA REE : XX S WS x SS QS: ~ Y Y iy Ut SY Fig. 2. Geological Section of Mount Lyall. side of Mount Lyall were much disturbed, dipping at various angles both to the Mount Lyall Range and also to one another. The peak of Mount Lyall dips N.W. at 60°. The north- eastern end of the range is broken by (?) two faults. Mount Lyall peak dips as above, then on the eastern side the dip somewhat suddenly changes to nearly horizontal. After a few hundred yards at this level there is a sudden break, when the purple shales, much crumpled, are thrown down to the face of the quartzites with a dip N. 20° W. at 35°. A crush-zone occupies the fault area for a thickness of about 9 yards.. A series of underlying dolomitic limestones, purple shales, and quartzites follow with a rising dip, going east, to 50° (see fig. 2). Just round the northern end of the range there is an oblong dyke of intrusive rock. On the eastern side of the dyke there is a crush-rock, composed of flaggy shales, of considerable extent. This is probably on the line of fault, noted above, that cuts through the north-eastern part of the range. There are low exposures of the Archaeocyathinae lime- stone, in the form of a fragment (probably hmited by two 72 fault planes), with a strike W. 20° S., and this is cut off by a fault that throws the quartzites against the limestone in an oblique line. Nearer the foot of the range the lower beds of limestone in the series occur, having a dip N. 20° E. at about 25°. A little south of this, cut off by faulting, is a small quarry in which the decomposed sandstone is seen, on one side, having a dip W. 10° N. at 15°, and is thrown down, on the eastern side of the quarry, with a dip E. 20° N. at 75°. The strike of the fault, which cut off the Archaeocya- thinae limestone, seems to have a bearing W. 20° N. The end of the limestone, where faulted, shows metasomatic change to iron and manganese oxides. On the western side of the fault are purple shales (greatly contorted), thin limestones, and flags. The general section of the Mount Lyall Range closely resembles that seen in the Parachilna Gorge, but is more disturbed than the latter. XV. From WIRREALPA TO THE ‘‘Bic Hi1uu’’ 4) on THE Roap TO BLINMAN. At 4 miles out from the station (after having passed over a flat of purple shales and flags, with an occasional thin bed of impure limestone), the red sandstone of the scarp hill, near the Wirrealpa Creek, comes down to the flat and crosses the road: dip S. at 15°. The road runs on the strike of these beds for a mile, then the sandstones swing round to south-east, with an increase in the angle of dip, and are underlain by a series of limestone bands that have an oolitic structure, which measure, in the creek and sides, about 50 yards of outcrop: dip E. 20° S. at 80°. These oolitic limestones are the same as have been spoken of above as the Obolella limestones. Within a few yards they are followed by the ‘ridge’ lime- stone, which forms a kind of rampart 12 ft. high: dip E. 20° S. at 65°. On the northern side of these beds, there are soft decomposed flags and shales, which are perpendicular, or, for a few yards, reversed, to W. 20° N., with a decreasing dip, and then back again to easterly. A creek runs in the form of a loop between these outcrops. At 6 miles out from the station there are two conical hills, situated on the western side of the road, which are either igneous dykes, chimneys, or (?) sheets. The highest is probably 300 ft. in height, and con. .ts of a dark-coloured basic rock; but whilst it passes to the top of the adjoining (4) This is quite distinct from the ‘‘Big Hill” which occurs between Parachilna and Blinman although known, locally, by the same name. ee 73 hill, separated by a deep and narrow valley, no continuity can be traced between the two intrusions. Indeed, stratified beds of limestone and decomposed shales can be traced almost uninterruptedly across the dividing area. The beds are much disturbed in their strike and angles of dip adjacent to the igneous rock. There is a curious, and not easily explained, relation between the igneous rock and the sedimentary deposits. A limestone appears to go up to the centre of the igneous dyke (or (?) sheet), in the centre of the line of strike. The limestone has a dip EH. at 70°, whilst the strike of the igneous rock is N.E. Separated by a belt of rotten shales and quartzite flags, 100 yards in width, is another igneous dyke (or (?) sheet), near to the road. Its composition is very distinct from those previously mentioned, although on about the same line of strike. At the north-east side of the hill there is a bold outcrop of rock consisting of limestone and shale, closely adjacent to the igneous rock. Following these igneous outcrops, in a westerly direction, is Sandalwood Flat, about 1 mile in length, in which the rocks continue mostly on the same tine of strike. At the northern end of Sandalwood Flat, and on the same side of the road as the preceding, another igneous rock is seen in a steep cliff in a creek. It has the same strike (N.E.) as the smaller igneous hill, next the road, described above, and possesses a similar rock texture. A second ridge, on the westward, rises to about 300 ft. in height. The lower half of the hill consists of a hard laminated and dark-lined quartzite: strike E. 20° S. at 90°. The upper half of the ridge is a very close-grained igneous rock, with features distinct from the two other varieties already mentioned. Near the base of the ‘‘Big Hill,’’ on its eastern side, an important basic igneous dyke is exposed on the road. Its strike is, apparently, north and south, and is 34 yards wide. It occurs in dolomitic limestone, which latter is somewhat - altered by contact with the intrusive dyke, and contains some copper ores, as well as a very large mass of ferrugineous and copper- -stained quartz. There are thus five important igneous intrusions near together and adjacent to the road on the Wirrealpa side of the ‘Big Hill.”’ I very much regretted that no opportunity presented itself for -’ aking a more detailed examination of this very interesting ~ igneous field. As the “‘Big Hill” is approached from the eastern side, thick limestones appear on the eastern side of the road: dip E. 20° N. at 15°. A sandstone occurs in the creek, with a dip W. 20° S. at 55°. It is, apparently, included in the 74 thick limestones, or, possibly, is nipped in by a fault; the beds seem to bifurcate about the spot. The limestone ex- posed on the eastern side of the road has the appearance of a shallow syncline. The great mass of limestone that forms the main part of the ‘‘Big Hill’? comes up from the Eren- gunda Creek (see under Section VIII.). In its purest por- tions it forms a white and grey marble (dip N. 30° E. at 30°), with remains of Archaeocyathinae. The best fossili- ferous horizon is in the upper beds, near the public road. [The observations at this point join on to those given in the traverse from Blinman to the ‘‘Big Hill,’ in Section VEE] XVI. Visit To THE GRINDSTONE RANGE, BALCORACANA CREEK, AND THE WILKAWILLINA GORGE. This trip was in a southerly and south-westerly direction from Wirrealpa Station. Going in a south-westerly direction, the track was over flaggy sandstones. At 1 mile distant, in small creek, soft sandy flags were exposed, showing false bedding: dip W. at 25°. At 3 miles out, descending to a valley (three-quarters of a mile in width), the exposures were still sandy flags, much false bedded: dip E. 20° S. at 35°. In a dry .creek, near the centre of the valley, sandstone and flags have a dip EH. 20° N. at 35°. After crossing the valley and ascending a small rise, I passed over into the Balcoracana Creek. This creek, which is the most important waterway in the neighbourhood, takes its rise in The Bunkers, which are a continuation of the Nildottie Ranges that occur on the southern side of Patawarta. There was a strong flow of water in the creek at the time of passing. On the southern side of the Balcoracana Creek is situated the Grindstone Range, or the ‘“‘Little Bunkers.’’ These form an isolated range of hills, about 3 miles from Wirrealpa, and are intersected, at one end, by the Balcoracana Creek. They consist of purple sandstones and shales, the latter, wasting more rapidly than the former, produce an outline of peaks and depressions, from which feature they have received the name of ‘‘bunkers,’’ on account of their resemblance to the main range of The Bunkers, on their western side. The ‘“‘white cliff,” or the ‘‘grindstone cliff,’’. in the range, is formed of a sharp fine-grained sandstone, which is used locally for making grindstones, from which the range has received its secondary name: strike S. 20° W., dip easterly at 63°. Went up stream, in the Balcoracana Creek, to the junction of small creek which comes in from the north-east. The main creek channel, almost immediately, going up stream turns due west and makes a gorge that penetrates the high 75 range (The Bunkers), which has a south-south-easterly direc- tion from the “Big Hill’ of Erengunda Creek to the locality under examination. Having reached the base of the high range, the eastern side of the range was found to form a dip slope of the Archaeocyathinae limestones, from top to bottom, but the fossils are not very well preserved. The dip of the beds, at the bottom of the range, reads H. at 48°. The limestone beds have a rolling curviture along the strike which, at times, causes angles in the outcrops, with slightly varying directions of dip. I was informed by Mr. Napier that the range has a steep slope on its western side and is followed by a high range of hard quartzite rock, similar to that which accom- panies the Archaeocyathinae beds at Wirrealpa Hill, at the “Big Hill,’’ on the Erengunda Creek, and elsewhere. These quartzites, with their interbedded shales, form the true ‘“‘Bunkers.”’ In a small creek, on the eastern side of the range, there is a thin bed of laminated limestone that is extremely con- torted, making acute v-shaped folds, with a dip S.W. at 45°. This bed is similar to the perpendicular and contorted thin limestone met with, in about the same stratigraphical posi- tion, at the old Wirrealpa station. A quartzite overlies the limestone (as it does at the old station), then follow rotten purple slates, extending over a distance of half a mile, between the base of the range and the Balcoracana Creek. At the southern side of the Balcoracana Creek, facing the main range, is a high hill showing a scarp face to the valley. The beds, seen in section, consist of thick, soft, and red-coloured sandstones, interbedded with purple and other coloured, thin-bedded, argillaceous beds, which cross the creek near the east and west bend of the stream. Resting on the dip-slope of the last-named red sandstones and shales is the bed corresponding to the Five-mile Ridge limestone, which, at a distance of a few yards, is followed by the oolitic and Obdolella limestone (see Section). At the immediate junction of the north-easterly tributary (mentioned above) with the main creek, a fine and complete section of these limestones occurs in the creeks, with a dip E. 10° N.. at 45°. The fossiliferous limestone is sometimes flaggy and nodular in structure. ‘The bed is rich in Obolella and other Brachiopods (in some cases the interior of the shells is filled with rhombohedral crystals of calcite), Pteropods, and abundant fragments of Trilobites, but none were seen suffi- ciently complete to permit of further determination. The fossiliferous zone, so far as a few minutes’ examination could determine, was limited to a few inches in thickness. 76 Overlying the above-mentioned limestones is a_ thick series of soft, thick-bedded, red sandstones, interbedded with sandy shales, usually red coloured, with dip E. 10° S. at 48°. These beds are intersected by small creeks, which have carved out fair-sized hills on the western side of the main creek. In superior position to the last-named red sandstone is a limestone, 5 ft. wide, laminated and contorted and inter- bedded with purple shales, having a dip E. 20° N. at 65°. Then follow, in ascending order, purple and greenish shales with thin bands of limestone, then a series of small ridges showing scarp faces to the north-west, consisting of red sand- stones and flags. A high ridge follows before reaching a valley which separates the latter from the Grindstone Range, or Little Bunkers, as described above. The north-eastern angle of the Grindstone Range was then followed, where the range passes down to soft and decom- posing sandy flags and shales, which cross the Balcoracana Creek on that side: dip E. 20° N. at 50°, changing to a dip EH. WILKAWILLINA GORGE. This gorge occurs in the Mount Billy Creek (or Ten- “mile Creek), situated about 6 miles to the southward of the Grindstone Range. A remarkable exposure of the Archaeo- cyathinae limestone occurs at this spot. The limestone is associated with a great range of hills that are about 600 ft. in height: strike N.W. (dip S.E. at 15°). The fossiliferous limestone forms the bed of the creek for about a quarter of a mile in length. Near its upper part the rock is almost one mass of Archaeocyathinae. The matrix, as a whole, is a white crypto-crystalline marble which, throughout the greater thickness of the limestone, only occasionally shows the presence of the fossils; the latter, most likely, having been largely destroyed in the alteration of the rock texture, but near the top the fossils are better preserved. The most striking feature of this outcrop is that the grain of the stone permits its ready fracture, in such a way that the fossil ‘‘cups’’ can be broken out from the matrix so as to show the external form of the organism. This is the only instance that has come under my observation in which this can be done. The matrix in which the Archaeocyathinae are usually included is of an amorphous and refractory character, and is of the same nature within the fossils as in the surrounding matrix, so that the rock fractures uninfluenced by the presence of the organic remains. The only approximate condition for obtaining the objects free from the matrix, naturally, in the normal limestone, is where the organism has undergone silicification, by which the fossil is produced in relief on the weathered surface, as in the case of the Ajax specimens. 17 The fossiliferous limestone in the Wilkawillina Gorge is overlain by purple shales, and underlain by strong beds of purple sandstone, divided by thinner beds or partings of the same kind. XVII. LirHoLtocic FEATURES. The country dealt with in this paper supplies the most extensive series of the Upper Cambrian beds that has come under my observation. The lithology of the beds agrees very closely with the occurrence of beds of the same age in other parts of South Australia, and include quartzites, sandstones, shales (or slates), limestones, and intrusive igneous rocks. The Quartztes are of two kinds. (a) A light-coloured, very fine-grained, and siliceous rock that possesses great resistance to weathering, and forms pointed and serrated outcrops that- make prominent features in the landscape. A rock of this kind usually underlies the Archaeocyathinae lime- stones. (6) The other variety is of a dull-red or purple colour, and is usually divided up into layers of a few inches, or a foot or two, in thickness, separated from each other by indurated shales or finely-laminated bands of quartzite. The term ‘‘flaggy’’ has been used in the present paper to describe features of this kind. Sandstones occur of various colours, mostly red. These are especially characteristic of the eastern side of the ranges. They are, usually, more or less argillaceous in composition, finely-laminated, and cross-bedded, generally soft, and some- _ times friable. They have been utilized, to some extent, as flags; but are, generally, too soft for such a purpose. Shales (or (?)Slates).—These form the predominant element in the sedimentary rocks of the district. In some instances they may have developed an incipient cleavage and could be called slates; but, in a general way, they are readily fissile, splitting on the bedding planes, and from intimate jointing break up into cuboidal fragments. As it is not always an easy matter to draw a line of distinction between slates and shales in the field, the term ‘‘shale’’ has been adopted, uniformly, for this class of rock throughout the paper. They sometimes possess a greenish or drab colour, but they are pre- ponderantly of a purplish tint and are, collectively, classed as “purple shales.’”’ Like the quartzites and sandstones, they - are often divided up into definite layers of a few inches thick and have the features of ‘‘flags.’’ Occasionally they make prominent heights, but more commonly they weather rapidly and make low ground. The Limestones are both numerous and of varied types. Magnesia enters largely into the composition of many of them. Some are true dolomites, while many others have a 78 marked dolomitic character. As it is often impossible, in the field, to distinguish a true dolomite from some dolomitic limestones, it was considered better to describe this class of rock, as a whole, as dolomitic limestones. There are bluish limestones, exactly similar in appearance, to the Carboniferous - limestones of Europe; siliceous limestones, and arenaceous limestones. Many of the thinner limestones have an oolitic structure, and it sometimes happens that the oolitic grains and rounded sand grains occur together in a rock in about equal quantities. In one instance (in Wilkawillina Gap) an oolitic limestone, at one particular zone, had become altered to an oolitic flint. The Archaeocyathinae limestones form a group by themselves. They are, usually, relatively pure, but in places show siliceous and earthy veins and patches, which weather into relief. The same happens when the included fossils have undergone some measure of silicification, when they make most interesting and showy faces on the weathered sur- face of the rock. Occasionally the limestone partakes of the nature of a marble, either dark coloured or nearly white. A change of texture, of this kind, is generally destructive of the organic remains, which become altered and indistinguish- able from the cryptocrystalline matrix. The Archaeocya- thinae outcrops in the district appear to be limited to two distant localities, the one on the western side of Blinman and the other on the eastern. In the western outcrops the beds form the foot hills of the Flinders Ranges, facing the western plains, where they extend both north and south of the Para- | chilna Gorge. In the eastern areas of outcrop they are more irregularly placed. They follow, to some extent, The Bunkers, running in a south-eastern direction, where outcrops were visited at the “‘Big Hill,’ at the head of the Balcoracana Creek, and in the Wilkawillina Gorge, measuring from point to point a distance of 16 miles.. There is, apparently, another line of strike that passes in a north-easterly direction, diverging from the ‘“‘Big Hill,’’ passing by the old Wirrealpa station; a small faulted patch occurs near Mount Lyall; and then, following in the same direction (after a distance of about 20 miles), there is another important outcrop of the limestone in the Mount Chambers Creek. The Igneous Rocks are restricted, so far as the present observations are concerned, to two localities; one of these is in the neighbourhood of Blinman (especially developed on the western side of the township), and the other occurs on the eastern side of the “‘Big Hill,’’ nearer to Wirrealpa. The occurrence of intrusive pipes, of a circular outline, are inter- esting features as indicating ancient volcanic vents that have been cut back by denudation. Petrographically, the rocks 79 belong, mostly, to the diabase types (see Benson, ‘‘Basic Rocks of Blinman,’’ Roy. Soc. 8. Austr., xxxiii., 1909). The amount of alteration induced in the adjacent rocks by con- tact metamorphism varies considerably with the different dykes. In some cases, little or no alteration can be detected, while in others some quartz and allied minerals appear to owe their development to contact with the dyke. Siderite, hematite, limonite, and copper ores are frequently found in dolomitic limestones near the junction of these beds with an igneous dyke. It is an interesting fact that on the south- eastern spurs of Mount Remarkable a small field of igneous dykes occur, having similar petrographical features to those found near Blinman, and which intrude rocks of a similar geologic age (see Thiele, Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xl., 1916, p. 580). The association of igneous dykes, dolomitic limestones, and copper ores is a characteristic feature of the Blinman mining field. Dr. Lander’s mine, which I visited, situated near to Blinman, about a quarter of a mile to the southward ‘of the old Blinman to Parachilna road, is typical of most of these mines. The ore occurs in bunches, immediately below an igneous dyke, which is intrusive at a low angle. The carbonates and oxides of copper, siderite, and hematite, together with some quartz, are distributed through a metalli- ferous zone, mixed with vein stuff, up to 9 ft. in diameter. Below the ore zone is a'broken-down shale, containing a little ore, and this latter rests on dolomitic limestone. The Scenic Aspects of the Flinders Ranges are often very striking, and certainly unique in South Australian scenery. Under arid conditions, the weathering agencies have sculptured the country into sharp and rugged outlines, pro- ducing bare hills and mural cliffs. The prevailing red colour of the rocks also gives an unusual tone to the landscapes and lends itself to uncommon colour effects. When standing on some vantage point, commanding a view of the surrounding hills, especially with the slanting rays of the setting sun thrown upon the scene, the picture is full of a weird beauty. The bare scarps of the ranges look like enclosing walls, the red rocks possess a higher colour by reflecting the lurid sun- set, and the glow on the rising mists of the valleys all combine to ‘give the appearance of a vast furnace or the floor of a smoking volcano. XVIII. Tectonic PHENOMENA. The main geological structures of the region under description are relatively simple. The great fault-scarp, facing west, by which the Flinders Ranges are suddenly cut 80 off in that direction and are replaced by the flat and sandy shores of Lake Torrens, makes a very sharp boundary line, both topographically and geologically. At the entrance to the gorge the Archaeo- cyathinae limestones are at a lower level and considerably lower angle of dip than the great scarp quartzite on which they rest. This strati- graphical discordance may possibly represent an angular unconformity in the geological suc- cession, separating two series of beds that are of different ages. Its evidence in this direction is rendered doubtful, however, in that the displacement (if such exists) occurs on the nearly vertical face of the escarpment which forms the eastern wall of the great South Aus- tralian rift valley. This line of major faulting is accompanied by many secondary fractures and block faulting, the respective ‘‘blocks’’ settling down at various angles. It was a matter of regret that the necessary time could not be spared for making such detailed observations as might have settled this interesting question. The tectonics of the ranges are fundament- ally based on periclinic and cycloclinice fold- ings, together with much lateral movement. The long curves of the folds canbe noted from the train, going north, from Mernmerna Station (fig. 3). At the latter position, the western scarps of the Elder Range make a bold feature; and a little further north, the western wall of the Wilpena Pound Range is equally impressive. A rough sketch of these mountains in section is given here. Blinman occupies the centre B a great earth movement of elevation. The tangential forces have acted from all sides, almost equally, with the effect that the whole district, from Parachilna Gorge to Wirrealpa Old Sta- tion, in a diameter of 20 miles, has been raised in the form of a vast dome. The upper b . | Mernmerna WilpenaPound Fig. 3. A Diagrammatic Sketch-section from Mernmerna to Blinman, 40 miles. beds form the outer rims of the dome, and the centre, much reduced by denudation, exposes the lower members of the series. According to official figures, Blinman has a height of 2,020 ft. above sea level. Parachilna railway station, on the plain, is 465 ft. above the sea Wirrealpa 81 level, and the great escarpment at the Parachilna Gorge is probably 1,000 ft. higher than the railway. The quaquaversal dip of the beds around the apical portion of the dome is fairly consistent as to direction, but varies much in the angle of dip. The Archaeocyathinae lime- stones represent the highest exposed horizon on the western side, the beds in superior position having been thrown down by the great north and south fault, and have become obscured by recent alluvia and blown sand. From the gorge on the “west to Blinman, a distance of about 10 miles, the prevailing dip is westerly. From Blinman to the Archaeocyathinae beds at the old Wirrealpa station, on the east, at a similar distance of about 10 miles, the prevailing dip is easterly. At about the same distance to the northward of Blinman is Patawarta Hill, which probably represents the thick quartzites that underlie the Archaeocyathinae limestones at the Parachilna Gorge, and, if so, those fossiliferous limestones might be expected to occur on its northern slopes. A 10-mile section of rocks that lie in one direction, at a fairly high angle of dip, would make a very thick series, and suggests the possibility of faulting along the strike that might cause a repetition of the beds and give a fictitious appearance as to their thickness. Minor faults were recognized in several places, but nothing came under my observation that looked like a repetition of the beds on a large scale, although in a single traverse such an occurrence might easily be overlooked. One of the features of the district is the great amount of crush-rock that is developed, at intervals, over scores of square miles. This class of rock takes all the forms usually developed under such conditions, v2z., crush-breccia, crush-conglomerate, over-riding, and sometimes telescoping, when the shales and dolomites interpenetrate one another. Some of the purple shales are, in places, crushed into a confused mass in which signs of bedding can only be recognized in disconnected frag- ments. These features are, perhaps, in greatest evidence where the igneous rocks are in close proximity. The only locality where I have noticed autoclastic phenomena in any degree comparable to this is along the flanks of the great horst that forms Mount Remarkable (see Howchin, ‘‘Geology of Mount Remarkable,’ Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xl., 1916, p. 545). In the latter case the crush-rock has been caused by vertical faulting on a large scale; in the northern Flinders Ranges, lateral faulting, by a sliding horizontal motion, has been of common occurrence, and would, probably, be more potential in causing “crush’’ than vertical movements. The beds above the horizon of the Archaeocyathinae lime- stone, which outcrop near the Wirrealpa Station and in the upper part of the Balcoracana Creek, are the highest members EE EE EE Ee —eeee OEE ES EEE ESE oe . 82 of the Upper Cambrian Division that have been hitherto recorded in South Australia. With the exception of a thin bed of laminated and contorted limestone that occurs a little higher in the series than the Archaeocyathinae horizon, these top beds are not much disturbed. They consist, mostly, of softish and highly-coloured sandstones and shales with one highly fossiliferous horizon (the Obolella limestone), which is of no great thickness. As to the physical conditions under which the beds were laid down, the evidence seems to point to shallow water, if not- dry land conditions, at some horizons. Some of the limestones have a nodular, or subglobular, kind of structure, which 1s seen on the weathered surface, and when split by the hammer break up into more or less rounded fragments, which have a close likeness to the surface concretionary travertines that form in calcareous soils under an arid climate. A specimen picked up near the old Wirrealpa station showed what had been, in the first instance, projecting cups of Archaeocyathinae, and then were contemporaneously surrounded by concretionary limestone; such as might have been formed following on the elevation of a reef of these organisms above the level of the sea. The very common occurrence of oolitic limestones, and oolitic sand- stones in which the oolitic grains and rounded sand grains are mixed up together (very much as they occur in present-day deposits laid down in a shallow lake, near Robe, which is alternately wet and dry) (see Howchin’s ‘‘Geology of South Australia,” p. 176, figs. 152-154). Still further, the red and friable sandstones, much cross-bedded, near the top of the series have features that favour the idea of a terrestrial origin. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV. Fig. 1. Geological sketch-section of outcrops from the mouth of the Parachilna Gorge to the vicinity of Bliinman. Fig. 2. Geological sketch-section from Blinman to the northern side of the Erengunda Creek. Fig. 3. Geological sketch-section from The Bunkers to the Eastern Plains. Note.—The Geological Sections, as described above, are made as detailed as the nature of the outcrops permitted. The rapid . changes, in succession, of quartzites, shales, and limestones, within short distances, render it impossible to note such occurrences, in detail, within the limits of the scale adopted. The dip of the beds, also, varies greatly, in places, within short distances. It must therefore be taken for granted that the sections are, to a large extent, generalized rather than exact. A further difficulty arose from the quaquaversal curves in the dip, so that in some © parts of the section the line follows a true direction of dip, while, in others, it approximates to the line of strike, in which case important beds, situated on one, or other, of the sides of the section, and running parallel with it, could not be shown in section. 83 Two NEw SPECIES OF LYCOSA FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA. By R. H. Puiieine, M.B., C.M. [Read November 10, 1921.] PuaTE V. Up to the present seventy species of Lycosa have been described as Australian. This is probably only a fraction ot - the whole of this immense genus existing on our continent. Owing to the great powers of locomotion of the young Lycosa it is not safe to view every Australian species as endemic without further investigation. Some eremeian species also show variations in colour of almost specific value; but con- necting variations can be found which even invalidate their varietal value. The two species described are certainly new, and the types are preserved in formalin in the collection of the South Australian Museum. I have found that the species of Lycosa described by H. R. Hogg (P.Z.S. Lond., 1905, vol. ii., p. 569), and pre- served in the South Australian Museum collection, are, from long immersion in alcohol, in poor condition for identification. LYCOSA SKEETI, 0. sp. Q. Cephalo-thorax light brown, clothed with silvery- grey hair; a darker brown median streak with four similar streaks on each side. Mandibles concolorous, clothed with long silvery hair. Lip maxillae and sternum dark brown. Abdomen light brown above, dark brownish-black below, spinnerets of the same colour, lighter in shade. Legs and palpi the same colour as the thorax. They are clothed with fine silvery hairs interspersed with strong black spines. The eye area is prominent, and the arrangement of the eyes, which are black and shining, is of the ordinary Lycosa type. In the eye area and on the clypeus are strong, erect, yellowish-brown hairs. The markings of the dorsum of the abdomen are as follow :—Posteriorly, two nearly straight black parallel lines meeting at their ends; anteriorly to this, three parallel sinuate lines; in front, two lateral black, forked lines, not meeting medially. 84 Epigyne small, shining brown of simple form, v2z., two depressions with a median ridge. Total length, 65 mm.; thorax abd., 25 mm. This striking species of Lycosa was sent from Wilson, Flinders Range. Type in South Australian Museum. Male unknown. Named after Mr. H. C. Skeet, of Melbourne, an enthusiastic collector for other naturalists. Lycosa PERINFLATA, 0. sp. Cephalo-thorax broad, compressed, nearly circular in . outline; warm reddish-brown, covered with fine white adpressed hairs. Median brown lines extending on to eye area in front, uniting behind and then spreading into a broad fork with radiating brown lines and spots on either side, running into a brown splashed area on the margins of the thorax. Maxillae dark shining brown with thick tomentum of fine white hairs interspersed with darker brown ones. Lip and maxillae reddish-brown, sternum and coxae darker with fine clothing of black hairs. Abdomen above, dirty white with four discrete broad greyish-black bands interspersed with small spots and a similar densely-spotted area at sides of abdomen. Below, yellowish-white with a broad central black band narrowing towards spinnerets, which are likewise black. The whole abdomen is clothed with a fine white tomentum. The eye area, of usual shape, appears white from the thickness of the tomentum. Legs dark brown, under-surface of tibiae densely clothed with white hairs, showing marked contrast with the remain- ing joints. Total length, 73 mm.; thorax abd., 27 mm. This robust Lycosa was found at Whyte-Yarcowie, South Australia. Type in South Australian Museum. Male unknown. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V. Tycosa skeeti, n. sp. Nat. size. Tycosa perinflata, n. sp. Nat. size. 85 THE PARASITES OF AUSTRALIAN BIRDS. By J. Burton Cietanp, M.D. [Read May 11, 1922.] Apart from the interest centred in themselves zoologically as species and genera of animals, the parasites of birds may claim special attention from ornithologists on several grounds connected with their hosts. It is with the bird aspect that this contribution deals. The ecto- and endo-parasites of birds may affect their health. In a state of Nature we have little evidence of this as far as our native species are concerned. Attention may be called, however, to the helminth ova found in tumours in the intestine of a black duck. In certain cases, ornithologists may perhaps gain con- siderable help from a study of bird parasites in establishing generic affinities in otherwise doubtful cases. With some exceptions, and excluding occasional accidental infections of birds of other genera, both such external parasites as mallophaga and such internal ones as the helminths are probably remarkably specific as regards their hosts: that is, are confined to one species of bird only or to a few closely- allied species. In a broader sense, this may also apply to genera. The reason for this specification is clear. The ancestors of the parasites undoubtedly began their parasitic career as accidental infestations, individuals gaining access to their hosts in some way, being able to resist the efforts of these hosts to dislodge them, and being capable of nourish- ing and reproducing themselves in their new environment. In the course of time they became structurally more and more modified to fit themselves for the parasitic life. Modifica- tions suitable for one host might be unsuitable for others. Passage would more easily be achieved from one host to another of the same species. During the period in which the parasites were undergoing these marked evolutionary changes, their hosts would also be doing the same. Some- times the parasites would change structurally more quickly or more markedly than their hosts, and then we would have perhaps two or more closely-allied species of parasite in one specific host or in two or in several closely-related hosts. In other cases the parasites might remain more or less stationary, whilst considerable structural changes might occur in several directions in the descendants of the original host. 86 We then might have identical or closely-allied parasites in two or more related species or in closely connected genera. A generic or even family relationship might thus be shown, and it is possible that a disputed point might be settled in this way. Thus, supposing a genus X appears to be related either to the genus Y or to the genus Z, if X and Y have closely related parasites and those of Z are distantly connected, then support is found for the relationship with Y rather than Z. L. Harrison (Parasit., vili., 1915, pp. 88-100), in an article on ‘““Mallophaga from Apteryx, and their significance, with a note on the Genus fallicola.’”’ deals in an interesting way with the vaiue of these ecto-parasites as showing probable affinities amongst their hosts. | The following extract from Nature (No. 2330, vol. 93, June 25, 1914, p. 439) shows another interesting phase of this subject:—“From a paper by Mr. H. Victor Jones in the February number of the Zoologist on certain parasites of birds, we learn that while rooks and the diurnal birds-of- prey—probably owing to the strength of their gastric juices— are practically free from intestinal infestations of this kind, curlews show, on the average, no fewer than 49°5 per head. As there seems to be a connection in many species between the numbers of external and internal parasites, it is suggested that some of the former may serve as hosts for the latter during the earlier stages of their development.”’ There is clearly very much work still to be done in the > parasitology of Australian birds. I have now collected a considerable number of mallophaga and worms which await description when our few investigators in these subjects have time to consider them. Cestodes have already been described from 44 species of our birds. J record their occurrence in 59 species, of which 50 are new hosts. Cestodes, it will be seen from the attached list, are rare in our wild parrots, have not yet been met with in our cuckoos, are common in the honey-eaters, and occur in several of the Ptilonorhyn- chide, as well as in other genera. J have not found any in the Acanthizas (9 species and 30 individuals) or in Sericorms (4 species and 15 individuals). Here it may be mentioned that, once helminth parasites are “dropped’’ by a_host- species or host-genus, with rare exceptions it is very unlikely that such species or genus will ever again become infested by such parasites. In other words, these parasites are usually so highly specialized that they can only exceptionally adapt themselves to hosts of a quite different kind, and new true parasites derived from semi-parasites only very rarely arise. 87 The following summarises the results of previous records and my findings in birds examined :— Cestodes recorded previously in 45 species. Found by me in 59, of which 50 are new hosts. Adult nematodes recorded previously in 21 species. Found by me in 22, of which 15 are new hosts. Microfilariae recorded previously in 34 species. | Acanthocephala recorded previously in 21 species. Found by me in 10, of which 6 are new hosts. Trematodes recorded previously in 38 species. Found by me ry ft. Fleas recorded previously in 1 species. Found by me in 2, of which 1 is a new host. Hippoboscidae recorded previously in 3 species. Found by me in 1, which is a new host. Mallophaga recorded previously in 64 species. Found by me ... _ in 65, of which 54 are new hosts. Ticks recorded previously in 1 species. Found by me in 4, of which 3 are new hosts. Mites recorded previously in 18 species. Found by me in 22, of which 21 are new hosts. Haemosporidia recorded previously in 47 species. Haemoflagellates recorded previously in 12 species. In 302 individuals, comprising 132 species, no entozoa were detected. Though it is probable that, in some of these, parasites were overlooked (and in some of the species they have been previously recorded), the number of infested birds thus missed is probably small. No ectozoa were detected on 61 individuals belonging to 46 species. The numbers following the names of the birds are those of the check-list published in the Emu, vol. xii., 1912-3. Pr. I.—ReEcorpDED PARASITES oF AUSTRALIAN BrRDs. 1. Cestodes.") Order CASUARITFORMES. Dromaius novae-hollandiae (No. 1).—Davainea australis, Krabbe; Cotugnia collini, Fuhr. Casuarius australis (No. 4.)—Cestodes in intestine, N.Q., Mac- gillivray (Emu, xvii., 1917, p. 80). Order COLUMBIFORMES. Leucosarcia picata (No. 40).—Davainea sp., Justn. Order PODICIPEDIFORMES. Podiceps gularis (No. 57).—Taenia novae-hollandiae, Krefft; Taenia paradoxa, Krefft. (1) Unless a full reference is given, the references to the various records will be found in a paper by Dr. T. Harvey Johnston on ‘Internal Parasites recorded from Australian Birds’? (Emu, vol. xli., 1912, p. 105), which forms the basis for this List. 88 Order PROCELLARIIFORMES. Diomedea exulans (No. 94).—Tetrabothrius sp., Jnstn. Diomedea melanophrys (No. 95).—Tetrabothrius sp., Jnstn. Order CHARADRITFORMES. Lobivanellus lobatus (No. 128).—Gyrocoelia sp., Jnstn. (Ann, Trop. Med. and Paras., vili., 1914, p. 108). Zonifer pectoralis (No. 130).—Choanotaenia zoniferae, Jnstn. Himantopus leucocephalus (No. 142).—Gryocoelia australiensis, Jnstn, (Tiaenia coronata, Krefft); Acoleus hedleyi, Jnstn. (Taenia rugosa, Krefft); Davainea himantopodis, Jnstn.; Hymenolepis sp., Jnstn. Gallinago australis (No. 166).—Aploparaksis australis, Jnstn. Oedicnemus grallarius (No. 171).—Angularia australis, Maplestone (Ann. Trop. Med. and Parasit., xv., No. 4, 1921). Order ARDEIFORMES. Platalea regia (No. 178).—Cylorchida omalancristrota, Wedl. Platibis flavipes (No. 179).—Hymenolepis ibidis, Jnstn. Xenorhynchus asiaticus (No. 180).—Clelandia parva, Jnstn. Herodias syrmatophorus Settee (No. 184).—Anomotaenia asymmetrica, Jnstn.; Bancroftiella glandularis, Fuhrm. Noto cakes novae-hollandiae (No. 185).—Bancroftiella glandularis, “uhrm. Nycticorax caledonicus (No. 191).—Bancroftiella ardeae, Jnstn. ; Hymenolepis sp., Jnstn. Order ANSERIFORMES. Anseranas melanoleuca (No. 199).—Hymenolepis megalops, Nitzsch ; Hymenolepis terraereginae, Jnstn. Dendrocygna arcuata (No. 204).—Diploposthe laevis, Bl.; Diorchis flavescens (Krefft), Maplestone (Ann. Trop. Med. and Parasit., xv., No. 4, 1921, p. 403). . Anas_superciliosa (No. 208).—Hymenolepis megalops, Nitzsch (Taenia cylindrica, Krefft); H. collaris, Batsch. (Taenia bairdii, Krefft); Uymenolepis sp., Jnstn.; Diorchis flavescens, (Krefft); Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Pall. (Taenia pediformis, (Krejft); Diploposthe laevis, Bl. Nettium castaneum (No. 209).—Diorchis flavescens (Krefft); Diploposthe laevis, Bl.; Hymenolepis collaris, Bat.; Hymeno- lepis megalops, Nitzsch (Taenia cylindrica, ‘Krefft); Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Pall. Spatula rhynchotis (No. 213).—Diorchis flavescens (Krefft). Nyroca australis (No. 216).—Diploposthe laevis, Bloch (Taenia tuberculata, Krefft;; Diorchis flavescens (Krefft ). Biziura lobata (No. 218).—Taenia moschata, Krefft. Order PELECANIFORMES. Tachypetes (Fregata) aquila (No. 229).—Tetrabothrius sp., Jnstn. Order ACCIPITRIFORMES. Accipiter torquatus (No. 240).—Anomotaenia accipitris, Jnstn. Order PSITTACIFORMES. Trichoglossus swainsoni (No. 274).—Moniezia trichoglossi, Linstow. Cacatua galerita (No. 291).—Davainea cacatuina, Jnstn. Platycercus eximius (No. 311).—Dilepis bancrofti, Jnstn. 89 ; Order CORACIIFORMES. Dacelo gigas (No. 345).—Similuncinus dacelonis, Jnstn. Order PASSERIFORMES. Petroica goodenovii (No. 394).—Hymenolepis sp., Jnstn. Pachycephala rufiventris (No. 430). ions ye punctata, Jnstn. (Proc. Roy. Soc. Qland, xxvi., 1914 76). Malurus cyaneus (No. 5380). —Choanotaenia Piar Instn, Zosterops dorsalis (No. 599).—Zosteropicola clelandi, Jnstn, Conopophila albogularis (No. 634)—Davainea conopophilae, Jnstn. ee chrysotis (No. 644).—Choanotaenia meliphagidarum, nstn, Ptilotis leucotis (No. 651).—Choanotaenia eel ghasaearur Instn. Meliornis novae-hollandiae (No. 668).—Choanotaenia meliphagi- darum, Jnsin. Meliornis sericea (No. 669).—Choanotaenia meliphagidarum, Jnstn- Entomyza cyanotis (No. 680).—Davainea conopophilae, Instn. ‘Philemon citreogularis (No. 685).—Davainea conopophilae, Instn. Sphecotheres maxillaris (No. 714). —Davainea sphecotheridis, Jnstn. (Ann. Trop. Med. and Parasit., vili., 1914, p. 106). Chlamydera maculata (No. 722). —Choanotaenia chlamyderae, (Krefft ). Ptiloris alberti No. 730).—Biuterina clavulus, Linst. Corvus coronoides (No. 732).—Davainea sp., Jnstn. 2. Nematodes (omitting Microfilariae). (2) Order GALLIFORMES. Catheturus lathami (No. a —Heterakis bancrofti, Jnstn.; Hete- rakis catheturinus, Jnstn, Order PROCELLARITFORMES. Daption capensis (No. 86).—Rictularia shipleyi, Stoss (probably). Order ANSERIFORMES. Chlamydochen jubata (No. 203).—Heterakis chenonettae, Jnstn. Order PELECANIFORMES. Phalacrocorax carbo (No. 219).—Ascaris sp., Jnstn. Phalacrocorax sulcirostris (No. 220).—Ascaris spiculigera, Rud. Plotus novae-hollandiae (No. 224).—Ascaris spiculigera, Rud. (Ascaris sp., Krefft). Pelecanus conspicillatus (No. 233).—Asearis spiculigera, Rud.(? ) Order ACCIPITRIFORMES. Falco lunulatus (No. 258).—Filaria sp., Jnstn. Hieracidia berigora (No. 259). —Filaria guttata, Schneider. Order STRIGIFORMES. Ninox boobook (No. 263).—Filaria sp., Jnstn. 3 Ninox ocellata (No. 264).—Filaria sp., Jnstn. (2) For references, vide footnote to List of Recorded Cestodes of Australian birds. D | | | | | | | 90 Order CORACIIFORMES. Sub-order Poparet. Podargus Pe Bancroft (Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Se p Sub-order HALcyongEs. Dacelo leachi (No. 346).—(Filaria) dacelonis, Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 42). Order PASSERIFORMES. Flam. CAMPOPHAGIDAE. Graucalus melanops (No. 457).—Filaria sp., Jnstn. Fam. ME&LIPHAGIDAE. Myzantha garrula (No. 672).—Filaria sp., Bancroft. Anthochaera_carunculata (No. 675).—Oxyspirura anthochaerae, Jnstn. (Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, xxiv., 1912, p. 80) (Ceratospira anthochaerae, Jnstn.; Ascaris sp., Krefft). Annellobia mellivora (No. 677) (recorded as A. lunulata).—Filaria sp., Bancroft. Acanthogenys rufigularis (No. 679).—Filaria sp., Jnstn. Philemon citreogularis (No. 685).—Filaria sp., Jnstn. ' Fam. CorvipDAe. Corvus australis (No. 734).—Fuilaria sp., Bancroft. Fam. STREPERIDAE. Cracticus destructor (No. 745).—Filaria sp., Bancroft. Gymnorhina tibicen (No. 747).—Filaria clelandi, Jnstn. 2a. Microfilariae. © Microfilariae have been described or merely recorded from the following species of Australian birds :— Order PELECANIFORMES. Phalacrocorax sulcirostris (No. 220); P. melanoleucus (No, 228); Plotus novae-hollandiae (No. 224) Order ACCIPITRIFORMES. Accipiter torquatus (No. 240). Order PSITTACIFORMES. Trichoglossus swainsoni (No. 274), Bancroft (Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, vi., 1889 [1890]); Glossopsitta pusilla (No. 280) Order CORACIIFORMES. Podargus strigoides (No. 337); Eurystomus pacificus (No. 341). Order PASSERIFORMES. Fam, Pirripar£. Pitta strepitans (No. 377), Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 43). — (3) For references, vide footnote to List of Recorded Cestodes of Australian Birds. 91 Fam. MUSCICAPIDAE. Myiagra planer (No. 444). Fam. TIMELIIDAE. Psophodes crepitans (No. 476); Pomatorhinus temporalis (No. 478) (Pomatostomus frivolus). Fam. TURDIDAE. Oreocincla lunulata (No. 488). Fam, ARTAMIDABR. Artamus leucogaster (No. 559); A. sordidus (No. 564) (Artamus tenebrosus). Fam. PRIONOPIDAE. Colluricincla harmonica (No. 566), Cleland (these Trans., xxxix., 1915, p. 38). Fam. (?) Struthidea cinerea (No. 576); Corcorax melanorhampus (No. 577). Fam. DIcaEIDAE. Pardalotus melanocephalus (No. 609), Cleland and Jnstn, (Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, xlv., 1911, p. 438). Fam. MELIPHAGIDAE. - Plectorhyncha lanceolata (No. 621); Myzomela sanguineolenta (No. 622); Stigmatops ocularis (No. 639); Ptilotis fusca (No. 643); Myzantha garrula (No. 672); Anellobia mellivora (lunu- lata of Bancroft’s record) (No. 677 7) : Entomyza cyanotis (No. 680); Philemon citreogularis (No. 685). Fam. ORiIoLipAe. Oriolus viridis (No. 712). Fam. DiIcRURIDAE£. Chibia bracteata (No. 716). Fam. PTinoNORHYNCIDAE. Sericulus chrysocephalus (No. 726). Fam. CorvipDAE. Corvus coronoides, Corvus australis (Nos. 732, 734). Fam. STREPERIDAE. pape graculina (No. 735), Bancroft (Proc. Roy. ae Q’land, , 1889 [1890] ; Cracticus nigrogularis (No. 741); C. destructor (No. 745). Gymnorhina tibicen (No. 747).—Microfilaria gymnorhinae, Gilruth, Sweet, and Dodd. 3. Acanthocephala.” Order GALLIFORMES. Catheturus lathami (No. 7).—Echinorhynchus sp., Jnstn. Order CHARADRIIFORMES. Numenius cyanopus (No. 145).—Echinorhynchus sp., Jnstn. (4) For references, vide footnote to List of Recorded Cestodes of Australian Birds. D2 92 Order ACCIPITRIFORMES. Astur cinereus (No. 236).—Centrorhynchus asturinus, Jnstn. (Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, xxx., 1918,.p. 216). ; Astur novae-hollandiae (No. 237).—Centrorhynchus asturinus, Jnstn. (loc. cit.). ie approximans (No. 238) (A. fasciatus).—Echinorhynchus sp., nstn. Baza subcristata (No. 254).—C. asturinus, Jnstn. (loc. cit.). Order STRIGIFORMES. Ninox boobook (No. 268).+Echinorhynchus=Centrorhynchus sp., Instn. Order CORACIIFORMES. Podargus strigoides (No. 337).—EH. sp., Jnstn. Haleyon sanctus (No. 349).—E. sp., Jnstn. Order MENURIFORMES. Menura superba (No. 374).—E. menurae, Jnstn. Order PASSERIFORMES. e F'iam. MUSCICAPIDAE. Pachycephala gilberti (No. 432).—Hchinorhynchus pomatostomi, Jnstn. and Clel. (arvae, subcutaneous). Fam. TiIMELIIDAE. Hylacola pyrrhopygia (No. 474).—E. pomatostomi, Jnstn. and Clel. (larvae, subcutaneous). Psophodes crepitans (No. 476).—E. sp., Jnstn. Pomatorhinus temporalis (No. 478).—E. pomatostomi, as above. Pomatorhinus superciliosus (No. 479).—EK. pomatostomi, as above. Pomatorhinus rubeculus (No. 481).—E. pomatostomi, as above. Fam. TurDIDAE. Oreocincla lunulata (No. 488).—Echinorhynchus sp., Jnstn. Fam. PRIONOPIDAE. Grallina picata (No. 575).—E. sp., Jnstn. Fam. Paripae£. Aphelocephala leucopsis (No. 578).—E. pomatostomi, as above. Fam. CERTHIIDAE. Climacteris melanura (No. 589) (C. wellsi)—E. pomatostomi, as above. Fam. MELIPHAGIDAE. ‘Meliornis novae-hollandiae (No. 668).—E. sp., Justn. 4. Trematodes. © Order COLUMBIFORMES. Leucosarcia picata (No. 40).—Harmostomum pulchellum, 8S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales). (5) Compiled from S. J. Johnston’s article ‘‘On the Trematodes of Australian Birds’? in Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S. Wales, 1., 19lb peeled 4 = ; 93 Order RALLIFORMES. Porphyrio melanonotus (No. 55).—Echinostomum hilliferum, Nicoll. Order LARIFORMES. Sterna cristata (No. 107) (S. bergii).—Lyperosomum megastomum, S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales); Holostomum musculosum, S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales). ‘ Larus novae-hollandiae (No. 119).—Austrobilharzia terrigalensis, . J. Johnston (N.S. Wales); Holostomum hillii, S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales). Order CHARADRIIFORMES. Lobivanellus lobatus (No. 128)._Haematotrephus consimilis, Nicoll; Echinostomum ignavum, Nicoll. Charadrius fulvus (No. 1382) (C. dominicus).—Acanthoparyphium _ spinulosum, S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales); Levinseniella howensis, S. J. Johnston (Lord Howe Island). Himantopus leucocephalus (No. 142).—Haematotrephus adelphus, S. J. Johnston (S. Austr.). Numenius cyanopus (No. 145).—Himasthla harrisoni, S. J. Johnston (Q’land). Limosa novae-hollandiae.—Cyclocoelum taxorchis, S. J. Johnston (Lord Howe Island). (Gidienemus grallarius (No. 171) (Burhinus grallarius).—Platy- notrema biliosum, Nicoll; P. jecoris, Nicoll. Order GRUIFORMES. Antigone australasiana (No. 174).—Allopyge antigones, S. J. . Johnston; Echinostomum australasianum, Nicoll. Order ARDEIFORMES. Ibis anes (No. 175).—Patagifer acuminatus, S. J. Johnston *Jand). Carpe See (No. 176).—Hchinostoma acuticauda, Nicoll *land). Platalea regia (No. 178).—Orchipedum sufflavum, Nicoll; Patagifer bilobus, Rud. Plegadis falcinellus (No. 177).—Patagifer bilobus, Rud. Xenorhynchus asiaticus (No. 180).—Chaunocephalus ferox, Rud. Herodrias (Syrmatophorus) timoriensis (No. 184).—Patagifer fraternus, S. J. Johnston (Q’land); Echinoparyphium oxyurum, S. J. Johnston (Q’land). Notophoyx novae-hollandiae (No. 185) (Ardea novae-hollandiae).— Holostomum simplex, S. J. Johnston; H. repens, Chase (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, xlv., 1921, p. 500) (N.S. Wales). Nycticorax caledonicus (No. 191).—Clinostomum hornum, Nicoll. Order ANSERIFORMES. Chenopis atrata (No. 198).—Hemistomum intermedium, S. J. Johnston; Hyptiasmus magnus, S. J. Johnston (Vict.); Notocotylus attenuatus, Rud. Anseranas melanoleuca (No. 199) (A. semipalmata).—Typhlocoelum reticulare, S. J. Johnston. Nettapus pulchellus (No. 200).—Notocotylus attenuatus, Rud. Anas superciliosa (No. 208).—Echinostomum revolutum, Foel. ; Notocotylus attenuatus, Rud. 94 Order PELECANIFORMES. Phalacrocorax melanoleucus (No, 223).—Dolichosaccus solecarius, S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales); Echinochasmus tenuicollis, S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales). Plotus novae-hollandiae (No. 224).—Clinostomum australiense, S. J. Johnston (Q’land). Order ACCIPITRIFORMES. Haliaetus leucogaster (No. 246).—Scaphanocephalus australis, Johnston. Hieracidea berigora (No. 259).—Opisthorchis obsequens, Nicoll (Q’ land). H. orientalis (No. 260).—Echinochasmus prothovitellatus, Nicoll (Q’ land). Order STRIGIFORMES. Ninox boobook. (No. 268).—Lyperosomum harrisoni, S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales); Strigea promiscua, Nicoll (Q’land). N. maculata (No. 265).—Strigea promiscua, Nicoll (Q’land); Hemistomum brachyurum, Nicoll (Q’land); H. triangulare, S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales). Order CORACITFORMES. Podargus strigoides (No. 337).—Echinostomum elongatum, Nicoll. Dacelo gigas (No. 345).—Hemistomum triangulare, S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales); Strigea flosculus, Nicoll. Order COCCYGES. Centropus phasianus (No. 373).—Echinostomum emollitum, Nicoll. Order PASSERIFORMES. Petrochelidon ariel (No. 387).—Plagiorchis clelandi, S. J. Johnston (N.S. Wales). Microeca fascinans (No. 388).—Echinoparyphium harveyanum, S. J. Johnston (Q’land). Saar ee (No. 687).—Plagiorchis spatulatus, S. J. Johnston land). Chibia bracteata (No. 716).—Plagiorchis (Lepoderma) nisbettii, Nicoll; -Prosthogonimus vitellatus, Nicoll. Strepera arguta (No. 786) (S. versicolor).—Lyperosomum parvum, Re J. Johnston (N.S. Wales). 5. Siphonaptera (Fleas). Order SPHENISCIFORMES. Eudyptula minor (No. 62).—Parapsyllus australiacus, Roths. (Nov. Zool., xvi., 1909, p. 62) (P. longicornis, Jord. and Roths. [nec. Enderl., err. determ.)). 6. Diptera. Order ACCIPITRIFORMES. White Hawk.—Ornithoctona nigricans, Leach (S. Q’land) (vide W. W. Froggatt in ‘‘Australian Insects’’). Order STRIGIFORMES. Ninox boobook (No. 263).—Ornithomyia perfuga, Spajer, on an owl, probably this species, near Brisbane (vide Froggatt, loc. cit. ). a 95 Order MENURIFORMES. | Menura superba (No. 374).—Larvae of a Muscid fly subcutaneously (Gubert, Emu, xix., 1919, p. 48). Order PASSERIFORMES. Stipiturus malachurus (No. 545).—Ornithomyia stipituri, Schiner (Zool. Voy. Novara, 1850) (vide Froggatt, loc. cit.). Glyciphila fulvifrons (No. 629).—Larvae of a Muscid fly sub- cutaneously (Gilbert, loc. cit., p. 49). Meliornis novae-hollandiae (No. 668).—Larvae of a Muscid fly sub- cutaneously (Gilbert, loc. cit., p. 49). Meliornis sericea (No. 669).—Larvae of a Muscid fly subcutaneously (Gilbert, loc. cit., p. 48). Anthus australis (No. 687).—Fly larvae attached to body (Harvey, Emu, xix., 1919, p. 40; Q’land). Mr. Froggatt also states that Hippoboscid flies occur on our fruit-pigeons, swallows, and fly-catchers. 7. Mailophaga. °° Order CASUARIIFORMES. Dromaius novae-hollandiae (No. 1).—Degeeriella asymmetrica (Nitzsch) (syn. Nirmus setosus, Le Souéf and Bullen) (Q’land, N.S. Wales, Vict.). Order GALLIFORMES. Catheturus lathami (No. 7).—Goniocotes fissus, Rud. (from Tale- gallus lathami); G. macrocephalus, Taschenb. (from T. lathami); Japeurus ischnocephalus, Taschenb. (from T. lathami); L. crassus, Rud. Synoicus australis (No. 9).—Goniodes elongatus, Piaget (Vict.); G. retractus, Le Souéf (Vict.). Excalfactoria australis (No. .10).—Lipeurus acuminatus, Piaget; Goniodes elongatus, Piaget (syn. G. longus, Le Souéf); Menopon pallipes, Piaget. Order COLUMBIFORMES. Megaloprepia magnifica (No. 21).—EHsthiopterum columbae (L.) (syn. Lipeurus baculus, Nitzsch, and N. angustus, Rud.) (from Carpophaga magnifica). Macropygia phasianella (No. 25).—Colpocephalum albidum, Giebel (from Columba phasianella). Phaps chalcoptera (No. 30).—Goniocotes flavus (Rud.); Esthiop- terum solutes (L.) (Tas.); Colpocephalum albidum, Gebel. Leucosarcia pictata (No. 40).—Esthiopterum columbae (L.) (from Leucosarca plicata). (6) These records are compiled almost entirely from Prof. V. L. Kellogg’s article ‘‘Mallophaga’’ in Wytman’s ‘‘Genera Insectorum,” 1908, from Johnston and Harrison’s ‘‘Census of Aus- tralian Mallophaga’’ in Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, xxiv., 1912, and particularly from Harrison’s ‘‘Census of Mallophaga in Para- sitology,’’ ix., 1916, pp. 1-152. Full references are only given for species not included in these lists. In many cases, though the host occurs in Australia, the parasite has not actually as yet been recorded for this country. Australian occurrences are indicated. 96 Order RALLIFORMES. Rallina tricolor (No. 44).—Rallicola bisetosa (Piaget) (syn. Oncophorus bisetosus, Piaget). Tribonyx ventralis (No. 52).—Goniodes cornutus, Rud. (straggler ; L. H.).; Philopterus flavopunctatus, Rud. Porphyrio melanonotus (No. 55).—Rallicola (Oncophorus) « fallax (Piaget) (from Porphyrio melanotus, Australia). | Order SPHENISCIFORMES. . EKudyptula minor (No. 62).—Austrogoniodes waterstoni, Cummings (Bull. Ent. Rev., v., 1914, p. 173, f. 8). Order PROCELLARIIFORMES. Ossifraga gigantea (No. 85).—Hsthiopterum obscurum (Rud.) (syn. Lipeurus melanocnemis Gebel) (from Procellaria gigantea). - Daption capensis (No. &86).—Esthiopterum (Lipeurus) gurlti (Taschenb.) (from Procellaria capensis); E. nigrolimbatum (Giebel) (syn. KE. mutabile, Piaget); E. fuliginosum, Taschenb. (syn. EK. testaceum, Taschenb.); Ancistroma vagelli, Fabr. (syn. A. procellariae, Westwood), N.S. Wales. ; Diomedea exulans (No. 94).—Docophoroides brevis, Dufour (syns. D. dentatus, Giebel, and D. taurus, Nitzsch); Esthiopterum pederiforme, Dufour (syns. Docophorus thoracicus, Nitzsch ; Nirmus angulicollis, Giebel; and L. breviceps, Piaget); E. hyalineum (Neum.); EK. fuliginosum, Taschenb. (syn. Lipeurus fuliginosus, Taschenb.); Menopon affine, Piaget. Diomedea chlororhynchus (No. 98).—Esthiopterum (Lipeurus) fuliginosus, Taschenb. Order LARIFORMES. Sterna cristata (No. 107).—Colpocephalum crassipes, Piaget (from S. poliocera=S. bergii=this species). Order CHARADRIIFORMES. Tringa canutus (No. 164).—Degeeriella (Nirmus) holopaea (Nitzsch). Parra gallinacea (No. 168).—Parricola sulcata, Piaget (syn. Oncophorus sulcatus, Piaget). Order GRUIFORMES. Antigone australasiana (No. 174).—Philopterus integer, Nitzsch (syn. Docophorus integer, Nitzsch); Philopterus novae- hollandiae, Giebel (syn. D. novae-hollandiae, Giebel); Esthiopterum (Lipeurus) giganteum (Le Souéf and Bullen) Q’land, N.S: Wales, Vict.); E. (Lipeurus) gruis (L.) (syn. L. hebraeus, Nitzsch) (Q’land, N.S. Wales, Vict.). Order ARDEIFORMES. Ibis molucca (No. 175).—Esthiopterum ibidis, Harris. (syn. Lipeurus ibis, Le Souéf and Bullen, from Threskiornis strictipennis, Australia). Platibis flavipes (No. 179).—Ornithobius fuscus, Le Souéf (Pa straggler). ° Xenorhynchus asiaticus (No. 180).—Philopterus horridus, Gtebel (from Ciconia australis). 97 Ardea cinerea (No. 182).—Colpocephalum decimfasciatum, Bois. and Lacord. (syn. C. importunum, Nitzsch); Esthiopterum i ardeae (L.) (syn. Lipeurus leucopygus, Nitzsch). Notophoyx novae-hollandiae (No. 185).—Philopterus longipes, Rud.; Esthiopterum (Lipeurus) unguiculatum (Piaget) (from Herodias novae-hollandiae). Order ANSERIFORMES. Chenopis atrata (No. 198).—Esthiopterum megacerus, Jnstn. and Harris. (syns. Lipeurus anatis megaceros, Jnstn. and Harvis., and L. squalidus, Nitzsch, var. attenuata, Piaget); Orni- thobius fuscus, Le Souéf (Vict.); Trinoton nigrum, Le Souéf (Vict.); Colpocephalum castaneum, Piaget (from Cygnus atratus). Anseranas melanoleuca (No. 199).—Heteroproctus hilli, Harrison (Parasit., vil., 1914-5, p. 394) (Northern Territory). Cereopsis novae-hollandiae (No. 202).—Esthiopterum australe Rud.) (syn. Lipeurus australis, Rud.) (from Coreopsis novae- ollandiae). Nettium gibberifrons (No. 210).—Esthiopterum crassicorne (Scopoli) (syns. Lipeurus anatis major, Piaget, and L. squalidus, Nitzsch, var. major, Piaget (from Anas gibberifrons). Nyroca australis (No. 216).—Esthiopterum crassicorne (Scopoli) (syn. EK. nyrocae [Rud.)). , Order PELECANIFORMES. Phalacrocorax carbo (No. 219).—Degeeriella (Nirmus) interrupta, Piaget; Esthiopterum mergiserrati, Degeer (syn. Lipeurus ‘temporalis, Nitzsch); E. longicorne (Piaget); E. toxocerum (Nitzsch); Menopon brevipalpe, Piaget. _ Phalacrocorax sulcirostis (No. 220).—Esthiopterum (Lipeurus) setosum (Piaget); E. confuscum, Bag. and Hall (syn. E. brevicorne, Piaget); E. acutifrons (Rud.) (syn. E. dispar, Piaget); Menopon subrotundum, Piaget. Sula australis (No. 225).—Philopterus (Docophorus) brevianten- natus (Piaget); Eschiopterum (Pectinopygus, Lipeurus) gyricornis (Denny); Menopon albescens, Piaget. Order ACCIPITRIFORMES. Haliaetus leucogaster (No. 246).—Colpocephalum flavescens, Nitzsch. . Order PSITTACIFORMES. ; Trichoglossus swainsoni (No. 274) (T. novae-hollandiae).—EKomeno- pon denticulatum, Harrison (Parasit., vii., 1914-5, p. 385) (N.S. Wales); Psittaconirmus australis, Harrison (loc. cit., p. 403) (N.S. Wales). Ptilosclera versicolor (No. 277).—Eomenopon denticulatum, Harri- son (loc. cit.) (N.S. Wales). Glossopsitta porphyrocephala (No. 279).—Psittaconirmus australis, Harrison (loc. cit.) (W. Austr.). ; Microglossus aterrimus (No. 283).—Menopon commissum, Newm. ; Degeeriella (Nirmus) paraboliceps (Piaget) (from Psittacus aterrimus); Colpocephalum temporale, Piaget (from Macro- glossus aterrimus). : Calyptorhynchus leachi (No. 289).—Esthiopterum (Lipeurus) cireumfasciatum (Piaget) (from Colyptorhynchus leachi). | | 98 Cacatua galerita (No. 291).—Hsthiopterum capreolum, Gervais (syn. Lipeurus albus, Le Souéf and Bullen) (Australia). Cacatua roseicapilla (No. 295).—Degeeriella eos (Rud.) (syns. Nirmus eos, Rud., and N. tenuis, Rud,) (from Plictolophus (Psittacus) roseocapillus and Cacatua (Psittacus) eos). Calopsitta novae-hollandiae (No. 298).—Paragoniocotes fasciatus, Piaget (from Nymphicus novae-hollandiae). Polytelis barrabandi (No. 299).—Philopterus (Docophorus) angusto- clypeatus (Piaget) (from Platycercus barrabandi); P. (D.) forficula (Piaget) (from Platycercus barrabandi); Colipo- cephalum trimaculatum, Piaget (from Platycercus barrabandi). Polytelis melanura (No. 300).—Esthiopterum (Lipeurus) cireum- fasclatum (Piaget) (from Platycercus melaneura). Aprosmictus scapulatus (No. 303).—Philopterus forficula (Piaget) eee ua ated ner forficula, Piaget) (from Platycercus scapu- atus). Platycercus pennanti (No. 304).—Philopterus (Docophorus) for- ficula (Piaget). , Platycercus pallidiceps (No. 308).—Colpocephalum trimaculatum, Piaget (from Platycercus palliceps). Platycercus eximius (No. 311).—Philopterus (Docophorus) forficula (Piaget); Menopon pteropsittacus, Harris. (syn. M. psittacus, Le Souéf and Bullen) (Australia). Barnardius barnardi (No. 315).—Philopterus forficula (Piaget) (from Platycercus baueri and P. zonarius). Pezoporus formosus (No. 334) (P._ terrestris).—Degeeriella divergens, Newm. Order CORACIIFORMKHS. Dacelo gigas (No. 345).—Philopterus (Docophorus) delphax (Nitzsch) (from Dacelo gigantea); Degeeriella -(Nirmus) bracteata (Nitzsch) (from Dacelo gigantea); D. (Nirmus) goniocotes (Piaget) (Madagascar); Menopon infumatum, Piaget (Madagascar). Order COCCYGES. Cacomantis flabelliformis (No. 362).—Philopterus (Docophorus) laticlypeatus (Piaget) (from Cuculus flabelliformis, New Holland). Scythrops novae-hollandiae (No. 372).—Philopterus acutus, Rud. ; P. (Docophorus) obcordatus (Piaget); Degeeriella lipeuriformis Rud.) (syns. Nirmus lipeuriformis, Rud.; N. chelurus, itzsch); Myrsidea (Menopon) platygaster (Giebel). Order MENURIFORMES. Menura superba (No. 374).—Degeeriella menuraelyrae (Coinde) (syns. Philopterus (Docophorus) paraboliceps (Piaget); Nirmus submarginellus, Nitzsch; N. submarginalis, Burm.; and N. menura, Le Souéf and Bullen). Johnston and Harrison consider Kellogg’s record of Degeeriella (Nirmus) marginalis, Nitzsch, as an error. : Menura victoriae (No. 375).—Esthiopterum menura, Le Souéf and Bullen (syn. Lipeurus menura, Le Souéf and Bullen) (Vict.); Menopon menura, Le Souéf and Bullen (Vict.); Degeeriella menuraelyrae (Coinde) (syns. see above) (Vict.). 99 Order PASSERIFORMES. Fam. DiIcarIDAE. Pardalotus punctatus (No. 606).—Menopon sp., Giebel. Fam. MELIPHAGIDAE. Glyciphila fasciata (No. 631).—Goniocotes candidus, var. pellucidus, Piaget (probably a straggler; J. and H). Tropidorhynchus corniculatus (No. 684).—Homenopon denticulatus, Harrison (Parasitol., vii., 1914-5, p. 385) (N.S. Wales; straggler on this host). Fam. PLoceIpDAr. Poephila gouldiae (No. 709) (P. mirabilis)—Machaerilaemus lati- frons, Harrison (Parasitol., vii., 1914-5, p. 390). Fam. PT1noNORHYNCHIDAE. Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus (No. 718).—Menopon ptilonorhynchi, Ponton; Philopterus ptilonorhynchi, Ponton (syn. Docophorus erandiceps (Nitzsch) (from Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus) ; Degeeriella pontoni, Jnstn. and Harrison (syn. Nirmus nitzschi, Ponton) (from Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus). Sericulus chrysocephalus (No. 726).—Degeeriella (Nirmus) hectica (Nitzsch). Fam. CorvIpDAE. Strepera graculina (No. 735).—Colpocephalum vinculum, Le Souéf - and Bullen (Australia). Gymnorhina. tibicen (No. 747).—Degeeriella bimaculata (Piaget) (syn. Nirmus bimaculatus, from Baryta tibicen). Gymnorhina leuconota (No: 750).—Degeeriella semiannulata (Piaget), (syn. Nirmus semiannulatus, Piaget, from Baryta leuconota); Degeeriella (Nirmus) varia, Nitzsch (probably a stray, Rotterdam). 8. Acarina. (a) Super-family IXODOIDEA. | Host probably birds (marine).—Ixodes tasmani, Newm. Collected by Verreaux, the ornithologist (1847) in Tasmania (vide Nutt. and Warb., Ticks, pt. i1., 1911, p. 245). Host marine birds.—Ixodes putus (Pickh.-Cambridge). Recorded by Neumann from King Island (Tas. ?) (vide Nutt. and Warb., Ticks, pt. ii., 1911, p. 261). Order PASSERIFORMES. Fam. HirvuNDINIDAE. Petrochelidon ariel (No. 387) (Lagenoplastes ariel).—Argas lagenoplastes, Frogg. (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1906, p. 408). Recorded for Merriwa and Narromine, N.S. Wales, and for Q’land. (b) Super-family ORIBATOIDEA. _ Fam. Anaue@eEsipAr (‘‘Bird Mites’’). [For the following records, I am indebted to Mr. W. J. Rain- bow’s ‘‘A Synopsis of Australian Acarina’’ (Rec. of Austr. Mus., vol. vi., pt. 3, p. 181), where the full references will be found. ] Order CHARADRIIFORMES. Lobivanellus lobatus (No. 128).—Trouessartia caudacuta, Troues. 100 Order ARDEIFORMES. Ibis molucca (No. 175).—Freyana (Eufreyana) tarandus, Jrowes et Neuwm.; Alloptes corymbophorus, Troues et Neum. Order ACCIPITRIFORMES. Haliastur leucosternus (No, 247) (H. indicus, var. girrenera).— Pterolichus (Kupterolichus) phylloproctus, var. minor. Mégn. et Troues; P. (Pseudalloptes) aquilinus, var. milvulina, Troues. ‘ Order PSITTACIFORMES. Trichoglossus swainsoni (No. 274) (T. novae-hollandiae).—Ptero- lichus (Protolichus) brachiatus, var. crassior, Troues. Glossopsitta concinna (No. 278). —Pterolichus (Protolichus) brachi- ae var. crassior, Troues; P. (Protolichus) falculiger, Troues; (Pseudalloptes) cultriventris, Troues. eae aterrimus (No. 283). —Pterolichus (Protolichus) favettei, Trowes. Caly torhynchus macrorhynchus (No. 287).—Pterolichus (Pseudal- (a) spathuliger, Trowes. Platycereus pennanti (No. 304).—Pterolichus (Protolichus) chira- gricus, Mégn. et Troues; Protalges cartus, Troues. Platycercus flaveolus (No. 306), —Pterolichus (Protolichus) chira- gricus, Mégn. et Trowes; P. (Protolichus) veliger, Mégn. et Psephotus xanthorrhous (No. 319a).—Pterolichus (Protolichus). favettei, T'roues. Psephotus haematonotus (No. 324).—Analges tetracentrus, Trowes. Melopsittacus undulatus (No. 333).—Pterolichus (Protolichus) lunula, Robin. Pezoporus ’formosus (No. 334) (P. terrestris):—Pterolichus (Proto- lichus) chiragricus, Mégn. et Troues. Order MENURIFORMES. Menura superba (No. 374).—Alloptes major, Trouwes. Order PASSERIFORMES. Fam. DIcAEIDAE. Dicaeum hirundinaecum (No. 602).—Alloptes securiger, Troues. Fam. MELIPHAGIDAE. Glycyphila fasciata (No. 631).—Protalges australis, Troues; Pterodectes manicatus, Trowes. Meliornis sericea (No. 669).—Alloptes lobulatus, Trowes. 7 Fam. PT1noNORHYNCHIDAE. Sericulus chrysocephalus (No. 726) (S. melinus).—Pterodectes paradisiacus, 7J'rowes. 9. Haematozoa ”) (a) HAEMOSPORIDIA. Order GALLIFORMES. Catheturus lathami (No. 7).—Halteridium sp. (7) For references, vide footnote to List of Recorded Cestodes of Australian Birds. 101 Order COLUMBIFORMES. Lamprotreron superba (No. 20).—Haemoproteus (Halteridium) columbae (No. 20), Celli et Fel., Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 38). Order ARDEIFORMES. Notophoyx novae-hollandiae (No. 185).—Haemoproteus (Hal- teridium danilewskyi, Grassi et Fel., Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 38). Order ANSERIFORMES. Chenopis atrata (No. 198).—Proteosoma biziurae, Gilr., Sweet et Dodd, ? Clel. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxix., 1915, p. 27)- Nettium castaneum (No. 209).—Halteridium sp. Biziura lobata (No. 218).—Proteosoma biziurae. Order ACCIPITRIFORMES. Haliastur leucosternus (No. 247) (H. girrenera).—Haemoproteus (Halteridium) danilewskyi, Grassi et Fel., Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 38). Faleo hypoleucos (No. 256).—Plasmodium (Proteosoma) praecox, Grassi et Fel., Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 34). Order STRIGIFORMES. Ninox boobook (No. 263).—Halteridium sp.; Haemoproteus (Hal- teridium) noctuae, Celli et Fel., Brewnl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 37). Ninox strenua (No. 268).—Halteridium sp., Clel. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxix., 1915, p. 29). Order PSITTACIFORMES. Platycercus adelaidae (No. 305).—Halteridium sp. Order CORACIIFORMES. Sub-order Poparet. Podargus strigoides (No. 337).—Leucocytozoon sp., Clel. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxix., 1915, p. 30). Sub-order Hatcyones. _ Dacelo gigas (No. 345).—Halteridium sp. Sub-order MeERopss. Merops ornatus (No. 352).—Halteridium sp. Order COCCYGES. Eudynamis cyanocephala (No. 371).—Haemoproteus danilewskyi, Grassi et Fel, Breinl (loc. cit.). Order PASSERIFORMES. Fam. MUSCICAPIDAE. Microeca fascinans (No. 388).—Halteridium sp. Petroica phoenicea (No. 393).—Halteridium sp. -Gerygone albogularis (No. 402).—Halteridium sp., Clel. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxxix., 1915, p. 29). Myiagra nitida (No. 446).—Halteridium sp. 102 Fam. TIMELIIDAE. Pomatorhinus superciliosus (No. 479).—Halteridium sp. Fam. TurpDIDAE. Oreocincla lunulata (No, 488).—Halteridium sp. Fam. SYLVIIDAE. Megalurus gramineus (No. 496).—Haemoproteus danilewskyi, Grassi et Fel., Breinl (loc. cit.). Fam. P Grallina picata (No. 575).—Halteridium sp. Corcorax melanorhamphus (No. 577).—lLeucocytozoon anellobiae. Fam. PARIDAE. Aphelocephala leucopsis (No. 578).—Halteridium sp. Fam. ZOSTEROPIDAE. Zosterops dorsalis (No. 599).—Halteridium sp. Fam. DICAEIDAE. Dicaeum hirundinaceum (No. 602).—Halteridium sp., Clel. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxix., 1915, p. 29). Pardalotus melanocephalus (No. 609).—Halteridium sp., Clel. and Ae te (Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, xlv., 1911, p. Fam. MELIPHAGIDAE. Melithreptus brevirostris (No. 619).—Halteridium sp. Myzomela sanguineolenta (No. 622).—Halteridium sp.; Leucocyto- zoon anellobiae. Ptilotis fusca (No. 643).—Halteridium sp.; Leucocytozoon anellobiae. Ptilotis sonora (No. 646).—Halteridium sp. Ptilotis chrysops (No. 648).—Halteridium sp. Ptilotis plumula (No. 658).—Halteridium sp. . Ptilotis penicillata (No. 661).—Halteridium sp., Clel. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxix., 1915, p. 30). Meliornis novae-hollandiae (No. 688).—Halteridium sp. Myzantha garrula (No. 672).—Halteridium sp.; Leucocytozoon anellobiae. Myzantha flavigula (No. 674).—Halteridium sp. Anellobia mellivora (No. 677).—Leucocytozoon anellobiae; Haemoproteus (Halteridium) danilewskyi, Grass: et Fel., Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 38). Acanthogenys rufigularis (No. 679).—Halteridium sp., Clel. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxix., 1915, p. 30); Leucocytozoon sp., Clel. (loc. cit., p. 31). Entomyza cyanotis (No. 680).—Halteridium sp.; Leucocytozoon anellobiae. Tropidorhynchus corniculatus (No. 684).—Halteridium = sp.; Haemoproteus (Halteridium) danilewskyi, Grassi et Fel., Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., 1911, p. 37); Leucocytozoon sp. (Breinl, etc., p. 37). Fam. ORIOLIDAE. Oriolus viridis (No. 712).—Halteridium sp.; Leucocytozoon anel- lobiae. Sphecotheres maxillaris (No. 714).—Leucocytozoon anellobiae. 103 Fam. Dicruripaz. Chibia bracteata (No. 716).—Haemoproteus (Halteridium) danilewskyi, Grassi et Fel., Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., FOlt, ps 38). Fam. PTILONORYHNCHIDAE. Chlamydera orientalis (No. 724a).—Haemoproteus (Halteridium) danilewskyi, Grassi et Fel., Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., IEW Se). Fam. CorvipDae. Cracticus destructor (No. 745).—Haemoproteus (Halteridium) danilewskyi, Grassi et Fel., Breinl (loc. cit.). (6) HAEMOFLAGELLATES. Order ARDEIFORMES. Notophoyx novae-hollandiae (No, 185).—Trypanosoma notophoyxis, Breil (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 38). Order ACCIPITRIFORMES. Haliastur leucosternus (No. 247) (H. girrenera).—Trypanosoma avium, Dan. (T. majus, Dan.), Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 31). Falco hypoleucos (No. 256).—Trypanosoma avium, Dan., Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 31). Order STRIGIFORMES. Ninox boobook (No. 263).—Trypanosoma sp., Breinl (Austr. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 34). Order PASSERIFORMES. Fam. MUScCICAPIDAE. Microeca fascinans (No. 388).—Trypanosoma anellobiae. Fam. MELIPHAGIDAE. Myzomela sanguineolenta (No. 622).—Trypanosoma sp., Clel. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxix., 1915, p. 31). Ptilotis fusca (No. 643).—Trypanosoma anellobiae. Ptilotis chrysops (No. 648).—Trypanosoma sp., Clel. (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xxxix., 1915, p. 3 Anellobia mellivora (No. 677) (A. chrysoptera).—Trypanosoma sp. Entomyza cyanotis (No. 680).—Trypanosoma sp. Fam. ORIOLIDAE. Oriolus viridis (No. 712).—Trypanosoma sp. Fam. PTILONORHYNCHIDAE. Chlamydera orientalis (No. 7244).—Trypanosoma chlamydoderae, Breinl (Aust. Inst. Trop. Med., Rep. for 1911, p. 32). : VARIOUS PASSING RECORDS. Eudyptula minor (No. 62).—Nicholls (Emu, xvii., 1918, pp. 129, 130) records the following parasites as present in or on four birds, viz.:—(1) Round worms in upper part of stomach, fleas ; (2) worms, lice, and fleas; (3) small round worms, lice; (4) worms, lice. 104 Phalacrocorax hypoleucus (No. 222).—In three of twelve birds examined in South Australia in March, 1917, parasitic worms were noted by Capt. S. A. White (Emu, April; 1918, pp. 214, 215). Capt. White exhibited two tubes of parasitic worms— one from a cormorant’s stomach, the other from the thick coating of fat covering the abdomen—-at a meeting of the Royal Society of South Australia (Trans., etc., 1916, p. 590). Ninox rufa (No. 269).—Dr. MacGillivray found parasites under the skin of the head and orbit, N. Queensland (Emu. April, 1918, p. 186). Podargus marmoratus (C.L. 339) (Micropodargus ocellatus mar- moratus).—Tapeworm in subcutaneous. tissue of the abdomen, N. Queensland, MacGillivray (Emu, April, 1918, p. 189). H. L. White, in “North Australian Birds observed by Wm. McLennan” (Emu, xvi., pt. iv., pp. 205-230), mentions the finding of the following parasites :— ; Turnix castanota (No. 14).—Small worms in chest, abdominal cavity, and eye socket. King River. Falco lunulatus (No. 258).—Tapeworms in a mass of yellow pus, and a growth containing pus and worms on the left leg. Very small worms in the eye socket and membrane. A short, thick, round worm in the abdominal cavity. A mass of long, thin, round worms over the kidneys and testes; the testes almost totally destroyed. Some of the worms over 6 ins. long. Morn- ington Island, July, 1915. Ninox boobook (No. 263).—A mass of worms in the inflamed fibrous membrane on the skull between the eyes; two more in the left eye socket and one in the abdominal cavity. ‘ Ninox connivens (No. 267).—Several worms under the skin of the © body and legs. Ninox rufa (No. 269).—Numérous tapeworms under the skin of the legs. A round worm in the tof eye. Trichoglossus rubritorques (No. 275).—A number of large tape- worms in the abdominal cavity. Halcyon sanctus (No. 349).—Two large and two small worms in the neck. One large worm in the abdominal cavity. Graucalus melanops (No. 457).—Small worms in the nictitating membrane. Large tapeworms in the intestine. poe hypoleucus (No. 458).—Worms under the skin of the thighs. Colluricincla brunnea (No. 568).—Small worms in the eye membrane and larger ones in the liver. King River. Colluricincla woodwardi (No. 571).—Worms under the skin. King River. Philemon sordidus (No. 685a).—A number of worms in the abdominal cavity. Oriolus flavicinctus (No. 713).—Two small worms in the abdominal cavity. Pr. II1.—ParRasites oF AUSTRALIAN BIRDS THAT HAVE COME UNDER THE WRITER’S NOTICE. 1. Cestodes. Chaleophaps chrysochlora (No. 29).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919. ae Phaps elegans (No. 31).—Waitpinga, Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922 105 Podiceps poliocephalus (No. 58).—Muswellbrook, Feb. (Dr. Darnell Smith), cestodes in intestines, the largest in subperitoneal tissue(?), probably from injury. HKudyptula minor (No. 62).—Kncounter Bay, Feb., 1921, numerous cestodes in intestines, bird thin; and Jan., 1922 (2, 1: nil, 1 with cestodes). Puffinus sphenurus (No. 69).—little Bay, Sydney, Dec., 1914 (washed up dead). Puffinus griseus (No. 72).—Washed ashore near Manly, Oct., 1916. Puffinus brevicaudus (No. 74).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (4 birds, 3 nil). Sterna cristata (No. 107).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922. Pisobia acuminata (No. 162).—Gular, Oct., 1911 (2 birds). Gallinago australis (No. 166).—Mannum, S. Austr., Nov., 1913. - Chenopis atrata (No. 198).—In captivity, Coast Hospital, Sydney, April, 1916, numerous cestodes; Zool. Gardens, Sydney, Mar., 1915. Anas superciliosa (No. 208).—Deniliquin, Mar., 1918 (J. Weir, per W. W. Froggatt); N.S. Wales (ova in tumours of intestine, (?) nematode or cestode, from Dr. Darnell-Smith). Teal.—Cobar, Dec., 1911. ‘Hieracidea berigora (No. 259).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912, cestode(?) (with nematodes in crop and stomach). Ninox boobook (No. 263).—Mannum, S. Austr., Nov., 19138; Flinders Island, Nov., 1912; Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919. Trichoglossus swainsoni (No. 274).—Eidsvold, Q’land, July, 1913 (Dr. T. L. Bancroft); Encounter Bay, Feb., 1921 (nil). Cacatua galerita (No. 291).—Sydney, in captivity, Aug., 1918. Barnardius barnardi (No. 315).—Willbriggie, N.S. Wales, Oct., 1912; near Morgan, Nov., 1918 (nil); Beltana, Aug., 1921 (nil). Podargus marmoratus (No. 339).—Claudie River, N. Q’land, 1913 - (Dr. MacGillivray, cestode under skin of abdomen). Syma. flavirostris (No. 344).—N. Q’land, 1913 (Dr. MacGillivray, 2, cestodes in subcutaneous tissues of leg in one). pero macleayi (No. 347).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., Pitta strepitans (No. 377).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (2 with cestodes, 1 nil). Cheramoeca leucostenum (No. 385).—Narrabri, Feb., 1912 (2). Petrochelidon nigricans (No. 386).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919. - Petrochelidon ariel (No. 387).—Gular, Oct., 1911 (with trematodes) ; Morgan, 1913 (2 nil). Eopsaltria chrysorrhoa (No. 419).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919; Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (nil). _ Pachycephala melanura (No. 426).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919 (1 cestodes, 2 nil). Pachycephala rufiventris (No. 480).—Pilliga Scrub, Oct., 1918 (2, 1 nil); Kendall, Jan., 1919 (nil); Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919; Beltana, Aug., 1912 (nil). Pachycephala olivacea (No. 433).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Piezorhynchus nitidus (No. 451).—N. Q’land, 1913 (Dr. MacGil- livray, larval cestode (?) in subcuteaneous tissues). Coracina parvirostris (No. 457a).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (small bodies, (?) parasitic). © Hylacola pyrrhopygia (No. 474).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1912: Bumberry, near Manildra, Jan., 1916 (nil). 106 Malurus longicaudus (No. 529). —Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (9, 2 with cestodes, 2 with filaria in peritoneum, 5 nil), Artamus leucogaster (No. 559).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919 (1 cestodes, 1 nil). Artamus personatus (No. 561).—North of Renmark, Jan., 1921. Artamus melanops (No. 562a).—Cobar, Oct., 1911; Gunnedah, Sept., 1914 (mil); Beltana, Aug., 1921 (nil). Artamus sordidus (No. 564).—Hawkesbury River, Oct., 1912 (nil); Manilla, Sept., 1914 (nil); Coonabarabran, Sept., 1914; Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914 (nil); Bibbenluke, N.S. Wales, Mar., 1913 (nil). Colluricincla harmonica (No. 566).—Hawkesbury River; June, 1912 (nil) ; Coonabarabran, Sept., 1914 (nil) ; Encounter Bay, ‘Jan., SPAR Colluricincla selbii (No. 567).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Corcorax melanorhamphus (No. 577).—Near 1] Morgan, Nov., 1913; Gunnedah, Sept., 1914 (8, echinorhynchs in 1, nil in 2); Coona- barabran, ‘Sept., "1914; Belaringar, April, 1915 (echinorhynchs and (2) cestodes) ; Tarcoon, Oct., 1914 (nil) : Dubbo, June, 1915 (worms). Zosterops dorsalis (No. 599).—Sydney, June and July, 1912, and Nov., 1911 (all with cestodes), and Aug., 1911 (1), June, 1912 (4), July, 1912 (11), Aug., 1912 (8), and Dec., 1918 (1) (all nil) : Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (8, 2 with cestodes) ; Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (2 nil) ; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1921 (nil). Pardalotus striatus (No. 603).—Near Morgan, Nov., 1918; Alawoona, S. Austr., Dec., 1918; Beltana, Aug., 1921 (nema- tode in peritoneum only); north of Renmark, Jan., 1921 (nil). Pardalotus affinis (No. 605) (Pall this species).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (4, cestodes in 1, cestodes(?) in 1, nil in 2). eh albifrons (No. 630).—Overland Corner, 8. Austr., Nov., 1913 (2, 1 nil). Stigmatops ocularis (No. 639).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919 (2 with cestodes, 1 nil). Ptilotis fusca (No. 643). — Grafton, Ake 1912 (2 nil); Molong, Oct., 1913 (nil); Wellington, N.S. Wales, Nov., 1914 (2 nil); Dubbo, July, 1914 (2 nil); French’s Forest, Sydney, June, 1915 (nil) ; Bumberry, near Manildra, Jan., 1916 (cestodes) ; Bumberry, Oct., 1916 (nil). Ptilotis "auricomis (No. 652).—Hawkesbury River, June, 1912; Molong, Oct., 1913 (nil); Grafton, April, 1912 (nil) ; Hawkes- bury River, April, 1913 (nil). Ptilotis ornata (No. 656).—Alawoona, S. Austr., Dec., 1913; Monarto South, May, 1921. Meliornis sericea (No. 669).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919 (cestodes in 1, nil in 1). Myzantha flavigula (No. 674).—Tarcoon, Oct., 1914; Belaringar, April and May, 1915 (both nil). pepe rufigularis (No. 679).—Cobar, Oct., 1911. (nematodes only); Yaneo, Oct., 1912 (nil); Overland Corner, S. Austr., Nov., 19138; Narrabri, Nov. 1916 (nil). Entomyza cyanotis (No. 680). —Mannum, Noyv., 1913 (2 nil); Bum- berry, near Manildra, Jan., 1916. Anthus australis (No. 687). SWlinders Island, Nov., 1912 (2, 1 nil); West Island, Encounter Bay, Jan., 1929 (nil). Mirafra horsfieldi (No. 688). -_‘Wncounter Bay, Jan., 1922. 107 Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus (No. 718).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, _ Oct., 1919 (cestodes in 1, nil in 5). Ailuroedus smithi (No. 720).—Mummulgum, near Casino, Dec., 1916; Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (2 nil, 2 with _cestodes). Sericulus chrysocephalus (No. 726).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (cestode in 1, cestode in abdominal cavity (probably from wound) in 1, nil in 4); Mummulgum, near Casino, Dec., 1916 (nil); Zool. Gardens, Sydney, Nov., 1919 (nil). * Corvus coronoides (No. 732) and C. australis (No. 734).—Yanco, Oct, 1912; Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (1 nil, (?) cestode in 1); Walgett, Sept., 1914 (2 with cestodes); Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914 (nil) ; Coonabarabran, Sept., 1914 (nil); Moree, Oct., 1914 (2 nil); Tarcoon, Oct., 1914 (nil); Merah, near Moree, Oct., 1914 (2 nil); Belaringar, June, 1915 (8, cestodes in 1); Tarcoon, foe 1914 (?sparganum); Bumberry, near Manildra, Jan., Corvus cecilae.—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919 (cestodes on, to nil in: 2). Strepera graculina (No. 735).—Mount Irvine, June, 1915 (filaria only); Scone, May, 1917 (filaria in 1, nil in 1); Bunya Moun- tains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (cestodes only). 2. Nematodes. EKudyptula minor (No. 62).—Encounter Bay, Feb., 1921 (in stomach), and Jan., 1922 (2, no nematodes). Pelagodroma marina (No. 65).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (6, nematodes in crop of 1, 5 nil). Pisobia acuminata (No. 162).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (? nema- tode in intestine). Pelecanus conspicillatus (No. 233).—Sep., 1918 (nematodes in stomach). Astur novae-hollandiae (No. 237).—N. Queensland (Dr. MacGil- livray), 1913 (nematode in nictitating membrane of eye). Falco lunulatus (No. 258).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (filaria in peritoneal cavity). Hieracidea berigora (No. 59).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (nema- todes in stomach and oesophagus, (?)cestodes also). Ninox rufa (No. 269).—N. Queensland (Dr. MacGillivray), 1913 (3, in orbit of one, orbit and under skin of forehead in another, 2 large flesh-coloured worms in abdominal cavity, and 1 small white worm in chest cavity in third). Pseudopsittacus maclennani.—N. Queensland (Dr. MacGillivray), 1913 (nematodes in abdominal cavity). Dacelo gigas (No. 345).—Pilliga Scrub, Oct., 1918 (large nematode in intestine). Haleyon sanctus (No. 349).—Stradbroke Island, Moreton Bay (?nematodes in intestine and small coiled nematode in peri- toneal cavity, from injury to intestine). Pitta mackloti (No. 378).—N. Queensland (Dr. MacGillivray), 1918. Petroica phoenicea (No. 393).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (filaria . in peritoneal cavity). — Myiagra plumbea (No. 444).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919. Pomatorhinus superciliosus (No. 479).—Baradine, Oct.,_ 1918 (nematode in intestine, also Echinorhynchus pomatostomi, sub- cutaneously). 108 Oreocincla macrorhyncha (No. 4884).—Mount Arthur, near Laun- ceston, Tas., Nov., 1912 (Pnematode in intestine). Malurus longicaudus (No. 529).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (9, filaria in peritoneum of 2 birds, cestodes in 2, nil in 5). Pardalotus striatus (No. 603).—See under .Cestodes. Ptilotis leilavalensis (No. 6614).—Beltana, Aug., 1921 (nematode attached to outer wall of oesophagus). Myzantha flavigula (No. 674).—North of Renmark, Jan., 1921 (nematodes in pleuro-peritoneal cavity, yellow, as was the fat and skin of the abdomen. Acanthogenys rufigularis (No. 679).—Cobar, Oct., 1911 (nematode only); Yanco, Oct., 1912 (nil); Overland Corner, S. Austr., Nov., 1912 (cestode only); Narrabri, Nov., 1916 (nil). Strepera graculina (No. 735).—Mount Irvine, June, 1915 (filaria in peritoneal cavity); Scone, May, 1917 (filaria in pleuro- _ peritoneal cavity in 1, nil in 1); Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (cestodes only). Domestic pigeons, chiefly squabs about 28 days old.—Numerous small nematodes in intestine, almost blocking it, Sydney, May, 1919; Ascaridea. columbae (Gmelin) (Heterakis maculosa, Schn.), identified by Miss Irwin Smith. 3- Acanthocephala. Baza subcristata (No. 254).—_Mummulgum, N.S. Wales, Dec., 1916, Centrorhynchus asturinus, Jnstn. Seisura inquieta (No. 448).—Canowindra, 1915 (echinorhynch near rectum). Cinclosoma cinnamoneum (No. 468).—(?) Locality, larval Echinor- hynchus pomatostomi, C. and J., in subcutaneous tissue of neck (Dr. MacGillivray). iri crepitans (No. 476).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., Pomatorhinus temporalis (No. 478).—Canowindra, 1915 (3, larval E. pomatostomi). Pomatorhinus superciliosus (No. 479).—Hallett Cove, S. Ausir., May, 1910, larval E. pomatostomi subcutaneously ; Baradine, Oct., 1918, larval E. pomatostomi subcutaneously (also nema- todes in intestine). . Oreocincla lunulata (No. 488).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (echinorhynchs in 5); Kuitpo, S. Austr., May, 1921, larval E. pomatostomi subcutaneously. Corcorax melanorhamphus (No. 577).—Near Morgan, Nov., 1913 (cestode only); Gunnedah, Sept., 1914 (8, echinorhynch in 1); Coonabarabran, Sept., 1914 (cestode only); Belaringar, April, 1915 (echinorhynchs and cestodes ?); Tarcoon, Oct., 1914 (nil); Dubbo, June, 1915 (worms). Aphelocephala leucopsis (No. 578).—Hallett Cove, S. Austr., May, 1910, larval E. pomatostomi subcutaneously ; Gular, Oct., 1911 (2 nil); Narrabri, Feb., 1912 (nil); Overland Corner, S. Austr., Dec., 1913 (nil); Mount Lofty Ranges, Nov., 1912 (nil); north of Renmark, Jan., 1921 (nil). : Climacteris scandens (No. 592) (C. picumnus).—Near Morgan, Nov., 1913 (2, larval E. pomatostomi and (?)worm in intes- tine in 1, nil in 1). 109 4. Trematodes. | Petrochelidon ariel (No. 387).—Gular, Oct., 1911, type of Plagiorcis clelandi, S. J. Johnston (with cestodes in intestines); Morgan, Nov., 1913 (2, both nil). 5. Species of Birds Examined in which Entozoa (excluding Haematozoa) have not been detected by the Writer. Leipoa ocellata (No. 6).—Zool. Gardens, Sydney (2 birds). Coturnix pectoralis (No. 8).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922 (2). Turnix varia (No. 13).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1922. Turnix velox (No. 16).—Near Broken Hill, April, 1917. oes humeralis (No. 26).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., Geopelia tranquilla (No. 27).—Coonamble, Aug., 1912; Mannum, S. Austr., Nov., 1918 (2). . Bee ee cortors (No. 30).—Overland Corner, S. Austr., Dec., 9 Ocyphaps lophotes (No. 39).—Parachilna, Aug., 1921. Leucosarcia picata (No. 40).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919. Haematopus fuliginosus (No. 126).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Lobivanellus lobatus (No. 128).—Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914. Spoonbill (white).—Taronga Zool. Park, June, 1919. Astur novae-hollandiae (No. 237).—Taronga Zool. Park, April, 1919. Astur approximans (No. 228).—N.S. Wales, April, 1912. Uroaétus audax (No. 243).—Nevertire, Aug., 1919. Haliastur sphenurus (No. 248).—Coonamble, Aug., 1912; Tarcoon, Oct., 1914. Calyptorhynchus baudini (No. 284).—Taronga Zool. Park (from W. Austr.), Aug., 1919. Calyptorhynchus leachi (No. 289).—Narrabri, Nov., 1916 (2 birds) ; Dorrigo, Jan., 1918. Cacatua gymnopis (No. 293).—Beltana, Aug., 1921. Cacatua roseicapilla (No. 295).—Belaringar, April, 1915. Aprosmictus scapulatus (No. 303).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (8). Platycercus pennanti (No. 304).—Wagga, July, 1914 (2); Mount Irvine, June, 1915; Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (7). Platycercus flaveolus (No. 306).—Morgan, S. Austr., Nov., 1913 (3). Platycercus flaviventris (No. 307).—Flinders Island, Nov., 19138 (4), Platycercus eximius (No. 311).—Belaringar, May, 1915; Dubbo, July, 1915 (2); Kendall, Aug., 1918. Psephotus haematogaster (No. 319).—Belaringar, May, 1915. 7 Psephotus multicolor (No. 323).—North of Renmark, Jan., 1921 (2). Psephotus haematonotus (No. 324).—Cowra, Sept., 1911; Coon- amble, Aug., 1912; Mannum, S. Austr., Nov., 1913 (2); Goolwa, Nov., 1921. Euphema elegans (No. 327).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1921, and Jan., 1922 Euphema pulchella (No. 330).—Narrabri, June, 1919. Lathamus discolor (No. 332).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Eurystomus pacificus (No. 341).—Scone, Oct., 1917. ‘3 Halcyon pyrrhopygius (No. 348).—Near Morgan, S. Austr., Nov., 1913. 5 . Merops ornatus (No. 352).—Coonabarabran, Sept., 1914. - Cuculus pallidus (No. 361).—N.S. Wales, Nov., 1911. 110 Cacomantis flabelliformis (No. 362).—Flinders Island, Nov. 1913 (2). Chalcococcyx basalis (No. 366). ee anor Island, Nov., 1913; Over- land Corner, S. Austr., Dec. Eudynamis cyanocephala (No. shi) ae a near Casino, Dec., 1916 (2 birds). Microeca fascinans (No. 388).—Sydney, Nov., 1911; Morgan, S. Austr., Nov., Petroica legeii (No. 392). —Flinders Island, Nov., 1911. Petroica phoenicea (No. 393).—Flinders Island, 'Nov., Loi Petroica goodenovii (No. 394).—Beltana, Aug.., 1922. Erythrodryas rosea (No. 396). —Hawkesbury River, June, 1912. Melanodryas bicolor (No. 397).—Pilliga Scrub, Oct.., 1918 ; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1921. Amaurodryas vittata (No. 398).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1911 (2). Orthonyx ‘spinicaudis (No. 464).—Dorrigo, Jan., "1918 (2 birds). Smicrornis brevirostris (No. 400). —Morgan, Nov., 1913; Scone, May, 1917; Dubbo, Aug., 1917; Pilliga Scrub, Oct., 1918 ; north of Renmark, Jan., 1921. Gerygone albogularis (No. 402). —Molong, Oct., 1913. Gerygone fusca (No. 405).—Lisarow, May, 1915. Kopsaltria australis (No. 418). —Molong, Oct., 1913. Falcunculus frontatus (No. 422). —Mount Irvine, June, 1915. Oreoica cristata (No. 425).—North of Renmark, di an., 1921. Pachycephala gutturalis (No. 428). orca Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (2); Encounter Bay, Jan. Pachycephala elaucura (No. 429). Flinders and Nov., 1912 (8). Rhipidura diemenensis (No. 436a).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (8). Rhipidura rufifrons (No. 489).—Mummulgum, near Casino, Dec., 1916; Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919. Rhipidura motacilloides (No. 442). __Sydney, Nov., 1911. ee carinata (No. 455).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., Graucalus melanops (No. 457).—Tarcoon, Oct., 1914; Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914; Beltana, Aug., 1921. Graucalus parvirostris (No. 4574).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (4). ~ Graucalus mentalis (No. 459).—Coonabarabran, Sept., 1914 Campephaga humeralis (No. 462).—Hawesbury River, Oct., 1912; Baan Baa, Jan., 1917 (young bird). Campephaga leucomela (No. 463).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sep., 1919. Cinclosoma punctatum (No. 466).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922. pare eager se (No. 467).—Alawoona, S. Austr., Dec., rth brunneopygius (No. 472).—Alawoona, S. Austr., Dec., Hylacola cauta (No. 475).—Monarto South, S. Austr., May, 1921. Cincloramphus-cruralis (No. 484).—Near Broken Hill, April, 1917. Cincloramphus rufescens (No. 485).—Pilliga Scrub, Oct., 1918 (2). Ephthianura albifrons (No. 489).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1913; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1921 (2). Ephthianura tricolor (No. 490).—Molong, Oct., 1913 (8); Para- chilna, S. Austr., Aug., 1921. Ephthianura aurifrons (No. 491).—Broken Hill, April, 1917; Parachilna, S. Austr., Aug., 1921. Origma rubricata (No. 500).—Sydney, April, 1912. Chthonicola sagittata (No. 501).—The Oaks, N.S. Wales, June, 1914; Baan Baa, near, Boggabri, Jan., 1917. vit Acanthiza nana (No. 503).—Hawkesbury River, May, 1915; Dubbo, Mar., 1915; Pilliga Serub, Oct., 1918; Narrabri, June, 1919; Bunya Mountains, Oct., 1919. Acanthiza reguloides (No. 507). —Bibbenluke, Mar., 1913; Pilliga Serub, Oct., 1918; Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919. Acanthiza chrysorrhoa (No. 508). —Scone, May, 1917. Acanthiza uropygialis (No. 509). Vanco, Oct., 1912: Mannum, Nov., 1913; Overland Corner, S. Austr., Dec., 1918; Dubbo, July, 1915 (2): Baan Baa, Jan., 1917; Beltana, Aug., 1921 ; north of Renmark, Jan., 1921. Acanthiza lineata (Not 511).—Sydney, Nov., 1912; Bell, June, 1915; Bunya Mountains, Oct., 1919; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1921, and Jan., 1922. Acanthiza pusilla (No. 512).—Kurrajong, Aug., 1912; Bibbenluke, N.S. Wales, Mar., 1913; Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct.. 1919 (2). Acanthiza diemenensis (No. 512a).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1913 (2). Acanthiza pyrrhopygia (No. 516).—Monarto South, S. Austr., July, 1914; Encounter Bay, Feb., 1921. Acanthiza albiventris (No. 5164).—Pilliga Scrub, Oct., 1918. Pyrrholaemus brunneus (No. 517).—Renmark, Jan., 1921. Sericornis citreigularis (No. 518).—Mount Irvine, June, 1915; Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (2). Sericornis frontalis (No. 519). = Tisarow, May, 1915 (2); Mount Irvine, June, 1915; Canobolas, Oct., 1916 (2); Bunya Moun- tains, 'Q’land, Oct., 1919. Roos magnirostris (No. 521).—Bunya: Mountains, Q’land, ct., : Sericornis humilis (No. 524).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (5). Malurus cyaneus (No. 5380).—Sydney, Nov., 1911; Kuitpo, S. Austr., May, 1921. Malurus cyanochlamys (No. 530a).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (5). aarus ‘melanonebus (No. 5382).—Overland Corner, S. Austr., Dee., 13 Malurus cyanotus (No. 535).—Beltana, Aug., 1921. Malurus assimilis (No. 538).—Alawoona, S. Austr., Dec., 1913 (2); Beltana, Aug., 1921. Malurus melanocephalus (No. 542).—Mummulgum, near Casino, Dec., 1916. Artamus superciliosus (No. 560).—Cowra, Sept., 1911; Sydney, Oct., 1919. Su rufigaster (No. 573).—Stradbroke Island, Sept., 1914 (4 Grallina picata (No.. 575).—Cowra, Sept., 1911; Pennant Hills, Sydney, Dec., 1916 (D. Steel). Struthidea einenes (No. 576).—Gunnedah, Sept., 1914 (3); Coona- barabran, Sept., 1914; Belaringar, April, 1915. Neositta chrysoptera (No. 583).—Hawkesbury River, June, 1912. Neositta pileata (No. 586).—Encounter Bay, Feb., 1921. Climacteris picumna (No. 592) (scandens). ie arrabri, Feb., 1912; Molong, Oct., 1913; Baradine, Oct., peers lencophaea (No. 593). Lites Ren ee ts Q’ land, Oct., Pardalotus punctatus (No. 606).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Pardalotus xanthopygius (No. 607).—Mannum, Nov., 1913. 112 Pardalotus melanocephalus (No. 609).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919. Melithreptus lunulatus (No. 613). __Sydney, Nov., 1911 (2), and May, 1912; Hawkesbury River, June, 1912 (2) ; Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919; Kuitpo, S. Austr. , May, 1921. Melithreptus brevirostris (No. 619). Sydney, April, 1912; Hawkesbury River, June, 1912; Mannum, S. Austr., Nov., 1913 (3); Scone, May, 1917: Bumberry, Oct., 1916 ; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1921. A it melanocephalus (No. 620).—Flinders Island, Nov., Myzomela sanguineolenta (No. 622).—Kendall, Jan., 1919. Myzomela nigra (No. 624).—Molong, Oct., 1913. Glycyphila fulvifrons (No. 629).—Flinders “Island, Nov., 1912 (4); French’s Forest, Sydney, June, 1915. Meliphaga phrygia (No. 638). - Bumberry, Sept., 1916. Ptilotis chrysotis (No. 644).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Nov., 1919. Ptilotis sonora (No. 646).—Mannum, S. Austr., Nov., 1913; Para- chilna, S. Austr., Aug., 1921; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922. Ptilotis chrysops (No. 648). __Hawkesbury River, June, 1912; Kurrajong, Aug., 1912; Hawkesbury River, Nov., 1914, and May, 1915. Ptilotis flavigula (No. 649).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (8). Ptilotis leucotis (No. 651).—Dubbo, Aug., 1917. . Ptilotis ornata (No. 656). Cerca Nov., 1913 (2); Monarto South, S. Austr., July, 1914. Ptilotis plumula (No. 658).—North of Renmark, Jan., 1921. Ptilotis penicillata (No. 661).—Narrabri, Feb., 1912; near Morgan, S. Austr., Nov., 1913 (2); Overland Corner, S. Austr., Dec., I9IS: Pilliga Serub, Oct.., 1918. Lichmera australasiana (No. 667). —Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Myzantha garrula (No. 672).—Gunnedah, Sept., 1914 (4); Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914; Hawkesbury River, May, 1915; Bela- ringar, April (2) and. May, 1915; Scone, May, 1917. Anthochaera carunculata (No. 675).__Hawkesbury River, July, 1912 (8); Sept., 1912 (4); Scone, May, 1917. . a ae corniculatus (No. 684).—Hawkesbury River, May, eee cr onutanys (No. 685).—Cowra, Sept., 1911; Dubbo, . Panera Phe bellus (No. 693).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Stizoptera bichenovii (No. 697).—Narrabri, June; 1919 (3). Aegintha temporalis (No. 703).—Gosford, May, 1915 (4); Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922. ance note (No. 728).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., Strepera arguta (No. 736).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (2). Cracticus destructor (No. 745).—Tarcoon, Oct., 1914. Gymnorhina tibicen (No. 747).—Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914; Tar- coon, Dec., 1914. eins patzaeo (introduced Dove).—Sydney, Nov., 1911, and Mar., Sturnus ‘vulgaris (Starling).—Gunnedah, Sept., 1914 (5, young); Wagga, Aug., 1914 (2). Passer domesticus (Sparrow).—Sydney, Nov., 1911, and June, 1917. 1]3 6. Siphonaptera (Fleas). Eudyptula minor (No. 62).—Bird Island, Rockingham, W. Austr., “Hh 1906 (Parapsyllus australiacus, Rothsch., Nov. Zool., XV1., 1909, p. 62, wm cop.); Flinders ‘Island, Nov., 1912 (P. australiacus, determined by ic, Rothschild) : Encounter Bay, Feb., 1921 (no fleas, mallophaga), and Jan., 1922 (no fleas, mallophaga). Puffinus brevicaudus (No. 74).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (P. australiacus, Rothsch.; doubtful as to whether a str ay). 7. Diptera. Pokehelidan ariel (No. 387).—Near Morgan, S. Austr., Nov., 1913 Ornithomyia australasiae Leach(? ), identified at British Museum). 8. Waitephasn: Coturnix pectoralis (No. 8).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1911 (1 nil, 1 mallophaga on wings). Turnix velox (No. 16).—Near Broken Hill, April, 1917. Phaps elegans (No. 31).—Waitpinga, Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922. Eudyptula minor (No. 62).—See under Siphonaptera. Pelagodroma marina (No. 65).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (1 mallophaga, 1 nil). Puffinus sphenurus (No. 69).—little Bay, Sydney, Dec., 1914 (washed ashore). Puffinus brevicaudus (No. 74).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (2). Prion banksi (No. 89).—Cronulla, Aug., 1911 (washed up). Sterna cristata (No. 107).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922. Haematopus fuliginosus (No. 126).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (1 mallophaga, 1 nil). Lobivanellus lobatus (No. 128).—Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914 (mallophaga and mites). Himantopus leucocephalus (No. 142).—(?) Locality (Dr. D’Ombrain). Pisobia acuminata, (No. 162).—Gular, Oct., 1911; Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (nil); Cape York or south-west of Queensland, Dec.. 1912 (Dr. MacGillivray). Rhynchaea australis (No. 167). Cape York or south-west of Queens- land, Dec., 1912 (Dr. MacGillivray). Chenopis atrata (No. 198).—In captivity, Coast Hospital, Sydney, April, 1916; Zool. Gardens, Sydney. Cereopsis novae-hollandiae (No. 202).—Cape Barren Island, Bass Straits, Nov., 1912. Astur approximans (No. 238).—N.S. Wales, April, 1912. Uroaétus audax (No. 243).—Nevertire, Aug., 1919. Haliastur sphenurus (No. 248).—Coonamble, Aug., 1912; Tarcoon, Oct., 1914. Kestrel—From Dr. D’Ombrain. Hieracidea berigora (No. 259).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Hieracidea occidentalis (No. 260).—Narrabri, Jan-, 1918. Trichoglossus swainsoni (No. 274).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1921. Calyptorhynchus leachi (No. 289).—Narrabri, Nov., 1916 (2); Dorrigo, Jan., 1918 (nil). Eclectus macgillivrayi.North Queensland (Dr. MacGillivray). Platycercus flaviventris (No. 307).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Platycercus eximius (No. 311).—Belaringar, May, 1915; Dubbo, July, 1915 (2 nil); Kendall, Aug., 1918 (nil). 114 Psephotus haematonotus (No. 324).—Cowra, Sept., 1911 (nil) ; Coon- amble, Aug., 1912. Lathamus ’ discolor (No. 332).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Kurystomus pacificus (No. 341).—Scone, Oct., 1917. Pen: macleayi (No. 347). — Stradbroke Island, Q’ land, Sept. Merops ornatus (No. 352).—Coonabarabran, Sept., 1914. EKudynamis cyanocephala (No. 371). —Mummulgum, near Casino, Dec., 1916 (2). Erythrodryas rosea (No. 396).—Hawkesbury River, June, 1912. Monarcha carinata (No. 455).—Ourimbah, Nov., 1911. Graucalus melanops (No. 457).—Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914; Tar- coon, Oct., 1914 (2 nil); Beltana, Aug., 1921 (nil). Graucalus parvirostris (No. 4574). — Flinders Island, Nov., 1912 (2). Graucalus mentalis (No. 459).—Coonabarabran, Sept.. 1914. Oreocincla lunulata (No. 488).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919; Kuitpo, S. Austr., May, 1921 (nil). Chthonicola sagittata (No. 501). —The Oaks, June, 1914. Acanthiza nana (No. 503).—The Oaks, June, 1914 (nil); Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919. Acanthiza reguloides (No. 507).—The Oaks, June, 1914 (2). Acanthiza chrysorrhoa (No. 508).—The Oaks, June, 1914; Dubbo, ane 1915 (nil); Scone, May, 1917 (nil) : Beltana, Aug. cf 1921 nil Acanthiza uropygialis (No. 509).—Dubbo, ee 1911 (2), and July, 1915 (2 nil); Beltana, Aug., 1921 (nil). Acanthiza lineata (No. 511). —Mount Irvine, June, 1915 (nil); Uralla, June, 1915 (nil); Encounter Bay, J an., 1921 (nil), and Jan., i922 (mallophaga). Artamus sordidus (No. 564).—Coonabarabran, Sept., 1914 (mallo- phaga, no mites); Hawkesbury River, Oct., 1912 (nil); Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914 (mites, no mallophaga). Colluricincla ’ harmonica (No. 566).—Hawkesbury River, June, 1912 (mallophaga, no mites); Coonabarabran, Sept., 1914 (no mallophaga, mites) ; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922 (mallophaga and mites). Struthidea cinerea (No. 576).—Coonabarabran, 1914 (mallophaga and mites); Belaringar, April, 1915 (nil); Gunnedah, 1914 (1 with mallophaga and mites, 1 with mites, 1 nil). Corcorax melanorhamphus (No. 577). —Coonabar abran, 1914 (mallo- phagia, no mites); Belaringar, April, 1915 (numerous nits, oue mallophaga) ; Tarcoon, Oct., 1914 (mallophaga) ; Gunnedah, 1914 (nil); Dubbo, July, 1915 (mallophaga, (?)two species, no mites). Melithreptus lunulatus (No. 613).—Sydney, Nov., 1911; Hawkes- bury River, June, 1912 (no mallophaga, mites) ; Abbotsford, Sydney, Nov., 1911 (Melithreptus, probably M. lunulatus) ; Sydney, April, "1919 (no mallophaga, mites); Kuitpo, S. Austr., May, 1921 (nil). Melithreptus brevirostris (No. 619).—N.S. Wales; Scone, May, 1917; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1921 (nil). Myzomela sanguineolenta (No. 622). —Sydney, Oct., 1919 (Dr. D’Ombrain); Kendall, Jian., 1919 (nil). Ptilotis auricomis (No. 652). —Hawkesbury River, June, 1912. Myzantha garrula (No. 672).—Belaringar, April, 1915 (2, 1 with mallophaga), and May, 1915 (nil); Gunnedah, 1914 (4 with mites and no mallophaga); Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914 (mal- lophaga and no mites); ‘Cobar, Nov., 1911 (perhaps M. flavigula); Scone, May, 1917. _115 Myzantha flavigula (No. 674).—Belaringar, April, 1915 (mai- lophaga) and May, 1915 (nil); Tareoon, Oct., 1915 (nil). Anthochaera .carunculata (No. 675).—Hawkesbury River, July, ~ 1912 (4, mallophaga and mites in 1, mallophaga only in 3); Scone, May, 1917 (nil). : Philemon citreogularis (No. 685).—Cowra, Sept., 1911; Gular, Oct., 1911. Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus (No. 718).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919. re smithi (No. 720).—Mummulgum, near Casino, Dec., Sericulus chrysocephalus (No. 726).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919; Zool. Gardens, Sydney, Nov., 1919. Corvus coronoides (No. 732).—Cobar, Nov., 1911; Belaringar, June, 1915 (3, all with mallophaga and 1 with mites also); Coonabarabran, Sept., 1914 (mallophaga and mites); Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914 (mallophaga and mites); Tarcoon, Oct., 1914 (2, 1 mallophaga only, 1 nil). Corvus cecilae (No. 733).—(?) Locality (Dr. MacGillivray). Strepera graculina (No. 735).—Scone, May, 1917 (2, mallophaga ores! ‘on. 1): Strepera arguta (No. 736).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Gymnorhina: tibicen, (No. 747).—Cobar, Nov.. 1911 (either G. tibicen or G. leuconota); Upper Manilla, Sept., 1914 (mallo- phaga and mites); Tarcoon, Oct., 1914 (nil). Sturnus vulgaris (English Starling).—Wagga, Aug., 1914. 9g. Ticks. _ Eudyptula minor (No. 62).—Rockingham, W. Austr., Nov., 1906 Ornithodorus taljae (Guérin-Méneville) ? (larvae) and Ixodes percavatus, Neum., identified by Nuttall and Warburton; Flinders Island, Bass Straits, Nov., 1912; Encounter Bay, Feb., 1921 (mallophaga only). Pitta strepitans (No. 377).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919, Ixodes holocyclus, Newm., round head. Petrochelidon ariel (No. 387).—Bumberry, N.S. Wales, Oct., 1916, Argas lagenoplastis, Frogg., in nests. Sericornis citreigularis (No. 518).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., Ixodes holocyclus, Newm., round head. . 10. Mites. Lobivanellus lobatus (No. 128).—See under Mallophaga. Pachycephala gutturalis (No. 428).—Uralla, June, 1915 (nil); Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922 (mites on wings). Orthonyx spinicaudus (No. 464).—Dorrigo, Jan., 1918 (2). Haga punctatum (No. 466).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922 (on wings). Pomatorhinus temporalis (No. 478).—Canowindra, 1915 (3, red mites on 1). Origma rubricata (No. 500).—Sydney, April, 1912. Malurus longicaudus (No. 529).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Malurus cyanotus (No. 535).—Beltana, Aug., 1921 (under wings). Artamus sordidus (No. 564).—See under Mallophaga. Colluricincla harmonica (No. 566).—See under Mallophaga. Neositta chrysoptera (No. 583).—Hawkesbury River, June, 1912. Climacteris scandens (picumna) (No. 592).—Narrabri, Feb., 1912. . 116 Zosterops dorsalis (No. 599).—Sydney, Aug., 1911 (nil), June, 1912 | (4, 2 nil), July, 1912 (12, 11 nil), Aug., 1912 (8 nil), and Dec., 1918 (1 nil). | Melithreptus lunulatus (No. 613).—See under Mallophaga. Myzantha garrula (No. 672).—See under Mallophaga. | | Anthochaera carunculata (No. 675).—See under Mallophaga. Philemon citreogularis (No. 685).—Dubbo, Aug., 1917. Zonaeginthus bellus (No. 693).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. «- Aegintha temporalis (No. 703).—Gosford, May, 1915 (4 with mites) ; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922, nil. Corvus coronoides (No. 732). —See under Mallophaga. Cracticus destructor (No. 745).—Tarcoon, Oct., 1914. Gymnorhina tibicen (No. 747).—See under Mallophaga. Sturnus vulgaris (English Starling).—Gunnedah, 1914 (2, young, 1 with mites). . No Ectozoa Detected. Geopelia pou Te ya 27).—Coonamble, Aug., 1912. Ochyphaps lophotes (No. 39). —Parachilna, Aug., 1921. } Ninox boobook (No. 263).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912; Mannum, ee S. Austr., Nov., 1913. Cacatua gymnopis (No. 293).—Beltana, Aug., 1921. Cacatua roseicapilla (No. 295). —Belaringar, "April, 1915. Platycercus pennanti (No. 304).—Mount Irvine, June, 1915. | | Psephotus haematogaster (No. 319). -—Belaringar, May, 1915. Kuphema elegans (No. 327).—Encounter Bay, January, 1922. i Cuculus pallidus (No. 361).—Upper Manilla, Sept.. 1914. | Cacomantis flabelliformis (No. 362).—N.S. Wales, Nov., 1911. | Microeca fascinans (No. 388).—Sydney, Nov., 1911. ‘ Petroica phoenicea (No. 398). —Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. | Petroica goodenovii (No. 394).—Beltana, Aug., 1 21. ' Melanodryas bicolor (No. 397). —Encounter Bay, Jan., 1921. | ee brevirostris (No. 400).—Scone, May, 1917; Dubbo, Aug., 191 Gerygone fusca (No. 405).—Lisarow, May, 1915 | | ner Hoperecr a Og (No. 430). —Kendall, Jan. , 1919; Beltana, ug., | | Myiagra plumbea (No. 444).—Hawkesbury River, Oct., 1912. i . Campephaga humeralis (No. 462).—Hawkesbury River, Oct., 1912. i Hylacola pyrrhopygia (No. 474).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1921. | Hylacola cauta (No. 475).—Monarto South, May, 1921. . Cincloramphus cruralis (No. 484).—Near Broken Hill, April, 1917. i Ephthianura albifrons (No. 489).—Encounter Bay, Je an., 1921 (2). Z| Ephthianura tricolor (No. 490).—Parachilna, Aug., 1921. ‘a Ephthianura aurifrons (No. 491).—Broken Hill, April, 1917; Para- + | chilna, Aug., 1921. 4 Sericornis frontalis (No. 519).—Lisarow, May, 1915 (2). hi | Mote renee (No. 530).—Sydney, Nov., 1911; ; Kuitpo, S. Austr., i} ay, i | Malurus assimilis (No. 538).—Beltana, Aug., 1921. Artamus superciliosus (No. 560).—C owra, Sept., 1914, Sar heh melanops (No. 5624). Gunnedah, 1914; Beltana, Aug., D | Grallina picata (No. 575).—Cowra, Sept., 1911; Pennant Hills, Hi Sydney, Dec., 1916 (D. Steel). | Aphelocephala leucopsis (No.. 578).—Gular, Oct., 1911 (2); Yanco, ) Oct., 1912; Mount Lofty Ranges, Nov. 0. q . Weitere striatus (No. 603).—North of Renmark, Jan., 1921. ies 4a7 Pardalotus affinis (No. 605).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. pee obus xanthopygius (No. 607).—Mannum, S. Austr., Nov., Glyciphila fulvifrons (No. 629).—French’s Forest, near Sydney, June, 1915. Ptilotis fusca (No. 643).—French’s Forest, June, 1915; Dubbo, July, 1915. Ptilotis sonora (No. 646).—Parachilna, Aug., 1921; Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922. Ptilotis chrysops (No. 648).—Hawkesbury River, June, 1912, and Nov., 1914. Ptilotis leucotis (No. 651).—Dubbo, Aug., 1917. Ptilotis ornata (No. 656).—Monarto South, May, 1921. _ Lichmera australasiana (No. 667).—Flinders Island, Nov., 1912. Ptilotis leilavalensis (No. 6614).—Beltana, Aug., 1921. Acanthogenys rufigularis (No. 679).—Narrabri, Nov., 1916. Be a, pusbralis (No. 687).—West Island, Encounter Bay, Jan., Mirafra horsfieldi (No. 688).—Encounter Bay, Jan., 1922. Turtur ferrago (introduced Dove).—Sydney, Mar., 1917. Passer domesticus (Sparrow).—Sydney, June, 1917. 12. Haematozoa. (a) HALTERIDIA IN THE RED CORPUSCLES. Eudynamis cyanocephala (No. 371).—Mummulgum, near Casino, Dec., 1916 (halteridia in 2 with gametes in both). Melithreptus brevirostris (No. 619).—Encounter Bay, Feb., 1921; Monarto South, Oct., 1920 (nil). Ptilotis leilavalensis (No. 6614).—Beltana, Aug., 1921. Acanthogenys rufigularis (No. 679).—Narrabri, Nov., 1916 (one seen, occupying both ends of the red cell and one side); Monarto South, Oct., 1920 (nil). ~Tropidorhynchus corniculatus (No. 684).—Milson Island, Hawkes- bury River, May, 1915 (with Leucocytozoon). (b) TRYPANOSOMES IN THE BLOOD. Pachycephala melaneura (No. 426).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919. Entomyza cyanotis (No. 680).—Bumberry, Jan., 1916 (one degener- ated trypanosome seen, with Leucocytozoon). (c) LEUCOCYTOZOA IN THE BLOOD. Entomyza cyanotis (No. 680).—Bumberry, Jan., 1916 (with trypanosomes). Tropidorhynchus corniculatus (No. 684).—Milson Island, Hawkes- bury River, May, 1915 (with Halteridium). Ailuroedus smithi (No. 720).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919 (a few large spherical Leucocytozoa). 13. Haematozoa not Detected. ieee humeralis (No. 26).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919 Eudyptula minor (No. 62).—Encounter Bay, Feb., 1921. Hieracidea occidentalis (No. 260).—Narrabri, Jan., 1918. 118 . Calyptorhynchus leachi (No. 289).—Narrabri, Nov., 1916 (2); Dorrigo, Jan., 1918. Cacatua. gymnopis (No. 293).—Beltana, Aug., 1921. Platycercus pennanti (No. 304). —Mount Wilson, June, 1915; Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919. Platycercus eximius (No. 311). —Dubbo, July, 1915. EKurystomus pacificus (No. 341).—Scone, ‘Oct., 1917. Cacomantis flabelliformis (No. 362). —Milson Island, Hawkesbury River, Jan., 1915 (young bird); Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919. Petrochelidon nigricans (No. 386).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919. Orthonyx spinicaudus (No. 464).—Dorrigo, Jan., 1918. pro iucle lunulata (No. 488).—Bunya Moutains, Qland, Oct., Chthonicola sagittata (No. 501).—Baan Baa, Jan., 1917. passers uno Reet (No. 509).—Baan Baa, Jan., 1917 ; Dubbo, uly, Acanthiza lineata (No. 511).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919. Lope pusilla (No. 512).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Ook. Sericornis frontalis (No. 519).—Canobolas, Oct., 1916 (2 birds); Mount Irvine, June, 1915. eases cyanochlamys (No. 530a).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Cb; _Malurus melanocephalus (No. 542).—Mummulgum, near Casino, Dec., 1916. peas leucogaster (No. 559).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919. Colluricincla rufigaster (No. 573).—Stradbroke Island, Q’land, Sept., 1919. Climacteris leucophaea (No. 593).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919. Zosterops dorsalis (No. 599).—Bunya Mountains, Q’land, Oct., 1919. Stigmatops ocularis (No. 639).—Stradbroke Island, Q'land, ‘Sept., 1919. Anthochaera carunculata (No. 675).—Scone, April, 1917. Sericulus chrysocephalus (No. 726). —Mummuleum, Dec., 1916. Corvus coronoides (No. 732).—Bumberry, Jan. 1916. Corvus cecilae (No. 733).—Stradbroke island, Q’land, Sept., 1919. Strepera graculina (No. 735).—Scone, April, 1917 (2 birds). Passer domesticus (Sparrow). —Sydney, June, 1917. Dea THE EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF POUCH EMBRYOS OF MARSUPIALS. No. 4. ~PSEUDOCHIROPS DAHLI. By Freprric Woop Jones, D.Sc., F.Z.S., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Adelaide. [Read June 8, 1922.] Pruate VI. 4 For all the pouch embryos of this interesting form I am indebted to the authorities of the Perth Museum. The animal was first described by Professor Collett in 1895. In 1915 it was placed by Matschie in the sub-genus Pseudo- chirops, when that author split up the large Genus Pseudochirus of Ogilby. Pseudochirops dahli and P. archeri are the only Australian members of the sub-genus, the other seven constituent species being confined to New Guinea. From the external characters of the pouch embryo it would appear to be a particularly interesting form, and one that is undergoing remodelling in response to the demands of a comparatively recent radiation. Har.—Hair is first visible in the 80 mm. stage, at which time the embryo is flesh coloured. The 50 mm. embryo shows no trace of body hair, though the specialized tactile _ vibriscae are present. When the embryo has reached 105 mm. the body is entirely clothed with short hair, the general colour of which is light brown. The skin of the embryo is free of pigment. Hair Tracts.—The hair tracts are charted from male B, Perth Museum, the embryo, which is shown at pl. vi., being 105 mm. in total length. Upon the head are numerous definite hair fields arranged in a rather complicated manner (see fig. 1). (A) Immediately behind the naked rhinarium a field of short hair shows a uniform forward direction; the free tips of the short hairs extend to the superior margin of the naked rhinarium, and to the upper margina of the narial slit. (B) Behind this is an area extending backwards to the anterior angle of the eye, and laterally downwards to the mysticial region. In this field the hair is directed forwards and towards the mid-line, so that the areas of the two sides of the snout meet in the mid-line at a hair ridge. This field field (C) streams backwards away from the forwardly- 120 is also marked off by a definite ridge from the field imme- diately in front of it. , (C) Above and around the eye, the hair streams upwards and backwards so that it leaves a well-marked divergent parting above and in front of the orbit where the hair of ( Hair tracts of the head (from Specimen Male B, Perth Museum, 105 mm.). directed hair in field (B). The area (C) meets its fellow of the opposite side in the — mid-line of the head and ends behind at a convergent hair- line which runs roughly from the crown of the head to the ‘peel oy} 07 esopo Yo yno se poyuesorded st opoline otf], ‘(mUL GOT ‘wnesny, 449d ‘q aTeyy woutoedg) syoesy Ae Py : 121 122 posterior margin of the palpebral fissure. At the crown of the head a whorl (V in fig. 1) is developed upon each side of the middle line at the upper end of this convergent line. - ws ~ Hig: 3. i aeial vibri iscae (from Specimen A, Perth Lo Museum, 80 mm.), — The next tract (D) is a complex one, for radiating from a single mid-line whorl (W in fig. 1) situated upon the dorsal surface of the head opposite the margin of the ears, the hair Wig. 4. Brachial vibriscae (from Specimen Female A, Perth Museum, 80 mm.). streams in three different directions: (1) forwards and downwards, where it meets (C) at the convergent hair-line ; (2) outwards to clothe the dorsal and posterior surface of 123 _the ear; and (3) backwards and downwards Inte the general body stream. Upon the side of the face the ace field, . which starts at the lower narial ‘Margin and turns backwards below Bie, Dd. Calcaneal vibriscae (from Specimen Female A, Perth Museum, 80 mm.). (A) and (B), becomes continuous with the sub-occular field. The hair in this tract (E) is directed backwards and slightly downwards. At the angle of the mouth: it joins with is. 6: Rhinarium (from Specimen Female A, on sass U a mm. ) the » pack paialty doped ee of the eee jee These combined backwardly-directed streams meet the pre-auricular part of the field (D) and continue the convergent hair-line, 124 which, starting at the crown of the head, ran past the posterior angle of the eye to the lower jaw near its angle. The hair tracts of the body and limbs need little description to supplement their diagrammatic representation in fig. 2. Bip. -7. Form of the external ear. A, 35 mm. stage. 3B, 50 mm. stage. WY ANY iti wy : = Wis. 8. Form of the external ear. C, 80 mm. stage. D, 105 mm. stage. _ There are no hair reversals upon the body or limbs, and no whorls, crests, or partings are present. The main stream- lines are caudad and ventrad on the body and ventrad and post-axial on the limbs. Hts 125 Hair is continued to the ungual extremity of the phalanges of both manus and pes; the heels in the fully- haired embryo are almost wholly naked. The hair when first present is so pale as to be practically colourless; when the embryo is fully haired the hair is of a very pale brown. Fig. 9. Left manus, 35 mm. stage. Sensory Papillae and Vibriscae.—Sensory papillae are developed at the 35 mm. stage and vibriscae are present at 50 mm. The first papilla to appear is the ulnar-carpal. Facial Vibriscae—The mysticial set consists of 6 rows of papillae (in Collett’s description 7), giving rise to 2, 5, 7, 6, 6, and 5 backwardly-directed, pale vibriscae, respectively. The supraorbital papilla is large, and gives origin to 2 vibriscae. The genal bears 6 long sensory hairs. The interramal is inconspicuous, with 2. pale hairs; and the 126 submental consists of small papillae with rather trivial but early developed hairs (see fig. .3). ‘etsy ee Brachial Vibriscae.—The ulnar-carpal papilla. is: large, and gives rise to a brush of half a dozen or so pale bristles. Di ) WN pC eS Re Ea) Lies ly Re== a ° — ce Press 2 <= *. Fig. 10. Left manus, 105 mm. stage. The anconeal and the medial brachial give rise to a single hair each (see fig. 4). Crural Vibriscae.—The crural papilla is well developed. Two stout tactile hairs arise from it, one of these bristles being, in all specimens, considerably longer than the other (see fig. 5). } 127 ~The Rhinarium.—The rhinarium is roughly triangular in shape and distinctly grooved in the middle line. The surface’ is finely granular. The narial slits are bounded above entirely by naked skin, but their lower margins are Fig. 11. Left pes, 35 mm. stage. pubescent behind. The infranarial portion of the rhinarium runs to the upper lip, forming a very definite portion of its medial area. (see fig. 6). | The External Har (see figs. 7 and 8).—In all stages which I have examined: the auricle has been folded back- wards. This is true of the 35 mm. embryo. The whole process of the development of the pinna may be described as a progressive simplification. Two well processi antihelicis appear, but only one persists as a meatal operculum. A _well-marked bursa in.the 80 mm. embryo becomes reduced to an insignificant depression in the 105 mm. stage. Of the 128 tragus and antitragus, the tragus alone persists in any degree of finished development. The Manus (see figs. 9 and 10).—The digital formula of —» LT Vie oes } = i 1 is ~ WN | iN) R\2 ‘ | ' : \\\| wid. Wy yes Te ~ W. | AN ail ~ & 4>2>5>1. In the earlier stages the 4th digit is longer than the 3rd. In the 80 mm. embryo there is a definite tendency for the digits 1 and 2 to stand 129 in opposition to digits 3, 4, and 5; but by the 105 mm. stage this dual division of the manus has ceased to be at all well marked. Herein lies the great interest of the manus of this form. Apical pads are present on all digits and are striated. Interdigital pads are striated and are 3 in number, interdigital pad i being fused with the thenar pad. : \ ar Mize “ie re ii my Heh [¥ SS i YER /d TB _ ees aie Ss thy mn Ue IT i size 7 MM) Fig. 13. Three stages in the development of the pad at the base of the first pedal or digit. — A,50mm. B,80mm._ C, 105 mm. The Pes (see figs. 11, 12, 13).—The digital formula is —_— 4>5>2,3>1; the syndactylous toilet digits being relatively far longer in the early stages. Apical pads are present and striated. Interdigital pads striated, but the striations are a 130 somewhat ill defined in older embryos. The point of‘ out- standing interest is the fusion of interdigital pad 1 with the thenar pad, and the progressive diminution of the striations. Between the 80 mm. and the 105 mm. stages considerable readjustment takes place in the disposition of the sole in the region of the ‘base of the first pedal digit (see (B) and (C) in fig. 13). Professor Collett has described in an embryo “about 100 mm., from snout to vent’’ 2 pads at the base of the big toe, but gives no description of the pads in the adult. This change is presumably to be correlated with the loss of opposibility of digits 1 and 2 to digits 3, 4, and 5 in the manus. It would seem that the animal had somewhat fallen from the arboreal standards of its immediate stock. The diagnosis made from the conditions of the hands and feet is borne out by Professor Collett’s account of its habits: “During the day time it hides amongst the colossal boulders, and leaves the rocks only at night, when it ascends the trees in search of food’’ (P.Z.S., 1897, p. 332). » External Genitalia.—The pouch is normal. The opening directed cephelad, and 4 mammary areas are present. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI. Pseudochirops dahli. Pouch young photographed against a background of +,-1n. squares. Specimen Male B, Perth Museum, 105 mm. 131 THE TERTIARY BROWN-COAL BEARING BEDS OF MOORLANDS. By Str Doucias Mawson, D.Sc., B.E., and Freperick Cuapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S. [Read June 8, 1922.] Page I. InTRODUCTION Bs oe ce Be % ae lS Il. GenerRaAL PHyYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGICAL FEATURES 132 Ill. THe Tertrary Srrata at Mooranps ... & sae cael 5 151 Division 1.—Recent Surface Formation. Division aes ea (Lower Pliocene) Oyster Bed. Division 3.—Janjukian (Miocene) Marine Beds. Section A.—Green and _ yellow Clays, Marls, and Sands. Section B.—Uight-grey and dark- grey Clayey Marls and Cal- careous Muds. Section C.—Marine Limestone and Carbonaceous Muds usually pyritised. Division 4.—Janjukian Lacustrine Carbonaceous Beds with Lignite. * IV. ComMPaRISON BETWEEN THE BEDS IN SouTH AUSTRALIA ied ee A she oat LAG AND VICTORIA I. INTRODUCTION. The occurrence of brown coal in Tertiary strata in the vicinity of Moorlands, a railway station on the Pinnaroo line about 87 miles from Adelaide, has led to very consider- able mining activity thereabouts during the past two and a half years. As a result, much valuable geological informa- tion has been collected in an area where otherwise no geological section of the beds would be available. We are particularly indebted to Mr. A. C. Broughton, the representative on the field of the principal mining com- pany, for assistance in procuring data and material amplify- ing such as was secured on our own visits, which date back to the inception of the present mining enterprise. The Government Geologist has also favoured us with information required relating to the Government bores. Though the main bulk of these notes were prepared more than two years ago, publication has been delayed in ease important additional information relating to the beds should accrue as a result of mining development. In the mean- 132 time much has been made public in the Mining Reviews | of the Department of Mines under reports by the Govern- ment Geologist, Mr. L. K. Ward; the Chief Inspector of Mines, Mr. L. J. Winton; and the Engineer for Boring, Mr. C. F. Duffield. A short note has also been contributed by Mr. A. C. Broughton.) The scope of this present paper is accordingly restricted to generalized notes upon the strata, more particularly a correlation with the Tertiary beds of other localities. Il. GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. Moorlands is situated on a nearly level mallee-covered plain which extends from the Murray River (some 10 miles to the west) eastward into Victoria. Over all this area undulations of the surface are rarely conspicuous. Perhaps the most noteworthy of such is the long, low rise known as Marmon Jabuk Range, which trends in a general N.N.E. and §.8.W. direction across the country just to the north of the Moorlands coal field. Such rises are often composed of flexed Tertiary beds, but, at other times, much more ancient rocks come to the surface in these more highly elevated portions. The latter are frequently slaty beds not unlike certain of the ‘‘Adelaide Series,’’ and probably of late pre-Cambrian age.) At times more highly altered sedimentary rocks appear; for example, a strongly developed chlorite schist was entered in a well sunk about one mile south-east. of Moorlands railway station. Ancient igneous rocks are, probably, not uncommon underlying the Murray mallee lands, as evidenced by the outcrops of pink granite at Mannum, at Murray Bridge, and to the south of Coonalpyn ; also, the appearance of a broad intrusive sheet of gabbroic rock, now much modified by age, exposed in the railway cutting, on the line to Moorlands, about two miles beyond Tailem Bend. . But, though there is unquestionably a considerable diversity in the underlying strata, the surface features of these mallee plains, as a rule, give little indication thereof, for there is developed everywhere at the surface a hard travertine formation which varies from a few inches to a few feet in thickness. It is thickest where it overlies Tertiary strata and thinner where the more ancient rocks underlie it. (1)See Mining Review, Nos. 13, p. 21; 32, pp. 32-38; 33, pp. 64-78; 34, pp. 31, 32, 34-39, 43-50; 35, pp. 25, 26, 28-42, 47-55. (2) ‘“‘Notes on the Geology of the Moorlands (South Australia) Brown Coal Deposits,’ by A. C. Broughton, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlv., 1921, pp. 248-253. (3) Vide Paper read by T. W. E. David, Trans. Roy Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlvi., Nov., 1921. 133 Where one has to cross this country in a vehicle, the traver- tine, outcropping in knobby and platy masses, is, for the most part, developed uncomfortably close to the surface, but in depressed areas it is usually covered by a thin mantle of sand or sandy soil. Occasionally, superficial sand is heaped up into low dunes, which aid to modify the monotonous level of the country. Even in the areas occupied by them, it is a rare thing to locate the Tertiary beds definitely by the discovery of fossil remains at the surfaces, though some of the larger molluscan remains have been found amongst the surface travertine in specially favoured spots. Bores put down in search of brown coal are gradually furnishing definite data as to the distribution and details of deposition of these beds ; but so far, beyond the fact that some part of the trans- Murray mallee country is underlain by Tertiary formations and some is not, little absolutely definite is known. The probability is that only in minor areas does the ancient primary rock come to the surface. Elsewhere fossili- ferous Tertiary beds, in greater or less thickness, either horizontal or but slightly inclined, are to be expected as the uppermost formation, but owing to the semi-arid climate are masked at the surface by the development of a dense super- ficial layer of travertine or aeolian sand formation. The steep cliff-like banks of the lower Murray river, which latter approaches within 10 miles of Moorlands, furnish good geological sections through marine Miocene (Janjukian) beds which have been long explored. Patches of lower Pliocene (Kalimnan) limestone are also dispersed in this region, above the Janjukian, but are less regular than the latter. To the east of the river, in the vicinity of Tailem Bend, these beds thin out very quickly, and within a few miles of the river the older formation comes to 'the surface over considerable areas. In this neighbourhood only scattered shallow pockets of the Tertiary, principally Kalimnan, are met with. This condition persists eastwards until Moorlands station is closely approached, when a decided and continuous low dip to the east carries the pre-Tertiary rocks downwards, so that an ever-increasing thickening of the Tertiary beds is met with as the Victorian border is approached. This state of affairs is illustrated by the data from various bores quoted by Mr. L. K. Ward.“ Whereas ‘‘bed rock’’ (pre-Tertiary) is encountered at depths ranging between 50 ft. and 100 ft. in most of the areas where mining activity is now proceeding at Moorlands, a bore sunk at a point 40 miles to the east penetrated 852 ft. of Tertiary strata before meeting the older bed rock. _@ Min, Rev., No. 38, pp. 72-74. 134 Recent mining exploitation has shown that the brown coal seams are developed at or near the bottom of the Tertiary formation. As a consequence of the dip to the east, the brown coal’ formation comes to the surface, or nearly approaches‘ it, in the Moorlands area. It is this fact that has led commercial exploitation to especially favour this par- ticular locality, for open-cut mining is thus made, possible, as opposed to the more expensive method of winning the coal by deep mining, entailing additional costs in labour, pump- ing, and’ timbering. In connection with mining exploration, bores are now being sunk ‘at intervals of 300 yards, and even closer, in places. This close boring is steadily accumulating a fund of information invaluable for discussion of the contour of the surface upon which the Tertiary strata was laid down. Thus, also, will much light be shed upon the question of erosion intervals, if such do actually exist between the beds of the Tertiary strata. But until all the bores can be referred to the same datum level, which has not so far been done, final statements in regard to the above must be deferred. In Mr.: Broughton’s paper ) reference is made to one line of bores which he had related to the same datum level by means of a dumpy-level traverse. As a result, he shows that the floor of the Tertiary formation is slightly undulating and the coal beds occupy the depressions in this old land surface of low relief. On this evidence it is assumed that the shallow basins containing coal are isolated by rises in the floor of ancient slaty rocks. These depressed basins may have been ponded areas in the coal-forming period, where plant life thrived and was preserved in sodden beds. Subsequent marine sedimentation overlapped the lignite-filled basins and extended as a con- tinuous shéet over much of the former old land surface. The very unequal thicknesses of brown coal met with in the various bores is accounted for, at least partly, by such an original ’ accumulation in basins. But it yet remains to be shown to what extent irregularities in the coal beds are due to wash-outs of the nature “of erosion by contemporaneous streams .of ‘the coal-forming period, which tracks would be afterwards obliterated by silts rendered highly carbonaceous from ligneous matter transported from erosion areas else- where. This and the question of a general erosion interval at the upper limit of the lignite beds, with its bearing also upon the extent and distribution of the residual lignite are matters to be settled when the boring operations are com- pleted. '- , (5) Loc. cit. 135 Ii]. Toe TERTIARY Strata at MooRLanps.. Surface sand. Travertine. Pale-yellow sand. Hard limestone _ (oyster. bed). Division 1. Recent. Division 2. Lower Pliocene - (Kalimnan). f -.' Seetion: A. =o oi © 8m a Division 3. = Sa Miocene Marine .- = See Sachin B (Janjukian). = | '|E= ses 3 seep ig Light-grey to dark- grey clayey marls and calcareous muds. Section. C. Dark-grey _pyritic sandy limestone above. . Dark-grey carbona- ceous pyritised muds ‘below. Lignite with clay. Lignite. Division 4. Miocene Lacustrine. gece Genk “ G. .. Lignite with clay. %-10 ] +h. 100-ft. level. Clay with’ lignite. Pre-Cambrian. Fig, L. The geological section, set forth herewith, represents the Tertiary strata existing in the vicinity of the main shaft sunk by the Murray Coal and Oil Co., which is at the same time the vicinity of Government Bore 25. It is the. particular locality where most of our detailed observations were made.': In order to better illustrate the average nature of the. beds, a slight generalization has been assumed. 136 In the following descriptions, the major formations are taken in descending order from the surface. Division 7. RECENT SURFACE FORMATION. Travertine, with more or less blown sand, forms a surface layer. The travertine is the usual surface form developed under the conditions of a semi-arid climate. In some parts | of the field, the travertine sits directly upon the Ostrea lime- stone, and is little more than an addition to and modification of it. Elsewhere, sandy beds intervene which may or may not belong to the marine series “below. Division: 2. A KALIMNAN (LOWER PLIOCENE) OYSTER BED. This is.a hard marine limestone, usually buff-coloured. This rock is what may be termed a ‘‘ragstone,’’ or roughly fracturing limestone, filled with oyster shells and pectens. It would appear from the results of borings that this bed is not continuous over the field. In many cases, however, it is undoubtedly included with the surface travertine in the one entry. The fossils determined from this horizon are: — Pelecypoda—Ostrea aremcola, Tate, a smooth upper valve; O. sturtiana, Tate, probably the commonest fossil in this bed ; Pecten antiaustralis, Tate, rare; P. palmipes, Tate, a fragment only ; Spondylus arenrcola, Tate, a restricted Aldingan species, rare. Pisces—Isurus hastalis, Agassiz, sp. (tooth). This fossil is rather worn, but the outline leaves no doubt-of its identity. A common Victorian Kalimnan fossil. Embedded in this limestone small pebbles of white quartz and other rocks are occasionally met with. Of the latter the following were collected:—A water-worn pebble, 3 in. in length, of a rock resembling a mica granulite; several chips of slate up to 2 in. in length; and two pieces of basalt, one water-worn, the other partly faceted. The latter basalt specimen measures about 4 in. by 2 in. It is a grey rock with open steam holes, the vesicles being drawn out by flow. In microscopic section, laths of labra- dorite felspar are noted to be the dominant feature. A flow arrangement of the felspars around the steam holes is evident. A large corroded fragment of plagioclase exhibiting poly- ‘synthetic twinning is also to be seen. A small amount of interstitial pyroxene is still visible. A considerable quantity of secondary serpentine is present and appears to be chiefly 137 after olivine. Magnetite is present in moderate quantity, and also leucoxene. Traces of limonite and haematite are also present. This rock is not similar to any specimens of the Mount Gambier basalt which we have at hand for com- parison, but in general character it is like some of the Mel- bourne basalts.. The question that arises is from what locality and by what means did it become transported to its present situation ? Division 3. JANJUKIAN (MIOCENE) MARINE BEDS. Section A. GREEN AND YELLOW CLAYS AND SANDS. These are soft clayey and sandy beds, often notably calcareous, of greenish or buff colour. Yellowish and reddish * mottlings and streaks may appear where these beds rise above ground water level, thus exposing the iron content to oxidising influences. ; ‘In some portions of the field borings have revealed strata in this section of the beds of great uniformity. In such cases a general buff colour is assumed. The greenish tint due to glauconite granules, which is an outstanding feature in other areas, is, in these situations, largel¥ suppressed. In all cases, however, at least a little glauconite can be detected, on close examination. The buff-coloured silt forming the bulk of such beds is exceedingly fine-grained and of low specific gravity. The average grain size amongst the observable discrete par- ticles in one of the finer bands proved to be 1/100 of a millimetre diameter. The coarser particles are well rounded except for very minute flecks of mica. The sand grains of the. coarser beds of this series are unusually rounded and polished. In fact, a large part of these buff-coloured sedi- ments is loessial in character. Such beds are particularly well represented in a bore at the cross roads, some two miles north of Moorlands station. The buff-coloured component of this sediment possibly originated as wind-blown dust from the interior of the continent, picked up and transported by the ancestral Murray-Darling River system. Judging from the highly glauconitic character of some of the beds, such were probably laid down in current-disturbed waters at a con- siderable depth. Fossils are reasonably common only in the more highly glauconitic portions of this section. One such bed of a bright apple-green colour and of a calcareous nature was examined in detail for fossils. Polyzoa were found to be comparatively numerous and rotaline foraminifera not uncommon. Besides 138 these there are occasional Brachiopods, Bivalves, joints of Alcyonarians, and ossicles and spines of Echinoderms. A similar bed was struck in several of the Victorian — mallee bores, where it was seen to be a bed of glauconitic and shelly sand and glauconitic chert. A small series of fossils selected from a highly glaheotitas bed of this division yielded the following : — | Foraminifera—Truncatulina ungeriana, d’Orb, sp. Fairly abundant. Anthozoa—Mopsea tenisom, Chapman. The smaller and slenderer joints of this coral are very abundant in the washings. Echinodermata—Cidaroid spines, various; (?) Antedon, ossicle. 7 ; Polyzoa—Cellaria, sp.; Adeona obliqua, MacGillivray ; Porina gracilis, Milne-Edwards, sp.; Steganoporella patula, Waters, sp. ; Cellepora gambierensis, Busk ; Retepora permunita, MacGillivray. Brachiopoda— Terebratulina — catinuliniformis,. Tate; Magasella woodsiana, Tate. Pelecypoda—Pecten foulcheri, T. Woods (a fragment). Pisces—The following fish teeth were collected on the field and handed to the authors, it being understood that all were obtained from Division 2 (the Miocene) of the section, and principally, if not entirely, from Section A. They are, in nearly all cases, much rolled and often imperfect. The determined species are :— Odontaspis elegans, Agassiz, sp.—This widely distributed species is here quite abundant, being represented by about a dozen specimens. It is more commonly met with in the European Miocene and Pliocene than in Australia, and we have never before seen so many specimens of this form from one locality. It occurs in the Eocene and Lower Miocene.of New Zealand, and in the Miocene and Lower Pliocene of Victoria. Odontasms incurva, Davis, sp.—This species is here repre- sented by one specimen, nearly perfect, but for the left side of the base being missing. It is fairly common in the Miocene and Lower Pliocene of Victoria, and it has a much more extensive range in New Zealand, where it begins its history in the Upper Cretaceous (Danian) and ranges up to the Lower Miocene. Odontasms exigua, Davis.—This species is here repre- sented by several examples. It is quite a new record for the Australian Tertiary deposits, as hitherto it has only been found in the New Zealand Lower Miocene of the Trelissick 139 Basin. The widely expanded base, relatively small size, and the short stout fang are distinguishing characters. Odontaspis attenuata, Davis, sp.—Two imperfect examples are referred to the above species. It was recorded from the Oamaru Series of New Zealand. In Victoria it is found in the Miocene, and is of the same age in South Australia (Aldingan Series). It also occurs in the Lower Pliocene (Kalimnan) at Beaumaris, Port Philip. Section B. LIGHT-GREY AND DARK-GREY CLAYS. These underlie the greenish and yellowish beds of the previous section. Faint bluish and chocolate colours some- times appear. Sandy beds are not uncommon. These beds are fairly rich in calcium carbonate. Pyrites may enter in noticeable quantity at the base of this section. The pre- dominating dark colour is due to carbonaceous matter, and is doubtless derived from beds of the underlying lignite where exposed in other areas undergoing erosion at the time of deposition of these clays. Apart from the colouration due to carbonaceous matter, the beds of this section are very similar to the previous, and appear to be merely a continuation downwards of the same general type of sedimentation. Small marine fossils, prin- cipally gasteropods, are sparsely distributed in this section. Section C. MARINE LIMESTONE AND CARBONACEOUS MUDS, USUALLY PYRITISED. This section immediately overlies the lignite series. It is never very thick. A hard dark-grey or, less frequently, light-yellow sandy limestone, full of marine fossil remains, usually limits it above and rests upon a dark sandy mud full of molluscan and other remains. Both the limestone and the mud are usually highly pyritised. At its base it often shows . distinct brecciation, including fragments of slate. So that in all probability there was in progress in the vicinity, at the time of the accumulation of this bed, a great deal of erosion. The black carbonaceous and pyritous condition of the sedi- ments points to material worn down from the previously formed lignitic bed. It is without doubt equivalent to Tate’s horizons‘) in the Croydon Bore at 1,376 ft. (‘‘Bituminous clay and black sand ; Turritelia aldingae’’), and 1,681 ft. (‘‘Bituminous shale ; (6) Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xxii., 1898, p. 195_ 140 casts of gasteropods in chalcedony, calcite and iron pyrites, some shell matter; Twurrtella aldingae, Mesalia stylacris, Fibularia gregata, Cellepora’’ ). Examined as to its nature, the following details are observable : — When moist this bed is somewhat sticky in texture, but easily washes down, on account of the large proportion of fine quartz sand which it contains. Fine Washings.—These consist largely of quartz grains, sub-angular to rounded, with usually a very high polish. They were undoubtedly of aeolian origin and carried into the marine deposit either by estuarine river flows or high winds, but most probably through the former. The quartz grains measure about ‘4 to 1 mm. in diameter. Admixed with the quartz grains are numerous granules of pyrites and frag- ments of polyzoa and calcareous molluscan shells; some of the shell fragments show attached crystals of iron pyrites. Coarser Washings.—About one-sixth of the material remains as coarse washings and contains by far the larger number of fossils. These are more or less fragmentary, or often partially pyritised. Some of the smooth, rounded, white, quartz pebbles are beautifully coated by a superficial deposit of brassy pyrites laid on in electroplate fashion. The fossils determined from this horizon are: — Anthozoa—Mopsea tenisonn, Chapman; IM. hamilton, _ Thomson, sp. Echinodermata—-A cidaroid spine, cf. Leocidaris. Polyzoa—Cellepora gambierensis Busk; Adeona obliqua, MacGillivray; Porina gracilis, Milne- Edwards, en Brachiopoda—Terebratula tateana, T. Woods. Pelecypoda—Limopsis insolita, Sowerby, ss Arca (Plagiarca) cainozoica, Tate, sp.; A. (Barbatia), sp.; Crassatellites pee Tate, sp.; Cardita latissima, Tate; C. delicatula, Tate; Cardium monilitectum, Tate; Corbula pyxidata, Tate; C. ephamilla, Tate. Gasteropoda—-Collomia parvula, Tate; Huspira effusa, Tate; Turritella aldingae, Tate; TJ. trestera, Tate; 7. platysmra, T. Woods; Diala, sp.; Letorium oligostirum, Tate, sp.; Marginella, cf. strombiformis, T. Woods; Scaphella pagodoides, Tate, sp.; S. pueblensis, Pritchard, sp.; Ancilla ligata, Tate, sp.; Turris, sp.; Actaeon, cf. subscalatus, Cossmann. Pisces—-Fish otolith (Teleostean). 141 Division 4. JANJUKIAN LACUSTRINE, CARBONACEOUS BEDS WITH LIGNITE. These are fresh water lacustrine beds of very variable thickness which rest, more or less horizontally, upon the up- turned edges of steeply inclined slates and other strata of Lower Cambrian or earlier age, and are overlain by the Janjukian marine beds. There appears to be some evidence of erosion of the upper limits of the ligneous series, but the .extent of such will be better defined as exploration of the field proceeds. It is evident, however, that the age of the fresh water lignite-bearing beds is either Miocene or pre-Miocene. It is most reasonable to regard these beds as having formed con- temporaneously with either one or other of the strongly developed Tertiary lignites of the adjacent State, Victoria. Referring to these latter occurrences, the Altona lignite series is intercalated with typical marine Oligocene (Balcombian) fossil bands. But the Morwell beds, so far as can be judged, occupy a former lacustrine or coastal swamp area, of which the hinterland river deposits of the Miocene Dargo High Plains form a part. Judging from the palaeogeography of the region, therefore, the Morwell lignite is Miocene in age. The reference of the carbonaceous lacustrine beds at Moor- lands to the Morwell (Miocene) period is indicated by the fact that they appear to be comparable with a similar forma- tion, underlying the polyzoal rock in the mallee, and which, besides containing lignite, includes typical J anjukian marine shells, T'rigonia lamareki, found occurring at the top of the J anjukian, and the foraminifer, Cyclammina complanata, Chapman, the latter eae found at the base of the J anjukian at Anglesea. Ligneous beds of a character similar to these at Moor- lands are now being actively explored at three other localities in South Australia, namely, at Clinton, on the west side of Gulf St. Vincent, almost at its northern extremity; at Hope Valley, one of the northern suburban areas of Adelaide; and at Noarlunga,(% 23 miles south of Adelaide, adjacent to Gulf St. Vincent. Furthermore, similar beds were encoun- tered in a Government bore put down at Bower, 20 miles west of Morgan, several years ago. There is also other evidence from boring operations in South Australia, indicating (7) Vide Dept. of Mines, S. Austr.;. Min. Rev., Nos. 34, pp. 29-31, 40, 51; 35, pp. 26, 27, 43-46, 55-56. (8) Ninas Bai. Nos. 14, p. 10; 20, pp. 19, 40, 41; 33, pp. 25-37; 34, pp. 27-29, aa Al, 42; 35 pp. 13-15. (9) Min. Rew. No. 33, pps (8,79: (10) Min. ee Nos. 20, p. 11;..28._ pp..26-28;: 29. p. 23. 142 that prior to the period of formation of the Miocene marine beds there was a great and widespread development of Tertiary MORGAN e RS G 7 PORT WAKEFIELD ?e Zz » re) FOR ADELAIDE z (\ a Ss j HOPE VALLEY . ADELAIDE fee 3 £* 6 ® NOARALUNGA a) 7 3 ATAILEM BEND % J BMOORLANDS % LAKE cee ALEXANDRINA ‘ SUE Ss oo" : 1 % Murrd AWE eee’ LoS Ene & sare a at ht, a 2 Fig. 2. aS Map illustrating South Australian Brown Coal Occurrences. tresh water ligneous strata. This fortunate circumstance has bequeathed to the present day large reserves of brown coal. 143 The South Australian areas where lignite beds have been proved belong to one or other of two main regions of Tertiary sedimentation. Of these, one is Gulf St. Vincent and its borderlands; to this the Clinton, Paradise, and Noarlunga occurrences are to be referred: ‘The other is the great Murray Gulf, so marked a feature of Tertiary times in Australia, when a shallow sea extended all over the south-east lands of South Australia, part of Victoria, and even reaching well into New South Wales territory. Bower and Moorlands belong here. The published results of the Government bores indicate that the lignite beds of the Gulf St. Vincent area are embedded in, and entombed beneath, strata of a more sandy nature than is the case on the Murray side, where very fine clayey and calcareous silts are a greater feature. This is no doubt attributable to muddy waters delivered to the latter area by the great ancestor of the present Murray- Darling system. In this connection there is some evidence indicating that, in all probability, the brown coal of the Gulf St. Vincent region may reach a greater degree of freedom from ash than that influenced by the muddy waters of the ancestral Murray. So far as at present explored, this is the case, as can be noted by a comparison of the seams at Moor- lands with those at Clinton. The Mines Department Records give composite analyses‘) of all lignite beds met in all bores to date, respectively, in each of thes fields as follows : — Moorlands. Clinton. Moisture at 105° C. -..: Dileat 51°47 Volatile matter a 21°38 24°29 Fixed carbon ... e 13°82 15°16 Ash oe ie? oy pease ao 9°08 100°00 100°00 Sulphur content ea 2°66 2°01 Average moisture after alr-drying... ae 15°74 16°94 In arriving at these figures the Government Geologist, Mr. L. K. Ward, differentiates the carbonaceous beds as - follows :— “‘Lignite’’ is such as contains not less than 24 per cent. of ash. “Lignite with clay’’ is the designation for beds contain- ing between 24 and 50 per cent. ash. “Clay with lignite’’ distinguishes beds containing over 50 per cent. ash. a (11) Telnaes Bores 1 to 34, at Moorlands; and 1 to 4, at Clinton. 144 Though the above figures represent the average case, so far as exploration has yet proceeded, seams are met with of much better quality than the average here stated. For in- stance, at Moorlands the better quality lignite is illustrated in Bores 23, 24, and 31 by seams, respectively, 13 ft., 18 ft., and 16 ft. in thickness, averaging only about 7 per cent. ash. At Clinton, in Bore 1, a band of lignite, 15 ft. in thickness, | containing less than 6 per cent. ash, is recorded; and in Bore 2 there is a 15-ft. seam with 7°3 per cent. ash. “The ultimate relative merits of the two fields, from an economic standpoint, depend upon factors far more important than slight differences in composition. The shallow depth of the formation, the more water-tight nature of the strata, the comparative freedom from serious quantities of ground- water, are all factors which favour the Moorlands area. On the other hand, convenience in geographic situation for marketing the fuel is favourable to the Gulf St. Vincent localities. It is probable that, in the aggregate, great quantities of brown coal will be proved, eventually, at the base of the Tertiary formations in South Australia. This is most re- assuring from an economic standpoint, for the mineral fuel resources of the State are otherwise limited to the semi- bituminous, Triassic(2) coal of the small Leigh Creek basin. The best of the Leigh Creek seams (5) averages about 20 ft. of coal carrying 18 per cent. ash and 20 per cent. of moisture displaceable at 105° C. Of this seam the best 6 ft. averages as follows :— Per cent. Moisture lost at 105°C. ... Js so ee Volatile matter oh be: viel . oe Fixed carbon sp he a ih eee Ash ae ae wee ey se 6°9 100°0 This appears to be the best that the Leigh Creek semi- bituminous coal field can produce as a working proposition. So taken into consideration with remoteness from centres of population, it is obvious that the Tertiary brown-coal forma- . — tions are likely to be the State’s mainstay in the matter of fuel resources. (12)The occurrence of Macrotaeniopteris wianamattae and Thinnfeldia odontopteroides in these beds fixes the age as Triassic. (13) Vide Government Geologist’s Report, Min. Rev., No. 27. 145 In general appearance and composition, the Moorlands lignite is very similar to the better known Victorian occur- -rences—for example, that of Morwell. The latter, however, is freer from ash than any of the South Australian so far examined. No fossil remains other than plants have yet been detected in the lignite and associated clays of Division 4 in the Moorlands section. The plant remains in the lignite itself are singularly well preserved, often retaining the woody structures so as to be clearly distinguishable in the hand specimen. The coal cuts like cheese and, consequently, is easily excavated. In the seam, or when freshly mined, it is of a _ black or deep chocolate-brown colour, but exposure to the air at the surface soon causes it to dry out, accompanied by contraction which develops shrinkage cracks, eventually lead- ing to a crumbling of the mass. As drying proceeds the general colour becomes lighter until it is literally a ‘‘brown coal.’’ The remains of small trees, sticks, and reeds are clearly distinguishable as blacker lignite embedded in a browner base. The latter is observed to be constituted principally of the remains of leaves and small twigs. Some of these leaves are very fresh and tough, so that they may be picked out in large pieces or even entire. They are so thin and translucent as to be capable of mounting on glass slips as transparencies. Selected examples, thus mounted, have been submitted to an authority on Tertiary floras, Mr. Henry Deane, M.A., F.L.S., who comments upon them as follow :—‘‘Broader-toothed leaves evidently Proteaceous, but not ‘Banksia.’ Venation resembles more nearly that of a short leaf among my specimens of Telopea speciosissima. Specimens of Lomatia Fraseri and L. wheifolia have been compared, but in these the dentation of the margin is invariably too strong. The small narrow leaf bears a strong resemblance to some leaves with entire margins of Banksia marginata.”’ Embedded at random in the leafy base are particles of two varieties of resin. The more abundant is very dark coloured, practically black. It occurs characteristically in large, elongated, tear-like drops, usually about 1 cm. in diameter, but often considerably larger. In its general appearance and occurrence it is akin to certain of the grass tree gums of to-day, but darker in colour, which, however, is a feature which would be expected to develop with age. In considerably less quantity and in smaller particles of an irregular shape, usually about one-third of a centimetre 146 or less, is a light yellow-brown resin. Like the former, it is peilinnt on fracture face but dull externally. As to the question whether the lignite has grown where it is now accumulated, considerable evidence of growth im situ has been observed. | _ Rootlets have been distinctly noted traversing the inter- bedded lignitic clays. A small stump, about 8 in. across, was got in these beds when excavating the original shaft on Mineral Lease 1233, Hundred of Sherlock. Furthermore, the arrangement of the components of the lignitic mass is adverse to any suggestion of water transportation. For example, the particles of resin are embedded at random, and there is no evidence of water sorting as between the leaf remains and the massive woody tissues. | IV. CoMPARISON BETWEEN THE BEDS IN SoutH AUSTRALIA AND VICTORIA. The Tertiary deposits of the old Murray Gulf appear to extend continuously from the eastern limits of the Mount Lofty Ranges across into the mallee of Victoria. The strata at Moorlands represent depositions on the western side of the old gulf, and a study of the beds is of especial interest for comparison with those on the Victorian side, which latter have already been written upon in regard to the deep borings in the mallee. (4) In the present collection of fossils by far the larger number of marine shells show an aspect comparable to the Aldingan fauna of Professor Tate, both as regards the Lower (Miocene) series and the Upper (Lower Pliocene) beds. On the Victorian side the same deposits, both lower and upper, show the middle and upper part of the Hamiltonian facies,(® as proved in the deep borings of the mallee. Thus, in the latter locality there were no shells of Spondylus arenicola, Pecten palmipes, and P. consobrinus, although others were common to both localities. This dissimilarity in faunas, so closely adjacent, would suggest a bar or rocky ridge separ- ating the sea of that period. The curious deepening of the bathymetrical sedimentary conditions, shown in the Tin- tinara Bore, have been referred to as due to trough folding: (44) Chapman, F.: Cainozoic Geology of the Mallee and other Victorian Bores, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. iii., pt. 4, 1916. (15) A regional word, here coined: to express the combined faunas of the lower and upper. Muddy Creek beds with the inter- calated limestone of the Grange Burn, ranging from the Bal- combian to the Kalimnan. 147 or even to the formation of a _ rift-valley with infilled material. (16) This present series affords data which help one to divide the Miocene (Janjukian) beds of both the old Murray and the Spencer Gulfs into three sections, as exemplified here and in the Victorian bores of the mallee area :— (3) Glauconitic bed, yellow clays and sands. (2) Polyzoal rock, or grey to whitish calcareous sand, passing downwards into a pyritous and quartzose deposit, with marine fossils. (1) Carbonaceous beds with lignite. For the present we may regard these as equivalent to the Upper, Middle, and Lower Miocene, respectively, although their limits are not clearly marked. It is interesting to note here that the order of the Beds 2 and 3 are reversed, as far as lithology goes, at Torquay (Spring Creek beds) ; but it must also be borne in mind that the molluscan facies from the two glauconitic series would eed differ. (16) Chapman, F.: Ree. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. iii., pt. 4, 1916, p. 407. 148 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ORCHIDOLOGY OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. By R. 8S. Rocers, M.A., M.D. [Read July 13, 1922.] I. ADDITIONS. Diuris brevifolia, 0. sp. Planta gracilis, glabra, cir- citer 15-40 cm. alta. Folia 4-8, linearia v. setacea, acum- inata, non torta, erecta, 7-12 cm. longa. Flores 1-4, laxe racemosi, lutei cum notationibus bruneis paucis. Sepalum dorsale ovatum, recurvum, circiter 15 mm. longum; sepala lateralia herbacea, linearia, acuminata, parallela, patentia. Petala breviter petiolata, circiter 14 mm. longa, lamina elliptica. Labellum sepalo dorsali aequale aut paulo longiore ; lobus intermedius rhombo-cuneatus, basi intus, carina ~ duplici, lateralibus plus quam duplo longior. Slender, glabrous; leaves generally 4-8, linear or setaceous, acuminate, not. twisted, very erect, rarely reaching beyond the middle of the stem. Flowers solitary, or in a loose raceme of 2-4, on slender pedicels, yellow with a few brown markings, much smaller than those of D. sulphurea. Dorsal sepal ovate, recurved; yellow with two dark-brown spots on the dorsum, one on each side of the base. Lateral sepals much longer, green, linear, parallel, spreading below the labellum or slightly recurved. Petals nearly as long as the lateral sepals, shortly stalked, spreading or recurved; lamina a canary-yellow, elliptical, about 11 mm. long. Labellum yellow, at least as long as the dorsal sepal and generally longer; lateral lobes less than half as long as the central lobe, generally about 5 mm., not very wide, margins entire, tips recurved; middle lobe rhombo-cuneate with» depressed antero-lateral margins; lamina with two closely approximated parallel raised lines on the basal half continuous with the anterior central keel, the lines surrounded by a conspicuous dark-brown border. Anther without a definite point, rather higher than the viscid disk of the rostellum. Lateral appendages of the column subulate or linear-falcate, about the same height as the viscid disk. 7 South Australia: Longwood and other parts of the Mount Lofty Range; Myponga; Mount Compass; Port Elliot; Kangaroo Island. November-December. This plant. has long been confused with D. suwlphuwrea, which it superficially resembles, but from which it differs 149 in its short setaceous and relatively numerous leaves; in its much smaller flowers and in its labellum, which is at least as long as the dorsal sepal and bears two raised longitudinal lines. . Its relation to other South Australian members of the genus is indicated in the following table: — Flowers not blotched or spotted on their upper surface, but of a uniform colour. Flowers purple or heliotrope (drying yellowish- brown); lateral sepals greatly es petals, ‘about 5 em. long .. D. punctata Flowers canary-yellow ; lateral sepals only slightly exceeding petals 4 D. pedunculata Flowers yellow with conspicuous dark-brown or purple-brown markings or blotches. Lateral lobes of labellum large, as long or nearly as long as middle one. Lateral sepals greatly exceeding petals in length, often nearly twice as long; leaves 6 or more, setaceous or almost so ... ... D. palustris Lateral sepals shorter than, or approxi- mating in length to the ‘petals: leaves not setaceous. Lateral sepals crossed; blotches generally distinctly demarcated from the yellow ground-colour; 2 Cricaee raised lines at base of labellum... ... .... .... D. maculata Lateral sepals nearly parallel ; flowers wall-flower colour, dark blotches merg- ing into yellow ground-colour; 1 raised line at base of labellum ... .. D. longifolia Lateral lobes of labellum very much shorter than the middle one. Two raised longitudinal lines along base of labellum. Flowers with small dots and short linear markings; leaves linear and rather lax, — often 17 cm. long ... D. palachila Flowers with 2 conspicuous ‘brown dots at — base of dorsal sepal and conspicuous oblong brown border round the raised lines; leaves usually more than 5, setaceous or nearly so; _ short (about 7 or 8 cm.) and very erect ... D. brevifolia One longitudinal raised line along base of labellum. Flowers with similar markings to D. brevifolia,; and in addition a brown transverse blotch near the tip of middle lobe of labellum; leaves usually 2, rarely 3, long, lax, linear «.... ... ... «D. sulphurea Prasophyllum Brainei, 0. sp. Planta viridis, gracilis, 12-24 cm. alta. Lamina folii basi dilatata, deinde anguste linearis vel setacea, spicae circiter aequalis. Spica laxa, 5-10 150 cm. longa. Flores 10-24, sessiles, virides, pediculus per- brevis. Segmenta perianthii glandulosa. Sepalum dorsale erectum v. recurvum, ovato-lanceolatum, concavum, acumina- tum, circiter 5°75 mm. longum; lateralia libera, patentia, leviter apicibus recurva, circiter 7 mm. longa. Petala erecta, anguste oblonga v. lineari-lanceolata, circiter 5 mm. longa. Labellum sessile, basi subgibbosum, ad columnam erectum ; deinde recurvum sigmoideum, ad apicem contractum et brevissime ciliatum, marginibus crenulatis; pars callosa ovato- lanceolata, marginibus anticis ciliatis, paulum ultra primum flexum producta ; pars membranacea latiuscula, alba, inferiore dimidio levis, in superiore dimidio rugosa. Columnae laciniae late oblongae; apicibus obtusis obliquis; rostellum in altidudine excedentes. Anthera rostello brevior. A slender green plant, 12-24 cm. high. Lamina of leaf dilated at the base, thereafter setaceous or narrowly linear, about same length as the spike. Flowers almost sessile in a loose spike, their very short pedicel subtended by a broad short blunt bract, entirely green, recurved from the axis of inflorescence; ovary 4-5 mm. long, obovate; all segments very glandular. Dorsal sepal erect or recurved, concave, ovate- lanceolate, acuminate, slightly contracted at the base. Lateral sepals quite free, spreading but only slightly divergent, tips slightly recurved, concave on upper surface, narrow lanceolate. Lateral petals erect, narrowly oblong or linear-lanceolate, not very acute. Labellum sessile; rather gibbous at the base, but not protruding between the sepals; proximal part erect against the column, the margins entire until a little beyond the middle; thereafter recurved so as to form a complete sigmoid flexure, laterally contracted towards the apex, the margins crenulate and very shortly ciliate from the first bend to the extreme tip; the callous portion dark green, ovate-lanceolate, extending from the base to a little beyond the first flexure, its termination concealed by the lateral con- traction of the lamina at that point, its margins shortly ciliate; the membranous part rather wide, whitish, smooth in the erect part, rather rugose anteriorly, very elandular, more or less tomentose towards the tip. Lateral appendages of the column relatively large, broadly oblong, with blunt oblique tips, basal lobes distinct, exceeding the rostellum in height. Anther shorter than the rostellum. Named after Mr. A. B. Braine, an ardent collector and student of Victorian orchids. Victoria: Ringwood (E. E. Pescott). October. The new species approaches the green forms of P. fuscum, but materially differs from it in the much less complicated structure of the labellum and shorter lateral appendages of the latter. 151 Pterostylis humilis, 1. sp. Planta robusta, perbrevis, 2-3. cm. alta. Folia 4-6, rosulata v. subrosulata, sessilia, imbricata, 0°5-2°5 ecm. longa, ovata v. oblonga. Flos unicus, sessilis; ovarium basibus foliorum in parte obtectum. Sepalum ' dorsale ovato-lanceolatum, circiter 15 mm. longum cum petalis connivens. Galea subangusta, ap ce acutiuscula. Labium inferius oblongo-cuneatum, erectum, sinu acutissimo, lobi subulati circiter 13 mm. longi galeam multo superantes. Labellum unguiculatum, lineari-oblongum, ad apicem ob- tusum sensim contractum; lamina circiter 11 mm. longum, linea longitudinalis elevata in medio; appendix linearis, eurvata, penicillata. Columna circiter 10 mm. longa; anthera terminalis, obtusa, bilocularis, erectiuscula; lobi supeviores laciniarum breves lineares, inferiores longi falcati acutissimi. Stigma perprominens, infra columnam mediam, late cordatum, lobis distinctissimis. A rather stout plant of low stature, arising from two more or less conical or globose tubers. Leaves (in the flower- ing stage) 4-6, rosulate or subrosulate, sessile, sheathing, imbricate ; lamina of varying length, oblong, ovate or oblong- ovate. Flower solitary apparently sessile, the ovary partly hidden by the sheathing bases of the leaves. Dorsal sepal ovate-lanceolate, about 15 mm. long (when extended), con- nivent with the petals to form a rather narrow erect galea, apex of galea rather acute but not prolonged into a filiform point. The base of the lower lip oblong-cuneate, erect; lobes subulate (hardly filiform), including a very acute sinus, embracing the galea. Labellum reddish-brown, on a movable irritable claw, oblong-linear, tapering a little towards a very blunt and slightly recurved tip; lamina traversed by a raised longitudinal line with a corresponding groove below; basal appendage linear, curved, penicillate. Column (extended) about 10 mm. long. Anther terminal, bilocular, quite blunt, rather erect. Wings of column with a short linear upper lobe or tooth ; the lower lobe long, falcate, very acute. Stigma very prominent, situated below the middle of the column; its two lobes very distinct, together forming a broadly cordate disk. Rostellum linear-oblong situated between the bases of the anther loculi and connected to the stigma by a split tube. New Zealand: The Haunted Whare, near Waimarino (H. B. Matthews). | aa _ Mr. Matthews states that his specimens were removed from their natural habitat near the base of Ruapehu (within three miles of perpetual snow), and cultivated in Auckland, 200 miles north of their native locality. He thinks that the change to abnormal conditions may have produced a dwarfed growth in the plant. Along with his spirit specimens, he 152 forwarded a photograph of a fruiting specimen. This indi- cates a plant of different habit, with a stature of 11 cm.; with leaves on well-marked petioles and lamina from 3°75-6 cm. long. It is probable that the scape becomes elongated after pollination, so as to assist in the maturation of the fruit, as happens in the case of many Australian orchids, notably in the genus Corysanthes. On the other hand, it must be remem- bered, that in certain other species of the genus, dwarfed specimens are by no means infrequent. This is particularly - true of P. cucullata, where dwarf forms are often to be found growing side by side with normal plants. These show such a departure from the type that even experienced botanists like Sir J. D. Hooker and Robt. Brown fell into error and described them as separate species. Mr. Matthews further states that unlike other members of the genus, the flower is reversed, the labellum being upper- most, owing apparently to a retroflexion of the column on the ovary. . The new species appears to correspond rather closely to the description of P. trifolia, published by Colenso in New Zealand Inst., xxxi. (1898), 281. As only a single specimen of Colenso’s plant was discovered, and that is not available for comparison, it is not possible to say whether the two orchids are identical. Cheeseman, however, regards P. trafolia as conspecific with P. venosa, which differs from Mr. Mat- thews’ plant in column and in some other respects. Caladenia pumila, n. sp. Planta pumilissima, per- hirsuta, 5-10 cm. alta. Folium basi-amplexicaule, circiter 3-6 cm. longum, hirsutissimum, lineare v. olbongo-lanceo- latum. Caulis robustiusculus, hirsutissimus. Flos solitarius, albus, comparate pergrandis. Segmenta perianthii sub- aequalia, paene glabra, acuminata, non-caudata. Sepalum dorsale lanceolatum, concavum, erectum, incurvatum, circiter 2°5 cm. longum, basi latiusculum; lateralia latiora, libera, patentia, lanceolata. Petala patentia sepalis angustiora. Labellum breviter unguiculatum, ovatum, apice obtusum, obscure 3-lobatum, circiter 15 mm. longum 11 mm. latumque; dimidio inferiore ad columnam erectum marginibus in- tegerrimis, deinde recurvum marginibus carneis serrulatis v. crenulatis; lamina transverse complanata, callis carneis anguste linearibus 4-6 seriatis prope medio terminantibus. Columna circiter 13 mm. longa, incurvata, in dimidio superiore late membranaceo-dilatata. Anthera incumbens, valvata, bilocularis. Pollinia 4, typica. ; A very hairy species of low stature. Leaf relatively large, linear or oblong-lanceolate, clasping at the base; stem rather 153 stout, with a rather large free acute bract close to that subtending the terminal pedicel. Flower solitary, white, relatively very large. Segments of perianth white, usually without markings but sometimes with a faint pink stripe on the outside; nearly equal in length, glabrous except at the extreme base, not contracted into caudae, gradually diminish- ing into finely acuminate non-clavate points, the latter rarely glandular. Dorsal sepal erect, lanceolate, incurved, concave, about 2°5 cm. long, the base rather wide. Lateral sepals wider, free, spreading, lanceolate, somewhat contracted at the base. Petals spreading, lanceolate, narrower than the lateral sepals. Labellum on a short claw, white with narrow pink margins, a few pink splashes on the lateral lobes, obscurely 3-lobed, ovate, blunt at the apex, about 15 mm. long and 11 mm. wide; the lower half erect against the column with entire margins; thereafter recurved with serru- late or crenulate margins; the lamina flattened transversely, the calli pink narrowly linear in 4-6 rows ending near the middle. The column nearly as long as the labellum, incurved, speckled with pink, widely winged in its upper half. Anther shortly mucronate, valvate, 2-celled. Stigma circular, with short triangular rostellum in its upper border between the bases of the anther cells. Pollinia in 2 pairs, of the usual type. Ovary exceedingly glandular-hairy. Victor: Bannockburn (EK. E. Pescott). September- October. The new species differs from C. Patersoni in its dwarfed habit, in the absence of tentacles to the perianth segments, and in the absence of definite glandular tips to those seg- ments. Its sepals are about equal in length to the petals, whereas they are considerably longer than the latter in C. Patersom. The tip of the labellum is blunt and the margins practically entire in C. pumila, whereas the tip is acute and the margins acutely toothed in the other species. Prasophyllum Frenchii, F. v. M., var. Tadgellianum, n. var. Flowers pale greenish-yellow ; or yellow with chocolate markings down the middle of the perianth segments, also down the middle and on the sides of the labellum. Lateral sepals connate. é Victoria: Mount Hotham (5,100 ft.); Mr. A. J. Tadgell. December, 1914. _ New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (7,300 ft.).; Dr. ' Green. December, 1921. The specimens from these two alpine localities would appear to be morphologically identical. In coloration they E 154 differ from F. v. M.’s plant, and also from each other. The | chocolate markings on the Mount Kosciusko specimens are an exceedingly conspicuous feature and give to the flower a very distinctive appearance. Fortunately a single bloom was suffi- | ciently fresh to enable this observation to be made. The Mount Hotham plants were dry, and like many prasophyllums © in that condition very difficult to examine. All the specimens | differed from the type by the possession of connate sepals. | The union or otherwise of these segments is a variable feature in P. Suttonu, another alpine member of the genus, and was § not considered sufficiently important to indicate a specific — difference. It is possible, however, that closer acquaintance | with this plant may cause it to be given the higher rank. Prasophyllum australe, Br., var. viscidum, n. var | Plant slender; flowers rather smaller than the type, dark red | or prune coloured, with many darker blotches or spots, very viscid. y Victoria: Alberton, Gippsland; ‘‘in sandy soil, swampy | in winter time’; Mr. A. J. Tadgell. January(?), 1921. | Of this very interesting and unusual variety, Mr. Tadgell — writes : —‘‘It is so viscid, that it is quite a trouble to detach | it from the drying-sheet. . . . It is scarred like a leper, | on flowers and stem.’’ Caladenia carnea, Br., var. aurantiaca, n var. Very — slender, about 14 cm. high. Flowers 1 or 2, the second one on a filamentous pedicel. Perianth segments white on the inside, striped with green on the outside. Labellum pure white with exception of the tip and the calli, which are deep orange in colour; calli in 2 rows, with large clavate heads and slender stalks ;.tip entire, its margins without denticula- tions or calli. Victoria: Alberton, Gippsland; A. J. Tadgell. October, 1920.4 «: The contrasting colours of this dainty little Caladenia give it a very characteristic appearance and charm. There are no transverse stripes on the lamina as in the type. The stem and ovary are distinctly hairy; the leaf narrow-linear and almost glabrous. _ 2. Norss. DENDROBIUM DicuPpHUM, F. v. M. Leaves 4, lanceolate, with 5 prominent nerves, 15-18 cm. long and about 2 cm. wide. ‘Flowers white with purple centre, 9-12, in a raceme on a slender peduncle about 36-40 cm. long. Perianth segments 155 longitudinally veined. Sepals similar, acute, oblong-elliptical, about 16 mm. long and 5 mm. wide. Petals obovate, about 18 mm. long and 10 mm. wide. Spur 2-fid; the lower seg- ment oblong-cylindrical, very obtuse, about 3 mm. long. Labellum about 13 mm. long and 10 mm. wide (flattened out) ; | 3-fid; middle lobe obtusely oblong; lateral lobes wide and rounded ; lamina with rather numerous calli distributed along the nerves, but chiefly in about 6 rows terminating near the centre, longitudinally veined. Northern Australia: Groote Eylandt, Gulf of Carpentaria; Mr. N. B. Tindale. August, 1921. SPIRANTHES AUSTRALIS, Lindl. Column erect, about 3 mm. long, fleshy, contracted in its lower half, clinandrium dilated ; anther valvate, 2-celled, blunt or minutely apiculate, inclined against the back of the stigma and reaching to about its upper border; the wings represented by a membrane on each side stretching between the ‘‘filament’’ of the anther and the stigmatic-plate, adnate to the pedicel (“‘style’’) of the latter and also to the lateral margins of the stigma itself, forming a pouch between the male and female elements of the column, the bases of the pollinia released quite early from the anther so as to rest in the bottom of this pouch. Stigmatic surface U-shaped, large and slightly sloping down- wards. The rostellum (including the disk) almost equal in length to the stigmatic surface, arising from the upper border of the latter, forming a long narrow membranous structure much exceeding the anther in height; with a short rigid acute bifid base persisting after the membranous portion has been removed, or as a long split membranous structure after removal of the disk and pollinia only. The disk slate coloured, long narrow elliptical (or “‘boat-shaped’’) accom- modated in a fork of the rostellum and covered by a mem- branous capsule derived from the latter and containing a viscid fluid; the capsule attached to the lateral margins of the disk and traversed by a central vertical furrow. Pollinia lamellated, in 2 pairs, the latter club-shaped or pyriform, granular; the apices of the pairs lightly united, exposed above the anther-case and attached by a short caudicle to the back of the disk; capsule of disk easily ruptured artificially so as to permit removal of the pollinarium. The structure of the column in Spiranthes australis is comparable to that in the genus Prasophyllum, but in the former the wings of the anther-filament are adnate not only to the pedicel of the stigmatic-plate, but also to the margins of the stigma itself. ad Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xly. (1921), p. 264. E 156 To rupture the capsule of the disk artificially, a light but appreciable force is required. An attempt to produce rupture by 15 minutes’ exposure to chloroform vapour, as in Darwin’s experiment, was unsuccessful. The facility with which the whole pollinarium may be removed is strongly sug- gestive of an insect-pollinated plant, yet the examination of — large numbers of plants revealed the pollinia still am situ and in only one instance was pollen found adhering to the stigma. — No difficulty was experienced in removing the pollinia from fully expanded flowers, although R. D. Fitzgerald states that this is impossible. This botanist writes: —‘‘I could discover ~ no trace of a rostellum or disc of any kind. In this flower the persistence with which the pollinia remained behind the stigma, though left naked by the shrinking back of the anther, is very peculiar. No transfer of the substance of the stigma on the point of a pin or a bristle induces them after opening of the flower to come forth for the chance fertilization of another flower. It even requires some violence to break them as the more friable portions turn towards the anther’ (Aus- @ tralian Orchids, vol. i.). q In the numerous specimens which I have examined from — South Australia, Victoria, and Queensland, the ‘“‘split © rostellum,”’ the ‘‘boat-formed disk,’ the ‘‘easily-removable — pollinia’”’ of Darwin were all present. In fact, Darwin’s description of these structures in S. autumnalis may be accepted as a most accurate description of the same structures in the Australian species. The capsule of the disk does not appear to split so readily as in the European species. In no other respect does it appear necessary to modify the great observer’s classical description. It can hardly be doubted that Fitzgerald’s observations were conducted on a species with which Australian botanists are unfamiliar, a species which, so far as is known to the writer, is unrepresented in our national collections. Whether Smranthes australis is self- pollinated or other- wise is a matter which cannot yet be.regarded as settled. Undoubtedly a large number of seed capsules are frequently to be found on some spikes, whereas spikes from other locali- ties display comparatively few. CaLOCHILUS PALUDOSUS, R. Br. Victoria: Bayswater; Mrs. Edith Coleman. 23/10/21. THELYMITRA MEGCALYPTRA, Fitzg. Victoria: Grampian | Mountains;- J. W. Audas. 31/10/20. T. Macmixuani, F. v. M. This species, which is usually salmon coloured, has been collected by Mr. E. E. Pescott at Bannockburn, Victoria, of a deep rose or crimson colour. 157 T. LonGiFoLta, Forst. South Australia: Mount Pata- warta (3,060 ft. elevation), 365 miles north of Adelaide; Mr. B. B. Beck. 5/10/20. This represents not only the highest elevation, but also the furthest north at which any orchid has been recorded in this State. A few other orchids from the same locality are noted below. T. GRANDIFLORA, Fitzg. Victoria: Nar Nar Goon; J. W. Audas. 18/10/20. T. URNALIS, Fitzg. South Austraha: Bugle Ranges; National Park; Dr. and Mrs. Rogers. October, 1921. This orchid was described in 1882, but has never until this season (1921) been reported since its discovery. They correspond in every respect to Fitzgerald’s description and illustration, except that the tooth in front of the column is not always present. The plants were not numerous and were found growing alongside of 7. antenmfera, Hook., and 7’. rubra, Fitzg. The flowers are yellow and bear dark-brown stripes on the outer sides of the sepals identical in appearance to those occurring in 7’. antennifera. It is quite possible that the plant may be a hybrid between this and the other species mentioned above. Diuris aurea, Sm. WNew South Wales: Barrington Tops (5,100 ft.), near Patterson; Mr. A. N. Burns. 14/12/21. D. LonerFotia, Br. With two well-developed parallel raised lines on the lamina of the labellum. The lamina normally bears only one such line. This fact is rather im- portant, because Bentham makes the number of such lines a prominent feature in the classification of the members of this genus. Mr. Max Jacob, who collected these specimens at Cherry Gardens in this State, informs me that they are by no means uncommon this season (1921) in that locality. PRASOPHYLLUM SUTTONII, Rogers and Rees. In addition to Buffalo Plateau (Victoria), where this alpine species was discovered, it has reached me from the following localities : — New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (7,300 ft.); Mr. R. Helms. February. Victoria: Baw Baw Mountains (5,060 ft.) ; Mr. C. French, jun., January; Mount Feathertop (5,000 ft.); A. J. Tadgell, December. Tasmama: Summit of Ben Lomond (5,000 ft.); A. Simson. March. Further acquaintance with this orchid shows that the lateral sepals are not always free, but are subject to varia- tion, as in certain other members of the genus. 158 P. austRALE, Br. In this species, as in P. elatum, the lateral sepals are very consistently connate. A departure from this rule is noted in the case of certain specimens collected by Messrs. E. E. Pescott and C. French, jun., at Monomeith, Victoria, among which there are a number of flowers with five sepals. P. BREVILABRE, Hook. f. Vzctorra: Mount St. Bernard (4,000 ft.) and Mount Hotham (5,000 ft.), Australian Alps; Mr. A. J. Tadgell. December, 1913. : PTEROSTYLIS PYRAMIDALIS, Lindl. Western Austraha: Jarnadup; Miss Knox-Peden. 1/9/21. All of these specimens are unusually tall, some attaining a height of 33 cm.; the plant quite slender and erect. Leaves at the base 3 or 4, ovate, acute, not strictly rosulate, shortly petiolate or clasping; passing into leaf-like sessile alternate bracts, ovate to lanceolate in shape, diminishing from below upwards, the lower ones generally with serrulate or crenulate margins, sometimes 16 in number. Flower much larger than that of P. nana; the galea from base to crest often nearly 2 cm. long. The inturned tooth between the lobes of the lower lip appears to be invariably present, but in other respects the general habit of the plant is very different from that of P. nana. | P. cYcCNocEPHALA, Fitzg. Wew South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (7,300 ft.); Dr. Green. 29/12/21. P. pEepoGLossa, Fitzg. Tasmania: Brown _ Mountain, Port Arthur; Miss A. L. Rogers. 2/5/19. P. MitcHevyui, Lindl. South Awstralia: Mount Pata- warta (3,060 ft., 355 miles north of Adelaide); Mrs. R. 8. Rogers. 14/10/15. P. rura, Br. South Austraha: Mount Patawarta (3,060 ft., 355 miles north of Adelaide); Mr. B. B. Beck. 5/10/20. Labellum on a very wide and elastically membranous claw, longer and narrower than usual, very hairy, the hairs of exceptional length. CoRYSANTHES, sp.(?) Capsules dehiscing, on slender pedicels, 13-15 cm. long. The remains of the flower enabled me to identify the genus but not the species. The plants were sent from a Victorian locality, and are of interest in showing how the pedicel, which is almost sessile during the flowering season, becomes enormously elongated in order that the seed capsule-may receive the benefit of wind and sun in the process of maturation. Corysanthes blooms in June or 159 July, and the specimens were collected by Mrs. Edith Cole- man in December. Members of the genus propagate chiefly by the vegetative method, and such specimens as these are rarely found. CALADENIA DILATATA, Br. South Australia: Mount Pata- warta (3,050 ft.); Mr. B. B. Beck. 5/10/20. C. GLADIOLATA, Rogers. South Australia: Cherry Gardens; Mr. Max Jacob. 26/9/21. This plant was discovered at Hornsdale, 175 miles north of Adelaide. It has not hitherto been recorded from any other habitat. CuILocLoTTis Gunnir, Lindl. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (7,300 ft.); Dr. Green. 29/12/21. Victoria: Australian Alps (Mount Hotham 6,000 ft., and Mount St. Bernard 5,100 ft.); Mr. A. J. Tadgell. December, 1913. 160 THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE MEADOWS VALLEY, MOUNT LOFTY RANGES. By E. O. Tearez, D.Sc. 3 (Communicated by Professor W. Howchin.) [Read July 13, 1922.] The broad outlines of the development of the physio- graplical features of South Australia have been admirably traced out by Prof. Walter Howchin.@ Relics of ancient topography, and the deposits of ‘‘dead rivers’? have been widely recognized, and in piecing this evideice together, the great importance of tectonic movement in the form of warping and faulting has been rightly emphasized, for it has certainly had an important influence in the development of the existing conditions of climate and topography. The highlands of the Mount Lofty Ranges provide a noteworthy example in this direction. They were recognized by Howchin as owing their origin to block faulting, whereby several segments moved differentially with regard to each other. Remnants of very ancient and mature topography are still to be found alongside of fresh and youthful features, where erosional activities, revived by differential earth move- ments, are energetically working towards the destruction of those relics which throw so much light on the past geographical history of the region. The observations of this paper centre around the Meadows Valley, in the southern portion of the highlands, and were gathered by the writer) during his geological and soil survey of the Kuitpo Forest Reserves and their vicinity. The nearest part of this region to Adelaide lies about 20 miles in a straight line to the S.S.E., and the valley trends in a S.S.W. direction for 10 or 12 miles, eventually joining the Finniss River through a narrower and more steeply graded course. It is a broad, flat-bottomed, mature, high-level valley, with its floor at nearly 1,000 ft. above sea level, and covered with a thick deposit of clay resting on grit and waterworn gravel. Remnants of drift material consisting of sand and waterworn gravel with occasional large boulders are also found at varying heights above the bottom of the valley, and clearly do not belong to the present stream conditions. The bound- aries of the valley to the east and west are sharply defined by two parallel ridges, remarkably straight and of even height— the Bull Creek Range, on the east, and the Wickham Hill eh _ALEXANDRINA ‘Torrens ee \ SO a eee eee [" waitae! J} Lowlands. o +2) = ° an re < : Ww is ; re of ° re 2. be Vv Zz Ns, eI] ri fe) a SNGCAN DUCA ee (9) ~ Zz "E tu z Cont S WA “hy =p 4 "ieee i=) nN = Sn 34 = Be 5 KE 5 Sl oe pass oy, v: God Re Lee ees | Highlands. 162 Ridge on the west. The latter is really part of the Willunga fault scarp, and its steep western slope is in striking contrast to the topography of the valley under discussion. The eastern side of the Bull Creek Range also presents _ a more broken character, consisting of dissected hill country, dropping rapidly to the Murray Plains. These ridges are clearly remnants of a once extensive peneplain, dislocated by faulting to the west and east. They extend northwards beyond the region of the Meadows Valley and form the east and west boundaries of the Onka- paringa Valley in its upper course. There is no sharply-defined watershed between the head of the Meadows Valley and the middle course of the Onkaparinga, and the features are such as to suggest that an ancient north and south valley of mature type and considerable size at one time flowed from the north through the Meadows Valley, and the deposits in its floor and along its sides also demand such a river. If this be so, where was the southern outlet, and when and under what con- dition was the present system developed? The upper course of the Onkaparinga has every feature of an ancient mature valley, and is so regarded by Prof. Walter Howchin. To the north of Mount Bold it begins to turn more westerly and soon leaves the line of the old valley, which con- tinues southerly. The western ridge is breached to the north of Mount Bold, and through it the Onkaparinga escapes as a deep, steep-sided valley of young character, which it main- tains almost to its mouth. | Prof. Walter Howchin considers it, in part, an antecedent stream whose lower course during the period prior to the Mount Lofty uplift was, an ever-changing one over a wide fluviatile plain. The extensive deposits of alluvium, gravel, and waterworn boulders of the Kangarilla flats and McLaren Vale represent, in his opinion, a more southerly course of the river. At the time of the uplift its position on the flood plain had migrated to that it now occupies, and hence it became incised in a rising segment of the highlands. The drift deposits of the Meadows Valley, though now 1,000 to 1,200 ft. above those of the Willunga Plain, strongly suggest a dislocated section of that ancient flood plain. At that period the ancestor of the present Onkaparinga had a more continued north and south direction. The Meadows Valley would thus represent a dismembered section of that drainage system which, eventually, became choked to the brim with fluviatile material. The ever-shifting course of the old Onkaparinga tending to a more westerly direction may have been assisted by early warping preceding the later block faulting. | ee ‘ 163 There is further a suspicion that there is also a faint relic of earlier topography, dating back to the glacial condi- tions of Permo-Carboniferous times, now almost obliterated x) / Guilt £ NC . EM, == H}| | ; Ss , ee S YN im\\V" = Wee ae Ss AC A a wee nt | Wy yf 3 \| \ = Nh Y 0 <3 Ped i Wi v(t S | " Y US - 3S Wy i Na : | rH & HH Pas = a ; os : AS sy s oes 4 SN S 2 SP > =©s ~ < = og z = a hie NY ae ANY SL ao Yes E NG => Ss de ans, ik Yea = ae peat We Y ee oe oN 4, S i: 504, , ie : QD ut A i s « i . ei me SS = ‘= by the later cycles that have been superimposed upon it. Brock DIAGRAM Highlands showin raphy and d rainaye system in relation to lopog j d feclonic control. structure an Section of southem portion of M! Lofty The evidence for this lies in the finding by the writer of a glaciated boulder in a pebble deposit in a small road 164 cutting, near Dinglebedinga School, in the south-western por- tion of the area. This boulder was accepted as glacial by Prof. Howchin, into whose charge it was given. Is this a fluvio-glacial deposit of Permo-Carboniferous age, or is it a Tertiary bed composed, in part, of redistributed glacial? If the latter, did it come from the glacial deposits of the Finniss River, to the south? This would mean a reversal in direction of the present drainage. It is much more probable that the glacial deposits of the south, though extensive, are neverthe- less a small remnant of a sheet of material which once extended much farther north, and the Meadows Valley may, in part, be a trough the earliest features of which were due to glacial erosion in Permo- Carboniferous times—a much more imperfect example of ‘‘fossil glacial topography,’’ however, than that of the Finniss River district, described by Prof. Howchin, where erosion has laid bare a ‘portion of an ancient landscape with remarkable precision. What, then, is the past geographical history of this region? Briefly it appears to be as follows: —The Meadows Valley is regarded as a small dismembered portion of an ancient north and south stream the southern course of which, beyond the area under consideration, has not been traced but indica- tions of it might be expected in the direction of Myponga Creek. This valley existed before the uplift of the present high- lands, and in the Meadows Creek section there is some pro- bability that its course coincided with a much more ancient glacial valley partly filled with till. Peneplanation advanced to a mature stage with conse- quent aggregation and filling up of the old valleys, resulting in the formation of an extensive piedmont plain over which the streams flowed independently of the underlying structure. Early subsidences and warping may have assisted in the insti- tution of the diagonal direction of drainage, as shown by the present positions of the Torrens and Onkaparinga. Fault block dislocation followed, with the gradual establishment of the present distribution of highland and plain, giving rise to a revived erosion cycle and the entrenching of the deeply- cut river valley into the rising segments. The existing cycle is one of discordances of level and active erosion along the fault scarps, providing short, steep, actively-eroding streams tending to cut back into the old topography and divert remnants of the old north and south valleys into steep-graded easterly or westerly flowing streams. The north and south strike ridges of hard rock delayed this process, but weak places were eventually found. The most important of these was the southern continuation of the Bull 165 Creek Range, where the hard Cambrian or Pre-Cambrian rocks gave place to softer Permo-Carboniferous deposits. This led to an eastern breach by what is now the Finniss River, thereby | eapturing the lower course of the Meadows Valley. The remarkable course of this river has been referred to by Prof. Howchin.“) The same process can be studied on the western side, but in a less advanced stage, in several small streams, which have actually breached the scarp, but have not yet captured much of the drainage of the old valley. The most notable of these is Dashwood Gully. Peter Creek, heading in the northern Kuitpo Forest Reserve, shows the same features. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) 1910—Howcuin, W.: Description of a New and Extensive Area of Permo-Carboniferous Glacial Deposits in South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXXIV. (2) 1913—Howcurn, W.: The Evolution of the Physiographical Features of South Australia. Presidential Address. Section C, Austr. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, vol. xiv. (3) 1918—Tzatz, E. O.: Soil Survey and Forest Physiography of Kuitpo. Bulletin No. 6, Dept. of Forestry, University of Adelaide. 166 } SOME NEW RECORDS OF FUNGI FOR SOUTH AUSTRALIA. — PART II. TOGETHER WITH A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF PUCCINIA. By T. G. B. Ossporn, D.Sc., Professor of Botany, and GEOFFREY SAMUEL, B.Sc., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Botany, University of Adelaide. [Read August 10, 1922.] Puate VII. In 1915 one of us published a short note on ‘‘Some New Records of Fungi for South Australia.’’ In it were listed some forty species the occurrence of which in the State was not recorded in the literature dealing with Australian fungi. The present paper adds fifty-one species to the fungus flora of the State and adds nine names to the host species of Australian fungi. Many of these are common, whilst a few have already been mentioned in the Annual Reports of one of us, and their place in this, list is merely a matter of con- venience, since these Reports are difficult of access to most mycologists. Others of the species, however, are of more interest, because of the apparent rarity of the fungi in other parts of Australia, and one of them, Puccima semibarbatae, occurring on the native Bulbine semibarbata (Liliaceae), is new to science. Following the arrangement of the previous list, reference is given to McAlpine’s Systematic Arrangement of Aus- tralian Fungi, by the number assigned there, and also, where possible, to other of McAlpine’s works, in order to render it easy to ascertain the range of a species in other States. It is hoped to follow this paper shortly by another of a similar type, which will bring the published records of South Aus- tralian parasitic and micro-fungi into line with local knowledge. UREDINEAE. UROMYCES DANTHONIAE, McAlp. On leaves, leaf-sheaths, and panicle-branches of Danthoma semiannularis, R. Br. (Danthoma peneilata, F.v. M.,comp. sp.). II., III. Min- nipa, Oct., 1916, W. J. Spafford. Also on Danthonia sétacea, R. Br., which is a new host plant. South Park Lands, Ade- laide, Nov. 2, 1916, T. G. B. O. (McAlp., 1906, p. 85). he a 167 UROMYCES BULBINIS, Thuem. Teleutosori on flowering scapes and leaves, amphigenous, small, densely gregarious, frequently concentrically arranged in large circles; at first covered by ashen-coloured epidermis, later exposed, firm, convex, brown. Teleutospores globose to ovate, pedicellate, wall smooth, rather thick, 18-25 x 20-224; pedicel deciduous, hyaline to yellowish, 3-5 » wide x 3-8 yw long. On leaves and scapes of Bulbine bulbosa, Haw. National Park, Belair, Sept.-Oct., common (fig. 1), Wace vt: Teleutospores of Uromyces bulbinis, Thuem. Drawn from fresh material (x1100). This species was described by Thuemen in Flora, 1877, and is given by Cooke, Handbook of Australian Fungi, No. 1738; also by McAlpine, 1906, p. 87. The localities given by the latter are: Victoria, Omeo; New South Wales, Upper _ Macquarie River. This rust would. appear to be uncommon, for McAlpine says he has not seen a specimen. It is abundant on its host in parts of the National Park, Belair, affecting the leaves and basal parts of the stems, and occasionally sori have been found in the flowering region. The appearance is highly characteristic, the ashen-coloured young sori showing plainly on the yellow-orange infected portion of the host. The com- pound sori are occasionally very large, in one case 14x 2 mm.; sometimes a second ring of confluent sori surrounds the first. 168 We cannot understand the statement in the descriptions _ cited above that the sori are ‘‘concave,’’ for when fresh they project above the surface of the lesion, whilst the teleiitospores in all cases examined by us are distinctly globose or ovate, not ‘‘clavate or oblong-clavate,’’ and no case of an acute apex has been seen. The spore measurements of the South Aus- | tralian specimens are rather smaller than those given by. McAlpine and Cooke. Since the fungus is so characteristic in its growth, and the only rust affecting Bulbine bulbosa on — record, there can be no doubt of the species. Possibly the © lack of fresh material by Thuemen may account for the dis- crepancies. Uromyciapium Trpperianum, (Sacc.) McAlp. On stems of Acacia armata, R. Br. Camino in Adelaide district; Victor Harbour, Aug., 1915; Athelstone, Aug., 1917, Tes GB. es On Acacia calamifolia, Sweet. Between Port Augusta and Iron Knob, Aug. 22, 1921, J. B. Cleland. Galls abundant on the needle-like phyllodes as well as on the pmalles twigs. New host plant. On Acacia pycnantha, Benth. Millicent, April 7, 1917, T. G. B. O.; Meadows, 1921, Ambleside, 1921, y-8: The brown potato-like galls of this fungus on trees of the golden wattle (A. pycnantha) are so conspicuous that it is surprising that no South Australian record of it exists pre- vious to 1917. It must have been present some years before then, for it was becoming a serious menace to the wattle bark- stripping industry in the neighbourhood of Meadows about that year. In 1918 severe bush fires swept this area, and the wattles which came up after the fire were perfectly free from the fungus. During the last year or two, however, galls have begun to appear on isolated trees again, and the fungus will, no doubt, gradually spread. In this connection it is inter- esting to note that trees may be seen loaded with the rust- galls, yet surrounded by trees which are perfectly free from them. Once a gall has formed on a tree, the fungus spores which are produced on its surface probably become splashed about in the rain drops, under conditions suitable for germ- ination and infection. Thus the tree soon develops numerous galls. Spores will usually be carried to other trees, however, by the agency of wind, which evidently does not lead to those trees becoming rapidly infected (McAlp., 1906, p. 111). PUCCINIA BROMINA, Hriks. On living leaves and _ leaf- sheaths of Bromus arenarws, Labill. Minnipa, Oct., 1916, III., X. McAlpine says mesospores comparatively rare, but in this specimen they were fairly numerous (McAlp., 1906, p. 116). ae 169 PUCCINIA- FLAVESCENTIS, McAlp. On living leaves of Stipa scabra, Lindl., var. auriculata, II. Also on Stipa pubescens, R. Br., II., Sept. 23, 1921, W. J. Spafiord. Both these are new host species for the fungus. Darluca filum was parasitic on the uredosori (McAlp., 1906, p. 119). Puccinia semibarbatae, 1. §p. Teleutosori on stems and leaves, amphigenous, small, up to 2x1 mm., gregarious, occasionally arranged in concentric groups, covered by epidermis, convex, becoming exposed, firm when fresh, but becoming powdery when dry, deep brown- black. Teleutospores irregular, fusiform, obovate, or sub-globose ; apex generally rounded and not thickened, often conical or truncate; rounded at the base, or slightly attenuated; more or less constricted at the septum; dark chestnut-brown:; sur- face with irregular reticulate ridges and _ depressions; 33-48 p x 19-26 pu. Pedicels short, deciduous, slightly tinted. On living stems and leaves of Bulbine semibarbata, Haw. Minnipa, Central Eyre Peninsula (S. Austr.), 1915 (fig. 2). This rust, which has very characteristic telia, occurred in quantity upon the plants of Bulbine semibarbata growing around the granite outcrops at Minnipa Hill, on the Govern- ment Experimental Farm, Central Eyre Peninsula. It has not been found on its host on the eastern side of Spencer Gulf. Puccrinia saccaRDolI, Ludw. On living leaves of Goodenia amplexans, F. v. M., I., III. Rosetta Head, near Victor Harbour, Nov., 1915, T. G. B. O. This host plant is not given by McAlpine. The rust is exceedingly common on its host in this locality, the aecidia forming large circular patches up to as much as 15 mm. diameter on both sides of the leaf. The teleutosori occur with the aecidia, usually confluent, often forming two, rarely more, concentric rings, usually towards the circumference of the aecidial patch (McAlp., 1906, p. 147). PUCCINIA ANGUSTIFOLIAE, McAlp. On Podotheca angusti- folva, Less., I., I1I., X. Wirrega R.S., Oct., 1916, T. G. B. O. By a curious confusion in the synonymy of the host plant, McAlpine gives the name as Scorzonera angustifolia, L. The error seems to have arisen in the following manner :—The genus Podosperma, Labill., 1806, becomes Podotheca, Cass., 1822, since Podospermum, DC., was already a synonym for Scorzonera, L. (Index Kewensis). Podotheca (Podosperma), belonging to the Compositae Inuleae-Gnaphalinae, is a genus endemic to Australia, and is the host of the native rust 170. 3 considered. Scorzonera, of course, belongs to the Compositae Chicorieae-Leontodontinae. The native Australian flora con- tains but one genus (JMicroseris) belonging to the sub-order Chicorieae. By the kindness of Mr. C. C. Brittlebank, of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, Victoria, we have been allowed to examine McAlpine’s type specimens collected at Dimboola, Victoria, Nov., 1892. There is no doubt that the fungus Fig. 2. s Teleutospores of Puccinia semibarbatae, n. sp. (x 1000). and host plant from Wirrega (S. Austr.) are the same. McAlpine’s note that P. angusttfoliae differs from P. podo- sperm, DC., P. scorzonerae, (Schum.) Jacky, and P. tragapogi, (Pers.) Corda, in certain particulars is not sur-- prising, considering how widely removed the hosts are in affinity (McAlp., 1906, p. 150). PUCCINIA CALENDULAE, McAlp. On living leaves of Calendula officinalis, L., I. Mount Crawford Estate, Jan.,. 1916 (McAlp., 1906, p. 151). ‘ ) h 4 : 9 Se linge seree at 4p 77 a 171 PUCCINIA ERECHTITES, McAlp. On leaves and stems of Erechtites quadridentata, DC. Between Coromandel Valley and Clarendon, Sept. 23, 1916, T. G. B. O. I. and III. inter- ‘mixed, mostly on the leaves. A number of three-celled teleutospores are present in this specimen. Also Eden Hills, Oct., 1917, Miss A. H. Rennie. I., numerous on stems, present also on leaves and involucre; III., rare. | On Frechtites prenanthoides, DC. Blue Lake, Mount Gambier, Oct. 12, 1916, A. G. Edquist. I. only, in groups on both surfaces of leaves (McAlp., 1906, p. 157). PUCCINIA VITTADINIAE, McAlp. On living leaves of Vittadima australis, A. Rich. Wirrega R.S., Oct. 1, 1916, T. G. B. O. I., III., and X. on both surfaces of leaves. As recorded by McAlpine, the teleutosori were sparsely devel- oped; occasionally four or five were observed confluent and forming a ring about 2 mm. diameter round aecidia (McAlp., 1906, p. 164). PUCCINIA OPERCULARIAE, (Morr.) Syd. | Teleutosori confluent, 3-5 mm. long, forming patches com- pletely investing the stem; sori elongate, compact, bullate, reddish-brownish, surrounded by the ruptured epidermis. Teleutospores golden-brown, oblong to clavate, slightly constricted at the septum, smooth, 45-52x15-18y. Upper cell rounded, apex thickened, hyaline cap (7-9 ) disappearing when germinating. Lower cell about as long as the upper, tapering to pedicel; pedicel persistent, 22-50 u long, 3-4 u broad. Mesospores occasional, similarly coloured to teleutospores, fusiform to ovoid, apex thickened with prominent hyaline cap, 38-45 x 14-18 p. : On stems of Opercularia varia, Hook f., III. and X., Mount Compass, Oct., 1916, T. G. B. O. (fig. 3). This fungus was only found on the stems, where the patches of telia formed prominent fusiform swellings, often in the middle of the long internodes of the host. The species is « Lepto form, the majority of the spores being found with the promycelia, or already empty. We have referred the rust to ‘ P. operculariae, (Morr.) Syd., though it may be that Morrison was right in considering this a variety of P. coprosmae, Cooke. Groups of confluent teleutosori on the leaves are a feature of the latter species; this feature is not noted by McAlpine for P. operculariae, nor are mesospores which occur in our speci- mens (McAIp., 1906, p. 166). PUCCINIA HIBBERTIAE, McAlp. Teleutosori on stems, leaves (amphigenous), pedicels, and calyces, causing hyper- trophy of stem, densely gregarious, confluent. At first covered 172 by the greyish epidermis, bursting, bullate, compact, rounded to oval, rarely exceeding 1 mm., chestnut-brown to black. Teleutospores elliptical, thickened at the apex, con- stricted at the septum, wall smooth, 27-37 x 16-21 p. Pedicel ” deciduous, sometimes excentrically displaced, 60-110 p. Mesospores occasional, similarly coloured to the teleuto- spores, fusiform, generally thickened at the apex, 26-33 x 12-16 p. Fig. 3. A Teleutospores and mesospores of Puccinia operculariae, (Mgrr.) Syd. Drawn from fresh material (x 690). On Hibbertia stricta, R. Br., var. canescens. National Park, Belair, Oct. 28, 1916, T. G. B. O. New host species. The fungus here described has been recorded under McAlpine’s species P. hebbertiae, though it differs from it in the size of the spores, which are consistently shorter in our specimens. In other respects it conforms to McAlIpine’s description (McAlp., 1906, p. 185). AECIDIUM OLEARIAE, McAlp. On stems of Olearia axtlaris, F. v. M., I., on stems only. Victor Harbour, June 16,/4918,°T. GG. B. On G@iiecAlp:, 1906; py 197): t 173 USTILAGINEAE. Ustitago cynopontis, P. Henn. Destroying the inflor- escences of Cynodon dactylon, Pers. Mile End, Jan., 1918, G. Quinn. Although the host plant of this fungus is widely grown for lawns, and occurs wild on dunes in many places, the fungus had not been recorded in South Australia before. It has since been found on many occasions in gardens around Ade- laide during the summer (McAlp., 1910, p. 155; Osborn, 1918, 1921). Ustitaco TEPPERI, Ludw. Sori on inflorescences while still enclosed in abnormally numerous sheathing leaf-bases, forming a compact black mass in which generally only the axis of the inflorescence remains of the host. Spore mass Fig. 4. Spores of Ustilago Teppert, Ludw. (x1100). ultimately exposed by decay of the leaf-bases and becoming powdery. __ Spores brown, globose to ellipsoidal, finely echinulate, 10-14 pu. Bn Neurachne alopecuroides, R. Br. Burnside, Nov., 1916; Moppa Scrub, Oct. 1917. A smut on Neurachne alopecuroides was sent to Ludwig ‘by J. G. O. Tepper from Torrens Gorge, South Australia, who described it in 1889. The fungus appears to have a limited Australian distribution, for McAlpine, in 1910, said he had not seen any smut on that host. In November, 1916, it was first found at Burnside, some six miles south of the type locality, and later in the Moppa Scrub, some 30 miles to the north. In both localities it is locally common. 174 The infected inflorescence is very characteristic (pl. vil., fig. 2). The normal host produces an inflorescence at the end of a long bare peduncle, as much as 25 cms. above the highest — leaf. The lamina of the leaves at the base of the peduncle is short (2-3 cms.), with a leaf-base of almost the same length. The infected inflorescences have scattered leaves over their entire length, and a group of three or more leaves terminating the stem. The laminae of these are 1-2 cms. long, with rather longer leaf-bases closely investing the diseased inflorescence. There is thus a characteristic gall-like development (McAlp., 1920; ps .161):< Cinrracria HYPODYTES, (Schl.) Diet. On stems of Stipa flavescens, Labill. Granite Island, Jan. 3, 1919, T. G. B. O. Occurring especially on the upper internodes, within the sheathing leaf-bases, and preventing the formation of an inflorescence (McAlp., 1910, p. 171). Urocystis Hypoxipis, Thaxt. On leaf-bases and in- florescences of Hypozis pusila, Hook, f. Grange, June 2, LOT, TAG BO: New host species. The fungus has been recorded from Victoria on H. glabella, but it has not been observed on the latter in South Australia, though the plant grows com- monly in the Adelaide district (McAlp., 1910, p. 197). ee ee ee ? es % ge ee BASIDIOMYCETES. AUREOBASIDIUM VITIS, var. ALBUM, Montmart. On leaves, young shoots, and inflorescences of Vztis vinifera, L. lLyrup, Watervale, -Berri, Renmark, Oct., 1921. ! In October, 1921, specimens of young vine leaves were sent in from several localities, exhibiting blackened areas of irregular extent. If placed in a moist dish, these rapidly spread over the whole leaf, and whitish pustules consisting of basidia bearing spores on sterigmata formed’ both on leaf surface and fruit stalks. In the original description (1882) of Aureobasidium vitis, Vial. et Boy., the fungus was described as being clear yellow; but in 1897 Montemartini® described a variety occurring on leaves and fruit stalks which he named A. vitis, var. album, because the pustules were whitish. Later in that year, McAlpine described a form occurring in Victorian vineyards, chiefly on the berries, as A. vitis, var. tuberculatum. The South Australian specimens, both in the parts affected and in the nature of the spore pustules, agree (1) Montemartini, in: Atti dell’ Istit. botan. dell’ Universita di Pavia, 1897 (ref., Zeitschr, f. Pflanzenkrank., vii., p. 359, 1897). init eeinnaiiasiicittintmeeaientinn —% — 0 OO 175 most closely with Montemartini’s description, so that the above name is given them (McAlp., 1897, p. 16). -ASCOMYCETES. ERYSIPHE CICHORACEARUM, DC. On Senecio vulgaris, L.- Glencoe, South-East, Dec. 9, 1916, G. Quinn. On living leaves and stems of Cucurbita pepo, L. Mur- ray Bridge, Feb., 1917. Also common in gardens in Adelaide on the marrow and other types of Cucurbita. Not listed by McAlpine (Osborn, 1918). ASTERINA BAILEYI, Berk. et Br. On living leaves of Hakea rostrata, F. v. M. Belair, Sept., 1920, G. S. And on Hakea ulicina, R. Br. Forest of Kuitpo, May, 1922, G. 8. This is a common fungus, and has been present here for years, though not recorded for South Australia’as yet. A specimen of H. ulicona, in the Herbarium of the University of Adelaide, labelled ‘‘Aldgate, 1895, O. E. Menzel,’’ is affected with it. The Hakeas above are new host species (McAlp., 1895, No. 1728). SEYNESIA BANKSIAE, McAlp. On the upper surface of living leaves of Banksia ornata, F. v. M. Forest of Kuitpo, May, 1922, G. S. (McAlp., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1903, p. 553). PARODIELLA BANKSIAE, Sacc. et Bizz. On leaves of Banksia marginata, Cav. Ambleside, May, 1922, G. S. This fungus, known as Banksia Freckle, occurs on the under surface of the leaves, chiefly the lowest or innermost leaves, slightly “languid,’’ as McAlpine says. Although it has not been recorded for South Australia before, it has been present here for years. A specimen of Banksia marginata, in the Herbarium of the University of Adelaide, labelled “Aldgate, 1895, O. E: Menzel,” is infected with it (McAlp. 1895, No. 1741). | Oipium, on apple. On living leaves and twigs of Pyrus Malus, L. Upper Sturt, Jan., 1921, G. S.; Houghton, Mar... Pont, G'S. At Houghton the Oidium was unusually plentiful on big leafy trees 12 to 15 ft. high which had only been single- worked, and were probably on their own roots. The perfect stage of this Ordiwm was not found. There are four apple mildews—Podosphaera oxycanthae, Podo- sphaera leucotricha, Podosphaera tridactyla, and Sphaero- theca mali—over which there has been considerable confu- sion; until the perithecia are found, therefore, this Oidiwm 176 cannot be named. In McAlp., 1895, No. 1721, Podosphaera yf tridactyla is recorded for Victoria and New South Wales (Osborn, 1919). FUNGI IMPERFECTTI. SPHAEROPSIDACEAE. ConiorHyrium acactaE, McAlp. On living phyllodes of Acacia pycnantha, Benth. National Park, Belair, July, 1922, | ERS DarLvuca FiILUM, Cast. This fungus, which is parasitic — on the uredosori of rusts, has not been specifically recorded for South Australia before, but has probably often been found. Thus McAlpine notes it as common on the uredosori of Puccinia lolu, and also gives Mount Gambier, South Australia, as one locality for this rust; the same note occurs in his descriptions of several other rusts. In our material, Darluca filum occurred on Puccinia flavescentis, a host which is not recorded in McAlpine, 1906, p. 119, as well as on many other species of Puccinia (McAlp., 1895, No. 2087; McAlp., HOVG. 0. a2) s DrpLop1a ciTRicota, McAlp. Forming scabs on the fruit of Citrus aurantium, L. Together with Phoma omni- vora, Torrens Park, Mitcham, Nov: 21, 1919. Alone, Clar- endon, Jan., 1921, G. S. McAlpine does not record its attacking the fruit (McAlp., 1899, p. 83; Osborn, 1919). KELLERMANNIA PRUNI, McAlp. Saprophyte on decaying almond leaves on the ground, North Adelaide, May, 1921, G. S. (McAlp., 1902, p. 104). PHoma MAcRopHOMA, McAlp. On twigs of Citrus auran- tuum, L. Clarendon, Jan., 1921, G. S. (McAlp., 1899, p. 108). PHYLLOSTICTA BRASSICICOLA, McAlp. ‘Ring spot” on outer leaves of Brassica oleracea, L. Upper Sturt, Jan., 1921, G. 8. (Vict. Dept. Agr. Pamphlet, Cabbage and Cauliflower Diseases, 1901). . - et PYRENOCHAETE ROSELLA, McAlp. Saprophyte on decay- _ ing almond leaves on the ground. Blackwood, May, 1921; North Adelaide, May, 1921, G.S. (McAlp., 1902, p. 97). SEPTORIA DEPRESSA, McAIp. On fruit of Cvtrus auran- trum, L., forming circular brownish scabs. Salisbury, Sept., 1915; Campbelltown, Oct., 1921 (McAlp., 1899, p. 83). SEPTORIA DIANTHI, Desm. On living leaves of Dianthus carophyllus, L. Fullarton, Sept., 1918, F. W. Eardley. Not listed by McAlpine. SEPTORIA LEPIDII, Desm. On living leaves of Lepidium draba, L. Morphett Vale, Sept., 1915. Not listed by McAlpine. | LT : SEPTORIA LYCOPERSICI, Speg. On stems and leaves of Lycopersicum esculentum, Mill. Marion, Nov., 1919; Gawler River, Dec., 1921. Not listed by McAlpine, but recorded for Victoria (C. C. Brittlebank, Journ. Agr. Vict., xvii., _p. 498, 1919). VERMICULARIA ANGUSTISPORA, McAlp. Saprophyte on decaying almond leaves on the ground, North Adelaide, May, 1921, G. S. (McAlp., 1902, p. 104). VERMICULARIA CIRCINANS, Berk. On Alliwm cepa, L. Attacking the scales, and spreading occasionally to the green leaf portion of seedling onions. Longwood, Oct. 15, 1915. Not lsted by McAlpine. VERMICULARIA VARIANS, Duc. ‘‘Black Dot’’ disease on potato haulms, Mount Gambier, Mar., 1917. On tubers, forming slightly sunken areas just under the skin, Carey Gully, Jan., 1921, G. S. (McAlp., 1911, p. 92; Osborn, 1921). MELANCONIACEAE. COLLETOTRICHUM SCHIZANTHI, Jens. and Stew. On stems of Schizanthus, sp., causing a wilt. Glen Osmond, Sept., 1916; Kensington Gardens, July, 1917. Not listed by McAlpine. GLOEOSPORIUM RIBIS, (Lib.) M. & D. On leaves and eanes of Hibes grossularia, L. (Conidial stage of Pseudopeziza ribis, Kleb.). Summertown, Jan., 1921, E. Leishman. Not listed by McAlpine. HYPHOMYCETES. ACROSTALAGMUS CINNABARINUS, Corda. Living saprophy- tically on decaying potato haulms, forming a reddish mould over them. Mount Gambier, April 5, 1917, Ade. i O Nat listed by McAlpine. CEPHALOTHECIUM ROSEUM, Corda. Developed as a sapro- phyte on apple leaves from Ambleside, Feb., 1921, which were kept in a moist dish. Commonly develops as a sapro- phyte on decaying fruit, and appears to be a facultative parasite on stored fruit when the skin is injured. Not listed by McAlpine. CERCOSPORA APII, Fres. On living leaves of Hees sativa, L. (parsnip), causing a leaf spot. Mount Lofty, Sept., 1919, tT G. B. O. Not listed by McAlpine. CLADOSPORIUM PHYLLOPHILUM, McAlp. Dark olivaceous, minutely velvety layer over the diseased, wrinkled surface of _ peach leaves where injured by Hxoascus deformans. Black- i wood, Feb., 1921, G. S. (McAlp., 1902, p. 100). 178 CoNIOTHECIUM CHOMATOSPORUM, Corda. On twigs of Pyrus Malus, L. Blackwood, Nov., 1914, R. Fowler; Mount Gam- © bier, July, 1915; Wirrabara, Dec., 1917. Causing cankers on © the bark of apples and pears. The severe scabbing of the™ fruit by this fungus, which occurs in South Africa and other ~ countries, has not been recorded here (Osborn, 1918, 1921). CoNnIOTHECIUM scaBRUM, McAlp. On fruit of Cvrtrus aurantium, L., causing irregular, flaky, scabbed areas. Ken- sington Gardens, July, 1917; Enfield, Mar., 1918; Berri, | June, 1922, R. Fowler (McAlp., 1899, p. 80). | FumMaGo vaGANS, Pers. On canes of Vitis vinifera, L., — forming a black sooty coating, ‘‘fumagine.” Clare, May, © 19215206. BeOm MeAlp. 91889722238). HARPOGRAPHIUM CORYNELIOIDES, Cke. and Mass. Causing swollen lesions on the stems of Leptospermum scoparium, Forst., with the short, branched, brown conidiophores pro- jecting from them. Cleland Gully, near Mount Compass, 1921, T. G: B, OM(OMeAl py 11895) Nos 1997); Orpium oxaLipis, McAlp. On living leaves of Oxzalis corniculata, L. Forest of Kuitpo, under ash trees, Dec., 1921, G. S. (McAlp., 1895, No. 2276). STERIGMATOCYSTIS NIGRA, v. Tiegh. On ripe grapes, the skin of which had burst. Southwark, Feb., 1921, G. S. (McAlp., 1897, p. 46). PHYCOMYCETES. tT PLASMOPORA VITICOLA, (B. and C.) B. and deT. “On living leaves of Vitis vinifera, L. McLaren Vale, Feb., 1921; Watervale, Seven Hills, Berri, and Renmark, April, 1921. This fungus appeared first in Australia at Rutherglen, Victoria, in the season 1916-17, and in 1917-18 did consider- _able damage. From this locality it seems to have spread east- ward into New South Wales, and finally Queensland (1920-21). Its progress westward of Rutherglen was slow, and not till 1920-21 did it appear at Mildura. From thence it passed down the Murray, appearing at Renmark, Berri, and Water- — vale. It was also said to occur at Angaston. The attack | was a slight one, evidently resulting from infection late in the season. | This outbreak is interesting because of the example it — gives of the power of dispersal of a fungus disease by wind- — borne spores. Mildura, the seat of the nearest epidemic out- — break in the past season, lies 100 miles east of Renmark, up | the Murray. There is regular traffic between the two places by motors, so that it is possible that the spores might have — onlay AD Hg —— el 179 been conveyed by human agency or aided by down stream air currents along the river. Berri and Renmark are roughly 100 and 120 miles east of Watervale, and between the places there is no direct traffic. Neither is there any direct traffic between! the Renmark area and Angaston (in which area downy mildew _ is reported) or McLaren Vale, roughly 130 miles south-west i of Renmark. The chance that spores would be conveyed by human agency from the Renmark area to any of these places, is very slight. Yet distances of well over 100 miles are con- siderable to be bridged by air-borne spores of the Plasmopara type. This, of course, is on the assumption that it was from the Renmark area that the other South Australian grape- growing areas became infected. Unfortunately no reliable dates can be obtained of the various outbreaks. They were all reported about the same time, except the McLaren Flat outbreak in February. It is possible that Mildura was really the centre of dispersion for the spores infecting the different areas in this State, in which case the carry of the spores would be about 200 miles to 230 miles in a straight line. No specimens of this fungus have been received during the past (1921-22) vine-growing season, although leaves from a number of different localities in which the fungus was present in 1920-21 have been examined. It seems probable that the fungus will have difficulty in establishing itself in South Australia because of the climatic conditions (Osborn, 1921). SYNCHYTRIUM TARAXACI, de B. and Wor. On living leaves of Hypochoerts glabra, L. Exceedingly common on its host in damp areas. Victor Harbour, Aug. 27, 1917; National Park, Oct., 1918; Tea Tree Gully, Aug., 1948, T. G. B. O. (McAlp., 1895, No. 2205). BACTERIA. PSEUDOMONAS JUGLANDIS, Pierce. On stems, leaves, and fruits of Juglans regia, L. This bacterial disease of walnuts has, during the last twenty years, spread to almost all places in the State where walnuts are grown, even to trees 10 or 12 miles from any other. It is impossible to get a marketable crop from many trees now. Not listed by McAlpine (Osborn, 1921). BacTEeriuM mori, B. and L. Causing angular black spots _ on the leaves of Jorus nigra, I.. (mulberry). Clarendon, Jan., 1921, G. S.; Mylor, Mar., 1922,T.G. B. O. Not listed by McAlpine (Osborn, 1921). 180 LITERATURE CITED. McALPINnE— 1897—Additions to the Fungi on the Vine in Australia. — Vict. Dept. Agr. 1899—Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia. Vict. Dept. Agr. . a 1902—Fungus Diseases of the Stone-fruit Trees in Aus- | tralia. Vict. Dept. Agr. 7 1906—The Rusts of Australia. Vict. Dept. Agr. 1910—The Smuts of Australia. Vict. Dept. Agr. 1911—The Potato Diseases of Australia. Vict. Dept. Agr. | Osporn, T. G. B.— 1915—Some New Records of Fungi for South Australia. — Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Austr., vol. xxxix., p. 352, — 1918—Report of the Consulting Botanist and Vegetable | Pathologist, Extract from the Report of the | Minister for Agriculture, South Australia, for — the year ended June 30, 1918. 1919—Do., do., for the year ended June 30, 1919. 1921—Do., do., for the year ended June 30, 1921. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII. Fig. 1. Flowering scapes of Bulbine bulbosa, Haw., showing concentric teleutosori of Uromyces bulbinis, Thuem. Fig. 2. Two diseased and one normal inflorescence of Neurachne alopecuroides, R. Br., showing modifications induced by parasitism of Ustilago Tepper, Ludw. | a 181 THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYT’S ARCHIPELAGO AND THE INVESTIGATOR GROUP. No. 2.—THE MONODELPHIAN MAMMALS. By F. Woop Jones, D.8Sc., F.Z.8., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Adelaide. [Read August 10, 1922.] THE FRANKLIN ISLAND Rat. The Franklin Island rat was first obtained during a brief visit paid to the western island by the s:s. “Conqueror’’ on November 23, 1920. The shore party landed shortly before noon on a very hot day, and not much life was to be seen on the island. An old female and a young male were cap- tured a few minutes after landing by clearing out the accumulated nesting materials from the hut which has been erected upon the northern side of the western island. One or two others were seen by various members of the shore party, but no more specimens were obtained. ~The two animals which had been secured were skinned, but the worst possible conditions prevailed for dealing with the material, and the skins were by no means good ones. With the cap- ture of the first pair a doubt was set at rest, for it was at once evident that they were not marsupials, as those who knew them best had confidently asserted them to be. But though it was simple enough to determine that the animal was not a marsupial, it was an altogether different matter to establish its identity among the Murines. Its most con- spicuous character was that it was a house-builder, and the house-building rats were familiar in the literature of explora- tion into Central Australia. From the accounts of these animals, and especially from an examination of the mounted group in the South Australian Museum, it seemed most probable that the island rat was Comlurus conditor; and yet it obviously differed in some respects from the nest-building rat of the interior. It being impossible to proceed further with the diagnosis in the absence of type specimens, the old female was sent to Mr. Oldfield Thomas, at the British Museum. He was good enough to reply at once that the animal was not Conilurus conditor, but was a member of the genus Leporilus, and possibly was a new species. The second, and younger, specimen was therefore sent to the British Museum to aid in the establishment of the diagnosis, and subsequently the rat was described by Mr. Oldfield Thomas 182 (Annals and Magazine of Natural History, ser. 9, vol. viii., p. 618, Dec., 1921), and named Leporillus jonesi. When it was found that the rat was a new and interesting one it was decided to visit the island again, and to arrange for a longer stay. The journey was made on the s.s. ‘‘Wookata,” and the party camped upon the islands from January 9 to 12, 1922. Further specimens were obtained, and observations and notes were made upon the habits of the animals. Some old and bleached skulls were picked up, and plfotographs were taken of typical nests. One living specimen was secured, but it died as the result of an accident after it had been a Figo a: , Leporillus jonesi. Characters of the head from a living male adult. Natural size. week or two in captivity in Adelaide. A third short visit was paid to the western island on February 18, 1922, in the s.s. ‘‘Conqueror.’”’ On this occasion a few specimens were shot, and one was captured alive and uninjured. Since the animal has been described by Mr. Oldfield Thomas, and will later be dealt with by Mr. E. Troughton, of the Australian Museum, to whom specimens obtained on the second visit were sent, no attempt will be made here at further systematic description. Figs. 1 to 5 depict its most 183 important specific characters. Mr. Oldfield Thomas’ account is as follows : — Leporillus jonesi. “Near apicalis, but larger and with shorter ears. Size,. as gauged by skull and foot, decidedly larger than in apicalis. Fur rather thin and poor, not so thick as in apicalis; hairs of back about 17 mm. in length. General colour, above, dull es a Az iy 1) epee iN Y/, anovod Tow : Fig. 2. Leporillus jonesi. Left manus and pes of a female specimen. Twice natural size. brown (not far from ‘‘Saccardo’s umber’’), the withers tend- ing more towards buffy. Under surface slaty-grey broadly washed with drabby-whitish, the sides of the belly more strongly drabby. LHars shorter than in apicalis, dark brown. Hands with the metatarsals dark brown, the digits lighter. Feet with the ankles, outer side of the metatarsals (inner 184 _ in made-up skin), and proximal parts of digits brown, the inner portion of the metatarsals and the tips of the digits white. ‘Tail well haired but not tufted, brown above, dull whitish below, throughout its length. Not whitened at tip, as is also the case with apicalis, the original description not- withstanding. “Skull larger and stouter than in apicalis. Muzzle broad and heavy. Interorbital region broad, with comparatively sie Fig. 3. Leporillus jonesi. The skull from above and below. The specimen is from a female. Twice natural size. sharp-angled edges. Zygomatic plate more projected for- - wards. Palatal foramina short, not reaching the level of m’. Bullae rather large—these organs not present in the available specimens of agicalis. ‘‘Incisors rather slender, not thicker than in apicalis, but meeting each other at a wider angle, owing to the greater breadth of the muzzle. Molars larger than in apicalis, but apparently of similar structure; much worn down in the type. Ae Fue phen aainenlagge gaa eas Aho. Moigengyy ten its til dae, og carmella age ap = a ea Pe ies caer seta as BS hee OY At poet ge We 185 ‘Dimensions of the type (measured on the skin) :—Head and body, 195 mm.; tail, 178 mm. (not quite perfect) ; hind foot, 48 mm.; ear (dry), 24 mm. “Skull: greatest length, 48; condylo-incisive length, 46; zygomatic breadth, 23°5; nasals, 18 x6; interorbital breadth, 5°7; breadth of brain-case, 18°5; zygomatic plate, 6; palatilar length, 13°6; palatal foramina, 88x 3°8; bulla, 7°8; upper molar series, 9°3.”’ To this description it is only necessary to add one or two notes. The fur of the living animal is remarkable for its fluffy character, and ‘‘thin and poor,’’ though applicable to ki UPPER CLEFT Fig. 4. Leporillus jonesi. Crown form of the molar teeth. From a young adult female specimen. Five times natural size. the type skin, is not characteristic of the living animal. In a state of nature the rat has that compact and fluffy appear- ance that is more reminiscent of a little rabbit than of a more typical rat. It sits bunched up, so that it appears to be far broader and shorter than the prepared skin would suggest. The ears are carried well away from the head (see fig. 1), and, probably as the result of fighting, they are usually irregu- larly notched around their margins. The nipples are four in number, and are situated in the inguinal region. It appears that the young adhere firmly to the nipples, and for a time are dragged about by the mother; it is this circumstance which has led to a belief that the animal is a marsupial. F 186 Measurements of adults, measured in the flesh, are as follow :— . 3 S) 2 g 2 ? Rhinarium to eye 21 25 26 26 212° 26 Rhinarium to ear 40 48 42-5. .* 50 43 5 i Ear 7%" ieee 28 24. 30 26 27 Tail a @ 248. > 162). 162) -.473>,- 4 Head and body ... 210 240 235 235 198 230 Hind foot sot ZENS 48 47 44 44 45 Fore foot Deve i) 19 20 18 19 19 In the visceral anatomy there are one or two points of interest. In the female, the clitoris is completely perforated Fig. 5. Leporillus jonesi. The palate and upper teeth to show the incisive papilla and the palate ridges. by the urethra; and externally the two sexes are very similar in young animals. The stomach (see fig. 6) is extremely large, and is very distinctly marked out into two chambers by a frilled edge of ' Y 187 heaped-up epithelium. The first pouch is oesophageal in origin, and the second is the true pyloric stomach. The caecum (see fig. 7) is enormous; the caput caeci is coiled upon itself ; and the whole organ occupies a very large proportion of the lower part of the abdominal cavity. In several speci- mens it was tenanted by a Cestode which is apparently an undescribed species. The small intestine is relatively short, Fig. 6. Leporillus jonesi. The stomach, showing (a) the outward form, and (b) the interior with the well-marked separa- tion of the two chambers. Natural size. and the large intestine, in addition to its great size, is rela- tively long. In Rattus rattus the small gut measures some F2 188 72 mm., and the large gut some 20 mm.; but in Leporallus gonesi the small gut is 57 mm., while the large gut measures 40 mm. The faceal pellets are more rounded in form than are those of the members of the genus Rattus, and they are deposited in gropus. The rat is a nest-builder, and, so far as I have seen, never excavates burrows for itself; in captivity, it shows no desire to burrow, or even to scratch into the earth. In the islands, a burrow is almost always found beneath the nest, and into the burrow the rat will readily retreat; but the burrow is always one excavated beneath the nest by a penguin (Eudyptula minor) or a mutton bird (Puffinus tenuirostris ). There almost seems to be a measure of symbiosis in the economy Puls SS « qaeod Jones S29 fee. Leporillus jonesi. The caecum. A. is the entering small intestine and B. the emerging large intestine. Natural size. of the rats and the penguins, for practically every nest which is found on the northern platform of the islands has a penguin’s burrow beneath it. It is a remarkable fact that mutton birds, penguins, rats, bandicoots, and the black tiger snakes will all bolt into the same hole when alarmed. In some of the rats’ nests an enormous amount of material is collected, and these large nests appear to lodge a colony. Upon the northern side of the eastern island, and high up on the cliff, is such a nest; and it is probable that its foundation consists of a deserted nest of the sea eagle, the rats having invaded it from below. Upon the flat tops of the islands, the nests are usually composed of dried herbage, and contain only i] | | a | i > F 189 a pair of individuals; but upon the island platform they are made of sticks of fresh Mesembryanthimum, and nearer to the sea of wrack and dried seaweed. The larger nests are com- plicated within, a series of passages and chambers being made in the heap of collected débris; but the smaller nests consist of an entrance run, a central chamber, and an exit run only. Upon the sea beaches a whisp of wrack tucked in between two boulders, or some seaweed collected in a cleft in the granite rocks suffices for a home. In any case, the nests smell badly, the lining is stained yellow, and reeks of ammonia; and all nests examined were tenanted by a beetle (Hctroma benefica, Newm.). Quite a large proportion of the rat population lives upon the sea beaches, beneath and: between the granite boulders which he scattered along the shore. The staple article of diet is the succulent leaves of Tetragona implexicoma, and enormous quantities are consumed. It would appear that the rats also do a certain amount of scavenging along the tide Bre. 3. Arctocephalus forsteri. External characters of the head and face. From a young male specimen. line, for their footprints are always to be seen along the sand, right down to low-water mark. There is no fresh water upon the islands. The breeding season is evidently in the colder months of the year, for during the time that visits have been paid to the islands (November-February) no pregnant or nursing females or very young animals have been obtained. 190 The rat lives upon both of the Franklin Islands, but upon no other islands yet visited. It is by no means nocturnal— most of its activities are crepuscular—but at any time of the day some individuals may be seen along the shore in the intervals between the massive granite boulders. Even in a visit at noon, on a particularly hot day, four specimens were obtained along a stretch of some 200 yards of beach. There appears to be no sort of hostility between the rats and the bandicoots (Lsoodon nauticus) which run about and feed together, and inhabit the same territory. Indeed, as dusk comes on, it is difficult to tell which, among the many shadowy forms that appear among the low herbage of the island plat- form, is an /soodon and which is a Leporillus. The rats are by no means so tame as the bandicoots, and they proved to be particularly difficult to take in traps. ay Pat 3 hl) FRY} Z w \ \ ii Wi Fig. 9. Arctocephalus forsteri. . Left forelimb, young male. The fur harbours two ectoparasites, a species of flea determined by Dr. Ferguson as Hchidnophaga »myrmecobi, and a second flea ‘‘apparently indistinguishable from X enop- sylla cheopis.” In the intestine cf most specimens is a tape worm, which is being investigated by Professor Harvey Johnston. . Rats of other Islands. Goat Island, a waterless island of the St. Francis group, is the home of a rat which is evidently abundant; but of which no specimen has so far been obtained. - The footprints of the rats were to be seen round every boulder upon the sea beaches,.and some skeletal remains were recovered from the pellets of birds of prey. . It would seem to be a small member of the genus Rattus; but all efforts to obtain, or a S491 even to see, a specimen failed during the short visit paid to _ the island (February 11, 1922). a St. Francis Island at one time possessed a-rat, which is gaid to have been quite unlike the house or ship rat, and is described as distinctly ‘‘bluish’’ in colour. This species has _ long since been exterminated on this inhabited island. On Flinders Island is a rat of which.no specimen has so far been obtained, but it is almost certainly 2. rattws, since it is remembered that the rat-was first seen in the island after a vessel had been wrecked upon the shore. Pearson Island is probably the home. of two Murines, and it is hoped that these species may one day be made known to science. ie . - Fig. 10 Arctocephalus forsteri. Left hindlimb, young maie. ~ os oes ae eae ae Rabbits. Flinders Island alone possesses the unenviable distinction of having a rabbit population. These animals were turned down many years ago, and for the most part they are black, or black and white in colour. It is a great pity that, with the continent of Australia as an object lesson, these animals should be tolerated on the island, which one day they will doubtless overrun. St ti ag Bed pen tees Cats. . eS Cats were liberated many years ago on St. Francis Island. For a time they multiplied exceedingly, and have been respon- _ sible for the extermination of at least one interesting mar-. _ supial species. Of late years they have been decreasing, and _ it is to be hoped that the stock is a dying one. 192 Seals and Sea-lions. There is no doubt the seals that inhabit the islands of South Australia are being mercilessly exterminated. A par- M\\ ia i nie wey | i, (le Wel? wil ne Merry 2 a iz a —— Stet ey Big: Arctocephalus forsteri. Left upper dental series of an adult. Natural size. tial, but unfortunately a purely nominal, protection is ex- tended to them; but the protection goes no further than ilies 193 the words printed in the Act. Upon the islands where they are ‘‘protected’”’ they are slaughtered as freely and as barbarously as they are upon the islands where the killing is sanctioned by the law. As a matter of fact, the seals anywhere upon the islands are at the mercy of any scoundrel who cares for the revolting brutality of their slaughter, and deems the gain of a few shillings sufficient reward for the labour involved in flaying the carcass and preparing the pelt. Only one species has so far been seen on the islands. Arctocephalus forsteri (Lesson). The large ‘‘hair seal’? may still be met with on certain of the islands in considerable numbers, and, if no sealing party has recently molested them, they exhibit a most engaging tameness, evincing a strangely persistent curiosity in the coming and going of visitors. There is no need to describe the general distinguishing characters of the species, and figs. 8, 9, and 10 sufficiently demonstrate the external characters of the head and limbs. There are six cheek teeth in the upper jaw (see fig. 11) and five in the lower. In colour there is a great variety, the variations being apparently due to age and sex; but it must also be remembered that, in judging the colour of a living seal, the degree of drying of the pelage must be taken into account. In the bulls there is constantly a lghter-coloured mane. The young pups are a rich dark brown, with the naked parts of the skin black; the eye is dark brown. In the summer months, the seals are for the most part in little parties, with pups ranging from some 2 ft. up to nearly adult size. The voice of the old bulls is harsh and loud, and that of the pups a hissing growl rising to a sequence of pathetic yelps very much like those of a small dog. When disturbed on the islands most of the animals emit a series of long-drawn sniffs, and if the disturbance is continued the sniffs become a harsh grunting, and with that the animal gallops for the sea. Their pace on land is altogether sur- prising, and so is their ability to climb up the steep cliffs of some of the islands. On Price Island, especially, are well- worn tracks up the cliffs to the top of the island some 250 ft. above. On the top of the island, family parties lie basking in the sun, and the only danger that a seal is likely to prove _is his desire to come down his path to the sea whilst the visitor is coming up. Apart from this, they are wholly inoffensive animals, and are deserving of all the protection that can be afforded them. 194 FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYT’S ARCHIPELAGO. No. 3.—A SKETCH OF THE ECOLOGY OF FRANKLIN ISLANDS By T.-G. B. Ossorn,: D.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of Adelaide. [Read August 10, 1922. ] Puates VIII. to XI. The following sketch of the ecology of Franklin Islands embodies the results of a brief visit paid to the group in January of this year. It had been the intention of the party to spend over four days ashore, but owing to adverse weather delaying the ship the time was reduced to two and a half; this shortage of time, and the season of the year, — explain any obvious imperfections in the account. GENERAL. Franklin Islands “) form a small group consisting of two main islands with some outlying rocks and islets lying in lat. 32° 27' S., long. 133° 39’ E., some 12 statute miles off the nearest mainland. The largest islands are each about one and a half miles in length, are flat-topped, and joined together by a sand-bar which dries at low tide. The western island is 159 ft. high and the eastern nearly the same height A chain of rocks about one and a quarter miles in length, some of which are above water and the highest elevated about 15 ft., les about half a mile off, and nearly parallel to the south coast of the western island. A pyramidal islet about 50 ft. high standing on a rock platform which dries at low tide extending nearly 400 yards from it, lies 1 »200 yards east- ward of the eastern island (pl. vii, fig. 1); Though not, strictly speaking, a part of Nuyt’s Archi- pelago, the Franklin Islands were sighted from it by Matthew Flinders in 1802 and were named by him. Flinders and his party did not, however, land upon them. Had they done so it is probable that Robert Brown would only have received further confirmation of his opinion as to the sterility of the islands along the central part of the south coast of Australia. @ (1) Australia Directory, 10th edit., vol. i., p. 149, 1907. (2) Brown, R., Botany of Terra Australis. Appendix to Flinders’ Voyage, vol. ii., p. 534. Point Brown, one of the nearest portions of the mainland to the east of Franklin Islands, was so named by Flinders in February, 1802, in honour of Robert Brown, naturalist on board the ‘Iny estigator.’ és PS, wT ie br 4: ¢ 195 The Franklin Islands form a part of the pastoral lease of Mr. Lloyd, to whom [ am indebted for information as to his impressions of their climate, etc. They are uninhabited, there being no fresh water upon them, but have been used in the past as grazing for a few sheep. Since the 1914-15 drought they have not been grazed, and at present there is little sign of disturbance owing to human occupation, even in and about the small stockyard erected near the anchorage. The islands can seldom, if ever, have been visited by a botanist before, and in their present condition it may be fairly assumed that they present a reasonably complete exhibition of their original vegetation. The influence of the white man is seen am the presence of a few alien annuals, but in January these . were not much in evidence. PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES. ‘No account of the general geology and physiography of the Nuyt’s-group has been published. Howchin,® however, has visited the islands eastward of Cape Catastrophe, and from his account it would-seem that Franklin Islands are essentially similar. The islands described by Howchin rest on a platform of remote age (Cambrian or Pre-Cambrian) formed of an intricate series of metamorphic, volcanic, and plutonic rocks of deep-seated origin. These old rocks le a few feet above or below sea level and represent a base level of erosion, considered marine. On these platforms is a cap- ping of very recent date (post-miocene) which consists of wind-blown sand, formed at a time when the sea was retreating south of the present coastline. This sand has become in- durated owing to the action of rain water on its calcareous contents. “‘In times immediately antecedent to the present the sea returned to its old areas, and is now washing away the soft wind-constructed sandstones that were left in the line of its former retreat.’’ The solution of calcareous matter in the soil and its sub- sequent deposition, as the water evaporates, in the form of a bed of travertine limestone below the surface is a marked feature of such areas. The Franklin Islands, so far as it was possible to observe them, agree with the type of geological formation described above. The platform of the islands is granitic, on which rests more or less consolidated sandstone. In one or two places immediately above the granitic platform a thin deposit of pebbles suggests the occurrence of a conglomerate. The cliffs at the north-west end of Eastern Franklin are decidedly more (3) Howchin, W., Proc. Roy. Geogr: Soc. S. Austr., x., pp. ‘204-219, 1909. 196 clayey than in other places, but nowhere was any superficial deposit of clay noticed as forming a compacter and more retentive soil. The surface soil is generally white sand, which is almost everywhere exposed owing to the open vegetation. The soil types may be grouped as more or less consolidated sand, travertine limestone, and white drifting sand. The foreshore is of two types, rocky or sand. The whole of the way along the south and west coasts, and along much of the east, too, the waves wash over a broad pavement of granitic rock that slopes away at a low angle to the sea, or they beat upon a jumbled mass of boulders caused by its destruction. There is thus no room for the development of a littoral flora along most of these coasts, for the consolidated sands rise from the platform of rock at a steep angle to the plateau summit. Only in a few places does the development of a wider boulder breastwork allow of the accumulation of a little sand at the cliff foot upon which littoral plants appear. On the south coast of the Western Island the cliffs rise 20 to 30 yards back from the beach, the intervening area being a level stretch of sand raised some 6 ft. above the shore line. The terrace thus formed is a curious and distinctive feature of the island, that suggests at first sight a raised beach, but which is capable of other explanation. True dunes are developed only at the north-east end of each island, especially the western, near the sand-spit that connects the two islands. The strong south and south-west gales sweeping round the corner of the islands deposit the sand in these comparatively calm areas, building up a small but typical coastal dune of the unstable type. The summit of the islands is a gently undulating plateau termed’ the ‘‘roof’? in this sketch. The southern coast is highest, from whence there is a slight slope downwards towards the north, the highest point on the group (159 ft.) being a rounded knoll lying near the south-west corner. » The partly consolidated sands of the roof and cliffs of the islands are honeycombed*:by burrows of mutton birds or sooty petrels and penguins. The effect of their activities is to con- stantly disturb the sand between the larger bushes and open the way for wind erosion. The sand which is blown away is either held by vegetation on the roof forming local white dunes, or is blown to the lee-side of the island and washed away. ‘The terrace referred to above on Western Franklin has possibly been formed by such an accumulation of wind- blown sand. Once wind erosion starts at any point the effect is cumu- lative, and a ‘‘blow out’’ may develop, as it would in a recent sand-dune area. Several such areas can be seen in various £07 stages upon the roof, especially upon Eastern Franklin (pl. viii., fig. 2). When the superficial layers are removed the underlying travertine is exposed as a pavement, which resists erosion. Local patches of travertine that have been exposed in this way may remain as knolls rising a few feet above the general level of the roof (pl. ix., fig. 1). Travertine pavements bear a characteristic flora that by its growth leads to their disintegration, when the sand flora reappears. Nowhere on the islands is there anything in the nature of a watercourse, claypan, or rockhole. All rain that falle must sink directly into the soil, and presumably soaks through to the granitic platform. It might be expected that along the edge of this there would be damper areas, or even springs, but if this be so they were dry in January. i { | | | CLIMATE. ; = Meteorological data of uninhabited islands are obviously | difficult to obtain, but some impression of the climate can be gained by comparison with the mainland nearby. The two nearest stations of the Commonwealth Meteorological Service | are Fowler Bay and Streaky Bay; the records of these are | given below by the courtesy of the State Meteorologist, to whom my thanks are due. | Tasie I. -! ! Average, highest and-lowest monthly rainfall at Streaky Bay (S.) and Fowler Bay (F.), in inches, for a period of 44 years :— te = Sy Oo ~ . yas ‘ S . 5 a ra a u 3 fs} we oO aA |r z 3) = alslalelej2l2l2 le lg lz lz] 2 | | Rirerd ew IS: 66.54: .43| .54] .59]1.02]1.97|2.86|2.36]1.94|1.36] .95] .68] .40/15.10 = sao .38| .50| .50] .87/1.82/2.19]1.74|1.47| .94| .87| .60| .30]12.16 Mighiest, § 6.2003. 3.37|4.67|2.43|4.05|4.81|7.51/6.02|5.12|4.03|2.37|4.18|2.48|23.50 Bis cccgest.v: 2 4(5.90|3.26)3 7431/5768. 305.8212. 62)2.6712.79)143l19.0 HBOS Son slec case 00] .00} .00| .00] .13] .26] .56] .43] .13| .00| .00| .00} 9.34 WE a .00} .00| .00} .00] .31 ae .32 ie oe oo .00| .00] 6.91 TaBLe IT. Average, absolute highest and absolute lowest temperatures, in degrees Fahrenheit, at Streaky Bay (S.) and Fowler Bay (F.), The records at Streaky Bay have been kept for 31 years, and for six years at Fowler Bay :— 3 5 = by . . . ww ee ae ea ee begets o Co) = 3) cS) cD) ee OU Shi mend | alte ine. (ah) BO zai Gasllapsl, Ay. temp. S.| 71.7] 72. é 68.5] 63.9 saalsa.s}sz.9 54.9/57.8] 62.5| 67.0 7a. 67.2 68.9| 69.2] 68.0| 63.6|59.9/54.2/53.6|55.4|58.7| 61.6| 64.7] 68.1] 62.2 Abs. high, S.]114.2/114.2]104.7] 96.0]88.3]79.0|73.0]83.0|91.0/104.2|113.8]117.0]117.0 F.|109.0]113.0/108.5]100.2/91.3/82.8|79.5|/86.0/95.0/108.8/114.5/113.9]114.5 Abs. low, S.| 46.2] 44.8] 43.5] 40.2/34.0/32.0/31.2|32.2/33.9| 38.0] 39.5| 42.5| 31.2 «« F.} 50.5} 50.5] 49.5] 42.0/36.1|35.0/32.1/35.1|36.5| 40.0] 47.0| 48.7] 32.1 ae, | “4 : | | | | | | | 198 From the foregoing tables it is seen that the climate is of the semi-arid type,(4) though as the Franklins are islands the conditions are naturally less severe than on the mainland. Mr. Lloyd, owner of the lease, says that in his 40 years’ experience on St. Francis Island (one of the Nuyt’s Archipelago group) he has not known either a frost or a day of over 100° in the shade. The atmospheric humidity, also, will be greater on the islands than on the mainland. There was ample evidence that wind-shearing had an important effect on the growth form of the plants, and in killing back the exposed shoots of such relatively xerophytic plants as Olearia axillaris and Calo- cephalus Browmi. As regards the rainfall (Table I.), it will be seen that the records of both mainland stations show that no rain may fall during seven months out of the year, and that the average precipitation for the four months December-March is ‘50 in. or less per month. : VEGETATION. Inttoral Flora.—This may be considered under the head- ing of fore-cliff vegetation and coastal dunes, but except on the north coast is everywhere sparsely distributed. The main fore-cliff vegetation is Calocephalus Brownw, the individuals of which form low rounded bushes, | ft. to 25 5 ft. high. The branching is densely intricate, and the linear-cylindrical leaves, 3 mm. long, stand erect, parallel to the stems. The whole plant is white in colour owing to the development of close tomentose woolly hairs. In places, along the north coast especially, and less frequently along the other coasts, such . bushes form a continuous line a yard or two wide, fringing the shore, rooting in the coarse sand, and often protected on the seaward side by granite boulders. Occasionally bushes of Myoporum insulare and Nitraria Schoeberi are to be found in association with the Calocephalus, when the strip of vege- tation is wider. Both the Calocephalus and Myoporum showed obvious wind-shearing, the twigs on the weather side being cut back and dead. Other developments of a Tittoesl flora, except in the case of dunes, can be considered as being rather in the nature of accidents than characteristics of the habitat. As such may be considered the occasional patches of Frankenia pauciflora developing at the foot of the cliffs in the sand that had lodged behind a wide zone of granite boulders. More character- istic of the littoral habitat was the development of a pure sward of Sporobolus virgimcus just above the high-tide mark (4)Cannon, W. A., Plant Habits and Habitats in the ea Portions of S. ‘Austr., Carnegie Inst. Pub., No. 308, p. 2, 1921. iat We e . tf 199 along one or two long clefts (dykes of softer rock) in the granite. This was the only habitat of the plant observed upon the island. Coastal Dunes.—The dune formation is of the typical South Australian type,®) but is poorly represented, and is best seen in an active state at the north-eastern ends of the islands, as has been noted above. The first colonist is, as is usual, Spinifex hirsutus, which grows (though not abundantly) at the east end of Western Franklin. The strong wind action was shown by long tails of drift sand behind the Spinifex clumps. The usual succession towards dune shrubland is shown, Syinifex being followed by Olearia, though no thickets develop. Together with the Olearia there are bushes of Myoporum imsulare, these especially showing wind-shearing. The dune flora exhibited is of a depauperate and shifting dune type. Scaevola.crassifolia, found elsewhere on the island, does not enter into it, as is commonly the case on the mainland, while Leucopogon Richer and Muehlenbeckia adpressa—the latter very common on the mainland in the immediate vicinity —were not observed. An atypical dune formation is developed fairly commonly along the north coast, and merges into the fore- cliff flora described above. Along this coast there is no fore-dune flora, for the sand does not blow up from the sea, but is carried across the island by the south or south-west winds, and is deposited at the foot of the slopes. In one case a terrace some 20 yards across, and raised 4 to 6 ft. above the general level of the shore, has been formed. The coastal face of this falls steeply to the shore, and is a surface of erosion rather than apposition. This factor may determine the infrequency of Spinifex hirsutus, only-found in one small patch, whereas on the normal dune it is the pioneer plant. Shrubs of the sand-dune type are represented by occasional bushes of Olearia axillaris, whilst, where there are more granite boulders and less sand, Myoporum insulare, Nitraria, Calocephalus, and Scaevola also come in. The greater part of this terrace is covered more or less completely by Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale, Threlkeldia diffusa, and Enchylaena tomentosa, which form an open association much disturbed by the burrows of mutton birds and the tracks of penguins. At one end of this area a small hut and shearing shed with sheep yard fenced by posts and wire has been erected. The amount of disturb- ance of the vegetation caused by this is exceedingly slight. The most noticeable feature is the way that Tetragoma an“ Enchylaena grow as scrambling’ climbers over the posts an: wires, so that the fence resembles a low hedge in places. (5) Osborn, T. G. B., Brit. Assn. Rep., Australia, 1914, pp. 584-6. 200 Cliff Vegetation.—The word ‘‘clifi’’ is here used to in- clude the various types of slope rising from the sandy beach - and granite platform of the island to the roof. In most places these slopes are not steep enough to be termed cliff in the ordinary sense of the word, especially where they are sandy; but in others, where they are formed of a denser clayey material, the slope is too steep to be climbed easily. It is convenient to use the term cliff, with the reservation as above, when speaking of those sandy slopes from the roof to the shore, which are composed of consolidated sands, to dis- tinguish them from the blown sand on which the littoral flora is developed. It was not possible to distinguish any special associations on these areas. The flora they bear is essentially the same as that of the roof adjoining, but growing under more exposed conditions. The most frequent type of vegetation is a com- munity with Mesembryanthemum australe dominant (pl. x., fig. 2). This is often a monospecific community, especially on the exposed faces of the south coast. Mesembryanthemum australe grows commonly on the mainland at the margins of salt swamps (in distinction to Mesembryanthemum aequila- terale, which is psammophilous), and its dominance on these exposed cliffs suggests that they are often wetted by spray during high winds. On faces less exposed to spray Mesem- bryanthemum australe grows with Frankema pauciflora. The impression was gained that the relative proportions of these plants offered some rough idea of the degree of exposure and consequent salinity of the soil at the spot. Salsola kali was found to be dominant, and often the only plant, on some cliff slopes where the sand was less con- solidated. The cliffs of the north coast, especially on Eastern Franklin, show greater diversity of flora. It is probable that here, the exposure to spray and wind being less, the soil factor, with its consequent effect on drainage and aeration of roots, has more play. The communities observed were all open, but it was possible to recognize more than one type. On steep slopes, where the sand was mixed with some amount of clay, Nitraria, Mesembryanthemum australe and Frankema fruti- culosa were most abundant, Threlkeldia, Hnchylaena, and Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale also being present. At one point a small landslide had taken place recently, and Mesem- bryanthemum australe and Frankenia fruticulosa were noticed as first colonists of the newly-disturbed ground. Where the cliff face was more sandy (pl. x., fig. 1), Scaevola, Myoporum, and Olearia develop with Mesembryan- themum australe, Threlkeldia, and Frankema fruticulosa as ground plants. It is probable that in such places Scaevola pee 201 _ obtains conditions nearest to those under which it grows on the mainland. Locally it may almost be said to become dominant, but it quickly disappears where the soil is more compact. Vegetation of the Roof.—There are three main associa- tions to be recognized on the roof of the island, but in the limited time that was available to examine them it is difficult to describe them in other than a static sense. Their possible ‘relation to each other as members of a succession will be discussed shortly below. (2.) Rhagodia crassifolia, open shrubland.—This is the most stable type of association seen upon the island. Low bushes of Rhagodia crassifolia, 1 ft. to 2 ft. high, cover con- siderable areas, this being almost the only species in the com- _ munity(pl. xi., fig. 1). The association is an open one, with bare patches between the bushes, but it is thought that biological _ factors in the form of mutton birds and rats are largely respon- | sible for this, and that, if these were removed, the covering of Khagodia crassifolia would quickly be complete. The white ground seen in the foreground (fig. 1) is caused by mutton bird burrows, while in other places the Franklin Island rat _ (Leporillus jonesi, Thos.) had gnawed down portions of bushes near to the ground and used the stems to construct its house | or wurlie, around other living bushes (see No. 2 of this | series.) The only other plant noted in this association was Stlozerus tomentosus, a small deep-rooting annual, the numerous wiry stems of which grow at first prostrate, then turn erect, and are terminated by characteristic compound _ capitula of yellow flowers. The prevalent colour of the vegetation here in January was a dull grey-green. (u.) Frankema fruticulosa association on travertine pave- ments.—Pavements of travertine or nodular limestone occur at all levels from a few feet above the shore line to high points on the roof. They all bear a characteristic flora of which Frankema fruticulosa is the most typical species (pl. ix., fig, 1; pl. x., fig. 2). This is a mat-forming woody plant, which, though it sometimes forms a small tap root, also develops adventitious roots freely on the underside of its prostrate stems. The stems, except in the oldest parts, are hidden by numerous opposite linear-cylindric leaves (3 to 4 mm. long) standing erect. The leaves are almost grey owing to hairs, with only a tint of subdued green. They are also revolute, showing a pronounced groove on the under-surface. The thin + wiry roots run horizontally at no great depth in the sandy soil between the limestone blocks. They have a solvent action 202 on the limestone, so that the upper-surface becomes etched by their growth and finally eaten through. Two annual grasses grow in the sand-filled cracks of the limestone pavements. They are Danthonia setacea and Calamagrostis filiformis, of which the -former is most abundant. At low levels near the sea Mesembryanthemum australe and Tetragonia implexicoma also occur; the latter was only seen along cliff edges, over which it scrambled. Where the pavements are covered by sand, WNtraria Schoebert develops a more or less extensive mound owing to its growth habit (pl. ix., fig. 1). With it Olearva axillaris, and occasionally Stipa teretifolia, become associated. These plants represent a colonization of the pavement by the flora of unstable sand, owing to the Witraria; they are not typical of the flora of the limestone pavement as such. Frankema fruticulosa is certainly the character plant of this association. It gives a most characteristic appearance to the areas, which can be distinguished from a distance by their light-grey colour (pl. x1., fig. 1). The stability of the associa- tion is limited by the existence of the limestone. As this is broken up by the solvent action of the roots or rain water, the proportion of sand exposed becomes greater, leading to an increase in the number of annuals, and also such sand- collecting bushes as Witraria and Olearna. Ultimately, there- fore, the travertine pavement flora is replaced by an open shrubland passing through a phase in which the proportion of grasses 1s greatly increased. Such a transition was noticed on the roof of Western Franklin in a ridge of sand with limestone rubble, bearing old plants of Frankema fruticulosa and much Danthonia pemcillata, which is a perennial. (iii.) Open association on loose sand.—At present about half the roof area is occupied by an open association in which the most prominent plants are Salsola kali, Lepidium foliosum, and tussocks of Stipa teretifolia, the only perennial plant con- stantly present (pl. ix., fig. 2). With these also occur Bromus ' arenarius, Silorerus tomentosus, Vuittadima australis, etc. Such areas are literally honeycombed by the burrows of mutton birds or penguins, so much so that they are unpleasant to walk across, as the ground constantly caves in under-foot. The soil is, therefore, constantly disturbed, and large areas are bare, though annuals probably occur in the winter months. As our visit was paid in January no list of this therophyte flora could be made; from the fruits collected under bushes it was clear that an introduced Hordeum occurred, and also Daucus brachiatus. Nitraria Schoebert plays a prominent part in this association in some places (pl. viii., fig. 4) 5 it develops : § (6) Cannon, W. A., be., p. 70. - 203 dunes about itself, which, as the original bush dies away, become colonized by. Olearia aaillaris and Frankenia paucifiora. F Several patches; some up to half an acre in extent, were strewn with the dead stems of Lavatera plebeja.- Professor Wood Jones says he saw thickets of this plant when he landed on the island in December, 1920. One place indicated by him as a locality in which Lavatera was specially dense is now an area of shifting sand (pl. xi., fig. 2). It is believed that the growth of the mallow was largely responsible for this. On sand the plant is mainly biennial, and by its dense growth would tend to kill out the ground vegetation below it. When the Lavatera dies there is nothing left to hold the soil, and, as a result, the sand drifts. SUMMARY. Plant Succession.—The general trend of succession can only be briefly suggested. The Rhagodia crassifolia shrub- land is the most stable community, and probably represents the climax on the island. It is not, unlikely that this associa- tion is really a subclimax, climatic factors limiting the suc- cession, which, to judge from the mainland nearby, one would expect to reach a scrub woodland composed of mallees (Eucalyptus spp.) and Melaleuca parviflora. Though the Rhagodia crassifolia shrubland is regarded as a climax, no sign was seen of its spread or regeneration, rather the reverse. Biotic factors, notably the burrowing of birds, operating with the wind factor, disturb the area and tend to the development of drifting sand. Ultimately, if the present set of factors remain unchanged, the whole of the consolidated sands will be removed and the bare granite platform be left. The last stage of the Franklin Islands will be a wave-swept reef similar. to that lying immediately south. This is clearly shown by the intermediate phase illustrated on the eastern islet before- mentioned (pl. vili., fig. 1). If there be little sign of. regeneration of the climax there are earlier stages in succession to be seen. The clearest is the passage from the Frankenia fruticulosa association through a mixed low shrub and grassland with Wrankenia pauciflora and Danthoma penicillata to a mixed open shrubland of Nitraria, Olearia axillaris, Enchylaena, Threlkeldia, etc., with Stipa teretifolia and various annuals. This association is un- stable. The action of birds and wind depresses the succession to the Stipa, Salsola, Leyidium community described. This unstable association is apparently gradually coming to occupy most of the island. The most important sand stabilizer at pre- sent is Vitraria Schoeberi, which, owing to its dune-forming 204 capacity and. high salt toleration, tends to maintain a shrub- land as opposed to an open community of tussock grass and annuals. Flora.—Considering the interest of the fauna, it is rather © remarkable that the flora should be so limited and without any peculiar species. A complete list of the flowering plants collected is given below. It numbers only 34 species, though owing to the season the annuals are probably incomplete. The list includes eight grasses, six composites, and five Cheno- podiaceae. The complete absence of Leguminosae and Myrtaceae is surprising. The neighbouring coast has Acacia spp. on the dunes and mallees (Hucalyptus spp.) and Mela- leuca parviflora on the consolidated sands. Itissaid that these — plants occur on some of the neighbouring islands, which are larger. The present flora of the Franklins is probably vestigial, but there is no evidence that it included more Phanaerophytes in recent. times. Considering the flora in regard to the growth-forms, it will be noticed that there are five species of shrubs (14%), 13 species of undershrubs or perennial herbaceous plants (38%)—all chamaephytes—16 species of annuals (45%). Dis- regarding the percentages, which are probably misleading owing to the very small total number of species, and incom- pleteness of the annual (therophyte) flora, it will be seen that there are no Phanaerophytes other than Nanophanaerophytes, and that the whole classes of Hemicryptophytes and Crypto- phytes are absent. This indicates the severity of the environ- mental factors, especially wind, as regards the absence of the first, and edaphic conditions (unstable soil) as regards the last two groups. The aridity of the environment is indicated by the relatively large number of annuals (Therophytes), which is almost certainly understated in the list. | s APPENDIX. The following is a complete list of the plants observed or collected. I am indebted to Mr. J. M. Black, who has kindly assisted in determining some of the species :— N.=Nanophanaerophyte ; Ch. = Chamaephyte ; Th. = Therophyte. Spimfex horsutus, Labill. Ch. Stipa teretifolia, Steud. Ch. Sporobolus virguucus, Kunth. Ch. Calamagrostis filiformis, (Forst) Pilger. Th. Danthonia pemcillata, (Labill.) F. v. M. Ch. Danthoma setacea, R. Br. Th. Bromus arenarius, Labill. Th. —_—e. , > ~ t ; . . A or. . 4 Ramey . = 205 *Hordeum sp. (seed only). Th. Dianella revoluta, R. Br. Ch. Rhagodia crassifolia, R. Br. N. Atriplex prostratum, R. Br. Th. Enchylaena tomentosa, R. Br. Ch. Threlkeldia diffusa, R. Br. Ch. Salsola kalt, L. Th. Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale, Haw. Ch. ‘Mesembryanthemum australe, Sol. Ch. Tetragoma impleaicoma, Hook, J. Ch. Leyidium foliosum, Desv. Th. *Sisymbrium orientale, L. Th. Nitraria Schoebert, L. N. Lavatera plebeja, v. tomentosa, Sims. Th. Frankema fruticulosa, D.C. Ch. Frankema paucifiora, D.C. Ch. Daucus brachiatus, Sieb. (from fruits only). Th. Nicotiana suaveolens, Lehm. Th. Myoporum insulare, R. Br. N. Scaevola crassifolia, Labill. Ch. Olearia axillaris, F.v. M. N. Vittadima australis, A. Rich. Th. Siloxerus tomentosus, Wend. ‘Th. Calocephalus Brownu, F.v .M. N. Gnathalium luteo-album, L. Th. Senecio lawtus, Sol. L. (a hairy form as well as the usual glabrous one). Th. *Sonchus asper, All., v. httoralis, J. M. B. Th. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Puate VIII. Fig. 1. Islet off Eastern Franklin, showing the granitic platform with a small cap of consolidated sandstone at one end. The slope in the foreground is a travertine limestone pavement in process of decay. Frankenia fruticulosa, accompanied with Dan- thonia setacea, is being invaded by Stipa teretifolia, Frankenia paucifiora, Threlkeldia diffusa, etc. Large patches of Mesembryan- themum australe present. Fig.2. Area on south coast of Eastern Franklin, showing sand drifting away from and exposing travertine pavement. The blown sand is held by Nitraria Schoebert. The mounds in the foreground are formed by Frankenia pauciflora, which holds the sand forming mats up to 2 ft. in diameter. Beyond Rhagodia crassifolia shrub- land with occasional travertine pavements. In the middle distance is another “blow-out’’? area with Nitraria, Frankenia pauciflora, and Salsola kali. An * denotes a plant not indigenous to Australia. = o~ she 206 weer PLATE IX. Fig. 1. Travertine knoll rising a few feet above oonieelll level of roof. Low plants on knoll are Frankenia fruticulosa, with few bushes of Nitraria holding sand on crest. In foreground tus- socks of Stipa teretifolia, also Salsola and Lepidiwm foliosum. — Several burrows of mutton birds are visible in soft sand below the knoll. Fig. 2. General view on roof looking west from the knoll seen in previous figure. In immediate foreground Frankenia — fruticulosa on travertine, beyond the open association on sand, Stipa teretifolia, Lepidium foliosum, and Salsola. This association alternates with Rhagodia crassifolia shrubland away to horizon. . (tthe) tas PLATE X. 3 Fig. 1. Cliff vegetation on north coast Eastern Franklin. Olearia axillaris on left. Low bushes of Nitraria, Myoporum, Threlkeldia, and Frankema pauciflora. Fig. 2. “Cove on south coast Western Franklin. Shows in foreground Frankema fruticulosa on travertine slope which changes abruptly to Rhagodia crassifolia in middle distance. These two associations come to the water’s edge on the sheltered side of the cove. Facing, in background, is a cliff slope. with Mesembryan- themum australe. Prats XI. Fig. 1. Rhagodia. crassifolia shrubland on roof of Wes- tern Franklin. A travertine ridge, with its lighter-coloured flora of Frankenia fruticulosa, may be seen running across the field in the middle distance. Fig. 2. Recent blow-out exposing travertine pavement in foreground. The vegetation beyond is of the unstable type on sand. Salsola kali very abundant with Stipa teretifolia and Lepidium folioswm. Some bushes of Nitraria. The pavement in the foreground is said to have been covered with a dense thicket of Lavatera plebeja thirteen months before. The dead stems of this were very abundant on the loose sand. Photograph taken on north coast Western Franklin, looking east. The strait separ ating the two islands and the cliffs ‘of Hastera Franklin are seen in the distance. Fay wl a Ae, 207 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE ESSENTIAL OIL FROM EUCALYPTUS CNEORIFOLIA, D.C. mag (THE “NARROW LEAF MALLEE’’ OF KANGAROO ISLAND.) By Puitip A. Berry, B.Sc. (Communicated by Professor E. H. Rennie, D.Sc.) © [Read August 10, 1922.] The principal constituent of this oil is cineol, while it is well known that terpenes, aldehydes, and phenols are present. The object of this investigation was to determine the average cineol content, and the more precise nature and amount of these other bodies with which the cineol is associated. The crude oil used in this investigation was obtained by steam distillation of fresh leaves and twigs, collected at Cygnet River, Kangaroo Island, in the beginning of January, 1920, from leaf country which had been previously cut about three years before. The yield of crude oil was 1 per cent. The sample was an orange-brown colour and gave the follow- ing constants: —Specific gravity at 12° C.=0°9102; specific rotation, (a)p= —10°40; refractive index at 20° C.=1°4707; dispersion, 0°01029. The oil was soluble in 1°33 volumes of 70 per cent. alcohol (by weight) at 20° C. The saponification number for the esters and free acids was 7'0. Another sample of oil was distilled at Cygnet River, _ about the middle of May, 1921, from the same species, in a similar stage of growth, and under conditions similar to those existing in the above distillation. This oil gave the following constants :-—Specific gravity at 13° C.=0°9248; specific rota- tion, (a)pD=—4°91°; refractive index at 20° C.=1°4670; dispersion, 0°00979. The oil was soluble in 1:05 volumes of 70 per cent. alcohol at 20° C. This second distillation was performed to obtain an idea of the difference between the oils distilled in the summer and in the winter. The samples cannot be considered strictly comparative, however, since, in the first case, the distillation ' was continued until the leaf was exhausted of oil, while the second sample was distilled under ordinary commercial con- ditions, that is to say, until the amount of oil distilling was very small in comparison to the water, and in consequence contained less than the previous sample of the higher boiling or less volatile constittients of the leaf. 208 Physical Constants.—In order to save repetition and avoid ambiguity, the following explanatory note is inserted. Specific Gravity.—The specific gravity was taken with as large a pyknometer as the amount of liquid permitted. The pyknometers were standardized with water at 15° C., and when the specific gravity was taken at another temperature, the result was calculated to +2°C. by using a coefficient of cubical expansion of 0°00075 for each ° C. The specific gravity refers to that calculated for {|S° C., except where other tem- peratures are given. Rotation.—The rotation refers to the actual rotation in a 100 mm. tube. Refractive Index.—The refractive index was taken with an Abbé refractometer, and the result calculated for a tem- perature of 20° C. by adding or subtracting 0°00047 for each °C. by which the temperature exceeds or falls short of 20° C. The refractive index scale of the instrument is so arranged that it reads directly the refractive index for the mean of the D lines of sodium light. Dispersion.—The dispersion figures given refer to the dis- persion between the C and F lines of hydrogen (656°3 uu. to 4861 uu.).. The dispersions were taken at the same tempera- ture as the refractive index, but were not calculated for 20° C., as the correction over a small range of temperature is negligible. Temperature.—All thermometer readings have been cor- rected for the unimmersed portion of the stem of the thermometer. Eaperimental.—The first sample of oil distilled was the one used throughout in this investigation. A. DISTILLATIONS. A 1.—The oil was first subjected to dry distillation. On distilling the crude oil, it commenced boiling at 80° C., and some acid, water, and volatile aldehydes distilled over first. As the oil appears to suffer decomposition by prolonged heat- ing at a high temperature, the quantity used for distillation was 80 ccs., since this small quantity could be distilled quickly and at the same time represented the minimum required for tests. The following results are the average of four dis- tillations : — Temperature. Amount. Rotation. Below ‘l79rs?-C2 4 ue 7% ie € 17h? CIBER 47ers of ot (655 — 7° 186° C.-207° C. aig bes fos ok tee —10° 207? et koe re yah Bie — 23° ad { 2 m , 209 By slow distillation (4 ccs. per minute), the first fraction was found to have a dextro-rotation of 1°. This fraction con- tained a large quantity of aldehydes, their presence being proved by Schiff’s reagent. Aldehydes were also found in quantity in the last fraction. Distillations under reduced pressure gave very similar results. The oil was next subjected to steam distillation. A 2.—One litre of the crude oil was steam distilled in seven hours. The distillate was collected in the following fractions : — Amount. Rotation. (a)re..-- 00 CGS. Pe TOP tbe OU Ges. a Be ‘(ey *... 100" ces. — 76° (d) ... 100 ces. — 638° fedin ¢ oJ 00) ces: — 6:0° prt... FOO (acs: care ad le ko) 235 AO cess: — 70° (h)~ ... 100 ees. — 84° Gyo) 100"ees: 2a — 89° (j) ... 100 ces. ‘A —11°7° Gyo hee» DOL CES. aa — 29°8° A 3.—Another litre of the crude oil was similarly steam distilled in seven hours and the distillate collected in the fol- lowing fractions : — Specific Refractive Disper- Amount. Rotation. Gravity. Index. sion. (a) 25 ces. — 5°56° — — — (b) 25 ccs. — § 74° 0°9105 14690 0°01003 (c) 788 ccs. — 69° 0°9047 1°4682 0°01001 (d) 78 ces. —12°2° 0°9210 A737 0°01043 (e) 42 ccs. —26°15° ee hin =e In the next three distillations the oil. was treated with sodium hydroxide either before and/or during distillation, the object being to fix, and thus ensure as far as possible the removal of the aldehydes. : A 4.—One litre of the crude oil was shaken with 300 ccs, of a 5 per cent. sodium hydroxide solution. The oil was separated three days later and steam distilled. The distillate was collected in the following fractions :— Specific Refractive Disper- Amount. Rotation. Gravity. Index. sion. (a) 63 ccs. — 519° 0°9263 1°4702 0°00996 (b) 786 ccs. 2)-6°72 0°9049 1°4679 0°01012 (c) 46 ccs. — 9°85° 0°9177 - 1°4712 0°01060 (d) 68 ces. —26°18° 0°9475 1°4875 0°01204 A 5.—One litre of crude oil was shaken with 600 ccs. of a 20 per cent. sodium hydroxide solution for several days and - 210 steam distilled without separating the alkali, The distilla- — tion. took. about.two and a half hours:— | - Specific Refuoctine Disporsl Amount. Rotation. Gravity. Index. J? pen: (a) 28 ces. ord tek 0°9004 1°4669 0°01009 (b) 815 ces. —519°° Pr 00aea vee AGT ae 0°01011 (c) 50 ccs. —5°64° 0°9257 1°4759 * (0°01087 A 6.—One litre of crude oil, stored in the dark since dis- tillation, was shaken with 600 ccs. of a 16 per cent. sodium hydroxide solution and steam distilled in the presence of the alkali. The rotation of the oil was oy 28°. The distillate was collected in two fractions : — Amount. Rotation. — Specific gravity. (a) 750 ees. —4°84° 0°9065 (b) 150 ces. — 4°8° iridae 0°9144 B. EstiMaTIon oF CINEOL IN CRUDE OIL. It was found that the resorcinol. method of estimating cineol gave very erroneous results with this oil.. The aldehyde and other bodies present were, to a large extent, extracted by the resorcinol solution, thus giving results which were far too high. In one test, the oil which was not absorbed by the resorcinol solution had the same rotation as the crude oil itself, indicating that the resorcinol absorbed other bodies besides cineol. This is confirmed by the appreciable rota- tion (often as high as —2) of the cineol separated from the cineol resorcinol compound. Phosphoric Acid Method.—In connection with the estim- ation of cineol by the phosphoric acid method, the writer carried out estimations on control samples, containing various proportions of pure cineol diluted with ordinary commercial turpentine. Those samples containing about 70 per cent. cineol (by volume) gave excellent results, while 80 pei cent. cineol samples were slightly low, and 60 per cent. cineol and less gave very erroneous results, a 60 per cent. sample only aver- aging 45 per cent. cineol and a 50 per cent: one appeared to contain 30 per cent. cineol. It was observed that accurate results were only obtained when the cineol phosphate mass (before pressing) was of a powdery nature, a pasty mass of cineol phosphate invariably giving low results. A probable explanation of these low results is that the pasty condition is caused by the solvent action of the other constituents on the cineol phosphate compound. The addition compound so dis- ‘solved being removed on pressing the solid cake thus causes a low result. A pasty compound of cineol phosphate resulted ew tak. +> 2 ‘ on mixing the crude oil with phosphoric acid, and this pasty nature of the phosphate compound could not be.overcome even by the addition of an equal volume of pure -cineol to the crude oil. When, however, the crude oil was refined by steam distilla- tion by removing from 5 to 10 per cent. of the higher boiling fractions, the cineol content estimated by this method,. and calculated for the crude oil, was equal to from 60 to 63 per cent. cineol. Even these results are peel somewhat low, as the addition compound with phosphoric acid was still slightly _ pasty. From other estimations and comparisons made at the time, it was concluded that a more correct figure was | from 65 to 68 per cent. cineol. Arsenic Acid Method.—The arsenic acid method, as pro- _ posed by Turner and Holmes in America in 1914, was also tried with the same. control samples as were used above, and although in some cases good results were obtained, it does: _ not generally appear more accurate than the phosphoric acid | method, when working on this oil. It furthermore has the drawback that a powdery addition compound is not obtained, and thus no indication is given as to the probable accuracy of a particular estimation. oad C. THE SEPARATION OF TERPENES AND OTHER HYDROCARBONS UNABSORBED BY RESORCINOL SOLUTION. The formation of a water soluble compound of cineol and resorcinol formed a ready and convenient method for separ- ating cineol from the hydrocarbons in the oil. The large middle fractions of the steam distillations, consisting almost entirely of cineol and hydrocarbon bodies, were severally used for this separation. They were shaken repeatedly with a 50 per cent. resorcinol (aqueous) solution to remove the cineol. _ Other oxygenated bodies, such as aldehydes, etc., were also largely removed by this treatment. The oil which was not absorbed by the resorcinol solution was steam ‘distilled, and from several estimations was — to constitute about 20 pec cent. of the crude oil. Fifteen ccs. of one of these fractions, which was not absorbed by resorcinol and which had a rotation of —13°5°, were distilled and the distillate eolteered in the following fractions : — Return iize, ae EER IAS Amotint: Rotation. Pada pr (ae CoL76% Cpe, yt 64 ces. ~ —12°48° . + -(b) 176° G.-1772.C.. 5 Jig Ay esi ¢ie Vp l2-989 (c) 177° C.-195° C. 34 ccs. —12°98° The greater part of the last aie had distilled at 180° C. 212 Oxidation. with. Niirin-Adid Beverel>-ces) aa fraction were oxidised with dilute nitric acid (10 per cent.). : From the oxidised product two acids were separated; — terephthalic acid, which was identified by its insolubility in water, alcohol, ether, benzene, etc., and by its subliming on heating; and p-toluic acid, which was soluble in alcohol and melted constantly at 179°C. The formation of these acids indicated the probable presence of cymene. The middle fraction of steam distillation A 5 was treated repeatedly with a solution of resorcinol (50 per cent.). The oil unabsorbed by resorcinol solution had a rotation of —11'2, and was shaken with a solution of sodium bisulphite (35 per cent.) to remove any aldehydes which had not been polymerised by the alkali treatment. The oil was separated and steam dis- tilled. The specific gravity was 0°861 and the rotation —10°4°, showing that the bisulphite treatment had removed some laevo-rotatory aldehyde. Schiff’s reagent gave no immediate coloration, but a faint violet. developed on standing. The sample was distilled and collected in the following © fractions : — Rota- Specific Refract. Temperature. Amount. tion. Gravity. Index. (a) 175°-178° C. 21 ccs. — 9°38° 0°8605 1°4820 (b) 178°-181° C. 16 ccs. —10°14° — 0°8619 1°4827 (c) 181°-186° C. 13 ces. — 92° — whe (d) Residue — — 17° a = On shaking the fraction marked (b) with a mixture of four volumes of concentrated sulphuric acid and one volume of water, allowing to stand for 24 hours separating, and steam distilling, and repeating the whole process until no further charring occurred, the residue so obtained had the following constants:—Rotation, +0°16°; refractive index at 20. ee approximate to those ascribed to cymene. . Separation of Pure Cymene.—In order to separate pure cymene, the oil unabsorbed by resorcinol solution from the middle fraction of steam distillation A5 was treated as follows : — { It was shaken with a solution of sodium hydroxide (15 per cent.), the oil separated and steam distilled in the presence of caustic soda (digested with solid caustic soda) for several” hours, then heated for half a day with sodium metal and again digested with solid caustic soda for one day. After again steam distilling in the presence of caustic soda and digesting with sodium metal and solid caustic soda several times it was again distilled. The oil distilled between the 1°4936; ‘dispersion, 0°01374. These figures closely 213 ad 1615.0 but the bulk distilled. from 175-178° C. The distillate had a rotation of —3°4°; refrac- tive index, 14814; and dispersion, 0°01294. No violet colour was formed on standing with Schiff’s reagent for 20 minutes. The resulting impure cymene was shaken with four successive quantities of Beckman’s chromic acid mixture and steam distilled. It was then shaken with potassium permanganate solution in the cold, steam distilled, and collected in two fractions. ‘The first fraction had an odour strongly reminis- cent of cineol, while that of the second fraction was more like cymene. This latter fraction was digested with sodium for a day, distilled and collected in two fractions : — Rotation. eso 7 8oC. et +1°48° (b) 178°-180° C. nt —(0°44° The first fraction (a) was shaken with excess of potassium permanganate solution in the cold and steam distilled. The distillate, which had a rotation of —0°26° and a refractive index of 1°4872, was digested over sodium metal and again distilled, when it boiled constantly at 177° C.; after drying, it gave the following results on combustion :—Carbon, 88°05 per cent. ; hydrogen, 10°38 per cent. Theoretical for cymene: carbon, 89°48 per cent.; hydrogen, 10°52 per cent. A portion of the same sample on oxidation with hot potassium permanganate solution, as recommended by Wal- lach, yielded parahydroxy isopropyl benzoic acid, which on repeated crystallization melted at 158° C. Another separa- tion of cymene and terpenes from steam distillation A 6 (a), by means of resorcinol solution gave a sample with a rotation of —12:05° and a specific gravity of 0°8536. After repeated digestion with sodium metal, 128 ccs. were distilled and col- lected as follows : — Rota- Specific Refract. Disper- Temperature. Amount. tion. Gravity. Index. _ sion. (a) Below 175° C. disces:.°|— 36° (2), . 08567 T4777 \- OF OL255 (b) 175°-178° C. J0 Ces Oibee O8on2., 4/95. 001288 fe) 178°-181° C. 26° Secs. 116°. 08509" 14821 = 00138438 (d) 181°-184° C. AS5ecs. —10°5° — 1°4832 0°01344 The rotation of the above fractions is almost certainly due to laevo-rotatory terpenes. Limonene.—Although these fractions contain cymene, there is little doubt, judging from the boiling point, specific gravity, and other characteristics, that limonene is also pre- sent, and that the laevo-rotation of the above samples is due to this terpene. 214 Pinene.—It is also very probable that dextro-pinene is present in small quantities, as 7 per cent. of the oil distils below 175°5° C., and by shaking out with resorcinol solution, a small amount of dextro-rotatory body was obtained, with — an odour characteristic of pinene. Attempts to separate the characteristic nitrosochloride were not successful, but this does not prove the absence of pinene, as it is very difficult to prepare the nitrosochloride from a high-rotation pinene. D. ALDEHYDES. Estimation.—The total amount of aldehydes occurring in the crude oil was estimated by shaking 20 ccs. of the oil in a cassia flask with about 150 ccs. of a 35 per cent. sodium bisulphite solution ‘and heating on a water bath for three hours. The unabsorbed oil was brought into the neck of the flask by the addition of more bisulphite solution and the volume read off when cold. By this method, a figure of 75 per cent. of aldehydes was obtained. An identical value was also obtained on a sample of oil distilled in May of the following year. This would indicate that the aldehyde con- tent does not vary appreciably with the season. Separation of the Aldehydes from the Orl.—It was found that the oil contains more than one aldehyde, and they were first separated from the higher boiling fractions of the oil by shaking the fraction with twice its volume of sodium bisulphite solution (35 per cent.). By this method, a large quantity of bisulphite addition. compound was precipitated, which was filtered on the Buchner funnel. The filtrate con- sisted of oil and aqueous liquor, and these were separated, and the aqueous portion used to wash the solid residue in the funnel. This washing was continued until no more oil appeared in the filtrate. The residue was then washed with fresh sodium bisulphite solution, followed by a washing with alcohol-ether mixture. The solid cake was dried, decomposed with hot sodium carbonate solution, and the aldehyde separated. This aldehyde is here referred to as aldehyde A.‘ On treating the liquor separated from aldehyde A (containing sodium bisulphite, sodium carbonate, etc.) with caustic soda solution, a further separation of aldehyde took place. This aldehyde, called aldehyde B, was extracted with benzene, which was later evaporated off. The aqueous portion of the filtrate from the separation of the solid residue was treated with hot sodium carbonate solution, but no separation of aldehyde occurred. On the addition of caustic soda solution, (1) The aldehydes separated are here indicated by the letters A, B, and C, as it is later shown that they are mixtures. a - e { ba _ Zo t oO 215 however, a large amount of aldehyde separated, which was extracted with benzene, the latter being evaporated off. This constitutes aldehyde C. The oil which was not absorbed by the sodium bisulphite contains cineol, cymene, terpenes, and sesquiterpenes, and was used for ‘the separation of the sesquiterpene. This separation of aldehydes was performed on the last fractions of steam distillations A 3 and A 4, and also on the final fractions of a steam distillation of 2 litres of the crude oil. These latter are indicated by the letters e and d in the table which follows (Table 1). The results tabulated below are calculated for 100 ccs. of oil used. TABLE 1. . Sample Aldehyde A Aldehyde B a Aldehyde C | Unabsorbed Oil | Amt. Amt. Be mt. No. |Distl.|/Fr’ct.| Rotat.| in | Rotat.| in | Rotat. . “in Rotat. in Rotat. | ces. ces. | ees. | ccs. ; | a A3 e —26°15 | 14°2 | —50°0 3°9 | —88°5 66 | —79°3 50°0 | = b A‘4 i-d —26°18 | 16°0 | —53°6 2°2 | —86'8 7°8 | —74°3 500 | —83 ¢ |P’n’lt|imate| 24-68 133 | —43-9| 3:9 | —90°0| 4:3 | —741| 586 | —15°1 a | 164 —54°9 | 4°5 ae 3°6 = 5L5 : —9.5 final | —25°7 As the yield of the separate aldehydes was so small when working on these fractions, a quantity of the higher boiling fractions (called the residual oil) which remain in the still after refining the oil on a commercial scale was obtained from Kangaroo Island. This residual oil was obtained from Eucalyptus cneorifolia only. . The oil was steam distilled, and the distillate had a rotation of —27°88°. Several separations as described above were performed on this oil, and the results tabulated are calculated for 100 ces. used. Tanne 2. Aldehyde A _ _ Aldehyde B | Aldehyde C | Unabsorbed Oil No. | Pe ee ee Amount Amount ieee Amount | | in ees, Rotation Fai Boa | Rotation | Tale [Rotation | | ane | Rotation i 1 e 16°90 | —20°65 2°2 — Hes —60°0 | 38°2 —4°15 f 117° ~«|«~—15'8 07 = 25°0 —62°7 36°0 —2°31 £ 11-4 | —12°75 | sy aa 27-3 —63 8 | 324 — 2-55 } | | The semicarbozone prepared _ from aldehyde A (Experi- ment g) melted constantly at 208°C. That prepared from aldehyde B (Experiment g) melted constantly at 199° C. The various aldehyde. bemoans separated were then examined individually. 216 Aldehyde A. 3 , Aldehyde A separated from the crude oil in Experi- | ment c (see Table 1) had the following constants:—Refractive | index at 20° C.=1°5110; dispersion, 0°01685. As the amount of aldehyde separated from the crude oil fractions was very small, the aldehyde A from Experiments a, b, and d were mixed. These mixed aldehydes gave the following constants:—Specific gravity at 17°7° C.=0°9724; corrected for +12 ° C.=0°9744; rotation, -—52° refractive index at 20° C.=1°5096; dispersion, 0°01673. . 7] Aldehyde A separated from the residual oil (Experi- ment g, Table 2) gave the following constants :—Specifie gravity at 12°C. =0°9720; corrected for 12° C.=0°9742; rota-_ tion, —12°75°; refractive index at 20° C.=1°5203; disper-— sion, 0°01876. Preparation of the Oxime.—5 ccs. of the latter sample were dissolved in 10 ccs. absolute alcohol, and to the solu-— tion were added 10 ccs. of a saturated aqueous solution of hydroxylamine hydrochloride. The mixture was then made alkaline with sodium carbonate solution and heated on the ~ water bath for five hours, and then poured into cold water. — The oxime should crystallize under these conditions. It was found that by changing the water into which the heated mix- — ture was poured, the crystallization of the oxime was facilitated. Although, in this instance, the water was changed several times, great difficulty was experienced in obtaining — the oxime in a crystallized condition. : After crystallizing by this method and recrystallizing from alcohol, the oxime melted constantly at 57:2° C. Attempts to obtain a crystalline oxime from the aldehyde A samples having a high rotation always proved unsuccessful, as a pasty mass always resulted on pouring the heated liquor into water. A sample of this aldehyde A having a high rotation (—44°) | was recombined with sodium bisulphite, filtered, well washed | with alcohol-ether mixture, and decomposed with hot sodium carbonate solution. By this treatment, one-half of the alde- hyde was lost, and the rotation of that separated had diminished to —14°5°. The specific gravity was 0°977. As the loss of aldehyde on recombining with sodium bisulphite seenied inordinately great experiments were performed to account for the loss, and it was found that the washing with alcoholic-ether mixture dissolved a considerable amount of the bisulphite compound. These alcohol-ether washings were evaporated to a low bulk, and decomposed with a solution of sodium carbonate. The aldehyde thus separated had a high rotation (—44°). It therefore appears highly probable that ym ~o a ‘ ; MB core aor ae rte 217 aldehyde A consists of two aldehydes, and that the bisulphite addition compound of the one with the high rotation is more soluble in alcohol-ether than the other. Another sample of - aldehyde A having a rotation of —34°, after recombining - with sodium bisulphite, filtering, washing, and decomposing with sodium carbonate, had a rotation of —5°9°. The oxime was also prepared from this latter sample, and it easily crystallized when poured into water. It melted constantly at 55°7° C. It was noticed that the less the rotation, the easier the preparation of the oxime became. Conclusion.—The melting point of the oxime of cumic aldehyde is 58° C., and as the constants of the aldehyde with the small rotation are very like those of cumic aldehyde, and the melting points of the oximes are approximately the same, it appears certain that cumic aldehyde is a constituent of this oil. The other portion of this aldehyde A is probably the aldehyde which H. G. Smith previously named aromadendral. (This term has recently been extended to cover the whole of the aldehydes occurring in Eucalyptus oils.) Aldehydes B and C. The additive bisulphite compounds of these aldehydes were not decomposed by sodium carbonate, but were by caustic soda. Aldehyde C consists of two aldehydes, and it seems probable that aldehyde B above is a mixture (probably in different proportions) of the same two aldehydes which’ con- stitute aldehyde C. It is probable that the addition com- pound of these two aldehydes is very soluble, and hence while the bulk of it is soluble in the sodium bisulphite solu- tion, a small amount is precipitated along with the cumic aldehyde and the aromadendral. The aldehyde B separated by Experiment g from the residual oil was distilled under a pressure of 30 mm. The temperature rose slowly during the distillation from 132° to 141° C. The distillate gave the fol- lowing constants:—Specific gravity at 72° C.=0°9469; cor- rected to 15° C.=0°9502; rotation, —99°7°; refractive index at 20° C.=1°4899; dispersion, 0°01341. Aldehyde C separated from the crude oil by Experi- ment c had a refractive index of 1505. The aldehydes con- stituting aldehyde C were separated from each other by means of neutral sodium sulphite solution. Method.—The aldehyde was shaken with a solution of crystallized sodium sulphite (35 per cent., neutralized to phenolphthalein), the liberated sodium hydroxide being con- tinuously neutralized with normal sulphuric acid. The un- combined aldehyde was extracted by benzene. The G 218 combined aldehyde was liberated by caustic soda solution and — extracted with benzene. This separation was performed on — aldehyde C obtained from the residual oil by Experiment e. The aldehyde which combined with the neutral sodium sul- phite, after separation by the above process and evaporation of the benzene, was distilled under reduced: pressure. The bulk distilled at 121° C. at a pressure of 25 mm. and was quite colourless. The following constants were obtained :— Specific gravity at 18° C.=0°9442; corrected for 15° C.= 0°9462; rotation, = —65°61°; refractive index at 20° C.= 14834; dispersion, 0°01247. The aldehyde which did not combine with neutral sodium sulphite, and which was extracted with benzene, was separated from the latter and distilled under reduced pressure. It did not distil at so constant a temperature as the sample above. The temperature rose from 125 to 135° C. during the distillation, while the pressure decreased from 28°5 to 20°55 mm. This aldehyde had a rotation of —70°64°, and was not oxidised by exposure in the atmosphere, the rotation remaining unaltered after exposure in an open beaker for fourteen days. This point is here stressed, as H. G. Smith,@ in his separation of these aldehydes from Eucalyptus oils, states that this fourth aldehyde is oxidised by the air and closely resembles the phellandral separated by Schimmel and _Co. from water fennel oil. (The volatile oils, by Gildemeister and Hoffman, page 432.) The aldehyde here separated can- not be phellandral, as the latter is oxidised on exposure to the air. This separation was also performed on aldehyde C of Experiment g. The aldehyde which combined with the sodium sulphite after separation was distilled under reduced pressure; about two-thirds of it distilled at 126°C., the pressure being constant at 32 mm.; the temperature then gradually rose to 130°C. The distillate gave constants prac- tically identical with those from Experiment e (see above). These constants are practically the same as those obtained in the first separation and agree with those given by H. G. Smith for Cryptal. No crystalline oxime could be separated from this aldehyde. The aldehyde which did not combine with sodium sul- phite was distilled under reduced pressure and collected in two fractions : — (a) 1219-126° C, 21 mm. 33 ccs. (b) 186°-140° C. 32 mm. 26 ccs. (2) ‘A Research on the Eucalypts and their Essential Oils,’’ by R. T. Baker and H. G. Smith, p. 286. (3) Ibid, p. 387. 219 About 20 ccs. of (b) distilled between 136 and 138°C., and then the temperature rose slowly to 140°C. The follow- ing constants were obtained : — . Sample a. Sample s. Ep ciic gravity oes ia) JOreovo 0°9553 Rotation . —67°92° — 72°99° Refractive index at 90° C. ... 1°4888 1°4921 Dispersion any : . 001825 0°01363 The preparation of the oxime was tried on these samples, but the product was only crystallized with great difficulty. By carefully crystallizing from chloroform, however, minute crystals were obtained ; one crystal grew sufficiently to permit of its removal by mechanical means. When washed and dried it melted at 84-85°5° C. As this aldehyde is not identical with any yet separated from Eucalyptus oil, it is proposed to call it cneoral. The amount available did not permit of any extensive work being performed on it, and it is possible that it may later be proved to be identical with some aldehyde already separated from some other Eucalyptus oil. Conclusion.—This oil appears to contain four aldehydes— cuminal, aromadendral, cryptal, and a fourth one, which is here called cneoral. The first three of these agree with the aldehydes separated by H. G. Smith (loc. cit.) from Eucalyptus oils. | EK. SESQUITERPENE. The last fraction in the distillation of the oil contained a sesquiterpene, which answered to H. G. Smith’s tests for aromadendrene. The oil which was left unabsorbed after shaking the higher boiling fractions of the crude oil with a 35 per cent. sodium bisulphite solution (to remove aldehydes) was equivalent to 4 per cent. of the crude oil and had a rotation of —15°1°. As the quantity of sesquiterpene pre- sent was small, the residual oil left after refining the crude oil on a commercial scale was shaken with a solution of sodium bisulphite (35 per cent.). About one-third of the oil was not absorbed by this treatment, and it gave the following con- stants:—Specific gravity =0°9421; rotation = — 2°55°; refrac- tive index=1'4800; dispersion, 0°01086. This sample was shaken with a solution of resorcinol (50 per cent.) to remove _ the cineol, and then steam distilled. The resulting oil, which constituted 69 per cent. of the previous fraction, was prac- tically colourless and gave the following constants :—Specific gravity =0°9356; rotation = —2°7°; refractive index at 20° C. =1°4788; dispersion, 0°01055. Conelusion.—This oil contains a small percentage of a sesquiterpene (not more than about 2 per cent.), which appears to be aromadendrene. G2 220 F. PHENOLS. The crude oil contains a small amount of phenols. One ~ litre of the crude oil was shaken with 300 ccs. of a 5 per cent. © sodium hydroxide solution, and the aqueous liquor separated and shaken with ether to remove adhering oil. It was next acidified, extracted with ether, and the latter evaporated off. The residue was washed with sodium bicarbonate solu- tion, extracted with ether and evaporated. The final yield was 2 ccs., which is equivalent to 0°2 per cent. of the crude oil. Beyond applying qualitative tests, no further work was done, owing to the small amount of material available. G. ALTERATION OF THE SPECIFIC Gravity, RoTaTion, REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE CRUDE OIL ON KEEPING. The following table gives a summary of the results obtained : — Rota- Specific Refract. Disper- Sample. tion. Gravity. Index. sion. 1. Crude ae Eee dis- tilled (Jan., 1920) —9°5° 0°9102 — — 2. Crude oil stored in a tightly-corked bottle in the dark for 13 years —90° 0°9105 = — 3. Crude oil stored in a loosely-corked iron drum for 14 years —7°38° 0°9145 1°4707 0°01029 4. Crude oil exposed to light in white glass . for 14 years a. 4°79 0°9311 1°4728 0°01033 Conclusion.—The specific gravity increases on keeping, while the rotation diminishes. The refractive index and the dispersion also increase. These changes are accelerated by exposure to light, and are probably caused by the polymeri- sation of the terpenes and/or aldehydes. SUMMARY. The results of this investigation have shown that the oil from the leaves and twigs of Hucalyptus cneorifolia distilled in January has the following approximate composition : — Cineol ous ne ee son 3 se GTi Cymene iy id Re ae wt Limonene vag iy. me, a's id 5% Pinene, ) 4%; A ine 3% Aldehydes—Cumic Aldehyde — ne ae Aromadendral 7% Cryptal 2 Cneoral any fi eS Sesquiterpene ... iat rs at 1% Phenols, esters, and acids ae eA. si. Oaews is ig ve at 221 This work has been carried out as a research subject under the David Murray Scholarship for Science, and was performed under the direction of Professor Rennie, M.A., D.Sc., to whom I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness for ‘advice and help given. I also desire to thank Professor Osborn, D.Sc., for the botanical identification of the species. Owing to the prolonged nature of the work and the short time available to the investigator for work at the University, the main part of the research was performed in the laboratory of Messrs. A. M. Bickford & Sons, Ltd., and I desire to thank them for the facilities and material placed at my disposal. I ' further wish to thank Mr. J. Hendry, Ph.C., A.I.C., for the 'many and helpful suggestions offered throughout the work, and also Mr. E. Burgess, of Kangaroo Island, who collected . the leaves, distilled and donated the oil used in this research. 222 ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE STRIATIONS OF . 2 ; VOLUNTARY MUSCLE FIBRES IN DOUBLE SPIRALS. ~~ 1 By O. W. Tizes, M.Sc., Department of Zoology, University of Adelaide. [Read September 14, 1922.] Puate XI. While examining the muscles of the larvae and adults of | a small parasitic wasp, Vasonia, I noticed, recently, that the striations were not disposed transversely, as is supposed to occur universally in voluntary muscle, but that they were arranged in the form of a double spiral. The structure of these muscles will be referred to more fully in a later paper. The purpose of this note is to draw attention to the fact that the striations of voluntary muscle fibres, which histol- ogists are unanimous in regarding as truly transverse, are in reality likewise disposed in the form of double spirals. I have observed this in the muscle fibres of the crayfish Astacopsis, in the leg muscles of a South Australian grass-hopper, and in the voluntary muscles of the much studied water-beetle Dytiscus. Amongst mammals I have observed it in the muscles of the rat, the pig, the dog, the rabbit, the mouse, and, finally, in human muscle fibres, and its presence in such widely separated groups suggests its universal occurrence. In a well-stretched fibre this double spiral arrangement of the striations is relatively easy to detect, and is shown in fig. 3, taken from the muscles of man. In such muscles it is~ possible to begin at one end of a fibre, and focussing up and down to travel along the spiral. Muscle fibres, however, are usually examined in the contracted condition ; under these circumstances it is often extraordinarily difficult to detect the spiral nature of the striations. Two methods may, how- ever, be adopted : — (1) If a muscle fibre has been well flattened, the stria~ | tions at the sides of the fibre may actually be observed to | bend downwards and out of the plane in which the striations on the upper portion of the fibre have approximately lain. | | This condition, taken from a muscle in the dog’s tongue, is shown in fig 4. Generally, however, the striations are so very close together that it is possible only with the greatest difficulty to notice the smal] change in direction taken by — the turn of the spiral. 223 (2) A more successful way to exhibit the presence of the double spiral is to make a camera lucida drawing of the upper striations of a muscle fibre; then focussing through to the | lower side make a similar drawing on a separate piece of fairly transparent paper. Accurate superposition of the two draw- ings will reveal the presence of a single spiral. Care is required in the interpretation of the result. Only one-quarter of a turn of a spiral is visible in one focus of the micro- scope; by focussing successively, therefore, upon the upper turns and then upon the lower turns, the additional rise or drop in the spiral which would occur if the path of the spiral in the thickness of the fibre could be observed, is eliminated. The single spiral obtained by the superposition of the two drawings will therefore indicate the actual presence of a double spiral. . The objection which may be taken against this inter- pretation is that the change in direction of the striations in the upper and lower side of the muscle under examination is due to a shearing stress, perhaps due to the pressure of the cover-glass on the preparation. By no conceivable method of distortion, however, can transverse striations be converted into real spirals, and the fact that it is possible to travel along the spiral in stretched fibres by successively focussing up and down along it, eliminates this difficulty. Moreover, it is possible, in focussing through a fibre suddenly to come to a focus where there is a discontinuity— very faint, but still perceptible—between the upper and lower portions of the “‘transverse’’ striation, and it is often possible (see figs. 1 and 2) to observe at one focus the crossing of striations at this point, clearly indicating their spiral nature. Neither is definitely in focus, and while it is possible to see both at once, neither can be observed sharply. This is to be noticed especially clearly at the terminations of fibres, or in those places where they are not quite flat, but where the fibre, first in focus, bends slightly out. Under these circumstances one obtains a partial view along the longitudinal axis of the fibre, and can at one focus obtain a view of a partial turn of the spiral. It is, perhaps, necessary to add that care must be taken not to focus along the plane of contact of two superimposed fibres; without this precaution a false crossing effect might | readily be obtained by the simultaneous indistinct focussing of the striations of two fibres. For a clear demonstration of the double spiral the longi- tudinal body muscles of chalcid wasp larvae may be recommended. 224 Since writing the above note, I have observed a do ible spiral arrangement of the striation in cardiac muscle fibres. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII. Fig. 1. Voluntary Muscle Fibre from leg of Mouse, x about 500. The middle of the fibre is bent slightly dodnwande and is therefore at a different focus from adjacent parts, which are approximately surface views. Unstriped areas inca blurred focus. The gradual transition from ‘‘transverse’’ to “crossed”? striation is clearly shown as the middle of the fibre (x) comes into focus. } Fig. 2. Muscle Fibre from leg of Mouse, x1000. The focus is along the middle of the fibre, and clearly shows crossing of striations, being the optical Stoke of focussing the spirals in one plane. Fig. 3. Human Muscle Fibre, well stretched, x920. The fibre is observed at one single focus. The fibre has become stretched to such an extent, that it is at times possible to obtain a slightly blurred image of top and bottom of fibre simultaneously under these circumstances the complete double spiral may be seen. Fig. 4. Portion of Muscle Fibre from Tongue of Dog, x 1400. The fibre has been considerably flattened, and shows bending down of the striations at the sides of the fibre. Note especially, that the blendings are in opposite directions, ta ~ + ~ f “aa ¥ E; 4 225 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA OF THE GROUP GEOMETRITES. By A. JEFFERIS Turner, M.D., F.E-S. [Read September 14, 1922. ] Hitherto I have regarded the moths here dealt with as _ forming a single family, the Geometridae. Recent study of | Uv ce 4 a the families belonging to the Noctuoidea (Caradrinina of Meyrick) has caused me to revise my opinions. The families Syntomidae, Arctiadae, Hypsidae, Nolidae, and Noctuidae, though natural and necessary, yet in the structure of their more typical and primitive genera are so closely allied, that we must reconsider the value of our family groups of other sections of the Lepidoptera. There should be a general correspondence in the structural value of family characters, though a precise equivalence is, of course, impossible. I propose, therefore, to regard the Larentiadae, etc., no longer as merely subfamilies, but as groups of family rank. This was indeed done long since by Mr. Meyrick in his British Lepidoptera where he includes them with the Notodontoidae and other families in the larger group Notodontina. The weak point in this classification, it has seemed to me, is that the relationship, that binds together the geometrid families into one group, is not expressed, but is lost in the larger and looser complex. This difficulty may be avoided, and I think its avoidance is necessary for any satisfactory classifica- tion, by placing them as a distinct division, the Geometrites, in a larger group the Notodontoidea, which I conceive as corresponding generally, but not exactly, with Meyrick’s Notodontina. The first three families I have already revised in former publications, but much remains to be added to bring them to completeness at the present date. The Oenochromidae I have not yet studied in detail; and of the Boarmiadae I have published only a partial and incomplete revision. In these two families I shall merely describe a small number of new forms. Fam. LARENTIADAE. I give a new key to the Australian genera, in which “many of the names differ from those formerly adopted. Mr. L. B. Prout informs me that it has been ascertained that the names Cidaria, Larentia, etc., of Treitschke were published earlier than HYydriomena, Xanthorhoé, etc., of Hubner. He thas also helped me much by indicating the European types 226 of some of our genera. The following list indicates the changes in name now introduced :—Huchoeca, Hb., becomes: (1) Crethets, Meyr.; (2) Euchoeca, Hb. Asthena, Hb., becomes (1) VPoecilasthena, Warr.; (2) Minoa, Treit. Scordylia, Gn., becomes Chaetolopha, Warr. Hucymatoge, Hb., Sect. 1, 2, and 3, become Horisme, Hb.; Hucymatoge, Hb.; Heeymatoge, Prout. Hydriomena, Hb., Sect. 1, and Sect. 2 and 3 together become Huphyia, Hb., and Cidaria, Treit. Xanthorhoé, Sect. 1 and 2, become Xanthorhoé, Hb., and Larentia, Treit. a The family is a large one; the numerous genera are closely allied ; and their classification is difficult. It is a group which permits of no primary division; all the characters employed for generic distinction are of secondary value. For instance, the smooth face characteristic of the Asthena group is found also in Saurts, which resembles that group in no other char- acter, and had, I believe, a quite different origin. Again the possession of a single or double areole, though valuable, is a secondary character, which has been independently developed in many instances. By its use we may separate many pairs of genera, which are as closely or more closely allied to each other than to anything else. Such pairs are :— Euchoeca—Minoa, Tephroclystis—Mnesiloba, Chaetolopha— Cidaria, Epirrhoé (Europe)—Huphyia, Asaphodes (New Zea- land)—Xanthorhoé, Dasysternea—Dasyuris. Although the character is a valuable one, and indeed indispensable, it is not certain that the generic distinctions thereby made will always be natural; for no reason can be given why this modification, unaccompanied by any other, may not have arisen independently in different unrelated species of the same genus. In two other generic characters, which I con- sider valid, even more difficulty presents itself. Of these the first is the pectination of the male antennae. ‘This also is a secondary character, and separates groups otherwise similar or identical in structure, Xanthorhoé from Euphyia, Larentia from Cidaria, Asaphodes from Lmrrhoé, Notoreas from Dasyuris, Venusia from Huchoeca. In addition to this weak- ness there are also intermediate conditions difficult to classify. For instance, Meyrick places the European wittata in Xanthorhoé, and this may be its natural position, but the male antennae cannot be termed pectinate. This difficulty might be got over by broadening the definition of the genus, but the Australian percrassata and vacuaria (the latter also placed: by Meyrick in Xanthorhoé) have the same antennal struc- ture, and closely similar is that of strwmosata, while all three species appear to fall more naturally under Huphyia. These difficulties occur, however, seldom, and greater difficulties in 22% classification would, I believe, arise if we reject antennal characters altogether. It will be seen that some of the objections so forcibly urged by Mr. Meyrick (Trans. N. Z’d. Inst., 1916, p. 248) against the generic value of modifications of the discocellulars and origin of vein 5 of the hindwings apply also to characters which he recognizes as valid. If applied with impartial logic, they would destroy his own, and, I believe, any other possible classification of the family. It must be admitted that here also intermediate forms occur, though rarely, but they are not such as should create any real difficulty. Vein 5, which is the second median vein, arises normally opposite the termination of the upper primary branch of the median trachea, which becomes obsolete in the adult wing, but its point of termination is often traceable, often situated centrally, but often considerably nearer the radius than the cubitus. This is the structure in Huphyia, Xanthorhoé, and most of the genera of the family. The approximation of 5 to 6 is often conspicuous, but I do not attach generic importance to it, for 5 appears never to rise from above the termination of the upper primary branch of the media as it does in the Geometridae (sensu stricto). Usually with this origin of 5 the discocellulars are straight or nearly so, but not always (see for instance HL pirrhoé sociata, Bkh.). In many genera such as Cidaria and Larentico a striking modifi- cation occurs. In them 5 arises from well below the termina- | tion of the upper primary branch of the media, and there is a strong bend approximating to a right angle at its point of origin. Usually 5 is also strongly approximated to 4 at origin, but not always. In muzcrocyma, for instance, it is from not much below the middle, but the discocellular is strongly bent at the usual point (not straight, as erroneously ‘stated in my former revision). This structural division as thus understood appears clear-cut, and I have not so far met with a really doubtful case. Nor do I find that the genera defined by it are less natural than those defined by the areole or antennal pectination, when considered as a whole. It must, however, be admitted that, as Mr. Meyrick points out, difficulties occur in the New Zealand fauna. Larentia cimeraria is extremely similar to Xanthorhoé plumbea, but here the similarity of grey coloration (doubtless protective) and very simple pattern is one that might well have been independently acquired, and JI think we can here trust structure before appearance. The case of A. adons, L. beata, and L. benedicta is more difficult. These certainly at first sight appear nearly allied, the last two, however, rather _ more closely than the first, which, except in colour, is very L 228 like X. chorica. Here also I am inclined to trust structure rather than appearance. The beautiful green coloration, rare elsewhere, is not infrequently developed in this family in New Zealand, and the pattern, although striking, is a very simple modification of that usual in this family. I admit that doubt is possible, and this doubt may be strengthened by the resemblance between X. nephelias and L. sericodes, which I have not seen. It may be that our structural char- acter here breaks down, and that we may have to admit that our classification is so far imperfect. This I am easily pre- pared to do. The question to me appears to be, not whether our classification is perfect, but whether, taken as a whole, it is better (more natural), if we reject, or if we admit the generic value of the character in dispute. Although this question cannot be decided by geographical distribution, yet that may throw some light on it. As I have been able to examine but few of the European species, I have asked Mr. L. B. Prout to give me the results of his examination of those included under Hydriomena and Xanthorhoé by Meyrick in his study of the European fauna (Trans. Ent. Soc., 1892, p. 53). Two species with the areole simple, species which Meyrick had not been able to examine, are omitted, and vitatta has been transferred to Huphya. For the New Zealand fauna my material has been less com- plete, but through the kindness of Mr. A. Philpott I have _ been able to examine 43 species, and have included 10 more on the authority of Meyrick or Prout. I have omitted swb- ochraria and subrectaria as Australian species, which may be natural immigrants into New Zealand, but were probably accidentally introduced, and praefectata, which is allied to Venusia. I have expressed the result in numbers and per- centages : — x European Fauna. Australia. New Zealand. Cidaria eee 425% 6 65% 0 00% Larentia ey) tag 10°6% 9 98% 17, Sa Euphyia ei eo 21:9% 64 696% 9 Toi Xanthorhoé ... 40 25'°0% 13 «141% 27 = 50°9% Very striking are the great development of Cidaria in the European fauna, its slight representation in Australia, and its absence from New Zealand; almost equally so the great development of Huphyia in Australia; while Larentia and Xanthorhoé are most developed in New Zealand. Kery To GENERA. 1. Face smooth Face more or less rough-scaled, “usually with anterior tuft of scales : cca aton 2. Posterior tibiae with terminal spurs only ... Sauris Posterior tibiae with two pairs of spurs ; 18. URE 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. . Areole simple Areole double | . Areole small, on 9, 10, 11 stalked 229 Areole large, ti arising from it separately Areole well developed Areole double . Abdomen crested Abdomen without crests .. . Posterior tibiae with terminal spurs only . Posterior tibiae with two pairs of spurs . Forewings with 11 running into 12 Forewings with 11 free ... . . Forewings with 11 running into 12 or absent Forewings with 11 free . Posterior tibiae with terminal spurs only . Posterior tibiae with two pairs of ane . Thorax smooth beneath Lea) Bh TNE Thorax hairy beneath . Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked =f Forewings with 4 and 5 mtohs separate . Areole simple Fe Ay ne en . Areole small, 11 stalked with 10 =, . Hindwings with discocellulars bent, 5 from below middle ... Hindwings with 5 from above middle of cell . Areole absent, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 stalked . , Areole large, 11 arising from it it separately . Abdomen ‘crested Abdomen without crests ... : . Hindwings with 5 from middle of cell, male with small tornal lobe ... in Hindwings with 5 approximated to 4 or 6, male without tornal lobe .. Hindwings with discocellulars angled, 5 from below middle Hindwings with discocellulars nearly ’ straight, 5 from above middle EL Ate Thorax with a posterior crest . Thorax not crested Hindwings with eae angled, 5 from below middle Hindwings with discocellulars n nearly ‘straight, 5 from above middle, or rarely from middle of cell Hindwings of male with 4 absent. Hindwings of male with 4 pr esent Hindwings of male with 6 absent . Hindwings of male with 6 present Antennae in male ciliated Antennae in male pectinate . Thorax smooth beneath . Thorax hairy beneath Antennae in male ciliated Antennae in male pectinate Hindwings of male with a well- defined spot or patch of androconial scales on Adis side Hindwings of ‘male without androt oconia A. 59 Cretheis Euchoeca Poecilasthena Minoa 8. Antimmistis Symmimetis Gym noscelis 1. Chloroclystis Tephroclystia Microdes Weg Anomocentris | 14 15. Dasysternica Scotocyma Chaetolopha iy 20. Mnesiloba 18. Eccymatoge 19. Horisme Eucymatoge AE 24. Heterochasta Polyclysta 93 Cidaria Larentia Melitulias Euphyia 230 27. Antennae in male with two pas of pectina- tions from each joint ... Diploctena Antennae of male with one pair of f pectina- tions from each joint ... .. ... Xanthorhoé 28. Antennae in male ciliated .......... ... 'Dasywris Antennae in male pectinate ......... .... Notoreas SAURIS PEROPHORA, 0. sp. mynpopopos, bearing a pouch. 3, 30 mm. Head olive-green. Palpi 3, second joint rough-scaled above and beneath, terminal joint moderately long; olive-green, towards base whitish; terminal joint grey, extreme apex whitish. Antennae ochreous-grey. Thorax olive-green. Abdomen smooth, without tufts; grey, on dorsum greenish tinged. Legs greenish-grey; posterior tibiae in male normally developed but without spurs, tarsi elongate, first tarsal joint as long as tibiae. Forewings elongate- triangular, costa moderately arched, apex pointed, termen long, bowed, oblique, in male not incised; whitish largely suffused with green and dark fuscous, which form markings; five narrow transverse fasciae, dark fuscous in middle, green towards costa and dorsum, rather ill-defined; first subbasal, second at 4, third at 4; fourth from 2 costa, somewhat dentate, consisting of several fine parallel lines, at first curved outwards, then inwards, and bent outwards to just before tornus; fifth similar from 2 costa to tornus, containing a squarish fuscous spot above middle; a whitish dentate sub- terminal line following fifth fascia; a terminal series of dark- fuscous dots on veins; cilia whitish, apices partly fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey; in male with a large basal dorsal pouch extending half-way to costa and to tornus, the dorsal edge of this pouch forming an erect concave lobe. North Queensland: National Park (3,000 ft.), in March; one specimen at light. I might have taken more if I had not mistaken it for S. hirudinata, which it closely resembles in colour, size, and form: In structural characters it is altogether different and resembles S. lichenias rather closely, but the pouch of the hindwings is much larger, the first posterior tarsal joint proportionately longer, and the palpi more roughly scaled, with longer terminal joint. Gen. CRETHEIS, Meyr. Face smooth. Tongue present. Palpi short, slender, porrect. Antennae in male simple, shortly ciliated. Thorax without crests, not hairy beneath. Forewings with areole small, simple; 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 stalked from areole. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked or separate, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anas- tomosing with cell to # or beyond. Type, C. cymatodes, Meyr. ae 231 CRETHEIS CYMATODES, Meyr. Euchoeca iophrica, Turn. I am indebted to Mr. L. B. Prout for pointing out this synonymy. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked. North Queensland: Cairns, Herberton. Also from New Hebrides. CRETHEIS ATROSTRIGATA, Warr. 3, 9, 20-25 mm. Head pale ochreous; face ochreous- brown. Palpi whitish-ochreous. Antennae pale ochreous; ciliations in male $+. Thorax pale ochreous. Abdomen pale ochreous with a few fuscous scales on dorsum. Legs whitish- ochreous; anterior and middle pairs pale fuscous on dorsal surface. Forewings triangular, costa straight, slightly arched towards base and apex, apex pointed, termen bowed, oblique; pale ochreous, with more or less pale-fuscous suffusion forming slender, indistinct, undulating, transverse lines; several of these lines form an obscure basal patch; a blackish discal dot beneath 2 costa; a slender, undulating, fuscous line from mid-costa, at first outwardly curved, then oblique to dorsum before middle; this is followed by several less distinct lines, which sometimes combine to form a median fascia; subterminal and submarginal lines sometimes containing each several fuscous dots; sometimes a terminal series of fuscous dots on veins extending into dilia, but these are not always developed ; cilia pale ochreous. Hindwings with 3 and 4 separate ; termen strongly rounded; as forewings. Underside similar but paler and more suffused. Variable; southern examples are slightly larger than those from Herberton and lack the subterminal fuscous dots, but sometimes have a dark-fuscous tornal spot. North Queensland: Kuranda, near Cairns, in May; Herberton in October, November, December, and January. Queensland: Rockhampton, Bundaberg in July, Brisbane in _ December, Rosewood in April. Gen. PoECILASTHENA, Warr. Type P. pulchraria, Dbld. In most of its characters this approaches Oporima, Hb., type O. dilutata, Bkh., but I do not think there is any really close relationship. O. dilutata differs in the peculiar structure of the areole, of which the dividing bar (vein 10) arises from the end of the cell, and the posterior extremity of the areole is prolonged to reach half-way, or nearly half-way, from cell to apex. In the latter respect it agrees with the allied genus Operophtera, Hb., which, however, has the areole simple. To Poecilasthena I refer, with one exception, all the Australian species formerly referred to Asthena, Hb. 232 POECILASTHENA THALASSIAS, Meyr. The male of this species has a very large extrusible tuft of fuscous hairs on the underside of the apex of the abdomen. This will serve to distinguish it from A. pulchraria; A. balioloma, Turn., has also a smaller, stiffer, less woolly tuft in the same situation. POECILASTHENA STHENOMMATA, Nl. sp. oevopparos, strong-eyed. 3,9,30-32 mm. Head grey, between antennae whihigee face fuscous- brown, lower edge whitish. Eyes rounded, in female rather large; in male much enlarged, so that a line drawn from one outer edge to the other is longer than the breadth of the thorax. Palpi in female small, in male minute; grey-whitish. Thorax grey mixed with whitish. Abdomen whitish with grey irroration. Legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, middle portion nearly straight, apex acute, termen bowed, oblique, sub- dentate; whitish with dull- -creenish markings, thinly scaled ; costa with numerous grey spots, which form the commence- ment of greenish transverse lines, more or less undulating; a basal patch of three or four close-set lines; a median white band containing two fine interrupted lines, succeeded by a dark-fuscous discal dot beneath mid-costa; beyond this is an undulating greenish fascia containing white dots on veins; terminal area whitish with two or three undulating, greenish, transverse lines; a fine fuscous terminal line interrupted on veins; cilia grey-whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded, dentate, a stronger acute tooth on vein 4; as forewings, but . base whitish. The enlarged eyes of the male is a very exceptional character. North Queensland: Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in January; three specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. New South Wales: Mount Gregson, Liverpool Range, in March; one female, in Coll. Lyell. POECILASTHENA XYLOCYMA, Meyr. New South Wales: Moruya, in October; one female specimen corresponding well with a female from Western Australia (Waroona) in May, in Coll. Lyell. Also from Victoria: Melbourne, Beaconsfield. POECILASTHENA PANAPALA, Nn. Sp. mavatraAos, all-tender. 3,24mm.; 9,28mm. Head brownish-grey, anteriorly broadly white; face dark fuscous. Palpi whitish; terminal —— od 233 joint dark fuscous. Antennae dark grey, towards base whitish ; ciliations in male minute. Thorax brownish-grey. Abdomen grey, mixed with whitish; paired fuscous dots on dorsum of each segment. Liegs fuscous; posterior pair except tarsi whitish on dorsum. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, moderately oblique; grey-whitish with numerous, fine, curved, brownish- grey, transverse lines and suffusion; a dark-fuscous discal dot beneath 2 costa; a slightly darker slender fascia from 2 costa to mid-dorsum, edged with wavy darker lines; an interrupted fuscous terminal line; cilia brownish-grey, apices paler. Hind- wings with termen rounded, slightly wavy, and slightly angled on vein 4; as forewings but without discal dot. Underside grey, with obscurely darker discal dots on both wings, two obscure lines on forewing and three on hindwing towards _termen. Very near P. xylocyma. The best point of distinction in the female appears to be in the terminal line, which does not consist of paired dark-fuscous dots. The male has no recurved hairs on tornus of hindwings. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,500-6,000 ft.) in January, two male specimens; Wentworth Falls, near Katoomba, in April, one female in Coll. Lyell. Gen. Minoa, Treit. Type iM. murmata, Scop., from Europe. This genus comes very close to Asthena, Hb., type A. candidata, Schif., which differs in having 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 stalked from areole. The stalking of 11 is unusual in the family and appears to be a good generic character. Only one Australian species, J/. euthecta, Turn., has been recognized. Gen. ANTIMIMISTIS, nov. dvTitpustis, imitating, modelled after. Frons with strong anterior tuft of scales. Tongue pre- sent. Palpi rather long, porrect or obliquely ascending ; second joint thickened with appressed scales; terminal joint short, obtuse. Thorax with a small posterior crest. Abdomen with a series of small dorsal crests. Posterior tibiae with terminal spurs only. Forewings with 2 from #, 3 from near angle, 4 and 5 long-stalked from angle, 6 from upper angle, areole absent, 7, 8, 9, 11 stalked from before angle, 10 absent, 11 running into 12. Hindwings with 2 from #, 3 and 4 separate but approximated at origin, 5 from middle of cell, 6 and 7 stalked, 8 anastomising with cell to ¢. Certainly one of the Gymmnoscelis group, and probably directly connected with Symmimetis, but in all other 234 Geometrites vein 5 of forewings arises from the middle, or above the middle of cell, with the exception of Microdes, in which it arises from below the middle, apparently in conse- quence of the development of some secondary sexual characters in the male. The stalking of 4 and 5 is an extraordinary anomaly in this family; possibly the discovery of the male may suggest some explanation. ANTIMIMISTIS ILLAUDATA, Nn. Sp. slaudatus, obscure. Q, 20-22 mm. Head grey. Palpi 14; whitish-ochreous sometimes greenish tinged. Antennae grey. Thorax grey. Abdomen grey; dorsum of second segment pale greenish- ochreous. Legs grey; anterior pair fuscous with whitish annulations on tarsi. Forewings triangular, costa nearly straight, gently arched towards apex, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique; fuscous-grey with obscure whitish lines; first from 4 costa to 4 dorsum, indistinct, wavy; second from 2 costa to % dorsum, slender, outwardly bowed, irregularly dentate; a fine parallel fuscous line succeeds this, and then a pale suffused line; a fine dentate subterminal line; cilia fuscous-grey. Hindwings with termen rounded, wavy; as forewings. Underside similar but more suffused. North Queensland: Kuranda, near Cairns, in November and April; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. SYMMIMETIS MUSCOSA, Turn. North Queensland: Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ; Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in December. Queensland: Brisbane, in April. SYMMIMETIS SYLVATICA, N. sp. sylvaticus, of the woods. 3, 9, 18-21 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi fuscous, towards base ochreous-whitish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 24. Thorax grey mixed with fuscous. Abdomen pale greenish-ochreous with some fuscous scales; tuft in male whitish. Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior pair fuscous with whitish-ochreous annulations on tibiae and tarsi. Forewings broadly triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique; whitish-ochreous suffused with fuscous, which forms indistinct markings; a large fuscous basal patch; a dark-fuscous discal dot at 4 on end of cell, and near posterior edge of basal patch; immediately following this a broad, dentate, transverse, whitish-ochreous line, indistinct towards dorsum; a broad median fuscous fascia containing some ® 235 blackish scales on yon defied posteriorly by a fine, whitish, crenate line from 3 costa to 3 ? dorsum, bent outwards in disc ; a fine fuscous parallel line follows this, then a suffused whitish- ochreous fascia; a fuscous terminal band containing a fine, dentate, whitish subterminal line; a terminal series of whitish- ochreous dots on veins; cilia pale fuscous barred with whitish- ochreous opposite veins. Hindwings with termen rounded, slightly wavy; pale greenish-ochreous with patchy brownish irroration and a few blackish scales; a blackish discal dot at 4; cilia whitish-ochreous. Underside whitish with fuscous discal dots, subbasal, median, postmedian, and terminal fus- cous fasciae, postmedian of forewing angled outwards in middle. North Queensland: Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in December, January, and February; eight specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. GYMNOSCELIS LOPHOPUS, Turn. Gymnoscelis homogona, Turn., is a synonym. North Queensland: Cairns, Herberton, Townsville. Queensland: Brisbane. Not uncommon in the last locality. New South Wales: Lismore. é GYMNOSCELIS SUBRUFATA, Warr. Forewings with 11 free. | Queensland: Duaringa, Brisbane, in February; one specimen taken at rest on a gate. GYMNOSCELIS TANAOPTILA, Turn. I have received a female example from Kuranda in November like male but smaller (18 mm.); posterior tibiae with terminal spurs only. GYMNOSCELIS ACIDNA, Turn. Forewings with 11 running into 12. North Queensland: Cairns, Townsville. GYMNOSCELIS SPODIAS, N. sp. s7rodos, ashes. } ‘3, 9, 13-16 mm. Head whitish; sides of face and palpi dark fuscous. Antennae grey, towards base whitish; cilia- tions in male 4. Thorax and abdomen grey-whitish. Legs whitish; anterior pair mostly fuscous with whitish tarsal annulations. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique; 11 anastomising with 12; whitish with grey-whitish suffusion and obscure markings; 236 very faintly marked whitish transverse lines, subbasal, ante- median outwardly bowed, postmedian outwardly bowed, double, subterminal sometimes dentate; a few scattered blackish scales; blackish spots on costa near base, 1, 2, middle, and %, that on middle larger; a blackish spot in dise beneath second costal spot following subbasal line; a large blackish spot beneath mid-costa preceding postmedian line; cilia grey- whitish. Hindwings obtusely incised on vein 5, and with a rounded prominence on vein 4; as forewings but with one blackish spot preceding postmedian line, which forms a rounded projection in middle. Underside whitish partly suffused with grey. | Near G. acidmas, but much paler, lines much more obscure, except where partly defined by blackish spots. North Queensland: Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in December; Atherton. Queensland: Montville (1,500 ft.), near Nambour, in March. New South Wales: Stanwell Park, in April (Lyell). Four specimens. GYMNOSCELIS KENNiI, n. sp. @, 16 mm. Head brown; face and palpi blackish. Antennae pale brown. Thorax brown. Abdomen brown, dorsum suffused with blackish except towards base; tuft brown. Legs pale brown. Forewings triangular, costa nearly straight, towards apex arched, apex rounded, termen slightly © bowed, crenulate, strongly oblique; 11 running into 12; pale brown; markings and a few scattered scales blackish; a costal streak from base to beyond middle; a line from 4 costa, bent inwards beneath costa, thence strongly oblique to near base of dorsum; a second line from 3% costa, at first outwardly oblique, strongly bent inwards on vein 6, forming a second prominence on vein 4, bent outwards a third time above dorsum, ending on ? dorsum; a broad dark-fuscous suffusion from beneath costa beyond second line, broadening to fill whole tornal area; cilia brownish barred with blackish on crenula- tions. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded, wavy; pale brown densely suffused with dark fuscous beyond second line ; three blackish transverse lines, first subbasal, second at 4, third at 2 bent outwards beneath costa and again in middle; cilia brownish mixed with dark fuscous. Underside brownish suffused with fuscous without distinct markings. Exceptionally distinct. The broad. dark-fuscous suffusion of hindwings at once distinguishes it. Queensland: Gayndah, in October; one specimen received from Dr. Hamilton Kenny, an ardent naturalist and a per- sonal friend, to whom I dedicate it. . 237 GYMNOSCELIS HOLOCAPNA, 0. sp. 6Aoxamrvos, Wholly smoky. g, 17-18 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi scarcely over 1; dark fuscous mixed with whitish-ochreous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. Thorax and: abdomen fuscous- brown. Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior pair fuscous anteriorly. Forewings rather narrowly triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded; termen bowed, oblique; 11 running into 12; fuscous-brown or pale fuscous, markings obscurely darker; a basal patch; a moderate fascia at }, angled inwards beneath costa; a line from 3 costa, at first outwardly bowed, then slightly sinuate to #3 dorsum; a very obscure pale dentate subterminal line preceded by darker shading; cilia with basal half fuscous barred with whitish- ochreous opposite veins, terminal half grey. Hindwings rather narrow, termen strongly and evenly rounded; colour and cilia as forewings, but markings even more obscure; post- median line with a median tooth, indented below middle; subterminal line strongly dentate; some blackish irroration on dorsum. Underside fuscous-whitish. An obscure species. Northern Territory: Darwin, in September, December, and March; four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. CHLOROCLYSTIS PHOENOCHYTA, N. sp. gowoxvtos, suffused with reddish. @, 15 mm. Head whitish; face pale red. Palpi 2; grey. Antennae with joints expanded at apices; grey. Thorax whitish with a fine, transverse, postmedian line of dark-fuscous and reddish scales. [Abdomen and legs broken off.| Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; 11 running into 12; whitish partly suffused with grey and reddish ; costal edge reddish with some whitish strigulae; a broad, subbasal, grey fascia; its anterior edge outwardly curved, irregular; its posterior edge from 4 costa to 4 dorsum, forming a rather large posterior tooth beneath costa, beneath this obtusely indented; median area paler with indications of a suffused grey median line; a grey line from #% costa to % dorsum, strongly outwardly curved, slightly dentate; this is followed by a fine, parallel, dentate, grey line; disc beyond this suffused with pale red; a whitish, dentate, subterminal line; an interrupted grey terminal line; cilia pale reddish mixed with grey, apices grey-whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; wholly suffused with pale red except extreme base ; some few dark-fuscous scales on veins; a pale transverse line 238 at 4; another, broader, at 3 containing a very fine reddish line; subterminal indistinct, ut preceded by grey dentations; cilia pale reddish, apices grey-whitish. This species is very distinct by the ‘red suffusion, but, the posterior legs being absent, 1t is not possible to be sure that it is not a Gymnoscelis, Type in Coll. Lyell. Northern Queensland:, Gordonvale, near Cairns; one specimen. . CHLOROCLYSTIS EURYLOPHA, Nl. sp. etpvAodos, broadly crested. 3,9, 15-16 mm. Head pale grey. Palpi 21; pale grey with a few darker scales. Antennae whitish-grey. Thorax and abdomen grey. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair mostly grey; outer median spur 4. Forewings triangular, costa rather strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; pale grey with numerous, wavy, fuscous, transverse lines more or less distinct; costa of male with a crest of long hairs extending from near base to middle; trans- verse lines in basal half of wing sometimes very indistinct, but sometimes as many as six can be distinguished, all out- wardly curved; a more distinct line from 2 costa, at first outwardly oblique, forming two short, obtuse, posterior pro- jections; then inwardly oblique to 2% dorsum; several paler indistinct lines follow this; an obscure, pale, dentate, sub- terminal line; a fuscous terminal line, interrupted on veins; cilia pale grey. Hindwings with termen scarcely rounded, irregularly waved; as forewings. This little species requires careful discrimination. The male may be distinguished readily from C. epilopha by the much wider extent of the crest on costal margin of forewing. Between the female of these two species it is hard to give any distinction, but the presence of blackish scales on the veins in the basal part of forewing in epilopha is helpful. The female also somewhat resembles C. ansigillata, but the rounded and not waved termen of the hindwing in the latter is in itself sufficient ‘difference. Queensland : Montville, near Nambour, in March; seven specimens (one male, six females). CHLOROCLYSTIS PYRSODONTA, Nl. Sp. mupoodovtos, with reddish tooth. 3,9, 15-16 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi 14; whitish- ochreous mixed with blackish towards base. Antennae grey ; ciliations in male minute. Thorax pale grey, anterior edge fuscous. Abdomen pale grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair paler; outer spurs about 4 of inner spurs. Forewings broadly 239 triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique; whitish, markings extremely pale grey, except in costal +, where they are fuscous and distinct; a fuscous costal streak from base to first fascia; first fascia at 4, moderately broad, sharply angled inwards beneath costa; second fascia median, similar to first, lke it sharply angled inwards beneath costa; third fascia beyond #, narrower except on costa, evenly curved, posteriorly limited by a finely dentate, whitish, subterminal line; a fine fuscous terminal line inter- rupted on veins; cilia grey, apices paler. Hindwings with termen unevenly rounded; concave above middle, prominent between veins 3 and 4; as forewings; but median fascia reddish with a few blackish scales, and a strong, obtuse, median, posterior tooth; without dark costal markings. Underside pale fuscous, with a darker, posteriorly toothed, median, transverse fascia on hindwings. Northern Queensland: Cardwell, one wasted hs in August; Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, male type, in January (F. P. Dodd). CHLOROCLYSTIS NIGRILINEATA, Warr. 36,92, 18 mm. Head whitish-grey. Palpi about 1; whitish-grey mixed with blackish. Antennae whitish-grey. Thorax whitish-grey. Abdomen whitish-grey with some in- constant dark-fuscous markings. Legs ochreous-whitish ; anterior pair grey. Forewings triangular, moderately broad, costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; 11 running into 12; whitish-grey with pale-grey and dark-fuscous transverse lines; a dark-fuscous subbasal line with median posterior tooth; a dark-fuscous wavy line from 4 costa to + dorsum; a pale-grey median line, sometimes double; a dark-ftscous line from costa before %, with two obtuse posterior teeth, subcostal and median, thence oblique and slightly dentate to # dorsum; a very faint, pale, dentate subterminal line preceded by an interrupted dark-fuscous line; a terminal series of interneural fuscous dots; cilia pale grey. Hindwings with termen rounded; as forewings but all lines indistinct except postmedian, which has a posterior angular projection. about middle. Underside pale grey, darker towards termen, with fuscous postmedian lines on both wings. _ My examples agree well with Warren’s description. The dark transverse lines are conspicuous. Northern Territory: Darwin, in November and February ; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. Queensland: Duaringa (Warren). 240 CHLOROCLYSTIS POLIOPHRICA, Nl. Sp. todopptkos, grey-rippled. 3, @, 13-16 mm. Head whitish. Palpi whitish, in male annulated, in female irrorated with dark fuscous. Antennae whitish, towards apex tinged with grey; ciliations in male minute. Thorax pale fuscous; patagia whitish. Abdomen whitish with some fuscous scales. Legs whitish ; anterior pair fuscous; posterior tibiae with inner spurs long, outer spurs 4, outer median spur absent in male. Forewings in male with costa straight in basal half, strongly arched in apical half, in female evenly arched throughout, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique; whitish with fuscous mark- ings; basal # of costa more or less suffused; a number of indistinct transverse lines preceding postmedian, in male obsolete towards. dorsum; postmedian line from % costa, at first outwardly oblique, forming two angular posterior pro- jections in disc, thence inwardly oblique to % dorsum; a fuscous subterminal line, in male thickened into spots beneath costa, above middle, and below middle, interrupted between spots, in female more uniform; an interrupted terminal line; cilia whitish, in male with some obscure fuscous bars. Hind- wings with termen gently rounded, slightly wavy; as fore- wings; postmedian line with an angular indentation above middle, and an angular projection in middle. Underside fuscous-whitish. Queensland: Dulong, near Nambour, in December, one female; Brisbane, in April, one male type. Gen. Micropes, Gn. This genus has two remarkable peculiarities in the neura- tion of the forewing. One is the approximation of vein 5 at its origin to 4. This is probably secondary to the peculiar sexual modification in the forewing of the male. The other is that 11 runs into 12 in villosata and asystata, but has second- arily disappeared altogether in squamulata, diplodonta, and ortochares,; typhopha and melanocausta T have not examined. MICRODES ORIOCHARES, nN. sp. 6pecoxapys, rejoicing in the mountains. 3, 9, 18-20 mm. Head dark fuscous. Palpi in male 4, in female 44; dark fuscous. Antennae fuscous; in male thickened and slightly laminate, ciliations }. Legs fuscous; anterior pair dark fuscous; anterior and middle tarsi with ochreous-whitish annulations. Forewings with costa moder- ately: and evenly arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, moderately oblique; fuscous; a slender, obscure, outwardly 241 curved, transverse line at } followed by a pale, indistinctly double line; beyond this isa brownish-tinged fascia, not always developed ; beyond this a paler area containing two or three very obscure, slender, transverse lines; a whitish line edged posteriorly by a dark fuscous line from # costa, at first moderately outwardly oblique, acutely angled outwards above middle, thence concave to below middle, where it is again angled outwards, thence straight to ~ dorsum; a slight brownish suffusion on posterior edge of this line; a fine, irregularly dentate, whitish, subterminal line; cilia fuscous, sometimes very obscurely barred, apices grey. Hindwings with termen strongly ae slightly wavy; pale grey; an obscure darker line at ¢; cilia pale grey. Certainly near J. apie ania: Turn., but smaller, fore- wings’ proportionately broader, less brownish, costa less strongly arched, cilia not distinctly barred, palpi in male rather longer. Unless intermediate forms are discovered it should be regarded as a distinct species. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko, in January, February, and March; seven specimens. Victoria: Mount St. Bernard (5,000 ft.), in February ; a large female (24 mm.) in Coll. Lyell. MICRODES ASYSTATA, N. Sp. aovoratros, inconstant. 2, 26-30 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous with scanty whitish irroration. Palpi ‘3k; second joint expanded by rough scales above and beneath; terminal joint short; fuscous irrorated with whitish. Antennae fuscous. Legs fuscous; tarsi with fine whitish annulations; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen straight, very slightly oblique; whitish irrorated with grey; numerous fine transverse _fuscous lines more or less distinct; sometimes stronger lines define median area; first from 4 costa to 4 dorsum, outwardly curved; second from 4 costa to tornus, with a small acute posterior tooth beneath costa, and an obtuse tooth beneath middle; sometimes median area is partly or wholly fuscous,. and lines indistinct; a finely dentate, whitish, subterminal line; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen strongly but un- evenly rounded, projecting slightly on veins 3 and 6; grey; cilia grey. Male unknown and female inconstant; in one example the anterior margin of median band is much more strongly rounded posteriorly, an unusual form of variation. Type in Coll. Goldfinch. f | New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko, in February; three specimens. | 242 Gen. Scorocyma, Turn. This comes near the European genus Hyirrhoé, Hb., but differs in 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 arising by a common stalk from the small areole. ScOTOCYMA ALBINOTATA, WIk. Mr. Prout informs me that Paragramma mimula, Warr., is a synonym. SCOTOCYMA IDIOSCHEMA, Ni. 6p. idvorxnuos, of peculiar pattern. Q, 31-34 mm. Head whitish-brown mixed with dark brown. Palpi slightly over 1; whitish-brown irrorated with dark fuscous. Antennae grey. Thorax brown; patagia partly whitish-brown. Abdomen brown. Legs whitish-ochreous ; anterior pair fuscous with whitish-ochreous basal annulations. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly oblique, crenulate; a fuscous basal patch to +, containing some whitish-ochreous transverse lines on costa prolonged to middle, and with an inferior tooth near extremity; remainder of disc except a costal strip, and tri- angular apical and tornal areas occupied by a very large whitish-ochreous blotch, suffused with brown, or dark ferruginous-brown except at edges; costal strip fuscous strigulated with whitish-ochreous; dorsal edge narrowly and interruptedly fuscous; apical and tornal triangles fuscous- brown, containing an incomplete, fine, dentate, ochreous- whitish line, sometimes forming a white spot above tornus, a white spot sometimes present on margin of central blotch above tornus; cilia fuscous partly mixed with whitish- ochreous. Hindwings with termen rounded, dentate; brownish; some whitish dots on veins; sometimes obscure pale-fuscous transverse lines; some variable white spots pre- ceding termen; a dark-fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous- brown. Underside whitish with many, more or less distinct, transverse lines and a broad subterminal fascia fuscous. North Queensland: Kuranda, in November (Coll. Lyell) ; Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in October. Queensland: Brisbane, in January. Three specimens. ScoTOCYMA EURYOCHRA, Nn. sp. evpuwxpos, broadly pale. Q, 34 mm. Head dark fuscous. Palpi 1; dark fuscous with a few whitish scales. Antennae fuscous. Thorax fus- cous. Abdomen grey; apex fuscous. Legs fuscous; tarsi with fine ochreous-whitish annulations; posterior pair mostly ochreous-whitish. Forewings triangular, costa moderately arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen bowed, slightly 243 oblique, crenulate; grey-whitish with numerous, fine, indis- tinct, wavy, transverse lines; markings brownish-fuscous; a rather large basal patch containing some grey- “hee suffusion , limited by a slightly eurved wavy line from 4 costa to 4 dor- sum; median band ill-defined, mostly grey- -whitish with fine lines, but with some fuscous suffusion on costa ; a large apical blotch; two subterminal spots above tornus; cilia fuscous, towards centre of termen partly grey-whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded, slightly dentate; as forewings; basal patch very small; a broad terminal band, containing a sub- terminal series of whitish dots con veins; a dark-fuscous terminal line, interrupted by whitish dots on veins; cilia brownish-fuscous. New South Wales: Toronto, near Newcastle, in April; one specimen. Type in Coll. Goldfinch. Gen. CHAETOLOPHA, Warr. Type C. oxyntis, Meyr. This name must be adopted for the small endemic genus, to which I formerly applied the name Scordylia, Gn. The areole is large and 11 widely separate. In Hulype, Hb., type hastata, Lin., which other- wise resembles it in neuration, the areole is smaller and 11 near or connate from its apex. There is, I think, no really close relationship between the two genera. The species of Chaetolopha are narrow-winged; in the males of oxyntis and leucophragma there is a small subterminal scale-tuft on vein 2 of hindwings on underside, but this is absent in niphosticha and emporias; of the other two species I have no male to examine. The penultimate abdominal segment of the male bears a pair of lateral tufts. By boiling in potash- the abdomen of the male lewcophragma is shown to bear a pair of extrusible scent-organs on the fourth segment. In the male of niphosticha the termen of the hindwings is produced to form an acute central tooth. Gen. Eccymatoce, Prout. Prout, Ann. Transvaal Mus., ii., p. 207 (1913). Type #. melanoterma, Prout, from South Africa. EcCCYMATOGE CALLIZONA, Low. I am now satisfied that the type of fulvida, Turn., is merely an aberration of callizona. ECCYMATOGE MORPHNA, D. sp. popdvos, dusky. 36,30 mm. Head fuscous; face dark fuscous with a few whitish scales. Palpi 11; dark fuscous with a few whitish 4 244 scales. Antennae fuscous; in male thickened and minutely ciliated. Thorax and abdomen fuscous; anal valves in male large. Anterior legs dark fuscous [middle and posterior pairs broken off]. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex acute, termen bowed, oblique, finely dentate; fuscous; mark- ings dark fuscous, obscure; a small basal patch; a median fascia containing a darker discal dot beneath mid-costa, limited anteriorly by a nearly straight line from 4 costa to 4 dorsum, posteriorly by a line from 2 costa, strongly bent outwards in disc, with an angular prominence between veins 7 and 8, and another between 3 and 4, thence sinuate to # dorsum; an indistinct pale subterminal line; a terminal line interrupted by pale dots on veins; cilia fuscous. Hind- wings with termen slightly rounded, irregularly dentate, with a stronger tooth on vein 4; as forewings, but without discal dot, and posterior edge of median fascia only slightly un- dulating. Underside fuscous without markings. A true Ececymatoge ; though vein 5 of hindwings is scarcely from below the middle of cell, the upper discocellular is bent. There appears to be no thoracic crest. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (3,500 ft.), in January; one specimen. Gen. Horisme, Hb. Hucymatoge, Sect. I., Turn., Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 1903, p. 247. Differs from Hucymatoge in the presence of a posterior thoracic: crest. HoRISME MORTUATA, Gn. 3, Q, 27-30 mm. Very similar to H. scotodes, Turn., but slightly larger; palpi longer, 24 to 3 as against 14 to 2 in the latter; forewings with basal lines more evenly curved, in the latter they are more oblique; postmedian line with a doubly obtuse-toothed projection. New South Wales: Sydney, in January and February. Victoria: Beaconsfield. Three examples. HORISME PLAGIOGRAPHA, Nl. sp. tAaytoypados, obliquely inscribed. Q, 25-26 mm. Head grey. Palpi 3; grey irrorated with dark fuscous, whitish beneath towards base. Antennae. grey. Thorax grey mixed with fuscous, posterior edge of crest fuscous. Abdomen grey, some fuscous scales in crests. Legs whitish, on dorsal surfaces fuscous. Forewings tri- angular, costa straight, slightly sinuate before apex, apex 245 acute, termen bowed, oblique, slightly crenulate; whitish with fuscous suffusion and markings, a conspicuous dark- fuscous oblique bar from dorsum near base to middle of disc, sometimes forming a complete fascia to 4 costa; two or three fine, incomplete, transverse lines between this and costa; a nearly straight band of three fine fuscous lines from mid-costa to dorsum at +; a dark-fuscous, median, subcostal, discal dot ; a suffused band, towards costa resolvable into three lines, from # costa to 2 dorsum, outwardly curved with slight obtuse prominences above and below middle; a streak from apex to upper prominence on postmedian line, slightly downwardly curved; between this,and costa is a paler apical area; sub- terminal whitish, very ill-defined; a terminal line; cilia grey- whitish with a few darker points. Hindwings with termen very little rounded, dentate; whitish-grey, with fine, fuscous, transverse lines from dorsum, becoming indistinct before costa; from' 4, middle, an outwardly-curved, stronger line from %, a fine line following close on this, and a double subterminal line; a fuscous terminal line; cilia whitish-grey. New South Wales: Sydney (Manly), in October; Jervis Bay; in September; two specimens. There is a third female example from the latter locality in Coll. Goldfinch, taken in November. Type in Coll. Lyell. Gen. Crparia, Treit., Kur. Schmet., vi., 2, p. 140. Mr. L. B. Prout informs me that the type is the Euro- pean C. fulvata, Forst., and that Hydriomena, Hb., is a synonym of later publication. This large European genus is but poorly represented in Australia, and in New Zealand there is no endemic species, the only representative there being subochraria, Dbld. Six Australian species are known ; of these swbhochraria, apotoma, uncinata, and microcyma are probably derived through the Antarctic; scythropa and /asio- placa are not nearly allied specifically to the first four, and entered Australia from the north. The groove on hindwing of male of scythropa I consider a character of specific value only. Heterochasta, Meyr., and Polyclysta, Gn., are deriva- tions of this second section of the genus. LARENTIA PETRODES, Turn. Queensland: Warwick. Victoria: Gisborne. LARENTIA XERODES, Meyr. I have examined what I believe to be an example of Xanthorhoé xerodes, Meyr., and refer it to this genus. 246 LARENTIA ORIBATES, N. sp. opeBaryns, a mountaineer. 6, 28 mm. Head whitish irrorated with fuscous; face blackish. Palpi 14; dark fuscous. Antennae grey; pectina- tions in male 6, extreme apex simple. Thorax dark fuscous irrorated with whitish. Abdomen grey-whitish; paired fus- cous dots on the dorsum of each segment except the first two. Legs grey-whitish; anterior and middle pairs fuscous on dorsum. Forewings triangular, costa nearly straight, slightly arched towards apex, apex pointed, termen longer than dorsum, slightly bowed, slightly oblique; whitish with numerous fine, fuscous, oblique, transverse lines; costa irror- ated with fuscous; a line from } costa to near base of dorsum; another parallel from 2 costa; a median band of three or four close lines, anterior edge from mid-costa to + dorsum, nearly straight, posterior from # costa to before middle of dorsum, slightly curved outwards in middle of disc; beyond and parallel is a very fine line thickened by some small dots; beyond this again three close, parallel, wavy lines; an oblique fuscous shade from apex; a narrow grey terminal fascia; an inter- rupted fuscous terminal line; cilia whitish with a grey median line. Hindwings with termen rounded; as forewings but all lines, except terminal line, becoming obsolete in costal area, which is whitish, and in male contains an oval patch of ochreous-grey altered scales. | Victoria: Mount St. Bernard, in February; one specimen received from Dr. W. E. Drake. LARENTIA AGANOPIS, 0. sp. ayavwms, gentle-looking. 3,9, 24-32 mm. Head whitish. Palpi in male l, in female 11; grey-whitish. Antennae pale grey; pectina- tions in male 5, extreme apex simple. Thorax ochreous- whitish. Abdomen ochreous-whitish, suffused with pale grey on dorsum. Legs fuscous; tarsi annulated with whitish; posterior pair whitish. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; ochreous- whitish; markings pale grey, brownish tinged; a very small basal patch, followed by two fine parallel lines confluent on costa; median band broad from costa to middle, much nar- rower from middle to dorsum, darker on costa; anterior edge from 4 costa to + dorsum, outwardly curved; posterior edge from 2% costa, obtusely toothed beneath costa, with a slight double-toothed median prominence, thence strongly oblique and dentate to mid-dorsum; this is followed by two fine in- distinct parallel lines; an indistinct pale subterminal line al 247 preceded by a slight dark suffusion towards costa; a terminal series of triangular marks or fine, short, interneural, longi- tudinal streaks; cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded; ochreous-whitish, with pale, suffused, median, postmedian, and submarginal grey lines; terminal marks and cilia as forewings. Underside whitish; forewings suffused with grey as far as postmedian line; hindwings with a median transverse line. New South Wales: Woodford, in March and April; two specimens received from Mr. Geo. Lyell. Type in Coll. Lyell. Gen. Meuitutias, Meyr. I do not consider the presence of androconial scales in the male as a rule a sufficient character for generic distinction, and have therefore merged Hypycnopa, Low., in Xanthorhoé, and refrained from making a new genus for Larentia petrodes. But I have sacrificed strict consistency in retaining the genus Melitulias, Meyr., which defines a small natural group peculiar to Tasmania and South-east Australia, particularly the mountains, in which new species may be expected to occur. It is an endemic derivative of Huphyia. I regard glandulata, Gn., as the type. MELITULIAS LEUCOGRAPHA, 0. sp. Aevkoypados, inscribed with white. 3, 9, 24-28 mm. Head fuscous with a few whitish scales on face. Palpi 3; fuscous; base beneath whitish, sharply defined. Antennae dark fuscous; ciliations in male imper- ceptible. Thorax and abdomen fuscous with a few whitish scales. Legs fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa very slightly arched, apex pointed, termen bowed, oblique, wavy ; fuscous-brown; markings white partly outlined with fuscous ; a fine line from + costa to + dorsum, curved outwards beneath costa; a broader line from 4 costa, at first transverse, then bent inwards and joining first line above dorsum; a dark- fuscous discal dot beneath mid-costa, sometimes surrounded by a narrow whitish suffusion ; sometimes a fine, sinuate, inwardly oblique line from 2 costa not reaching middle of disc; a broader line from 2 costa, angled inwards above and outwards at middle, then inwardly curved to dorsum before tornus; a fine interrupted subterminal line, a fine oblique streak from apex, crossing subterminal line, ending in postmedian line at its subcostal angle; a dark-fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous barred with white. Hindwings with termen rounded; in male grey; with a large, median, oval, brownish-fuscous, androconial blotch; cilia grey; in female pale brownish-grey, a suffused, whitish, postmedian, transverse line; a whitish 248 subterminal line; terminal line and cilia as forewings. Under- side of hindwings in both sexes like upperside in female, but more distinctly marked and with a dark-fuscous antemedian discal dot. Near /. graphicata, Wik., but easily distinguished by the hindwings. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.), in December; three specimens. Type in Coll. Goldfinch. Gen. Hupnyia, Hb., Verz., p. 326. Type /. mcata, Hb., from Europe. This genus corre- sponds to Hydriomena, Section I., of my revision. In Aus- tralia it is the dominant genus of the family, being especially ~ well represented in South-east Australia and Tasmania; many more species will doubtless be discovered, especially in the mountains. The genus is also moderately well represented in New Zealand. EuPHyIA SymMpHONA, Meyr. Epirrhoé maerens, Swin. (Trans. Ent. Soc., 1902, p. 648), | is a synonym (teste Prout, in lit. ). EUPHYIA TACERA, Nn. sp. Taxepos, soft. 3, 9, 30-32 mm. Head brownish; face fuscous. Palpi 2; fuscous; beneath whitish-ochreous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male minute. Thorax and abdomen brownish- fuscous. Legs-fuscous; tarsi annulated with ochreous-whitish. Forewings triangular, costa moderately arched, apex round- pointed, termen bowed, slightly oblique; whitish partly suffused with pale brownish ; a small brown basal patch limited by a fine fuscous line; two ill-defined, very fine, transverse, fuscous lines follow this; median band rather ndrrow, brown with fine fuscous transverse lines, sometimes with a narrow central grey band; anteriorly limited by a fine, slightly outwardly-curved line from 4 costa to 4 dorsum, posteriorly by a similar line from before 2 costa to before 3 dorsum, with slight rounded prominence beneath costa, and again in middle; this is followed by a suffused whitish band containing two suffused, wavy, fuscous, transverse lines; a broad brownish terminal suffusion, containing a finely crenulate, whitish, sub- terminal line, preceded and followed by slight fuscous suf- fusion ; a fuscous oblique mark beneath apex; cilia brownish- grey, apices pale grey. Hindwings with termen rounded, wavy; yellow-ochreous; three fine fuscous transverse lines from basal half of dorsum, of which only the first reaches costa; a double subterminal line from dorsum usually reaching es RSI 249 about middle; a narrow terminal band, sometimes. obsolete towards apex; a dark-fuscous terminal line obsolete towards apex ; cilia fuscous, towards apex pale yellow. Not unlike #. lucidulata, Wlk., which may be at once distinguished by the indented antemedian line. | New South Wales: Barrington Top, in December ; three specimens. Type in Coll. Goldfinch. EUPHYIA PERIALLA, 0. sp. mepiadAos, excelling. 3, 9, 30-35 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi 24; fuscous, at base whitish beneath. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male minute. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen fuscous, beneath ochreous-whitish. Legs fuscous irrorated, and tarsi annulated with whitish-ochreous. Forewings broadly triangular, costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed,: termen bowed, oblique, wavy; brown with fuscous and whitish lines; a small basal patch defined by a transverse, outwardly curved line; a slightly paler fascia follows this; median band fuscous, broad on costa but narrow on dorsum, containing a paler costal area defined by a fuscous line extending nearly to middle, with a blackish discal mark near its anterior edge; fine whitish lines defining median band, anterior from 3 costa to 4 dorsum, outwardly curved, posterior from beyond 4% costa to before dorsum, at first transverse, then shortly incurved, and forming an obtuse double prominence in middle; two fine parallel fuscous lines follow this; a fine, interrupted, _ whitish, subterminal line, preceded and near apex followed by some fuscous suffusion; a dark-fuscous terminal line in- terrupted on veins; cilia fuscous with a whitish basal line, apices with obscure pale bars. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded, dentate; orange; towards dorsum suffused with fuscous containing many darker and paler short trans- verse lines; this suffusion extends on termen to middle; ter- . minal line and cilia as forewings, but paler towards apex. Underside pale ochreous partly suffused with fuscous; both wings with discal dot, transverse lines, and terminal band fuscous, the last containing a slender; ‘whitish, subterminal line. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (4,500 ft.), in January; one male. Victoria: Mount St. Bernard, in February; two females, in Coll. Lyell. Two specimens from New South Wales (Ebor) in January and Victoria (Castle- maine, Dr. W. E. Drake) in March are probably of the same species, but the forewings are much paler except in | basal patch and median band. Two since received from Mr. H | a m 250) G. W. Goldfinch taken on Barrington Top. in December resemble the Kosciusko type. EUPHYIA SYMMOLPA, N. sp. ocvppodros, in harmony. 29, 32 mm. Head fuscous; frons rounded ; slightly pro- jecting; frontal tuft whitish. Palpi 3; whitish mixed with fuscous. Antennae fuscous. Thorax and abdomen fuscous with fine whitish irroration. Legs fuscous with fine whitish irroration; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings tri- angular, costa straight except close to base and apex, apex round-pointed, termen moderately bowed, moderately oblique, slightly undulating; pale fuscous with fuscous markings; a basal patch of three or four transverse lines; a short line from dorsum to cell follows this; median band limited anteriorly by a double, nearly straight line from 4 costa to mid-dorsum, posteriorly by a double line from beyond 4 costa, at first transverse, with a strong, angular, posterior projection in middle (in ene example there is a slighter angle also beneath costa), thence concave to # dorsum, this line is edged pos- teriorly by a well-marked whitish line; a blackish discal spot in median band beneath mid-costa; a strong, crenulate, whitish, subterminal line from costa shortly before apex to tornus, edged anteriorly by a series of fuscous spots; a dark- fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous, apical % barred with whitish. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded, slightly undulating ; whitish, towards margins grey; a grey discal dot at 1; an ill-defined grey terminal band containing an un- © dulating whitish line; terminal line and cilia as forewings. Not unlike (. symphona, Meyr., but differing in the — form of postmedian line, discal spot not pale centred, and other details. ‘ New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (6,000 to 7,000 ft.), in January; two specimens. EUPHYIA LEPTOPHRICA, Nl. Sp. Aerrodpixos, finely rippled. 3, 9, 34-38 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen grey. Palpi 24; dark grey, beneath whitish. Antennae grey; cilia- tions in male extremely short. Legs fuscous, irrorated, and tarsi annulated, with grey-whitish. Forewings broadly tri- angular, costa strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, slightly oblique, wavy; grey, with numerous slender, finely crenulate, fuscous, transverse lines; basal patch hardly defined; median band obscurely defined, anteriorly by p slightly curved wavy line from 4 costa to 4 dorsum, posteriorly 251 by a similar line from #? costa to # dorsum, with a slight doubly subacute median projection ; a fuscous discal dot before middle; a fine, crenulate, whitish, subterminal line; a blackish terminal line, interrupted on veins; cilia grey. Hind- ‘wings with termen rounded, wavy; pale grey with fine wavy transverse lines not reaching costa; terminal line and cilia as forewings . Type in Coll. Goldfinch. Perhaps nearest Z. NG Sti i Meyr. New South Wales: Pare Top, in December; two specimens. EKUPHYIA PANOCHRA, 1. sp. mavwxpos, Wholly pale. 36, Q@, 28-32 mm. Head ochreous-whitish with a very few dark-fuscous scales. Palpi 23; ochreous-whitish with slight dark-fuscous irroration. Antennae ochreous-whitish annulated with fuscous; in male slightly thickened, cilia- tions 4. Thorax ochreous-whitish. Abdomen ochreous-whitish with a few pale-grey scales on dorsum. Legs ochreous-whitish irrorated with fuscous. Forewings broadly triangular, costa rather strongly arched, apex subrectangular, termen nearly a straight, slightly oblique; ochreous-whitish, with slight pale- grey suffusion, more distinct towards termen ; a very fine, often indistinct, slightly curved, slightly dentate, fuscous line from 4 costa to 4 dorsum; a second, similar, nearly straight line, finely dentate, from # costa to 4 dorsum; in some examples a third line or series of fine dots beyond this; cilia ‘dark grey, apices white except on costa, beneath apex, and on tornus. - Hindwings with termen rounded; oehreous-whitish, without markings; cilia grey, apices whitish. Underside of forewings suffused with grey; of hindwings with grey oo discal dot, postmedian, and subterminal lines. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.), in January. Victoria: Mount St. Bernard. (5,000 ft.), February; eight specimens. Type in Coll. Lyell. KUPHYIA OXYODONTA, D. sp. éévodovros, sharply-toothed. Q, 28 mm. Head pale grey. Palpi 2; whitish with - fuscous irroration. Antennae fuscous. Thorax whitish mixed with grey. Abdomen ochreous-whitish suffused with fuscous on dorsum. Legs fuscous irrorated, and tarsi annulated, with ochreous-whitish ; posterior pair mostly ochreous-whitish. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen nearly straight, oblique, wavy ; whitish with fuscous markings; a small basal patch with three darker lines, one of H2 252 which forms its posterior edge, and is slightly rounded, slightly dentate, transverse; median band broad; its anterior edge broadly dark fuscous from + costa to 4+ dorsum, strongly concave, indented above and below middle; a linear ante- median discal mark followed by two fine incomplete fuscous lines; posterior edge marked by a fine dark-fuscous line, thickened above middle, from #? costa, projecting slightly beneath costa, then angularly indented, with a strong median double-toothed projection, the upper tooth more prominent and acute, thence inwardly curved and dentate to #? dorsum, suffused fuscous spots on costa before apex, in disc beneath this, on termen beneath apex, and above tornus; an inter- rupted terminal line; cilia whitish with a broad fuscous median line. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded, wavy; whitish-grey; four or five faintly darker transverse lines better marked on dorsum; postmedian line with a median acute tooth ; an interrupted fuscous terminal line; cilia whitish with some grey and fuscous scales. Western Australia: Perth, in April; one specimen received from Mr. W. B. Alexander. EUPHYIA POLIOPHASMA, N. sp. Todiopacpos, grey ghostly. 3, 36-38 mm.; 9,32 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen pale grey irrorated with fuscous. Palpi 24; fuscous, towards base ochreous-whitish. Antennae with internal surface fuscous, external whitish ; in male shortly laminate, ciliations }. Legs pale grey irrorated with fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, slightly oblique; pale grey with slight fuscous irroration ; antemedian line obsolete; postmedian slender, fuscous, crenulate, slightly projecting in middle, from 2 costa to % dorsum, sometimes obsolete ; Gilia grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ; whitish- grey; cilia grey, apices paler. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.), December ; three specimens. Type in Coll. Goldfinch. EUPHYIA TRISSOCYMA, N. sp. TpLoToKv/L0S, three times waved. gd, 22 mm. Head grey-whitish. Palpi 21; fuscous, whitish beneath. Antennae grey-whitish ; iltabiontt in male 4. Thorax grey-whitish ; patagia with a postmedian, transverse, fuscous line. Abdomen whitish with some fuscous irroration, and paired fuscous dots on some segments. Anterior legs fuscous [middle and posterior pairs missing]. Forewings tri- angular, costa nearly straight, apex round-pointed, termen = 4 * Ay We 953 bowed, oblique, wavy; whitish with oblique, transverse, fuscous lines; a moderate fuscous basal patch, posterior edge from + costa to near base of dorsum; two very fine incomplete lines follow this; a broad, gently outwardly curved line from mid-costa to 4 dorsum; a dark-fuscous median discal dot; two very fine incomplete lines in median area; a broad threefold line from 3? costa to # dorsum, slightly bent outwards beneath costa, and again in middle; four very fine incomplete lines follow this; a well-marked terminal line, interrupted on veins ; cilia whitish, apices partly fuscous. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded, wavy; whitish; many fuscous lines from dorsum, more or less obsolete towards costa; terminal line and cilia as forewings. New South Wales: Jervis Bay, in October; one speci- men. Type in Coll. Goldfinch. -KUPHYIA APREPTA, NL. sp. dmpertos, undistinguished. @, 36 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 21; fuscous, beneath ochreous-whitish towards base. Antennae fuscous. Abdomen fuscous with fine ochreous-whitish irroration. Legs fuscous. Forewings broadly triangular, costa moderately arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen slightly bowed, slightly oblique, slightly crenulate; pale fuscous, basal patch and median band fuscous; basal patch small, posterior edge transverse, outwardly curved, wavy; two or three obscure lines precede median band; median band with anterior edge from 4 costa to 4 dorsum, slightly outwardly curved, finely dentate ; posterior edge from % costa, at first nearly transverse, crenu- late, below middle bent inwards, and again transverse to 2 dorsum; in this band is a darker median discal dot, pre- ceded and followed by a wavy transverse line, best marked towards costa; several faint and obscure transverse lines beyond band ; a crenulate, whitish, subterminal line; a narrow fuscous terminal line; cilia pale fuscous with a darker median line. Hindwings with termen rounded, crenulate; pale grey without markings; cilia pale grey. Victoria: Kyneton, in December; one specimen. Type in Coll. Lyell. HKUPHYIA CONIOPHYLLA, 0. sp. koviopvAdos, with dusty wings. 2, 30 mm. Head reddish-brown mixed with fuscous. Palpi 34; fuscous, base beneath whitish. Thorax pale grey, _anteriorly reddish tinged. Abdomen pale grey mixed with ochreous-whitish and fuscous, base of dorsum reddish tinged. Legs fuscous; tarsi obscurely annulated with whitish; anterior 254 coxae reddish tinged. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex acute, termen slightly bowed, oblique; whitish irrorated with fuscous-brown, which forms indistinct lines; a subbasal line from 3 costa, at ‘first outwardly oblique, but bent soon after origin, " thence slightly curved to near base of dorsum ; antemedian line very indistinct; a fuscous discal dot beneath mid-costa; postmedian very slender, from 4 costa obliquely outwards, angled beneath costa and in middle, thence to # dorsum; a fairly broad fuscous-brown terminal band, its anterior edge suffused, containing a fine, whitish, wavy, submarginal line; cilia fuscous-brown with pale basal and postmedian lines. Hindwings with termen rounded, slightly wavy; whitish irrorated with fuscous-brown, more densely towards termen; a faint whitish submarginal line; cilia grey, bases and apices paler. Underside whitish with fuscous-brown irroration and discal dots on fore- and hind- wings. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.), in March; one specimen. DIPLOCTENA PANTOEA, Turn. Queensland: National Park (3,000 ft.), in February and March; seven specimens (4 males and 3 females). These are, ut consider, conspecific with southern examples, though they agree ill with my description, the species being exceedingly variable. The structure of the male antennae is the same. National Park examples are distinctly green with well-defined basal patch and median band fuscous-brown, but the latter sometimes incomplete; minute white dots are sometimes pre- sent on the subterminal line, and one female has a white dorsal dot in median band. Some examples from Lorne and Ebor, though in poor condition, approach these closely, but most of the males from these localities have the forewings almost wholly fuscous-brown. XANTHORHOE SODALIATA. Q. Cidaria sodaliata, Wlk., Cat. Brit. Mus., xxv., p. 1410. 3. Coremia divisata, Wlk., Cat. Brit. Mus., xxxv., p. 1682. , Q. Xanthorhoé subidaria, var. urbana, Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1890, p. 864. This bala was first given by Swinhoe (Cat. Oxf. Mus., il., p. 345), but he identified the species with Guenée’s cymaria. T believe that Guenée’s description clearly applies to one of the forms I still include under swbidaria, Gn. Whether these are really all conspecific is open to doubt, and 255 until the male genitalia have been examined and compared by a competent authority, this doubt is likely to continue. Sodalhata female is very distinct by its uniform dark suffusion; the male has a uniformly dark median band on forewing, without brown or purplish tinge, while the terminal area is paler or even whitish. From eastern examples of male substdaria I have little difficulty in distinguishing it, but some Western Australian examples (which may represent a third species) are very similar. | Northern Queensland: Atherton, Herberton, Townsville. Queensland: Eidsvold, Gayndah, Nambour, Brisbane, Strad- broke Island, Mount Tambourine, Killarney, Nanango, Stan- thorpe, Roma. New South Wales: Murwillumbah, Lismore, Glen Innes, Ebor, Sydney, Moruya. Tasmania: Hobart. Also from Norfolk Island. XANTHORHOE EPIA, N. Sp. nos, soft. 3, 9, 29-34 mm. Head brownish-grey, sometimes partly reddish tinged. Palpi 3; brownish-grey. Antennae grey; pectinations in male 6. Thorax and abdomen grey. Legs grey ; posterior pair paler. Forewings triangular, costa nearly straight to %, thence arched, apex pointed, termen bowed, oblique; grey with numerous fine, oblique, fuscous, transverse lines, more or less reddish tinged; sometimes the lines and disc are wholly reddish; a small slightly darker basal patch; median band darker, moderately broad on costa and in middle, then narrowed to dorsum to half this breadth, anterior edge from 4 costa to beyond 4 dorsum, slightly curved, posterior edge from 2 costa to before # dorsum, very obtusely angled outwards in middle, sometimes a fuscous discal dot beneath costa before middle; cilia pale fuscous, reddish tinged, apices paler. Hindwings with termen rounded; grey; a series of alternate darker and paler transverse lines from dorsum not reaching middle; a fine, interrupted, fuscous terminal line; cilia grey. The sexes are similar. Nearest X. centroneura, Meyr., which has the ground-colour much paler and contrasting with the median band, whose outer edge is more angled, and has also numerous blackish dots on veins. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.), in February and March; 5 male and 6 female examples. XANTHORHOE METOPORINA, 0. sp. perorwpivos, autumnal. ‘ Q, 32 mm. Head grey-whitish with dark fuscous; tuft fuscous. Palpi 24; fuscous; base narrowly white. Antennae 256 grey. Thorax and abdomen grey. Legs fuscous, irrorated, and tarsi annulated with whitish. Forewings broadly tri- angular, costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen straight, oblique, crenulate; brown-whitish; markings fus- cous; a moderate basal patch, its posterior edge well defined, obliquely rounded, from % costa to § dorsum; a moderately broad median band, anterior edge outwardly curved, ill- defined, from 4 costa to 4 dorsum, posterior edge from 3 costa to 3 dorsum, with a large acutely-angled median projection ; several very fine, ill-defined, finely-waved lines precede and follow median band, and are traceable in the band itself; a dark-fuscous discal dot slightly before middle; a fine terminal line; cilia fuscous, bases and apices partly whitish. Hind- wings with termen gently rounded, crenulate; pale grey, with indications of fine, transverse, fuscous lines towards dorsum ; cilia grey, bases and apices partly whitish. Underside fuscous- grey, with dark-fuscous discal dots on fore- and hindwings. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko, on March 2, 1912; two specimens. ; Gen. DASYSTERNICA, n. gen. I substitute this name for Dasysterna, Turn., which is preoccupied. DASYSTERNICA PERICALLES, Nl. Sp. mepikadAys, very beautiful. 3,9, 23-27 mm. Head dark fuscous irrorated with ochreous. Palpi 3; ochreous with some dark-fuscous hairs. Antennae dark fuscous with fine whitish annulations; in male thickened and slightly laminate, ciliations +. Thorax dark fuscous irrorated with ochreous. Abdomen dark fuscous plen- tifully irrorated with ochreous; beneath ochreous. Legs pale ochreous with fuscous irroration, tarsi fuscous annulated with pale ochreous. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; fuscous with brownish and whitish irroration in parts; a basal patch limited by an outwardly curved, dark-fuscous and brownish, trans- verse, subbasal fascia; beyond this is a pale fascia containing some whitish irroration; median band outlined by two dark- fuscous and brown fasciae, its centre paler, with a minute, fuscous, median, discal dot sometimes indicated; anterior fascia from 4 costa to 2 dorsum, outwardly curved, its anterior edge twice indented and whitish ; posterior fascia from % costa to # dorsum, its posterior edge whitish, with a small posterior tooth above middle, and a large bidentate prominence in middle; one or two fine parallel fuscous lines beyond this are sometimes traceable; sometimes an indistinct pale subterminal] line; cilia fuscous, apices whitish-ochreous or barred with a 257 whitish-ochreous. Hindwings with termen rounded; orange; some fuscous irroration at base; three fine, fuscous, transverse lines, strongly angled in middle, in female obsolete; a dark- fuscous terminal band, much narrower in female; cilia as forewings. Underside ochreous; forewings with fuscous discal dot, postmedian fascia strongly dilated towards dorsum so as to join a terminal fascia, which is, however, mostly obsolete in female; hindwing with postmedian line and terminal fascia. in male, in female hardly developed. Tasmania: Cradle Mountain, in January; two specimens received from Dr. R. J. Tillyard. Type in Coll. Lyell. DASYSTERNICA CRYPSIPHOENA, 0. sp. Kpuiudowos, with hidden red. @, 26 mm. Head and palpi dark fuscous irrorated with whitish. Antennae fuscous. Thorax dark fuscous irrorated with whitish. [Abdomen broken off.] Legs dark fuscous irrorated, and tarsi annulated, with whitish [posterior pair missing]. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, slightly oblique, slightly crenu- late; whitish suffused with grey and on costa with fuscous; a subbasal fuscous fascia, containing some reddish scales, not reaching dorsum; this is followed by a whitish line, and this again by a ferruginous fascia at %, becoming fuscous at ex- tremities, and containing a small patch of reddish scales beneath costa; a median band consisting of two fasciae enclosing a pale area in which is a minute, fuscous, median, discal dot; inner fascia at 4, outwardly curved, edged with fuscous and partly filled in with reddish-ferruginous; outer fascia from # costa at first outwardly oblique, with an obtusely-angled posterior projection beneath costa, and another, double, in middle, thence dentate to 2 dorsum, out- lined with dark fuscous, and containing some reddish streaks on veins; a reddish-ferruginous band of suffusion separated from preceding fascia by a whitish line, and containing a wavy fuscous line; some obscure fuscous spots on termen; cilia fuscous barred with whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; grey, with three obscure whitish lines beyond middle, parallel to termen; cilia grey, apices whitish. Underside of forewings paler than upperside, with four transverse fuscous lines, the first median, the second followed by a whitish line, the fourth by a series of whitish dots; of hindwings like that of forewings, with a discal fuscous dot at 4. Type in Queensland Museum. It is possible that this may be identical with Lyirrhoé bertha, Swin. (Trans. Ent. Soc., 1902, p. 648). 258 Tasmania: Mount Wellington, in January; one specimen received from Mr. G. H. Hardy. DasyvrRis MELANCHLAENA, Nl. Sp. peAayxAavos, black-cloaked. 3, Q, 24-28 mm. Head and thorax blackish, sometimes with a few whitish scales. Palpi 4; covered with long dense blackish hairs. Antennae blackish; ciliations in male im- perceptible. Abdomen blackish; some whitish scales on apices of segments. Legs blackish. Forewings triangular, costa slightly doubly sinuate, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; dark fuscous with obscure indications of darker transverse lines; and a few scattered whitish scales; an in- complete, very slender, outwardly curved, whitish, transverse line at 4; a better-marked whitish line from 4 costa to 2 dorsum, slightly curved outwards and dentate; a dark-fuscous median discal dot outlined with whitish, postmedian whitish, from ? costa to # dorsum, sinuate, subdentate; an inter- rupted whitish subterminal line; cilia dark fuscous. Hind- wings with termen rounded; dark fuscous; sometimes a terminal series of whitish dots on veins, cilia dark fuscous. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.), in December ; four specimens. Type in Coll. Goldfinch. ADDITIONAL LOCALITIES. Sauris hirudinata, Gn.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: Nam- bour, Blackbutt, Mount Tambourine, National Park (2-3,000 ft.), Toowoomba; N.S. Wales: Lismore, Gosford. S. lichenias, Meyr.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: Toowoomba. Euchoeca rubropunctaria, Dbld.—Q’land: Coolangatta; N.S. Wales: Ebor, Nowra. Poecilasthena thalassias, Meyr.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: Gayndah, Coolangatta, National Park (2-3,000 ft.), Too- woomba, Bunya Mountains, Stanthorpe. P. pulchraria, Dbld.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: Stradbroke Island, Bunya Mountains (3,500 ft.), Stanthorpe; N.S. Wales: Lismore, Ebor; Vict.: Beaconsfield; Tas.: Tasman Peninsula; W. Austr.: Bridgetown, Perth. ‘ P. balioloma, Turn.—N.S. Wales: Glen Innes; Vict.: Mount St. Bernard (5,000 ft.). P. glaucosa, Luc.—Q’land: National Park (2-2,500 ft.). Minoa euthecta, Turn.—Q’land: Gayndah, Toowoomba, Bunya Mountains (3,500 ft.), Killarney. Gymnoscelis delocyma, Turn.—N. Terr.: Darwin. G. acidna, Turn.—N. Q’land: Cooktown, Cairns. G. mesophaena, Turn.—N. Q’land: Herberton. G. callichlora, Turn.—N. Q’land: Herberton. G. aenictopa, Turn.—N. Q’land: Herberton. ; Chloroclystis catastreptes, Meyr.—Q’land: Nambour, National Park (3,000 ft.), Toowoomba, Bunya Mountains (8,500 ft.); N.S. Wales: Katoomba, Nowra. 259 C. testulata, Gn.—Q’land: Toowoomba; N.S. Wales: Ebor, Mount Kosciusko ; Vict.: Castlemaine. . insigillata, Wlk.—Q’land: Toowoomba; N.S. Wales: Ebor, Mount Kosciusko. C. approximata, Wlk.—N. Q’land: Cairns, Herberton; Q’land: Mount Tambourine, National Park (8, 000 ft. ye Ne S. Wales: Lismore. C. laticostata, Wlk.—Q’land: Gayndah, Mount Tambourine, Coolangatta, National Park (8, 000 ft. Vi, Toowoomba, Killarney, Roma, Charleville ; N.S. Wales: Lismore, Ebor, Nowra, Adaminaby : Vict.: Beaconsfield, Daytrap; W. Austr.: Busselton, Perth. 2 arene aa aaa t pyrrholopha, Turn.—N. Q’land: Atherton, Herberton. metallospora, Turn.—Q’land: Gayndah. . cissocosma, Turn.—N. Q’land: Cairns, Herberton; Q’land: Nambour, National Park (3,000 ft.), Toowoomba. mniochroa, Porn =N. Q’land: Cairns, Atherton. gonias, Turn.—N. Q’land : Herberton ; Q’land: Stradbroke Island; N.S. Wales: Manning River. . alpnista, Turn.—N. Q’land: Herberton. . bryodes, Turn.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: Rosewood. . elaecopa, Turn.—N. Q’land: Herberton. athaumasta, Turn.—N. Q’land: Herberton. filata, Gn.—Vict.: Beaconsfield, Castlemaine; Tas.: Mount Wellington. C. leptomita, Turn.—Q’land: Brisbane, National Park (3,000 ft.). Tephroclystia melanolopha, Swin.—N. Q’land : Cairns, Herberton; Q’land: Nambour, Brisbane. Mnesiloba eupitheciata, Wik.—N. Q’land: Cairns, Herberton; _ Q’land: Nambour, Mount Tambourine, Southport, Too- woomba. Microdes villosata, Gn.—N.S. Wales: Nowra, Mount Kosciusko. M. squamulata, Gn.—N.S. Wales: Glen Innes; Vict.: Birchip; Tas.: Hobart. ; Chaetolopha oxyntis, Meyr.—N. Q’land: Cairns; Q’land: Mount - Tambourine, National Park (2-3,000 ft.); N.S. Wales: Lis- more, Sydney. Cc, leucophragma, Meyr.—Q’land: Nambour; N.S. Wales: Ebor; Vict. : Dunkeld. C. emporias, Turn.—N. Q’land: Herberton. C. niphosticha, Turn.—Q’land: Nationa] Park (3-4,000 ft.). Scotocyma albinotata, Wlk.—N. Q’land: MHerberton; Q’land: Nambour. . Eccymatoge callizona, Low.—N. Q’land: MHerberton; Q’land: Nambour, Brisbane; N.S. Wales: Glen Innes. Horisme peplodes, Turn.—Q’land: Caloundra, Toowoomba, Roma. H. scotodes, Turn.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: Caloundra; N.S. Wales: Port Macquarie, Nowra. EKucymatoge ghosha, Wlk.—N. Q’land: Herberton: Q’land: Caloundra, Stradbroke Island, Nationa] Park (3,000 ft.). EK. aorista, Turn.—N. Q’land: Innisfail, Herberton; Q’land: Blackbutt, Mount Tambourine; N.S. Wales: Lismore, Sydney. Heterochasta conglobata, Wlk.—N. Q’land: Cairns, Herberton; Q’land: Mount Tambourine, National Park (3,000 ft.); N.S. Wales: Dorrigo, Bulli. 260 Polyclysta hypogrammata, Gn.—N. Q’land: Atherton, Herberton ; Q’land: Stradbroke Island, National Park (3, 000 ft. ), Too- woomba, Bunya Mountains 13) 500 ft.); N.S. Wales: Lismore. Cidaria scythr opa, Meyr.—Q’land : Nambour, Caloundra, Too- woomba, Bunya Mountains; N.S. Wales: Lismore. C. lasioplaca, Low.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: Nambour, Toowoomba; N.S. Wales: Lismore. , . mMicrocyma, Meyr. —Tas.: Tasman Peninsula. . uncinata, Gn.—S. Austr.: Adelaide. . subochraria, Dbld. —Q’land: Killarney, National Park (3,000 ft.); N.S. Wales: Ebor, Mount Canoblas, Moruya, Mount Kosciusko, Adaminaby ; Vict. : Moe, Dunkeld. Larentia epicrossa, Meyr.—Tas. : Cradle Mountain. L. dascia, Turn.—N.S. Wales: Sydney ; Tas.: Tasman Peninsula. Melitulias glandulata, Gn.—N.S. Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.); Tas.: Mount Wellington. Euphyia phaedra, Meyr.—Q’land: Caloundra, Killarney; N.S. Wales: Murwillumbah. E. interruptata, Gn.—N.S. Wales: Mount Kosciusko (3-3,500 ft.). _ epicteta, Turn.—Tas.: Cradle Mountain. i ihnenee: Meyr. —Vict.: Castlemaine. ‘ lucidulata, Wl1k.—N.S. Wales: Ebor; Vict.: Moe; Tas.: Tasman Peninsula. . conifasciata, Butl.—N.S. Wales: Ebor, Mossvale, Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.). percrassata, Wlk.—N.S. Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.). subrectaria, Gn.—Q’land: Mount Tambourine, Rosewood, Stanthorpe; N.S. Wales: Glen Innes, Ebor; Vict.: Moe. anthracinata, Gn.—Vict.: Melbourne; Tas.: Cradle Moun- tain, Mount Wellington. strumosata, Gn.—N.S. Wales: Ebor, Sydney; Tas.: Mount Wellington. vacuaria, Gn.—N.S. Wales: Mount Kosciusko (3,500-5.000 ft.) ; Vict.: Mount St. Bernard (5,000 ft.); Tas.: Cradle Mountain. symphona, Meyr.—Vict.: Mount Erica. excentrata, Gn.—Q’land: Killarney; N.S. Wales: Lismore, Armidale, Ebor. aglaodes, Meyr.—Vict.: Mount St. Bernard (5,000 ft.). . Imperviata, Wlk.—Vic.: Timberoo; S. Austr.: Adelaide ; W.A.: Perth. . heteroleuca, Meyr.—Vict.: Mount St. Bernard. languescens, Rosen.—N.S. Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.). . polycarpa, Meyr.—Tas.: Cradle Mountain. . chrysocyma, Meyr.—Tas.: Cradle Mountain. . perornata, Wlk.—Tas. : Cradle Mountain. insulsata, Gn.—Vict.: Dunkeld. mecynata, Gn.—Q’ land: Toowoomba; N.S. Wales: Glen Innes, Ebor, Taree, Mount Kosciusko (3- 3, 500 ft.); Vic.: Dunkeld. ; polyxantha, Meyr.—N.S. Wales: Ebor; Vict.: Mount Macedon. . trygodes, Meyr.—N.S. Wales: Ebor. . severata, Gn.—Q’land: Toowoomba; N.S. Wales: Nowra; W. Austr.: Perth. . squamulata, Warr.—Vict.: Castlemaine. . opipara, Turn.—N.S. Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.). . ptochopis, Turn.—N.S. Wales: Moruya. iploctena argocyma, Turn.—N.S. Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.); Vict.: Mount St. Bernard. Qo@ gees Bi Javidi: Be Se Se eS Se & eee 261 Xanthorhoé subidaria, Gn.—Q’land: Clermont. X. brujata, Gn.—N. Q’land: Atherton, Herberton; Q’land: Gayndah, Stradbroke Island, Mount Tambourine, Coolangatta, National Park (3,000 ft.); N.S. Wales: Lismore, Glen Innes, Ebor; Vict.: Moe. | X. anaspila, Meyr.—Q’land: Brisbane, Toowoomba, Stanthorpe; N.S. Wales: Ebor, Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.).; Tas.: Mount Wellington. X. heliacaria, Gn.—N.S. Wales: Mount Kosciusko. X. vicissata, Gn.—Vict.: Beaconsfield, Moe, Dunkeld. Dasyuris decisaria, Wlk.—Vict.: Castlemaine. D. euclidiata, Gn.—N.S. Wales: Glen Innes, Ebor, Adaminaby. D. hedylepta, Turn.—N.S. Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5-6,000 ft.). Fam. ACIDALIADAE. EoIs FERRILINEA, Warr. E. cletima, Turn. Having now a good series of this species I find that the character on which I relied for the distinction of EF. cletima, the absence of an acute subcostal projectiom on postmedian line of forewing, is not trustworthy; this line varies in form. Northern Territory: Darwin. North Queensland : Towns- ville. Queensland: Duaringa, Gayndah, Brisbane, Stan- _thorpe. New South Wales: Sydney. Eo1s costaria, Wlk. (Acidalia). Acidalhia albicostata, Meyr. Queensland: Duaringa, Brisbane, Stradbroke Island, Coolangatta, Toowoomba, Stanthorpe, Chinchila, Charleville. New South Wales: Glen Innes, Sydney, Bathurst, Mount Kosciusko. Tasmania: Launceston, Deloraine. Eo1s ALBIcostaTa, Walk. Acidalia tsomorpha, Meyr. Eois costaria, Turn. While giving the wrong name to this species, I correctly pointed out the distinctions between it and the preceding. Not only are the posterior legs of the male quite different, but it is usually larger, more deeply pink, and the fillet is fuscous, not whitish or grey. Northern Territory: Darwin. Northern Queensland: Herberton. Queensland: Nambour, Brisbane, Stradbroke Island, Toowoomba, Stanthorpe. New South Wales: Tabu- lam, Glen Innes, Sydney. Victoria: Gisborne. ‘Tasmania: Hobart. South Australia: Mount Lofty. Western Aus- tralia: Waroona. 262 EKOIS MILTOPHRICA, 0. sp. pudtoppikos, rippled with red. Q, 18-20 mm. Head grey; face dark fuscous. Palpi scarcely 1; grey with a few dark-fuscous scales. Antennae pale grey. Thorax grey, with a minute, reddish, posterior dot. Abdomen grey with a median reddish dot on the dorsum of each segment except the first. Legs whitish; anterior pair grey. Forewings triangular, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; grey with purple reflections; six rather broad, undulating, reddish- orange, transverse lines; first subbasal, incomplete, indicated only towards dorsum; second from 4 costa to 4 dorsum; third from mid-costa to beyond mid-dorsum; fourth from 4. costa to tornus; fifth from 2 costa to termen above tornus; sixth near termen meeting fifth; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ; as forewings but with only five red lines. Under- side grey with three darker postmedian lines on each wing. Although the male is unknown, this species may be easily recognized by its red lines. Northern Territory : Darwin, in November and December ; four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. KOIS SCAURA, 0. sp. scaurus, club-footed. 36, 9,18mm. Head pale grey; collar and face fuscous. Palpi about 1; pale giey, upper-surface towards apex fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 1}. Thorax and abdomen pale grey. Legs pale grey; posterior pair ochreous-whitish ; posterior tibiae of male thickened, longer than femora, with a large expansile tuft of long hairs from base, without spurs, tarsi thickened, aborted, about +; of female normal but with: terminal spurs only. Forewings triangular, rather narrow, costa straight to middle, thence arched, apex round-pointed, termen straight, oblique; pale grey; faintly darker, dentate, transverse lines, which are minutely dotted with dark fuscous and pale edged posteriorly, at +, middle, and 4; a fine, wavy, pale, subterminal line; an interrupted dark-fuscous terminal line or series of dots; cilia pale grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ; as forewings. Near F. eretmopus but greyer, the male posterior tibiae are similar, but the tarsi much smaller and not dilated into paddle-shaped organs. Northern Queensland: Herberton, in November and January; three specimens (1 male and 2 females) received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. 263 | Eois EPicyrta, Turn. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (3,500 ft.). EoIs ELACHISTA, 0. sp. éAaxiotos, very small. 3, 9, 12-13 mm. Head ochreous-whitish; face dark fuscous. Palpi under 1; fuscous. Antennae ochreous-whitish ; in male with tufts of long ciliations (3); in female slightly serrate. Thorax and abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs ochreous- whitish; posterior pair in male very short, tibiae longer _ than femora, slightly thickened with scales on upper-surface, without spurs, tarsi 4; in female with terminal spurs only. Forewings rather broadly triangular, costa straight to %, thence arched, apex rounded, termen scarcely bowed, oblique ; ochreous-whitish with. a few dark-fuscous scales; a dark- fuscous dot on 4 costa; first line obsolete; a blackish discal dot beyond middle; a second dark-fuscous dot on 4 costa, from which proceeds a very slender, nearly obsolete, out- ' wardly curved line, angled inwards above dorsum, ending on 3 dorsum; some minute terminal dark fuscous dots; cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded ; ochreous-whitish with a few dark-fuscous scales; lines obsolete ; a blackish discal spot before middle; cilia ochreous-whitish with a series of minute, subbasal, dark-fuscous dots. Nearest #. elaphrodes. The antennal structure of male furnishes a good character. Northern Territory: Darwin, in November; three speci- mens (1 male and 2 females) received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. Kois cHioristis, Meyr. (Acidalia). This must be an Hows. Meyrick states that 6 and 7 of hindwings are stalked. I have a female from Caloundra, Queensland, with terminal spurs only on posterior tibiae, to which I refer here, but unfortunately no male. The follow- ing species is closely allied. | EOIS PRIONOSTICHA, 0. sp. mpiovootixos, With saw-like line. 3, 9, 19-22 mm. Head white; collar and face fuscous. Palpi under 1; fuscous or fuscous-whitish. Antennae grey ; in male with tufts of moderately long cilia (14). Thorax and abdomen white. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous in front; posterior pair in male short, tibiae much longer than femora (14), smooth, dilated towards apex, without spurs, tarsi very short ($); in female with terminal spurs only. Forewings triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex round-pointed, 264 termen slightly bowed, slightly oblique; white without ochreous tinge; a few scattered blackish-scales and a blackish discal dot beyond middle; lines grey; first from } dorsum, | obsolete towards costa; second from mid-costa, irregularly dentate, curving inwards in a short incomplete circle round discal dot, ending on mid-dorsum; third from 3 costa, finely dentate, nearly straight, to # dorsum; fourth subterminal ; fifth slender, submarginal; an interrupted terminal line; cilia whitish. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded; as forewings but without first line; discal dot before middle, minute or absent. | Very similar to #. chloristis, but Meyrick states that the posterior tarsi of male in this species are 4; also to ZH. poly- gramma; but Lower states that in this the discal dot of forewings is just anterior to median line. Northern Territory: Darwin, in November; three speci- mens (1 male and 2 females) received from Mr. F. P. Dodd and Mr. G..F. Hill. EOIS ARGOPHYLLA, 0. Sp. dpyopuAXos, white-winged. @, 18-20 mm. Head with fillet grey, posteriorly edged by a transverse blaekish line; collar and face fuscous. Palpi 1; grey, anteriorly whitish. Antennae grey. Thorax and abdomen white. Legs whitish; anterior pair grey in front; posterior tibiae in female with terminal spurs only. Fore- wings triangular, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly. bowed, oblique; shining white; without discal dot or irroration; costal edge grey; three slender, finely dentate, grey, transverse lines; first from 4+ dorsum, obsolete towards costa; second from % costa, nearly straight, to dorsum beyond middle; third nearly straight, subterminal; an inter- rupted grey terminal line; cilia white. Hindwings with termen rounded; as forewings. Readily distinguished from the two preceding species by the colour of the head. Northern Queensland: Evelyn Scrub. near Herberton, in January; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, of which one is in Coll. Lyell. EoIs DELOSTICTA, N. sp. dyAootixtos, plainly spotted. , 18 mm. Head ochreous-whitish ; face dark fuscous. Palpi slightly over 1; fuscous. Antennae ochreous-whitish. Thorax ochreous-whitish with a posterior dark-fuscous dot. Abdomen ochreous-whitish; first segment with two dark- fuscous dots, each remaining segment with one median dorsal 265 dot. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair fuscous in front, posterior tibiae in female with terminal spurs only. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique; ochreous-whitish with slight pale-grey suffusion and dark-fuscous dots; a median basal dot; five dots representing an antemedian line angled outwards beneath costa; a median, subcostal discal dot; a series of dots in a line from 2 costa to mid-dorsum; another series representing an undulating sub- terminal line; some grey submarginal suffusion; a terminal series of dots extending into cilia; cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded; as forewings. Underside similar. Northern Queensland: Kuranda, in June; one specimen. Gen, AcripauiA, Treit. I adopt this name for the genus to which I formerly attributed the name Leptomeris, Hb. The absence of long- stalking of veins 6 and 7 of the hindwings niay yenerally be relied on as a distinguishing character from Lois, though short-stalking is not uncommon. ACIDALIA DESPOLIATA, WIk. g6,18mm. Antennae moderately ciliated (1). Posterior femora of male short, tibiae elongate (24), swollen, smooth-. scaled, without spurs, tarsi very short in comparison (1/10th). No doubt the tibiae contain an internal groove and tuft of hairs which are not visible in my example. The relative sizes of femora, tibiae, and tarsi here attain their maximum dlis- proportion. A. optivata, which comes next, has tibiae 2, tarsi +. I took one male at Caloundra, Queensland, in October. . Northern Queensland: Cairns; one female in Coll. Lyell. Queensland: Stradbroke Island. ACIDALIA HYPOCHRA, Meyr. Acidalia axiotis, Meyr. I have received specimens from Western Australia, which differ in no way from those from Queensland. Northern Territory: Darwin. Northern Queensland: Thursday Island, Cooktown, Cairns, Herberton, Townsville, Ravenswood. Queensland: Duaringa, Gayndah, Nambour, Brisbane, Stradbroke Island, Southport, Coolangatta, Rose- wood. New South Wales: Sydney, Moruya. South Aus- tralia: Mount Lofty. Western Australia: Perth, Mundaring, York, Geraldton. Also from Norfolk Island. 266 ACIDALIA TENUIPES, Turn. Northern Territory: Melville Island. ACIDALIA SYNETHES, HN. sp. .ouvnOys, akin. g, 30 mm. Head pale grey; fillet white; face blackish. Palpi about 1; grey-whitish becoming dark fuscous towards apex. Antennae grey-whitish; in male serrate, ciliations 24. ‘Thorax and abdomen pale grey. Legs pale grey; posterior _ pair in male whitish, tibiae dilated, tarsi 4. Forewings tri- angular, costa gently arched, apex tolerably pointed, termen slightly bowed, slightly oblique; pale grey without irrora- tion ; a dark-fuscous, subcostal, median, discal dot; lines very faintly marked ; antemedian line obsolete or nearly so; a very slender, finely dentate, sinuous line from % costa to 2 dorsum, a similar line from # costa to # dorsum, forming minute dots on veins; a very faint, whitish, dentate, subterminal line; a terminal series of fuscous interneural dots; cilia pale grey. Hindwings with termen rounded; as forewings but some grey irroration towards base, discal dot at 4, lines even less distinct. ; Very like A. otis, Meyr., from Mount Kosciusko, but greyer in colour, without any fuscous irroration, and posterior tarsi of male rather shorter relatively to tibiae. Type in Coll. Lyell. Western Australia: Waroona, in January; one specimen received from Mr. G. F. Berthoud. ACIDALIA PERIALURGA, 0. sp. mepiadoupyos, dyed with purple all round. 9, 29 mm. Head grey; fillet white; face dark fuscous. Palpi 14; whitish becoming fuscous towards apex. Antennae grey, towards base whitish. Thorax grey. Abdomen grey- whitish sparsely irrorated with fuscous. Legs grey; posterior pair and middle femora ochreous-whitish with slight fuscous irroration. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; grey with a few scat- tered fuscous scales; some pale-purplish suffusion towards base; a minute, fuscous, median, discal dot beneath costa; a band of pale-purplish suffusion, its inner edge from ¢ costa to # dorsum, slightly curved inwards above dorsum, outer edge formed by a fine, crenulate, fuscous line at about {, thickened to form minute dots on veins; a terminal series of dark-fuscous interneural dots; cilia pale purple with a few fuscous scales, apices grey-whitish. Hindwings with 267 termen slightly angled on vein 4; as forewings but discal spot at 4 and larger. New South Wales: Port Macquarie, in March, one speci- men. Type in Coll. Lyell. STERRHA OOPTERA, 0. Sp. @otTepos, oval-winged. Q,23 mm. Head whitish; face grey. Palpi about 1; grey. Antennae whitish-grey. Thorax and abdomen whitish-grey with slight grey irroration. Legs ochreous-whitish irrorated with grey; posterior tibiae with terminal spurs only. Fore- wings elongate-oval, costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen bowed, strongly oblique; whitish-grey irrorated with dark grey; a small, circular, fuscous, discal spot at 2; a fine, interrupted, dark-grey line from costa just before apex to % dorsum ; a similar terminal line; cilia whitish with two lines of grey irroration. Hindwings suboval, narrow, termen very strongly rounded; as forewings but discal spot median, and posterior line strongly curved. A curious-looking species, more suggestive of the genus Pylarge than Sterrha. Queensland : haicae one specimen received from Dr. Hamilton Kenny. STERRHA EUCLASTA, Ni. &p. Bp wee fragile. 6, 24-26 mm. Head brown; fillet broadly white; face fuscous-brown. Palpi about 1, curved upwards, thickened with rough scales, terminal joint short; whitish. Antennae white; in male with fine short pectinations (4), ending in tufts of. long cilia (3). Thorax and abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs fuscous ; posterior pair ochreous-whitish ; posterior tibiae of male with terminal spurs only, otherwise normal. Fore- wings rather narrowly triangular, costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen bowed, oblique; ochreous-whitish with slight grey suffusion and a very few fuscous scales; a minute fuscous discal dot beneath mid-costa; a suffused, straight, grey line from 2 costa to mid-dorsum; a similar double subterminal line from apex; a third line close to terminal margin; a series of minute, interneural, fuscous, terminal dots; cilia ochreous- whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; ochreous- whitish ; a fuscous discal dot before middle; a straight grey line from apex to ? dorsum; a faint parallel line posterior to this; terminal dots and cilia as forewings. New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (3,500 to 5.000 ft.), = January; three specimens, of which one 1s in Coll. Gold- nch. 268 PROTOTYPA DRYINA, Turn. New South Wales: Ebor Scrub (4,000 ft.). CHRYSOCRASPEDA CRUORARIA, Warr. (Chrysolene). Chrysocraspeda aurvmargo, Warr. Chrysocraspeda inundata, Warr. I formerly regarded these as distinct. Mr. F. P. Dodd first pointed out to me that they are forms of one very variable species. Northern Queensland: Cooktown, Cairns. Also from New Guinea. GNAMPTOLOMA CHLOROZONARIA, Walk. (Thalassodes). This name supersedes mundissima, W1k. Northern Queensland: Cairns. Queensland: Duaringa, Bundaberg, Hidsvold, Gayndah. Also from Ceylon, India, and Africa. PERIXERA FLAVIRUBRA, Warr. 2, 36 mm. Head brown; face whitish-ochreous with a purple transverse bar near upper edge. Palpi 3, terminal joint 4; purple, lower edge whitish-ochreous. Antennae, upper-surface fuscous, lower-surface ochreous-whitish. Thorax brown. Abdomen brown; towards apex pale grey; under- surface whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, slightly oblique, slightly dentate; yellowish-brown finely strigulated with dark brown; three fuscous dots on veins representing a subbasal line; a median discal dot, white edged with dark brown; a bisinuate line of-fuscous dots from 2 costa to # dorsum ; sometimes a dark-fuscous blotch on this line above middle; a terminal series of fuscous dots; cilia brown. Huindwings with termen rounded, dentate; as forewings; discal dot at 4 (in one example crescentic) ; some- times a dark-fuscous tornal blotch. Underside pinkish-white, with a posterior line of fuscous dots. Northern Queensland: Cooktown, Cairns, Herberton. PERIXERA LAPIDATA, Warr. 3, 9, 32-40 mm. Head whitish with a few dark-fuscous . scales on vertex; upper half of face brown. Palpi in male 24, terminal joint 4; in female 24, terminal joint 1; fuscous or purple-fuscous, beneath whitish. Antennae whitish; in male with slight fuscous irroration, pectinations 8, apical 4 simple. Thorax whitish with a few fuscous scales. Abdomen ochreous-whitish with a few fuscous or purple scales towards base of dorsum. Legs ochreous-whitish; dorsum of first two 269 pairs and tuft on male posterior femora purple tinged. Fore- wings triangular, costa moderately arched, apex pointed, termen slightly bowed, oblique; whitish beset with numerous fine grey strigulae; subbasal line represented by three fuscous dots; a small, grey, pale-centred, discal spot before middle; a bisinuate, subterminal] line of fuscous dots; a terminal series of blackish interneural dots; cilia whitish. Hindwings with termen gently rounded, slightly dentate; as forewings, but without subbasal dots; discal spot at 4, larger, ochreous, out- lined with fuscous. Underside whitish with fuscous discal marks and subterminal series of dots. Northern Queensland: Cairns, Herberton. Also from New Guinea. ANISODES PULVERULENTA, Swin. Maculifera, Swin., and cyclophora, Turn., are the female of this species. Northern Queensland: Cairns, Herberton, Townsville Also from Malay Peninsula and India. PISORACA SIMPLEX, Warr. The species I have described as decretarra, Wlk., had better stand for the present under Warren’s name, as it is doubtful whether it is really Walker’s species. ADDITIONAL LOCALITIES. Mnesterodes trypheropa, Meyr.—Also from New Guinea. Xenocentris rhopalopus, Turn.—N,. Q’land: Herberton. X. pilosata, Warr.—N. Terr.: Darwin, Melville Island; Q’land: Rosewood. X. epipasta, Turn.—N.S. Wales: Lismore. Eois coercita, Luc.—Q’land: Nambour. . liparota, Turn.—Q’land: Rosewood. . eretmopus, Turn.—Q’land: Gayndah, Coolangatta. . plumbiscriptaria, Christ.—Q’land: Eidsvold. . halmaea, Meyr.—N. Q’land: Claudie River; Q’land: National Park (3, 000 "E, ); N.S. Wales: Ebor. . fucosa, Warr.—N. Terr.: Darwin. : philocosma, Meyr. — Q’land: Gayndah, Caloundra, Mount Tambourine, Coolangatta; N.S. Wales: Glen Innes. Acidalia lydia, Butl. —Q’land: Caloundra, Jandowae, Charleville; Vict.: Brentwood, Birchip; S. Austr. : Wynbring. ES See A. perlata, WIk. ep ead: National Park (2- 3,000 ft. a Killarney ; N.S. Wales: Ebor, Bega, Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.). A. liotis, Meyr.—Vict. : Mount St. Bernard (5,000 ft.). A. desita, Wlk.—N. Terr.: McDonald Ranges; N. Q’land: Her- berton ; Q’ land: Blackbutt, Rosewood. A. rubraria, Dbld.—Q’land: Eidsvold, Gayndah, Rosewood, Cool- angatta, Roma, Charleville, Cunnamulla: N.S. Wales: "Bega; Vict. : Gisborne, Birchip; "W. Austr. : Perth, Bridgetown. 4 v ‘ . sublinearia, Wlk.—N. Terr.: Darwin; Q’land: Coolangatta; N.S. Wales: Sydney. . prosoeca, Turn.—N. Terr.: Darwin; Q’land: Hidsvold. . recessata, Wlk.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: Eidsvold, Gayndah, Rosewood. . nictata, Gn.—N. Q’land: Cairns, Ingham. . oppilata, Wik.—Q’land : Eidsvold, Gayndah, Stanthorpe, Roma, Charleville; N.S. Wales: Tabulam. . thysanopus, Turn.—N. Terr.: Darwin; N. Q’land: Horbentee ; Q’land: Killarney. . optivata, Wlk.—N. Q’land: Cairns, Atherton, Herberton; Q’land: Eidsvold, Gayndah, Coolangatta, Warwick, Killarney, Roma; N.S. Wales: Tabulam, Armidale, Ebor Bega; Vict. : Birchip; W. Austr.: Harvey, Busselton, Perth. A. caesaria, Wlk.—N. Terr. : Darwin; Q’ land: Stradbroke Island. Dasybela achroa, Low.—Vic.: Sale. Somatina maculata, Warr. ig! land: Hidsvold. Problepsis clemens, Luc.—Q’land: Toowoomba. P. sancta, Meyr. —Q’land: Blackbutt, Toowoomba. P. cana, Hmps.—N.W. Austr. : Derby. Ptychophyle cyphosticha, Turn.—N, Terr.: Darwin. Gnamptoloma aventiaria, Gn.—N. Q’land: Atherton, Herberton; Q’land: Emerald, Fidsvold, Gayndah, Caloundra, Rosewood ; N.S. Wales: Lismore. Organopoda olivescens, Warr.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: National Park (3,000 ft.). Brachycola obrinaria, Gn.—N. Terr.: Darwin. B. porphyropis, Meyr.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: Blackbutt, National Park (3,000 ft.); N.S. Wales: Lismore. Anisodes leptopasta, Turn.—N. Q’land: Cooktown. Pisoraca nephelospila, Meyr.—N. Q’land: Cooktown. P. punctata, Warr.—N. Q’land: Herberton. P. cryptorhodata, Wlk.—Q’land: Gayndah; N.S. Wales: Sydney. Fam. GEOMETRIDAE. Gen. IprocHRoa, n. gen. 270 > > PP PP Pp x idvoxpoos, with peculiar colouring. Frons flat. Tongue absent. Palpi minute (less than 4); porrect, shortly rough-haired. Antennae bipectinate in both sexes, extreme apex simple. Thorax and abdomen without crests; thorax not or very slightly hairy beneath. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of fully developed spurs; not dilated in male. Forewings with 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked from before angle of cell, 11 from cell, connected by a bar or anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with strong basal costal expansion, frenulum and retinaculum absent; 2 from middle of cell, 3 from well before angle widely remote from 4, 6 and 7 connate or short-stalked, 8 touching cell at a point near base, thence very gradually diverging. , Near Cenochlora, Warr., but has two paits of spurs on posterior tibiae. Type I. demissa. 271 IDIOCHROA DEMISSA, ND. sp. demissus, modest. dg, 21-22 mm. Head green; face and palpi pale fuscous. Antennae whitish; pectinations in male 10, apical 4 simple. Thorax green. Abdomen whitish with a broad, dull-reddish, median, dorsal streak; beneath pale fuscous. Legs whitish- ochreous; anterior pair pale fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex acute, termen slightly bowed, oblique; 11 connected with 12 by a long bar; rather dark green ; costal edge pale ochreous as far as middle; a fuscous dot on end of cell at about 2; cilia green. Hindwings with termen rounded; dull reddish; dorsum narrowly green; a darker reddish dot on end of cell; cilia whitish, slightly reddish tinged. Underside more or less suffused with dull reddish. Q@, 22 mm. Antennal pectinations 8. Face green. Hindwings pale green. Underside green. Differs from male in total absence of reddish colouring. Queensland: Rosewood, in September; Toowoomba, in December (W. B. Barnard); six specimens. IDIOCHROA CELIDOTA, Nl. sp. - «nXdwdwtos, blotched. 36, 22 mm.; 9, 29 mm. Head white, posterior edge green ; face dark reddish. Palpi very short (about 4); red- dish. Antennae ochreous-whitish; pectinations in male 12, in female 6, extreme apex simple. Thorax green. Abdomen whitish tinged with reddish; dorsum of first two segments green; sometimes a suffused, fuscous, median, dorsal streak containing several white dots; under-surface ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior pair reddish. Forewings tri- angular, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen nearly straight, slightly oblique; 11 anastomosing with 12; green (inclining to bluish-green); costal edge pale ochreous; a large tornal blotch outlined with purple fuscous, whitish containing a pale-reddish streak along anterior border, and a broader pale-reddish central partition, in which are some purple-fuscous scales; cilia’ grey. Hindwinys with termen rather irregularly rounded, tornus rather prominent; colour and cilia as forewings, but without markings. Underside whitish-green; forewings ochreous tinged with a pale-grey tornal blotch. Queensland: Gayndah, female type received from Dr Hamilton Kenny; Rosewood, a wasted male, in April. 272 CyMATOPLEX HALCYONE, Meyr. (Hucrostes). This name supersedes crenulata, Luc. Northern Territory: Darwin. Northern Queensland: Thursday Island, Cairns, Townsville. Queensland: Caloundra, Brisbane, Stradbroke Island, Southport. Also from New Guinea. Gen. Mrxocera, Warr. This name supersedes Gynandria, Turn. Experience has shown me that pectination of the female antennae cannot be relied on as a generic character. The genus comes near Cymatoplex, but 11 arises from end of cell, connate with 7, 8, 9, 10, or is short-stalked with them. In the latter genus 11 is from well before end of cell. Type M. parvulata, Wilk., from India. There are also five African species. Gen. Euvcrostses, Hb. Tongue weakly developed. Palpi slender, moderately long, porrect; terminal joint in male very short, m female longer. Femora smooth. Posterior tibiae without.middle spurs. Fore- wings with 3 and 4 connate, 5 from above middle, 6 from upper angle, 11 from cell, anastomosing with or running into 12. Hindwings with cell short (2), with 3 and 4 connate, 6 and 7 connate, 12 anastomosing with cell at a point near base, thence rapidly diverging. Frenulum and retinaculum absent and hindwings with costal expansion at base in both SEXES. Near Cymatoplex, Turn., and Mirocera, Warr. Differs from the first by the shorter cell of hindwing and rather longer female palpi; from the second by the origin of 11 of forewings well before end of cell. Type H. indigenata, De Villers, from the Mediterranean area. EUCROSTES IOCENTRA Meyr. Iodis barnardae, Luc. Mr. Prout makes Hucrostes nanula, Warr., a synonym; but I think Warren’s type is so wasted as to be unrecog- nizable. Queensland: Duaringa, Brisbane, Charleville. Gen. Ivtors, Prout. This genus has been made for argocrana, Meyr., a species which I have not seen. EULOXIA GRATIOSATA, Gn. I shall not follow Prout in placing this in a genus by itself under the name Mizochroa, Warr. The species occurs 273 rather commonly on Mount Kosciusko at 5,000 ft., with the oblique white line on forewing feebly developed or absent. EULOXIA ARGOCNEMIS, Meyr. (Jodis). Mr. Prout, who has doubtless examined the type, places it in this genus. CHLOROCOMA SYMBLETA, N. sp. ovupBAntros, comparable. 3g, 36 mm. Head and face green; fillet broadly white. Palpi whitish, on upper-surface crimson. Antennae white, apical half and pectinations pale crimson; pectinations in male 5, apical 4 simple. Thorax bluish-green. Abdomen bluish-green; tuft, sides posteriorly, and under-surface whitish. Legs pale crimson; posterior pair whitish; posterior tibiae in male dilated with internal groove and tuft. Fore- wings broadly triangular, costa gently arched, apex sub- rectangular, termen very slightly bowed, moderately oblique; 3 and 4 approximated at origin, 6 connate, 11 anastomosing with 12; bluish-green; costal edge white except near base and in apical +, where it is crimson; a darker green discal dot on end of cell; a very fine dentate whitish postmedian line obscurely indicated ; cilia pale crimson. Hindwings with termen rounded; 3 and 4 stalked; as forewings but without costal streak and discal dot. Underside pale green. Not unlike C. asemanta, Meyr., but this is a smaller species with green cilia. . New South Wales: Adaminaby (3,500 ft.), in October; one specimen. : CHLOROCOMA RHODOTHRIX, 0. sp. podofpré. rosy-haired. ¢, 26 mm. Head and face brown; fillet broadly white. Palpi pale brown. Antennae white; pectinations fuscous [broken off except first two joints]. Thorax brown; posterior end and apices of patagia green. Abdomen green; tuft whitish; under-surface whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish ; anterior and middle pairs crimson anteriorly; both spurs on ' middle tibiae and external spurs on posterior tibiae crimson ; posterior pair in male not dilated and without internal groove and tuft. Forewings triangular, costa straight except near base and apex, apex pointed, termen very slightly bowed, oblique; 3 and 4 connate, 6 short-stalked with 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 anastomosing with 12; deep green; a broad brown costal streak from base to apex, leaving costal edge white from 3 to #, and thence crimson; veins mostly faintly marked with pale crimson; termen narrowly crimson; cilia deep 274 crimson. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded; 3 and 4 short-stalked; as forewings but without costal markings; a crimson antemedian discal dot on end of cell. Underside similar. - Tasmania: Cradle Mountain, in January (3,000-3,500 ft.); one specimen, received from Dr. R. J. Tillyard. CHLOROCOMA MELOCROSSA, Meyr. I now regard'C. periphracta, Turn., as a well-marked local race of C’. melocrossa. I have found it only on Strad- broke Island, but examples intermediate between it and the typical form occur at Coolangatta, in both instances attached to Banksia serratifolia. CHLOROCOMA NEPTUNUS, Butl. Chloéres cissina, Turn. In describing this as a Chloéres I overlooked the very slender male frenulum, and minute retinaculum near to base of wing. Queensland : a py Gayndah, Rosewood, Too- woomba, Killarney. CHLOROCOMA TACHYPORA, Turn. Near the preceding but distinguishable by the white costal streak of forewings, and the face being not green but greenish-ochreous.. Queensland: Stradbroke Island, Southport. Gen. PaMPHLEBIA, Warr. Differs from Chlorocoma, Turn., in the forewings having vein 11 stalked from 10, and in the terminal joint of palpi being elongate in female. Type P. rubrolimbraria. PAMPHLEBIA RUBROLIMBARIA, Gn. (Amaurinia). Thalassodes diserta, Wk. Thalassodes simpliciaria, W1k. Nemoria rufotinctaria, Snel. Chlorocoma perigrapta, Turn. Northern Queensland: Ingham. Also from New Guinea, Borneo, Ceylon, and India. I am indebted to Mr. L. B. Prout. for the identification. Gen. GrELAsmMa, Warr. Prasinocyma, Warr. Type G. thetydaria, Gu., from India. I am unable to separate these two genera. Those species to which Gelasma is 275 restricted by Prout form a natural group, which embraces centrophylla, Meyr., calaina, Turn., epimitra described below, and orthodesma, Low. In both calaina and orthodesma the terminal joint of palpi in female is fully 4, and the only structural distinction appears to be the angling of the termen - of the hindwing on vein 4, which is insufficient. The genus, as I conceive it, is large but not unmanageable, comprising some 120 species. GELASMA ISERES, Nn. sp. ionpys, equally fitted. é, 30 mm. Head and face green; fillet broadly white. Palpi short (about 1); whitish. Antennae white; pectina- _ tions in male 10, whitish-ochreous. Thorax green. Abdomen green; apex and underside whitish. Legs pale ochreous; coxae whitish. Forewings triangular, costa straight to 3, thence gently arched, apex subrectangular, termen «nearly straight, slightly oblique; green with numerous, fine, whitish, minute, transverse strigulae; a white costal streak from near base to near apex; cilia green. MHindwings with termen bowed, tornus prominent; as-forewings but without costal streak. Underside whitish-green. Very like P. albicostata, which differs in the longer palpi (14) and whitish cilia. Northern Territory: Darwin, one specimen received from mc G. FE. Hill. GELASMA LYCHNOPASTA, Turn. (Prasinocyma). New South Wales: :Ebor Scrub (4,000 ft.). GELASMA EPIMITRA, 0. sp. émiutpos, girdled. 36, 24 mm.; 9, 28 mm. Heéad bDluish-green; fillet white; face green. Palpi in male 14, terminal joint 4; in female 34, terminal joint 2; green; under-surface white. Antennae white, towards apex ochreous tinged. Thorax bluish-green. Abdomen bluish-green; tuft and under- surface white. Legs whitish; anterior pair green on dorsum. Forewings triangular, costa moderately arched, apex round- pointed, termen bowed, oblique; 11 free; bluish-green densely irrorated, except on two transverse fasciae, with lustrous whitish scales; first fascia moderate, at 4, indistinct towards costa; second fascia at #, narrow on costa, soon broadening and outwardly curved, then nearly straight and again nar- rower to dorsum, its anterior edge rather suffused, posterior edge sharply defined, crenulate; costal edge grey from } to apex; a blackish median discal dot; a green terminal line; 276 cilia pale green. Hindwings with termen angled on vein 4, wavy; as forewings but without first fascia; discal dot at 3. Underside pale green. 3 Northern Queensland: Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in - January; female type received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. New South Wales: Mount Gregson, in March; one male in Coll. Goldfinch. GELASMA ORTHODESMA, Low. Northern Queensland: Cairns. Also from New Guinea. GELASMA CENTROPHYLLA, Meyr. Northern Queensland: Herberton. Queensland: Bris- bane, Stradbroke Island, Toowoomba. New South Wales: Sydney. Victoria: Melbourne, Beaconsfield, Gisborne. Tas- mania: George Bay, Kelso, Georgetown. Gen. CHRysocHLoROMA, Warr. This, though nearly allied to Gelasma, may be separated by the strong male frenulum, and the presence of a weak frenulum in female. It contains only the one Australian species and four from New Guinea. Gen. Eucrna, n. gen. evknAos, calm, tranquil. Frons flat. Tongue very weakly developed. Palpi short (slightly over 1), porrect; second joint with long rough hairs beneath ; terminal joint in female about 4, slender, pointed. Antennae in female simple. Thorax and abdomen without crests; thorax slighty hairy beneath. Posterior tibiae with- out middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from #, 3 from before angle remote from 4, 5 from above middle, 6 from angle, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 10 arising before 7, 11 anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with strong, basal, costal expansion, frenulum and retinaculum absent in female; cell about 4, lower dis- cocellular oblique, costal edge of cell not much shorter than dorsal; 2 from %, 3 and 4 remote at origin, 6 and 7 connate or just stalked, 8 approximated to cell near base, thence gradually diverging. Unfortunately the male, which will probably show addi- tional characters, is unknown, and the true position of the genus remains uncertain. EUCELA AMALOPA, Nl. Sp. apadw7ros. soft-lookin g. 9, 36 mm. Head and face green. Palpi and antennae whitish. Thorax green. Abdomen whitish with green dorsal SS 277 and sublateral streaks. Legs whitish; coxae and anterior femora green. Forewings triangular, costa nearly straight but arched towards base and apex, apex pointed, termen nearly straight, moderately oblique; rather pale green ; costal edge white; an outwardly curved white line from 4 costa to 2 dorsum; a white line, broad except towards costa, nearly straight, from 2 costa to mid-dorsum; cilia whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded; pale green; cilia whitish. Underside pale green with postmedian white line, preceded by a darker shade of green, on both wings. - New South Wales: Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.), in January; one specimen. METALLOCHLORA NEOMELA, Meyr. (Jodis). Pisina, Warr., and albolineata, Pagent., are synonyms. Northern Territory: Darwin. North-western Australia: Broome. . Also from New Guinea, New Britain, and Tenimber Island. Gen. Eucyciopes, Warr. I am unable to agree with Mr. Prout in separating all the species except buprestaria to form his new genus Amisozyga, for buprestaria is closely allied to them, the slight structural differences being merely specific. Mono-specific genera should only be made for species isolated by consider- able structural peculiarity ; on the other hand, comparatively slight structural characters, if definite and constant, may be useful in separating two nearly related groups of species. EUCYCLODES DENTATA, Warr. I now regard this as merely a female aberration of LZ. prerordes, Wk. AGATHIA OCHROTYPA, Nn. sp. 3 w®xpotumos, pale-marked. @, 40-42 mm. Head and thorax bright green. Palpi 2, terminal joint 4; whitish, terminal joint fuscous. Antennae whitish-brown with some fuscous irroration. Abdomen bright green, beneath whitish. Legs whitish- brown ; anterior pair partly suffused with fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa strongly arched, apex rectangular, termen bowed, wavy, oblique; bright green with sparse, pale-grey, _ transverse strigulae; markings pale grey mixed with pale ochreous-brown ; costal edge pale grey with darker strigulae ; an ill-defined, small, subbasal fascia; a fascia from 4 dorsum, not quite reaching 4 costa, bent outwards in middle, some- what constricted above and below middle; a second fascia 278 commencing in a blotch beneath # costa, constricted beneath this, and again above % dorsum; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen wavy, produced to an acute angle on vein 4; as fore- wings but with basal and antemedian fasciae; postmedian fascia expanded towards dorsum; a fuscous-brown marginal dot above terminal projection, and a larger marginal spot bisected by a whitish line beneath projection; cilia whitish, on projection fuscous, towards tornus with a fuscous basal line. Underside green-whitish with indications of postmedian fasciae. Northern Queensland: Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in December and February; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. HELICOPAGE CINEREA, Warr. (A gathia). Helicopage cinerea, Prout. 9,40 mm. Head bright green; lower half of face and fillet grey. Palpi 24, terminal joint 4; grey, basal half of under-surface whitish. Antennae grey. Thorax bright green with median and postmedian central grey spots. Abdomen pale grey with a dorsal series of large green spots; beneath whitish. Legs whitish ; anterior pair fuscous anteriorly. Fore- wings triangular, costa moderately arched, apex acute, termen strongly bowed, oblique; bright green with broadly suffused grey markings and strigulae; costal edge pale grey with darker strigulae; a rather large basal patch containing a fuscous subcostal spot and several green spots, towards dorsum this is darker, with a very oblique inwardly directed edge; succeeding this is a narrow irregular fascia connected with a transverse median bar, which runs into postmedian fascia; a very broad fascia with darker strigulae, its edges very irregular, extending on costa from 2 to apex, on dorsum — from 2 to tornus and adjacent part of termen, this forms an acute apical process, and contains a transverse sinuous line of fuscous dots at 3; a grey terminal line, cilia grey. Huind- wings with termen angled on vein 6, and more acutely so on vein 4; as forewings but with a small basal fascia only; postmedian fascia expanded into a large tornal blotch ex- tending from mid-dorsum to acute angle on termen, contain- ing a transverse series of fuscous dots and a dark wavy line from apex to tornus. Underside whitish; costa of forewings with large fuscous strigulae and a subapical blotch, from which arises a narrow transverse fascia; hindwings with a fuscous subterminal fascia thickest in middle. Unfortunately the male is unknown. In Helicopage the male antennae are pectinate, and the male frenulum abnorm- ally specialized. + agree wn is 279 Northern Queensland: Kuranda, near Cairns, in January ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. Also from New Guinea. Gen. CyNEOTERPNA, Prout. Autanepsia, Turn., praeoce. Type C. wilson, Feld. Gen. HemicHiLoreis, Turn. HEMICHLOREIS THEATA, Turn. New South Wales: Taree. Gen. CrypsipHona, Meyyvr. In my revision I made C. melanosema the type of the genus. This was unfortunate, as Mr. Prout has pointed out, nor do I think it can be maintained. Although Mr. Meyrick did not specify the type, the name he has given to the genus (kpoydwvos, with hidden colour) clearly indicates that he intended occultaria as the type. CRYPSIPHONA EREMNOPIS, 0. sp. epepvwmes, dark. ¢, 9,32 mm. Head brown-whitish irrorated with dark - fuscous. Palpi 2; fuscous, some brown-whitish scales on upper edge, base whitish beneath. Antennae fuscous; pectinations in male 5. Thorax fuscous mixed with brown-whitish. Abdomen grey. Legs, anterior pair dark fuscous [middle and posterior pairs broken off]. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched near base, thence nearly straight, apex obtusely pointed, termen bowed, oblique, crenulate; 11 anastomosing with 12 (1 male); brown-whitish suffused, and towards costa strigulated, with fuscous; markings fuscous; an indistinct, transverse, somewhat dentate line at 4; a transverse, linear, dark-fuscous, discal mark beneath mid-costa, surrounded by some brownish suffusion; a narrow fascia, ill-defined anteriorly, posteriorly sharply defined by whitish, at first bent outwards and very sharply dentate, abruptly bent inwards below middle, and ending as a fine line to ? dorsum; an indistinct, whitish, dentate, subterminal line, anteriorly edged by sharp fuscous teeth; some brownish suffusion between this and termen; a dark-fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous, narrowly barred with white between veins. Hind- wings with termen rounded, crenulate; rather dark grey; an obscure, darker, dentate, postmedian line; a dark-fuscous terminal line; cilia as forewings. Underside whitish suffused with fuscous, with obscure dark postmedian line on both wings. 280 In the absence of the hindlegs I cannot be sure that this is a Crypsiphona, but the total absence of abdominal crests makes it probable. Western Australia: Cunderdin, in October, one male received from Mr. R. Illidge; Mount Barker, one female (L. J. Newman). Gen. Pineasa, Moore. Differs from T'erpna in having crests of scales on upper- surface of hindwings. The distinction seems natural and tenable. So far I agree with Prout, but cannot follow him in separating. from it a new genus Hypodoza; the former with cell of hindwings short, scale-tuft at its end; the latter with cell normal, scale-tuft before its end. I have carefully — noted (without actual measurement) the comparative length of the cell of the*hindwing in seven Australian species. The dorsal edge of the cell is longer than the costal, and I have made my comparisons from the length of the costal edge. In chlora it is about 2; in cinerea between 2 and 4; in emiliaria, muscosaria, myriosticta, and erebata about 4; in deteriorata about 2. These differences and slight variations in the position of the scale-tufts appear to me to be of specific value only. Type P. ruginaria, Gn., from India and Africa. PINGASA MUSCOSARIA, Gn. This species varies much according to locality. It would be easy to distinguish local races or subspecies, probably a longer series will show these to be connected by intermediate forms. . PINGASA ACUTANGULA, Warr. Q, 42-46 mm. Head brownish, on sides whitish. Palpi rather long, ascending ; terminal joint as long as:second joint, porrect; whitish. Antennae fuscous, towards base fuscous- whitish. Thorax whitish with a central brownish suffusion. Abdomen whitish suffused with fuscous and brownish; a double median reddish-brown line, enclosing crests, which are brownish; underside whitish. Legs, anterior pair fuscous, coxae whitish [middle and_ posterior pairs broken off]. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, crenulate; whitish with fine pale-brown or grey irroration; lines fine, blackish, becoming reddish on dentations; first from } costa, acutely angled inwards beneath costa, then prolonged outwards nearly to middle of disc, where it forms a narrow quadrangular process, in which is included a brownish linear discal mark, return- ing it forms an acute angle on disc beneath subcostal angle, 281 beneath this a double phd eee te on vein | and ends on dorsum, | near base; second line from 3 costa towards termen, acutely dentate six times, then bent inwards to dorsum near middle, with a seventh dentation above dorsum ; terminal area darkly suffused with brown and fuscous beyond second line, and a short reddish line connecting sixth dentation with ‘tornus ; an obscure whitish dentate subterminal line; a suffused paler spot on termen below middle; a dark terminal line; cilia whitish obscurely barred with brownish. Hindwings similar | but without first line, discal mark small or absent. Under- side white; both wings with a blackish terminal band, and _ white apical and median terminal spots; forewings with linear _ discal mark. Easily recognized by the peculiarly angulated. first line of forewings. Northern Queensland: Coen River (W. D. Dodd), one | specimen in South Australian Museum; Kuranda (from F. P. Dodd in Coll. Lyell). Also from New Guinea. | PINGASA ATRISCRIPTA, Warr. Hypochroma mumta, Luc. | I do not know this species and have merely transcribed Prout’s identification. . | _ Northern Queensland: Cairns. Also from New Guinea. Gen. AEoLocHROMA, Prout. Type A. turneri, Luc. Mr. Prout refers here all the remaining Australian species of the group except paroptila (doubtfully) and percomptaria. These two he retains in Terpna, which he dis- | tinguishes by the frons being strongly protuberant. But in | percomptaria this is not the case, and being therefore doubtful of the validity of his distinction, I propose to retain all these species in Terpna except the type, defining the genus Aeolochroma by the simple male antennae. It differs from Actenochroma, Warr., in having strong abdominal crests. Gen. Terpna, H.-Sch. T. saturataria, Wlk., cannot be included in the Aus- tralian list at present. It may occur in Queensland, but Swin- hoe’s reference to Western Australia is almost certainly erroneous. —_ TERPNA UNITARIA, WI1k. (Tephrosia). Hypochroma acanthina, Meyr. I do not know this species. 282 TERPNA HYPOCHROMARIA, Gn. The male of this species has a small notch preceded by a small tuft of hairs on the dorsum of the antenna near its base. No doubt this is a scent-producing organ. Northern Queensland: Cape York. Queensland: Bris- bane, Toowoomba. New South Wales. Gen. STERICTOPSIS, Warr. Mr. Prout, who has examined the type of paratorna, Meyr., states (Gen. Ins. Hemith., p. 24) that it does not belong to’ this’ genus, for 10 is stalked with 7, 8, 9. It has scarcely any dorsal crests and the male antennal pectinations are short. Argyraspis, Low., is from the same locality pro- bably, and therefore may be identical with it. The two Gisborne examples, which I examined, agreed structurally with :nconsequens, Warr., which is from Duaringa, but I will not be sure that they are the same species. I accept, of course, Mr. Prout’s observations, but am unable for want of material to clear up the confusion, which at present un- doubtedly exists. ADDITIONAL LOCALITIES. Comostola laesaria, Wlk.—Q’land: Gayndah, Caloundra, Strad- broke Island, Mount Tambourine, Coolangatta, Rosewood, Toowoomba; N.S. Wales: Lismore. Pyrrhorhachis pyrrhogona, W1k.—Q’land: Gayndah, Rosewood. Chloéres citrolimbaria, Gn. —Q’land: Blackbutt, National Park (2-3,000' ft.).; N.S. Wales: Lismore, Port Hacking. Mixocera latilineata, Wlk.—Q’land: Gayndah, Caloundra, Too- woomba;, N.S. Wales : Lismore, Tabulam. Kuloxia meandraria, Gn.—N.S. Wales : Ebor, Mount Kosciusko (3,500-5,000 ft.). E. fugitivaria, Gn.—N.S. Wales: Glen Innes, Mount Kosciusko (5,000 ft.). ’ EK. pyropa, Meyr.—W. Austr.: Harvey. Chlorocoma cadmaria, Gn. —Q’land: Coolangatta; N.S. Wales: Glen Innes, . dichloraria, Gn.—Q’land: Brisbane, Blackbutt. . assimilis, Luc.—W. Austr. : Donnybrook. . externa, WIk. —Q’land : Toowoomba. . monocyma, Meyr.—S. Austr.: Port Augusta. . melocrossa, Meyr.—Q’land : Stradbroke Island. Coolangatta ; Tas. ? Hobart, Tasman Peninsula. Comibaena mariae, Luc.—Q’land: Gayndah, Rosewood, Too! woomba. Thalassodes veraria, Gn.—N. Terr.: Darwin; N.S. Wales: Lismore. Gelasma rhodocosma, Meyr.—N. Terr.: Darwin; N. Q’land: Cairns; Q’land: ’Gayndah. G. ocyptera, Meyr.—Q’land: Clermont, Gayndah, Toowoomba, Charleville. . G. albicosta, Wlk.—N. Terr.: Melville Island; N. Q’land: Cairns. eleleleke a) P| | | | 283 4 G. iosticta, Meyr.—N. Q’land: Herberton; Q’land: Stradbroke Island; N.S. Wales: Lismore. G. calaina, Turn.—Q’land: Montville (1,500 ft.) near Nambour, National Park (3,000 ft.), Toowoomba. G. centrophylla, Meyr. —N.S. Wales: Port Macquarie. G. floresaria, Wlk.—N. Q’land: Herberton. Hemithea insularia, Gn.—N. Terr.: Darwin. ' Metallochlora decorata, Warr.—N. ‘Qland: Hlorbes tow. M. venusta, Warr. _N. Q’land: Atherton. Urolitha bipunctifera, Wlk.—Q’land: Gayndah, Moawaomba: N.S. Wales: Lismore. Also from Lord Howe Island. Uliocnemis partita, Wlk.—N. Q’land: Claudie River. Eucyclodes pieroides, Wi1k.—N. Terr.: Darwin; N. Q’land, Cook- town, Cairns; Q’land: Gayndah, Coolangatta ; N.S. Wales : Lismore. KE. fascinans, Luc.—N.S. Wales: Lismore. E. insperata, Wlk.—Q’land: Toowoomba; N.S. Wales: Lismore. E. metaspila, Wik.—Q’land: Nambour, Mount Tambourine. E. buprestaria, Gn.—Q’land : Coolangatta ; Tas. : Cygnet. Chlorodes boisduvalaria, Le G.—N.S. Wales : Ebor; Tas.: Hobart. Agathia, laetata, Fab. —Q’land: Nambour, Rosewood ; N. S. Wales : Lismore. | Crypsiphona occultaria, Don.—N. Terr.: Darwin; Q’land: Too- woomba, Charleville; N.S. Wales: Lismore; Vict.: Birchip; Tas.: Tasman Peninsula, Cygnet. Pingasa ‘muscosaria, Gn.—Q’land: Nambour, Toowoomba; N.S. Wales: Lismore, Ebor, Albyn River. . emiliaria, Gn.—N.S. Wales: Lismore. . myriosticta, Turn.—N.S. Wales: Lismore. . erebata, Wlk.—N. Terr. : Darwin; Q’land: Vepoocn: Cal- oundra. . chlora, Cram.—Q’land: Coolangatta. cinerea, Warr.—Q’land: Nambour, Caloundra, Toowoomba. Bina metarhodata, Wlk.—Q’land: Gayndah. T. hypochromaria, Gn.—Q’land: Gayndah, Nanango, Toowoomba ; N.S. Wales: Lismore. T. quadrilinea, Luc.—Q’land: eos N.S. Wale Lismore, Port Macquarie. T. percomptaria, Gn.—Q’land: Poogoomba. huma subaurata, Wlk.—N.S. Wales: Taree. a ‘Heliomystis electrica, Meyr.—N.S. Wales: Mount Kosciusko . (5,000 ft.). | : Fam. BOARMIADAE. CLEORA LACTEATA, Warr. (Chogada). ‘| This name must be adopted for the species, which, follow- ing Meyrick, I have described under the name of wdlustraria, Wik. I have since examined the type of ilustraria and find that is referable to the species for which I have adopted the name acaciaria, Bdv. Also from New Guinea and New Britain. BoarRmia zascia, Meyr. Specimens from Armidale and Stanthorpe are much paler | than those from Victoria, the general coloration being ‘greyish, _ and the vertex of head is grey, but the face is always blackish. 12 284 Queensland : Stanthorpe, in October. New South Wales. Armidale. Victoria: Melbourne, Beaconsfield. BoaRMIA PANCONITA, Turn. Nearly allied to B. zascia. It is darker than the northern examples of this species, from which it may be always dis- tinguished by the lower part of the face being white, and by the crescentic discal mark on the hindwing. [The female example with wholly blackish face, which I formerly referred to this species, is an example of zascia.]| The Gayndah examples apparently represent a distinct local race. Queensland: Gayndah, Stanthorpe, in October. _ BOARMIA DESTINATARIA, Gn. Also allied to the two preceding species, and like them: variable, but readily ,distinguished by the paler suffused coloration more or less tinged with ochreous, and the absence of any black on the face. / & Queensland : Stanthorpe, in October. New South Wales: Ebor, Sydney, Katoomba. Tasmania. BOARMIA PISSINOPA, 0. sp. muowwros, black as pitch. 3,42mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax blackish. Antennal pectinations in male 10, apical ¢ simple. Abdomen on dorsum fuscous becoming blackish towards base; lower-surface, sides, and tuft grey-whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair grey. Forewings triangular, costa nearly straight, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique, slightly crenulate; blackish; markings intensely black; a fine trans- verse line from 4 ae bent strongly inwards beneath costa, and again bent to % dorsum ; a thicker oblique shade from mid-costa to dorsum before midule ; a transverse, median, subcostal discal mark; a slightly dentate line from 3 costa, strongly bent inwards to mid-dorsum; a faint, incomplete, dentate subterminal line; a fine terminal line; cilia dark fuscous. Huindwings with termen gently rounded, obtusely — dentate; as forewings but without first line, other lines trans- verse, gently rounded. In colour this species resembles Melanodes anthracitaria, Gn., and ‘both are adapted for concealment on tree-trunks blackened by fire. Western Australia: Perth, in October; one specimen. BoaRMIA MACULATA, Luc. Queensland: National Park (3,000 ft.), in March; a series taken at light. These agree with two examples from — >] 285 Kuranda which I have identified at maculata, Luc., in structure of male antennae, neuration (10 and 11 stalked, free; 6 males and 4 females), and markings, but they are larger (52-58 mm.) and much greener in coloration. ABRAXAS SPOROCROSSA, Nn. sp. o7TOpoKpog aos, with spotted border. 3,9, 46-50 mm. Head yellow with three fuscous dots on crown and sometimes another on face. Palpi fuscous, towards base yellowish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 4. Thorax fuscous; middle of patagia and two posterior dots yellow. Abdomen fuscous on dorsum; bases of segments broadly yellow, each yellow bar containing a pair of lateral spots ; ventral surface yellow with paired fuscous spots. Legs fuscous-grey ; coxae and posterior femora partly yellowish. Forewings triangular, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique; blackish; a yellow dot beneath costa near base, followed by a median whitish dot, which is some- times connected with a subcostal dot at 4, these are more or less yellow tinged; a quadrangular white spot beneath 4+ costa; a triangular blotch on mid-dorsum, its apex acute and reaching nearly to middle of disc; a white blotch beneath 2 costa, irregular in outline, reaching below middle of disc, convex posteriorly, concave and more or less wavy anteriorly, followed by a minute subcostal dot; a white dot before tornus, sometimes prolonged into disc; a subterminal series of six or seven small quadrangular white spots, the two central reduced to dots; cilia blackish. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; white; a triangular basal blackish blotch to +; a blackish terminal band containing a series of quad- rangular white dots; cilia blackish. Underside similar. Northern Queensland: Claudie River, in December; two specimens taken by Mr. J. A. Kershaw. Type in National Museum, Melbourne. Gen. XYLODRYAS, n. gen. EvAodpvas, a Woodnymph. Frons flat. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate, porrect; basa] and second joints shortly rough-scaled ; terminal joint short. Antennae in male simple, minutely ciliated. Thorax with a small posterior crest; slightly hairy beneath. Abdomen not crested. Femora smooth. Posterior tibiae in male not dilated. Forewings broadly triangular, costa strongly arched towards base, termen excavated between veins 4 and 6; in male without fovea; 2 from 2, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 10 connected with 8, 9 beyond 7, 11 connected with 286 12. Hindwings obtusely angled on veins 4 and 7; 2 from , 3 and 4 widely separate, 6 and 7 separate, 8 closely approxim- ated to cell to beyond middle. Type X. leptoxantha, which I formerly included, while pointing out the differences, with Coelocrossa, Turn. On reconsideration it appears to me generically distinct, and per- haps not closely allied. Apart from minor differences the structure of vein 8 of hindwings affords an important dis- tinction. I suspect some affinity with Lyellana, Turn., and Lophosema, Turn. I think this is probably, with a few other Geometridae, part of the aboriginal fauna of the Eastern Islands before they became part of the Australian continent. _ XYLODRYAS LEPTOXANTHA, Turn. I took one male on the wing by lantern light in the National Park, Queensland (2,500-3,000 ft.), in December. The species is not confined to the mountains, for I have received from Mr. G. N. Newman a very similar specimen taken at Rous, near Lismore, New South Wales. A second example taken in the National Park in March is a very dis- tinct aberration, purplish-grey, with faint lines, little irrora- tion, but a small whitish spot near base of forewing, and others near termen of both wings. BURSADA FLAVANNULATA, Warr. 3, 9, 24-30 mm. Head and thorax blackish; face and palpi ochreous-whitish or grey-whitish. Antennae blackish; pectinations in male 12, in female 4. Abdomen blackish; a transverse subbasal yellow or orange line on dorsum. Legs fuscous. Forewings triangular, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique; blackish; an oblique oval yellow or orange blotch extending from beneath 2 costa to above termen beyond tornus; cilia blackish. Huind- wings with termen rounded; yellow or orange; a blackish terminal band, sharply defined, broad at apex and tornus, narrower on mid-termen, ending rectangularly above tornus, but giving off a. subdorsal streak towards base; cilia blackish. Underside similar. Northern Queensland: Claudie River, in March; two specimens taken by Mr. J. A. Kershaw. Also from New Guinea. Gen. CLEPSIPHRON, n. gen. krAefippwv, deceiving. Frons flat. Tongue present. Palpi short, porrect, pro- jecting only slightly beyond frons; second joint shortly rough- scaled; terminal joint very short, depressed. Antennae in 287 male simple, minutely ciliated. Thorax and abdomen without crests; thorax smooth beneath. Femora smooth; all tibial | spurs present; inner twice as long as outer. Forewings with base of costa rounded; in male without fovea; 2, 3, 4 equi- distant, 5 from middle of cell, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 stalked from considerably before angle, 11 only short- stalked, connected first with 12 and then with stalk of 7, 8, 9, 10. Hindwings broad; cell about 2; 5 absent, 6 and 7 separate, the latter arising from shortly before angle, 8 con- nected with cell near base, thence diverging. A peculiar genus, but probably related to Peridelias, Turn., Aplochlora, Warr., and Parametrodes, Warr. CLEPSIPHRON CALYCOPIS, N. sp. KaAvkwris, roseate. 3, 20mm. Head ochreous-grey ; face with some reddish scales; posterior margin of eyes reddish. Palpi ochreous- whitish; second joint barred with reddish in middle and at apex. Antennae whitish-grey. Thorax purplish-grey. Abdomen reddish-grey ; tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs ochreous- whitish; anterior femora and tibiae reddish tinged; anterior tarsi fuscous tinged. Forewings broadly triangular, costa strongly rounded at base, thence slightly arched, apex rect- angular, costa not oblique, slightly sinuate; purple-fuscous ; base of costa purple; an ill-defined darker basal patch; an outwardly curved fuscous line from 4 costa to dorsum before middle, indistinct towards costa, towards dorsum well defined and mixed with orange; a line from #% costa, at first out- wardly curved, but bent inwards and then angled outwards above dorsum, ending on dorsum before tornus, orange be- coming fuscous towards costa; termen with a narrow, irregularly-indented, yellow margin; cilia pale yellow. Hind- wings with termen wavy and slightly angled on vein 4; purple-fuscous, the greater part of disc suffused with reddish and orange with small purple-fuscous strigulae; terminal _Margin and cilia as forewings. Underside grey with traces of whitish postmedian line, and with whitish terminal margin. Northern Queensland: Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in January; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. Type in Coll, Lyell. Gen. PIcROPHYLLA, n. gen. miKpopvaAdros, with pointed wings. Frons with an anterior tuft of scales. Tongue well ~ developed. Palpi rather short, porrect; second joint rough- haired; terminal joint short. Antennae of male simple, 288 ciliations minute. Thorax and abdomen without crests; thorax slightly hairy beneath. Femora smooth; posterior femora of male dilated with internal groove and tuft. Forewings in male without fovea; 10 and 11 long-stalked, 10 anastomosing with 8, 9 beyond 7. Hindwings with apex produced to a sharp point on vein 7; 3 and 4 approximated at origin; 6 and 7 separate, 7 arising before angle of cell, 8 closely ap- proximated to cell for nearly its whole length. : Probably allied to T'essarotis, Warr., which approaches it closely in wing shape, but has 10 and 11 arising separately. PICROPHYLLA HYLEORA, Nl. sp. vAnwpos, of the woods. 3, 9,40 mm. Head fuscous-brown. Palpi 14; fuscous- brown. Antennae ochreous-whitish, dorsum except towards apex suffused with fuscous-brown. Thorax brown-whitish; a postmedian pair of fuscous dots. Abdomen brown-whitish ; paired fuscous dots on dorsum of second and third segments. Legs whitish-ochreous speckled with dark fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex acute, produced, termen sinuate beneath apex, angled on vein 4, thence slightly concave to tornus; brown-whitish with sparsely scattered, dark-fuscous, transverse strigulae, more numerous on costa, towards base, and towards termen; a suffused fuscous line from 4 costa with two posterior teeth, beneath costa and in middle, obsolete towards dorsum; a fine, straight, fuscous- brown line from costa before apex to 4 dorsum, succeeded by a parallel row of fuscous dots; a dark-fuscous discal dot beneath 2 costa; cilia fuscous, on costa and from beneath apex to angle brown-whitish. Hindwings produced to a sharp point on vein 7, termen beneath this sinuate, thence nearly straight; as forewings with fewer strigulae; without first line; second line median ; a subterminal series of fuscous dots; cilia brown-whitish. Underside similar. Queensland: Eumundi, near Nambour, in January; National Park (3,000 ft.), in March; two specimens. CASBIA RHODOPTILA, Turn, In addition to the type I have now a female (26 mm.) from Northern Territory, Darwin (G. F. Hill) without spots on forewing; and a male (30 mm.) from Queensland, Strad- broke Island, in August, with discal dot, but without pos- terior spot. The reddish head and tegulae form a good distinguishing mark of this species. In all my three examples vein 11 of forewing anastomoses with 12. 289 IDIODES ARGILLINA, N. sp. apyAdwos, clay-coloured. 3, 44 mm. Head and thorax brown. Palpi about 1; brown. Antennae dark grey. Abdomen grey; dorsum brown towards base. Legs grey; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings broadly triangular, costa gently arched, apex obtusely pointed, termen slightly bowed, slightly oblique; brown with numerous fine transverse fuscous strigulae, these are most numerous on costa, present also towards margins, and across main veins; a large suffused fuscous blotch, its margins composed of coalesced strigulae, extends on costa from middle to apex, narrowing dorsally it terminates abruptly on vein 2; an in- distinct, very narrow, interrupted, pale, oblique line from apex, traversing the dark blotch towards # dorsum; cilia brown. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded; colour and strigulae as forewings, but without blotch; a suffused darker- brown line from mid-dorsum towards 4 costa; in this a small fuscous discal spot; cilia brown. Underside similar. Nearest J. ficteélis, Turn. Queensland: National Park (3,000-3,500 ft.), in January; one specimen. Gen XeENomusA, Meyr. Frons smooth, not projecting. Tongue well developed. Palpi short (1 or less), hairy beneath. Antennae in male simple or bipectinate. Thorax not crested; beneath hairy. Abdomen without crests. Femora smooth-scaled. Posterior tibiae with all spurs present; in male not dilated. Forewings with apex uncinate and slightly produced; cell over 4, dis- cocellulars nearly straight, or inwardly curved, 2 from 3, 3 and 4 separate, 5 from or from above middle, rather weakly developed, 6 separate or short-stalked, 10 from cell or short- stalked wut 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 free. Hindwings with 2 from 2 or 3, 3 and 4 separate, 5 obsolete or weakly developed, 6 and 7 separate, 12 closely approximated to cell as far as middle. Meyrick placed this among the Oenochromidae. In X. metallica, vein 5 of hindwings is obsolete, being concealed in a fold of the wing membrane; in X. rubra it is present, but weak. I think the two must be regarded as congeneric in spite of this and the difference in antennal structure. X. monoda, the type species, I have seen, but have no specimens for examination. The genus should be placed, I think, in Boarmiadae, of which it is a primitive form. In X. rubra a forked median vein is plainly visible in the cell. 290 XENOMUSA METALLICA, Luc. 3, 34 mm.; 9, 40-45 mm. Head brownish or grey; two whitish spots or a white line on lower edge of face. Palpi in male 4, in female #; whitish or whitish-ochreous, apex blackish. Antennae grey; in male simple, minutely ciliated. Thorax brownish or grey. Abdomen brownish or — grey with sparsely scattered blackish scales. Legs ochreous- whitish ; tibiae and tarsi annulated with dark fuscous. Fore- wings elongate-triangular, narrower in male, costa bisinuate, more strongly so in male, apex uncinate, produced, termen bowed, oblique; 10 short-stalked (1 male and 7 females) ; brownish or grey usually with sparsely scattered blackish scales; usually a whitish-ochreous spot on base of costa; a fuscous or brownish line from 4 costa very obliquely ‘out- wards, sharply angled beneath costa, thence very obliquely inwards to dorsum near base; a similar line, posteriorly edged with whitish, from beneath costa before apex, nearly straight, to dorsum before middle; usually a minute, blackish, median, discal dot beneath costa; apex fuscous preceded by whitish ; a short oblique line or fuscous shade from apex to beneath second line; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen very slightly rounded, tornus prominent; colour and cilia as fore- wings; a straight transverse brownish or fuscous line at 4; a white, median, discal dot. Northern Queensland: Kuranda, in April; one male. Queensland: Montville, near Nambour, in March; Brisbane, in January and March; seven females. XENOMUSA RUBRA, Luc. 2, 50 mm. Head pale reddish; face reddish-orange. Palpi bs; Podge Puree. Antennae reddish-orange; in female shortly bipectinate (14), apical 4 simple. Thorax pale reddish. Abdomen ochreous. Legs ae ochreous. Forewings tri- angular, costa gently bisinuate, apex produced, slightly uncinate, termen sinuate, oblique; 10 from cell; reddish- orange without markings; cilia reddish-orange. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded, tornus rather prominent; as forewings. My description is taken from Dr. Lucas’ type, which is in my possession, and still, I believe, remains unique. Queensland: Brisbane. Gen. Dirce, Prout. Oenone, Meyr., pracocc. ; This genus must be transferred to the Boarmiadae, for descaling shows that vein 5 of the hindwings is absent. ‘Pre- vious authors have been deceived by the presence of a 291 persistent fold of the wing-membrane in the normal position of this vein. On the other hand, Diceratucha, Swin., has vein 5 of hindwings sufficiently well developed, and must be retained in the Oenochromidae. The two genera agree in the neura- | tion of the forewing, in which the areole is of a primitive form, and no doubt there is real relationship between them. In fact, the latter genus is probably very near the point, where the primitive stem of the Boarmiadae diverged from the Oenochromidae. I can see no valid grounds for the conjectures of Meyrick and Prout for any near relationship to Brephos, which has completely lost the areole. Its points of resemblance to Dirce are merely superficial (general hairiness and colour scheme) and adaptational. MHairiness is a common character in genera of mountain localities, and is probably a protection against the dampness of mountain mists. _DrIRcE AESIODORA, 0. sp. ductodwpos,a fortunate gift. 36,9, 26-30 mm. Head blackish with a white central spot on crown; face white, hairs on margins blackish. Palpi projecting somewhat beyond frons; white; some hairs, apex of second joint, and whole of terminal joint blackish. Antennae blackish; in male thickened, serrate, and minutely ciliated. Thorax blackish irrorated with whitish. Abdomen dark fus- cous; irroration, apices of segments, and some hairs in tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs blackish; tibiae and tarsi annulated with white; posterior pair whitish on posterior surface. Fore- wings triangular, costa arched near base, thence slightly sinuate, apex rectangular, termen slightly bowed, not oblique; blackish mixed with grey and white; markings white; a basal spot; a bar from costa near base uniting with another from costa at 4+, to form a fascia, which extends on dorsum from near base to 4, and is sharply toothed posteriorly above dorsum ; two suffused spots on dorsum before and after middle, the first larger and produced across disc towards costa; a spot - on mid-costa; a narrow fascia from # costa to ? dorsum, pos- teriorly suffused, anteriorly sharply defined, with a circular anterior process containing a central blackish dot beneath costa; a slender, interrupted, subterminal line; a series’ of wedge-shaped black marks beyond this, separated in female by some whitish suffusion ; terminal edge blackish ; cilia blackish barred with white. Hindwings with termen rounded; blackish with a large central orange blotch, sometimes preceded by a small triangular spot near base; cilia orange barred with blackish, on apex and costa blackish. Underside pale orange ; forewings with basal patch, oblique median fascia, costal spot 292 and terminal fascia blackish; hindwings with oblique fascia from + costa to mid-dorsum, and broad band from costa before middle around apex and termen to tornus. Tasmania: Cradle Mountain (3,000-3,500 ft.), in January ; four specimens received from Dr. R. J. Tillyard. Fam. OENOCHROMIDAE. OENOCHROMA LISSOSCIA, N. sp. Aurcooxos, smoothly shaded. Q, 46-48 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax grey. Antennae dark grey. Abdomen grey with a few blackish scales; under- surface reddish. Legs grey, partly reddish tinged ; tarsi fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa bisinuate, apex acute, termen strongly bowed, becoming straight towards tornus; grey with a few scattered blackish scales; some fine fuscous-brown transverse strigulae from basal half of costa; a fuscous-brown suffusion on costa from middle nearly to apex, leaving costal edge for a short distance at about # whitish; a fine blackish line from costa shortly before apex to 2 dorsum, outwardly bowed in middle, towards dorsum preceded by a fuscous-brown parallel line, costal half edged posteriorly by whitish, which extends to apex; some grey-brown suffusion on termen, preceded in middle by a suffused blackish spot; cilia fuscous-brown. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded, tornus prominent, rectangular; as forewings but with blackish line antemedian, straight, preceded by a fuscous-brown line, which diverges somewhat towards costa; no subterminal spot. Underside similar; but forewings with a blackish spot on costa near apex, with two blackish dots on veins beneath it, and no brownish suffusion ; disc purplish tinged with darker median transverse line; hindwings with a purplish antemedian fascia; posteriorly to this brownish, with suffused reddish subterminal spot between veins 3 and 4. : Exceptional in the genus is that veins 10 and 11 of forewings arise separately from the cell. Queensland : National Park (3,000 ft.), in March; three - specimens taken at light. OENOCHROMA ARTIA, 0. Sp. dptios, perfect. g, 38 mm. Crown of head yellow with a dark-reddish anterior line; face whitish. Palpi whitish with a few crimson scales. Antennae brownish-ochreous; pectinations in male 1}. Thorax pale green; bases of patagia yellow; pectus whitish, margin of eyes and forewings ochreous-yellow. Abdomen whitish. Legs whitish irrorated with crimson. Forewings pe 3 293 triangular, costa straight, apex pointed, termen nearly straight, oblique; pale green; a yellow line along costa to #; an oblique yellow line from mid-dorsum, moderately broad, but narrowing to extremity, which hes just beneath 2 costa; terminal edge whitish; cilia pale yellow. Hindwings with termen rounded; whitish; a yellowish suf- | fusion on mid-dorsum giving rise to a short transverse line ; a greenish suffusion on dorsum before tornus; a large round brownish-ochreous subtornal blotch; cilia whitish, around tornus yellow. Underside of forewings similar to upperside, but paler and without oblique line; of hindwings greenish- white, tornal blotch anteriorly orange, posteriorly deep _ crimson. Western Australia: Dardanup, in October; one specimen _ received from Mr. G. F. Berthoud. Type in Coll. Lyell. Gen. Noreia, WIk. NoREIA LOXxosTICHA, Turn. (Idiodes). | I have since received a male example, which shows a ® small hairy tuft on underside of hindwing over vein 2, and _ has the posterior tibiae dilated with internal groove and tuft. The species has some close allies in the Indo-Malayan region, and I will not be sure of its distinctness. Northern Queensland: Kuranda in April and May; two specimens received from Mr. F.-P. Dodd. Gen. CELERENA, Walk. Face smooth. Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate, porrect; second joint shortly rough-haired; terminal joint short, with smoothly adpressed hairs. Antennae rather more than 4; in male shortly ciliated, usually with a small tuft of scales about middle, beyond this with moderately long bristles. Thorax densely hairy beneath, usually with an expansile posterior tuft of hairs. Abdomen of male usually with a basal tuft of long hairs on under-surface. Femora densely hairy. Posterior tibiae of male dilated with inner expansile tuft of hairs, long crooked median spurs, inner terminal spur only, its apex prolonged into a strong outer horny process. Forewings in male with a deep basal furrow beneath in cell: 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 and 11 stalked, their stalk anas- | tomosing strongly with 12, 10 connected with 8, 9. Hind- wings with 5 from above middle of cell, 6 and 7 separate, 8 moderately remote from cell, connected with it by an _ oblique bar near base. Type C. divisa, Wlk. An Indo-Malayan genus which is § rather largely represented in New Guinea. 294 } CELERENA GRISEOFUSA, Warr. 3, 52 mm. Head yellow. Palpi yellow; apex of terminal joint fuscous. Antennae fuscous; in male minutel ciliated, apical 4 with moderately long bristles (14). Thorax . grey, anteriorly suffused with ochreous. Abdomen grey, sides | and under-surface ochreous. Legs grey; coxae and under- surface of posterior tibiae pale ochreous; first joint of pos- terior tibiae with an internal hairy tuft. Forewings tri- — angular, costa straight to #, thence arched, apex round- pointed, termen straight, oblique; grey with some yellow suffusion, most marked in costal half of cell; an incomplete narrow yellow fascia from 2 costa, outwardly oblique, inter- rupted in middle, then curved slightly inwards, and not reaching tornus; a band of yellow suffusion posterior and parallel to this; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; yellow; a moderate grey terminal band edged anteriorly by a blackish line and suffusedly prolonged along dorsum for some distance; cilia grey. Underside of forewings dark fuscous with a moderate yellow postmedian fascia not reaching: tornus; of hindwings yellow with a dark-fuscous terminal band. Northern Queensland: Claudie River, in March; one specimen taken by Mr. J. A. Kershaw. Also from New Guinea (Fergusson Island). Fin pine 295 THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF NUYT’S ARCHIPELAGO AND THE INVESTIGATOR GROUP. NO. 4-COLEOPTERA. By Artuvr M. Lra, F.E.S., Museum Entomologist. Contribution from the South, Australian Museum. [Read September 14, 1922. ] Puate XIII. The small but interesting collection of Coleoptera here dealt with was obtained on the islands by Prof. F. Wood Jones, and presented to the South Australian Museum. As _ he was specially interested in the mammals, and had but a short time on each island, the time available to colléct insects was always small, and those obtained are mostly sand- frequenting species, taken on or near beaches, and usually of wide distribution in Australia; even the new species, at present known only from the islands, will probably be eventually found on the mainland. Some of the Tene- brionidae were sent to Mr. H. J. Carter, for his opinion, and his descriptions of two new species are incorporated. CARABIDAE. Ectroma benefica, Newm. Numerous specimens of a pale variety of this species were obtained in rats’ nests on Franklin Island. Scopodes sigillatus, Germ. Six unusually small speci- mens were taken on Franklin Island. Lecanomerus flavocinctus, Blackb. Flinders Island. STAPHYLINIDAE. Hyperomma lacertinum, Fvl. This curious wingless species was previously known only from King George Sound. Prof. Wood Jones took one specimen on Franklin Island and Sir J. C. Verco another on St. Francis Island. SCYDMAENIDAE. Scydmaenus franklinensis, n. sp. . 3d. Bright castaneous, palpi and tarsi paler. Head and prothorax (except in middle) with fairly long and somewhat _ golden, or pale reddish hairs, similar but sparser hairs on elytra, but fairly numerous about base; under-surface with short pubescence. Head rather small; with sparse and small, but (when not concealed by clothing) sharply defined punctures. Eyes small 296 and prominent. Antennae rather long and thin; club four- jointed, its first joint scarcely longer than the preceding one but distinctly wider, apical joint almost as long as two pre- ceding combined. Prothorax moderately long, front parts : gently convex, flattened about base, each side of base with a transverse semidouble fovea; with minute scattered punc- tures. Elytra subovate, widest just before the middle, where they are about twice the width of prothorax, a fairly large impression on each side of base; with sparse, indistinct punc- tures. Subapical segment of abdomen incurved in middle of apex, the incurvature bounded on each side by a slight pro- jection. Front femora stout, the middle and hind ones pedunculate, front trochanters dentate. Length, 1°25-1°5 mm. @. Differs in having antennae shorter, elytra shorter and wider, abdomen simple, front trochanters unarmed, and front tibiae thinner and less curved at the tip. Hab.—South Australia: Franklin Island (Prof. F. Wood Jones). Type, I. 15360. . Almost the exact size of S. parramattensis, but more uniformly coloured, clothing different and club thinner; about the length of S. brevipilis, but narrower, club thinner and elytral clothing different. Of the species previously known from South Australia, S. depressus is much smaller, with wider elytra, shorter antennae, etc.; S. griffith: and S. fuscipalpis are much smaller, narrower, and darker, etc., and: S. impavidus has wider and glabrous elytra, etc. From some directions the hairs appear to form a loose fascicle on each side at the base of the head. When viewed at a right angle the armature of the male abdomen is inconspicuous, but when viewed from in front the projections appear as small subconical tubercles. DERMESTIDAE. Dermestes cadaverinus, Fab. Franklin Island. D. vidginus, Fab. Franklin Island. SCARABAEIDAE. Pimelopus dubius, Blackb. Franklin Island. P. porcellus, Er. Flinders Island. TENEBRIONIDAE. - Saragus posidonius Carter, n. sp Oval, convex, nitid black, oral organs, antennae and tarsi castaneous. Head finely punctate, antennae with joint 3 half as long again as 4, 8-11 as wide as long; epistoma a little incurved in 7 } i } | } 297 front. Prothorax moderately convex, subtruncate at apex be- tween the widely rounded anterior angles, foliate margins wide, sides arcuately diverging from apex to base, posterior angles produced and falcate; disc minutely punctate, the foliation concave with a strongly recurved border. Elytra almost as wide as long (9x8 mm.), convex, horizontal margin moder- ately wide at base, narrowing at apex; irregularly, coarsely substriate- _punctate, both rows, and punctures in rows closely placed, the punctures smaller and sometimes discontinuous near suture, larger and more regular towards sides, each 4 rows bounded by a costate interval, with a less raised and more irregular costa half-way between each of these— the suture also costate—a lateral row of larger punctures, the explanate margins slightly wrinkled. Prosternum and episterna finely pustulose, abdomen striolate. Legs moder- ately long, tibiae with margins entire, terminal spines short, fore tarsi with basal joints wide. Dimensions, 12x 8 mm. Hab.—Neptune Island. Two examples show a species nearest to S. carinatus, Breme, but of smaller size and stronger sculpture. In con- vexity and style of sculpture it is suggestive of S. brunnipes, Boisd., but the punctures are coarser, the costae more pro- nounced, and the foliation of pronotum and elytra wider than in that species. The name suggests its habitat. Type, I. 15356. Saragus oleatus Carter, n. sp. Pl. xiii., fig. 1. Widely oval, convex, brilliantly nitid black, oral organs, antennae and tarsi castaneous. Head minutely, sparsely punctate, epistoma truncate, antennae with joint 3 proportionately shorter than in posidonius. Prothorax very convex and mirror like, apex narrowly arcuate, the anterior angles more squarely rounded, the posterior more acute, the foliate margins narrower and more deeply hollowed, the. sides less strongly arched, the recurved border considerably thicker than in the preceding species; disc submicroscopically punctate. Elytra nearly as wide as long (8x7; mm.), very convex, lateral margin nar- rower than in the preceding ; coarsely and unevenly striate- punctate, the 4 sutural rows of large punctures on each tending to confluence, rows 5 and 6, also 7 and 8, delimited by three costate intervals ; beyond these the seriate punctures “uneven in size, the intervals irregularly convex, the suture carinate throughout ; a lateral row of large punctures. Pro- sternum finely pustulose at sides, abdomen striolate. Legs shorter than in S. posidonius. Dimensions, 11x 74 mm. Hab.—Pearson Island. Type, I. 15357. 298 I have examined three examples of this species, which is more closely allied to S. brunnipes, Boi., then the pre- - ceding, but with a similar style of sculpture. It is remark- able for the apparently highly varnished surface, its polished and convex pronotum, coarsely punctate elytra with its irregular series and costate intervals. Wider and more convex than S. brunnipes; it is narrower and less convex than S. sphaeroides and S. french. Saragus brunnipes, Boi. Four specimens from South Neptune Island represent a rather coarsely punctate variety of this species. The species was also taken on Black Rocks. Pterohelaeus simplicicollis, Blackb. One specimen from Franklin Island, and another from St. Francis Island, iden- tified by Mr. Carter as probably belonging to this species. . PB. mtidissemus, Pasc. A single specimen from Flinders Island noted by Mr. Carter as having seriate punctures on elytra a little larger than on the typical form. P. ovalis, Blackb. St. Francis Island. Helaeus modicus,. Blackb. A very interesting series of 33 specimens was taken on Franklin Island, ranging in length from 18 to 25 mm. Of these 14 have the curved portion on the left of the apex of the thorax on top of the right portion, and 16 have the right on top of the left; the difference is not sexual; on three the curved parts do not touch, being separated about half a millimetre. The species was also taken on: Goat Island (pl. xii., fig. 2). H. castor, Pasc. Franklin Island. Brises duboulayi, Bates. Franklin Island. Micrectyche nana, Pasc. A specimen from Franklin Island, identified by Mr. Carter as probably belonging to this species. . Caediomorpha heteromera, King. Black Rocks, St. Francis, Flinders, and Franklin Islands. Hyocis bakewelli, Pasc., var. pallida, Macl. St. Francis Island. Trachyscelis ciliaris, Champ. Franklin, Hyre, and Flin- ders Islands. Cestrinus aspersus, Blackb. Franklin Island. ANTHICIDAE. Anthicus strigosus, n. sp. Pl xt. 3. Head and prothorax dark reddish-brown, elytra almost black, legs, antennae and palpi more or less reddish, tarsi paler. Elytra moderately clothed with pale, subdepressed pubescence. 299 Head moderately large, parallel-sided for a short distance behind eyes, and then hind angles rather strongly rounded ; with crowded and small punctures, many of which are longi- tudinally confluent; with a narrow and continuous shining median line. Eyes small, medio-lateral and very prominent. Antennae rather long. Prothorax very little longer than wide, sides strongly rounded, but suddenly narrowed near base; densely and finely longitudinally strigose. Elytra elongate-elliptic, shoulders completely rounded off; with not very dense and rather small, but sharply defined punctures, becoming very small posteriorly. Legs moderately long. _ Length, 2-2°25 mm. Hab.—South Australia: Port Lincoln (Rev. T. Black- burn), Eyre Island (Prof. F. Wood Jones). Type, I. 15278. The prothorax is deeply striated and the head has a shining median line as in A. intricatus, but it is larger than that species and very differently coloured; the elytra at first appear to be uniformly coloured, but in certain lights the base and a postmedian space appear to be very feebly diluted with red. The apical half of the femora is darker than the basal half, on the specimen from the island being distinctly infuscated. The species is probably apterous. A specimen from the Swan River (taken by Mr. J. Clark from a tussock of grass) probably represents a variety of the species ; it differs from the type in having the head and pro- thorax paler (of a rather dark blood-red colour) and the elytra uniformly pale castaneous; the median line on the head is narrower (it almost vanishes in its middle), the elytral punc- tures are larger, and the elytral pubescence is longer and more upright. CURCULIONIDAE. Timareta crinita, Pasc. Numerous specimens, agreeing well with others from Western Australia, were obtained on Flinders and St. Francis Islands. On many of them the prothorax has denser scales, forming a fairly conspicuous vitta near each side; on the elytra the scales are condensed into numerous spots, elsewhere they thinly cover the surface and they are often absent from about the punctures, in conse- quence the elytra to the naked eye have a distinctly spotted appearance, although the scales are nearly always of a snowy whiteness (except that on the suture they are slightly darker), the place just beyond the incurved pogtion of the hind tibiae of the male is more densely clothed with long hair than else- where, and the middle of the incurved part appears very thin from some directions. 300 Timareta hamata, n. sp. Pl. xiii., fig. 4. 3. Black, antennae and tarsi reddish. Densely clothed with small round greyish scales, closely adpressed to derm, and with numerous irregular whitish spots; with numerous pale, suberect setae on prothorax, and forming a regular line on each elytral interstice, sides and legs with longer hairs. Head with dense normally concealed punctures. Antennae long and thin, scape the length of front tibiae. Prothorax slightly longer than wide, sides strongly rounded, apex nar- rower than base, with dense normally concealed punctures. Elytra with shoulders strongly rounded, sides widest at about basal fifth, thence almost evenly narrowed to apex; with regular rows of large punctures, appearing much smaller through scales; interstices with dense and minute normally ee B D oe ibe Hind tibiae of He hamata, Lea, from i Le of view and unclothed; C D, T. incisipes, Lea; E F, 7. pilosa. Blackb!.°G H, 7: crinita, Pase. ; 1a ed figurata, Pasc. ; K L, front tibiae of T. incisipes, Lea. concealed punctures. Under-surface with dense punctures of two sizes, the larger ones scarcely concealed; abdomen with basal segment, widely concave in middle. Front tibiae arched near apex, the apex triangularly dilated on inner side; hind tibiae narrowed near apex, but apex itself much thickened and hooked, with a conspicuous fascicle of long hairs on tip of the hook. Length, 6-7 mm. Q. Differs in being wider and more convex, antennae shorter, seriate punctures of elytra smaller, basal segment of abdomen gently convex, front tibiae shorter and scarcely arched near apex, hind: tibiae shorter and thicker, apex itself wider but not hooked or fasciculate. Hab.—South Australia: Flinders Island (Prof. F. Wood Jones). Type, I. 15256. At first glance apparently like small specimens of T. pilosa, but at once distinguished by the hind tibiae of the males (compare figs. A B with E F). T. pustulosa has some- what similar ones, but the front tibiae are less swollen towards 301 base and the elytra are very different. Parts of the under- surface and of the femora and tibiae are more or less obscurely reddish on some specimens, but on most of them those parts (except as to their clothing) are black or blackish. The white spots are most numerous on the sides and apical slope of the elytra, where they are often accentuated by the adjacent scales being more or less sooty; on the prothorax the white scales usually form a distinct stripe towards each side, and parts of a median line, on the head and rostrum the scales are usually entirely white; on some specimens some small patches of scales are shining. Timareta incisipes, n. sp. Pl. xiii., fig. 5. 3. Black or blackish, antennae and tarsi reddish. With dense, small, round scales closely adpressed to derm; with numerous subdepressed setae on prothorax, and forming a regular row on each elytral interstice. Head, prothorax, elytra, and under-surface as described in preceding species. Front tibiae trisinuate on lower surface, the sinus near apex appearing as a conspicuous notch; hind tibiae with a deep notch near apex, the notch with long hairs about it. Length, 5-6 mm. Q. Differs in being rather more robust, antennae and legs shorter, tibiae not notched and abdomen convex. Hab.—South Australia: St. Francis, Eyre, and Franklin Islands (Prof. F. Wood Jones). Type, I. 15257. The. body parts of this, the preceding species, and of T. crumta and T. mlosa are much alike, and the females are difficult to satisfactorily distinguish; but the males may be quickly identified by the hind tibiae alone; on the present species the front tibiae as well as the hind ones, are notched. On several specimens the under-surface, tibiae, and even occasionally the elytra, are obscurely reddish. The scales are scarcely alike on any two of the 18 specimens before me; they are usually of a pale slaty-brown, with more or less large patches, or numerous sooty spots, interspersed with white or bluish-white spots; on the prothorax the white scales form irregular lateral vittae; on an occasional specimen the scales are mostly sooty-brown, with numerous bluish-white spots; on one they are whitish obscurely mottled with pale brown; on two specimens many of the scales have a soft golden lustre; many specimens have an ochreous spot on the forehead. The setae on the shoulders are longer than on other parts of the elytra, but they are not of the great length of some of the sand-frequenting species. The tibiae of both : 302 sexes are each tipped with a conspicuous comb-like fringe of setae, as they are on most species of the genus. Otiorhynchus cribricollis, Gyll. Black Rocks. Mandalotus tenuwicorns, Lea. Black Rocks. M. ventralis, Blackb. Flinders Island. Perperus languidus, Er. Flinders Island. Zephryne, sp. One specimen of a species evidently near Z. geometrica was obtained on Franklin Island; but as the colours of species of the genus vary considerably, it is not desirable to name an unique. Desiantha. maculata, Blackb. St. Francis Island. Eloeagna squamibunda, Pase. St. Francis and Franklin Islands. | Halorhynchus caecus, Woll. Two specimens of this curious little blind species were taken on Flinders Island ; it was named originally from Western Australia, but has been taken on Kangaroo Island and on beaches near Adelaide. Pentarthrocis, n gen. Head rather small. Eyes very small, composed of a few coarse facets. Rostrum moderately long, slightly in- curved between base and insertion of antennae, in front of antennae slightly wider and parallel-sided. Antennae rather short; funicle the length of scape, first joint slightly longer than second and third combined, third shortest of all; club indistinctly jointed. Prothorax rather elongate, sides gently rounded, base wider than apex. Scutellum invisible. Elytra elongate, with rows of large punctures in regular striae. Meta- sternum elongate. Abdomen with third and fourth segments very short, the others large. Legs rather stout; front tibiae with small subapical spur, and large terminal hook; tarsi with third joint moderately dilated, the clawjoint rather long and thin. Of the Australian genera with the funicle five-jointed the present genus is distinguished from Cossonideus by the small eyes; Halorhynchus is blind; Pentamimus and Pentarthrum have much shorter rostrum with much larger eyes; Conlonia has thinner rostrum, more parallel-sided body, and seriate arrangement of the elytral punctures (themselves much smaller) scarcely in evidence; and Microcossonus has much larger eyes, scutellum conspicuous, etc. In catalogues it should be placed near Pentarthrum. The only known species has somewhat fusiform outlines, and straggling hairs on the sides; its rostrum has a slight resemblance to that of some species of Cossonus. 303 ; Pentarthrocis ammophilus, 0. §p. Pl. xiii., fig. 6. Dark piceous-brown, elytra sometimes dark castaneous. Some long straggling hairs on sides of prothorax and of elytra, and some shorter ones on under-surface and legs. Head smooth, convex, and with sparse and minute punc- tures. Rostrum about twice as long as its apical width; with rather sparse and small but distinct punctures, becoming more numerous about apex. Prothorax with sides evenly rounded and gently increasing in ‘width from apex to about basal fourth, and then decreasing to base; with sharply defined, fairly large and numerous but not crowded punctures on upper-surface, denser and larger on sides. LElytra at base wider than base of prothorax, shoulders strongly rounded, sides gently rounded and widest at about middle; with rows of large, regular punctures, in rather deep striae; interstices evenly convex, and each with a row of minute punctures. Sterna and two basal segments of abdomen with coarse punc- tures, smaller and more crowded ,on apical segment, and absent from the third and fourth. Length (excluding rostrum), 2°75-3°25 mm. Hab.—South Australia: St. Franics Island (Prof. F. Wood Jones); Western Australia: Geraldton (A. M. Lea). Type, I. 15304. Some specimens are almost uniformly coloured through- out, but on others the. elytra, club, and sometimes parts of the legs are slightly paler. On the male there is a wide shallow depression on the two basal segments of abdomen, on the female those segments are flat in the middle. All the specimens were obtained at the roots of beach-growing plants. sid COCCINELLIDAE. Scymnus flavifrons, Blackb. One specimen taken from a rat’s nest on Franklin Island. Rhizobius ruficollis, Blackb. Black Rocks. —_—_- ' DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIII. Saragus oleatus, Carter. Helaeus modicus, Blackb. Anthicus strigosus, Lea. Timareta hamata, Lea. T. incisipes, Lea. Pentarthrocis ammophilus, Lea. Fig. DO 99 PO 304 CYLINDRO-CONICAL AND CORNUTE STONES FROM THE DARLING RIVER AND COOPER CREEK, By Ropert Puuuerne, M.B., Cu.M. [Read September 14, 1922.| PuateE XIV. LITERATURE. Apart from a few records of exhibition of single speci- mens of these stones at scientific meetings, the first extended account is by :— 1. WaLtER R. Harper, “‘A Description of Certain Objects of Unknown Significance formerly used by some New South Wales Tribes’’ (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. 23, 1898, pp. 420-436, pls. xii.-xviii.). 2. R. H. Matuews, L.S., contributed a paper to Sec- tion F at the Brisbane meeting of the Australian Association for Advancement of Science, 1909, entitled: ‘‘Some Rock Pictures and Ceremonial Stones of the Australian A borigines’’ (Proc., pp. 493-498). 3. Ropert ETHERIDGE, JUN., in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, Ethnological Series, No. 2, on ‘‘The Cylindro-Conical and Cornute Stone Imple- ments of Western New South Wales and their Significance’ (pp. 1-41, pl. ix.), gives a full account of all known to that date on the subject, with an analysis, illustrations of many specimens, and a map of distribution. 4. Eytmann, “Die Eingeborenen der Kolonie Siid- australien,’’ taf. xxxi., f. 1910, figures a single specimen from Cooper Creek with short reference. The early explorers of New South Wales do not mention these stones, and it is especially singular that neither Howitt nor Gason, who wrote exhaustively on the natives of the areas in which these objects occur, refer to them in any form. Howitt’s great work is so exhaustive that if anything had been known about the use of these stones it would certainly have not escaped his notice. Mr. Simpson Newland, who lived on the Paroo River from 1861 to 1876, tells me that the stones were present on his station, but that the natives, then very numerous, took no notice of them, neither using them nor avoiding them in any way, and had no name for them. 305 Mr. John Conrick, of Nappa Merrie, Cooper Creek, where several have been found, tells me that, although he has lived there since the early seventies, he has never seen them used or noticed by natives, and that they are known there simply by the name of ‘‘Moora.” Now the word “Moora,’’ in Gason’s Vocabulary of the Dieri of Cooper Creek, gives the meaning as Creator or Good Spirit, and as “Moora Moora’’ is frequently mentioned in legends (re- counted by Howitt), Sir J. G. Fraser, in his ‘‘Totemism and Exogamous Marriage,’’ vol. 1, points out that Gason’s mean- ing is erroneous, and that ‘‘Moora Moora’’ were ‘‘nothing more than the legendary predecessors or prototypes of the Dieri,’’ comparable to the Alcheringa ancestors of the Arunta of Central Australia. The significance of the foregoing seems to be that the objects in question are of such antiquity that their origin and use are lost in the past, as regards the present aborigines, and that any explanations they try to give are purely imaginary. Such explanations as these:—(1) Of use in tooth avulsion ceremonies (3, p. 14); (2) as a fetish to procure a good supply of snakes, given to Gregory (3, p. 14); (3) cere- monial use in connection with nardoo harvest (2, p. 497); (4) bora message stones (3, p. 12), show what various accounts aborigines will give in their desire to impart information. I think, therefore, that we may conclude that the aborigines have no knowledge, even traditional, of the origin and uses of the objects in question. Etheridge (3) carefully considers the ten suggested uses and narrows the probabilities down to one or two. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. At present some two to three hundred of these stones exist in Museum and other collections in Australia, besides many reported to have been sent to Germany from Menindie some years ago. There is no note of them in available German ethnological literature. z They are all of the same character—cylindrical from 5 to 30 inches in length, mostly cupped at the base and composed of clay, kopi, sandstone, slate, or hard quartzite. Some are curved to form the Cornute form. The raw material from which they have been shaped comes from the outcrops at some distance from the alluvial area where they are mostly found, on claypans or in the blown sandhills. Sir Douglas Mawson says, for instance, that the slate must have come from as far away as Cobar or Broken Hill. Those of kopi are made from gypsum, with or without an admixture of clay, and are sometimes quite friable on the surface. The section is nearly always approximately circular. 306 MARKINGS. A large proportion of the stones examined present mark- ings, especially the softer ones. The hard quartzite specimens seldom, or never, exhibit them. The most common form of marking is what we might call ‘‘tally marks’’—small incisions, single, in pairs, threes, or in linear series. There may be as few as six, or as many as several hundreds. In one specimen (1, pls. xiii. and, xiv.) linear series of these marks have been scored through by paired, parallel, longi- tudinal marks, while other series are unscored. It is hardly ‘to be doubted that these are actually tallies recording a number of objects or events. The keeping of tallies for various purposes is well known as occurring amongst Aus- tralian aborigines, and not unknown even amongst Europeans. “Broad arrow’? marks occur, and it is highly probable that these, as in rock carvings and paintings, indicate emu feet or even tracks [see illustration of rock carvings on Burnett River (2)|. Their use on the cylindrical stones is a mystery, unless we consider them the most frequent and most easily executed form of aboriginal decoration. Circular markings may occur along the length of the stone, or several may be present at the pointed end |[fig. 1, the Praeputial Rings’’ of Etheridge (3)]. These, apart from the hooks and stars (1, pl. xili.), certainly variants of the emu track marks, exhaust the forms of sculpture observed on the cylinders. Now the assigned uses of these stones are many and various, and have been discussed at length by Etheridge (3, pp. 3-18). He dismisses them all except one, or possibly two, as untenable. While on the slender evidence admitting the possibility of the snake-fetish theory, he holds the Phallic theory to be more tenable, in which view he is supported by the authority of the late Sir Edward Stirling, F.R.S., and Prof. J. W. Gregory. While direct evidence is unfortunately wanting, and@ Gason in his account of the circumcision cere- mony of the Dieri tribe expressly omits details, he would certainly have mentioned objects so striking if they had been in common use. It would be well if we could follow up this theory and see if there is any indirect evidence to support it. The shape of the stones is at least suggestive, and Phallicism is a widespread cult among primitive peoples, the world over, and not unknown in higher civilizations. Schliemann, in Ilios, figures several objects in stone and marble found during excavations at ancient Troy, which he supposes to be phalli or priapi. One of those figured on p. 452, No. 682, bears a striking resemblance to the one figured (fig. 1), even to the praeputial rings. The likeness 307 may only be accidental, and the marble object of the ancient Trojans may have been misidentified, still I mention the striking resemblance for what it is worth. An objection may be raised that the cult would have been universal in Australia and not confined to the central eastern area, but against this we have the localized Alcheringa cult with its equally striking stone churinga spread over a smaller area. If we accept the views of Churchward, now gaining the attention of anthropologists, that mankind originated in the great lake districts of Africa, we find opened up a path which leads to an understanding of the origin of our aborigines and their beliefs. In his two books, ‘‘Signs and Symbols of. Primordial Man’’ and ‘‘The Origin and Evolution of Mankind,’’ he pictures the Pygmy exodus throughout the world and their displacement and annihilation by the people of the second Nilotic exodus to which our aborigines, accord- ing to him, belong. He states that the Pygmies of the first Nilotic invasion were displaced in Australia and eventually only remained in Tasmania. The recent discovery of plateau implements in Central Australia by Professor Howchin (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. xlv., 1921, p. 206, pls. xi. to xxi.), and also by Mr. Campbell at Millar Creek, strengthens this view, and the remarkable legend told in Mr. Simpson Newland’s book, ‘“Paving the Way,’’ chap. xi., ‘‘The Doom of the Mullahs,’’ may be the traditional account of the fall of the Pygmies in Australia. At any rate, Professor Krause thought it of sufficient importance to give an account of the legend in the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie of the Berliner Anthropologische Gesellschaft, vol. 34, 1902, p. 263. The Pygmies who still live in Africa, New Guinea, and elsewhere are a non-totemic people, and seem by isolation to have retained their purity. This throws a new light on the anthropology of the extinct Tasmanians, who had the true peppercorn hair of the Pygmies, no totems, and no boomerangs. © The second Nilotic exodus brought the boomerang, a very ancient weapon in Egypt (vide Horus I. holding in left hand a boomerang, Book of the Underworld), also at Deirel Bahari a statue of a Prince of Punt carrying a boomerang (vide Churchward, ‘Origin and Evolution of Mankind’’), and with it the signs and symbols of the Nilotic people and their palaeolithic stone implements. Now the’ Phallic Cult originated in Egypt, where it was identified with the God Osiris, and from thence it was carried all over the world, was elaborated later by the Greeks and Romans, and crops up to-day in the maypole and the cere- monials of the Lingayat Sect, in Southern India (wde 308 Lingayat, ‘‘Castes and Tribes of Southern India,” vol. iv.). The whole account of the origin and spread of the cult is to be found in Rolle, Recherches sur le ‘‘Culte de Bacchus,’’ Paris, 1824, vol. i., p. 2. Now, in the light of this it is not improbable that the people of the second Nilotic exodus brought this rite with them, not necessarily associated with the ceremonial of circumcision, for in the area where the cylindro-conical stones are commonest circumcision was not practised by the aborigines in modern times. What may have been the condition in ancient times we shall never know, but I suggest that it is by following up this clue that our efforts of gaining further knowledge of the matter are most likely to be rewarded. The whole subject is bound by the difficulty of visualizing the enormous antiquity of man and his wanderings in prehistoric times. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIV. Fig. 1. Upper third of cylindro-conical, made of kopi, showing ‘‘praeputial rings” of Etheridge. Nat. size. Fig. 2. Phallus or priapus, from Schliemann, Ilios, p. 452, No. 682, for comparison with fig. 1. Fig. 3. Portion of cylindro-conical of slate, showing ‘‘tally-marks.”’ 309 AUSTRALIAN COLEOPTERA PART III. By Ausert H. Eston, F.E.S [Read September 14, 1922. |] HALIPLIDAE. I was asked to investigate the question, regarding the number of joints in the antennae of the Halipli, by Mr. Sloane, to whom I desire to express my thanks for specimens of exotic species, and for his kindly advice and suggestions. I had already prepared a drawing and notes on Haliplus ruficolus, De Geer (Germany), when I heard from Mr. Sloane that Dr. Frits van Emden had already published a paper (Entomologische Mitteilungen, Band xi., Nr. 2, 15 Marz, 1922) with a drawing and a description of an antenna of this insect, and, as I have been able to dissect joint 1 from its socket in the head, I thought it desirable to publish this drawing in addition to the antenna of H. testudo, Clark (Australia). With both of the above species I was able with relaxed specimens to move each of the individual eleven joints separately, the basal joint moving quite freely in its socket in the head. In addition to those names already mentioned by Dr. van Emden, we find in the following publications the antennae of the Haliplidae referred to as having ten joints: — Lacordaire, vol. i1., p. 411 (Haliplus), ‘‘Antennes courtes, de 10 articles: 1 petit, 2-9 obconiques subégaux, 10 plus long, terminé en pointe.’’ Kraatz, Insecten Deutschlands, p. 9 (Haliplini), ‘‘Antennae frontales, decemarticulatae.’’ Sharp, Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii1.. p. 209, “‘Antennae bare, _ten-jointed.”’ Packard, Guide to the Study of Insects, p. 436, “In Haliplus the antennae are ten-jointed.”’ Rye, British Beetles, p. 62 (Haliplus), ‘“‘. . . their antennae are ten-jointed.’”’ Sharp, in the Biologia Centrali-Americana, vol. i. (2), gives a figure of Haliplus solitarius (pl. i., fig. 1), but in the description on page 2 does not even mention the antennae. Stephens, Manual of British Beetles, p. 61, speak- ing of Haliplus, says, “antennae ten-jointed.’’ Apparently all these writers had regarded the two basal joints as one, the first division being considered the “‘bulb of insertion,’’ similar to that found in the Carabidae. The insects comprising the genus Haliplus have no bulb to the first joint (fig. 1, a and c), which is inserted into the head and moves freely in its socket (fig. 1, b), and joint 2, in turn, articulates on joint 1. For the purpose of comparison a 310 drawing is given of an antenna of a carab, Lebimorpha benefica, Newm. (fig. 1, d), showing the bulbous basal part Kies tf. a, Antenna Haliplus ruficollis, De Geer; b, socket for reception of antenna H. ruficollis; c, antenna H. testudo, Clark ; d, antenna Lebimorpha benefica, Newm. of joint 1; on the first joint of each antenna is to be seen a long tactile seta situated in the middle before the apex. PAUSSIDAE. ARTHROPTERUS ARTICULARIS, Elston. The length of this species should read 9-95 mm., not 5-5°5 mm., as printed. HISTERIDAE. CHLAMYDOPSIS EPIPLEURALIS, Lea. Five specimens of this species were taken by R. F. Kemp and myself from the nest of the common small black ant (Iridomyrmex, sp.), in the Mount Lofty ranges. They are variable in size, ranging from 2°5 to 4 mm. in length; the smallest is much paler than the typical form, its colour is testaceous, with parts of the elytra almost flavous. | COLYDIIDAE. Todima fulvicincta, n. sp. (Fig. 2). Elongate; piceous, with clypeus, antennae, sides of pro- thorax, portions of elytra, and parts of legs, fulvous. Scantily clothed with short, golden hairs, fairly numerous on front of prothorax, and on the elytra arranged in rows towards apex. Under-surface nitid, piceous, except forepart of head and sides of prosternum, which are fulvous; sparsely clothed with short, depressed, golden hairs. (1) Elston, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1919, p. 342. 311. Head subquadrate, anterior margin and sides near the middle contracted, with a shallow, elongate depression near base of each antenna; and with dense, small, subrugose punc- tures. Antennae about four-fifths the length of head, moder- ately robust, second joint approximately twice the length of the first, joints 4 to 8 little more than half the width of the second, and not quite as long, the ninth wider than the eighth, the tenth more than twice as wide as the ninth and almost semicircular in shape, the apical longer than and _ about three-quarters the width of the tenth, almost circular. Todima fulvicincta, n. sp. A, front leg. B, antenna. Prothorax about one and half times wider than head, the anterior margin wider than the base, sides contracted near the middle, the anterior angles acute, posterior ones rounded, disk with a large, shallow, obovate depression, and divided. transversely with a more or less distinct raised portion; with dense, subrugose punctures, larger and more distinct than those on head. Scutellwm very small and somewhat semi- circular. Hlytra at base slightly wider than prothorax, and about three times as long, sides parallel to beyond the middle, and evenly rounded towards apex; with closely placed seriate - punctures, larger than those on prothorax. Legs robust, first two joints of tarsi dilated. Length, 3°5-4°5 mm. Hab.—South Australia, taken in Xanthorrhoea on the summit of the Devil Peak, near Quorn (R. F. Kemp and A. H. Elston). Type, in author’s collection; co-type, I. 15232, in South Australian Museum. A very distinct species, and easily distinguished by its markings. The fulvous part on the prothorax is widest in front, sometimes disappearing before base, and on each elytron is in the form of a crescent, the convex side reaching a little more than half-way across, between the margin and the suture; this crescent-shaped part varies somewhat in size on 312 the twenty-two examples before me; a narrow edge at the apex of the elytra is also fulvous, and on most specimens is joined to the crescent-shaped patch with a very narrow strip at the margins. The head and prothorax are in parts shagreened owing to the density of the punctures. The femora and tibiae are brown, in parts paler, the base and apex of the latter, and the tarsi are fulvous.. A more robust species than T. lateralis, Blackb., with the shape of the prothorax very different, the punctures on the elytra larger, and the two first joints of the tarsi more dilated. CLERIDAE. Phlogistus agraphus, 2. sp. Upper-surface piceous, subnitid, apendages of mouth and the antennae testaceous, club of latter infuscated, head in parts reflecting blue, legs dark blue to piceous. Clothed with moderately long griseous hairs, thicker at the sides of pro- thorax than elsewhere. Under-surface green, with brassy reflections, and scantily clothed with griseous hairs. Head with a distinct, round, moderately deep fovea between the eyes, and with closely-set, somewhat deep punc- tures, more or less rugose towards forepart. Antennae reach- ing to about middle of prothorax, joints 9 and 10 transverse, the eleventh ovate-acuminate. Prothorax transverse, the anterior margin wider than the basal one, before apex with a curved, and at the base with a straight transverse Im- ~ pression, the centre of disc with a moderately deep depression, in the centre of which is a tolerably long, deep furrow, the sides are strongly rounded, the greatest distance between them near the middle; with somewhat dense punctures, about same size as those on head but more feeble, transversely rugose on disk and sides. Hlytra at base distinctly wider than prothorax, and about twice as long as wide, sides parallel to beyond the middle, then gently rounded off towards apex ; with ten rows of large, deep, quadratic punctures, which start from behind the base and extend to about the apical quarter of elytra, the apical fourth with rows of almost obsolete punctures. Legs robust, posterior femora almost reaching apex of abdomen. Length, 9°5-11 mm. Hab.—Western Australia: Cottesloe (H. M. Giles); Perth (J. Clark). Type, in author’s collection; co-type, I. 15337, in South Australian Museum. A very robust species; on some specimens the greenish reflections on the elytra are stronger than on others; on the elytra the basal and apical portions are more nitid than the remainder, the large seriate punctures suddenly cease at the apical fourth, then continued, only very feebly, in rows to the apex. In sculpture it comes nearest to Ph. imperialis, May 5 a } NY 313 Gorham, but differs in being more robust, in the shape of the prothorax, the punctures on same more feeble, the basal part of elytra more tumid, and the punctures on elytra some- what larger. ; _ Phlogistus rubriventris, 1.sp. Shining black, palpi, apical joint of antennae and tarsi slightly diluted with red, the abdomen and tarsal claws red ; moderately clothed with pale hairs, semi-erect on the upper- surface and depressed underneath. Head somewhat elongate; with a large, round, interocular depression, and dense punctures, which are individually dis- tinct on the top of head, but smaller and more rugose towards the forepart. Antennae reaching to about the middle of prothorax; club three-jointed, ninth joint obconical, tenth almost transverse, and the eleventh ovate-acuminate. Pro- thorax transverse, before the anterior margin with a curved, and at the posterior one with a straight transverse impression, a moderately deep fovea on the disk, situated immediately behind the anterior transverse impression, and a shallow depression at each side near the middle; the lateral margins are well rounded, the greatest width between them being near the middle; less closely punctured than the head, the punctures are somewhat scattered on the disk, but at the sides they are closer and more or less rugose. Hlytra at base much wider than the prothorax, about twice as long as wide, sides almost parallel and gently rounded off towards apex, shoulders prominent; with ten rows of moderately large, almost quadratic, punctures, which begin at the base and extend to the extreme apex. Legs comparatively short, the posterior femora not reaching the apex of elytra, claws moder- ately long, with a conspicuous tooth, situated on the inside near the middle. Length, 7-8°5 mm. Hab.—Western Australia: Eradu (J. Clark). Type, in author’s collection; co-type, I. 15338, in South Australian Museum. This species is very distinct from any other Phlogistus known to me, the very conspicuous median teeth on the claws made me, at first, feel doubtful as to it being a Phlogistus, but on examining the claws under a moderately high power, I find that these teeth appear to have their origin at the base of the claws. The punctures at the base, on the shoulders, and towards the apex of elytra are slightly smaller than those on the disk, but nevertheless, are very distinct, the extreme apex of elytra is truncate, and at the sutural angle somewhat acuminate. A specimen from New South Wales, in the col- lection of Dr.-E. W. Ferguson, is possibly a variety of this species; it differs from the type in having the palpi and antennae pale, the apical joint of the latter more elongate; 3 | 314 the prothorax is somewhat differently shaped, in rwbriventris the anterior and posterior margins are about equal in length, but in the New South Wales specimen the anterior margin appears to be wider, also the surface of the prothorax is less nitid, not so uneven, and with more feeble punctures; other- wise it agrees very well with the above description. Phlogistus ungulatus, 0.Sp. Black, subnitid, antennae and appendages of mouth | brownish, claws reddish. Somewhat thickly clothed with pale hairs, more or less shaggy on the upper-surface and depressed — on the under-surface. Head with a shallow longitudinal impression near the base of each antenna, and with small, shallow punctures, somewhat scattered on the top, but towards forepart closer, and more or less rugose. Antennae short, barely reaching to middle of prothorax, club three-jointed, joints 9 and 10 transverse, the apical almost as long as the two preceding combined and obtusely pointed. Prothorax barely transverse, behind the anterior margin and at the base with compara- tively shallow transverse impressions; a feeble longitudinal impression on the disk, situated immediately behind the anterior transverse one, and on each side near the middle of the lateral margin a round depression ; the punctures are somewhat more feeble than those on the head, and rugose at the sides. Llytra at the base distinctly wider than pro- thorax, and about twice as long as wide, sides parallel to beyond the middle and then gently rounded off towards apex ; with ten rows of moderately deep and almost quadratic punc- tures, starting at the base and reaching to the extreme apex. Posterior femora do not reach apex of elytra, the basal teeth on the claws very long and conspicuous. Length, 4°5-5°5 mm. Hab.—Western Australia: Swan River (J. Clark). Type, in author’s collection. Very closely related to the preceding species but easily distinguished from it by its smaller size, the whole of the under-surface is black, more hairy, and the punctures, par- ticularly on the prothorax, are more feeble, and with apex of each elytron rounded. The peculiar structure of the claws readily distinguishes this, and the preceding species, from all previously described ones, the basal teeth on the claws of the present species are very elongated, nearly extending to the apex of the claw, and giving it the appearance of being ~ cleft. Phlogistus leucocosmus, D.Sp. Upper-surface subnitid, blue, antennae and apendages of mouth more or less testaceous, head greenish-blue, elytra almost violet, clothed with somewhat shaggy pale hairs, very q 315 densely arranged near middle of elytra, and forming an oblique fascia on each. Under-suriace greenish- -blue and rather scantily clothed with pale, depressed hairs. Head wide, with a large round interocular depression and close rugose punctures. Antennae moderately long, reach- ing to beyond the middle of prothorax, joints 9 and 10 obconical, the eleventh ovate-acuminate. Prothorax almost as long as wide, before the apex with a curved, and at the base with a straight transverse impression, the latter deeper than the former, the disk with a deep round depression, the top of which touches the anterior transverse impression, sides well rounded, the greatest distance between them being near the middle ; middle of disk with fine transverse wrinkles, the punctures only individually distinct near apex and sides. Elytra at base wider than prothorax and about twice as long as wide, sides almost parallel to beyond the middle then gently rounded off towards apex, humeral angles prominent, with ten rows of moderately large punctures, which begin from behind the base and end abruptly at the median fascia of hairs, the base with only a few small, scattered punctures, the posterior part behind the fascia with disjointed rows of obsolete punctures. Posterior femora do not reach apex of posterior part of body. Length, 6°5-7 mm. | Hab.—Western Australia: Swan River (J. aoe Type, in author’s collection. A very distinct species, and readily distinguished f the oblique fascia of pale hairs near the middle of the elytra. On one specimen the head is green with brassy reflections, and underneath the fasica of hairs there are traces of green. The sculpture of the elytra is very similar to that of Ph. mundus, Blackb., but is distinguished from it by its colour and the elytral fascia, the shape and puncturation of the prothorax is also different, and the eyes are somewhat more ‘prominent. PHLOGISTUS PUNCTATUS, Hintz. A specimen from Bowen, Queensland, agrees very well with the author’s description, except that the whole of the antennae are testaceous, the labrum, anterior and inter- mediate legs are also of the same colour, the two latter have their knees infuscated, the posterior tibiae on the under- surface are pale. The sutural row of punctures begins almost immediately behind the scutellum. TARSOSTENUS UNIVITTATUS, Rossi. Omlo incertus, Macl. Macleay’s name will now have to be added to the several - synonyms of this cosmopolitan species. There are specimens of it in my collection from Queensland, South Australia, ae Australia, and they are, inter se, variable both | 316 in size and colour. A specimen from South Australia is much paler than the typical form, its colour is a reddish- brown with the head almost black, and the fascia on the elytra yellow; on some the whole of the legs are ferruginous, here and there infuscated. Tarsostenodes leucogramma, 0.Sp. Elongate; testaceous, with a spot on each elytron near _ the scutellum, a larger one below each of these, the posterior | half of elytra, and parts of the legs, bluish-black or black; a little behind the middle of elytra are two raised white bands obliquely placed, touching the margins but not the suture, midway between these and the humeral angles, near but not touching the margins, two raised white maculae, and about midway between the latter, near the base but not touching © the suture, two similar, but somewhat smaller, maculae. Clothed with moderately long, semi-erect, black hairs, those on the posterior part of elytra are thickly interspersed with shorter and more depressed silvery ones. Under-surface testaceous, with the exception of the abdomen, which is black; very scantily clothed with short pale hairs. Head with small, closely placed, rugose punctures. Antennae slender, second joint small and_ globular, 3 to 8 elongate, the eighth distinctly shorter than the pre- ceding one, club three-jointed, apical joint ovate-acuminate. Prothorax elongate, convex, with a shallow subapical trans- verse impression, posterior margin narrower than the anterior one, sides rounded near the middle; with closely placed punc- tures, somewhat larger than those on head and more indi- vidually distinct. Scwtellum small and subtriangular. Hlytra distinctly -wider than prothorax, about three times as long as their width at base, sides parallel to about the middle, then slightly dilated, with rows of moderately large, reticulate punctures, beginning at the base and ceasing abruptly at the post-median white fascia, apical portion with very small, almost obsolete punctures. Legs long and somewhat slender. Length, 4°5-5°5 mm. . Hab.—Queensland: National Park (H. Hacker); New South Wales: Illawarra (W. du Boulay). Type, in author’s collection; co-type, I. 15336, in South Australian Museum ; and co-types in Queensland Museum. Apparently a variable species in its colour and markings, for on some the prothorax is much darker, the lateral mar- gins and base being almost black; two specimens have the anterior part of the elytra entirely pale, with the four white maculae more or less distinct; the humeral angles are either - black or testaceous, and the black portions of the anterior part of elytra are sometimes at the margins joined to the 317 black posterior part, and the latter, on account of the faint sculpture, is more nitid than the remainder of the elytral surface. Eleale aenea, 10.Sp. Whole of upper-surface coppery, nitid, three apical joints of antennae dull black, labrum with greenish reflections. Clothed with long, black, erect hairs, more numerous on sides and legs, where they are interspersed with white ones, scutellum very scantily clothed with white pubescence. Under- surface blue with greenish reflections, intermediate and pos- terior coxae violet, clothed with long, shaggy, white hairs, thicker at the sides than elsewhere. Head well produced in front, with a deep almost circular depression between the eyes, and a more elongate one at the base of each antenna; with close, fine punctures, individually distinct on top and confluent towards forepart. Antennae reaching to the base of prothorax, club five-jointed, joints 9 to 11 compressed, the apical one on the inside with a large, but not deep, emargination, the outside rounded and with the apex acute. Prothorax slightly narrower than the head (including the eyes), longer than wide, subapical transverse impression almost obsolete, subbasal one more distinct, sides near the middle evenly rounded; disk flat, with a shallow depression in the middle immediately in front of the base, and one on each side near the middle; near apex with fine, more or less distinct punctures, elsewhere transversely wrinkled. Scutellum almost circular and minutely punctured. Llytra at base wider. than prothorax and about thrice as long, sides straight and parallel nearly to apex and then evenly rounded, humeral angles slightly salient, and behind scutellum with a large, round, and comparatively deep depression ; with close, moderately large, deep, reticulate punctures, here and there. transversely confluent, smaller at base and apex, but never- theless quite distinct. Legs somewhat slender, posterior femora not reaching apex of elytra. Length, 8 mm. Hab.—South Australia: Myponga (R. F. Kemp and A. H. Elston). Type, in author’s collection; co-type, I. 15248, in South Australian Museum. Distinguished from £. aspera, Newm., by having the sides of the prothorax dilated near the middle, the transverse wrinkles on same coarser, and the punctures on elytra less crowded and more reticulate. Very near FH. reicher, Spin., but with the antennae more slender, transverse wrinkles on prothorax somewhat finer, and punctures on elytra much smaller and more crowded. In scultpure very similar to H. wridis, Guerin, but distinguished from it by its colour, the club of the antennae more distinctly five-jointed, and. the transverse wrinkles on prothorax finer. 318 ELEALE SIMPLEX, Newm. Specimens from Western Australia differ from the typical form in being larger, more greenish in colour, somewhat less nitid, and in having the antennae dark with the first three or four joints more or less testaceous; on one, an inter- mediate form, joints 1 to 4 are testaceous, 5 to 8 are dark, here and there paler, and the three apical joints are a sordid testaceous. leale wntricata, Klug, I believe to be only a variety of this species. Hab.—South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia. ELEALE PULCHRA, Newm. Two specimens from Cottesloe, Western Australia, have the whole of the antennae dull black, with only joints 2 and 3 slightly tinged with red; on one the prothorax has a distinct, interrupted, longitudinal median carina, on the other it is much less distinct. This is, apparently, the form Spinola named #. bimaculata. - LEMIDIA ALTERNATA, Lea. Four specimens from Queensland differ from the typical form by the size and shape of the elytral markings. The ‘red basal band is narrow, the submedian black band very wide, the postmedian red one about half the width of the preceding dark one, and the apical black portion about two- thirds the width of the preceding red part. On all of the four specimens the submedian black band is by far the widest. The whole of the legs are pale, except the posterior tarsi, which are more or less infuscated. ALLELIDEA BREVIPENNIS, Pascoe. A specimen taken near Ballarat, Victoria (near type locality), differs from the author’s description by having all the tarsi blackish. Pascoe in his Latin description says, ‘‘tibiis flavis,’? and in his English delineation says, ‘“‘tarsi yellow.”” This may, perhaps, be an error, ‘‘tibiae yellow’ being meant, but only a reference to the type, which is in the British Museum, will definitely reveal this. The specimen before me has all the tibiae flavous, and the tarsi blackish. CURCULIONIDAE. MANDALOTUS LUTOSUS, Lea. Four specimens of the above species were taken by R. F. Kemp and myself from moss on the summit of Mount Lofty, South Australia. The male differs from the author’s descrip- tion in having the carina on rostrum distinct, the granules on the prothorax transversely arranged, the under-surface of body diluted with red, particularly the last two segments of the abdomen, the coxae and parts of the under-surface of legs red. 319 RESEARCHES ON THE INSECT METAMORPHOSIS. PART !1.-ON THE STRUCTURE AND POST-EMBRYONIC DE- VELOPMENT-OF A CHALCID WASP, NASONIA. PART i!.-ON THE PHYSIOLOGY AND INTERPRETATION OF THE INSECT METAMORPHOSIS. By OW. Vines, MSc... . Zoology Department, University of Adelaide. [Read October 19, 1922. | PLATES XV. To XXX. Page INTRODUCTION ... as ba ds ra i, hes ven, (Oe ; Parr, 1. ON THE STRUCTURE AND Post-EMBRYCNIC DEVELOPMENT OF A Cuatcip Wasp, Nasoma ... ye vp ota is | 26 A. The External Features _... ic ts aye pee 8) General Remarks ... : ‘ee cag spe, S20 The Head and its sees: re ee i. 29 The Constitution of the Head . BT. Ce aanh tee The (true) Thorax and its Decade Las eae 37 The Abdomen and its pee id ee vie ott The Ovipositor sat 2 du x i eAo The Penis ae ot eto B. The Integument fee siclowieal Tewalonmerty 4 348 The General Body Integument be ze ... 348 Destruction of the Body Integument ; Np oan Metamorphosis of the Underlying Samnaidenne vag OO Renovation of the Epidermis ... Pe? be ome 3), Formation of Body Sculpturings ... aye cae Ok Formation of Bristles As we re es 39” Formation of Pubescences ... ou uk ene tes The Phragmas sie ile ai As Hem, SOS The Legs an ae aoe ae 3.5: sa) BoA The Wings _... “ Da ie a) aoe The Mouth Meo cndanes a ie me is) OO The Ovipositor #44 slat ibe ate Seals aoe The Penis ne 3 is ae ep Me! Od The Antennae ae Hoe so A Cae ie. Tt! The Organs of Vision... Cape Mes fers ee eh SOO, The Compound Eyes i se Sul Ba) ED The Ocelli Ave ny fae pis fe: Reyes oe! 320 Page C. The Respiratory System ... ue sue ... 386 The Larval Respiratory by aieeh A. J. ... 386 The Destruction of the Larval Tracheae ... ... 391 The Regeneration of the Tracheal sy Rae ... ode D. The Muscular System ‘igh ... aoe The Anatomy of the Larval Museu Sy tera .. soon The Structure and Post-embryonic Development of the Larval Muscles v4 ag hai ... 400 The General Body Npecalahure. mp a ... 400 The Dilators of the Pharynx aps He ...* 403 The Destruction of the Larval Musculature ... 404 The Dilators of the Pharynx Oe ache ... 404 Thoracic Muscles et at Ai = wo) AOS Muscles of the Abdomen ... oo. 404 The Longitudinal Abdominal Mages . Ae The Vertical Abdominal Muscles ie «406 The Regeneration of the Muscular System ... ..- 408 The Superficial Longitudinal Abdominal Musee? 409 The Vertical Abdominal Muscles ... Es. fo. ED The Dilators of the Pharynx oe won URE ee Muscles of Mouth Appendages .... Bi tc, sae The Leg Muscles Me as wale as ... Al6 The Muscles of Ovipositor ... 24 oe ee 8 The Muscles of Flight #y. ry mes me ls: Intestinal Muscles ... ee ee ot ass 4D The Muscle Insertions 2B Bi, ee ~ony The Structure of the Adult Muscles ... fs sca ABG K. The Intestine and Related Structures ... 428 The Anatomy and Structure of the Twtdetiaes of ibe Adult a : ne ie ae | ae General Mor pholoue p.. a be ... 428 Histological Sirueenee: ae fie ae re Oesophagus Me ray wih ne ... 429 The Crop ... a A an an ... 430 The Gizzard A hs ie Pa vom 00 The Stomach sas a ‘a tog op ee _ The Small Intestine oe, a lg jen) ae The Rectum a = Ag +7 ... 4381 The Salivary Gland ... 0 J). 0.) The Malpighian Tubes ... me woe | eS The Intestine of the First Larval Tnedar ay aes a General Morphology ... a i) ies ... 433 Histological Features Aah oe xt woe, 40D The Buccal Cavity aD Be oe ... 435 The Oesophagus ... 03 te ie .. 435 (oy) i?) feat Page The Midgut nee BS es at ... 436 The Rectum ‘ we aa a ... 436 The Salivary Glands ea nae bys ... 4386 The Hepatic Caeca ome 4) fot The Post-embryonic Development of ‘tee Tate 437 Metamorphosis of Foregut . 437 Metamorphosis of the Widens acd aie ies hie ment of the Post-oesophageal part of the Foregut bs oa ts Nee Metamorphosis of Bis ia aot se us 1,1, 444 The Rectal Glands ee ie ” ante The Malpighian Tubes ... wee ae na AAC The Salivary Glands ... ete me oe aAg General Remarks ... bie mi ti, aa) ‘F. The Ductless Glands ee ve ie a i jayiAod The Oenocytes.... co ee Bebe) = cs Soe be Aaue The Lateral Intestinal Glaiaids #4 ee ogi wn, 404 The Dorsal Abdominal Glands a es an Wee 1595) 'G. The Fat-body es ms Aas Structure and Me micah locie a Fatcbody ba 4. 456 Function of the Fat-body si hie £4 i 1 AOL fo The) Gonadsivy.. 2! rs ey xe! a ey a ABD Male Organs ast ae doe wep me eh eAGD Female Organs... ny wo a6 nig aD I. The Nervous System sede be say ny ean ATD Introduction inp A472 The Ventral Nerve Cord tie Horetal Mates of the Nasonia Larva ... nen ae “ht i £3 The Post-embryonic Development and Meia morphosis of the Ventral Nerve Cord ... spa age 2 The Brain: its Structure and Metamorphosis... 478 J. The Vascular System ... Aa: a x et een eee The Blood ... oe ae go st ee i) SAS4 The ‘‘Heart’’ ae: ug! a, any LAY Structure of the ae Beart id £% gt ASS Metamorphosis of the Heart a: Es ... 489 K. Appendix— The Degeneration Processes of the Larval Cells of Neasonma 7h ae cs bi sag as 8 2490 Parr II. On THE PuHysIoLOGyY AND INTERPRETATION OF THE INSECT METAMORPHOSIS Wn aes at re , ... 492 Summary ce ae es in BS “ash ... 504 Bibliography ee ad; ou ee ma iat ees ha E 322 INTRODUCTION. The insect transformation presents one of the most in- teresting of the many phenomena of living things about us. To the popular imagination it is a manifestation of the super- natural. To the biologist it offers unrivalled material for the study of several fundamental tissue reactions: extensive tissue degenerations followed by correspondingly great tissue regenerations; delayed cell differentiation and cell regenera- tion, and sometimes even, it seems, cellular dedifferentiation ; while the cases of phagocytosis at times met with are extra- ordinary. Nevertheless, its study has been very neglected. Numbers of the great early anatomists—Malpighi, Swammerdam, Lyonet, Diirckheim—turned their attention to the structure of insects, and though they were able to show that the larvae of insects had already the same general anatomy as had the adult insects, yet the difficulties of the dissection of the soft semi-fluid contents of the pupal shell proved so great, that the process of transformation was not elucidated. Réaumur, it is true, had been able to show that the limbs of the adult insect were to be found invaginated beneath the surface of the body of the nymph. Newport (1832) had observed the concentration of the ganglia of the ventral nerve cord as it changed from the larval to the imaginal condition, but beyond these facts nothing was known; and Oken, who wrote his voluminous ‘‘Allgemeine Natur- geschichte” at about this time (1836), summarized his know- ledge of the process thus (vol. 5, p. 714):—‘‘At the last moult the insects become covered by a horny shell, which is devoid of feet and oral appendages. Consequently in this stage they lie quiet for several weeks, often throughout the whole winter, without feeding or moving, and in this con- dition are spoken of as pupae or nymphs. Under this shell is gradually formed the perfect insect, the fly with its three body parts, with its new feeding organs, feet and wings; finally the skin splits dorsally, the insect creeps out, waits a few minutes till it has hardened, and then crawls or flies away, to seek other food or to reproduce. This gradual step-like development is spoken of as a transformation or meta- morphosis.”’ ; | It was not till the publication in 1864 of Weismann’s great memoir on the metamorphosis of the blow-fly that any light was thrown on the process. Weismann, without any modern technique available to him, and using only the old method of hand dissections, studied the process with remark- able accuracy. His observations were made more on broad, general, anatomical lines. He was able to show that the ald we ‘- 323 larval tissues underwent a process of disintegration— “‘histolysis’’ he called it—into rounded bodies, which he called Koérnchenkugeln, and that the imago in turn was formed from small areas of cells, which Swammerdam had already discovered, though he had not recognized their significance ; to these he gave the name ‘‘imaginal discs.’’ He was able to demonstrate the sexual organs in a young condition in the larva, and to show that the insect metamorphosis was entirely different from the alternation of generations that occurred in some groups of animals and plants. He demon- strated the occurrence of metamorphosis in most of the organs of the body, including the heart and nervous system, which other investigators with more elaborate technique at their disposal have since questioned; and though his observations were necessarily incomplete, and did not extend largely to cell changes, yet his conclusions were, in the main, correct. Since Weismann’s memoir the blow-fly (Calliphora) has been used by a number of investigators for the study of metamorphosis, so that our knowledge of the process in this insect, though still very incomplete, is much fuller than that of any other. In 1876 the. Russian Ganin wrote upon it, and described the imaginal “‘nests’’ within the intestine. In 1884 Van Rees, and in the following year, quite inde- pendently, Kowalevsky, guided by Metchnikoff’s recent dis- covery of the phagocytic action of leucocytes, showed that the larval tissues were destroyed by the interference of these colourless corpuscles of the blood. A special interpretation was therefore placed on Weismann’s histolysis, and the ‘““Kornchenkugeln’’ proved to be nothing but gorged phago- cytes, a fact the truth of which Metchnikoff had himself already perceived from the drawings given by Ganin. Since that time a number of other observers have added details to the knowledge accumulated by the earlier workers: —Van Rees studied it in 1888; Lowne’ published a few observations (mostly incorrect) in 1890-1895; Vaney wrote about it in 1902; while Pérez published his very detailed work in 1910. In 1899, and later in 1901, Berlese published his observa- tions, and seriously questioned the important réle which the leucocytes were believed to play in the removal of the larval tissues. From the earlier writings it seemed to follow that the leucocytes attack the living tissues, so that metamorphosis is, in part, brought about by more than usually highly- endowed leucocytes. Berlese denied this conception entirely. As he appears to have been misunderstood by others, it is best to quote his own words (1901) :—‘‘Phagocytosis never _/ \ wrong; phagocytes play a large part in the removal of larval 324 occurs, and amoebocytes only become active when the muscle has disintegrated through internal causes.’’ By phagocytosis he evidently means the phagocytosis of living tissues; and his ‘‘amoebocytes’’ appear to be a congregation of various kinds of embryonic cells and leucocytes, though he does not specially mention these. Pérez (1910), on the other hand, has taken precisely the opposite view, and regards the leucocytes as playing the main part in the destruction of © tissues. ‘‘I think I have proved satisfactorily that the dis- integration of the muscle is due to phagocytes, and that there is no spontaneous fragmentation of this organ into sacrolytes, as Berlese thought.’’ I may say at once, that the study of the metamorphosis of NVasoma has led me to conclude that while neither statement is quite correct neither is wholly tissues, but such tissues are always dead. Besides the observations of these workers, others have been made on portions of the metamorphosis of ‘other insects, but nothing so extensive as those made on the blow-fly exists. In 1875-1878 Kiinckel d’Herculais published his studies on the structure and transformation of the syrphid fly V olucella; Deegener in more recent years has studied the transformation of the intestine in a number of insects; and Verson (1898) examined it in the silkworm. Pérez (1902) examined por- tions of the metamorphosis of the ant Formica rufa; Bauer studied the transformation of the brain in several insects; and in 1912 Giinther investigated the development of the eye in Dytiscus. In 1910 Poyarkoff published his very interest- ing observations on the metamorphosis of a beetle, Galeruca; he showed that, while some organs underwent the usual type of phagocytic histolysis, others (the integument and part of the intestine) passed through a remarkable process of cellular rejuvenation. It may be said then, that while we possess a considerable knowledge of the main features of insect metamorphosis, on some of the fundamental facts much difference of opinion prevails. Why do the larval tissues disappear? Do the phagocytes kill them, or do they merely remove them after they have died? If the latter, then how is their death brought about? If in one insect phagocytic histolysis occurs, and in another merely cellular rejuvenation, how are we to correlate the processes? It is these questions that I shall attempt to answer in the present paper. The histological changes under- gone by some of the larval organs, moreover, have never been examined—heart, peripheral nerves, ventral nerve cord, and others ; whilst the greatest differences of opinion prevail about the details of other organs such as the muscles and intestine. 325 An equally interesting question is the relation in which the insects which show a metamorphosis stand to those in which it is absent; this question has been discussed by Lub- bock (1874), and more recently by Deegener (1909). Lub- bock’s conclusion, that the metamorphosis was made necessary by the larvae developing different feeding habits and con- sequently different mouth-parts from those of the adult insects, is not very satisfactory. While it is true that the transition from one to the other would have to be slow and would have to take place during a resting stage, it fails to account for the metamorphosis of structures of almost negligible import- ance, such, for example, as the fine somatopleural membrane beneath the integument. It fails also to explain the meta- morphosis of the feeding organs in insects in which the larvae and adults have the same feeding habits, such, for example, as many of the carnivorous and leaf-eating beetles. More- over, the real thing to show is why the larval form should ever have been evolved, necessitating the parallel evolution of a metamorphosis, when some insects, very successful in the struggle for existence, have got on so well without it. The conclusion of Deegener, that the larval form is a stage graduallyinserted between the earlyembryo state and the adult, is undoubtedly quite correct, and seems to be usually accepted to-day. Nevertheless he throws no light on the reason why such a form should ever have been evolved, nor does he explain why it later transforms itself into the mature insect. It was to answer these several questions that the present work was undertaken. The insect which I have employed is a small chalcid wasp, Vasonia brevicorms, very common in Australia and America as a parasite on exposed pupae of muscid flies. According to Mr. A. A. Girault it is identical with NVasona abnormis, Boheman, from Europe, and is evi- dently of world-wide distribution. As the work proceeded I found myself at a disadvantage in that very little was known about the internal anatomy of chalcid wasps, while the study of the anatomy of the larvae had also been greatly neglected, and more than one very serious misinterpretation have been accepted as fact. I have therefore resolved to extend the scope of the paper. In the first portion the various organs of the larva and adult are described and a fairly detailed account of them is given as they transform from the larval to the adult conditions. In the second part I shall attempt to explain the physiological basis of the metamorphosis, and to discuss the factors which have underlain the evolution of the process. The earlier parts of this investigation were carried out in the Laboratory of the Biology Department, University of 326 Queensland, and to Professor T. Harvey Johnston I wish to express my gratefulness for permitting me to perform the work there. To him, and to Mr. Henry Tryon, Queensland Government Entomologist, I desire to express my obligation for the loan of indispensable literature, so difficult to procure in Australia. I am also much indebted to the trustees and director of the Australian Museum, Sydney, for the per- mission granted me to examine important publications under their care; and to Mr. W. Rainbow, Museum Librarian, for the facilities which he placed at my disposal. Finally, I wish to express my sincere thanks to Professor T. Brailsford Robertson, of the University of Adelaide, for the many sug- gestions and kindly criticisms he has offered me since I have known him. TECHNIQUE. The methods employed here have been fairly simple. For the examination of the grosser anatomical processes whole mounts stained or unstained, or partial dissections, so far as these could be made, have been used. For all the finer histological details I have employed sections stained by the Heidenhain iron haematoxylin method. TEosin or acid fuchsin has been frequently used as a counter-stain. Fixation was always made with Bouin’s ‘‘picro-formol’’ mixture. As these methods gave very satisfactory results in the majority of cases nothing more elaborate was attempted. PARTE On the Structure and Post-Embryonic Development of a Chalcid Wasp, Nasonia. A.—TwHeE EXTERNAL FEATURES. The eggs of Nasonia, deposited by the female, beneath the hard shell of the fly pupa, on to the surface of the delicate developing nymph, hatch after a period varying from thirty to seventy hours, into small white maggots, about “3 mm. in length. These are the larvae in the first instar. The larva (fig. 1) is composed of fifteen segments, of which the last two can easily be ‘‘telescoped’’ into the one preceding them. The last segment is difficult to detect in living material. If, however, the larva is placed in a clearing solution, which causes considerable shrinking in the cuticle, then the segment is unmistakable. Of these segments the first two eventually produce the head of the adult wasp; the next three develop the thorax, while the remaining ten give rise to the abdomen of the insect. The first segment bears the mouth on its ventral side; the last, the anus; but the larva, though it feeds rapidly, is 327 quite incapable of defaecating. The first two segments bear ventrally a large, powerful, chitinous ‘‘rack,’”’ the tentorium, which acts as a support for many of the muscles in the anterior region of the animal. The tentorium consists of three chitinous bars—really thickenings of the larval cuticle— two lateral ones, bent outwards, and an anterior connecting bar; while, behind, the structure is supported by a very powerful chitinous bar which is formed in the embryo as a secretion from a pair of epithelial ingrowths from the walls of the second segment. The anterior three bars are shed at each moult, and re- formed on the new cuticle; they do not reappear in the pupa. The mouth is a rather small, transversely elongated, oval slit, and is armed on either side by a pair of minute, sharply- pointed triangular mandibles, capable of quite active move- ment. The head is provided in front with a pair of very minute processes, evidently having some sensory function ; their nature will be referred to more fully below. No other appendages are present. Four pairs of spiracles occur; one on the third segment, the next on the fifth, the third on the sixth, and the last on the seventh. The larva feeds rapidly and shows a great increase in bulk, an appearance which is accentuated by the imability ot the larva to void the intestinal contents. Feeding takes place _ by the application of the mouth to a hole torn in the integu- ment of the fly nymph by the sharp larval jaws, the food being sucked up into the buccal cavity of the larva. The larva itself does not appear to move from its orginal place of feeding. After about thirty hours the larva moults; the second instar differs from the first only in its greater size, and in the presence now of a-set of nine spiracles. The larva undergoes several other moults, but it is very difficult to determine their. number, as the various instars cannot be recognized by any structural differences. Maud Haviland (1920 and 1921) found four instars in two other chalcid wasps, species in which differences in the various larvae were very obvious. After feeding for about three days the larva enters upon the “‘resting stage’; food is no longer taken up, and a number of remarkable processes begin within the body of the larva. Eventually after about a day the larva defaecates, the contents of the intestine being voided as minute rounded greyish or black pellets; as a result the larva changes from a dirty grey to a pure white colour. During the next twenty hours—the post-defaecation 328 period—the changes commenced in the resting stage continue; other changes, which have gone on at a very slow rate during larval life, become greatly accentuated. A convenient term- ination for this somewhat artificially conceived period is the last larval moult, which discloses the pupa (fig. 7). Moulting is initiated by a dorsal splitting of the larval cuticle. The integument of the pupa is covered with minute papillae, which produce a rough surface; and this the pupa employs in freeing itself from the larval cuticle. The actual ecdysis lasts about an hour, and may best be described as taking place by a slow wriggling of the nymph, the larval sheath being gradually pushed farther back. The liberated pupa has in many respects the appearance of the adult insect. The general shape and size of the pupa is the same as that of the imago; the antennae, legs, and mouth appendages have attained their full length, but are thick, “‘fleshy,’’ and ungainly in appearance. In the female the ovipositor is quite prominent, lying along the median ventral surface of the abdomen. | So far, then, as the external features are concerned, the most pronounced transformation takes place not in the pupa, but in the resting stage and post-defaecation stages of the larva. I shall describe first the changes in the external appearance of the developing insect as it lies within the larval sheath, and then follow the structures, so produced, as they continue to develop under the cuticle of the last instar —the so-called ‘‘pupal-sheath.’’ This will be followed by an examination of the histological processes which bring about these remarkable external changes; and finally, the internal transformation of the larva will be described. These changes, however, must not be regarded as commencing at, or near, the time of pupa formation; they have, to'a certain degree, been going on during larval life; slowly, indeed, and perhaps even spasmodically, but still they have been going on. Some time before moulting, however, these changes have become accentuated, and others, which have not yet commenced, are now initiated; but even these are to be regarded only as the result of processes which have gone on in the larva. The general shape of the ‘‘living’’ portion of the feeding larva is identical with that of the larval cuticle which it has secreted, 7.e., it is an elongated ovoid maggot, thick in the middle, and gradually tapering at either end. But some time before defaecation starts the integument beneath the cuticle begins to change its general shape; that of the first two segments begins to round itself off, and, before the larva moults, has transformed itself into the head of the future wasp. A gradual increase or diminution in the size of the 329 following three segments gives the thorax the general shape that ityhas in the imago; the abdomen shortens considerably, rounds itself off, constricts considerably at both ends, while at the same time portions of its anterior segments move for- wards, and fuse with the thorax to form a compound struc- ture, the ‘‘alitrunk,’’ so characteristic of the Hymenoptera. The head and its appendages may be considered first. The Head and its Appendages. The head of the adult wasp is developed from the first two segments of the larva; the first segment, to which the name oral segment may be applied, develops into the front and lower portions of the head, and gives rise also to the antennae and labrum. The second segment may be called the post-oral segment; from it develop the upper and occipital regions of the head, including the ocelli and great eyes, while below it produces the maxillae and labium and also the mandibles. The fact that the first two segments of the larva are concerned in the formation of the head can readily be verified by following the spiracle of the third segment through the metamorphosis, the spiracle remaining as that of the first thoracic segment. Already in the late feeding period of the larva, the imaginal discs of the head appendages have become clearly visible. From the upper portion of the first head segment the antennae grow out as short thick processes, which, on account of the pressure of the larval cuticle above them, are forced to grow downwards (figs. 3, 12). Hach antenna has, towards its distal end, a short blunt papilla, which fits into the sensory structure on the first segment, referred to above. Around the mouth, the other head appendages soon become prominent; immediately in front of the mouth are a pair of quite distinct outgrowths—the rudiments of the labrum—which structure is, at this stage, distinctly paired (fig. 13). The labrum is generally regarded as a simple, unpaired downgrowth from the upper edge of the mouth, but in Vasoma its paired condition is quite clear; Patten has also figured the labrum as a paired structure in Acilius. (See Korschelt and Heider, part i., p. 326, fig. 160). The other ‘mouth appendages are developed from the second (post-oral) segment; their actual interpretation is, at first sight, very confusing, for though they are developed from the post-oral segment, some of them take up a position actually somewhat in front of the mouth, which is situated well within the first segment. The apparent paradox finds its explanation in two facts: firstly, the small mandibles of 330 the larva, which are merely a chitinous secretion from a part of the mass of cells which will later develop the mandibles of the adult, are produced from a short mandibular imaginal disc, which grows forwards from the second segment and terminates close beside the mouth; secondly, in the late larval stages there is a considerable shifting forwards of the lower surface of the head, the anterior portion of the second seg- ment being pushed into the cuticular sheath of the first. (I may draw attention here to a fact from which an important deduction can be made later, wiz., that the antennae and mandibles of the larva, though so absolutely distinct from those of the adult, are yet developed in close connection with the same group of cells—the antennal and mandibular imaginal discs—as produce the corresponding structures in the adult wasp.) Of the ‘‘post-oral’’? appendages four pairs may be recog- nized. ~The most anterior is a pair of short outgrowths, which I shall call here the second antennae (fig. 13). Their homology will be considered below. Immediately behind these arise a pair of long outgrowths, which end close to .the larval mandibles—they are the mandibular rudiments; close behind these, and nearer the mid-line, is a pair of short stout maxillary rudiments; and behind these, and still nearer the middle, are the rudiments of second maxillae, quite dis- tinctly paired at this stage (fig. 13). Of these appendages the mandibles are the largest, and I have seen larvae, slightly before defaecation, 7m which each 1s provided with a palp, which, at this stage, is even longer than the mandible itself (fig. 3). I have also observed larvae, in the same stage of development, in which no mandibular palps were visible. In order to be certain that I was not confusing the mandibles with the first maxillae, I examined the mouth appendages of defaecating larvae, cut in serial sections; under which conditions no error could be made in determining the various mouth appendages, and the mandi- bular palp could be clearly seen (fig. 48). A mandibular palp has not, so far as I am aware, been found hitherto in insects. Of special interest, however, is the fact that it does not appear to be present in all larvae, its occurrence being perhaps a frequent ‘‘abnormality.”’ The first maxillae are rather short thick outgrowths at this stage, and each has a short palp on its outer side. The second maxillae are small, and each has a very distinct palp, which twists around the maxilla from below, and embraces it distally. At the sides of the second segment are the great compound eyes, already differentiating in the late. larval period; and in the middle lie the great cerebral ganglia (fig. 3). “| E 7 331 The post-defaecation period is marked by a continued growth of these imaginal rudiments, the completion of the process being marked by the last larval moult. The head integument bulges outwards, and the biseg- mental condition disappears (fig. 12). The head grows, especi- ally in height, while above and below the posterior head integument grows inwards to form the nearly vertically sloping occiput. As a result of these changes, and probably also on account of the pressure exerted upon it by the over- lying larval cuticle, the head adopts the curious retracted attitude so characteristic of the insect. The second segment may also be observed, at the end of larval life to be partly invaginated into the third. In Calliphora this condition is much more pronounced. The antennae have meanwhile been growing greatly in size. Originally forward outgrowths from the upper region of the first segment, the pressure of the larval cuticle soon forces them to turn back upon themselves and downwards; in the post-defaecation period they grow greatly in length and thickness, and at the time of pupation, are in the form of two thick appendages, lying ventrally and extending two- thirds the distance down the thorax (fig. 7). The mouth parts meanwhile continue to grow in size, the turning downwards of the head, as already described, forcing these into the position in which we see them in the imago. Shortly before the larva undergoes its last moult they cease to grow, and develop a cuticle on their surface. They are now large thick ungainly structures (fig. 14), in no way resembling the neat, specialized mouth parts of the imago. The labrum is a triangular, irregular flap overhanging the mouth; the mandibles are a pair of irregular, ‘‘shapeless’’ masses, each bearing its palp, which has now, however, creatly degenerated and is little more than a tubercle on the mandible. The maxillae are nearly as large as the mandibles and project forwards; the palps exceed the maxillae in size and are extremely prominent. The labium is quite large and from its posterior part project the palps. The second antennae have disappeared. The remainder of the development of the mouth append- ages, during the pupal period, consists of a very pronounced shrinking of the structures within the cuticle which they have secreted, as a result of which they gradually assume their adult shape (fig. 14). This process commences a few hours after pupation, and within twenty-four hours is practically complete; seg- mentation of the appendages has become very marked, and bristles are developing on them. The proximal portion of - 332 the labium (fused mentum and submentum) is almost square in shape, and from it spring the medium-sized labial palps. The distal portion of the labium (fused endopodites) is slightly wider than the proximal portion (fig. 14), and its surface is developing a very delicate pubescence. The labial palps are rather club-shaped, with a distinct indication of three segments; bristles are already clearly visible on them. The first maxillae have shrunk to rather short, stylet-like struc- tures (fig. 14), and have developed bristles; while the huge maxillary palps of the early pupa have shrunk to a pair of graceful, four-jointed appendages, on which bristles have also begun to develop. © The shrinking of the mandibles has been less pro- nounced ; each has assumed the shape of a powerful, slightly curved jaw, armed distally with three (occasionally with four) short blunt teeth; the mandibular palp has entirely dis- appeared and its position is indicated, now, only by the chitinous tubercle of the pupal sheath. The labrum does not undergo any marked changes, except a diminution in size. As a result of these processes the mouth appendages, in the shapes in which we see them in the adult, have been produced; chitinisation of this cellular mould, which soon ensues, results in the more marked segmentation and the hard consistency of the mouth parts, such as we see them in the mature wasp. The antennae, meanwhile, have been undergoing changes parallel to these; at the time of pupation, as we saw, the antennae were in the form of two thick, slightly segmented appendages lying laterally along the ventral side of the thorax. ; In the early pupal periods the segmentation becomes more distinct, and at the same time shrinking takes place; as a result of these processes, the antennae adopt their adult appearance after about thirty-six hours; bristles, which are first seen some eight hours after pupation, are well marked at this stage ; rapid chitinisation of the surface of the antennae ensues, resulting eventually in the production of the fully developed appendages. The antennae of the male and female differ slightly; in both sexes there is a long proximal joint, followed bv a joint about one-third the length of the first; then come two very small joints, followed by nine larger ones, all of about the same size. In the female the last three joints are arranged so as to form a very distinct club (fig. 11); in the male no such modification can be seen. The chief point of interest in the development of the - mouth appendages is the occurrence of a mandibular palp, . | | 333 probably as an abnormality (since some individuals do not appear to show it); the occurrence of this -palp definitely proves the homology of the mandible with a metameric appendage. . The curious nature of the labium is worthy of special attention. Its anterior surface, formed as a chitinisation of the protoplasmic “‘pubescence’’ already described, is developed into a strong rasping-organ. Though present in both sexes the ‘‘rasp’’ is more strongly developed in the female. The strength and efficiency of the labium is further increased by a pair of hard, outwardly diverging chitinous bars lying within its distal segment. Also to be especially noted is the fact that the head appendages first grow in size, and not till the mature size has been reached, and even exceeded, does differentiation take place. This same fact will be seen also in the development of the legs and ovipositor and other appendages; it seems, indeed, to be true of the body surface in general (fig. 8): first the body becomes moulded, then it begins to undergo differentiation producing the various joints, spines, bristles, sculpturings, etc., that adorn the insect’s body—first growth and arrangement, then differentiation. This fact can be demonstrated especially cléarly in the compound eyes (see these). The post-defaecation and resting periods are the time in which the optic cells adopt their arrangement, in the pupa they differentiate. Looked at in this light it is possible to regard the pupa not merely as an artificially conceived, but as an embryo- logically quite distinct phase. Growth occurs in the resting and post-defaecation periods; the pupal period is the period of differentiation. It should be clearly understood that these remarks refer merely to the external characters (integument). Meanwhile the great eyes and the ocelli have been devel- oping. These structures are merely modifications of the integument; already in the resting stage the great eyes are clearly recognizable; they grow over a large part of the sides of the second segment. In the defaecating larva facets are already clearly indicated; these become more distinct as development continues. At the end of the larval life the _ eyes are very large, and have assumed their typical bulged appearance. After thirty-six to forty hours the eyes gradually change from a creamy to a pale-reddish colour, which becomes bright red a day later. 3 The ocelli have meantime been developing at the vertex of the head, and are seen in the newly formed pupa as three prominent rounded tubercles arranged in a triangle. After about three and a half days the head gradually 334 blackens, and this blackening soon spreads backwards over the whole body.; as a result the head is now seen to be marked with the sculpturings characteristic of the species. The Constitution of the Head. Having now described the development of the head, we may apply the observations to an attempt to determine the metameric constitution of the insect head. , Regardless of the actual position which the head append- ages have taken up, secondarily, we may enumerate and classify them as follows :— (a) Pre-oral appendages—antennae, labrum (on first © head segment). (6) Post-oral appendages—‘‘second antennae,” mandibles, first maxillae, labium (on second segment). The oral segment gives rise to the face; the post-oral segment develops into the occiput, the vertex, and probably into the frontal region; from it develop the ocelli and the compound eyes. ‘ This bisegmental condition seems to be very common among chalcid wasp larvae. Berlese, for example, in his figure of T'apinoma erraticum, actually shows the cerebral ganglia lodged in the second ‘segment, while the third possesses the first (thoracic) spiracle; the same thing is seen in Diachasma, and in the encyrtid wasp Avustralencyrtus, and is probably very common, if not universal, among these para- sitic hymenoptera. The presence of two head segments is especially useful in helping us to determine the homology of the insect head. The presence of three biramous appendages can be inter- preted only in one way, v2z., that three body segments, of the primitive annulate-like ancestor of the arthropods, gradually moved further and further forward, till eventually they became incorporated into the head. This is, however, it seems, the usually accepted view; the occurrence of a mandibular palp as an abnormality makes the homology more certain than ever. What the exact limits of these suppressed metameres on the post-oral segment really are, it is not possible to say. . The oral segment is provided with two pairs of append- ages, which have never been observed in a biramous condition —the antennae and the labrum. The position of the antennae so far forwards, with no appendage in front of them, confirms Korschelt and Heider’s view that the antenna of the insect is homologous with the crustacean antennule; the small larval sensory structures already referred to must, since they are formed from the “‘antenna,’’ be likewise homologous with i 2’ | 335 the Crustacean antennule, or at least with a small portion of the antennule. It should be noted, also, that the presence of the antenna (antennule) on the oral segment does not pre- vent its arising in embryos behind the mouth, a fact which Weismann first discovered in Diptera, and which has been confirmed by Heider for Hydrophilus, by Patten for Acilius, by Nusbaum for Meloe, and by others. When, now, we look in the NVasoma larva for the repre- sentative of the true antenna of the primitive insect it seems that the structure which I have spoken of as the ‘‘second antenna’’ must be looked upon as such. It arises from the post-oral segment, but actually takes up a pre-oral position, and is quite a transient structure. This same post-oral seg- ment also gives rise to the eyes and ocelli. It seems then that we must regard the insect head as composed of at least five segments; the first bears the mouth, the labrum, and the ‘‘antennae’’; the second bears the vesti- geal true (second) antennae, the ocelli, and eyes; the third is represented only by the mandibles; the fourth by the maxillae; and the fifth by the labium. It is unlikely that the three segments, with biramous appendages, should be anything but the first true metameres of an annulate worm; the oral segment would then represent the procephalic (prestomial) segment of the annulate, and the post-oral (with the exception of the three biramous appendages) would be the descendant of the cephalic (peri- stomial) segment. The presence of the mouth on the second segment of Polychaetes cannot be taken as contradicting this view, since in the Oligochaetes it is on the first segment. The view above expressed receives very strong support from the fact that the post-oral segment of Vasonia and the peri- stomial segment of the annulate both lodge the cerebral ganglia. The view above expressed, then, would regard the insect head as built up of five annulate segments as follows :— Name and No. of Segment. 1. Procephalic seg- Represented in Represented in Imago by— Nasonia larva by— Oral segment Face, antennae, ment Ae | labrum, mouth 2. Cephalic segment | Apex of head, occi- ) | put, brain, com- | . pound eyes, ocelli | Mandibles | | | | 3. First body meta- | mere \ | J Post-oral segment 4. Second body meta- | Maxillae mere | 5. Third body meta- | Labium | mere 336 The extreme view of the constitution of the insect head was taken by Savigny (1816) who regarded it as consisting of seven segments, corresponding to the antennae, labrum, ocelli, great eyes, mandibles, maxillae, and labium; that the uniramous antennae and labrum indicate two distinct seg- ments, is very improbable; that the eyes and ocelli indicate such segments is impossible. Huxley regarded the head as constituted, most probably, of six segments. A much better conception is that of Lowne (1890), who regards the insect head as composed of four segments; his large head capsule — (paracephala) lodges the brain, eyes, and antennae and bears also two bulbous prominences in front—the (upper) posterior cephalocoele, which bears the ocelli, and the (lower) anterior cephalocoele. The fact that the posterior cephalocoele bears the ocelli shows it to be homologous with the upper part of the second segment of Nasonia; the paracephala of Lowne are homologous with the remainder of the second (post-oral) segment in Nasoma, excluding, of course, the appendages which Lowne speaks of collectively as the ‘‘metacephalon.” It is the anterior cephalocoele and the neighbourine parts of the paracephala which are specially interesting; this region bears the antennae, and gives rise in various insects to the epistome, the labrum, and the rostrum, and probably the mouth ; and there can be no doubt that it is homologous with the oral segment of Vasonia. Lowne working with a number of insects never found it as a distinct segment, the structure having evidently become merged into the paracephala. An examination of the Vasonia larva, however, leaves no doubt ~ as to its being segmentally distinct. The posterior cephalocoele is the Voderkopf of Korschelt and Heider. According to Lowne it persists in dragon-flies as a bladder-like swelling which lodges the ocelli; its persistence in Coleoptera seems to be proved by Lowne’s dis- covery of .ocelli as an abnormality in Cuzcindela; in the Muscidae a great part of the posterior cephalocoele is with- drawn into the rest of the head, as the cerebral vesicles, which are evaginated during metamorphosis. The only difference, then, between the view of Lowne, and that which I have expressed above, is in the bisegmental nature of the ‘‘paracephalon.’’ In most insects its existence is only a possibility; in Vasonia it is a certainty. In figs. 42 and 43 of his work on the blow-fly, moreover, Lowne actually figures embryos of Calliphora, in which the head consists of five segments, and actually appears. to be in a condition similar to that of the free larva of Nasonia. His figures are taken from Weismann’s great work. Y 337 The (true) Thorax and its A ppendages. The true thorax of the imago is represented by the third, fourth, and fifth larval segments, which are all fairly equal - to one another in size. Running vertically down each seg- ment, on either side, and close behind the spiracle, is a narrow streak of integument differing from that which covers the remainder of the segment. These six narrow streaks con- stitute the imaginal discs of the thorax (fig. 2). They are clearly visible through the cuticle of the advanced larva, and connected with each are the imaginal discs of the thoracic appendages (figs. 2, 5, 6); the first pair bear only the first legs; from the second (mesothoracic) seg- ment develop the first wings above, and the second legs below; the third (metathoracic) disc bears the second wing disc above, and the rudiments of the third legs below. The wing discs are rather elongated and can be seen to be enveloped in a distinct sac. The leg discs are much shorter than those of the wings; and the sacs in which they are carried are very distinct, each bearing a small opening on to the surface of the integument, below the larval cuticle. Neither in the wing, nor in the legs, could I detect any indication of a biramous structure. During the resting stage of the larva the imaginal discs begin to grow rapidly; the integumentary discs spread out in all directions, the first two, especially the second, rapidly; the last very slowly. The discs of the appendages soon grow out of their sacs; already in the larva at the time it defaecates the legs have protruded so far that they begin to bend upon themselves beneath the larval cuticle, and we see the earliest indication of segmentation. The wing discs, on the other ee ade downwards as two large sacs, and do not bend @. 3). About ten hours after defaecation the discs have, to a large extent, assumed their imaginal shape and size; not till about the time of pupation, however, as will be seen later when we examine the histological structure of the developing discs, is the process of encroaching quite complete. The first thoracic disc is now seen to have projected forwards to form a hood over the upper part of the head; the second disc _ has far outstripped the other two, and, growing right under the cuticle of the first thoracic segment of the larva soon assumes its imaginal dimensions; from it about three-quarters of the thorax develops; the metathoracic disc scarcely lengthens at all, and persists as a small ring behind the great mesothoracic segment. The legs and wings have meantime been extending, and already in the larva a few hours after if has defaecated the 338 process of segmentation of the legs has proceeded far. In the larva ten hours after defaecation a coxa is distinctly visible behind the femur; the region where the leg showed its original bending marks the beginning of the tibia; the tarsus is also clearly visible; on the third tarsus at least four seg- ments have been produced, on the other tarsi joints are just forming. No trochanter is visible yet. The wings have meanwhile grown in size. The first wings are now in the form of two great hollow sac-like pockets, on either side of the mesothoracic segments; the hind wings are much smaller. In the larva a few hours later the legs have grown so long that they are found beneath the thorax, and their distal ends begin to grow backwards; the wings continue to grow in — length, and likewise become forced backwards. The proximal wide ‘‘mouth’’ of the wings contracts more and more, and the great sac-like structures transform, in the late larva, into others having the shape more nearly of the wings of the adult. Rapid growth of the legs continues, so that just before the end of larval life the first leg has grown backwards nearly to the end of the thorax; the second about one-third the distance down the abdomen; the third about one-quarter the length of the abdomen from the end. The " wings also, especially the first wings, have become very large and have enveloped the sides of the thorax. All the segments of the legs, except the trochanters, are cleary seen; but the legs themselves are thick fleshy struc- tures, resembling only in a general way the legs of the adult (fig. 16). The same thing has been described above in the mouth-appendages. At an early stage in their formation as distinct append- ages, 2.e., in the resting larval period, tracheoles began to extend into the wings and legs. Each leg is provided with a single long tracheole occasionally branching into two parts distally. The wings, on the other hand, are well provided with tracheoles. Their actual structure and their history within the wings will be described later; it will suffice to refer here merely to their general disposition within the wings. Running along the lower (anterior) border of the wing are a pair of tracheoles (figs. 44, 65), one of which is bifur- cated distally. They appear to communicate in the proximal portion of the wings. Passing down the middle of the wing are a number of tracheoles, which appear also to be branches of a single large tracheole at the base of the wings, this large tracheole giving off a pair of smaller vessels, each of which bifurcates in about the middle of the wing. One of these | 4 339 small vessels passes to the end of the wing and there turns upon itself and runs forwards again. These tracheoles, as well as those of the legs, are all markedly twisted and irregular. ’ Meanwhile the thoracic segments have been undergoing further development. The second segment becomes somewhat convex; the first segment grows downwards, and instead of overlying the rear of the head, now comes to assume its proper position as a shield over the neck and front of the thorax. A mechanical explanation of this will be given later (see Muscular System). The metathoracic segment retains its insignificant size. Having arrived at their maximum size, the thoracic seg- ments and their appendages form a cuticle. This process, which is coincident with cuticle formation over the rest of the body, is quickly followed by the pupal moult. The thorax, which has now attained its general adult shape, begins to undergo changes parallel to those that go on in the head, 7.e., ridges, grooves, tubercles, bosses or depres- sions, etc., are developed on its surface in the positions in which we see them in the imago. This process takes place on the first day of pupal life, and is soon followed by chitinisa- tion. Already in the thirty-six hour pupa this has pro- ceeded considerably, and the only changes which take vlace during the remainder of the pupal life consist in a thickening of this chitinous coat, accompanied by a general blackeiing, following close on the blackening of the head. The legs, meanwhile, undergo continued ‘‘differentia- tion’’; they shrink greatly within their cuticle, and the segments become more clearly marked (fig. 16). Already at about six hours after pupation the shrinking has permitted the growth of (protoplasmic) bristles on the surface of the legs; soft claws and spines are soon seen, and the trochanters are clearly visible some twenty-four hours after pupation. The view of Lowne that they are really part of the femur, and that they do not represent a distinct segment, com- parable, for example, to the coxa, or tibia, seems justified by their very late appearance in the pupa, the true segments being clearly visible even in late larval stages. Some twenty- four hours after pupation the legs have practically assumed _ the external appearance of those of the imago. This is fol- lowed by the secretion of chitin, at first slow, later rapid, so _ that at the end of two and a half days the legs of the pupa are (to external appearances) identical with those of the adult wasp. _ The wings, also, have continued to develop during this time. First a considerable shrinking takes place, so that the » 4) 340 ‘i wing occupies, in the twenty-four hour pupa, an area about three-quarters the size of the wing of the newly formed pupa (fig. 44). Already in the pupa a few hours old, the upper and lower pairs of veins of the fore wing are seen to he each within a broad clear space, extending from the base of the wing to a distance about one-fifth the length of the wing from the end. In the twenty-four hour pupa these clear areas have become much more distinct. In the hind wings, so far as I could observe, only a single such clear area is formed. The © wings meanwhile have assumed, more nearly, their adult shape, showing now a very slender proximal region, and developing, at the same time, each a small basal structure provided with a number of irregular prominences and depres- sions (fig. 9), which articulate with, or into which fit, other depressions and projections from the sides of the thorax. The wing now assumes a remarkable appearance; instead of remaining as a smooth fleshy structure, its surface begins to undergo, in the thirty-six hour pupa, a very pronounced folding (fig. 37); at the same time hairs—the fine pubescence of the adult wing—-as well as bristles, and the hooks of. the hind wings begin to appear on the surface. The folding is soon complete, and the whole structure now begins to chitinise. The chitin on the hooks of the hind wings becomes fairly thick; elsewhere, however, the chitin remains thin, and closely follows the contours of the wrinkled surface of the pupal wing. The anterior clear space of the fore wing, and that of the hind wing become brown in colour; they form the nervures of the adult wings; the bifurcated clear areas on the rear half of the first wing do not change colour, and remain as colourless ‘‘pseudo-nervures,’’ so characteristic of the wings of many chalcid wasps. ! On emerging from the pupa the wings of the wasp soon straighten out. Not till now can we actually estimate the extent to which folding of the wing epithelium has taken place; for so pronounced has been the folding within the limited space afforded by the pupal cuticle covering the wings, that these, on expanding fully, attain, in the course of a few minutes, an area sixteen times that of the pupal wing. At the rear of the fore wing a slight turning over of the wing chitin forms the only structure on which the great hooks of the hind wing can possibly find a grip. The actual cellular processes which underlie this remark- able development of the wings will be described later (see page 359). One point seems to be worthy of special attention here. The fact that the clear spaces (developing nervures) of the 341 pupal wing may at times be quite devoid of tracheoles, while at other times they may lodge two tracheoles, if not more, seems to show that the nervures have no relation whatever to these respiratory tubes, and that the latter have grown into them merely because they represent a path of diminished resistance to growth. It seems to follow, also, that attempts to arrive at any conclusions as to the phylogeny of families and genera (in the chalcid wasps, at any rate) on the basis of pupal wing structure are fallacious, unless special distinc- tions are drawn between the wing nervures and the tracheoles which they may contain. The Abdomen and its Appendages. The abdomen of the wasp is built up from the last ten segments of the larva, and in its general features the develop- ment is identical with that of the thorax, 7.e., the narrow imaginal discs of each segment grow outwards beneath the cuticle of the larva and assume the general shape of the abdomen of the wasp. The imaginal discs, moreover, are similar in appearance to those of the thorax (fig. 2), being in the form of narrow strips of tissue, running vertically down each segment close behind the spiracle (in those seg- ments which possess one). The imaginal disc of the last seg- ment occupies the whole of its lower lateral regions. The general shape assumed by the abdomen is ovoidal; but in this the first two segments do not co-operate; on the other hand, a remarkable migration takes place here, and the whole of the first abdominal segment, and the upper half of the second, become merged in with the thoracic segments, to form the middle region of the insect, the hymenopteran “alitrunk,” while the lower part of the second abdominal oe oe v = segment forms the petiole, which in the adult wasp connects the “‘abdomen”’ with the alitrunk, and articulates with the upper part of the second segment, with which, therefore, it always remains in fairly close intimacy. It is in the larva about twelve hours after defaecation that this process of migration is first indicated. At this stage a horizontal splitting is seen in the second abdominal seg- ment, and shortly after, the first segment, and the upper half of the second, begin to move forwards, while the lower portion of the second retains its position, and eventually forms the petiole. At the time when the larva moults, these two segments have distinctly left the remainder of the abdomen, and have produced the ‘‘alitrunk’’ (fig. 7). At this time, also, the abdominal discs have completely encircled the body, and the lower portion of the second abdominal disc has so constricted as to give it the form of the petiole; already in 342 the larva fourteen hours after defaecation the petiole is clearly seen. As on the rest of the body, the attainment of adult proportions is rapidly followed by the secretion of a delicate cuticle, after which the larva moults. The changes which occur during pupal life in the abdomen are quite parallel to those occurring on the remainder of the body. A certain amount of shrinking takes place some twelve hours after pupation; bristles form on various parts of the body; the small sculpturings of the wasp’s body are moulded on the soft epithelium of the pupa, and then the whole abdomen undergoes chitinisation. The blackening of the abdomen takes place on the fourth day, soon after that of the head and thorax, 7.e., the wasp blackens from before backwaids. The two abdominal segments which have become merged into the alitrunk undergo but slight changes during pupal life. Just as the first thoracic segment grows downwards to form the front wall of the thorax, so the two migrated abdominal segments also grow downwards to form the rear wall of the ‘‘alitrunk.’’ The two processes take place at the same time, and are to be explained, I believe, as the result of a pull, exerted upon them by the contraction of the great longitudinal thoracic muscles, which pass horizontally from the one to the other (see below, p. 426). This pulling down- wards results in the more distinct separation of the alitrunk from the rest of the abdomen. ‘The chitin in this region becomes extraordinarily thick, and the whole surface under- goes remarkable sculpturing. In the two-day pupa, the upper part of the second abdominal segment is still clearly visible as a small square segment embedded in the one preceding it; it is about equal in size to the petiole, with which it articu- lates. As chitinisation advances, however, it becomes more and more difficult to detect. That the alitrunk contains the first abdominal segment is, of course, well known. But that the upper portion of the second segment is also incorporated in the alitrunk does not seem to have been recognized hitherto. Thus Sharp (1895) writes :—‘‘The structure of the posterior part of the alitrunk has given rise to an anatomical discussion that has extended over three-quarters of a century, with the result that it is now clear that the posterior part of what appears to be thorax in Hymenoptera is composed of the abdominal segment. This part has been called ‘Latreille’s segment,’ the ‘median seg- ment,’ and the ‘propodeum.’” . . . ‘‘Although the true first segment of the abdomen is detached from its normal position and added to the thorax, yet the term abdomen is conveniently restricted to the part that commences with the true second segment’’ (part 1, p. 492). 343 To what extent this bisegmental condition of the pro- podeum is found in Hymenoptera generally I am unable to say. In Nasonia there can be no doubt of it, but to deter- mine its constitution in other groups would necessitate an embryological examination of these, the study of mature material being generally useless. It remains only to describe the segments of the rest of the abdomen. The third segment is large and conical and overlaps the second, which is rather shorter; the next is very long, and the following two rather shorter. The last four segments are small and together form the posterior quarter of the abdomen (fig. 4). Chitinisation has taken place so as to produce distinct terga and sterna. The sterna of the seventh and eighth segments do not meet below, the body being protected here by the sternum of the ninth segment. The tenth segment is partly invaginated into the preceding one and is represented by a terminal plate which bears a long horizontal slit, the anus (figs. 21, 26). Surrounding this plate are other podical plates, but whether these are formed from the last, or from the antepenultimate segment, I am not definitely able to say. The last segment is interesting in that it bears in the female a. pair of processes, which grow out some ten hours before putation ; in the newly formed pupa they are in the form of short blunt appendages a little longer than broad, quite prominent in ventral view ng 21’). In ie early pupa the usual contraction takes place, and they remain as short conical papillae at either side of, and just below the anus; each is covered with long bristles, developed early in pupal life. These are the tactile hairs, and the structure serves as a delicate sense-organ for the female in the examination of the surface of the fly-pupa for a suitable spot to pierce with her ovipositor. The modifications which these structures undergo in the male will be described in connection with the development of the male copulatory organs; histological details will be given in connection with the description of the integument. In the female, meantime, the ovipositor has been develop- ing. This is represented in the feeding larva in its last instar by three pairs of imaginal discs, situated in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth segments, and identical in appear- ance with the anlagen of the legs (fig. 2); there is no evidence of a biramous structure. Some time before defaecation these appendages grow out above the surface; the upper pair grow backwards along the ventral side of the insect as two hollow 344 appendages, lying parallel to each other (fig. 20); the second appendages similarly grow backwards ventral to these, also as two hollow appendages, but more closely applied to each other; the last pair, on the other hand, extend mainly for- wards, and serve as a lateral protection for the other four appendages which the former partly enclose. Growth is rapid, and the posterior appendages assume the function more and more of a protecting sheath for the other two pairs. Already in the defaecating larva the second pair are closely adhering; in the larva eighteen hours later the two have almost formed one tube, and by the time the larva moults, there can no longer be any doubt as to the occurrence of a distinct cavity in this structure. This cavity, however, is not formed by a fusion of those of the two appendages; on the other hand, it is the result of an incomplete fusion of the walls of the two appendages, due to the invagination of the inner half of each into its outer half. The anterior pair of appendages mean- while grow in thickness, and tend to fill the available space enclosed by the last pair. The first pair of segments meanwhile give off each an anterior offshoot which grows upwards and curves backwards into the abdomen of the wasp (fig. 21); from the end of this outgrowth, a second portion grows downwards and forwards. This process seems to be complete at the time of pupation. Already in the larva, eighteen hours after defaecation, a distinct chitinous cuticle has been formed around the external parts of the ovipositor, and the organ is now prepared for the moult. At the time of pupation, then, the ovipositor has assumed its general adult appearance, but as with all the other appendages, the structures are merely moulds for the adult organs—they have attained their required sizes; they have now to differentiate. This takes place in the early pupal period. The first pair of appendages shrink, and tend to enclose the second fused appendage, which has also shrunken; the posterior pair of appendages similarly shrink, and remain as somewhat flattened thick sheaths, protecting the others. (fig. 22). The aperture of the female sexual ducts is a wide trans- verse slit-like structure, and this opens into the cavity enclosed by the first and second appendages. It will be referred to more fully in connection with the female sexual organs. The second appendage becomes serrated distally and projects slightly beyond the tips of the first pair. The whole struc- ture, in the two-day pupa, then undergoes chitinisation, to form the ovipositor of the adult. This complex organ consists, then, of a protecting sheath (third appendage) which encloses the actual egg-depositing ee, 345 tube. The latter consists of a slender but very stout rod, serrated distally (fig. 22), whose function is to bore through the fly-pupa prior to oviposition, the eggs entering the hole through a tube formed between this rod and the pair of first appendages which partly surround it. The proximal portion of these first appendages has grown in a strong curve, as described above, into the abdomen of the wasp ; a second piece growing forwards and downwards from the end of this has also been described above. These structures likewise chitinise and produce an exceedingly efficient system of phragmas. The insect has, as it were, taken full advantage of this, and a great group of muscles has developed, whose function is to move and hold the ovipositor while the latter is functioning. These muscles are shown in fig..22. One group radiates out from the base of the second appendages, and is inserted on to the first portion of the phragma. . Other muscles are inserted into the descending portion of the phragma; others, again, are attached to the base of the ovipositor. A system of smaller phragmas is also developed on the ventral body wall to give firmer attachment to the “‘origin’’ of these muscles. The figure, however, will make this elaborate system of muscles clearer than any verbal decription can. The action of the ovipositor is now obvious; a pull by the muscles of the great phragmas will immediately swing the ovipositor forward out of its sheath (third appendage) into a vertical position, and the prolonged contraction of these and other muscles holds the ovipositor very rigidly for several minutes, during which the upward and downward movement of the abdomen causes the rigidly fixed ovipositor to bore its way through the hard sheath of the unfortunate fly-pupa. It is worth noting here, that during the development of the abdominal imaginal discs, the eleventh body segment (sixth abdominal) grows backwards a considerable distance along the ventral body wall and overlaps more than half the anterior portion of the ovipositor. During oviposition, consequently, when the very flexible abdominal segments are subjected to considerable strain, the ovipositor pushes these overlaps for- wards and has, then, the appearance of arising from a pyramidal structure on the ventral side of the body. No such structure is, of course, normally present. The histological changes which underlie this development will be referred to under ‘the integument.”’ _ The devolpment of the ovipositor of Locusta has been described by Dewitz (1875). He describes an anal segment bearing a pair of appendages (cerci) homologous probably with the sensory papillae of Vasonia. The ovipositor is developed, according to Dewitz, from the three preceding segments, one K . 346 of which is formed late in life. The only apparent difference between the structure seen in Locusta and that found in Nasonia lies in the fact that the two second appendages do not unite (in Locusta) to form a boring organ, and that the third appendages do not merely act as a protecting sheath for the ovipositor, but actually enter into its formation. | It is necessary to describe next the formation of the copulatory organs in the male. So far as I could observe, no rudiments corresponding to those of the female copulatory organs are present in the male larvae, and no special differentiation of external male organs takes place till very late in larval life. This is intimately connected with certain changes in the last four abdominal segments, which become so disposed as to allow of the eversion of the penis. © Shortly after the defaecation period the tenth and ninth imaginal discs of the abdomen have grown so as to assume 4 position at the rear of the animal and at the same time to take only a very small part in the formation of the lateral, ventral, or dorsal walls of the larva. This is brought about by the fact that the growths of these two abdominal imaginal discs are not very extensive; and that they actually become partly invag- inated into the eighth abdominal segment, which grows much faster than they do. This is clearly seen in the section shown in figs. 25 and 27. The tenth (terminal) segment is quite small, and bears the anus; ventrally it is provided with a pair of appendages, which lie in close contact with the ninth segment, which segment is partly invaginated into the eighth. This invagination is accompanied by a marked cell-prolifera- tion in the integument of the invaginated portion (fig. 25), and is already clearly seen in the defaecating larva; during pupal life it develops into the penis. The segments then chitinise and are found, in this con- dition, in the early pupa. It is especially worthy of notice that already at this stage the two appendages of the tenth (terminal) abdominal segment have applied themselves very closely to the sternal portion of the ninth (fig. 27); indeed, while the segments of the cuticle of the pupa are, in other respects, an exact representation of the shape of the epidermis which has secreted them, yet the appendages of the tenth segment form with the sternal portion of the ninth a cuti- cular covering which is common to them both; an examina- tion of the epidermal components of this compound cuticular segment, however, reveals its true nature (fig. 27). In the pupa, shortly after its formation, a curious change now takes place, which results in the formation of the penis. The cells — 347 of the sternal region of the ninth imaginal disc continue to - proliferate rapidly, and grow inward, into the eighth seg- ment; the extension is very rapid, so rapid, indeed, that after about six hours the invagination has extended forwards as far as the posterior border of the sixth segment; the process continues, and does not cease till the invagination has. ex- tended, along the mid-ventral region, well into the fifth abdominal segment. Early in the process of invagination a , cavity is developed in the mass of cells; and at the terminal (anterior) end this cavity dilates, to form a small sac, the vesicula seminalis (fig. 27), which is, therefore, formed from deeply invaginated epidermal cells, and is in no way to be regarded as a meso- dermal structure. In the six-hour pupa, though already clearly defined, it has, nevertheless, not attained a very pronounced size; but some twelve hours later, it is quite a prominent bulbous dilatation at the anterior end of the penis. The penis is thus a structure composed of the sternal portion of the ninth segment, and the appendages of the tenth, and the whole organ is produced simply by a massive ingrowth of cells of the ninth segment, forwards, along the ventral body wall. Already in the earliest pupae the transference of the appendages of the tenth segment to the sternum of the ninth is clearly visible, but it is not till well within the second day that the distinct development of a joint separating the two is evident. Early in the pupa the two appendages unite to form a simple tube, but exactly how this takes place I have not been able to observe. The penis is, then, a simple tube, consisting of two por- tions, a proximal, representing the sternum of the ninth segment, and a distal shorter portion, developed from the appendage of the tenth segment. The distal segment is seen, in the pupa, to be invaginated into the ninth; and both the segments are provided with a pair of long tendons, which serve to withdraw the distal joint into the one preceding it, and, finally, the whole structure into the abdomen. In this con- dition the organ is seen during later pupal life, and the ventral termination of the abdomen of the male, though really so totally different from that of the female, has, nevertheless, a curious resemblance to it. This is due to the fact that develop- ment of the male copulatory organ is mainly a process taking place within the abdomen, after the pupa has been formed. This internal development of the tenth and ninth seg- ments is accompanied by a number of changes in other abdominal segments, which result, in part, in the formation K2 4 of the accessory copulatory organs of the ninth segment, or in the modifications of the segments to aid in the eversion of - the penis. In the larva shortly before pupation, the ninth segment develops terminally a pair of great ‘‘beak-like” clasp- ing forceps, which have a very important accessory copulatory function, while the sternal regions of the seventh and eighth segments, which have not kept pace with the extension of the tergal region of these segments, become pushed forwards and are partly invaginated as the penis develops (fig. 26). Shortly after the penis adopts its adult proportions muscles become developed within it. The histological processes underlying the changes will be ~ dealt with later in connection with the development of the integument. The general blackening of the cuticle of the nupa com- mences some three and a half days (in summer) after the last larval moult, and is complete about twelve hours later; the wasp remains enclosed in the pupal sheath for twelve to twenty-four hours longer, and then, splitting the thin sheath which imprisons it, escapes. 348 B.—TueE IntTEGUMENT (Histological Development). In the newly hatched larva the integument has reached a state of development, which it retains with but small changes throughout the feeding period. The ectoderm consists, for its greater part, of a single layer of cells which are of two kinds; there are the large cells, less numerous than the other type, but occupying a greater part of the integument—the true “larval-cells ;’’ and, secondly, there are the narrow strips of integument consisting entirely of smaller more embryonic cells—the centres from which the imago will later develop— the imaginal discs of the integument; indeed, at this early period the rudiments of the wings, legs, mouth appendages, antennae, and even of the eyes are clearly recognizable, while the areas from which the general body surface of the imago will later develop are very prominent. It is to the development of the general body integument that we will first give our attention ; this will be followed by the description of the formation of the legs, wings, antennae, and mouth appendages; and, finally, the most astonishing of ali the integumental changes, the development of the compound eyes and ocelli will be described. In the newly hatched larva the cells of the imaginal discs of the general body surface are small, short, and columnar, and closely packed side by side (fig. 10); their protoplasm is clear, and their nuclei are very large. As the larva grows 349 cell division takes place, so that in the larva, at the time it defaecates, the integumental imaginal discs contain about four times the number of cells that we see in the newly hatched larva. Whether these cell divisions occur during the moulting period, or whether they occur gradually throughout larval life I am unable to say. Even this extensive multiplication is not sufficient, however, with absence of actual cell growth, to enable the cells of the imaginal discs to maintain their early appearance and at the same time retain their function of forming an unbroken body layer, such as is necessary in the secretion of a new cuticle in the period just preceding a moult. The difficulty is overcome by the cells gradually assuming a curious shape; their outer ends develop into thin flat discs. their inner ends containing the nucleus become long and narrow. Thus, while the outer portions of the imaginal embryonic cells combine to present an unbroken surface—a tiue pavement epithelium—the inner ends, which give the predominating appearance to the disc, are long and narrow and separated by wide spaces. The large specialized larval cells, on the other hand, do not undergo these changes; on the contrary, they retain their early shape and number, and the only visible change which they undergo is a great increase in size, an increase approximately proportional to the growth of the larva as a whole. These large larval celis of the imaginal discs co-operate during the feeding period to form the various cuticles. When newly formed, the cuticle, which is simply a direct secretion from the ectodermal cells, embraces these very closely; gradually it loosens itself, when the integument begins to secrete a second cuticle, inside the first, the two cuticles being very clearly visible in sections through the integument (figs. 47, 55). At the time when the larva begins to defaecate the ectodermal cells begin to enter upon a period of profound changes. The nuclei have become very large—indeed, their growth appears to have kept pace with that of the whole cell —but the chromatic contents appear curiously disorganized. Each contains a relatively gigantic nucleolus. Then follows a period of cytoplasmic disintegration. The entire cell contents break up into numerous minute globules (figs. 28, 29) which have a curious resemblance to nucleated cells, each consisting of a clear outer zone, and containing a heavily staining body. They are, however, purely disintegration products of the large cells and are not to be confused with the leucocytes, which are much larger than these globules; their curious construction is probably due to some obscure physical con- dition of the disintegration products of the cell. These a - 4 ‘ J ' 350 globules break loose from the cell, and are apparently dissolved in the blood. The disappearance of the larval cells 1s not, however, entirely one of chemical disintegration; definite phagocytosis of the cells also occurs, but its action is quite secondary to that of the chemical disintegration. Indeed, it is improbable that there are at this stage enough leucocytes in the blood of Nasonia to bring about the destruction of the larval integu- ment—not to mention the destruction of other larval organs. ‘That the process does occur, however, is quite certain; leucocytes may frequently be seen lying upon or within the disintegrated cells, and filled, at times, with degeneration globules, which they have recently ingested (fig. 31). They are the Kornchenkugeln of Weismann. Sometimes the cell contents do not break up into these minute ‘‘pseudo-nucleated’’ globules, but the whole mass undergoes granular degeneration and produces a large ball (fig. 30), which, after lying for some time within the cell membrane, breaks loose, and tumbles into the general body cavity; a few globules generally remain within the cell mem- branes, which now appear as irregular, empty hulks, below the developing imaginal integument. Sometimes, again, the cell contents may degenerate into large hyaline spheres, about the size of leucocytes, each containing several heavily-staining granules (fig. 28). In the body cavity the big granular spheres are fallen upon by the leucocytes, and by the intervention of these, and to a certain extent, apparently, by a process of solution, they gradually disappear. This type of cell disintegration is especi- ally clearly seen in the larva about sixteen hours after defaecation. The process of integument destruction lasts nearly a whole day; the cell contents first disappear, leaving only a thin cell membrane, which, in turn, eventually disintegrates. Accompanying these changes in the integument there is a total renovation of the underlying somatopleure. The larval somatopleural cells are greatly overgrown, and present a large nucleolus. Smaller embryonic cells, which have evidently lain dormant within the somatopleure, begin to proliferate during the period just preceding defaecation, and growing at the expense of the larval cells which they absorb, finally redevelop into a new somatopleure. The splanchnopleure, covering the internal organs, undergoes similar changes. Meanwhile the imaginal discs have become active, and, while the cells undergo further multiplication, begin to encroach upon the places occupied by the disintegrated larval cells, eventually replacing these entirely. The discs grow out in all es 351 directions; the outer, most actively migrating cells often show amoeboid processes (fig. 29), and it may be by this method of locomotion that the cells advance. Sometimes they grow right over the dead larval cells (fig. 28); at other times they seem to be unable to cross them, and have to await the complete destruction of the larval integumental cells before they can advance further (fig. 32). During the last hours of larval life, therefore, the integu- ment consists of areas of proliferation, the cells of which, growing outwards, are actively engaged in replacing the dis- integrated larval cells, or awaiting the total destruction of these. Eventually the imaginal discs of the integument meet, a cuticle is secreted and the larval moults, disclosing the pupa. At times leucocytes, having disposed of the remains of the larval tissues, are seen crammed with larval débris lying among the proliferating imaginal cells, and evidently provid- ing, by their disintegration, nourishment for the surrounding cells (fig. 31). Sometimes, also, numerous of the large hyaline degeneration globules are seen in similar situations (fig. 31). The integumental cells, unable to extend further, now begin to undergo structural changes; at first spindle-shaped (fig. 30), they soon begin to change their general form; in some parts of the integument, especially that of the abdomen,’ the cells are small and cubical, their outer surfaces very regular; the chitin secreted from them in this region is quite smooth. Along the dorsolateral regions of the pupa the cells are generally rather elongate. In the antero-dorsal region of the thorax (especially in the region of the future pronotum) this condition is especially clearly seen. Here the outer ends _ of the cells develop broad swellings, giving the cells a hammer- like appearance; from these swellings the thick chitin in this region becomes secreted. A somewhat similar condition is seen right at the posterior end of the abdomen. The ectoderm of the propodeum and metathorax is especially remarkable, being in the form of a great accumulation of ectodermal cells, several layers deep, all crushed together, and thus accounting _for the contraction which external features show has gone on in this region. The secretion of cuticle now goes on very rapidly, and about four hours after pupation, forms a layer nearly as thick as that of cells which are secreting it. The cells from which the cuticle is being secreted, moreover, do not, as a rule, present a perfectly smooth surface, but become so dis- posed as to form a mould on which the cuticle of the imago can shape itself, and the various depressions and bosses, and other sculpturing with which the imago is ornamented, as well 352 as the hard bristles and claws, and even the delicate hairs (pubescence) are to be regarded simply as chitinisations on the surface of these cells, or on parts of them. The ‘‘spiral’’ thread of the tracheae, as will be described later, is similarly merely a chitinisation of a previous protoplasmic ‘‘mould.” The small sculpturings on the body surface generally require only a single cell to act as a mould for them; this is very clearly seen, for example, on the head (fig. 33), the dorsal part of which shows forwardly projecting scale-like bosses, while on the antero-ventral part these project upwards; and the cells, in early pupae, can be distinctly seen, one under each boss, and all disposed in such a way as to present a ‘‘scale- like’’ appearance similar to that of the imaginal cuticle which they are secreting. The larger sculpturings, as well as such structures as claws and large spines on the legs, are, as a rule, moulded upon a number of cells (fig. 34). Bristles, on the other hand, are unicellular structures. Their formation can be especially clearly seen on the ovi- positor and posterior extremity of the insect. The ectodermal cells begin to elongate and develop a point at their free ends ; the elongation becomes more and more marked till the cell assumes the slender form of the bristle as we see it in the imago. Then it begins to chitinise (fig 35). The insertion of such a bristle on the cuticle of the imago is always strengthened by a small ring-like supporting structure (fig. 35), and the protoplasmic mould even of this support can, if the hair and cell is observed at the right moment, be clearly seen. The development of minute hairs (pubescence) is especi- ally curious. The process can be clearly observed on the second maxillae (labium). Here the ectodermal cells develop a number of long delicate processes, giving the cells a curiously frayed appearance at their terminations (fig. 24). Each of these processes then chitinises, to form a single hair. A single cell therefore acts as a mould for a number of minute hairs and the co-operation of a number of such cells produces the rasp-like pubescent structure which one finds on the ‘“‘tongue-like’’ labium of the adult Wasona. The chitinisation of the epidermal cells continues throughout pupal life, and the pro- cess does not cease till the whole of the cells have been converted into chitin. A cellular ectoderm is, therefore, absent in Vasonia, except in the region of the great eye. The extraordinary accumulation of epidermal cells in the region of the propodeum results in the formation of an especi- ally thick chitin layer there. Indeed, so active is the process of chitin secretion in this neighbourhood, that sections actually show minute liquid globules issuing from the chitin-secreting cells. 353 The cells, on the other hand, which are in the region of the future joint membranes, do not form a hard chitin, but produce a tough, but flexible, somewhat corrugated mem- brane. This is especially clearly seen in the neck region, and at the points of junction of the legs.with the thorax (fig. 41). The somatopleural mesoderm, so far as I can observe, always undergoes a renovation during the metamorphosis, and eventually persists as a delicate membrane with prominent nuclei, immediately below the chitinised ectodermal cells. The metamorphosis of the general body integument, then, closely resembles that described by Pérez in Calliphora. In that insect, however, the imaginal ectoderm extends over the cells of the larval ectoderm, which do not disappear till much later. Though cytoplasmic degeneration, somewhat similar to that of WVasoma occurs, phagocytosis is much more pro- minent, and the phagocytes attacking the integument cells are, generally, already strongly gorged with phagocytised muscle tissue (sarcolytes). The Phragmas.—During the pupal period the integument undergoes a number of changes which result in the formation of the phragmas—ingrowths of the integument serving for the inserticn of the muscles. The phragmas are of two kinds: there are the true phragnias, which are actual invaginations of the integument (fig. 43); a second type of structure which may be designated a “false phragma’’ is essentially an ingrowth of the edge of a segment into the body cavity, below another segment which now overlaps it. An excellent example of such a “false phragma’’ is the anterior part of the meso- - thoracic tergum, which, as already mentioned, is simply a prolongation of the mesothorax beneath the prothorax. The great phragmas of the ovipositor also belongs to this class. A false phragma, then, is a downgrowth of integument, which consists of only a single layer of cells. The true phragmas, on the other hand, are invaginations of the integument, generally hollow at first, and consist, of course, of a double layer of integument. They are found early in pupal life, and after some thirty-six hours chitinise, the chitin being secreted between the two layers. In the abdomen of the female a number of these phragmas are developed in connection with the ovipositor. They are rather short, and on them originate the great muscles of the ovipositor. The thorax and propodeum are provided with a number of transverse phragmas, for the insertion of the great thoracic muscles, and those of the legs and wings. One such phragma runs transversely just behind the scutum of the mesothorax ; below the metathorax runs a transverse horizontal phragma. 354 In the neck there is also a phragma, being a hoop-like forward and backward extension of the prothoracic shield, all round the neck. But the most remarkable of all are the great cephalic phragmas, which give attachment to the muscles of the antennae and mouth appendages (fig. 43). Early in pupal life a long tube-like invagination of the integument takes place on either side of the face, half-way between the mouth and the antennae. These invaginations grow upwards and inwards and terminate at the rear of the lower part of the brain. Meanwhile a second pair of tube-like invaginations has been formed at the rear of the head, a little below the _neck; growing inwards they meet the anterior pair of invag- inations. Since both pairs have a narrow lumen, we have the curious fact that at this stage a pair of long narrow canals run right through the head from front to rear, well above and either side of the mouth! The secretion of chitin, however, | soon takes place and the canals are obliterated, being gradually replaced by an exceedingly powerful rod of chitin. The integument on the three thoracic segments undergoes, during larval and pupal life, a number of remarkable changes which terminate in the formation of the wings and legs. The histogenesis of these structures will be considered first; that of the other appendages of the insect, which usually resemble it closely, can be considered more briefly. I'he Legs.—The imaginal discs of the legs are clearly visible in the earliest larvae. Here they occur, a pair in each of the three segments, as rather extensive but sharply defined areas rather thicker than the remainder of the integument, _ and lying on each side of the nerve cord, on the ventral side of the animal. The cells composing the discs are long and rather narrow (fig. 10). At the end of larval life the cells have increased greatly in number, and, as a result of the growth of the surrounding integumental cells the imaginal discs have become invaginated below the surface (figs. 2, 5, 6). On the base of this invagination the cells lengthen and divide tc form a large prominent papilla. In the resting larva this papilla begins to increase in size, and soon grows out of the invagination as a hollow appendage, dragging the mesoderm after it. Cell division by mitosis is very rapid, and the developing leg grows downwards, so that in the larva, before hatching, very well defined legs are present, hidden beneath the larval cuticle (fig. 3). The integument of the legs in common with that of the rest of the body develops a cuticle, the completion of which is followed by the moulting of the larva. So rapid has been the growth of the appendage, that its integument 355 becomes slightly folded in places to prevent further growth within the limited space afforded by the larval cuticle. This folding is very easily confused with the segmentation of the leg, a process which is not completed till some twelve hours later. The general features of the formation of the legs have already been described in connection with the transformation of the external characters of the insect. Among the most characteristic of these changes are to be mentioned the develop- rent of the bristles, spines and claws, the deepening of the joints, and especially the curious shrinking of the ectoderm, which transforms the thick ungainly appendages of the late larval and early pupal stages into the slender structures so characteristic of the imago. This shrinking of the legs is produced by a shortening and closer packing of the ectodermal cells. In the late larval stage these cells are long and slender, and are loosely arranged, but after pupation, the cells shorten considerably, become rather thicker, and much more closely packed together—they change from a loose columnar to a firm cubical epithelium. Segmentation of the leg in the larva, though clearly visible, is nevertheless little more than a series of constrictions due to a slight shortening of cells in this region. In the eight- hour pupa the constriction has become more marked, and even the tarsal joints are now very clearly defined (fig. 16). More marked segmentation is produced by a slight invagination of the cells of the constriction rings, a process which is rapidly followed by the secretion of a chitinous cuticle. In the thirty- six hour pupa this process has advanced considerably. Chitinisation continues for several days, till the whole of the ectodermal cells, with the exception of many of the bristle cells, become converted into the hard shell of the legs. The formation of bristles is rendered possible by the shrinking of the legs; it begins about eight hours after pupation and is practically complete thirty hours later. The development of bristles and spines has already been dealt with in connection with the development of the general body integument. Many of the bristles of the legs, however, take on a special tactile function. This is particularly clearly seen on the first tarsal segment of the first leg (fig. 19). On the lower side of this segment is a row of about twenty bristles, the lower ones large, the upper shorter. In suitable prepara- tions the lower ones can be clearly seen to be connected with nerve-fibres, branches of a moderately large nerve which passes down the leg. The bristle cell does not chitinise entirely, but a protoplasmic base is left, below which is a small mesodermal cell which attaches itself by a thin ‘‘collar” to the chitinous 356 integument of the leg immediately surrounding the bristle. From each of these cells a process is given off backwards to the nerve of the leg. It seems that this minute process is merely a neurolemma (since it stains feebly with haematoxylin, which the nerve fibre will not do), and this neurolemma protects an even more delicate nerve fibre. This nerve fibre can actually be seen leaving the outer part of the mesodermal cell and communicating with the bristle cell, within the collar developed from the former (fig. 19). I have not been able to determine exactly the function of the whole armature of bristles, which are so numerous on the legs; that they aid the insect in clinging to objects is un- doubtedly true, but it seems quite possible that a very large proportion of them have also a definite tactile function. In the case of the first tarsal joint this is certain; scattered bristles on other parts of the tarsi also have nerves connected with them, but the structures dealt with are so minute, that I cannot definitely say whether similar nerve-endings are pre- sent on all of them. Lowne has shown that the general integument of a fly is sensitive to touch. The same author describes bipolar ganglion cells lying in close contact with the tactile bristles ; I suspect, however, that they are really either ectodermal “‘receptor’’ cells, which have produced the bristle, or meso- dermal cells acting as a neurolemma, which encloses the delicate nerve fibre that terminates on the bristle. Bipolar nerve cells in this position are quite absent in Vasoma; but the meso- dermal cells which lie beneath the tactile bristles closely resemble such cells, the enclosed nerve fibre being very dif_i- cult, or often impossible to detect, partly on account of its . feeble staining capacity. But when the development of the \_ tactile organs is followed out, the nature of these cells becomes quite clear. In the eye they are ectodermal in origin (see “Organs of Vision’’); in the legs and antennae they are meso- dermal, and the nerves which grow towards them from the brain or ventral nerve cord are quite devoid of cell nuclei, consisting merely of nerve fibres, whose nuclei remain in the central nervous system. As Lowne did not observe the development of the tactile sense organs, he naturally put the more obvious interpretation on his observations. Indeed, it seems to be the generally accepted view that the cell lying below the tactile hair is a nerve cell; an examination of the embryology of the structures Epnoorneds will, however, show this view to be erroneous. I shall refer to this again later. Leucocytes, containing large amounts of débris from the histolysed tissues, enter the legs in an early stage in their 357 formation. Sometimes the narrow lumen of the leg contains these cells in large numbers; occasionally one may be seen among the loose epithelial cells of the leg. In the early pupa the leucocytes appear quite healthy, although heavily gorged with larval tissues; but gradually they disintegrate, or recovering, wander away, and are no longer seen here in a two-day pupa. The disintegration will be described more fully in connection with the blood. A single tracheal vessel enters into each leg soon after its formation (fig. 65). The formation of the muscles of the leg and of the great tendon will be more conveniently considered in connection with the muscular system. The development of the last tarsal segment is worthy of special attention. Already in the eight-hour pupa the segment is slightly larger and wider than those which precede it. As development proceeds this process continues, producing a claw-bearing segment considerably wider than the others. The ectodermal cells, moreover, do not remain as a single layer but proliferate, producing two masses of padding tissue, very similar to that which is formed in the bulging segment of the antennae. These masses are clearly visible in the pupa of thirty-six hours. The epidermal cells on either side of them, and also at a place on the ventral side slightly _ proximal to them, grow out in the form of large claws. Chitinisation then takes place. The cells of the three claws almost totally disappear; the pads, however, secrete only a very thin membrane of chitin, which arranges itself in two pairs of long pads, structures which are probably to be con- sidered as adhesive organs. They are shown clearly in fig. 46, which is from a pupa of four and a half days. The distal part of these pads is totally devoid of cells, the padding cells being confined entirely to the main portion of the segment. The proximal part of the padding tissue is syncitial in nature and on it is inserted what appears to be a tendon (fig. 46). It is quite possible that a pull of this tendon would draw back the padding tissue and apparently also the thin chitin which it has secreted. If the joint had been placed previously on some solid object it is conceivable that a partial vacuum might be created between the four adhesive pads and the object, thus enabling the wasp to cling to a smooth surface. The capacity of chalcid wasps for clinging to window glasses is, of course, well known to all who have collected them. The Wings.—The general features of the development of the wings have been described above; it remains to describe now the histological changes which they undergo. 358 The imaginal discs of the wings are seen even in the larva ot the first instar as two pairs of rather pronounced thickened areas in the second and third thoracic segments. Cellular proliferation takes place during larval life, and, just as in the legs and other appendages, the excessive growth of the surrounding “‘larval’’ cells produces an invagination of the discs; rapid mitotic cell division during the resting period results in an evagination of the disc, the underlying mesoderm being, as usual, dragged into the structure. The epithelium of the wing consists of a single layer of elongated cells; these cells, in order to present a greater surface area, frequently develop on their free surface in the larva shortly before pupat- — ing, distinct hammer-like thickenings. The secretion of a cuticle, simultaneously with cuticle development over the rest of the animal is followed by the pupal moult. The contraction of the wings, as already described, results simply from a closer packing of the cells. In the early pupa a cell of the fat-body often passes into the cavity of the wing, helping to nourish that structure; the mesodermal cells are seen undergoing mitotic division. After twenty-four hours the cavity of the wing has been almost obliterated. This is the result of at least two factors: firstly, the cells shorten somewhat, the peripheral pull drag- ging the two surfaces nearer together; secondly, they begin to undergo a remarkable process of wrinkling on their free surface, as a result of which the lower part of the cell becomes forced backwards. This wrinkling can already be seen com- mencing in the four-hour pupa; in the thirty-six hour pupa it is very far advanced, and the free surface of the cells which row present great folds, begin to secrete chitin which is itself, therefore, strongly folded. Many of the cells, however, in addition to forming folds, have also developed a hair-like process on their free surface; the cuticles secreted on these processes are the fine hairs of the insect’s wing (fig. 37). Other cells, again, on the anterior part of the wing lengthen greatly, and extending beyond the surface of the wing form bristles. Greatly hypertrophied cells on the hind ‘wings produce the clinging hooks (fig 38). Towards the end of pupal life the greatly folded cells have lost the whole of their cytoplasm, this having become transferred, apparently, into the thin chitinous cuticle. The cell walls, however, are still visible, as are also the cell nuclei; some of these, indeed, show no visible signs of degeneration ; others, however, are distinctly abnormal, having lost prac- tically the whole of their chromatin contents (fig. 37). By the time the insect emerges from the pupa all the nuclei have 359 disappeared, except.a number on the outer edge of the wing ; these persist throughout the life of the wasp in a half disin- tegrated state; their presence can easily be revealed by stain- ing the wing ‘of a properly preserved insect (fig. 38). The outlines of the cell of the pupal wing are also clearly visible around the border of that of the imago; they are beautifully seen in the great fastening hooks of the hind wings, as long projections into the wing, and evidently give special strength to these structures (fig. 38). By this extensive folding of the free surface of the cells, the great extensions in the size of the wing take place; so. pronounced indeed is this, that, as already menticned, th® wing directly after the imaginal moult, expands to an area sixteen times that of the pupal wing. The obliteration of the cavity of the wing, as described above, however, is not complete; on the contrary, the first wing preserves an anterior (marginal) and a median longitudinal “sinus,’’ in the form of two great channels passing down the wing (fig. 44). The anterior one is bifurcate distally. The hind wing presents only one such channel. These channels are the “clear spaces’’ described above as visible in a surface view of the wing, and into these channels pass the tracheoles of the wing; leucocytes are also seen here during early pupal life; they disintegrate later (just as they do in the other appendages), but some may be seen even into the fourth day of the pupa. If a newly found pupal wing be examined in sections a remarkable thing 1s seen. The mesodermal cells a little beyond the base of the wing begin to proliferate, and then extend as a long column of cells right down the great fissures in the wings (fig. 45). Nosuch structure, however, ever extends (in Vasonia) into the median channel of the fore wing, though this channel does lodge tracheoles and leucocytes; it remains indeed merely as a “‘pseudo-nervure,’’ while the marginal structures in both wings develop into true nervures. The cells of these columns are elongated and ‘“‘brick-like’’ in shape; the growth of the column is very rapid and is complete several hours after pupation. Late in pupal life the internal “‘lining’’ of the great channels begins to chitinise slightly: the chitin 1s pale yellow in colour, and to this the characteristic coloura- tion of the nervure is due. To what the unfolding of the wrinkled wing A the emergence of the wasp is due is difficult to say. While not attempting to discuss its cause in all insects, I may say that the usually accepted view, viz., that it is produced by the passage of air into the tracheae of the wing, must be dis- carded in the case of Nasonia. Here the tracheoles are very ss 360 delicate, somewhat twisted tubes, quite incapable of altering the shape of the wings which bear them. It seems much more probable that the straightening is due to the turgidity of the cells of the great ectodermal extension into the channels, and that the wings remain firm, later, as the result of the action of the air on substances contained in the chitin of the nervures. In connection with the small ‘‘stigmal-vein’’ of the fore- wing, a remarkable structure is developed, the interpretation of which is very difficult. On the distal part of the veins are developed four rounded globules (fig. 39), the distal pair rather smaller than the other two. They are well known to workers on chalcid wasps, and are frequently used in classi- fications. But if a stained wing is examined under a very high power each of these globules is seen to contain a heavily staining sphere (figs. 39, 40) attached to a small conical piece of protoplasm, the base of which is in turn attached to a long fibre. The fibre from each globule passes inwards, and becomes lost in the substance of the stigmal vein. It seems probable that the whole structure is one cell, of which the process and the conical portion represent the cytoplasm, while the sphere is the nucleus surrounded by a very delicate layer of cytoplasm. The long process, of course, immediately sug- gests a sensory structure; the nerve fibre being, as usual, almost impossible to detect, and lying within the weakly staining process, which acts perhaps as neurolemma. If this interpretation be correct, then it is not impossible that the structures concerned should act as speed-detecters. Increased speed of flight would be produced by increased rate of vibra- tion of the wings; this would result in a greater centrifugal pull on the free (spherical) part of this remarkable structure; or, what is more probable, it would result in a greater fre- quency of the striking of this body against the walls of the ~ globule, and it is conceivable that this would affect the nerve fibre which terminated in it. The Mouth Appendages—The general features of the histogenesis of the mouth appendages are so similar to those of the thoracic, that a brief description will suffice here. The imaginal rudiments of these structures are clearly visible in the first larval instar (fig. 47); in their condition of development.the labrum and mandibles are already much in advance of the condition in which we find the thoracic append- ages; 7.¢., they are no longer merely ectodermal thickenings, consisting of embryonic cells, but have now become invag- inated well into the cavity of the head. The imaginal discs of the labrum are a pair of solid ecto- dermal ingrowths, situated at either. angle on the fore-part of — tc OO ALLL ALLL LLL LE LL, LLL - —— Be. P ek ee. st po ae an ae Gare. be “F. a RI I I - - ; “ — —~ sl a ae 361 the mouth. Their development during the larval and early pupal periods is quite similar to that of the thoracic append- ages, 2.€., the cells proliferate, grow outwards, forming a cavity behind them -as they do so, and drag the underlying mesoderm after them. The general features of their develop- ment have already been described. The mandibular imaginal discs (fig. 47) are particularly interesting. Each consists of a sac of ectodermal cells (lined, of course, with mesoderm), and invaginated well into the cavity of the head. The floor of the ‘“‘sac’ is many cells thick, the cells themselves being rather smaller than the larval integumentary cells. On the ‘“‘floor’’ of the invagination is a small number (about nine) of very remarkable cells; they are club-like in shape, and each bears a long cytoplasmic extension outwards. These processes are so arranged that they possess, together, the shape of the larval jaw, and it is from the termination of these remarkable cells that the minute-stylet-like mandible of the larva is secreted. This is seen clearly in fig. 47, which is taken from a larva shortly before entering the second instar. The functional jaw is no longer in communication with the cells which have secreted it; these cells, on the contrary, are now secreting a second mandible, within the first, and the latter will be cast off at the larval moult. We see, then, that the larval mandible is formed from the same set of cells which produce the mandible of the imago. The jaw of the larva must therefore be regarded as homo- logous, in part, with the jaw of the mature insect. It is, of course, quite conceivable that this might not have been the case; however, the fact that it is so can lead to important con- clusions, which will be considered in the second part of this paper. The same thing will be seen later, in connection with the antennae. During the feeding period of the larva the mandibular _ imaginal disc grows in size; at about the middle of this period the disc has become partly everted, and the projecting portion has the shape of the jaw of the last instar. On account of the much greater size of the jaw at this stage, it 1s necessary for a much larger part than hitherto of the imaginal disc to _ take part in its formation, and this is the reason for its pre- cocious evagination. During the resting stage the mandibular disc grows rapidly, the cells dividing mitotically. So far as I could _ observe, the long club-like cells of the disc in its first’ instar become modified during larval life into cells which do not _ differ visibly from the others of the madibular disc, 7.e., cells 362 which have become specialized into secreting a certain struc- ture may apparently (perhaps as a result of the act of secre- tion) become modified so as to resemble neighouring cells, and then co-operate with these in the secretion of another (some- times unlike) structure. The observation, if correct, would be of considerable theoretical importance. ‘I cannot, however, state with certainty whether these earliest specialized cells _ persist throughout larval life. Early in the resting period the mandibular palp already - mentioned above is distinctly seen. The disc grows rapidly by mitotic division of the cells, and drags the mesoderm after it. The remainder of the development of this, and of the other appendages of the mouth, closely resembles that of the legs, and need not be described further here. It is only necessary to add that the imaginal discs of the first and second maxillae are present in the earliest larvae, and do not differ, except in position (being closely applied to the mouth) from the leg discs. The Ovipositor.—The early stages in the formation of the ovipositor are identified with those of the legs, 7.e., the imaginal rudiments, present in the early larvae as ectodermal thickenings, become invaginated into the abdominal cavity (fig. 2). In the resting period they grow outwards, dragging the mesoderm after them; rapid cell division, by mitosis, results in the great extension of these appendages, along the ventral body wall, as has already been described fully above. The ectoderm of these appendages is only one cell-layer in thickness, and the cells themselves are generally long and narrow. The third appendages differ from the others, how- ever, in being several cell-layers in thickness; they are not hollow, as are the others, and are fused with the body wall. Into the hollow appendages, as usual, migrate leucocytes, which disintegrate there during the pupal stage. The second appendages in the larva seven hours after defaecation have already become closely approximated, and the cells on their adjacent halves have forsaken their long columnar shape and are now cubical; this portion of the appendage is in process of invagination into the outer part. In the early pupa, the cells of the developing ovipositor begin to lose their columnar shape, the characteristic of the growing stage, and now become cubical, and rather small in volume, 7.e., the ovipositor as a whole, having reached its condition of maximum growth, now begins to differentiate. The cells, themselves, become more closely packed together, and the long appendages shrink, just as we saw, above, in connection with the legs and wings. 363 The second appendages meanwhile have fused, and now enclose a cavity. Since the inner half of each of the second appendages has become invaginated into the outer half, it follows that the tube formed by their fusion must be lined internally by the ectoderm. Shrinking of the appendages continues; in the thirty-six hour pupa the second appendage is no longer recognizable as a compound structure ; it appears simply as a tube, lined by a single layer of ectodermal cells, the cavity containing mesoderm. During the third day chitinisation commences. The outer portions of the first appendages chitinise strongly; their inner parts, however, remain as flexible membranes, similar to those of the leg joints, neck joints, etc. (fig. 42). The compound second appendage chitinises in a very remarkable manner. The cells at its tip have previously arranged themselves so as to present a serrated tip to the ovipositor; chitinisation of this results in the characteristic sawing extremity. The remainder of the compound appendage becomes semilunar in section; the two outer thirds chitinise heavily, and the chitinous prisms so formed are connected by the median portion, whose walls develop into tough membranes, and enclose a quantity of mesodermal tissue. In side view the chitinised ovipositor shows a very pronounced ‘‘spiral’’ pattern, not unlike that of large tracheae. The hard chitinous sheaths and the tough membranes of the first and second appendages thus enclose between them a firm, yet pliable passage, down which the eggs pass during oviposition. An important part of the female egg-laying apparatus is the short appendages of the last abdominal segments; the general nature of these appendages has been described in con- nection with the general features of the insect; it remains to point out the nature of the tactile organs with which the appendage is so well supplied. The general features of the development of the appendage are identical with those of the body integument. The bristle- secreting cells, however, do not entirely chitinise; on the contrary, they seem to grow in size, and growing backwards from the bristle, pass well into the cavity of the appendage, remaining in connection with the cell only by a long delicate process (cf. fig. 50). A large nerve enters each appendage, then breaks up into nerve fibres, which communicate each with a bristle cell. I could find no trace of an intervening meso- dermal cell, similar to that described in the tactile bristles of the leg or antenna. The whole appendage, however, is filled 364 with a mass of mesodermal padding tissue, which evidently acts as a sufficient protection for the delicate nerve fibres. It seems scarcely necessary to point out again that the large cell lying beneath the tactile bristle is not a nerve cell, as 1t is usually believed to be, but that it is merely the ecto- dermal cell (receptor cell), from which the bristle has been formed. The cell is not an element alien to the bristle, but rather is the bristle to be regarded as a special part of the cell which acts as an intermediary between the cell and the environment, much as do the taste-hairlets at the free ends of the cells of mammalian taste-buds. The Male Copulatory Organs.—The visible cellular changes which underlie the formation of the penis are very simple; first the cells, in the early pupa, adopt the usual columnar (growing) shape; in the pupa two days old they become cubical, and chitinise a day later. The cells of the anterior dilation of the cavity of the penis, the vesicula seminalis, are quite different in shape; they are long and narrow, and form a thick wall around the vesicle. The Antennae.—At the front of the head are formed a pair of appendages, the antennae, which are quite different in nature from those appendages above described. Below them an outgrowth of nerve fibres is formed from the brain, on each side; and the fibres growing into the developing antennae terminate on modified ectodermal cells in these, — the modifications of the ectodermal cells into sense cells, and indeed, of the whole ectoderm into an antenna being of such a nature as to form what must be a very efficient sensory structure. The antennae are present in the earliest larvae—indeed, at this stage they are already more advanced than are the legs or wings, each being now in the form of a small papilla, composed of long narrow cells undergoing evagination from a previously invaginated antennal disc (fig. 47). They are, indeed, at a stage of development which the legs do not reach till the end of larval life. During the larval period the cells of the rudimentary disc continue to divide, so that, shortly before the larva defaecates, a distinct antenna is visible on the surface of the larva (fig. 3). Already at this stage the curiously jointed condition of the mature structure is clearly indicated (fig. 36), for the ectodermal cells have not divided regularly, as is the case in the legs and wings, but at short intervals a few cells have ceased to divide for a time, and remain long and columnar, while between these the ectoderm has undergone a marked proliferation to form a solid downgrowth of very we iz hued EA 365 minute cells; from the latter the tissue which produces the bulging of the joints is formed—a kind of padding tissue— whilst the former, the long columnar cells, give rise eventually to the joints and constrictions between the segments of the antenna. Already at this early stage a distinct outgrowth of nerve fibres from the brain is seen, though it does not as yet extend right into the developing antenna; a large tracheal vessel can also be distinctly seen, at this stage, within the lumen of the antennal projection (fig. 36). Leucocytes have also begun to enter. The mesoderm still adhering to the overlying ectodermal cells, follows them as they grow outward to form the antenna. The cells do not appear, at this stage, to have undergone any marked proliferation, and consequently appear as a deli- cate network lining the lumen of this structure. But that the mesoderm does eventually proliferate seems quite clear. This will be referred to Iater. The post-defaecation period of the larva is marked by a continuation of this process; the antenna growing rapidly eventually attains the size that we see in the mature insect. The differentiation is, as yet, however, very incomplete. The cells of the “‘padding tissue’’ have proliferated so rapidly that the mass develops a temporary invagination cavity (fig. 36). The columnar ‘“‘partition cells’? have divided, and now form a narrow ring of short cells between the masses. The ecto- dermal cells then partake in the process of cuticle secretion which is going on everywhere in the integument at this stage, a process which, when it is complete, is immediately followed by a shedding of the larval cuticle. The antenna now contains two tracheal vessels (fig. 65) ; large numbers of leucocytes are present, and the nerve out- growth from the brain has extended practically to the tip of the structure. A rapid differentiation now takes place. The cells com- prising the integument of the antenna adopt a more regular arrangement; the cells which give rise to the joints between the segments and to the proximal and distal walls of the segments proliferate somewhat, and, perhaps, on account of the presence of a hard cuticle on their outer surface, grow inwards, dividing the whole antenna into the segments so characteristic of that stage. This condition, the commence- ment of which is seen in the four-hour pupa, is complete in the pupa thirty-six hours of age (fig. 15). Meanwhile the formation of bristles has been taking place. Already in the four-hour pupa a number of integu- mentary cells at the tip of the antenna have elongated and 366 projected beyond the general surface of the antenna. This process is made possible by the curious shrinking, already referred to, which is seen in the developing appendages of the early pupal period. The shrinking is probably due to a closer packing of the integumentary cells, which transforms the ungainly appendages of the early pupa into the exquisitely moulded structures of the imago. Twenty-four hours later the process of bristle formation has become completed over the whole antenna, and the secretion of new chitin begins. The integumentary cells at this stage are rather long and columnar, and leucocytes, in various stages of disintegration, may be seen lying amongst them. The leucocytes of the lumen of the antenna are also undergoing slow disintegration, by a process which will be referred to later. At thirty-six hours after pupation the process of chitini- sation has become marked; it continues for a long time, but differs in a rather important respect from what we see in the chitinisation of the general body integument. The cells do not undergo complete chitinisation, but remain partly as living cells (receptor cells), with which the antennal nerve fibres com- municate. Thus.only the distal portion of the bristle-forming cells chitinises ; the proximal portion remains below and in close contact with the bristle which it has secreted. Even the cells which form the general integument of the antenna do not chitinise completely. Meanwhile the mesoderm has been undergoing remark- able changes. The fibres of the network already referred to - have increased in length; the cells have increased considerably in number and also in size, and they now become so disposed as to occupy a position below and in close contact with the bristle secreting cells; a very delicate connection can actually be seen, joining the mesodermal cell to the bristle cell above it; so intimate, indeed, is the communication between the two that it gives the appearance of a large binucleate cell (fig. 49). Meanwhile the nerve of the antenna: has grown in size, and extended as a great ‘‘tendon-like’’ axis right through the antenna. Covering it is a thin layer of cells, the splanchno- pleure of the brain. In each segment of the antenna this great nerve (fig. 15) gives off fibres, so that at the tip of the distal segment, it is represented only by a loose outwardly radiating bunch of fibres; and in good preparations it is frequently possible to trace a single nerve fibre from the great antennal nerve through the padding tissue into one of the mesodermal cells which lie beneath the bristle cells; that portion of the nerve fibre between the antennal nerve and the nucleus of the 367 mesodermal cell being protected by a fibre of the mesodermal network already described. The mesodermal cells must therefore be regarded as con- stituting a kind of neurolemma for the nerve fibres; what the actual connection between the nerve and the bristle cell, a connection which must be situated in the delicate connecting piece between the two cells, is, | am unable to say. These remarkable structures are shown in figs. 49 and 51. Very often two mesodermal cells lie in connection with a bristle cell (figs. 51, 53). The apparently erroneous interpretation which B. T. Lowne placed on similar cells in Calliphora has already been discussed in connection with the description of the tactile organs on the legs. At the tip of the antenna the bristle secreting cells have frequently retreated a considerable distance from the respec- tive bristles, and only a long protoplasmic filament remains to connect them (fig. 50). It seems scarcely possible to doubt that the structures here seen are tactile im nature. The antenna, however, is the seat of a number of other remarkable sensory structures. In the second segment, which is rather longer than those which follow it, there is a number of curious structures, which must, I think, be regarded as olfactory organs. Of these there are ten, and each is in the form of a long tubular sac, formed by five elongated cells, each with a large nucleus, the ten olfactory sacs hanging in a ring around the antennal nerve, from the distal end of the segment, into its spacious cavity (fig. 52). The lumen of these tube-like sacs is very slender, and appears to be quite devoid of chitin. It com- municates by a short duct with the exterior, the small circular openings lying in a rather deep ring-like depression immedi- ately surrounding the joint between the second and third segments. The masses of padding tissue act as supports for the olfactory sacs. I could not observe the innervation of these organs, a fact which is partly due to the minuteness of the nerves, and to the difficulty of staining them. Nor was I able to follow their whole development—in newly formed pupae they do not yet occur; in pupae at the fifty-six hour stage they have already been formed, appearing then as long protoplasmic sacs hanging down from the distal end of the segment, rather gelatinous in consistency, and not so delicate and slender as in the adult condition. They probably begin to develop, then, at about the twelve- to twenty-four hour stage, and there can be little doubt that they are produced simply as invaginations of the developing ectoderm, accom- panied by a great elongation of the cells concerned. 368 A third series of structures, which are perhaps to be regarded as sense cells that serve the insect in maintaining its equilibrium, is found in all the antennal joints, with the exception of the first and last. On the proximal and distal surfaces of the antennal segments the epidermal cells do not chitinise, as they do on the general body surface, but, after secreting a thick chitinous sheath, remain below and in close contact with this, as large fleshy cells, which are especially prominent in the angle between the lateral walls and the distal surface (fig. 51). Each of these large cells has the appearance of. being binucleate; one of these nuclei is pro- bably that of a mesodermal cell, the close adherence of the ectodermal and the underlying mesodermal cell having already been mentioned in connection with the cells of the tactile bristles. In fortunate preparations a nerve may be seen running to these large cells. I hope to discuss their function more fully in a later paper. A fourth series of structures, which are perhaps to be regarded as auditory organs, can be very clearly seen on the last nine antennal joints. They are confined to the female, and each structure is‘ in the form of a long, rather narrow, hollow cylinder, sharply pointed distally, and formed of thin, clear, transparent chitin (fig. 53). Immediately beneath these hollow cylinders lies a mass of fleshy cells; sometimes as many as five nuclei are visible, and no distinct cell walls can be recognized. What is apparently a strand of nerve fibres can occasionally be seen entering this cell mass. These organs are very prominent on the antenna of the female, each being nearly as long as the antennal segment bearing it, and frequently projecting in a sharp point beyond it. The number in the several segments varies; the first and second bear six each; the third has eight; the next three, ten ; the seventh, twelve; the eighth, fourteen; and the last, eight. Only the first (proximal) segment of the antenna is pro- vided with muscles (fig. 11). These run longitudinally; dis- tally they are inserted into the upper portion of the tip of the first joint; then passing backwards, they diverge a little and, entering the head, pass downwards, and become inserted on the great cephalic phragmas. The lower portion of the wall bounding the opening in the head through which the nerves, muscles, and tracheae pass into the antenna serves as a pulley on which the antennal muscles work. A second set of muscles is confined to the antenna; it has its origin along the posterior ventral half of the first joint and is inserted into the upper part of the base of the second. The function of this system is, obviously, to raise the greater 369 part of the antenna, irrespective of the action of the other set of muscles. The muscles begin to develop in the pupa of four hours; the actual histogenesis of these muscles, which does not differ — from that of other muscles, will be described later. By this process, then, there is formed the antenna of the imago, a structure which is to be regarded simply as a highly sensitive portion of the integument, modified and : grown out in such a way as to permit of a maximum of _ efficiency in the action of the sense cells, which it bears. ’ The Organs of Vision. The Compound Eye.—But of all the changes undergone by the ectoderm as it gradually develops in the larva and | the pupa, the most remarkable are those which take place at | the sides, and in front, of the head. Here the ectodermal cells become exceedingly specialized, and, while retaining their primitive function of acting as a protection for the internal organs, as well as, to a certain extent, their capacity for secreting a cuticle, yet become modified, and disposed in such a manner that the terminations of outgrowing nerve fibres from the brain, which come to end in close relation with them, may become stimulated in certain ways by the light rays emitted from external objects, the vague impressions of which become modified, as a result of their physical media- tion, into what must now be very highly specialized sensations. ; | | As a result of the processes, which begin in the embryo, | and are continued right throughout larval and pupal life, the great compound eyes and the three smaller ocelli become developed. The formation of the compound eyes will be considered | first. Already in the larva of the first instar the ectoderm of the head, on either side of the brain, has begun its modi- fied course of development. The ectoderm at this stage con- sists of a large number of cells disposed roughly in three layers (fig. 55). Although no examination of eyes in unhatched embryos was made, yet there can be no doubt that the cells of these layers are formed as a result of a division of vertically elongated cells, the disposition of the cells at this stage being such as to indicate that they had arisen from those of the middle layer. Several individual cells are shown isolated in fig. 54 for greater clearness. The cells of these three layers can already be distinguished morphologically. Those of the external layer are rather short and generally conical in shape; the middle layer cells are long and generally spindle-shaped, with the nucleus in their middle, while the cells of the inner =. —— a a n . 370 layer are elongated, broad and conical at their bases, and prolonged externally into a long rather narrow process; the nucleus is confined to the lower conical portion of the cell. In all three types of cell the nuclei are alike; there is a fairly distinct nuclear membrane, and the chromatin is contained in a sharply defined karyosome. The cell cytoplasm is devoid of granules. During larval life there is a great proliferation of the cells of the imaginal disc, unaccompanied, however, by any marked visible differentiation; so that the optic disc in the larva at the time it ceases to feed is little different from the structure as we see it in the first instar, except that thé cells are ever so much more numerous, and actually smaller than in the early larva. JI could find no evidence of renewed differentation of optic disc cells from unmodified head ecto- derm during larval life, such as occurs, according to Giinther (1912), in the developing eye of Dytiscus marginalis. On account of the great crowding together of cells at this stage, it is very difficult, except in places where they have been accidentally loosened, to observe the actual structure of the individual cells. No marked difference can, however, be noticed between these cells, and those of the early imaginal disc. About the time when the larva ceases to feed, the cells begin, as a result, probably, of their mode of division, to adopt the arrangement in groups somewhat as we see them in the adult wasp. The basal cells, with a very elongate oval nucleus whose chromatin is arranged in scattered granules, which apparently develop the rhabdome, can now be seen extending right to the external surface, and the cells of the middle layer are seen to surround this cell in groups of seven. These are the sheath cells which, with the basal cells, form the developing ommatidia. At the time when the larva begins to defaecate the cells of the external layer have extended throughout the thickness of the disc, and can be seen under- going longitudinal (vertical) fission, their nuclei being retained in their outer portions (fig. 56). At their bases (distal ends) can be seen, in good preparations, four: minute cells, which have probably been budded off from them. These are the undifferentiated vitreous cells, which later become so prom- inent. In the larva at the time of defaecation, a single pair only, as a rule, of the elongated outer-layer cells can be seen between adjacent ommatidia. Their disposition is such as to show very clearly that they have quite recently undergone (1) They are, as a rule, spoken of as “‘retinula cells.’’ This is, however, due to a misconception of their function, and they will here be spoken of simply as ‘‘sheath cells.” ee 371 longitudinal fission (fig. 56). At times, though very rarely, a third such cell can already be seen connected with the devel- oping ommatidium. The most obvious feature of the develop- ing compound eye at this stage, and for the whole of the next day, is the closeness with which the cells are disposed, making accurate observation of the development impossible except in places where the cells have become artificially loosened. This process of longitudinal division of the cells surround- ing the ommatidia continues for a time after defaecation, till four such cells are formed round each. In larvae eight hours after they have defaecated this process is complete (fig. 57). At this time there have also been formed, almost certainly from these same outer-layer cells, a pair of rather small clear cells, developed at the outer end of each ommatidium, and generally very distinctly visible; they do not attach them- selves as closely to the ommatidial cells as do the others. The four long cells which embrace the ommatidia are the developing pigment cells; during their formation from the outer-layer cells their nuclei have taken up a more internal position. The two small cells lying external to them will become the lens cells. At this stage, then, the optic disc consists of a great number of developing ommatidia, each consisting of a large central basal cell, closely surrounded by seven sheath cells, while at the distal end of each there are four vitreous cells, and two lens cells outside these, adjacent ommatidia being separated by the four elongated pigment cells which-surround these structures. The processes described so far have consisted almost entirely in the cells adopting the position in which they occur in the adult; visible differentiation has not proceeded. beyond the rough assumption of size of the adult cells. The remainder of the development consists of a change of the general disposition of the optic disc as a whole (due chiefly. to an increase in the length of the cells), and of a partial disappearance and gradual transformation of these almost undifferentiated cells to the condition in which we find them in the adult. The former process will be considered first. In the larva in its first instar the imaginal disc of the compound eye is very prominent, forming a definite thick area at each side of the brain; as the larva gradually develops, the cells, as we have seen, divide very extensively; hence the disc becomes larger in area, but the cells, not having increased in size, are in no way any more distinct ; indeed, as the ectodermal cells ’ 372 surrounding the developing eye have been increasing in length during this process, the disc is actually less distinct than in the larva in its first instar (fig. 78). So marked has been the disparity in growth between these two parts of the ectoderm that in the large larva, before the optic disc cells begin to grow in size, the disc has undergone a distinct invagination by the partial growth over it of the unmodified head ectoderm. From now on, however, the disc gradually thickens, while the ordinary ectoderm of the head becomes rather thinner. In fig. 77, which is from a larva about sixteen hours before pupation, we. see the disc already sharply marked off from the rest of the ectoderm. In fig. 79, which is taken from a pupa thirty-six hours of age, the cells have elongated greatly, and are beginning to turn inwards, towards the optic nerve, as it grows out from the brain. Fig. 80 shows a section of the eye of a pupa which is about ready to emerge. The cells have increased greatly in length, and the bases of the ommatidia converge upon the optic nerve. Meanwhile there has been a gradual increase in the convexity of the eye. (In fig. 78, which is taken from an advanced larva, the eye is shown as very much more convex than in the next stage, taken some ten hours later. There is, however, no real com- parison between the two, since the first is from a still actively moving larva, in which the flexible disc must necessarily be subject to considerable distortion.) The change in direction of the ommatidia probably finds its explanation in the following observation. Beneath the optic disc lies a series of tissues: the mesoderm of the body wall (somatopleure), a membranous ingrowth of ectoderm, as will be described later, and an outgrowth from the brain. @) These three form a fairly thick mass beneath the optic disc, which later becomes exceedingly firm by the deposition of chitin. Now, as the cells of the eye gradually increase in length they will necessarily be subjected to pressure from these membranes below, and from the cuticle, which they have secreted, above. The cells of the eye, under these circum- stances, will be able to retain their straightness for the greater part of their length, which is absolutely essential for them, only by growing in the direction of least pressure, 7.e., towards the middle of the disc; hence whereas the cells in the middle can remain vertical, those which are some distance from the middle will have to take up a more oblique position, while those at the circumference of the optic disc, where the cuticle and somatopleure virtually adhere, will necessarily have to take up a horizontal position if they are to develop at all; in short, the degree to which the cells converge will depend (2)The nature of these membranes will be discussed later. 373 upon their distance from the central ommatidium. Under this pressure, of course, not only the somatopleure and its adjacent membranes, but also the cuticle, will bend, and this would account for the increase of convexity of the eye as the cells gradually grew. (The obvious question as to why, under this pressure, the cells might not be expected to converge just as readily towards the exterior as in the opposite direction finds its reply in the fact that the ommatidia are much broader at their distal than their proximal ends; indeed, they are really cone-shaped structures, so that such an arrangement would not be possible.) A short digression may be of interest here. If the above suggestion is correct, it will follow that the convexity of the eye of Vasoma depends upon the ratio between the tension of the somatopleure and its adjacent structures and that of the cuticle covering the eye. Insect eyes vary greatly in convexity; one has but to compare the almost spherical eye of a Cicada with the rather flat eye of many flies. If it should be of advantage to a species to have an eye of greater or lesser convexity, it follows that it would not be necessary to postulate, in the germ cells, a factor for increased eye convexity, but that the result could be obtained simply either by a strengthening of the germinal representative of the membranes underlying the optic discs, or by a weakening of that of the optic cuticle. It is necessary now further to consider the histological changes undergone by the developing eye. In transverse sections of the ommatidia the rhabdome cell is seen to be fairly thick, especially at its base, where its nucleus lies. The seven sheath cells can generally be clearly made out, surrounding it (fig. 58c). The pigment cells are long, and extend through the thickness of the disc; the nucleus is in the middle of the cell, although the distal end is still generally the widest part of it. The four vitreous cells have now become fairly distinct; occasionally the lens cells appear to be differentiating, presenting at times a rather vacuolated appearance. They are also seen embracing the outer end of the visual cells more closely. But it is not till after pupation that any really marked changes appear. In the pupa of about four hours the cells of the developing eye have already increased considerably in length, the thickness of the disc being now 30p, of which about 254 represent the length of the sheath cells. The rhabdome cell has meantime narrowed considerably, the proximal end, in fact, having become developed into a rather _long narrow filament. The nucleus, which is situated in its lowest portion, is visible only with difficulty. Distally it 374 extends right to the outer surface, where it sometimes pro- jects as a distinct button-like structure. In longitudinal sections of the ommatidium the outlines of the sheath cells are now very difficult, or almost impossible to detect. But if such ommatidia are observed in sections cut transversely to their length, the central rhabdome cell and the seven sheath cells surrounding it can usually be clearly seen (fig. 58d). If the ommatidia are examined in pupae a little older, we find that the number of sheath cells has been reduced to six (fig. 60). Grenacher, working with Dytiscus marginalis, and Johansen, using Vanessa urticae, could find only six sheath cells. On the other hand, Hesse regarded seven as the normal number for Arthropods; Kirchhoffer found this number in Dermestes vulpinus. Giinther (1912), using the same material as Grenacher had employed much earlier, found seven sheath cells in Dytiscus marginalis. Seven is then, evidently, the number of sheath cells occurring in the early stages of the insect eye. According to Giinther, this number is reduced to six by one of the cells becoming pressed out from among the others. ~_I believe the same thing occurs in Vasona in the early pupal | | period, but the structures dealt with are so exceedingly minute in this insect, that accurate observations on this point are _very difficult. I am also unable to describe the ultimate fate of the seventh cell that has been cast out, whether it dis- integrates, or whether the other sheath cells develop at its expense, or, finally, whether leucocytes absorb it. The four vitreous cells are rather distinct, and the devel- oping lens cells are continuing to apply themselves more closely to the distal end of the ommatidium. The six pig- ment cells have become very narrow, their nuclei remaining in a position considerably above their middle; at times the pigment cells have still a distinctly spindle-like appearance. The visible changes that take place during the next twelve hours are not very pronounced; the filament-like pro- cess at the proximal end of the rhabdome cell becomes more marked; at the periphery of the optic disc it undergoes an extraordinary elongation, becoming about two-thirds as long as the rest of the ommaditium (cf. fig. 79). The distal end of the cell projects quite distinctly beyond the vitreous and lens cells (fig. 61); 1t is possible, however, that the appearance of this structure in preparations is due to the action of re- agents used in making them. The vitreous cells have become quite distinct, and the two lens cells have embraced them still more closely. Their protoplasm has become slightly granular, while the nucleus is very large, with scattered chromatin and a very distinct though small nucleolus, and lies in the lower ; % hi] Py AA 4 ai / 375 part of the cell. The four pigment cells) surrounding the ommatidium have altered in shape; they appear now as rather thin filaments, with a great swelling at a distance of about one-third their length from the anterior end, a swelling which lodges the nucleus (fig. 59). The latter is rather distinct; its chromatin is scattered, and it contains a small but very dis- tinct nucleolus. From now onwards the visible changes become more pro- nounced. The rhabdome and sheath cells continue to grow in length, reaching in the twenty-one hour pupa a length of - about 38y, the total thickness of the eye at this stage being it 48u. The four vitreous cells have increased in size, and now quite surround the end of the rhabdome cell except at its termination, where it can still often be seen projecting beyond them (fig. 61). Their cytoplasm is fairly clear, and they possess each a relatively very large, rather irregular nucleus. The two lens cells, which have been gradually approaching the vitreous cells from the sides, now wholly surround them above and at the sides, embracing them closely (fig. 62). The nuclei are lodged in their lower portion; each possesses a very distinct nucleolus. The rhabdome cell has meanwhile been narrowing for the greater part of its length, but it is even yet visible, though only very faintly, amongst the vitreous cells. At this stage the sheath cells which have extended by very delicate processes, over the proximal filament of the rhabdome cell, begin to develop granules of a reddish- brown pigment throughout their length, so that in this insect the capacity of forming pigment is not confined to the true pigment cells (fig. 63). The latter, indeed, at this stage are still quite devoid of granules. Other changes, however, which may be the forerunners of pigment formation, are now going on in them, and they now assume a very remarkable form; the cells which were, before this, filamentous, or at times spindle-shaped, become even narrower, except in their distal third, which remains rather thick (fig. 62); their protoplasm becomes vacuolated, the vacuoles at times producing small swellings in the thread-like filament. It is towards the proximal (inner) end of the cell, however, that this process has its most remarkable result. Here, at a short distance from the end, a relatively huge vacuole is formed which causes this part to swell up in a large globule. This condition is very characteristic of the pigment cells at this stage. During (3) At first sight, there appear to be six pigment cells sur- rounding each ommatidium. Each pigment cell, however, becomes applied to two ommatidia; hence of the six which are observed around each ommatidium, two ‘‘belong’’ to adjacent ommatidia. This will become clearer by examining fig. 64d. ae | 376 the next two days the globule remains, and, if anything, grows even more distinct (figs. 59, 61, 62, 73). The nuclei do not change their position; their nucleoli, at times, become relatively gigantic. From now onwards the cells do not increase much more in length, the eye reaching (exclusive of the lens) a thickness of about 50u in the adult wasp. The most clearly visible changes during this period that occur in the cells are those connected with the deposition of pigment in the pigment cells. This takes place during the third day of pupal life. The slender filamentous pigment cells become highly vacuolated ; indeed in many, at this stage, the vacuoles occupy so great a space and have adhered to such an extent, that practically all the cytoplasm of the cell lies at the periphery (fig. 73). It has also been seen that whereas the greater part of the pig- ment cell is in the form of a filament, there is a very char- acteristic globular swelling a short distance from its proximal end, while the distal third remains thick. The nucleus now moves upwards a little, and lodges in the distal thickening, so as to lie close beside the lower portion of the adjacent lens cell. At the same time the distal end spreads out and embraces portion of the lens cell nearest to it (fig. 64). The pigment cells thus co-operate in forming a complete coat round the vitreous and lens cells. The cells now begin ‘to undergo pigmentation. The distal fifth, on account of its thickness, forms a heavy mass of “‘iris-pigment,’’ evidently rendering the vitreous and lens cells opticaliy isolated from cne another (fig. 64d). This isolation is increased by heavy pigmentation of the lens cells in the pupa of three and a half days. In the proximal third of the cell pigmentation is fairly heavy (fig. 64b), but much less so than in the distal portion. The region of the pigment cell intervening between these two parts presents only a single row of reddish-brown granules, enclosed in a very delicate sheath—the cell membrane. The increased formation of pigment in the proximal portion of the cell must be connected directly with the globule which forms here, and which, in the late pupa, has quite disappeared. We thus recognize three differently pigmented layers in the eye of Vasonia; an outer heavily developed ‘“‘iris’’ pigment layer, an intermediate weakly pigmented layer, by far the thickest of the three, and a rather small, fairly heavily pigmented lower layer (fig. 80). The granules are exceed- ingly minute, and vary in shape from spherical to almost cylindrical. Meanwhile the sheath and rhabdome cells have continued their development. Transverse sections of the eye show numerous ommatidia cut across. Each of these is seen to a Alea 377 consist of the central rhabdome cell, surrounded by six sheath cells all embedded, it appears, in a gelatinous(?) matrix. In almost mature pupae the rhabdome cell appears as a brownish rod; workers with larger insects seem to agree that this consists of chitin, and the appearance of the rod in Nasoma, with its sharply defined outline, certainly lends sup- port to this view. The rod has evidently been secreted directly from the rhabdome cell. (This view has, of course, been assumed throughout in applying the name to that cell().) It can be seen entering the distal cell complex, but, as far as I could observe, does not reach to the exterior. The development of the lens cells has already been described. The development of the vitreous cells which they enclose is completed at about this time. This consists in a curious movement of their nuclei upwards to lie very close below the chitinous lens, and the four cells arrange them- selves in such a way that an opposite pair is in contact for a considerable. distance, so that the remaining two do not meet each other (fig. 64c), but so far as I could observe, the rhabdome no longer extends right through this distal cell group. Meanwhile the cells have not lost their property of secreting cuticle. During larval life the outer layer of cells of the optic imaginal disc, from which the pigment cells, vitreous cells, and lens cells later develop, secrete the larval cuticle (fig. 55), while towards the end of larval life they secrete the cuticle of the pupa. But when once ‘this cuticle has been secreted, the cells commence to differentiate into pigment cells, vitreous cells, and lens cells, and it is in the last alone that this property of cuticle secretion is retained. Already in the pupa of twenty-one hours, at a time, namely, when the lens cells have scarcely surrounded the vitreous cells, an outwardly convex cuticle is being secreted by each ommatidium. Since the rhabdome cell at this stage forms part of the external boundary of the ectoderm, it seems diff- cult to deny that it plays a part in this process. Indeed, since the rhabdome cell secretes a chitinous rhabdome over the greater part of its: length there is no apparent reason why the distal part, included among the vitreous cells, should _ lose this property. If we grant that this portion of the cell assists the lens cells in the early stages of lens formation, we might have a suitable explanation for the otherwise unex- plained disappearance of the rhabdome cell from the end of - (The sheath cells are usually regarded as aiding in the secretion of the rhabdomes.. I could, however, find no evidence for this in Nasonia. L 378 this cell complex. But the chief agents in the formation of the lens are the lens cells, which gradually transform the rather thin concave-convex cuticle of the early pupa into the thick biconvex mass as we see it in the late pupa and adult (fig. 64). By this remarkable series of changes, the originally three-layered condition of the imaginal disc of the first larval instar, which has itself doubtless been produced from a pre- viously single-layered ectoderm, gradually transforms itself into the wonderfully specialized state in which we see it in the adult—a state in which it does not depart essentially from the three-layered condition, and in which the function of secreting cuticle is retained, though modified, in such a way as to aid it in performing its new function. A feature of the compound eye of Vasonia is the entire absence of tracheae between the ommatidia, structures which are so prominent in the eye of Calliphora (Lowne, Hickson). The description of the compound eye has been confined, so far, to a consideration of the development and differentia- tion of the simple optic disc of the newly hatched larva. But immediately below the eye there is formed during the late larval and pupal life an important structure whose function it is to support the nervous elements of the eye. This struc- ture is developed directly from the ectoderm surrounding the optic imaginal disc, and it will be necessary to describe its development here; it will also be convenient, though not perhaps strictly logical, to give. an account at this stage of the development of the innervation of the compound eye, since these two processes are intimately connected with one another. An examination of a medium-sized larva shows that immediately below the ectoderm there is a delicate membrane ' with distinct nuclear swellings, the mesodermal somatopleure ; it is clearly visible below the optic disc, and no other tissues underlie it. But when the larva is about to defaecate it is seen that two areas of proliferation have arisen in the head ectoderm above and below, and in close contact with the optic disc. From these areas the proliferating ectodermal cells grow towards each other, and finally meet, forming a very prominent bridge across the back of the imaginal optic disc. The cells soon spread out laterally, and form a membrane completely covering the back of the developing eye (figs. 77, 78). Internal to this disc, of course, the somatopleure must lie. In the larva which is about to pupate the membrane has extended completely behind the eye. When the membrane _ 1s examined at this stage a very remarkable thing is seen. The cells stand off a considerable distance from the adjacent rr I — age 379 optic disc, so that a very distinct basement membrane can now be seen underlying it. This membrane connects the internal énds of adjacent pigment cells, from which it has doubtless been secreted. These pigment cells surround the ommatidia fairly closely, but are not in direct contact with them, and they secrete the basement membrane in such a way that a hole is left at the base of each ommatidium, thus per- mitting the easy entrance of a nerve towards the rhabdome cell. This basement membrane is the fenestrate membrane of the eye, and will be referred to as such hereafter. It undergoes scarcely any visible change during the rest of larval and pupal life. The cells of the inflected ectodermal layer (which may, for convenience, be spoken of as the periontic membrane, to show its relation to Hickson’s Periopticon) now undergo a remarkable process of branching (fig. 74), the branches being of three types: (1) those which unite the cells with similar processes from other cells of this layer, (2) those which connect the cells with the fenestrate membrane, and (3) those wheal grow in towards the brain. The cells themselves are large, with a distinct but irregular nucleus; the branches which connect neighbouring cells together are not very numerous. The second type of process. is very remarkable, and is seen to join up, each, with the base of a group of pigment cells, and several such processes may be seen coming from a single cell of the perioptic layer. Since these processes thus fuse in reality with the circum- ferences of the holes in the fenestrate membrane at the bases of the rhabdomes it would seem probable that they are hollow; later events show that this must be so. The third type of branching is also very remarkable; this consists essentially of a great massive outgrowth of fibres towards the adjacent cortex of the brain. This great fibrillar mass from the inner side of the cells of the perioptic. layer now enters the more ventral portion of the brain (having apparently broken away its own somatopleure and the splanchnopleure of the brain) and gradually terminates amongst the cortical cells comprising it. At the same time these cortical cells become active, and, dividing mitotically, begin to proliferate and to migrate outwards in the meshwork of fibrillae, towards the optic disc. | The function of the perioptic membrane is thus to form — a kind of-neuroglia to support the nerve cells of the optic ganglion; but it seems to have a second function, namely, to act as what must essentially be regarded as a neurolemma. From the above description it follows that no nerve fibre can penetrate to the rhabdomes unless it can enter the cavity of L2 380 the processes which are attached to the fenestrate membrane. I was unable to observe how the nerve fibre penetrates to this portion, z.e., whether 1t forces its way through the cyto- plasm of the cells of the perioptic layer, or whether, entangled as it is in the fibrillae of the cells, it works its way just below the cell membrane, and passing round to the opposite side, enters the process to the fenestrate membrane. It is certain, however, that a fibre from a nerve cell does eventually work its way into one of these processes. This is clearly shown in fig. 74, where the nerve cell gives off a long fibre which communicates with the ommatidium, and is entirely enveloped by the cell process which meets the fene- strate membrane. The cells of the perioptic membrane must, therefore, be regarded as functioning, also as neurolemmae. Moreover, it follows that, as a single cell gives off processes towards a number of ommatidia, a single perioptic cell must act as neurolemma for a number of distinct nerve fibres. I have not been able to see distinct instances of this in my preparations, partly because, in pupae a little older, when this process has been completed, the cells of the perioptic membrane have cohered closely together, making further observations on this point impossible; but the fact that all the ommatidia, several of which were supplied with processes from a single perioptic cell, later have nerves entering them, © leaves us no alternative but to accept this view (compare, however, fig. 75). The nerve cells which have entered the perioptic membrane can often be seen to give off a distinct process backwards. towards the brain; but I was quite unable to trace any of these fibres to their termination. The coherence of the cells of the perioptic membrane, which takes place in pupae a few hours later, gives the struc- ture a much firmer appearance, the loose branching network of the pupating larva being transformed into a fairly thick pavement membrane. At this stage leucocytes are occasion- ally seen between the perioptic membrane and the optic disc. What their function is I am not able to say. When pupae about twenty-four hours old are examined, a further development of the perioptic membrane is seen to have taken place. The ‘‘neurolemmal]”’ processes are no longer visible ; probably the best interpretation which can be placed on this is that their disappearance is only apparent, and that they have now assumed their true function as neurolemmae and have closely enveloped their respective nerve fibres (fig. 75). These fibres can be seen communicating with every omma- tidium, but they are so exceedingly minute that the non- appearance of a neurolemma as distinct from the nerve is only to be expected. I am also unable to say where the nerve ee 381 + ends and where the ommatidium starts; and whether the "nerve terminates on a rhabdome or on the sheath cells. The fact, however, that the latter have undergone pigment degeneration, and the close resemblance of the sensory cells of the ocelli (which are innervated) to the rhabdome cell, : seem to indicate that it is in the rhabdome of the ommatidium that the nerves terminate. At this stage the fenestrate membrane shows a curious appearance which may easily be misinterpreted; the ends of the pigment cells which have secreted it become dilated into ‘small cones, and give the membrane the appearance of cellular tissue; in reality, however, it is entirely non-cellular (cf. fig. 62). ; ' The development of the great mass of fibrillae from the side of the perioptic membrane towards the brain, as above : described, is confined to the middle third of that membrane; ' consequently the complete optic ‘‘nerve’’ never occupies an area greater than this. In the thirty-six hour pupa the fibrillae _have become so massed together as to form a thick layer of fibres running longitudinally to and beneath the disc, the individuals of which are no longer visible. These, then, pass _ down the optic nerve and enter the brain. In the pupa of the third-day pigment granules begin to form in the optic “‘nerve,’’ and become very prominent a day later. Changes are now taking place which involve the ommatidia as well; these consist of a gradual alteration : of the shape of these structures. In the pupa at about the end of the third day that portion of the perioptic membrane “which has not been concerned in the formation of the optic Beerve begins to undergo chitinisation, and since this mem- _ brane was produced from, and still is continuous with, the ectoderm immediately surrounding the eye, it follows that _ this chitin layer will be similarly continuous with the chitin which now begins to form on the head of the wasp; this _chitinisation of the back of the eye appears to push the nervous part of the optic ‘‘nerve’’ out of position, by pressing on its periphery; at any rate, it now assumes an outwardly convex form. This effect is really produced by a “‘shear-like”’ action of the chitinising perioptic membrane, the lower por- tion pressing outwards and upwards, the upper down and “inwards. This process is complete in the four and a half-day ' pupa (fig. 80). The ‘‘optic nerve’ from the brain at this b stage has also assumed the appearance of a solid projection from the lower side of the brain in its more ventral portion [ and is crowded with nerve cells; the detection, however, of Individual nerve fibres in this region is quite impossible owing _ to the close coherence of these. 7 382 This shear-like action of the chitinising perioptic mem- brane results also in a curious change in the shape of the ommatidia, which is very easy to recognize (in spite of their very close clustering together in this region), on account of the rows of red pigment granules which run along them (pigment of the sheath cells). The lower ommatidia, which were originally straight, now become bent, and, as the pass- ing inwards and upwards of the perioptic membrane increases, become bent more and more, and eventually come to curve back upon themselves, in order to maintain con- nection with the optic nerve. This recurving is exceedingly characteristic of the lower ommatidia of the eye; from the above description it necessarily follows that the higher the ommatidia are in the eye, the less will they be bent; in the upper ones, indeed, the bending has been only very slight fig. 80). Ne The outstanding feature, then, of the development of the eye during the last day and a half of pupal life is the bending outwards and compression of the optic ‘‘nerve,’’ aud the con- sequent curving of the ommatidia, movements which are pro- bably to be explained as due to the compressing action of the perioptic membrane, as it begins to chitinise. By this complex process there is gradually produced the eye as we see it in the adult wasp, with its corneal lenses, pigment layers, and ommatidia resting upon the fenestrate membrane, which admits the fibres from the optic “‘nerve,’’ and in intimate relation with which has been produced a disc of chitin which protects the eye from within, and the whole organ covered internally by a very feeble membrane—the mesodermal somatopleure. It is necessary to refer now to the work of others on the development of the eye. It is in Weismann’s great memoir (1864) that we find the first correct account of the develop- ment in its main outline. He regarded the layer of lenses’ and ommatidia as arising directly from the surface ectoderm, while the optic ganglion (‘‘bulbus’’) he regarded as being a direct outgrowth from the brain. He apparently even saw the perioptic membrane, of which he says: ‘‘Between the bulbus and the disc there penetrates a thin layer of fat and granule cells, from which the cells which unite the two surfaces very probably develop.’’ He summarises his description thus: “The morphological value of the different parts of the eye is as follows: the cornea is the chitinous skeleton; the other parts of the eye-chamber (the crystalline cones, nerve rods, and their investments) are modified hypodermis; all the central structures (the ganglion layers and bulbus) are formed as outgrowths from the nervous system’’ (quote from Lowne). | | ‘ \ 383 elf the perioptic membrane in Nasonia and the blow-fly are of similar origin, then Weismann’s view as to its origin is in- correct ; his very recognition of the membrane, however, in g hand. dissections of fly pupae is itself a remarkable instance : of his power of observation. His descriptions are supported by the work of G. H. Parker (1890) and of Carriére (1884). : Later workers, using much more accurate methods, have con- _ tradicted Weismann’s statements; their descriptions, unless : the process is different in the material which they used from what we see in Wasoma, are, however, quite erroneous. : A number of writers, a ee Reichenbach (1886) or Patten (1886), regard the Arthropod eye as having arisen as an _ invagination of the ectoderm, with subsequent fusion of the rim of the depression. The upper and lower layers of the invagination then meet and produce, between them, the vitreous and lens cells and ommatidia. According to Reichen- _ bach (working with the crayfish), two other layers are formed _ between these two. The-superficial and outer of these two layers then fuse and produce the layer of vitreous and lens cells; the third layer forms the rhabdomes, and the inner layer is actually regarded as forming the ganglion. | Patten (1886), on the other hand, regards the superficial _ layer as forming the cornea; the outer layer of the flattened _ vesicle disappears, and the rest of the invagination forms the _ommatidia. The more recent work of Giinther (1912) on Dytiscus marginalis supports Weismann’s original account. Lowne (1893-1895) partly accepts Weismann’s views, but disagrees with him in certain important points, in which, however, he is undoubtedly incorrect. In support of his Dioptron Theory of Insect Vision he wholly denies the pere- tration of the fenestrate membrane by nerves; but there can be no doubt as to its occurrence in Nasonia. His view of the origin of the rhabdomes is very remarkable; he regards these structures as arising from the mesoderm and developing in a manner analogous to that of the tracheae of the eye (thesé _ are highly developed in the blow-fly) ; the perioptic membrane he regards as growing out from the brain, although the occur- rence of so much neuroglia tissue in that organ has not been demonstrated. An examination of fig. 71 (p. 546) of his work shows the perioptic membrane communicating with the ecto- _ derm on either side of the optic disc; the cells stand off from _ the fenestrate membrane, and nerve cells are seen migrating into the fibres of the optic stalk, which may possibly have been formed from the cells of the perioptic membrane. In fig. 6, pl. xxxviii. (p. 548), he actually shows a branching a "cell of the perioptic membrane attaching itself to the fene- strate membrane at the base of the ommatidia, exactly as I ie have described it above in Wasonia. There seems, then, to ak teed ae | 384 be little doubt that the origin of this membrane in Calliphora is identical with what happens in this wasp. The Ocelli.—The development of these structures can be followed from the earliest larvae right throughout larval and pupal life to the mature condition of the adult wasp. This is rendered possible by the fact. that around those three small areas of the head ectoderm from which the ocelli will later develop the somatopleure of the head is deflected downwards (fig. 66) and becomes continuous with the splanchnopleure covering the brain, these curious structures are doubtless the remnants of what must once have been a very extensive con- nection between the ectoderm and the nerve cord as it sank inwards in the embryo. From this fortunate occurrence, it is © possible to trace the development of the complex ocellus from a stage in which it is represented by a single pair of minute _ cells (fig. 66), a condition in which we see it in the larva of the first instar. | The ectodermal cells covering the head at this stage are small in number though rather large and irregular; two cells, however, included in each area covered by the conical deflected somatopleure are considerably smaller than these. During larval life these cells undergo division, so that in the larva which is about to defaecate, one sees a conical mass of about a dozen cells, rather slender and elongated, in the place which in the early larva was occupied by only two (fig. 77). These cells continue to multiply mitotically, so that in the freshly formed pupa the ocelli are represented each by a rounded thickening of the ectoderm in which the cells are beginning to arrange themselves in céncentric layers, at the same time increasing somewhat in length (fig. 67). During the next four hours there is an active proliferation and elonga- tion of these cells, giving the whole structure ah appearance very like that of a mammalian taste bud. The cells are elongated and spindle-shaped, and present each a short pro- cess externally. ‘These cells become the visual cells of the ocellus, and their short processes, which together form a small group at the extremity of the sense organ, project freely from it. Meanwhile the head ectoderm surrounding the ocelli pro- liferates and begins to encroach upon the area which has till now been occupied by the ocellar cells. In the twelve-hour pupa (fig. 68) this can be seen to result in a gradual con- striction of the upper end of the ocellus, which at the same time begins to be forced down below the surface. In the thirty-six hour pupa this process is complete; the ectoderm has grown right across the ocellus, and in its middle is seen to undergo a distinct lens-like swelling (fig. 69). ] | | | >> —— <> “e———- ea 385 This growth inwards of the ectoderm surrounding the -ocelli not only results in a sinking downwards of the ocellus, but it also brings about an almost total closure of the cup, _and the cells which now comprise the ocellus are of two kinds, the upper ones forming the ‘‘rim’’ and the ‘‘lid’”’ of the cup -are small and cubical; they will develop later into the sides and part of the “‘iris’’ of the ocellus. The others are the developing visual cells; those in the lower part of the ocellus ‘sink downwards a little, the combined result of these processes being to form a cavity in the upper part of the ocellus, into which the visual cells project. These cells have meanwhile ‘become distinctly conical by the broadening out of their bases, and their inner ends are beginning to turn towards the ‘pupil’ of the ocellus, z.e., to the space resulting from the Becomplete closure of the distal portion. The nuclei are i situated towards the base of these cone-shaped cells. At this, _ stage also the distal terminations of the visual cells are begin- ning to constrict considerably more, 7.¢., the visual rods have commenced to develop. ; Meanwhile the cells of the ectoderm covering the ocellus become irregular. Their nuclei move into their basal portions, and the distal ends begin to secrete an outwardly convex cuticle. This is the beginning of the ocellar lens (figs. 69, 70). i The cells now continue to grow in size, especially the “visual cells, which become rather long and robust, with large “Prominent nuclei in their basal portions. In the pupa of the / third day the visual rods are completely developed; each has apparently been produced by a constriction of the distal por- ‘tion of the visual cell. These cells also begin to undergo Pigmentation at this stage, the pigment granules being con- ned to the distal portion of the cell, immediately adjacent ' to the visual rod. o The most obvious features of the development of the visual cells at this stage is their marked increase in length, which ' now results in a considerable lengthening of the whole ocellus ; this also appears to bring about a slight downward movement ‘of the ocellus as a whole, resulting in the cubical cells of the distal end assuming a more peripheral position. Meanwhile ‘the superficial ectodermal cells continue to secrete the lens, ) which has in the three-day pupa become distinctly biconvex (fig. 70). The nuclei of these cells retain their position at the base of the respective cells, while the distal end appears | to undergo a fibrous degeneration, a change evidently con- nected with the development of the lens; so far as I could observe, the basal portions of these cells do not. disappear, ‘but aid the cubical cells in the distal part of the ocellus to . the “‘iris’’ (fig. 70). “* | In the four and a half-day pupa these changes are com- plete. The lens is strongly developed, biconvex, with the greater convexity turned inwards; pigmentation has in- creased, and the iris is so disposed as to leave a rather large “pupil” space, towards which the visual rods all point (fig. 71). An isolated adult visual cell is seen in fig. 72. It measures about 24 in length, of which 10°4u is occupied by the visual rod. ] This description holds for the median as well as the lateral ocelli; a transverse section of the former, however, shows that it is strongly indented in its anterior wall. It is essentially a double ocellus; and its double nature can be recognized throughout development. As is to be expected, its nerve communicates with two ocellar ganglia. During this process the mesodermic somatopleure lining | the base of the ocellus has grown considerably, and occa- | sionally is very prominent. It is retained throughout pupal life and is seen in the newly hatched wasp as a distinct mem- brane, with fairly prominent nuclei, close to the ocellar wall. The innervation of the ocellus is quite different from that of the compound eye. In the late larval stages, after defae- cation has taken place, nerve fibres grow out from the brain, towards the ocelli, guided apparently by the deflected somato- pleure. In the newly formed pupa the nerve has already come into contact with the developing visual cells of the ocelilus, and the only visible change undergone by the nerve as development advances is an increase in size; in the early pupa it is long and slender, but as the ocellus is forced below the surface of the head, and as the brain increases in size, the nerve becomes shorter and thicker. It is not necessary to describe the formation of the ocellar nerves more fully at this stage beyond mentioning that the ocellar nerve is a true | nerve, 2.€., quite devoid of cortical brain cells, and therefore quite different in nature from the optic ‘‘nerve,’’ which is } essentially an outgrowth of the brain cortex. 386 C.—Tue Resprratory System. The Larval Organs. In the newly hatched larva (fig. 1) there is a pair of | great longitudinal tracheal trunks passing from the second segment backwards on either side of the body to the twelfth segment; these are connected with one another, in front and | behind, by two transverse tracheal vessels, of which the §} anterior passes over the oesophagus, the posterior under the rectum. The anterior transverse vessel shows a small, ¥ forwardly projecting median part, evidently indicating the \j 387 point of fusion of the tracheal trunks as they grew inwards, _ towards each other, in the embryo. y. The longitudinal vessels open to the exterior by four _ pairs of spiracles; one on the third segment, a second on the ' fifth, the next on the sixth, and the last on the seventh seg- _ ment, each connected by a rather short stigmatic trunk to the great longitudinal vessels of the larva. The tracheal _ vessels in the region of the fourth, and the eighth to the _ eleventh segments, are provided in each segment with a pair of small rudimentary trunks, which are related to certain spiracles which do not develop till the next larval moult; there are, therefore, nine pairs of spiracles functioning either throughout larval life, or only in the later larval instars. Besides these nine spiracles there is a pair of tenth “rudimentary stigmatic trunks, situated in the twelfth seg- ment. They do not open on to the surface till at the time of the last larval moult, and become the posterior spiracles of the abdomen of the imago. Of the ten potential stigmatic _ trunks only nine, therefore, function at some time or other _ during larval life. It is interesting to notice that the larva of the honey-bee develops the full set of ten spiracles. In each segment the tracheal trunks give off a number of thinner branching - vessels, which on account of their different structure I shall speak of as tracheoles. They are clearly seen (figs. 1, 2) in living larvae as fine silvery lines ramifying among the organs of the larva; generally there are two or three pairs in each segment which pass vertically, _as well as, especially in the more posterior segments, several _ pairs which run dorsally, but are usually more difficult to see. ‘The anterior transverse vessel supplies the head by means of two groups of tracheoles, which run forwards, but are not, at this early stage, very strongly developed. From the pos- _ terior transverse vessel several small branches are given off _ to the anal segments. Structurally there is a very pronounced difference between the great longitudinal and transverse tracheal trunks and the _ stigmatic trunks, on the one hand, and the smaller branching aeracheoles on the other. ip In very young larvae the true tracheae are tubes with an epithelium of rather thick cubical clear cells, which have already secreted the ‘‘spiral’’ intima; before the end of the - first instar these cells have become slightly granular, and the general growth of the larva is accompanied by a gradual ‘flattening out of these cells. The stigmatic trunks are similar in structure (fig. 93); the spiracles are small cup-like struc- | sae lined by an intima devoid of ‘‘spirals.’’ Their intima is shed, and a new one reformed at each moult. — 388 The tracheoles are structurally quite different (figs. 76, 81); each group or branching system of tracheoles is essenti- ally a unicellular structure, of remarkable dimensions. It consists of a large clear tube, which soon branches into two; from these branches numerous smaller trunks come off, and these ramify amongst the organs of the larva. The tubes are entirely devoid of a chitinous intima, spiral or plain, and never, so far as I could observe, terminate within the cells of any tissue. The nuclei are ‘oval, and very large, measuring at the end of the first instar Dy in length, 8p in breadth; nucleoli are absent; the chromatin is scattered throughout the nuclear space, but two karyosomes are generally present (fig. 10). The nucleus is usually situated at, or a little beyond, the first point of branching. The tracheoles of the imago, which will be referred to later, differ somewhat from these larval tracheoles; neverthe- less, there is a close similarity between the two, and the development of the latter may be inferred from what is observed to occur in the development of the former. There they are formed invariably as outgrowths from the tracheal trunks, and there can be no doubt that it is by this method that the larval tracheoles are formed during embryonic life. They are to be looked upon as modified tracheal epithelium cells, which grew in size and developed into cells to which the name Grant Tracheoloblasts may be applied. These cells then began, still during embryonic life, to grow out from the tracheae and developed the tracheoles from themselves, as they grew out. It is difficult to determine exactly how this happened; probably the great tracheoloblast which already enclosed, on account of its size, a considerable portion of the lumen of the trachea, began to grow outwards at one end. As it grew outwards its two free edges fused together, forming a tube. A tracheoloblast in this condition leaving the renovated longitudinal vessels and growing out- wards to form a tracheole of the imago is shown in fig. 82. The cell with its great nucleus then grew further and further out, secreting the main branch of the system after it, as it advanced. Soon, however, the nucleus ceased to advance, perhaps on account of the pressure of the fat body, which occupies so much of the haemocoele, and the ramifigation of the tubes began by a different method : protoplasmic out- growths were produced from the termination of the tracheolo- blast, probably by the frequent division, within the main substance of the cell, of its lumen. The probable method of branch formation within ‘the main portion of the tracheolo- blast is shown diagrammatically in text figures A-F. Several pairs of these systems of tracheoles occur in a single segment, res . =. = zs Nit n ty Text figs. A-F. Diagram of the Giant Tracheoloblast in trans- verse section, showing successive stages in the formation of tracheoles. . Text fig. G. Developing spiracle of propodeum from the larva shortly before pupation. Note the great ‘‘clip,’’ through which passes the lumen of the air tube (st.). Closing of the clip is brought about by relaxation of the muscles (mcl.). Text fig. H. Diagram of respiratory system of adult wasp: sp., spiracle; d.l.a.s., dorso-lateral air sac; v.l.a.s., ventro-lateral air sac. i} 390 and the co-operation of these must produce a very efficient respiratory system for so sluggish a larva. So far as I am aware, no respiratory vessels similar to those here described have been observed in other insects. The complexity of shape of these great branching cells (fig. 76), indeed, finds no parallel, except amongst the nerve cells of higher animals. In some ways, indeed, they closely resemble these ; and their method of extension is very similar to that observed by Ross Harrison in his well-known work on the growth of embryonic nerve fibres in plasma media; while as an example of a Trophospongial cell, in the sense in which Holmgren employs it, they are quite unrivalled. In the majority of insects the smaller air tubes are true multicellular tracheae, the terminal portion of which alone is devoid of spirals and is evidently intracellular; it would seem, then, that the great unicellular tracheoles above described are homologous with the terminal portion of the tracheoles of other insects. Indeed, Pérez (1910, p. 191) gives an account of the development in Calliphora of the terminations of the tracheoles among the muscles of flight, which is not unlike the process by which the large tracheoles of NVasoma are developed. From this it would seem to follow that the dorsolateral air-sacs of the adult Vasonia, as well as some of the great head and abdominal vessels which develop during pupal life (see below) are homologous with the general system of smaller tracheal vessels occurring in other insects. The main change which the tracheal system undergoes in the first instar is a slight increase in the complexity of the tracheoles; towards the end of this period those stigmatic trunks which have not yet opened on to the surface (the fourth, and the eighth to the eleventh) grow outwards, and at the next moult begin to function. The tracheal system has now attained to its mature condition, and during the rest of larval life is characterized mainly by a considerable increase in size and the extent of its ramification, as the larva itself grows. Especially marked is this tracheal proliferation in the head region, where the brain is developing. The increase in complexity of the respiratory system is shown by comparing figs. 1 and 2, and is due entirely, so far as I could observe, to an increase in the size and complexity of the great branching cells, not to a formation of new ones. The extensive branching of the tracheoles makes it im- possible to measure the size of these, but that the increase in bulk is very large is unquestionable. The nuclei of the tracheoles show only a slight increase in size. Thus, while the nucleus of the tracheoloblast measured 21 by 8 at the end of the 391 first instar, at the end of the last it measured 24p by Qu. Within thé main tracheae the growth of cell and nuclear . size is more easy to estimate. Throughout larval life the cells become gradually more granular in appearance, and at the end of larval life appear as large flat discs upon the surface of the tracheal intima, which has itself stretched consider- ably. The nuclei have become greatly hypertrophied; their chromatin has become scattered through the nucleus, the _karyosomes having disappeared; in their place is found a great nucleolus (figs. 84, 85, 86, 87, 92). At the end of the first instar the cells of the tracheal epithelium measured, on the average, 14 in length, con- siderably less in breadth. In the adult larva they measured about 34y in greatest length, 10 to lly in breadth. So far as I could observe, this great hypertrophy of the nucleus is not accompanied by a corresponding increase in the quantity of chromatic material; the nucleus extends not in the volume of its contents, but by a loosening of its texture. The respira- tory system of the mature larva, like the other purely larval organs, is to be looked upon merely as a greatly hypertrophied . condition of the tracheal system of the newly formed larva ; no differentiation of essentially new structures ever occurs. Having remained in this condition for about a day (rest- ing period of the larva), the tracheal system begins, at the time of defaecation and in the post-defaecation period, to disintegrate, and by the time the pupa has been formed (one day later), only a few disintegrating vestiges of the old tracheal system are recognizable. The Destruction of the Larval Tracheal System. The processes of disintegration of the old larval respira- tory system and the regeneration of the systemeof the adult are contemporary ; indeed, the imaginal cells often push the worn-out larval cells aside, before the leucocytes have had time to remove them. Nevertheless, it will be better to con- sider the two processes separately. The epithelium of the main tracheal vessels begins to | disintegrate, at the time of defaecation, and in eight hours’ time has wholly disappeared. Besides the presence of the | great nucleolus, and a general hypertrophied condition of the ~ cells, these show no abnormal characteristics. Occasionally, however, distinct vacuolation of the cytoplasm can be observed. At the time of defaecation, however, these cells begin to suffer attack from leucocytes; this is especially well seen in the main longitudinal vessels at about the time of defaecation (figs. 83, 86). The actual process of histolysis is difficult to observe on account of the smallness of the objects dealt with; but that the leucocytes play a large part in the removal of Sf 392 the tracheal epithelium is clear. The tracheal intima does not suffer any corresponding change. The destruction of those lateral stigmatic trunks which ° do not persist in the adult wasp begins in the freshly formed pupa. Here the cells lining the lateral stigmatic trunks undergo cytoplasmic degeneration. This stage is easily recog- nized on account of the great hypertrophy of the nucleoli, a condition so characteristic of the worn-out larval cells of Nasonia. In close connection with the disintegrating stig- matic trunks leucocytes may occasionally be seen, actively removing the débris. Whether the remains of the cells (nucleus and cell wall) disintegrate of their own accord, or whether leucocytes remove them, I am not definitely able to say; the appearance of preparations rather suggested the latter. Composing the epithelium of the stigmatic trunks are two kinds of cells. There are large, purely larval cells, and much smaller imaginal cells; it is only the former that grow during larval life, and degenerate at the end of it. The imaginal cells are clearly seen in even the youngest larvae at the bases of the trunks (fig. 93). It is from these ‘‘imaginal nests’’ that the whole tracheal system of the imago becomes formed. (See below.) The whole process of disintegration of lateral spiracles occurs in the early stages of pupal life, much later, therefore, than that of the tracheae; the stigmatic trunks which dis- appear in this manner are the second, the third, and the fifth to ninth, only the stigmata of the pronotum and propodeum, and the newly formed pair of the twelfth segment (see below) being retained. The whole system of tracheoles also disappears; in the living insect, however, in which the tracheoles are clearly seen through the transparent cuticle, no discontinuity in the general structure of the respiratory system is apparent. This is due to the fact that the new tracheal system is forming as __the old degenerates (cf. figs. 88, 91). In the sixteen-hour pupa the tracheoles still appear quite normal, though greatly hypertrophied. But shortly after this leucocytes begin to accumulate round the finer tracheoles of the head cavity and »« the process of histolysis commences. Sometimes the leucocytes . may be observed forsaking their free) life in the_blood-stream ; attaching themselves to a branching system of tracheoles they begin to crawl over these, and eventually phagocytosis com- mences (figs. 88, 90, 91). By the time the larva pupates (six to eight hours later) the finer tracheoles of the head have dis- appeared, and the larger ones are rapidly undergoing the same fate. ee ali nate ee ee a ae a Shs ey ym eee th emery ew rere s 393 Many of the tracheoles, however, appear to undergo mainly chemical disintegration; lying, as they often do, closely embraced by the great ‘“‘fat cells,” they seem to be protected from the action of the leucocytes. Their protoplasm becomes finely vacuolated, the lumen disappears, and the tubes gradually fragment. ‘This is especially beautifully seen in some of the great head tracheoles, which disappear at about the time of pupation (fig. 91). The great abdominal tracheoles disappear a few hours earlier, also by chemical disintegration ; frequently, however, if the pupating larvae are examined, rows of leucocytes in the place where the larval tracheoles once were, indicate that phagocytosis of the vestiges of the tracheoles has, in the end, occurred. Active phagocytosis may be observed at times, however (figs. 87, 88), in places, such as, for instance, the cavity of the thorax, where they are easily accessible to the wandering phagocytes. Several phagocytes may apply themselves to the degenerated tracheole, and, dis- | solving parts out of it, gradually absorb it. i Thus, partly by chemical disintegration and partly by phagocytosis, the whole larval respiratory system, with the _ exception of the spiral intima of the lateral longitudinal, and anterior and posterior transverse vessels disappears within a few hours after pupation. The intima of the lateral stigmatic trunks is shed during moulting. The Regeneration of the Tracheal System. The regeneration of the imaginal tracheal system has kept pace with the destruction of the larval vessels, and takes _ place from the ‘‘imaginal nests’ at the bases of the stigmatic | trunks, At the end of the resting period of the larva, the | cells composing these “‘nests,’’? having lain dormant during the feeding period, rise into sudden activity, and proliferating greatly (fig. 89), extend as imaginal tracheal histoblasts in- wards and along the intima of the great tracheal vessels, pushing the epithelial cells which the leucocytes have not removed aside as they advance, and taking up a position between the larval intima and the epithelial cells from which it was secreted (fig. 84). Some twelve hours later the epi- thelium of the larval intima has been completely regenerated (fig. 85). Those stigmatic trunks which are to persist in the imago undergo a similar renovation (fig. 89). In the others this does not take place, and they disappear (fig. 92). The histoblasts are at first somewhat spindle-shaped as they advance, but they soon spread out and form a thin-walled tube In close eee the spiral intima. The further 394 history of this newly developed tracheal epithelium will be considered later. . Meanwhile the last abdominal spiracles have developed ; not till this time, therefore, is the number of spiracles com- plete. They are formed each as a massive down-growth of _ very small cells which, passing inwards.and forwards, develop a lumen and soon fuse with the main tracheal trunks; a spiral intima develops almost immediately. In this spiracle the process of the development of the spiral intima could be clearly seen. The intima is secreted from the walls of the spacious lumen, and, when the surface of the cells which are secreting the intima is examined it is seen that they present strong ridges which fit exactly into the ‘‘spirals’’ of the intima which is being secreted, and just as in the markings of the general body surface, so here the spirals are merely the secretions formed upon a previously protoplasmic ‘‘mould.’’ As the intima thickens the ridges on ‘the cells gradually straighten out, and the outer portions of the intima, which are now secreted, are devoid of spirals. It should, perhaps, be pointed out that the intima does not possess a true spiral structure, but is simply thrown in- ternally into the form of a series of ridges, closely arranged, and giving the optical appearance of a spiral. In connection with the spiracle of the twelfth abdominal segment, and also that of the propodeal (sixth) segment, a remarkable structure develops for the closing of its opening _ (text fig. G). A large number of cells of the massive ingrowth, which gives rise to the spiracle, arrange themselves in the form of a minute bent “‘clip,’’ whose arms'enclose the spiracle below. From them is secreted a chitinous bent rod, the two arms of which, very closely approximated for the greater part of their length, meet, and diverging again are strongly curved outwards distally; they thus form a complete ring round the trachea a short distance from its opening. The distal diverging portions are joined by a number of muscle fibres. By contracting, they can loosen the arms of the chitinous fork, and so bring about opening of the stigma, the distal divergence serving as a lever to increase the efficiency of the mechanism. This remarkable structure is distinctly visible in the adult wasp, if this has been rendered trans- parent by caustic soda. During pupal life the chitinisation of the spiracle increases, forming the well-marked structure of the adult. It is necessary to return now to the further development of the main tracheal vessels. In the larva some twelve hours after defaecation the larval tracheal epithelium has been wholly replaced by the 395 imaginal histoblasts, which now extend as a new coating right along, and in close contact with, the larval tracheal intima (fig. 85). But already before the epithelium has been completely renovated, the histoblasts at the anterior extremity of the longitudinal tracheal trunks begin to grow forwards over the numerous tracheoles which all open into the main trunks here; as many as eight tracheoles may converge towards this. region and become enclosed together in the tracheal epithelium as it extends forwards. This process, which begins in the larva some eight hours after defaecation, advances greatly during the next four hours, and, as a result, a distinct tube is formed, which encloses the tracheoles, which now appear in a state of degeneration. The appearance of the degenerating tracheoles has already been described ; the products of degen- eration evidently help to nourish the proliferating tracheal histoblasts. The tracheal trunks, ceasing to extend straight forwards, now begin to grow downwards, and in their further extension travel quite independently of the tracheoles ; they are seen four hours later as two wide channels running vertically down the head, parallel with and internal to the great head tracheoles, and often separated from these by the great ascending column of myoblasts—the developing musculature of the mouth appendages (fig. 91). So rapid has been their development that already at this period a ‘‘spiral” tracheal intima is partly developed. Just before the tracheal trunks turn downwards two out- growths are formed from them; of these one grows forwards, shghtly outwards and upwards, and supplies the anterior, dorsal, and lateral regions of the head. The second branch grows out from the descending trunk a short distance below this dorso-lateral branch, and gives off a great branching tracheole into the brain. In the fresh pupa other tracheoles begin to grow out from this ‘‘cerebral trachea’’ ; the structure and development of the imaginal tracheoles will be described later. Tracheoles also entered into the developing antennae, while from the main tracheal trunks in the defaecating larva other tracheoles extend outwards into the legs and wings. In the fresh pupa the-great dorso-lateral air sacs begin to develop. The new tracheal epithelium just behind the first stigmatic trunk on each side begins to grow upwards as a slender column of cells. Cell division continues rapidly, and the columns extend further upwards, then backwards and slightly outwards, growing as a pair of narrow columns of cells, already showing a very distinct lumen, along the 396 dorso-lateral regions of the thorax. In the two-day pupa they fuse again with the main tracheal trunks immediately in front of the propodeal stigmatic trunk. The tip of the column presents a remarkable frayed appearance (fig. 94); this may be a special adaptation to aid the column in forcing its way through the surrounding masses of fat cells. The cell columns meanwhile have begun to differentiate. In the growing columns the cells are thick, rather elongated in the direction of growth, and present a clear cytoplasm ; the lumen of the cell column is narrow and devoid of intima. But at about the time of fusion of the posterior end of the columns with the main trunks the epithelium gradually flattens, transforming the whole structure from a narrow tube into a great air sac (fig. 95). The epithelial cells develop a granular cytoplasm; while in the four-day pupa they may have nucleoli almost as large as those of the degenerating larval cells; a ‘‘spiral’’ intima is quickly secreted. In the early pupa a number of other tracheae have devel- oped from the main longitudinal vessels; especially prominent are two ventral downgrowths, from which the tracheoles of the wings have been developed. In the early pupa the anterior of these is observed as a thick column of more or less cubical cells, which in their descent have torn off and dragged along portions of the salivary glands as these were under- going phagocytic destruction. A very fine example of this is shown in fig. 88; the great wing trachea is observed with fragments of salivary glands still attached to it; some of the tracheal cells are in a state of great activity and are growing outwards to form tracheoles; more anteriorly lie the larval tracheoles, undergoing disintegration. The tracheal trunk to the hind wing is never so prominent. While these tracheae and great dorso-lateral air sacs have been developing, the main tracheal trunks have undergone a similar differentiation. The epithelial cells gradually flatten out, and separating from the “‘spiral’’ intima of the larva upon which they have been resting for the last three days, soon form the two great ventral air sacs. A ‘“‘spiral”’ intima is quickly secreted. The size of the air sac depends, of course, upon the degree of flattening undergone by the epithelial cells. ’ In the defaecating larva a third tracheal system develops (fig. 86), in the form of a pair of outgrowths, ventrally from near the posterior extremities of the main tracheal vessels. They grow out very rapidly; an upper branch supplies the intestine and neighbouring organs, while the main part of the vessel grows downwards and forwards, and undergoing 397 special development in the female, ramifies among the muscles of the ovipositor (text fig. H). i In the pupa of the fourth day a transverse co commissural’’ . trachea is seen uniting the main longitudinal air sacs; I have not observed the manner or time of its formation. The old ‘‘spiral’’ intima of the larva can still be seen lying within the main air sacs; probably it disappears by being drawn out through the thoracic spiracles at the last ecdysis; it is certainly not present in the adult wasp. The adult respiratory system (text fig. H) consists, then, of a pair of main tracheal vessels, dilated in the thoracic region into the ventral air sacs, and connected by three trans- verse vessels—one anterior, another posterior, the third a broad channel joining the two air sacs in their mid-region. Passing from the anterior to the posterior end of each ventral air sac is a great dorso-lateral air sac. From near the pos- terior end of the tracheae a pair of vessels pass downwards and forwards and supply the abdomen. The head is aerated by a pair of great tracheae which pass forwards from the main vessels and divide into three great branches in the head. From all these great vessels tracheoles are given off. Three pairs of stigmatic trunks, two in the alitrunk, the other in the abdomen, connect these tubes with the exterior. The tracheoles of the adult insect, though essentially intracellular structures, are not such remarkable structures as we have seen in the larva. Certain cells of the developing tracheal tubes do not flatten out when these form an intima; on the contrary, they seem to grow in thickness, and then migrating from the epithelium grow outwards in various directions and ramify among the organs. They are the tracheoloblasts, but they never assume abnormally large dimensions. As they grow out from the tracheae (fig. 82) they leave tubes of varying width behind them (fig. 95); in the case of the smaller tracheoles the whole structure may remain unicellular. The larger tracheoles, however, such as those of the brain or of the appendages, are multicellular structures; their formation can be clearly observed in the legs. The nuclei of the small tracheoloblasts occasionally divide, and the cytoplasm between the two nuclei thus formed becomes drawn apart. This process is repeated several times and eventually the tracheole is seen as a narrow tube with a number of oval thickenings, the nuclei, along its path (fig. 103). The tracheoles are essentially protoplasmic structures ; I could not detect, with any certainty, a chitinous intima. Frequently chromatic (?) granules may be observed within the walls of the tracheae between the nuclei. ~ 398 The changes, then, which the respiratory system under- goes during metamorphosis—a re-development of the longi- tudinal trunks, the formation of a new spiracle, development of new tracheoles from tracheoloblasts, the production of the air sacs from purely embryonic cells, and, finally, the dis- appearance of ancestral stigmata—are identical with the changes. which have been going on during early larval life (and probably during embryonic life, if these were known), or which would have gone on had the whole of the develop- ment from egg to adult taken place within the egg membrane. The significance of this will be discussed in the second part _of this paper. The destruction of the epithelium of the main tracheal vessels by leucocytes has been described by Pérez (1910) in Calliphora; but, so far as I am aware, the general disintegra- tion and total renovation of the branching vessels have never been observed. The conclusions of Breed (1903) and of Anglas (1904) that tracheoles are not formed as direct outgrowths from the main trunks appears to be quite erroneous, and the criticism of Poyarkoff, that Anglas was really dealing with myoblasts, seems to me entirely justified, since these cells in NVasona “frequently show a remarkable resemblance to small nucleated tracheoles. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. The history of the muscular system during post-embryonic life will best be considered under the following headings :— (a) The anatomy of the larval muscular system; (b) the structure of the larval muscles and their post-embryonic development; (c) disintegration of the larval muscles; (d) regeneration of the muscular system. The last section will be considered under various headings, viz.- (1) The longi- tudinal abdominal muscles; (2) the vertical abdominal muscles; (3) the pharyngeal dilators ; (4) the muscles of the mouth appendages ; (5) the muscles of the legs; (6) the ovi- positor muscles; (7) the great thoracic muscles (muscles of flight); (8) the intestinal muscles; (9) the muscle insertions. An examination of all these different muscles, moreover, will enable a comparison to be made between them. The Anatomy of the Larval Muscular System. Although the individual muscle fibres of the larva undergo a considerable amount of differentiation during larval life, yet the general anatomy of the muscular system does not alter. I shall describe it here as it can be observed in living larvae in the first instar, before they have become too gorged with food to be sufficiently transparent for observation. 399 The muscular system consists of three prominent sets of muscles: the great longitudinal muscles; the great transverse (oblique) muscles; and the masticatory muscles, including the dilators of the pharynx. The longitudinal muscles (fig. 1) are in the form of twenty to twenty-two bands of muscles, passing from one end of the body to the other. Posteriorly where the body tapers off, they all tend to converge towards one point. Anteriorly they are inserted upon the walls of the first larval segment; here also they converge, but are less concentrated than at the hinder end. The muscles are arranged similarly on either side of the median line, and are quite absent beneath the ventral nerve cord. The transverse (oblique) muscles (fig. 1) are in the form of nine pairs of muscles stretching from the third to the eleventh segments. They pass in hoops round the body of the larva, upwards and backwards; their lower and upper inser- tions are generally at the junctions of the larval segment with the segments immediately before and behind it respectively, a.e., the oblique muscles are generally intra-segmental. This is not, however, entirely the case, as the last oblique muscle is inserted ventrally on the ninth segment, dorsally at the posterior limit of the tenth. Others also stretch over more than one segment. The muscles of feeding are in the form of a number of structures which are inserted upon the pharynx at one end, while their other extremity is attached to the walls of the head, or to a specially thickened cuticular portion of it—the tentorlum. They are the dilators of the pharynx. To the tentorium are attached also two very minute muscles which move the minute jaws. Only one muscle is attached to each mandible, the latter evidently swinging backwards, after functioning, as a result of the elasticity of the surround- ing cuticle. There are six pairs of pharyngeal dilators. Of these the lower two are inserted upon the tentorium. Two other pairs, attached to the dorsal side of the pharynx, are inserted upon the dorsal head cuticle; while two other pairs radiate outwards towards the lateral head walls. The united pull of these muscles during feeding would dilate the pharynx ccnsiderably and would permit efficient sucking of the con- tents of the fly pupa, once the mouth was applied to the ruptured cuticle. In young larvae the dilators of the pharynx exhibit a thick dilatation along a considerable part of one side. This swelling becomes less prominent as the larva grows, but is recognizable even in adult larvae. Its nature will be explained later. 400 The Structure and Post-embryonc Development of the Larval Muscles. The General Body Musculature. The nistology of insect muscle can be very clearly observed in material derived from Nasonia larvae, and as a number of structures, not hitherto observed, were revealed by the Haidenhain haematoxylin method of staining employed here, I shall briefly describe the structure of muscle fibres, as it occurs in this insect. The longitudinal body muscles will be considered first. The portion of a single muscle band situated in any one seg- ment, and inserted at its anterior and posterior extremities, is a single muscle fibre, containing three to five nuclei (and developed, as will be seen below, from as many cells). The inner, posterior portion of one muscle fibre, z.e., of one intra- segmental muscle, is connected by a short process with a similar process given off from the outer, anterior part of the succeeding muscle (fibre) of the longitudinal band immedi- ately internal to it (fig. 99), z.e., there is a ‘‘dovetailing’’ of muscles (muscle fibres) not unlike what occurs in vertebrate cardiac muscle, which results in a direct communication between all the longitudinal muscle bands. This ‘‘dovetailing”’ is particularly clearly seen in young larvae and in the hind region of adult larvae. The connecting piece is always devoid of a nucleus (fig. 100), and does not, therefore, represent a distinct cell (see below). When a muscle fibre is examined in sections, the longi- tudinal fibrillae are very clearly seen; each consists of a number of minute spindle-shaped sarcomeres (fig. 127), the ‘‘spindle’’ shape being due to the concentration of the fluid contents at its middle. At other times the liquid contents pass to either end of the sarcomere, leaving a clear space in the middle (Hensen’s line) which may be “quite wide. The two dots often figured on the ends of each sarcomere are optical representations of the extremities of the sarcomere (fig. 127). Moreover, Krause’s membrane is apparently not a membrane so far as the muscle fibre is concerned ; though the contrary view is sometimes held, it appears to consist rather of closely concentrated minute ‘‘dots,” each repre- senting the point of junction of successive sarcomeres. Fig. 127 shows a muscle portion of a fibre in longitudinal section ; the individual sarcomeres, each a spindle-shaped structure, are clearly visible, and Krause’s membrane is the effect obtained by the junction of successive sarcomeres approxim- ately along one line. It is only with respect to the fibrils apparently that we can speak of a ‘‘Krause’s membrane’’ as 401 a membrane. At any rate, Krause’s ‘“membrane’’ is devel- oped by the individual fibrils, and, if adjacent ‘“‘membranes” do unite, then the structure is secondarily, not primarily, a membrane. I shall refer to this again in connection with the structure of the adult muscles. In connection with the ‘‘transverse’’ striations, a curious fact was noticed which has not, apparently, been hitherto recorded. The striations do not run transversely across the muscle fibre; on the other hand, the fibrillae are so disposed that their thickenings in the fibre as a whole are disposed in the form of a double smral (fig. 101). This double spiral is not always visible in longitudinal sections, as the muscle fibre may have been so cut as to show only a portion of it; under these circumstances it will appear either as true trans- verse striations or, as a single spiral. _ However, in moderately thickly-cut sections the double spiral is almost always clearly visible. Moreover, it is possible to focus on top of a ‘‘trans- ‘verse’ striation, and beginning at one end and focussing alternately downwards and upwards, to travel right along the spiral, and finally arrive at the other end of the fibre. Also, after following a spiral striation through a single turn one arrives, not at the succeeding striation, but at the second in advance, showing the double nature of the spiral. By no conceivable bending or twisting of the muscle fibres could true transverse striations be thrown into this form, and the question of artefacts can be discarded; moreover, the double spiral may be detected in entire muscle fibres if these have been sufficiently stretched to allow the spiral on the distal side of the muscle to show through the thickness of the fibre. Krause’s ‘“‘membrane,’’ of course, is likewise disposed in a double spiral. The sarcomeres of either end of the muscle frequently have only one “‘Krause’s membrane’’; the outer end of the sarcomere being in this case inserted into the cuticle of the larva. Sometimes the fibrils can actually be traced into the cuticle, where they spread out a little to procure an extra hold (fig. 127). At other times they are inserted on to the terminations of integumental cells (fig. 100). The essentially integumental origin of the muscle insertions will be referred to later, in connection with their development. Others of the fibrils, however, do not become inserted into the cuticle, but travelling across the border of the segment join fibrils from the next muscle of the same longitudinal band, forming a very powerful ‘‘Krause’s membrane” at the junction (fig. 126). When a muscle is examined in surface view these crossing fibrils are clearly seen, giving the muscles a particularly frayed appearance at their extremities. 402 The muscles are covered with a very prominent sarco- lemma. The nuclei are three to five in number; they are round or oval flat discs; a very large nucleolus is usually present in the nuclei of the fully-grown larvae; or two nucleoli may be present; a karysome is quite absent and the chromatin is scattered in small granules throughout the nucleus (fig. 102a). The nuclei, if round, measure about 17» in diameter; if oval, 19-20u in length, 13-144 in breadth. The breadth of the muscle is about. 344; the length varies apparently according to the number of cells which entered ihto its formation; on. an average the muscles measure about 250, so that the length of the individual ‘‘cell’’ composing the syncytium is 63p. The oblique muscles possess four nuclei; in their middle they show a long slit, mdicating the double origin of this part. Their minute structure does not differ from that of the longitudinal muscles. ; If the muscles of young larvae be examined, the essenti- ally multicellular nature of the muscle fibres is clearly seen (fig. 100). Three to five cells may be present arranged end on end, and the cell boundaries are still unmistakable. In the earliest stage (twelve-hour larva) in which I have examined them they show distinct longitudinal fibrillation, the fibrillae of successive cells in the developing syncytium already fusing. Moreover, fibrillae from one fibre have already communicated with those of others of the muscle band. Striations are just beginning to appear; in some they are distinctly visible, in others quite absent. The individual cells measure 14u in length, 114» in breadth. The nuclei are relatively gigantic and measure 12-14 long by 8-9» broad. Nucleoli are quite absent; one or more small karyosomes -may be present, but a considerable part of the chromatin may be scattered in granules throughout the nucleoplasm (fig. 102b). Already at this stage, too, the connecting pieces can be clearly seen between the adjacent muscle bands. In the oblique muscles the four-celled condition is especially clearly seen (fig. 99). . The muscles grow rapidly; already in the second instar the cell limits are scarcely visible. From now on the muscles begin to differentiate into the condition in which we see them in the adult. The process consists mainly in a special develop- ment of the striations, and a general ‘‘loosening’’: of the texture of the whole muscle by the development, apparently, of more interstitial substance. The nuclei grow considerably in size, but the actual chromatin does not appear to imerease 403 in quantity ; karyosomes disappear and the nucleoli develop in their place (fig. 102a and b). | Although the adult muscles may be inserted upon the cuticle directly, yet there can be no doubt that such insertions were originally integumental cells. Leydig (1885) first put forward this view, and it is held by Duboscq (1898), Hennequy (1906), Janet (1907), and Pérez (1910). Others have regarded the fibrillae as fusing directly with the cuticle, but this view seems scarcely tenable. If the muscles of young larvae be teased out, it is fre- quently possible to observe the fibrils of the longitudinal muscles communicating with the cytoplasm of a-long process from the flat integumental cells (fig. 100). These processes show a considerable degree of chitinisation, and may appar- ently chitinise fully before the end of larval life, thus explain- ing the insertion of fibrillae upon a non-protoplasmic surface. The Dilators of the Pharynz. If a larva in its first instar be examined these muscles can be observed in the last stage of development (fig. 47). The muscles are formed, probably in late embryonic life, from a mass of cells which fuse to form a syncytium. Generally about four to five cells combine thus, though in some cases as many as fourteen to sixteen (judging by the number of nuclei) fuse. J have not examined these muscles earlier than half-way through the first instar. At that stage the ‘‘trans- verse’ striations are clearly seen, again in the form of spirals. The nuclei all become concentrated in one place, and collecting a certain amount of cytoplasm round them, form the large swellings already mentioned. Hach nucleus has a large karyosome. : The spiral striations do not extend on to the dilated part of the cytoplasm; they are confined to the essentially contractile region of the muscle. Along this region fibrilla- tion has been taking place, but is not yet, apparently, com- plete, for the spirals extend outwards, upon otherwise quite undifferentiated protoplasm (see fig. 47, at x). Here, then, it seems that the (spiral) striations form first in the contractile syncytium, and the longitudinal fibrilliation is only secondarily developed. In the general body muscles the opposite happens; this appears to be the case also in mammalian muscle. — . Sometimes a single cell of the syncytium may form a number of distinct roots of the muscular portion of the insertions. As in the body muscles, the muscle fibres are always inserted upon the integumental cells, never directly upon the cuticle. 404 The Destruction of the Larval Musculature. Like the other highly specialized larval organs, the larval musculature undergoes total destruction at the end of larval life. ’ The muscles of the larva do not, however, all disappear simultaneously. The pharyngeal dilators disappear first, at about the time of larval defaecation. Certain thoracic muscles begin to disintegrate several hours later. The abdominal muscles persist till a few hours after pupation. (1) The Dilators of the Pharynz. The disappearance of these muscles is closely associated with the development of the pharyngeal muscles of the imago, and will be more conveniently described there. (2) The disintegration of the wpper three pairs of thoracic muscles and of the oblique thoracic muscles is closely con- nected with the development of the great vertical and longi- tudinal thoracic muscles, and will be considered in connection with these. The other thoracic muscles disappear early in larval life. I have not, however, carefully examined their process of destruction. It is improbable that this should be unlike the process as we see it in certain abdominal muscles, which I shall here describe carefully. (3) The Muscles of the Abdomen. Many of the longitudinal muscles of the abdomen of the larva are disintegrated by the action of the embryonic cells of developing imaginal muscles. The description of these will be deferred till the regeneration of the muscular system is considered. On account of the marked differences shown by the ver- tical (oblique) and longitudinal abdominal muscles in their mode of disintegration, it will be best to consider them separately. (a) The Longitudinal Muscles. It is mainly in the ventral portion of the abdomen that disappearance of the longitudinalb muscles independent of the action of developing myoblasts occurs. Though the process first becomes marked in freshly formed pupae, yet, for a considerable time previous to this, the muscles have been undergoing a process of internal degen- eration. In the larvae at about the time of defaecation the nuclei begins to appear abnormal;. they have developed great nucleoli, much larger than those usually occurring in nuclei, which may be, at this stage, crowded with numerous minute highly refractile crystals. Most of the muscles, however, 405 appear otherwise quite normal, and are still capable of func- tioning, though only very feebly. (The shedding of the last larval cuticle is itself brought about by muscular movements of the abdomen.) Shortly after moulting, however, the muscles lose their striations, the substance of the striations spreading itself uniformly through the fibrils (the substance of the fibrils becoming, in consequence, uniformly heavily staining (fig. 107). The nucleus meanwhile undergoes certain changes; the chromatic material of the nucleus may change from a rough granulation to a fine chromatic dust, the particles of which may be clumped together (fig. 107). This dust may be forced into the cytoplasm. It may even scatter itself through the substance of the muscle, leaving only the empty nuclear mem- brane behind. This occurs in certain of the dorsal abdominal muscles whose further disappearance is intimately related with developing myoblasts, and is rendered possible by the degen- eration of the fibrillae into a loose granular fluid. At other times, however, the nuclei remain, to external appearances, normal, except for the presence of the great nucleolus. At about the sixth hour after pupation those muscles which have not become penetrated by the myoblasts of devel- oping imaginal muscles (see below) are fallen upon by leucocytes (fig. 105). The leucocytes begin to cluster around the dead muscle — fibres and the muscles are rapidly absorbed. “Pérez has ex- amined the process fully in Calliphora, and I shall describe it only briefly here, referring mainly to the points of difference as seen in the two insects. When the leucocyte has Be cach aolose to the degen-| erated muscle it pushes out a pseudopod which appears to dissolve its way ‘through the still unbroken sarcolemma.) | Within the muscleit/gradually swells out and drags a certain amount of the leucocyte after it; so far as I could observe, uf does not entirely enter the fibre (fig. 129). The actual Bl Pleo of oe Bat into the tiga ee, it has oo sieieedl he cue more Ba cuparons: ones, dissolving off small pieces there, which accumulate within the ‘leucocytes, in the form of large granules. Oceasionaly, however, a much more voracious leucocyte — may engulf long strips of muscle substance; so long, indeed, may the strips be, that it becomes necessary to bend them about to accommodate them within the body of the corpuscle ; i. 406 sometimes several such strips may be present. Most usually, however, the leucocytes remove the muscle tissue in much smaller quantities. Pseudopodia, however, are very rarely seen; although the absorbed food is frequently contained in a vacuole, and although it is possible that during the killing of the leucocytes, in making the preparations, pseudopodia may have been withdrawn, it is nevertheless quite probable that a considerable amount. of feeding takes places by the absorption of liquid material, perhaps dissolved by extra- cellular enzymes directly through the walls of the leucocytes. I shall refer to this again later. That the muscles, once their sarcolemma has been rup- tured, may undergo a certain amount of ‘‘chemical disintegra- tion’’ is not unlikely; it might, however, be very difficult to detect microscopically. In the case of the vertical abdominal and the pharyngeal muscles, however, it does occur, and is fairly easily seen (see below). Nevertheless, the main factor in the removal of the degenerated fibre is the phagocytic action of the leucocytes. These scavengers, having gorged them- selves at the expense of the dead tissue, gradually move to some secluded corner in the cavity of the appendages, or amongst the developing integumental cells, and there attempt to digest their meal in peace. The removal of the dead muscles is accomplished within several hours; ten hours after pupation they have entirely disappeared. . (6) The Vertical (oblique) Abdominal Muscles. Although myoblasts may, in the anterior part of the abdomen, develop in relation with some of the degenerating vertical muscles, yet the appearances which these present, as they disintegrate, are quite different from those which we see in the longitudinal muscles. The nuclei present the usual features of a greatly hyper- trophied nucleolus, often containing numerous minute crystals. The contractile part of the muscles may disintegrate at a remarkably early period, viz., in the defaecating larva; at other times distinct striations may still be seen a day later. Almost invariably, however, the striations have dis- appeared from the muscles sixteen hours after defaecation, and the resulting appearance of the muscle depends upon whether the contractile substance has been cast bodily out of the fibre, or whether it has become uniformly scattered along the fibrillae. Both these processes occur. I shall first describe the former. It was in one of the posterior abdominal muscles in the larva at. about the time of defaecation that I was able to 407 observe the process of disappearance of the striations. The muscle is reproduced in fig. 104. In the lower region of the muscle the spiral striations are still visible, as heavily staining thickenings of the fibrillae, and are still, to all appearances, quite normal. In the upper part of the muscle the striations have entirely disappeared. In their place the whole muscle is filled with a fine dust of disintegrating striated material which is being’ thrown in a shower of particles, at first sight resembling bacteria, into the blood stream. Some of the striations in the individual sarcomeres are still intact, and may be arranged apparently quite normally, successively along a fibril. Others, already shortening, lie in the inter- stitial substance, where they are quickly rounded off, and by the time they reach the blood stream, are seen simply as minute rounded globules, evidently undergoing solution in the blood plasma. The striated substance has not’ been pressed out at the end of the fibril; it seems to burst its way through in each sarcomere, apparently in the region of junc- tion of successive sarcomeres (‘‘Krause’s Membrane’’). This loss of material causes a considerable shrinking of the contractile substance within its sarcolemma. At other times, the muscles do not lose their staining reaction; on the contrary, though their striations disappear, the fibrillae (?) stain quite strongly, and it is seen that the striated substance, instead of forcing its way through the muscle sheath, has now spread itself along the fibrillae. The latter process appears to be much the commoner of the two. _ Exactly what determines which of the two processes should occur I am quite unable to say. Degeneration of the muscle fibre now continues; the sarcoplasm becomes granulated and develops, in_ places, rounded globules. Quite frequently these globules absorb a granule into their middle, which may give them the appear- _ ance of minute nucleated cells. Such a condition has already been described in the degeneratmg integumental cells. The sarcolemma may have become strongly wrinkled. As a result of the degeneration of the interstitial sub- stance the fibrillae become pressed close together. Leucocytes now penetrate the sarcolemma and a phégocytosis of the inter- stitial substance commences. A ‘considerable part of it, how- ever, undergoes chemical disintegration, being cast into the body cavity as large round globules, which are not to be con- fused with globules from the fat-body (fig. 110). — _ As a result of this process the fibrillae are set free, and falling apart, spread out a little, producing structures of _ very characteristic appearance (fig. 110). Sometimes, it would seem, several fibrillae cluster together, and the osele is noe 408 represented not by the loose individual fibrils, but by a number of loose bundles, each consisting of a few fibrillae which have become fused together. Having removed the more palatable interstitial substance the leucocytes now turn their attention to the fibrillae. The process of destruction seems to be much more difficult here. The leucocytes apply themselves round a piece of the fibril, and several such leucocytes may often be seen, arranged side by side along a single fibrilla in their attempt to destroy it. The process is actively going on in the fresh pupa, and six hours later the fibrillae have entirely vanished. Muscular regeneration often occurs in connection with these degen- erating fibres and will be referred to below. } The histolytic action of the phagocytes on the muscles was first discovered independently by van Rees (1884), and by Kowalevsky (1885), using Calliphora as material. Korotneff (1892), on the other hand, could not observe it in the moth Jznea, but his observations were made on the thoracic muscles. He regarded these, apparently erroneously, as arising by regeneration of the larval muscles. Berlese’s conclusions have already been referred to earlier. In Calliphora Pérez finds that the leucocytes generally enter the muscles, and break off small pieces of muscle. This muscle has not undergone any visible degeneration; even _within the leucocytes it seems to retain its structure for a considerable period. In Nasonia the degeneration of muscles of disorganization Fron muscles hiek have: merely lost or even only incompletely lost their striations, to others which _ have undergone total granular degeneration, may be observed. The Regeneration of the Muscular System. An examination of the process of regeneration of the muscular system revealed the remarkable fact that a con- siderable difference exists in the actual morphology of the various muscles of the adult wasp; the muscles of the legs, ovipositor, and mouth appendages have similar methods of development, and though the mature surface abdominal muscles are similar to these, their mode of development is quite different. A single pharyngeal dilator muscle, on the other hand, corresponds not to a single leg muscle, but to a whole group of them; while the great thoracic muscles (wing muscles) are quite unique in that they are composed of a great many muscle fibres, all running parallel to one another, ‘ and quite devoid of fibrillae. These remarks will become clearer when we have considered the development of the various muscles; it is enough to say here that failure to * foe? ae 409 observe the muscles in their embryonic state has resulted in a considerable misinterprotation of the structure of the mature organs. The adult muscles all arise from mesodermal cells, the myoblasts, which are recognizable in the earliest larvae. The assertion of de Vaney (1902) that these cells are hypodermal in origin, is quite erroneous, and the opinions of Kowalevsky (1887), Berlese (1901), Henneguy (1904), Karawaiew (1898), Pérez (1910), and finally of Poyarkoff (1910), that they are essentially mesodermic cells are easily verified in Nasonia. (1) The Superficial Longitudinal Abdominal Muscles. ee rns As the most direct development of adult muscles occurs in the superficial abdominal muscles, it is best to consider these first. In the fresh pupa, the longitudinal abdominal muscles begin to degenerate. After losing their striations the fibrillae cluster togéther in the middle of the muscle, while the inter- stitial substance, which in life separates them, becomes forced to the periphery of the muscle fibre, appearing here as a granular fluid, after showing fatty globules (fig. 107). At other times the whole muscle fibre, not merely its interstitial substance, may undergo granular degeneration, and the chromatic material, breaking out of the nucleus, may scatter itself as fine granules amongst the degenerate cytoplasm. The sarcolemma remains intact (fig. 108). Some of these muscles undergo phagocytic destruction, as above described. It is to the remainder that I refer here. The myoblasts now become active. During larval life these have been lying, as small embryonic cells, 54 to 6m in diameter, scattered in the body cavity close to the muscles. They now begin to multiply, mitoticallyit seems, Jand, pene- trating the sarcolemma, lie in the degenerated muscle cytoplasm (figs. 106, 108, 109), where they move about by amoeboid action (fic. LOC} Within the muscle fibre these cells multiply, and grow at the expense of the degenerate larval muscle substance. In those muscles where there has occurred a total cytoplasmic degeneration their task seems comparatively easy; but in those muscles where the fibrillae have failed to disintegrate they at first confine their attention to the granular inter- stitial substance. Eventually, however, the whole larval muscle (fibre) disappears, including even the sarcolemma, and the myoblasts are seen in its place. The cytoplasm of the myoblasts is always clearly seen, and pseudopodia are often visible (fig. 107); but whether the myoblasts absorb the M 4 410 muscle cell contents phagocytically, or whether they merely absorb it through their permeable cell wall, I am unable to say. Perhaps, after all, the only function of the pseudopodia is to enable the myoblasts to crawl into the position they are to_assume in the mature muscle, just as the cells of the imaginal integumental areas do (see above). It is scarcely necessary to remark that the myoblasts in the above account have not been confused with leucocytes, the activities of which are not altogether unlike those of the myoblasts; leucocytes are considerably larger than myoblasts and always have a characteristic nucleus. After twelve to fifteen hours the myoblasts of each muscle fibre have arranged themselves, one after the other, in a row; the pseudopodia have entirely disappeared (fig. 111) and the cells are almost cubical in shape. In this condition they remain for a long time, the only visible change being that they first adopt a very regular arrangement, and in the thirty-six hour pupa fuse to form a long columnar syncytium, with the nuclei regularly arranged along it from one end to the other (cf. fig. 115). But in the middle of the third day of pupal life the developing muscle fibre begins to differentiate, and first undergoing fibrillation, then striatiom, develops eventually into the muscle as we see it in the adult. The striations, as usual, are spirally arranged. The nuclei occur right in the middle of the fibre (fig. 116).. It follows, of course, that a single longitudinal abdominal muscle consists of only one fibre. The nature of the muscle insertions will be referred to later. = Pérez (1910) has observed the metamorphosis of the abdominal muscles in Calliphora. He finds that the muscle fibres lose their striations and fibrillations, and that even the sarcolemma is added to the degenerate mass. He described the_myoblasts as entering the dead larval muscle fibre apparently by amoeboid action. Here they lose their cyto- plasm and increase by direct division to form the syncitial ) mass, which, on differentiating, produces a mature muscle fibre. It should be remarked that the myoblasts have only an extremely fine pellicle in Vasonia, and that if the degen- erate larval cytoplasm is at all compact in consistency, as it is in the pharyngeal and thoracic muscles, the myoblast cytoplasm is hardly, or not at all, distinguishable, unless, as is very often the case, the myoblast lies in a distinct vacuole within the mass, part of which it has, apparently, been absorbing. The degenerate cytoplasm of the abdominal muscles is, however, so loose in texture that the cytoplasm of the myo- blast is easily recognizable. The apparent loss of cytoplasm as el — le — en <2 Sor oT eS cD —T —- —= Se Sacer Ser) eee eT 411 described by Pérez, moreover, would be difficult to interpret in terms of our usual conception of a living cell. (2) The Vertical Abdominal Muscles. The development of these muscles takes place in close relation with the degeneration of the vertical (oblique) abdominal muscles of the larva, which, as described above, after losing their cytoplasm, break up into vertical fibrils or groups of fibrils. While these fibrils are undergoing phago- eytic destruction the myoblasts crawl along some of them and, poansng themselves at their expense (fig. 110), ultimately BP eitodinal muscles ; unese on |. diitnan Een form fie vertical abdominal muscles whose structure does not differ from that of other muscles of the abdomen. They are especially well developed at the anterior extremity of the abdomen, where they become attached in front to certain small phragmas within the petiole, and act as the flexor and extensor muscles of the abdomen. (3) The Dilators of the Pharynz. The larva possesses six pairs of pharyngeal dilators (muscle fibres) to whose development I have already referred. In their neighbourhood, even in the earliest larvae, can be seen occasional myoblasts measuring usually some 5u to 6p in length. Like the other purely larval cells, the pharyngeal dilators undergo degeneration, this occurring at the time the larva defaecates; but their disintegration differs somewhat from that. of the muscle fibres of other_parts-of-the body. The nucleus presents the usual ‘hypertrophied appearance, and contains the gigantic nucleolus, so characteristic of the degen- erating cells. As in the case ‘of the abdominal muscles, the pharyngeal dilators, after degeneration, become the prey of the_proliferating myoblasts of the imaginal muscles. But before they penetrate the muscles these often undergo a partial globular degeneration, and these globules, breaking through the sarcolemma, are in part cast into the body cavity, where they dissolve in the blood (figs. 117, 118, 119). Some- times several such globules, floating about in the blood, may be gathered up by a leucocyte, if one happens to be present (iig...119).. Only a portion of the muscle fibre, however, disintegrates in this way; some muscle fibres, indeed, hardly change their appearance, the only indication of disintegration being the refusal of the striations to absorb stains; and between these two extremes all conditions of degeneration may be observed —from fibres which lose their striations but retain their M2 412 fibrillation, to others which undergo total disorganization, but fail to cast their contents into the body cavity. In the larva at about the time of defaecation the myo- blasts, which may often be in the form of spindle-shaped cells, proliferate rapidly (fig. 117), and an occasional myoblast may be observed entering the degenerate muscle. The rupture thus made serves for the entrance of the myoblasts, and soon several groups of myoblasts, now quite round, may be observed, one behind the other, all lying in the path cleared by the first myoblast (fig. 121): The cytoplasm of each myoblast is, contrary to the observations of Pérez, usually clearly visible, lying within a clear space which it has excavated out of the muscle substance and the former contents of which it has apparently absorbed (fig. 121). Frequently, however, the cytoplasm of the myoblasts is so similar to that of the disintegrated muscle substance that its limits cannot be recognized. More and more myoblasts penetrate the muscle fibre till, in the larva eight hours later, the whole muscle is riddled with embryonic cells; the sarcolemma seems to be absorbed also. During the remainder of larval life the myoblasts, after absorbing the remnants of the granulated larval muscle, arrange themselves in several columns of cells; the cells may be slightly spindle-shaped, at other times brick- shaped, and each column is to be considered the equivalent of one developing muscle fibre such as I have described in the abdomen ;,the pharyngeal dilator muscles, in other words, are multifibrous structures, of much greater complexity than the ordinary abdominal muscles. By this process six pairs of “pharyngeal muscles of the adult are laid down; two other pairs are developed from myoblasts which appear to grow quite independently of the larval muscles. At any rate, eight pairs of muscles are to be observed in the newly formed pupa (see fig. 154). In the fresh pupa the muscles begin to differentiate. Each column of cells becomes a long columnar syncytium, just as occurs in the abdominal muscles, so that in the fresh pupa the developing muscle consists of a number of syncytial columns packed close together (fig. 122). Each column then undergoes longitudinal fibrillation, and the whole muscle, losing all indication of the individual columns, becomes a _ uniform mass of longitudinal fibrillae. ‘The whole process goes on very rapidly, and all stages from a non-syncytial mass to a true fibrillated mass can be observed in the fresh pupa. Even at this time distinct indications of striations can be observed, each fibril breaking up into alternate elements, one of which stains feebly with haematoxylin, the other with eosin. No distinct Krause’s membrane in the individual { 418 fibrils can yet be observed. Sometimes the muscle fibrillae, even before losing their intra-columnar grouping, may show _ indications of striations. Sometimes muscle fibres may even be observed, one end of which has undergone striation, while at the other end striations have not yet developed (fig. 123). The visible changes in the development of the contractile part of these muscles during the rest of pupal life consists in a greater strengthening of the striations and the develop- ment of Krause’s membrane. | Meanwhile the nuclei have moved from within the muscle to the surface, where they lie often in quite prominent masses of uncontractile cytoplasm (fig. 123). The interstitial sub- stance of the muscle fibres seems to be produced by the only partial fibrillation of the syncytical columns. 4, The outer walls of the fused mass of myoblasts remain as the sarcolemma. The development of the muscle insertions is quite simple. Each syncytial column, before fibrillating, fuses with a pro- cess, several of which may be formed, from the adjacent integument. In the late larva these processes are quite long, but already in the fresh pupa they have begun to retract (fig. 122), evidently exerting a pull on the muscles shortly before these differentiate. They soon shorten to the thickness of the other integumental cells, and during the third and fourth day chitinise, giving the muscle insertions the appear- ance of being inserted directly on the chitinous exoskeleton. By this process the eight pairs of pharyngeal dilators are produced (fig. 124). In structure they are intermediate between that of the abdominal muscles on the one hand, and that of the muscles of the mouth appendages and of the leg muscles on the other. It would seem, indeed, that these muscles have been evolved from muscles which once resembled the pharyngeal dilators. The development and structure of the muscles of the mouth appendages and legs, and others similar to them, must now be considered. (4) The Muscles of the Mouth A ppendages. The development of these muscles illustrates a mode of formation which differs somewhat from that observed in the other muscles above described—a method of formation which is to be observed also in the muscles of the legs and of the ovipositor. Even in the earliest larvae scattered embryonic cells, _ with clear cytoplasm and large ‘‘vesicular’’ nuclei, may be observed in the ventral portion of the head, in the neigh- bourhood of the mouth appendages or their imaginal discs. 414 They are distinguishable from the leucocytes on account of their smaller size (about 6u) and the clearness of their cyto- plasm, which is quite devoid of vacuoles. During larval life these cells—the myoblasts of the future head muscles—proliferate, but do not appreciably change their size or appearance. Whether proliferation is confined to the last stages of larval life, or whether it occurs gradually throughout larval life, or, lastly, whether it occurs only at the time of moulting, I have not observed. At the time of defaecation, however, the myoblasts have proliferated greatly, and (still dividing mitotically) grow upwards and backwards behind the brain as two slender columns of cells (figs. 91, 154); in the larva eight hours later they have crept right up the back of the transforming head, and finally reached the dorsal surface. The cells in the lower portions of the columns have consolidated themselves, and now form a well- defined rod. Those at the growing ends are loosely arranged and generally long and ‘‘spindle-shaped.’’ Sometimes they are exceedingly long, and apparently represent the cells which both Breed and Anglas mistook for tracheoblasts. In growing upwards they move along, and support themselves upon, the degenerate larval tracheoles (fig. 91). In the twelve-hour larva these spindle-shaped cells have all adopted the shape characteristic of the other cells of the columns; further cell proliferation results in a thickening of the columns. Although the columns have supported themselves, as they grew upwards, upon the great larval tracheoles, they soon stand quite independent of these. This appears to occur at the time when the most dorsal cells have fixed themselves to the ectoderm of the apex of the head. In the larva eight hours before pupation the columns have become intimately associated with these ectodermal cells. The remainder of the development of the head muscles is intimately associated with that of these muscle insertions. In the pupa in the first day of its existence the cells of the two great columns have grouped themselves into a number of secondary columns, by the regular arrangement of successive cells one above the other. There are thus formed, still within the limits of the original columns, numerous secondary columns each one cell in thickness; each of these columns will become a single muscle (fibre) of the head. The dorsal extremities of the two columns, it would seem, begin to spread out a little and meet the processes from adjacent ectodermal cells—the future muscle insertions. These are at first quite long, and even in the larva eight hours before pupation may be observed converging from 4 415 considerable area of the apex of the head (fig. 154), all upon the narrow cell column. During the first day of pupal life ectodermal cells still more distant—on a great part of the posterior, and also lateral, regions of the head—elongating considerably, insert their processes upon the secondary cell columns. These processes then apparently contract again, and the tension exerted by these appears to overcome that which holds the secondary columns together ; they break apart, and, the ectodermal insertions contracting more and more, drag these columns into the positions they are to occupy in the adult insect (fig. 114). At their lower extremities the spreading out of the cell columns is much more limited; they do not encroach upon large areas of the ventral portion of the head, but confine themselves to the mouth appendages, which have meanwhile developed, and in close contact with which they have always been. Even in the pupa in its third day the cell columns may still be observed in this condition. The ectodermal insertions have retracted, and evidently exert a considerable tension on the columns. These are seen to consist of about eighty cells, arranged one behind the other; only the outer cell walls have persisted, so that they now form each a syncytial column, already visible as such in the thirty-six hour pupa. Each nucleus has a distinct karyosome, lying within the slightly granular nuclear space. During the fourth day of pupal life the muscles begin to show striations—again of the spiral type—and the muscle passes into its adult condition (fig. 116). The persisting cell walls remain as the sarcolemma. The labium is provided with a set of powerful muscles which have probably been formed from the great cell columns; during early pupal life they become inserted on the posterior wall of the head, just above the labium. In the proximal joints of the antennae, myoblast cells, which in the early larva were dragged into ‘the antennae as these grew outwards, form, in the defaecating larva, a cell column in the basal joint of each antenna. These cell columns, growing backwards, meet the lower portions of the integu- mental ingrowths which produce the great cephalic phragmas already referred to, and spreading out in a number of separate columns on these (fig. 43), produce, by a process similar to that above described, the muscles of the antennae. It should be noted that only the first joint of the antennae is provided with muscles. The cephalic phragmas are strengthened by the attachment to their posterior surface, of certain of the muscles of the mouth appendages. 416 (5) The Leg Muscles. The essential features of the development of these muscles are similar to those observed in the head muscles. They need, therefore, to be referred to only briefly here. Excepting the tarsal muscles, for the present, the leg muscles are in the form generally of two sets in each segment of the leg (fig. 16). Of these one pulls the segment which it moves in one direction, the other in the opposite (fig. 18). Since, moreover, the joints are of such a nature as to limit the extent of movement in one of these directions, while the muscles are so disposed as to cause only motion in one particular direction, for each muscle, it becomes possible to speak of the one as a flexor muscle, and its antagonistic one as the extensor, the extensor being that one whose activities are limited by the peculiar mode of articulation between the segments. Of these muscles, a pair, the flexor and extensor tarsi, are developed in the tibia, and in the femur the correspond- ing muscles of the tibia are developed. In the trochanter only one muscle, the extensor femoris, is formed (fig. 17). The coxa contains the flexor femoris, as well as, apparently, cer- tain other muscles (fig. 16). Proximally these muscles are all spread out over a large part of the segment, while their distal portions converge and are attached to a tough tendon fibrillated in structure, which is inserted upon the upper part of the next segment. This suggests, of course, a mode of development similar to that observed in the head, — the two processes are, indeed, very much alike. As the hollow leg- dises grow out from the body in the late larva they drag a mass of myoblasts, which lie in close contact with the leg-discs throughout larval life, after them. In the defaecating larva, while the legs are yet very short, these have grouped themselves in each segment in opposite columns, in the position they are to assume in the adult, z.e., we get the rudiments of flexor and extensor muscles. As in the head muscles, the myoblast columns, whose cells continue to divide mitotically, grow in thickness. In the pupa six hours after defaecation, 7.e., earlier than in the head muscles, the upper ends of these muscles become dragged apart by the integumental cell insertions. By this means cell columns, each corresponding to a single component of one of the two muscles of each segment, are produced; the proximal ends are spread out, the distal insertions remain together and become inserted on the tendons. The muscle columns form syncytia in the usual way, which, developing striations, transform themselves into the muscles as we see them in the adult. The outer cell walls persist, of course, as the sarcolemma, 417 The tendons correspond morphologically to the body phragmas. They are formed as columnar ingrowths from the integument, and even in the thirty-six hour pupa still have an embryonic appearance. The tarsus is provided with a long tendon (fig. 46), inserted proximally on the great tendon of the tibia, while distally it is inserted on the last segment. It is not unlike a tracheole in appearance; in each segment it is dilated, this portion bearing the nucleus. In the first and fourth segments the tendon gives off smaller branches to the walls. Only the fifth segment has a muscle, which moves the claws. The tendon is formed as an ingrowth of cells in the early pupa (six hours old) which extends right along the tarsus and fuses with the tendon of the tibia. (6) The Muscles of the Ovipositor. In the female there is a remarkable development of muscles in the ventral part of the abdomen, which extrude and hold the ovipositor in position during egg laying. From the great phragma at the upper extremity of the ovipositor two great systems of muscles pass to the lateral body- - walls (fig. 22). From the lower phragmas other great masses of muscles pass to the ventral and lateral regions of the abdomen and are all so disposed as to hold the ovipositor with a maximum rigidity while this is boring its way. through the hard shell of the fly pupa in which the insect is ovipositing. The mechanism of retraction of the ovipositor 1s very simple. As already described, the ovipositor drags down the sternal plate of the preceding segment during oviposition in the form of a cone. On the sternum a pair of enlarged longitudinal abdominal muscles from the petiole are inserted. The pull which these exert on the sternal plate forces the ovipositor back to its position of rest. The structure of these muscles is identical with that of the head and leg muscles. Their development is quite similar. In the defaecating larva the myoblasts which have throughout larval life lain in this region, proliferate rapidly by mitosis. In the fresh pupa they form a solid column of cells which passes right along the ovipositor; two pairs of smaller columns are seert at the sides of this column. These columns then break up in the usual way, being dragged into. position by the adjacent integumental cells. Spiral stria- tions appear as usual. (7) The Muscles of Flight. These are the most remarkable, and at the same time morphologically the least understood, of the insect muscles. 418 Their transformation during metamorphosis has been studied more frequently than that of any other organ; nevertheless our knowledge of the process, in spite even of the recent work of Pérez, is far from correct. Even the name ‘‘wing muscles,’’ by which they are generally known, is inaccurate; though their function is to move the wings, they usually have no direct attachment to these. Most of the observa- tions have been made on the blow-fly, Calliphora, and it is therefore possible to compare the observations of the various authors. Kowalevsky (1885) regarded the larval thoracic muscles as undergoing phagocytic destruction along with the other specialized larval organs; the imaginal muscles. he regarded as being rebuilt from a number of mesenchyme cells, lying free within the body cavity. Van Rees (1889) observed that three of the longitudinal thoracic muscles did not disappear; on the contrary, their nuclei, he believed, ee Oe while the cytes. The newly et ara heeanne spherical, and migrating into the muscle substance, transformed this into the muscle as it occurs in the adult. Korotneff (1892), working with a moth (Tinea) con- cluded that the mesenchyme cells found by Kowalevsky were superfluous structures in that insect. He could find no trace of them in the moth, and believed he could confirm Van Rees’ observation on the rejuvenescence of muscle nuclei. The con- tractile part of the muscle fibres, as a result of constant functioning during larval life, became exhausted, and under- went granular degeneration, forming long plasmatic columns (‘‘Plasmastrang’’). The rejuvenated nuclei penetrated into the mass and formed a separate nuclear column (‘‘Kern- strang”’). These gradually reorganized the disintegrated myoplasm, and eventually formed the adult muscles. Leuco- cytes took no part in the transformation. Pérez (1910) re-examined the metamorphosis of the thoracic muscles of Callaphora; while confirming the observa- tions of Van Rees and of Korotneff that certain larval thoracic muscles did not disappear, he attributed to these quite an insignificant function in the rebuilding of the adult ae ‘muscles. |He regarded them merely as the ‘‘scaffolding”’ ‘which the imaginal muscles arranged themselves. To the |“rejuvenated nuclei’? of Van Rees and Korotneff he attributed quite a different origin. They were the mesenchyme cells of Kowalevsky, and bore no relation whatever to the larval nuclei. These myoblasts, as he now called them, ae em Bee eS ee ee eee eee - ee : ae 419 migrated into the degenerate muscle mass, lost their true cell walls, ‘apparently, and growing at the expense of the larval muscles, and probably nourished also by the surrounding blood, formed a great syncytium, on the outside of which the nuclei then arranged themselves. This syncytial mass then broke up into five longitudinal masses, and the further break- ing up of these masses into longitudinal fibrillae led to the formation of structures which, on further differentiation, became the adult muscles of flight. These conclusions of Pérez are undoubtedly more in harmony with our conception of the nature of cells, and in the main I have been able to verify them; his observations, however, on the differentiation of the great syncytial masses are, I believe, quite incorrect; the process as I have seen it in Nasoma is certainly entirely different. Special attention has been drawn to the flying muscles of insects by Schafer (1891), who has formulated a theory of. muscle contraction on the basis of certain structural arrange- ments which he observed in the ‘‘fibrillae’ of the flying ' muscles of insects. The development of the great thoracic muscles of Vasoma shows that in homologising the ‘‘fibrillae’’ of the flying muscles of the insect with the fibrillae of other muscles, Professor Schafer was incorrect ;©) at the same time, the false homology will in no way discredit his conception of muscle action. The thoracic muscles of insects, indeed, are perfectly unique, and deserve to rank, I believe, with the other types of contractile structures—plain, striated, and cardiac muscles—as a fourth type of muscle fibre, in which, though striations are present, fibrillae are entirely absent. The flying muscles of the insect are to be regarded not as consisting of a great number of fibrillae with remarkably com- structure, but rather of great numbers of fibres (sarco- es) in. which fibrillae are absent. This will become clearer TS we have considered the development of the imaginal thoracic muscles. The great thoracic muscles of Nasonza are in the form of five pairs of longitudinal muscles, lying one above the other, and occupying the greater part of the thorax. Anteriorly they are inserted upon the ingrown extremity of the meso- thorax, while behind they are attached to more or less strongly developed phragmas in the region of the metathorax and the propodeum. There are, besides these, five pairs of (5) A difference between these fibrillae and those of ordinary - muscles was indeed considered in Schiafer’s original paper (1891), and they were referred to as sarcostyles. 420 sternodorsales, attached to the more anterior portion of the mesothorax above, while below they are inserted close to the origin of the legs. The muscles.which move the wings have, therefore, no direct communication with these; their action merely causes changes in the shape of the thorax, changes which alter the disposition of certain prominences ‘and depres- sions on the thorax at the wing insertion, into which fit other depressions and projections from the base of the wing. A dis- cussion of the mechanism of flight is beyond the scope of this paper. The development of these muscles begins in the larva at about the time of defaecation. An examination of even the earliest larvae will reveal scattered cells, the myoblasts of Pérez lying near the muscles, but remaining during larval life in an embryonic condition. They are not unlike leuco- cytes in appearance; but they are smaller, and do not show protoplasmic vacuolation, which is so frequently seen in the former. But at the time of defaecation the longitudinal thoracic muscles show distinct indication of degeneration. Sometimes the striations merely, become ill-defined. At other times the muscle substance undergoes a total disintegration, breaking down into a granular fluid which remains within the un- ruptured sarcolemma. This condition is especially well seen in the larva four hours later. But while the majority of larval muscles disintegrate at a later stage, under the phagocytic action, apparently, of the leucocytes, a certain number of dorsally situated thoracic muscles—three, or sometimes four pairs—become enveloped by the myoblasts, which shortly before this have become very active. Sometimes the myoblasts begin to spread over the muscles while these are almost normal in appearance (fig. 113); but at other times advanced degeneration is very apparent. The proliferation of myoblasts, always by mitosis, is most marked at the metathoracic and the rear of the mesothoracic segment; from here the myoblasts extend forwards in a pair of great columns partly upon, partly independently of the larval muscles, drawing the neighbouring longitudinal muscles together as they advance (fig. 128); in the larva at the end of the period of defaecation they have extended right along the mesothoracic muscles (fig. 112), while the . myoblasts at this stage are beginning to extend along the © prothoracic muscles, which have almost retained their normal appearance (figs. 113, 129). Three or four of the dorsal pairs of longitudinal muscles of the prothorax and mesothorax are 421 therefore concerned indirectly in the reformation of the longi- tudinal muscles of the thorax of the imago. The myoblasts divide mitotically (fig. 112); they are rounded ovoid or hexagonal cells with large “‘vesicular’’ nuclei. They measure 54p to 64 in width, and have not appreciably — altered in size throughout larval life. hf lri dee {renter The myoblasts several hours later begin ‘to penetrate the tough sarcolemma and work their way into the degenerate muscle substance (fig. 129); others follow, and in the larva eight hours after defaecation the whole muscle becomes riddled with myoblasts, all nourishing themselves, apparently, on the-disintegrated larval muscle. They never lose their cyto- plasm, such as Pérez describes in Calliphora. Any leucocytes which may be close by gorge themselves upon the dead muscle (fig. 129), but the myoblasts seem to proliferate so rapidly that before the few leucocytes, which may be present, have had time to depart they become en- tangled in the mass of myoblasts, and rapidly degenerate there (fig. 128). They are frequently seen in the early pupa —long after the last remnants of the larval muscles have dis- appeared—as spherical bodies, a little larger than the myoblasts, in which several large heavily staining globules are present (y in fig. 135), and in which the leucocyte nucleus may still sometimes be observed. The presence of the embryonic cells appears to bring about their precocious dis- integration. It is these disintegrating leucocytes, I believe, that Pérez has taken for the nuclei of the larval muscles, undergoing ‘‘chromatolitic disintegration.”’ In Nasonia their nature is unmistakable; they do not become apparent till about sixteen hours after the larval muscles have disappeared. Meanwhile the myoblasts have absorbed more and more of the larval muscles, and so extraordinarily rapid is the process that in the larva twelve hours after defaecation no trace of the larval muscles remains; in their place there occurs now a pair of bands of myoblasts lying some distance below the integument, on either side of the midline (figs. 130, 132). The two columns of myoblasts are at first unexpectedly small, measuring only 55y in breadth, 14 to 15» in thickness; they extend from the rear of the mesothoracic segment to a con- siderable distance into what was the prothoracic segment of the larva. But already before the end of larval life a series of remarkable processes begins, which transforms these two strips of embryonic cells into the five pairs of great longitudinal thoracic muscles of the imago. In the larva, shortly before pupation, certain of the cells of these two myoblastic bands 422 arrange themselves in the form of five columns of cells, each four cells in thickness. This condition of the bands is seen in fig. 131. The cells now appear to lose their inner walls so that five syncytial columns are produced, on the periphery of which the nuclei are disposed; other cells become incor- porated later (see fig. 134). To these columns other myoblasts now apply themselves ; these, however, do not become merged into the syncytium. On the contrary, retaining their cell walls, they may be observed to give off at either end a process (fig. 139). These processes grow right along the syncytial mass and are the embryonic sarcostyles of which the adult muscle contains so many. Shortly after the process can be first observed the five syncytial columns begin to show a very distinct fibrillated appearance, as more and more myo- blasts, applying themselves to the columns, send their fibre- like extensions into them. The process takes place with considerable rapidity, and already in the pupa four hours old the myoblast bands of the late larva now consist each of five columns of fibres (sarco- styles), surrounding each of which is the layer of cells from each of which a single fibre has been formed (fig. 134). Between the myoblasts in the early pupa curious heavily staining rod-like structures may be observed (x in fig. 135). I am unable to say what their significance is. The myoblast cells continue to multiply in karyokinesis, and the strips grow considerably in breadth and thickness. Then, in the pupa about twelve hours of age, the two bands at last split up into their five parts, and these are the rudiments of the great longitudinal thoracic muscles (wing muscles) of the imago. Each muscle consists, at this stage, of a great number (between 800 and 900) of fibres, while an actual count of the myoblasts surrounding it, really quite a simple procedure, showed, in the same muscle, 871 of these to be present. This fact, together with the observation of their mode of development, can leave no doubt that the muscle is built up of great numbers of fibres, each developed from one cell, and not of innumerable fibrillae, as is usually sup- posed. Between the fibres lies the interstitial substance, formed, it would seem, from the five syncytial columns of the early myoblastic bands. In the thirty-six hour pupa the muscle is still in almost the same condition as that just described. The cells have now, however, lost most of their walls, and, their outer walls alone persisting, these form a structure which is comparable with the sarcolemma of other types of muscle. So far as I could observe, the connection between the nuclei and sarcostyles, which must once have existed, disappears entirely, so that 423 from now on each muscle is one great syncytial mass, corre- sponding at first sight to an ordinary muscle in constitution, but built up, in reality, in an entirely different manner; it is a muscle built up of numerous fibres, and not a fibre which consists of many fibrillae. In the thirty-six hour pupa a very curious thing is now seen, the interpretation of which is difficult; each muscle now presents a very faint striation, the striations being again in the form of a double spiral. The striations never become chromatic, as they usually do; nor do they correspond to the striations that develop later in the individual fibres. It will be seen later, when the muscle insertions are described, that these muscles are already pulling on the body wall, somewhat as they do in adult life, and perhaps the spiral striations represent the direction of the strain within the muscle, just as they do in muscles in which they are fully differentiated ; but since the ‘‘pull’’ which these muscles exert at this time may be of only temporary duration, structural differentiation does not follow. It is interesting to note that — the distance between successive spirals is almost exactly iden- tical with what is seen in other muscles, v7z., about 8n. Finally, in the pupa of the fourth day the individual fibres (sarcostyles) begin to show transverse striations (fig. 138); Krause’s membranes, and the striations with Hensen’s line between them, are all clearly seen; even the minute tubules which Schafer describes appear to be visible; the structures, however, are so exceedingly minute that at present no further details can be given. The distance between suc- cessive Krause’s membranes is about 24u, so that an un- differentiated spiral of the thirty-six hour pupa corresponds to about three ‘‘striations’ of the component fibres. Schafer was unable to observe any clearly defined stria- tions in the muscle as a whole; there is no doubt, however, that in WVasoma the striations of adjacent fibres are so dis- posed as to present a true striation in the muscle as a whole; nor is it surprising to find that these striations are disposed again in a double spiral. Schafer mentioned the occurrence of the nuclei within the muscle, 2.€., amongst the constituent fibres; there can be no doubt that in NVasonia, and also in Calliphora, according to the observations of Pérez, the nuclei surround the muscle. The conclusions of Pérez, in regard to the development of the imaginal muscles, may be referred to here. This author described the myoblasts in Calliphora as spreading themselves over five pairs of thoracic muscles. The myoblasts, entering these, lose their cytoplasm, and apparently grow at the 424 expense of the disintegrated muscle, nourishing themselves, perhaps, also upon the blood. At any rate, the syncytium formed from the myoblast grows, and then undergoes longi- tudinal fibrillation, the ‘‘fibrils’’ corresponding in no way with the individual myoblasts. The fact that in Masoma the number of fibres is approximately equal to that of the myoblasts, and that these can, though with difficulty, be observed to form each a fibril, renders the conclusions of Pérez in regard to Calliphora doubtful; it is also possible that the five pairs of larval muscles which persist and into which the myoblasts migrate, are in reality the syncytial columns observed in Wasoma, and that Pérez failed to observe the earlier state in which larval muscles were being overwhelmed. It is, of course, unsafe to argue by analogy, but the fact that Van Rees observed only three pairs of persisting muscles is significant. During pupal life there is a considerable thickening of the five pairs of longitudinal wing muscles. In the late larva they represent a very narrow strip measuring 55 in breadth, 14u to 15yu in thickness. In the fresh pupa, when five columns of muscles have developed within these, they have become more prominent; but they do not yet form the predominating organ of the thorax. But in the twenty-one hour pupa, when they have broken up into five pairs of muscle columns, they begin to replace the fat-body, which has till now filled the greater part of the thorax, and growing larger and larger, displace this more and more, and with the vertical (dorso- sternal) muscles which have meanwhile been developing, occupy almost the whole of the cavity of the thorax. The development of the dorso-sternal muscles is very similar to that of the longitudinal thoracic muscles, and need only be briefly referred to here. However, they serve to illustrate that the myoblasts may be quite ‘independent of the degenerate muscles over which they are extending. In the imago five pairs of sterno-dorsales are present; three of these are formed by the extension of the myoblasts over the three pairs of degenerate vertical (oblique) muscles of the three thoracic segments of the larva; but the absence of sufficient larval muscles does not prevent the other two pairs from developing (the muscles of the propodeum play no part in the process, but degenerate in the same curious way as do the other vertical abdominal muscles). They simply grow as two pairs of vertical cell columns, quite independently of any larval muscle. Within each, as also in the other three developing sterno-dorsales after the larval muscle has finally been absorbed, a single columnar syncytium (not five, as occurs el as ee ) 2 es er ial - u 425 in the longitudinal muscles) is formed by the fusion of a column of cells. This syncytium remains as the ‘‘sarco- plasm’’ of the future muscle. The other myoblasts then, applying themselves to this column, form each a longitudinal sarcostyle which, growing along the muscle, eventually becomes inserted by its two extremities upon the dorsal: and ventral walls of the thorax. Striations, similar to those / observed in the longitudinal muscles, occur on the fourth day. ' So far as I could observe, the connection between the sarcostyles and their nuclei does not persist. The outer walls of myoblasts remain as the sarcolemma. (8) Intestinal Muscles. These are weakly developed ; they will be referred to more conveniently in connection with the intestine. (9) The Muscle Insertions. These are entirely ectodermal cells, which during develop- ment force aside the underlying somatopleure and com- municate with the developing muscles. Sometimes the process is quite simple. The terminal myoblasts come into communication with adjacent integu- mental cells which now support the muscles. Frequently these cells chitinise entirely, or only partly, so that the muscle may become inserted directly on the hard chitinous walls of the insect. Frequently the adjacent integumental cells elongate greatly and actively extend towards the developing muscles. This may, as we have seen, give rise to the remarkable split- ting up of cell columns into individual muscles, such as occurs in the head muscles, leg muscles, and muscles of the ovi- positor, and there can be no doubt that the integumental cells are the active agents which bring this process about. In the case of the dilators of the pharynx the cells of the muscle insertions are formed from a much more limited area. They have the same elongated appearance as have the other head-muscle insertions; but there is no lateral pull as these processes retract again, and the muscle constituents are not pulled apart. It follows, therefore, that each pharyngeal dilator muscle is the equivalent of a whole group of head or leg muscles, which have all originated by the longitudinal splitting of a single column. The insertions of the great thoracic muscles are especially interesting. The myoblasts at the extremities of the muscle columns approach close to the integument (fig. 135). The integumental cells begin to divide, in the fresh pupa, trans- versely to their length; division is not complete; on the other 426 hand, the cells elongate remarkably, producing long threads, as much as 75y in length, and consisting each of two or three cells joined one behind the other (fig. 136). These threads have become inserted into the syncytial columns of the developing wing muscles, and as they lengthen, the muscle bands contracting a little, become suspended in the upper part of the thorax. Meanwhile in the newly formed pupa, the ectodermal cells of the mid-dorsal region of the propodeal segments elongate and grow forwards. Passing underneath the more anterior muscle insertions of the metathoracic integument they extend forwards and penetrate the muscle column. At the anterior end of the muscle columns more distant integu- mental cells likewise communicate with the developing mass of myoblasts, so that we get a condition not unlike what has been observed in the head and leg muscles; the insertion cells from a considerable area all converge upon the great muscle band. The result when the insertion cells contract is the same as what occurs in these other muscles. The two bands are pulled apart into their five constituent columns, and these on differentiating form the longitudinal thoracic muscles of the adult. Contractions of the “‘suspension threads’ is preceded by a longitudinal splitting of them, and each thread is now a unicellular structure (fig. 137). The sarcostyles, as they develop within these minute columns, communicate several with one thread. The threads in the twenty-four hour pupa then begin to contract. The muscles become stretched and at the same time the walls of the pro- podeum and mesothorax become drawn closer together; in this way the arched thorax of the imago is formed. The insertion cells meanwhile have secreted at their exterior, the cuticle of the integument, but they do not undergo complete chitinisation (fig. 137a). On the contrary, their more internal parts remain protoplasmic, and split up into a number of fibrils, each communicating now with a single sarcostyle. In this condition they are seen in the imago (fig. 138). The Structure of the Adult Muscles. From the above description it follows that the adult muscles are of several types. The simplest are the longi- tudinal abdominal muscles, formed by the fusion of succeed- ing myoblasts, in one line. The dilators of the pharynx are more complex and correspond in reality to a number of these longitudinal 427 muscles; they consist of several cell columns, and though in | the adult they are not to be distinguished from the abdominal muscles, yet in their embryonic state the differences are | obvfous. The individual muscles which constitute the leg muscles, antennal muscles, and the muscles of the mouth appendages and of the ovipositor, are similar to the longitudinal _ abdominals in structure; but their simplicity is a secondary __condition—a whole group of them is morphologically the I equivalent of a single pharyngeal dilator. ia The contractile substance of all these muscles has assumed | the same type of appearance, viz., striations in the form of double spirals. In the pharyngeal dilators a certain amount of cytoplasm remains non-contractile ; this contains the nuclei, sometimes as many as 15 in number, and is frequently in the form of a bulging mass on the side of the contractile syncytium (fig. 124). In the other muscles the nuclei are arranged in a row along the middle of the fibre. In their development the fibrillae are first formed; each of these then breaks up into successive ‘‘striations’’ as above described, adjacent striations disposing themselves in the form of a double spiral. The Krause’s membranes are likewise . fibrillar structures; but it is not impossible that adjacent Krause’s membranes unite, though I have never been able to see clear instances of this fusion. It is interesting to note, however, that artificial breaks generally occur right across a fibre along a series of adjacent Krause’s membranes, indi- cating that there is at least some coherence between adjacent fibrillae. In all cases, the outer cell walls of the syncytium remain as the sarcolemma of the muscle. But the most interesting of all the muscles are the great vertical and horizontal thoracic muscles, and nothing like them seems to occur elsewhere among contractile tissues ; they | cells co-operating in different ways to form one highly efficient organ. The original syncytial mass forms what corresponds_. to the sarcoplasm of other muscles, while the contracting fibres (sarcostyles), devoid, as they are, of fibrillae, correspond to the fibrillae of intracellular structures. It is interesting to note that the striations of adjacent sarcostyles are likewise disposed in the form of double spirals in the ‘‘muscle’ as a whole, and it is particularly suggestive to note, that in this case, where the analogy is otherwise so extraordinarily close, no connection exists between adjacent ‘‘Krause’s membranes.”’ Even the sarcolemma of other muscles is represented, and it > serve, indeed, as a remarkable instance of a great number of |, 428 would be difficult to observe, anywhere, a more beautiful instance of a histogenetic convergence—of the development of similar structures from embryologically quite distinct elements. THE INTESTINE AND RELATED STRUCTURES. It will be most convenient to consider these organs under the following headings:—(1) The anatomy and structure of the adult intestine; (2) the anatomy of the larval intestine; (3) the changes which go in the intestine during larval and pupal life, and which convert it into that of the imago. This will be described under several headings, wz.:—(a) The foregut; (6) the midgut; (c) the hindgut. It will then be necessary to consider certain closely related structures, w7z. - —(4) The salivary glands, and (5) the malpighian tubules. (1) The Anatomy and Structure of the Intestine of the Adult. The mouth faces downwards and backwards in the posi- tion in which the head is usually held. This opens into a narrow high buccal cavity continuous above with a dilated pharynx, which opens into the oesophagus, a long very narrow tube, which passes forwards, then backwards through the circumoesophageal nerve ring, and enters the thorax. Here it becomes even narrower, and passing through the thorax and propodeum as a very fine tube, enters the abdomen, where it forms a great dilatation, with fine papery, usually collapsed walls—the crop. The crop occupies only a small anterior part of the abdomen. Behind, it partly envelops and communicates with a very short gizzard, which in turn opens into a small drum- shaped chamber, considerably shorter than the gizzard. Behind this chamber lies the great stomach, occupying about one-third the volume of the abdomen, and between the two is a structure, formed by the slight projection of the chamber into the stomach, which evidently acts as a valve, to prevent any forward move of the contents of the stomach. The stomach is the true midgut, being endodermal in origin. All the structures preceding it constitute the foregut, and are, as will be seen, ectodermal in origin. Behind, the stomach is continuous with the hindgut, also ectodermal in origin. The hindgut 1s composed of two parts, an anterior por- tion, the small intestine, and a terminal portion, the rectum, which opens in the last segment by a small anus (fig. 22). The small intestine does not, however, open into the termina- tion of the stomach; it communicates with that organ by a small aperture situated on its ventral side about one-quarter the length of the stomach from its posterior extremity. The small intestine then passes forwards half-way along the 429 abdomen, then gradually bending backwards passes as a long tube into the rectum. The small intestine is about as wide as the gizzard, but in the region of its junction with the stomach it is considerably dilated. The rectum is a short spacious chamber. Into it pro- ject, from its anterior walls, a single pair of remarkable organs, the rectal glands (figs. 22, 164). Behind, the chamber narrows, and opens by a short duct to the exterior. Two structures must be considered in connection with the intestine: the salivary glands and the malpighian tubes. The salivary gland is in the form of a single rounded clump of cells, lying in the postero-ventral region of the head, in the midline. It opens by a single duct into the buccal cavity. The salivary duct, however, extends far past the salivary glands; it travels upwards, along the posterior portion of the head, and ends blindly, after making a few irregular turns in the anterior portion of the thorax dorsal to the intestine. This distal prolongation must evidently serve as a salivary receptacle, and itself also contains some gland cells. The malyighian tubes are in the form of eight/slender thread-like structures bending in various directions and all opening into the anterior part of the small intestine, close to its opening into the stomach. The minute structure of these parts varies considerably. The buccal cavity is lined internally by chitin which develops numerous thorn-like bristles, all projecting forwards. The pharynx is a great dilated portion of this buccal cavity. Its walls consist of a single layer of cubical epithelial cells, larger behind than in front. The pharynx, as well as all the suc- ceeding portion of the foregut, is lined with a thin chitin sheath (fig. 124). The epithelium of the oesophagus consists in the head- and-‘‘neck’’ region of more flattened cells; in the ventral portion of the oesophagus before it enters the ‘‘neck’’ there is a thickening of this epithelium; and within the thickening les a prominent chitinous bar, terminating in front in the region of the circumoesophageal connectives, and connected behind, by two very short chitin pieces, with the rear of the head. The remainder of the oesophagus is a simple fine hair- like tube which traverses the thorax close above the nerve cord, and enters the crop, within the abdomen. Its walls con- sist of extremely minute delicate spindle-shaped cells, with their long axes arranged longitudinally (fig. 158). Only with the greatest difficulty can nucleus and cytoplasm be observed. Internally it is lined by an extremely delicate chitin sheath. 430 In this portion of the oesophagus muscles are absent; but in the pharynx and the anterior part of the oesophagus these are well developed (fig. 124). There are the great pharyngeal dilator muscles, whose structure and development are described in connection with the general muscular system. They are attached by one end to the front walls of the head, and behind are inserted upon the epithelium of the front walls of the pharynx. Their contraction serves to dilate the pharynx. Attached to the hind wall are a number of other less powerful muscles, which pass upwards and backwards and are inserted upon the epithelium of the chitinous thickening on the lower side of the oesophagus, above described. Besides these muscles there are a number of others, much shorter than these, which are distributed longitudinally and circularly on the intestine. The longitudinal muscles are long spindle-shaped structures forming three or four layers on the front of the pharynx; on the oesophagus they are much more scanty. The circular muscles are arranged on the pharynx in thick bundles, lying outside the longitudinal muscles, each bundle being inserted upon the two lateral walls of the pharynx, which they partly enclose like a crescent. The circular muscles of the oesophagus are thin plates, not arranged in thickened bundles. These bundles are all of the ‘‘striated’’ type. The oesophageal muscles appear to be unicellular. The longi- tudinal muscles of the pharynx are composed of five to six cells, fused into a syncytium. The crop is a curious structure (fig. 159); its walls ne of very flat paper-like cells, in which cytoplasm is very muc reduced. They closely resemble the cells of the wing epi- thelium before this straightens out on emergence, but always retain their nucleus and a very small amount of cytoplasm. Within their walls lie very fine muscles, which also serve to connect them with the crop. ——~ These muscles are of a type which has not, so far as I am aware, been observed hitherto (fig. 125). They contain a small nucleus, which lies as a thickening on the fine hair- like muscle. But the muscle itself is not of the usual compact type, but possesses several branches, which may run in various directions ; each branch represents one, or, at any rate, a very small number of fibrillae, and presents the usual striations. The fibrillae are too limited in number, however, for the striations to be able to dispose themselves in spirals, and for once it is possible to speak of true transverse striation. The gizzard, on the other hand, is a very powerful organ. It measures only 70» in length, 40yu in thickness. In shape 431 it is roughly prismatic, and is triangular in section. Its walls consist of three thickened epithelial plates (fig. 160), each bent slightly inwards along its longitudinal median axis. The three plates are lined internally by a very tough but elastic chitin plate, which envelops them closely. The thickened epithelia do not meet along the three angles of the prism, and the intestinal epithelium here is much thinner. The thick chitin plates are likewise absent here. Two sets of muscles are present. There is an inner circular which connects the two longitudinal edges of each plate. A pull on them will evidently increase the angle at which the plate is bent upon its longitudinal axis. Outside the circular muscle layer lies a pe of longitudinal fibres. All are striated. The gizzard is then seen to be a very ingenious con- trivance. In section its lumen is triradiate. A contraction of the circular muscles causes increased bending of the three chitin plates, and they move towards each other and tend to close up the lumen. The resulting organ ought therefore to prove a very efficient masticatory structure for an insect in which feeding is so reduced as in chalcid wasps. The drum-shaped chamber immediately behind the gizzard is smaller than the latter. Its walls are composed of minute cells; these form a thickening several cells deep which pro- jects into the stomach and forms the valve referred to above. The epithelial cells of the great stomach are large and ‘““‘brick-shaped’’ in appearance, measuring as long as 23. The cytoplasm is granular and vacuolated; the nucleus very large and faintly granulated. A great nucleolus may occa- sionally be present. A distinct cuticular lining is absent. The small intestine (fig. 167) is lined by a single layer of irregular elongated columnar cells, each with a very large nucleus, and occasionally a great nucleolus; in places its epithelium is very irregular, and the chitinous lining formed within it presents these same irregularities. The irregularity evidently allows of greater distension. There is in places a highly developed coat of thick circular muscle fibres; longi- . tudinal fibres are also present, being long and spindle- -shaped and presenting a thickened nuclear swelling at their middle. The fibres are, as usual, striated. The epithelium of the dilated rectum (fig. 168) consists of very large, rather flattened cells, frequently presenting a great nucleolus. The usual chitin lining i is present. The very powerful muscle coating is in the form of a single layer of broad, flattened, contractile plates presenting the usual striations. 432 Projecting into the rectum from its anterior wall is a single pair of rectal glands (figs. 22, 164). Hach is some- what pyramidal in shape, and presents an outer syncytial region, covering an inner medullary region in which cell boundaries are sometimes just visible. The development of the organ, which will be considered later, shows that the outer cortex is merely the fused outer ends of the large cells which form the medulla and which sometimes lose their individuality. Nuclei do not, therefore, occur in the outer zone, but its distinctness, especially in immature stages, is very obvious. The cytoplasm of the cells.is granular. The nuclei are large and granular and have a gigantic nucleolus. At the base of the pyramidal mass is a cavity, which is continued as a narrow duct upwards through the whole organ. The cavity does not appear to open into the body cavity; on the contrary, below it the lining of the rectum undergoes a special chitinisation. © Through this chitin piece passes a large tracheole, which runs through into the rectal gland and there terminates. At the base of the pyramid are a number of curious cells; each is a hair-like filament, with a nuclear thickening either at its base or elsewhere along it, and these filaments stretch from one side right across the basal cavity towards the other (figs. 164, 165). What the function of these extraordinary organs is I am quite unable to say. Lowne, searching for excretory organs in Calliphora, after denying the excretory function of the malpighian tubules, ascribed this function, without any definite reason, to the rectal glands. Hewitt observed them in the house-fly undergoing rhythmical contractions; in that insect they communicate with the body cavity, and he likewise concluded that they were excretory organs. The only fact in favour of this view, however, is their curious position; but the development of such organs in an insect already well pro- vided with excretory tubules, seems to contradict this view. In Vasoma the only communication with the body cavity that they may have is by means of the basal filamentous cells; but what their function is must remain, for the time, un- decided. In most insects two pairs of rectal glands seem to be present. The single salivary gland is composed of a relatively small number of thickened granular cells, with large granular nuclei. A few cells in the centre of the gland have a vacuo- lated or branched appearance, giving the interior of the gland a spongy structure. The gland lies in close contact with the great salivary duct, and the walls of this duct, in the neigh- bourhood of the gland, present the same vacuolated appear- ance as characterises the interior of the gland. The gland 433 secretion evidently enters the duct by percolating through this spongy tissue. In its other regions the duct is lined by flattened epithelial cells, which thicken near its opening. Here a number of muscles are attached, which are inserted at the other ends upon the walls of the head. The duct is lined by a chitin sheath, which presents spiral ridges similar to those seen in tracheae. The malpighian tubes (fig. 150) are eight thread-like cylindrical structures, each with a narrow flattened duct; the duct is formed essentially by the incomplete junction of embryonic cells in irregular pairs. Sometimes adjacent cells do not fuse completely and the canal in consequence extends between these also. The cytoplasm of the cells is very clear and homogeneous but often exhibits very large vacuoles. The nuclei are large and granular and have one or two medium-sized nucleoli. (2) The Intestine of the first Larval Insiar. In the larva there is a small mouth (fig. 1), the openings of the conical buccal cavity, which contains the minute sharp jaws (fig. 47). This leads behind into a long oesophagus (figs. 1, 140) which passes horizontally backwards through the circumoesophageal nerve ring, and opens in the third seg- ment into a great sac-like dilatation, the midgut (figs. 2, 140). The latter is endodermal, the oesophagus ectodermal in origin. The midgut occupies the greater part of the body extending backwards to the third last segment. Here it lies in close connection with the hindgut, but the two do not communicate till the time of defaecation, 7.e., till about one day before pupation. The midgut, indeed, is simply a blindly ending sac (fig. 143), and it is not till the last day of larval life that the unabsorbed food is discharged. From a portion of the oesophagus (foregut) the whole of the intestine of the imago as far back as the beginning of the stomach will develop during metamorphosis. From the great larval midgut the stomach of the imago is formed, while the small intestine and rectum are developed from the hindgut. The endodermal portion of the intestine is therefore much smaller in the adult than in the larval insect, and it is entirely from the ectoderm that the other structures—crop, gizzard, etc.—become developed. It is curious to observe how highly differentiated the intestine of the imago is, in an insect which rarely feeds, while the larva, which does nothing but feed, must content itself with so simple a structure. 7 Opening into the base of the mouth is a median salivary duct, which soon divides into two parts. Each of these smaller 434 _ducts passes backwards and communicates with the two large salivary glands (fig. 142), which reach back to about the fourth body segment. The distal extremity is drawn out into a narrow prolongation of the main salivary gland. Running along the sides of the midgut, and opening into it posteriorly, is a pair of long moniliform tubes, the haepatic caeca. A third such tube, shorter, however, than these, opens into the midgut behind, and passes backwards over the rectum (fig. 140). The two lateral caeca have been observed by various investigators in the larvae of chalcid wasps. The third median caecum has not, so far as I am aware, hitherto been described. But the interpretation which is always placed on them is quite erroneous. They are regarded as malpighian tubes, but have in reality an entirely different function. For this interpretation see, for example, M. Havilarid (1920, 1921). They are digestive glands, and in both structure (as will be seen later) and embryonic development, differ entirely from true malpighian tubes. The latter are ectodermal in origin; the structures that occur in the larva of Vasoma are outgrowths from the endodermal midgut. Furthermore, they have no opening to the exterior during larval life, and empty their secretions into the blindly-ending midgut. The necessity for such large haepatic caeca is clear when we consider the rapidity of feeding during larval life; the salivary glands are quite unable to cope with so great a quantity of food, and well-developed haepatic caeca are but to be expected. The secretion is poured into the posterior part. of the midgut, and the mixing with the engulfed food is the result of a remarkable forward peristalsis which can clearly be observed about once every fifteen to twenty seconds in the feeding larva. A peristaltic wave travels along, from behind, forwards, not only on the walls of the midgut, but also on the body surface itself, and this brings about a per- fect churning of the contents of the great food sac. When now we look for the true malpighian tubes, we fnd that they are absent, and that the larva_is entirely devoid of excretory organs. And unless excretion occurs by the diffusion of ammonia through the integument, no excretory _ activity goes on during active larval life. This fact, however, is less remarkable than it may at first sight appear to be. The larva is exceedingly sluggish, and is feeding upon food which has approximately the chemical composition of its own tissues. Practically the only energy expended is that which is needed in growth, and it is con- ceivable that the excretory products resulting from the neces- sary protein deaminisation accumulate in the blood during the five days of larval life. In the late larva numerous 435 crystals, evidently excretory in nature, begin to accumulate within the fat-body, and these do not disappear from there till the malpighian tubules are already well developed. Their disappearance coincides at that period with the appearance of undoubted urates in large quantity in the intestine. The loss of nitrogen as diffusible ammonia must, of course, not be disregarded, but the fact that actual excretory organs are absent cannot be doubted. It should be observed that this in no way supports the well-known statement of Lowne that the malpighian tubes of insects have a hepatic function. Urinary crystals often occur in immense numbers within the tubules of various insects, and their excretory function is established beyond doubt. Lowne, in searching for excretory organs, attributed this function to the rectal glands. He also regarded the periodic moulting as aiding in nitrogen excretion. The chitinous cuticle, however, which is shed is chemically an amino- polysaccharide, and contains less nitrogen than does protein ; if anything, its formation increases the proportion of nitrogen in the larva. | The histological differentiation of the various regions of ‘of the larval intestine is not very marked in the first instar. The buccal cavity is lined by rather small clear cells, 64 in thickness, each with a large clear nucleus containing a large karyosome but no nucleolus. Internally the buccal cavity is lined by a thick chitinous sheath (fig. 47). On the dorsal side of the buccal cavity are a number of circular muscles—large unicellular spindle-shaped structures inserted by their two ends upon the two lateral walls of the buccal cavity. In the first instar no distinct striations are visible, but in later larval life these differentiate. The oesophagus, which is lined by cuticle, is composed of a single layer of small cubical cells, presenting the usual undifferentiated appearance of the larval cells at this stage, viz., clear cytoplasm, and a vesicular nucleus with a large karyosome. The oesophagus projects slightly into the great midgut, and this serves as a valve to prevent any regurgi- tation of food during forward peristalsis. The oesophageal epithelium, just in front of the great midgut, is several cells . in thickness. The cells are slightly smaller than those found ~ elsewhere in the oesophagus, but are otherwise indistinguish- able from them. The slightly thickened ring which they form is the wmaginal disc of the oesophagus, from which the greater part of the foregut of the imago as far back as the stomach will develop during pupal life. 436 The midgut is lined by what appears to be a very delicate cuticle. The epithelial cells lining it are much larger than those occurring elsewhere in the intestine. The great accumu- lation of food within the midgut soon stretches them (fig. 10), and already at the end of the first instar they are becoming flattened; they measure at this stage about 68 in length (and breadth), lly in thickness. The cell cytoplasm is vacuo- lated and granular. The nucleus is large (17p) and is very heavily granular. At the base of many of these cells there is frequently to be observed a much smaller cell, spindle-shaped, about 17p in length, 4u in height (fig. 10). Each has a large clear nucleus and a distinct karyosome, and represents an. un- differentiated non-functioning cell, which will become active during the defaecation period, and will form the great endo- dermal intestine of the early pupa. The anterior portion of this, as will be described later, will disintegrate, while the hinder will persist as the stomach of the imago. It is, there- fore, possible to speak of these cells when they occur in the posterior region of the intestine as imaginal Bs cells ; the more anterior ones cannot be thus described. TI shall refer to them later as replacing cells. External to the epithelium is a rough network of longi- tudinally and circularly disposed muscle fibres. The rectum (figs. 143, 185) is a prominent ectodermal ingrowth through the anus—a true proctodaeum, but does not yet open into the midgut. It is a rounded tube, lined by chitin, with a columnar, or, in places, cubical epithelium. Surrounding it is a layer of circularly disposed, as yet un- striated, muscle fibres. The epithelial and muscular cells still retain the usual undifferentiated appearance of clear cyto- plasm and large ‘“‘vesicular’’ nulcei. The cells at the anterior end of the proctodaeal invagina- tion fit tightly against the rear of the midgut, and form a layer several cells in thickness (fig. 143). The cells here are slightly smaller than elsewhere and constitute the zmaginal disc of the hindgut, from which the small intestine and rectum of the imago will later develop. The salivary glands. These consist each of a large sac- like structure—the secreting portion, and a duct of medium length, the two ducts uniting before opening into the mouth. In the first instar the common duct is rather flat and strap- like; along its middle passes a prominent canal, lined by a chitinous spiral intima, which is shed and reformed at each moult. Further behind, the duct becomes circular in section, and is composed of very small cells with the usual ‘‘first- instar’ appearance, viz., large clear ‘‘vesicular’’ nucleus, with 437 a big karyosome, and with clear hyaline cytoplasm. The glandular sac consists of about twelve very large, somewhat flattened cells, enclosing a large lumen. The cells are as much as 23» in diameter and have large granular nuclei lly in diameter. The hepatic caeca (fig. 10), which are usually falsely regarded as malpighian tubules, are composed of a number of very large rounded cells, arranged alternately in pairs; their union is such that a considerable space is left by the incomplete fusion of a cell with the one opposite it, while the fusion of cells with those behind them is always complete. The lumen is lined with myriads of minute cilia (figs. 10, 146), whose movement drives the secretion backwards (or forwards, in the third caecum) into the intestine. The indi- vidual cells measure about 17% in diameter and have a remarkable resemblance to the cells of the fat-body. The nuclei are very large and heavily granular, and the cytoplasm faintly granular, and already at this early stage slightly vacuolated. - The hepatic caeca appear to be formed in the embryo as outgrowths from the midgut; this is indicated by the fact that in the first instar the third (posterior) caecum is present as a short, solid, robust projection from the rear of the mid- gut, and that it is only later that it acquires its ciliated lumen. ; (3) The Post-embryomec Development of the .Intestine. The feeding period of the larva (7.e., about the first three days of larval life) is characterized by the completion of differentiation of the cells of the first instar, by a great growth in cell size, and by a corresponding total absence of cell divi- sion, except in the case of those cells which constituted the “Imaginal tissues’? of the larval intestine, viz., (a) the oesophageal imaginal ring, surrounding the posterior part of the foregut; (6b) the small ‘‘replacing cells,’ as I shall designate them here, which lay scattered about at the bases of the large cells of the midgut; and (c) the imaginal disc at the anterior extremity of the rectum. The visible differentiation is not very marked; it con- cerns mostly the intestinal muscle cells which, though already functioning, have not yet adopted a striated appearance ; _ but before the end of the second instar this is always visible. (A) The Metamorphosis of the Foregut. During larval life there is a great increase in the size of the muscle and epithelial cells of the foregut; at each moult | the cuticle is shed and secreted anew. — 438 But shortly after feeding ceases the epithelial cells begin to degenerate. The nuclei are granular and greatly hyper- trophied, and possess a large nucleolus, so characteristic of the degenerating cells of Vasoma. In the defaecating larva the cytoplasm undergoes granular degeneration; or, at other times, it breaks up into larger globules, which, breaking from the cells, float about in the blood and are there engulfed by any leucocytes which happen to be present, or, if left to themselves, dissolve in the blood. These changes are accompanied by an active regeneration of the foregut (fig. 117). During larval life (though | can- not say definitely at which period of it) a proliferation of the cells of the oesophageal imaginal ring has occurred, and these, forsaking their ordinary cubical shape, elongate and become spindle-shaped (fig. 152). Continuing to divide mito- tically they bulge outwards, and at the same time extend forwards, and in the defaecating larva are to be seen actively replacing the disintegrating larval cells. Although I did not observe them penetrating these cells, as in the case of the myoblasts extending over dead muscles, yet it seems probable that they actively absorb the products of disintegration and grow at their expense, so near do they le to the dead larval cells. The oesophageal epithelium is partly regenerated also from another centre, v7z., the integumentary imaginal dises of the first segment; and in the defaecating larva these embryonic cells are to-be seen extending through the mouth inwards, between, or over the dead and disintegrating cells of the larval epithelium, while the proliferating cells of the oesophageal ring extend forwards to meet them (fig. 117). About four hours after defaecation the two have met. Meanwhile there has begun a proliferation of certain myoblast cells, which le during the whole larval life scat- tered about in the head in the neighbourhood of the mouth; these extend backwards as a loose column of very long spindle-shaped cells, drawn out in long thread-like processes at either end (fig. 117). They form the musculature of the anterior part of the oesophagus. Others are to be seen behind the oesophagus; the muscles which they form are differently disposed from those of the anterior side of the oesophagus, and will be considered later. The development of the great pharyngeal dilator muscles is considered in connection with _the development of the general muscular system. During the remainder of larval life the cells, occasionally still dividing, settle down, and growing in size, co-operate to form a single epithelium—that of the adult oesophagus. This development is accompanied by a great bending downwards 439 and backwards of the head, as already described, and the result is a total change in the course taken by the oesophagus. It now passes not directly backwards, but first upwards and forwards actually, and only then begins gradually to bend backwards. Meanwhile the cells of the circumoesophageal imaginal ring have continued to proliferate, and in the fresh pupa form a great cone of cells, attached behind to the anterior end of the foregut, and ending, in front, just behind the brain (fig. 154). The structure is composed of two layers —an inner of long columnar cells, all tightly compressed and arranged radially around a very narrow central lumen. Out- side this is a second layer one or more cells in thickness, the individual cells are much smaller here (fig. 153). From the great inner layer the succeeding portion of the intestine as far back as the gizzard is soon to develop. The smaller outer layer has a much humbler future ; when the cells of the great inner layer have migrated backwards (a process which commences several hours after pupation), the outer layer cells extend round to the lower side of the oesophagus and form a rather thick column there in front of the neck, but not extending as far downwards as the brain. Jt is in connection with this structure that the developing myoblasts of the rear of the oesophagus. now come; these cells, having united end to end during late larval life, now form several rows of cells, inserted behind all upon the sub- oesophageal cell column, and in front at various points on the rear of the oesophagus. Adjacent cell walls now break down, and each row forms a single multinucleated syncytium. During the third day of pupal life these syncytia develop spiral striations and form the post-oesophageal muscles of the -imago. Meanwhile, the sub-oesophageal cell column, upon which the columns of myoblasts are all inserted, begins, in the thirty-six hour pupa, to chitinise internally. Chitinisation continues and the chitin rod fuses with two other very short processes which have grown out from the rear of the head, close to the neck. By this means, the musculature of the rear of the oesophagus obtains a very firm support. Already in the fresh pupa, the myoblasts of the anterior part of the oesophagus have disposed themselves longitudinally or circularly in the position they are to occupy in the imago; several cells usually fuse to form small syncytia, and, under- _ going the usual differentiation, form the striated muscles of the adult oesophagus. It remains only to note that these changes are accom- _ panied by a new secretion of chitinous cuticle within the lumen of the oesophagus, the old having been drawn out _ through the mouth at the pupal moult. The development of 440 the rest of the foregut does not occur till a series of remark- able processes have taken place in the anterior half of the midgut; only then does the foregut extend backwards, and, occupying the place of the anterior half of the true (endo- dermal) midguts of the larva and early pupa, fuses with the posterior half, which remains as the stomach, being all that survives of the old midgut. The midgut will, therefore, most conveniently be considered first. (B) The Metamorphosis of the Midgut and the Development of the Post-oesophayeal part of the Foregut. I have already described the midgut as composed of a single layer of large flattened cells, with smaller cells at their ' bases. As many of these smaller ‘cells do not survive in the imago, I shall refer to them here as replacing cells. Neither larval nor replacing cells, so far as I can observe, itt proliferate during larval life. The Jarval cells grow enormously in size, and, through the pressure exerted upon them by the contents of the midgut, are seen, at the end of the third day, as great flat cells, with smaller replacing cells at their bases. _ But during the third day these replacing cells begin slowly to divide by (mitosis) while the great larval cells remain inactive. But at the end of the fourth day of larval life a great change begins. At about this time the rectal ingrowth at last fuses with the midgut; and this event is marked by the commencement of a series of contractions of the muscles of the intestine which gradually drives the undigested food, which has accumulated here during larval life, to the exterior. This is the defaecation period of the larva, and lasts from one to two hours. But it is apparently under the pressure — exerted by the muscles that a remarkable process.of-.dis- integration of the epithelium of the larval midgut begins. The disappearance of the faecal material allows the cells to return to the cubical conditions in which they existed in the new-born larva. In the cytoplasm of the midgut epithelial cells before defaecation, vacuoles were already becoming numerous; usually, however, it was quite granular and showed obvious signs of degeneration. Not only had the cells grown greatly, but the nuclei had greatly hypertrophied, and were to be seen as long, irregular, faintly granular, chromatin masses, devoid of nucleoli. When the cells contract these long nuclei become bent; and a section presents the curious but false _ appearance of large multinucleated cells. But at defaecation the vacuolation becomes very much more marked (fig. 144); the vacuoles consist perhaps of fatty 44] material and occasionally contain feebly staining grains. They are suspended in a very faintly granular ‘‘spongioplasm.”’ As the pressure exerted by the muscles increases the cells begin to project irregularly into the intestinal lumen; and then a very remarkable thing is to be observed. The spongio- plasm, together at times with the vacuoles, begins to ooze out through the cell membrane, and hangs as one or more large drops, suspended in the intestine from the degenerating cells (fig. 144). The process commences in the anterior part of the midgut, but soon extends right along it, as the faecal con- tents are gradually voided. The products of degeneration are themselves, however, retained in the lumen of the intestine. There they granulate and are seen sometimes as little balls of grains, at other times as a fine dust. Eventually the whole of the cytoplasm’ is cast into the now very contracted lumen of the midgut; and all that remains is the cell membrane containing a very degenerate looking clump of chromatin grains. But these are soon added to the mass of débris which now consists of fine grains, of small clusters of grains, of fragments of nuclei, and of the contracted walls of the dead cells; all forming a dark mass that now occupies the lumen of the intestine. In the larva eight hours after defaecation these changes are complete, and all the old larval epithelium has disappeared, with the exception of a narrow strip of dead cells running along either side of the intestine from one end to the other (fig. 146). The temporary retention of these cells is an extraordinary adaptation for bringing about the destruction of the hepatic caeca; their fate will be described later. It is necessary to return now to the replacing cells. In _ the defaecating larva these cells have begun to proliferate by mitosis, and by the time the larval cells have lost most of their cytoplasm (1.€., about four hours after defaecation), these have formed a completely new epithelium, closely sur- rounding the degenerate larval epithelium. This gives the intestine the false appearance of having a functional two- layered epithelium (fig. 145). But as the larval epithelium disappears more and more, the cells of the new epithelium increase in size, and in the eight-hour pupa alone persist, except for the two thick bands of dead cells on either side of the intestine, close beside the great hepatic caeca. But shortly after this an extraordinary thing is to be observed. The cells of the renovated epithelium, growing in size, begin to push the two longitudinal columns of dead cells into the lumen of the intestine. To each of these columns —the sole remains of the epithelium of the larval midgut— the hepatic caeca, which have now grown 70y in thickness, a | 442 with great granular nuclei 134 in diameter, are connected along their length by means of the fine membranous peri- toneum (fig. 146). And as the growing epithelium forces these remains of the old intestine into the lumen, the hepatic caeca are pulled bodily in with them along the whole.lensth of the intestine. In the larva sixteen hours after defaecation the hepatic caeca are being slowly but surely( engulfed (figs. 147, 148), and six hours later have entirely vanished. To the débris within the alimentary canal is also added the third (posterior) caecum. This becomes drawn into the midgut in a very similar manner; dead larval epithelial cells at its base fail to disintegrate, and the surrounding cells of the new epithelium pushing these cells inwards cause the third caecum to be slowly drawn into the lumen where it disintegrates along with the other disorganized tissues. Even before being absorbed the hepatic caeca show signs of degeneration, small globules of cytoplasm being thrown into their lumen. The function of the renovated epithelium appears to be to absorb this débris (fig. 154), perhaps after it has been digested by the enzymes liberated from the disintegrated hepatic caeca. At any rate, a marked absorption of the débris commences in the fresh pupa. Muscular contractions in this region later drive part of the contents into the posterior portion of the gut, and here the apparently indigestible cell membranes of the old larval epithelium accumulate, and may persist in small quantity till the emergence of the wasp, when they are voided through the anus. But the greater part of the fine granular débris soon disappears. Meanwhile in the late hours of larval life a few cells from the rear of the great conical circumoesophageal imaginal ring have grown in as a short solid mass of cells into the anterior end of the midgut (figs. 153, 154). They push the adjacent intestinal cells along with them and the two co- operate to form a temporary obstruction which prevents the débris within the intestine (especially when the muscles of the anterior portion contract) from entering the foregut. This ‘plug’? does not, however, develop till shortly before pupa- tion, and closure “of the anterior region of the midgut during the period which intervenes between defaecation and this, is brought about by a muscular contraction here, which causes considerable folding of the epithelium, and a consequent closure of the passage. The general nature of the regenerated midgut is seen in fig. 154. The cells of the newly formed epithelium, which have now attained quite a large size, having performed their func- tion, now begin to disintegrate, oe as a second time an Ao TT en ba a Se 443 extensive destruction of the midgut occurs. The process com- mences shortly after pupation, but is quite different from what occurred in the larval midgut. The whole epithelium of the anterior half of the midgut begins to break up into a mass of rough granules. The muscle fibres of the intestine, losing their striations, join in the general process of disintegration, and what was a few hours earlier an actively functioning tissue, is now a loose accumulation of granular débris. This_ time, however, the leucocytes act, and_swarming into the disintegrated mass rapidly absorb it (fig. 153)); after six hours not a trace of the temporary midgut remains. The small conical projection of the foregut takes part in the general destruction, and nothing of the renovated midgut remains except the posterior half, in which no disintegration whatever has occurred. This portion remains with but little change as the stomach of the adult insect. Its structure has been referred to already. But before the anterior half of the midgut has had time to disappear entirely, the cells of the inner layer of the great conical circumoesophageal imaginal ring have sprung into activity; they grow rapidly, moving evidently by amoeboid action, along the pathway afforded by the disintegrating mass, and, extending right through the thorax and anterior abdominal segments, at last reach, in the eight-hour pupa, the .anterior end of the hinder half of the midgut which has survived these violent scenes unchanged. From this newly formed structure the post-oesophageal part of the foregut soon begins to differentiate. In the thoracic and propodeal regions it is formed, and persists, as a very fine, almost capillary, tube, 8u to 10y in diameter (cf. fig. 156). The cells, which are at first irregular and embryonic in appearance, soon elongate, grow spindle- shaped, and dispose themselves longitudinally. They seem to lose part of their cytoplasm later in pupal life, and in the adult insect appear almost devoid of it. But the abdominal portion of the foregut undergoes a much more complex differentiation. In the eight-hours pupa its posterior extremity is seen as a thick-walled, somewhat conical and slightly dilated chamber (fig. 155). This will develop into the crop, the gizzard, and the ‘‘drum-shaped’”’ chamber. Its epithelium is composed of long columnar cells, which gradually merge, in the region of the petiole, into those of the narrow capillary portion. Surrounding the structure is already to be seen a number of cells forming a distinct layer of myoblasts. The lumen does not yet com- municate with that of the stomach, but ends blindly. The hinder part of this lumen is rather constricted and will =. < 444 form the cavity of the gizzard and ‘‘drum-shaped’’ chamber. The more anterior part 1s more widely dilated. Here the crop will develop. The development of the crop is very curious. The epi- thelial cells entirely lose their columnar character; they flatten out more and more, and in the pupa one day old have become highly wrinkled. The flattening continues, and instead of a small conical chamber with very thick walls there is formed a highly distensible collapsed bag with very thin paper-like walls (fig. 156). The cell differentiation closely resembles that observed in the cells of the differ- entiating wing epithelium. The gizzard rapidly differentiates. Already at the end of the first day its lumen has become triradiate; this is brought about by the epithelium arranging itself in the form of three short longitudinal plates; bent along their longi- tudinal midline. The epithelial cells are still embryonic in appearance. The myoblasts have already arranged them- selves in their definite positions. Their future development is exactly the same as occurs in the case of other muscles and need be referred to no more. In the thirty-six hour pupa the three bent epithelial plates are beginning to secrete chitin on their inner walls; and the posterior portion, where chitinisation does not occur, is observed to be marked off as a small rounded chamber, into which a short ‘‘filament’’ projects from the hinder wall (fig. 156). During the next day the chitinisation strengthens, and with the appearance of the muscle striations the gizzard attains its adult proportions. Cell proliferation of the drum-shaped chamber occurs also at this time, and at last a communication between foregut and stomach is established (fig. 157). (C) The Metamorphosis of the Hindgut. The walls of the rectum undergo the same changes during larval life as occur elsewhere in the larva, 7.e., there is a growth in cell size, in the absence of cell division; the muscle fibres during the second instar gradually acquire striation. But about half a day after feeding ceases, the cells of the anterior end of the rectum, which constitute the imaginal disc, become active, and proliferating greatly at last bring about a junction of the cavities of the midgut and hindgut. The actual opening is large and funnel-shaped. Not till this time, there- fore, does the embryonic proctodaeal invagination open into —— 445 the archenteron ; usually, in other insects, this occurs during embryonic life. | This event is quickly followed by muscular contractions in the midgut, and two hours later the whole of the faecal matter, which has accumulated during the three days of active feeding, is voided. The rectal musculature takes part in the process; only a small part of the faecal matter at a time is passed into the rectum, and this, under the pressure of the muscular walls, is rounded off into a little pellet, which is forced slowly along the rectum. ! Meanwhile the epithelial cells have begun to degenerate. The nuclei are large and granular, the karyosomes having scattered their material through the nucleoplasm as this gradually hypertrophied. The cytoplasm then undergoes granular degeneration. In the defaecating larva these granules cluster together in little balls and breaking through the cell membrane float about in the blood stream, where they may become engulfed by phagocytes; or, if these are not present at the time, simply dissolve in the blood plasma. At ’ other times the cytoplasm becomes broken up into a number of larger hyaline globules, like those of the integumental cells. They share the same fate as do the balls of granules. Meanwhile, the cells of the rectal imaginal ring grow backwards as well as forwards, and as the rectal epithelium disintegrates they rapidly replace it. Already in the defae- cating larva the epithelium of the anterior quarter of the rectum is composed entirely of embryonic cells, and these, dividing mitotically, are actively growing backwards, replacing the epithelial cells as these disintegrate more and more. A few hours later the whole larval epithelium has disappeared, - and a loose layer of spindle-shaped embryonic cells has re- placed it. The muscle layer does not disappear till a few | hours after pupation. ! The cells of the renovated epithelium now consolidate their position. In the larva some eight hours before pupa- tion a cuticle is being secreted between the old cuticle and the epithelium, and when the larva moults the old cuticle of the last larval instar is drawn out through the anus. In the fresh pupa myoblast cells, which were present in only small numbers during larval life, having proliferated considerably during the last twenty-four hours, now form a distinct layer outside the rectum, and it is not till several hours later that the old larval muscles begin to disintegrate and. become phagocytised. The renovated arr epithelium now begins to differ- entiate into two regions; the small spacious rectum behind and the small intestine in front. : 446 The cells in the mid-region of the hindgut are, in the early pupa, in a state of rapid proliferation; and this, con- tinuing into the next day, produces a considerable bending of | the anterior region. That portion behind the centre of pro- | liferation is the rectum; the portion anterior to it, the small intestine. The amount of this proliferation seems to vary considerably, so that, while the intestine is sometimes quite bent upon itself, at other times the bending is far less marked. Having peer at its maximum size, the cells of the small intestine begin to differentiate; but the differentiation never becomes very marked, and the epithelium remains as a single layer of elongated loosely arranged cells, on whose surface an equally irregular chitin sheath is secreted. The organ is evidently capable of considerable stretching. Already in the fresh pupa the rectal region of the hind- gut is distinguishable from the small intestine by the ‘‘spindle shape’ of its epithelial cells. The tube is already more dis- tended than the anterior portion, but six hours later attains (its adult proportions. It is not till six to eight hours after pupation that the larval muscles finally disappear by phago- _cytosis, after having undergone globular degeneration. The adult muscles develop in the usual manner. The Rectal Glands. During the last hours of larval life the cells of the anterior region of the rectal portion of the hindgut begin to proliferate and grow in the -form of two small clumps of elongated cells into the cavity of the enlarging rectum (fig. 161). These are the rudiments of the single pair of rectal glands, and have already attained to a considerable size in the fresh pupa. The rectal glands grow considerably in size. The elongated cells dispose themselves in a single layer with their long axes vertical to the surface of the gland; the whole structure has, in the eight-hour pupa, a short cylindrical shape. It is solid except below, where there is a cavity lying loosely in which is a large number of much smaller cells. They are the elongated filamentous cells already described. A cuticle is in process of secretion. The rectal gland lies in close contact with the wall of the rectum from which it has been developed, and there appears to be no communication through it, between the cavity of the rectal gland and the haemocoele. During the rest of the first day the rectal gland elongates considerably, by growth of its cells, not by their proliferation. The small basal cells now dispose themselves in a ring at the base of the gland; in the twenty-one hour pupa some have 447 developed their remarkable filamentous structure; others are in process of dividing. This leaves the cavity, in which they lay, devoid of cells, and at this stage a canal, formed by the incomplete fusion of the bases of the large cells, is developed right along the axis of the gland, and opens below into the large basal chamber. The great elongated cells have mean- while begun to fuse on their outer surface, and from now on the rectal gland may be divided into an outer syncytial cortical portion, surrounding an inner medullary region in | which cell walls are still well marked. The cortical portion is formed by the fusion of the outer ends of the elongated cells; the medulla is the region which becomes differentiated by the failure of the cells to fuse here. In the thirty-six hour pupa the glands have grown to their maximum size. Cortex and medulla—are—very~ clearly seen (fig. 163). The central canal is prominent; the basal cells have differentiated into their adult filamentous condition. The cells of the rectum at the base of the two glands have proliferated a little to form two thickened pads; a trachea soon penetrates the rectal wall here. During the third day, the thickened pad begins to chitinise. Even in the fifty-six hour pupa the medullary region is distinguishable, but from now on the syncytium becomes more and more developed, and in the mature organ no distinction can usually be drawn between medulla and cortex. In the advanced pupa the large elongated cells begin to develop nucleoli of extraordinary dimensions (fig. 166). Some- times they occupy nearly the whole nuclear space. The Malmghian Tubes. | In the adult larva shortly after the cessation of feeding, the malpighian tubes become visible as small papillae on the anterior end of the hindgut (fig. 160). Here the cells of the imaginal ring have begun to develop, and it is not till this time that definite malpighian tubes can be observed. The papillae begin to grow with extraordinary rapidity, and by the time the larva defeacates (1.e., twelve hours later) they are visible as long thin threads (fig. 151), sometimes reaching almost to the dorsal body surface. From the first they have a narrow lumen. The walls are one cell in thick- ness; the cells are roughly cubical and fit loosely together. The tubes measure about 6u in diameter. The tubes continue to grow in length, but not in thick- ness. In the fresh pupa the cells, which had previously the usual embryonic features—large karyosome, ‘‘vesicular’’ nuclei, hyaline cytoplasm—now begin to show signs of dif- ferentiation. The nuclei become granular, and the cytoplasm 448 becomes uniformly slightly vacuolated. Nucleoli are not yet present. The tubes from now on grow mainly in thickness, and in the thirty-six hour pupa have attained their adult propor- tions. With the exception of an absence of nucleoli the cells are, to all visible appearances, in their adult condition. The appearance of the malpighian tubes is followed shortly by the deposit of excretory material within the stomach (midgut). During larval life, as I have pointed out above, no removal of excretory substances appears to occur; towards the end of larval life, when the processes of growth necessitate a considerable deaminisation of the proteins of the disintegrating tissues, and perhaps of protein reserves within the fat-body, crystals, which are regarded as urates, accumulate in the fat-body and nucleoli of various tissue cells. On the other hand, a microscopic examination of the contents of the midgut of the larva shows no trace of these. But after the first day of pupal life small crystals begin to appear in the stomach; in the thirty-six hour pupa they increase in number and size; and from now on the stomach becomes a depositing place for the excreted urates and the undigested hulks of the old larval epithelial midgut cells. In many instances (¢.g., the silkworm) the urates are to be observed within the malpighian tubes as minute crystals. In Nasonia, however, they do not crystallize out till reaching the stomach. Here some of the crystals actually are far wider than the lumina of the tubules, and have grown in size within the stomach. At the time these crystals begin to appear in the intestine those of the fat-body and nucleoli disappear, and though the crystals in the two places have no resemblance to one another, yet it is probable that the two events are closely related. Pérez (1920) observed that the “‘pseudonuclei’’ of the large storage granules (“‘albuminoid grains’’) disappeared when the urates began to accumulate in the rectum of metamorphosing insects; and came to the same conclusion as that expressed above, basing his view on the experiments. of Marchal, who was able to convert these ‘‘pseudonuclei’’ into crystals by treatment with acid. Finally, when the wasp hatches, these excretory crystals and any other contents of the stomach are thrown out. Crystals similar to these form the creamy or pink material excreted by insects shortly after emergence. They are especi- ally well seen in the silkworm, where they can be gathered in considerable quantities. They give the murexide test for uric acid; a faint ammonia reaction can also be obtained with Nessler’s solution. : | 449 | The Salivary Glands. The main changes undergone by the salivary glands during larval life are a great growth in the size of the con- stituent cells. In the adult larva they are as much as 57 in length, 284 in breadth; they are highly vacuolated and have gigantic granular nuclei 30u long, 17» broad, and usually contain several small nucleoli. The duct cells also grow largely in size; their spiral intima is shed and reformed at each larval moult. While the glands do not disappear till early in the pupal _ period, the median duct is actively disintegrating already in the defaecating larva. The larval cells have met the same fate as those of the oesophagus, 7.e., they have degenerated and the products of degeneration have been cast, in part, at any rate, into the blood stream. Renovation of the median duct quickly ensues (fig. 117); embryonic cells growing in- wards and downwards from the regenerating epithelium of the mouth and pharynx pass among the disintegrating cells, nourishing themselves perhaps; in part, at their expense. ~The cells, however, do not grow back along the duct beyond its point of bifurcation ; forsaking the old larval salivary duct here (the larval ducts at this point do not appear to be dead yet) they grow as a slender, hollow column up the back of the head and terminate in the neck. From the duct at a point about one-quarter its length from the mouth, the salivary gland of the imago develops in the second day of pupal life. I have not observed the process, ebut it , seems unlikely that the gland should be formed in any other way than by a thickening of the duct. Meanwhile, the remainder of the larval salivary glands disappear. In the larva shortly before pupation the greatly hypertrophied cells are to be observed undergoing obvious degeneration. Numerous minute globules are to be seen oozing out from the gland cells (fig. 149) into the cavity of the gland, in the same manner as I have described above in the hepatic caeca. The cytoplasm is even more highly vacuolated than usual. But about six hours later (four-hour _ pupa) the cells have entered into a state of granular dis- _ integration. Parts of the cells are in a condition of fine débris; other parts seem to have till now maintained their structure. The whole organ is very fragile, and I have observed a case in which the tracheae of the forewings, grow- ing downwards from the main trunks, have torn off a portion of the disintegrating tissue and carried it along with them (fig. 88). Lying within the e disintegrating salivary glands are great bers ytes,” “actively engaged 1 in clearing away the _ 450 débris (fig. 88). Indeed, it is difficult to state how much _of the disintegrated tissue is removed in this manner, and how much in the more direct way of solution in the blood stream. Of the occurrence of phagocytosis of the gland cells, how- ever, there can be no doubt whatever. Indeed, the salivary glands, in their degeneration, offer as clear an example of phagocytosis as it is possible to wish for. But their death, degeneration, and even partial disintegration previous to phagocytosis are equally clear. The bifurcated portion of the salivary ducts disintegrates at about the same time. The leucocytes, having removed the débris from the glands, now move forwards and absorb the ducts also, and in the pupa six hours old no trace. of the larval glands is any longer to be recognized. The metamorphosis of the insect intestine has been the subject of a number of distinct investigations, to which I can refer but briefly here. Weismann, Kowalevsky, Lowne, and more recently Pérez (1910), have carefully examined the process in Calliphora, and it seems to differ but little from that of Vasoma, so far as essential characters are concerned. Deegener has investigated the metamorphosis of the intestine in the Coleoptera Hydrophilus (1910), Cybister (1904), and in Malacosoma (1908); while Rengel has made observations on Tenebrio molitor, and several water-beetles. The metamorphosis of the intestine of the silkworm has been investigated by Verson (1898, 1905); Poyarkoff (1910) examined that of a Chrysomelid beetle Galeruca; and Russ (1908) studied it in the Trichoptera. The observations of these workers differ considerably, and while differences in the material dealt with may account in part for the discrepancies, misrepresentations must not be forgotten. Thus, while the formation of a replacing epithelium in the midgut, confined to the pupal period, and similar to that occurring in Wasoma, is fairly frequent, it appears to be absent in some forms. For example, Deegener could not observe it in Malacosoma; in the Trichoptera Russ failed to observe it, and regarded a constricted part of the imaginal midgut as functioning in its place. Verson was not able to ~ see it in the silkworm; since its function is to absorb the products of degeneration of the larval midgut, its absence in the silkworm may be correlated with the voiding, as observed by Verson, of these degeneration products through the anus, shortly before pupation. If the observations of Verson are correct, the process offers a curious type of inefficiency—the waste of certain useful storage materials—which does not occur in Nasoma. In 451 Cybister Deegener describes a second temporary epithelium, found late in larval life, and inserted between the old larval and temporary pupal epithelia. It should be noted that the temporary pupal epithelium is a very transient structure, and that its absence in some insects is only apparent. In Galeruca Poyarkoff described a very interesting rejuvenation in the cells of the fore- and hindguts, similar to that occurring in the integument. In the silkworm, according to Verson, and also probably in the Coleoptera, there is a cell proliferation in the epithelium of the fore- and hindguts previous to each larval moult. This is evidently comparable with the proliferation of the fat cells of Galeruca as observed by Poyarkoff. Its significance will be explained in the second portion of this paper. The malpighian tubes are of special interest. In Vasoma, ais and_evidently in many other chalcid wasps, they are absent in the larva. In Calliphora Lowne believed them to undergo phagocytic destruction ; but more recently Pérez has observed them to undergo during pupation a remarkable process of dedifferentiation, followed later by redifferentiation into _ imaginal organs, In Galeruca, however, there is.a Bae: of Seen a to form the aaaeinal organs. THE DUCTLESS GLANDS. Under this heading three structures will be considered :— (a) The oenocytes; (b) a pair of lateral intestinal glands, occurring only in the larva, and which have not, I believe, hitherto been observed; and (c) a pair of dorsal abdominal glands, functional only in the adult insect, and also, so far as I am aware, hitherto unrecorded. The Oenocytes. The term oenocyte was first applied by Wielowiejsky in 1886 to certain very large cells scattered about among the cells of the fat-body of Corethra. Tichomiroff had already noticed then in 1882 in the silkworm; he observed their proximity to the tracheae and regarded them as of ectodermal origin. Wheeler in 1892 found them to delaminate from the ectoderm; Weissenberg in 1907, studying them in a chalcid wasp Torymus, came to a similar conclusion. Finally, Nelson (1915), examining them in the embryo of the honey bee, saw them invaginating in close relation with the stigmatic trunks from the lateral ectoderm. Berlese has described them in the hymenopteran Tapinoma as a pair of small masses of cells in the fifth to the eleventh segments. i § 452 Their segmental nature, together with their peculiar mode of development, strongly support the view of Lowne (1890) that they are homologous with the néphridia of annulata: Their function is not definitely known; Berlese regarded them as excretory organs. Glaser, in 1912, extracted an oxidising enzyme from them. They appear to be scattered, as a rule, fairly uniformly amongst the cells of the fat-body, and this suggests that they are in some way related function- ally to this structure. Perhaps their secretion contains some enzymes which drive the storage substances of the fat cells into solution, when the organism needs them. Their behaviour during development seems to vary with different insects. In Calliphora, Lowne (1890) observed their histolysis during the early pupal period. Pérez (1910) observed their phagocytosis and described the oenocytes of the adult fly as arising from certain smaller imaginal oenocytes, present in the body cavity. In Galeruca, Poyarkoff (1910) described certain larval oenocytes as undergoing phagocytic destruction at the end of larval life; others bud off numerous daughter cells, which become the oenocytes of the adult insect; the remaining por- tion of such a larval oenocyte becomes, after budding, the victim of the phagocytic activity of the fat cells and leucocytes. In the ant Formica rufa, Pérez (1902) described a some- what similar budding at the end of larval life. But in Call- phora this does not occur. In the honey bee, according to the observations of Nelson (1915), no cell division takes place in the oenocytes, once they have left the ectoderm from which they were formed. Similarly in the chalcid wasp Torymus, Weissenberg (1907) observed phagocytosis of the larval oenocytes at the end of larval life, while the cells of the adult wasp were produced from certain ‘‘imaginal oenocytes” lying within the body cavity. When the mature larva of Wasoma is examined the oenocytes are seen as about eight to twelve large cells in each segment from the third to the twelfth, lying on either side of the intestine, and singly distributed, fairly evenly, through the fat-body. They are the oenocytes which have _ functioned during larval life, and are present already in the newly hatched larva. They are not unlike the cells of the fat-body in appearance at first, but as the latter accumulate storage products the resemblance soon disappears. Towards the end of the first instar the cells have grown a little; they are apparently spherical and measure 12 to 13y in diameter. 453 The cytoplasm is fairly clear, though with a very faint indica- tion of granulation; the outermost ee are faintly vacuo- lated. The nucleus is large, measuring 54 to 6p in diameter ; its chromatic contents are fairly evenly scattered and there is one large central karyosome. During larval life the oenocytes grow considerably in size, having in the mature larva a diameter of about 45u (sometimes as much as 55u). The nucleus grows in propor- tion ; its diameter is about 25u. There is no evidence, there- fore, of any marked difference in the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio in the young and old larvae, so far, at any rate, as the actual volumes of the two materials are concerned. Whether there has been an increase in the quantity of chromatic material is more difficult to observe; there seems, however, to be no evidence that such has occurred; the great karyosome has disappeared and scattered its contents throughout the . enlarged nuclear space; in its place, however, are to be seen one or a few prominent nucleoli often containing crystals; sometimes as many as twenty smaller ones are present instead. The cytoplasm is generally faintly granular, and usually heavily vacuolated in its outer regions (fig. 76). Generally the oenocytes are spherical, but often they become partly indented by other organs—tracheae or muscles—against which they have been pressed as they gradually grew in size. In the late larva and in the earliest hours of the pupa these cells degenerate and finally disappear, and all stages of degeneration may be observed during this period. Often in the mature larva the oenocytes may show a division of the cytoplasm into an inner heavily granular and an outer less granular zone, which is to be looked upon, apparently, as the beginning of disorganization. But it is not till the time of pupation that actual disintegration occurs. Usually the surrounding fat cells prevent the approach of leucocytes, and the oenocytes disintegrate spontaneously , large rents appear in the cytoplasm, and these develop into great holes; and at other times the’ whole cytoplasm degenerates into a fine powder, which is cast into the blood tfips.) 1765" 177). But when the surrounding fat cells are not so densely packed as to prevent the leucocytes from taking part in the process, the latter appear (fig. 178), and, before chemical disintegration has had time to occur, they overwhelm the cells and, eating large pieces out of their substance, eventu- ally ue them. So far as I could observe, the larval oenocytes do not persist beyond the early hours of the pupal stage. Meanwhile, the oenocytes of the adult wasp have been developing. They are represented, in the defaecating larva, 454 by small groups of closely packed, rather large cells (fig. 92) ; they still lie quite close to the integument, and though they occur elsewhere, are best seen at the posterior end of the larva. They do not occur in the head. In the larva of the first instar they can be seen (fig. 175) as a small cluster of rounded cells, which have just grown down into the body cavity from the ectoderm of the integu- ment. The cells measure about 104 in diameter, the nuclei 5hu. They have a large karyosome, but the chromatin is not markedly scattered through the nucleus. During larval life they grow downwards and increase in size, attaining in the defaecating larva a diameter of 15n, while the nuclear diameter has increased to 8u; a small (plastin) nucleolus has begun to appear. The cytoplasm is homogeneous. I could not observe any increase in the wwmber of the oenocytes, however. But as the larval oenocytes gradually disappear these | imaginal oenocytes replace them; they grow quickly in size, and leaving the sites of formation migrate, by amoeboid movement apparently, into the fat-body, among whose cells they scatter themselves. They do not grow as large as those of the larva (fig. 179), seldom exceeding 2ly in diameter, with a nucleus of 94. The latter may be granular and may show several small karyosomes. Occasionally in the four-day pupa they may actually contain a gigantic nucleolus, contain- ing minute crystals; whether this is an indication of degenera- tion I cannot say. It is important to note that the oenocytes are more prominent in the larva than in the adult insect. This agrees well with the view above expressed that their function is to break down the storage products of the fat cells, as the organism needs them, feeding being ever so much more active during larval life. The Lateral Intestinal Glands. On either side of the intestine, just below the paired hepatic caeca, are to be seen, in ale mature larva, two organs, whose existence has not, so far as I am aware, hitherto - been observed in insects. The organs are in the form each of a long chain of very large, elongated cells about 60u in length, and_ presenting a weakly fibrous cytoplasm. -Within this delicate cytoplasm is a great heavily granular mass, oval in shape, and about 55u in length. It seems impossible that it should be anything but a greatly hypertrophied nucleus (fig. 169). A nucleolus may be present. In the larva of the first instar this organ-is_ indistinctly seen as a number of faintly fibrous cells just below the hepatic 455 eaeca; but as the larva grows they increase in size, and over- lapping as they grow, eventually form an elongated, well- defined organ on either side of the intestine. In the larva eight hours after defaecation a general dis- integration of these cells begins. In places the cytoplasm and nucleus may degenerate into a fine powder and be cast into the blood. In other places the chromatin of the great nucleus clumps together in numerous small balls (fig. 170), and the cell cytoplasm, with these degenerate chromatic globules scat- tered through it, floats for a time in the semi-fluid contents of the abdomen, and finally, sometimes by the intervention of leucocytes, at other times by the chemical action of the blood, disintegrates. At other times the apparently normal cells may be observed, as late as twelve, or even sixteen hours after defaecation, to become the prey of the leucocytes; numbers of these have penetrated along a channel where the hepatic caeca have prevented the fat-body from,encroaching too much upon the intestine, and here they fall upon the great hyper- trophied cells, and a few hours later nothing but groups of leucocytes, and a little débris, remains to indicate the place where these gland cells have once been (fig. 147, 1). Just what these organs are | am unable to say. Their structure is similar to that usually seen in gland cells; the absence of any duct communicating in any way with the intestine or any other organ, indicates that they are structures analogous with the various internally secreting glands so well known in vertebrates. | The Dorsal Abdominal Glands. These glands are to be observed in their mature condition only in the imago; it is not impossible that they have the same function here as the lateral intestinal glands have in the larva. In the early larva they are to be observed as a single flat band of small closely packed cells, lying upon the mid- dorsal region of the intestine in the hinder part of the abdomen (fig. 173). They show a clear cytoplasm and are undoubtedly in an embryonic condition. But during larval life they grow considerably, and separating from one another form a pair of long chains on either side of the heart, One of these is shown in fig. 213. In the defaecating larva they are quite large, measuring 20u in diameter. They are approximately spherical; their nucleus is branched, and their cytoplasm very vacuolated; during the remainder of larval life they grow a little in size, and are not unlike the degenerate fat cells of the late pupa in appearance (fig. 172). Nevertheless, they are in no way to be regarded as embryonic fat cells. 456 In the last day of larval life they proliferate; amitotically ) it seems, and in the larva sixteen hours after defaecation may extend over a considerable region of the dorsal part of the abdomen. Usually, however, they are confined to two chains, several cells in breadth, on either side of the heart. in this condition the cells remain during the early pupal period. Gradually their cytoplasm becomes more homo- geneous, and in the pupa shortly before emergence they may be observed as two irregular chains of unconnected groups of cells, running along the mid-dorsal portion of the abdomen. During pupal life the large cells as they occurred at the end of larval life seem to have undergone a process of incomplete fission, so that one now finds, not chains composed of indi- vidual cells, but chains of small growps of disc-shaped cells, arranged behind one another in little groups representing the cells from which they have been produced.(fig. 171). Within their clear, heavily eosinophilous cytoplasm lie numerous heavily chromatic granules which usually hide the _nucleus. I have observed these glands in the free-living wasp, “ nine days old, and there can be no doubt that they persist — throughout life. It seems impossible to regard them as anything but internally secreting glands. Weismann observed certain large cells in close connection with the heart in Diptera, and spoke of them as the ‘“‘cell chaplet.’”’ Lowne (1890) observed the same cells, and though he found them in the adult insect, he regarded them nevertheless as young fat cells. I do not know whether they are identical with the structures above referred to; these have, however, a remarkable resemblance in the immature state to fat cells. It is necessary also to point out that they do not constitute the pericardial septum, this structure being absent in the adult Vasoma. THE FAT-BODY. It is to the great development of the fat-body, together with the disintegration of most of the larval structures, that the pupa of the insect owes its semi-fluid consistency, and the apparent lack of organization that a superficial examination first reveals. In the newly hatched larva the fat-body is in the form of a number of large rounded cells, with very faintly granulated protoplasm and a large heavily granular nucleus, lying loose within the haemocoele. A single cell is usually large enough to occupy the greater part of the distance between the intes- tine and the body wall, but sometimes the cells lie ‘‘two deep.’’ Great gaps separate adjacent cells, and through these the blood 457 circulates. The fat-body is confined almost entirely to the thoracic and abdominal segments. Shortly after the feeding has commenced, the cells of the fat-body begin to accumulate within the cytoplasm globules of fat (fig. 10), and at the end of the first larval instar a number of these, often quite large, are present, and the cell has increased considerably in size, measuring now about 25u in diameter. In almost all the fat cells examined at this stage a great space was observed around the nucleus; this is probably an artefact. During larval life a great growth takes place in the size of these cells, till at the end they may be as large as 92 in diameter. This generally results in a partial crushing together of cells; but the increase in size of the haemocoele has been so great, that in places, even now, they lie loose within it (fig. 3). But after defaecation, when the space occupied by the intestine is so greatly diminished, the cells again separate from one another. In the second larval instar the accumulation of a second type of reserve substance becomes manifest within the fat cells as a heavily staining, apparently structureless, mass around the nucleus. But a little later this mass breaks up into numerous minute granules, which move partly outwards, but are most concentrated in the more central part of the cell. Other granules are formed in the more peripheral regions, and these are much larger, often irregular in shape, being sometimes even angular, and stain heavily with haematoxylin. The fat cells have grown greatly in size, and accumulate “mostly just below the cell membrane. All these storage sub- stances, gathered up from the surrounding blood, le sus- pended within the delicate, often exceedingly delicate, cyto- plasmic meshwork of the fat cell. In the larva some hours after defaecation has com- menced, when the imaginal discs of the integument have begun to grow, at the same time considerably constricting the body volume, the pressure exerted upon the fat cells as they float loosely in the blood forces numbers of these cells into the cavities of the outgrowing appendages—wings, legs, antennae—while the cavity of the head, which in the feeding larva was not well provided with fat cells, now becomes crowded with these, as the contracting abdomen presses its contents forwards (cf. fig. 154). As the abdomen contracts more and more during its transformation into the adult abdomen, the fat cells which remain within it become very tightly packed together, and it is only with the greatest difficulty that cell boundaries can 458 be detected. There is no evidence, however, that any rupture of the cell walls ever takes place. Between these fat cells lie the larval tracheoles, and the chemical disintegration rather than phagocytosis of these, in places which are usually quite inaccessible to the phagocytes, is readily understood. The fat cells anterior to and above the brain are in the form of a single layer of cells; during pupal life they are often to be observed showing rhythmic movements, due, un- doubtedly, to the contractions of the heart. The fat cells in the postero-ventral part of the head cavity are much more numerous; as in the thorax (alitrunk) they are loosely dis- posed and cell walls are always clearly visible. From the late larva till the time of death of the insect the fat-body undergoes a gradual degeneration and absorption, and, although it is quite probable that the fat-body stores | up reserve products as the imago feeds, yet at no time is there to be observed in Vasoma a formation of new fat cells; | | | : | the same individual fat cells which have persisted in the senescent imago occurred already in the first larval instar. It is this gradual degeneration that I shall here describe. In the larva at about the time of defaecation many of the larger grains of storage material within the fat-body begin to develop very minute crystals within them, and sometimes quite large numbers of these may be present, all within a single grain (fig. 92). In the small, more centrally situated, and eosinophilous grains these crystals are not to be seen, but frequently contain small chromatic granules, probably the | pseudonuclei of Berlese. But these crystals do not, as a | rule, persist long within the grain; already in larvae several hours after defaecation they are no longer to be seen. Even : the chromatic granulations of the small grains seem to dis- appear in the early pupa. Sometimes, however, crystals are visible as late as several hours after pupation. | The nuclei of the fat cells assume curious appearances towards the end of larval life. The heavily granulated structure and general compactness of the nucleus is lost, and it may become finely granular and slightly branched, while at other times it elongates greatly and stretches as a great dumb-bell-shaped band almost from one side to the other of the fat cell (fig. 92). At no time have I observed nuclear these cells as they gradually liberate their storage substances and then die, the processes which are to be observed micro- scopically are easily described. The fat globules and storage grains begin to decrease in number, at first slowly, then | | division. However complex may be the changes going on within rapidly. In the head of the three-day pupa the fat cells 459 have greatly diminished in size; they still contain a few grains and fat globules (fig. 96), but while in the adult larval fat cells these reserve products give the cells their charac- teristic appearance, the cytoplasm merely acting as a supporting tissue for them, in the late pupal period these conditions are reversed. The faintly granular cytoplasm now predominates, and only scattered grains and fat globules remain. The fat cells, however, now no longer resemble those of the first instar before the reserve materials accumulated. They float as irregular shapeless masses within the cavity of the head, and although a few survive the pupal period, most have degener- ated before then; their reserve substances have all passed back into the blood from which they originally came, and the brain and the great eyes have doubtless grown at their expense. These degenerate shapeless cells are finally, in the four- \ day pupa, removed si the euapeyies Sf > not before this degeneration, and oe. a few fat ate in rie ventral portion of the thorax persist, even throughout imaginal life, yet the greater number disappear entirely during the fourth day of pupal life; at the expense of their reserve substances the great wing-moving musculatures have developed. In the newly formed pupa the thoracic region contains numerous fat cells (fig. 154), but as the longitudinal muscles grow they begin to push these aside. Those cells which have been so unfortunate as to become entangled amongst the growing muscles become stretched into elongated masses, very well seen in the thirty-six hour pupa; the others retain their usual shape. But the result is always the same; the cells gradually give up their reserve products (fig. 98), and like the fat cells of the head, remain as irregular hulks, whether compact or branched, or greatly elongated and compressed between the thoracic muscles. Here in the fourth-day pupa they are fallen upon by the leucocytes and soon are no longer / seen. Similar degeneration may be observed in those fat cells which were forced into the cavities of the appendages. In the abdomen the degeneration during pupal life is much less complete; indeed, although occasional leucocytes may be observed lying amongst the cells of the fat-body as late as the fourth-day pupa, yet these seem to have no effect upon the fat cells. The latter remain practically at a constant size; the fat globules which they contain may diminish in number, but do not disappear. The grains, however, dis- appear to a large degree; the large grains are far less a 460 numerous, and the smaller eosinophilous grains are almost totally absent. Even after emerging from the pupa, the degeneration of abdominal fat cells continues, and it is undoubtedly at the expense of the fat-body that the ovaries of the female grow so greatly. Even after nine days, however, cells of the fat- body are still present in the abdomen, though considerably less numerous. I have not observed their disappearance, but it is unlikely to be different from what occurs in other places during pupal life. Indeed, as far as the fat-body is con- cerned, it is clear that the retrogressive development does — not cease at the time of emergence. It continues apparently — right throughout pupal and imaginai life. At times I have observed the large granular degeneration masses cast out by the larval integumental cells, lying embedded within individual fat cells (fig. 91, x); it seems, then, that the fat cells, in spite of their inert appearance, must possess a certain capacity for phagocytosis. The behaviour of the fat-body does not appear to be identical in all insects. Berlese (1901) observed multiplica- tion of the cells of the fat-body in the silkworm, as well as in certain Coleoptera. Poyarkoff (1910) observed it in Galeruca. In Calliphora, on the other hand, it does not appear to occur. Poyarkoff (1910) has described phagocytic activity of the fat cells of Galeruca; but it does not seem to have been observed elsewhere. . On the other hand, he observed also a phagocytosis of individual cells of the fat-body, which Pérez observed also in the ants (1902), and in Calliphora (1910). Kowalevsky (1885), on the other hand, described phagocytic histolysis of the fat-body in- Musca vomitaria. In living material he observed the leucocytes crawling over the fat cells, penetrating into their interior, and eventually destroy- ing the whole cell. It may be that this takes place under the influence of the egg albumen in which Kowalevsky placed the tissues; but no further evidence has accumulated to show that the phagocytosis occurs normally on an extensive scale, except certain observations by Lowne (1890). ‘This investigator described the leucocytes as entering certain fat cells, and then, having proliferated rapidly around the nucleus, as migrating outwards; the peripheral ones are much smaller than the more central ones, which are frequently multinucleate. The leuco- — cytes then leave the fat cell, which has lost, in the meantime, its cell membrane, and enter the blood stream. -He even considers the view that the leucocytes have been formed within the nucleus of the fat cell. Pérez could not confirm the observations of Lowne and of Kowalevsky, and both Weis- mann and Ganin, working with similar material, observed 461 that the fat-body disappeared only very slowly, and that many of the fat cells persisted even in the imago. In Vasoma there is a total absence of phagocytic destruc- tion of the food-laden fat cells. Several investigators have\ described a development in Calliphora of new fat cells for the imago. Weismann (1864) was the first to notice it; Berlese (1899-1901) examined the process more closely, and concluded that the imaginal fat cells were developed by the differentiation of the ‘‘spheres of granules.’’ This conclusion is the more remarkable when ' it is remembered that these bodies were regarded by Berlese not as gorged leucocytes, but as disintegration products of larval cells. Henneguy (1904) adopted this view, but regarded the “‘spheres of granules’’ as leucocytic in nature. According to Supino (1900), on the other hand, the fat cells arise from certain mesenchyme cells, and Pérez (1910), in support of this view, figures a number of embryonic imaginal fat cells. _ The observation that a new development of fat cells, whatever the nature of the process, does occur, seems to be well established. In Wasonia, however, I could observe no indication whatever that this took place. It is perhaps useful to point out that the cells of the dorsal abdominal glands above described show a remarkable resemblance to young fat cells, but never develop into these. The Function of the Fat-body. Although the fat-body is a highly characteristic tissue and occupies so large a portion of the insect, yet its function has been rarely investigated, and is but little understood. It is beyond the scope of this paper to examine this question except in so far as it has a bearing on metamorphosis. It seems probable that the fat-body of WVasonza exhibits a limited phagocytic activity; Poyarkoff has seen it in Galeruca, and in Nasoma it appears also to be present. Berlese regarded the fat cells as intimately concerned with nutrition; food passed through the walls of the intes- tine, and was absorbed in an apparently solid state into the fat cells. Migrating inwards it came into the neighbourhood of the nucleus. Then it migrated outwards again, and was peptonised during its progress within the cell. The food was seen in the form of the large and small grains which are so prominent within the fat cells; the pseudonuclei, Berlese regarded, without any evidence whatever, as the enzyme, which brought about this hydrolysis. In 1889 P. Marchal observed that treatment of the fat cells with acids would cause the appearance of uric acid 462 crystals within them, and he regarded the fat-body as an excretory organ. In 1908 K. Samson observed that in the moth Hetero- genea the fat cells stored up vast quantities of urates during metamorphosis. The fact seems, then, to be fairly well estab- lished that the fat-body is in some way concerned with ex- cretion ; but whether it is a depositing place for urates, found elsewhere in the body, or whether the urates within it are the result of its own deaminising activity, these observations do not allow one to decide. In Nasoma crystals are present during late larval life, and a considerable portion of the pupal period, and they dis- appear as the urate crystals begin to accumulate within the intestine. Similar crystals are often seen in the nucleoli of degenerating larval cells, and it is possible that their presence within the fat cells is only secondary, their seat of origin being within the active tissue cells. In the larva of Nasoma, as already pointed out, excretory organs are absent, and unless nitrogen is liberated as ammonia, no removal of excretory products takes place. “Recently (1920) Pérez has shown that during meta- morphosis there is no evacuation of urates by the malpighian tubes until towards the end of pupal life. Then there is a sudden accumulation of urates within the intestine (just as occurs in Wasonza), and this coincides with a disappearance of the pseudonuclei from the fat-body. He regards the fat- body, therefore, as an “accumulating kidney.’’ These various investigations seem to show that the fat- body may remove urates from the blood during the meta- morphosis, and should be especially useful in such an insect as Nasonia, where the removal of nitrogen during larval life does not seem to occur. The fat-body has besides another great function—that of storing reserve materials. These are mainly in the form of fat globules and of the numerous grains which are so char- acteristic of the tissue. The latter are usually regarded, though without any direct chemical evidence, as protein in nature. It is this capacity of storing food materials that is so important in insect metabolism, and it is largely this that has enabled the insect metamorphosis to be evolved. THE GONADS. The Male Organs. The testes are present in the earliest larva as a pair of large pyriform structures, situated on either side of the 463 rectum. The narrow end of each is attached by a thin stalk, which is hollow, to the ventral part of the ninth abdominal segment, and the whole organ lies vertically to the longitudinal axis of the larva (fig. 185). The testis is covered by a membrane consisting of rather flattened cells—the “‘serosa,’’ or reflected abdominal ‘‘peri- toneum.” Lying within the sac so formed is a great mass of very closely packed spermatogonia, somewhat rounded cells, measuring about 6 in diameter. Each contains a large clear nucleus, the chromatin of which is concentrated into a small heavily staining karyosome (‘‘vesicular’’ type of nucleus) (fig. 186). Cell division does not appear to be going on at this time. Supporting these spermatogonia is a fine connective net- work, very difficult to detect; it consists essentially of a number of branching cells, not unlike vertebrate nerve cells in appearance (fig. 186), and somewhat smaller than the spermatogonia, the network being formed by the junction of adjacent cell processes. During larval life the spermatogonia increase in number, the testes in the defaecating larva being in the form of two rounded organs, much longer than the testis of the first larval instar. The spermatogonia have not increased in size; indeed, they are somewhat smaller than those occurring in the first instar, being now about 44u in diameter. The connective tissue network has become more prominent. The “‘stalk’’ of the organ, which is now definitely recog- nizable as a vas deferens, has increased considerably in length ; its wall consists of a single layer of cubical cells, covering which, of course, is the serosa. The lowest portion of the vas deferens now begins to dilate. The cells lengthen greatly, and change from cubical into elongated columnar cells. It is the rudiment of the vesicula seminalis, and is already well developed in the larva twelve hours after defaecation. It lies in close contact with the proliferating cells of the in- vaginated ventral part of the ninth abdominal segment, from which, as above described, the penis is beginning to develop. But its cavity does not yet possess any communication with the exterior. At this stage also (twelve hours after defaecation) the action of the connective tissue in the testis is clearly visible, resulting in the binding together of the spermatogonia in little groups of twenty to thirty, all clustered tightly together. By the time the larva pupates, these clusters of spermotogonia have loosened considerably; the connective tissue cells and network are clearly visible. Sometimes the connective tissue undergoes considerable hypertrophy at this 464 time, but this is probably to be looked upon as an abnormality. The vesiculae seminales have meanwhile been enlarging, and now project forwards as a pair of great thick-walled out- growths from the lower portions of the two vasa deferentia. The wasp is, then, provided with three vesiculae seminales, two-paired, and mesodermal in origin, formed as dilatations from the lower portion of the two vasa deferentia, the other a single forward dilatation of the cavity of the penis, as described more fully above (fig. 27). The cavity of the penis is developed about this time, and, shortly after, the lower — parts of the vasa deferentia open into it. At this time, too, the testes are beginning to elongate and extend forwards. The spermotogonia still measure 5y to 6°in diameter. During the next twenty-four hours the male organs grow rapidly. The vesiculae seminales elongate somewhat and become ‘‘sausage-shaped.’”’ That portion of the vas deferens which has opened into the penis now increases in length and pushes the paired vesiculae upwards, so that they now come to lie more towards the middle of the abdomen. The testes, themselves, meanwhile have elongated still further, and are now situated dorsal to the intestine, just below the body wall. Their own growth, and the elongation of the vasa deferentia, result in their now occupying the upper regions of the fifth and sixth abdominal segments, having migrated through the seventh and eighth segments during larval and early pupal life. In the two-day pupa the openings of the vasa deferentia into the penis have become very wide; except for this change no marked alterations are visible in the male organs. The spermatogonia are still 54 to 6m in diameter. In the three-day pupa the testes fuse anteriorly above the intestine, and with this change, attain their mature proportions. Throughout the whole of larval, and the greater part of pupal life, the spermatogonia remain at a fairly constant size, viz., 5p to 6u. Sperm formation begins in the three-day pupa; I have, however, seen cases where precocious sperm formation took place in the pupa of thirty-six hours. The sperm has a rounded head about 2 in diameter; the mid- piece is generally quite distinct and the tail very long (about 281). fe The frequent precocious development of the spermatozoa is especially curious; thus, while pupae three days old may be quite devoid of tailed spermatozoa, the pupa of fifty-six, and even thirty-six hours, may have testes which are abso- lutely crowded with sperms. b] 465 It is beyond the scope of the present paper to enter into any detailed account of the cytology of spermatogenesis in Nasomia. The ae Organs. The ovaries, like the testes, are present in the earliest larvae, and are not to be distinguished from these in any way. There is, therefore, no need to describe them here. Even in the larva at the time of defaecation it would be difficult to determine the sex of the larva, were it not for the presence of the rudiments of the ovipositor, and the absence of vesiculae seminales. The size of testis and ovary is fairly identical; the oogonia measure 54u to 64» in diameter, and, in places, are arranged in little Teer of four cells surrounded by a few coarse, unbranched cells, homol- ogous, perhaps, with the connective tissue network of the testis. The greater number of oogonia, however, do not accumulate in such masses, and the clusters are to be regarded as recently divided cells, which, on account of the rapid cell division, have not had time to separate. The oviduct is also a tube considerably wider than the vas deferens; proximally it is composed of flattened, slightly branched, cells; distally of cubical cells. In the larva at about the time of defaecation a slight ingrowth of cells takes place between the first and second pair of ovipositor appendages. In the larva, some sixteen hours later, this ingrowth has become more prominent and is beginning to undergo a certain amount of folding. It is the rudiment of the vagina. When first formed in the defae- eating larva, it consists of loosely arranged epithelial cells, which, however, soon merge closely together. The oviducts do not at this stage open into the vagina, although they terminate close to, and already fit tightly against the in- growing vaginal invagination. The ovaries have now grown into a pair of long spindle-shaped organs, running vertically and lying close beside the metamorphosing intestine; they reach nearly to the dorsal body wall and approach each other closely here, but do not, as yet, show any sign of growing forwards (fig. 154). The ovary itself consists of a great mass of oogonia, _ rounded or hexagonal in shape, and closely packed together. _ The whole mass is covered with a thin layer of minute cubical cells, continuous with the cells forming the oviduct; while covering the whole ovary is a thin serosa (fig. 187). A few hours after the larva has pupated the vaginal invagination grows backwards and begins to extend consider- ably in size, and the two oviducts, which for several hours 466 have been tightly pressed against it, now eventually com- municate with its cavity. At this time, also, two outgrowths are formed from the posterior portion of the vagina; one grows very rapidly and extends backwards within a few hours to a length of about one-third that of the abdomen. Already at this stage it has an extremely narrow lumen, and consists entirely of embryonic cells, similar to those of the vagina. The other outgrowth is considerably shorter, never exceeding half the length of its fellow. Structurally the two are the same at this stage; I shall speak of them here as the ‘‘accessory glands.”’ At this time, also, a pair of distinct thickenings are seen, one on either side of the antero-dorsal part of the vagina. — They will develop into the “‘lubricating glands’ of the adult (fig., 184). They are composed of very elongated cells, arranged irregularly in two ill-defined lines. Meanwhile the ovary has commenced to grow forwards, but this forward growth is accompanied by a curious parti- tioning of the whole ovary. The layer of small cubical cells covering it, and the overlying serosa begin to grow inwards at the tip of the ovary, in such a way as to divide the whole organ into four distinct compartments (fig. 192). As the ovaries continue to extend forwards the newly formed portion must likewise possess this four-chambered appearance. On the other hand, an extensive back-growth of these partitions eventually divides the whole ovary and even a considerable portion of the oviduct, into these four characteristic chambers; indeed, only the terminal portion of the oviduct, adjacent to the vagina, remains devoid of parti- tions. During the next two days the ovary grows forwards on either side of, and above, the intestine, and, in the advanced pupa eventually terminates slightly behind the anterior wall of the abdomen. In the twenty-four hour pupa, meanwhile, a new process of partitioning of the ovary has commenced. Ingrowths of the protecting membranes of the ovary divide the anterior tip of each of the four chambers into three secondary parts. The partitions do not extend deeply, but each ovary as it grows forwards now breaks up, as a result, into twelve papillae; these elongate rapidly and form twelve ovarian tubules, which comprise the anterior end of each ovary (see fig. 180). i The ingrowth of the external parts of the ovary becomes very pronounced in the oviduct of the pupa of about two days, being now in the form of a great connective tissue stroma, with four channels, each lined by a layer of flat cells, running along it. 467 The ovaries, then, so far as external appearances are concerned, reach their adult condition in the pupa of about two and a half days. Terminally each consists of twelve ovarian tubules, containing sexual cells, and protected by a thin ‘‘capsule.’”” These tubules now open into a great oviduct divided by a connective tissue stroma into four channels for the greater part of its length; but devoid of such parti- tions distally, near its opening into the vagina. The structure of the mature female is shown in fig. 180. The further development of the contents of these tubules, the oogonia, will be described below. It is necessary to examine now the changes undergone by the vagina and its accessory glands. In the four-hour pupa the vagina is a small sac-like invagination of the ventral body wall between the first and second ovipositor appendages; its walls consist of long columnar undifferentiated cells. During the next twenty-four hours it grows back rapidly, and extends considerably also in height, forming in the thirty-six hour pupa quite a spacious chamber on the ventral body wall, close behind the beginning of the ovipositor; the vagina is connected now by a distinct “neck’’ with the exterior. Its walls are composed of cubical cells; those on the upper side of the vagina, and those on the anterior part of the ventral surface, develop each a sharp forwardly pointing ‘‘tooth,’’ the inner surface of the vagina presenting therefore a distinctly rasp-like appearance. As development proceeds the cells on the upper walls elongate greatly, and adopt a columnar shape. A very delicate chitin layer is formed within the vagina, and this layer presents, of course, the same rasp-like appearance that occurred merely as a protoplasmic mould a day earlier. The function of this curious roughened surface is obviously to help in the laying of eggs. The cells themselves frequently present a clear, some- what vacuolated protoplasm, such as is usually seen in mucin- secreting gland cells. - On the antero-dorsal sides of the vagina a curious develog: ment of the epithelium has been going on, which results eventually in the formation of the lubricating glands, The epi- thelium, as already stated, consists, roughly, of two layers of very elongated cells ; of these cells the outer form each a gland _ cell; the inner, the duct of the gland cell. The outer cells _ Increase considerably in size, and breaking loose from the epithelium grow inwards a very short distance. They are already clearly visible in the pupa of fifty-six hours, as large cells with granular cytoplasm. They increase in size during the pupal period, and are seen in the adult insect as a pair of small groups of about thirty large cells on either side of the 468 anterior part of the ‘‘neck’’ of the vagina (figs. 180, 184). Meanwhile the cells of the lower layer have been differenti- ating. They elongate considerably, and develop, after about two days, a very long narrow lumen, one end of which becomes applied by a funnel-shaped process ‘to a gland cell, while the other opens into the upper part of the ovipositor. Practically the whole of the cell cytoplasm becomes converted into this duct, the nucleus itself remaining as a small sen staining swelling upon it. The function of these glands is apparently to secrete a lubricating liquid into the chitinous ovipositor, and aid in the passage of eggs down this structure, while assisting it, at the same time, to bore through the hard shell of the fly pupa during oviposition. This liquid is clearly seen during the act of laying as minute oily globules which ooze through the sheaths of the ovipositor. On the upper surface of the vagina two small rounded vesicles are seen (figs. 180, vsc.), whose walls are composed of long columnar cells. They appear to correspond to structures which in the honey bee are described as aiding in copulation, a kind of bursa copulatrix; what their actual function in Nasoma is, I am unable to say; that they have nothing to do with copulation seems fairly certain, since this takes place by the application of the penis of the male to the termination of the ovipositor of the female. The first stages in the development of the great accessory glands from the posterior part of the vagina have already been described. Two curious changes now take place in connection with the openings of these glands, which tend to confuse their true origin: firstly, the vagina grows backwards over the openings of the glands, so that they now arise not pos- teriorly from the vagina, but from its antero-ventral region ; secondly, shortly after the glands grow out from the vagina they draw a portion of the cavity of this structure after them, so that they open in the twenty-four hour pupa, not directly into the vagina, but into a separate chamber, lying beneath it, and opening into the ‘‘neck’’ of the vagina, shortly before its opening into the ovipositor. | The cells on the upper part of this sac elongate con- siderably to form a columnar epithelium; in the late stages of pupal life (four and a half-day pupa) their very powerful — staining capacity shows that they have now developed into gland cells. The two posterior accessory glands increase in length, and in the pupa one day old have approximately attained to their adult dimensions. The glands are not symmetrically placed ; that on the right side is much the longer of the two (fig. 180), i ee 469 and extends backwards to a point one-quarter the length of the abdomen from the posterior extermity of the insect. Its cells are large, and continue to develop a lumen, which runs right down the gland, but increases slightly in diameter. The cells soon lose their embryonic appearance; in the pupa at the end of its first day they are already wedge-shaped ; they have a large nucleus but present a fairly clear cytoplasm. In the thirty-six hour pupa, however, some of them show a distinct indication of developing granular cytoplasm. The granulations increase in number, so that in the mature pupa the whole cells become packed with granules; the glandular nature of the organ is no longer to be questioned (figs. 182, 183). The gland on the left side develops into a structure only two-thirds the length of its fellow. Distally its lumen is distended into a round vesicle, and this becomes connected on its anterior side with a round, solid ball of cells, the spaces between which appear to open into the vesicle (figs. 180, 181). The function of these glands is doubtful. That they are not “‘colleterial glands’’ (glue-secreting glands) seems certain, for the wasp has no need to fasten her egg to an exposed sur- face. It is much more probable that they are lubricating glands, whose secretion aids that of the true lubricating glands in facilitating the passage of eggs down the ovipositor, and theentrance of the ovipositor through the hard shell of the fly pupa during oviposition. To somewhat similar glands in Calliphora, Lowne has applied the term ‘‘Parovaria.”’ As late as 1895 he main- tained, in his well-known monograph on that insect, that the germinal material of the egg was developed in the parovaria, while the yolk was produced in a pair of great ‘“‘yolk glands’”’ (really the ovaries), and that the large oval masses of yolk, as they pasesd down the uterus, first applied their microphyles to the opening of one of the parovaria, and received their germinal vesicle; then applied their micropyles to the openings of the spermathecae, and were fertilised. Lowne then drew the unfortunate comparison of the ‘‘insect vitellogen’’ with that of the flat worms. It is necessary to consider now the history of the oogonia, in their process of development into ova. Throughout larval, and the greater part of pupal life, the oogonia remain as small cells closely packed together, measuring from 5%u to 6p in diameter; each contains a large nucleus of the ‘‘vesicular’’ type, i.e., the chromatic material is contained in a minute granule, lying within a colourless nuclear “‘sap.’’ But towards the end of pupal life these cells 470 which lie in the twelve pairs of ovarian tubules begin to undergo a series of changes, which transform them into mature ova. A consideration of the nuclear changes is beyond the scope of this paper; I shall confine my description to the more obvious changes in the cells. The oogonia in the distal part of the tubules divide actively (without any centrosome, so far as I could observe) ; those in the proximal part of the tubes cease to divide and arrange themselves in little balls, which pass down the tubes (fig. 189) and eventually enter the four channelled oviducts. The grouping up of the cells into these little balls can be clearly observed at the point between the region of irregularly arranged cells and that at which the last ball has been formed. No difference is at this stage visible in any of the cells of any of these little masses (fig. 189). Very soon, how- ever, changes begin. The central cell of every alternate group begins to grow; it is the future ovum, and the sur- rounding cells form the follicle; the balls of cells on either side of these developing ova are the groups of nutritive cells. The follicle cells at first do not undergo any appreciable changes. The ovum, however, is soon characterized by a quickly growing nucleus. The nutritive cells soon increase in size ; indeed, by the time the fourth group of cells is forming, the nutritive cells of the first have already grown to 1llp in diameter. The egg meanwhile grows rapidly, but though it probably develops at the expense of the follicle and nutritive cells, these do not appear to suffer greatly; the follicle cells maintain a remarkable constancy in size. When the egg has reached a diameter (it is now slightly oval) of 12m, the follicle cells are still 5u to 6y in diameter; they have, however, become somewhat cubical instead of rounded in shape, so as to form a more complete covering for the ovum. When the egg reaches a length of 52u, the first polar body is formed; it is very large, measuring some 10°3p in diameter, and is clearly seen lying beneath the follicle cells (fig. 190). Even now, however, the follicle cells have not diminished appreciably in size; indeed, although the ovum is probably living partly at their expense, they may actually show an increase in size, reaching at times a thickness of 7p. The behaviour of the nuclei of the nutritive cells, how- ever, is quite different. The nucleus grows greatly in size and may reach a diameter of 5u; the chromatin is scattered recularly throughout it, and is no longer contained in a karyosome. Eventually, however, the follicle cells also begin to grow, but the growth of the nuclei never ceases. When the ovum re fe 471 measures 150, in length the nuclei of the surrounding follicle | cells measure 17y in diameter. Although the egg is living ___ at the expense of the nutritive cells, these also grow greatly in size; it is difficult to detect their cell boundaries, but they show the same disproportionate growth between nucleus and cytoplasm, ¢.g., when the egg measures 18y in length, the nutritive cells measure about lly in diameter; their nuclei 5D. i awe see, then, that the follicle cells and nutritive cells | undergo certain characteristic changes as the ovum develops; _ they remain of a fixed size for a time, or increase in size more or less rapidly, but their growth is not proportionate | to that of the ovum. Their nuclei, on the other hand, grow rapidly in size, and the rate of increase of these is much greater than that of the cells containing them. Now it has been clearly shown by Morgulis (1911) that the body cells of salamanders undergo during starvation a rapid diminution in size; also that the nuclei themselves become smaller, but that the rate of diminution in these soon becomes less than that of the cytoplasm. As a result the _ fatio of nucleus to cytoplasm is much greater than in normal | cells. Exactly how this is to be interpreted is difficult to _ say. It may be that the nucleus has greater powers of | resistance to starvation than has the cytoplasm; on the other hand, it seems much more correct to assume that there is an intimate relation between the cytoplasm and. nucleus, and that the condition which we find in a starved salamander cell is such as will enable it to exist the better under these changed conditions. And although this phenomenon is by no means universal among starving cells, still it seems to suggest that | a great increase in the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio is a sign ) that the cell is living under certain adverse conditions. It is in this way, possibly, that the remarkable changes in the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio, undergone by the nutritive and follicle cells, is to be interpreted. That the nutritive cells nourish the ovum is universally recognized; that the follicle cells nourish the ovum is more difficult to prove. However, the fact that the latter cells undergo this same nuclear change is a curious piece of evidence in favour of this view. Considered in this light, the nutritive and follicle cells exhibit the interesting combined effects of nourishment and starvation. Their growth in size is due to their receiving _a large supply of nourishment; the preponderance in the size of the nucleus is the result of the parasitic habit of the ovum. The ova continue to grow rapidly, reaching at the end of pupal life their mature length of about 300u. They are _ Yeady for fertilization immediately the we emerges. 472 The nutritive cells, on the other hand, gradually diminish in size, and are left as a little clump of disappearing cells in close contact with the ovum. In the female, but not in the male, is a pair of glands (fig. 188) lying in close contact with the anterior extremity — of the ovarian tubules. They consist’ of large cells with granular cytoplasm, and open on to the abdomen on either side just behind the petiole. The glands themselves contain a distinct cavity. I have not observed their mode of develop- ment, but they seem to be formed simply as a depression in the ectoderm early in pupal life. What the function of, the glands is, is difficult to deter- mine. Their occurrence in the female alone indicates that they are sexual excitants of some kind. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. As early as 1832 Newport, comparing the simple type of nervous system of the larva of Sphinx ligustri with the more specialized condition, with its concentration of ganglia, that he observed in the adult moth, showed that during metamorphosis a ‘‘migration’”’ of ganglia must occur: and examining the pupa at various stages of development, he was able to observe various intermediate conditions between. the larval and imaginal structures. But the first histological observations were made by Weismann in 1864. He showed in the muscids that a process of histolysis was going on within the ventral nerve cord; the nerve cells become dark and granular, while the whole nerve cord changes into a structure of very fragile consistency. The peripheral nerves become very pale, and losing their fibrillated appearance, develop fine refractile globules in their interior. In Corethra, on the other hand, a much-simpler process occurs; the central nervous system undergoes no fundamental changes, and only where new organs ee ah are new peri- pheral nerves formed. In 1889 Van Rees investigated the nervous system in Calliphora, but could not confirm Weismann’s observation on the fatty degeneration of the peripheral nerves. So far as I am aware, however, the cellular changes in the nerve cord and peripheral nerves have never been investigated, and even the work of Weismann does not contain any direct observa- tions on the fundamental cell changes going on here during metamorphosis. The metamorphosis of the brain has received considerable attention from Viallanes (1882, 1884, 1885), and much more recently from Bauer (1904). I shall refer to the work of these observers below. 473 The Ventral Nerve Cord and Peripheral Nerves of the Nasonia Larva. In the newly hatched larva the ventral nerve cord is visible through the transparent cuticle as a thick column, not very distinctly marked off into ganglia, and passing from the third segment backwards along the mid-ventral line to the eleventh (fig. 1). In front, the nerve cord communicates by a pair of circum-oesophageal connectives with the brain, which occupies a large part of the second segment. From the brain a pair of minute nerves is given off to the small rudi- mentary sense papillae (antennae) on the first segment. Other nerves doubtless leave the brain, and supply various parts of the head, but I have not been able to observe them definitely. It is only with the greatest difficulty that ganglia can be observed in the ventral nerve cord at this period, and the presence of lateral nerves is the best indication of their posi- tion. These nerves are quite prominent and are even clearly visible through the transparent cuticle (fig. 1). The posterior ones are the largest and supply the greater part of the hinder region of the larva. Lying in front of the brain, just dorsal to the oesophagus, is a minute rounded stomotogastric ganglion (fig. 117), connected by a pair of nerves that surround the narrow oesophagus with the circumoesophageal connectives near the junction of these with the first ventral ganglion. During the growth of the larva there is a corresponding increase in the size of the nervous elements, and it is not till a-considerable time after hatching that the various ganglia can be clearly observed.. Of these, twelve, not including the brain, are present (fig. 225, a). The last one can be seen in longitudinal sections to be composed, apparently, of three very closely fused ganglia, so that the larva possesses at least fifteen of these. No account is taken here of the possible multiganglionic nature of the brain. Covering the central nervous system and the peripheral nerves of the newly hatched larva is a very delicate membrane, composed of two kinds of cells: the purely larval cells, and the embryonic imaginal cells which will replace them during the metamorphosis. Both these kinds of cells are very flat- tened and embrace the masses of new cells closely; they con- stitute a part of the splanchnopleural portion of the ‘“‘peri- toneum.”’ The nerve cells are of two kinds. Lying usually on the outside, but sometimes also scattered partly within the nerve cord, are large cells, devoid of a fibre, with big nuclei, con- taining a large karyosome and several scattered chromatin i. § 474 granules (fig. 10). They are neuroblasts from which the adult nervous system will later develop. Lying more internally are the functional larval nerve cells, considerably smaller than the neuroblasts, and measuring about 44 in diameter. Hach has a large nucleus, surrounded by a very minute quantity of cytoplasmic material, all the rest of the cytoplasm being found in the long nerve fibres. The nerve cells are themselves held together by a network of neuroglia cells, usually difficult to distinguish from the ordinary nerve cells, but clearly visible in the region between adjacent ganglia. The nerve fibres are collected in two cylindrical nerve strands running along the length of the nerve cord and giving off branches to form the peripheral nerves in the various ganglia. The double nature of the nerve cord is thus clearly recognizable. It is usually only with the greatest difficulty that the individual nerve fibres can be seen, so minute and compressed together are they. The cells of the stomatogastric ganglion are similar to those of the ventral nerve cord. The Post-embryonic Development and Metamorphosis of the Ventral Nerve Cord. The cells of the nerve cord, like those of all the other specialized larval organs, do not proliferate, but merely grow in size. The splanchnopleural covering of the nerves and nerve cord may first be considered. While the embryonic imaginal cells do not undergo any visible changes during the larval period the larval cells grow greatly in size, and at the end of the feeding period show the usual signs of degeneration (figs. 221, 222), z.e., their cytoplasm becomes granulated ; the nuclei are long and oval, and greatly hypertrophied, measuring 17 in length, and contain a few scattered granules. The usual prominent nucleolus, so characteristic of the senescent cells of Vasonia, is present. But shortly before defaecation, the embryonic cells spring into activity, and diyiding | mitotically) (fig. 222) rapidly _ ‘absorb and replace the(dying larval cells, so that several hours later the whole of the mesodermal covering of the nerve cord has been regenerated. Towards the end of pupal life some of the cells of this splanchnopleure develop great nucleoli, but beyond this no visible changes are to be detected during the pupal period. There is, therefore, no discontinuity inthe splanchopleure during its metamorphosis. Moreover, as it acts as a sac to enclose the nerve cells, there can be no dis- continuity of the nervous system as a whole during its meta- morphosis, whatever the changes that may be going on within 475 | it. These changes are very profound, and the nervous system undergoes as marked a metamorphosis — as does any other system ¢ of larval structures. | The increase in size of the larval nerve cells is difficult to estimate since most of their cytoplasm is contained in the long nerve fibres. In the defaecating larva, however, the part containing the nucleus has usually grown from a struc- ture which in the first instar measured about 4 in diameter | to one with a diameter of 43y to 5u, and sometimes slightly larger. The real increase in the size of the cells may be | judged when the growth of the great nerve strands is taken | into account. In young larvae these measure usually some | 6-10u in thickness, while in the defaecating larva they have grown to a thickness sometimes as much as 30u. | Towards the end of larval life these larval cells begin ' to develop large nucleoli and show the typical signs of degeneration. In.the nerve cord at about the time of defaecation the | large neuroblasts—purely imaginal structures corresponding in every way with the other embryonic cells which lie dormant | during larval life—begin to divide by mitosis, and a consider- . able increase in the number of cells within the nerve cord | occurs (fig. 227). These cells nourish themselves, in part, | at any rate, at the expense of the degenerating larval cells, these being always recognized by their great nucleoli and pale cytoplasm which is in process of rapid absorption by the developing nerve cells. In the nerve cord the larval cells lie scattered among the now far more numerous imaginal nerve cells, and large masses of disintegrating cells are also often to be observed (fig. 227). In the brain this is even better ' seen. The developing nerve cells, it seems, then simply absorb the dead Jarval cells, growing at their expense, and in the larva some twelve ‘hours after defaecation no trace of the old larval cells remains. ~ As the nucleated portion of the nerve cells has thus dis- appeared, the long columnar nerve strand and the fibres which form the peripheral nerves likewise disintegrate. But the | appearances of degenerating nerve fibres in these two regions _ are quite different. Within the nerve cord the degeneration of the two nerve | strands is so intimately associated with the regeneration of with the highest magnifications, what is actually taking place. Sometimes, however, and especially within the brain, “this ‘may be seen, the Tarval nerve strands, as the nucleated portion dies, begin to undergo a total disorganization, and in place of the strands of most delicate, almost microscopically invisible the nervous system that it is impossible, as a rule, to see, even | | V es tg 476 nerve fibres, we now see an irregular clumping together of the fibres and even partial disruption of these. Into this degen- erating mass now extend newly formed nerve fibres from the recently developed nerve cells. In the larva eight hours after defaecation these give off short processes, which soon become longer and needle-shaped (fig. 228). These then extend into the degenerating nerve strands as fibres of extraordinary fine- ness, and as the old larval fibres degenerate the newly devel- oped processes from the imaginal nerve cells replace them. These events usually run so closely together that it is not possible to observe either in progress; it is only when for some reason there is a delay in the formation of new nerve fibres, as often happens in the brain, that a marked globular degeneration of the nerve strands can be detected. In the peripheral nerves, however, the process is much more marked, and very fine instances of tissue disintegration — in the\absence of phagocytes can be observed. In the defae- cating larva, as the splanchnopleural covering of the nerve fibres is degenerating and is in process of rapid regeneration _(so that no discontinuity exists between the sheaths of the peripheral nerves of the larva and imago), a total degenera- tion of the contents of these nerve sheaths takes place. The constituent nerve fibres disintegrate, and the products of disintegration unite to form several large oval globules (fig. 223), which, perhaps as a result of the pressure of the sheath, are forced along the nerve, and breaking out, evidently through some point of weakness, float about as small rounded globules in the blood stream. Here they may be in part absorbed by phagocytes and in part simply dissolve in the blood. Towards the end of the larval period the imaginal nerve fibres, which have been growing down and replacing the old larval nerve strands in the ventral nerve cord, enter the emptying renovated sheaths of the old larval nerves. No more profound tissue metamorphosis than this could be imagined, and yet, as far as the gross anatomical changes are con- cerned, no marked change occurs. It is probably these large elobules—degeneration products of the larval nerve fibres— that Weismann observed. Meanwhile the neuroglia network within the nervous system has been undergoing similar changes. This is especi- ally clearly visible in the larva eight hours after defaecation in the regions between adjacent ganglia. The larval neuroglia cells are observed here forming a loose network of fibres (fig. 229). Some of the cells are clearly in a senescent con- dition, presenting large nucleoli; some are growing very pale, evidently losing their cytoplasm, while others about them are growing at their expense. | 477 Immediately surrounding the nerve strand is a single layer of very small cells (fig. 227). They appear to be also neuroglia cells, forming a support for the fibres of the nerve strand which they enclose. At the time of defaecation they are undergoing the same changes as are taking place elsewhere at this period. Some of the large nucleoli are degenerating and being absorbed ; others are in mitosis, and are evidently going to replace then. pis | The absorption of larval cells, and the proliferation of h the imaginal elements within the nerve cord take place then, at the time of defaecation, and are complete about eight to _ twelve hours later. But at about the time of pupation other | changes which affect the gross anatomy of the ventral nerve cord commence. These are the changes which Newport first investigated, using Sphinx ligustri as his subject, and con- sist in a remarkable migration of ganglia, resulting in the ‘fusion of these in groups to form the concentrated nervous _ system of the adult. _ The regenerated nerve cord is composed of twelve ganglia, / connected in front by the circumoesophageal connectives with | the brain (figs. 225a, 231). The first ventral (suboesophageal) ganglion fuses with ‘the brain and will be considered in con- | nection with that structure. , A little after pupation the sixth and seventh, and also the ninth and tenth, ganglia fuse, so that the number of ventral ganglia has been reduced to ten (fig. 225c). In the | pupa four hours old the eighth ganglion has merged into the fused ninth and tenth, the number being now reduced to nine (fig. 225d). By the fusion of the ganglion of the pro- podeal (first abdominal) segment with the third thoracic | ganglion in the pupa eight hours of age and the absorption, at about this same period, of the eleventh (second last) ventral _ ganglion into the fused eighth, ninth, and tenth, the number of ganglia becomes finally reduced to seven. As the first ventral ganglion becomes merged into the brain it is no longer | recognizable as a distinct ganglion (fig. 225e), and the ventral nerve cord cannot therefore be said to consist of more than six | ganglia. In this condition we find them in the imago. The | first three are large and lie one in each thoracic segment ; connecting the last thoracic ganglion (fused fourth and fifth) with the first abdominal (fused sixth and seventh) is a par- “ticularly long nerve strand. The first abdominal ganglion is ‘TYather small. The next two, especially the last, are much larger and supply the hinder and ventral region of the abdomen. i, T have not observed the cellular activities which underlie | these migrations of ganglia; there can, however, it seems, Pout 478 be only one process by. which this takes place, viz., by the amoeboid movement of the nerve cells through the fine neuroglia network. It is evidently in this manner that the cells move about within the nerve cord. In some ganglia the nerve cells may form layers five cells in thickness; these gradually diminish in number at the hinder and front parts of the ganglia and on the nerve strands © connecting adjacent ganglia may, at times, be quite absent. In the stomatogastric ganglion a destruction of larval elements, followed by a development of imaginal nerve cells, similar to that seen in the ventral nerve ganglia, occurs. Itis | unnecessary to refer further to it here. | It will be useful to point out that the apparent absence of metamorphosis in the nervous system (except for the migra- tion of ganglia), which is usually supposed to occur in insects, has never yet been demonstrated. Even Weismann’s observa- tions on Corethra do not wholly disprove it, the destruction of larval cells on a small scale being impossible to detect in hand dissections. - The most noteworthy feature of the metamorphosis of the ventral nerve cord is, then, the spontaneous degeneration | of larval cells, and their destruction not by leucocytes, but | by a gradual process of absorption by the growing nerve cells. Se An average sized nerve cell from the imago measures not more than 5p in diameter, though at times quite large cells, as much as 12u by 8u may be seen. The cytoplasm is usually much reduced, most of it having entered the nerve fibre process. At times a small, or rarely very large, nucleolus is seen. The splanchnopleural nerve sheath may be seen to be continuous, at the termination of the nerves among the organs, with the walls of the cells on which the nerve ends (fig. 226). The Brain. While it will often be possible in the following descrip- tion to refer to the nerve tracts within the brain, it is mani- festly beyond the scope of this paper to make any attempt to elucidate the actual nerve connections. The brain of the newly hatched larva (figs. 1, 230) is a | very prominent structure in the form of two large hemi- | spheres occupying the greater part of the second head seg- ment, and projecting forwards into the first. It measures | about ‘15 mm. from side to side in its broadest region, and is connected with the first ventral ganglion by a pair of short, thick, circumoesophageal connectives, which pass backwards — | a 4 479 and downwards and enclose between them the oesophagus (fig. 231). _ The brain at this early stage is not in a very advanced condition, and it may be divided into two parts, an inner functional region and an outer region, in which active func- tioning does not evidently occur (fig. 230). The functional (truly larval) portion of the brain consists of a mass of nerve cells, occupying a great part of the interior of the brain. The _ individual nerve cells appear to be quite small, seldom more | than 5p in diameter ; this is due to the fact that most of their _eytoplasm is to be found in the long nerve fibres, whose ' yolume it is not possible to estimate accurately. They have a faintly granular nucleus; the usual karyosome is very small ' or often quite absent. The fibres from these nerve cells all converge to form a pair of great nerve tracts, one on either side, within the ' brain, and these great nerve tracts are joined by a very ) narrow tract from the inner portion of the antero-ventral ‘brain region—from the antennal ganglion. Other nerve | fibres from this antennal ganglion unite to form a very minute nerve which terminates on the pair of minute sense papillae (true antennae) of the first segment. In this region, and also within the great central mass of nerve tissues, Synapses must occur in great numbers, but I can say nothing definite about them here. Some of the nerve fibres in the brain cross to the opposite side, others form strands which travel in various directions. From the brain numerous other fibres collect to form the two circumoesophageal nerve tracts, -which connect the brain with the ventral ganglia. Forming a distinct layer on the outside of the functional nerve cells are the neuroblasts, evidently non-functioning cells at this period of development (fig. 230). They are 8u to 9p in diameter, and have the ‘‘vesicular’’ type of nucleus with its large karyosome, so commonly found among undifferenti- ated cells. Though they appear to be larger than the func- tional nerve cells, this is in reality not so, most of the cyto- plasm of the latter being found in the long nerve fibres; in this respect, then, they form no exception to the rule that the functional larval cells are always much larger than the ‘ttlon-functional imaginal cells, which will replace them during ‘Metamorphosis. The neuroblasts form especially well-devel- }oped areas in certain parts of the brain: there is a pair of very well-defined layers, in places swollen into large masses, on the outer lateral regions, constituting the anlagen of part of the two optic ganglia (fig. 230). They extend round partly behind the brain as large bowl-shaped structures and give of forwards each a small mass of cells which projects into the 6 ————— ——————— OC 480 brain amongst the larval cells, towards the great nerve tract, and seems to constitute the “‘bourrelet intraganglionaire” of Viallanes. On the internal postero-dorsal portions of the brain are two pairs of masses composed of rather small imaginal neuroblasts ; they are the anlagen of the four ocellar ganglia. There is another cluster of imaginal cells lying one on the anterior ventral part of each of the large hemispheres near the larval ganglia and representing the cells from which the antennal ganglia of the adult will later develop (fig. 230). During the period of active growth of the larva there is the usual increase in size of the purely larval elements in the absence of cell division. The neuroblasts do not, so far as I can observe, undergo any division during this period. But at the end of this period of activity (fourth day of larval life) the metamorphosis commences, at first slowly, but a day | later (at the time of defaecation) with apparently much greater rapidity. When the brain of the larva in the defaecation period is examined in sections the cells which constituted the func- tional part of the brain during larval life are seen to be in a state of advanced degeneration (figs. 77, 78,(235). The cells ~are small and highly granular; nuclei are visible often only with difficulty; large nucleoli are usually present. Some- times the cell outlines are already becoming indistinct and | the whole mass is obviously in a state of active disintegration. | Leucocytes have not been able to penetrate to these cells, | and histolysis is entirely of a non-phagocytic nature. The great nerve tracts also show obvious signs of degeneration at this same time; distinct fibrillation of the tracts gradually dis- appears, and sometimes a faint indication of degeneration into fatty and other globules becomes manifest. But visible | degeneration in the areas, whose structures in the living state | is difficult enough to observe, is never so pronounced as in the surrounding areas where the nerve ‘‘cells’’ are dying. Contemporary with this extensive cellular degeneration a@ pronounced activity of the neuroblasts is to be observed. In the defaecating larva the neuroblasts have already greatly proliferated by mitosis, and active mitosis in various parts is” | still to be observed, especially in the anlagen of the optic | ganglia (fig. 235). And as these cells rapidly increase in | number they nourish themselves in part upon the dead masses — of nerve cells and nerve fibres, and growing gradually in bulk | in the larva eighteen hours after defaecation, absorb and replace these altogether. The cells of the two pairs of ocellar | ganglionic anlagen proliferate rapidly. Similar changes occur | in the imaginal cells (neuroblasts) of the antennal ganglion. | In the larva at about the time of defaecation, two kinds of ~ 481 dividing cells may now be clearly distinguished: there are— ‘ (a) the large rather strongly stainifg cells which form the various ganglia and the ‘‘bourrelet intraganglionaire’’ (“Zweite Bildungsherde” of Bauer), and (6) a great mass of | more rounded paler cells sometimes still seen in mitosis and ' forming the greater part of the imaginal brain where the ' great ganglia do not occur. A small group of these is to be seen between the optic ganglion and the zone of degenerating larval cells, into which they project. It is possible that these constitute a mass of neuroglia cells; the proliferation of others which form a great ring around the bases of the two hemi- spheres in the neighbourhood of the ocellar and antennal ganglia, is resulting in a gradual constriction of the great central mass of degenerating nerve fibres here (cf. fig. 232, x). In the larva eight hours after defaecation a small mass of cells, often in active mitosis, appears outside the extremity of the degenerate nerve strand. It seems to be formed as an ingrowth from the optic ganglion and constitutes the “‘bourrelet perilaminaire’’ of Viallanes, the ‘‘(Erste) Bildungs- herde’’ of .Bauer (fig. 232 0.g.2). : | From the simple anlage of the optic ganglion three masses of cells therefore arise :— (1) Those which form what I shall call the outer optic ae whose fibres communicate with the compound eye. t is that part of the primitive anlage which remains when the other two parts have been formed from it, and occupies the position of the ‘‘optic ganglion,” as I have referred to it above (o.g. in figs. 80 and 236). (2) Those which form the middle optic ganglion, as I shall call it, and are represented by the ‘‘Bourrelet perilaminaire”’ of Viallanes. This mass first becomes visible in the larva i}some eight hours after defaecation (0.g.2 in figs. 80, 232, 236). 3) Those which will form the znner optic ganglion, and §)\correspond to Viallanes’ ‘‘Bourrelet intraganglionaire’’ (0.g.3 : he figs. 80, 232, 236). \ = Ss ane eater ee ee | During larval life there is a continued growth in the \size of the brain, but it is in the last few hours that it begins to assume its adult appearance. This takes place in three )\ways: (a) by the gradual change in shape of the optic ganglia, (6) by the development of nerve fibres and synapses, (c) by \the gradual incorporation of the first ventral (sub-cesopha- geal) ganglion. _ lowards the end of the larval period the cells comprising outer optic ganglion begin to migrate outwards in the | meshwork of fibres formed by the perioptic membrane (see 482 Organs of Vision), and this gradually results in the change | in shape of the whole optic region, till eventually in the three- | day pupa the optic ganglion is mainly in the form of a short | stalk which connects the eye with the rest of the brain, while § the other two optic ganglia lie in a projection of the hemi- | spheres rather narrower than that in which they lay in the | adult larva (figs. 80, 234, 236). } In the early pupa, too, the antennal ganglia grow largely | in size (fig. 232), and form a pair of very distinct antennal | lobes projecting downwards, forwards, and slightly inwards | from the antero-ventral part of each hemisphere. The ocellar ganglia also project slightly on the surface of the brain. | In the last hours of larval life a development of the | nerve fibres has commenced. This is rather difficult to observe, for the newly formed nerve fibres grow into the degenerate | mass of old nerve fibres, absorbing them as they grow, and as the latter disappear, the others replace them, there being no / visible discontinuity. The only visible sign of change is | a gradual resumption of fibrillated appearance by the degenerate masses of nerve strands. The new nerve strands thus formed are best studied in the optic region. Between the | outer and middle optic ganglia such a strand, rather short | and thickset, and never very prominent, gradually appears, quite independently, in this case, of the old larval nerve | strand. It corresponds to the periopticon of Hickson (figs. 80, | 236), and is formed by fibres some of which have grown | inwards from the outer ganglion, others outwards from the | middle ganglion. Synapses are doubtless formed between the | two. | The nerve cells comprising the middle and inner optic | ganglia likewise develop fibres, which grow, this time, | through the old larval nerve strand. They evidently form | synapses here, and the whole structure forms the second mass of nerve fibres, very well developed in the imago, and con- | stituting the ‘‘epiopticon’’ of Hickson (fig. 236). The nerve | cells of the inner ganglion likewise give off processes inwards along the old larval nerve strand, and they and similar fibres from more internal parts of the brain unite to form the ‘“‘opticon’’ of Hickson—the third optic nerve strand, which finally brings the optic nerves into communication with the | rest of the brain. These changes take place in the early pupa, |} and so far as it is possible to observe them, are complete at the end of about the first day of pupal life. Many of the cells thus produced are true bipolar nerve cells, but many of | the fibres which help to form these large nerve strands come | from masses of cells which have not grown into the brain, | but have remained more at the periphery. Although I have | 7 : bd j | oF } d : | ; 483 not been able to observe them directly, it would seem that the fibres ‘should be/of the T-shaped type. _ Meanwhile the two antennal ganglia have been increasing -in size. The cells in the early pupa send out processes along | the degenerate antennal nerve tract of the larva, and as the ee Sal — latter is gradually absorbed the fibres of the former develop at its expense. The fibres from the antennal nerve pass inwards into the antennal lobe, and within it meet and evidently form synapses with other fibres given off from cells in the more dorsal parts of the antennal lobes, these fibres in _ turn passing backwards and upwards as a short, thick, nerve | tract which enters the great irregular mass of nerve fibres in the middle of the brain (fig. 234). This ‘‘white matter’’ of the antennal ganglion is a very large and rounded mass _ of fibres showing shallow clefs on its surface. Meanwhile the great mass of paler cells described above has continued to grow; the cells encroach more and more upon the great degenerate nerve strands of the larva at the _ base of the two hemispheres in the region between the antennal » and ocellar ganglia (fig. 232x); and shortly after the first day , of pupal life, continuing to absorb the whole larval nerve * strand without proliferating, so far as I could observe, any ' more, gradually replace this, and as nerve fibres from these and other cells lying more on the periphery grow into the dead nerve strand, this is finally absorbed and replaced by _ the fibres from the imaginal cells. These fibres seem to com- municate with others formed from the inner optic ganglion } and the resulting structure is the “opticon,” as Hickson has ealled it in Calliphora. 5 _ By this means, then, the larval brain is gradually trans- formed into that of the adult. Phagocytes play no part in the process of absorption, but the dead cells serve directly as food for the growing imaginal cells. And although the pre- sence of mitotic figures within the brain is the only clear sign that development is going on at all, yet when a more careful | study is made it is soon seen that the brain undergoes as . — a metamorphosis as does any other organ of the ody. Meanwhile the first ventral ganglion has gradually become incorporated into the brain. In the fresh pupa, although _ “rejuvenation” of the ganglion has taken place, like most of | the other ganglia of the ventral chain, migration has not yet “commenced. But shortly after pupation the cells or the ganglion begin to migrate upwards along the circumoesopha- geal connectives (fig. 232). In the twenty-six hour pupa they have definitely become a part of the now very complex brain ig. 233), and during the next day they begin to consolidate 484 their position, and spread themselves more evenly over large parts of the postero-ventral part of the brain. From this region at least three pairs of nerves are given off to the mouth | parts, so that this part of the brain may be said to constitute a distinct lobe—the oral lobe. | The nerve cells comprising the brain are of the same type as those of the ventral nerve cord; dendrites are present, though usually very hard to see (fig. 224). The cells vary | from 34u to 7p in diameter. . According to the investigations of Bauer (1904) the nerve | cells, and even individual ganglia, are developed from single neuroblasts, which bud off daughter cells, which after dividing once become transformed into nerve cells. In WNasoma this | does not appear to be the case. The single-celled neuroblast | stage is passed through in the very early embryo, and in the larva of the first instar the various ganglia are already to be seen as distinct accumulations of embryonic cells. : THE VASCULAR SYSTEM. | (a) The Blood. } The blood is the great essential tissue which co-ordinates | the whole process of metamorphosis. It is the medium in which the processes of destruction and regeneration occur; into it the dying cells cast their products of degeneration, and upon its substance the growing tissues nourish themselves. This has been made abundantly clear in the description of the metamorphosis of the various organs; the actual chemical changes, however, which go on in the blood cannot be discussed here. It is sufficient to say that the globules and granules into which the various larval organs degenerate are to a large extent cast into the blood stream, where they dissolve. The blood, in consequence, which is usually quite “thin,’’ becomes during the late hours of larval life, and the | early hours of pupal life, very ‘‘thick,’’ and so heavily laden with protein materials that it often stains very -strongly in preparations and appears as a structureless matrix in which ~ the other organs lie suspended. But as the imaginal organs develop, these substances gradually disappear, and are no longer visible a day after pupation. Fl Frequently, however, the dead larval tissues do not have | time to dissolve in the blood stream; the leucocytes, instead, | assuming their important réle of body scavengers, fall upon | the dead tissues and rapidly absorb them. This - ic | absorption of dead tissues is very clearly seen in the removal | of the salivary glands, of certain tracheoles (fig. 88), of the — temporary pupal midgut (fig. 153), of certain muscles (fig. | ~ ah - 485 105), and to a less extent in certain other tissues—processes which have all been described above. Nevertheless, if these tissues are inaccessible to leucocytes, as often happens, for example, through the pressure of the fat-body, then phago- cytosis does not occur, and the tissues undergo a gradual solution in the blood (fig. 91, trl.). Weismann (1864) was the first to observe tissue disin- tegration in metamorphosing insects. He regarded the tissues as breaking up into minute globules, ‘‘Kérnchenkugeln,’’ and _ to the process he gave the name histolysis. In 1884 Van Rees, and in the following year Kowalevsky, stimulated by Metchni- koff’s great discovery of the phagocytic activity of leucocytes, - put a special interpretation upon Weismann’s ‘‘hestolysis’’— they regarded it as a tissue phagocytosis, the ‘‘K6érnchen- kugeln” being the gorged leucocytes. Berlese (1901) has wholly denied the existence of phago- eytosis of living tissues; while Pérez (1910), working with Calliphora, regards the leucocytes as playing the main part in the destruction of larval tissues. In Wasonia there can be no doubt that chemical disintegration, and phagocytosis of dead tissues, both occur. The phagocytosis of dead tissues is, however, not so ingenious a device for the removal of débris as it at first sight appears to be; a more direct process would obviously be the solution of dead material in the blood. That this can occur in tissues which are phagocytised only when leucocytes have special access to them has been clearly demonstrated in the case of the tracheoles, and phagocytic histolysis is to be looked upon as the sign of a not yet fully eelved_metsmorphosie—ot an imperfect though ingenious method for_attaining a_result—which will be perfected only when the tissues_have ‘‘learned’’ to dissolve directly in the blood stream, and the leucocytes, in_their turn, to refrain from attacking these as they disintegrate. Berlese believes he has observed this kind of metamorphosis in a number of insects, but there is little doubt that he overlooked a quite extensive phagocytosis of larval tissues. It is only when other metamorphoses, especially those of highly specialized insects, are investigated, that an ‘‘ideal’’ transformation may be dis- covered. Phagocytic histolysis of larval tissues, indeed, seems to_be a very much over-estimated factor in the mechanism of the insect metamorphosis, and although some investigators, é.g., Verson, regard it only as a removal of dead larval tissues, others believe the leucocytes to be endowed with far higher powers and that they destroy the larval tissues while these are yet capable of actively functioning; Metchnikoff inclined to this view, and more recently Pérez (1910) has written in its favour. I shall discuss it more fully in the 486 second part of this paper, and shall merely remark here that this view is quite untenable. The leucocytes of the larva in its first instar are not very numerous; they are about 5-7 in diameter, and like most of the tissue cells at this stage have a fairly hyaline cytoplasm and a clear nucleus containing a large karyosome. They are still. They do not grow in size.during larval life. Their function during this period is apparently to engulf any bacteria which may have entered the circulation, and I have been able to observe them in young transparent larvae lying quite still in the blood, and absorbing minute bodies (micro-organisms ?) which were floating about in it. The are not, however, called extensively into activity till a little after feeding ceases. At this time the disintegration of larval tissues begins; and although the dead and dying larval cells are not bodily attacked till a day or two later, yet an absorption of their products of degeneration (globules and granules which have failed to dissolve) may occur. This period is marked by a great increase in the number of leuco- cytes, and during the next forty-eight hours their proliferation becomes very extensive. ; At first the leucocytes content themselves with absorbing stray granules and globules cast out by the degenerating cells, but later, especially at the end of the time of pupation, they fall upon the dead larval cells which have not yet dis- appeared and rapidly remove them. The process has been described above in the various tissues and need be only briefly mentioned here. As a rule, it seems, the leucocytes | do not enter the cells which they are attacking, as occurs so markedly in Calliphora, but, attaching themselves to their walls, send in a pseudopod, which gradually spreads out within the disintegrated cell, and an absorption of its sub- stance commences (fig. 129). It is only rarely in Vasomia that a leucocyte bodily enters the larval cells. At other times the leucocytes content themselves with nibbling off small pieces of tissue, which accumulate in small rod-like or rounded structures within their cytoplasm (fig. 195); at times, how- ever, a leucocyte may tear off long shreds of tissue. So large may these be that, to be accommodated within the leucocyte, they have to be bent and twisted about (figs. 197, 199). Division of the leucocytes appears to be only by binary fission. At times fully gorged leucocytes divide; but the. engulfed food always descends to only one of the resulting cells (fig. 196). I could not observe any cases of mitotic division. ' 487 The fully gorged leucocytes, which may be as much as ll» in diameter, begin to accumulate during the last hours of larval life, and the early stages of the pupal period within the cavities < of the various appendages. A digestion of their engulfed food occurs heré, and soon the food is recognizable only as a » number of large rounded or irregular granules within the cytoplasm of the leucocytes (fig. 204). Large vacuoles develop (fig. 194)—-structures related perhaps, in some way, to digestion of the granules, and these vacuoles are already quite commonly seen while the leucocytes are still actively engulfing food. Within the cavities of the appendages these vacuoles may increase greatly in size and considerably distend the leucocyte. Frequently the distension is so great that the leucocytes burst (figs. 205, 206), and their nuclei and degen- eration granules float about in the blood stream and finally dissolve. Usually, however, the leucocytes succeed in digest- ing their meal and gradually diminish in size again. The granules slowly disappear, and only small vacuoles remain (figs. 208, 209). In this condition they persist throughout the life of the insect. They are about 7y in diameter, and have a large nucleus, with a faintly granular chromatic content, and one small | karyosome. (0) The Heart .”” The fate of the heart during the insect metamorphosis has, so far as I am aware, never been carefully investigated, and the most contradictory views are held as to the events that occur within it during this period. According to Newport, the dorsal vessel of Sphinx hgustri pulsates throughout the whole of the pupal period, and evidently undergoes no changes during this time. In ‘\ Eristalis, on the other hand, Kiinckel d’Herculais observed a day of pupal life. According to Kowalevsky (1887) the dorsal vessel in Calliphora pulsates regularly till the third day of pupal life; thereafter it beats more irregularly, but does not seem to undergo any metamorphosis. Lowne (1890-1895) partly in- clines to this view; he observed a change in the form of the heart, but attributed this to a possible replacement of its old muscle cells by new ones. Weismann (1864), with no modern technique available to him, came to an entirely different conclusion. He observed, in hand dissections (!), that the heart became more fragile and was evidentiy at this time in a state of ‘‘histolysis.’’ ‘‘As an organ it is not broken up, but is redeveloped by a process similar to that which has been observed in the intestines and malpighian vessels.’ i / } a | on Os cessation of the heart beat for one or two days after the eighth | a 488 If the transformation of the heart of Vasonia is any indi- cation of what happens in the blow-fly, then there can be no doubt that Weismann’s view was the more correct. In the heart of NVasonia a metamorphosis occurs quite as profound as that observed in any of the other organs. The Structure of the Larval Heart. The heart of the larva (fig. 211) is a long tube, running right along the mid-dorsal region of the body and gradually bending downwards near the middle of the body, terminating in front, close behind the brain. It measures about 1°6 mm. in length. It is widest behind, where it measures ‘(08 mm. in diameter and gradually tapers in front into a long capillary tube—the “‘aorta.’’ The heart lies within the pericardium, a tube composed of a fine delicate membrane (fig. 213), which opens just behind the posterior part of the heart by a large funnel-shaped open- ing (figs. 211, 212), and tapers gradually anteriorly, eventu- ally fusing in the anterior part of the body, with the heart. The pericardial walls are composed of a single layer of greatly flattened cells (fig. 213), but are quite devoid of muscles. While the pericardium has a wide funnel-shaped opening into the body cavity behind, the heart itself is closed, and has no communication with the pericardial cavity except by a series of six pairs of minute openings, the ostia. These ostia are usually very difficult to observe, the only prominent ones being a single pair at the posterior end of the heart (fig. 212). The cardiac walls are here deflected inwards to form a valve, which allows blood to flow only from the ‘pericardial cavity into the heart. Neither the walls of the pericardium nor of the heart are themselves contractile; pulsation of the heart is produced by the contracting of certain very delicate muscles inserted in _the walls of the heart in irregular pairs at intervals along its length; the other ends of these minute muscles are inserted directly on to the dorsal integument. The pericardial walls are drawn out into long conical processes, within which these muscles lie (fig. 211). So far as I could observe, the peri- cardium is itself not contractile, and alary muscles appear to be quite absent. The pericardium, then, appears to be different from what is supposed usually to occur in insects. The cells of the heart undergo the same changes during larval life as do those of the other specialized larval organs; there is a great increase in cell size, with a total absence of cell division. In the adult larva they have attained a great size (fig. 216); they are very flat and measure as much as 2 489 34u in length. The nucleus is rounded or seat measuring 5u by 12p, and has a small nucleolus. The Metamorphosis of the Heart. It is at about the time of defaecation that the heart begins its transformation, and the metamorphosis is very pro- found. In the period just prior to defaecation the pericardial and ‘heart cells begin to undergo a granular degeneration. The nuclei show the usual great nucleoli, and the cells the usual hypertrophy (fig. 214). At this time it becomes possible to distinguish clearly the larval from the imaginal elements within the heart tissues (fig. 213). The imaginal heart, how- ever, is regenerated not only from.scattered embryonic cells within lin its walls, but also from a mass of embryonic cells lying just below_ the heart, and dorsal to the rear of the midgut. I have not been able to locate this structure in the early larva, but at the time of defaecation a column of these embryonic cells may be observed extending upwards and along the ventral side of the pericardium. Proliferation is very rapid and the cells advance quickly, absorbing the larval elements as they grow (figs. 214, 215, 216). The heart itself is rejuvenated mainly or entirely from the imaginal cells within its walls; only the pericardium seems to arise from the “‘sub- pericardial imaginal disc.’”’ In the larva eight hours after defaecation the heart tube has been completely rejuven- ated, and below it, and in close contact with it, lies a long band of cells, the renovated | “pericardium” (fig. 217). The nuclei of the (true) heart cells are large and bulge into the lumen of the tube (figs. 217, 219). At this period the imaginal pericardial cells are in process of rapid division. They quickly grow upwards (fig. 218) and soon form another tube on the outside of, and in close contact with, the renovated heart. The pericardium, therefore, no longer forms a loose sac on the outside of the heart, but actually becomes a part of it (fig. 219). In the region of the stomach the ‘“compound”’ heart remains as a rather wide sac-like tube. Ostia become developed, but I have not observed their dis- position accurately. In this region, also, the ‘‘pericardial’’ cells, which have formed a membrane in close contact with the 1e true heart tube, transform themselves into striated muscle cells (fig. 220). “This part of the heart alone is contractile. , All the more anterior part (7.e., in the thoracic and anterior ~“ abdominal regions) is to be looked upon as an “‘aorta.’’ It is composed, of course, of the ordinary heart tube, and the surrounding closely fitting renovated pericardium (fig. 219). The dorsal vessel of the adult wasp consists, then, of a short contractile chamber lying in the posterodorsal region of . : 490 the abdomen; it alone is contractile, and is not surrounded _ by pericardium. Its walls consist of two layers, an inner exceedingly fine and delicate ‘‘endothelium,’’ the transformed larval heart; and an outer layer of broad striated muscle fibres, circularly disposed, corresponding and homologous with the pericardium. The aorta, which is continuous with it in front, gradually bends down, and lies just dorsal to the oesophagus (cf. fig. 154). It is, of course, composed of the | same two layers (fig. 219). During larval life a few large rounded cells le in clos connection with the heart. They resemble the cells of the dorsal abdominal glands in appearance. So far as I could observe, they disappear late in pupal life. As the thoracic intestine, some six hours after pupation, begins to assume its almost insignificant proportions, the anterior part of the heart (aorta) sags downwards, and comes to lie just dorsal to the oesophagus, 7.¢., a little below the mid-region of the thorax. I have not been able to observe ne heart-beat during metamorphosis, the heart being too obscured by the surround- ing fat-body. In the head of the pupa, however, movements of the fat-body regularly occur, and this is due, doubtless, to the beating of the heart. A ppendix. THE DEGENERATION PROCESSES OF THE LARVAL CELLS OF VASONTIA. The physiological interpretation which we place on the insect transformation depends in the main on our knowledge of the condition of the larval cells at the time of meta- morphosis. Do the cells die, and is it only dead material that the leucocytes absorb; or are they attacked by the leucocytes while still alive? It is the former opinion, to a certain extent, that Berlese holds: ‘‘Phagocytosis never occurs, and amoebo- cytes only become active when the muscle has disintegrated through internal causes.’’ His amoebocytes were, mainly, ab any rate, embryonic cells—‘‘Myocytes,” ‘‘Splanchnocytes,’’ etc.—but there can be little doubt that his ‘‘sarcolytes’’ were really gorged leucocytes, and that phagocytosis does occur is certain. But is it phagocytosis of dead or living larval cells? Pérez has written in favour of the latter view. ‘‘I think I have proved satisfactorily that there is no spontaneous fragmentation of this organ into sarcolytes, as Berlese thought.’’ He observed the phagocytes entering muscles “J 491 always of apparently normal structure. But at other times he was clearly dealing with degenerating cells—cells with globulated and highly vacuolated protoplasm, though the occurrence of large vacuoles in the living salivary glands led him to doubt this interpretation. It should be pointed out, however, that even if a cell still has its normal structure, that _ is no proof | that it is snot dead. It may take many hours for the Se achiral “symptoms of death to become visible. It is, perhaps, just necessary to add that in whatever condition the tissues may have been when they were fixed, there is no doubt that when they were examined they were dead. It is also worth drawing attention to the fact that Lowne has expressly stated that the larval muscles become functionless some time before phagocytosis commences. The muscles of Calliphora appear to be very resistant to autolysis; torn-off fragments engulfed by phagocytes still retain their normal structure, yet these are, it is to be presumed, quite ‘‘dead.”’ When, however, we examine the cells of the adult larva of Wasomia no doubts can be left in our minds that death, accompanied this time by active disin- tegration, has occurred, and the most varied types of disintegration are to be seen. _AJI] the cells show as a common feature _a great hypertrophy. They have often grown to many times the size of the cells of the newly hatched larva; even the nerve cells have grown greatly, though here the increase in size cannot be estimated, as the volume of the nerve fibres is indeterminable. Most of the degener- ating cells present, also, a great nucleolus within the nucleus. Sometimes this may be relatively gigantic and may lodge excretory(?) crystals. This in itself lends support to the view that the nucleolus is a structure within the nucleus concerned with excretion—perhaps itself an excretory product, perhaps an excretory “‘organ.’’ The disintegration of the various cells occurs, as we have seen, In many ways. Sometimes before this -has had time to proceed very far, phagocytes or embryonic imaginal cells may overwhelm them (many muscles). At other times the adjacent imaginal cells absorb the degeneration products of the dead larval cells directly, either by secreting an enzyme which dis- solves them, or by waiting for them to disintegrate spon- taneously (microscopic examination cannot decide between these two). This is seen in the nerve cells. But at other times the larval organs undergo most marked visible disintegrations.. The cytoplasm becomes disorganized and may break up into globules or granules, or into a very fine débris, and be cast, as one large globule, or numerous minute particles from the cell, the wall of which itself later dissolves 492 in the blood stream or is absorbed by phagocytes. One of the commonest sights in the pupa is the hulks of these old cells, usually quite devoid of any trace of cytoplasm or nucleus, floating about in the blood stream, waiting to be engulfed by phagocytes. Sometimes the muscles may disintegrate spontaneously and may break up gradually into small globules which break through the sarcolemma and dissolve in the blood or become phagocytised; but perhaps the most extraordinary case of spontaneous disintegration is seen when the whole of the minute rod-like sarcous elements, which comprise the striations, are cast as a shower of minute particles into the blood, where they gradually dissolve (fig. 104). At no time have I ever observed the phagocytosis of tissues which could be regarded as living, and even in those cases where embryonic histoblasts overwhelm the larval organs and develop at their expense, visible degeneration has always previously occurred. Part II. On the Physiology and Interpretation of the Insect Metamorphosis. The constant occurrence of so many different characters, often of the most trivial kind, amongst even the most widely separated orders of insects, is in itself sufficient evidence to show that the ‘‘insect type’’ must have been evolved before the many varied kinds of development which we see at. the present day amongst insects, existed. It is inconceivable that such organs as compound eyes, wing nervures, insectan mouth appendages, legs of a constant character, to mention but a few of them, should have been produced again and again from independent sources. Nor is it difficult to decide whether these primitive insects showed the direct or the more complicated type of develop- . ment. The oldest insects yet discovered—the Palaeodictyop- tera and Protorthoptera of Carboniferous times, were clearly related to insects which at the present day show no meta- morphosis. The discovery in the Permian rocks of Russia of an ephemerid type of larva shows that already at this early period the indirect type of development, though as yet not of a very profound nature, had begun to evolve. There can be little doubt, however, that when the insects which must have existed in the earlier Palaeozoic ages become known to us, none but the most generalized of types will be found to have 493 existed. It may, of course, be said that insects of a kind which now undergo no metamorphosis may have done so at an earlier period; there is, however, no need to make this assumption, for, as I shall show later, the evolution of meta- morphosis has been a necessary consequence of the specializa- tion which these early generalized orders have since undergone. In order to trace the stages through which metamorphosis has been evolved it will be necessary to describe, very briefly, the’ main features of the postembryonic developments of a number of insects, in so far as we know them. As many of the accounts are not very reliable, and as no metamorphoses have been investigated from this point of view, the comparison is less complete than it ouglit to be. The insects are arranged in what I regard as ascending degrees of metamorphosis. The reason for this will be clear later. It is very interesting, at the same time, to observe that the order is also approximately that of increase of specialization. (1) The Aptera.—These emerge from the egg in practic- ally the adult condition. In Machilis the eye is believed to continue to develop. Sexual organs undoubtedly ripen during post-embryonic life. (2) Orthoptera and Hemiptera.—These usually emerge in a condition which, though like that of the adult, is somewhat more generalized, e.g., the thoracic segments have not yet markedly differentiated. During post-embryonic life there is a gradual growth of the wings; the insect moults several times, but only at the last moult do the wings appear free on the surface. Sexual organs undergo a parallel development. In the wingless forms post-embryonic life is of the .apteran type. (3) Odonata.—Partially developed wings clearly visible through the integument, even in early instars. Legs always very well developed, resembling those of adult. ‘‘The internal metamorphosis begins considerably before the hatching of the insect; the larva refuses to feed and is restless. Hypoderm cells proliferate, causing the larva to appear tense and swollen. The wing muscles grow greatly and increase the size of the thorax. New elements form rapidly in the eye.’’—Tillyard (1917). The larva then leaves the water, and the moult dis- closes the adult insect. Nothing is known of the cellular changes underlying the process, but they are evidently of the highest interest. : (4) Coleoptera (type: Galeruca, examined by Poyarkoff). —Larvae emerge with typical insect head and mouth appendages. Legs present, but much more reduced than in Odonata. Wings never clearly seen in larva. Division of 494 purely larval cells occurs during the feeding period, and there is a great growth in size. At metamorphosis some of the more specialized tissues (muscles) are phagocytised (evidently after dying); the cells of the less specialized tissues (hypoderm, oesophagus, rectum) cast out parts of their substance, and having evidently rejuvenated, remain as the adult tissues. In the case of the other organs, those of the imago are formed from areas of cells which till now have lain dormant—the imaginal discs. (5) Lepidoptera.—Larvae emerge with typical insect head and mouth appendages. Legs present though very reduced. The larval cells divide just before the various moults during _ the larval period. The larval tissues seem to disappear by phagocytosis and redevelop from imaginal discs. Very little is known, however, about the Lepidopteran metamorphosis. (6) Muscidae (Weismann, Kowalevsky, Van Rees, Pérez, and others).—The larva emerges as a legless maggot, with reduced spiracles, and with poorly developed mouth append- ages. Except for a tracheal proliferation cell division does not occur during larval life. At the end of the feeding period the larval cells die and are phagocytised; the imago develops from imaginal discs of scattered imaginal cells. (7) Chaleid Wasps (type: Nasoma).—The larva hatches in a very primitive condition; the head is still in a biseg- mented state; the only mouth appendages present are rudi- mentary mandibles; malpighian tubes have not yet developed ; the proctodaeal invagination has not yet even opened into the archenteron. There is no cell division during larval life, except possibly in the tracheal system (most of the apparent proliferation here is, however, due to growth in cell size). After three days all the larval tissues—even the almost in- significant peritoneal membrane—having grown in cell size, die. Some are removed by phagocytes, others dissolve in the blood. The imago develops from imaginal discs or scattered imaginal cells. It seems to follow from the above account that a meta-_ morphosis—a period of more or less violent transformation in contrast with ‘‘normal’’ progressive development—occurs in its simplest form in the dragon-flies. No definite pupa is formed here, and the insect, though restless and refusing to feed, is never helpless. But in all the others the internal changes are of a much more violent nature, amounting at times to an absolute death—in the fullest sense of the word— of the larva. If imaginal tissues were not present the ‘corpse’ would be left to decompose; the imaginal’ cells, owe 495 however, take the opportunity, and nourishing themselves upon the highly nutrient material of the dead larva, grow by an orderly process of development into a totally different organism —the imago. Even the instincts of the metamorphosing larvae are those of dying animals—they avoid the light; they roll themselves up in leaves; they crawl into secluded spots, or, significantly, even bury themselves in the earth! And yet by a wonderful process of development, unique of its kind among living things, the dead larva becomes the prey of minute scattered cells which have lain helpless among the larval cells while these flourished ; having awaited their oppor- tunity, these now spring into activity, and nourishing them- selves upon the. bodies of the dead larval cells, form another organism. From the grave of the dead larva arises the perfect insect. While then in the simpler metamorphoses there is a rapid transformation of tissue, in the more profound type a serious disruption of tissues occurs, the embryo developing within the old larval sheath is in a ‘helpless condition, and we speak of it as the pupa. The metamorphosis of an insect consists, nhl ble of two processes—a process of disruption and a process of orderly embryonic development. A ‘‘complete’’ explanation of meta- morphosis will, therefore, have to account for the disruption and likewise for the orderly development which ensues. The mechanism of the development is identical with that of any other embryonic development; it is the unexplained ‘‘Ent- wicklungsmechanik der Organismen,’’ and I can say nothing of it here. For-the process of disruption—of actual trans- formation—however, a simple explanation may, I think, be given. As it is highly probable, moreover, that the factor which brings about disruption of larval tissues in the more complex metamorphoses is identical with that which forces the cells in a simpler type to rejuvenate, it should be possible to obtain a general principle underlying metamorphosis. And lastly, since the rejuvenation of individual cells is itself evi- dently a process of rapid differentiation in cells in which the process has for some reason become temporarily suspended, it would seem that the same principle should be responsible for the cell differentiation seen in ‘‘normal’’ embryonic develop- ments. The discovery of the mechanism of metamorphosis ought, therefore, to lead to a more general theory of cell differentiation. As the principle is most clearly revealed in the more pro- found metamorphoses such as that of Vasonia, or the Muscids, these will be considered first. In the section on cell degenera- tion in the larval tissues of Vasoma I have pointed out that ' ( \ } 496 phagocytic histolysis consists always of a removal of dead tissues by leucocytes or their absorption by embryonic cells; if these cells do not intervene, the dead tissues will dissolve “of their own account in the blood. All attempts to explain metamorphosis, therefore, which have concerned themselves / with the phagocytosis of /iving tissues, have proved unsuc- ' cessful. Metchnikoff, for example, in seeking to explain the ' immunity of the imaginal cells at a time when the larval cells, which had but a day before been in the height of their activity, were becoming overwhelmed by leucocytes, concluded that the imaginal cells must emit substances which held the leucocytes at bay, and that the larval cells at metamorphosis no longer did this. He was led to this conclusion by his belief in the existence of anti-leucocytic substances in virulent anthrax bacteria which were not phagocytised. . Of the death of the cells before phagocytosis there can, however, be no doubt. While this view has more than once been favourably accepted, the cause of the extensive cell-death has not, so far as I am aware, been satisfactorily explained, and this, after all, is the real mechanical principle that under- lies metamorphosis. It is usually believed that the extensive cell-death has been produced by the ‘‘wearing out” of a great number of cells all at one time. Such wearing out of cells is believed to occur also in other organisms, but here it is gradual, and as some cells die others replace them. The latter must then be the imaginal cells of the metabolic insect, and metamorphosis has been evolved by the dying cells all ‘‘learn- ing’’ to undergo senescence at one moment; this has evidently been evolved in response to the necessity for a metamorphosis in animals whose young and adult stages have different feed- ing habits (Lubbock). Now this explanation is clearly not very satisfactory; if the extensive cell-death is merely a concentration, at one moment, of the deaths of numerous cells which would normally take place gradually throughout the life of the insect, how are we to explain rejuvenation of cells in metamorphoses of a simple type? Metamorphosis by cellular rejuvenation would rather appear to be a stage intermediate between a simple development and a total disruption followed by redevelopment from imaginal cells, as seen in the more profound meta- morphoses. Moreover, the essential thing to show would be how this concentration of death points has been produced, and this is manifestly beyond the scope of modern cytology. The extensive tissue disruption, it seems to me, is to be explained on a much simpler principle. The larva consists, in the highly specialized forms, of very specialized cells. Such cells never proliferate, and the growth of the larva is due 497 entirely to a growth in the size of the larval cells. Now as these cells grow larger and larger there is formed an increasing disproportion between the volume of the cell contents (which face membrane through which the cell contents are being fed (and which increases only as the square of the radius). Eventually, therefore, a time must come at which the cell contents cannot any longer receive sufficient nourishment through the.cell membrane. Death by starvation must be the_ result—indeed, the more rapidly y the larva feeds, the sooner it will starve. This great increase in the size of cells must also have another effect. The delicate chemical reactions occurring within the cells are of such a nature that they are very efficient in minute cells; but it is quite conceivable that as the distances through which diffusions and other molecular movements, taking place within cells, become increasingly larger, a critical volume will be reached at which the delicate balance between the reaction is upset and cellular death is the result. As the cells all grow approximately equally rapidly, a simultaneous death of cells throughout the larva will occur ; the leucocytes then fall upon the débris, and the result is phagocytic histolysis. In insects which do not undergo meta- morphosis, on the other hand, growth is produced largely by cell proliferation. The cells do not reach their critical state and extensive cell-death does not occur. While I am convinced that it is nothing but this great cell growth to which the whole wonderful transformation is to be attributed, yet I am aware that a number of objections may be made against it. If, as it seems, the individual cells have certain critical values beyond which life is no longer possible, how is it that underfed larvae, in which the cells have not reached this critical volume, may nevertheless meta- morphose? It is to be noted, however, that in underfeeding © (partially starving) the active larvae we are actively applying the very factor which must inevitably appear as the cells hypertrophy, vz., starvation. This objection may, indeed, be turned into a strong support for the view which I have above expressed. A more serious objection is that in cold weather the larvae may live for months after the cells have attained the critical volume. However, it has been pointed out by Chun . that the abundance of life in arctic and antarctic waters is due to the greater length of life of the organisms living there, due to a slackening of the metabolic processes with the lower- ing of the temperature. Probably the lowered temperature acts similarly on these mature larvae, temporarily repressing those chemical reactions within the cell which result in cellular disorganisation. 498 The extensive tissue disruption which occurs at meta- morphosis is due, then, to the hypertrophied state of the cell, this in turn being the result of a failure of the larval cells to divide. A more complete explanation ought, then, to account also for this absence of cell division with the devel- opment of specialization by the larval cells. Now I have pointed out, in the foregoing account of the metamorphosis of Nasoma, that the larval nucleus does not seem to be able to increase its chromatic contents. A volumetric: increase— sometimes quite considerable—of the nucleus is frequently seen, but no increase in the quantity of chromatin is ever to be detected. There may be an increase in the number of chromatin granules, but these are always formed by a break- ing up of the karyosome of the nucleus of the young cell (fig. 102). Now it has been pointed out by Professor Brails- ford Robertson (1909) that cholin formed as a by-product during the synthesis of nuclein from lecithin, accumulating mainly at the median plane of the cell, would bring about a diminution of surface tension here, and division would result. In the growing larval cells such nuclein synthesis is apparently absent, and consequently no cell division is to be expected. Specialization may perhaps consist then, in part, simply in the loss of the nuclein synthesizing enzymes. The investigations of Poyarkoff have shown that in Galeruca many of the larval cells transform themselves into imaginal cells by undergoing a process of rejuvenation; por- tions of the old cells are cast out and the interactions of the remaining substances transform the cell into that of the adult. The cytological interpretation of these results is very difficult. But is it not possible that those cell substances which have (phylogenetically) recently been acquired—substances the acquisition of which has enabled the cells gradually to adapt ‘themselves to the new conditions, as the feeding habits of. the evolving larva gradually diverged from those of the adult— may become starved out from the cells as they gradually approach the critical volume? These substances are, in a sense, ‘‘foreign’’ to the cell; while the cell lived under its new environment (the /arval environment) they thrived; but as the cells gradually weakened with increasing cell volume, would it not be these very substances which would perish first ? And is it not possible that the substances which Poyarkoff observed emerging from the rejuvenating cells were nothing but the substances to which the larval cells owe their new properties? These considerations will become clearer when we have examined the phylogeny of the insect metamorphosis. It is sufficient to point out here that even in the ‘‘cell rejuvenation’’ type of metamorphosis the same stimulus—the 499 attainment of a critical cell volume—may bring about the sudden transformation. In these forms divergence of the cells from the imaginal condition has not proceded so far as to prevent the cells returning to it; but in the more profound metamorphoses the greater specialization of the larval cells has resulted in a far more marked departure from the imaginal type; the cells are unable to recover when they reach the critical volume, and death is the result. Cell rejuvenation, then, is to be looked upon as a sudden differentiation in a cell in which this has been, for some reason, delayed ; it differs from differentiation as more usually seen, in that here the process is gradual. No satisfactory explanation has yet been offered for the extraordinary phenomenon of cell differentiation—the gradual transforming of a cell from a non-differentiated truly embryonic state into one whose structure is correlated with its function. But the “‘abnormal’’ differentiations to be observed in metamorphosing insects seem to throw considerable light on the process. It is well known that non-differentiated cells may quite success- fully perform work which is usually carried out by differenti- ated cells. For instance, the heart of a chick embryo beats long before cardiac muscle becomes .differentiated. I have similarly observed undifferentiated muscle cells of NWasonia functioning successfully. Now, it is well known that cell growth and cell differentiation are parallel events in embryonic processes. ‘Tissues consisting of cells with definite hereditary characteristics are laid down; the constituent cells grow and the tissues, or better, their component cells, differentiate. Is it not possible that in the struggle for existence that must ensue as the cells grow in size, all but the non-essential sub- stances—all those substances to which the generalized con- dition of the embryonic cell is due—gradually disappear ? Only those substances which are essential persist. The “explanation”’ is very incomplete, and there are many diffi- culties in the way of its acceptance. But it seems to me that it contains an element of truth. It is necessary to consider next the course of evolution of the insect metamorphosis, and to consider the factors which have necessitated this evolution. Lubbock has pointed out that a metamorphosis is a necessity in organisms whose adult and larval mouth parts are structurally unlike. This does not, however, explain the reason for the metamorphosis of the more insignificant structures of the insect’s body. Nor does it help us to understand why the insect larva which shows this metamorphosis should ever have been evolved. The phylogenetic significance of the larva has, I believe, frequently been explained correctly. It is a stage which has 500 been gradually inserted into the direct development; feeding gradually became confined to the earlier part of the life period, further development to the latter. In other words, processes which ran side by side, have gradually become separated. This conception is undoubtedly correct; but no explanation has, so far as I am aware, ever been offered as to why such a complex’ process should ever have replaced the simpler one, nor have the various types of metamorphosis ever been considered as throwing light on the structural changes through which the insect passes as they developed metamorphoses. It is these questions that I wish to discuss here. Ae When we consider the insects as a group and seek to account for their extraordinary success in nature, two char- acters in their structure present themselves to us—the wings, which have enabled them to conquer a new environment; and the hard chitinous body wall, which makes them so secure against attack. For the less specialized insects—cockroaches, silverfishes, grasshoppers, etc.—which live in truly hidden localities (Cryptozoa), these structures, though important, are not constantly essential. A grasshopper may pass much of its life without wings and ‘may even temporarily cast its cuticle. For the females of such insects, moreover, a large egg mass is no fatal burden, and we find that the eggs are well pro- vided with yolk. The presence of this yolk enables the embryo to undergo a large part of its development within the egg. In the earlier Palaeozoic times none but these generalized insects existed. But as the struggle for existence increased, these insects began to adopt more fully the new environment which had become available to them when wings were evolved ; as the pressure of life increased more and more this.specializa- tion became more and more marked, till there was produced the marvellous diversity of form that exists to-day. Now this specialization must have had two marked con- sequences : — (a) As the insects: began to adopt a more active type of existence such as we see in the Diptera, Lepidoptera, and many Coleoptera, it became increasingly hazardous, or even impossible, to moult during this period of active life. It would be clearly impossible for a butter-fly or a blow-fly to undergo a moult at the present day. Moreover, the cuticle of these specialized insects constitutes a considerable proportion of the body weight. The casting and reforming of this, several times, would be an insurmountable strain on the insect’s economy. (b) With increase in activity it became more and more impossible to carry large masses of yolked eggs. Either the 501 quantity of yolk within the eggs would have to decrease, or the number of eggs would have to diminish. While the latter may have occurred, there is no doubt that the former process has predominated, till in the chalcid wasps we find eggs in which yolk may be almost absent. Under the influence of the first factor (a), with increase in specialization it became increasingly necessary that feeding should occur earlier, and ever earlier in the free living period of the insect. Under the influences of the second factor (0), it became necessary that the larva should hatch in a more and more incompletely developed condition. The result of _ the co-operation of these two processes has been very marked. __ aa In the less specialized insects as growth became more con- centrated in the earlier part of the free living period, the imaginal cells had to adapt themselves temporarily to rapid feeding conditions; only after a considerable time did the delayed differentiation occur. The metamorphosis here is very simple (Odonata), and the cells which have already begun to specialize in a certain direction (that of rapid feeding and growing) can, nevertheless, evidently attain the imaginal con- dition with comparative ease. The Coleoptera emerge from the egg in a more primitive condition, and while some tissues can still rejuvenate, others are unable to do so; they die and . the adult organs are formed from imaginal discs. In the Muscidae this process has gone much further. But in the chalcid wasps the divergence from the imaginal condition is most marked of all. It it customary to regard the Muscids as showing the most marked of metamorphoses, but in this théy are far surpassed, it seems to me, by the chalcid wasps. The state of embryonic development in which their larvae hatch has been pushed so far back that the head is still in a bisegmentated condition, appendages are almost entirely absent, malpighian tubes are not yet formed, the mandible may still exhibit the crustacean palp, and the proctodaeal ingrowth has not yet opened into the archenteron. So specialized, moreover, has the larva become to absorbing food rapidly, that it does not apparently even take time, as far as I could observe, to excrete nitrogen. All its food is stored in the form of hypertrophied larval cells within its body, and not till the cells attain their critical volume does transforma- tion occur. It is scarcely necessary to point out that as the insects gradually developed metamorphoses, the instincts of the parents had to undergo marked modification. As feeding had to become concentrated at the beginning of life, they had to _ deposit their ova in places where such food was to be obtained. = 502 It is necessary finally to point out the changes through which the tissues must have passed as the metamorphosis gradually evolved. As the simple ‘‘rejuvenation” meta- morphosis evolved,.the cells of the imago had to “‘learn’’ to adapt themselves to a period of rapid feeding, perhaps on special foods, in the early part of the life cycle. As the larval condition, which had then become initiated, became more marked greater specialization of cells resulted. For a time these cells were still able to rejuvenate themselves. But as specialization of the imago (and consequently also of the larva, though in a different direction) proceeded, these larval cells must have found it increasingly difficult and finally impossible to transform themselves into the imaginal cells from which they had phylogenetically descended. Death must eventually have resulted in some of the cells. Now as specialization increased still further more and more of these larval cells must have perished; in order that the individual should survive other larval cells would have to undergo a decrease in specialization. And as the present-day specialization of the imago was gradually attained there would thus have had to occur two parallel processes within the larva—an increase of specialization of some cells (the true larval cells) and a decrease in specialization, 2.e., a retention of embryonic char- acters in others. There would in this way be formed imaginal discs. That this is the phylogeny of imaginal discs is clearly shown by the fact that these structures are always found in close connection with the structure of the larva to which they correspond ; ¢.g., in Nasoma the antennal nerve of the imago arises from a cluster of cells in the brain lying very close to the antennal ganglion of the larva; or, to take a simpler case, the imaginal disc of the adult mandible lies in very close communication with the mandible of the larva. If the mandible of the larva had been evolved quite independently of the imaginal mandible this would not have been the case. To recapitulate, then, in the struggle for existence which has been going on among insects since Palaeozoic times, the possession of wings and a hard cuticle has enabled the insects to undergo marked specialization. Active flight made the carrying of numerous heavily yolked eggs impossible, and as the laying of numerous eggs has remained essential the quan- tity of yolk material has gradually diminished, reaching a minimum in the chalcids. On the other hand, the increased © loss to the animal economy sustained by the moulting of imaginal cuticles has necessitated that growth in size of the body should become more and more concentrated at earlier parts of the free living period; ultimately moulting has dis- appeared in the life of the imago. These two processes have SS e 503 resulted in a gradual shifting of the period of growth to the beginning of the free living period; and have at the same time forced the larvae to emerge from the egg in increasingly earlier periods of individual development. The processes of accelerated growth and of premature emergence from the egg have reached their maximum not among Muscids, as is usually supposed, but among the chalcid wasps. By this.gradual concentration of the growth period to the beginning of the post-embryonic life a new organism which may have to fit into a wholly new environment has been produced—the larva. Coenogenetic modifications, almost as ‘interesting as the adaptations of the adult insect, have arisen ; but it is in the protected parasitic larvae that we must look for cases in which the processes of premature hatching and rapid feeding, unfettered by a complex environment, have proceeded the farthest ; and it is among the chalcid wasps that the most profound recovery from larval specialization— metamorphosis—is to be found. It is possible now to obtain a clearer conception of the significance of the pupa. When specialization first developed, return to the imaginal condition was doubtless by means of | cellular rejuvenation. Increasing specialization of the imago produced, automatically, as I have shown above, increased specialization towards rapid food absorption. When recovery by rejuvenation from this specialization became impossible, continued specialization of some larval cells must have been accompanied by decreased specialization of others; ultimately the latter would have remained as embryonic cells, and imaginal ‘‘discs’’ were the result. Now in the early stages of evolution of the larval form, the resulting metamorphosis must have been of a very simple type, differing little, indeed, from direct development; a simple rejuvenation of tissues, such as occurs still to a certain extent amongst Coleoptera, must have occurred. Nothing is known of the metamorphosis of the dragon-flies, but a cell rejuvenation metamorphosis among these forms may be pre- dicted with considerable confidence. There is no extensive tissue death, apparently, and it is not possible here to speak of a pupa in the usual sense of the word. But as the specializa- tion became more marked, extensive tissue death, and corresponding tissue regeneration occurring late in larval life, brought about an absolute break in the orderly developmental process, and the actual development of the less generalized characters of the insect did not begin till after the larval tissues had died. This metamorphosis begins considerably before the last ‘‘larval’’ moult; eventually when the larva _ does moult there comes to view a wholly different organism— 504 we can see now the imago, whose development has been so long delayed, and which would have appeared in this state in the egg if growth of the imago could have been possible. This ‘larval’? moult in the different orders takes place when the embryo is in various states of development. In Lepidoptera the appendages are only feebly developed; the hard secretion of the exposed epithelium effectually serves to hide these. In the chalcids appendages are always well developed ; indeed, in this group it is possible to say that the period preceding the pupal moult is the period of growth in size of the external form of the developing imago, the pupal period the period of its differentiation. This generalization cannot, however, be applied to the internal organs; it serves merely to emphasize the fact that the peculiar organization of the external features of insects have mainly been responsible for the evolution of metamorphosis. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the view so often held, vz., that metamorphosis commences in the pupal period, is quite erroneous ; for some few tissues this is true, but more usually the most profound changes occur under the shelter of the old larval cuticle. . It is interesting, in conclusion, to observe that the insects do not, after all, provide an exception to the generalization of Von Baer, that resemblances between different species become closer as we examine ever earlier stages of their embryonic development. It has more than once been remarked that the pupae of related insects are more alike than their larvae; but when we remember that the larva is a younger product of evolution than the embryo which succeeds it in development, and which is revealed at the pupal moult, then our confidence in the law, the truth of which has lately been so much questioned, must become stronger than ever. SUMMARY. A. External Features. The subject of this investigation is a small chalcid wasp, Nasonia, parasitic on muscid pupae, and world-wide in dis~ tribution. The larva, which is composed of fifteen segments (2 head, 3 thoracic, 10 abdominal), feeds for three days and then begins to metamorphose; a day later the contents of the intestine are voided (defaecation period), another day later, after the developing imaginal discs have grown into the form of the imago, the ‘‘larva’’ moults ‘and discloses the pupa. Further development of imaginal organs and disintegration of larval se wa t s ‘A oY y 505 tissues occur during the pupal period. On the fourth day of pupal life the integument chitinises and the imago is seen lying within the transparent pupal sheath. The development of the head from the first two segments is fully described. The head appears to be composed of five primitive segments. The mouth appendages develop by the evagination of imaginal discs. The latter are seen in the first larval instar as thickenings of the integument, consisting of minute embryonic cells. These, like the anpendages of the legs, wings, and abdomer (in females) become invaginated during larval life as the surrounding larval cells increase in size, and only evaginate again at metamorphosis. These, and all other imaginal tissues, are to be observed in the larvae at all stages of their development. The most noteworthy feature in the mouth appendages is the occurrence of a mandibular palp. In the antennae, organs of smell, touch, and hearing are described. The compound ‘‘thorax’’ is described as consisting of three thoracic segments, as well as the first abdominal: and dorsal part of the second abdominal. The lower part of the second remains as the petiole. This is contrary to accepted views. Legs and wings are formed as outgrowths from invaginated discs on the ventral side of the thoracic segments. The ovipositor is formed by the outgrowth of three pairs of imaginal discs on the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth segments; they come into intimate relation and co-operate to form the complex ovipositor. The penis is formed as a remarkable modification, accom- panied by partial invaginations, of the hinder abdominal Segments. L. Histological Changes in Intequment. The larval cells, having grown greatly in size during the feeding period, disintegrate; in part they dissolve in the blood; in part they are removed by leucocytes. The minute imaginal cells develop at their expense and no break in the integument is ever to be seen. The underlying somatopleure also metamorphoses. Bristles are formed as partial chitinisations of cells or groups of cells which have grown out into the form of bristles. Pubescences are formed as chitinisations of the frayed exteriors of other cells. Phragmas are formed as cleft-like invaginations of the integument; false phragmas by the downgrowth of the Margin of segments. The eye is represented in the first intsar by an integu- - mental thickening consisting of three layers of cells. From the outer develop the lens, and vitreous cells; from the middle 506 the ‘‘retinula’’ and pigment cells; from the lower the rhab- dome cells. The cells arrange themselves in little groups (ommatidia) each consisting of one central rhabdome cell, surrounded by seven sheath (‘‘retinula’’) cells (of which one later disappears), which are, in turn, surrounded by four pigment cells. At the outer end are formed four vitreous and two lens cells. The latter surround the former*and their upper ends secrete the lens. The rhabdome cell chitinises. An ingrowth from the ectoderm which surrounds the eye forms a membrane beneath the developing eye (‘‘perioptic mem- brane’’). Its cells serve as neurolemmae for the cells of the optic ganglion. The remarkable process of the development of the eye innervation in connection with the perioptic mem- brane is fully described. | The ocelli are similarly modifications of the integument only, and the nerve reaches them, quite independently, from the brain. C. Resmratory System. The larva has a pair of longitudinal tracheal trunks, connected by transverse trunks in front and behind. The longitudinal trunks open to the exterior by four short stig- matic trunks, which. increase to nine in the second larval instar. The air is carried to the tissues by extraordinary tracheoles, of a kind not hitherto, apparently, described. Hach branching system, of which there are two to five in a segment, is simply a highly branched hollow cell, formed from a greatly ‘modified cell of the tracheal epithelium (giant tracheoloblast). Increase of complexity during larval life is produced by growth of the size of these cells, and by further branching. The whole tracheal system degenerates at metamorphosis, partly dissolving in the blood, partly removed by leucocytes after degenerating. A simultaneous regeneration from embryonic cells which form imaginal ‘‘nests’’ at the bases of all the stigmatic trunks, prevents any discontinuity in the tracheal system occurring. The embryonic cells grow over the dead larval cells of the main trunks; growing out in places they now form the true branching multicellular tracheal vessels in the head, alitrunk, and abdomen. Some of them are modified into the great thoracic air sacs. The “‘spiral’’ intima of the tracheae is formed as a chitinisation of ridges formed on the inside of the cells which compose the tracheal epithelium. D. The Muscular System. The larval muscular system begins to degenerate in places before defaecation, ¢.g., in the thorax, embryonic cells (myoblasts) begin to crawl over certain dorsal longitudinal i 507 thoracic muscles which are beginning to lose their striations and ultimately form the wing muscles. They penetrate the muscles, which soon become riddled with these cells and ultimately absorb them; in their place is formed a pair of bands of myoblasts. Some of these myoblasts fuse in five longitudinal columns within each band, and the syncytium remains as the sarcoplasm of the future ‘‘wing muscles.” Other myoblasts send off processes into these columns and form the sarcostyles of Schafer, which are therefore fibres, not fibrils, as usually supposed. Each band then breaks up into its five constituents, and the great ‘‘wing’’ muscles of the thorax are formed. The ‘‘muscle insertions” are always integumental cells. | a Other muscles of the larva, which may show all kinds of disintegration processes, may become absorbed by leucocytes ; others, again, dissolve slowly in the blood stream, usually throwing out large rounded globules as they doso. A specially remarkable case of disintegration is seen when the whole of the minute sarcous elements are cast out as a fine shower of “bacillus-like’’ rods into the blood stream where they dissolve (fig. 104). In all cases the adult muscles are regenerated from embryonic cells (myoblasts), like leucocytes in appearance, which have lain dormant during larval life. They unite one after the other to form syncytial columns, one or more cells in thickness. If more than one ceil in thickness the columns may (head, leg, and ovipositor muscles) or may not (pharyn- geal dilators) become pulled apart to form a number of narrower columns. Each of these columns undergoes fibrilla- tion and striation by a method quite different from that described in the ‘‘wing’’ muscles. In structure the muscles always present striations in the form of double spirals. Certain unicellular intestinal muscles may be markedly branched, each branch consisting of only a few fibrials. Striation is here truly transverse. E. The Intestine. The larval intestine consists of fore-, mid-, and hindguts. The latter does not open into the midgut till towards the end of larval life. This marks the defaecation period. The imaginal tissues are (1) a ring around the posterior _ end of the oesophagus, (2) scattered cells at the bases of the larval cells of the midgut, (3) cells surrounding the anterior _ parts of the rectum. Salivary glands are well developed ; into the midgut open three hepatic caeca; malpighian tubes are absent in the larva. P2 4 508 7 On the fourth day of larval life the foregut and rectum degenerate and are rapidly regenerated by cells growing from the imaginal rings. The oesophagus is also partly regenerated from the head integument, which creeps in through the mouth. The cells of the midgut disintegrate by a remarkable process of globular degeneration and fall into the lumen of the gut; the epithelium is rapidly regenerated by the ‘‘imaginal’” cells of the midgut. The hepatic caeca become bodily drawn in through the walls of the degenerating larval midgut. This is produced by pressure from the regenerating epithelium. The function of this epithelium is to absorb the disintegrated cells. The anterior portion of the epithelium then itself breaks up into a fine débris and is absorbed by leucocytes ; the posterior part remains as the stomach. Meanwhile the imaginal ring of the oesophagus has formed a great cone of cells, which temporarily has closed the midgut in front. The cells of this cone now grow back through the thorax and fuse with the stomach; they differentiate to form gizzard and crop. The malpighian tubes grow out from the anterior part of the hindgut in the defaecating larva. The hindgut bends upon itself on account of rapid cell proliferation ; the anterior part is the small intestine, the hinder the short rounded rectum. Within its walls is formed a pair of rectal glands, by thicken- ing of the epithelium. | The salivary glands, after disintegrating, are phago- cytised. A single salivary gland is formed by ingrowth of cells from the regenerated oesophageal epithelium. Only one salivary gland occurs in the imago. F. The Ductless Glands. (1) The Oewocytes.—The larval oenocytes grow in size but do not proliferate; at metamorphosis they simply dis- integrate. Leucocytes may at times aid in their removal. The imaginal cenocytes are formed from small clusters of cells which grew inwards from the ectoderm in the early larva. They separate and scatter themselves between the fat cells. (2) The Lateral Intestinal Glands are a pair of long chains of glandular cells lying just beneath their lateral hepatic caeca. They disintegrate during metamorphosis. (3) The Dorsal Abdominal Glands.—The imaginal anlage of these is a band of cells lying in the young larva dorsally on the end of the midgut. They grow and proliferate late in larval life and resemble empty fat cells. During late pupal life they assume a glandular appearance. They persist through- out imaginal life and are not pericardial cells or young fat cells. 509 G. The Fat-hody. The cells of the fat-body do not proliferate during larval life. They grow in size and store fat and other (protein /) foodstuffs in their cytoplasmic meshwork. Before defaecation excretory crystals may accumulate within them, though these soon disappear when the malpighiaw tubes form, and are cast into the stomach, where they accumulate during the pupal period. The storage products gradually disappear during pupa- tion, as the imaginal tissues grow at their expense. Fre- quently the remnants of the fat cells, deprived of their storage substances, are phagocytised. Others persist throughout pupal and imaginal life. There is no regeneration of fat-body. Some of the fat cells are seen to have a capacity for limited - phagocytosis. H. The Gonads. . These occur in the youngest larvae as a pair of club- shaped masses attached to the ventral body wall. They begin to grow at metamorphosis and develop directly into the adult organs. The male organs often show ripe sperms already in the third day of pupal life. The ovaries continue to develop during imaginal life. IT. The Nervous System. In the larva there is a brain above the oesophagus con- nected to a ventral nerve cord consisting of twelve ganglia, the last of which consists of three fused ganglia. A single . Stomotogastric ganglion is present. The nerve cord and brain are composed of larval cells and imaginal neuroblasts. Dur- ing metamorphosis the former degenerate, and the latter proliferate. In the nerve cord the dead cells which form masses of necrotic tissue there, are quickly absorbed: into the degenerate strands of fibres that run along the cord, the new nerve cells send their growing nerve fibres, and no dis- continuity is to be observed. In the peripheral nerves, the fibres break into globules which, passing out, dissolve in the blood or are phagocytised. All these changes take place within the splanchnopleural covering of the nerve cord, which itself metamorphoses by imaginal cells replacing dead larval eells, and no discontinuity occurs in it. It follows, therefore, that no discontinuity is to be observed in the nerve cord and . peripheral nerves as a whole, although the most profound changes are taking place within it. These changes are com- pleted before pupation; a migration of nerve cells (7.¢., of ganglia) then commences and the concentrated nervous system of the imago is formed. 510 Similar changes occur in the brain ; but within it the dead larval elements lie for more than a day as masses of degenerate cells, before these are absorbed by the imaginal cells. The first ventral ganglion is merged into the brain, and it is much more complex than in the larva. Leucocytes do not take part in the metamorphosis. J. The Vascular System. The blood acts as the medium into which the nutrient degeneration products of the larva are poured and from which: the imaginal cells again take them. Often the leucocytes, which proliferate considerably during metamorphosis, may aid in the removal of the dead larval elements by phagocy- tising them. The larval heart consists of a long tube, provided with ostia, and lying within a delicate pericardium. Imaginal cells lie within the heart walls and regenerate it at the time of defaecation. The larval pericardium undergoes total degeneration. In its place is formed a band of cells right. along the ventral side of the heart; the cells originate from an imaginal disc lying ventral to the heart, just above the end of the hindgut. This band of cells then grows upwards. and completely surrounds the heart, forming a two-layered organ, which becomes muscular behind (heart), remaining non-contractile in front (aorta). There is therefore no true pericardium in the imago. K. The Insect Metamorphosis. Insect metamorphosis is brought about by an extensive tissue death, due to the hypertrophy of the larval cells. Death of the cells is due to an automatic starvation, due to the fact that the cell contents, which increase as the cube of the radius of the growing cells cannot be nourished indefinitely through the cell membrane, whose area increases only as the square of the radius. 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BRAILSFORD. 1909—Chemical Mechanics of Cell-division. Archiv. f. | Entw.-mech., 27, p. 29. Russ. _ (1908)—Die postembryonale Entwicklung des Darmkanals bei den Trichopteren. Zool. Jahrb., 25, 1908. Samson, K. 1908—Ueber das Verhalten der Vasa Malpighii und die excretorische Funktion der Fettzellen wahrend der Metamorphose von Heterogenea limacodes. Zool. Jahrb. Anat., Bd. 26, p. 403. SAVIGNY. 1816—Mémoires sur les Animaux sans Vertébrés, Pt. 1. Paris. ScHarer, E. A. 1891—On the Minute Structure of the Muscle-columns, or Sarcostyles, which form the Wing-muscles of Insects. Proc. Roy. Soc., London, vol. 49, p. 280. SHarp, D. 1895—Insects. Cambridge Natural History. SupPino, F. 1900—Osservazione sopra fenomeni che avvengono durante lo sviluppa postembrionale della Calhphora erythrocephala. Bol. Soc. Entom. ital., Anno 32, p. 192. Also, Atti della R. Acad. dez Lincei, 5, 9. TILLYARD, R. J. The Biology of Dragon-flies. Cambridge, 1917. 515 "TOWER. 1909—The Origin and Development of.the Wings of Coleoptera. Zool. Jahrb., vol. 17. Vaney, C. 1902—Contributions 4 lVétude des larves et des méta- morphoses des Diptéres. Ann. Univ. Lyon., new series, fasc. 9. Van Rees, J. 1884—Over intra-cellulaire spijsvertering en over de beteekensis der vitte bloedlichaampjes (Maanblad voor Natuurvetenschappen IT.). 1889—Beitrage zur Kenntniss der inneren Metamorphose von Musca vomtaria. Zool. Jahrb. Anat., 5, 3. VeERsON, E. 1898—Zur Entwicklung des Verdauungscanals beim Seidenspinner. Zool. Anz., 21. 1905—Zur Entwicklung des’ Verdauungscanals bei Bombyx mori. Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool., vol. 82, p. 523. VIALLANES, H. 1882—Recherches sur Uhistologie des Tusectes Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool., (6), 5, 14. 1884—-Etudes histologiques et organologique sur les centres nerveux et les organes des sens des animaux articules. 2e Mémoire. Le ganglion optique de la Libellule. Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool., (G):55 18. | 1885—3e Mémoire. Le ganglion optique de quelques larves de Dipteres. Ann. Sc. Nat.- Zool., (Gy; 54, 19. 1887—4e Mémoire. Le cerveau de la quépe (Vespa crabro et V. vulgaris). Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool., (7), 5, 2 WEISMANN, A. 1864—Die nachembryonale Entwicklung der Musciden. Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool., Bd. 14. 1866—Die Metamorphose der Corethra plumicorms. Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool., Bd. 16. “WEISSENBERG. 1907—Ueber die Oenocyten von T'orymus nigricorms, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Meta- morphose. Zool. Jahrb. Anat., Bd. 23. WHEELER, W. R. 1890—Neuroblasts of Arthropod embryos. Journ. Morphol., 5, 4. f ‘WIELOWIESSKI, H. 1886—Uber das Blutgewebe der Insecten. 516 Reference to Letiering. a.: Antenna. ab.l-ab.10: Abdominal segments. a.d.: Imaginal] disc of antenna. a.g.: Accessory glands. a.g.i.: Im- aginal antennal ganglion. a.g.J.: Larval antennal ganglion. a.l.: Antennal lobe. an.: Anus. a.u.: Antennal nerve. ant.: Second (true) antenna. a.p.: Adhesive pad. app.ab.10: Append- age of tenth abdominal segment. a.s.: Antennal nerve strand. b.m.: Basement membrane. br.: Brain. c.: ‘Drum-shaped’’ chamber. ¢.0.c. Gircumoesophageal connective. cr. : hee dai: Dorsal apaenen giand. d.g.: Degeneration globules. e.: Hye. e.op.: Epiopticon. ex.m.: Heenan muscle. f.: Sarco- style. f.b.: Fat-body. 9 f.c.: Follicie cells. ‘f.2.: > Wore eee fl.m.: Flexor muscle. g.l-g 12: Ganglia of ventral nerve cord. gl.: Lubricating gland. gz.: Gizzard. h.: Heart. h.c.: Hepatic caecum. i.c.: Intestinal calls ie ee Imazinal dise of integument. i.i.c.: Imaginal integumentary cells im.c.: Imaginal cell. imt-C,, Integumentary (larval) cell. i.o.c.: Imaginal oesophageal cell. i.oen. Imaginal Lie: bess 10,0. : Imaginal tracheal cell. rs Hs ie Imaginal tracnea. Jaw of larva. k.m.: Krause’s mem- brane. 1.: Leucocyte. ee Legs. lab.: Labium. Ibr.: Labrum. l.c.: Lens cells. I.d.: Imaginal* disc of leg. Li.g. = Lateral intestinal gland. 1.m.: Longitudinal muscle. 1.0.c.: Larval oesophageal cell. 1.p.: Labial palp. Is.: Lens. Ls.: Larval cuticular sheath. l.t.c.: Larval tracheal cell. I.v-e.; Larval cell. m.: muscle. malp.t.: Malpighian tubule. md.: Mandible of imago. m.d.: Imaginal disc of mandible. md.p.: Mandibular palp. m.g.: Mid gut. m.i.: Muscle insertion. ms.tx.: Mesothorax. mth.: Mouth. mt.tx.: Metathorax. mx.: Maxilla. mx.p.: Maxillary palp. myb.: Myoblasts. n.: Nucleus. n.c.: Nerve cell. ne.: Nutritive cell. ng.c.: Neuroglia cell. nml.: Neurolemmal cell. u.0.: Nerve to oral appendages. nrb.: Neuroblast. n.s.: Nerve strand. n.t.: Dead larval tissue. n.v.: Nerve. o.: Ovum. oc.: Ocellus. od.: Oviduct. oen.: Oenocyte. oes.: Oesophagus. o.g.: Optic ganglion. o.g.2: Middle optic ganglion. o.g.3: Inner optic ganglion. o.gl.: Ocellar ganglion. om. : Ommatidium. o.m.: Oblique muscle. o.n.s.: Ocellar nerve strand. o.p.: Opticon. op.n.: Optic nerve. ost.: Ostia. ov.: Ovary. ov ip. : Ovipositor. ovip.l-ovip.3: Imaginal dises of ovi- positor, or the structures into which they have developed. p.b.: Polar body. p.c.: Pigment cell. p.d‘m.: Pharyngeal dilator muscle, ped.: Beceeedinies, ph.: gharyit phr.: Phragma. p.m.: Perioptic membrane. p.m.c.: One of the remarkable branching cells of the perioptic membrane. p.op.: Periopticon. pt.: Petiole. pr.tx.: Prothorax. r.d.: Imaginal disc of rectum. rect.: Rectum. rect. g. : Rectal gland. rh.: Rhabdome (or rhabdome cell). rp.c.: Replacing cell of midgut epithelium, 7.e., the anlage of the tempor ary pupal midgut. s.: Syncytial columns of wing muscles. sal.d.: Salivary duct. sal.g.: Salivary gland. s.a.o.: Sensory appendage of ovipositor. s.c.: Sheath cell (‘‘reti- nula”’ cell). s.i.: Small intestine. sp. Splanchnopleure. sp.l-sp.10: Lateral spiracles. — spl.: Mesodermal somatopleure. sp.n.: Nucleus of a splanchnopleure cell. 8.7. : Sensory rod. st.: Stomach. stg.: Stomatogastric ganglion. “t.: Tendon. t.: Testis. t.o.: Ovarian tubules. trb.: Developing tracheoloblast. trl.: Tracheole. 1 Oe Longitudinal tracheal trunk. t.t.t. : Transverse tracheal trunk. v.: Vagina. v.e. Vitreous cell. v.d.: Vas deferens. v.n.c.: Ventral nerve cord. v.s.: Vesicula 517 seminalis. vsc.: Vesicle. w.l-w.2: Wings. w.d.: Imaginal disc of wing. W.1. ne insertion. w.m.: ‘‘Wing’’ muscles. w.m.b.: “Wing’’ muscle band. x.: Various structures referred to in text. ; DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. (a ‘ PratEe XV. My Fig. 1. Larva of Nasonia towards end of first instar, in ventral view. The muscles are shown on one side; on the other are seen the respiratory vessels. The nerve cord is also visible |i Fig. 2. Larva at end of feeding period (x55), showing the _ fifteen imaginal discs of the integument (heavily shaded), one _ (pair) in each segment. The respiratory system is also seen; the __ alimentary canal is shown in outline. 7 Fig. 3. Anterior end of larva at time of defaecation (x 150). Metamorphosis has commenced, and the various appendages are clearly seen through the transparent larval sheath. Note the | fat-body showing up through the integument; note also the | mandibular palp. Fig. 4. Abdomen of imago, in ventral view. The numbers refer to the abdominal segments. . | Fig. 5. Integumental imaginal dise of larva shown in fig. 2 (180). showi ing the invaginated leg anlage. . Fig. 6. Anlage of leg, from the same specimen, viewed in ' optical section (x 300). Note the mesoderm extending into the | hollow appendage. | ; PuateE XVI. 4 Fig. 7. Fresh pupa (x50), showing migration of first two abdominal segments. Ra Fig. 8. The same, four days later (x 50). Note the exten- _ sive shrinking that has occurred. Note also final position of _ migrated abdominal segments. i Fig. 9. View of propodeum and adjacent segments of pupa bs two days old (x70). Note the migrated abdominal segments ; also the complex wing insertions. *: Fig. 10. Transverse section through first thoracic segment | of larva in first instar (x1000). The complete section has not been drawn. Notice the imaginal elements in the integument, nerve - eord, and intestine. Fig e. ll. Antennae of female wasp, imago (x120). The bristles are not shown. Note the auditory organs. ' Fig. 12. Head of metamorphosing larva, about 17 hours before pupation, 7.e., seven hours later than fig. 2 (x 150). Prate XVII. } Fig. 13. Head of mature larva at cessation of feeding, viewed ventrally, and slightly from one side, showing all the imaginal discs of ‘the mouth appendages (x159). Note the double _ nature of the labrum; also the true antenna (ant.), which later _ disappears. Mandibular palps are not visible with certainty. a Fig. 14. Mouth appendages of pupa aged two days (x150). _ Note shrinking within the pupal sheath. Fig. 15. Longitudinal section of part of the antenna of i erty six hour pupa (x 450). 4 Fig. 16. Leg of pupa two days old (x90). The leg muscles are clearly seen. Fig. 17. Trochanter of leg of imago (x500) to show the nature of the muscle insertions. Fig. 18. Insertion of tendons of femoral muscles on tibia (x 500). Fig. 19. Tactile bristles on first tarsal segment of first leg, imago (x1500). Note the curious modification of the somato- pleural mesoderm cells to act as neurolemmae for the nerve fibres. Fig. 20. Developing ovipositor from larva seven hours after AER ction (x 150). Fig. 21. The same, several hours after pupation (x180). Fig. 22. Ovipositor (extruded) of imago. Note the great musculature. Fig. 23.. Section through a part of the propa (thirty- six hour pupa) showing the powerful chitin layer (x 500). Fig. 24. Developing pubescence on labium, fifty-six hour pupa (1500). Chitinisation has just commenced. Note cell nuclei. Fig. 25. Vertical longitudinal section through posterior end of male, to show the migration of segments to form the penis. Note cell proliferation in ninth segment (x150). Fresh pupa. Fig. 26. Ventral view of extremity of male—two-day pupa (x 150). Prare XVIII. Fig. 27. Longitudinal section of posterior end of male— fifty-six hour pupa (x180). The cuticular sheath represents the position of the segments before invagination occurred, . Fig. 28. Integument undergoing metamorphosis, ventral abdominal region of larva eight hours after defaecation. Note the greatly hypertrophied larval cells with large nucleoli, all degenerating. Only a few leucocytes are present. Note the small onbrane cells growing over them (x 1200). 29. Surface view of a proliferating imaginal disc. The larval alle are degenerating. Some of the embryonic imaginal cells are undergoing amoeboid movement (x), From the larva, shortly after defaecation (x 1000). Fig. 30. Section through integument of larva eight hours before pupation (x1200). Note the empty cell membranes (z) and granular degeneration globules, free, or still within cells. { Fig. 31. Integument from posterior extremity of eight-hour pupa, showing accumulation of degeneration globules amongst the cells of the renovated integument. A leucocyte and a degenerate | larval cell are also seen (x 1200). ; 518 ™~ Fig. 32. Section through mid-dorsal abdominal integument. A disintegrated integumental cell is seen, apparently preventing the closing in of the imaginal cells. The heart is also seo | (x1200). From the larva twelve hours after defaecation. | Fig. 33. Integument of head showing development of scale- _ like ‘‘bosses.’? Note that a protoplasmic ‘‘mould’’ precedes the secretion of the similarly shaped cuticle (x 1500) —fift ty-two hour pupa. Fig. 34. Developing spine of leg (x1200)—fifty-two hour pupa. iff Fig. 35. Developing abdominal bristles (x 1200)—fifty-two hour pupa. Note the formation of a ‘“‘mould’’ by the integu-— mental cells, previous to cuticle secretion. 519 Fig. 36. Longitudinal section of antenna (x450). Defaeca- ting larva. Note invagination of ‘‘padding” tissues, for example at x. Fig. 37. Portion of wing of four-day pupa, showing hairs, and the characteristic folding. Degenerate nuclei also seen (x 750)... : : ‘ Fig. 38. Hooks of hind wing of imago, showing scattered wing nuclei; hook -‘‘roots’—remnants of embryonic cells—are clearly seen. Prate XIX. x 500). Fig. 42. Section through free part of ovipositor of four-day pupa (x600). Fig. 43. Vertical section through a cephalic phragma (thirty- six hour pupa); developing antennal muscles are seen; also a fat- body and degenerating leucocytes (x 1200). Fig. 44. Fore wing of twenty-four hour pupa. Note shrink- ing within the old cuticle. Note also the two clear channels each containing tracheoles (x80). Fig. 45. Vertical section through the wing of four-hour pupa, to show the band of mesodermal cells (k) growing down- wards, to enter the anterior clear channel (500). Fig. 46. Optical section of tip of tarsus of imago (x 750). Fig. 47. Section through head of larva in first instar, right half only shown (x 500). Fig. 48. Section through mandibles of larva twelve hours after defaecation. Fig. 49. Section along part of first segment of antenna, to show nerve endings or tactile bristles (x 1200)—four and a half day pupa. Fig. 50. A tactile bristle from ovipositor appendage, showing the receptor cell (x 1500). Fig. 51. Sense cells below cuticle of antenna] joint of imago (x 1500). Fig. 52. Longitudinal section through the ‘‘olfactory seg- ” of antenna, showing the suspended sense organs (1200). Fig. 53. Surface view of one of the more anterior antennal segments, showing four auditory organs (x1200). Fig. 54. Cells of the optic imaginal dise of larva in first instar (x 2000). PLATE XX. Fig. 55. Vertical section through imaginal disc of eye in larva of first instar (x1000). Fig. 56. Ommatidia from developing eye at time of defae- cation (x 1500). Fig. 57. The same, eight hours later (x 1500). Fig. 58, a, b, c. The same, eight hours later than fig. 57 (x1500). d. The same, in tranverse section. Note the seven - sheath cells (x 1500). Fig. 59. Ommatidium from pupa, four hours old (x1500). Fig. 60. Ommatidium of four-hour pupa in transverse sec- tion. Note only six sheath cells. men 520 / Fig. 61. Ommptidium of pupa twenty-four Re old (x 1500). Fig. 62. The*same, thirty-six hour pupa (x 1500). Fig. 62a. The same, outer end (x 1500). Fig. 63. Outer part of ommatidium of fifty-two hour pupa showing pigmentation of sheath cells (x 1500). Fig. 64. Ommatidium from eye of four and a half day pupa Fig. 644. The same, outer end (x 1500). Fig. 648. Pigment cell from the same (x 1500). Fig. 64c. Section through vitreous cells of same (x 1500). Fig. 64p. Section through terminations of several omma- tidia at same stage (x1500). Fig. 65. Fresh pupa, anterior half, to show tracheal vessels (x 40). Fig. 66. Section of ocellus in two-celled stage, from the larva in first instar (x 1000). Fig. 67. Section through developing ocellus from the fresh pupa (1000). Fig. 68. The same, twelve hours later (x 1000). Fig. 69. The same, from thirty-six hour pupa (x 1000). Pratt XXI. Fig. 70. The same, three-day pupa (x 1000). Fig. 71. Vertical section through median ocellus of imago Fig. 72. A single sensory cell from the same (x 2300). Fig. 73. Pigment cell from fifty-two hour pupa. Fig. 74. Vertical section through the eye and perioptic mem- brane, es larva about to pupate (x1200). Several cells of the perioptic membrane are shown. The three types of processes are clearly seen, especially the fibrous processes, which penetrate into the brain. Into these the nerve cells are seen migrating, and one, on the extreme left, has communicated with an ommatidium. Fig. 75. The same, four hours later, showing nerve cells adhering to the ‘“neurolemmal” cells of the perloptic membrane (x 2000). Fig. 76. A simple respiratory cell from the abdomen of larva eight hours before pupation. An oenocyte is also seen, pre- senting vacuoles, evidently a sign of degeneration (x500). Fig. 77. Vertical section through right side of head of larva eight hours after defaecation (x 230). Pratt XXII. Fig. 78. Section through left side of head of defaecating larva (x 230). Fig. 79. Vertical section through developing eye of thirty- six hour pupa (x 400). Fig. 80. Vertical eeprien through right side of head of four and a half day pupa (x230 Fig. 81. Central (nuclear) region of giant respiratory cell, from larva sixteen hours after defaecation (x 1000). Fig. 82. Tracheoloblast growing out from regenerating tracheal trunk—defaecating larva (x 1000). Fig. 83. Epithelium of longitudinal tracheal vessel under- going histolysis (x1000)._ Leucocytes are attacking the dis- integrating cells. Rp te: 52] Fig. 84. Metamorphosing anterior transverse tracheal trunk, eight hours after defaecation (x500). Note the tracheoblasts advancing from the sides, beneath the degenerate epithelium, which has not yet begun to disappear. Fig. 85. Part ‘of the same vessel, eight hours later. A remnant of the larval epithelium is still seen. Note the larval spiral intima within the developing imaginal intima. Note also the ‘‘ridging’’ of the epithelial cells (x 500). Fig. 86. Metamorphosing abdominal longitudinal tracheal trunk, fone the defaecating larva (x1000). Note the imaginal cells advancing upon the degenerate larval cells, which are partly disintegrating, partly still intact. Leucocytes. are present, and three are attacking a tracheole. A large imaginal tracheole is beginning to grow “out from the regenerated epithelium. Wigs. 87. “Central nuclear region of the great tracheal cells undergoing phagocytic histolysis—fresh pupa (x 1000) (cf. fig. 81). Wig. 88. From the large regenerated tracheal vessel (i.tr.) a multicellular tracheal vessel is extending downwards into the wing. Beside it a dead larval tracheole (trl.) is being over- whelmed by leucocytes. The figure also shows disintegrating salivary gland tissue, being attacked by leucocytes. Some of the gland tissue has been ruptured by the growing tracheal vessel. (Figure drawn inverted; x800.) From four-hour pupa. Fig. 89. Cell proliferation of prothoracic stigmatic trunk (x 525). Defaecating larva. ,Puate XXIII. Fig. 90. Larval tracheoles undergoing phagocytosis (x 1000) —four-hour pupa. Fig. 91. From the regenerated neck tracheal vessel (i.tr.) a very large tracheal trunk has grown downwards and termin- ated near the mouth. A larval tracheole (trl.) is degenerating, without intervention by phagocytes. From the base of the head a column of myoblasts—-developing into the head musculature— has grown up supporting itself upon the dead tracheole. The break of the column is due to its bending out of the plane of section. The figure may be regarded as continuous with fig. 88 on its Jeft (four-hour pupa; x 500). Fig. 92. Longitudinal section of integument of defaecating _ larva in region of an abdominal stigmatic trunk, which will not be reformed in the pupa. Notice the hypertrophied larval cells and the proliferating embryonic cells, especially at base of trunk. A fat-body and a group of imaginal oenocytes are also seen (x 800). Fig. 93. Stigmatic fails of larva in first instar showing aL *‘nest”’ (i.t.e.). Fig. 94. Developing dorso-lateral air sac—fresh pupa (x 1000), Fig. 95. Portion of wall of a mature air sac (four and a half day pupa). Notice that a tracheole has grown out from it. Four nuclei, and “‘spirals’’ are also seen (x 1000). Fig. 96. A cell of the fat-body fr om thorax, four and a half =—-day pupa. Note the disappearance of storage products (x 800). Fig. 97. The same, a little later, being attacked by three leucocytes (x 1000). Fig. 98. A fat cell, drawn out and compressed between the great thoracic muscles ; ‘note diminution in quantity of storage material (x 1000). 522 Fig. 99. Portion of body musculature of larva in first instar ; viewed in the living larva through the transparent integument. Fig. 100. A single longitudinal muscle (mucle fibre) from the same, composed of four distinct cells. The insertion of the muscle on an integumentary cell is also seen (x1000). Fig. 101. Piece of a muscle from adult larva, showing double spiral striations (x 900). Fig. 102, Muscle nuclei: (a) from adult larva; (b) from larva in first instar. Note only a slight increase in nuclear size. The older nucleus shows three small nucleoli; there has apparently been no increase in the quantity of chromatin (x 1500). Fig. 108. A tracheole from developing forewing of larva eight Bois after defaecation. PrateE XXIV. Fig. 104. Part of degenerating oblique abdominal muscle (fibre) Meni a disorganization of the sarcomeres—defaecating larva (x1200 Fig. 105. A degenerated ventral longitudinal abdominal muscle (fibre) being attacked by leucocytes. Note the degenerate nuclei, fresh pupa (x1200). Fig. 106. Dorsal longitudinal see into which myoblasts have penetrated, fresh pupa (x1000 Nie... 107... The same“ Cx a 200). Amoeboid myoblasts have entered the extruded sarcoplasm. Figs. 108, 109. The same (x 1000) in various degrees of meta- morphosis. Fig. 110. Degenerating circular (oblique) muscle from pro- podeum. Myoblasts are extending over the degenerate fragments of larval muscle. A few leucocytes and extruded degeneration globules are also seen (1200). Fig. 111. A regenerated abdominal muscle, thirty-six hour pupa. Cell limits are still indistinctly visible. Fibrillation has not yet commenced (x 1200). Fig. 112. Longitudinal section through proliferating myo- blasts of mesothorax, to form the great ‘‘wing’’ muscles (x 900) —defaecating larva. Fig. 118. The’same, in prothorax ; iaealnwee extending over a larval muscle, in which striations are still visible—defaecating larva (x 1200). Fig. 114. The great column of myoblasts in head, being drawn apart into its constituent muscles (x800)—thirty-six hour pupa. The column, at a much earlier stage, is shown in fig. 91. Fig. 115. xia. ee Medullary rays simple, uniseriate, usually from one to eight cells high, occasionally ten. Some of the ray cells con- tain dark-brown matter. There are from one to four circular 534 pits im the field in connection with the rays. These pits have narrow oblique slits (fig. 4). . Spiral bands appear on the tracheids, but no rims of Sanio were observed. Apparently there is no zylem parenchyma. MESEMBRIOXYLON, sp. Yallourn B (figs. 5, 6). Growth rings are well defined in this wood. No tracheids or xylem parenchyma with dark-brown contents were found. Fig. 8. Cupressinoxylon, sp. ; Yallourn. Tangential Fig. 9. section showing Cupressinoxylon, sp. Yallourn. medullary rays. Radial section showing pits in the x 50. field and pitting on the tracheids. x W75. The average diameter of the tracheids is 30uy. Bordered mts are circular, separate, and scattered, usually in one row. Occasionally the pits are slightly flattened (fig. 5). Medullary rays are uniseriate, from one to eight cells high, occasionally more than eight cells (fig. 6). The ray cells are large and thick-walled. The pitting in con- nection with the medullary rays is well preserved, there being one large oblique pit in the field (fig. 5). Occasionally the pit may have the appearance of a border. : 535 CUPRESSINOXYLON, sp. Figs. 7-9. Growth rings are well defined here. Many cells have the lumen filled with dark-brown matter. The medullary rays are close together and have light-brownish contents with occasional ‘“‘resin-spools.’’ The average diameter of the tracheids is 20n. Bordered pits are uniseriate, separate, and circular. The spring wood may show two rows of pits on a few tracheids. Pits also occur scattered on the tangential walls (fig. 7). Medullary rays simple, uniseriate, and numerous through- out the wood Fig. 108° pas Dadozylon, sp. Yallourn. Fig. 11. Hexagonal pitting on Dadozylon, sp. Yallourn. radial walls of the tra- Numerous small pits in ' cheids. x 275. the field. x 275. cells high. At times they may reach a height of thirty cells. Some of the ray cells have contents. The pits in the field are one or two oval and oblique, and there may be the appear- ance of a border (fig. 9). Aylem parenchyma is present with resinous(?) contents. The general characters, especially the pitting, in con- nection with the medullary rays, and the presence of wood parenchyma, suggest that this specimen should be included under Cupressinoxylon. DaDOXYLON, sp. Figs. 10, 11. This is a roughly cylindrical piece of wood, oval in cross _ section, with the outer cortex preserved and remaining _ attached to the woody cylinder. The long diameter of the 536 ji whole is about 2°5 cm... The cell detail of the specimen is not well preserved, but the following details can be determined : — In transverse section many cells have the lumen filled with brown matter. Occasional irregular strands of paren- chyma occur in the wood in places, but their nature could not be determined. Growth rings are present. Bordered pits on the radial walls of the tracheids are in two or more rows, alternate, compressed, and hexagonal. Medullary rays simple, uniseriate, from one to eight cells high. Radial sections show numerous small oval pits in the field. Horizontal elements filled with dense dark-brown sub- stance cccur in association with the rays. : CoNncLUSION. It would appear that considerable Gymnosperm forests have contributed to the formation of the brown coal deposits of Moorlands, South Australia, and Yallourn, Victoria. Such forests do not occur in South Australia or Victoria to-day though there are occasional open forests of Calhtris growing under semi-arid conditions. No mixed Coniferous forests exist -in these parts, yet these must have given rise to the Yallourn lignites which have yielded several distinct types of Gymnosperms, namely, two species of dJ/esem- brioxylon, one Cupressinoxylon, and one Dadoxylon( ? ). The Moorlands forests would appear to have been more uni- form, so far as preservation of the wood allows one to say. In view of the abundance of Dicotyledonous leaf fragments from Moorlands, the scarcity of Dicotyledonous wood is strange. REFERENCES. Brovucuton, A. C.—‘‘Notes on the Geology of the Moorlands (S.A.) Brown Coal Deposits,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xlv., pp. 248-253, 1921. i Mawson, Sir D., and F. Cuapman—‘The Tertiary Brown 7 Coal-bearing Beds of Moorlands,’’ ibzd., xlvi., pp. 131-147, 1922. SeEwarD, A. C.—‘‘Fossil Plants,’ vol. iv., Cambridge, 1919. AnpDREws, E. C.—‘‘The Geological History of the Australian Flowering Plants,’ Am. Journ. Science, vol. xlii., pp. 171-232, 1916. 537. ON A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF AUSTRALIAN LYCAENINAE. By Norman B. TInDALE. (Contribution from the South Australian Museum. ) [Read October 19, 1922.| Pyare XXXL. ADALUMA, n. gen. Forewing with vein 11 parallel with vein 12, vein 6 arising with vein 7, veins 1 to 7 (in male) bordered discally with black scales; costa strongly arched; termen well rounded. Hindwing evenly rounded, apex of cell acute, vein 3 arising some distance below apex of cell. Beneath white, with terminal series of dots. Antennae short, less than half ex- panse of wings. Hyes smooth, palpilong. Type, 4. wrumelia, from the Northern Territory. Allied to Candalides, Hubner, to which it is similar in venation. The shape of the cell of hindwing differs from C. zanthospilos, Hubner, in being more acute at apex. The antennae are extremely short; in this character it resembles the peculiar genus Vesolycaena, from which otherwise it is distinct. The names chosen, ‘‘adaluma’’ and ‘‘urumelia,’’ are two native (Nungubuyu tribe) words meaning ‘“‘flowing stream’’ and “‘butterfly.”’ The butterfly was first taken on the banks of the Roper River by a native, at the aborigines’ reserve, which is over 70 miles from the sea. ADALUMA URUMELIA, 01. sp. d. Above. Forewing silky-white tinged with blue; apex and termen narrowly grey-black, veins tipped black at termen ; veins 1 to 7 bordered with black scales in discal area. Cilia black, tipped with white. Hindwings silky-white, a terminal line black. Cilia black, tipped with white. Beneath. Silky-white. Forewing with two large terminal black spots in areas la and 2; terminal line black. Hind- wing with a terminal series of round black dots, terminal line black. Cilia black, tipped with white, at dorsum white. Antennae short, well clubbed, joints short, black, tipped with white; palpi long, tipped with black. Expanse, 30 mm. 538 Loc.—Northern Territory: Roper River, March, 1922 (Mrs. H. E. Warren and a native). Type, I. 13771. This species is known from two males, one fragmentary, but the other perfect. Following Waterhouse and Lyell,® in a hnear arrangement, it would be best placed between Nesolycaena and Philiris. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXI. Fig. 1. Adaluma urumelia, male, upper-surface, x3. Renee ie i .5 under-surface, x3. (1) Waterhouse, G. A., and Lyell, Butterflies of Australia, p. 76, 1914. 539 ON THE ECOLOGY OF THE OOLDEA DISTRICT. By R.S. Apvamson, M.A., B.Sc., and T. G. B. Osporn, D.Sc. [Read October 19, 1922.] PuatTeS XXXII. ro XXXVI. Comparatively little has been written about the ecology of the arid regions of Australia, though these form a large portion of the continent. In South Australia, which has an area roughly three times the size of the British Isles, five- sixths of the total area has under 10 in. of rain per annum. A vast field, therefore, is awaiting examination. One reason that has contributed to the neglect of this work is the diffi- culty of visiting the places and the time occupied in the journey. The recent opening of the Transcontinental (Hast- West) Railway connecting South and Western Australia has made very accessible an area that until the last few years was. visited by but few white people. The Ooldea district lies well within this area, and offers scope for examining the arid flora, the more so that, owing to an abrupt change in the type of soil in the immediate locality two distinct habitats are avail- able. Cannon visited Ooldea recently in connection with his work on the Arid Flora of South Australia, but his account was brief, and no attempt was made by him to deal with the flora as a whole. Ooldea is a station on the Transcontinental (Hast-West) Railway, 427 miles west of Port Augusta and 374 ft. above sea level. The Ooldea district is one of great biological interest because of its situation on the eastern boundary of the Nullarbor Plain, at the point at which the railway line leaves the sandhills and runs over the limestone plains. In August of this year we made a stay of six days in the district, and as a result of this visit the following account of the vegetation is given. It is a pleasure to express our thanks to the Pre- sident and members of the Ooldea Progress Association for the facilities they placed at our disposal; to Mr. T. Davison, engineer at the “‘Soak,’’ for his guidance in that area; and to Mr. A. G. Bolam, stationmaster at Ooldea, for meteor- ological data and help in various ways. We are also indebted to Mr. J. M. Black, who has determined some of our material for us. Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.R.S., has kindly named the Eucalypts. Q2 540 PHYSIOGRAPHIC. The Nullarbor Plain is an area of limestone country extending westward from Fowler Bay to beyond Eucla in Western Australia. Its east-west extent is 450 miles and its greatest north-south width about 200 miles. The area within South Australia is 17,767 square miles, throughout the whole of which there is no watercourse or lake. It is underlain, however, by the Eucla basin of artesian water which has been tapped by bores at depths varying from 298 ft..to 1,500 ft. A bore sunk at Ooldea gave water at 480 ft., containing 7°716 ozs. of salt to the gallon.) Little has been written on the geology of the area, the account by Tate,@) who visited the seaward margin of the Nullarbor Plain in 1879, being still the most complete. ~The Nullarbor Plain forms a part of the Bunda Plateaw, which, according to Tate, is the ‘‘elevated bed of the older Tertiary sea, the sediments of which were deposited within a very extensive granitic basin.”’ These igneous rocks come to the surface at various places round the edge of the basin, an outcrop occurring to the east of Ooldea. According to Howchin ©) the limestones are Miocene (Janjukian), over- lain by older Pliocene (Kalimnan), at Wilson Bluff, near Eucla. The surface of the plain is not perfectly level, but rises and falls in gradual undulations.(*) The limestone is covered by a red sandy loam varying from a few inches to a foot or more in depth, which soil, being fine grained, bakes hard when dry. Fragments of limestone, however, are freely interspersed with the soil, and appear at the surface in most places, especially on the ridges. Here and there are ‘‘dongas,’’ or slight depressions vary- ing in area from less than an acre to some hundreds of acres. The dongas are said to be the largest at the western side of the plain. Those seen by us were small; they are said to be infrequent in the centre of the plain. The soil in the dongas > (1) Rep. 3rd Interstate Conference on Artesian Water, Ade- laide, 1921, p. 16. Adelaide, Govt. Printer, 1922. (2) Tate, R., The Natural History of the Country around the Head of the Great Australian Bight, Trans. and Proc. Philos. Soc. of Adelaide, S. Austr., i1., pp. 94-128, 1879. (3) Howchin, W., ‘‘Geology of South Australia,’ pp. 457 and 466, Adelaide, 1918. (4) A quantity of interesting information as to the Nullarbor Plain is collected as a supplement to the Presidential Address to the South Australian Branch of the Royal Geographical Society, en 1917-18. Proc. Roy. Geol. Soc. S. Austr., xix., pp. 101-158, 541. is sandy and of greater depth than on the plain, and, in those seen by us, free from limestone. In addition to the dongas there are numerous “‘blow holes,” fissures of varying depth in the limestone, that open in many cases into caves below. It seems probable that the dongas represené areas of sub- sidence.©) The whole structure of the plain is such that the rain which falls readily disappears below the surface. Only in _ the dongas is there sufficient soil to hold an appreciable water reserve; the soil of the plains is too shailow. Starting at Ooldea and running eastwards for about 50 miles is a sandhill region, consisting of a series of ridges of -red-coloured sand with flats between. The ridges, which may be as much as 30 ft. in height, run approximately north-west by south-east ‘at Ooldea, but there are many irregularities and connecting ridges. The sand forming the ridges is rela- tively stable and no drifting of large masses occurs. Indeed, some, at any rate, of the larger ridges have a core of travertine limestone 3 ft. or so below the surface. The soil of the inter- vening flats is generally level and composed of finer particles, and is consequently firmer. This soil, on the whole, appears deeper than on the ridges themselves. Whatever be the source of the sand, it is clear that a certain amount of wind sorting has taken place, with the result that over the whole area two habitats differing in their edaphic conditions have been developed. About three miles north of Ooldea lies the famous Ooldea Soak. This is a shallow basin, 10 acres or more in extent. The sand of the Soak and.its surrounding ridges is whiter and less stable than that of the majority of the sandhills; it rests upon an underlying layer of bluish clay. Within the drea there is considerable drift, so that the floor of the basin is-broken by various hollows and ridges held by shrubs. Below the surface, at a depth of 5 ft. to 15 ft. or more, lies a water table, the water being fresh, somewhat alkaline, but generally quite potable. The Soak has been the scene of human activi- ties for a great period of time, for it was known to the aborigines long before the expiorer, E. Giles (who was one of the first whites to visit it), used it as a base camp in 1875. Later it was used as a centre for sheep grazing,“ but appears to have been abandoned for that purpose some time before the building of the Transcontinental Line made it a place of 6) Brown, H. Y. L., quoted Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. S. Austr., Hoc. cit., p. 134. (6) Giles, E., Australia twice Traversed, ii., p. 152, 1889. (7)Brown, T., Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. S. Austr., loc. cit., p. 149. - 542 importance. At present over twenty wells have been put down within the area, and water is pumped to Ooldea at the rate of 10,000 gallons a day. it is legitimate to assume that the vegetation within the Soak basin has suffered somewhat from human interference, and it may suffer still more if pumping permanently lowers the water level. Mr. Brown, referring to his visit about 1887, speaks of ‘‘clumps of bull- - rushes’’ growing here and there. None are there now, while of the plants collected by us only Adriana tomentosa—locally called “‘water-bush’’—seems definitely tndicative of consider- able edaphic water. Within half a mile of the Soak, in a north-easterly direction, lies a salt lake or claypan, smaller in area than the Soak itself. This was dry at the time of our visit, but the friable soii overlying the claybed was impregnated with crystals of soluble salts, including gypsum, that caused a white efflorescence at the margins. CLIMATE. Climatological data for Ooldea were not kept before December, 1916, because, until the construction of the Hast- West Railway, there was no settlement at the place. From that date rainfall records have been kept, the temperatures have been recorded less regularly. The actual figures cover too short a period to allow of generalization on them ‘alone, but, taken in conjunction with what is known of other places similarly situated, they are useful. The following table gives the rainfall in inches from January, 1917, to October, 1922: 1917. 1918. 1919. 1920. 1921. 192m) January Big | 0°00 0-70 0-00 0-03 0:00 February nh AS 0°00 1-63 0-00 2°83 0°59 March Boe ist 1°00 0-00 0-08 0:28 0-71 April Reha gy! 0°60 2-11 1-00 0-01 1-279 May rie One 0°63 0-06 1-39 2°13 0°25 June sie bag 1:06 0-25 0-45 0°91 O74 — July APLAR 0°16 0-16 0-68 0°15 0°25: August ihe PBZ 139 0-57 0-69 0-15 0:00: September... 0°76 0°29 0°08 2°32 0-03 0-00. October ere GS) 0°72 0:54 0-64 0-36 0-15 November et bee |G hes 1 0-20 0-49 0°93 — December gg Nees 0°39 0°33 0-42 0°35 —_ Total for Year 14°11 pale 6°63 8-16 8-16 *3°96: Wet Davyve.teoe 65 30 27 AT 43 *2F *Totals for 1922 on figures for 10 months only. bay as, 543 The monthly average temperatures in degrees F. at 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. are given below, no maximum and minimum readings being available :— Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Sam. 70 6 7 5d 52 45 48 49 57 58 6 75 mm, 105 6 104:«CO99 «= 690) 89 5 SCD 8Ss«*2108.s «106 The highest shade temperature recorded is 125° F., which occurred in January. The rainfall is not only low but erratic. Though, broadly speaking, the summer is the dry season and the winter the wet one, the falls at best are too low to make the winter always a season of active vegetation, whilst a heavy downpour ‘In the summer may have a marked effect in producing con- siderable activity on the part of some of the annuals at least. Owing to the very porous soil the rain sinks into the ground as it falls, there being no sign of a watercourse in the district. Another feature in regard to the rainfall is the amount that falls at any one time. Though the monthly total may seem relatively high, if it be composed of a number of small Showers, as is often the case in arid Australia, the general effect on the vegetation is slight. Cannon has drawn atten- tion to what he terms effective and ineffective rainfalls in arid South Australia, a fall of 0°15 in. in twenty-four hours being insufficient to produce more than a surface wetting of the soil. This important feature, which is recognized by Aus- tralian pastoralists, must be remembered when considering the monthly falls at Ooldea or any other station in this part of arid Australia. The temperature records show the climate to be one of considerable extremes. Short periods of great heat, over 100° F. in the shade, may be expected during six months of the year, while the average daily temperature at 4 p.m. Nov.-Feb. inclusive is 103° F. or over. The area, however, is so open that heat is rapidly lost by radiation at night, even in summer, while in winter the diurnal range of tem- perature on the soil between-sun heat of the day and at night is still more severe. Ground frosts are not uncommon on clear nights during three or four months of the year. No records of temperatures at the surface of the soil have been taken, but it is certain that they must reach very high figures, especially during the summer. In August, at the time of our visit, on a day on which there was a frost upon the _ ground before sunrise, the sand at midday was so hot in the sun that it was uncomfortable to touch it with the hand. In summer the heat at the surface of the soil must be so great as to seriously affect plants unless they are well insulated at the ‘‘collar’’ by cork or some other nonconductor. In this 544 connection it may be noted that perennial herbaceous plants — are noticeably rare in the Ooldea flora. Another adverse factor is the drying winds which sweep over the plain. Ooldea is 80 miles from the sea, and the intervening country is similar waterless plain or sandhill. Even the south and south-west — winds have their humidity reduced before reaching Ooldea, while any other wind travels considerably further overland — before it gets to that place. All winds, but especially thoses off.the deserts that lie north and north-east and north-west, must be regarded as influences supp e adversely to the | 5 vegetation. PREVIOUS WORK ON THE FLORA. The paper of Tate before mentioned includes a list of the flora at the head of the Bight as well as some notes on the vegetation. The region traversed by him, being near the coast, has a higher rainfall than Ooldea, and also gains con-— siderable moisture from sea mists for a-.distance inland of 20 miules.(8) Nevertheless, the vegetation seems essentially similar. Tate’s(?) notes on the flora are valuable, especially noteworthy being the clear distinction that he makes between such halophytes as Arthrocnemum spp., and xerophytes as Kochia sedifolia. Saltbushes, Atriplex spp., are assigned an intermediate position ; they show considerable salt toleration, but not to the same degree as the truly halopes shrubby Salicornias. The Ooldea region has been studied floristically recently by Black.0® Cannon visited the district in 1918, and his observations are included in his recent work on the “‘Arid Portions of South Australia.”’ No attempt is made“) by — Cannon to give a complete account of the flora, but the main — habitats are studied with reference to some of the most pro- — minent plants occurring there. Cannon distinguishes the — Nullarbor Plains, the sandhills, and a transition region between the two; the dongas and the hollows between the | ridges in the sandhills are also indicated as probably dis- | tinct. With his account we are in general agreement, except that the characteristic bluebushes and saltbushes of the plains — are classed by him as halophytes. With this we disagree. . | (8) Brown, T5 toc. cit., p. 147. 0) Tate. Ri Mec mit.) pp. 11S-195. (10) Black, J. M., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., xli., pp. 378-3890; 1917, and xlv., pp. 5-24, 1921. (2) Cannon, W. A., Plant Habits and Habitats in the re Portions of South Australia, Carnegie Inst. of Washington, Publ. No. 308, 1921, pp. 81-89. . —) = ; ~- a %s 545 VEGETATION. At least two very markedly different kinds of habitat occur near Ooldea, namely, the Nullarbor Plain and the sand- hills. These will be described separately. Nullarbor Plain.—The plain itself bears a very open vegetation of a highly xerophytic character. The soil being of a@ porous nature, and one which does not easily form a dust mulch, the water supply for vegetation is scanty and very uncertain in amount. This is clearly expressed in the sparse _ plant covering. On the plain itself trees or woody plants of any size appear to be absent. The chief plants are the “‘bluebush,’’ Aochia sedifolia, and in rather less quantity the ‘‘saltbush,’’ Atriplex vesi- eartum, which occur in communities which are often sharply delimited from one another. Other species of Kochia and of Atriplex also occur, but in less quantity, ¢.g., A. triptera, v. ertoclada, kh. pyramidata, etc. These plants, which we may term the “‘character plants,” are small bushes, 1 ft. to 2 ft. in height, which stand in most parts at considerable distances from one another—often as much as two, to three yards (pl. xxxu., fig. 1). In spite of this condition, however, in which the plants develop quite independently of their neighbours, the communities are usually quite pure as regards their character species. Aochia sedifolia is much more common than Atriplex, and covers a much greater area of the plain. It occupies nearly all the surface where the fine-grained red soil occurs, while Atriplex vesicartum occurs in those parts where some sand is present or the soil is deeper and looser. The latter is especially abundant near the eastern margin of the plain and along the line of junction with the sandhills. So far as our observations extend, Aochia would appear to be more xerophytic, br, at any rate, able to withstand drier conditions. This agrees with the observations of Tate,“2) who describes the plateau near Eucla as covered with rhea while 4 triplex occurs in slight depressions around, but not extending into, saline swamps. These Chenopodiaceous bushes, which have their leaves more or less densely covered with hairs or scales, appear white or silver-grey in colour, and, growing as they do in a soil that also appears pale owing to the numbers of limestone _ fragments, give a landscape at once characteristic and peculiar. _ The observer has a sense of uniformity and vastness which is unbroken by any marked change in the surface or by any sign of life, either bird or animal. (12) Tate, eae. Phil. ae aa ee i1., p. 120, 1878. 546 The plants have rather small leaves, which are spread- ing, and, especially in Aochia sedifolia, distinctly succulent. It seems ‘possible that these plants not only store up water in their leaves when rain falls, but also possess the power of absorbing moisture directly by their leaves by means of the hairs or scales. All the residents, both here and in other arid parts of the State, remark on the obvious freshening up of the bluebush or saitbush that occurs immediately after rain. On the other hand, the hairy covering may well be correlated with the intense light and heating that the plants in such a habitat have to withstand. The severity of the conditions for perennial plants here is expressed. both in the open nature of the communities and also in a striking way by the amount and number of dead plants that occur (pl. xxxu., figs. 1, 2). Whole stretches may be seen, extending a mile or more, in which all the perennials are dead, presumably killed by drought. No evidence of fire was noticed, not even in the neighbourhood of the railway track, and, except at the margins a the plain, little effect has been produced by the ubiquitous rabbit. Besides these perennial plants a very considerable number of annual species occur on the plain between the bushes of Kochi and Atripier. The amount and nature of these annuals vary according to the season at which the rain falls, and at certain times may temporarily alter the whole general appearance. At the time of our visit very little rain had fallen for some time previously, and this therophyte flora was poorly developed. One of the most abundant ‘annuals was Salsola kali, var. strobilifera, which at this season was dead. The plant occurs in great abundance in parts, and appears especi- ally to spread where the Kochia has been killed off. Other very generally distributed annuals were Cephalipterum Drummond, Zugophylium ovatum, Angianthus tomentosus, — Gnephosis cyathopappa, Goodena pinnatifida, Goodenia pusilliflora, Helipteruwm pygmaeum, Lemdium phlebopetalum, Echinospermum concavum, Isoétopsis granunfolia, and — Tetragonia expansa, also Bassia scleroloenioides, perennial. Of these the first two were the most abundant or most prominent. Cephalipterum especially, with its white flower-heads, sam quite a character to the plains. ; At the time of our visit grasses were remarkable for their scarcity ; a few scattered plants of Danthonia penicillata and — Stipa setacea and Stipa scabra were noticed, but so few that | nowhere on the plain was grass vegetation at all prominent. At other times these grasses, and especially Stipa, sp., may — become a marked feature after good rains. At the time of our visit most of the Stipa plants noted were dead. 547 Dongas.—These are shallow depressions of varying size and extent which occur scattered over the plain. Except in the smallest and most shallow, there is a considerably greater quantity of soil in them—a soil, too, which is much freer from limestone fragments. The dongas examined, which, however, were all com- paratively close to the eastern border of the plain, bear a vegetation with trees or shrubs (pl. xxxii., fig. 1). The most general were species of Acacia, especially A. aneura (mulga), A. Oswaldu, A. tetragonophylla, with less often A. Randelliana. Other trees occurring were Pittosporum phillyraeoides, Fusanus persicarius, and locally Casuarina lemdophloia. This last was seen only in the largest depressions where there was most soil. Hremophila Latrobe: occurred rarely. Beneath these trees the soil was quite bare in the smaller depressions, but in the larger ones herbaceous plants (mostly annuals) were present in some quantity. These were generally quite different from those on the general surface of the plain; Cephalipterum Drummondu, however, was usually present. _ Stipa scabra was locally quite abundant, though at this season it appeared dead. 3 Other annuals found in these dongas were Salsola kali, Lavatera plebeja, Convolvulus erubescens, Lotus australis, var. pubescens, Helipterum. floribundum, Nicotiana suaveo- dens, Calandrima volubilis, Pimelea simplex. In several of the dongas near the eastern margin of the plain much of the undergrowth has been destroyed by rabbits, which have their burrows there. At the eastern margin of the Nullarbor Plain a certain amount of change in vegetation is seen. More soil is pre- sent and a richer vegetation develops. Small trees and shrubs | occur scattered over the surface, though often localized in a peculiar way (pl. xxxil., fig. 2). Most of the shrubs found in the dongas grow in this situation, with the exception of Casuarina depdophloa. The most abundant shrubs are Acacia aneura, A. tetragonophylla, and Eremophila Latrobei, with Acacia Randelliana, A. Oswaldui, Pittosporum phillyraeoides, FPusanus persicarius, and Eremophila oppositifolia, less fre- quently. Here also the undergrowth is rather more luxuriant; Kochia sedifolia, Atriplex vesicarium, and others occur some- | what closer together. The annual flora resembles that’ of the plains themselves, but certain perennial plants appear in this zone, e.g., Solanum. esuriale, S. coactiliferum, Sida corru- gata. On disturbed ground near the village Calandrinia polyandra and Euphorbia Drummondii are found in some quantity. . 548 Sandhills —The vegetation of the sandhills to the east. of Ooldea is a marked contrast to that of the Nullarbor Plain. In place of the dwarf grey or white Chenopodiaceous bushes of the latter, the sandhills bear a relatively luxuriant covering of trees and shrubs. These differ both in their much larger size; and also very much in leaf form. While the plants on — the plain have more or less spreading, though small, leaves — which are succulent and covered with hairs, almost all the plants on the sandhills have smooth leaves which are hard im texture and placed with their edges to the light, being either — pendant or vertical. The leaves are either quite glabrous and — polished as in Hucalyptus, spp., and Myoporum, or grey in colour, due either to wax or to a covering of very small hairs” that do not spread from the surface, as in several species” of Acacia. Even those plants such as Casuarina, Bossiaea, — and others which are almost or quite leafless have their assim-— ilatory branches erect or pendant, not spreading. This leaf | character applies both to the larger bushes and trees,’ and also to the smaller undershrubs which here bear, for. the ‘most part, small hard leaves placed more or less vertically. ‘This difference in leaf type makes the vegetation on the two parts” very distinct, even when seen from long distances (pls. xxxill. RKIVe ae, se eunelixoey ge?! Tri both situations it may be. : remarked that all the plants are evergreen; not a single deciduous plant was found. For purposes of description the vegetation can be divided into three portions: (1) the sand ridges, (2) the hollows between, and (3) the basin known as Ooldea Soak. Even with this division the vegetation presents at first glance a rather bewildering lack of “uniformity ; many plants are apparently localized in their distribution, and’ situations externally very ~ similar often bear different plant populations. This variability | can to some extent be explained by a recognition of the fact | that the sand is not uniformly stabilized. The plants in | different places vary in their efficiency as sand retainers. It | may also be correlated with’ the frequent limitation of areas — ‘drenched by rainstorms. These ‘‘patchy’’ rainfalls may, make — certain places good seedbeds, while the surrounding aréas are too dry for a high percentage germination or even any at all | that season. The result is that Grhine some sandhills are ablaze | with the flowers of an abundant annual flora, others a few miles away are without any appreciable annual growth at all. It is well known to pastoralists that the season at which'a | soaking rain. falls profoundly affects the type of annual flora | that results. It seems to us. quite legitimate to assume that the germination of other plants is affected also, and hence that different phases of an open flora may be shown under similar ee £ =e we 549 edaphic conditions within a short distance of each other, because the climatic factor of rainfall has varied as a result of some fortuitous circumstances, e.g., a local thunderstorm. A further factor affecting this variability is interference by man, which has been not inconsiderable in some places. This interference is partly caused by the aborigines, who cut down and uproot trees and shrubs around their camps in an aston- ishingly reckless manner, and partly to the demand for wood during the construction of the railway line. The sand ridges have a rather varied flora, among the most prominent and generally distributed plants on the ridges are Acacia linophylla, known as the ‘‘sandhill mulga’”’ ; A. lagu- lata, Dodonaea attenuata, and, rather less generally distri- buted, Leptospermum laevigatum, var. minus. These, with locally some quantity of Hakea leucoptera, Grevillea steno- botrya, Grevillea guncifolia, and Bossiaea Walkert, mark the earlier stages in the stabilization of the sand. Frequently communities of these plants occupy the crest of the ridge while the sides of it have others which represent the result of a more stable condition. The most prominent. of these are mallee forms of Hucalyptus. The most common are /. oleosa, EL. leptophylla, and FE. sp. affin. oleosa, while EF. transconti- nentalis is rather more local. Other plants here are Acacia Randelliana, A. Oswaldii, A. aneura, EHremophila alterm- fola, and Cassia eremophila.. In some parts Callitris verru- cosa, Grevillea netatophylla, and Hakea multilineata occur in this situation. These last three species were all seen at Immarna, 20 miles east of Ooldea, but not in the immediate vicinity. On some of the sand ridges near the margin of the plain Casuarina lepidophloia occurred both on the sides and even extending on to the crests of the ridge, but this was not general. When the sandhills had become more stabilized the mallee and its associated plants extended over almost the whole, occupying both sides and crests. Indeed, the notable Hucalyptus pyriformis seemed only on crests of ridges. Whether the covering consists of Acacias and Leptospermum or mallees the canopy is not continuous, considerable spaces being left between most of the plants. A marked feature, and cne most obvious with the plants on the crests, is the presence of large quantities of dead branches and wood. Beneath the trees and bushes a moderate amount of undergrowth occurred in some places, though in parts the _ sand was practically bare. Of perennials, on the crests there occurred Pimelea microcephala, Rhagodia Preissii, while on the slopes the ‘‘porcupine grass’’ Triodia irritans was locally very abundant, forming what appeared at a distance to be a continuous cover; associated with it was Bassia echinopsila. 550 Locally, -annuals were abundant on these sand ridges; these were largely composites. The annual flora is strikingly different from that occurring on the plain. On the crests of the ridges, and apparently confined to such situations, were Calandrima disperma, Stenopetalum lineare, Myriocephalus thisocephalus, Waitza acuminata, and Podotheca angustifolia. Others are less restricted in their habitat, as Triglo- chin centrocarpa, Trichinvum alopecuroideum, Calandrinia volubilis, Stenopetalum sphaerocarpum, Crassula verticillaris, Erodium cygnorum (very local), Zygophyllum sp., Poranthera microphylla, Didiscus cyanopetalus, Minuria leptophylla (perennial), Brachycome ciliaris, Angianthus tomentosus, Helichrysum ambiguum (perennial), H. Lawrencella, H. floribundum, H. hyalospermum, H. strictum, H. moschatum, H. rosewm, Senecio Gregoru, S. brachyglossus. The geophyte Thysanotus exiliflorus also occurs) here. These herbaceous plants for the most part grow on the sand in the spaces between the bushes and not immediately under them. Below most of the bushes or trees there was an area covered by dead leaves, fruit, branches, etc. This appeared to pre- vent the development of an annual flora. Hollows between Sandhills —While in a general way a distinct flora for sandhill hollows can be recognized, this flora varies greatly in accordance with the amount of sand that is present in the hollow. Im nearly all cases the soil is much firmer in the hollows than on the ridges and the vegetation less dense and more easily penetrated, largely owing to the presence of tallish trees in addition to the bushes. The generally most abundant plants are Myoporum platycarpum, which is a tree 20 to 30 ft. in height, with Heterodendron oleifolium, a bush or small tree. These form the general character plants, but grow in association with many others. Of trees Pittosporum phillyraeowdes is most abundant, and of bushes Acacia Randelliana, A. aneura, A. Oswaldu, A. collettoides, Eremophila glabra, EF. Latrobei, LE. altermfoha, Cassia Sturt, C. eremophila, Fusanus acuminatus, F. persi- carius, Dodonaea microzyga. When more sand is present Casuarina lemdophloia becomes abundant, growing into large trees, which form an open forest, which will be referred to later. As in all the communities around Ooldea the plants are rarely in close contact with one another, but stand at intervals. The undergrowth in the hollows is variable both m amount and in composition. In parte it is quite absent, but for the most part some undershrubs or herbs are present. Of the former QOlearra Mueller and Westringia rigida are the 551 most abundant, together with Vetraria Schoeberi and Zygo- phyllum fruticulosum, which are more local. In some parts, and more especially towards the margin of the Nullarbor Plain, where very little sand is present in the hollows, Atriplex vesicarvum and other species may occur in some quantity ; also Cratystylis conocephala is abundant. This last is a plant which at first sight bears a most striking resemblance to Kochia sedifolia, a resemblance that is empha- sized when it is growing with Atriplex spp. (cf. Tate, loc. cit.). Other perennials in the undergrowth are Khagodia spinescens, var. deltophylla, and Scaevola synescens. The annual herbaceous flora is much poorer than that of the ridges, and but few species appear limited to this habitat, é.g., Calotis hispidula, Brachycome pachyptera, and Trichinium imecanum. Some species, however, are more abundant here, as Helipterum strictum, Tetragoma. expansa, and Pimelea swmplex; Stipa, sp., apparently dead, was also locally abundant, and Danthonia penicillata occurred occasion- ally. When the limestone soil came to the surface in a hollow’ the annuals of the plain were present. “Oak’’ Forest.—Forests of Casuarina leydophloia occur to the south of Ooldea. In this vicinity the forests have been much reduced in quantity owing to the utilization of the timber for condensers and other activities associated with the construction of the railway. At present untouched forest is not met till about seven miles are traversed (pl. xxxiv., fig. 2). The forest occupies rather flat hollows between sand ridges. The soil, however, is sandy and rather loose all through, even in the centre of the flats. The Casuarinas extend on to the sides of the surrounding ridges but not on to the crests of them, which are covered by Acacia linophylla, A. aneuvra, and A. Oswaldiu, i.e., with a typical sandhill crest community. | The forest is a very open one, and the trees are often of considerable size. Measurements of some of them showed a diameter of 26 in. at 1 ft. from the ground, and a height of approximately 50 ft. was estimated. When mature the trees have spreading branches, though in the young condi- tion their habit is somewhat strict and pyramidal. * Numerous young trees were coming up in the forest. The ‘‘oaks’’ far overtopped any other plants, the other trees present being much smaller; these are Myoporum platycarpum and mallees (EL. oleosa, FE. sp. affin. oleosa, E. leptophylla). The latter occur on the slopes and ridges, and may reach a height as great as Myoporum, i.e., 20 ft. to 30 ft.: Below, and especially between the trees which nowhere form a continuous 552 canopy, is a considerable assemblage of shrubs or bushes. Of the most prominent are /wsanus acuminatus, I. persicarius, Dodonaea attenuata, D. microzyga, Hetereodendrow olei- folium, Acacia Randelliana, A. colletioides, A. tetragono- phylla, A. Oswaldu, A. linophylla (locally), Cassia Sturti, C. eremophila, Eremophila Latrobe, E. alternifolia. As undershrubs there occurred Olearia Mueller, Westrimgia rigida, and Atriplex vesicarvwm, all, however, rather local. Annuals and herbaceous plants were not at all prominent, a few individuals only being noticed of Zygophyllum ovatum, Calandrinia volubtlhs, and Helipterum floribundum. While the forest of Casuarina lemdophloia is rather limited in its distribution around Ooldea, further to the east, as can be seen from the railway, it commonly occupies the sandy hollows, while mallee occurs on the ridges. The part where the Casuarina trees have been cut down shows some signs of regeneration; young trees are springing up in places in some quantity. The other plants of the forest - have been left by the timber-getters, and in the cut areas form an open scrub with many more undershrubs than occur in the forest itself. Atriplex vesicarium is abundant in parts, and in others Olearra Muellert and Cratystylis conocephala form a distinct layer of undershrubs. Stipa setacea is also abundant locally. Annuals, too, are more frequent here, though not very prominent. Besides those of the forest there were Helipterum strictum, Helichrysum Lawrencella, Angi- anthus tomentosus, Salsola kali, and Lepidium phlebopetalum. Ooldea Soak.—It will be recalled that the Séak is a basin in the sandhills, itself filled with sand that is thrown into small ridges. This sand is white in colour, not red, and is rather looser in texture than that in other parts. On the sandhills composed of this white sand in the part just around the Soak certain differences occur in the plant popula-— tion; Acacia linophylla is rather less abundant and Lepto- spermum laevigatum more so. Also a certain number of plants grow on this white sand which were not noticed elsewhere. Among these may be mentioned Grevillea stenobotrya, Hakea leucoptera,-Gyrostemon ramulosus, and Hucalyptus pyriformis. The basin of the Soak itself has been the seat of some interference. owing to man’s activities. For centuries this has been a camping ground for aborigines, and in more recent times the white man has utilized it. As a result, a consider- able part of the basin is bare sand, which is liable to drift, and which has only the tops of the ridges occupied by plants. ~ The most abundant are Leptospermwm laevigatum, var. minus, and Melaleuca parviflora. Other plants are not 553 prominent; indeed, one or both of these two are often the only plants present. The other species present are Dodonaca attenuata, Acacia ligulata, Cassia eremophila, with locally Hibbertia crispula and Adriana tomentosa, the lastnamed in hollows. On the bare sand there were occasional plants of Salsola kali, Myriocephalus Stuartu, and a few tufts of Stzpa, sp. These scattered tufts appeared dead and were much eaten down by rabbits. In the Soak the water-table is about 5 ft. to 15 ft. below the surface, but yet this seems to have very little effect on the plants. Adriana tomentosa, and possibly Melaleuca, are the only species that seem dependent on the presence of ground water. Adriana, which is known as the ‘‘water bush,’’ has a leaf very different from any other plant found in the district. It is relatively thin and spreading horizontally, neither at all succulent nor hard and coriaceous. The leaves and shoots of this plant have a much smaller water content than most of the other plants found. Leptospermum, which is such a feature of the sandhills in the basin, also occurs on many of the sandhill ridges in positions quite remote from supplies of bottom water, and it seems better regarded as a plant characteristic of loose sand. than of moisture. Salt Lake—Separated from the Soak by a high ridge of sand with the typical vegetation of Acaczas, etc., is another basin occupied by a small salt lake (pl. xxxvi., fig. 1). At the time of our visit this lake was dry, and the loose level soil of the bed was largely composed of soluble crystals, amongst which gypsum crystals were numerous. The main bed of this lake was bare of plants, but round the margins occurred a halophytic vegetation. That nearest to the bed was an open community of Arthrocnemum, spp. (A. halocnemoides, A. halocnemoides, var. pergranulatum, and Arthrocnemum, sp.). At a slightly higher level occurred Frankema fruticulosa, often almost pure or mixed with a few plants of Atriplex paludesum, Bassia diacantha, Kochia brevi- folia, Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale, Nitraria Schoeberi, while still higher on the sand just below the typical bushes of the surrounding sandhill flora occurred Salsola kali, Atriplex vesicuria, Stipa, sp. (dead tufts), Calandrinia volubilis, and Didiscus cyawopetalus. Beyond this zone one passed into the typical sandhill flora (pl. xxxvi., fig. 2).. RELATIONSHIPS OF VEGETATION. The salt lake just described was interesting, especi- ally as demonstrating the total change of flora that q occurs in those parts where the soluble salts in the soil reach a high concentration. None of the species of the ‘‘saltbush’’ or “‘bluebush’’ vegetation of the plains. which have so often been termed halophytes by other workers, were present around the lake, with the exception of A triplex vesi- carium in small quantities near the extreme margin. The | Atriplex of the salt lake was Atriplex paludosum, which also occurs in coastal salt swamps; it 1s a true halophyte. The fact that halophytic vegetation 1s composed of members of the Chenopodiaceae, and often of species of the same genera that occur on the Nullarbor Plain, cannot be taken as proving that the character plants of the latter habitat are halophytes, as was assumed by Cannon. This distinction between the halo- — phytes of a salt lake and the ‘‘saltbush’’ or ‘‘bluebush’’ com- munities has previously been noted by Tate (/oc. cit.). We regard it as an important one. In any climate where the evaporation rate is in excess of the precipitation the soil will tend to accumulate considerable quantities of soluble salts. But in no part of the Nullarbor Plain was there any sign of surface accumulation of crystals. The communities of Kochia and Atriplex that occupy the - surface of the Nullarbor Plain with their rich crop of annuals ought to be regarded as representing a semi-desert flora rather than a halophytic one. The bluebush, and to a less extent the saltbush, seem to represent the succulent flora for this — region. Comparisons would be better made between them and the constituents of the succulent communities of South Africa or America than with halophytic plants. On the Nullarbor Plain the vegetation of the dongas, with the scattered small trees and bushes, represents a further advance that takes place in that area with increasing amounts of soil, and especially of moisture. The communities of the dongas were surprisingly like those developed on the sandhill hollows. They appear to exist under very similar conditions, though the vegetation is much more sparse and less advanced owing to the more severe environmental conditions. Con- — sidered in relation to the plain formation as a whole these com- munities of plants in the dongas appear to represent what | Clements (5) would term a post-climax: that is to say, while | | | 054 4 tps the general climatic and edaphic conditions cause a stoppage __ of development on the plain at the stage of an open com- munity of bluebush, in the slightly more favourable conditions ~ in the dongas the process is carried to a further stage. This further development can be traced to some extent; in the — smallest depressions only very xerophyllous species occur, €.g., Acacia tetragonophylla; larger depressions with more soil have (15) Plant Succession, 1916, p. 109. 5DD Acacia aneura, and sometimes Pittosporum phillyracoides; while in the largest, which have most soil, the furthest devel- opment occurs, and Casuarina lepidophloia forms sniall scraps ef woodland. The vegetation of the sandhills stands in marked contrast to that of the Nullarbor Plain. Under the same climatic con- ditions on the sand, even in the most exposed positions, the plant communities are of large woody plants, and the general effect is of some luxuriance. This effect is perhaps more apparent than real, but is certainly marked as compared with the plain. The difference must be attributed to the difference in soil. The loose sand has practically no run-off—all the rain falling percolates into the soil at once. Further, the sand readily forms a quite dry dust mulch on the surface which prevents loss by evaporation, whilst the relatively coarse soil _ particles carry on a certain amount of condensation. The much finer-grained soil on the plain, on the other hand, will not condense, and, owing to its much greater water-raising power, will lose water by evaporation instead of forming a mulch. As was pointed out above, on the sand we have two distinct sets of communities—those in the hollows and those on the ridges. The former bear a close relation to the com- munities existing in the dongas, but development proceeds -further owing to the better soil and-the shelter afforded by _ the ridges. Two moderately distinct communities can be recognized, namely, that of Myoporum platycarpum and Heterodendron _ olerfolium and the open forest of Casuarina legdophloia. The former occurs where less sand is present. In both cases some developmental stages can be recognized, especially when one compares some of the hollows near the margin of the plain with those further east. The early stages are represented by Atriples, vesicartwm generally with bushes, especially of Acacia anuera, A. Randelliana, and Hremophila Latrobe:. In the Myoporum-Heterodendron phase, which appears as a climax, the Atriplex disappears, but the other bushes are still present. When more sand is present the climax appears to be the Casuarina lepidophloia forest. It is noticeable that this, rather than the Myoporum-Heterodendron community, occupies most of the hollows further east, where the sand has become more distributed. The portions of this forest which have been cut down show a return to the earlier phase with considerable quantities of Atriplex vesicarium as under- growth. The sandhill ridges, as described earlier, exhibit a series _ of developmental phases of which mallee (/ucalyptus) appears to be the climax. Here again the succession generally 556 reaches a more advanced phase as one passes east for 15 to 20 miles, where mallee is found to cover almost all the sand ridges. On the other hand, nearer the plains, the presumably younger sandhills are almost or quite without mallee and are occupied by Acacias. To summarize, excluding the salt lake with its highly — saline special conditions, one can recognize probably four types of vegetation :—/a@) The Nuilarbor Plain, with its open .com- munities of Aochia sedifolia or Atriplex spp.; (6) the sand- hill ridges commencing with Leptospermum laevigatum and Acacia linophylla, etc., and culminating in an open mallee commuuity; (¢) the sandhill hollows with sandy soil culmin-— ating in open forest of Casuarinu lepidophloia; and lastly, (d) the hollows with firmer soil which appear to reach a climax > in the community of IJyoporum platycarpum and Hetero- dendron oleifolium. These last two are very closely allied and all sorts of transitions with intermediate conditions can be noted. The donga communities represent attempts stopped by conditions to develop upon the open plain the vegetation char- acteristic of one or other of these last two types. FLORA. A list of the flora so far as we have collected it is given below (Appendix). This has been enlarged by the inclusion” of thirty species recorded or collected ‘by Black from the Ooldea district, but not seen by us. The total number of species amounts to 188. In this list we have given the habitats of the, plants dividing the district into six main divisions, viz., the Nullarbor Plain, the dongas on the plain, the sand ridges, the sand flats between the ridges, the Soak, and the salt lake. From such a list the several plant communities recognized by us can easily be seen to have their characteristic floras. Necessarily the classification is somewhat arbitrary, special difficulty being found in deciding whether a plant growing at the edge of the Nullarbor Plain properly belongs to the plain flora or to that of the sandhill areas. Nevertheless, it becomes clear that, as we have stated above, the donga flora has more resemblance to that of the sandhill country than to that of the plain. Secondly, it will be seen that in the sandhill area the floras of ridges and of flats are strikingly distinct, sufficiently so recognize them as different associations. Again, however, it has not been possible to distinguish in tabular form between those flats with a deep sandy or loamy soil, and those in which the underlying limestone comes near to the surface. These last are recognized as being inliers of the plain association that 557 have become included in the sandhill area, though in the list they are included as sandhill flats. Finally, in the list, the plants are classified according to their ‘‘life-form,’’ using Raunkiaer’s system.4) As no such examination of an Australian flora has been made before, the ten life-forms recognized by Raunkiaer are briefly defined below. -PHANAEROPHYTES are plants whose dormant buds project freely into the air, ¢.e., trees and shrubs. They are com- monly subdivided according to their height into four groups :— - Megaphanaerophytes, tall trees, over 30 m. Mesophanaerophytes, medium-sized trees, 8-30 m. MM. _ Microphanaerophytes, small trees and shrubs, 2-8 m. Symbol M,. Nanophanaerophytes, shrubs, 2 m. and less. Symbol N. ‘e- CHAMAEPHYTES (@hh.) are plants with buds or shoot apices perennating on the surface of the ground or just above | it (under 25 cm.). These buds gain some protection either | by snow, or, in dry countries, by dead plant remains. | . HemicryptopHytes (fl.) have their dormant buds in : the upper soil crust, just below the surface, thereby gaining additional protection. The aerial parts are herbaceous and die away at the onset of the critical period. _ CrypropHytTes are plants with their dormant parts well buried in the case of geophytes (G.), the only subdivision of the class present. in the Ooldea flora. Marsh plants (helo- phytes) such as Typha and Phragmites, and some aquatic plants (hydrophytes) as. Nymphaea and Potamogeton form the other subdivision (HH. “) which is not represented at Ooldea. THEROPHYTES (Tin. ) are plants the seeds of which germ- inate rapidly at the favourable season, soon pass into flower and fruit, and then die away. These, therefore, pass the unfavour- able season as seeds. They are ‘all annuals, and many in the floras of arid regions are ephemeral. Two other classes are Stem SuccuLEents, notably scarce in the flora of Australia as a whole, and EPIPHYTES (E.). Strictly speaking, these perched plants should gain nothing but an elevated position from the phanaerophytes on which they grow, hence they are best developed-in wet regions. No true epiphytes occur at . @4)-Smith, W:* G., Raunkiaer’s Life-forms and Statistical Methods, Journ. Ecol., i:, pp. 16-26, 1913; in this paper the literature is summarized to date. Taylor, W., Growth- forms of the Flora of New. York ae Vicinity. ; Am. Jo ourn, , Bot., 1. . pp. 23-31, 1915. , 558 Ooldea, or indeed in South Australia, but we have placed in this class the many parasites, chiefly Loranthus, spp., which are found in the Ooldea florula. The classification of a flora into these life-forms may be utilized in the following way, as illustrated by the table below (Table III.). For any locality the total number of species analysed is given, followed by the results given as percent- ages according to the grouping above. ‘‘Such an analysis for any region is termed the biological or phyto-climatic spectrum. The normal spectrum is the base line, and the outstanding features of the other spectra are deduced by comparison, not by the highest: percentage in their own curve, but by the amount of variation from the normal spectrum. The latter is ideally the phyto-climatic spectrum of the whole earth; actually it is obtained by computation, and at present is given — only as approximate. It was arrived at by first selecting 1,000 representative species and then taking 400 of these, which were carefully analysed. This number, 400, has been carefully controlled in various ways,’’ 5) which, however, need not be considered here. : TasLeE III. Biological spectrum of Ooldea district compared with that of other arid regions :— Percentage of Species belonging to each Life-form Total ha . speciesMM M N Ch H G HH TH E S Normal Spectrum 400 6 17 20 9 27 3 L 5 Wiis Ooldea ... . 388 5 19 283 14 4 5 — 85 4° — Libyan Desert ... 194 — 3 9 24 20 4 1 42 — — Aden ... . 176 — 126 27 19 3 =| a= a8 Madeira Lowlands 213 — 114 7 24 — 3 SI — — ee ee Transcaspian ... 768 10 7279 5 4 — — Death Valley ... 294 — 221 7 18 2 >» 4 — $ * These epiphytes are all parasites, not true epiphytes, see text. Considering the spectrum of the Ooldea region in relation to the normal, the absence of tall trees,“ (MIM.) is as marked a feature as is the smaller number of perennial herbaceous plants, 2.e., hemicryptophytes and geophytes. On the other hand, the micro and nanophanerophytes, and also the chamaephytes, are all in excess of the normal percentage. The departure from the normal is most marked in the chamae- phytes (5 per cent. increase), but the two Phanaerophyte (15) Smith, W. G., loc. cit., p. 18. (16) Casuarina lepidophloia, as found growing at the ‘Oak forest,’ was the only tree over 8 metres. 559 groups M. and N. each show 3 per cent. above the normal. This indicates that the environmental factor favours low trees or shrubs. The most marked departure from the normal is in the therophytes. Annuals are a very prominent feature in the Ooldea florula as far as it is known at present, while it is probable that collections made in a “‘good season’’ would still further enlarge the class. These deviations from the normal become the more inter- esting when considered in relation to the biologic spectra of other arid regions. Closest correspondence is seen between that of Ooldea and the Death Valley, California. The thero- phyte percentage of 34 is sufficient to mark the Ooldea region as belonging to the desert series, but the number of low woody plants is exceptional. The micro- and nanophanaero- phytes together (Ml. and N.) amount to 43 per cent., a number in excess of both the normal spectrum or that of any other arid region available for comparison. Further work on the Australian flora is needed before the significance of this can be fully appreciated. While the Ooldea region may be said to show a therophyte flora, the tendency of its peren- nials to be woody plants and to have their resting buds above the surface of the ground and not below it (Class Ad. is re- markably subnormal) is certainly a point that calls for further , investigation. Department of Botany, University of Adelaide. APPENDIX. The following list contains the complete flora of Ooldea so far as recorded at present. We have distinguished the species recorded by Black and not seen by us by prefixing the letter B., and two species of Acacia are given on Cannon’s authority. The six divisions showing the habitat are shown by the following con- tractions:—Nullarbor Plain, N.P.; Dongas, D.; Sand ridges, S.R.; Sand flats, S.F.; Soak, S.; and Salt Lake, S.L. a. aa (M) lela) fa ) Bo [2 [Ala loi jo | a A ee Coe eee | | Callitris verrucosa, R. Br... MM. flop eet Triglochin centrocarpa, Hook. Th. | cae came B.| Panicum gracile, R. Br ... BL. Ll eae i | B.| Amphipogon strictus, R. Br., v. - gracilis | 15 | i+i+| | | Stipa setacea, R. Br. ben ite 4 H. |+/+| | [+/+ S. seabra, Lindl. Bore || B.|S. sclerata, Behr. H. | iH | Danthonia ’penicillata, F. v. M. H. |+/°; |+ | imiodiasyeritans, R.Br. os. 2X: “us Ch. \-+| | 560 | ea } ao lai =O e tie | | | ae Lomandra leucocephala, (R. Br.) Ewart aH Ch.) i+ | | | Thysanotus exiliflorus, F. v. M. ... G. | +| | | Casuarina lepidophloia, F: vy. M. ... MM.| |+/+/+! | | Grevillea juncifolia, Hook. M. | +| | | G. stenobotrya, F. v. M. ... sil M. | | +) \* G. nematophylla, F. v. M. al nes +] | Hakea leucoptera, R. Br. 2 | a +} k H. multilineata, Meiss. ... : M. |}. + | Fusanus acuminatus, R. Br. M. +| & F. persicarius, F. v. M N: + + B.| F. spicatus, He Biro M. Ls Viscum articulatum, Burm. EK. +| | Loranthus exocarpi, Behr. E. i+ L. Preissii, Mig. K. | ia | L. quandang, Lindl. E. ye +} | | B.| L. miraculosus, Mig. E. [s aeicet Be a pendulus, Sieber . EB. | \5ea ee . Miquelii, Lehm. ... Bi] eee Rhasodia spinescens, R. Br., var. delto- | Gy | phylla Paes _ N. |+] | Zh R. Gaudichaudiana, Moo. No is B.| R. Billardierii, Moa. se Ne ent A ie Fate: R. Preissii, Mog. a ess ei | I] | Chenopodium micr ophyllum, F. v. M. | Ka | var. desertorum, J. M. Bo Phd laa bs | | |4- C. nitraraceum, F. v. M. hora |+- Atriplex vesiearium, Hew. | ON. [sey Se | A. holocarpum, F. | Th, |e) ee | A. paludosum, R. Be en OR | | | A. stipitatum, Benth. .| Ch. |. eae ANOS Sy Peter aa Ch. |+| | | | Kochia appressa, ‘Benth. ey frre Re ie ee) | K. brevifolia, R. Br. jee) | ieee FG pyramidata, Benth. : N. |+/ | J4I | K. sedifolia, F. v. M. N. |+{ | [+] | K. triptera, var. erioclada, Benth. , RS i+ K. aphylla, (Ree | ON. [+ | Bassia scleroloenioides, ‘F. v. M. | Ch. |+i/4+] i+ |B. diacantha, F. v. ..| Ch. [+/+] J+] | B. echinopsila, F. v. M. ... Sahonehie. 4 |+| | Enchylaena tomentosa, R. Bri wuic, i aN | | | Arthrocnemum halocnemoides, Nees. [ae ae | | te halocnemoides, var. cena _ | | ) | A., fi ‘ib aih| | ae lSateots, kali, Le Ss _ strobilifera, “Benth. a! ide i + it Trichinium incanum, R. Br. Pee a ye | | |+| T. incanum, vy. erandiflorum, ‘Benth. ses | Lek; alopecuroideum, Tyas. PeThes | 1 sel | T. alopecuroideum, v. rubriflorum, J.M.B.| Th. ey |+ | Gyrostemum ramulosus, Desf. xis aM, | | {+] \* | Tetragonia expansa, Murray ... ... ...| Th. |+| |+ 561 C | Bs. B. B.| Beveria opaca, F. v. M. .|C. pusilla, Lindl. | Acacia colletioides, A. Me i Reade a aequilaterale, Haw. era. volubilis, ‘Benth. C. disperma, J. C. polyandra, (Haoks\ Benth. ke Cassytha melantha, R. Br. Alyssum minimum, Pallas | Stenopetalum lineare, at Br. S. sphaerocarpum, F. MES. 2: | Lepidium phils Miopakakcas, F. v. M. | L. Draba, L. é Crassula verticiliaris, DC... | Pittosporum phillyraeoides, DC. Cunn. M. { | | | E | | | | / | A A. tetragonophylla, F. v. | A. ligulata, A. Cunn. | A. Oswaldii, F. v. M. A. Randelliana, Ww. Y. Pitz. | A. aneura, F. v. M. on aneura, v. latifolia, J, EB. | A. linophylla, W. V. Fitzg. | A. brachystachya, Benth. | A. Kemplana, aie. Mic i Gassya Sturtii, i. Br. -C. eremophila, A. Cunn. - /C. eremophila, v. zygophylla /C. eremophila, v. piaspods ae: | C. phyllodinia, Re Br: as Swainsonia colutoides, F. v. M. Bossiaea Walkeri, F. v. ee | Lotus australis, Andrews, | EKrodium cygnorum, Nees : | Zs gophyllum fruticulosum, DC. |Z. ovatum . | Z. ammophilum, F. Pee 43 | Nitraria Schoeberi, Linn. 2 Boronia coerulescens, Pty MM. | Euphorbia Drummondii, Boiss. | E. eremophila, A. Cunn. | Adriana tomentosa, Gaudich. _M. | Poranthera microphylla, Broug. | Stackhousia viminea, Smith. | Heterodendron oleifolium, Desf. | Dedonaea attenuata, A. Cunn. | D. microzyga, F. v. M. 'Lavatera plebeja, Sims, | Hook. | Sida corrugata, |S. petrophila, F. v. var. Lindl. \.': Bees _ pubescens tomentosa, Raunkiaer Class 562 ie. | ee | 3 lol tele fe | 3° |e ed v5 ones) Les lcuoetiae Hibbertia‘crispula, J. iM Gee) ee a | |+ Frankenia fruticulosa, DC. ....... ...| Ch. 4 B.| Lythrum hyssopifolia, L. ah A er ne wee i | ae Pimelia microcephala, R. Br. IN: +/ | a P. simplex, F. v. M. ; Th. + |] 4 | Eucalyptus pyriformis, Turez. M. Hy i 4 E. leptophylla, Mig. . M. +] | E. oleosa, F. Cece Ei tee M. +! |. | B.,.sp.. indet. affin. oleosa ... .. | M. a | E. transcontinentalis, J. H. M. .. M. +} | | = F. EK. Pimpiniana, J. H. M. PAD ioe ty ( ro a en +} | | 3 maybe ethic eee v. minus,} M. +| [+ | . Melaleuca parviflora, “Lindl. N. | , i Didiscus cyanopetalus, Psy Me Th. + | | - | B.| Alyxia buxifolia, R. Br. ... | NE +} . Convolulus erubescens, Sims. Th. + ce 7 B.| Heliotropum europeum, L. | Cher! Leake oie B.| Halgania cyanea, Lindl. He Ch. | ee | | Echinospermum concavum, F. v. M. Th. [+/+] |+| | | B.| Dicrastylis beveridgei, F. v. M. N. | ae | Westringia rigidia., R. Br. N. ; |+l | B.| W. Dampieri, R. Br. | cae + | 7 Solanum esuriale, Lindl. | Ch. |+ | | a S. coactiliferum, FMB: | Ch. |+ i+{ | |, B.| S. hystrix, R. Br. Ch. | . Nicotiana suavoleus, Lehm. 1 2h. +1 fj | 7 Myoporum platycarpum, R. Br. ... whe Ios SO eA . a Eremophila oppositifolia, BBE 6 he he Ft E. Latrobii, F. v. M. E re ee he ~ F b.| E. Latrobia, v. Tietkensii, ‘J. M. B. Reel! EU | | | 5 E. maculata, bv, Mie aes | M. | | . B.| E. Paisleyi, BF. v. M. | M. hoot i B.| E. Goodwini, F. v. M. ... [ a EA eae be | | BE. glabra, (R. Br.) Ostenf. | M. | aes E. alternifolia, A cus Tek. at M. | +)/+i+ | | | E. longifolia, F. v. M. | M.). Tee | a i B.| Pholidia scoparia, F. v. M. | M. | lis eds | | Plantago varia, R. Br. | Th. | +/+] ‘ | Pomax umbellata, OME cc) Pane: | Th. + | | § B.| Goodenia strophiolata, yo: | Ch. +/+ 3; |G. ‘pusillifiora; a ML, 63.) | Th. |+ | ‘ |G. pinnatifida, Schl. vee | Th. |+/+{) (+ . B.| Dampiera lanceolata, A. Cunn. Pe. ak | . | Scaevola spinescens, R. Br. EP | i+} | , ‘| Olearia Muelleri, Benth. N. | | | ae 2 4 | O.s subspicata, Benth. N. | | be | | Minuria leptophylla, DC. CE i 5 | Calotis hispidula, F. v. M. ee + e B.| C. erinacea, Steetz ... ws | Th it te | | Brachycome pachy aio F. v. M. The 4) 3) |B. ciliaris, Lees. hy | Th.) dds Lc 563 : 2a | EE A} lei) le | S ZlIA|Ni vin \|n jet | | Cratystylis conocephala, S. Moore. ...|_N. | | | he : | Iscetopsis graminifolia, Turcz. . “ Th. Pea i+} | | Myriocephalus rhizocephalus, Benth. ...| Th. | | i+] | | iM. Stewartii, Wendl. nee.) aoe | | | f+ | Angianthus tomentosus, Wendl. =v, Seb +} {+ | | A. pusillus, Benth. ... fe Th. | +| =e brachyappus, Fey. MS. wo eee | t | | Gnephosis cyathoppapa, Benth. a ie is + voice B.|G. skirrophora, Benth... ; sed te | ea | Podotheca angustifolia, Cass. 2& itieOie | | |+i | | B.| Podolepis capillaris, (Steetz) Diels. ...| Th. | | j++ 4 B. Pacichisysam apiculatum, 1). 3 ee iene | Choe eI | |H. ambiguum, Turcz. ae Sat Glee +| | | | H. Lawrencella, a. ve oy, Daven-| Th. | one PONTE TEE el a |e | fee (oat igs bracteatum, Andr.. ear Ch. | | ae) | | |H. semifertile, F. v. M. ... ote Eat | l+{ | f ' Waitzia acuminata, Steetz ... eer fe a a | | foes | Helipterum polygalifolium, DC. pee e PaeT ae [| iH. floribundum, DC. aE > speedos i el a tt es | H. roseum, (Hook.) Benth., var. patens,| Th. | [ |+i+t | . Ewart : ees ear cos Ne| fe nome | |H. hyalospermum, F. v. M. | Bho Pe aep ye ees | H. strictum, Benth. ea | | |+j+i | | H. pygmeum, Benth. ope ag tice | | H. moscatum, Benth. se he, Peed wel 4 |H. Humboldtianum, DC. Oe opr tay em | Cephalipterum Drummondii, Ae Gray ih eee Eee eg | peeucco Grevori. Wloivy: Moy to eh Thee poled] 'S. brachyglossus, F. v. M. at is eee Spek ag ee DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Prats XXXII. Fig. 1. General view on Nullarbor Plain showing typical bluebush (Kochia sedifoliaj. A donga is seen on the left. The trees in the donga are Acacia aneura, Pittosporum phillyraeoides, and Fusanus acuminatus. The soil of the plain shows white lime- stone fragments, also the flower heads of Cephalipterum Drum- mondit. Fig. 2. Transition region between plain and sandhill. The trees are not confined entirely to depressions (dongas), though one with a denser tree flora is seen to the left. The main tree is _ Acacia aneura, with occasional A. tetragonophylla and Eremophila Latrobei, etc. Atriplex vesicarium is the chief ground shrub, the soil here heing more sandy than on the plain (cf. fig. 1). Numerous annuals are present. 564 Pratt XXXII. General birdseye view over sandhill region looking west towards the Nullarbor Plain, which is seen on the horizon, taken from the top of a water tower 30 ft. above the crest of a sand ridge. In foreground sandhill mulga (A. linophylla) running to a flat with Heterodendron. Another low sand ridge is between this and the plain, where is mulga (A. aneura) and some Casuarina lepidophloia in dongas, @.g., extreme right. parte gg DY nS Prats XXXIV. Fig. 1. Typical sand ridge mallee vegetation. The mallees are EHucalyptus oleosa, E. leptophylla, and E. transcontinentalis. The tree in the centre is Myoporum platycarpum. Shrubs, Acacia ligulata, A. Randelliana, and Cassia eremophila. The ground at this season is almost bare. This probably represents the climax on sandhills. Fig. 2: View in ‘‘oak forest,’’ showing old trees of Casuarina lepidophloia with some natural regeneration. Bushes of Acacia Randelliana and Fusanus acuminatus. Ground at this time almost bare; the dead undershrubs appeared to be Kochia sedifolia. PusTteE XXXYV. Sandhill flora showing early stages in the succession in the foreground and looking across to mallee on the horizon. The trees in the foreground on either side are Grevillea stenobotrya. Below open sandhill succession with Leptospermum laevigatum, v. minus, Acacia ligulata, and Dodonaea viscosa, v. attenuata. The dis- tant vegetation is mallee of the sandhill] climax. PLuate XXXVI. Fig. 1. General view over salt lake to mallee-covered hills on horizon. The foreground shows open sandhill succession with Acacia ligulata and Fusanus acuminatus. The halophytic shrubs of the dry salt lake are seen round the margin and in the bed at the nearer and shallower end. Beyond the lake can be seen the halophytes, some passing into open sandhill flora, behind which is mallee. The branch of the tree in the immediate foreground, left side, is Grevillea stenobotrya, and illustrates the leaf habit. The tree is fruiting. Fig. 2. Salt lake near Soak showing dry bed with no vege- tation. Arthrocnemum, spp., form a fringe between the bed of the surrounding sandhills on which Acacia linophylla and Fusanus acuminatus can be seen. 565 ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA: OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. No. 20. By J. M. Brack. [Read October 19, 1922. | Bi. Prare XX XVII. GRAMINEAE. Stipa setacea, R. Br, var. latiglumis, n. var. Variat ligula 3-5 mm. longa, glumis vacuis latis, superiore sub-5-nervi, gluma florifera lata ad apicem angustata et breviter barbata, arista 25-35 mm. longa crassiuscula bis geniculata. Belair; Minnipa; Telowie Gorge. S. eremophila, Reader, var. dodrantaria, n. var. Variat gluma floriferaé angustiore, aristé 6-7’cm. longé usque ad dodrantem subplumosa. Birksgate Range, R. Helms. S. pubescens, R, Br., var. comosa, n. var. Variat gluma florifera circiter 4 mm. longa sericeo-villosa in comam albam aequilongam desinente. Marino; Jamestown; Melrose; Moolooloo. Eriachne ovata, Nees, var. pedicellata, n. var. Variat pedicellis capillaribus 5-8 mm. longis, gluma florifera superne villosissima sed non ciliata glumas vacuas paululum superante. Musgrave Range, S. A. White. CYPERACEAE. Cyperus exaltatus, Retz., var. minor, n. var. Variat umbella minore, spiculis 3 mm. longis 6-floris. River Murray. Scheonus tesquorum, n. sp. Perennis, caulibus fili- formibus compressis striatis 20-40 cm. altis, foliorum radicalium laminis filiformibus 6-18 cm. longis, bracteis caulinis: 2-3 distantibus, earum vaginis 5-20 mm. longis eylindricis fusco-rubris indiscissis, laminis filiformibus 1-4 cm. longis, spiculis fusco-rubris 6-7 mm. longis 2-floris lanceolatis | binis usque quaternis in fasciculos terminales et subterminales dispositis, setis hypogynis nullis; nuce obovoidea trigona ~ alba. From between Mount Burr and Mount McIntyre to Nangwarry on the Victorian border. The types are four 566 specimens in the Tate Herbarium, without date or name of collector, but very probably aathered by Professor Tate him- self. One of them is marked for transmission to Baron von Mueller, but it appears, from enquiries at the National Herbarium of Victoria, that none was sent. The species stands nearest to S. apogon, Roem. et Schult. IRIDACEAE. *Moraea xerospatha, MacOwan, var. monophylla, n. var. WVariat folio radicali semper unico. ‘In the typical South African form of this little plant, very common in our southern districts, and especially near Adelaide, the number of leaves is given by Baker as 3-4, and by the Kew authorities as 1-4. CHENOPODIACEAE. Chenopodium carinatum, R. Br., var. melanocarpum, n. var. Variat perianthio fructifero demum nigrescente, ejus segmentis pilosioribus margine contiguis semen tegentibus subacute carinatis. Accedit Ch. cristato. Flinders Range; Far North and North-West. Also in Western Australia and at Broken Hill, New South Wales. Chenopodium microphyllum, F. v. M., var. desert- orum, no. var. Variat caulibus erectioribus et crassioribus, foliis ovatis vel rhomboideis crassis supra concaviusculis infra dense farinosis 5-12 mm. longis, spicis densius vestitis folia superantibus (10-15 mm. longis), staminibus 5. Murray lands; Port Augusta westward to Ooldea. This variety, with thick, often rhomboid, almost papillose leaves and longer spikes, looks very distinct, but some speci- mens from Baroota, between the Flinders Range and Spencer Gulf, are in some respects almost intermediate between the type and the variety. Bassia ventricosa, n. sp. Fruticulus ramosus, ramulis albo-tomentosis, foliis lineari-clavatis sessilibus acutis sericeis demum glabrescentibus 5-15 mm. longis, floribus solitariis, perianthii fructiferi tubo parce tomentoso subgloboso — 3 mm. diametro ad basin oblongam vix excavato, limbo lanato sat longo, spinis 4 (rarissime 5), quarum duabus 3-5 mm. longis ceteris valde brevioribus una nonnunquam adnata vel paene obsoleta omnibus rigidis subdivergentibus plus minusve pilosis, pericarpio superne indurato, semine oblique | horizontali. TT Ee ee 567 Port Augusta and Lake Torrens to the Far North; also in the western part of New South Wales. This widely dis- tributed species is easily distinguishable from its allies by its almost. globular hairy perianth-tube and its four short un- equal slightly divergent spines. Bassia limbata, n. sp. Fruticulus ramosus tomento denso albo-cinereo paene lanato tectus, foliis lineari-clavatis sessilibus 10-20 mm. longis, floribus solitariis, perianthii fructiferi tubo subcylindrico 3 mm. longo ad apicem 4 mm. lato ad basin oblongam vix excavato cum limbo erecto aequilongo aibo-tomentoso, spinis 2 divergentibus rigidis erassiusculis 8-12 mm. longis usque supra medium tomentosis, tertia spina vel tuberculo minuta, semine horizontali. Leigh Creek, Parachilna, Mount Parry (Flinders Range) ; also near Broken Hill, New South Wales. Allied to B&B. bicornis, (Lindl.) F. v. M., but the latter has a much larger, harder, and more woolly ‘perianth-tube, fiercer spines, less conspicuous limb, and has no third spine or tubercle on the inner face. The basal area of attachment, oblong and -searcely hollowed, in fact only a broad groove, is much the same in both species. Bassia decurrens, n. sp. Fruticulus suberectus, ramis lanatis denique glabrescentibus, foliis lineari-subteretibus acutis sessilibus parce pilosis 10-15 mm. longis, floribus solitariis, perianthii fructiferi tubo subcompresso glabro vel circum basin lanulato laevi costato-sulcato circ. 3 mm. longo latoque ad basin ovatam paulo excavato, spinis 2 glabris divergentibus basin versus dilatatis 6-8 mm. longis, quarum una in 3 spinas brevissimas vel tubercula decurrit, limbo tubum aequante ad apicem truncato et ciliato, semine vertical. Near Port Augusta; also in western New South Wales. Differs from the other species with vertical seeds in its smooth ribbed glabrous perianth-tube, with two broad-based divergent spines of which one terminates at the base in three very short spines or tubercles, while the base of the tube is ovate or almost orbicular and only slightly oblique and hollowed on the inner face. Bassia paradoxa, (R. Br.) F. v. M., var. latifolia, n. var. Variat folus 15-25 mm. longis 5-8 mm. latis dense | tomentosis, capitulis 15 mm. diametro, spinis (in paucis _ Speciminibus quae adsunt) ad 5 cornua brevia obtusa reductis. Strzelecki Creek, S. A. White. The five short obtuse and rather soft horns are very different from the usually sharp _ Nigid spines of typical B. paradoxa, but it is certain that con- siderable variation exists in the length and texture of the 568 dorsal appendages even in specimens which are otherwise typical. The new variety can be at once distinguished by its very broad thick and soft leaves. My specimens are too few to ensure certainty as to the appendages being ona of the form described. In dealing with the Bassias, I have had the advantage of consultation with Mr. J. H. Maiden, Government Botanist, and Mr. R. H. Anderson, botanical assistant at the National Herbarium, Sydney. Mr. Anderson is engaged on a much- — needed revision of the Australian Rassias. Atriplex leptocarpum, F. v. M., var. acuminatum, n. var. Folis obovatis plerisque sinuato- dentatis; bracteolis fructiferis 5-8,mm. longis, lobis (partibus liberis) ‘acuminatis tubo indurato fere aequilongis nonnunquam in utroque margine minute unidentato et saepe ad basin 2 parvis tuber- culis dorsalibus instructis. Tarcoola; Ooldea. Babbagia acroptera, F. v. M., et Tate, var. deminuta, n. var. Variat grandiore ala crassa rubella oblongo-incurva vix 2 mm. longa, altera minima vel fere obsoleta. West of Port Augusta. Kochia scleroptera, n. sp. Fruticulus subereetus, ramis albo-tomentosis, foliis linearibus acutis sericeo-villosis 6-12 mm. longis nervo medio saepe conspicuo infra, floralibus saepe caducis, floribus in longas spicas confertis, perianthio fructifero. valde depresso sub tomento dense lanato obtecto 4-5 mm. diametro 5 alis brevibus obtusis rigidis crassiusculis horizontalibus comprehensis, tubo brevissime convexo vix 1 mm. longo 2 mm. lato infra alas ipsas. Arkaringa and Alberga Creeks. This species is ‘only known by two specimens collected by R. Helms on the Elder Expedition in 1891, and one obtained by Miss Staer in 1913 at Todmorden Station, on the Alberga. Like XK. brevifolia it has five distinct equal horizontal wings without appendages, but differs entirely in the thickness and rigidity of the wings and in their dense woolly clothing. The perianth bears some resemblance to that of A. lanosa or of Bassia sclerolaenoides. UMBELLIFERAE. Uldinia, n. gen. Floribus paucis breviter pedicellatis in umbellam simplicem pedunculatam conjunctis, calycis dentibus obsoletis, petalis ovatis obtusis leviter imbricatis, stylis brevibus, fructu ovato a latere valde compresso basi emarginato mox bipartibili, mericarpiis 5-jugis, jugo dorsali aculeis uncinatis divaricatis biserialibus marginato, jugis > dud ris 569 intermediis prominulis medianis parcius aculeatis, utroque jugo intermedio in alam divaricatam lanceolatam uncinato- ciliolatam 3-5 mm. longam ad apicem desinente (alis eas pedium Mercurii simulantibus), jugis marginalibus prominulis, vittis nullis, carpophoro obsolescente setaceo uno mericarpio adnato et cum eo deciduo, foliis palmatipartitis petiolatis, petiolo basin versus subdilatato pilis longis ciliato ad basin ipsam fimbriato sed non rite stipulato. Uldinia mercurialis n. sp. (Tab. xxxvii.). Herba annua, caulibus prostratis rigidis plerisque simplicibus glabris, foliis radicalibus longe petiolatis, lamina ambitu sub- orbiculari-cordata 10-15 mm. longa parcissime pilosa tri- partita, segmentis ovato-cuneatis obtuse trifidis vel lobato- incisis, petiolo 10-30 mm. longo, foliis caulinis valde minoribus plerisque oppositis, umbellis 4-floris, pedunculis robustis 5-7 mm. longis axillaribus, petalis caeruleis 1 mm. longis, involucri bracteis 4 lanceolatis ciliatis circiter 3 mm. longis, mericarpiis minute papillosis 4 mm. longis vix 2 mm. latis minus quam | mm. crassis, alis divaricatis 2-4 mm. longis. This curious little plant, collected by Mr. E. H. Ising along the railway line at Ooldea in September, 1920, does not seem to fit into any of the existing genera of the tribe Hydrocotyleae. Tt has the habit of Didiseus, but differs in the absence of a free persistent carpophore. In the somewhat dilated and ciliate base of the petiole it resembles D. glauci- _folius. The carpophore of Uldinia is setaceous and adnate to the slightly grooved face of the narrow commissure of one of the two mericarps. It is fragile at base and falls off with the mericarp to which it is attached. From Hydrocotyle it differs in the deeply-cut leaves, the absence of stipules, the imbricate petals, and the dry station; from Trachymene, DC., in the absence of a free persistent carpophore, in the petals not inflexed, in the simple umbels and the dilated base of the petiole; from Cente/la in the lesser number of ribs on the mericarp and the divided leaves. As regards the two new Australian genera created by Domin in 1908 (in Beihefte zum Botan. Centralblatt, xxiu., Abt. i1., 291-4), it differs from NVeosciadium in the flattened fruit, deeply-cut leaves, and in the absence of free stipules. (N. glochidiatum, Dom. = Hydrocotyle glochidiata, Benth. ; Centella glochidiata, _ Drude.) From the other new genus, Homalosciadium, it differs in the adnate deciduous carpophore, and from both _ of these genera in the few-flowered umbels. (H. verticillatum, Dom.= Hydrocotyle verticillata, Turez.; Centella homalo- _carpa, Drude.) The hooked prickles or bristles which stand oR ~ : ‘he yl —— 570 in two rows along the narrow keel or dorsal rib of the meri- carp and are scattered along the intermediate ribs, differ markedly from those of Neosciadiwm, where they consist of straight slender bristles with several ‘short reflexed barbs or hairs near the summit, whereas in U/dima they are simple, stout, and hooked at the end. Still more remarkable are the two lanceolate wings attached to the summit of each inter- mediate rib and spreading outwards at right angles to the flattened sides of the mericarp. By their shape and position they recall the wings with which classic legend adorned the feet of Mercury. As far as my knowledge goes, they do not occur in any other umbelliferous plant. They also have small hooked prickles along the margin, so that the fruit appears — well adapted for transport either by animals or by the wind. The divaricate wings and the hooked prickles should perhaps — be ranked rather as specific than generic characters, but even — in that case the other peculiarities of the plant appear suffi- cient to necessitate the creation of a new, although probably monotypic genus. The name of the new genus is derived from ‘“‘aildilnga gabi,’’ the native name of ‘‘Ooldea Water,’’ more generally known as the Ooldea Soak, and about three miles from the Ooldea Railway Station. MYOPORACEAE. Eremophila pentaptera, n. sp. (Tab. xxxvi.) Frutex humillimus glaber circ. 30 cm. altus, caulibus erectis, foliis alternis crassis subplanis oblongo-cuneatis sessilibus ob- — tusissimus 10-35 mm. longis 4-8 mm. latis, floribus solitariis subsessilibus, pedunculis brevissimis erectis obconicis acute quinquangulis circ. 5 mm. longis, calycis segmentis aequalibus circ. 12 mm. longis glabris lanceolato-acuminatus sed. obtusis valde imbricatis secus dorsum acute carinatis vel anguste alatis in pedunculum brevem decurrentibus, corolla violacea 25-35 mm. longa exterius glabra in faucibus alba lanata maculis fulvis obsité, tubo ad basin cylindrico sursum sensim dilatato, omnibus lobis rotundatis et tubo aequilongis (exceptis 2 supremis brevioribus) infimo truncato 14-18 mm. lato, staminibus inclusis, ovario conico glabro, stylo pilosulo, ovulis 2 in utroque loculo, fructu non viso. This lowly Eremophila was discovered by Professor F. Wood Jones in September, 1922, on flats near Miller Creek, about 60 miles (100 km.) north-east of Kingoonya Railway Station. It appears to be local in its distribution. The ovary has two cells, each with two ovules, and the corolla-tube has a cylindrical base, in which respect it agrees chiefly with ee ~ im q oe x 571 Pholidia, but the size and shape of the upper part of the corolla and the large thick leaves belong rather to Hremo- phila. In any case, the desirability of uniting the two genera seems now to be generally conceded. In the broad, fleshy, rather large, and very obtuse leaves, and the sharply-keeled. or narrowly-winged calyx-segments, which run down into an acutely 5-angled peduncle so short that it appeared to be merely the contracted base of the calyx, the new species is well distinguished. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXXVII. 1. Eremophila pentaptera, n. sp. A, branch. 8B, corolla ; spread open. C, dangled peduncle and pistil, D, vertical section of ovary. HE, calyx and peduncle. 2. Uldinia mercurialis, n. sp. F, radical leaf. G, upper part of stem. H. mericarp. I, transverse section of fruit. 572 TYPES OF SPECIES OF AUSTRALASIAN POLYPLACOPHORA DESCRIBED BY DE BLAINVILLE, LAMARCK, DE ROCH- BRUNE, AND OTHERS, NOW IN THE MUSEUM D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE, IN PARIS. By Epwin Asupy, F.L.S., M.B.O.U. [Read October 19, 1922.] The following is a reswmé of the results of an examina- tion recently made by the writer of the collections of Aus- tralasian Polyplacophora under the care of the Laboratoire de Malacologie Rue de Buffon, Paris. The writer’s warmest thanks are due to Professor Joubin for permission to examine the collections, and to Dr. Ed. Lamy, for not only placing the extensive collections at his disposal, but also for much help in the identification of the specimens from which Blainville and other writers made their original descriptions. In offering the within notes on these collections, the writer is conscious of limitations due to the shortness of the time at his disposal entirely precluding the possibility of checking through his rough notes before transcribing them. The fortunate rediscovery of some of the lost types, notably of Blainville and Lamarck, on which so much has been written by Dr. Pilsbry, Mr. Tom Iredale, and others, will, I feel sure, be appreciated by all workers. Fairly full notes have been given of a good deal of material of less importance than the types before referred to. This has been done because the writer had an unique oppor- tunity of comparing the specimens with those of his own collection which he brought to Europe for this purpose, and which is undoubtedly the most complete collection of Aus- tralian chitons that has up to the present been made. The references given are not complete, but sufficiently so for the purposes of this paper. As far as possible the notes have been arranged in the order of modern classification. Callochiton dentatus, Spengl., Australe. One specimen on card. On the back is marked ‘‘fulgetrum, Reeve.” It is very worn, but I have no doubt it is C. platessa, Gould. Lepidopleurus fodiatus, Rochebr. Type (Bull. Soc. Philom., 1880-81, p. 120). The card on which these shells are mounted is marked ‘‘/s. (Radsella) fodiatus, Rochebr.”’ Also, there are several separate valves in spirit marked on label ‘‘Zs. tigrinus, Kraus.’’ Other notes on the label, ‘“New Holland, M. Verreaux, 1842. Type, M® 108.”’ _ 42 - {4 iy 573 This shell has very large scales grooved with very fine striae. Lateral area 11 radial ribs, median areas covered with flattened, wavy ribs which are so extremely bridged as to approximate to the sculpture of a Callistochiton. I have never seen this shell in Australia and am con- fident the locality given is incorrect. Stenochiton (Chiton) longicymba, Blainville. Type (Dict. Sc. Nat., xxxvi., 1825); Stenochiton juloides, Ad. and Ang. ; Schizochiton nympha, Rochebr., non Chitow longicymba, B1., of Quoy et Gaimard. : The full particulars of the steps that led to the identi- © fication of Rochebrune’s type of Schizochiton mympha with Blainville’s lost type of C..longicymba are fully given in a paper by the writer which is being published by the Malaco- logical Society, London. Ischnochiton (Chiton) hneolatus, Blainville. Type (Dict. Se. Nat., vol. xxxvi., p. 541, 1825). See ‘Review of Chiton e 886 = Acanthopleura spinigera, Sow.’ On back it has the fol- | lowing notes, ‘‘Ile King, Chiton hirtosus, Peron, 233,’’ im Peron’s handwriting; two words that look like ‘‘Leplus grand, A. aculeata, L., I. King,’’ in Lamarck’s hand- writing, and ‘‘Acanthopleura spimgera, Sow., Thiele det.” This specimen is similar in sculpture and spicules to specimens in my collection from Port Darwin which I have considered are referable to Blainville’s Chiton gemmata. The shell is a good deal curled but is in good preservation and measures 51x38 mm. This could not have come from Ile King, but possibly Baudin sailed north as far as Shark Bay, where this Acanthopleura occurs. Is it not possible that this is the missing type of Blainville’s Chiton gemmatus? Up to the present I have not been able to refer to the original descrip- tion of that species. 581 Specimen (c). - On another -card is a specimen, which I am calling (c), marked ‘‘Liolophura hirtosa, Peron; collected by Peron et Lesueur, 1803.”’ In Dr. Lamy’ S opinion this specimen is the black variety described by Blainville, 1825, as variety V. of his Chiton gemmatus. The shell shows very little sculpture, the dorsal area is eroded, but the rest of the shell is well pre- served. There are very deep growth-lines and ridges, which are only subpustulose in the lateral areas. It is curled and measures 30x23 mm. This spm.=Liolophura hirtosa, (Peron) Blainville. Note:—Blainville states that his variety V. was in the collection of the Paris Museum, but that the type of normal C’. gemmatus was in his own collection. Specimen card. This has two specimens mounted on it; they are marked “L. georgiana, Q. et G., Port du Roi George. ’ These are not that species, but are the Sydney shell LZ. gaimardi, Blain- ville. There are sufficient of the girdle spicules left to assure the correctness of the determination. Specimen (¢). This is in spirit and marked ‘‘Acanthopleura quatre- fagesi, Rochebrune (Rochebr., Bull. Soc. Philom., 1880-81, p. 117; Jour. de Conch., 1881, p. 44).”’ This is Liolophura hirtosa, (Peron) Blainville, and very probably was one of Blainville’s original shells. Liolophura (Chiton) see guana, Quoy et Gand Type (Voy. de ]’Astrol. Zool., 111., p. 379, t. 75, f. 25-30, 1833), Port du Roi George. There ‘are four specimens quite typical of this common Western Australian shell; as Peron’s name, _ hartosus, was published by Blainville in 1825, that name replaces that of Quoy et Gaimard. There are old labels attached reading, ‘“‘Chiton magellanicus, Chem.; Chiton georgianus, Q. et G. Type figured. Port du Roi George, New Holland, Expedition d’Urville, 1824, the figure in. Voy. Astrol., pl. 75, figs. 25-30, agrees with these specimens.’ Liolophura (Chiton.) gaimardz, Blainville (Dict. Sci. Nat., _ xxxvi., p. 546, 1825). The type was collected at Port J. ackson by Quoy and Gaimard and was preserved in spirit. This bottle contains two specimens with a more recent label, “Acanthopleura magellanica, Chem.” These may be the types, as the type is referred to as being in the Paris Museum in the _ catalogue of that Museum, dated 1838. 582 Onithochiton (Chiton) wndulatus, Quoy et Gaimard. Type (Zool. del’ Astrol., p. 393, t. 75, f. 19-24, New Zealand). The label is in the handwriting of Quoy or Gaimard, ‘‘P]. 75, figs. 19-24, 1833.’’ This corresponds with specimens in my own collection from Doubtless Bay, New Zealand, except that in the type the diagonal rib is almost smooth, showing little granulation: The shells are bleached. Omthochiton astrolaber, Rochebrune. Type (Bull. Soc. Philom., Paris, 1880-81, p. 120), New Zealand, Quoy et Gaimard, 1829. This shell has spaced granules in the diagonal rib similar to my Doubtless Bay specimens, and is only a slight variation from the type of Quoy and Gaimard’s undulatus. Onithochiton neglectus, Rochebrune. Type (Bull. Philom., Paris, 1880-81, p. 120), Wellington, New Zealand, Quoy et Gaimard. This is an exceptionally granulose shell, probably a variety. of Quoy et Gaimard’s wndulatus, but as that name was preoccupied Iredale substituted the name neglectus, Rochebr. (Trans. N. Z’d. Inst., vol. xlvii., 1914). Onithochitow lyelli, Sow. There is in spirit a rather worn specimen from Ile Pitcairn. This seems conspecific with O. quercinus, Gould. Gymnoplax adelaidensis, Quoy et Gaimard, 1829. This is an East Indian shell from Amboine. It has scales like a Haploplax and resembles members of that genus in general shape, but there the resemblance ends, the valves being very strongly sculptured. I have no reference to its description. 583 ECOLOGICAL NOTES ON SOUTH AUSTRALIAN PLANTS. PART 1. By Ernest H. Isine. [Read October 19, 1922.} Puates XXXVITI. ro XLII. I. INTRODUCTION. These notes are the result of a trip taken along the Transcontinental Line between Hughes and Kingoonya from _ September 5 to 24, 1920. Collections of plants were made at _ the following places showing the number of miles from Port — << ~ me a i - _ Augusta :—Hughes, 567 miles; Ooldea, 427 miles; Immarna, 407 miles; Barton, 376 miles; Wynbring, 321 miles; Tar- coola, 257 miles; and Kingoonya, 209 miles. The rainfall over the area collected had been heavier that year than for a number of years, resulting in splendid growth of native vegetation. Seeds that were dormant for a number of years must have germinated that year, for there _ was.an abundance of plants at all the places visited. Reference will be made in this paper to the ecological _ factors noted in connection with the plants seen and collected at the various places mentioned. Plants were collected up to three miles from the centres referred to. Throughout the trip I was helped very considerably in collecting and drying by Mr. A. M. Lea, F.E.S., Government Entomologist, who was collecting insects for the Museum on _the same trip. An asterisk denotes an introduced plant. These were not seen to any extent and only close to the railway stations. For assistance in identifying some of the specimens I am “indebted to Mr. J. H. Maiden, I.8.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., etc., ‘Director Botanic Gardens, Sydney (Hucalyptus and Acacia), Mr. J. M. Black, and Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc. II. PuysrtoGRAPuHy. 1. THE NULLARBOR PLAIN. Size.—The Nullarbor Plain commences at Ooldea at its _ eastern boundary and stretches away westward to the border for 170 miles, and thence into Western Australia. Its _ Southern boundary is the coastline of the Bight, and it extends for about 100 miles north. m) a - | 584 The Little Plain.—At 441 miles from Port Augusta a ledge is met with which is the edge of the Nullarbor Plain proper. This is 17 miles west of Ooldea, and it forms a “little plain’’ which is quite distinct from the big plain further west. This small area is of an undulating character and grows a number of trees and small shrubs which appear to frequent the depressions. On the Nullarbor Plain, itself, this bigger growth disappears. It is on this small strip of country that the florulas of the plain and the sandhills meet, but there is very little invasion by the different plants on the neighbouring territory. The Plan Proper.—The Nullarbor Plain stretches away north, south, and west from the ‘“‘ledge’’ in an unbroken expanse of level, or slightly undulating, country as far as the eye can see. From the “‘ledge’’ (441 miles) to Hughes (567 miles), which is within 32 miles of the Western Australian border, the country is the same uninteresting plain not relieved by any prominence whatever. Slight undulations occur, in places, and are from a quarter to half a mile, or more, across; but the resulting rises and depressions would only be about 4 ft. or 5 ft. above or below the surrounding level. The rises, generally, have an outcrop of limestone with weather- worn fragments of the same lying around. The top soil, held together by the plants, is a reddish, friable, sandy loam which extends for at least 12 in. below the surface. In places it is of a clayey nature. In the depressions there is no surface limestone. These shallows (one large one at Hughes is called ‘“The Dry Lake’’) grow fewer plants than the higher levels, and in them the ‘“‘Australites,’’ or ‘‘Obsidian bombs,’ are more readily found. The hollows do not hold water long. While we were at Hughes an inch of rain fell in one day, but | there was no water in the ‘‘lake’’ next day. : Several ‘‘blowholes’’ were seen at Hughes. They were about 15 ft. deep and about 3 ft. wide, with limestone ledges forming the sides. The bottom was soon reached by dropping a stone down, and no movement of air was observed going in or coming out. 2. THE SANDHILLS. The sandhills commence at about 324 miles from Port Augusta, where they leave the stony undulating country. The sandhills are small at first but increase in size until some of them are 30 ft. to 40 ft. high and run in ridges for long distances. These ridges trend in almost every direction. At Ooldea they are east and west, and north-east and south-west. At Barton they are about east and west. The sand is fine and chiefly pinkish in colour; at Ooldea Soak, three miles north of the railway station, where the sandhills are very big, ~ 585 the sand is almost white. At about 15 ft. below the surface at’ the Soak a very light-coloured clay is reached. This clay is very stiff and forms an impervious bottom for the wells that have been sunk. The wells are not sunk lower than the above depth and are timbered all the way down. The water soaks in within a few hours to about 3 ft. of the surface. There are eighteen wells at this spot and they are situated in a hollow surrounded by high sandhills. Twelve of them pro- duce beautiful, fresh, drinking water, while the other six are fit for human consumption but slightly brackish. There is no doubt this fresh water has been known to the natives for many miles around for generations, as native flint chippings can still be picked up in handfuls around the wells. It is a veritable oasis, and has been made use of by early explorers. The sandhills are clothed with a dense vege- tation comprising trees (up to 40 ft. or more in height), shrubs, undershrubs, small perennials and annuals. A fine view was obtained from the top of a tall sand ridge at the Soak, and the prevailing mallee sandhill scrub stretched away to the north, east, and south as a dark expanse of country. For most of the year the plants of the sandhills are subjected to very severe growing conditions, and transpiration must be at its maximum during that period. Such conditions tend to keep an open formation; that is, plants have open spaces between them of some yards. Yet often in the hollows between the sand ridges the Acacias and other shrubs are so close together that they touch one another, and one has to push a way through them. The vegetation has responded to its environment by developing narrow leaves (or phyllodes in the case of the Acacias), thus reducing transpiration to a minimum. The broad-leaf plants, such as Eucalypts (L. oleosa, EH. pyriformis, and EF. transcontinentalis), have re- sponded to the prevailing meteorological and edaphic factors by producing coriaceous leaves with few stomata which are deeply set below the epidermis. The small herbaceous annuals grow chiefly out in the open, it was rare to find them growing below the larger shrubs or trees. The annuals consisted largely of composites, although Calandrima polyandra, the “‘para- keelya,’’ formed large patches around Barton. The sandhills are fixed, being clothed with native vege- tation. When the covering is removed trouble is experienced with drifting sand. This has been the case in some of the railway cuttings, which have had to be faced with a retaining mat consisting of stakes, boughs, and small branches. The sandhills grow a greater number of plants than any other portion of the country visited along the line. - : 586 3. THE COUNTRY AROUND TARCOOLA AND KINGOONYA. At about 324 miles from Port Augusta, near Wynbring, the sandhills disappear and an undulating stretch of country is entered upon, which continues to Kingoonya. At Tarcoola there are some small hills, the sloping sides of which are thickly strewn with rock fragments, about 4 in. square. Tif. Prants oF THE NULLARBOR PLAIN. General.—There are two main types of plants at Hughes: (a) shrubs of about 50 cm. in height, and (>) small herbs and grasses. This formation was constant, as far as observed, for 140 miles between Ooldea and Hughes. It was the result, no doubt, of the uniform character of the surface topography, soil, and rainfall. The shrubs include a very few tall ones of Pittosporum phillyracoides and Acacia tetragonophylla, and it is a remarkable fact that there are so few of them. The plants may be considered according to their height. - 1. The tallest plants were shrubs, 2 to 3 m. in height, consisting of “‘dead finish,” Acacia tetragonophylla (only one plant seen, 3 m. in height), and the ‘‘Weeping Pittosporum,’’ P. phillyraeoides, of which only a few shrubs came under notice. 2. The bluebush and saltbush shrubs varied from a half to one metre in height, and were the dominant shrubs of this vast treeless, riverless plain. 3. The undershrubs and larger perennials and annuals, of from 20 to 45 cm. in height, formed this third range of plants, and consisted of species of Aochia, Bassia, Blennodia, Swaimsona, composites and grasses. 4. The ground flora of only a few inches in height was represented by composites, and by Calandrima, Daucus, Hrodium, Euphorbia, Lepidiwm, Lotus, Nicotiana, Plantago, T'etragonia, Crassula, and Zygophyllum species. This arrange- ment, however, does not give the ecological relationships which I wish to emphasize. The following formations, which are of the open type, were noted on the plain. Bluebush Formation. IPLSxl SS fie 1: The Nullarbor Plain is not a dead level, but consists of undulations, forming slight rises and shallow depressions, varying from 1 to 2 metres. The bluebush (Kochia sedifolia) was not confined to either the rises or the hollows, but it was noted that this shrub dominated an area of several hundred square yards in extent. The saltbush (Atriplex vesicarvwm ) 587 was not completely excluded from this region, but the blue- bush gave it a characteristic blue-grey appearance. A very prominent species in this formation is Goodenia pinnatifida, which covered numerous areas and ranged from 10 to 12 cm. high. It was in full flower at the time of my visit (Sep- tember 8) and was a beautiful sight. Podolepis canescens was found in this station, and it is a larger plant than the pre- vious one but not nearly so plentiful: It brightened the dull hue of the bluebush foliage. To be seen in some numbers with the above plants was an interesting variety of Calotis multicaulis (n. var. brevi- radiata, see p. 604), a small diffuse herb 5 to 20 cm. in’ height. It was growing in little colonies of about a metre across. Another plant growing chiefly in colonies, but much more plentiful than the last species, was Cephalipterum Drummondu, a species with dense white heads. Some speci- mens collected were remarkably small, being only 34 cm. in height, while the largest were 15 cm. _ The following plants were often found in association, usually in small depressions in which water remained for a short period after the rain :— Helipterum strictum, growing up to 25 cm. in height and dominating the association. Vuttadima australis, in lesser numbers and not so high. Daucus glochidiatus, about _ 20 cm. in height. Podocoma nana, plentiful, but only up to 8 cm. in height; this is the first record of this plant for Nullarbor Plain. Cvassula Sieberiana, varying from 3 to 6 cm. Tetragonia expansa, a plant quite prostrate and _ spreading 20 cm. or more. Plantago varia, the smallest plant in the colony, being only 3 cm.(?) or less in height. And Calandrima pusilla, another small annual. A small sticky composite (Heli:pterum tenellum) formed areas of several square feet ; the plants ranged from 6 to 18 cm. in height. Smaller still, and growing together, were Bassia _selerolaenoides and B. patenticuspis, which formed an open association. Two species of Zygophyllum (Z. iodocarpum and _ 4. ovatum) were associated and grew in considerable numbers where the ground was subject to flooding. A small composite (Minuria leptophylla) was not often seen, but (nephosis _skirrophora was much more plentiful. A dwarf annual cruci- fer (Thlaspi Drummondii) was fairly common in this station, as was also Lepidiwm rotundum, DC., var. phlebopetalum, _ Maid. et Betclie, a plant only 4 to 8 em. in height. The tiny annuals—Plantago varia, Calotis hispidula, and Tsoetopsis . granunifolia—were fairly numerous between the bluebush _ shrubs. A common composite was Vittadinia australis, and one, much less so, was Hlachanthus pusillus, and an annual 588 that grew in numerous patches was Siloverus brachypappus, which is a small diffuse annual of from 2 to 6 cm. in height. This latter plant was a notable feature in many places on the Nullarbor Plain visited. Two dwarf plants not often met with were Hrodium eygnorum and Convolvulus erubescens. At the time of my visit the most abundant plant, and the one which covered a large area, was the white everlasting Helip- terum floribundum. It is a very showy annual growing up to 25 cm. The wooliy bluebush (Aochia villosa) was a rare plant on the Nullarbor Plain, as also was A. Georgei; they were smaller plants than the typical bluebush (Kochia sedifolia). Growing among species of Zygophyllum were plants of Lepidium papllosum. The introduced pest *Hmex australis was spreading in the open spaces near the railway line at Hughes. Another rare plant was Lepidium fasciculatum, but was more plentiful around Tarcoola. Two plants found in open association were Swainsona Oliveri and Sida corrugata, var. orbicularis. Among the rare species were noted Salsola Kah, var. strobiifera, Senecio brachyglossus, Huphorbia Drummondii, and Minuria Cunminghami. Three grasses were identified: Stipa eremophila and S. scabra, var. auriculata, and the dwarf Danthoma penicillata; the two former were much more plentiful than the latter. Saltbush Formation. The saltbush (Atriplex vesicarium), like the bluebush, is a perennial shrub of about 60 cm. in height. Usually it is just a little shorter than the bluebush, and the two species form the main vegetation of the Nullarbor Plain. On the whole, the species observed in association with the bluebush were also noted among the saltbush. There were, however, certain plants only seen with the saltbush. In depressions there was less vegetation than on the higher ground ; the smaller plants (annuals chiefly) were absent, and the formation was decidedly an open one. It was in this station only that the following plants were seen :—Hremo- phila maculata, a shrub about 45 cm. in height; Atriplex campanulatum, a small saltbush 25 cm. in height; spear grass, Stipa eremophila (also observed in the bluebush forma- tion); Blennodia trisecta; and the decumbent plant, Frankema paueiflora. The annuals were of few species and sparsely distributed, including Lotus australis, var. parvi- florus, a plant with prostrate stems and often spreading to 1 m. across; Lavatera plebera, of about 30 cm. in height; small plants of Micoteana suaveolens; and Swainsona phacoides, often wide spreading. | 589 The Plain and Sandhills. There is not much change in the general aspect of the flora where the Nullarbor Plain joins the sandhill region. Just before leaving the ‘‘Plain’’ the “dead finish” (Acacia tetragonophylla) becomes more plentiful, but it was seldom seen in the sandhill country. The following plants were noted just west of the sandhills and were common to both types of country :—(Goodenia mnnatifida, Cephalipterum Drum- mondir, Calotis hispidula, Kochia sedifolia, Stipa scabra, var. auriculata. There is very little overlapping of the plants of the two regions. IV. Tue Sanpaiuts Fora. 1. OOLDEA DISTRICT. The sandhills’ flora is of a typical sclerophyllous nature, and here again the formation is of an open character. T'rees.—The trees and larger shrubs usually have reduced leaf surfaces. In the case of Casuarina lepidophloia the leaves are represented by very small sheathing teeth, and the branch- lets are only 1 mm. in width. Myoporum platycarpum was sparingly distributed, and much less so was Heterodendron oleaefolium, both of which have flat leaves. The latter was usually found with Acacia ramulosa in the flats between. the sand ridges. The mallees were not so plentiful as the wattles, and two of the broad-leaved Eucalypts were FH. oleosa and EL. transcontinentalis (pl. xxxix., fig. 2), which formed the bulk of the mallees. #. pyriformis seemed confined to a small patch at Ooldea Soak. Amoag other mallees were /. uncinata and EF. gracilis, forming large shrubs and growing interspersed with Acacia ramulosa. The quandong (Fusanus acuminatus) was not common and seemed to prefer the sand ridges. Shrubs.—The phyllodes of some of the acacias were nar- row and hard, such as A. tetragonophylla, A. colletiowdes, A. ramulosa, and A. aneura, the last two being more plentiful; while A. Randelliana and A. Burkittii were not seen to any extent. Of those with broader phyllodes A. Kempeana, A. Osswaldii, and A. ligulata were fairly numerous. Other shrubs were Hremophila alternifolia, which was seen in fair numbers and often associated with Casuarina lepidophloia; Eremophila Latrobe: and its variety Tietkensi were the next most plentiful, but 2. Gibsonw was rare. Two grevilleas (G. pterosperma and G. stenobotrya) were usually seen growing on the flat ground, but of infrequent occurrence. The para- sites, Loranthus linophyllus and L. pendulus, were somewhat rare, the former growing on Heterodendron oleaefolium and the latter on Fucalyptus transcontinentalis. Rhagodia 590 Billardieri formed tall shrubs and was often seen among acacias. In the wide open flats, between some of the smaller sand ridges, were seen shrubs of Cratistylis conocephala and Westringia Dampieri, var. rigida, and Bassia echinopsila was associated with them. Two other shrubs, Cassia eremo- phila and C. Sturtw, were fairly common in the sandhill region, with Dodonaea attenuata as a rare species. The Ground Flora.—By the ground flora is meant the undershrubs and annuals which range from 2 to 25 cm. in height. The dominant species were Cephalipterum Drum- mondu, Waitzia acuminata, and Helipterum floribundum; they are annuals and grow in open association. Some plants preferred the sand ridges (often in the open and seldom in the shelter of other larger plants), wiz., Waitzia acuminata, Calandrinia disperma, Stackhousia muricata, Podotheca angustifolia, and Pomaz umbellata. The latter species. and the Stackhousia, developed a long slender tap-root which, no doubt, penetrated the loose sand to the moisture below; the lateral rootlets were not robust, as the plants depended on depth of root rather than on spread. The poor rainfall (see table) of the district and the intense heat, combined RAINFALL FOR } 1914 | 1915 | 1916 1917 1918 | 1919 | Aug.| Average 31,1920 Hughes peal pee il aa aut lc — _\. 6 Toes — Ooldea i an — |7:35) 6°75 | 4:29} 7-05*(2) Immarna sale —— ee | — — ~ | 6°65 | 5°14 — Barton ee sey — | — 1/763} 6-44 | 4:35] 7-03*(2) Tackpale _..,5-28t) 3°76 | 7-92] 9-20] 7-49 | 7.35 | 5-87 | 7 33417) Kingoonya . |) a= | 8-00 | 8°65 | 5°76 | oP Gy 7-05*(4) Eucla ... .«| 9°00 12°77 |{9'51 | 10°70 5°18 |10-05+(44) / Port Augusta .. 8°80 | 11.26 | 13°67 | 7°58 | 967 7°76 | 9°43*(60) bedi Lt | * () Number of years for average + These totals are shown in inches with an extreme evaporation, tends to the production of an elaborate root system. This is specially necessary in the plants growing along the tops of the sandhills. Growing chiefly on the flats, between the sandhills, were: Zygophyllum fruticulosum, Euphorbia Drummondii, varieties of Sida — — ———— . ‘ . I gg i OI AE Oe = Ft? a0" 591 corrugata, in open association; while Uldinia mercurialis, Lappula concava, Calotis hispidula, and Daucus glochidiatus formed patches often in association with one another. Also on the flats, Velleia paradoxa was found associated with the annual plant Brachycome ciliaris. 2. OOLDEA SOAK. At Ooldea Soak, where a wonderful supply of fresh water is obtainable at a shallow depth, some of the vegetation is luxuriant; for instance, Myriocephalus Stuartii formed a _ veritable carpet where it grew in the hollows near the wells. — Associated with this plant was Senecio Gregorw and large shrubs of Leptospermum laevigatum, var. minus (pl. xxxix., fig. 2), although I also noted the latter species some miles from the Soak growing on a sand ridge. In the hollow, where the wells are situated, was found the ‘‘water-bush, Adriana Hookerit, and ascending the sandhills, to the west, Melaleuca parviflora and Acacia ligulata were met with, while Gyrostemon ramulosus was only seen on the ridges. 3. BARTON DISTRICT. Barton is situated in the centre of the sandhill tract and is similar country to Ooldea. Its flora, too, is similar, only slight differences being noted. Twenty-six of the species noted here were not recorded from Ooldea, while 67 species col- lected at the latter place were not seen at Barton. The type of plants was the same as at Ooldea, Casuarina lemdophloia, however, was more plentiful, although it could hardly be said to dominate the flora. There was the usual A cacia-Eucalyptus association with Acacia ramulosa and Eucalyptus oleosa, as the dominants, particularly the former. The former species was met with almost everywhere (sometimes in. a semi-closed formation), while the latter was reduced to a clump, here and there. Although the season (1920) had been a good one hardly a seedling was seen of either of these species. An occasional clump of FH. transcontinentalis was seen, while a clump of mallee (Hucalyptus oleosa, pl. xli., fig. 1), remark- able for its prostrate trunks, covered a patch about 10 yards across, situated in a hollow between the usual sand ridges. Only two or three of the trunks were upright and were about 3m. high; the others were lying on the ground, right from their base. The middle of the trunk was somewhat arched and the branches were horizontal. The aphyllous shrub, Bossiaea Walkeri, seemed to prefer the lower situations and often formed large thickets. The flattened stems exude quite a quantity of smooth white powder while drying. Dodonaea microzyga was not plentiful, nor was Olearia subspicata, and 592 both grew on the flats with Casuarina, Grevillea Huegelii, and Acacia colletioides. Hremophila scoparia was associated with Cassia eremophila and C. Sturtii, and, in places, formed | quite a distinct feature of the vegetation. Vhryptomene Eliott was seen on a sand ridge at Barton. In a photograph (pl. xli., fig. 2) taken at Barton Thryptomene LEiliottw is. seen in the foreground with Casuarina lepidophloia and Hucalyptus close by. In another situation, Casuarina leyidophioi is growing with acacias, mallee, and Triodia irritaws. This latter plant was fairly common at Barton, and, in another place, it was noticed associated with Solanum coactiliferum, Acacia ligulata, and Thryptomene Elhottu. The common ‘‘parakeelya’’ (Calan- drima polyandra) of the sandhills was growing so profusely in places that it became almost a closed formation, its asso- ciates in one place were Helichrysum lucidum and Solawum orbiculatum. In open, flat ground Trichinium corymbosum and Podolems camllaris were associated; they are both small annuals. V. DESERT FORMATIONS OF THE TARCOOLA REGION. CLIMATIC AND EDAPHIC FACTORS. The sandhill region is left at Wynbring, where, travel- ling east, an undulating stony country is entered upon. As was to be expected, the flora changed as soon as the sand- hills were left behind. The vegetation now was not so dense or plentiful, no doubt caused by the dry subsoil. The top soil is of a clayey nature in this region and surface water would remain longer than in the sandhills. In the sandy country more moisture reaches the subsoil, which proves to be of a wonderfully retentive nature; there is, consequently, a greater amount of moisture available for the plant cover- ing. This influences the flora of the two regions under discussion. KOCHIAS AND ACACIAS OF TARCOOLA. The predominating species in this station is Aochia sedifolia and Acacia Loderi, while Kocha triptera and Eremophila rotundifolia are represented by numerous plants. Also Acacia aneuvra claims attention, as it was frequently seen ; Hakea leucoptera was not so plentiful. The plants on top of a rocky hill (pl. xlii., fig. 1) consisted of Acacia tarculensis and Trichinium iwcanum, which were the dominants; here and there Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana and Hnchylaena tomentosa were seen, while the smaller plants, Helpterum Fitzgibbon and H. pterochaetum were fairly numerous. : The rocky slopes of the low hills have a distinctive flora, and, besides the prevailing bluebush, Helipterum Humboldtianum, % Se —= » a . ry —— 593 is seen along a small dry watercourse, and associated with it is H. moschatum. Larger plants here were Sida calyxzhymenia and Atriplex vesicarium. Where the slopes led into more flat country Kochia pyramidata and Clianthus Dampier: were associated, and, in open formation with the bluebush, the following plants were noted :—Kochia villosa, Bassia diacantha, B. paradoxa, and Salsoli. Kali is only represented by its variety strobilifera, and it was rare here, as it was on the Nullarbor Plain. Coming right down to the depression at the base of the hill near Tarcoola, the succulents, A2z0o0ow quadrifidum, form- ing small shrubs, and Tetragoma expansa, were in association with a few plants of Zygophyllum Billardiert, var. ammo- philum, with them. On the extensive clay flats the tall Acacia aneura was the dominating species, and Calogyne Berardiana was also very plentiful, and formed large patches in places with asso- ciations of Goodenia pinnatifidia and G. pusilliflora. Grow- ing in the shelter of the former were A butilon oxycarpum and Huphorbia eremophila. In this formation was also seen Brachycome ciliaris, Cephalipterum Drummondii, Lepidium rotundum, var. phlebopetalum, Calatis hispidula, Stewo- petalum lineare, Erodium cygnorum, and Millotia tenurfolia, the first species being the most plentiful. Where the soil was of a more sandy loam in this area _ the vegetation was more pronounced. Several patches of this nature were seen, and the predominating plants were Helichrysum Lawrencella, var. Davenportu, Craspedia plerocephala, Myriocephalus Stuartiz, Swainsona phacordes, and S. microphylla, the last two specially so. A few plants of Calotis multicaulis, Templetonia egena, and Helipterum floribundum were not so common. In a small depression, Frankema serpyllifolia had almost made a closed formation. No eucalypts were seen at Tarcoola, but scattered species of Eremophila were noted as follows:—F. Duttonu, EF. glabra, EF. latifolia, E. Latrobe, and EF. Paisleyi, besides those already mentioned. : KINGOONYA PLAIN. The dominant species of the plain was Acacia Loderi, and with it was associated Minwria leptophylla (pl. xli., fig. 2). The shrubs noted were Rhagodia Gaudichaudiana, Koch triptera, K. villosa, Cassia Sturtu, EKremophila alter- nifolia, HL. Latrobei, and Bassia paradoxa. Smaller plants were Bassia sclerolaenoides, Rutidosis helichrysoides, Ixiolaena leptolepis, and Leptorrhynchus tetrachaetus, var. penicillatus, and were only represented by few specimens. In other forma- tions were Blennodia trisecta, Menkea australis, Chanthus 594 Dampieri, Podocoma nana, Gnephosis cyathopappa, Helip- terum Charsleyae, H. stipitatwm, and other small annuals. Where the ground was lowlying the grass Hragrostis Dielsii was recorded, and with it were Swainsona Oliveri, Tribulus terrestris, Zygophyllum fruticulosum, Z. ovatum, and Isoetopsis gramimfolha. VI. A CENSUS OF AND Notes on PLANTS COLLECTED. References: —H., Hughes; O., Ooldea and Ooldea Soak; I., Immarna; B., Barton; W., Wynbring; T., Tarcoola; K.; Kingoonya. The numbers following the capital letters refer to my specimen number. The above places are in Tate’s District W, as shown in Tate’s ‘‘Flora of Extrat. South Australia,’”’ p. 204. Where a plant is new for this district, ‘‘Dis. W.’’ is shown. An asterisk denotes an alien species. POLYPODIACEAE. Cheilanthes tenuifolia, Swartz. T. 1726. MARSILIACEAE. Marsha Drummondu, A. Br. K. 1846. Appears to be this species, although the sporocarps are very shortly stalked (3-4 mm.) and the cases are about the same length, hairy, and with a few oblique transverse ridges. Leaflets ovate- cuneate, hairy, but becoming glabrous with age. Near J. hirsuta, R. Br. SCHEUCHZERIACEAE. Triglochin centrocarpa, Hook. O. 1609, T. 1799. My plant No. 1609 agrees well with the illustration (pl. iv., 2) by Ostenfeld in Dansk Bot. Arkiv., Bd. 2, Nr. 8, 1918, but they are taller, 7.¢., 13 cm. high. The flowers are dis- tanctly pedunculate. The Tarcoola specimen (No. 1799) is only 3°5 cm. high; - the fruits are as long as No. 1609, but the spur is more pronounced. GRAMINEAE. Identified by Mr. J. M. Black. Panicum leucophaeuwm, H. B. et K. T. 1648. Pappophorum nigricans, R. Br. T. 1642, 1644. Stipa eremophila, Reader. H. 1636. S. scabra, Lindl. W. 1216. S. scabra, Lindl., var. auriculata, J. M. Black. H. 1637, O. 1640. Aristida stipoides, R. Br. T. 1643. Danthonia pemcillata, (Labill.), F. v. M. H. 1638-9, K. 1649-50. Diplachne loliiformis, F. v. M. K. 1647. . 595 Triodia writans, R. Br. O. 1293, I. 1246, B. 1317. Eragrostis Diels, Pilg. K. 1646. E. eriopoda, Benth. T. 1411. E. eriopoda, Benth.; var. lamflora, J. M. Black. O. 1641. LILIACEAE. Thysanotus extliflorus, F. v. M. O. 1625. Petals in my specimens are not minutely fringed, but it agrees with the above otherwise. CASUARINACEAE. Casuarina lepidophloia, F. v. M. O. 1479, B. 1705. Teeth, 8 or 9; cones, 12 to 15 mm. long. URTICACEAE. Humulus, sp. O. 1282. A single specimen growing near the ballast on the railway line. PROTEACEAE. Grevillea Huegelu, Meisn. B. 1339. G. pterosperma, F. v. M. O. 1302, B. 1383. | G. stenobotrya, F. v. M. O. 1302a. In bud only, Sep- | tember 16, 1920. Bukea-leucopiera, BR, Br... 'T; 1785... ““Dis: .W.7 SANTALACEAE. Fusanus acuminatus, R. Br. O. 1614, K. 1832, B. 1706. Loranthus linophyllus, Fenzl. O. 1589. Growing on Heterodendron oleaefolium, Desf. L. pendulus, Sieb. O. 1289. Of pendulous habit grow- ing on Hucalyptus transcontinentalis, Maiden. } : LORANTHACEAE. POLYGONACEAE. *Emex australis, Stem. H. 1547a, T. 1777. CHENOPODIACEAE. Atriplex campanulatum, Benth. H. 1508, O. 1602. BD Sg oad A. spongiosum, F.v. M. B. 1360, K. 1807. A. vesicarvum, Hew. H. 1228, 1259, 1260, 1511, 1541, ; 154va, 1o65ay W. 1395, 7.1714, 1761. «The fraits | of this species vary a good deal. In one specimen from the Nullarbor Plain (No. 1565a) the append- ages have thick prickle-like lobes covering them. In No. 1761 the fruiting calyx is entire, semi-orbicular, and with very small appendages; the leaves are small, mostly orbicular-ovate. . 596 Rhagodia Billardiert, R. Br. O. 1604. R. Gaudichaudiana, Mog. O. 1620, B. 1351, W. 1202, T. 1408, K. 1836. Chenopodium cristatum, F. v. M. O. 1701, B. 1384. Enchylaena tomentosa, R. Br. B. 1331, T, 1778. Kochia George:, Diels. H. 1226, 1542-3, T. 1723, 1756. First record for Nullarbor Plain, Tarcoola, and for the State. Originally described from Western Aus- tralian specimens by Diels and Pritzel in Bot. Jahrb., 184, 1904, with a figure of fruit (fig. 20, D). Pre- viously confused with glabrous forms of A. villosa, but the obconic base of the fruiting perianth is a very distinct feature. . pyramidata, Benth. T. 1788. . sedifolia, F.v. M. H. 1227, 1258, 1544. T. Neither in flower nor fruit. . triptera, Benth. T. 1763, K. 1829. . triptera, Benth., var. erioclada, Benth. O. 1235, B. 1380, T. 1724, 1762. . villosa, Lindl. O. 1286, T. 1722, 1742, K. 1833. assia biflora, F.v. M. K. 1805. ‘Dis. W.” . dracantha, Woy. MT. W018,. 8137; Tiare echinopsila, F. v. M. O. 1275, B. 1708. ertacantha, F. v. M. (B. lamcuspis, F. v. M.). Ao, sp.(?) O. 1284, 1603. . paradoxa, F. v. M. T. 1743, K. 1808. . patenticuspis, R. H. Anderson. H. 1230, 1513, 1548, O. 1285. This identification was made by Mr. J. M. Black, who advises that Mr. R. H. Anderson, of Sydney Botanic Gardens, is engaged on a revision of the Australian genus Bassia and has recently created this new species. B. sclerolaenodes,.F. vy. M.,..0;,1567, 1578, Te ties K. 1809>°)5 Diese RVs Pachycormia tenuis, (Benth.) J. M. Black. T. 1764. A RR RR mht a *SDigsy Wes Sdlsola Kah, ., var. strobélfera, Benth. H. 1569, T. 1793. AMARANTACEAE. Trichinium alopecuroideum, L. O. 1238, 1627, B. 1702, T.f72ik T. corymbosum, Gaud. B. 1311, T. 1798. T. exaltatum, Benth. O. 1287, 1626. T. incanum, R. Br. O. 1264, 1628, T. 1407, 1746. 597 PHYTOLACCACEAE. Gyrostemon ramulosus, Desf. O. 1303. AIZOACEAE. Tetragona expansa, Murray. H. 1536, T. 1732, 1186. Aizoon quadrifidum, F.v. M. T. 1760. PORTULACACEAE. Calandrima disperma, J. M. Black. O. 1588. C. polyandra, Benth. O. 1236, 1276, 1605, 1606, B. 1232, 1385. Nos. 1276, 1605, and 1385 are the white-flowered variety. C. pusilla, Lindl. H. 1546, I. 1249, B. 1365, 1387, T. 1769. No. 1387. Plant larger than usual and more branching, stems 18 cm. long, racemes many- flowered. : CARYOPHYLLACEAE. Spergularia rubra, Camb. K. 1840. | PAPAVERACEAE. *Papaver hybridum, L. O. 1697. CRUCIFERAE. | Blennodia canescens, R. Br. W. 1393, T. 1717. B. curvipes, F. v. M. T. 1767. B. trisecta, Benth. H. 1257, 1549, K. 1810. *Sisymbrium orientale, L. O. 1698, T. 1195, 1196. Of the introduced species this one was the most common. Stenopetalum lineare, R. Br. O. 1262, B. 1364, T. 1748, K21839. °.“Dis:. W..’’ Menkea australis, Lehm. T. 1830, K. 1831. ‘‘Dis. W.”’ Thlasm Drummondii, Benth. H. 1520, 1700. A rare plant only collected on the Nullarbor Plain (Capsella Drummondu, F. v. M.). Legmdium fasciculatum, Thell. H. 1554, K. 1834. ‘Dis. mand ——E—E—— SS Ws’ L. pamllosum, F. v. M- H. 1593, O. 1547, T. 1201. i L. rotundum, DC. T.'1189. ‘‘Dis. W.’’ L. rotundum, DC., var. phlebopetalum, Maid. et Betche. B24 Os Taal yer: L290." “Dis. Woe : CRASSULACEAE. Crassula colorata, (Ness.) Ostenf. T. 1776a. C. Sieberrana, (Schult.) Ostenf. H. 1545, T. 1775. 098 PITTOSPORACEAE. Pittosporum phillyraeoides, DC. H. 1550. LEGUMINOSAE. Daviesia ulicna, Smith. B. 1367. It was quite a sur- prise meeting this plant, which is usually found in the Mount Lofty Range and the south-east of the State. Only one plant was seen, and was nearly 2 metres high ; the bark was dark, rough, and ribbed. The flowers are in short axillary umbels, with the pedicels longer than the peduncle. ‘‘Dis. W.”’ Bossiaea Walkert, F. v. M. . B. 1217, I:.1244.-) fae flower September 5, 1920. Young branches silky | with dense adpressed hairs. Templetonia egena, Benth. T. 1729. Chanthus Dammert, Cunn. T. 1772, K. 1814. Swainsona Burkes, F. v. M. I. 1247. ‘‘Dis. W.” a S. microphylla, A. Gray. T. 1725, 1739: The leaflets vary a good deal in size and shape. I have them from 6 to 12 mm. long and from ovate to oblong. S. Olivert, F. v. M. H. 1563, K. 1841. S. phacoides, Benth. H. 1256, 1539, W. 1394, T. 1740. ‘Diss Wet Psoralea patens, Lindl. K. 1835. Lotus australis, And., var. parviflorus, Benth. H. 1564. Flowers pink. Cassia artemisioides, Gaud. T. 1749. C. eremophila, Cunn. O. 1283, B. 1707. C. eremophila, Cunn., var. platy poda, Benth. O. 1272, 1D 75, 1 608; %e 1416. C'. Sturin, R:; Br. _O. 1271, 1280, B. 1332, T. ATT K, 138i2. Acacia species identified by Mr. J. H. Maiden, I.8.0., F-R.S., ete Acacia aneura, KF. v. M. O. 1273, 1487, By iS2ee T. 1413, 1498. No. 1498 is a small intricate shrub of nearly 1 metre high. The branches are somewhat — angular with white scaly angles or lines; the phyllodes . are short and broad. Altogether the plant is very © different from the typical tree; this may be accounted — for by the fact that the only shrub seen was growing among rocks on the top of a rise near Tarcoola. Not in flower or fruit. A. brachystachya, Benth. T. 1414. A. Burkittu, F. v. M. QO. 1486. A. colletioides, Cunn. O. 1298, B. 1341. 599 A. Kempeana, F.v. M. QO. 1491, B. 1338(?). A. Loderi, J. H. Maiden. T. 1496, 1499, 1500, K. 1501. New for South Australia. Mr. Maiden described it in the Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. liii. (1920), p- 209, from Broken Hill specimens. It is a small tree 3-5 cm. high with branches and phyllodes fairly erect. The phyllodes vary from 25 to 90 mm. long and 1 to 2 mm. wide. Veins about 10, the central one on the surface of the phyllode is somewhat ridged. Pods almost sessile, light brown, 25-40 mm. long and 2°25 mm. wide. (‘‘Nos. 1500 and 1501 are more glabrous forms with narrower phyllodia.’’— hala, NE: } A. Oswaldu, F. v. M. O. 1494, B. 1345. A. Prann, J. H. Maiden.. B. 1330. New for South Australia. Mr. Maiden’s description is to be found in the Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. lh. (1917), p- 238, and was first collected near Kalgoorlie, Wes- tern Australia. It is a small shrubby tree of nearly 3 m. high with spreading branches which start at the base of the trunk. The phyllodes are 25 to 75 cm. long and 15 mm. wide, rigid, and spinescent. ' Flowers in short axillary racemes. Pods not seen. A. ramulosa, W. V. Fitzg. O. 1268, 1269, 1274, 1489, B. 1333-5, 1492, 1495, 1502. New for South Aus- tralia. First described by W. V. Fitzgerald in Jour. W. Austr. Nat. Hist. Soc., No. 1, May, 1904, p. le, from specimens collected at Lennonville, Western Aus- tralia. A shrub with branches spreading from the base. Phyllodes up to 17°5 cm. long and 1-14 mm. wide, compressed terete. Veins many, very faint. Flowers yellow in cylindrical spikes of 12 mm. long, peduncle 12 mm. long. Pods 12°5 cm. long and 4°55 mm. wide, somewhat constricted between the seeds, with longitudinal narrow strips of white and green. Very like 4. linophylla, W. V. F. A. Randelliana, W. V. Fitz. O. 1294. A. salicona, Lindl. O. 1488, 1493, I. 1248, B. 1313, 1315. I do not agree with Mr. Maiden’s identifica- tion, but follow Mr. Black (Trans. Roy Soc. S. Austr., vol. xliv. (1920), p. 375,, and pl. xxiu., figs. 6 ‘to 11) in regarding this plant as A. ligulata, A. Cunn. A. tarculensis, J. M. Black. T. 1497. A:. tetragonwophylla, F. v. M. H, 1490, O. 1485, iBa13390. *Medicago denticulata, Willd. O. 1629, B. 1379. Very little of this plant seen. 600 GERANIACEAE. *ELrodium Botrys, Bert. O. 1612. E. cygnorum, Nees. H. 1526, T. 1191, 1744, K. 1821. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE. Tribulus terrestris, Linne. K. 1842. Zygophyllum apiculatum, F. v. M. B. 1377. Z. Billardieri, DC., var. ammophilum, J. M. Black. OO. 159 Bs TS hb et sie... Z. fruticulosum, DC. O. 1233, 1581, 1599\ 7 ee 1389, W. 1208, K. 1843. . Z. wdocarpum, F. v. M. H. 1253, 1509, K. 1844. Z. ovatum, Ewart et White. H. 1254, 1562, O. 1580, . B. 1353, K. 1845. ‘‘Dis. W.”’ These are new locali- ties for this rare plant. EUPHORBIACEAE. Euphorbia Drummondu, Bois. H. 1613, O. 1572,- T1782: E. eremophila, Cunn. O. 1592, T. 1783, K. 1822. Poranthera microphylla, Brong. B. 1325. ‘‘Dis. W.” Adriana Hookeri, (F. v. M.) Muell. Arg. O. 1305. STACKHOUSIACEAE. Stackhousia muricata, Lindl. O. 1594, B. 1355. There is a doubt about this identification, as S. vwminea, Smith, apparently only differs in the corolla lobes being acute and not obtuse. ‘“‘Dis. W.” SAPINDACEAE. Heterodendron oleaefoluum, Desf. O. 1590, T. 1787. Dodonaea attenuata, Cunn. O. 1631, B. 1224, 1388. D. microzyga, F. v. M. OQ. 1281, 1584, B. MALVACEAE. Sida calyxhymema, J. Gay. T. 1728. i S. corrugata, Lindl., var. orbicularis, Benth. H. 1566, — 1261 On sora sds, ToL Tob, .t S. corrugata, Lindl., var. ovata, Benth. W. 1398, T. 17195 3738: Sida intricata, F. v. M. K. 1837. S. wrgata, Hook. T. 1796. Abutilon Mitcheliu, Benth. ._T. 1759. ‘Dis. W.” A. otocargum, Iw MM. OL 16220" “Dis. Woe A. oxycarpum, F.v-M. T. 1727, K. 1800. “Dis. Wee Lavatera plebera, Sims. H. 1537, O. 1252, 1295. *Malva parviflora, L. T. 1797. 601 FRANKENIACEAE. _Frankenia pauciflora, DC. H.'1510. “‘Dis. W.”’ F. serpyllifolia, Lindl. T. 1716, Ke eeok. ee ekouae. Pimelea maderneethale, fers O: Lois: B. ied, 'T. 1792. Eesupier, Woy, Mo O.:1619, B. 1349. MYRTACEAE. EUCALYPTUS SPECIES IDENTIFIED BY Mr. J. H. MaiIbDeEn, Ps Oso, etc. ‘E. gracilis, F.v. M. O. 1477-8. (‘‘With large fruits.” — ee Mo) bs. W’ E. werassata, Labill.(?). I. 1340. (‘‘Perhaps this species and close to the tyne.’’—J. H. M.) B.-olcosa, KF. vy. M.*’O. 1270, 1473, 1483, L. 1481-2, B. 1337, 1346, 1361, 1372. No. 1372. (‘‘This seems a very interesting form.” —J. H. M.) Remarkable for its prostrate trunks, horizontal branches, and narrow grey glaucous leaves Cpl xii te Vay E. pyriformis, Turcez. O. 1310, with large fruits 5°6 cm. across, and O. 1484, with smaller fruits’ 3°7 cm. across. ) E. transcontinentalis, J. H. Maiden. O. 1288, 1292, 1371, 1373, 1475-6, B. 1344. i. uncinata, Turez. Gee Ob £2997) >(“ Probablyd torm,”’ 5 ae M.) H., sp. 1. 1480. Mr. Maiden advises that he is making a new species of this plant. Melaleuca hakeoides, F. v. M. I. 1245. ‘“‘Dis. W.” i. parvifiora, Lindl. O. 1304. Thryptomene Elliottw, F. v. M. B. 1218, 1312. Leptospermum laevigatum, F. v. M., var. minus, F. v. M. O. 1278. UMBELLIFERAE. Uldima mercurialis, J. M. Black. O. 1267. Mr. Black is describing this new genus in these Transactions this year. I only saw this plant at Ooldea, after which it is named. Remarkable for the horizontal barbed wings to the fruit. | Didiscus glaucifolius, F. v. M. B. 1314, 1347. ‘‘Dis. ANE : Daucus glochidiatus, (Labill.) Fisch. H. 1560, O. 1610, K. 1817. (D. brachiatus, Sieb.) PRIMULACEAE. *Anagallis arvensis, L. O. 1600, B. 1356. 602 ASCLEPIADACEAE. Marsdena Leichardtiana, F.v. M. O.1601. ‘‘Dis. W.”’ CONVOLVULACEAE. 1 ba = Fe 3 = Convolvulus erubescens, Sims. H. 1528. BoRRAGINACEAE. Lappula concava, F. vy. M. O. 1307, T. 1789. *Tithospermum arvense, L. O. 1632. *ERchium plantagineum, L. B. 1378. LABIATAE. Westringia Dampieri, R. Br., var. rigida, J. M. Black. — O. 1630, B. 1375: SOLANACEAE. Solanum coactiliferum, J. M. Black. I. 1248, B. 1231, 1327. S. ellipticum, R. Br. O. 1624, T. 1794, K. 1838. S. orbiculatum, Dunal. B. 1359. Anthotroche truwcata, EK. H. Ising. O. 1297, B. 1374. This new species is most rare; only two plants of it were seen. For description see p. 605 and pls. xxxviil. and xxxix., dig: ;1. Nicotiana suaveolens, Lehm. H. 1559, O. 1586a, B. 1322. Lycium australe, F. v. M. T. 1791. Duboisia Hopwoodu, F. v. M. B. 1343. MYOPORACEAE. Myoporum platycarpum, R. Br. W. 1215, O. Kremophia alternfolia, R. Br. O. 1242, 1530, 1533a, 1579, B: 1710, T. 1402, K..1820. NesabSG>iea8 shrub 2 metres in height and was remarkable for | the variation in the colour of the flowers. On the © same bush some flowers were wholly pink or red- dish, others were partly pink and partly white, while others were all white. EL. Duttonu, F. v. M. T. 1406, 1779. E. Gabsomi, F v2 M. O: 1265, 1308; ‘Disa | EL. glabra, (R. Br.) Ostenf. B. 1321, 1366, 1704, 17113 F T. 1415. (H. Brown, F. v. M., is a synonym.) | FE. latifolia, Fi v.iM. O.°1587,°T. 1741, Wee } E. Latrobei, F. v. M. H. 1291,°°O. 1234a, T. 178GRRe K. 1826. | EL. Latrobei, F. v. M., var. Tietkensii, Tate.. O. 1234; 1243. E. maculata, F. v. M. H. 1251, 1540, O. 1621: } 603 E.. Paislem, Bowe Me T) 1412. HE. rotundifolia, F. v. M. T. 1403. Bs scoparia, ho seo 4B) 1336, TT a78r: PLANTAGINACEAE. Plantago varia, R: Br!) H. 1522, T. 1197. RUBIACEAE. Pomaz umbellata, Sol. O. 1586. CUCURBITACEAE. *Cucumis myriocarpus, Naud. B. 1392. CAMPANULACEAE. Wahlenbergia gracilis, DC. B. 1320. GOODENIACEAE. Vellewa paradoxa, R. Br. O. 1615. The calyx consists of one ovate toothed sepal 10 mm. long and four shorter lanceolate entire sepals 7-8 mm. long. ‘‘Dis. Wee? Goodema pinnatifida, Schiect. H. 1255, 1551, O. 1616, et P3020 TS 1745: G. pusiliflora, F. v. M. T. 1405, K. 1827. Scaevola spinescens, R. Br. O. 1277, 1597, B. 1219, 1370. Calegane perardiana,, Bove MT. 1418; 1736. “Dis. W ? CoMPOSITAE. Olearia Muellert, Benth. O. 1617, B. 1348. (Synonym, Aster Muellerr, F. v. M.) O. subsyicata, Benth. O. 1266, B. 1381. (Synonym, Aster Mitchella, F. v. M.) ‘Dis. W.” Vittadinia australis, A. Rich. H. 1525. Vo seabra, WC. .O. 1691, B. 1342. “Dis. W.’’ Podocoma nana, Ewart et White. H. 1570, K. 1801. This rare plant has only been previously recorded from Glen Ferdinand, Everard Range, Mount Lyndhurst, and Torrens Plain (vide J. M. Black in these Transactions, vol. xxxix., 1915, p. 839). Dist We? Minuria Cunningham, Benth. H. 1573. “‘Dis. W.”’ M. leptophyla, DC. H. 1514, O. 1635, K. 1802. Calotis cymbacantha, F. v. M. W. 1211, 1397, T. 1199, 1754. C’. erinacea, Steetz. O. 1693. C. hismdula, F. v. M. H. 1523, B. 1391, T. 1770. | C. multicaulis, (Turcz.) J. M. Black. T. 1419. $2 504 C. multicaulis, (Turez.) J. M. Black, nov. var. brevi- radiata. Variat lguhs radu brevissimis, disco achaenu glabro absque ayice pubescente, cilus alarum sursum prominenter lobatarum simplicibus, papp aristis sine barbellis reflexis, folus wferioribus angustioribus et acutius dentatis. H. 1552. Differs in the ligule of the ray flowers being very short, in the achenes being almost glabrous except for the pubescence at the summit, the hairs on the wing- margin simple, the wings prominently lobed at the top, and the awns without reflexed barbs, the lower leaves narrower and more sharply toothed. Brachycome ciliaris, (Labill.) Less. O. 1309, 1583, B. 1709). Wi) 14005 Devi 7685) Ks Vedag B. ciliaris, (Labill.) Less., var. glandulosa, Benth. — OL Wet | .| B. Muellert, Sond. W. 1205, 1396, T. 1421. “Dis. Was B. pachyptera, Turcz. T. 1747, K. 1815. *Centaurea militensis, L. K. 1813. ' Cratistylis conocephala, 8. Le Moore. O. 1274, T. 1755. Elachanthus pusillus, F. v. M. H. 1527, K. 1818. ; Tsoetopsis gramuufolia, Turcz. H. 1524, K. 1825. “Dis. — Myriocephalus Stuartu, Benth. O. 1306, T. 1193, 1713. Siloxerus brachypappus, (F. v. M.) comb. nov. H. 1529, O. 1699. As Srloxerus, Labill., is the earlier name (1806) it must replace Angianthus, R. Br. (1810). | Mr. J. M. Black drew attention to this in his “‘Flora ~ of South Australia’’ (1922), p. 6. ; S. pusilius, (Benth.) comb. nov. O. 1240, B. 1323. Gnephosis cyathopappa, Benth. T. 1765, K. 1853. © G. skirrophora, Benth. H. 1518, 1553, O. 1695, K. 1852. Gnaphalodes uliginosum, A. Gray. O. 1290, 1585, By. Pab8 ol, Urea, Craspedia pleiocephala, F. v. M. W. 1212, T. 119455 17A2, oS, Kose 16. Eriochlamys Behru, Sond. et F. v. M. T. 1731. Toxanthus Muellert, Benth. B. 1324. ‘‘Dis. W.” Rutidosis helichrysoides, DC. K. 1847. > Millotia Kempei, F. v. M., var. Helmsii, F. v. M. eb ¥ Tate. O. 1576. | Si M. tenwifolia, Cassini. T. 1715. oo ae Pe & eds Ce ee Txiolaena leptolepis, Benth. K. 1849, 1850. i Podotheca angustifolia, Less. O. 1694. 3 | Podolepis acuminata, R. Br. T. 1720. “Dis. W.”’ P. canescens, A. Cunn. H. 1558. a P. capillaris, (Steetz.) Diels. B. 1220, 1326, W. 1203, | T. 1738; =. i 605 Leptorhynchus tenuifolius, F. v. M. O. 1696. ‘‘Dis. w 9 L. tetrachaetus, (Schlect.) J. M. Black, var. penicillatus, J. M. Black. K. 1848. Helichrysum ambiguum, Turcz. T. 1773, 1734. | ‘Dis. We? H. ayculatum, DC. O. 1300. H. Lawrencella, F. v. M. O. 1582, B. 1223, 1225., H. Lawrencella, F. v. M., var. Davenport, Benth. i. 1786: H. lucidum, Henck. B. 1352. H. Mellorianum, J. M. Black. I. 1250. Waitzia acuminata, Steetz. O. 1596, B. 1703. Helipterum Charsleyae, F.v. M. K. 1804. ‘‘Dis. W.”’ . Pitzgibbonn, F. v. M. T. 1409. . floribundum, DC. H. 1538, O. 1595, B. 1316, 1363, W. 1210, T. 1420, K. 1823. . Humboldtianum, (Gaud.) DC. O. 1692, T. 1401. wisiessenie, “Why. ME MK T8038: . moschatum, Benth. T. 1198, 1410, W. 1399. . pterochactum, Benth. T. 1750. . pygmaeum, Benth. K. 1828. . roseum, (Hook.) Benth., var. patens, (Hwart) J. M. Black. W. 1206. stipitatum, Fv. M. K. 1854. “Dis. We? . strictum, Benth. H. 1519, K. 1824. . tenellum, Turcz..: H. 1568. ietremain wee Ne Oy P6383." By. 1850: Senecio brachyglossus, F. v. M. H. 1571, O. 1634. Hea Gnegorn., Bev. MeO T62T) W209) T1168: Ry Ree RPRRRRA *Cryptostemma calendulaceum, R. Br. O. 1296. Cephalipterum Drummondu, A. Gray. H. 1535, T. 1730, 1735. VII. A New Soranacrtous Puant, Anthotroche truncata, n. sp. Pise xxvii. end, xo. fio. 1. Frutex bimetralis milis brevissimis plumosis divaricatis dense obtectis, folus oblongis vel ovatis 5-10 mm. longis obtusis incanis breviter petiolatis, nervo medio prominente, floribus subsessilibus odoratis, calyce tabulato viz 2 mm. longo — lobis ejus deltoiders brevissimis, corolla alba extra tomentosa 3 strus longitudinalibus signatd intus glabra lobis ejus late - oblongis patentibus tubum subaequantibus, filamentis basi _ dilatatis et pilosis, ovario parce stellato-piloso. Ooldea, East-West Railway Line, September 15, 1920, _ and Barton, in the same district, September 19, 1920. , 606 A handsome shrub of 2 metres high, hoary. Branches round, hoary, with a fine tomentum wearing off in age, divar- icate. Leaves 5-10 mm. long and 3-5 mm. wide, broad oblong to ovate, sometimes broad at base, entire, obtuse, hoary, with a very fine down of plumose hairs, midrib above and below and often a few lateral veins, prominent, scattered, or in clusters of 2 or 3, petiole very short. Flowers 1 to 3 in the leaf. clusters, almost sessile, sweet-smelling. Calyx tubular, 1°5 mm. long, investiture similar to the leaves; lobes very short, obtuse triangular. Corolla white with three fine reddish short longitudinal lines inside, tomentose outside, except almost smooth near the base, glabrous inside; lobes oblong, as long as the tube, spreading. Stamens 5, hardly exsert; filaments dilated and pilose at the base. Ovary with a few stellate hairs; ovules 2 to 3 in each cell, only one appears to develop and is finely tuberculate. 3 The new species is nearest to A. Blachu, F. v. M., but differs from this and all other species of this genus in the truncate calyx, the tomentose clothing, and rotate corolla. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Pratt XXXVITI. Anthotroche truncata, n. sp. 1, Flower, viewed near the top; 2, flower, side view, showing calyx; 3, stamen, showing dilated pilose filament. PrateE XXXIX. Fig. 1. A new solanaceous plant (Anthotroche truncata, n. sp.) growing on a sandhill at Ooldea showing habit. Fig. 2. Vegetation on a sand ridge at Ooldea showing Eucalyptus transcontinentalis, Eremophila alternifolia, Olearia Muellerit, Triodia irritans, and Westringia Dampier. Puatse XL. Fig. 1. Nullarbor Plain at Hughes showing the open forma- tion of bluebush (Kochia sedifolia) and saltbush (Atriplex wesicarium ). Fig. 2. At Ooldea Soak showing a carpet of Myriocephalus Stuarti with Leptospermum laevigatum, var. minus, on the right. Pruate XLI. Fig. 1. Eucalyptus oleosa at Barton with prostrate trunks. Fig. 2. Barton from a sand ridge with Thryptomene Elliotti in the foreground, Casuarina lepidophloia and Eucalyptus below. Prate XLIT. Fig. 1. Looking north of Tarcoola showing the stony, un- dulating nature of the country. Acacia tarculensis and Trichinium meanum in the foreground. Fig. 2. On the flats at Kingoonya. Minuria leptophylla in the foreground with trees of Acacia Loderit and shrubs of Kochia sedifolia in the middle distance. The photographs were taken by myself. 607 MISCELLANEA. Note on Diastoma melanioides, Reeve (Mesalia). By Siz Josepn Verco, M.D. (Lond.), F.R.C.S. (Eng.). DIASTOMA MELANIOIDES, Reeve. Mesalia melanioides, Reeve, Conch. Icon., vol. v., pl. i., f. 3. ee (?) KE. A. Smith, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 8, vol. -AGIS, p. 310. " Mesalia extlhis, Sowerby, aa and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xii., py. 2360, ply 111. , fig. 9, W. Austr. This shell was dredged by me in 1895 in 15 Eabh one off _ Thistle Island, at the entrance to Spencer Gulf, with two smaller examples, and measured 42 mm. in length and 11°25 mm. in breadth. A dead shell was found on the Thistle Island beach. Off the Banks Group, in Spencer Gulf, in 12 fathoms, one small fresh example was dredged and one of medium size dead. Later four specimens were taken on St. _ Francis Island beach, the largest of which, in perfect con- _ dition, was 41 mm. long and 12°5 mm. wide. In Petrel Bay, on the north of the island, in 15-20 fathoms, five very small dead specimens were dredged, and in 6 fathoms three tips. In 1911, at Esperance Bay, on the south coast of Western Australia, six full-grown beach specimens were obtained measuring up to 42°25 mm. long by 12°75 mm. wide. Shortly afterwards one of the latter was given to Mr. G. B. Sowerby when on a visit to Australia, as an example of Jf. melanioides, Rve., from Esperance, and a little while after this a reprint was received from him containing the publication of his M. exilis. When reminded of the circumstances under which he obtained it, he explained that he had failed to make a note of them at the time and they had slipped his memory, and. without doubt his name was a synonym of Jf. melanioides, Rve. Its type locality is Esperance Bay. The whorls in some examples are nearly flat and sloping, in others slightly convex ; with a finely canaliculate suture, and _ with a shallow spiral groove about one-fifth the width of the - whorl below the suture, which consequently seems somewhat marginal or adpressed. The numerous broad rounded axial costae are very valid in the upper whorls, where many of them _ are variceal, and these may form in some examples three vertical _ lines of varices, each just in front of that above; in other 608 examples they are quite irregular. The varices disappear in the later whorls, and the axial costae also gradually fade out. The spiral lirae (with two to five intervening striae), about six in the spire whorls and twice as many in the body whorl, retain their validity. The thickly-glazed inner lip gives the impression that the callus of the posterior half has been first laid down over a circular area, and the anterior half laid down upon this over an area with a shorter radius, so that the edges of the areas meet each other at a wide angle, and the edge of the anterior circular area is continued into the aperture as a raised curved plait or carination. Its lower edge curves round anteriorly, and forms with the basal lip a shallow wide sinus with a slightly everted edge. The proto- conch consists of two smooth convex homostrophe whorls. The © ornament is composed of squarish light-chestnut spots imme- diately below the suture, with smaller spots more or less distantly articulating the lirae, and sometimes also so disposed as to form curved axial narrow flames of dots. It is very closely allied to the fossil Diastoma provisi, Tate, Journ. and Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. xxvii., 1893, p. 177, Miocene and Older Pliocene (now recognized as Older and Newer Pliocene). Tate diagnoses between the two. He also shifts both species from the genus Mesalia to Diastoma, Deshayes. He writes, ‘‘Cossman, to whom the fossil was sent under the above name” (Mesalia provisi), ‘“Gnforms me that it is a Diastoma; from him I have received examples of several species of Diastoma and Mesalia from the Parisian Eocene. This material permits me to affirm that M. provisi, Mihi, and Jf. melanoides, Rve., are congeneric with D. costellatum, Lamarck; whilst MJesalia sulcata, Lamarck (non sulcata, Gray=brevialis, Lamarck), is of a totally different type. Diastoma simulates Mesaha, but the latter has a sinuated outer lip, whilst the spiral carination of the columella of Diastoma is quite a different feature from the slight twist of the columella-margin of Mesalia; more- over, Diastoma is more or less variced. Mesalia belongs to the ‘ Turritellidae; Diastoma, which has been located in at least two families, finds a resting place in Cerithiidae, it may be viewed as a Melania-like Cerithium.”’ E. A. Smith, in his review of the Genus Wesalia, loc. cit., swpra, does not refer to Tate’s transfer of J/. melanioides, Rve., to the Genus Diastoma, which, how ores merits notice and acceptation or refutation. Evening Meeting, September 14, 1922. - pag 609 An Introduced Land Snail, Helicella ventricosa, Draparnaud. Sir Joseph Verco showed a number of small snails col- lected in a garden at Woodville, at the end of last month. _ They were first noticed about five or six years ago in a bed of petunias, which they completely destroyed by ringbarking _ the stems rather than by consuming the leaves. They belong to the same species and are of the same size as some snails sent to the Adelaide Museum from Mount Gambier, which were identified as Helicella (Cochlicella) ventricosa, Drapar- naud. Their habitat is the south of Europe and the north of Africa, the Canary Islands, and the Azores. They are found _also in Bermuda as an introduction. They have evidently been brought by some means into South Australia, where they appear to be now widespread and numerous. A note of their _ appearance as a novelty near Mount Gambier is found in the last issue of the Records of the South Australian Museum, vol. 11., No. 2, April 3, 1922. Jos: C. Varco: Evening Meeting, May 11, 1922. 610 ABSTRACT ‘OF “PROCEED Royal Society of South Australia (Incorporated) FOR THE YEAR NOVEMBER 1, 1921, To OcToBER 31, 1922. ORDINARY MEETING, NovEMBER 10, 1921. THE PRESIDENT (R. S. Rogers, M.A., M.D.) in the chair. THE PRESIDENT referred to the approaching centenary of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and it was resolyed— ‘That a suitable letter of congratulation be forwarded to that Society.” ELEctTions.—Owen M. Moulden, M.B., B.S.; Melville Birks, M.B., B.8., L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S.; Professor T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc.; and Oscar W. Tiegs, M.Sce., as Fellows. PapEers.—‘‘The -Pathological Morphology of Cintractia spimficis,’’ by Prof. T. G. B. Ossorn, D.Sc.; ‘Occurrence of Remains of Small Crustacea in the Proterozoic(?) or Lower Cambrian(?) Rocks of Reynella, near Adelaide,’ by Prof. Sirk Eperworts Davin, D.Sc., F.R.S., etc. ; ““A New Species of Lycosa for South Australia,” by R. H. Pulleine, M.B. Exuisits.—Mr. L. Keita Warp showed lantern slides of Typical Views of the Eucla Basin and Nullarbor Plain, with Maps descriptive of the topography, geology, rainfall, and artesian water supply of the district. Mr. A. M. Lza exhibited the three known blind beetles of South Australia, Illaphanus stephensi (Carabidae), Rodwayia minuta, Lea (Tricopterygidae), and Halorhynchus caecus (Curculionidae). Capt. S. A. WuitEe showed botanical specimens from the North-western District of (New South Wales. Sir DovuGuas Mawson showed calcareous deposits from a series of caves im the limestone near Reynella. OrpInARY MEETING, ApRiL 13, 1922. THE PRESIDENT (R. 8S. Rogers, M.A., M.D.) in the chair. THE PRESIDENT welcomed as a visitor Dr. McGillivray, President of the Broken Hill Ornithological Society. He also announced with deep regret the death of Mr. F. RB. Zietz, 611 who had joined the staff of the South Australian Museum more than thirty years ago, and was at the time of his death ornithologist to that institution. He was elected a Fellow of e z Sas >. a ety _ to travel in the Board’s s.s. ‘Victory. this. Society in 1912, and had contributed important papers on the Wild Hybrids of Australian Ducks, and Australian Lacertilia: he had also taken an active part in the discus- sions, and been responsible for many interesting exhibits at the meetings. Evections.—J. Sutton and Thos. Draper Campbell, B.D.S., were elected Fellows. Papers.—‘‘Notes on Australian Polyplacophora, with descriptions of three New Species and two New Varieties,’’ by Epwin Asusy, F.L.S., M.B.O.U.; ‘‘A New Isopod from Central Australia belonging to the Phreatoricidae,”’ by Cuas. Cuitton, D.Sc., C.M.Z.S. (communicated by Prof. F. Wood Jones, M.R.C.S., D.Sc., etc.); ‘‘The Flora and Fauna of Nuyt’s Archipelago and the Investigator Group, No. 1— _Amphipoda and Isopoda,”’ by Cuas. Cuitton, D.S¢., C.M.Z.S. (communicated by Prof. F. Wood Jones, M.R.C.S., D.Sc., etc.) ; ‘‘The External Characters of Pouch Embryos of Marsupials, No. 3—J/soodon Barrowensis,’’ by Prof. F. Woop Jones, M.R.C.S., D.Sc., etc. REso_veD—‘‘That the types and co-types collected by _ Prof. F. Wocd Jones during his exploration of Nuyt’s Archipelago be presented to the South Australian Museum.” RESOLVED—‘‘That a letter be sent to the Chairman of the S.A. Harbours Board expressing appreciation of the courtesy extended to the Professor by affording him facilities Exuisits.—Mr. A. M. Lea exhibited a collection of bones taken from the pellets of the common owl, representing a year’s food for one of these useful birds. It included bones of 1,407 mice, 143 rats, 5 young rabbits, 375 sparrows, 23 _ starlings, and a few other birds, frogs, and bats; also some insect remains. Some of the bones showed considerable sponge- like swellings, indicating serious disease. He also showed a collection of insects from North-west Australia, presented by Dr. Morgan. Also a root from Mr. L. Harnett, taken from the ground under an Adelaide building erected 62 years ago, and still perfectly sound. Prof. F. Wood Jones exhibited _ three maxillae of Thylacoleo and portions of maxillae and _ mandibles of Thylacinus which he had found in Buckalowie _ Cave, No. 2, near Carrieton. Capt. S. A. Wuite showed a large sheet of mycelium of a remarkable fungus resembling chamois leather, found between the layers of wood of a giant Eucalyptus rostrata felled at the Reedbeds, near Adelaide. 612 OrpDINARY MEETING, May 11, 1922. Tue Presipent (R. 8S. Rogers, M.A., M.D.) in the chair. The Hon. Secretary stated that the Council had asked Prof. Sir William H. Bragg to represent the Society at the 150th Anniversary of L’Académie Royale de Belgique, and read a reply regretting his inability to be present on ee) occasion. The Hon. Srcretrary read a letter from the Natiostal League for the Protection of Natural Monuments, Florence, asking the co-operation of the Fellows in the provision of illustrations of native animals for zoological handbooks to be issued by the League. Papers.—‘‘A Geological Traverse of the Flinders Range from the Parachilna Gorge to the Lake Frome Plains,’’ by Prof. WALTER Howcuin, F.G.S.; and ‘‘The Parasites of Aus- tralian Birds,’’ by Prof. J. Burton CLeLtanp, M.D. In the absence of the author, and also, through illness, of Prof. F. Wood Jones, who was to have introduced it, the latter paper was taken as read. Exuisits.—Sir JoserH C. Verco showed a number of small snails (Helicella ventricosa, Draparnaud) (vide Mis- cellanea). Mr. A. M. Lea exhibited a drawer of rove beetles (Staphylinidae), several of which have remarkable combs on the middle leg. One species lives on bush rats, another on. the flying fox, and others in nests of ants. Mr. W. J. KimBer showed large fossil sharks’ teeth from Port Willunga cliffs; polyzoic limestone and a cast of a large cowrie shell from Point Turton; and Truncatilla scalarina, associated with large deposits of sepia bones in raised beach at Minlacowie. OrpDINARY MEETING, JUNE 8, 1922. THE Presipent (R. S. Rogers, M.A., M.D.) in the chair. Nominations.—C. T. Madigan, B.A., B.Se.; Guy A. Lendon, M.B., B.S., M.R.C.P.; and Alan H. Lendon were nominated as Fellows. . Paprers.—‘‘The Tertiary Brown Coal-bearing Beds of Moorlands,” by Prof. Str Doucitas Mawson, D.8c., B.E., and FREDERICK CHAPMAN; ‘‘External Characters of Pouch Embryos of Marsupials, No. 4—Pseudochirops dahli,”’ by Prot. F. Woop Jones, M.R.C.S., D.Sc., etc.; and ‘‘A New Species of Puecima ” by C. F. JOHNCOCK, Corr. Mem. (conte by Prof. W. Howchin, F.G.S.). Exuisits.—Prof. W. Howcuin exhibited several highly- glaciated erratics obtained during his late expedition into | Central Australia in company with Prof. Sir Edgeworth | David under a grant from the Australian Association for the i 613 Advancement of Science. The specimens were obtained from the tillite exposed at Yellow Cliff on the Finke River, and from a new locality in the Crown Point Hill Range in the same neighbourhood. Mr. A. M. Lea exhibited a common Queensland scorpion (Hormurus caudicula) obtained alive in Adelaide by Mr. A. Bottcher in some bananas from Queensland: ORDINARY MEETING, JULY 13, 1922. THE PresipEnT (R. S. Rogers, M.A., M.D.) in the chair. Nominations.—Geofirey Samuel, B.Sc.; Wiliam Ham, ipo. and nh, i. T. Grant, M.B., B.57,’ M:R-C.P., as Fellows. 4 Evections.—C. T. Madigan, B.A., B.Sc.; G. A. Lendon, » M.B., B.S., M.R.C.P.; and A. H. Lendon, as Fellows. Papers.—‘ ‘Contributions to the Orchidology of Aus- tralia and New Zealand,’ by R. 8S. Rocers, M.A., M.D.; | ‘‘The Physiography of the Meadows Valley, Mount Lofty '~ Ranges,”’ by E. O. Teatze, D.Sc. (communicated by Prof. _ Walter Howchin, F.G.S.) Exuisits.—Mr. A. M. Lea exhibited a drawer of insects _ showing remarkable differences in the sexes. Prof. J. B. _ CLELAND exhibited a specimen of the rare puffball Mytremyces | _ fuscus, Bert. This is a new record for South Australia, and __ was found on the shady side of a road cutting, at Mount . Lofty, on July 1. The exhibitor has only personally met _ with this fungus once before, on a similar shady bank on the Cambewarra Mountains, near Noura, N.S.W. The plant has an erect dirt-coloured fenestrated stem, capped by a rounded receptacle showing projecting whitish (sometimes vermilion) teeth. In an early stage the receptacle is covered _ with a little cap, one of which was also exhibited, having _ been thrust off on to the ground. Dr. E. Anecas JOHNSON _ showed two specimens of Umio from River Onkaparinga. Prof. F. Woop Jones showed two adult specimens of Myrmecobius, probably distinct races, one from Western Aus- tralia and one from South Australia. Mr. E. R. Waite _ showed a model, one-tenth natural size, of Camarasaurus, and _ a fossil femur of the same Dinosaur, found at Wyoming, U.S.A. The model was prepared under the direction of Prof. _ Henry Fairfield Osborne, Director of the American Museum | of Natural History. Mr. R. L. Jacx showed a Bootes _ model of Iron Knob and its vicinity. _ ORDINARY MEETING, Aveust 10, 1922. THE PresIDENT (R. S. Rogers, M.A., M.D.) in the chair. Exvections.—R. L. T. Grant, M.B., B.S., M.R.C.P.; | William Ham, F.R.E.S.; and Geoffrey Samuel, B.Sc., as : Fellows. 614 Nominations.—Miss E. D. Nobes, B.Sc.; Herbert M. Hale; and Albert Geo. Charles, as Fellows. THe PRESIDENT reported that at the invitation of the Queensland Branch of the Royal Geographical Society the Council had appointed Prof. F. Wood Jones to represent them upon a joint committee to consider the suggested ex- ploration of the Great Barrier Reef, and Prof. Sir Douglas Mawson to represent the Society on the Council of the Aus- tralasian Association for the Advancement of Science at its meeting in Wellington, N.Z. Also that a letter had been received from Queensland asking for co-operation in urging the Government to take steps to prevent the extinction of the Ceratodus, and that the Council had endorsed the sug- — gested action. PaPerRs.—‘‘Some New Records of Fungi from South Australia, Part II., together with a description of a New Species of Puccima,’’ by Prof. T. G. Ossporn, D.Se., and GEOFFREY SAMUEL, B.Sc.; ‘““An Investigation of the Essential — Oil obtained from Hucalyptus cneorifolia, DC.,”’ by PHiLip A. Berry, B.Sc. (communicated by Prof. E. C. Rennie, D.Sc.); ‘‘The Flora and Fauna of Nuyt’s Archipelago and the Investigator Group, Part 2—The Monodelphian Mammals,” by Prof. F. Woop Jones, M.R.C.S., D.Sce., etc.; “‘The Flora and Fauna of Nuyt’s Archipelago and the Investigator Group, Part 3—A Sketch of the Ecology of Franklin Island,’’ by Prof. T. G. B. Ossorn, D.Sc. ORDINARY MEETING, SEPTEMBER 14, 1922. Tue Presipent (R. S. Rogers, M.A., M.D.) in the chair. Exections.—Miss E. D. Nobes, B.Sc.; H. M. Hale; and A. G. Charles, as Fellows. Papers.—‘‘On the Striation of Voluntary Muscle Fibres in Double Spirals,’ by O. W. Trees, M.Sc; “‘The Flora and Fauna of Nuyt’s Archipelago and the Investigator Group, Part 4—Coleoptera,’’? by Antoun M. Lua, F.E.S.; ‘‘Australian Lepidoptera of the Tribe Geometrites,” by A. JEFFERIS TurRNER, M.D., F.E.S.; ‘‘Australian Coleoptera, Part III.,. by Ausert H. Exston, F.E.S.; ‘“‘Cylindro- Conical Stones from the Darling River and Cooper Creek,’’ by R. H. Putieine, M.B. : Exuisits.—Sir JosePpH VERCcO showed some shells (vide Miscellanea) ; also 27 almonds in their shells taken from the crop of a game rooster which was found in convulsions. The crop was opened by the owner, a gardener, the almonds removed, and the wound sewn up, the fowl being found quite lively the next day. Mr. A. E. Epquist showed two samples of Loranthus exocarpus, one grown on an orange tree and one 615 on a tugasaste. Capt. S. A. Ware exhibited three birds taken during his recent transcontinental trip:—Barnardius — macgulivrayt (Cloncurry parrot) and Ayprosmiectus cry- thopturus (Red-winged parrot), from North-west Queens- land, and Barnardius zonarius myrtae (Mrs. Morgan’s parrot), from the Northern Territory. Mr. A. M. Lea showed larvae of cockchafers from Nantawarra, where they were stated to be destroying from 50 to 75 per cent. of the crop on one farm by eating the roots. AnnuaL Meetinc, Octoser 19, 1922. THE PRESIDENT (R. 8. Rogers, M.A., M.D.) in the chair. The AnnuaL Report and FINANCIAL STATEMENT were read and adopted. ) The Field Naturalists’ AnNnuaL Report was read and adopted. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—The retiring President delivered an address, the subject of which was ‘‘A History of the Royal Society of South Australia, particularly in its relation to other Institutions in the State.”’ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By R. S. Rocers, M.A., M.D. A History of the Society, particularly in its Relation to Other Institutions in the State. An annual Presidential address has by no means been an established rule in this Society, and during the last forty-six years there have been no less than twenty-nine occasions on which :t was cmitted. While it would seem unnecessary that your President should address you as a matter of duty every year, there would appear to be good reasons why the observance should not be allowed to fall wholly into abeyance. It is obviously a wise thing to make a halt in our proceedings now and then, in order that a retrospect may be made. Facts and events are but too easily forgotten, and occasional opportunity should be afforded to record them in their historical sequence. As a Society we are no longer young; we have already reached our three score and ten, and are hastening towards that century which many of you will doubtless celebrate. For this reason I desire to direct your attention to some of the more salient points in our history, particularly in its relation to other institutions in the State. 1. PRELIMINARY. _ It is hardly necessary to remind you that we are the immediate offspring of the Adelaide Philosophical Society, 616 which became transmuted into the Royal Society by the _ simple device of changing its name and some of its laws, ‘but which has otherwise led a continuous and unbroken existence for seventy years. There were, however, earlier organizations, more or less related to our predecessor in their objects and personnel, which may in a sense be regarded as end-products of their period. These were all ephemeral. They appeared upon their little stage, fulfilled in varying degree a useful purpose, then vanished into the limbo of history. They are even now, after a comparatively brief lapse of time, a little difficult to unearth; and when the preliminary spade-work is done, their aliases and their fusions and their recrudescences make identification in some instances rather perplexing. 2. EARLY ORGANIZATIONS AND PRECURSORS OF THE ADELAIDE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Not the least important of these precursors of the Philo- sophical Society was the South Australian Literary and Scientific Association, founded in London in August, 1834, just a fortnight after the Bill for the Establishment of the Colony had received Royal assent. Owing to the good offices of Mr. Thomas Gill, we have in the Archives of the Public Library the first minute book of this Association. Among the signatories to the form of obligation the following names are of special interest :—Dr. John Brown, Thomas Gilbert, Robert Gouger, R. D. Hanson, G. S. King- ston, Osmond Gilles, Daniel Wakefield, John Morphett, J. W. Childers, Raikes Currie, C. G. Everard, R. Torrens, J. Hindmarsh, Chas. Mann, B. T. Finniss, and others. Some of these men subsequently became active members of the Philosophical Society. The objects of the Association were: “The Cultivation and diffusion of useful knowledge throughout the Colony” ; and as a means to this end, one of their earliest acts was the acquisition of a small but excellent library, containing books of travel and reference, likely to be of special service to a young community. Sir Charles 8. Napier, the hero of Scinde, was elected as President, and for more than a year numerous meetings were held at short intervals in London. Some of these were ofa — conversational character ; at others addresses were delivered on scientific subjects, such as the geology and anthropology of Australia. In December, 1835, just prior to embarkation for the new Province, a committee was appointed for the ensuing year and the records abruptly ceased. The library was packed in the same chest as the Royal Charter, and ultimately arrived i? — =o 617 in Adelaide, after various misadventures, in a somewhat damaged condition. According to a statement made by Charles Mann, the pressure of employment, incident upon the earlier stages of immigration, prevented any further meetings of the Associa- tion in the new Colony. . It so happened that in 1838, there became established at the “Rooms of the South Australian School Society,’’ in this city, “The Adelaide Mechanics’ Institution,’ under the presidency of James Hurtle Fisher, at that time Resident Commissioner and Registrar. The aims of this body were the delivery of evening lectures, together with the control of a reading room and circulating library of some 300 books. Unfortunately it did not receive the support it had anticipated, and in less than a year it was in dire difficulties, unable to meet its obligations, and consequently in danger of having its books sold by public auction. At this critical period of its history, the trustees of the South Australian Literary and Scientific Association came to its rescue with an offer of amalgamation. The offer was accepted. The latter associa- tion was dissolved and its library was handed over in trust to the new body, which now bore the cumbrous title of “The Adelaide Literary and Scientific Association and Mechanics’ Institute.’’ But these were not healthy days for the survival of such societies, and in turn the new venture faded away, rather than dissolved. It finally became extinct in 1844. By some means, the books which had been brought from England, were deposited with Mr. Da Costa to cover a debt of £20, and were still in his hands when yet another organization appeared. This was the “South Australian Subscription Library,’ which was founded in the year just mentioned. Charles Mann, in his evidence before the General Committee of the Adelaide Library and Mechanics’ Institute some years later, says that he and some of his co-trustees of the early London association paid the debt due to Da Costa and presented the books to the South Australian Subscription Library, ‘‘of which they formed the nucleus.’’ In order that they might not be subject to any risk consequent upon a dissolution of the society, it was stipulated that in such an event they should become public property and be vested in three of the principal officers of the Colony. The Adelaide Subscription Library was modelled on the lines of some of the best English institutions. Its subscription was high and its membership exclusive. It was unsuitable for _ a young colony where the population was small and the number 618 of leisured intellectual people very few. As might have been expected, it soon began to decline. In 1847 a rival arose, with a freer and more democratic constitution. The latter was known as the Mechanics’ Insti- tute, and appears to have had no connection with the former society which bore the same name. The rivalry which existed between these two bodies. was not of a healthy character, and did not tend to promote the success of either. It meant the support by a not very wealthy community of two institutions instead of one, and it soon became evident, that unless they could in some way combine their efforts and resources, both were doomed. The Mechanics’ Institute was the first to make overtures for a coalition, but these were coldly received by its rival. When, however, these overtures were backed by a promise of two substantial donations of £100 each from wealthy citizens, the proposal was more favourably considered, and, after much parleying, a junction was effected. Thus was born, in 1848, “The South Australian ‘Liver and Mechanics’ Institute. ” Reorganization, however, did not prove a panacea for the troubles which had so constantly dogged the steps of these various institutions. The amal- gamated society showed but short-lived virility. It shifted from Peacock’s Buildings, in Hindley Street, to a more central position in Green’s Exchange, a site now occupied by the Australian Mutual Provident Society. In a very few years, owing to mismanagement and other causes, it was in financial difficulties. Contrary to expectations, however, it did not expire from inanition, as its predecessors had done, but suddenly gave birth to a lusty infant, which was to become chief partner in a body corporate, with the Philosophical Society as a junior member. ‘This influential partnership lasted for a quarter of a century, when it was dissolved by the Public Library Act of 1884. It is hardly necessary to inform you that this infant was the South Australian Institute. 3. Tur ADELAIDE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. (a) Historical Records. The early struggles and activities of the Adelaide Philo- sophical Society are recorded in its Annual Reports, in the newspapers of the day, and in certain documents recently transferred by our Society to the Archives Department of the Public Library. : 619 These documents comprise : — A.—The first minute book of the Adelaide Philosophical Society (1853). B.—Papers read and deposited with the Society from 1853. C.—Correspondence relating to a proposed Exploring Expedition from Fowler’s Bay into the Interior (1855). D.—Miscellaneous papers and newspaper cuttings. E.—Papers relating to its incorporation with the S.A. Institute (1856-71). F.—Papers relating to the proposed division of the Society into Sections (1859). G.—Correspondence between the Adelaide Philosophical Society and the S.A. Institute on the one hand; and between the Royal Society and Public Library Board on the other. H.—Correspondence relating to the adoption of the title “Royal Society of South Australia’”’ (1879-81). The minute books from September, 1853, to the end of 1872, do not appear to have been preserved, but reports of the monthly meetings appear with a fair degree of regularity in the daily papers of that period. The first Annual Report was read on January 30, 1854. It consists of four pages (parliamentary size) and contains the personnel of the Council and list of members, together with a copy of Laws of the Society and a digest of its Transactions and Proceedings. Similar reports continued to appear until 1858, when the month for the Annual Meeting was changed to July. No further printed reports were issued for some years after this, although they were evidently read and fully published in the newspapers. Annual meetings were again changed to August for 1859 and 1860, and to October from 1861-3. Thereafter the year has apparently always closed at the end of September. Printed reports (in quarto form) re-appeared in 1865, but again ceased in 1872. A brief manuscript report for 1876-7 is to be found among the miscellaneous papers. From this date onwards they have been issued annually in their present form. It should also be mentioned, that brief abstracts of the _ Annual Reports of the Society, from 1863-84, are to be found _ as appendices to the Annual Reports of the S.A. Institute. a LE ee ee — 620 (b) Inception of the Society. The Society was founded on January 10, 1853. On the afternoon of that date five prominent citizens of Adelaide met at the house of Mr. J. L. Young, in Stephen’s Place, hardly a stone’s throw from this building, for the purpose of establishing a Society ‘for the discussion of all subjects connected with literature and arts.’’ John Howard Clark occupied the chair at this preliminary meeting, and there were also present: Messrs. J. L. Young, C. G. Feinaigle, —- Jones, and Dr. William Gosse. Three of these names, viz., that of J. H. Clark, a former editor of The Register; J. L. Young, the Principal of a well- known scholastic institution; and Dr. Gosse are still well remembered. Mr. Jones apparently did not attend any further meetings that year, and his name does not appear on the list of members published in 1854. His identity is probably lost in the mists of time. The fifth man, “)Charles Gregory Feinaigle, was the originator of the scheme, and as such claims our consideration. His residence in South Australia was of short duration, and consequently he is comparatively unknown in this State. I am indebted for much of the following information concerning him to the courtesy of the librarians of the Melbourne and Mitchell Libraries :— He was born in 1818, and graduated B.A., Trinity College, Dublin, in 1839. The date of his arrival in Adelaide is uncertain, but his name appears for the first time in the South Australian Almanac for 1851, as Headmaster of the High School, on the S.A Company’s premises, North Terrace. This was a proprietary school, apparently just founded, with shares at £5 each. J. L. Young arrived in October, 1850, and his first position was that of Assistant-master in the High School. In 1851 both these young men, were seized with the gold fever and went to the Victorian diggings. After an absence of several months Young returned, and was induced to open a school in Ebenezer Place, off Rundle Street East, but the movements of Feinaigle are not chronicled. From the facts already related, it is evident that he returned to Adelaide before the beginning of January, 1853. He occupied the chair, and read a paper on “The Mathematical Theory of Musical Harmony on April 25 of that year, and is mentioned in the First Annual Report, January, 1854, as ‘“‘being now ; absent from the colony.” For many years thereafter his _ (J. H. Clark in report of meeting of Philos. Society in The Register, 23/9/63. 621 name appears as a corresponding member, with a Melbourne address. As a matter of fact, he entered the Victorian Public Service as a clerk in January, 1854, and subsequently filled various positions in the Census, Police, and Mines Depart- ments. While still in Melbourne, he contributed a paper to the Society in September, 1863. He retired from the Victorian Service on a pension in 1877, and died at his resi- _ dence, South Yarra, after a long illness, on March 16, 1880. Three preliminary meetings were held at Stephens Place, and at these rules were drawn up for the government of the Society, and the annual subscription fixed at a guinea. Visitors were to be admitted to the meetings on introduction by a member, and they were allowed to take part in the dis- cussions, a privilege not infrequently exercised. It was decided that the election of members was to be by ballot, one negative vote excluding. It is worthy of note, that one can- didate was so excluded, during the first few months of the Society’s existence. In addition to such routine business, the roll of member- ship was greatly increased, and it is safe to say that the young Society already included within its ranks the best literary and scientific talent to be found in the city. Some of its members were men of undoubted ability and marked originality of character. A list of foundation members will be found in the Appendix, but it may not be out of place to refer more particularly to a few of them. Edward Davy, a versatile doctor, had a most extra- ordinary career. While still in England, he had already been recognized as a formidable rival to such men as Cooke and Wheatstone, in the new field of telegraphy. Not only was he an inventive genius in this science, but in many other branches as well. Quite suddenly, when his discoveries seemed likely to lead to wealth and eminence, he appeared to lose interest, and sailed for Australia as surgeon to an emigrant ship. Reaching the new colony in 1839, he aban- doned his profession and engaged in pastoral pursuits. Then followed a career of journalism, and for about three years he was editor of The Adelaide Examiner. Later still he became manager of the Yatala Copper Smelting Works. He retained this position for a few years, and then relinquished it in favour of the control of the Government Assay Office, where for the first time in Australia gold tokens were coined. Owing to his success in this department, he was lured to a similar - appointment in Melbourne at a salary of £1,500 per annum. Owing, however, to necessary retrenchments, his new appoint- ment was of short duration, and in eighteen months he was once more a farmer, this time coupled with the practice of 622 his profession as a _ sideshow. Finding that farming did not pay, he turned his attention to medicine and muni- cipal affairs in the sister colony of Victoria, and ultimately became mayor of a country town and a Justice of the Peace. He appears to have been an active member of the young Society, aud as a Corresponding Member retained his interest for many years after leaving Adelaide. Then there was Charles Mann, a former member of the South Australian Literary and Scientific Association, and at the period under review Crown Solicitor and a stalwart in- tellectual in the city. On account of his influence and literary tastes, he was an important accession to their ranks. He became their first Honorary Treasurer. J. L. Young never held office, but his intimate associa- tion with the infancy of the Society makes the picture incom- plete without him. For this reason, and also for the fact that we are partly indebted to him for that highly-finished product of his art, our immediate Past-President, I would like to see his portrait included in our family album. Owin to the good offices of a former pupil (Mr. F. W. Bullock), this portrait is forthcoming if the Council will accept it. — Unfortunately, owing to the lack of book-space, the walls of this room do not adapt themselves to the hanging of portrait, otherwise it would appear desirable to take immediate steps to secure as many photographs of foundation members for this purpose as possible. Young and Clark had been fellow-students at King’s College, London, where the former was educated as a profes- sional engineer. They were the same age, 23, when the pre- liminary meeting of the Society took place. John Howard Clark was undoubtedly the backbone of the Society and the most outstanding figure in its activities for upwards of twenty years. He was its first Hon. Secretary, a position which he held for nine years. Thereafter he became Hon. Treasurer, an office for which he was admirably adapted by reason of his early training as an accountant. His con- nection with The Register from 1865 onwards proved of the greatest service to the Society in the troublous years of financial depression, when the strictest economy had to be exercised in regard to printing. Another live wire among these pioneer members was W. W. R. Whitridge, journalist and pastoralist. He was editor of The Austral Examiner and subsequently of The Register. He early advocated the value of publicity, and the admission of -representatives of the Press to the monthly meetings— advice which the Society adopted with much profit to itself. He was a brilliant literary man, but unfortunately died at the early age of 36. } 623 The first ordinary meeting of the fully constituted Society was held on February 21, 1853, at the new City Council Chamber, then situated at the back of the present Town Hall. No rental was charged for the use of this room, and afternoon meetings were held there every month, until the close of 1858, when a change seems to have been made to White’s Commercial Rooms, where the Majestic Theatre now stands. Its work began to attract immediate attention, and resulted in the addition of such conspicuous men as the Governor of the State, the Chief Justice (Sir Richard Hanson), Sir George Strickland Kingston, Sir Arthur Freeling, Dr. Andrew Garran (another editor of The Register and subse- quently editor of the Sydney Morning Herald). The Press was well represented, and as a consequence the meetings received full and eulogistic reports in the daily newspapers. One of the earliest matters to receive consideration was the formation of a Museum to illustrate the natural history of the colony; but the difficulty which prevented the idea crystallizing into practical form, was the necessity of pro- curing suitable premises, and the high cost of rentals. It was suggested that the Government might possibly be willing to assign a room in one of the public departments for this pur- pose, and the matter was accordingly left in the hands of Mr. B. H. Babbage to privately sound the Minister before making formal application. Later on it was ascertained that the Mechanics’ Institute was contemplating a similar application, and although the matter was left in abeyance by the Society for the time being, it was never lost sight of, and frequently claimed their consideration at subsequent meetings. Towards the close of 1853 the rules which had been in use since the founding ofethe Society were reconsidered and a series of ‘‘laws’’ substituted. The chief alterations had to do with the formation of a Council or Executive body, Hitherto a Chairman had been elected to conduct the business of each meeting. Under the new laws, the officers consisted of a President, two Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, and a Secretary. They were elected annually and together consti- tuted the Council. For a great many years after this, it became the custom to elect the: Governor of the Province to fill the chief position on the Council. There was only one exception to this rule, when, owing to the transfer of His Excellency Sir H. E. F. Young to Tasmania, B. H. Babbage was elected to the Presidency. At the end of the first year the membership stood at 35. The young Society was now planted firmly on its feet, and in a position to state its objects and aspirations with a considerable degree of precision. They were twofold. (1) 624 “Tt was sought to afford an agreeable medium of intercom- munication to those whose tastes led them in pursuit of similar studies” ; and (2) to “‘present a means of illustrating and recording the many interesting phenomena, which are alto- gether peculiar to this country, and which it is feared will otherwise be lost in a very few years’ time, to the records of science.’’ In the papers contributed during that year, the second of these objects had not been overlooked, and at least two of them dealt exclusively with matters of local interest, that by Mr. M. Moorhouse on ‘‘The Structure of the Abor- iginal Dialects’? being of outstanding importance. The activities of the Society were not confined to the reading of papers, but extended to other matters affecting the public weal. With such APE ae) 23. eh. Babbage, Charles Bonney, and A. H. Freeling in their ranks, it is not surprising that a spirited interest should be aroused in exploration of the Province, important to them not only from an economic but also from a philosophic point of view. This was particu- larly the case in regard to the North-west Interior, which, like so many other parts of the continent, was then a terra mcognita. Rumours of various kinds had filtered through to them from native and other sources, which led them to — believe that this vast tract of country contained not only areas of pastoral importance, but also material of a scientific nature which intimately concerned them as a Society. In 1854 a sum of £3,000 was passed by the Legislature for the purpose of exploring this portion of the colony, but owing to the difficulty of securing the services of a suitable leader, the sum still remained as an unexpended balance at the end of the financial year. . In 1855 the Society appointed a Special Committee to memoralize the Governor upon the urgency and importance of this enterprise, and also to collect such information as might tend to facilitate the organization and assist the oper- ations of an exploring party. In addressing His Excellency Sir R. G. MacDonnell, the memoralists pointed out, that ‘‘there exists at present a large and increasing demand for additional accommodation for the flocks and herds of the stockholders, occasioned partly by the rapid increase in the numbers of sheep and cattle themselves, and partly by the amount of land which has recently been taken up for agricultural purposes. That the very limited extent of the known and settled districts of the colony, coupled with the fact that the North-west Interior comprises an area of at least 150,000 square miles, offers reasonable ground for hoping that a knowledge of the character of this vast and i) oe ——— NS 9 eee Beet ee er i 625 unexplored region would afford ample room for the extension of pastoral pursuits. That without pausing to dwell upon the desirability and importance of extending the limits of geographical science, the further consideration and knowledge of this extensive tract of country, may be reasonably expected to lead in an important degree to a greater development of our mineral resources, and thus open up new fields of enter- prise and additional sources of wealth to our colonists.’”’ To the memorial His Excellency gave a mest sympathetic reply and requested the Committee to submit to him a plan for such an expedition, together with an estimate of its probable cost; also to ascertain whether a suitable leader could be found to undertake the command of the party. A sheaf of correspondence between the Committee and such experienced bushmen as Dr. J. H.-Browne, J. McKinlay, E. B. Scott (a friend of Eyre), Price Maurice, and many others, shows that this request was promptly obeyed. As a result, we see the plan of the expedition outlined in a letter from the Committee to John Williams, of Black Rock, who _ had written, that if possible he would ‘‘be happy to undertake __ the business, notwithstanding the present discouraging aspect __ of affairs in that quarter.’”’ The plan was that an expedition, consisting of about eight men, should be landed at Fowler’s | Bay, make its way if possible due north to the north-east | corner of the Province, and return in a south-easterly line to the head of Spencer Gulf. In the letter they asked per- - mission from Mr. Wilhams to mention his name to His Excellency as a suitable leader. | Despite the energy displayed by the Committee, this par- ticular expedition did not eventuate, and the vote of £3,000 was appropriated for other purposes. It is significant. how- ever, that the plan of Hack’s Expedition in 1857 was almost identical with that advocated by the Society two years pre- viously, except that it started from Streaky Bay. It is, therefore, probable that the Government was not altogether uninfluenced by the recommendation of the Committee. Hack’s effort was followed, in 1858, by another Govern- ment Expedition into the interior, under the leadership of a former President of the Society, B. Herschel Babbage. Another matter of a public nature, which claimed the _ early attention of the Society, was the establishment of a — South Australian Institute, which should be erected and . maintained by the Government, and should have for its - object the fostering of the arts, sciences, literature, and philosophy. It was thought that one of the functions of such an institution would be the establishment of a Natural History Museum, and that it would also provide accommodation a a 626 for such societies as might become incorporated with it. The Philosophical Society, during the first few years of its existence, was dependent on the goodwill of the City Council for a room in which to hold its meetings, and it eagerly desired something in the nature of a permanent home. The only existing institution having a somewhat similar scope was the almost moribund South Australian Library and Mechanics’ Institute. It was evident that this organiza- tion could not long survive by its own unaided efforts, and it was already, in 1853, seeking Government support to avoid’ extinction. It seemed probable that its purpose could be most satisfactorily achieved by its conversion into such an Institute as had been dreamed of by our Society. Conse- quently the two organizations joined issue in their attempts to secure this desirable object, but it was chiefly due to the energy displayed by the Society’s representatives, John Howard Clark and B. H. Babbage, that their efforts were ultimately crowned with success. In 1856 the South Australian Institutes Act was passed, and within a month the Institute began its career of useful- ness. It was administered by a Board of six, three of whom were appointed by the Governor and three by the Societies which it had power to incorporate. : The Act provided that a sum of not less than £500 should be made available for maintenance, and a short amending Act enabled the Board to make advances of money to Incor- porated Societies. No time was lost by the Society in making its application for incorporation, but although a sympathetic reply was received, it was nevertheless pointed out, that however desirous the Board of Governors might be to effect such incorporation, the circumstances in which they were temporarily placed rendered an immediate junction imprac- ticable. The reply had reference to certain defects in the Act which required amendment, and also to the difficulty in regard to accommodation. The Institute was at this time housed in Green’s Exchange Buildings, but an endeavour was being made to secure more commodious premises. Owing to the difficulty of obtaining suitable rooms, the Board at length decided to apply to the Government for the erection of a building on public land. It was estimated that the cost would be approximately £4,000, and immense energy was displayed by all parties to induce Parliament to make this sum available for the purpose. Not the least active participant in these proceedings was the Philosophical Society. Among the papers preserved in the Archives is a draft memorial to the House of Assembly, in the handwriting of John Howard Clark, who was then Hon. Secretary. a WI \ 1 ———— SARE TI. Pew ae See Pow 627 Inter alia this memorial states :—‘‘Your memorialists are authorized to negotiate for the incorporation of the Adelaide Philosophical Society with the South Australian Institute. . It is impossible that such incorporation can be effected, until the S.A. Institute has at its disposal a per- manent and suitably designed building; affording ample accommodation for its various requirements. One of the principal objects of our Society is the formation of a Museum illustrative of the Natural History of the Province, and it is useless to take any steps in furtherance of this object until a suitable room is provided for preserving the specimens collected, although valuable specimens would then be imme- diately available, many of which in a few years’ time it would be impossible to replace.’’ Parliament found it impossible to resist the pressure brought to bear upon it and the sum was passed. The next matter that aroused great controversy was the site of the proposed building. Parliament had selected a site between the back of the present City Baths and the Cheer-up Hut. This evoked the most heated discussions in the news- papers, and resulted in many deputations and public meetings. The Philosophical Society threw the weight of its in- fluence into the scales on behalf of a more prominent and accessible position. In addition to much private wire-pulling, they embodied their views in another memorial to His Excel- lency Sir R. G. MacDonnell, at that time their President. Once more the well-known caligraphy of J. H. Clark can be recognized in the draft. “‘Your memoralists have learned with regret that it is proposed to erect a building, to be devoted to the objects of the Institute, in a locality which appears to them to be objectionable in many respects; inas- much as the site selected is so much lower than North Terrace, that not only will the building (which should ultimately become one of the chief ornaments of the city) be almost hidden from sight, but its situation will be neither convenient for public access, nor advantageous for meteorological observations, whilst the steep gradient of the City Bridge Road will neces- sarily render the approaches to the building unsafe for the large number of vehicles, which will hereafter be frequently gathered together at night, on the occasion of lectures or soirees connected with the Institute or its affiliated societies. Inasmuch as the Houses of Parliament are, and long will be, amply sufficient for the requirements of the colony, it is “needless to leave unoccupied the excellent site for an important public building, which could be made avail- able at the corner of North Terrace and the City Bridge Road, and which is at present said to be preserved for future new 628 Houses of Parliament. Your memoralists pray that Your Excellency will be pleased to direct, that the building for the S.A. Institute may be erected upon the site last men- tioned, or upon some other site better suited to the present requirements and ultimate importance of the Institute than that now in contemplation.” Once again the faith of the Society in memorials was justified. Parliament meekly bowed its head before the storm of public protest, and the proposed site was changed to that occupied by the Institute to-day. In this, as in all public matters which touched its objects or its principles, the Society was ever ready to fight for the common interests of itself and its friends. Impecunious as it was, 1t possessed in great measure the brains of the small community, an endowment of greater importance and influence than mere material wealth. It was instinctively alert to recognize the value of powerful friendships, such as that of the Governor of the colony, and, above all, it fully realized and appreciated the power of the Press. Under the Act, the subscribers to the Institute exercised the privileges of an incorporated Society, and at the first annual meeting in October, 1857, they rewarded the services of J. H. Clark by electing him as their representa- tive on the Board of Governors, an undoubted honour for so young a man. The Society’s tenacity of purpose was one of its most valuable assets. In its early infancy it had desired a Museum, a desire constantly foiled by almost insuperable difficulties and only realized when passing into middle age. But until realized its purpose was always in evidence. Persistent flagellation of the public interest, as well as that of the Governing Board, kept the matter alive, or at least in a state of suspended animation. In its first report, the-Board speaks hopefully of the early accomplishment of this object. ‘‘As regards a Museum, the prospects of the Institute are most satisfactory. Extensive collections of great and varied interest await only a room for their reception. The proprietors of mines in this colony have in all instances complied with the request of the Governors to be furnished with specimens characteristic of their various properties, so that at its opening the Museum will exhibit an epitome of the mineral riches of South Aus- tralia. To the Directors of the Burra Mine, the Governors — are indebted for a very extensive and interesting collection just lately come to hand. Many valuable presents are also — promised by private individuals. His Excellency Sir George © Gray writes from Cape Town, in reply to an application made 629 on behalf of the South Australian Institute, that he has directed many interesting specimens to be collected and for- warded hither, including a complete series of the copper ores of the colony over which His Excellency presides.’’ ‘‘The Governors believe, that when the Museum is estab- lished many other additions to its contents will be received from abroad, and that many of our own colonists, who are known to possess miniature museums, will be anxious to incorporate them in the public collection.’’ In their second report, October, 1858, they acknowledge receipt of the collection presented by Sir George Gray and also the purchase of ‘‘a very interesting and extensive col- lection of shells.”’ It will be seen from the tenor of these reports, that the institution at this time in the minds of the Governors was almost entirely a mineralogical collection, and very far removed from the Natural History Museum, which was an early objective of the Society. Nevertheless, it indicated a slight advance in the right direction. (c} Incorporation with the S.A. Institute. Es Incorporation -of the Philosophical Society with the S.A. | Institute was duly effected in October, 1859. The terms, | however, were less favourable than the Society had antici-. | pated. It was to receive certain clerical services from the Institute, but a room for its exclusive use was refused and | accommodation was guaranteed for monthly meetings only. For the privileges of incorporation, the Society was to con- tribute one-third of its gross annual income, but the minimum contribution was fixed at £15. In a letter to the Society, of which he was still Secretary, Mr. Clark carefully points out that “‘the sum required is not so much im the nature of an amount paid away for house rent and clerical services, as. a contribution towards a fund to be expended for the general benefit of all connected with the institution, and in the ex- penditure of which the Society will have a voice.’’ He illus- trated his meaning by the statement that the Governors had already sent to England for a valuable microscope and a pair of 36-in. globes, and that doubtless with accession of funds the stock of philosophical apparatus would be speedily _ increased. . It is to be feared that in the years that followed the Society too often lost sight of this statesmanlike view, when the hand of adversity pressed heavily upon it. : ‘ The Society was, of course, now entitled to elect a repre- _ sentative Governor, and its first choice fell upon B. H. Bab- _ bage, who was a foundation member and its President from 630 1855-6. Another of its most active members, Mr. Whitridge was also elected to the Board by the Society of Arts, so that with three of its prominent members on the Executive of the Institute, its interests would appear to be well protected. A delay arose in the erection of the building, and mean- while the Institute continued to occupy the premises in Green’s Exchange and the Philosophical Society those in White’s Commercial Rooms, King William Street. The new building was opened with great ceremony by His Honor Sir Charles Cooper on January 29, 1861. The room allotted to the Society was upstairs, immediately over the lhbrary, with a south-easterly aspect. Its floor has re- cently been removed to increase the shelving accommodation for books. ae The Museum consisted chiefly of a mineralogical col- lection, and occupied a long narrow room running across the upper story at the rear of the building. There it remained under the curatorship of F. G. Waterhouse, naturalist in McDouall Stuart’s Expedition, for a period of twenty years. During all these years, very little expansion was possible, owing to the lack of space, and it was not until it was removed to more commodious premises that any serious attempt to form a zoological collection could be entertained. Incorporation with the 8.A. Institute was certainly not followed by the signal advantages hoped for by the Philo- sophical Society. In many ways it proved a grievous dis- appointment. In the first place, the limited accommodation afforded to the long-desired Museum had to a great extent shorn that institution of its utility. In no sense could it be regarded as a collection representative of the natural history of the colony, and it was therefore of little value as an attractive and popular set-off to the technical aspect of the Society’s work. In this matter the Board was powerless to help, not that it was lacking in sympathy, but merely because the build- ing was altogether too small for the purposes_to which it had been dedicated . Then, again, the Society had hoped to derive some finan- cial advantage from the union. The Amending Act gave the Board power to advance moneys to incorporated societies ; and the Consolidated Act of 1863 also gave it discretionary power to make a grant to any Scciety so imcorporated. In addition to the annual subsidy made by the Govern- «ment to the central institute, sums of varying amount were also paid to it for allocation among affiliated country institutes. It was clearly the intention of the Legislature, that the Philosophical Society as an incorporated body should benefit : 631 under the Parliamentary vote, yet the Estimates were so worded that it was precluded from this privilege. It was not until many years later (1878) that this dis- ability was removed, and it was placed on an equality with country institutes, receiving, like the latter, an annual Government subsidy equal to the subscriptions for the current ear. j Thus for nearly twenty years it paid to the Institute out of its small income of about £50, a sum which it regarded as practically a rental, for the empty privilege of electing a Governor, who was powerless to promote its interests or adjust its grievances. It is suggestive of its poverty, that for several years after __ incorporation the publication of the brief annual reports sud- _ denly ceased. The balance-sheets show, that since its founda- tion the Society had been striving to establish a reserve fund, | which in 1858 stood at £77. This sum would have more than . sufficed for the continuation of the reports, but it is probable that in view of an uncertain future, it had been decided to temporarily discontinue them and depend for publicity upon the goodwill of the newspapers. Such strict economy may also _ have been prompted by a desire to assist in the furnishings , of the Museum, about which much difficulty had unexpectedly arisen; for it is on record that in 1861, the substantial sum of £50 was expended for this purpose. ' At this period of its history, the Society was extremely isolated from the scientific world, having no publications to exchange for the Proceedings of other bodies and having practically no funds wherewith to effect purchases. As early as 1863, the position had indeed become so acute that it clearly _ contemplated secession, and was only deterred by the fear of losing its property. In a letter to the Board dated June 15 of that year, the Council wrote requesting it to confer with their Special Committee as to the interpretation which should be placed upon certain clauses in the terms of incorporation. It may be here pointed out, that the Board had retained the right to place its own construction upon any debatable terms in this agreement. The letter proceeds: —‘‘The Com- mittee particularly desires to know the views of the Board, under the possible circumstances of entire removal of the Philosophical Society to other premises. Also upon the restraints which the terms of incorporation have upon the Society ; its rights to remove, sell, exchange, or otherwise dis- _ pose of its movable property, such as specimens and instru- ments. Also upon any independent power which the _ Governors may claim to exhibit, remove, lend, or use any of _ such property without previously obtaining the consent of the 632 Society. -Also seeing, that by the Act, the Governors have power to make bye-laws, whether such bye-laws would alter the interpretation now given, relative to the terms of incorporation.”’ | The letter was not wholly without guile. If they could remove their property to other premises, without fear of con- fiscation, then the path would be open for any future course of action they might desire to pursue. The reply from the Board, however, was guarded, and in the nature of a compromise which did not materially improve their position. It announced, that as a result of the conference, ‘‘the Board are willing to modify the articles of incorporation between the S.A. Institute and the Philosophical Society, so as to make them accord with the incorporation clauses of the schedule of Statutes and Rules.’’ This meant that property could only be removed with the consent of the Governors, and with this proviso, should vest in the S.A. Institute, only in the event of dissolution of the incorporated Society. The schedule of the Acts of 1855-6 had provided that property accumulated by incorporated societies should become vested in the Institute forthwith and without reservation. But this was a schedule which the Board had power to alter or amend, subject to the approval of the Legislature, and which had already been so amended in 1861. A new Consolidated Act, embodying the undertaking of the Board, duly received assent the following November. The room in which the Society held its meetings was | only at its disposal for twelve meetings a year, whereas the actual number of meetings exceeded this. It was inade- quately furnished, and it was therefore necessary to incur the expense of erecting a cupboard and shelving, of which the Society had to bear half the cost. The one bright spot in the landscape at this period was due to the unvarying kindness and sympathy received from the Press. Although the Society had no means of communi- cating its work to the scientific world, its members continued to read their papers, and the Press, out of the greatness of its charity, continued to publish them. After reading the reports of the 8.A. Institute, one is 5 forced to conclude that the difficulties which confronted the Philosophical Society after its incorporation were not the callous creation of the governing body of that institution. The very constitution of the Board precluded a charge of in- difference. Even the Secretary (Robert Kay) was a founda-— tion member of the Society and a man of strong personality. Pts ae vs 633 The fact was, there was no period in the history of the institution when it had money to burn. The Act was per- missive, and when the loudly-voiced demands of the subscribers and country institutes had been met, there were no funds left in which the Society might participate. Nevertheless, the Society continued to do good work; many of its papers were of high quality, and it continued to interest itself in economic matters of public utility. In 1862 it attempted to establish an Acclimatization Society. For this purpose it appointed a Committee to carry out this .object. Much information was collected and an important paper was prepared and read by Mr. G. W. Francis, an enthusiastic advocate of the movement. This paper was published by the Society, and duly circulated, but did not create sufficient public interest to warrant further steps in regard to the matter. About a year later, however, such a body was duly founded in Adelaide, the success on this occa- sion being undoubtedly due to the earlier efforts of the Philosophical Society. Another matter which claimed its serious attention in 1866 was that of the city drainage, a subject of great import- ance to Adelaide from the standpoint of the health and com- fort of its citizens. A series of resolutions were formulated and embodied in a memorial to the City Council, with the result that a Bill was introduced into the Legislature to enable the Corporation to initiate a modern system of sani- tation. In the same year, the question of railway gauge exercised the minds of its members and formed the subject of much interesting discussion. The result of this was the adoption of several resolutions, one of which was: ‘“That the saving in the construction of a 3 ft. 6 in. line over that of a 5 ft. 3 in., calculated for a similar amount of traffic, would be by no means proportionate to the difference of width of gauge, and that our branch lines should be constructed as lightly and as cheaply as possible with a 5 ft. 3 in. gauge and worked with horse-power, until the amount of traffic renders the use of a light locomotive at low speed more economical.” Towards the close of 1870, there had been held nearly 170 meetings at which upwards of 200 papers had been read. Many of these dealt with geographical exploration and branches of applied science relating to horticulture, metal- lurgy, and meteorology; others were important contributions to the geology and natural history of the Province. John Howard Clark became Hon. Treasurer in 1863, a ' position which was not without its penalties. In 1866, the - 634 financial statement shows a small balance of £1 16s. 10d. due to the Treasurer. The annual exhortations by the Hon. Secre- tary requesting the members to promptly meet their obligations do not appear to have met with a ready response, for the following year the subscriptions had still further fallen off, and the amount due to the Treasurer had increased to £30. The Council recognized two possible ways of adjusting this unsatisfactory state of its finances. The first was by curtailment of expenses, which could not be ‘done without diminishing the usefulness or impairing the attractiveness of the Society ; the other way was by a material increase in its membership. The second alternative was chosen as a solution of the difficulty, but it evidently failed, for in 1868 it was found necessary to realize upon the property. This was done by effecting a sale of some museum cases to the S.A. Institute for a sum of £40. As these same cases had cost them £50 a few years previously, the transaction could not be regarded as altogether a favourable one. It enabled the Society, however, to restore the Treasurer’s account to an equilibrium, leaving it with a small credit balance for the year. This balance was increased the following year, by a still further encroachment upon the property. This time it was a sale to the Institute of the valuable set of Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for a sum slightly in excess of the original cost. The proceeds of the sale were received in two annual instalments. The cost of printing the yearly report and transactions for the succeeding year was, however, greatly in excess of what had been pre-— viously paid, so that 1870 ended with a much more slender balance than had been anticipated. The colony had now failen upon troublous times, and these were reflected in the fortunes and finances of the Society. In its report for the two years ended September 30, 1872, the Council, while expressing its satisfaction at the growing interest in its proceedings by the public, as exhibited in their general attendance at its meetings, nevertheless directs atten- tion to the fact, so significant of the times through which it was passing, that out of 62 ordinary members, only 34 had paid their subscriptions for the current year. It is not therefore surprising, that a letter dated 8/2/71 should be found amongst the correspondence in the Archives, asking the §.A. Institute to reduce the contribution to £12 per annum. Two reasons are advanced in support of this request: (1) ‘“‘Because we can secure a comfortable room in the Town Hall for 10s. 6d. per meeting,’’ and (2) “‘because our expenditure is in excess of our income.” The request was granted. 635 The time had evidently arrived for drastic retrenchment, and no further reports of transactions were published for five years. (d) Establishment of the University and the Coming of the Grant. Although the prevailing depression in the colony in the early seventies had robbed the Society of that vigour which had characterized it in previous years, two all-important events were about to arouse it into unprecedented activity and usefulness. These were the establishment of the ey and the coming of the Government grant. The influence exerted by the University can hardly be over-estimated. It did not intrude itself gradually, but was almost cataclysmic in its suddenness. The Society began to radiate vitality. The scientific leader for which it had waited so long appeared in the person of Professor Ralph Tate, whose energy was tremendous. Popular lectures were delivered, public interest was aroused, resulting in a sudden accession of strength to its ranks and a welcome increase in its funds. Effort and knowledge now became organized, and the Society | was soon raised from a mere parochial body to an assured place in the scientific world. . The following year the publication of its Transactions was resumed and appeared in a form more in accordance with those issued elsewhere. Throughout this new phase of development there was, however, always present the lurking fear of adversity. At all costs some permanent source of income must be discovered, to assure them against any further breaches in the continuity of their publications. In 1879 the Council once more approached the Board with a view of securing some financial benefit under the Institutes Act. Acting on the advice of the Board, and with the promise of its assistance, an applica- tion was made to the Government, asking that the Society should receive the same measure of support as had hitherto been accorded to the country institutes. The application was favourably considered, and resulted in an annual subsidy on their subscriptions. The subsidy for the year in question amounted to £118, which, though it did not enrich them, at least defrayed the cost of their Transactions and left a few pounds over for emergencies. Since then the Society has never looked back. Its publica- "tions have been continuous for forty-five years, and are now _ to be found on the shelves of every important scientific library _ throughout the world. 636 (4) Tue Roya Socirry oF SourH AUSTRALIA. (a) How we became “‘ Royal.’’ At the close of the seventies it became apparent to the Society that its investigations would receive added weight and dignity if it could include in the title a warrant of Royal favour. In other words, it appeared that there was something in a name. The occasion was an unusual one, and it was not known to the Council what procedure should be adopted to solicit the patronage of its Sovereign. There were at that time in Australia three Societies that rejoiced in the title of ‘“Royal’’ ; one in New South Wales, one in Victoria, and in Tasmania one that Tae ee founded many years previously by Sir John Franklin. Walter Rutt, who was then, as now, Secre- tary of the nee accordingly wrote to the ‘Secretary of the latter body, quiring as to the steps which had been taken when they had solicited a similar privilege. Dr. Agnew replied, that it had been necessary to make a search through the records in the Colonial Secretary’s Office, and subsequently through His Excellency’s despatches, for the purpose of obtaining specific information on this subject. Even then his search had been unsuccessful, but he had learned from Mr. Hull, a corresponding member of the Philosophical Society, and in 1843 a confidential member on the staff of Sir Eardley Wilmot, that on the occasion in question a despatch was sent to the Secretary of State, conveying a request that Her Majesty would be graciously pleased to become a Patron of the Tasmanian Society. At the same time, the claims of the Society to this mark of favour were duly set forth. A favour- able reply had eventully been received from the Home Govern- ment, and it had since enjoyed the title of “‘Royal.’’ A subsequent letter from Dr. Agnew conveyed the information that the despatch from Lord Stanley, Secretary for the Colonies, had been found. It stated that Her Majesty had graciously consented to become the Patroness of the Tas- manian Society, and had acceded to the request that it should be permitted to use the title ‘‘Royal.’’ Acting on this precedent, the Council of the Adelaide Philosophical Society addressed the following request to Sir Wilham Jervois, then Governor of the colony :— ‘‘The Adelaide Philosophical Society, knowing that there is a wide and comparatively unexplored field for scientific research in this extensive Province of South Australia, is appealing to all who take an interest in such matters, to forward to the Society the results of their observations and investigations, in order that they may be collated and placed ee | | i | . ; 637 on record for the benefit of the scientific world. The Council feels that a more ready response would be made to this appeal, and that more attention would be given by men of science throughout the world, if Her Majesty would graciously extend to it her patronage. In this view members of the Society concur. “T am therefore instructed to request you to kindly take the necessary steps to lay before the Queen the prayer of this Society, that Her Majesty will graciously consent to become the Patron of the Society, under the title of ‘The Royal Society of South Australia,’ and thus place it upon an equality with the Royal Societies existing for similar purposes in other Australian colonies. “Tf Her Majesty should be pleased to accede to this request, you would perhaps, as representative of the Crown in this Province, not object to accept the position of Vice- Patron. “The Society has done a considerable amount of work, and is desirous of widely extending its operations in the future.”’ His Excellency, a punctilious observer of the formali- ties, in his reply submitted the following suggestions for con- sideration by the Society :— 1. That the Society’s application might conveniently take the form of a memorial to Her Majesty, and if on parchment, should be accompanied by a copy on folio paper. It should bear the signatures of the President and principal officers of the Society. 2. As to matter, it would probably be of advantage, if the memorial contained, after the opening statement, a con- cise sketch of the origin and progress of the Society, of its funds, numbers, times of meetings, circle of subjects hitherto embraced, and transactions generally. Something should be stated as to the results attained. 'The memorial should also be accompanied by four copies of all printed matter relating to the proceedings of and subjects treated by the Society. He pointed out that the application was in a measure on the same footing as that recently made by the University of Adelaide for a grant of Letters Patent, and, as in that | case, a clear statement of the nature and position of the Society is requisite to obtain the object in view. ' A memorial embodying the above suggestions having been _ submitted to His Excellency, he approved of its form, but _ deemed it advisable, as a preliminary step, that it should be i adopted at a full meeting of the Society. 638 The following memorial was at length forwarded by His Excellency :— ‘To the Queen’s Most Excellent Majesty. ‘‘May it please Your Majesty. ‘“‘We the undersigned, acting on behalf of and at the request of the Council and members of the Adelaide Philo- sophical Society, as expressed by a resolution passed at a meeting of the Society on the 4th day of May, 1880, humbly — lay before you our prayer, that Your Majesty will be graciously ° pleased to become the Patron of the Society under the title of ‘The Royal Society of South Australia.’ “The Adelaide Philosophical Society was founded in 1853, for the diffusion and advancement of the Arts and Sciences, by the meeting together of the members, for the reading and discussion of papers connected with the above subjects and by other approved means; and was, in 1863, incorporated with the South Australian Institute, under the provisions of the South Australian Institute Act of that year,@) which retained to such incorporated Societies their individuality and full independence of action. | “The Society has done much in the past to keep alive in a struggling and young community the im- portance of scientific research. The rapid extension of agriculture in districts which were until recently occupied only for pastoral purposes, the successful journeys of many exploring parties, the consequent advance of pastoral settle- ment in the interior and in the Northern Territory, the devel- opment of the country by railways and telegraphs, and con- sequent prosperity of the colony, have given increased opportunities and leisure for the collection of facts in the natural history of the Province, which has hitherto been a field almost unexplored by the scientific observer. The Society has, therefore, established correspondents throughout the Province, and the value of the results thus obtained and for- warded to the leading scientific societies of the world will be seen by an inspection of the two volumes of the New Series of the Society’s Transactions, copies of which are forwarded for Your Majesty’s information. The Old Series of Trans- actions, published only for distribution amongst the members, is now out of print. ‘‘The Society, numbering at present about 110 members, meets monthly, and its income this year will exceed £200. (2) The year of incorporation was 1859. (3) The Institute Act was passed in 1856, the Amending Act the same year. 639 “It will be seen that the objects sought, and the results obtained, by the Adelaide Philosophical Society are similar and equal to those sought and obtained by the Royal Societies of New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, and we feel that the Society will be largely assisted in its efforts to increase the value of these results, and that more attention will be paid by scientific men throughout the world, to the facts _ recorded year by year in its Transactions, if Your Majesty will be graciously pleased to accede to the request of your memorialists, who will, as in duty bound, ever pray, etc. ‘“‘Ravtpx Tare, President. ‘“‘WREDK. CHAPPLE, “‘Cuas. Topp, ‘“‘THomas D. Smeaton, Hon. Treasurer. ““WaLTER Rutt, Hon. Secretary.” Four months later a letter was received by the Governor, enclosing a copy of a despatch received from the Secretary ot State for the Colonies :— “South Australia. Downing Street, “No. 24. 3rd August, 1880. ‘“‘Sir—I duly received your despatch No. 31 of the 15th May last, and submitted to Her Majesty the Queen the memorial from the Adelaide Philosophical Society, praying that Her Majesty might be pleased to become the Patron of the Society, under the title of the Royal Society of South Australia. | “T have now the honour to request that you will inform _ the President of the Society, that Her Majesty has signified her gracious approval of the Society being styled the Royal Society of South Australia. ‘“‘T have the honour to be, etc., etc., ‘“KIMBERLEY.”’ \ Viee-Presidents. | The final letter in this correspondence is from the Private Secretary to the President of the Royal Society of South Australia, dated 20/1/81, informing him that His Excellency wishes that the future volumes of the Royal Society should be forwarded to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, _ through him, and requesting the President to transmit to _ him three copies of the volumes in question, as published. (b) New Buildings and a New Act. : Almost from the beginning it was recognized that the accommodation in the S.A. Institute was inadequate for the _ purposes of a Museum. This became more and more apparent i 640 as time went on, and the restrictions which the limitations of space placed upon the collection rendered it practically value- less for natural history purposes. Not only was accommoda- tion insufficient for Museum purposes, but pressing need for expansion was also felt by the library and other departments under control of the Board. Similar inconvenience was ex- perienced by the incorporated Societies, and the Philosophical Society, whose meetings were now open to the public, found their room uncomfortably crowded, when any subject of special interest was being discussed. It became almost painfully evident at the end of the sixties that a new building was an urgent necessity, and in 1871 Parliament, without dissentient voices, expressed its sympathy with the proposed enlargement. The Board recom- mended the erection of a new building to the east of the Institute, to consist of two wings, of which the western one was to be proceeded with first. Money was found by the Government for this purpose and the foundations were duly laid down in 1873. There seems, however, either to have been a lack of unanimity with regard to the proposed scheme, or else a desire on the part of the Government to delay public expenditure, for at this stage building operations ceased and a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the whole matter. The Commission favoured the idea of a Public Library and Museum to replace the Institute, and recommended that these should form two wings of a new building, to be erected to the east of the latter. No attempt was made to carry out this recommendation until 1876, when it was discovered that the foundations which had been laid three years pre- viously were unsound. New ones were laid, but these were again temporarily abandoned for two years, when it was found that they, too, had to be taken up and replaced. The founda- tion-stone of the present Public Library was ip lr, laid dain Gei/f.3 This time the erection of the new building proceeded rapidly and without further delay. The western wing (now the Public Library) was sufficiently advanced for occupation in 1882, and as the Institute rooms occupied by the Museum were required for the new School of Design, the collection” was withdrawn from public view, and placed in the crypt and two smaller rooms of the new wing in the early part of that ear. Here it was submitted to a critical examination by Dr. Haacke, the new Director. This gentleman on his arrival stated his views very frankly as to what he considered the S.A. Museum ought to be. ‘‘In the first instance,’’ he says, Foe = 641 “there should be in South Australia no institution rivalling the Museum under my care, as this would not tend to further the scientific and educational interests of the colony. In Ade- _ laide we enjoy the existence of a Botanic Garden, with a _ Museum of Economic Botany, and of a University with a - museum for lecture purposes; a Zoological Garden is now to be established, and we shall have a Technological Museum in course of time. There are also small museums connected with some of the country institutes, and the Royal Society is endeavouring to promote the intellectual and_ scientific advancement of the colony. In the interest, not only of the Museum, but of all the above institutions, I respectfully beg you to take the following suggestions in the spirit in which they are made. “T think it would be wise to exclude any technological and botanical collections from the present Museum, where, however, all objects of zoology, ethnology, mineralogy, and geology should be gathered, as long as it is not thought advis- able to have special museums for each of these branches of science. ‘“‘In the Zoological Gardens to be established, only living animals should be kept, and the museum in connection with _ the University should only contain such collections as will | be useful in lectures. Again, the country museums should be _ satisfied in having only good educational collections, while | all objects of scientific value should go to the central institu- tion, which, in connection with the Botanic Gardens, the | University, and the Royal Society, ought to represent science in South Australia.”’ | He then proceeds to outline the manner in which, in his 4 _ opinion, the collection should be displayed. . i} I think there are very few of these suggestions which would fail to meet with approval to-day. 1} Two years elapsed before the collection was considered _ to be sufficiently advanced for public exhibition. A portion _ of it was then displayed in the northern half of the present | Library, which remained its home for ten or eleven years. | In 1894, that portion of the building occupied by the Museum was urgently required for Library purposes, and | the collection was once more removed, this time to the present ' brick building which connects the two wings of the institution. Ri It is within the recollection of most of you, that at quite a recent date further room for expansion was urgently needed, and most of the eastern wing was appropriated for that pur- a. Then only were the early dreams of the Philosophical ‘Society almost realized, by the existence in this city of a Museum containing an excellent and representative collection 642 of the natural history resoures of the State, and among other things the finest Australian anthropological and ethnological collection in the world. Even now the buildings are overcrowded, and there are many important specimens which have to be stored until space can be found for their exhibition. There are also gaps in the collection, some of which at this late period in our history we cannot hope to fill, but there are likewise desiderata which we still hope to receive from the hands of some diligent and patriotic collector. At all times the most cordial relations have existed between our Society and the scientific staff of the Museum. They have, I believe, in every instance been amongst the most honoured and respected members on our roll. Since 1884, when the Museum first became an institution worthy of the name, a representative of the Council has always been Chair- man of its Committee, a position which Professor Howchin has honourably discharged for the past twenty years. One can have no hesitation in saying, that it is now fulfilling the high scientific functions for which it was established and towards this success it would not be immodest for the Royal Society to claim some degree of credit and responsibility. The passing of the Public Library Act of 1884 created a somewhat curious situation, which at first appeared to threaten the interests and stability of the Royal Society. This Act, which abolished the S.A. Institute and super- seded it by a Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery, renewed the privilege of the Society to elect a representative Governor cn the Board, but unfortunately it did not make provision for the incorporation or affiliation of societies. Without such provision the alarming fact became dis- closed, that the Government grant which the Society had now enjoyed for several years had quite suddenly lapsed, and the Society had therefore incurred liabilities during its financial year which there might be no means of meeting. It was a very anxious and perturbed Council that opened up a correspondence with the Board on this all-vital question in August of 1884. In reply to their inquiry as to how the position of the Society and the Government subsidy would be affected by the new Act, they were informed that the Act had. put an end to the S.A. Institute in the previous June, and, of course, at the same time to the incorporation with it of the Royal Society. Further, that the Estimates for the current year provided grants to country and suburban insti- tutes and also to affiliated societies; that as it might not be advisable to alter the wording of the line on the Estimates, the safest course for the Board to pursue would be for it to ¢ | a ee 7 | 643 pass a formal minute declaring the Royal Society to be a Society affiliated to the Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery. This, however, was a step which the Board could not take unless asked to do so by the Council. Of course, the latter body lost no time in eisee the | request, to which, however, they received the startling reply, that it had been discovered that the Act gave the Board no power to affiliate societies; it would, however, take the neces- sary steps to obtain such power. This led to the passing of a short Amending Act the following year, and affiliation between the two bodies was then duly effected. Another little matter, which resulted from the termina- tion of the union between the Society and the S.A. Institute, may be of interest as involving a principle. An early intimation was received from the Board, that after June 30, 1884, the Society would be relieved of any further payment for the use of its room, except for the cost of gas consumed at its meetings and those of its branches; further, that in future it would receive no assistance in clerical work from the Board’s officers. It was about this time, also, that owing to the rapid growth of the School of Design, it became necessary for the Society to vacate its old room in the Institute and occupy a more commodious room in the new wing of the Museum. They remained there until 1891, when the School of Design, having removed to the Exhibition Building, the Society, with the consent of the Board, returned again to its old quarters in the Institute. (c) Establishment of Sections. As early in its history as 1858, a Committee was _ appointed to consider the expediency of dividing the Society into sections, each of which should be specially charged with the supervision of certain subjects. No less than ten such sections were proposed, and it was probably owing to their multiplicity that the scheme fell through. In 1883 the idea was revived, though from a different point of view. It was thought that there existed a need for a section of a popular nature, which would also serve as a recruiting ground from which the Society might increase its membership. Thus was established the Field Naturalists’ Section. It was intended for studiously disposed persons, of either sex, who wished to undertake the study of natural _ history from an elementary standpoint. Professor Tate, from whom the proposal had emanated, _ delivered an interesting lecture 1 in the Town Hall, explaining ¥ i Be 2 644 the objects of the Section. No scientific qualification was demanded from intending members. The Field Naturalists’ Section certainly met a public want, and has had a vigorous existence for about forty years. Its success led to the establishment of other Sections, such, for instance, as the Microscopical, the Malacological, etc., none of which, however, have survived. (d) The Society’s Library. It does not appear necessary to treat in detail the later developments and activities of the Society, for they are permanently. embodied in its Transactions and are compara- tively modern history. As the years passed the number of foreign exchanges was ever on the increase, until the library began to assume formidable proportions. As the room was small, and the shelving ludicrously inadequate, it became necessary to stack many of the books on top of each other, so that they were quite inaccessible for consultation by the Fellows. Frequent references are to be found in the annual reports in regard to this matter. In 1890 it is stated: ‘‘The Council is far from satisfied with the present conditions under which the books of the library have to be kept. It had been hoped that by this time arrangements might have been made to have them so placed in some portion of the Public Library that members | could have access to them at any time during the day. It feels that the present unsatisfactory condition cannot be allowed to continue, but that every effort must be made to place at the disposal of the Fellows the library in a more efficient way.’’ The next annual report shows, that during the year increased shelving accommodation had been provided, and that the books had been arranged in easily accessible positions. This report adds, that in order to make the library still more comprehensive and complete, the Council had put itself into communication with a number of American and European scientific societies, whose publications had been solicited in exchange for our own. Some ten years later it is announced, that ‘donations from scientific bodies have so largely increased of late, that the possibility of making the vast amount of material avail- able becomes a very urgent quéstion.”’ Accordingly a card catalogue was prepared, and this brought to light many breaks and irregularities in the sets of serial literature. A Committee was now appointed to inquire into the whole question of the library and its arrange- ment. This Committee came to the conclusion that the only a — 645 solution of their difficulties was the transfer of their books to the Public Library, because the Society had neither accommodation for the books nor a librarian to look after them, At this juncture the Government was approached with a view to securing better accommodation for the Royal and other local societies. The result was that additions were made to the northern end of the Institute Building, and fine premises were erected capable of. comfortably accommodating all affiliated Societies together with their respective libraries and property. It was completed and suitably furnished in 1907, and the large western room on the ground floor, where we now hold our meetings, was allocated by the Board for the purposes of the Royal Society, a smaller room between this and the York Gate Library being apportioned for the common use of the two bodies. Under these greatly improved conditions, it was at last possible to introduce order, where chaos had formerly prevailed. As the Geographical Society occupied the adjacent room, it was at first thought that economy might be effected by the two Societies sharing the services of a single librarian, who should also act as their common Secretary. Unfortunately _ this scheme did not eventuate, and each Society subsequently appointed its own officer. The Society is under a debt of gratitude to Sir Joseph Verco for the great personal interest he has displayed in the reorganization of the library. Only those of us who remember the old order (or disorder ?) of things, can fully appreciate _ the nature of the change that has been effected during his Presidency. - In 1921, the following exchanges of publications were made with leaned societies in other countries :—United Kingdom, 27; Continental Europe, 66; Canada, 4; South Africa, 6; Sudan, 1; India and Ceylon, 6; United States, 50; Mexico, 2; Brazil, 1; Uruguay, 1; Peru, 1; Argentina, i; Japan, > China, 1); Piao 1; Straits Settlements, 1; Java, 2; Hawaiian Islands, ; Commonwealth of Australia and New Zealand, 54. oe 231. (e) Research and Endowment Fund. In 1903, the Society was incorporated, in order that it might acquire and hold property. The chief object of this was to enable it to establish an Endowment Fund, for the purpose of meeting special liabilities and also for the promotion of scientific research. Thanks to the generosity of Sir Joseph Vereo, the late _ Thomas Scarfe, and the late R. Barr Smith, each of whom donated the sum of £1,000, this fund has now been in opera- l _tion for some years. 646 5. ConcLusion. The total number of members on our roll is 102. Fully half of these have contributed papers which have been pub- lished in the Society’s Transactions, many of which must be regarded as very important additions to the literature of science. It is not my task, however, to particularize—it would, in fact, be invidious for me to do so. But there is one name, which I feel sure you would like me to mention— the honourable name of our senior Fellow, Walter Rutt, the connecting link between the old order and the new. Mr. Rutt was elected fifty-three years ago, when the Society was still in its callow youth, and during nearly the whole of that long period he has been a member of the Council, chiefly in the capacity of Hon. Secretary or Hon. Treasurer. He has also filled the office of Vice-President. He has accompanied the Society through all its vicissitudes of fortune, and is the authority to whom one naturally appeals for information on every important event in its history. Though he has contri- buted but few papers to its Transactions, yet in wealth of service he is probably its chief benefactor. APPENDIX I. List oF FounDATION MremMBERS ELECTED IN THE YEAR 1853. +Babbage, B. H. Hays, W. Bennett Babbage, Dugald Kay, Robert Bompas, Dr. J. C. Kingston, G. S. Brown, Dr. John Mann, Charles Clark, A. Sydney Martin, E. M. Clark, Francis Moore, Dr. R. W. *Clark, John Howard Moorhouse, Dr. Matthew +Davy, Dr. E. Mayo, Dr. George Davies, Dr. Chas. Nootnagel, H. Doswell, C. M. Quick, N. S. *Feinaigle, C. G. Shell, W,. Be Freeling, Capt. Arthur H. Stow, R. S. Garran, Dr. Andrew + Whitridge, W. W. R. Gilbert, W. B. - Williams, T. G. *Gosse, Dr. Wm. Wilson, C. A. Hamilton, Edward Wooldridge, Dr. H. Hamilton, G. E. Young, Sir H. E. Fox Hammond, Octavius *Young, John L. Hanson, R. D. “Attended the first preliminary meeting. tAttended the second preliminary meeting. 647 APPENDIX II. Officers of the Society. (a) *Past-PRESIDENTS. Sir H. E. Fox Young (2) Dr. H. T. Whittell (1) B. Herschel Babbage (1) Professor Horace Lamb (1) Sir R. G. MacDonnell (6) H. C. Mais (1) Sir Dominic Daly (7) Professor E. H. Rennie (6) Sir James Fergusson (5) Sir Edward Stirling (1) Sir Anthony Musgrave (4) Rev. Canon Blackburn (2) Sir William Jervois (1) Professor Walter Howchin (2) - Professor Ralph Tate (5) Dr. W. L. Cleland (3) _ Sir Samuel Way (2) Sir Joseph Verco (19) _ Sir Charles Todd (1) Dr. R. S. Rogers (1) (6) VicE-PRESIDENTS. _ Babbage, B. H. Moorhouse, Dr. M. we Freeling, Sir A. H. Gosse, Dr. Wm. i Davies, Dr. C. Light, W. H. | Farr, Rev. Canon G. H. Bruce, J. A. | Forster, Hon. Anthony Hanson, Sir R. D. | Todd, Sir Chas. Wilson, C. A. Maughan, Rev. Jas. Waterhouse, F. G. Schomburgh, Richd. M. Hanson, W. Hosking, James Smeaton, T. D. Ingleby, Rupert Bonney, Chas. _ Tate, Professor Ralph Chapple, Frederic _ Adamson, D. B. Whittell, Dr. H. T. Lamb, Professor Horace Stirling, Sir Edward Mais, H. C. Howchin, Professor Walter Mestayer, Richd. L. Dixon, Samuel Holtze, Maurice Rennie, Professor H. E. Blackburn, Rev. Canon T. Rutt, Walter Rogers, Dr. R. S. Pulleine, Dr. R. H. Verco, Sir Joseph Ashby, Edwin (c) REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNORS. Babbage, B. H., 1859-1860. Wyatt, Dr., 1860-1869. Todd, Sir Charles, 1869-1884. Whittell, Dr. H. T., 1884-1888. Tate, Prof. Ralph, 1888-1901. Howchin, Prof. Walter, 1901-1922. *The numbers enclosed in brackets indicate years of service. 02 648 (d) *Hon. SECRETARIES. J. H. Clark (9) Walter Rutt (15) T. D. Smeaton (1) Dr. W. L. Cleland (15) James Hosking (3) W. C. Grasby (1) J. S. Lloyd (5) W. B. Poole (2) C. W. Babbage (6) G. G. Mayo (10) W. C. M. Finniss (3) Dr. R. H. Pulleine (3) (e) *Hon. TREASURERS. Charles Mann. (1) J. 8. Lloyd (2) Dr. Andrew Garran (2) Walter Rutt (23) A. Sydney Clark (8) W. B. Poole (12) John Howard Clark (11) B. 8S. Roach (1) T. D. Smeaton (8) (f) Epirors. Professor Ralph, Tate (16) Professor Walter Howchin (29) *The numbers enclosed in brackets indicate years of service. Bibliography. Adelaide Philosophical Society. *Annual Reports published by the Society. 1854-58; 1865-73; 1858-9, in The Register, 27/7/59; 1860-1, in The Kegister,. 30/10/61; 1861-2, in MSS. Annual Reports (abstracts) included as appendices to the Annual Reports of S.A. Institute, 1863 to 1884. | *Correspondence with S.A. Institute (MSS. Ne *Exploring Exped. from Fowlers Bay into Interior, Correspondence relating to. *Incorporation with S.A. Institute, Papers relating to. *Laws of. Published January, 1854. *Minute-book (1853). *Papers read and deposited with the Society. 1853. *S.A. Acclimatization Society. Correspondence deena with Establishment of (MSS.). *Sections, Division into (MSS., etc.). 1859. *Title of ““Royal.’’ Correspondence relating to (MSS.). 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Royat Asratic Society, Bompay Br. Journ., v. 25, no. 3. | Z o 4 > TLL Maurieuia, anno. 29, fasc. 1-6. Catania. 1921. SocrETA DiI ScrENzZE NaTURALI ED EconomicHE. Giornale, v. 26, 28. Palermo. 1908-11. SocrETA IrTaLIaNa DI ScIENZE Naturaui. Atti, v. 60-61, f. 1. SocretaA Toscana DI ScIENZE Naturati. Mem., v. 26, 34. Processi verbali, v. 30. Pisa. 1921. Torino, R. Universita pi. Museum bull. 34-36. 659 JAPAN. Japan. Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee. Bull., ve tOe no: i) Pokyo: | 1922. : Seismological notes, no. 1-2. 1921-22. Kyoto Imperiat Univ. College of Science. Mem. 5, no. 5-6. Nationa ResEarcH Councit. Japanese journal of astronomy and geophysics, v. 1, no. 1. Tokyo. 1922. ; Japanese journal of geology, v. 1, no. 1. Proe., ue. 1. Tokyo... 1922. ToHnoku Imperial Univ. Science reports, Ist. s., v. 10, no. 3, ivy) ono..2; 2nd. s., y. 6, no. 1. Sendaz. Technology reports, v. 2, no. 2-4. 1921-22. TéHoKU MATHEMATICAL JOURNAL, v. 19-20; 21, no. 1-2. Toxyo ImprertaL Univ. College of Science. Journ., v. 41, gre) (-1b 42 art. 23°43). art. 7-8.; 1921. é; JAVA. NATUURKUNDIGE VEREENIGING IN NeEDERL.-INDIE. Tijds., Deel 81, pt. 2-3; 82, pt. 1-2. Weltevreden. NeEpDERL. Oost-InDIE Mynwezen. Jaarb., 1918, pt. 2. MEXICO. SocreDAD CIENTIFICA ‘‘ANTONIO ALZATE.” Mem., t. 35, no. 5-12; 39; 40, no. 1-6. Mexico. 1921-22. NEW ZEALAND. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE AND Museum. Report, 1921-22. CanTERBURY MusEeum. Records, v. 2, no. 2. Christchurch. New ZEALAND. Board of Science and Art. Bull., no. 2. N.Z. journal of science and technology, v. 4, ao, 9-07 5, to. 1-3. -Well. 1921-22. Dept. of Mines. Palaeontological bull., no. 9. Dominion Laboratory. Report, no. 54. Well. 1921. _Domimon Museum. Report, 1918-21. Well. Geological Survey. Annual report, no. 15-16. Ball, ue. 25.- Well.’ 1921. New ZeEaLanD InstituTe. Trans., v.53. Well. 1921. NORWAY. Bercens Museums. Aarsberetning, 1919-21. Aarbog, 1918-19, H. 2; 1919-20; 1921, H. 4-3. K. Norske VIDENSKABERS SELsKABS. Skr., 1918-20. STAVANGER Museum. Aarshefte, 1920-21. 660 PERU. ASOCIACION PERUANA PARA EL PROGRESO DE LA CIENCIA. Archivos, tom. 1, fase. 1. Lima. 192): CUERPO DE INGENIEROS DE Minas. Anales, t. 1-2. Bull. no. 55, 101-1038) Tania. 1807=2 10 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. BUREAU OF ScrENCE. Journ., v. 18, no. 6, to 20, no. 5. Mineral resources, 1919-20. Manila. 1922. SPAIN. InsTITUTO GENERAL Y TECNICO, VALENCIA. An., v. 7. REAL ACADEMIA DE CrENcTIAS y ARTES. Bull., os 4, no, D. Mem., v. 16, no. 6-11. Barcelona. 1920- 21. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. Royau Asiatic Society, Straits Br. Journ., no. 84-85. SWEDEN. ENTOMOLOGISKA FORENINGEN 1 StocKHoLM, Tidsk., arg. 42. GEOLOGISKA FORENINGEN I StockHoutm. Forh., Bd. 44, H. 1-4. Reeia Socretas ScrentiaRuM Upsauiensis. Nova acta, ser, 4,’ v.50) dase. 44 Uipsalas toate SWITZERLAND. Institut NaTionaL GENEvoiIs. Bull., t. 44. 1921.. NATURFORSCHENDE GESELLSCHAFT IN ZUrRicH. Viert., 1921. SoclETE DE PHYSIQUE ET D’ HisrorrE NATURELLE. Comte rendu des séances, v. 38, no. 2-3; 39, no. 1-2. Mém., v. 39, fasc. 6-7. Geneva. 1921. SociETE VAUDOISE DES SciENCES Nat. Bull. 201-3., UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. DurBan Museum. Annals, v. 3, pt. 2. 1921. GroLtocicaL Society ofr 8.A. Trans., 1921. Johannesb. Roya Society oF §.A. Trans., v. 10, pt. 1-2. Cape Town. S.A. ASSOUIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. Journ. of science, v. 18, no. 1-2. Cape Town. 1921. S.A. Muservum. Annals, v. 18, pt. 3-4. 1921. Report, 1921. Cape Town. UNITED STATES. } ACADEMY oF NaTuRAL Sciences, Puoitap. Ann. rep., 1920. Proc., ¥. 112, pt. a3 73, pt. 1-3. 1920. ACADEMY OF ‘ScrENcE, Sr. Louts. Tr., v. 22, no. 4°637am BO. tT wo? \ 661 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. Mem. 14, no. 3. Proc., v. 56, no. 1-4, 9-11; 57, no. 1-10. Bost. AMERICAN CHEMICAL Society. Journ., v. 40, no. 4-10; 43, no. 6-12; 44, no. 1-7. Easton, Pa. 1918-22. AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society. Review, v. 11, no. 4, to £2 no. 3; AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MiniInG ENGINEERS. Tr., v. 64-66. AmeERIcAN Microscopical Society. Tr., v. 40-41, no. 2. AMERICAN Museum oF Natura History. American Museum novitates, no. 1-42. N.Y. 1921-22. Anthropological papers, v. 16, pt. 6-7; 20, pt. 2; 23, pt. 4-5; 25, pt. 2; 26, pt. 2; 27. Bull., v. 42-44; 46, art. 1. N.Y. 1921-22. Guide leaflets, no. 51-54. 1921-22. Mem., n.s., v. 3, pt. 2-3. 1920-21. ‘Natural History,’’ v. 21, no. 3-6; 22, no. 2-3. frepory, 1920." N.Y. "1922: AMERICAN PuHILOSoPHICcAL Society. Proc., v. 60. ARNOLD ARBORETUM. Journ., v. 2, no. 4. Camb., Mass. Boston Society oF NaturaL History. Mem., v. 8, no. 3. Proc., v. 35, no. 4-6. Bost. 1917-20. BrRookLtyn INSTITUTE oF ARTS AND ScIENcES. Museum quarterly, v. 6, no. 4; 8; 9, no. 1-2. 1919-22. BuFFALo Society oF NatTuRAL ScIENcCES. Bull. 13, no. 2. CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Proc., v. 9, no. 14-15; ine. 10 cht no. V 1-17) San’ Fran. 1920-21. CALIFORNIA STATE Minine Bureau. Bull., no. 75, 82-83, 86, 88-90. Sacramento. 1920-21. Oil-fields summary, v. 5, no. 6-11; 6-7. Report, now8,17;)v. 18, no. 1-6. 1921-22. CaLiFoRNiaA UNivEeRsity. Mem., v. 5. Berkeley. 1921. Publications in agriculture, v. 4, no. 8. Archaeology and ethnology, v. 12, no. 2-7. Botany, v. 5, no. 9-11; 7, no. 1-4. 1916-17. Geology, v. 10, no. 2-10. Berkeley. 1916-17. Lomo: to, mowth: 13; no 13; 15) ne: 2-316; Hoo reo wh neta eO 19 no. 6:20, no. fs 2s ConnEcTIcuT ACADEMY OF ARTS AND ScIENCES. Trans., v. 15, pp. 93-408. New Haven. 1921-22. Connecticut Gro.ocicaL Survey.. Bull. 5-6. Hartford. CoRNELL University. Agricultural Experiment Station. Bull. 26-37, 50-61, 392-99, 403-7. Mem., 12-13, 19, 21, 24-25, 27, 34-52. Report, 1888-1913, 1919-20. Ithaca, N.Y. Denison ScientiFic Association. Bull., v. 17, art. 1-7; 18, art. 4-7; 19, art. 9-16. Granville, O. Fretp Museum. Zool. ser., v. 14, no. 1. Chic. II it 662 FRANKLIN INSTITUTE. Journ., v. 192-4, no. 2. Philad. Harvarp CoLtLtEGE. Museum. Ann. report, 1920-21. Bull., v. 65, no. 1-4. Camb., Mass. ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY. Biological monog., v. 6, no. 1-4. Agr. Expervment Station. Bull. 116, 178, 180, 186-7. Inp1aNA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. Proc., 1919-20. Indianap. Jouns Hopkins UNIvERsItTy. Cire., 1920, no. 2-5. Balt. Studies in historical and political science, v. 38-39. Kansas University. Bull., humanistic, v. 1-2. Science bull., v. 13, no. 1-9. Lawrence. 1920. _LELanp STANFORD UNIVERSITY. Univ. ser., no. 36-43. Minnesota UNIVERSITY. Current problems, no. 13. Agr. Experiment Station. Bull. 190-93, 195-97. Missouri Botanic GARDEN. Ann., v. 1-7; 8, no. 2-3. NationaL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Proc., v. 3, no. 3; 6, no. 2; 7, no. 3-10, 12: 8).me., 1-7. Wash: ot 9ijozae National Research Council. Bull., v. 2, pt. 3, no. 11. New York Pusiic Liprary. Bull. 25, no. 8, to 26, no. 7. New York State Museum. Report, 1916-18. New York Zoonocicar Society. Zoologica, v. 2, no. 12-13; 3, no. 1-13. ONY, “1921. Zoopathologica, v. 1, no. 6. 1921. Nortu Carouina. Geological Survey. Cire. 1-3. 1922. Economic papers, no. 51-52. Raleigh. 1921. OBERLIN CoLLEGE. Wilson bull., v. 28, no. 4. 1916. Oxni1o University. Bull., v. 25, no. 26; 26, no. S,1o: Ohio. journal of science, v. 22, no. 1-5. OxiaHoma. Geological Survey. Bull. 26-27. Norman. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Annual report, 1917-20. Bureau of American Ethnology. Bull. 72, 74. Report 35-36, 1913-15. Wash. STANFORD UNIVERSITY. Biol. ser., v. 1, no. 2-4. Math; ser.) vy. 1), no. 1.) 920. TENNESSEE. Geological Survey. Bull. 25-26. Nashv. Unitep States. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Rep., 1921 Results of observations, 1917-18. Special publications, various. Dept. of Agriculture. 10 bull. of dept., and 5 farmers’ bull. Wash. Entomological ser., no. 16, 17, 20. ——— ———_— Experiment station record, v. 44; 45, no. 1-6, 8-9; 46, no. 1-7. Wash. — Journ. of agricultural research, v. 13, no. 1; 19, no: 7, 12; 21, no.. 8-12; 22, no. 1-9: 19a | North American fauna, no. 45. —___ —____ Year-book, 1920. Wash. 1921. | | : ~ Pe Nem ee re 663 Unitep Sratres. (Geological Survey. Ann. rep., 42; also many bull., mineral resources, and water-supply papers. Geologie folios 211-213, and many sheets. Prof. papers 121, 123, 128, 129-1. — Library of Congress. Rep., 1920-21. Wash. —— National Museum. Ann. rep., 1921-22. Wash. ole 825 vey pb. 25° LOO we Ae pb. Ov. 74; — 112-119. —— ~ Contrib. from Nat. Herbarium, v. 20, pt. 10-12; 22, pt. 4-6; 24, pt, 1. Wash. 1921-22. Proc. Vv. 0l-oo.). Wash. “1921. WaGner FREE INSTITUTE OF ScIENCE. An., 1921-22. Mipans.. Voadeipes 2a etbalad. 1921. WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, St. Louis. Humanistic ser., Veet oxen ls C917-20. Selentine cer) v.39, pt... no, 2); 4, pt. 2. imo. ; Gop. 2,9; pt. [-2.. Sb. Louis, Mo.» 1916-21. URUGUAY. Museo Nactonau. An., s. 2, v. 1, pt. 4. Montevideo. 664 LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETc. AS EXISTING ON SEPTEMBER 30, 1922. Those marked with an asterisk have contributed papers pub- lished in the Society’s Transactions. Any change in address should be notified to the Secretary. Nore.—The publications of the Society will not be sent to those whose subscriptions are in arrears. ee : Honorary FELLOWS. 1910. *Brace, Sir W. H., K.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Pro- fessor of Physics, University College, London (Fellow 1886). 1893. *Cossmann, M., 110, Faubourg Poissonnieére, Paris. 1897. *Davip, Sir T. W. "EDGEWORTH, K.B.E. C.M.G., D.S.0O., Bell D.Se.. Res... F.G:S., Professor of ’ Geology, University of Sydney. 1905. Guitt, THomas, C.M.G., I1.8.0., Glen Osmond. 1905. ee CHas. is Assistant Curator, Australian Museum, ney 1892. Mebane ue oie I.S.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., Director Botanic Gardens, Sydney, New. South Wales. 1898. *Meryricr, E. aD , i F.Z.S., Tohrnhanger, Marl- borough, Wilts, eae: 1894. *Witson, J. T., M_D., Ch.M., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge University, England. 1912. *Trrrrr, J. G. O., F.L.S., Elizabeth Street, Norwood (Corresponding Member 1878, Fellow 1886). CoRRESPONDING MEMBERS. 1918. *Carter, H. J., B.A., Wahroonga, New South Wales. 1909. *JoHncocrk, C. F., “Clare. 1905. THomson, G. M., "ELS. Dunedin, New Zealand. 1908. *WooLNoueH, WALTER Guorae, D. Se., F.G.S. (Fellow 1902). FELLOWS. 1895. *Asupy, Epwin, F.L.S., M.B.O.U., Blackwood. 1917. Baruey, J. F., Director Botanic Garden, Adelaide. 1902. *Baxerr, W. H., ¥.L.S., King’s Park. 1921. Binxs, Menviiee, M.B., B.S., F.R.C.S., Hospital, Broken il 1902. *Buacxk, J. McConnett, 82, Brougham Place, North Adelaide. 1912. *Broveuton, A. C., Young Street, Parkside. 1911. Brown, Evear J., M.B., D.Ph., 3, North Terrace. 1883. *Brown, By. Vin 286, Ward Street, North Adelaide. 1916. * Bri, Lionet B., D.V.Sc. MS Laboratory, Adelaide Hospital. 1921. Burton, R. J., Fuller Street, Walkerville. 1922. Campsety, T. D. BaD pc Adelaide Hospital, 1907. *CHAPMAN, R. W., M.A. B.C.E., F.R.A.S., Professor of Engineering ‘and Mechanics, "Univ ersity of Adelaide. 1922. 1904. 1895. 1907. 1916. 1887. 1915. 1921. 1911. 1902. 1918. 1917. 1914. TOTS: 1904. 1880. 1910. 1922. 1904. LOUG. 1922. 1922. 1916. 1896. 1883. 1918. 1912. 1923. 1918. 1910. 1921. 1920. 1918. 1915. 1897: 1884. 1922. 1922. 1888. 665 CuartEs, Aubert G., 88, Spring Street, Queenstown. CHRISTIE, W., 49, Rundle Street, Adelaide. *CLELAND, J OHN B., M.D., Professor of Pathology, Univer- sity "of Adelaide. *Cooxe, W. T., D.Sc., Lecturer, University of Adelaide. DARLING, H. Git Franklin Street, Adelaide. *DIxon, SAMUEL, Bath Street, New Glenelg. Dopp, Aan P., Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane. Durron, G. H., B.Sc., F.G.S., University of Adelaide. Dutton, H. H., B.A. (Oxon.), ” Anlaby, *Epquist, A. G 2nd Avenue, Sefton Park. *EKuston, A. H., B.ES., Lefevre Terrace, North Adelaide. * KENNER, Cuas. A. E., cub) Sem ue Case: Education Depart- ment, area FERGuson, . W., M.B., Ch.M., Gordon Road, Roseville, cee GuastonsuRY, O., Adelaide Cement Co., Brookman Buildings. Gorpon, Davin, c/o D. & W. Murray, Gawler Place, ~ Adelaide. *GoypEeR, Groraz, A.M., F.C.S., Gawler Place, Adelaide. *GRANT, "KERR, M.Sc. be Professor of Physics, University of Adelaide. Grant? ROE. T., M-B:, BS., M.R.C.P., University of Adelaide. GrirFitH, H., Brighton. HACKETT, W. ise 35, Dequetteville Terrace, Kent Town. Hate, H. M., Molesworth Street, North Adelaide. “Ham, W ILETAM, F.R.E.S. University eae Adelaide. Hancock, : Lipson, A.M.I.C.E. euvis I1.M.M., M.Am.I.M.E., Kennedya, Wallaroo Mines. Hawker, HE. W., F.C.S., East Bungaree, Clare. *Howcuin, PROFESSOR WALTER, F.G.S., ‘Stonycroft,’’ Goodwood East. Isine, Ernest H., Loco. Department, Islington. Jack, RK. L., B.E., Assistant Government Geologist, ‘Adelaide. James, THomas, M.R.C.S., 9, Watson Avenue, Rose Park. JENNISON, Rev. J. OC., Crocodile Islands, Northern Territory. *Jounson, EH. A., M.D., M.R.C.S., 295, Pirie Street, Adelaide. *Jounston, Proressor T. Harvey, M.A., D.Sec., Univer- sity of Brisbane. JONES, > Weop) iy M.B.. i B.8:, . M.B.C.S.5) GR. CrP. D.Sc., Professor of Anatomy, University of Adelaide. Kimser, W. J., Gaza. *Laurif£, D. F., Agricultural Department, Victoria Square. *Lea, A. M., F.E.S., South Australian Museum, Adelaide. Lenpon, A. A., M.D. (Lond.), M.R.C.S., Lecturer in Obstetrics, ” University of Adelaide, and Hon. Physician, Children’s Hospital, North Adelaide. LENDON, ALAN’ H., North Terrace. Lenpon, Guy A., 'M.B., B. S., M.R.C.P., North Terrace. *LOWER, OswaLp B., ¥.Z.S.., F.E.S., Broken Hill, New South Wales. 666 Mapiean, C. T., B.A., B.Se., University of Adelaide. MarHews, G. M., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Foulis Court, Fair Oak, Hants, England. *Mawson, Sir Doveras, D.Sc., B.E., Professor of Geology, University of Adelaide. re Hersert, LL.B., Brookman Buildings, Grenfell treet. Mayo, Herren M,. M.B., B.S., 47, Melbourne Street, North Adelaide. McGitp, Joun Nett, Napier Terrace, King’s Park. MELROSE, ROBERT THOMSON, Mount Pleasant. *Morean, Aly MEME Ch, B:, 46, North Terrace, Adelaide, Movwu.LpEN, OwEN Vi. ‘M.B., B. S., Broken Hill. *“NOBES, Epiri D., B.Sc. - University of Adelaide. *OsBorRN, Ge oe D.Sc. ., Professor of Botany, University of Adelaide. Pootz, W. B., 6, Rose Street, Prospect. PopE, WILLIAM, Eagle Chambers, Pirie Street. *PULLEINE, R. H., M.B., 3, North Terrace, Adelaide. Ray, WIL1iamM, M. B.; B. Se., Victoria Square, Adelaide. *RENNIE, EDWARD H., M.A., D.Sc. (Lond.), V.C.S., Pro- fessor of Chemistry, University of Adelaide. Roacu, B. §., Education Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide. *RoBERTSON, Proressor T. B., University of Adelaide. *Rogers, R. S., M.A., M.D., Hutt Street, Adelaide. *Rorr, WALTER, C.E., College Park, Adelaide. SELWaAy, Weck. , Treasury, Adelaide. *SAMUEL, Guorrrey, B.Sc., University of Adelaide. Simpson, A. A., C.M.G., Lockwood Road, Burnside. Snow, FRANCIS (oles, National Mutual Buildings, King William Street. *“Sranutey, E. R., Government Geologist, Port Moresby, Papua. Sutton, J., Fullarton Road, Netherby. *TIEGS, Oscar Wi Mess University of Adelaide. *Torr, W. G., 1 Ve Das M.A., B.C.L., Brighton, South Aus- tralia. *TurneR, A. JEFFERIS, M.D., F.E.S., Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Queensland. *“Veroo, Str JosepH C., M.D. (Lond.), F.R.C.S., North Terrace, Adelaide. ; *Waite, Epear R., F.L.S., Director South Australian Museum. *Warp, Leonarp Keitn, B.A., B.E., Government Geologist, Adelaide. WerpensacH, W. W., A.S.A.S.M., Glencoola, Glen Osmond. Wuirsreap, Howarp, c/o A. M. Bickford & Sons, Currie Street, Adelaide. “Ware, Caprarn S. A., C.M.B.0.U., ‘““‘Wetunga,”’ Fulham, South Australia. *Witton, Proressor J. R., D.Sc., University of Adelaide. ASSOCIATE. Rozsinson, Mrs. H. R., ‘‘Las Conchas,’’ Largs Bay, South Australia. | 667 APPENDIX. FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE Boval Society of South Australia (Sneorporated). THIRTY-NINTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE For THE YEAR ENDED SEPTEMBER 26, 1922. The Committee has pleasure in recording a year of pro- gress and work well done, activities in many branches of science being well maintained. Last year’s membership was recorded as 132, and there have been 63 new members elected, and several resignations and deaths during the twelve months, so that our present membership totals 183. We have every reason to be gratified at this large increase, which it is hoped will continue. Excursions.—On the whole, the excursions have been well attended and interesting information has been given by the various leaders. The subjects have been as follows :— Forestry, Geology and Minerals, Zoology, Shore Life, Physiography, Shells, Botany, Nature Study, Pond Life, Dredging, Botanic Gardens. Lectures.—The Lectures have been of the usual high character, and we are much indebted to those who gave them. The’ subjects have been as follows:—Aquaria, Artesian Waters, Native Camps, Conchology, Mushrooms, Entomology, Ooldea, ‘‘Through Australia,’’ Crystals, Recently Introduced Weeds, and Plant Curiosities. The attendances have been generally good, and quite a large number of visitors have been present. During the year an innovation was introduced by which lectures dealing with the elementary phases of natural science were given. More lectures of this kind are needed, and the Committee intends giving attention to this for the next programme. Exuisits.-—_Numbers of specimens were brought to the meetings and were always interesting. It cannot be said that this item has been given too much prominence, and it is hoped that more members will avail themselves of the invi- tation to bring exhibits at every meeting. 668 Wixtp FLower SHow, 1921.—A very successful show was held on September 23 and 24, and the net proceeds amounted to £69. ‘““Toe Sourm AusTRALian Natura.ist.’’—Our paper has been published quarterly and has been the means of main- taining interest in our Section. VERNACULAR Pxrant Names.—The Sub-committee ap- pointed has net met during the year. It is understood that the Victorian Field,yNaturalists’ Club is publishing a new flora of that State, in which common names will be shown.. It may be possible to include popular names in the new Flora of South Australia now being prepared. FLOWER SHOWS IN OTHER StTaTES.—At our previous flower shows we have been fortunate in receiving big consign- ments from. other States, and we have reciprocated as far as possible. This year parcels of native flowers have been sent as follows:—(1) To Melbourne, Victorian F.N. Club’s Exhi- bition, June 20. (2) To Sydney, Naturalists’ Society of New South Wales Exhibition on September 7 and 8. (3) To Broken Hill, Barrier Field Naturalists’ Club Wild Flower Show on September 9. We intend sending wild flowers to the Queensland Naturalists’ Club, September 30, and Vic- torian Field Naturalists’ Club, October 3. It has also been — arranged to make an exhibit of wild flowers at the Sweet Pea Exhibition, in the Adelaide Town Hall, on September 23, and at the Horticultural and Floricultural Society’s Flower Show on October 27. Mrs. Page, of Myponga, has been a great help in this connection. NEWSPAPER Reports.—We are grateful to the daily papers for inserting our reports of excursions and lectures, and to. The Register, in particular, for its sympathetic atti- tude generally towards Nature subjects. OxzituaRy.—lIt is our sad duty to record the death of several members during the term as follows:—Mr. G. De Caux, a young man who was deeply interested in Nature, and who had made a special study of orchids, and was the first to discover in South Australia the Duck Orchid (Caleana major). He was studying for the ministry and gave pro- mise of exceptional ability. Mr. Jas. Aitken died recently at an advanced age, and was known to our Section for his wide knowledge of natural history. Mr. A. M. Drummond was a member for a number of years, and through his genial personality he was well liked. His interests in natural history were of a general character. Wma. Ham, Chairman. Ernest Isine, Hon. Secretary. eee 669 THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NATIVE FAUNA AND FLORA PROTECTION COMMITTEE For THE YEAR ENDED SEPTEMBER 20, 1922. Two meetings were held during the year. It is to be regretted that the proposed Trees and Road- sides Bill, referred to in last year’s report, was defeated in Parliament. The Minister of Industry was approached by the Chair- man in terms of Mr. Bristow’s request to have a Reserve for Kangaroos and Emus in the Flinders Range, but he was advised that the Ministry were not prepared to take notice of the application without its being consented to by the landholders affected. Mr. Bristow was accordingly advised to get up a petition by those concerned in order to obtain what he desired. - A report was ene to the Minister of Industry drawing attention to owls being kept in captivity by a dealer in this city. Action was taken, and we were advised later that the birds had been liberated by the dealer. The Minister was also informed that opossums were being shot near Urrbrae and Netherby. The police were instructed to investigate, but owing to the lapse of time they were unable to secure the offender. The Minister, therefore, requests that prompt intimation be given to his Department in any future breaches of the regulations of the Animal and Bird Pro- tection Act. Notification was sent that shooting at ducks appeared to be taking place on the Thorndon Park Reservoir. Action was taken by the Department to have that stopped, and the Water- works and Sewers Department, under whose control the Reservoir is placed, was notified. FLInDERS CuHase.—The situation with regard to this is progressing, and matters of improvement are now, it is under- stood, before the Board. On August 18 last the Chairman delivered a lecture at the Town Hall, at which a collection was taken up in aid of this Chase and resulted in a fair sum being handed over to the Board. Through business requirements, Mr. J. Neil McGilp relinquished the office of Hon. Secretary, and a very hearty vote of thanks was passed by the members of the Committee for his past services. J. Surron, Hon. Secretary. September 9, 1922. me Sees € 6 OOLF “LOLNSDILT SLOTS - | ye a 7 ‘uoH ‘x0ug ‘gq SIAVag PLVMIOF polaris vouvleg ‘‘ ; espoiq 04 sitedey ‘‘ z SLOTIVG 04 Aqingerg ‘ eae eee eee ony, Uleey9 jo OIL FT 73 eee eee see SYUOUIYSoT ory 79 SIOJOP JO OITA OF, oe eno Ranilolnap lala as (aie) rei re "s Loqipny | ‘NOSIUOW, “ff OWTV € 6 O01F “vO W ‘aay “Cd aLIvM ‘4001109 PunoJ puv peyIpny OF se" "sere Worstnoxg § = OLeoe a= sg qunoosdy [V1seuedy Wort punsory ‘ Gy 9 =: PIVMIOF JUSNOIG. souR[eg IIpatg te Tee 3 “JUNOIIP UOSLNILY “a8 = PAvAIOZ poti1ed sourlyg ee : von oO SUISIZIOAPY 66 ' AqeLloog vuneg_ pur viop_ sosuedxm “ ‘ prvog vuney pue vio,q 07 uoleuog “‘ T¢ Sya.00g Tetod oF pred SUOTJAIIOSgNY, S1equieyy ‘ syoog Aaeaqry “ Areuoryzerg ‘‘ seseysog ‘‘ Udepuey| Pues eel yO oar a <— SUunI “* quhodoV UOISINOXGY 07 punfoxy oO], “HUN LIGNAd Xa "PL ‘SOL OTF ‘Prvemaoy qyGnoIq soured Teh 22g SALE Pee) [Les GL G 0 OS 61 OG 6 69 IL 0 ca: e MW MODOOWOI qSso1oquy yueg ‘ ‘sovOyd jo aeg “‘ sUIZeSeT JO afeg “‘ sospeg jo ajeg ‘ icqaieoe [esoyy wor query ‘ SUOTIAIIOSGNG ,Stoquioy ‘ MOYS TOMOTY PIL UWory qyorg “‘ plvmioy JYSnNoOIq souvpeg yrpei9 Ag ‘SLdIaOaa “-quno00P 10.1949 ‘CG6L ‘Laquiaqjdagy papua wor X sof aingipuadxm pun sydrod0aa fo .uawez2n719 “ALHIOOS 'TVAOPY FHL TO NOWLOTS SUSTIVANLVN ayy 671 GE wn ks tT Nh xX. {Generic and specific names printed in italics indicate that the forms described are new to science. | Abraxas sporocrossa, 285 Acanthocephala in Australian Birds, 91, 108 Acanthochites, 579 Acanthochiton, 9; A. cornutus, 17; costatus, 10; coxi, 18; gabrieli, 10; jacundus, 578; mayi, 12; retro- jectus pustulosus, 15; shirleyi, 13; stewartiana, 579; sueurii, 578; violaceus, 578; v. papillo, 578; zelandicus, 579 Acarina of Australian Birds, 99, 115 Accipitriformes, Parasites of, 85, 89, 90, 92, 94, 97, 100, 101, 103 Acidaha, 205; A. despoliata, 265; hypochra, 265; synethes, 266; perialurga, 266; tenuipes, 266 Acrostalagmus cinnabarinus, 177 Adaluma, 557; A. urumelia, 537 Adamson, R. 8S, and T. G. B. Osborn, Ecology of Ooldea 539 Aeciduim oleariae, 172 Aelochroma, 281 Agathia ochrotypa, 277 Aizoaceae, 597 Allelidea brevipennis, 318 Amarantaceae, 596 Amphipoda, 34 Anisodes pulverulenta, 269 Annual Meeting, 615; Report, 650; Balance-sheets, 652 Anseriformes, Parasites of, 88, 89, 93, 97, 101 Anthicus strigosus, 298 Anthotroche truncata, 605 Anthozoa (Miocene), 138, 140 Antimimistis, 233; A: illaudata, 234 Arctocephalus forsteri, 193 Ardeiformes, Parasites of, 88, 93, 96, 100,- 101, 103 Arthropterus articularis, 310 Asclepiadaceae, 602 Ashby, E., Notes on Australian Polyplacophora, with Descriptions of Three New Species and Two New Varieties, 9; Types of Aus- tralian Polyplacophora described by de Blainville, Lamarck, de Rochebrune, and Others, 572 Asterina Baileyi, 175 Atriplex leptocarpum acuminatum, 568 Aureobasidium vitis album, 174 Australasian Polyplacophora, 572 Australian Coleoptera, 509 Australia, Orchidology of, 148 Babbagia acroptera deminuta, 568 Bacterium mori, 179 Balance-sheets, 652 Balcoracana Creek, Geology of, 74 Bassia decurrens, 567; limbata, 567; paradoxa latifolia, 567; ventricosa, 566 Berry, P. A., Investigation of Essen- tial Oil from Eucalyptus cneori- folia, 207 Birds, Examined for Entozoa, 109; in which Entozoa have not been detected, 109; Parasites of Aus- tralian, 85 Black, J. M., Additions to Flora of South Australia, 565 Blinman and Neighbourhood, Geol- ogy of, 53 Boarmia destinataria, 284; maculata, 284; panconita, 284; pissinopa, 284; zascia, 283 Borraginaceae, 602 Brachiopoda (Miocene), 138, 140 ‘Brown Coal at Moorlands, Deposits, 528 Bursada flavannulata, 286 HGS Caladenia carnea aurantiaca, 154; dilatata, 159; gladiolata, 159; pumila, 152 Calldchiton dentatus, 572; platessa fossa, 19 Calochilus paludosus, 156 Calotis multicaulis breviradiata, 604 Campanulaceae, 603 Caryophyllaceae, 597 Casbia rhodoptila, 288 Casuarinaceae, 595 Casuariiformes, Parasites of, 87, 95 Cats, Wild on St. Francis Island, 191 Celerena, 293; C. griseofusa, 294 Central Australia, Isopod from, 23 672 Cephalothecium roseum, 177 Cercospora apii, 177 Cestodes in Australian Birds, 87, 104 Chaetolopha, 243 Chalcid Wasp, 319 Chapman, F., and D. Mawson, The Tertiary Brown-coal Bearing Beds of Moorlands, 131 Charadriiformes, Parasites of, 88, 91, 93, 96, 99 Chenopodiaceae, 595 Chenopodium carinatum meluno- carpum, 506; - microphyllum desertorum, 566 Chiloglottis Gunnii, 159 Chilton, C., New Isopod from Central Australia belonging to the Phreatoicidae, 25; Amphipoda and Isopoda of Nuyt’s Archipelago and the Investigator Group, 34 Chiton, 575, 574, 575, 579, 581, 582 Chitonellus, 577 Chlamydopsis epipleuralis, 310 Chloroclystis eurylopha, 238; nigri- lineata, 239; phoenochyta, 237; poliophrica, 240; pyrsodonta, 238 Chlorocoma melocrossa, 274; nep- tunus, 274; rhodothrix, 273; sym- bleta, 273; tachypora, 274 Chrysochloroma, 276 Chrysocraspeda cruoraria, 268 Cintractia hypodytes, 174; ficus; 1 Cladosporium phyllophilum, 177 Cleland, J. B., Parasites of Aus- tralian Birds, 85. Exhibit: Puff- ball, 613 Cleora lacteata, 283 Clepsiphron, 286; C. calycopis, 287 Coccinellidae, 303 Coccyges, Parasites of, 94, 98, 101 Coleoptera, Australian, 309; Nuyt’s Archipelago, 295 Colletotrichium schizanthi, 177 Columbiformes, Parasites of, 87, 92, 95, 101 Compositae, 603 Coniothecium chromatosporum, 178; scabrum, 178 Coniothyrium acaciae, 176 Convolulaceae, 602 Cooper Creek, Cylindro-conical and Cornute Stones found at, 304 Coraciiformes, Parasites of, 89, 90, 92, 94, 98, 101 Cornute Stones from the Darling River and Cooper Creek, 304 Metamorphosis of, spini- of Corysanthes, 158 Crassulaceae, 597 Cretheis, 230; C. atrostrigata, 231; cymatodes, 231 Cruciferae, 597 Crustacea, Proterozoic or Lower Cam- brian, 6 Crypsiphona, 279; C. eremnopis, 279 Cryptoconchus, 576; C. monticularis, 579; stewartianus, 579 Cryptoplax laevis, 577; lamarcki, 576; larvaeformis, 576; montanoi, 576; striatus, 577; torresianus, 577 — Cucurbitaceae, 603 -Cupressinoxylon in Australian Ter- tiary, 535 Cylindro-conical Stones from the Darling River and Cooper Creek, 304 Cymatoplex halcyone, 272 Cymodoce longicaudata, 37 Cyneoterpna, 279 Cyperus exaltatus minor, 565 Dadoxylon in Australian Tertiary, 535 Darling River, Cylindro-conical and Cornute Stones found at, 304 Darluca filum, 176 Wasysternica, 256; D. erypsiphoena, 257; pericalles, 256 ° Dasyuris melanchlaena, 258 David, T. W. E., Occurrence of Remains of Small Crustacea in the Proterozoic or Lower Cambrian Rocks of Reynella, 6 Dendrobium dicuphum, 154 Dermestidae, 296 Deto marina, 35 Diastoma melanioides, 607 Diploctena pantoea, 254 Diplodia citricola, 176 Diptera of Australian Birds, 94, 113 Dirce, 290; D. aestodora, 291 Diurus aurea; 157; brevifolia, 148; longifolia, 157 Eccymatoge, 243; E. callizona, 243; morphna, 243 Echinodermata (Miocene), 138, 140 Ecological Notes on South Australian Plants, 583 Ecology of Ooldea, 539 Ectroma benefica, 295 Edquist, A. G., Exhibit: Loranthus, 614 Eleale aenea, 317; pulchra, 316; sim- plex, 318 nemiocinosneiiid _ Elston, A. H., Australian Coleoptera, 309 Entozoa, 116 Eois albicostata, 261; 264; chloristis, 263; delosticta, 264; elachista, 263; epicyrta, 263; ferrilinea, 261; miltophrica, 262; prionosticha, 263; scaura, 262 Eremophila pentaptera, 570 Eriachne ovata pedicellata, 565 __ Erysiphe cichoracearum, 175 _ Eucrostes, 272; E. iocentra, 272 Eucalyptus cneorifolia, 207 Eucela, 276; E. amalopa, 276 Kucyclodes, 277; E. dentata, 277 Euloxia argocnemis, 273; gratiosata, 272 Euphorbiaceae, 600 Kuphyia, 248; E. coniophylla, 253; oxyodonta, 251; panochra, 251; perialla, 249; poliophasma, 252; symmolpa, 250; tacera, 248; argophylla, costaria, 261; aprepta, 253; leptophrica, 250; trissocyma, 252 Field Naturalists’ Section, 667 Flinders Range, Geology of, 46 - Flora and Fauna of Nuyt’s Archi- pelago and the Investigator Group, _ No. 1, Amphipoda and Isopoda, 34; No. 2, Monodelphian’ Mammals, 181; No. 3, Sketch of the Ecology of Franklin Islands, ahh No.. 4, Coleoptera, 295 Flora of South Australia, Ackditions to, 565 Foraminifera (Miocene), 138 Frankeniaceae, 601 Franklin Island Rat, 181 Franklin Islands, Ecology of, 194 Fumago vagans, 178 Galliformes, 100 Gasteropoda (Miocene), 140 epimitra, 275; iseres, 275; pasta, 275; orthodesma, 276 Geometrites, 225 _Geraniaceae, 600 Gloeosporium ribis, 177 ~Gnamptoloma chlorozonaria, 268 Goodeniaceae, 603 _ Gramineae, 594’ Grindstone Range, Flinders Ranges, 74 Grubia setosa, 35 lychno- oad 673 symphona, 248; Ischnochiton campbelli, 574; Parasites of, 89, 91, 95, Gelasma, 274; G. centrophylla, 276;- Gruiformes, Parasites of, 93, 96 Gymnoplax adelaidensis, 582 Gymnoscelis acidna, 235; holocapna, 257; Kennti, 236; lophopus, 235; spodias, 235; subrufata, 235; tanaoptila, 235 Haematozoa, Australian Birds, 100 Haliplidae, 309 Halorhynchus caecus, 302 Harpographium corynelioides, 178 Helaeus castor, 298; modicus, 298 Helicella ventricosa, 609 Helicopage cinerea, 278 Hemichloreis theata, 279 Horisme, 244; H. mortuata, 244; plagiographa, 244 Howchin, W., Geological Traverse of Flinders Range from Parachilna Gorge to Lake Frome Plains, 46. Exhibits: Glaciated erratics from Central Australia, 612 Hyperomma lacertinum, 295 TER;) of idicchra, 2i0:. ¥ demissa, 271 Idiodes argillina, 289 Insect Metamorphosis, 319 Investigator Group, Flora and Fauna of, 34 celidota, 271; lineo- latus, 573; longicymba, 573; melanterus, 574; sulcatus, 574; tessellatus, 574 Ising, E. H., Ecological Notes on South Australian Plants, 583 Isoodon barrowensis, 39 Isopod from Central Australia, 23 Tsopoda, 35 Iulops, 272 Jack, R. L., Exhibit: Model of Iron Knob and Vicinity, 613 Janjukian (Miocene), Fossils from, 137 Johnson, E. A., Exhibit: Unio, 613 Jones, F. W., External Characters of Pouch Embryos of Marsupials, Isoodon barrowensis, 39; Pseudo- chirops dahlia, 119; Monodelphian Mammals of Nuyt’s Archipelago and the Investigator Group, 181. Exhibits: Bones of Thylacoleo and Thylacinus, 611; Myrmecobius, 613 Kalimnan (Lower Pliocene), Fossils from, 136 674 Kellermannia pruni, 176 Kimber, W. J., Exhibits: from Point Turton, 612 Kochia seleroptera, 568 Fossils Labiatae, 602 Larentia aganopis, 246; oribates, 246; petrodes, 245; xerodes, 245 Lariformes, Parasites of, 93, 96 Lea, A. M., Coleoptera of Nuyt’s Archipelago, 295. Exhibits: In- sects, 610, 611, 612, 613, 615; Owl pellets, 611 Lecanomerus flavocinctus, 295 Leguminosae, 598 Lemidia alternata, 318 Lepidopleurus, 574; L. fodiatus, 572 Lepidoptera, Australian, 225 Leporillus jonesi, 183 Leucothoe spinicarpa, 34 Library, Donations to, 654 Liliaceae, 595 Liolophura gaimardi, 581; 581; hirtosa, 579 Loboplax, 579 Loranthaceae, 595 Loricella angasi, 22 Lower Cambrian Rocks, 6 Lycaeninae, New Genus and Species, 537 Lycosa perinflata, 84; georgiana, skeeti, 83 Mallee, Narrow-leaf, 207 Mallophaga of Australian Birds, 95, 113 Malvaceae, 600 Mandalotus lutosus, 318 Marsiliaceae, 594 Marsupials, Pouch Embryos of, 39, 119 Mawson, D., Calcareous from Caves, 610 Mawson, D., and F. Chapman, Ter- tiary Brown-coal Bearing Beds of Moorlands, 131 Meadows Valley, Features of, 160 Meetings, Ordinary, 610; 615 Melitulias, 247; M. leuwcographa, 247 Members, List of, 664 Menuriformes, Parasites of, 92, 95, 98, 100 Mesembrioxylon in Australian Ter- tiary, 530 Metallochlora neomela, 277 Metoponorthus pruinosus, 37 Micrectyche nana, 298 deposits Physiographical Annual, Microdes, 240; M. oriochares, 240 Microfilariae in Australian Birds, 90 Minoa, 233 Miscellanea, 607 Mites of Australian Birds, 115 Mixocera, 272 Monodelphian Mammals, 181 Moorlands Brown Coal, 528 Moraea xerospatha monophylla, 566 Mount Chambers Creek, Geology of, 70 : Mount Lyail, Geology of, 70 Myoporaceae, 602 Myrtaceae, 601 asystata, 241; Nasonia, 319 Nematodes in Australian Birds, 89, 107 (New Zealand, Orchidology of, 148 ‘Nobes, E. D., Preliminary Note on Fossil Woods from some Aus- tralian Brown Coal Deposits, 528 ‘Noreia loxosticha, 293 Notoplax, 10 : ‘Nuyt’s Archipelago, Flora and Fauna of, 34, 181, 194, 295 Obituary, F. R. Zietz, 610 Obolella Limestone, 67 Oenochroma artia, 292; lissoscia, 292 Oidium, 175; O. oxalidis, 178 Onithochiton astrolabei, 582; lyelli, 582; neglectus, 582; undulatus, 582 Ooldea, sEcology of, 539 Orchidology of Australia and New Zealand, 148 Ordinary Meetings, 610 Osborn, 2 eGs 'B., Pathological ~ Morphology of Cintractia spinificis, 1; New Records of Fungi for ~ South Australia, together with a Description of a New Species of Puccinia, 166; Ecology of Franklin Islands, 194 b Osborn, T. G. B., and R. S. Adam- | son, Ecology of Ooldea, 539 Osborn, T. G. B., and G. Samuel, | Some New Records of Fungi cle South Australia; together with a Description of a New Species of Puccinia, 166 ty 2 _ Pamphlebia, 274; P. rubrolimbaria, 274 Papaveraceae, 597 ; Parachilna Gorge, Geology of, 47 ¢ Parasites of Australian Birds, 65, 104 by 9 @ i? Z| - Paridotea ungulata, 36 - Parodiella banksiae, 175 Passeriformes, Parasites of, 89, 90, = 92, 94, 95, 99, 100, 101, 103 Patawarta Hill, Geology of, 60 Pelecaniformes, Parasites of, 85, 89, 90, 94, 97 Pelecypoda (Lower Pliocene}, (Miocene), 138, 140 Pentarthrocis, 302; P. ammophilus, 503 136; Perixera flavirubra, 268; lapidaita, 268 Phiogistus agraphus, 312; Jleuco- cosmus, $14; punctatus, 315; rubriventris, 313; ungulatus, 314 | Phoma macrophoma, 176 _ Phréatoicidae, 23 . Phreatoicus latipes, 26 Phyllosticta brassicicola, 176 Phytolaccaceae, 597 Picrophyila, 287; P. hyleora, 288 _ Pingasa, 280; P. acutangula, 280; | atriscripta, 281; muscosaria, 280 | Pisces (Lower Pliocene), 136 (Mio- cene), 138, 140 Pisoraca simplex, 269 Pittosporaceae, 598 Plantaginaceae, 603 Plasmopora viticola, 178 Plaxiphora albida, 575; 515; costata, 575; glauca, varipilosa, 576 Podicepiformes, Parasites of, 87 Poecilasthena, 231; P. panapala, 232; sthenommata, 252; thalassias, 232; xylocyma, 232 Polygonaceae, 595 Polyplacophora, 9; Australasian, 572 Polypodiaceae, 594 Polyzoa (Miocene), 138, 140 Porcellio laevis, 37 Portulacaceae, 597 biramosa, Sia Pouch Embryos of Marsupials, 39, 115 Prasophyllum australe, 158; a. vis- cidum, 154; Brainei, 149; brevi- labre, 158; Frenchii Tadgellianum, 153; Suttonii, 157 ' Primulaceae, 601 _Procellariiformes, 89, 96 - Proteaceae, 595 ) Proteaceous Plants in Tertiary, Mur- _ vay Plains, 145 _ Proterozoic Rocks, 6 ‘Prototypa dryina, 268 Parasites of, 88, hi ie Pseudochirops dahli, 119 Pseudomonas juglandis, 179 iPsittaciformes, Parasites of, 88, 90, 97, 100, 101 Pterohelaeus nitidissimus, 298; ovalis, 298; simplicicollis, 298 Pterostylis cycnocephala, 158; hum- alis, 151; Mlitchelli, 158; pedo- glossa, 158; pyramidalis, 158; rufa, 158 Puccinia angustifoliae, 169; bromina, 168; calendulae, 170; erechtites, 171; flavescentis, 169; hibbertiae, 171; operculariae, 171; saccardoi, 169; semibarbatae, 169; vitta- diniae, 171 Pulleine, R. H., Two New Species of Lycosa from South Australia, 33; Cylindre-conical and Cornute Stones from Darling River and Cooper Creek, 304 Pyrenochaete rosella, 176 Rabbits on Flinders Island, 191 Ralliformes, Parasites of, 93, 96 Rats on Franklin Island, 181 Rhyssoplax canaliculatus, 579 Rogers, R. S., Contributions to Orchidology of Australia and New Zealand, 148; Presidential Address, 615 Rubiaceae, 603 ‘Samuel, G., and T. G. B. Osborn, Some New Records of Fungi for South Australia; together with a Description of a New Species of Puccinia, 166 Santalaceae, 595 Sapindaceae, 600 Saragus' brunnipes, 297; posidonius, 296 Sauris perophora, 230 Scarabaeidae, 296 Scheonus tesquorum, 565 Scheuchzeriaceae, 594 Scopodes sigillatus, 295 Scotocyma, 242; S. albinotata, 242; euryochra, 242; idioschema, 242 298 ; oleatus, ‘Seydmaenus franklinensis, 295 Sea Lions on Islands of South Aus- tralia, 192 Seals on Islands of South Australia, 192 Septoria depressa, 176; dianthi, 176; lepidii, 176; lycopersici, 177 Seynesia banksiae, 175 Siphonaptera of Australian Birds, 94, 113 Solanaceae, 602 _ Sphenisciformes, Parasites of, 94, 96 Spiranthes australis, 155 Stackhousiaceae, 600 Stenochiton longicymba, 573 Sterictopsis, 282 Sterigmatocystis nigra, 178 Sterrha ewclasta, 267; ooptera, 267 Stipa eremophila dodrantaria, 565; pubescens comosa, 505; setacea latiglumis, 565. Strigiformes, Parasites of, 89, 92, 94, 101, 103 Symmimetis muscosa, 234; 254 Synchytrium taraxaci, 179 ‘Sypharochiton maugeanus, 21; pellis- serpentis, 20, 579; sinclairi, 20 sylvatica, Tarsostenus univittatus, 315 Tarsotenodes leucogramma, 316 Teale, HE. 0... Physiography ot Meadows Valley, Mount Lofty Ranges, 160 Terpna, 281; T. hypochromaria, 282 ; unitaria, 281 Tertiary Brown-coal Bearing Beds of Moorlands, 1351 - Thelymitra grandiflora, 157; longi- folia, 157; ). Macmillan t56; megcalyptra, 156; urnalis, 157 Thymelaeaceae, 601 ~ Ticks of Australian Birds, 115 Tiegs, O. W., Arrangement of Stria- tions of Voluntary Muscle Fibres in Double Spirals, 222; On the Structure and Post-embryonic Development of a Chalcid Wasp, Nasonia, 319; On the Physiology and Interpretation of the Insect Metamorphosis, 319 Timareta crinita, 299; hamata, 300; incistpes, 301 Tindale, N. B., New Genus and Species of Australian Lycaeninae, 557 676 Yallourn Brown Coal Deposits, 532 Todima fulvicincta, 310 Turner, A. J., Australian Lona tera of the Group Geometrites, 225 Trematodes in Australian Birds, 92, 109 my Uldinia, 568; U. mercurialis, 569 Umbelliferae, 601 - | Urocystis hypoxidis, 174 = || Uromyces bulbinus, 167; danthoniae, — 166 q Uromycladium tepperianum, 168 Urticaceae, 595 Ustilago cynodontis, 173: tepperi, 173 | ™ || 3 Verco, J. C., Exhibits: Snails, oa 614 4 t Vermicularia angustispora, 177; ire cinans, 177; varians, 177 Waite, E. R., Exhibit: Model of Camarasaurus, 613 Ward, L. K., Exhibits: Lante Slides of Bucla Basin and Nullar- - bor Plain, 610 White, S. A., Exhibits: Botanieal specimens, 610, 611; Birds, 615 Wilkawillina Gorse! on a Geology of, 74 Wirrealpa and Geology of, 65 Nei ghbourhood, Woods, Fossil, 528 Xanthorrhoe epia, 255; metoporina, 4 255; sodaliata, 254 . Recome 289; X. metallica, 2905 rubra, 290 Xylodryas, 285; X. leptoxantha, 286 Zephyrne, 302 Zietz, F. R., Obituary of, 610 TFuzara venosa, 37 Zz eophyllaceae, 600 rans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XIV Ll, Plate I. Fig. 2. Pigs i. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. | Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Wok EVA. Plate Tf. ° 03 02 03 a4 05 08 OF 08 09 | — © Of 02 03 04 05 04 07 08 09 10 <———ONE MiLLIMETER— — ——> Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. anid Proc. Roy, Sec. S. Austr.,1922. Vol. XLVL, Plate IIL Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. I-SECTION ACR BY WALTER Hoy Snake Bend, TCROPS FROM THE MOU 16 ECTION FROM BLINMAN 4 ci H SKETCH-SECTION FROM ' er ae Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc, S. Austr., 1922. : : Vol. XLVI., Plate IV. GEOLOGICAL SKETCH-SECTION ACROSS THE FLINDERS RANGES BY WALTER HOWCHIN W. Outer Escarpment Archaeocyathinae Limestone Parachilna Plain Inner Escarpment The Dairy Horne’s Camp > Reservoir Hill , Parachilna Creek Snake Bend, “The Big Hill” (7-mile Hill) Fig. 1.—_GEOLOGICAL SKETCH-SECTION OF OUTCROPS FROM THE MOUTH OF THE PARACHILNA GORGE TO THE VICINITY OF BLINMAN, 2 ® = @ al | B. ee ae wag 8 S ws Ws 2 o2 y ; oS a 80 3 oO? s H so 3 2 3” B33 5 & Head of A Blinman 435 Paddy's Creek _ 0° i 1} 1 10 19 17 13 12 ROOUE ANG BEONe RAL “Fig. 2.-GEOLOGICAL SKETCH-SECTION FROM BLINMAN TO THE NORTHERN SIDE OF THE ERENGUNDA CREEK. Variously Coloured Shales o Quartzites and Sandstones OM of & © s E g Ss vy : x Grindstone Range, 2 aad ¥ , W . Purple Slates and Shales Oe Se Rd e Ss Archaeocyathinae The Little Bunkers 3 ys S Limestone o 2 x The Bunkers 1 Mile Igneous Basic Dykes ) 4 3 z Eastern Limestones of various Plains kinds Fig. 3 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH-SECTION FROM THE BUNKERS TO THE EASTERN PLAINS. a eo 4 7% i Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol: XLVL, Plate V. | Lycosa skeeti, n. sp. Nat. size. : | | | | Lycosa perinflata, n. sp. Nat. size. \ ; : ' Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. CREE E EELS EEA SES BS SE ee CRP EST eee Ree eew SS Owe HH oo ew SHOES CHO SO se & & S@eeeeeosaeewrewrs ee aoe o: ; ORO HOHPWHRH 6 6B & & keveetee ee e ‘ eo RST EH HPS eH ew © & eeeeoeeue * ae a eeee we Oe SO 6 6 & © © bad eCeR ER ERE He we ©) eee ars 66 6 & & & Wen eeue. we © Weeeern soe & WWE HE Oe & Serene @ & SOSH HR & © ere 6% & PRE BERS E & : ee Re eB % Awnwneo « | #6698 6 en eae e ene ae e Vol. XLVI, Plate VI. SVses eau se 8 SREREREE Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. eereeene Reese s & SRCHCCH aS SGC H SOO & Pseudochirops dahli, Col. te ne papeneerete® veeter eee etter ' Checeaesesener Seeeeeaeae ean eovezasesse: * * eo -_* s.and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. ‘“wladday obnj1u4ysQ °% ‘Sly “siurqyng sadiworgQ “T ‘Slit Vol XxEVil, Plate VIL Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide, ns. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. ome ape Sea ae ee Se - . Paani 7 vas " —- se Se eee | al ae 3 : : lly oe a . at eR tc J = « ‘ ‘ Pct tte ee = oe at — tenet aemee a a - ——— — SOC SS Oh OO gg a WW ans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol: EVI. Plate V EME. Fig. 1. Islet off Eastern Franklin, showing the granitic i platform with a small cap of consolidated sandstone at one end. Fig. 2. Area on south coast of Eastern Franklin, showing sand drifting away from and exposing travertine pavement. The blown sand is held by Nitraria Schoeberi. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. bseand Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol XE. Platetx. ) Fig. J. ‘Travertine knoll rising a few feet above general ) E level of roof. Fig. 2. General view on roof looking west from the knoll seen in previous figure. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. rans. and Proc Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Viol NEV LL Plate X. = = hi Fig. 1. Cliff vegetation on north coast Eastern Franklin. Fig. 2. Cove on south coast Western Franklin. Gillingham. Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers. Adelaide. mans.and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XEN bPlate XI. Fig. 1. Rhagodia crassifolia shrubland on roof of Western Franklin. Fig. 2. Recent blow-out exposing travertine pavement in foreground. The vegetation beyond is of the unstable type on sand. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide rans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Viol XE Wil. Plate Ser. eee. e Striations of Voluntary Muscle Fibres in double spirals. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. - ¥ z . ‘ ‘ . ° ; ’ 9 ‘ / ) : 4 i : ' ‘ & * = hee \ ; ‘ ’ fe Jie oA \ ' . , 9 é ; . ’ 1 rans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVL., Plate XIII. E.H.Zeck Del. Se es ij Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. mans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S Austr., 1922. Voix aa. Plte atv. Fig. 1. Upper third of cylindro- conical, made of kopi, showing ‘‘praeputial rings’’ of Etheridge. Nat. size. Fig. 2.. Phallus or preapus, from Schliemann, Ihos, p. 452, No. 682, for comparison with fig. 1. Kio” <3. /- Portion of - cylindro- conical of slate, showing ‘‘tally marks.”’ Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. “Wrans. 5 I) vi | mb we - and Viol owl Vil Blate XOV- a | [7m ih a. 7 WW, | KG 2S Mul) (ras, Dis 0 hi PA areas IL 7eBrV Set! ° N Ag TT V Y ai TOES aD es a iN \ws 3 wy ws sme Fy ) c7 Ll YY S Ny My SS / “Ui Ul | AN \ | WANS Sy \ Ss |. Aa lo. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. | re i y. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Trans. and Proc. Ro Vol. XLVI, Plate XV. Y, WE OU, Wey CP i 4 va a - ah) i Sr Ee HRT Gillingham, Swann & Cp. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Se ————— Vols XLVL.oPinte x VI |= 11 & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. | ans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922, | — Vol. XLVI, Plate XVI. a0.2 oe ab te mt.tx Tin Gee SS oN ee o ee! aap ~ kt. 8. ‘ Gillingham, Swiny & Co. Ltd., Printers, Ratinities E e a — Vol OV Pilate) Lr ‘Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. § Ni , ASS; (LES Tf 4, 7) lingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVI., Plate XVI. TS LLL LL AL? i Ng A | N | N: N ‘ Ny Ny H. a x S Ny N | N N N Hie Z 2 2 Z g NE Z Z g 2 g Z Z Z Z Z Zg Z Z Z Zg Z Z Z Z 777 2 g Z Z 3 Z Z g Z Z Z Z Z Z A Z NOE MMMM MN CLT LLL Tap Dt LLL TLL Lidillilldditarenupapipnnimaoneani at W LO TILILAL \ a B ES il Cy pp ——“Z SSS 22 SS Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. aa : . ~ “s ‘ j ' b bf Fe ‘. 6 " 1 » * A . ‘i - . 3 1 7) é | ; ” ‘< ' U rg ‘ A \ 1 : ‘ s ° ‘ . : . ‘ Fa i j ‘ i " } . ‘ 4 5 { j 7 h Pr i) » Pat oY ae i « aS = a eee ' i) eR ; ee eee ’ R ie ony ye rl F ¥ as eg arn - au with 3 , Trans. and Proc Roy. S Vol Xr Vi. Plate X Witt. ‘Trans. an : «fam, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVJ., Plate XVIII. VITIZZ | ( Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide ri 5 Printers, Adclaide. bd bH va = ass Py ‘al, > H (a9) u tH ee ; rears and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVI, Plate XIX. . ; Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adclaide. - Sata . a ~ — : — — —— e — Plate XX. id Vol. XLVI & 1 a — < wn mH fF] a i= uy cH ro) = —) x) o 3 t= I > 7) os i 0 (=) id) Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. § Trans. and Prov. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVI, Plate XX. Jillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide, = rans. (ol. XEVL: Plate X XI. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVI, Plate XXI. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. ee ON eee — Vel. XLV1. Plate X XIE _~ @rans. and.Proc. Ro 8. ANOS mh Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVI., Plate XXII. SS. : - = ae aes a — See __(iillincham. Swann & Co [td Printers_Adelaida L, Phte XX EL. Vol. XLV Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. $ OAKLEY TSE fame RUE SY Oe CSS SRY ey ¢ Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVI., Plate XXIII. aan mh RANA 2 ee ean C=) One GB Gillingham, Swann & Co. Lid.. Printers. Adelaide. — Vole Gi Te rlate STV. seams cana C2) AE S iP) Ko) << m i > —— = uy = rs) ~~ eI i) oO eo) tm Ss Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. ; Vol. XLVI., Plate XXIV. Gillingham, Swano & Co. Lid., Printers, Adelaide. rans. and Proc. Roy. So ham = to ae. ra eae ' = ae Viol SV Plate Ox ve ye 4 — Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVL., Plate XXV. a ” a ~ SOS x See SSL y ZS RD eee = LS J al ee... -_—", t Gillingham, Swann & Co. Lid. Printers. Adelaide | TranVol. XLVL, Plate XXVI. So a beeen & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVL., Plate XXVI. 02 Gorm A BiQe POS 3 LP Oe wis & eo ®. maeaiacas Mi W7) CG ry i} Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide- Vol. XLVL., Plate XXVII | i Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc} Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVL, Plate XXVII. _QGillincham Swann & MoT tA _Daintana. Atta — — Trans. and Proc. Ro Wolk Xu T., Plate sox V Lie ingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVI, Plate XXVIII. Gill ngham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide ‘-. —_ —— at, i a noe — ~" ant Se ee en ————F SO ee re na a ca = c~< c ~ ile ‘er od — aa ae ee < S Se —— SS eS = ms ih i ee Vol XW Plite xX 1x. | | in & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Trans. and | / I Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVI., Plate XXIX, <) SB Ww ef GO Sscac 218 Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Vol XLV EL, Plate xx. & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Swann Gillingham, Pee TOTTI i. ‘ sen tS f Hiern aS re Ope Wine A ate WY cr" Trans. and Proc. Roy. So %, K / L s ‘ r i y ii j ’ =o : babs hs x ore WG | ne a res, , Lid on o - . ra m oi f “4% daa fila. id oJ @ re p ’ ee 5 ra Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVL., Plate XXX. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Vol. XLVA, Pinte XxX hand Eroc. Koy. Soc. S. Adstr., 19 yrans et sp “3 = ie) el) n 1d, umel T Adaluma u tm Viol wi lara ex Xe Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. 5S. Austr., 1922. anu & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. D & x eo i) pa eee nn, Vel. XL Vil Plater re: vin & Co. Lid., Printers, Adelaide yt gham, Sw rillin ( -Seci S, Austr, 1922. 7 rans. and Proc. Roy Metans. and Proc. Roy: Soc.’S. Austr., 1922. Voll See i Plate: XOX TV. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Vol. XLVI; Plate XX XV. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. laide. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printer. Roy. Soe. S, Austr. 1922, Vols XLVI, Plate XXX VE_ . are ierans. and Proc. Gillingham. Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVL., Plate XX XVII. < if = = Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. ee Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol EV 1. Plate SOX VIE } Anthotroche truncala, n. Sp. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Priaters, Adelaide. : Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. VolD XV Blate XXXIX. Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Volo XV be Plate XE: Rigs 2: Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Viol SEV Plate Sia llingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. Gi ‘rans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1922. Vol. XLVI., Plate X LIT. Pal a * St Ce a . a .* P c Ck x er oe . . at oy ‘ “ x a . fa “Vs 7 ibe Gillingham, Swann & Co. Ltd., Printers, Adelaide. onic er ene ey ree citrate — a a i ee ——— EE ae aa a ——— a —~ Cae hd ee — ——— a ae Saree 5 ed CONTENTS. Ossorn, Pror. T. G. B.: A Note on the Pathological | a _ Morphology of Cintractia spinificis (Ludw.). Plate 1. 1 man Davin, Pror. Sir T. Engeworts: Occurrence of Remains of a Small Crustacea in the Proterozoic(?) or Lower Cam- a brian(?) Rocks of Reynella, near Adelaide. Plate il, ... ~~ “gf AsHBy, Epwin: Notes on Australian Polyplacophora, with Descriptions of New Species. Plate il. ... spp 4" Cuitton, Pror. CHaRLES: A New Isopod from Central Aus- tralia belonging to the Phreatoicidae _... nino i) Me Cuinton, Pror. Cuarues: The Flora and Fauna of Nuyt’s Archipelago and the Investigator Group, No. 1—The Amphipoda and Isopoda iy ANS. 4 SVN A fs Jonzs, Pror. K. Woop: The Kxternal Characters of Pouch Embryos of Marsupials, No. 3—Isoodon burrowensis Howcuin, Pror. Waiter: A_ Geological Traverse of the — Flinders Range from the Parachiina Gorge to the Lake Frome Plains. Plate iv. ... oe a oie ee Putueine, Dr. R. H.: Two New Species of Lycosa from South © Australia. Plate v. ... Pea Meee ik © Peek We CLELAND, Pror. J. Burton: The Parasites of Australian Birds’ JongEs, Pror. F. Woop: ixternal Characters of Pouch Embryos Hees of Marsupials, No. 4—Pseudochirops dahli, Plate vi. W9 Mawson, Pror. Sir Dovetas: The Tertiary Brown-coal ie Bearing Beds of Moorlands ... a soe ne oe Rogers, Dr. R. S.: Contributions to the Orchidology of Australia and New Zealand ... ed Be: sc Sots Coe Treats, Dr. KE. O.: The Physiography of the Meadows Valley 160 — Osporn, Pror. T. G. B., and Grorrrey SamMuEu: New Records of Fungi for South Australia, Part II., with a Descrip- a2 eB eke eae ; Sek tion of a New Species of Puccinia. Plate vii. ... fie Jones, Pror. F. Woop: The Flora and Fauna of Nuyt’s © Archipelago and the Investigator Group, No. 2—The Monodelphian Mammals Hiss EAS Bis igi ae eee Ossorn, Pror. T. G. B.: Flora and Fauna of Nuyts © Archipelago, No. 3—A Sketch of the Ecology of Franklin © Islands. Plates viii. to xi. ... sa a Bp, wns GES Berry, Puuir A.: An Investigation of the Essential Oil (> from Eucalyptus cneorifolia, DC... Bote ~Tizes, O. W.: On the Arrangement of the Striations of ~~ — Voluntary Muscle Fibres in Double Spirals. Plate xii. 222 Turner, Dr. A. JEFrreris: Australian. Lepidoptera of the — Group Geometrites ay am Hy “fas a ps Lea, A. M:: The Flora and Fauna of Nuyt’s Archipelago and the Investigator Group, No. 4—Coleoptera. Plate xiii, 295. PULLEINE, Dr. Ropert: Cylindro-conical and Cornute Stones from the Darling River and Cooper Creek. Plate xiv. 304 Euston, Aupert H.: Australian ’Coleoptera, Part III. ... 309” | Tizas, O. W.: Researches on the Insect Metamorphosis. Plates xiv. to xxix. . 319 Nozes, E. Dorotuy: A Preliminary Note on the Fossil Woods from some Australian Brown Coal Deposits ... 528 TinpaLtE, Norman B.: On a New Genus and Species of Aus- tralian Lycaeninae. Plate xxxi. ... Hi the we. OBE Apamson, R. S., and Pror. T. G. B. Ossorn: On the Ecology of the Ooldea District. Plates xxxii. to xxxvi. ... oh Biack. J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 20. Plate xxxviil. Wd wee ah ap ... 665 Asusy, Epwin: Types of Australasian Polyplacophora now in the Museum d’ Histoire, Naturelle, in Paris eat vei Istne, E. H.: Ecological Notes on South Australian Plants, Part I. Plates xxxviii. to xlii. ... ee ae «+: OBO MIscELLANEA, 607; ApsTRACT oF Procespines, 610; Presi- DENTIAL AppRESs, 615; ANNUAL Report, 650; BALANOE- ° : SHEETS, 652; Donations To Liprary, 654; List or MeMperRs 664 — AprENDIcES—Field Naturalists’ Section: Annual Report, etc. 667 Thirty-third Annual Report of the Native Fauna and : lora Protection Committee ... iy mh 4 Jit (tg AN nb ee 3 9088 01308 6194