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ss,

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TRANSACTIONS ;

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AND

PROCEEDINGS re

OF THE

Aopal Sonety of Victoria.

VOL, XT.

Edited under the Authority of the Council of the Society.

THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE
OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.

MELBOURNE:
STILLWELL & KNIGHT, PRINTERS, 78 COLLINS STREET EAST.
Issued August 1874.

AGENTS TO THE SOCIETY.
WILLIAMS AND NorGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON.

To whom communications for transmission to the Royal Society of Victoria
from all parts of Hurope should be sent.

Jad ee ree Ot aie

THe Volume now presented to the members of
the Royal Society of Victoria constitutes No. XI.
of the Society's Transactions. It is intended to
meet the demand for the more speedy publication
of papers by printing them in future immediately
after delivery, for circulation among the members

at the following meeting.

CONTENTS GOR VOL: XT.

PRESIDENT’s AppREss, 1873

WARNE

On the Prevention of Street Floods in the City of
Melbourne, by A. K. Surru, C.E. ..

Electric Potential, by Proressor WILSON
Palladium, by GrorcE Foorp, Esa.

Suggestions for the Construction and Erection of
Lightning Conductors, by R. L. J. Hupery, Esa.

Contaminated Water Supply, by S. W. Gippons
Eckhold’s Omnimeter, by R. L. J. HutERy

On the Occurrence of a species of Retepora (allied to
R. phenicea, Busk), in the tertiary beds of Schnap-

per Point, Hobson’s Bay, by R. Erueripes, Jun., |

F.G.S.

E. K. Horne’s Method of finding Greenwich Time
and the Longitude, by K. J. Wu1tTE

Embankment above Prince’s Bridge, by A. K. Smiru,
C.H.

On the Advantages of Burning the Dead, by Jamzs
Epwarp Neinp, M.D.

PrRocEEDINGS, &¢., 1873

' Taws

MEMBERS ..

PAGE
xi—-xxiv
1—8

8

8

9—15
13

13
G14
14

Lo 17
tg 37
31—41
42-51
52 55>

'y Lae '

Roval Society of Victoria.

L&sio-

@atron.
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GEORGE BOWEN, G.C.M.G.

qoresident.

R. L. J. ELLERY, Esa.

Vice- Presidents.
A. K. SMITH, Eso., C.E. PROFESSOR W. P. WILSON.

Creasurer.
ROBERT WILLAN, Eso.

Hon. Secretary.
H. K. RUSDEN.

Hibrarian.
DR. NEILD.
Council.

DR. E. BARKER. JOHN MARSHALL, Esq., M,A.
JOSEPH BOSISTO, Eso. 3. W. M‘GOWAN, Esa.
J. FLANNAGAN, Esq. FREDERICK POOLMAN, Ese.
GEO. FOORD, Ese. J. T. RUDALL, Eso., F.R.C.S.
EDWARD HOWITT, Ese. G. H. F. ULRICH, Esa.

REV. WILLIAM KELLY, 8.J. E. J. WHITE, Esq., F.R.A.S.

Royal Society of Victoria.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS

e OF
Che President,
Me. R. L. J. ELLERY, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer,

[Delivered to the Members of the Royal Society at their Annual
Conversazione, held on 8th August, 1873.]

GENTLEMEN OF THE RoyAL SOCIETY,

We meet together to-night to commemorate the
16th year of this Society’s existence, and it becomes my
duty, as your President, to address you briefly upon its past
year’s history and present position. On former occasions of
this kind I have usually trespassed upon your attention by
referring to some subjects of prominent scientific interest ;
with your permission, I will adopt the same course to-night,

_ but as briefly as possible. First let me speak of the Society’s

business.

I am happy to be able to deviate from the almost stereo-
typed statement that I have unfortunately felt compelled to
make in previous addresses, concerning the non-publication of
our Transactions ; at last these are in course of printing, and
in so forward a state as to be shortly ready for distribution.
This volume (the 10th) will contain the papers and other
results of the Society's labours from the year 1868 to the

commencement of the present year.

xii President's Address

This result I must explain is mainly owing to the fact that
the present Government has liberally renewed the grant in
aid to the Royal Society which has been unfortunately
withheld for several years past. It should be remembered
that the only real objects of this Society are, the advance-
ment of knowledge in the colony, and the development of
its manufactures, industries, and resources; and however
inadequately it may fulfil these objects, its efforts are stead-
fastly and earnestly directed to that end. Relying on these
facts, we trust that the Government will for the future help
our endeavours, at least as far as the publication of our
Transactions is concerned.

Before going to press with the accumulated proceedings of
the past sessions, your Council appointed a printing com-
mittee to revise the papers and communications, and decide
upon which to print in full, which in abstract, and which
should be merely noticed in order by the simple title ; for it
was found that many of the papers having reference to
matters of passing interest at the time of their reception,
possessed no longer their original value, while many others
were regarded as likely to be more valuable in abstract than
in full. The committee had a somewhat invidious task to
perform, but I believe it has done its work fairly, with due
attention to the interests of the Society as a body, and with
due consideration of the claims of the various authors. The
Council has authorised the illustration of papers by litho-
graphs, photographs, and woodcuts, wherever the subjects
have appeared to warrant that additional expenditure.

The present intention is to continue publishing our trans-
actions up to date, and issue them in half-yearly or quarterly
parts, or even in sheets if found desirable.

The state of publication is necessarily a reflex of our
financial condition, which is indeed now in a far more
satisfactory state than it has been for many years past.

for the year 1873. xiii

I would beg now to draw your attention to the work of
the Society during the past year. I cannot congratulate you
on the fulness of the harvest, although some very valuable
contributions have been received.

The only immediate reward that usually falls to the lot ot
most workers in science, literature, and art, who come
forward at this and similar societies to describe or illustrate
the results of their labours and researches, is that credit and
admission of priority which may be secured to them by
prompt publication in the form of the Society's Transactions, .
and dissemination to kindred societies in other parts of the
world. Papers consigned to the archives of a society in the
manuscript form, instead of being immediately printed and
distributed, partake too much of the nature of buried
treasure, for which the author receives no credit, and from
which the world derives no benefit.

The long delay in the resumption of publication in this
Society may therefore partly account for a somewhat barren
session, but there have been doubtless other causes operating,
and it may be mentioned that if we look at the past
year’s results in similar societies abroad, we see a like
barrenness, as compared with other years, which almost
warrants the belief that the vigour of such societies has its
undulations.

The first meeting after our last Coiversazione was held in
August, and at this and the several meetings held until the
18th November, the following papers were read :—

“ On the Extraction of Vegetable Oils with Bisulphide
of Carbon,” by Mr. Cosmo Newbery.

“On the Mechanical Assay of Quartz,” by Mr. Foord.

“On a Method of Verifying a Ship’s Position on a
Coast,” by Capt. Perry.

“On the Treatment of Criminals in Relation to
Science,” by Mr. H. K. Rusden.

X1V Presidents Addvess

“On Matter a Mode of Motion,” by Mr. F. MacGeorge.
And Mr. O. Pritchard exhibited an instrument he styled
a “Kaleidograph,” by which the beautiful and.
changing patterns seen in a Kaleidoscope are per-
fectly projected on a transparent screen, from
which they could readily be copied by hand or
photograph.
At some of the meetings new apparatus was exhibited and
described, and short illustrations given, and at the October
meeting an alteration was made in the law of the Society
relating to country members, so as to permit the admission
of residents in the country as life members at half the usual
composition fee.

During the Exhibition in November and December, it
will be remembered, we held extra fortnightly meetings, and
invited exhibitors to describe and illustrate their inventions,
improvements, or manufactures ; the invitation was so far
responded to as to occupy three extra meetings, and the
experiment in a measure fulfilled the purpose for which it
was intended.

At the December meeting two papers were read—

“On Ocean Wave Power Machinery,” by Mr. 8. R.
- Deverell.
And the other
“ On Kinship Systems,” by Rev. L. Fison.

The annual meeting for the election of officers took place
in March, and at the May meeting Mr. A. K. Smith read a
paper “On the Stormwaters of Melbourne, with suggestions
for obviating the damage caused by them.”

This summarises the business of the Society at its
ordinary meetings, and admitting on the one band that the
number of contributions is not great, it may be stated on
the other, that the Council meetings during the session have
been punctually attended, and much business conducive to

for the year 1873. XV

the future healthful activity of the Society has heen trans-
acted,

Our library continues to be enriched by liberal donations
from kindred societies, various Governments, and individuals,
and it now forms a most important collection of the publica-
tions from scientific societies in all parts of the world. To
render these works readily available to the members it will
be necessary to get a great deal of binding and arrangement
done, a matter which your Council has already taken in
hand, and which it intends to push on with vigour.

At the conclusion of this address, I have a few words further
to add concerning the internal business of the Society, but
leaving that subject for the present, I propose to occupy
your attention with some brief observations on more general
scientific matters.

The immense importance to mankind generally that
attaches to further advancement in meteorology and the
elucidation of the laws which govern the weather, from out
of their complex entanglement with other physical condi-
tions, is becoming more and more apparent, and is claiming |
the attention and energy of not only scientific individuals,
but States and Governments.

The extension of the electric telegraph over a large portion
of the world has placed in the hands of physicists and meteor-
ologists a most powerful aid towards investigation in this
portion of Nature’s dominions, and enables them to take far
more comprehensive views of the physical changes taking
place in the atmosphere and on the earth’s surface, than was
previously possible. A few years ago it took months to
gather together the meteorological statistics from the various
_ stations of a small territory, and deduce from them what
changes had occurred. Now, it is not too much to say that
observations extending over a quarter of the globe are inter-
changed, digested, and conclusions deduced from them in afew

Xvi Presidents Address

hours, so that the “ probabilities” (as they are called) and
“storm warnings” can be disseminated throughout the con- _
tinents, in time to enable mariners,- farmers, and others
to take advantage of the ominous or cheering forecasts of
coming weather. |

Within the last two years international meteorological
conferences haye been held in Europe, at which representa-
tives of all the western world nations were present, and
scientific alliances have been formed, by help of which it is
proposed to carry out a grand scheme of ocean and land
meteorolgy. This scheme provides for the exchange, several
times in the day, of weather telegrams between England,
most parts of Europe, America, and the portions of the
African coast of the Mediterranean already connected by
wire with Europe. Central offices have already been esta-
blished in the chief cities, where these telegrams are received,
fitted together, and plotted on skeleton maps; from the
graphic representations thus afforded of what is going on in
the atmosphere and on the earth’s surface, deductions are
made concerning the rising and movements of storms, strong
winds, rain, or dry weather. The deductions so made are in
some countries disseminated as “forecasts” of probable
approaching weather, while in others “ warnings” only are
given on the approach of dangerous storms. In the United
States “ probabilities” are daily disseminated to all the post
offices, where they are posted for public inspection.

The system of storm warnings instituted by the late
Admiral Fitzroy, and adopted on many parts of the British
coast some years ago, which was simply based upon a com-
paratively very incomplete chain of observing stations, is
estimated to have saved an immense amount of life and
property from shipwreck. How much more good then is
likely to come from the great scheme I have referred to.

The first and most important objects to be obtained relate

for the year 1873. XVil

to ocean meteorology, a furtherance of our knowledge of the
conditions which govern, or influence, the origin of great
atmospheric disturbances over large areas, with the grand
view of rendering navigation safer. The next and but little
less important object will be the discovery and systematising
of the various laws or conditions which lead to important
rainfall, or dry weather, high winds, and change of tempera-
ture ; objects of such vast importance to agriculture, and
other occupations, as to render them cheaply obtained at any
possible national expenditure of time or money. The laws
which govern the movements and behaviour of storms over
the most of Europe, the Atlantic, and a large part of
America, are being already slowly unravelled by the clear
heads of the directors and able assistants of the Great
National Meteorological Bureaus, and some most interesting
and decisive results arrived at. It may be thought some-
what chimerical to hope that facts may eventually be deduced
by which the greater meteorological changes, and even those
that are agriculturally important, may be foretold and
forestalled ; such a consummation nevertheless appears far
less problematical than a year ago, and facts already esta-
blished indicate the possibility. The extension of the
telegraph, and the co-operation of almost all civilised countries
in the work, is one great step towards the attainment of so
desirable an end.

In concluding my address three years ago, I made use of
these words—“ The further physical science advances the
closer and more numerous seem to be the relatious between
the sun and terrestrial phenomena, and to my mind it
appears quite probable that solar physics will eventually be
found the true key to meteorology.” Of course these views
were held by others, but a remarkable ratification of the
belief I then expressed has been given in the results of some
investigations as to the existence of relations between sun

XV President's Address

spots and sun disturbances, and rainfall and temperature on
the earth, by Mr. Meldrum of Mauritius, and Mr. Stone of
the Cape. Mr. Meldrum shows that the years of maximum
and minimum of sun spots coincide with the maximum and
minimum of Mauritius cyclones, and then compares the rain-
fall at Brisbane, Adelaide, and Mauritius with those periods,
and finds a similar coincidence : least rainfall with minimum
of solar spots, and vice versa. Mr. Norman Lockyer, writing
in Nature an article called “Meteorology of the Future,”
concludes with the following words, which I am sure all
scientific men will endorse :—

“What, therefore, is necessary in order to discover the
true nature of this nexus? Two things are necessary, and
they are these: In the first place, we must obtain an accu-
rate knowledge of the currents of the sun, and secondly, we
must obtain an accurate knowledge of the currents of the
earth. The former of these demands the united efforts of pho-
tography and spectrum analysis, and the second demands the
pursuit of meteorology as a physical science, and not as a
mere collection of weather statistics. When these demands
are met—and in spite of the Mrs. Partingtons who are
endeavouring to prevent this, they will soon be met—we
shall have a Science of Meteorology placed ona firm basis—
the Meteorology of the Future.”

We have often suspected in Australia that our sis
seasons and droughts were cyclical, but the period
over which observations have extended scarcely ad-
mitted of any trustworthy deductions; if we compare
however, the results of observations made in this colony
since 1844—the decidedly larger rainfall in the maxi-
mum sun spot years and the less in the minimum years,
is well marked.

A system of meteorological work, such as I have
referred to above, would eventually become of inestimable

for the year 1873. XIX

value in Australia, if by a careful selection of typical
stations, a proper meteorological blockade could be esta-
blished. We have now the electric telegraph extending from
the tropics to moderately high latitudes (a large portion over
the centre of the continent), besides a long stretch of coast
line, both east and west and north and south, electrically
connected, comprising places admirably adapted for stations.
The great requirement is an intercolonial agreement upon
one uniform plan of observations to be systematically carried
out at selected stations, the establishment of a head quarters
in each colony, and an authorised use of the various inter-
colonial telegraph lines and cables for transmission of
weather telegrams. In talking over these matters some time
since with Mr. Todd, of Adelaide, he expressed himself strong
in the conviction that one important key to our meteorology
in the South of Australia was the varying southward reach
of the monsoons; the determination of this point alone
would, for its own sake, and without reference to its future
bearings, be a great work effected, and is certainly one which
should be immediately undertaken. The success that has
already attended the international meteorological system in
Europe and America should encourage Australia to a similar
organisation, for in no part of the world would the power of
forecasting weather be of more value.

One of the most important of all astronomical occurrences
will take place in December, 1874—the Transit of Venus
across the Sun’s disc. .This phenomenon, as is well known,
presents one of the best means by which to determine the
lenoth of the “great astronomical measuring rod,” the
distance between the earth and the sun; as the very foun-
dations of astronomy rest upon the correctness of this dis-
tance, and as the opportunities for redetermination by this
method are so rare as to occur only once or twice in a
century, it is not to be wondered at that considerable interest

xx President's Address

and excitement have been manifested among astronomers of
all nations in the preparations for the great event. The last
occurrence of this phenomenon was in 1769, when Captain
Cook commanded an expedition to the south seas for the
purpose of observing it, and it was while on this expedition,
and after observing the transit of Venus, he discovered the
east coast of Australia, and took possession of it in the
name of Great Britain, and named it New South Wales.
One hundred and four years have elapsed since. Two
transits of Venus will now come together with an interval of
only eight years; the first takes place on December 8th,
1874, the second on December 6th, 1882, but no other will
happen till June 7th, 2004. Nearly every country in the
world will take part in observing the phenomenon, and as
the portion of the earth over which it will be usefully
visible is limited to the Eastern hemisphere, the undertaking
will in most cases involve costly expeditions. There seems,
however, to have been but one consideration with all, to do
the best possible for so important a determination; it is a
grand work in which all nations of the earth are allied, and
in which the cost has scarce been counted.

It would be out of place on such an occasion as this to
give any detailed description of the various observations that
it will be requisite to make, of the data to be determined, or
of the various methods suggested for the determination, but
as many public papers and periodicals have teemed with
discussions on some moot points concerning the observing
stations to be selected, it may be permissible to briefly refer
to this part of the subject, more especially as Australia
has been named as not unlikely to undertake a duty which
by some is considered of paramount importance, and which
there appears a possibility of being left undone.

For brevity’s sake it may be stated then, one great desi-
deratum in observing the transit of Wenus is to get two

for the year 1873. XX1

observing points as nearly as possible the earth’s diameter
distant from one another, so that the apparent paths of
Venus across the Sun’s disc shall be as widely separated as
possible, such separation being due to the difference of
distance between the Sun and Venus, Venus and the Earth,
as well as to the widely separated position of the observers.
This being the case, and one extreme position presenting
itself at Nertchinsk, a mining town in North Siberia, some
position in the extreme south was indicated as the other
desirable station, such a position is represented by the
Antarctic shores, and notably that position called South
Victoria Land, an island off which visited by Sir J. Ross in
184], called ‘‘ Possession Island,’ has been most strongly
recommended as the station of the south, by Mr. Proctor and
others. By none of the projected national expeditions is a
station on this island, or any place so far south contem-
plated, and this omission has been most energetically
criticised, especially by Mr. Proctor, who has lost no oppor-
tunity of forcibly urging that almost national disgrace will
attach to Great Britain if so valuable an opportunity be
neglected. It is true that Mr. Proctor shows very conclu-
sively the astronomical value of such a southerly station, but
there is another equally important side to this question, on
which there appear numerous, if not all-sufficient reasons,
for not sending an expedition to such inhospitable regions,
and these have evidently outweighed the simple astronomical
importance. Possession Island is in 72° south latitude, it is
enclosed in bonds of ice until the middle of January, or
beginning of February in each year. No expedition would
be able to reach Antarctic Land until late in December or
early in January ; it would be necessary, therefore, that it

‘should arrive there ten months beforehand, and remain

through a polar winter, and wintering in Antarctic regions
means the incurring of very serious risks. Some of our best

XX President's Address

navigators who were in those regions with Sir James Ross,
are even of opinion that the party would have to be landed,
and left for about twelve months, as it is not considered
safe fora ship to winter there. Dr. Hooker, of Kew, who
was also there with Sir J. Ross in 1841, speaks of Possession
Island and that region in very chilly terms—he says the
island is a “mere rock in a very inaccessible position. The
chance of landing a well-equipped party upon it when
reached, and the prospect of its subsequent removal by
ships, if landed on, is very small. In any case, I feel little
uncertainty as to what would be the fate of a party left
there for the winter, and the prospect of their seeing the
transit would be absolutely nel.” And further on he says—
“ The fact is, there is no summer or clear weather to be had,
except by the rarest chance. For days and days we worked
by dead reckoning alone. Storm, wind, and snow, are the
prevalent summer phenomena. Still, some seasons are not so
bad as others, and Weddell got to 743° in an open sea in the
meridian where we barely reached 66°.” These facts form, I
believe, the principal reasons why Possession Island or some
other equally southern point, has not been selected by any
of the expeditions. There are islands without the ice zones
which, although in an astronomical sense less favourably
situated than Possession Island, or Victoria Land, are still
valuable positions, and which so far as can yet be ascertained
remain unappropriated as stations; Emerald Island, Mac-
quarrie Land, and Royal Co. Island for instance, where the
duration of the transit as compared with Possession Island,
at which place we may call it 33 mins., are respectively
29:3 mins., 29°1 mins., and 286 mins. These islands, I
believe, are all accessible, and being wooded probably possess
comparatively genial climates in the southern summer.

The southern stations already decided upon are—Rodri-
guez, Auckland, Alexandria, Kerguelen Land, St. Paul’s

for the year 1873. | XXlil

Island, Amsterdam Island, St. Denis (Isle of Bourbon), Cape
of Good Hope, Melbourne, Sydney, Auckland Island,
Noumea, Tahiti, and Noukahiva (in the Marquesas group).
These stations will all be manned by either English, German,
Russian, or French expeditions. In the general programme
of this work Australia proper is supposed to take its own
share, and it is not contemplated by the European or
American observers to have any stations in Australia, except
perhaps in Hobarton, where a United States observing party
may be placed. The New South Wales Government have
. already granted a thousand pounds (£1000) to Mr. Russell,
the Government Astronomer of Sydney, towards making
preparations for the proper observation of the phenomenon
in that colony. In South Australia I am informed a some-
what similar provision will be granted to Mr. Todd, the
observer in Adelaide; and I have every reason to believe
that our own Government will also provide the necessary
funds to enable us to maintain our proper position in this
matter, and do our fair share of this “ whole world’s” La

In conclusion, I wish for a moment to return to the affairs
of our Society. It has for a long time been felt, that the
public at large have uniformly shown a warm interest in our
annual conversaziones, and it has been recognized that
whenever the public interest is in any way engaged in our
proceedings, a real advantage is so far achieved. We gain
something by popularising our meetings, but on the other
hand the real hard business of the Society, many of the
questions to which the members should devote their ener- |
gies, are of a kind productive of papers which, however
_ valuable in a purely scientific sense, are the opposite of what
is called popular. In truth, these dry papers, resulting from
hard work and close thought, whenever we can obtain them,
are the most valuable of our acquisitions, which should on
no account be sacrificed.

XXIV Presidents Address.

In recognition of these opposite facts, it has recently been
proposed and discussed at our council meetings how to
encompass the two ends, so as to prevent them conflicting
one with the other ; how to make our Society more accessible,
and to become more immediately and personally useful to
the public, and at the same time cherishing all that concerns
original scientific investigation. In a new country, where all
or almost all must be regarded as bread winners, with each
a day’s work of ordinary business to perform each day, and
with relatively little unbroken time for close study, good
original scientific papers are not always to be had; and with
us, in our past experience, evenings have occasionally lapsed
for want of contributions. We propose to limit the number
of ordinary meetings, and to inaugurate a series of meetings
of a more social character. At these latter it is proposed to
give short lectures, illustrations, and experiments, not
necessarily original or involving the preparation of a paper,
but interesting as explaining important points in science
and technology.

We hope by this alteration to increase our connections and
usefulness on the one hand, and to concentrate our efforts in
the pursuit of original research on the other.

A desire has also been expressed by some of our members
to form an astronomical and physical section of the Society,
according to the provision made in the rules for sucha
course. I think you will agree with me that the formation
of this section is to be greatly desired ; it would, I believe,
ultimately become a strong one, as it will embrace many
fields of research which are not only exceedingly interesting,
but are of the highest importance to the intellectual and
material advancement of the community.

Art. L—On the Prevention of Street Floods in the City
of Melbourne.

By A. K. Smirs, C.E., &e. &e.

[Read 14th May, 1873.]

I have been induced to bring this subject before the
Society, not because the suggestion has the merit of novelty,
as I have several times ‘brought it under notice before,
but because the surroundings of the question have altered
so much, as to render the necessity of taking preventive
measures of greater importance than it was nineteen, or
even sixteen years ago, when I brought the subject under
the notice of the Philosophical Institute.

At the date last-named, I find from a series of observa-
tions made at the time (1856-7), that it took an average of
324 minutes, after the commencement of a heavy and con-
tinuous fall of rain, before the street-channels in Elizabeth
and Swanston-streets were filled to over-flowing, so as to
impede ordinary foot traffic; the minimum time being 30
minutes on the 23rd September, 1856.

At that date comparatively little foot pavement was laid,
or yards and rights-of-way pitched, so that a considerable
amount of the rain was absorbed before the remainder
found its way to the street-channels. Much of the ground
was then vacant, and further assisted for a time to retain
the storm-water from the streets. However, so far as the
sudden rise of street-floods is concerned, the Melbourne of
1873 is widely different from that of 1856. Since the latter
date large numbers of houses and stores have been erected
with iron or slate roofs; most of them draining immediately
into the street-channels. Many miles of streets and roads
with hard and even surfaces have been formed, and
numerous yards, courts, and rights-of-way have been ‘paved
and pitched, all in such a manner as to readily discharge
the storm-water falling upon them.

I find, that in 1872-3 the street- channels, after sudden
and heavy falls of rain, become so flooded as to impede
pedestrian traffic in less. than half the time they did

B

2 Prevention of Street Floods

formerly ; for, on the 15th October, 1872, I carefully noted
the time, and found it to be 144 minutes from the com-
mencement of a thunder-storm until the streets became
impassable. It will thus be seen that the danger to human
life and property is greatly increased by the suddenness of
the change from the dry street to the bed of a raging
torrent.

The area drained by the channel on the east side of
Swanston-street, when I made my survey in 1864, was
250.2 acres; but this area has been imereased 27.5 acres,
by altering the open channel that then crossed Flinders-
street at its junction with Russell-street, so as to discharge
the storm-water at Swanston-street, instead of under the
Suburban Railway Station. This makes the total area
drained by Swanston-street 277.7 acres, the greater portion
of which is closely built upon, and otherwise having favour-
able rates of inclination upon its surface for the rapid
discharge of storm-water. It extends to Grattan-street on
the north ; to Brunswick-street, Fitzroy, on the east ; and to
Flinders and Swanston-streets on the south and west. Had
the main street channel in Swanston-street as rapid a fall
as those in portions of Collins and Bourke-streets east,
but little harm would be done; but it has not, and so
between Little Bourke-street on the north and Collins-street
on the south, on the occurrence of any heavy fall of rain,
this channel fills and overflows the street, running down
Little Bourke-street, Great Bourke-street, Little Collins-
and Coilins-streets, into Elizabeth-street, there to increase
the damage and danger of its already impassable torrent.

Seeing then that the storm-water from the 277.7 acres
drained by Swanston-street is greatly in excess of what the
channels in that street can discharge without overflowing,
and that the floods there are a constant source of imconveni-
ence to the public and loss to the Corporation, it will the
more readily be understood how inadequate are the channels
in Elizabeth-street to carry off the drainage of no less than
497 acres, particularly when the water from that area is so
increased by the overflow from Swanston-street previously
alluded to.

Referring to past observations I have made on this sub-
ject, I find that on the 11th February, 1857, a heavy and
almost continuous rain for a period of seventeen hours
enabled me to take notes of the discharge of surface water
at the junction of Elizabeth and TVlinders-streets, and I

in the City of Melbourne. 3

found that the maximum quantity discharged on that
occasion was between the hours of 9 and 10 am, on
the 11th February, when it amounted to no less than
9,204,384 imp. gallons, and the damage to private property
in EKlizabeth-street alone to £2,500; the rain gauge on
that day indicated a fall of 3.42 inches, which when com-
pared with the previous calculations, after allowing for
absorption and storage over the superficial area drained,
approximates so closely as to become strong corroborative
evidence of its accuracy.

Some idea of the force of the stream may be formed from
the fact that a piece of freestone weighing 38 pounds was
washed or carried away from the front of the then new
building at the corner of Elizabeth and Collins-streets, and
immediately opposite to Mr. Cashmore’s, and deposited a
little above the New Bank in Elizabeth-street (English and
Scottish Chartered.)

To obviate or prevent these excessive floods has been
my aim for many years, and I have repeatedly suggested,
what I consider the best method of doing so, namely,
to arrest the water at a given point, and at a given level,
and to carry it off by a tunnel, and so prevent it from
entering the town.

When I made the survey of the area drained by the five
several outlets from the City-proper in 1864, I shewed
upon the plans, one of which I now exhibit, that the
drainage from about 547 acres might be thus arrested, and
the total area reduced from 956 to 409 acres, with the
following effect :—

In Elizabeth-street only one-fourth or 25 per cent. would
be discharged at the outlet ; and the result of this relief at
Lonsdale-street would be that, instead of 83 per cent. of the
total quantity of water discharged at the outlet passing
Lonsdale-street, there would only be about & per cent. At
the Post Office, 144 per cent., instead of 89% per cent.; at
Collins-street, 20 per cent., instead of 95 per cent.; and at
the outlet in Flinders-street, 25 per cent., instead of the

whole quantity, as before stated. Swanston-street (at its

intersection by Bourke-street) would be relieved of no less
than 85 per cent. of the water which so frequently renders
this part of the city impassable to foot passengers.
Although I have made careful observations of the height
to which the water rises in the street-channels, I have
been, and I am at present at a loss to know what quantity
B 2

4 Prevention of Street Floods

of rain falls per minute, or in a given number of minutes,
during a rain-storm ; and | am, therefore, unable to speak
with certainty of the maximum height to which the water
has risen in the shortest time.

I can only speak of results, without being able to trace
the element of time so accurately as I could wish, and as it
is of the utmost importance to ascertain the largest quantity
of water that falls in a given time, I have designed a self-
registering rain-gauge, that will give the information I
require. Possibly and probably I might be able to obtain
the information from the Government Observatory, where
there may be instruments that register the quantity of
water falling per minute. If so, our President will be
able to inform me; if not, I will endeavour to have one
constructed as follows :—

For strict accuracy and facility of calculation I would
make the area of the rain-gauge 100 inches, or a square of
10 inches; the rain falling upon this would pass into a
vessel mounted upon a spring balance, that would indicate
the weight of water as it fell; then, by having a disc of
paper or an endless web driven by clockwork and divided >
into minutes by radiating or lateral lines, a small spring
pencil would inscribe the weight of the water each minute
as it fell, and a properly calculated table would show the
quantity, and that with an accuracy, notwithstanding the
friction of the pencil (which would be almost a constant
and could be allowed for), that has seldom or ever been
hitherto obtained, that is so far as I am aware of. The
same end might be accomplished by a float, &c, but for
accuracy I would prefer the spring-balance. However, as I
may make this instrument and the result of the experiments
with it the subjects of a short paper at some future date,
I will not further intrude upon your time by giving a more
detailed description of it; but will conclude my remarks, by
observing that the records of such an instrument, if it exists
or can be made, will be of signal service in determining the
size of drains or culverts requisite for the discharge of
storm-waters from any giving area.

Reverting to the heavy rainfall of the 11th February,
1857, I have calculated that the total that fell upon the 956
acres forming the water-shed draining through the city, was
nearly 74 millions of gallons, or over 330 thousand tons; and
that, of this quantity more than 38 millions of gallons or
170,000 tons fell upon the area drained by Hlizabeth-street

wm the City of Melbourne. 5

alone. The quantity of water that then fell, as indicated
by the rain-gauge, was 3°42 inches in 17 hours; but it is not
the rainfalls of long continuance that are so likely to be
mischievous in their effects as the sudden heavy ones, such
as that of the 23rd September, 1856, when ‘92 inches fell
in twenty minutes.

On the 18th February last, a rainfall of ‘90 inches in two
hours did more damage than any other storm that has
occurred for many years. From the appearance of the
streets I am of opinion that the greater portion of the ‘90
inches fell in a very short period, for on the 16th of the
same month ‘53 inches fell in one hour, without doing much
damage, showing that in the latter case the rainfall had
been more regular during the one hour. If we may judge
by results, the rainfall of the 18th, though distributed over
two hours, must have been abnormally heavy during a
a portion of that time, as from a return | had made for the
City Council, I find that the officers of the City Surveyor’s
department reported that damage to the extent of over
£1,100 was done to fourteen miles of streets, exclusive of
the injury to private property; and that Swanston and
EKlizabeth-streets were damaged to the extent of £398. The
whole width of Elizabeth-street was covered from Latrobe-
street southward, the footpath in some places to a depth of
fourteen inches of a swiftly running stream.

Some idea of the depth of water in the street-channels in
Elizabeth-street may be formed from the fact that the level
of the centre of Elizabeth-street opposite the centre of
Bourke-street is nearly two feet (1:97) higher than the
bottom of the channel, and yet the centre of EHlizabeth-
street was covered to a varying depth of from two to nine
inches.

At the Post Office Hotel, corner of Little Bourke and
Elizabeth-streets the water ran in at the front door, filled
the cellar, and ran out at the side doors in Little Bourke-
street ; in the hotel it attained the level of the first step of
the stair leading to the first floor.

The damage done by these heavy floods in EHlizabeth-
street is greatly augmented by the overflow from Swanston-
street, the whole of which enters the Elizabeth-street
channels at right angles, and the swift current in Elizabeth-
street has the effect of ponding back the water, and thus
further increasing the damage. On the 18th February, the
water on the north side of Collins-street (as surveyed by

a

ESP lad’ shail

Gil Prevention of Street Floods

Mr. James Blackburn at my request) was ponded back
162 feet in Collins-street west and to a distance of 92 feet
in Collins-street east, and these distances had been con-
siderably exceeded, as the level of the water at each
extremity was four inches below the level of the centre of
Elizabeth-street, which was covered to a depth of several
inches during the same storm.

IT need say nothing of the great number of shops that
were inundated on that as well as on other occasions ; but
if we are to judge from the apathy of those who suffer, it
would appear that to them such damage is inevitable ;
otherwise their inaction is unaccountable, for lately, when
a few of the residents got the mayor to call a public meeting

with the view of urging upon the Government “That for -

the protection of human life and property in the city it was
imperatively necessary to intercept the storm-waters at or
near Latrobe-street, and convey them into Batman’s Swamp,
and thence, by open cutting, into the Lower Yarra,” not-
withstanding the importance of the subject, only a few of
those interested attended, and the meeting was postponed
until another date. The second meeting lapsed also, but
partly owing to the Argus newspaper. giving the wrong
date to which it was adjourned.

However, as the preventible street-floods have already led
to the loss of human life, as well as that of a large amount
of private property, exclusive of the heavy and constantly
recurring damage to the streets, &c., under the care of the
Corporation, I consider that I am discharging my duty as
a citizen in persistently pressing this preventive measure
upon the notice of the public, the City Council, and the
Government, as I am afraid that some serious accidents will
occur, and that at no distant date, when both human life
and property will be sacrificed.

To guard against this is my object ; and so long as I am

able, or until preventive means are established, I will.

adhere to my self-allotted task of keeping this measure
prominently before the public.

In seriously considering this subject, it should not be
forgotten that the danger is constantly increasing in magni-
tude, even with the same amount of rainfall, as the water
is discharged in a much shorter period. I have already shown
that sixteen years ago, it took about double the time that it
now does, for the water to rise to such a height as to impede
or stop ordinary traffic, and the same agency that has

AN Yi LS Pe SRE Ue Dh te

:
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F

caused the change is still at work, and will for many years
to come still further increase both the suddenness of the
street floods, and the volume of water discharged in a
given time.

Nor can we reason with any safety that the rainfall itself
will not increase, for it is on record that no less than
104 inches fell at Newcastle, N.S.W., in 2} hours. If half
that quantity were to fall here in the same time, it is
impossible to foretell the damage that might be done.

Besides the damage that has been, and may be, occasioned
with a given amount of rain, the loss may be much
increased by the partial stoppage of the street-channels.
At the last heavy street-flood, no less than five of the
bridges were carried away, some of them being left in such
a position as to partially dam the street-channels; and
should the barrier be increased by planks, packing-cases,
vehicles, or portions of the boarding round places where
new buildings are being erected, the same amount of rainfall
that we have had might be much more disastrous in its
consequences. :

To guard then, as far as possible against these evils, I
advocate the construction of a tunnel or underground drain
from the northern part of the city westward into the
swamp, through which the intercepted waters of no less
than 547 acres might be discharged, and so reduce the
volume of water passing along Swanston, Elizabeth, and
Flinders-streets, to the extent previously named. One
objection urged against this plan is that “it is impossible
to make a tunnel large enough.” “To this I answer that the
distance from the commencement of the large tunnel in
Elizabeth-street 1o its outlet on the swamp is under a mile
in Jength, and the fall is sufficient to enable a tunnel of only
five feet in diameter to discharge 100 millions of gallons per
day. Ihave already mentioned that the heaviest rainfall
recorded in the colony for one day amounted to 74 millions
of gallons upon an area of 956 acres; and as the tunnel
would intercept the drainage of 547 acres of this area, it
might be supposed to be large enough; still, to guard
against the most exceptional rain-falls, it would be prudent
to err on the safe side ; and I would therefore recommend a
tunnel eight feet in diameter. This tunnel, with the same
rate of inclination, would discharge four times more water
than a five-feet tunnel, notwithstanding their sectional
areas are as 25 to 64.

im the City of Melbourne. nad ie

8 : Palladium.

I have not thought it requisite to give any approximate
estimate of the cost of this work, as a deputation from the
City Council and the members representing the city in
Parliament are appointed to wait upon the Chief-Secretary,
for the purpose of urging the Government to undertake the
work. I may, however, say that the amount of annual
loss to the citizens would do more than pay the interest
upon the entire cost, and for this reason, if for no other,
the work should be executed.

Apart, however, from the actual damage done by the
floods, it is a source of great inconvenience to have the
principal streets of the city rendered impassable by rain-
storms of half an hour’s duration, and this state of things
should be remedied with the least possible delay, either at
the expense of the Government, which has obtained immense
sums of money for the ground on the northern part of the
city without making any provision for the storm-waters
being carried off, or by the city authorities at the joint
expense of the Government and the citizens.

The Public Works Committee of the City Council lately
inquired into the cost of lowering the level of Elizabeth-
street, and of pitching that portion of it and Flinders-street
most damaged by storm-water floods, and the estimated
expense was £25,700. If Swanston-street were included,
we may safely estimate the expense to be double that of a
tunnel or tunnels. I, therefore, after a careful review of all
the circumstances connected with the flooding of our streets,
think, that to intercept the water and carry it off by a
tunnel is the best and cheapest plan; and in conclusion I
venture to express a hope that the necessity of doing
so will be promptly recognised and the work speedily
executed.

Art. I].—Electric Potential. By ProFressorn WILSON.

[Read 8th August, 1873.]

Art, IIl.— Palladium, By Grorcr Foorp, Esq.

[Read 8th August, 1873.]

Construction, &c., of Lightning Conductors. 9

Art, 1V.—Suggestions for the Construction and Erection
of Lightning Conductors.

By R. L. J. Eviery, Esq.
[Read 15th September, 1873.]

A building constructed entirely of metal without joints,
except such as be metallically made, as by soldering,
brazing, &c., and being in full contact with the earth, would
be safe from the injurious effects of lightning.

A building of brick, stone, wood, or other imperfectly
conducting material, will be well protected, if caged over by
a network or grating of metal wire or rod, all metallically
soldered into one continuous system, having projecting
above it at one or more places, metal rods forming part of
the same system, and having sharp bright points at their
upper projecting ends, and if the lower portion of the cage-
work be well connected with the earth.

The first condition would be secured in the case of a ship
built, rigging and all, of iron, or by a building covered with
lead, zinc, or iron, in which all the joints are soldered, and
where the metal is continued downwards on all sides, so as
to be well buried in the earth. The second condition, by

placing over a building a frame-work of iron rod, or wire,

so as to have no high or otherwise projecting part of the
stone or brick building, above or outside the metallic frame-
work, and having the framework projecting downwards into
the earth at as many points as possible.

In ordinary buildings, however, it will be generally found
more convenient and economical, and almost as effective, to
adopt a modification of these arrangements.

The very essence of a lightning conductor is to afford an
easy and wide way for the electricity to reach the earth, for
it is only when such way is not present that mischief is
done. A thoroughly good and extensive connection with

the earth should be the first consideration, for without it .

all lightning-conductors rather add to than diminish the
danger.

The surface of the earth, if dry, is a bad conductor; so
that a permanently moist stratum is the only one that forms
a good earth connection. The sea, a permanent river or
creek, a lake, reservoir, or deep well, will all form good
earth connections ; all water, or gas-mains UNDER GROUND,
are also equally good earth connectors, and perfectly safe.

i
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t
:
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10 Construction and Erection of

In absence of such earth connections the conductor should
terminate in a large plate or coil of wire buried sufficiently
deep in a permanently moist stratum, and will be best if
surrounded by coke or charcoal, which are absolutely
imperishable materials of relatively high conductivity, and
therefore well-suited for distributing the electrical discharge.
There should be several of such earth plates, even to one
conductor, which can be arranged by joining two or three
such connectors to the conductor before entering the earth.

To summarise this part of the subject it may be laid |
down that “A good and extensive earth connection is of
paramount vmvportance.”

From the earth to the higher parts of the building the
conductor may assume almost any form of a continuous —
metallic path. Iron rod, wire rope, sheet metal, pipes, or
anything of the kind so long as it be large enough and
metallically continuous ; mere contact of one piece of pipe
or rod with another is dangerous—they must be jovned by
solder; thus down pipes and ridging metal may be quite
safe to use if every joint is soldered over a large swrface : no
lapping, however extensive, will do. Whatever be used
must take the form of a continuous metal connection with
the earth.

It is unnecessary, and in fact wrong, to insulate the con-
ductor from any part of the building at all; it should lay on
the roof, along the gutters, or anywhere convenient, and
pass down the walls at any convenient place, and be kept
In position by any ordinary hold-fasts.

The upper projecting-rod of a lightning-conductor need
never be more than three to five feet above the highest
portion of the building to be protected, and ghould termi-
nate in a single point, which it is better to make of a metal
not liable to rust, and as most projectives of conductors will
be of iron, a good copper point, stoutly gilt, well brazed to
the iron, will be found the most economical and effective.

From experiments conducted by the French Academy of
Sciences it is considered that the area protected by a single
hehtning conductor is about equal to twice the radius of its
height; therefore, if a conductor were a hundred feet high,
it would protect a building covering an area of 100 feet
radius ; but half this is now generally taken as the safest
proportion, and, therefore, a conductor 100 feet high would
protect a building of fifty feet radius. The lower the con-
ductor the less area it will protect, so that a low straggling

Lightning Conductors. 11

building will require more projecting points than a tall one
like a church with a spire.

Materials—Any metal can be used, but lead and zinc
being worse conductors than copper and iron, a larger sur-
face of the former than the latter would be necessary. The
form may be in rod wire, sheet, or tube, as most convenient.
No less surface than is presented by wire quarter of inch
thick should be used for copper or iron, and at least ten
times that for zinc or lead.

Lead or metal ridging and guttering may be used if
soldered at the joints; but as it is not safe to solder
the laps themselves, as they would tear by expansion
and contraction, a method similar to that suggested in the
report of the French Academy for connecting iron frame-
work in lightning conductors should be adopted, namely,
at each joint a strip of copper to form a bridge over it,
should be soldered, so that the bridge of metal will always
give and take in the sliding of the lap due to expansion
and contraction.

Down-pipes for conveying rain-water from the roof may
also be used, if a similar device with regard to joints be
adopted, and if a good plan for metallically connecting the
guttering with the head of the pipe, and the foot of the
pipe with the earth, be devised.

In most modern buildings the metal used on the roofs can
be made to form a very effective portion of the system of
a lightning conductor, by keeping in mind the foregoing
suggestions, and all the ridging, guttering, &c., will in reality
form a portion of a metallic cage protecting the roof.

Whether such metallic parts of the building form part of
the true conductor or not, it will always be safest to connect
all those parts together and with the conductor.

To put the foregoing into a more practical form, let the
ease of a church, with a spire 120 feet high, and a roof 100
feet long, be taken; the spire may have a terminal and
weather vane of iron, or of wood sheathed in copper; then
from the terminal below the vane, a copper or iron rod
should spring to a little above the vane, terminating in the

gilded copper point as already described; then from the

base of the pimnacle, well soldered copper or iron rod,
strip, tube or rope, take it down outside the spire to the
metal ridge of the roof, to which it should be soldered in
passing ; carry it down to the earth, connecting by solder
any metal guttering that it may come near on the way, and

12 Construction, &e., of Lightning Conductors.

take immediately to earth by one of the methods pointed
out ; and if in a tower, this will best be done by connecting
it with the underground water-mains; but not to any
portion of the pipes above ground or in the building.

The ridge metal should be connected by bridge strips, and
another conductor at the end of the roof farthest from the
spire should be erected and taken straight to earth, soldering
to the ridge in passing. An arrangement of this kind will
form an effective lightning conductor to such a building. If
there be other towers or turrets more than 60 ft. or 70 ft.
from the chief spire, each should have a small conductor.

In a building without a lofty tower or spire, and where
chimney-stacks or gables form the highest points, the con-
ductors should always be placed on the highest and most
prominent parts, bearmg in mind the proportion between
height and area covered by the building, and it will thus often
be found that even three, four, or more conductors will be
necessary. Let them be fixed to the stacks by holdfasts ;
soldered to ridges and gutters in passing; taken over the
roof OUTSIDE the walls, each conductor direct to earth. All
the conductors must be connected into one system on the
roof, by soldering some of the lines of ridging by bridges ;
and the more of the roof metal brought into the system the
better.

Iron rod, of from three-eighths to half an inch diameter,
or tube three-quarters diameter, three-quarter inch copper
tube, or strips of stout sheet copper two or three inches
broad, .or galvanized iron rope from half an inch diameter
upwards will perhaps be found the most useful materials ;
but in case of iron tube, screwing without soldering will be
insufficient. Copper or iron rope, from its flexibility, will be
found very useful; but every joint must be covered with a
good mass of solder. In reference to the use of wire rope,
it is to be borne in mind that several strands of metal
arranged in the form of a rope are liable to more rapid
oxidation and decay than equivalent more compact forms of
rod or tube; whatever forms be adopted this element of
decay should always be taken account of, examining the
continuity of the conductor from time to time. When
from any cause a breach of metallic continuity comes about,
the building becomes less secure than it would be if such
disordered lightning conductors were absent. The use of
down-pipes to save the expense of bringing a special con-
ductor to earth cannot be strongly recommended unless they

a.

Retepora. 13

are In one piece, and go directly deep into the earth, as the

making and keeping up good sound metallic joints will be
found a difficulty in practice.

An independent conductor carried as direct to the earth
as possible will be found the least expensive in the long run.
Never take the conductors inside the buildings for the sake
of short cuts, or for any reason except where a more rapid
and extensive earth connection can be obtained by doing so,
than otherwise.

Lightning conductors, as commonly arranged, are in most
eases very far from ornamental additions to the buildings
which they protect ; the use of vanes, pinnacles, ridging,
and other external metallic details of a building to form
portion of the conducting system has the recommendation
of beimg less objectionable in an esthetical sense than
the form of lightning-rods wholely extrinsic to the
design, as commonly employed; and, by a little judicious
management the ornamental terminations of gables, roof,
towers, and turrets, may be made to entirely and very
effectually subserve the requirements of a lightning pro-
tector by keeping in view the foregoing suggestions,

ArT. V.—Contamimmated Water Supply. By 8S. W. Grppons.
[Read 13th October, 1873.]

Art. VL—Eckhold’s Omnimeter. By R. L. J. ELuery.
[Read 13th October, 1873.]

Art. VIIL—On the Occurrence of a species of Retepora
(allied to R. phenicea, Busk), wm the tertiary beds of
Schnapper Point, Hobson's Bay.

By R. ETHERIDGE, Jun., F.G.S.,
(Of the late Geological Survey of Victoria).
[Read 13th October, 1873.]

When examining for Foraminifera, portions of the light
grey mud from the Kocene or Oligocene beds of Schnapper
Point, the accidental fracture of a large mass revealed

14 Greenwich Time and the Longitude.

portions of a species of Retepora spread over the fractured
surface. Further examination convinced me that the
specimen bore a certain resemblance to A. cellulosa, Lin.
Unfortunately only the posterior or non-celluliferous face is
presented to view, its chief characters are therefore somewhat
doubtful. The specimen was submitted to Mr. G. Busk, ,
so well known for his researches amongst the Polyzoa, who
considers it more closely allied both to a new Mediterranean
species about to be described by himself under the name of
Rh. wmperati (collected during the voyage of the Porcupine),
and to an Australian species living in Bass’s Straits, which
he has called R. phenicea (British Museum catalogue). Of
the two, the Schnapper Point specimen resembles the latter
more closely than the former, but so far as the characters can
be made out, Mr. Busk considers it to be a new species.
Should more complete specimens bear out this impression, I
would propose that it should be called Retepora MecCoyana,
as a sheht tribute to the many services rendered to Pale-
ontology by the able director of the National Museum.

The Polyzoarium of the Schnapper Point specimen is
curled and undulating ; the posterior surface is strongly and
irregularly vibicite, with the weals a good deal raised above
the surface ; the fenestra are oval and elongate.

Several other species of Polyzoa were present on the same
piece of Tertiary mud, but all fragmentary. The only one
recognizable was the Spiroporine vertebralis, Stolilzka, of
the Tertiary greensand of Orakei Bay, New Zealand. This
form is placed by its describer amongst the Checlostomate
division of the Polyzoa, and belongs to Busk’s genus
Onchopora (Anarthropora, of Smith).

A few species of Foraminifera were obtained from the
same piece of mud. I hope to forward to the Society a com-
munication on these at a future date.

Art. VII]—. K. Horne’s Method of finding Greenwich
Time and the Longitude. By E. J. WHITE.

[Read 10th November, 1873.]

Embankment above Prince's Bridge. 15

Art. 1X.—Embankment above Prince's Bridge.
By A. K. Smitu, C.E., &e.
[Abstract of Paper read 18th November, 1873.]

In bringing before the Society the subject of the embank-
ment recently constructed along the south bank of the
Yarra to the eastward of Prince’s Bridge, it is due to

myself to say, that I did not wait until it was made before

giving my opinion of it, and the evils likely to result from
its construction ; but that immediately on hearing it was
the intention of the Government to make such an embank-
ment, I called the attention of the Honourable the Commis-
sioner of Lands and Agriculture, as well as the City Council,
to the danger of so doing.

In a letter lately published in the Daily Telegraph, signed
“ Yarra Floods,” the writer states that the embankment is a
step in the right direction, and that he hopes Mr. Smith
will not frighten them before they are hurt. But, Sir, I
think the members of this Society will agree with me, not
only in the wisdom of the old axiom, “‘ Prevention is better
than. cure;” but that in the earnest belief that danger
would result from such construction, I did neither more
nor less than my duty in calling the attention of the proper
authorities to the subject. However, the embankment has
been formed, and, whilst happily no floods have as yet
occurred to practically test its effect, it is not too late to
take remedial steps to avoid to a great extent the disasters
which it may cause by damming back the flood-waters
upon Richmond and the low-lying lands adjacent to the
city, but more particularly to those who have property
on the low grounds of Emerald Hill and Sandridge,
should the embankment give way. ‘That it will do so, is
almost a certainty, as the materials of which it is con-
structed would not stand the force of flocd-waters, having a
velocity due to a gradient of lin 1237, ora fall of 44 feet
per mile.

That the Yarra had a velocity due to such a fal! is a

matter of record, for at the Railway Bridge, Cremorne,

when the flood was at its highest in December, 1863, it
attained a maximum height of 22°83 feet above the datum
level, whilst at Prince’s Bridge, a distance of 144 chains
lower down the river, 1t rose to 15.17 feet; thus showing
a fall of 7°66 feet in 144 chains, or at the rate of 44 feet per

16 Embankment above Prince’s Bridge.

mile, and that at a time when the St. Kilda Road was
acting as a bye-wash, and allowing more than twice the
quantity of water to flow over it that passed under Prince’s
Bridge. By reference to the flood-levels taken at the time,
I find that the sectional area of the water flowing under
Prince’s Bridge and through the cattle arch amounted at
the highest to about 1,700 square feet (this section is
between the level of the falls and the highest flood-level at
the bridge.) Whilst the sectional area of the flood-waters |
flowing over the then depression in the St. Kilda Road,
between the southern approach of Prince’s bridge and the
old military barracks, amounted to over 3,500 square feet.

It is, therefore, a waste of time to debate for a monent
whether the bridge is a barrier to the floods or not ; from
these figures the veriest tyro in hydraulic engineering must
know, that to stop the relieving action of a byewash or
outlet for the flood-waters, by an embankment of earth is a
most dangerous experiment, especially when the narrow
spans of Prince’s Bridge, and the cattle arch are taken into
consideration, and compared with the length of the bye-
wash alluded to (820 ft.)

If any argument were necessary to show that the area
under Prince’s Bridge is too limited for flood-waters, it
would be found in the fact, that whilst the height of the
flood was 15:17 feet at the bridge, it was only 13.10
_ feet on the upper side of the Falls, and 11:25 on
the lower side; the falls being ahout 28 chains only from
the bridge. This plainly showed that notwithstanding the
barrier at the Falls, the flood-water escaped over it, and the
adjacent ground so easily, as to reduce the surface level of
the water 2°7 feet lower than at the bridge.

Subsequent to my mentioning to the Hon. Mr. Casey
about the embankment, that gentleman informed me that
since the great flood in ’63, the Falls had been lowered, and
that no damage from floods need now he apprehended, as
there had been a greater rainfall since that date, and that
the flood-waters had escaped without approaching anyway
near to their former level.

In reply, I admitted that lowering the Falls was a step
in the right direction; but I took exception to the state-
ment that there had been a greater rainfall than that in
December, 1863. That it might have been greater in some
locality of limited area I was not prepared to dispute ; but
that to imagine there had been a greater rainfall over the

Embankment above Prince's Bridge. 17

same area was altogether a mistake, and that the compara-
tive heights to which the River Yarra had risen at distances
from the City, where it was uninfluenced by either the Falls
or Prince's Bridge gave unmistakable proofs that such
heavier rainfall could not have been over an area of the
water-shed of the Yarra equal to that which occurred in
1863. To verify the statement of the Commissioner I was
referred to you, Mr. President, and was also informed that
the matter would be brought forward in the House of
Assembly. If it were so, I have seen no account of it ; but
I am credibly informed that since the embankment was
erected, the Commissioner has referred the subject to a
board of engineers to report upon the probable effect of
the embankment on floods; that the said board had sent in
a report, in which the embankment as placed was con-
demned, and which further recommended that a considerable
portion of it at both ends should be removed.

It, therefore, appears that the primary objections I urged
against its construction have now, after it has been made,
been endorsed by a board of engineers. This recommenda-
tion comes too late to save the waste of public money ; but
if the difficulty be grappled with at once, it is not too late
to avert the consequence of its presence.

When we take into consideration that the immediate
cause of floods is the checking by any means, natural or
artificial, the free flow of the water into the basin which
receives it, whether such basin be river lake or sea, we
cannot help coming to the conclusion that Prince’s Bridge
is one of the artificial. barriers that prevent the free’
escape of the flood-waters of the Upper Yarra, and that the
reef upon which it is founded is a natural barrier, the
retarding influence of which is not at present so much felt
on account of the reef at the Falls beg higher than that
at the bridge.

My only object in cautioning the Minister of Lands and
Agriculture before its construction, and bringing the matter
before this Society now when it exists, is simply to pre-
vent as far as possible the danger to property, if not
human life, by giving timely warning, and by bringing
public opinion to bear upon the question, and to insist upon
the embankment being wholly or partially removed with
the least possible delay.

18 On the Advantages of

X.—On the Advantages of Burning the Dead.

By JAMES Epwarp NerLp, M.D.,
Lecturer on Forensic Medicine in the University of Melbourne.
[Read 8th December, 1873.]

I think there is no more loathsome object than a cabo
human body. It offends the senses, and it shocks the
sensibilities, even of those whose ee make them familiar
with the sight. As a rule, mterment takes place before
decomposition has advanced sufficiently far to alter the
appearance of the dead, so that sorrowing survivors are not
generally distressed by witnessing those repulsive changes,
which begin to take place more or less rapidly, according to
temperature, as soon as life ceases. But they do take place,
whether the body be above ground, in the earth, or under
the water. A number of offensive gases are liberated, and
the air is thereby contaminated, and rendered to that extent
less fit for respiration. Doubtless it is only in the course of
nature, that the human body, like every other organised
substance, should undergo those changes by which the
elements composing them separate from each other, in order
to effect new combinations, and serve in their turn to com-
pose other organised structures. ‘While acknowledging
this law of continual change, however, it would, I think,
be only in accordance with the improved hygiene which is
one of the principal characteristics of the present time, to
reduce, as far as may be, the unpleasantness and _ the
unhealthiness accompanying these organic reactions. What
is known as sanitary science, comprehends in its teachings.
and purposes, a mitigation of the effects of such chemical
reactions. Drainage, sewerage, the removal of refuse and
excreta, deodorisation, disinfection, ventilation, all have —
reference to the lessening of the effects upon the system, of
certain gaseous products, and the disease-germs which
frequently accompany them. In securing sanitary precau-
tions, the common good has sometimes been obtainable only
by over-riding old prejudices, and combating long-cherished
but mistaken convictions; and, indeed, the principal
obstacles to such improvements have, for the most part,
been represented by a mistaken conservatism. For example,
there are still many otherwise excellent and intelligent
persons, who regard cold-bathing every day as a rash
exposure to serious risk. It is this general prejudice
against Innovation, coupled with some superstitious regard

Burning the Dead. 19

for the dead bodies of those whom we have known during
life, which has operated, and will continue to operate, to
prevent any material change being effected in the prevalent
mode of disposing of the dead. It is true that the practice
of intra-mural interment has been abolished in England in
certain localities, and that the mounds of human putrefac-
tion which only quite lately were to be seen in the most
populous portions of London and other large cities, are no
longer permitted to exist. But the alternative to the narrow
old-fashioned churchyard, is only the larger area of the
cemetery, and, already, some of these places of sepulture
are, by the increase of population, becoming as much
enclosed as the old churchyards, and are almost as much
crowded with bodies. In this part of the world, we have
benefited by the experience of the old country, and, in
Victoria at least, there are no such things as churchyards,
as we understand the phrase. But, in all other respects, we
bury our dead pretty much as they have been buried in the
old country for the last 1,500 years. We enclose them in
wooden boxes, and lay them in the earth torot. During
the last seven years I have had the opportunity of examin-
ing some hundreds of bodies in all stages of decomposition,
and I have probably, in studying the phenomena of putre-
faction as a part of my professional duty, become so
accustomed to the sight of this form of fermentation, that I
am now less conscious of the repulsiveness which charac-
terises this chemical process, than those who witness it only
occasionally. But I am not the less aware of the extent to
which the atmosphere must of necessity be polluted by the
gases arising, slowly but surely, through the earth, out of
the graves of the thousands of bodies which are annually
interred in this large city. I am not going to assert that a
foul smell is, of necessity, directly injurious to health. I
am aware that many persons whose occupation renders it
necessary for them to breathe the gaseous products of putre-
faction, enjoy what appears to be good health. Indeed, a
gentleman some time ago read a paper before the Royal
Society, in which he took considerable pains to show that
vile smells were rather salutary than not, and another
gentleman, shortly after, made a good point in the course of
a forensic address, by relating an anecdote, in which a robust
nightman, who had never known nausea before, fainted
from suddenly, in the course of his duties, coming upon a
stratum of frangipanni. But as we know that sulphuretted
c 2

20 On the Advantages of

and phosphuretted hydrogen gases are very active poisons,
even in a diluted form, it is tolerably easy to conclude that,
though they may not kill outright when taken into the
system in small doses, yet that their continued influence,
when breathed during an extended period, must have an
operation the reverse of salutary. Besides these gases,
however, given out by putrefying bodies, it is tolerably
certain that a vast quantity of volatilised matter must be
dispersed through the atmosphere during the process,
notwithstanding the weight of superimcumbent earth.
Mr. Walker, a London surgeon, published some 40 years ago
a curious book, entitled “Gatherings from Graveyards,” in
which he showed very conclusively that from the surface of
the ground above dead bodies, there was continually arising
a miasma possessing distinctly poisonous qualities. Con-
sidering the subtle and mysterious properties of disease-
germs, it is far from unlikely that many cases of disease, in
which the agencies of causation are obscure, derive their
origin from infectious particles thus volatilised. Considering,
therefore, how serious a deterioration of the atmosphere is
likely to take place by the continual passing into it of
volatilised portions of the dead that we bury in the earth, I
have for some time concluded that it would only be in
accordance with the progress of hygienic improvement, to
substitute for the slow, dangerous, and loathsome process of
putrefactive fermentation, that of rapid decomposition by
- fire. Cremation is one of the most ancient of the many
modes in which the dead have been disposed of, and I
need hardly remark that it is still practised in some
countries, notably in India, at the present day. Of all the
many methods at various times in use, it commends itself, to
my thinking, as the most rational. It substitutes for a pro-
cess which takes months to complete, and which is accom-
panied by concomitant products of the most disgusting
kind, a rapid method whose products do not offend the
senses, which do not pollute the air, and which do
not therefore endanger the health of the living. By
the aid of fire, in the course of an hour or two, a body
can be resolved into carbonic acid, watery vapour, and
a few ounces of solid residuum; for I need hardly say
that the earthy residual portion of a body, forms a very
small percentage of the whole mass, which consists mostly
of water. Iam fully aware that the prejudices of modern
society are so strong as to prevent the practical adoption of

Burning the Dead. 2]

cremation for many years to come, but I think it will be
adopted as an almost necessary part of sanitary ordinances.
T do not claim to be original in having now suggested its
revival. Professor Polli, of Milan, has lately been strongly
advocating its resumption, and, in England, its desirability
has latterly been discussed with emphatic approval by
several leading social reformers. At Hamburg, I learn that
a club has been formed, which is steadily increasing in
numbers, the members of which, on entering, make a will,
ordering that at their death their remains shall be burned.
There is an additional argument in favour of its adoption
in the old country, in that grave-yards and cemeteries
frequently occupy valuable ground which could be put to
much more rational use than to serve as pits of putrefactive
foulness. This reason does not so strongly declare itself in
Australia, because we might bury our dead in the far
interior, where population is not likely to extend for the
next century. The only objection would be the expense ;
and on this point I may take occasion to say that the
burning process would, of necessity, be much more econo-
mical than any other. I think the useless display frequently
made at funerals, fur which it is as difficult to decount
as it is apparently impossible by any sort of reasoning to
counteract, is of many unwise customs one of the most
unwise. This habit of lavish outlay at funerals, is probably
a part of the present system of inhumation, and the revival
of cremation might bring with it a simpler, and less costly
form of obsequies. The objection to the revival of the
process of cremation is, I have no doubt, principally of
a sentimental kind. There are attached to the dead a
solemnity and a sacredness, which every one almost instinc-
tively confesses, and few things are resented more keenly
than any outrage offered to the remains of those whom in
life we have loved. This is a feeling which I should be
most unwilling to disturb. It is part of the poetry of our
nature to visit the tombs of the departed, and to think of
them as we knew them in the flesh. This sacredness of the
dead has manifested itself at different ages and in different
countries, often in curious forms. The Egyptians, as we
know, went to great pains and expense in embalming their
dead. The Scythians, like some of our aboriginals, made
their graves on platforms above the earth. The Icthyophagi,
according to that quaint authority, Sir Thomas Browne,
consigned their dead to the sea, in exchange for the fish

22 On the Advantages of

upon which they had lived. The old Baleareans, according
to the same authority, ‘used great urns and much wood,
but no dire in their burials, while they bruised the bones
and flesh of the dead, crowded them into urns, and laid
heaps of wood upon them.” The Parsees, to this day,
imitate the ancient Persian Magi, and reverently expose
their bodies on high towers, where vultures gnaw their flesh
and leave the skeletons, which are then carefully preserved.
Indeed, the history of funerals would show the most
contrary practices, all arising, however, from a genuinely
reverent feeling, associated usually, if not always, with
religious beliefs. Even the practice of the Battas, who are
said to eat their aged and infirm relatives as an act of pious
duty, may be so regarded. It is known to all of you, I
have no doubt, that the Chinese dying here are frequently
exhumed and exported to their native land, in accordance
with some belief, I am told, to the effect that their future
existence will be jeopardised if they be buried in a foreign
country. We are bound to respect all prejudices of this
kind, and therefore I would speak with the greatest con-
sideration for the feelings of those who would think it an
outrage done to the remains of their relatives to consume
them by fire. But I am afraid that very few persons, when
they take that last sad kiss before the coffin-lid shuts for
ever those loved features from their sight, consider how
that face would look if they could see it in a week's time.
They go to the grave every day, they place flowers upon it,
they lay out a garden over it, and, in other ways, show
how tenderly they feel towards the dead relative who lies
mouldering beneath. And it is an evidence of their better
nature and of the poetry within them to do so. But when-

ever I see a garland of flowers upon a new-made grave, and -

some sorrowful mourner dropping hot tears upon it, I always
feel shocked to think of the seething mass of putrefaction,
upon which these said endearments are bestowed. It is a
beautiful thought which Shakspeare puts into the mouth of
Laertes, where he makes him say :—
“ Lay her i’ the earth,

And from her fair and unpolluted flesh,

May violets spring ;”
but we know very well that in a few days the “fair
Ophelia” will be a terrible thing, at which both Hamlet and

foo)

Laertes would shudder if they beheld it. I ask, therefore,

would it not be better that all that can be preserved of those

Burning the Dead. 23

whom we have so loved in life, should be preserved, so that
we might place it where, at any time, we may derive from
the contemplation of it, that refined pleasure which comes
from sad associations, unmixed with the loathsomeness of
corruption ?

And this naturally suggests the subject of urns. The
small compass into which the solid residuum remaining after
the incineration of the body may be compressed, and its
perfectly inorganic character, render it easy to preserve it in
an ornamented receptacle, that can be included among those
valued relics of domestic interest which every household
possesses. Perhaps the superstitious dread of human remains
_of any kind would, at first, supposing the practice of crema-
tion to be adopted, be sufficient to prevent persons from
placing the sepulchral urn among their household treasures ;
but there would really be. no more occasion for superstitious
dread in having a few ounces of phosphate of lime in a
sculptured vase, than in keeping a lock of hair in a ring or
brooch. Anda new branch of art would be revived by the
adoption of the practice, and sculpture might thus show
itself in unexpected developments of fanciful inventions.
The only valid exception which can be taken to the practice
of cremation is, that it might prevent those investigations
which are sometimes necessary, long after death, for medico-
legal purposes. I do no forget that the ends of justice have
sometimes been served, by the exhumation of the dead.
Crime has often been brought home to the perpetrators, years
_after its commission, by autopsies conducted upon disinterred
bodies, and it may be urged that it would be unwise to
deprive society of any means, however remote or infrequent,
of bringing offenders to justice. But this objection might
be overcome by instituting post mortem examinations, in
. anticipation, in all cases where the least doubt whatever
existed, a precaution which now is not taken. If an official
inspection were made of all bodies prior to their cremation,
perhaps advantages would result which at present are not
secured.

Among other objections to cremation it has been urged
that it 1s not necessary, if only bodies are buried sufficiently
deeply, so that the evolved gases cannot rise to the
surface, but be absorbed by the surrounding earth. I have
also been reminded that the dangers from evolved gases
have been exaggerated, and that the law of the diffusion of
gases, at once effects their dilution to an extent sufficient to

24 On the Advantages of

render them innocuous. I am by no means clear, however,
that any depth would be a complete security against the
evolution of the products of putridity, and I think it will
be admitted that the very fact of a gas having a foul smell
is an indication, our stench-defending friend to the contrary,
that there is danger near. The foul smell, in fact, has been
well described as ‘“ Nature’s monitor,’ a sense-indicator,
suggesting danger. Of the risk from contamination of water
from buried bodies I apprehend there can be no doubt ; and
though the old well-system is not so much in favour as it
once was, it is quite impossible to say how far a con-
taminated subterranean water-course will extend, or how
long the water will retain its poisonous qualities. I have
been asked if filling the coffin with anhydrous lime would
not effect the same end as burning, I reply that it would
only partially do so. The body would be decomposed
indeed, and there would be combinations between the gases,
the product acids, and the lime ; but a fluid mass would still
remain, and it is questionable if, after all, complete disin-
tegration would result. It has been suggested as a more
utilitarian mode of effecting rapid decomposition, to trans-
form the body into artificial guano, by means of sulphuric
acid, as is now I believe extensively practised upon the bodies
of sheep and other animals which cannot be used for food. I
have no especial objection to this mode, but I think crema-
tion is cleaner, and is, moreover, a less dangerous process. It is
certainly more poetical. One other objection is to the effect
that, whereas by the ordinary practice of inhumation, the
products of decomposition are all kept below the ground, in
cremation they are distributed through the atmosphere. I
would remind those who take this exception to the practice,
that the products of combustion are principally water and
carbonic acid ; that the water certainly does no harm, and
that carbonic acid is being continually disposed of by
vegetation.

To such objections to the proposal, as consist in the
reproach that cremation does away with “Christian” burial,
and is the adoption of a Pagan practice, I have nothing to
say. ‘To decry an improvement because it is the revival
of an old custom, takes the objector beyond the range of
argument. It was once considered an eminently Christian
virtue, entitling him who practised it to the honours of
canonisation, to discard the use of soap and water; and this
kind of medizeval piety prevails a good deal yet, notwith-

Burning the Dead. 25

standing the revival of the good old Roman practice of
ablution. I do not find, however, that even Christian
sanitarians object to the more frequent use of the bath
because it was a Pagan practice.

In any case it would appear that the advantages of
cremation far exceed the objections, and that, practically,
the objections might be obviated without material difficulty.
I am particularly desirous of not being thought incon-
siderate towards the feelings of those to whom this
proposition may present itself as a horrible outrage upon
the sanctity of the dead. In several cases of murder which
have occurred, the atrocity of the crime was considered to
be ageravated in consequence of the murderers having got
rid of the bodies by burning them. Apart from the crime
of having taken the lives of their victims, however, there
is not, to my thinking, any augmentation of the offence, in
the adoption of this mode of disposing of the body. The
first impulse of most murderers, after the commission of the
deed, is to allay suspicion against themselves, and the
ditiiculty of getting rid of the body is frequently so great,
that they are driven to all sorts of expedients to do this.
There is really, however, no more of the horrible in burning
than in burying a body. Some years ago, there was a great
outcry in London, when it was discovered that the church-
wardens who had the control of one of those hideous
paddocks for the dead, which, in some instances, rise several
feet above the roadway, had resorted to burning, as the only
sufficient mode of getting rid of the accumulated contents
of the ‘“bone-house.” There was a howl of indignation
all through the land, at the terrible sacrilege assumed
to be thus committed. The truth was, though nobody had
the courage to say so, that the churchwardens were some-
what in advance of the time. JI am afraid, indeed, that in
this, as in some other social questions, we are disposed to
judge according to our prejudices, and not in obedience to
the suggestions of our reason. For all this, I do not forget
that some prejudices are respectable, not because they are
reasonable, but on account of their having the sanction of
long usage, and in that they are held by persons of whose
truthfulness and honesty of purpose there is no sort of
question. I am prepared, indeed, for encountering both abuse
and ridicule for having brought this subject before the Society,
and through it to have drawn the attention of the com-
munity generally to it. I do not expect to see the practice

26 On the Advantages of

of cremation adopted; the old method is too intimately
associated with long established custom to make it likely
that such an innovation would be received, or even discussed,
without some feeling. But, I think that, for reasons of health,
convenience, economy, and the encouragement of art, it will
one day be the established mode of disposing of the dead,
and that the sacredness of the affections will then be in
reality much more absolutely respected than they are now
by the present system, which dispassionately considered, is
revolting to a well-ordered mind, and on sanitary grounds
hurtful to the common well-being. The resources now at
our command in the way of chemical appliances, by means
of which an intense heat can be obtained, would enable us
to effect the destruction of a body much more rapidly than
by the old-fashioned and clumsy mode of a log fire. The
author of a paper in Fraser's Magazine, to which my
attention has been directed by an esteemed friend, has
drawn attention, in advocating the substitution of cremation
for inhumation, to the great advantages we possess over the
ancients in this particular. It will be admitted, however,
that if in a few minutes, by the employment of a very high
temperature, we could produce complete incineration, we
should avoid those intermediate stages in the process which
are occasionally described somewhat sensationally by those
who have witnessed the burning of bodies in India.

As to the particular mode by which the process of crema-
tion is to be accomplished, I need hardly speak in detail.
Science is now so fertile in resources, that no practical
difficulty will be found in this respect. The slow and
clumsy method of surrounding a body with logs of wood,
and then igniting the pile, may be picturesque and classical
enough, but it would not be in accordance with modern
improvements. I believe, by a properly-constructed Bunsen’s
gas-burner, an average body could. be reduced to powder
in about a quarter of an hour. A gentleman in London
lately left his body to the Imperial Gas Company to be
consumed in a retort; and a modification of the retort, or
something which should combine the kiln, the retort and
the reverberatory-furnace, suggests itself. I lately read in
one of the scientific journals, the following description of
a method proposed by Professor Brunetti of Florence:
“The apparatus is a brick furnace, in shape a parallelo-
gram, with ten side openings for regulating the draught.
The top is covered with a moveable roof provided with

Burning the Dead. 27

iron shutters. The body to be incinerated is laid on a
metallic shelf of moderate thickness hung up by chains,
horizontally, in the inside of the furnace. A pile of wood
beneath the shelf being ignited, the operation commences.
A quantity of gas is soon evolved, and let off through the
opening of the shutters. After the escape of the gases, the
body catches fire spontaneously, and is completely reduced
to a cinder in the course of two hours. When the furnace
has cooled, the ashes on the shelf are collected and put into
a funereal urn. In one case, a body weighing 104 lbs. was
reduced to a weight of 34 lbs.”

Whatever the plan adopted, however, I am quite sure
that it would be possible to surround the act itself with all
the ceremonial and solemnity, considered necessary in
performing the last offices for the dead. The practice of
necessity involves a change in the law of the land, which at
present forbids the final disposal of bodies except by burial,
and it also presupposes a very considerable social change as
regards the sentimental aspect of the proposition. The
difficulties of making the practice acceptable, are, moreover,
increased by the religious complications involved; for I
have been told that it is “ positively wicked to burn bodies.”
These difficulties, however, are only such as time and a more
intelligent consideration of the subject will remove. I do
not, as I have already said, expect to see the practice of
cremation made general in my own day; but I think it will
eventually commend itself for adoption, and only waits its
recognition, just as many other social reforms have had to
await theirs.

PROCEEDINGS.

/

1873.
PROCEEDINGS.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.

ANNUAL MEETING.
10th March, 1873.

The President in the chair. The minutes of the proceedings of
the last meeting were read and duly confirmed.

Mr. Wm. Thomson, F.R.C.S.E., was duly elected a member of
the Society.

The Secretary read the Report of the Council as follows :-—

ANNUAL REPORT.

“Your council has great pleasure in reporting that, although
Volume X. of the Society’s Transactions is not yet quite ready for
publication, it isin the printer’s hands, and will be issued on or
before the May meeting of the Society. Great difficulty has been
experienced in collecting the papers, particularly those longest on
hand. Several of them were returned to the authors at their
desire, for various reasons, but mainly because there was no imme-
diate prospect of their being printed, and it was considered that the
Society had scarcely aright to retain them. A few of them are
thus unfortunately missing, and even if ultimately recoverable,
cannot appear in the forthcoming volume. It is hoped that the
number of papers which compose it, and the value of some of them,
may compensate to a certain extent for the absence of afew. In
the condition, until lately, of the finances of the Society, your
council did not feel justified in resuming printing, but the liberality
of the present Government—by obtaining a vote of the Legis-
lature for £200 for the purpose—has enabled it to do so. Your
council trusts that in fnture the State grant will be an annual one,
and that the Society’s ‘‘ Transactions” will henceforward be pub-
lished periodically and regularly.

“‘ Besides the papers enumerated in the report of the council

presented to the last annual meeting, the following additions to the

list have since been made, all of which appear or are noticed in the
coming volume. ‘The first on “ Patents and their Utilisation,”
was read by Mr. Thomas Harrison, on the 8th April, 1872, and on

the same date Mr. Robert Caldwell read a paper on “ Meat-

?

preserving.” A third paper was contributed at the same meeting by

32 Proceedings, &c., for 1878.

Mr. P. Ford, on “ Biangular Co-ordinates.” On the 13th May
Mr. Frederick Poolman read a paper describing an apparatus invented
and patented by him in 1863, and called “a self-acting regulator
and coal economiser for steam engines.” Mr. A. K. Smith also
produced and described a valve for fire-plugs in Yan Yean mains.
On the 10th June Mr. MacGeorge read some notes on Sirius and his
companions, and Mr. Sydney Gibbons read some observations
respecting the Cranbourne meteorite, and particulars of an analysis
of it made by M. Berthelot. On the 8th July, after the delivery
of the president’s address, Mr. Gibbons read a short paper on ‘“‘ Yan
Yean Water,” and Mr. George Foord read some notes on a piece of
native copper found at Footscray. On the 12th August, Mr. J.
Cosmo Newbery read a paper on the extraction of vegetable oils,
and the president exhibited and described Siemen’s Universal
Galvanometer, for testing telegraphic lines. On the 19th September
Mr. George Foord read a paper on ‘“ The mechanical assay of
quartz.” On the 14th October Captain C. J. Perry described his
method of verifying a ship’s position on a coast where only one
object can be seen, either in the day or night, by means of his
anti-collision dial. On the 11th November Mr. Rusden read a
paper on “ The treatment of criminals in relation to science.” Mr.
O. Pritchard described and exhibited a kaleidograph, and Mr. Mac-
George read a paper on “‘ Matter a mode of motion;” and on the
9th December, Mr. W. T. Deverell read a paper by his brother,
Mr. 8. R. Deverell, on ‘‘ Ocean wave power machinery ;” and the
Rev. Lorimer Fison read one, in which he gave a comparative
description of various kinship systems existing in widely separated
portions of the globe, and exhibiting striking resemblances.

“‘ A special meeting of the Society was held on the 12th August,
after due previous notice, for the purpose of making the following
alterations in the 25th and 27th laws. For the last sentence in the
26th law, the following was substituted, viz.—‘ Members resident in
Melbourne, or within 10 miles thereof, may compound for all
annual subscriptions of the current and future years by paying £21,
and members residing beyond that distance may compound in lke
manner by paying £10 10s.” The word ‘ ten’ also was substituted
in the second line of the 25th law for the word ‘ fifty.’

“The idea having been suggested about the time of the opening of
the Exhibition that the Royal Society might more fully fulfil its func-
tion, and confer a public benefit by offering facilities to exhibitors to
explain the peculiar advantages of their exhibits, three extra meet-
ings of the Society were held on the 18th and 25th of November
and 2nd of December last. Twelve exhibitors took advantage of
the Society’s invitation. On the first evening Mr. Robert Bell
described a new printing-press which he had invented and made (No.
945 of the Exhibition catalogue) ; Mr. Mathews described a piano
of his own construction (No. 1,386), and Mr. Pittard a new steel-

\ O-

Proceedings, &¢., for 1873. 33

yard (No. 9664). On the second evening, Mr. Joachimi described a
machine for preparing tea (No. 1,142) ; Mr. Sullivan exhibited his
disinfectant (No 1,165) ; Mr. Carter described the manufactures of
the Victorian Porcelain Company (Nos. 1,479-99); and Mr. Ainley’s
force-pump was described (No. 942). On the 2nd December Mr.
Rasche described his direct-acting steam battery for quartz-crushing
(No. 966) : Mr. J. S. Bowman described and gave an example of his
method of crayon painting with exclusively colonial materials ; he also
kindly promised to the Royal Society a crayon painting of Victorian
scenery, which has been selected, but is not yet quite completed
(Nos. 102-114). Mr. Lambert exhibited colonial caoutchouc
stamps (No. 597) ; Mrs. Timbrell’s report on sericulture in Victoria
was read (No. 364); and Mr. Joseph described his magneto-
electric clock (No. 1141). These extra meetings appeared satisfac-
torily to meet the design with which they were held, and some of
the exhibits well deserved the notice which they obtained.

“¢ The treasurer’s balance-sheet is as follows :—

Proceedings, &c., for 1873.

34

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36 Proceedings, &c., for 1873.

“ Your council is gratified at being enabled to submit a more
satisfactory statement of account than has been possible for some
years past. The sum shown as received for subscriptions is larger
than for late years, and more than double the amount of the
arrears for which the last council took credit as ways and means has
been paid up. Nearly £60 also was received for new subscriptions
and entrance fees, instead of £36 15s. as estimated. The estimate
of ways and means for 1873 has been framed upon the same
cautious principles. The subscriptions are estimated at less than
the amount that may reasonably be expected, and £48 6s. due for
past years has been left out of the account. Five debentures have
been paid off during 1872, and the estimate of expenditure for
1873 contains a suggestion for the payment of a larger number (60).
Your council believes itself justified in reckoning upon the annual
renewal of the State grant already mentioned as. received, and has
therefore included a sum of £200, which it would suggest should be
solicited. Your council may add that, since the construction of the
balance-sheet, £73 17s. has been paid to the printers, and another
trifling liability has been discharged: while £18 11s. 4d. has been
received on account of subscriptions and rent of the hall. This
reduces the actual balance to the credit of the Society to £147
18s. 7d. Twelve new members have been elected during the year.”

On the motion of Mr. A. K. Smith, seconded by Mr. E. Howitt,
the report and balance-sheet were adopted.

ELECTION OF OFFICE-BEARERS.

The following office-bearers were elected without opposition :—
President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery ; treasurer, Mr. R. Willan ; secretary,
Mr. H. K. Rusden ; librarian, Dr. Neild. <A ballot was taken for
the remaining office-bearers, with the following result :—Vice-
presidents, Professor Wilson and Mr. A. K. Smith; members of
Council, Messrs J. Flannagan, S. W. M‘Gowan, F. Poolman, E.
Howitt, J. Marshall, J. T. Rudall, and E. J. White.

It was announced that a vacancy in the council had been created
by the resignation of Baron von Mueller.

Report oF THE Honorary LIBRARIAN.

The following report was read :—I have the honour to report that
during the past year there have been received the following volumes
and numbers of publications by the Royal Society :—151 English,
48 colonial (Australian, including N.Z.), 20 Indian, 18 American,
101 German, 31 French, 4 Italian, 2 Russian, 7 Swedish, 3 Dutch ;
total, 335. These represent about 60 separate publications. In
nearly all the serial publications there are breaks of greater or less
extent, whether from neglect on the part of the various scientific
bodies, or from defect in the postal arrangements, I am unable to

Proceedings, &c., for 1873. 37

say. I have to apologise to the society for not having completed a
catalogue up to the present time, but I will take the earliest oppor-
tunity of doing so. James Epwarp NEILp, M.D., Hon. Librarian.

The proceedings then terminated.
(Signed),
R. L. J. Eviery, Esa.,
President.

——

ORDINARY MEETING.
Wednesday, 14th May, 1873.
The President, R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair.

The President announced that His Excellency the Governor had
kindly acceded to the request of the council that he would accept
the office of Patron to the Society.

The Librarian acknowledged the receipt of the following
publications :—‘‘ Nature,” Nos. 164 to 175; “ New Theory of the
Figure of the Earth, by Wm. O’Gilby, Esq. ; ‘‘ Catalogue of Photo-
graphs in the British Museum ;” “Journal of the Royal Dublin
Society,” No. 2, vol. 6 ; “ Reports of Geological Explorations,” by
James Hector, M.D.; ‘‘Seventh Annual Report of the Colonial
Museum and Laboratory, New Zealand ;” “‘ Monthly Record of the
Melbourne Observatory for January and February ; ‘‘ Statistics of
the Colony of \ictoria,” Part VIII.; Annuaire de Academie Royale
de Belgique, 1870 ;’ Bulletins de l’Academie Royale de Belgique,
1869,” T. 27 and 28; ‘‘ Annales Meteorologique de YObservatoire
Royale de Belgique, 1869 ;” ‘‘Cosmos di Guido Cora, Torino,
1873 ;” ‘Die Aufgabe des Chemischen Unterrichts, von Dr. Emil
Erlenmeyer ;” “Abhandlungen, der Mathematisch-Physikalischen
Classe, Miinchen, 1871 ;” “‘ Die Erdgeschichte odor Geologie, von
Robert Grassman ;” “Sitzungsberichte der Konig] bayer Akademie
der Wissenchaften zer Miinchen, 1869 to 1871 ”—8 Nos. ; “ Ver-
handlungen des Naturhistorisch-Medicinischen Vereins zer Heidel-
berg, 1872;” “ Almanach der Konigl-bayerischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, 1871 ;’ “ Memoirs de la Société Royale des Anti-
quaires du Nord, 1871-2 ;’ ‘“ Pamphlet on Australian Kinship,” by
L. H. Morgan, presented by Rev. L. Fison;” ‘‘Catalogue of the
Described Coleoptera of Australia,” by Mr. George Masters,” presented
by Mr. French, 4 parts. Totals— English, 12; Colonial, 9 ;
German, 13 ; Belgian, 4 ; Italian, 1 ; Swedish, 1 ; American, 1.

Mr. A. K. Smith then read a paper on “The Storm Waters of
Elizabeth and Swanston streets, Melbourne, and how to prevent
them.” See Transactions, Art. No.i.)

Discussion followed. oy

(Signed) R. L. J.. EuueRy.

38 Proceedings, &c., for 1873.

CONVERSAZIONE,
Held in the Hall on Friday, the 8th August.

The President read his inaugural address at eight o’clock.

Professor Wilson afterwards gave some illustrations of the mean-
ing of the words “ Electric Potential,” and Mr. George Foord read a
short paper on “ Palladium.”

Some fine crayon paintings were exhibited by Mr. J. S. Bowman,
and a collection of remarkable coleoptera, by Mr. French.

OrpinaRy (SocraL) MEETING.
Monday, 15th September, 1873.
The President, R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., in the Chair.

The President first explained that it was intended to give a less
formal character to the proceedings, in order to make them more
popular, and then submitted some observations on the subject of
lightning and lightning conductors. (See Transactions, Art.
No. iv.)

Discussion ensued.

(Signed) R. L. J. ELLery.

ORDINARY MEETING.
Monday, 13th October 1878.
The President, R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair.

The President called attention to a fine picture (Victorian crayons)
of Mount Kosciusko, presented to the Society by the artist, Mr. J.
S. Bowman.

Professor Wilson moved, and Mr. Foord seconded a vote of thanks
to Mr. Bowman, which was carried unanimously, and the Secretary
was desired to inform Mr. Bowman accordingly.

The following gentlemen were then elected members of the
Society :—The Rev. H. P. Kane, and Messrs. T. B. Muntz, John
Noone, and W. H. Steele.

Mr. Sydney Gibbons read a paper on “ A Contaminated Water
Supply.”

Discussion followed, in which Messrs. Foord and White, and
Professor Wilson took part.

‘The President exhibited and explained an instrument called
“ Kekhold’s Omnimeter ;” and a machine for lighting gas burners was
exhibited by Messrs. Scott and Cool.

The President also read a paper contributed by Robert Etheredge,
Esq., on a new species of ‘“ Retepora,” found on Tertiary deposits
near Schnapper Point. (See Zransactions, Art. No. vii.)

(Signed) R. L. J. ELurry.

a ee eS ee

Proceedings, &c., for 1873. 39

Orpinary (SoctaL) MEETING.
Monday, 10th November, 1875.
The President, R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair.

The following gentlemen were elected members of Society :—
Messrs. F. J. Pirani and A. M. Henderson.

The President announced the names of the officers of the Society
who retire at the end of the session, namely: — President, R. L. J.
Ellery, Esq. ; Vice-Presidents, A. K. Smith, Esq., and Professor
Wilson ; Treasurer, R. Willan, Esq. ; Secretary, H. K. Rusden, Esq. ;
Librarian, Dr. J. E. Neild.

Members of Council:— Dr. Barker, J. Bosisto, Esq. ; George
Foord, Esq., The Rev. Wm. Kelly, G. H. F. Ulrich, Esq., and
J. Flannagan, Esq.

The members who retain their office being—E. Howitt, J.
Marshall, 8. W. McGowan, Fredk. Poolman, J. T. Rudall, and
EK. J. White, Esqrs.

The Librarian read the following list of donations and publica-
tions received since the last meeting of the Society :—“ Catalogue
of the Marine Mollusca of New Zealand,” F. W. Hutton, 1873;
“Jahres-Bericht des Frankfurter Vereins fur Geographie und
Statistik, 1871-2; “Report of Progress of Geological Survey of
Canada,” 1871-2 ; “ Transactions and Proceedings of New Zealand
Institute,” Vol. V.; ‘Transactions of the Royal Society of New
South Wales,” 1871 ; “ Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society
of Arts,” Vol. VIIL, Parts 3 and 4; Monatsbericht der K. P.
Akademie der Wissenchaften zu Berlin, November and December,
1872 ; “ Australian School Review,” Vol. 1, No. 1; ‘ Bernard
Quaritch’s list of valuable books,” 1873, No. 12; ‘* Cosmos,”
No. 2, 1873; -‘Jahres-Bericht der Deutschen Scewarte,” 1872 ;
“ Nature,” Nos. 176 to 191 (No. 181 missing) ; “ Natural History
and Scientific Book Circular,’ No. 6 ; Monthly Notices of Meteoro-
logical Society of Mauritius,” October 1872, and February 1873 ;
“Proceedings of the Zoological and Acclimatisation Society,”
Vol. IL, 1873; “ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,”
Vol. XVI, No. 2; “Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,”
Vol. XXIX., No. 114; ‘* Mittheilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft
fur Natur und Volkerkunde Ostasiens (lst part), May 1873;
“Statistics of the Colony of Victoria,” 1872, Part 3; “ Journal of
the Statistical Society,” December, 1872; “Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh,” 1871-2 ; “Transactions and Proceed-
ings of the Botanical Society,” 14 parts; “‘ Proceedings of the
Royal Society,” No. 130 to 137 ; “ Bye-laws of Institute of Civil
Engineers,” 1873 ; “Transactions of the Institute of Naval Archi-
tects,” 1872 ; ‘‘ Twentieth Report of Liverpool Free Public Library,”
“Nature,” Nos, 192 to 195; “Journal of Applied Science,” Nos.

_36 to 41; “ Monthly Record of Observations at Melbourne Obser-

40 Proceedings, &c., for 1873.

vatory,” March and April: “Statistics of the Colony of Victoria,
Accumulation ;” ‘‘ Bulletin de la Societé Imperial des Naturalistes
de Moscow,” 1872; Notices de lAcademie Royale de Belgique pour
1873 ;” “ Annuaire de l’Academie Royale de Belgique,” 1872-3 ;
Bulletins de TAcademie Royale de Belgique, 1871-2; ‘“ Cen-
tieme Anniversaire de Fondation de l’Academie Royale de
Belgique,” t. 2 ; “ Annales Meteorologiques de l’Observatoire Royale
de Bruxelles,” 1871 ; “Tables de Mortalité par A Quetelet, Jahres-
bericht des Frankfurter Vereins, 1870-1; “ Beitrege zur Statistik
der Stadt Frankfurt am Main,” 1871 ; “Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-
Koniglichen, 1872, 2 Nos. ; “General Register,” do.; ‘ Verhand-
lungen,” do. ; “ Notizblatt des Vereins fur Erdkunde,” 1871-2 ;
‘“« Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sweden,” 9 Nos.

The President presented a paper from Mr. E. K. Horne, of
Adelaide, in which he proposed a method of finding Greenwich
time and longitude, whereby any error in the observations may be
at once and exactly known.

Mr. E. J. White shewed the general inutility of the proposal.

The President then read some suggestions for the construction and
erection of lightning conductors. (See Z'ransactions, No. iv.)

The President reported the receipt of a letter from W. C. Kernot,
Esq., stating that fifteen gentlemen had held a meeting, and formed
section A, for the prosecution of Physical, Astronomical, and Mechan-
ical Science and Engineering, and that officers had been appointed
provisionally, pendiug the elections in March next.

‘The consideration of Mr. A. K. Smith’s paper on the Embankment
on the South bank of the Yarra was postponed till the 18th.

(Signed) Rol. J. HGoery.

ADJOURNED MEETING.
Tuesday, 18th November, 1873.
The President, R, L. J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair.
Mr. A. K. Smith read his paper on the new embankment on the
south side of the Yarra. (See Transactions, Art. No. ix.)

Discussion ensued.
(Signed) R. L. J. Evcery.

ORDINARY MEETING,
Monday, 8th December, 1873.
The President, R. L. J. Ellery, Esq., in the chair.

Messrs. P. de J. Grut and J. Bosisto were elected auditors for the
year.

Proceedings, &c., for 1873. ie

The following nominations of officers for 1874 were made :—
President :
R. L. J. Ellery, Esq.

Vice-Presidents :

G. Foord, Esq. Professor Wilson.
A. K. Smith, Esq.

Treasurer :

P. de J. Grut, Esq."

Secretary :
F. J. Pirani, Esq.

LInbrarian :
Dr. J. E. Neild.
Members of Council :

Dr. Barker, J. Bosisto, Esq.
James Duerdin, Esq. J. Flannagan, Esq.
Rev. H. P. Kane. J. C. Newbery, Esq.
T. E. Rawlinson, Esq. H. K. Rusden, Esq.
Dr HC. Wigg. Wm. Thomson, Esq.

For ballot on the 9th March next, 1874.

Mr. A. K. Smith revived the discussion upon his paper on “ The
Embankment of the Yarra.”

Discussion followed, in which Messrs. Rawlinson, Kernot,
Joachimi, E. J. White, and the President took part.

Dr. Neild then read a paper on “ The Advantages of Burning the
Dead.”

Discussion ensued, in which Messrs. Gibbons, White, Pirani,
Rusden, Smith, and the President tovk part, and in which the |
proposition was favourably received.

(Signed) R. L. J. Every, President.

Name.

Objects.

Members
and
Honorary
Members.

Patron.

Officers.

Manage-
ment.

Ordinary
Meetings.

General and
Anniversary

Meetings.

Retirement
of Officers.

LAWS.

i

I. The Society shall be called “The Royal Society
of Victoria.”

II. The Royal Society of Victoria is founded for the
advancement of science, literature, and art, with
especial reference to the development of the resources
of the country.

III. The Royal Society of Victoria shall consist of
Members and Honorary Members, all of whom shall
be elected by ballot.

IV. His Excellency the Governor of Victoria, for
the time being, shall be requested to be the Patron of
the Society.

V. There shall He a President, and two Vice-
Presidents, who, with twelve other Members, and the
following Honorary Officers, viz.: Treasurer, Librarian,
and Secretary of the Society, shall constitute the
Council.

VI. The Council shall have the management of the
affairs of the Society.

VII. The ordinary meetings of the Society shall be
held on the second Monday of each month during the
Session, from March to December inclusive, subject to
alteration by the Council with due notice.

VIII. In the second week in March there shall be
a General Meeting, to receive the report of the Council
and elect the Officers of the Society for the ensuing
year.

IX. All Office Bearers and Members of Council,
except the six junior or last elected ordinary Members,
shall retire from office annually at the General Meeting
in March. The names of such Retiring Officers are to
be announced at the ordinary meetings in November
and December. The officers and members of Council
so retiring shall be eligible for the same or any other
office then vacant.

‘Laws. 43

X. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secre- fection of
tary, and Librarian, shall be separately elected by °™°*
ballot (should such be demanded), in the above-named
order, and the six vacancies in the Council shall then
be filled up together by ballot at the General Meeting
in March. Those members only shall be eligible for
any office who have been proposed and seconded at the
Ordinary Meeting in December, or by letter addressed
to the Secretary, and received by him before the Ist
March, to be laid before the Council Meeting next
before the Annual Meeting in March. The nomination
to any one office shall be held a nomination to any
office the election to which is to be subsequently
held. And such ballot shall take place prior to the
ordinary business of the meeting.

XI. No Member whose subscription is in arrear Members in
shall take part in the election of Officers or other “”"
bnsiness of the meeting.

XII. An Address shall be delivered by the President Inaugural
of the Society at either a Dinner, Conversazione, or the ee
extra meeting of the Society, as the Council for the “™*
time being may determine, not later than the ordinary

meeting in June in each year.

XIII. If any vacancy occur among the Officers, Vacancies.
notice thereof shall be inserted in the summons for the
next Meeting of the Society, and the vacancy shall be
then filled up by ballot.

XIV. The President shall take the chair at all Dutiesof
meetings of the Society, and of the Council, and shall ““""”
regulate and keep order in all their proceedings; he
shall state questions and propositions to the meeting,
and report the result of ballots, and carry into effect
the regulations of the Society. In the absence of the
President the chair shall be taken by one of the Vice-
Presidents, Treasurer, or ordinary member of Council,

In order of seniority.

XV. The Treasurer may, immediately after his Duties of
election, appoint a Collector (to act during pleasure), “““"™
subject to the approval of the Council at its next
meeting. The duty of the Collector shall be to issue
the Treasurer's notices and collect subscriptions. The

44, Laws.

Treasurer shall receive all moneys paid to the Society,
and shall deposit the same before the end of each
month in the Bank approved by the Council, to the
credit of an account opened in the name of the Royal
Society of Victoria. The Treasurer shall make all
payments ordered by the Council, on receiving a written
authority from the chairman of the meeting. All
cheques shall be signed by himself, and countersigned
by the Secretary. No payments shall be made except
by cheque, and en the authority of the Council. He
shall keep a detailed account of all receipts and
expenditure, present a report of the same at each
Council Meeting, and prepare a balance sheet to be
laid before the Council, and included m their Annual
Report. He shall also produce his books whenever
called on by the Council.

pices XVI. The Secretary shall conduct the correspondence
vm" of the Society and of the Council, attend all meetings
of the Society and of the Council, take minutes of
their proceedings, and enter them in the proper books.
He shall inscribe the names and addresses of all
members in a book to be keep for that purpose, from
which no name shall be erased except by order of the
Council. He shall issue notices of all meetings of the
Society and of the Council, and shall have the custody
of .all papers of the Society, and under the direction
of the Council, supermtend the printing of the Trans-
_actions of the Society.

Meetingsof © XVII. The Council shall meet on any day within one

wouncil. week before every ordinary meeting of the Society.
Notice of such meeting shall be sent to every Member
at least two days previously. No business shall be
transacted at any meeting of the Council unless
five Members be present. Any Member of Council
absenting himself from three consecutive meetings of
Council, without satisfactory explanation in writing,
shall be considered to have vacated his office, and the
election of a member to fill his place shall be pro-
ceeded with at the next ordinary meeting of members,
in accordance with Rule XIII.

Special XVIII. The Secretary shall call a Special Meeting
Counc of Council on the authority of the President or of

three Members of Council. The notice of such meet-

Laws. | AS

ing shall specify the object for which it is called, and
no other business shall be entertained.
XIX. The Council shall call a Special Meeting of special
the Society, on receiving a: requisition in writing hee

signed by twenty-four Members of the Society,
specifying the purpose for which the meeting is
required, or upon a resolution of its own. No other
business shall be entertained at such meeting. Notice

of such meeting, and the purpose for which it is sum-
moned, shall be sent to every Member at least ten
days before the meeting.

XX. The Council shall annually prepare a Report annual
of the Proceedings of the Society during the past *?"*
year, embodying the balance-sheet, duly audited by
two Auditors to be appointed for the year at the
Ordinary Meeting in December, exhibiting a state-
ment of the present position of the Society. This
Report shall be laid before the Society at the Annual
Meeting in March. No paper shall be read at this
meeting.

XXIJ. If it shall come to the knowledge of the Expuision of
Council that the conduct of an officer or a member is “°™?**
injurious to the character of the Society, and if two-
thirds of the Council present shall be satisfied, after
opportunity of defence has been afforded to him that
such is the case, it may call upon him to resign, and
shall have the power to expel him from the Society, or
remove him from any office therein at its discretion.

In every case all proceedings shall be entered upon the
minutes.

XXII. Every candidate for membership shall be mection of
proposed and seconded by Members of the Society, “°™>*™
The name, the address, and the occupation of every
candidate, with the names of his proposer and of his
seconder, shall be communicated in writing to the
Secretary, and shall be read at a Meeting of Council,
and also at the following Meeting of the Society, and
the ballot shall take place at the next following ordinary
meeting of the Society. When the number of votes
in favour of any candidate shall be five times the
number of those against him, he shall be declared duly
elected, and not otherwise.

Members
shall sign
Laws.

Honorary
Members.

Subscrip-
tions,

Entrance
Fee, &.

46 Laws. |

XXIII. Every newly-elected member shall, at the
first meeting of the Society at which he may be pre-
sent, sign a declaration, in a book provided for that
purpose, that he will observe the laws of the Society.

XXIV. Gentlemen not resident in Victoria, who
are distinguished for their attainments in science,
literature, or art, may be proposed for election as
Honorary Members, on the recommendation of an
absolute majority of the Council. The election shall
be conducted in the same manner as that of ordinary
Members, but nine-tenths of the votes must be in
favour of the candidate.

XXV. Members of the Society, resident in Mel-
bourne, or within ten miles thereof, shall pay two
guineas annually, and Members residing beyond that
distance shall pay one guinea annually. The. sub-
scriptions shall be due on the Ist of January in every
year, and notice thereof shall be sent to every Member
during the preceding December. At the commence-
ment of each year there shall be hung up in the Hall
of the Society a list of Members, upon which the
payments of their subscriptions as made by Members
shall be entered. On and after the Ist of July, fresh

~ notice shall be sent to Members still in arrears. At

the end of each year a list of names of such Members
as have not then paid their subscriptions shall be
prepared and submitted for the consideration of the
Council, and hung in the Hall of the Society.

XXVI. Newly-elected Members shall pay an
entance-fee of two guineas, in addition to the sub-
scription for the current year. Those elected after the
Ist of July shall pay only half of the subscription for
the current year. If the entrance-fee and subscription
be not paid within one month of the notification of
election, a second notice shall be sent, and if payment
be not paid within one month from the second notice,
the election shall be void. Members resident in
Melbourne or within ten miles thereof, may compound
for all Annual Subscriptions of the current and future
years by paying £21; and members residing beyond
that distance may compound in like manner by paying
£10 10s.

Laws. AT

XXVII. At the ordinary meetings of the Society Duration of
the chair shall be taken punctually at eight o’clock, “°“"®
and shall be vacated not later than half-past ten
oclock.

XXVIII. At the ordinary meetings business shall Order ana

be transacted in the following order, unless it be conducting
specially decided otherwise by the Chairman : the business.

Minutes of the preceding meeting to be read,
amended if incorrect, and confirmed.

New Members to enrol their names, and be in-
troduced.

Ballot for the election of new Members.
Vacancies among Ofiicers, if any, to be filled up.
Business arising out of the minutes.
Cummunications from the Council.

Presents to be laid on the table, and acknowledged.

Motions, of which notice has been given, to be
considered. Notices of motion for the next
meeting to be given in, and read by the
Secretary.

Papers to be read.

XXIX. No stranger shall speak at a meeting of strangers.
the Society, unless specially invited to do so by the
Chairman.

XXX. No papers shall be read, or business enter- what busi-
tained, at any meeting which has not been previously 2&8 may Pe
notified to the Council.

XXXII. The Council may call additional meetings aaaitiona
whenever it may be deemed necessary. Meetings.

XXXII. Every Member may introduce two visitors visitors.
to the meetings of the Society by orders signed by
himself.

XXXIII. Members shall have the privilege of members
reading before the Society accounts of experiments, P2y%"*
observations, and researches conducted by themselves,
or original papers, on subjects within the scope of the
Society, or descriptions of recent discoveries, or inven-
tions of general scientific interest. No vote of thanks

to any Member for his paper shall be proposed.

'
x
7
‘

.

48 Laws.

Or depute XXXIV. If a Member be unable to attend for the

SIeabers, Purpose of reading his paper, he may delegate to any
Member of the Society the reading thereof, and his
right of reply.

Members XXXV. Any Member desirous of reading a paper

hoticeor Shall give in writing to the Secretary, ten days-before

their papers. the Meeting at which he desires it to be read, its title
and the time its reading will occupy.

The Secretary shall lay this communication before

the Council at its next meeting. Papers shall be read

in the order in which such notices are received by the

Secretary.

Papers by XXXVI. The Council may permit a paper of a

smangers- nature similar to the above, not written by a Member
of the Society, to be read, if for any special reason it
shall be deemed desirable.

ore elk XXXVII. Every paper read before the Society shall

perty of the be the property thereof, and immediately after it has

Society. —_heen read shall be delivered to the Secretary, and shall

remain in his custody.

Papers must = XXXVIIT. No paper shall be published in the
“Transactions unless approved by the Council, and
unless it consist mainly of original matter as regards
the facts or the theories enunciated.
Council my XXXIX. Should the Council feel a difficulty in
to Members, deciding on the publication of a paper, the Council
may refer it to any Member or Members of the
Society, who shall report on the same.

Rejected XL. Should the Council decide not to publish a

Phuned, paper, it shall be at once returned to the author.

Members XLI. The author of any paper which the Council
Beles has decided to publish in the Transactions may have
theirpapers any number of copies of his paper, on giving notice of

his wish in writing to the Secretary, with his paper,

and on paying the extra cost of such copies.
Membersto XLII. Every member whose subscription is not in

of Traac, atrear, and every honorary member, is entitled to
ae receive one copy of the Transactions of the Society as
published. Newly-elected members shall, on payment
of their entrance-fee and subscription, receive a copy

of the volume of the Transactions last published.

Laws. 49

XLII. Every book, pamphlet, model, plan, draw- property.
ing, specimen, preparation, or collection presented to
or purchased by the Society, shall be kept in the
house of the Society.

XLIV. The Library shall be open to members of Museum.
the Society and the public at such times and under
such regulations as the Council may deem fit.

XLV. The legal ownership of the property of the Legalowner-
Society is vested in the President, the Vice-Presidents, er)
and the Treasurer for the time being, in trust for the
use of the Society; but the Council shall have full
control over the expenditure of the funds and manage-
ment of the property of the Society.

XLVI. Every Committee appointed by the Society Committees
shall at its first meeting elect a Chairman, who shall Sa. """
subsequently convene the Committee and bring up its
report. He shall also obtain from the Treasurer such
grants as may have been voted for the purposes of the
Committee.

XLVIT. All Gomuntices and individuals to whom Report
any work has been assigned by the Society shall pre-Jenber 1st.
sent to the Council, not later than the Ist November
in each year, a report of the progress which has been
made; and, in cases where grants of money for
scientific purposes have been entrusted to them, a
statement of the sums which have been expended,
and the balance of each grant which remains unex-
pended. Every Committee shall cease to exist on the
1st November, unless re-appointed.

XLVIII. Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific pur- Grants
poses from the funds of the Society shall expire on the *?""*
Ist November next following, unless it shall appear by
a report that the recommendations on which they were
granted have been acted on, or a continuation of them
be ordered by the Council.

XLIX. In grants of money to Committees and personal
individuals, the Society. shall not pay any personal ;ymsre
expenses which may be incurred by the members.

L. No new law, or alteration or repeal of an existing atteration of
law, shall be made except at the General Meeting in *"”
E

Cases not
provided for.

Sections.

Names and
number of
Sections.

Meetings of
Sections.

Members of
Sections.

Officers of
Sections.

50 Laws.

March, or at a Special General Meeting summoned for
the purpose, as provided in Law XIX., and in pursu-
ance of notice given at the preceding ordinary meeting
of the Society.

LI. Should any circumstance arise not provided for
in these laws, the Council is empowered to act as may
seem to be best for the interests of the Society.

LIT. In order that the members of the Society pro-
secuting particular departments of science may have
opportunities of meeting and working together with
fewer formal restraints than are necessary at the

ordinary meetings of the Society, Sections may be
established.

LIT. Sections may be established for the following
departments, viz. :—

Section A. Physical, Astronomical, and Mechanical
Science, including Engineering.
Section B. Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Metal-

Jurgy.
Section C. Natural History and Geology.

Section D. The Microscope and its applications.
Section EZ. Geography and Ethnology.
Section F. Social Science and Statistics.

Section G. Literature and the Fine Arts, including
Arthitecture.

Section H. Medical Science, including Physiology
and Pathology.

LIV. The meetings of the Sections shall be for
scientific objects only.

LV. There shall be no membership of the Sections —

as distinguished from the membership of the Society.

LVI. There shall be for each Section a Chairman to
preside at the meetings, and Secretary to keep minutes
of the proceedings, who shall jointly prepare and for-
ward to the Secretary of the Society, prior to the Ist
of November in each year, a report of the Proceedings
of the Section during that year, and such report shall
be submitted to the Council. :

i

Laws. 51

LVII. The Chairman and the Secretary of each Mode of ap-
Section shall be appointed at the first meeting of the ana
Council after its election in March, in the first instance Sections.
from members of the Society who shall have signified
to the Secretary their willmgness to undertake these
offices, and subsequently from such as are recommended

by the Section as fit and willing.
LVIIT. The first meeting of each Section in the Times ot

year shall be fixed by the Council, subsequently the sections”
Section shall arrange its own days and hours of

meeting provided these be at fixed intervals.

MEMBERS

Ghe Popul Society of Victoria.

Allan, Alex. C., Esq., The Observatory

Barker, Edw., Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S., Latrobe-street East, Melbourne
Barnes, Benjamin, Esq., Rosslyn-street, West Melbourne

Barton, Robert, Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint

Beaney, J. G., Esq., F.R.C.S. Ed., Collins-street East, Melbourne
Bear, J. P., Hon., M.LC., Brighton

Blair, John, Esq., L.R.C.S., M.B. Syd., Collins-st East, Melbourne
Bland, R. H., Esq., Clunes

Bone, William, M.D., Castlemaine

Bonwick, James, Esq., F.R.G.S., St. Kilda

Brown, Edwin, Esq., C.E., Camberwell

Brown, H. J., Esq., 33 Victoria Parade, Melbourne

Brown, H. Y. L., Esq., Yorick Club, Collins-street, Melbourne
Burrows; Thos., Esq., Burwood-road, Hawthorn

Casey, C. G., Esq., M.R.C.S.E., Timperley Lodge, Brighton
Caselli, H. R., Esq., Ballarat

Clarke, Wm., Esq., Elizabeth-street, Melbourne

Comber, P. F., Esq., Royal Mint

Cook, W. Mansfield, Esq., Crown Lands Office, Melbourne

Danks, John, Esq., Bourke-street West, Melbourne

Dixon, 8. E., Esq., Education Office, Melbourne

Duerdin, nee fisq. LB. Noel Club, Collins-street East,
Melbourne

Ellery, R. L. J., Esq., ELR.S., F.R.A.S., The Observatory .

Fitzpatrick, Rev. J., D.D., St. Patrick’s College, Melbourne
Foord, George, Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint

Inst of Members. 53

Gilbert, J. E., Esq., The Observatory

Goold, J. A., D.D., Right Rev. Bishop, St. Patrick’s College, Mel-
bourne

Groves, G. W., Esq., Crown Lands Office, Melbourne

Grut, P. de J., Esq., E. 8. and A. C. Bank, Gertrude-street, Fitzroy

Haddon, F. W., Esq., The Argus Office, Melbourne

Harrison, Thomas, Esq., Registrar-General’s Office

Henderson, A. M., Esq., Reed and Barnes, 3 Elizabeth-street
Henderson, J. B., Esq., Sandhurst

Higinbotham, T., Esq , C.E., Engineer-in-Chief, Railway Department
Howitt, E., Esq., Yorick Club, Collins-street East

Hope, A., Esq., Greville-street, Prahran

Hopkins, D. M., Esq., Eaglehawk, Sandhurst

Hunt, Robert, Esq., Royal Mint

Irving, M. H., Esq., M.A., Wesley College, St. Kilda Road

Kane, H. P., Rev. M.A., Darling-street, South Yarra

Kelly, William, Rev. S. J., St. Patrick’s College, Melbourne
Kennedy, Daniel, Esq., McKenzie-street, Sandhurst

Keogh, L. L., Esq., 20 Market-street, Melbourne

Kernot, W. C., Esq., M.A., Mining Department

Lewis, George, Esq., Collins-street Hast, Melbourne
Linacre, A., Esq., Lygon-street, Carlton
Lynch, William, Esq., Collins-street West, Malboume

McCoy, F., Professor, F.G.S., University, Melbourne
McGillivray, P. H., Esq., M.A., M.R.C.8., Sandhurst
McGowan, S. W., Esq., General Post Office, Melbourne
Manton, C. A., Esq., The Treasury, Melbourne
Marshall, John, Esq., M.A., Hotham

Miller, F. B., Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint

Moerlin, C., Esq., The Observatory, Melbourne
Morrison, R., Esq., M.A., Scotch College, Melbourne
Moors, Henry, Esq., Office Chief Commissioner Police, Melbourne
Munday, J., Esq., Clunes

Muntz, T. B., Esq., Town Surveyor’s Office, Prahran

| Neild, J. E., Esq., M.D., Collins-street East, Melbourne

Newbery, J. Cosmo, Esq., B.Sc., Technological Museum, Melbourne
Nicholas, W., Esq., Mining Department, Melbourne
Noone, J., Esq., Lands and Survey Office, Melbourne

Officer, 8. H., Esq., Swan Hill, Murray.

54 List of Members.

Permezel, E., Esq., B.A., Grey-street, East Melbourne

‘Perry, Right Rev. Bishop, D.D., M.A., Bishop’s Court, East Mel-
bourne

Pirani, F. J., Esq., M.A., University, Melbourne

Poolman, F., Esq., Sugar Works, Sandridge

Potter, Wm., Rev., Baptist Parsonage, Emerald Hill

Rees, D. C., Esq., Registrar-General’s Office, Melbourne
Ritchie, S. 8., Esq., 56 Queen-street, Melbourne

Robin, J. De Q., Esq., B.A., Neil-street, Soldier’s Hill, Ballarat
Rudall, J. T., Esq., F.R.C.S.E., Collins-street East, Melbourne
Rusden, H. K., Esq., Tivoli Place, South Yarra

Sherrard, L. J., Esq., Little Flinders-street East, Melbourne

Skene, A. J., Esq., A.M., Lands and Survey Office, Melbourne

Stawell, Sir William, M.A., Chief Justice of Victoria, Supreme
Court

Steele, W. H., Esq., Public Works Office, Melbourne

Taylor, W. F., Esq., M.D., Claremont, Queensland
Thomson, W., F.R.C.S.E., South Yarra

Ulrich, G. H. F., Esq., F.G.S., Yorick Club, Collins-street East

Walker, William, Esq.

Ward, Colonel, R.E., Royal Mint

Waugh, J. 8., Rev., St. Kilda

Wigg, H. C., Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S8.E., Grattan-street, Carlton
Wilkins, A., Esq., 31 Market-street, Melbourne

Wilkins, John, Esq., M.R.C.S., Collins-street East, Melbourne
Willan, R., Esq., 39 Queen-street, Melbourne

Williams, W., Esq., M.L.A., St. Kilda

Wyatt, A., Esq., M.A., Yorick Club, Collins-street East

HonoRARY MEMBERS.

Bowen, His Excellency Sir G. F., K.C.B., Governor of Victoria,
Patron

Clarke, Sir Andw., Colonel, C.B., R.E., London

Goeppert, H. R., M.D., Ph. D., Breslaw

Haast, Julius, Esq., Ph. D., F.G.S., Canterbury, New Zealand

Neumayer, Geo., Professor, Ph. D., &c., Bavaria

Scott, W., Rev., M.A., F.C.P.S., Sydney

Smith, John, Esq., M.D., University, Sydney

Todd, C., Esq., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., Adelaide

4
>
:
;
}
,
/
:

Iist of Members. 55

Lire MEMBERS.

Barkly, His Excellency Sir Henry, K.C.B., Mauritius

Barry, His Honor Sir Redmond, M.A., Chancellor of the University,
Supreme Court

Bennison, R., Esq., Sale

Bleasdale, J. J., Rev., D.D., F.G.S., St. Patrick’s College, Mel-
bourne

Bosisto, Joseph, Esq., Bridge-road, Richmond

Butiers, J. 8., Esq., Fiji

Detmold, William, Esq., 44 Collins-street East, Melbourne

Eaton, H. F., Esq., The Treasury, Melbourne

Elliott, S., Esq., 88 Collins-street West, or East Brighton

Elliott, T. S., Esq., Railway Department, Spencer-street

Flannagaa, J., Esq., Collins-street East, Melbourne

Gibbons, S. W., Esq., F.C.S., Collins-street East, Melbourne

Gillbee, Wm., Esq., M.R.C.S.E., Collins-street East, Melbourne

Higinbotham, Hon. George, M.A., Chancery-lane, Melbourne

Holt, John, Esq., Ledcourt, near Stawell

Iffla, S., Esq., L.F.P.S.G., Emerald Hill

Kay, Captain, R.N., F.R.8., Government House

Mueller, Baron Von, Ph. D., C.M.G., F.R.S., Government Botanist

Nicholson, G., Esq., Collins-street East, Melbourne

Rawlinson, T. E., Esq., C.E., Temple Court, Melbourne

Reed, Thomas, Esq., Fiji

Reed, Joseph, Esq., 3 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne

Smith, A. K., Esq., CE., F.R.S.S.A., &c., Leicester-street, Carlton

Thompson, H. A., Esq., Lucknow, New South Wales

Were, J. B., Esq., Collins-street West, Melbourne

Wilkie, D. E., Esq., M.D., Collins-street East, Melbourne

Wilson, W. P., M.A., Professor, University, Melbourne

White, E. J., Esq., F.R.A.S., The Observatory, Melbourne

STILLWELE AND KNIGHT, PRINIERS, MELBOURNE,

: +

Wate
,01 f{ i.

AND

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Mopal Society of Victorr.

VOL. XII.

Edited under the Authority of the Council of the Society.

THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE
OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.

MELBOURNE:
STILLWELL & KNIGHT, PRINTERS, 78 COLLINS STREET EAST.
Issued May, 1876.

AGENTS TO THE SOCIETY.
WILLIAMS AND NorGatse, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON.

To whom communications for transmission to the Royal Society of Victoria
from all parts of Hurope should be sent.

h Ath GO Ee
MUPPaIEY MAO4 Us i

Viorel li

Le US Ca Aa
cc} opel wabsiaseaaspaca aw! a)

3 es

PAGE
OFFICE-BEARERS, 1874 - Vil
PRESIDENT’Ss ADDRESS, 1874 ix ea
OFFICE-BEARERS, 1875 .. XXV
VicE-PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS; 1875 XXVilI—xlii
Art. I. On the Utilization and Disposal of Excreta, i
S. W. Grezons, F.C.S. a a 1
II. On the forthcoming Transit of Venus, en R. L. J.
Every, F.R.S., F.R.A.S Ee 33 1
Ill. On a late Extraordinary ane of a Miner from
Drowning, by D. Kennepy, Esq. .. Pe rE 1
IV. Observations on Sand-dunes of the Coast of Victoria,
by R. Eruerives, Esoa., Jun. : 2—5
V. On Abyssinian Tube Wells, by Francis CorBETT, Bea: 5—10
VI. On Cremation, by 8. W. Giszons, F.C.S. a 10
VII. Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree? By J.
Bosisto, Esq. .. a or “i 10—23.
VIII. On Some Processes of Scientific ae _ F. J.
Prrant, M.A., C.H. 23—32
IX. On the Photographic Processes to be aae in
Observing the Transit of Venus, by R. L. J. Eutery,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 48 2. ee : 32.
X. Notes on the Discovery of some Keys in the Shore
Formation of Corio Bay, near Geelong, by T.
Rawuinson, C.E. 33—43
XI. The Week, by H. K. Ruspzen a AG -- 43—60
XII. Notes on some of the Physical Appearances Observed
in the late Transit of Venus, by R. L. J. Huuery;
F.R.S., F.R.A.S. d 60—65
XIII. Notes on some Upper Palexozoic Polyzoa, from
Queensland, by R. EtHERipes, Jun., F.G.S. 66—68
XIV. On the Importance of a more close and systematic
Observation of the Oceanic and Atmospheric
Phenomena of our Coasts, by T. Raw zinson, C.H. 68
XV. On some of the Results of the Challenger ae aa
by GrorGEe Foorp, Esa. : ae 68

CONTENTS OF VOL. XII.

v1 Contents.
PAGE
XVI. The Sciopticon, by W. M. Cooxe r . te 69
XVII. Notes concerning the Phenomena of the hepa on
and Recession of Bodies under the Influence of
Radient Energy, by Aurrep Mica Suiru, B.Sc. .. 69—81
XVIII. A Universal Equatorial and an Instrument for
Facilitating the Observation of ae |Oyiqa be
Harrison, Esq. ig oe 82:
XIX. The Arithmometer, by W. C. Kernor, so. » M.A. .. 82—88
XX. On the Meteor of April 15th, by J. Perry, Esa. a4 88
XXTI. On “Surcharge” of the Bullion a by Roprertr
Barton, Esq. .. oye at -- 89—92
XXII. On a Proposed New Method of - Weighing, applicable
to the Gold Bullion Assay, by Groner Foorp, Esq. 93—109.
XXIII. On the Past and Present of the Port of Melbourne,
and Proposed Works for its Improvement, by
T. E. Rawurnson, Esq. ae Se sik 110—122
LETTER FRoM R. C. Gunn, Esq., oN suBsECT oF ART. X. .. 123—124
ProcrEepines, &c., 1874-75 Mis Br ap Bis ae 125—137
Laws ile : : 138—147
MEMBERS .. 36 a be 90 a on + 148—15}

HRRATA—Vot, XI., p. 14.

Line 27—For Spiroporine, read Spiroporina.
Line 29—For Cheilostomata, read Cyclostomata.

gt a Sg ne On a ee ee

:

Koval Society of Victoria.

1874.

aJatron.
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GEORGE BOWEN, G.C.M.G.

qotesidentt.

R. L. J. ELLERY, Esq.

Vire- residents,
GEORGE FOORD, Esa. l PROFESSOR WILSON.

Hon. Treasurer.
P. DE J. GRUT, Esa.

Hon. Secretary.
F. J. PIRANI, Esa.

Airbraria.
J. E. NEILD, M.D.

Council.
J. BOSISTO, Esa. F. POOLMAN, Ese.
E. HOWITT, Esa. T. E, RAWLINSON, Esa.
REY. H. P. KANE. ‘ J. T. RUDALL, Esq.
J. MARSHALL, Eso., M.A. H. K. RUSDEN, Esq.
S. W. M‘GOWAN, Esa. A. K. SMITH, Esa.

J. C. NEWBERY, Esq. E. J. WHITE, Esa.

Aonal Society of Victoriy,

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS

OF
Che President,
Mr. Rk. L. J. Evtery, F.R.A.S. (Government Astronomer.)

(Delivered to the Members of the Royal Society, at the Annual
Conversazione, held on 27th August, 1874.)

Your EXCELLENCY, AND GENTLEMEN OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY,

We meet to-night to commemorate the entrance of this
Society into its seventeenth session, and, in accordance
with our usual custom, I propose to address you briefly
on the history of the Society during the interval that has
elapsed since we last met here on a similar occasion in
August, last year. Although I am extremely happy to state
that I have to report no gaps in our ranks from death
during the past year, it is nevertheless my painful duty to
refer to the recent loss of a gentleman who, though not
a member of our Society, was most honourably associated
with it in the Kclipse Expedition. I refer to the late
Commander Gowlland, R.N., who was recently drowned in
the Sydney Harbour whilst performing his duties there as
Admiralty Marine Surveyor. Commander Gowlland, most
of you will remember, gave his services, and commanded
the Eclipse Expedition Steamer Governor Blackall, and also
formed one of the Sydney observing party. The expedition

b

x President's Address

was fitted out under the auspices of this Society, and was
accompanied by many of our members, who had ample
‘opportunity of estimating the qualities of Commander
Gowlland as a navigator, a commander, or a friend; and I
believe I but echo the opinion of all who went on that
expedition when I say that he won the esteem and confi-
dence of all, and the lasting friendship of a great many. I
feel assured, gentlemen, that you share with me the most ~
sincere regret at the untimely loss of one who volunteered
his gratuitous services to help us in a scientific undertaking,
and performed them so efficiently, genially, and well.

The great event of our past year’s history is the comple-
tion of the publication of our Transactions to the end of
1872. In February last the 10th volume, containing the
results of the Society’s work from August 1869 to the end
of 1872 was issued. This, for many reasons, is a matter for
congratulation. Our Society has been in the regular receipt
of the publications of kindred Societies abroad, yet for
several years past we have been unable to reciprocate. The
new volume has now, however, been distributed to all
foreign Societies and Institutions with whom we have inter-
changes, and we have thus in some small degree diminished
this debt, and given proof to our brother workers in other
parts of the world that our Society has not been asleep.

The income proper of the Society has not been found
sufficient to cover the working expenses, interest on the
building, and printing the Transactions as well, and our
ability to publish must yet depend upon the continuance of
the small annual vote from the State funds which the
Government has again most likerally granted to us for the
last three years. The Transactions of Session 1873 are not
yet printed, but it is intended to proceed with the work at
once, so as to issue the volume before the close of the
year.

for the year 1874. xi

Since our last Annual Conversazione we have held nine
erdinary meetings, at. which thirteen original papers were
read, having reference chiefly to the application of seience
to useful purposes, among which I am glad to say are two
from an ex-member, engaged in scientific work in Scotland,
who has sent us in this form the results of some of his
geological researches made during a somewhat brief stay in
the colony.

At the September meeting I read a paper “ On Lightning
and Lightning Conductors,” with a view of popularizing a
knowledge of the principles of protection of buildings from
the effects of lightning, and the methods of putting them
into practice. At the October meeting Mr. 8. W. Gibbons
read a paper “On Contaminated Water Supply,” which
clearly indicated the danger of adopting any source of water
supply for a community without a thorough investigation
as to its purity and freedom from chance of contamination.
At the same meeting a short paper by Mr. Etheridge, “On the
occurrence of Retepora in Tertiary Deposits at Schnapper
Point,” was read. At the November meeting a discussion on
«A proposed Method for Determination of Longitude” took
place. The method proposed claimed to involve less calcula-
tion than is usually necessary in ordinary lunar distances—
it consisted in observing the moon and star or sun on the
same vertical. Mr. White clearly showed that the method
did not possess the advantages claimed. In November
Mr. A. K. Smith read a paper on “'The New Embankment
on the South Bank of the River, near Prince’s Bridge,’ in
which was pointed out the dangers likely to accrue in case
of a large flood in the Yarra.

At the meeting on December the 8th, Dr. Neild read a
paper on “‘ Cremation,” in which that method of disposing
of the dead was advocated. This meeting was the last of
the session, and no ordinary meeting took place till the

b 2

Xi President's Addvress

commencement of the present session in April, when:
Mr. S. W. Gibbons read an ‘“ Account of a New Method for
the Disposal and Utilization of Excreta.” At the May
meeting I gave a brief account of the forthcoming “Transit
of Venus,” and of the preparations being made for its
observation. In June two communications were read—one
by Mr. D. Kennedy, “Account of an Escape of a Miner
from Drowning in a Flooded Mine,” where the miner was a
considerable time in a drive below, and actually sealed by
the water; the other by Mr. Etheridge, jun. (of Edinburgh),
“On the Sand Dunes of the Coast of Victoria.” At our last
meeting a contribution by Mr. Corbett was read—‘“ An
Account of Practical Experience in the Use of Abyssinian
Tube Wells” in the colony. Mr. 8S. W. Gibbons also read
and illustrated a paper ‘‘ On Cremation,” in which the writer
dealt with the different methods by which this plan of
disposal of the dead could be carried out with the least
possible objections.

This then summarises. the ordinary work of the session.
It is worthy of remark that the discussions on the various
papers or subjects brought before the ordinary meetings.
during the last year have certainly been more general and
animated than before, indicating perhaps a greater interest
in the subjects, or possibly a diminution of that diffidence
for which many of our members are not a little remarkable.
While speaking of this part of our Society’s affairs, I may
mention that some little difficulty has been experienced by
the Council with regard to the custody of the papers after
they have been read to the Society. It has been our custom
to allow members of the press, 1f they made the request, to
have the MSS. for publication, in full or in abstract, more
especially when the Society was not in a position to publish
its transactions regularly. Our rules, however, are very
explicit on this point, and allowing the papers to go out of

for the year 1874. -

the custody of the secretary, except for publication in the
‘Transactions, was clearly a breach of them; again, several
papers so lent had been lost, and therefore could not appear
in our Transactions when published. There can be no two
opinions as to the desirability of giving immediate publicity
to our work through the medium of the papers, as well as
the early publication in the Transactions of the Society ; but

papers are often too long, or of too abstract a character, for

8
newspaper publication. I believe most of our members feel
interested in getting a fair and correct account of our pro-
‘ceedings in the daily press, but we cannot expect this unless
we furnish the materials. It sometimes happens that nothing
short of a verbatim report of our proceedings could be satis-
factory, but this cannot be obtained, except (as is frequently
done in London) by shorthand writers paid by the Society.
I think, therefore, that we should modify our rules, to admit
of papers of immediate interest being handed to the press
under certain conditions, or where the leneth or character of
the paper is such as to preclude its publication in full, the
writer should append to his paper a concise and clear
abstract for the press. By adopting this course, a much
more satisfactory report of our proceedings would appear
than is possible under the present arrangements.

At our meeting of the 11th of September, in 1871, a paper
was contributed by Mr. R. S. Deverell, of Portland, on
“Ocean Waves and their Action on Floating Bodies;” and
again on December the 9th, 1872, another paper by the
same gentleman, entitled “Ocean Wave Power Machinery,”
was read. The first of these led up to the theory that in the
motion of the ocean waves we have a redundant natural force
capable of being conserved by proper mechanical arrangement
for doing work at the will of man. The second paper dealt
‘with the principles of the mechanical arrangements by
which this force could be conserved. Mr. Deverell is a true

XIV Presidents Address

scientific worker, and having conceived the idea that part of
the wave force could be made subservient to man, he has
worked steadily at the subject for years, and in order to
master it has acquired by hard study a sound knowledge of
those branches of physics in which the subject is involved.
Some months ago he devised an apparatus by which the
movements of a ship at sea could be registered ; this was:
placed in charge of his brother, who went to England in the
ship Norfolk, for the purpose of making observations with it.
on the voyage; from the results of these, which are most
valuable and interesting, Mr. Deverell deduces the following :
“The duration of the voyage was 2,026 hours, during that
time the ship made 1,764,088 beam oscillations or rolls, and.
1,041,137 fore and aft oscillations or pitches. The average
number of oscillations in both directions per minute were 14..
The aggregate arc of pendulum registering beam movements
was over 15 million degrees, while/that of the fore and aft
movements was nearly 5 million degrees.” Mr. Deverell also
considers he has definitely established from these observa-
tions the following propositions :

Ist. That between ocean limits the swell of the ocean is.
unceasing.

2nd. That the oscillation of a vessel in an ocean fetch is.
unceasing.

3rd. That the motion of an independent body within a
ship on the ocean is unceasing. ©

Here then is represented an immense amount of con-
servable energy, and the question remains, can a practicable
method be found for conserving it for use on board ship 2
Mr. Deverell believes it can, and to a sufficient extent to be
useful in auxiliary propulsion. We know from his papers.
that the power to be obtained is to be derived from the
conserved ageregate motion of a freely suspended mass.
within the ship, and an idea of the extent of this possible

for the year 1874. KV

motion can be readily conceived from his 3rd proposition and
the figures I have quoted. Mr. Deverell expects to be in a
position in a few months to detail his method of putting his
propositions into practice, and promises to bring it before
this Society immediately it is matured. In the mean time
the subject is attracting a good deal of attention among
naval architects and nautical men in Europe and America,
and its further development will be watched with great
interest, not only by members of our Society, but the world
generally, for any reasonable proposition for the utilization
of any of nature’s redundant forces must be among the
highest aims of scientific workers. I may mention, before
leaving this subject, that My. Bessemer has purchased from
Mr. Deverell the instrument the Vorfolk voyage observations
were made with, for his famous saloon ship, and that this
fact has probably led to a report which appeared in print
some time ago that Mr. Bessemer and the Admiralty were
building ships on Mr. Deverell’s principle, but which is
entirely without foundation.

There is no instance I believe in the annals of science,
where there has been such a general co-operation among the
various nations, and such a liberal expenditure of state
funds for a single and purely scientific purpose as has taken
place with regard to the forthcoming Transit of Venus.
True, the phenomenon is one of the rarest and most im-
portant of all astronomical events, the proper observation of
which would be cheaply purchased at even a greater outlay
than will be made on this occasion. The simple result that
it is desired to obtain is the Sun’s distance from the Earth ;
its distance 1s probably known within a million miles or
two, but these limits are too wide in the present state of
astronomy ; therefore, by universal consent, the civilized
communities have entered on a great scientific alliance, and
granted money from their treasuries to enable their

eer rr

XV1 President's Address

astronomers to make the requisite determiaations on a scale
as nearly commensurate with the present demands of science
as the means at command will admit of. In many branches
of science there are subjects for investigation, and large
fields of research, concerning which further knowledge
would be to the advantage of the whole world, and which
can only be properly grappled with by the co-operation of
observers or workers spread over the whole globe; such
undertakings therefore concern all nations alike, and in
which all civilized communities should, as in honour bound,
and in proportion to their status and means, do their share.
This is notably one of these instances, and it is a matter for
congratulation that the foremost nations and colonies have
cheerfully and promptly set about the business in a manner
worthy of the age in which we live. Let us hope that the
efforts of every nationality may be crowned with success.

I had the honour of addressing this Society on a former
occasion concerning this phenomenon somewhat in detail,
it only remains therefore to inform you of the present stage
of the preparations. There will be altogether about 70
observing parties—23 or 24 British (including India, Cape,
Victoria, New South Wales, as well as Lord Lindsay’s
Mauritius party), 5 or 6 German, 26 Russian, 8 American,
and 6 French.

The British observing stations will be Alexandria, Cairo,
Rodriguez, Kerguelen’s Land (2 stations), Christchurch
(New Zealand). British-Colonial stations—India (3 stations),
the Cape of Good Hope, Victoria (4 stations), New South
Wales (4 stations), Mauritius (Lord Lindsay’s Expedition).
The German stations will be Mauritius, Cheefoo (China),
Macdonald Island, Auckland Islands, and Ispahan. The
Russians will occupy 26 stations, all in Siberia, Japan, and
China. The Americans will be stationed at Hobart Town,
New Zealand, Chatham Islands, Kerguelen’s Land, Crozet’s

for the year 1874. XVii

Islands, Pekin, Nagasaki, and 1 station in Siberia. The
French parties will occupy Campbell Island, St. Paul’s
Island, Pekin, Yokohama, and Saigon in Cochin China.
Most of these observing parties are now in course of
taking up their stations, and all the southern parties of
British, American, French, and German are expected to be
at their respective destinations within the next two months.
Our own preparations are in a forward state, and some of
the special instruments required, which were ordered from

England, have arrived; but our preparations cannot be

completed till others, shortly expected, arrive.

An apparatus very similar to that used in England for
representing as nearly as possible artificially the various
phases of the Transit has been constructed at the Observa-
tory, and is now in this building for your inspection. It 1s
intended that all who are likely to be engaged in observing
the transit at any of the four Victorian stations shall be
practised thoroughly with this apparatus, so as to train the
eye as much as possible for the appearance of the natural
phenomenon.

A prominent example of a field for scientific research
which concerns all civilized nations alike, and in which the
joint labours of all are necessary to further knowledge and
progress, is meteorology.

In my last address I referred at some length to the
organization in Europe and America of a very complete
system of meteorological work, in which immediate trans-
mission of observations from different parts of a country to a
central office, there to be combined so as to enable the chief
meteorologists to make deductions from them, for weather

forecasts, storm warnings, &c., formed the principal basis of

operations. This work has been carried on steadily, and with
most remarkable and satisfactory results. Some volumes
have been lately issued from the meteorological bureau at

XVill President's Address

Washington, in which are printed the observations received
at the central office, and the forecasts deduced from them,
which are posted up at all important places in the States, to
which is appended the actual weather which occurred, the
fulfilment or otherwise of the forecast; and it is remarkable
how often the forecasts are verified, more especially in those
cases where warnings are most valuable, such as the approach
of storms, and very low temperatures. In England and
Europe generally, the same system is carried out by a very
complete system of storm warnings, which have already
proved invaluable, although the system is yet only in its
infancy. I advocated in this place last year the carrying
out of a somewhat similar system in Australia, and although
no final scheme is yet decided upon, the chief features have
been discussed by the principal colonial observers, and many
points agreed upon.

It must be borne in mind that meteorological observations
for obtaining a knowledge of a climate is in a great measure
distinct from such as are required for the more general
observation necessary for obtaining a knowledge of the great
atmospheric movements and disturbances which must form
the basis of any forecasting. Our ordinary meteorological
observations of pressure and temperature of air, the direction —
and velocity of its movements at a few places distributed over
a small area, like our own colony for instance, would be
valueless for such a purpose unless supplemented by similar
work from the surrounding colonies. The climatic statistics
of a country are of great value pro tanto, and so far as
experience has gone it appears that no averages can be
safely taken as representing the averages to come, so that
meteorological observations for this purpose alone must be
carried on; but the grander objects of this science are
undoubtedly those I have referred to, requirmg wider
considerations than those involved in the simple climatology

for the year 1874. RAR

of a country. For all that has yet been done in this

‘science, we dare not attempt to prophecy more than 24

or at most 48 hours beforehand; we have nothing to guide
us to a foreknowledge of a coming dry or wet season, and
despite the auguries of the oldest inhabitants and blacks,
or the discussion of part observations, or any theories of
cycles, we are as completely in ignorance of the probable
weather a few days hence as if we had no barometers,
thermometers, or rain-gauges. The meteorological organi-
zation I have spoken of, however, shows how much can _ be-
done by scientific systematising; there is no theory, no.
nostrum, no quack weather prophecy, but a sure and
certain knowledge obtained from careful observation and
clear-headed deduction, and a bold grasp at the more
general laws which govern the behaviour of the atmosphere
over large areas of the globe. The forecasting—and this.
should mean forestalling too—of a storm, of great cold and
snow, may save much life and property, and has undoubtedly
done so in numerous instances—a single instance would
probably be ample recompense for a nation’s outlay in
Meteorology. So far the accomplishment is satisfactory,
but it cannot be said that the most, or the best methods
of obtaining a more complete knowledge of the atmosphere
and its movements have yet been put in action. We
content ourselves with measuring its conditions and.
movements on the earth’s surface only; we can certainly
see something that is going on above us, but at best very
little, for we are quite ignorant of the temperature, humidity,
electrical condition of, and frequently of the motion of, the:
upper strata of air. In Paris, I see they are about to make

_ systematic observations in the higher strata of our

atmosphere. One of the balloons used by the beleagured
French in the late war, has been converted to more peacefuk
purposes than that for which it was first constructed, and

XxX President's Address

will now form one of the appliances of the Paris Observatory
for investigations of the higher atmosphere. This is a step
in the right direction, for what little we do know of these

regions only indicates how valuable and necessary it is to

know more for meteorological ends. What is principally
wanted, therefore, to extend our knowledge of the more
general laws governing the aérial ocean around us, is the
combination of observations made at various atmospheric
levels with those obtained at the earth’s surface, which
latter should undoubtedly include as much as possible the
more critical regions, those parts of the earth most, and
those least heated by the sun. Such operations it is evident
can only be undertaken by the co-operation of observers in
all parts of the world, aided by arrangement for rapid
telegraphic interchange of the observations, among the

central observatories or meteorological offices of all countries,
‘and involving as a sine qua non money help from states.

State aid to scientific research has been much written
about of late in European and especially English papers,

and many and strong are the arguments in favour of a

systematic granting of money by the state, for the purpose
of assisting properly regulated scientific work. A Royal
Commission has been appointed in England, to inquire
into the present state of science in that country, and the
best means of fostering systematic research in its various
branches, and it is not at all improbable that a Minister

‘of Science may be created.

There seems to be an almost unanimous opinion that State
scientific laboratories for several branches of science should
be established and maintained out of the public purse, such

as laboratories for investigations in Physical Science, Astro-

nomy, Chemistry, Physiology, and Biology. There can be
no doubt that institutions of these kinds, properly endowed,
and conducted under the direction of the best men that can

for the year 1874. Xxi

be found to undertake the work, would eventually become
a great national boon, and result in benefit to the whole
community.

One of the members of the English Science Commission,
referring to this point, says: “Investigations connected
with almost the whole of our material economy are required.
There is no question connected with sanitary improvement,
with water supply, or sewage, or telegraphy, or the enor-
mous number of the requirements of the army and navy,
which would not derive advantage more or less from inves-
tigations of a physical nature, such as would be conducted
in a physical laboratory. J think that the whole of our
naval and military and social economy is dependent upon
investigations such as would be carried on in a physical
laboratory.”

Another, Sir William Thomson, writing concerning the
objects to be gained by the establishment of a Council of
Science, says: “The immediate utility of the work is
undoubtedly a very important object, and perhaps may be
considered to be the first duty of the Government; but yet
there is another duty which, although we cannot call it the
first duty, is certainly not an inferior duty, and that is, to
promote the honour of this country. There can be no doubt:
but that the inbabitants of this country do get benefit from
the feeling of satisfaction that naturally results from any
great scientific discoveries or great advances in science made
by their own countrymen, and especially by the assistance
of their own Government. The Royal Observatory at
Greenwich is an honour and a glory to this country ; and I
am quite sure that the money paid for it is very well spent
in the satisfaction that the country feels in the honour of

having one of the greatest and best, if not the greatest and

best, of scientific astronomical observatories in the world.
This country undoubtedly has a great permanent fj ossess’on

XxXil President's Address

in the name of Newton and in the name of Faraday. The
promotion of scientific research in a regular way cannot
make Newtons and Faradays, but it can obtain great scien-
tific results by systematic business-like action, carried out
through well-instructed and able men. It seems to me to
be a duty of the Government to make the national honour
in scientific investigation a subject of its solicitude, and an
occasion (with due safeguards against abuse) for spending
the public money.” |

In this colony the claims of science are usually promptly

and liberally recognised; we have scientific institutions of

which older countries might be proud, nevertheless there is
much to be done, which it is the duty of every prosperous

and intelligent community to set about, and amongst this

there is one branch which has—almost before all others—
strong claims for state help, l refer to Medical science. This
science is one which most nearly concerns the whole com-
munity, and yet I believe I may almost put it side by side
with Meteorology, as regards the unsatisfactory position it
now occupies among other sciences. Astronomy, Meteor-
ology, Mineralogy, and Botany have, in nearly all civilized

countries, endowed institutions; but in very few countries

do there exist similar institutions for researches in medicine.
To some extent, no doubt, hospitals might fulfil these
functions, but we must bear in mind that nearly all the
medical staff of these institutions give their gratuitous
services, and have to make their living in the practice of
their professions outside. The science of medicine as at
present practised is almost as exclusively as much a money-
getting work as law, and the practitioner has seldom the
time, if he has the desire, to carry on the original research
so’ necessary to advancement, and for which the science is
athirst. Now and then we find men of means devoting
some of their time and substance to scientific work and

for the year 1874. XXlil

research, and giving the results freely to the world; but the
fields selected seldom include Medicine, Physiology, or
Sanitary science. The endowment therefore of an institu-
tion for systematic investigations into the cause, prevention,
and cure of disease involving necessarily investigations in
Physiology and Physiological Chemistry by the best men
obtainable, whose whole undivided time should be devoted
to the work, is a matter demanding the consideration of
every well-doing people as a duty owed to themselves, the
community generally, and to posterity.

Ropal Soncty of Victoria.
E Se 5:

Patron.
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GEORGE BOWEN, G.C.M.G.

President.

R. L. J. ELLERY, Ese.

Vice- Presidents.
GEO. FOORD, Esa. | PROFESSOR M‘COY.

Hon. Crevsurer.
P. DE J. GRUT, Esq.

How. Secretary.

F. J. PIRANI, M.A.

Prbrarian.
J. E. NEILD, M.D.

Council.
A. C. ALLAN, Ese. F. POOLMAN, Esa.
J. BOSISTO, Hse. T: E. RAWLINSON, Esa.
E. HOWITT, Esq. J. T. RUDALL, F.R.C.S.
REV. H. P. KANE. H. K. RUSDEN, Esa.
S. W. M‘GOWAN, Eso. A. K. SMITH, Ese.
J. C. NEWBERY, B.Sc. E. J. WHITE, Eso.

Ropul Society of Victoria.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS

BY

Mr. G. Foorp, F.CS.
Vice-President of the Society.

(Delivered to the Members of the Royal Society, at their Annual
Conversazione, held 13th August, 1875.)

Your EXcELLENCY, AND GENTLEMEN OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY,

This evening we inaugurate the eighteenth session of
our Society. Upon such occasions it has become the custom
for the President to address the members concerning the
Society’s progress during the past year, and its prospects
in the immediate future. It has also become an accepted
practice in these annual addresses to allude, in brief terms,
to scientific topics of general interest, concerning discoveries
recently made and researches in progress ; not that a review
of the world’s scientific life, during a single year, could be
attempted with any chance of success, from our stand-point
and the limited horizon which it affords, but rather, I presume,

in the sense of showing, by a few instructive examples,
c 2

xxviii President's Address

that the appetite for and pursuit of truth is maintained
with unabated vigour; that in each instance the harvest
of knowledge duly follows the expense of scientific labour,
and that the boundaries of human knowledge are still
extending.

Following the established routine, I will in the first place
speak, to the best of my ability, concerning the affairs of
our Society, commencing with a few observations personal
to our President, Mr. Ellery, through whose absence from
the colony the task of addressing this assemblage falls
upon the present speaker.

Six months since it became obvious that the onerous
duties belonging to Mr. Ellery’s position as Director of the
Melbourne Observatory, overweighted by collateral and
extrinsic labours, which latter, to the full extent of his

physical powers, he was at all times remarkably ready to -

undertake, had at length produced some of the signs of
overwork. The inroad upon his general health had
rendered relaxation and change urgently necessary, and,
in consequence, the Government have allowed him a year’s
leave of absence, under conditions which it is trusted will
enable him to return to us at the close of his holiday
rejuvenescent and mentally refreshed, fortified moreover
by new experiences, and intercourse with some of the
foremost of the European workers. It should be remembered
that although the Royal Society has no necessarily
permanent President,—the election for that office, as for
all others, taking place annually—yet Mr. Ellery has so
closely identified himself with our work, has taken so
watchful an interest in the welfare of the Society, and,
in a spirit of self-sacrifice, has been ever so ready to
accept the onus of office, that for several years past, the
Society has with cheerful readiness re-elected him to the
Presidential chair; and on his departure it was felt that

for the year 1875. XXix

honour was done alike to Mr. Ellery, and to the Society,
by retaining him in office during his visit to Europe. I
think I may venture to add, that it is the intention of the
members and officers to do their best during the President's
absence, hoping to welcome him back in due time to his
accustomed sphere of usefulness among us.

Unfortunately, the temporary loss of our President’s
services is not the only one to be recorded ; we have suffered
an incomparably greater loss in the demise of Professor
Willham Parkinson Wilson, an event which occurred at his
residence, Wolfdene, Mornington, on the 11th of December
last, two days after that of the Transit of Venus. Professor
Wilson was one of the earliest members of the Royal Society,
he filled the office of Vice-President during many years, and
although his name is not prominent in our Transactions,

_ it can most truly be said, that his services to us were

throughout of the highest order. His eminent scientifie
and scholastic attainments are too widely recognised to
need comment, but to these were added certain marked
attributes, perhaps not so widely known, but which largely
increased the value of his help. He possessed that kind of
knowledge, not always enjoyed by the learned, but which
is essential to the successful conduct of the affairs of every-
day life, his perceptive powers were rapid, his judgment
penetrating and almost unerring, he possessed in quite a
characteristic degree the power of stripping complicated
questions of all that was foreign to them, and of pre-
senting them in the clearest and simplest form. At

the Society’s Council meetings, his presence gave to

the business, on all occasions, a tone and precision which
I fear, wanting his good counsels, we shall find it difficult
to maintain. At our general meetings he exercised. the
power of imparting the fullest vitality to the discussions:
I am speaking in terms of praise, but there are many here

Xxx President's Address -

who know how mildly these words portray our late friend. |

To those who may be present and who may not have
reckoned the late Professor within the circle of their
personal friendship, I may be permitted to add, that he was
the soul of honour; “one of the most just men I have
ever known” was the expression of his intimate confrére.
Though kind and courteous, he was at the same time
outspoken, tolerant of weakness, yet a cordial hater of
shams and subterfuges, a very soldier of truth. Although
the places left vacant by the most eminent are sooner
or later occupied, it is perhaps too sanguine to hope for
any immediate replacement of all we have lost in the late
Professor Wilson.

Speaking of the business of the Society, I beg now to
announce that much has been done towards placing the
printing of our Transactions on an improved basis. Volume
XI. of the Society’s Transactions has been published, and
since its issue, the intention of the Council to print and
publish each paper in a separate pamphlet form, as soon as
possible after the reading, has been realized. Enough
matter, in this state of detached pamphlets, will soon have
accumulated for rendering necessary the publication of a
new volume. A catalogue of the Society’s library has
also been ‘made and printed. It is not asserted that all
that is desirable concerning our Transactions, our rapidly
accumulating library, and our correspondence with Foreign
Societies, has been so far methodised as to admit of no
further improvement, but I think it may be asserted that
the Council is awake to the full importance of these several
matters, and is hopeful of gradually amending whatever
may be defective, and of supplying whatever is wanting.

In the last Annual address, it was proposed that members
reading papers before the Society should furnish a concise
and clear abstract for the use of the press. Iam glad to

for the year 1875. XXxl

be able to state, that this suggestion has been in some
measure followed, and that, as a consequence, we have of
late been represented with improved accuracy in the public
prints.

If proposals for membership may be accepted as showing
the esteem in which the Royal Society is held by the
public at large, in that sense, it is satisfactory to state that
such proposals are put in at almost all the ordinary meetings
of the Society. Our members at present numbering over
110.

The financial position of the Society is shown by the
balance-sheet presented by the Council in the printed form
at the first general meeting of the present session. In that
document the balance in the bank is stated to have then
been £181 9s. Od. The statement of assets and liabilities
shows the total assets, including the hall, furniture, &c., at
£2506 9s. Yd., against liabilities, excluding 73 fifty pound
debentures, at £53 12s. 8d, showimg a balance of
£2052 17s. 1d. Two notes are appended to the balance-
sheet ; it is in the first place.remarked :—

“Your Council has much pleasure in stating that the
fencing account has been paid, the printing account has
been reduced by £100, and debentures have been paid
off to the amount of £200; a considerable reduction in the
liabilities of the Society has thus been effected. For the
permanent preservation of the building a considerable
outlay for cementing must, however, soon be required.”

And it 1s added :—

“We have much satisfaction in stating that the Govern-
ment has again granted the subsidy in aid of the printing
fund, and we have every reason to believe that this course
will be continued.”

It is to the liberality of the Government in renewing this
annual grant that the restoration of regular printing of our

XXxxii President's Address

Transactions is in a great measure due. JI feel it
unnecessary to tax your patience now by observations
vindicating the claims of science to the fostering care of the
community; but itis, perhaps, not inopportune to remark,
in reference to this particular subsidy, that as long as the
collecting and recording what is at the same time new in
science, and particular to the colony, is disinterestedly
pursued, the Society may with confidence accept, nay it is
its duty to seek this strengthening Government aid.

Since our last conversazione seven general meetings have
been held, at which the following papers were read and
discussed. :—

On the 12th of October Mr. F. J. Pirani read a paper “On
some Processes of Scientific Reasoning,” and at the same
sitting Mr. R. LJ. Ellery described the photographic processes
to be adopted in observing the forthcoming Transit of Venus.

On the 16th of November, Mr. Rawlinson read a paper
“On the Discovery of some Keys under 15 feet of Diluviitm
in 1845 or 1846.”

On the 21st of December, Mr. Rusden read a paper on.
“The Week,” which was followed by Mr. R. L. J. Ellery’s
paper on “Some of the Physical Appearances observed
during the then recent Transit of Venus.” —

On the 12th of April of the present year, a paper written
and forwarded by Mr. R. Etheridge, Jun., of the Geological
Survey of Scotland was read. It is entitled “On Some
Upper Paleozoic Polyzoa from Queensland.” At the same
meeting there was also read a short paper by Mr. Rawlinson,
“On the Importance of a more Close and Systematic
Observation of the Atmospheric and Oceanic Phenomena of
our Coasts.”

On May the 17th, Mr. Foord read a notice of some of the
results of the Challenger expedition, and this was followed
by a paper read by Mr. Cooke on ‘The Sciopticon,”

ret

for the year 1875. XXXlil

demonstrating the optical and structural peculiarities of
that instrument.

On June the 14th, Mr. Alfred M. Smith read a paper on
“The Phenomena of Approach and Recession exhibited by
Bodies under the Influence of Radiant Energy,” and
Mr. Harrison explained a form of universal equatorial, as
well as an instrument for assisting observations of the
planet Mars.

I may now explain, for the elucidation of what follows,
that the laws of the Society provide for the formation of
eight sections, each devoted to specified departments of
scientific inquiry. In accordance with this provision, at a
meeting of members of the Royal Society, summoned by
the President, and held on the 21st of October 1873, it was
resolved to form Section A, devoted to Physical, Astrono-
mical and Mechanical Science, including Engineering, and
fourteen gentlemen expressed their willingness to become
members. A report of the proceedings of Section A was
presented in October last, from which it appears that ten
ordinary meetings have been held, and the following papers
read :—

On November the 4th, a paper on “ 'Trussed Beams ”
was read by Mr. Pirani.

On December the 2nd, an essay on ‘“ Barometric
Levelling” was read by Mr. W. C. Kernot. At this
meeting, Mr. Ellery described the methods in use for
obtaining uniform rotation, and pointed out the desirability
of a more satisfactory solution of this problem. Mr. White
invited the attention of members to the question of
Barometric Compensation of Pendula of Astronomical
Clocks.

On March the 5th, Mr. Kernot submitted a method for
obtaining uniform rotation, which Mr. Ellery undertook to
test. practically, and to report results.

XXXIV President's Address

On April the 30th, Mr. Pirani read a paper on “The
Laws of Motion. At this meeting, Mr. Ellery reported
on his trial of Mr. Kernot’s method of obtaining uniform
rotation, promising a further trial.

On May the 28th, Mr. Kernot read some notes on
“ Timber Structures.” 7

On July the 2nd, Mr. Henderson read “Notes on
Ventilation, exhibitmg a new form of Ventilator.”
Mr. Kernot gave an investigation of the Strains of an
ordinary bow-string Roof-truss.

On July the 9th, Mr. H. M. Andrew read “ Notes on
Elementary Geometry, being a geometrical investigation
of maxima and minima of functions of one independent
variable.”

On October the 1st, Mr. Cook gave an account of “ Some
Effects of Lightning at Mr. Clement Hodgkinson’s house
at Kast Melbourne.” Mr. Henderson introduced the subject
of the Dennet Arch, contending that its action was that
of a beam rather than an arch, and Mr. Foord exbibited
a“ Peculiar Elastic form of Carbon deposited from Coal
Gas.” .

The foregoing list accounts for eight out of the ten
meetings. of this section, the two other meetings being
devoted to discussions and general business.

Passing from the affairs of the Society, let us now take
a cursory glance at the wider field of general scientific
research. In the first place, I propose that we should
bestow a few minutes attention upon recent astronomical
work, especially that performed at our own Observatory.
For this purpose, I avail myself of information afforded
by Mr. E. J. White, the Acting Government Astronomer,
who states that, “During the last twelve months, at the
Melbourne Observatory a very large amount of work has been
done. With the transit circle there have been obtained 2,064

for the year 1875. XXXV

‘observations of right ascension, and 1,150 of north polar

distance ; these include, besides the usual fundamental stars,
transits of the moon and of moon culminating stars, for
assisting in the determination of the longitudes of the stations
occupied by the various Transit of Venus parties in this
part of the world, and polar distances of stars culminating
not far from the zenith for finding the latitudes of the same
stations. The Great Telescope has been principally employed
in observing the faint nebule and clusters of stars in the
southern hemisphere. The fine comet of Coggia, which
made its appearance here in July of last year, was also
carefully examined on eighteen nights, and fifteen drawings
of it obtained. It was intended also to use this Instrument
in obtaining photographs of the sun’s disc during the Transit
of Venus, but the apparatus was not completed in sufficient
time to allow of preliminary practice, so the attempt failed.
Advantage has been taken of the favourable position of Mars
during his present opposition to get some good drawings of
it. A fine series of measures for position of Coggia’s comet
was taken with the small equatorial. One observation of
Encke’s comet was also obtained. ~ Besides which, the
occultations of all stars by the moon visible here, during
the months of October, November, December, and January,
were observed with this instrument.

The Transit of Venus was successfully observed, the
new equatorial of eight inches aperture being used for the
purpose. Observations of the two internal and last external
contact were obtained, besides micrometric measures of the
distance between the edges of Venus, and the nearest limb

of the sun. By means of the Dalmayer photoheliograph,
- 180 photographs were taken with the Janssen apparatus

at and near the time of internal contacts, in addition to
37 pictures of the whole face of the sun with Venus on it.

- At the other Government stations in Victoria the Transit

XXXVI President's Address

of Venus was also observed, though the weather was not
generally as favourable as in Melbourne. At Mornington,
the two last contacts were observed. At Sandhurst, the
weather proved very unfavourable, and only the last
internal contact could be seen. At Glenrowan, the first
internal contact only was observed. |

Dr. Galle, of Breslau Observatory, has lately communi-
cated the final result of the observations of the planet Flora,
during the opposition of October 1873; the measurements.
made in the Northern Hemisphere, were compared with
similar measurements made at the Cape of Good Hope,
Cordova, and Melbourne, and gave the solar parallax equal
to 8’873, which is nearly identical with the recent
determinations of M. Cornu, from the velocity of light,
and of M. Puiseux from the Transit of Venus as observed at
Pekin and St. Paul’s Island. This value is also so very nearly
the same as that determined from the observations of Mars
in 1862, and that by Leverrier, from the perturbations
of the planets, that it is not at all likely that any material
change will be necessary to satisfy the combined observations
of the Transit of Venus. At a late meeting of the Royal
Astronomical Society, the Astronomer Royal stated that
he could. easily fix on the foreign astronomer, whom he
would like to see entrusted with the final reduction and
combination of all the observations of the late Transit of
Venus, but as yet it is not known whether any one has
been selected for the work.

On the whole the late Transit of Venus has been a great
success. In places of the greatest importance astronomically,
such as Kerguelen and the Auckland islands, where the
probability of bad weather was very great, the sky seems
to have cleared in time for the phenomenon almost
miraculously, and in most of those places where the
low altitude of the sun increased the atmospheric

for the year 1875. XXXVil

difficulties of observing, the Transit was generally well
seen.

Independently of obtaming the distance of the sun from
the earth, the late Transit has disclosed physical phenomena
of great value. The celebrated Italian spectroscopist
Secchi, observing at Maddapore, in India, has determined
the presence of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere of Venus,
and Janssen, the eminent French observer, found that the
internal contact, as observed by eye through a telescope
furnished with a bluish shade, took place some seconds
before the same phase was depicted photographically, thus
showing that the sun built up by the blue rays was smaller
than the sun built up by the particular rays which, in the
- telescope employed, produced white light.

Concerning the Total Eclipse of the Sun in April last, but
little can be stated ; the expedition to Siam has proved at
best, according to accounts to hand, only a partial success ;
the attempt to photograph the spectrum of the corona, from
which so much was hoped, having failed. But even from
our failures there is always something to be learned.

Let us now pass from these astronomical subjects to
another item of prominent scientific importance, the
Challenger expedition, rendered additionally interesting to
us by the visit of the ship to these shores. It is pretty
generally known that earlier cruises and voyages, with
objects similar to those of the Challenger expedition, have
prepared the way for the latter greater undertaking, and
that the work still in progress by the Challenger is a
continuation and expansion of that commenced by the
Inghtning and carried forward with marked success by
H.MS. Porcupine. The cruise of the Lightning extended
over a period of six weeks only, examining the space
between Scotland and the Faroce’s. Then followed the
voyage of the Porcupine, over a far more extensive area,

XXXVI1i President's Address

its survey extending as low down as the Mediterranean, and
its dredging operations proving successful at depths till then
unattained, namely 1,500 fathoms, or nearly two miles.

The valuable results of the voyage of the Porcupine
made it obvious that, with more effective means, still more
important conquests and discoveries of the secrets hidden
in the blue depths were attainable. Her Majesty’s
Government wisely agreed to fit out a vessel of size and
power commensurate with the work in the larger and more
ambitious form to which, by a process of natural growth,
it had now expanded. All that science could devise, or
skill construct, for contributing to this great object was
supplied. Improved apparatus for exploring the floors of
the deepest oceans, for ascertaining the force and direction
of the oceanic currents, for registering the temperature of
the sea at all depths, for bringing to daylight the denizens
of even the deepest and darkest abysms, as well as the
means of adding to geographical knowledge, and to that of
climatology, besides all requisite tools for chemical and
physical research concerning the sea in the many aspects,
geological, biological, meteorological, &¢, im which this
great mobile mantle of the earth may be viewed. These
and much more were furnished. | dare not attempt to
enter into details concerning the admirable appointments
provided for this truly national undertaking, nor may I
speak of the wisely selected staff of scientific observers,
but perhaps I may be permitted to quote the Janguage of
Dr. Carpenter, who first, in reference to one section only of
the results already achieved states, ‘“ That the temperature
survey of the Atlantic may be truly characterised as the
most important single contribution ever made to Terrestrial
Physics, presenting as it does the whole thermal stratification
of an oceanic area of about fifteen million square miles,
and with an average depth of 15,000 feet.” Dr. Carpenter

for the year 1875. XXX1X

speaks of the Pacific Survey in the same terms of admira-
tion: “Nor are the results of the Pacific Survey less
important, they reveal the existence of hitherto unsuspected
processes of aqueous metamorphism, at great depths in
the ocean, and throw an entirely new light upon the geo-
logical problem of the origin of azoic clays and schists.”

This liberal promotion of scientific enterprise by the
foremost Government of the world, is indeed one of the
sions of the times. We have other examples. The Arctic
expedition of 1875 left Portsmouth, on its adventurous
voyage, on Saturday, the 29th of May, and the enthusiasm
and interest displayed on that occasion included every
section of society, from Her Most Gracious Majesty to the
humblest of Her Majesty’s subjects. As Captain Nares is
in command of this new venture, it may be hoped that in
this instance his skill and care will be rewarded with a
success comparable to that which has already attended his
command of the Challenger, from which he has been so
recently transferred.

Other expeditions are contemplated. One by the.
Norwegian Government is being organised, and is to be
under command of Captain Carr Wile, of the Royal
Norwegian Navy. Its objects are similar to those of our
own Challenger expedition: the grounds to be surveyed
are situated between Sweden, the Faroe Isles, Iceland, Jan
Mayen Isle, and Spitzbergen ; the time to be spent on the
work is three years. Captain Wile, who is well qualified
for this command, having for the last five years commanded
the Norwegian Survey steamer Professor Nanstein, has
recently visited England, with the object of informing
himself respecting the Challenger’s work. A German
expedition to the North Pole is also under contemplation
at the Admiralty at Berlin: it is probable that this will
also start next year.

xl President's Address

The preparations for the forthcoming Philadelphia
Exhibition demand also a word of comment. Since that
of 1851, these International displays have continued in an
unbroken chain, and the interest which the first created is .
still transmitted through the series with all the original
vigour. Nations which we have been taught to regard as
existing on the boundary line of the modern civilization,
are now drawn well into the current of this eager race :
the system indeed has become a permanent machinery of
education, not alone to the young, but to the peoples as a
whole, in all which concerns their material prosperity and
the arts of life.

As our time is limited, I feel that I must not tax your
patience by further examples; I wish, however, in
conclusion, to make very briefly one or two observations,
to draw a moral, if I may so speak, from what has been
already uttered. The value of scientific research is now
too well recognised to need comment; examples of the
practical application of its results are of daily occurrence,
and everywhere at hand. There is no want of recognition
of this patent fact at the present day; nor is there want
of appreciation of the expanse of the field still open to
inquiry; and still promising great rewards. The want of
to-day is of a different kind, referring rather to the
organization of the labour, than to the recognition of its
value. Much of the work inviting immediate attention is
of dimensions too large for individual effort, requiring, not
the untiring zeal of a single philosopher, but rather a staff
of trained scientific workmen for its performance. Often
of national significance in its applications, it becomes,
therefore, of national importance that it should be planted
and tended by the nation even to fruition. And this does
not apply solely to maritime affairs, or to gigantic
experiments in gunnery, but equally to investigations

for the year 1875. xli

which concern hygiene and pathology, and many other
subjects of human interest, indeed to those branches of
knowledge, abstract or applied, which, although unremune-
rative to the student, promise beyond doubt, results of
great value to the race. This want may be characterised as
a more systematic mode of action in promoting and
prosecuting scientific research. I have no proposition of
my own to offer, as conducive to this desirable end ; but
an observation which has been very recently quoted in the
public prints, and which is attributed to the Hon. George
Brodrick, seems to contain a germinal idea, such as may
sooner or later prove reducible to practice. Speaking of
measures for the reform of the Universities, he argues,
“that they should be directed to strengthening them, as
fountains of educational and intellectual life, by increasing
the professorial staff, by extending their libraries, museums,
galleries and lecture rooms, by fostering unremunerative
study, as well as scientific training for professions, within
college walls, by treating both scholarships and fellowships

as designed to raise up an aristocracy of education.”
Of how soon the public mind may become ripe for such
an advance as this it would be rash to venture an opinion ;
but it is certainly some advance towards the satisfaction of
our wants to have them clearly expressed. Moreover, we
need not altogether despair of advances to be made in the
immediate future, while we have symptoms of a daily
increasing public interest in all that concerns the higher
education ; while we have examples, such as that recently
presented here, of a man coming unsolicited to the front
with the munificent contribution of £30,000 in his hand
towards our University building fund.

I have spoken pretty freely this evening concerning
applied science; one final word may be added concerning .
the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, and wholly

d

xlii President's Address for the year 1875.

apart from utilitarian considerations. Just as we desire
pictures, statues, ornaments properly so called, just as we
cultivate music and flowers for purposes of combined
intellectual and sensual pleasure, so the modern mind
having awakened to an appetite for every kind of natural
knowledge, science must therefore be cultivated to minister
to a real mental want, to the hunger and thirst for the
knowable.

ArT. L—On the Utilization and Disposal of Excreta.

By S. W. Grppons, F.C.S.
[Read 13th April, 1874.]

Art. Il.—On the forthcoming Transit of Venus.

By Rh. f.-HLieRy. ERS. FRAS
(Read 11th May, 1874.]

Art. II].—On a late Extraordinary Escape of a Miner
from Drowning. By D. Kennepy, Esa.
[Read 8th June, 1874.]
[ ABSTRACT. |

The miner, McCaviston was imprisoned for 27 hours at
the end of a 140-feet drive, water at the same time standing
in the shaft to the height of 52 feet above the level of the
top of the drive.

The end of the drive in which McCaviston took refuge,
opened into a long chamber crossing it at right angles and
forming with the drive a sort of letter T. “The length of
this chamber was 80 feet; average height, 7 feet ; width, fi
feet. At the end of the drive at intersection with chamber,
the roof rose 11 feet fromm the floor. The drive itself has a
rise of 4 feet; height, 6 feet 6 inches; width, 5 feet. Con-
sequently when the water rose in the shaft to the top of the
mouth of the drive, there was a mass of air in the latter,
having at the base an area of 4 feet high by 5 feet wide,
thinning away to nothing at the mouth of the drive. At
the same time, in the chamber or cross-cut above referred to,
there would be a stratum of air above the water level 80
feet long, 4 feet 6 inches high, and 7 feet wide. The water
- having reached the level of the top of the mouth of the
drive, it was now impossible for the confined air in the drive
and chamber to escape; and as the water rose in the shaft,
so this air became more and more compressed towards the
cross-cut. When the water in the shaft was at the level of

B

2 Observations on Sand-dunes

the top of the mouth of the drive, there was then confined
air (not compressed), as follows :—In the drive, 1,400 cubic
feet; in cross-cut, 2,520 cubic feet; total, 3,920 cubic feet.
When the water rose to its highest level (52 feet, equal to
about one-and-a-half atmospheres) in the shaft; the confined
air was then compressed, according to Boyle and Mariottes’
law, to two-fifths or a little less than one-half of its original
volume. The space thus occupied by the compressed aur,
under a pressure of a column of water equal to 1%
atmospheres, would be 1,568 cubic feet. The measurements
of drive, cross-cut, and height of water in the shaft are
only approximate, having been given by the mining manager,
Mr. Jackson, roughly ; but they are sufficiently near for all
practical purposes, and fully establish the fact that there was
a large quantity of compressed air surrounding McCaviston
at the end of the drive.

Art. 1V.—Observations on Sand-dunes of the Coast of
Victoria. By R. Erneriper, Ksq., Jun.
(OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF SCOTLAND.)

[Read 8th June, 1874.]

The general characters and nature of the sand-dunes of

the coast of Victoria are too well known to the members of

the Royal Society to need any lengthened ‘description from
me. I shall, therefore, confine myself to a few general
observations connected with the subject.

The usual aspect of that portion of the coast occupied by
dunes is low and sandy, rising here and there into hills afew
hundred feet high,and composed almost wholly of blown sand.
Portions of the coast at which these phenomena may advan-
tageously be studied are, amongst others, Anderson’s Inlet,
Point Nepean, and the coast line at intervals from Cape
Otway far into the colony of South Australia. From
accounts given by various writers, we may consider the sand
of the coast as forming three kinds of hillocks, viz., high

well-grassed lengthened ridges; similar detached more or -

less conical hills; and lastly, shifting dunes, devoid of
vegetation, and changing their form and position with every
breath of wind. One of the more remarkable instances of
the long ridge-like dune is that described by Mr. C. S.
Wilkinson, on the west side of the Aire River, near Cape

of animals, flint chips, a sharpened stone tomahawk, and

of the Coast of Victoria. 3

Otway,* where a bank of sand runs for about a quarter of
a mile east and west, at a nearly uniform height of 50 feet,
much resembling a railway embankment.

The height of the coast dunes varies somewhat. Around |
Anderson’s Inlet I saw them from 200 to 250 feet high; at
Cape Otway the extreme height appears to be about 200
feet; whilst the Rev. J. E. T. Woods has recorded certain
dunes on the coast of South Australia, between the mouth
of the River Glenelg and Cape Bridgewater, as high as 300

feet, extending three or four miles inland, and fast encroach-

ing on habitable ground.t At Cape Otway the dunes
extend some two or three miles inland, frequently in the
form of small sandy hummocks surrounding a basin-shaped
depression without outlet, resembling the “cups” of the
Cape Schanck district.t ,

The sand varies in colour from white to yellow, in places
very siliceous, whilst at others silex is in the smallest pro-
portion, the general mass then consisting of fine fragments of
Echini spires, Polyzoa, pieces of shells, Foraminifera, and
sponge spiculee, with little or no stratification.§

In describing the high sand hills on the eastern side of the
Aire River, Mr. Wilkinson says that the sand washed up on
the shore is swept away by the strong south-westerly gales,
and carried to the north-east, up a gradual but irregular
incline, for about three-quarters of a mile, when it falls over
a steep bank some 50 feet high, burying trees and shrubs in
its progress, || and thus covering up the face of the country.

Mr. Wilkinson kindly communicated to me some observa-
tions taken by Mr. H. Ford, of Cape Otway, relative to the
angle of the steepest slope of the sand hills, The result of
eleven observations is as follows—30°, 31°, 32°, 30°, 33°, 30°,
32°, 35°, 36°, 32°, 35°. It will be observed that the average
angle of inclination is 32°, the greatest 36°, the least 30°
The greatest angles were just at the top of inclined surfaces,
where the least thing would set sand in motion.

The sand dunes seldom contain whole or perfect: shells, or
large organisms of any kind, although Mr. Ford found in the
dunes two miles to the east of Cape Otway lighthouse, bones

* Report on Geology of Cape Otway District, 1865, p. 26.
+ Geological Observations in South Australia, 1862, p. 219.
{ Wilkinson, op. cit., p. 28.
§ Geological Observations in South Australia, 1862, p. 189.
|| Wilkinson, op. cit., p. 28.

B 2

4, Observations on Sand-dunes.

several bone spikes or needles, relics of the past tribes of the
Cape. At about the same distance from the lighthouse, in a
mixture of beach material, pebbles, humus, and broken
shells, resting on the Carbonaceous sandstone forming the
high cliffs of the cape, and apparently intermediate between
it and the overlying dunes, I, in company with Mr. H. Ford,
obtained a similar bone spike, with numerous seal bones, a
ramus of the lower jaw, pieces of vertebrze, bones of the
limbs, and a few pieces of ribs, whilst the shells appeared to
be those existing on the coast at the present day.

Both at the Cape and along the South Australian coast
peculiar concretions are to be met with in the dunes, often
assuming fantastic shapes and forms, generally resembling
trees with their branches. Indeed, for such they have fre-
quently been taken; for, amongst others, Mr. T. Burr
describes calcified stems of trees standing in the position of
their growth in the sand-dunes of St. Vincent’s Gulf, near
Adelaide.* The same phenomena were likewise noticed by
the late Professor Jukes at the entrance of the Swan River,
Western Australia.t Along that coast, hills 200 to 300 feet
high, forming districts stretching as much as ten miles
inland, are formed of once drifted sand, now consolidated, and
supporting a good forest vegetation. This deposit consists
chiefly of fragmentary shells solidified into a compact stone,
sufficiently hard for building purposes. Scattered plentifully
through such material, Professor Jukes saw similar pipe and
tree-like concretions, often ending downwards in tapering
forms like stalagmites. According to the Rev. J. E. T. Woods.
these ‘‘ pseudo trees” are composed of a magnesian lime-
stone. } :

On comparing the sand-dunes of the British coasts we
find nothing to equal those of the coasts of Australia, although
Sir C. Lyell has placed on record a rather interesting case of
the shifting nature of sand, which may be of interest. All
that now remains of the ancient village of Eccles, on the
coast of Norfolk, is the ruined tower of the once considerable
chapel, which, extant in 1605 A.D., was in 1839 almost com-
pletely buried in large dunes, locally called “ Marrams.”
The action of the wind between this and 1862, a space of
23 years, was such that at that date the foundations of the
edifice were exposed, and the surrounding dunes almost

* Inst. Jour. Geol. Soe., xvi.
+ Manual of Geology, 1862, p. 155.
t Geol. Observations, 1862, p. 168,

On Abyssinian Tube Wells. 5

swept away.* M. Elie de Beaumont advanced the theory that
sand-dunes might serve as natural chronometers, by which
the date of the existing continents may be ascertained ; that
by observing the rate ‘at which the particles of sand travel,
we may calculate the period when the movement commenced. i
Sir C. Lyell, however, doubts the correctness of this theory,
observing that “ this test must be applied with great caution,
so variable is the rate at which sand may advance into the
interior. {

Art. V.—On Abyssinian Tube Wells.

By Francis Consett, Esq.
[Read 18th July, 1874.]

These pumps were constructed of six lengths of ordinary
iron piping for gas pipes, each of six feet long. Into one of
these len¢ths was screwed a piece of solid iron, pointed, about
eight inches long, and the shoulder next the pipe was made
of a greater diameter than the pipe. This is for driving
into the ground, and the diameter being greater than the
pipe, it clears the way, especially where the holes are made
in the pipe. Just above where this solid point is screwed,
holes are drilled in the pipe for the water to enter, just as in
any ordinary tubing for a well, for sixteen or eighteen
inches in length. The number of these holes must of course
be in proportion to the size of the pump, so as to admit as
much water as the pump is capable of throwing. Less holes
would be required in a small pump, suitable either for
domestic purposes, or for a small paddock. The pumps I
got Mr. Danks to adapt the pipes for were No. 6 Douglas,
the largest size made by that manufacturer. They are as large
as can be reasonably worked by manual labour, and the
larger the pump the better, as it takes the man less time to
fill the troughs. Mr. Danks’ arrangement for attaching the
different lengths of the piping to one another is very good,
as the pipes preserve their full strength. He has a ring or
hoop about three inches broad, tapped from both ends, with
right and left handed internal screws. The ends of the

‘pipes have screw threads worked on the outside of them,

* Principles of Geology, 1867, 1., p. 513.
t Géologie Pratique, p. 218.
{ Principles of Geology, 1867, i, p. 516.

6 On Abyssinian Tube Wells.

about an inch and quarter or inch and half long. The ring
is screwed on to the first length of the pipe, and the second
length is screwed into the ring, till the two ends of the pipes
meet. By this connection the joints of the pipe become
probably the strongest parts of it. The first length of
the pipe, owing to the addition of the driving solid iron
point, is nearly seven feet long. When this is driven into
the ground, leaving only a few inches above the surface, the
ring is screwed tightly on with a gas-fitter’s tongs. I may
here mention that I would recommend that two of these
tongs should be got, because in screwing the lengths of the
pipe on tightly, the part driven into the ground will turn
round if not held back. When the ring is screwed fully
down, the next length of the pipe is screwed into the ring,
and the driving is recommenced till the end of the second
length is only five or six inches above the surface, and so
the work of driving goes on. I may mention that
Mr. Danks recommends, that when screwing in the different
joints, the screws should be smeared with white lead. I
have adopted his suggestion. In order to protect the top
of the pipe as well as the driving block from injury by the
blows in driving, Mr. Danks has fitted a cap which screws
on to the ends of all the pipes, and offers a level surface
to the monkey or block. He ingeniously devised the
plan of having a little block of wood inside this cap.
When the cap is screwed down tight, the wood presses on
on the top of the pipe, and at one and the same time
prevents jar on the pipe, and prevents the screws being
injured by stripping. Care should be taken never to omit
putting this block in, nor to omit screwing the cap well
down on it, otherwise the cap may fasten on the top of the
pipe, and not screw off again, owing to the thread of the
screws being injured. When one length is driven the cap
is taken off and screwed on to the top of the next length,
after the latter is connected with that already in the ground.

Now as regards the driving. This can be managed by
any handy man about a station, with the assistance of two
labourers to haul up and down the monkey, &c The
apparatus may be of the rudest kind. My arrangements
are aS follows: I took three pieces of quartering about
eighteen feet long, and 3” x 3.” These were erected over
the spot selected for the pump, so as to form a triangle
to hold a double pulley block for hauling the driving biock
up and down on. For the driving block I used a piece of a

On Abyssinian Tube Wells. t

gate post about nine inches square, and four or five feet
long. Through this a hole was bored a few inches from one
end, and a rope about sixty feet long passed through this
hole. Then either end of this rope is passed from opposite
sides over each wheel, or sheaf of the pulley-block, so as to
come down to the ground at opposite sides, where the men
who are to lift the driving block stand. The log or driving
block consequently hangs on the middle of the rope when
the men pull, and can be lifted about fourteen or fifteen feet
from the ground. It is of course necessary to provide for
the guiding of the driving block, otherwise when let drop
on the top of the pipe, it would fall on one side. My
arrangement for this guiding frame is two pieces of hard-
wood quartering, fourteen feet long, bolted at each end to
two cross pieces of batten, so as to keep them about three
inches apart. The lower ends of these are sunk a few inches
in the ground to keep them steady, and the upper ends are
fixed to the triangle just behind where the block hangs.
On the back of the log or driving block, a piece of quarter-
ing three inches wide is spiked. This has two cross-pieces
of batten bolted toit. The piece of quartering passes up and
down with the driving block in the opening between the
sides or pillars of the guiding frame, thus keeping the driving
block from falling laterally, and the pieces of batten at the
back keep it from falling forward when the block falls on the
head of the tube. Such is the description of the pile driving
machine, which can be constructed in an hour out of the
materials which are at hand on most farms and stations.

When the driving apparatus is fixed up the first length
of the pipe (that with the point on it), must be placed
perfectly vertical under the centre of the driving block. To
prevent it moving, a piece of batten may be placed at top
and bottom between it and the guiding frame, and the man
managing the pipe may hold a picce of rope round the pipe, so
as to keep it steady in its place during the driving, in order
to prevent the top of the pipe going either way when struck
by the monkey or driving block, which it is apt to do unless
kept perfectly upright. At first the taps on the top of it
should be light till the pipe gets well into the ground. When
well down, there is little danger of its going to either side,
_ but itis wise throughout to keep it steady under the blows
of the monkey. If the first length is carefully attended to
and kept perfectly upright, there is little trouble with all the
others,

8 On Abyssinian Tube Wells.

When rock or other hard substance is come to, that 1s
when the pipe ceases to go down easily under the blows of
the monkey, it should be driven no more, as the pipe would
bend where it is weakened by the holes, if it got-many blows
after touching the rock.

When the pipe gets down to a depth where water may
be expected, it is well to let a plummet down into it to
ascertain if there is water. If so, and it has risen high, it
may be well to screw on the pump and try if it is merely
soakage water, or whether it has come on a spring. With
the first pump I put down I found at twenty feet that there
was eight or nine feet of water, and I tried the pump on it.
I afterwards drove it to a depth of twenty-six feet, and the
water rose twenty feet in the tube; notwithstanding, how-
ever, their being so much water in the tube, it came up at
first only slowly, and there was great pressure on the handle
of the pump. It required several hours pumping before the
water became clear and came with a free flow. But the
success of the pump may be judged from the fact that I fitted
first two troughs containing each 594 gallons connected
together by a tube, and the two were filled in an hour and
a quarter, the pump throwing out the water as fully at the
end as in the beginning; showing that the springs were fully
equal to the pipe, of which the bore is two inches.

The doubt I had about tube wells being equal to pumps
which have a large reservoir of say six feet square, was that
there was no reserve of water, and that they would exhaust
under half an hour’s pumping ; but I now see that if you get
a good spring it is quite equal to the pump with storage.
_ Moreover, where there is a good spring, you can by the tube
well get down to the bottom of it; whereas in well sinking,
the men are obliged to cease working before they get down
as far as would be desirable, by reason of the flow of water.

At first a great deal of mud comes up, then sand. The
water gradually clears till it is as free from sediment as any
of the other pumps.

The second pump I put down was in a more doubtful spot
than the first. It had to be pumped a good while before
water came. Fora good while again it only gave about a
gallon of thick water a minute. The pressure on the pump
was so great that it was quite plain it was drawing the water
through the ground, that it was in fact tearing springs open
by main force. As the pumping went on, the water would
tlear for a while, and then apparently a fresh sprmg would

On Abyssinian Tube Wells. 9

be opened, and thick water would come again; but the flow
improved gradually. After nearly an hour’s pumping, it
yielded a gallon every seven or eight seconds, and after that
it required four or five hours’ pumping before there was as
full a flow of water as the pump was capable of throwing.

The third of the pumps which Mr. Danks has made for
me, has been down twice without getting ona spring. It
came once on rock at twelve feet from the surface, where
there was no spring; next it came on rock at a depth of
twenty-one feet. Here there was no water either. So great
is the pressure of the pump at the bottom, when the pump
is tried to see if it will open any springs, that it drew mud
up into the tube to a height of nine feet. It is of course no
fault of the pump that it cannot get water everywhere. . In
these two cases, the loss was only that of three men working
four or tive hours, whereas sinking two wells and slabbing
them, of twelve feet and twenty-one feet respectively, would
have been a serious loss. The putting down of the pipe for
one of these- pumps is less labour than boring, and one
ascertains for certain whether there is water or not.

There is not much difficulty in lifting the pumps. Geta
piece of quartering for a lever, say 15 feet long; put a
bullock-chain round the pipe, with the hook to run on the
chain; roll the other end round the lever. When the end
of the lever is lifted, the chain tightens on the tube so
thoroughly that it will not slip, and the tube will draw with
a strong lift of the lever. When the end of the lever is
lowered after the first lift of the pipe, the chain round the
pipe will slip down; and when the lever is again lifted, it
will tighten round the pipe, so that it will take the pipe up
gradually without any re-adjusting or re-fixing of the chain.

I have heard it stated that tube wells collapse or cave in
after a time. I think, however, considering how clear the
water is which comes up in those I have down, that it would
take a long time to bring about such a result. Neither can
I see why, if any falling in took place, it should not be
pumped out as well as the mud and sand were in the first
instance. But even if either of those I have did cave in
after a few years, it is only a forenoon’s work to lift them
and drive them again a few yards off—which, of course, I
would do, having ascertained that there was abundance of
water there. At the worst, only the labour of driving the
tube is lost, as the pump tubes can also be put down in an
ordinary well if required afterwards. The piping is a little

10 Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree ?

stronger and more carefully fitted than that for an ordinary
well.

A No. 6 Douglas pump costs £5 5s., and when a man
sets handy at putting them down, fifteen shillings or a
pound .will cover the expense of driving them. Certainly
no one ought to be without a good supply of water in his
paddocks in. summer when he can bring it up from a
depth of 30 feet for, say, £6 10s. Most of the waterholes
one sees are so filthy and impure in summer that it is
enough to poison the milk, and to bring disease on and
poison the blood of the animals who drink it. If animals
have foul water we must expect fluke and pleuro. My cattle
will not go even to waterholes supplied from springs when
they can get the pure water in the troughs; and they drink
vastly more of the pure water than they would of the
impure.

Art. VI—On Cremation. By S. W. Gipsons, F.C.S.
(Read 13th July, 1874.]

Art. VIL—Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroring Tree?

By J. Bosisto, Esq.

[Read 10th August, 1874.]

In many places on the continent of Europe and elsewhere,
experiments have been made to acclimatise our eucalyptv,
more especially the “globulus,” or blue-gum species.

The rapidity of its growth, its pretty ovate, and after-
wards lanceolate leaf, its early maturity, together with its
power to absorb considerable moisture, and to permeate the
air with its peculiar odour, led to the belief that this tree,
attractive in itself, exerts a beneficial influence upon
malarious districts. But this species, if considered apart
from its congéners, does not supply sufficient information so
as to arrive at anything like a satisfactory answer.

In the consideration of the question, is the eucalyptus a
fever-destroying tree? or, in other words, does it tend to
lessen malaria or to destroy miasmatic poison? we propose
to regard the whole of the eucalypt vegetation.

If we journey from Melbourne or from other centres of

Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree? 1]

population into any part of Australia, or diverge to any
point of the compass, we immediately observe the eucalyptus,
which is but seldom absent until we again enter some city
or town ; in fact, four-fifths of Australian vegetation consists
of the eucalyptus.

In the consideration, therefore, of its climatic influence or
of its health-producing power over that of all other vegeta-

_ tion existing in other countries, we are able more efficiently

than elsewhere to deal with the subject.

Physiologists explain the part taken by plants in general
to renovate the atmosphere and to supply to man and all
other living creatures a vitalising air, and sanitary reformers
have expatiated on the evils resulting from decayed vegeta-
tion under all circumstances ; but as regards the destruction
of malaria by the growth of certain trees, although this
means has been recommended from early times, the rationale
has been left an open question.

Some trees and plants have the reputation of evolving
malaria, and in the countries where they grow the
inhabitants avoid camping under or about them; in other
instances, the dewdrops of the morning from off some plants
have been known to irritate the skin in appearance like
fever spots, similar to what I have seen produced from our
Jicus macrophylla.

Such instances are traceable to some substance existing in
the plant, and have nothing to do with malaria.

Whatever may be the theory adopted as to the causes of
zymotic fevers, whether it be “ Liebig’s Albuminoid,” or
‘“Pasteur’s Animalcular,” they greatly abound in many
countries.

Australia on the whole may be said to be pretty free from
virulent endemic or miasmatic fevers, and the latter may be
said tu exist only as the eucalyptus recedes.

The physical geography of Australia does not differ in its.

general outline from that of other countries. We have

mountains and valleys, high ranges and extensive plains,
rivers and creeks, and according to Mr. Selwyn,* “in
general structure, character, and composition, in geological
sequence, and in physical and paleontological relations, the
rock formations in Victoria are in all respects analogous to
those of other regions.”

But in the eucalypti we have a vegetation absolutely

* Intercolonial Exhibition Essay, 1866-7.

12 Ts the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree ?

Australian, with the exception of its existing in the
neighbouring island of Tasmania.

If, therefore, we possess in a very high degree an immunity
from fever maladies, can it be traced in any way to this
genus of the myrtaceous order ?

Baron von Mueller describes over 130 species of this
genus as existing in Australia. To an ordinary observer
many species are extremely difficult of discrimination ; some
form together forests of great extent, both on high and low
table land, others dense desert scrub, and some are so dis-
tributed over areas as to give a park-like appearance.

‘For the purpose in hand, I intend to refer—first, in
general terms to the physical and chemical properties of the
the eucalyptt as a whole, and specially to those species
which may properly be said to be the representatives of this
class of vegetation.

The physical properties of all eucalypts are—that they
east their bark; that the leaves are evergreen and have
translucent cells, in some species visible to the naked eye ;
that the petiole is half twisted, so that the plane of the leaf
is parallel to the axis of the tree, thereby allowing free
action to the light and heat of the sun on both sides ; algo
the roots are dispersive and drain: water largely from the
soil.

The chemical contents of a eucalyptus tree are neither
poisonous nor virulent. Besides possessing those invariably
met with as general constituents of ligneous vegetation,
there is a tannate gum resin, a volatile acid, and a volatile
oil peculiarly of eucalyptic origin. The first two are to be
found in most parts of the tree, but the latter only in the
leaves. Now it is in these three bodies I think that we
have the key to the question before us, and I conjecture that
apart from these no trace can be found of the power of the
eucalyptus to oxygenate the air beyond that which 1s
possessed by other kinds of vegetation. If the principles of
these bodies are retained in the tree until set free by the art
of man, then further investigation is useless; but if one or
more are given up freely by the natural forces of the tree, or
by the aid of light, heat, or electricity as existing in the
atmosphere, or by some or all of these forces in combination,
then there is every reason to pursue our inquiries.

The question then arises, have we any proof that these
volatile bodies are set free in the air by the forces of the
plant in union with atmospheric agencies? if we have, .

@

Is the Hucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree ? 13

When does it take place ?
What is the quantity ?
What is the probable sanitary effect ?

Before taking up this question with the above queries, I
think it but right (although known to most of the members
of this Society) to mention that my operations on the
eucalyptus, both as to its solid and volatile contents, for
technical and medical purposes, have extended over many
years, and that they have been conducted on the living
plant in its forests and in the desert scrub during all seasons
of the year, and that the apparatus employed operated on
four tons of material daily.

The representative or type species to which I have
referred will elucidate the whole question. They are the
following eight species :—

. Viminalis, or manna gum.

. Odorata.

. Rostrata, or red gum.

. Obliqua, or stringy bark.

. Sideroxylon, or iron bark.

. Globulus, or blue gum.

. Oleosa, or mallee.

. Amygdalina, or peppermint.

CONT & Ot B oc DO eH

The first two—viminalis and odorata—represent those
species of the eucalypti which yield a small per centage of
volatile oil.

The four following—the red gum, the stringy bark, the
blue gum, and the iron bark—represent those species which
gradually increase in per centage of oil until it attains to a
fair medium standard ; and the last two—the mallee and the
peppermint—are those which represent the maximum. The
following is the illustration :—

Odorata yields 7 fluid ounces from 1000lbs. weight of
fresh-gathered leaves attached to very small

branchlets.
Viminalis yields the same.
Rostrata Be 15 ounces.
Obliqua ss, 80> vay or’ 4 pints:
Globulus yale DOK ites Bo OMA 3S
Sideroxylon 3, 160 © 5; SOs
Oleosa earls ZOO rely 5

Amygdalina ,, 500 ,, Pepe: Aes

14 Ts the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree?

No eucalypts exceed the amygdalina, and no vegetation
contains so much volatile oil in the leaves as is found in
most of the species just named. The eight species 1 have
just given, not only represent the oil yield from the
minimum to the maximum, but also the volatile acid and
the tannate gum resin, as well as locality, from mountain to
desert.

First, then, concerning the volatile oil. If we break up a
leaf of any of the eucalypti during any part of the year, its
usual aroma is present, and the oil cells appear the same in
condition, but when submitted to a practical test the quantity
is found to vary. Soil or locality does not appreciably
affect the quantity obtained from a species when operated
upon during the same season of the year.

The range of those species represented in the vinwnalis
and odorata as yielding oil sparingly is limited in comparison
with those producing larger supplies; these have a wide
range.

Gum trees when in full vigour have a large amount of
leaf surface, and it is necessary to note that the variableness
of the supply of oil does not arise from any diminution of
leaves on the branchlets during any part of the year. The
oil variation throughout some years is under 20 per centum,
and in others it varies very considerably, as we shall see
presently. Then again the variation does not follow in a
cycle of time from its maximum to its minimum, but is
intermittent. To account for these peculiarities with exAct-
ness, 1s a task I shall not attempt; still, I may point out
that the root habit of a species, the temperature of the
eround, and that of the air, have much to do with it.

For example, the eucalyptus amygdalina is a tree varying
in size from that of an ordinary willow to that of the giants
of the forest, some being over 350 feet in height; 1t occupies |
chiefly the higher portions of undulating forest land, and the
sides of ranges, and does not extend over 100 miles inland ;
the ground where it grows retains a little moisture through-
out the summer months, September to April, the roots run
chiefly lateral, and are seldom lower than three feet from the
surface; they are surrounded with a soil evenly cool, but
the temperature of the air has its usual summer range; during
these months the supply of oil from week to week is very
even, but as the cooler or winter months approach, the
eround becoming moist from rain, and the temperature of it
and the air lower, the supply of oil falls off.

Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree ? 15

Again, the mallee scrub is the opposite of all * this.
Properly this scrub consists of three species—the oleosa, the
dumosa, and the socialis, but I have brought them under
consideration as one, the oleosa. They are the dwarfs of the
eucalypti, but seldom growing higher than 25 feet, and are
more like saplings than trees; they occupy a dry, flat,
hungry country, with but little growth of grass under them,
chiefly dwarf heath bushes; there is little rain, but when it
comes it is generally in torrents ; the soil is a reddish sand,
in combination with salt clay; this during the long droughts
becomes exceedingly hard, so much so that a p ickaxe is
required to turn the soil. The roots run somewhat in a
horizontal direction, and the rootlets spread out travelling
downward ; and as salt water is to be obtained always at
from 25 to 40 feet, they are found resting on the moisture of
the salt soil, just above the sandstone rock, which generally
commences about 12 feet above the salt spring. The
temperature of the surface ground, and also that of the air,
is very high throughout the summer. The leaves supply a
ereater amount of oil during the winter, or rainy months,
than during the hot, or summer months.

These two examples of opposite conditions at one and the
same time present themselves to my mind thus—

That too much rain out of season renders the amygdalina
and the other sea-ward species poor in volatile oil ; and that
the early and latter winter storms of the interior, place the
desert species in the same oil condition as those of the
amygdalina and its allies. Hence the mallee supplies an
abundance of oil during the moist season, and the coast
species during summer.

We have, therefore, a eucalyptus vegetation charged to its
utmost from September to April around all our populated
districts, and we have another in the desert species charged
in like manner from May to October. In other words, as
midwinter approaches, the coast species are increasing in
volatile products and the others are decreasing.

In proof of this I give the following: In December and
January the desert ewcalypte are sending forth at the top of

their thick foliated branches, new sprigs filled with new leaf:

development, and notwithstanding their small and delicate

structure, they are full of oil cells with scarce a trace of oil

in them ; and in a degree a similar impoverished condition
exists in the old and matured leaves. (Specimen shewn.)
This again is the very opposite to the amygdalina, the

16 Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree ?

globulus, and others, July and August being the months
when this vegetation is in the same condition. (Specimens
shewn.)

These facts to some extent account for the scarcity of oil
at the times mentioned, but it is worth recording that the
vigour of the eucalyptus is greater in some years than
others ; some years very little new growth takes place in
comparison with other years ; and that when the eucalyptus
is less vigorous in growth, the oil-cells are charged more
equally throughout the whole year.

But to illustrate this further: In July, 1873, the mallee
was in fine oil condition, each two tons of rough cu
branches, with their leaves, gave two gallons of oil. The

- ground was well saturated with water, and the surrounding

country had a good overflow from the river Murray and its
tributaries. The dry season set in immediately after, and
the temperature of the air rose rapidly to summer heat,
ranging from 68° to 92°.

In November, the country became greatly parched, and
the only fresh water obtainable was that from the Murray.
The oil product was reduced to fourteen pints, being a loss
of two pints per two tons weight of material.

At the commencement of December, the yield had fallen to
twelve pints, and at the close of the year to nine pints, the
oil product gradually diminishing to the end of summer—the
end of March—when the supply fluctuated from eight to
four pints, the dry season still continuing.

The amygdalina, in the Dandenong Ranges, 280 miles
S. E. of the mallee, and approaching the sea coast, produced
in the same winter, month of July, only one-fifth of its full
summer supply.

The two preceding years were similar, but did not vary so
rapidly. On the other hand, in the year 1861, when my
experiments with this mallee vegetation were occasional, it
yielded as much volatile oil in December as when it was at
its height, in July of 1873 ; and the coast species kept up a
good supply with little change throughout the whole year.

The mallee country, as we ‘shall see presently, plays a very
important part in the climatic influences of Australia. But to
proceed with the evidence that the eucalypt volatile bodies are
set free in the air, we will examine the leaf and its surround-
ings morefully. The suspension of each leaf from the branches,
as before stated, is in a line with the axis of the tree; in
such cases, ‘“ there is no difference in the anatomy of the two

re,

Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree ? 17

sides.*” The stomata are on each side,:and the oil cells run
right through. The leaves being evergreen, are performing
functions necessary to sustain the health and vigour of the
tree throughout the year. Light affects both sides alike, and
the temperature of the day regulates the exhalation of
moisture from each leaf; and, as a light volatile body will
ascend with watery vapour at an ordinary temperature, the
oil dew exuding from each oil cell by the advancing forces,
is so conveyed into the air.

The sense of smell bears ample testimony, when in gum
tree forests, of the presence of its volatile bodies ; for there
is no mistaking the aroma, as it is different from all others.

The night and morning dews of the mallee country are
frequent in spring and summer ; this 1s in part owing to the

- suspension of water in the air during the hot days from the

River Murray and its tributaries, as they pass for a con-
siderable distance through this scrub; but the greater
amount of dew moisture is owing to the exhalation of the
leaves, for it must be remembered, that although the surface
soil is dry and hard, the roots go down to the moist under
soil obtained from the salt water springs. During the severe
droughts to which this country is subject, the trunks of
these dwarf trees are full of moisture, but so poor of sap
constituents, that in one of the species in particular, when
the trunk is cut close down to the roots, and placed in a
bushman’s pannikin, a cool and refreshing draught of water
is obtained, to the great relief of a weary wanderer in this
lone and dreary scrub.

So far our evidence of oil-evaporation may be stated
thus: That the desert scrub gums, after a winter of average
rainfall, supply the air with a continuous and even quantity
of aromatic vapour, and keep up a vigorous vitality through-
out the summer, or dry season ; and that a short season of
rain, and a long dry one, diminish the formation of oil, and
so lessen the exhalation. On the other hand, the seaward
Species increase their quantity after a short winter.

Next concerning ‘the volatile acid.—Hucalyptus leaves
(especially those of some species) when submitted to the
process of ordinary distillation by steam or water for volatile
oil, throw off a volatile acid which greatly affects the

copper head of the still, so much so, that on lifting it off we

find the under surface covered with what is like a coat of

* Lindley, ‘“‘Klements of Botany,’ page 45.
C

18 Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree ?

slate-coloured paint. After the copper head has been in use
for some time, this paint-like substance dries into scales
having a slate-pearly appearance. (Sample on the table.) If
the distillation has been by water, and the mother liquor
remaining in the still is subjected to a little evaporation,
this acid may be detected in the vapour by litmus paper.
(Experiment shown.)

Should the evaporation be carried to further concentration,
the acid aroma becomes palpable around the locality of
operation ; persistent, and very refreshing ; in short, there
is no expelling this acid out of the gum-resinous extract
orming in the pan. The aroma of the acid may be detected
in the air along with that of the oil, when travelling in the
bush. (A specimen of the strong acid on the table.)

The special features of this acid as existing in all eucalypts
are, that in those species supplying oil most abundantly, the
acid is not so promiment as it is in those yielding the
medium quantities; whilst those species which contain oil
sparingly, contain also but little of the acid. In like man-
ner, this applies to the resin bodies, and these facts are
worthy of particular note, as they go to show, first—That
those species yielding largely of oil are not so abundant
either in resin or acid, and that those of medium oil yield are
well charged with both. In proof of this, the amygdalina,
our largest oil-producing species, during its active period of
supplying the volatile oil, does not throw off much resin ;
but when it begins to lodge in the interstices of the bark
and wood, and exudes outwardly, the oil is dimimished in
quantity in the leaves.

The globulus, or blue gum, yields a continued steady
supply of oil and acid throughout the year; but when the
tree is extra resiniferous, the acid is abundant, and the oil
small in quantity.

The rostrata, or red gum, is another illustration. It
produces a very small quantity of oil, but the volatile acid is
very abundant, so much so that the red gum wood owes its
aroma entirely to this acid.

The stderoxylon, or iron bark, are trees of good dimen-
sions, and supply oil abundantly ; but the leaf surface on
each tree is small in comparison with other species. Here
the resin is so abundant, that its enormous bark is every-
where studded with gum resin.

All these characteristics and others of like nature point to
the following conclusion—that the volatile oil is the base of

Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree 2 19

the other products peculiarly of eucalyptic origin; and for
the following reasons—that those species which are great in
the production of oil, supply it vigorously to the atmosphere,
giving but little time for the formation of substances such as |
resins and acids, requiring the absorption of oxygen by the
leaf to form them. On the other hand, those species less
vigorous in oil production, allow time for the purpose, hence
they become well stored with resin and with the acid.

We come now to consider the extent of this vegetation.

First, in Victoria. The whole colony, to quote from
Mr. Skene’s report to the Commissioners of the Exhibition
of 1861, consists of 55,644,000 acres, tabulated as follows :

Dense mallee scrub - - 5,560,000 acres.
Mountainous ranges, densely
wooded with gums - 6,225,000 ,,

Opened timbered country - 38,922,000 _,,
Leaving for open plains devoid

of timber - - 4,470,000 ,,
For morasses, lakes, and
lagoons - . 402,000,

And for tea tree scrub melaleuca 65,000 ,,

First—the mallee. The area* of 50 square feet of average
scrub yields at its maximum one gallon or eight pints of oil.
The whole of these dwarf ewculypts consequently retain in
their leaves at one time, 4,843,872,000 gallons.

Second—Mountain ranges densely wooded with gum, 1.e.,
chiefly consisting of red gum, blue gum, stringy bark, white
gum, and iron bark. The area of 1000 square feet supplies
one gallon or eight pints of oil. The whole of this
vegetation, therefore, retains in its leaves at its maximum
271,161,000 gallons.

Third—Open timbered country. Taking this as containing
all the other exogenz of Victoria, we may safely assess it as
containing one-fourth of the ewcalyptr. Averaging every four
acres as supplying one gallon, we have 9,730,500 gallons of oil.
In other words, the desert species contains 4,843,872,000
gallons, and the seaward species 280,891,000 gallons,

If we now take into consideration the extent of the
mallee country in the territory of New South Wales and

South Australia—the exact area I have not at present at

* The area here given is extremely liberal, as in some parts it gave
two gallons.

C2

20 Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree ?

hand, but am credibly informed that it is at the lowest cal-
culation 20 times the area of ours—we have 96,877,440,000
gallons of oil held at one and the same time in a belt of
country massed together, over which the hot winds pass ; and
considering also that the same condition exists throughout
the major part of Australia with the other eucalypts as that —
‘which exists in Victoria, we cannot arrive at any other
conclusion than that the whole atmosphere of Australia is
more or less affected by the perpetual exhalation of these
volatile bodies.

What then is the probable physical effect? The elements
composing the volatile oils from the eucalypt: are three—
oH. ang .

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, of London, gives the following
formula to the eucalyptus amygdalina—C,, Hy,; to some of
the others the like or a multiple of that; and to eucalyptus
oleosa (mallee) C,) Hy, O.

The sp. grav. of these oils at 60° F. range between 0881
to 0:923. ear

Such volatile bodies when existing in the atmosphere are
so minute and so diffusive, that they may be expressed as
the fragrant breath of the tree; requiring thousands of its
compound particles to form one minim. Under such a
condition, they are in a state of preparation for a change in
their molecular condition. The researches of Schonbein and
others relating to the change the oxygen of the atmosphere
undergoes by electricity and by other known oxidising
agents, suggested a similar province for the aroma of plants
and flowers; and in an address delivered by Dr. Andrews
last December, before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, he
states that “volatile oils, like phosphorus, have the power
of changing oxygen into ozone while they are slowly
oxidising.”

Unless some such change took place in the air, the aroma
of the oils of the ewcalypti would be always present, and to
such an extent as to become quite unpleasant. Ozone, or
whatever may be the active substance in the atmosphere, is
known to act in a similar manner on iodide of potassium
and some other chemicals, and Dr. Day, of Geelong, whose
researches on this subject are well known, has demonstrated
that the eucalyptus oils absorb atmospheric oxygen, trans-
forming it into peroxide of hydrogen.*

* Dr. Day, of Geelong, reeommends as an excellent and very agreeable
disinfectant, deal sawdust, mixed in the proportion of abont one ounce of

Ts the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree ? 21

If the change effected be the production of ozone, and
the latest known experiments on the subject, confirmed by
Dr. Andrews, appear to leave no doubt that this is the case,
then another link is added to the evidence that the eucalyptus
vegetation has an important action on climatic influences. Dr.
Andrews remarks, that “no connection has yet been proved
to exist between the wmount of ozone in the atmosphere and
the occurrence of epidemic or other forms of disease;” but
remarks, ‘its absence from the air of towns and of large
rooms even in the country is probably the chief cause of the
difference which every one feels when he breathes the air of
a town or of an apartment however spacious, and afterwards
inhales the fresh or ozone-containing air of the open
country.” Let a small quantity of any of the eucalyptus
oils, but especially the oil of eucalyptus amygdalina, be
distributed sparingly in a sick chamber, or over any
unpleasant substance, or add a small quantity to stagnant
water, and the pleasure of breathing an improved air will
immediately be manifest. The application of this to the
climate of Australia has great force, for it is acknowledged
that we possess about us, both in bush and town, a large
amount of active oxygen, made frequently doubly so by our
vigorous vegetation.

As evidence on this part, let me refer to the circular
issued last May by the Central Board of Health to the
medical profession, inviting “further information respecting
the continued fevers now prevailing in and around Mel-
bourne.”

The following is one of a list of questions forwarded :

“7. Have seasonal peculiarities influenced the fevers ?”

Speaking as one outside of that profession, the following
may be stated—That the leading oil-producing species of
the eucalypti were, during the season prior to last May,
extra poor in volatile oil, and if any connection exists
between the amount of ozone in the atmosphere and the
occurrence of epidemic or other furms of disease, we have
given ample evidence that large quantities of the oxidising
agents usually known to exist in Victorian air during that

Season were absent.
Having arrived at the close of the three queries set

ol. eu. amyg. to the bushel; and remarks that after keeping it mixed for
four months, he found it to contain a much larger quantity of peroxide of
hydrogen than it did when first mixed, and that it continued to accumulate.

22 Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree ?

down at starting, the question now lies before us—Is the
eucalyptus a fever-destroying tree?

We have observed that the physical geography of
Australia differs in no way from that of other countries. —

That the vegetation is specially: its own.

That it contains peculiarities and principles adapted to
benefit a country.

That to judge of its effect on climate, malaria, or fever
germs, the physical and chemical characters of this vegeta-
tion must be considered.

Physically.—1st. Its powerful root action as an absorbent
of humidity from the earth, by being an evergreen, and so
continuous in its work.

2nd. Its leaf formation and presentation.

3rd. The abundance of leaf surface.

4th. Its leaf evaporation of water, oil, and acid, under a
perpetually genial temperature.

Chemically.—Ilst. Its volatile oil.

2nd. Its volatile acid.

3rd. Their power of producing peroxide of hydrogen.

And finally—The evidences of the abundance of these
volatile bodies, both in the plant and in the air. In the
plant—By experiments conducted on one or more of the
species throughout all seasons of the year, and almost con-
tinuously since 1853. In the air—By the sense of smell and
by morphological deductions.

From all this we gather that there is an active agency

existing in our vegetation over that of other countries.

That whatever change may take place in the condition of the
atmosphere, arising from the free and large supply of these
chemical bodies in the air, it is from all known evidence os
an invigorating and healthy nature and character.

The various fever types as found existing amongst us a4
times appear malignant, arising either from importation or
from the existence of bad sanitary regulations ; but medica]
testimony is that their virulence is meteor-like, “dies at its
opening day.” No credit can be taken for any improved
sanitary condition of our surroundings by ourselves in our
towns and cities, the influences operating there entice the
poison fever germ to fructify and abound.

“ Death lives where power lives unused,” and were it not
that such happy and benign influences, as those exerted by

On Some Processes of Scientific Reasoning. 23

the eucalyptus vegetation, existed around us independent of
ourselves, we might mourn our fate.

In conclusion, may we not say with some authority that
the evidence set forth in this paper on our own vegetation
is in favour of the eucalyptus being a fever-destroying tree ?

Art. VIII.—On Some Processes of Scientific Reasoning.

By F. J. Prrant, M.A., C.E.
[Read October 12th, 1874.]

Mr. President and Gentlemen,—

I have ventured this evening to offer a few remarks
on “Ideal Construction” and “'The Introduction of Metem-
pirical Elements,” processes of reasoning so named by
Mr. G. H. Lewes in a recent work,* the importance of which
has been overlooked by most writers on Inductive Logic,
although it has been recognised by several Mathematicians
and Physicists. In the course of my remarks, I shall have
to briefly discuss the nature of some of the fundamental
ideas of Mechanics—a subject on the borderland between
Physics and Metaphysics, and one of great difficulty, if we
may judge by the controversies it has occasioned amongst
philosophers. But as science advances, it is well to examine
its foundations from time to time, so that we may ascertain
whether they are solidly built, and whether they are
capable of bearing the weight of the continually increasing
superstructure.

The method of Ideal Construction may be thus de-
seribed:—The definitions and axioms of any branch of
science, or, at all events, of any branch of science which has
reached the Deductive stage, do not refer to the objects to
which the results of the science are eventually applied,
but to ideal conceptions of objects resembling the real ones,
but of a nature much simpler and more capable of mathe-
matical treatment. The conclusions arrived at by deductive
reasoning, absolutely true for the ideal objects, will only be
approximately true for the real ones, although sometimes
the degree of approximation will be such that our senses are
incapable of distinguishing it from absolute coincidence.

* « Problems of Life and Mind,” vol. i.

24 On Some Processes of Scientific Reasoning.

-The Science of Geometry certainly pursues the method of
Ideal Construction. Few mathematicians will agree with
Mr. Mill that Geometry deals with the forms of real material
objects. The subject-matter of Geometry is not the forms
of real objects, but Ideal Conceptions derived therefrom. No
material object fulfils the mathematical definition of a sphere
—that all points on its boundary are equally distant from a
certain point within the sphere—and consequently none of
the propositions proved for geometrical spheres are rigorously
true for material objects ; the more nearly a material object
fulfils the definition of an ideal sphere, the more nearly are
the properties of ideal spheres true for it, and the difference
between some real objects and ideal spheres may be so small
that, as far as our senses can detect, they rigorously possess
the properties of the ideal conceptions. So, there is no such
- thing in nature as a straight line,—no lines such that if they
coincide in two points, they coincide everywhere between
those points,—although there are many material lines whose
difference from straight lines is imperceptible to the senses.

The one Science which is as true of reals as of ideals is
Arithmetie, or, at all events, that branch of Arithmetic which
deals with Integral Number. Ten material bodies fulfil the
definition of ten as accurately as ten ideal spheres and the |
deductions of Integral Arithmetic are absolutely true for
external objects.

I now pass to the science of Dynamics. The fundamental
conceptions of this Science are those of Matter and Force. I
do not intend to discuss the various theories which have
been held as to the nature and origin of these conceptions,
but will endeavour, to the best of my ability, to give a clear —
account of my own opinions on the subject. Without enter-
ing into the general subject of the nature of Knowledge and
Belief, it will be permitted me, I think, to divide Beliefs
into two classes—Beliefs which have received verification
from experience, and Beliefs which have not received such ~
verification, either because they are, from their nature,
incapable of it, or because the requisite experience has
never presented itself. Would it be allowable to define the
term Scientific Knowledge as denoting those Beliefs which
have been verified by experience ?

Now, let us take such a belief as this—a table is before
me ;—how can I proceed to test that belief? I may look at
the table; I may touch it, and in other ways apply my
senses to test my belief. But what is proved when I look

On Some Processes of Scientific Reasoning, 25

at the table? All that is proved directly is that certain
states of consciousness, those involved in directing my eyes
towards the table, are followed by certain other states of
consciousness, the sight of the table. J.S. Mill, G. Grote,
and others have very ably argued that all our know-
ledge is of states of consciousness and relations of co-
existence and sequence between them. Certainly, such
knowledge is the only sort of knowledge which admits of
verification by experience, which can prove nothing directly,
except relations between states of consciousness or pheno-
mena. It must, however, be admitted that all our beliefs
involve more than beliefs in such relations; that we have a
very strong belief in the existence of something underlying
phenomena, and which, in some sense, produces them. This
underlying something is what is denoted by Matter. Mr.
Mill himself admits that all our language involves the
belief in Matter as something different from phenomena;
and, truly, he would have a difficult task to perform who
would endeavour to describe physical phenomena in intel-
ligible language, which involved no beliefs except beliefs in
relations between states of consciousness. So then, such a
statement as, ‘‘ A table six feet long is in this room,” im-
plies a large number of relations between states of con-
sciousness, and also the existence of something different
from those states, and which, partly, at all events, is the
cause of them. The former portion of the belief admits of
verification; the latter does not. If “matter” were
suddenly annihilated, and some powerful spirit were to
cause states of consciousness to succeed each other in our
minds in the same order as they did before, we could not
detect the difference. In dreams and hallucinations states
of consciousness of a purely subjective origin excite the
belief in External Matter as vividly as those presented in
waking lite. )

-In the use of words which involve the belief in matter,
we have an example of the process which Mr. Lewes terms
the Introduction of Metempirical Elements into beliefs,
that is elements whose presence cannot be tested by
experience.

Let us next consider the idea of Force. The origin of this
idea is to be sought in voluntary muscular motion. If I
‘move my arm, and introspectively observe the phenomenon,
I tind it may be divided into three parts.

1. The volition to move my arm.

26 On Some Processes of Scientific Reasoning.

2. The effort to move it.
3. Its motion.

Any one of these three may be isolated from the others.
If I am paralysed, I may will to move my arm, but am
incapable of exerting any effort to move it. If my legs are
tied down, and the soles of my feet tickled, there will, quite
independently of, and even in opposition to my will, be an
effort to move my leg, which is not followed by sensible
motion. If somebody else takes hold of my arm and pulls
it, we have motion without being conscious of volition or
effort.

Motion, however, is only one of the effects which effort
can produce ; there are others, e.g., if I press my two hands
together, I have effort producing pressure. Now, these
effects which conscious effort can produce may be produced
otherwise, as by tying a weight to my arm. Force is the
name for anything which can produce the effects Effort pro-
duces ; in fact Effort is a species of Force, though it does not
follow that all Force is Effort. We may speak of a weight
as a Force, or, a8 is sometimes done, we may speak of the
weight as having a Force inherent in it. However we may
picture Force to our imagination, it is a metempirical
conception. All we can know of Force by experience is the
phenomenal effects it produces. Yet, although a metem-
pizical conception, the idea of Force is a most valuable one,
and enables us to describe phenomenon much mote clearly
and concisely than could be done without employing it.

Having attempted an exposition of the nature of our con-
ceptions of Matter and Force, I now proceed to show how
Ideal Construction is employed in Dynamics.

Dynamics is generally divided into four parts—Dynamics
of a particle, of a rigid body, of a fluid, and of a gas. Into
each of these divisions Ideal Construction enters. There are
no objects in nature which fulfil the definitions of a
particle, rigid body, fluid, or gas. Yet there are many
objects which, to our senses, differ so little from these Ideal
conceptions, that the conclusion of Abstract Dynamics may be
applied to them without practical error. We may also
notice the Ideal conceptions of perfectly smooth bodies,
flexible strings, &c. In dealing with the subject of Impact,
an Ideal construction is employed, viz., the Idea of bodies
which after coming into contact with each other, immediately
rebound. As a matter of fact, an interval of time always

On Some Processes of Scientific Reasoning. 27

elapses between impulse and repulse; yet this interval is
so short that it may practically be left out of account.

An ideal conception which enters into nearly every
branch of Physics is that of an homogeneous body. A
body may be homogeneous in various ways; if all the
parts of a body have the same density, it is homogeneous
as to density ; if they have all the same chemical composi-
tion, it is chemically homogeneous. A body would be said
to be absolutely homogeneous, or homogeneous in every
respect, if any two parts of it differed in no properties
except shape, size, and position, and such properties as are
dependent on these. There is, however, no such thing as an
homogeneous body, nor is there even any body which is
homogeneous in respect to any particular quality. It is
equally true that there is no body which is heterogeneous
according to any simple mathematical law ;—an ideal con-
struction which is sometimes employed to give results more
in accordance with facts than those obtained from the con-
ception of simple homogeneity.

In those higher branches of Dynamics which deal with
solids as not rigid, but susceptible of change of form
under the action of Force, that is as elastic bodies, the con-
ception of a particular sort of homogeneity, or of heteroge-
neity according to a definite law, is introduced. Such
conceptions enable us to obtain results more consistent
with facts than those derived from the conception of
an absolutely rigid body; yet, partly from the
mathematical difficulties of the subject, and _ partly
from the irregular heterogeneous constitution of real
objects, many practical problems of strain and_ stress
in solids remain unsolved.

The Science of Heat assumes bodies to be homogeneous
as to the powers of conduction, radiation, &c. Such
assumptions afford examples of Ideal Construction. This
Science also gives a very excellent illustration of the In-
troduction of Metempirical Elements.

Before the kinetic theory of Heat was accepted, what was
meant by saying that a body was hot? The primary
meaning was that a particular sort of sensation, that of
heat, was produced in a person’s mind when the body was
placed in contact with, or brought near to his skin. But
when it was discovered that all bodies which produced this
phenomenon produced other peculiar phenomena when
brought into proximity to other bodies, it was found

28 On Some Processes of Scientific Reasoning.

convenient to introduce the Metempirical conception of Heat
as an unknown something whose presence produced these
phenomena, just as Force denotes the unknown something
which produces the phenomena of motion and pressure. We
have, however, no such subjective knowledge of Heat as we
have of one species of Force, viz., Effort. I must here notice
an unfortunate ambiguity of language which employs the
same word to denote the subjective sensation, heat, and the
objective cause of that sensation. ‘‘ Hot” has very different
meanings in the sentences, “I am hot,’ and “this stone is
hot.” There is a similar ambiguity in the use of the words
light, sound, &e.

Heat was by some conceived as a substance possessing all
the qualities of a fluid except the quality of weight. This
conception, was, however, inadequate to explain all the
phenomena, and it and other ways of conceiving heat have
now given place to the Aneel conception of Heat as a
vibratory motion of particles.*

What has been said about Heat is, mutatis rs
applicable to the sciences of Light and Sound. As an
example of Ideal Construction in Light, I may instance that
of a body homogeneous in refractive power, or of a body
heterogeneous in respect to that quality according to a
simple law. How inaccurately deductions from this concep-
tion represent some physical phenomena is exemplified by
the impossibility of determining with a close approximation
to accuracy the effect of refraction on a heavenly body near
the horizon. On the other hand, the results of mathematical
calculation represent with practically perfect accuracy its
effect on a body near the zenith.

The old metempirical conception of Light resembled very
closely the metempirical conception of Heat; and the modern
empirical conception of Light, as a vibratory motion of
particles, resembles the empirical conception of Heat; indeed,
it is now generally believed that Light and Heat are identical
—that the same vibrations which, under certain conditions,
produce the phenomena of heat, under other conditions
produce the phenomena of light. There is not perfect
agreement amongst physicists as to what it is, the

* In calling this conception Empirical, of course I do not mean that the
vibration of molecules is a phenomenon which could be perceived by the
senses, but that it differs from sensible phenomena in degree, and not in
kind. It is empirical in the same sense as a million miles or the millionth
part of an inch is empirical.

On Some Processes of Scientific Reasoning. 29

motion of whose particles constitutes Light. Some
consider Light as the vibrations of ether—a substance
different from any substance known empirically — while
others consider it as the motion of particles of ordinary
matter; others, I believe, hold a combination of these
theories, and consider that the vibrations of ether may be
communicated to the particles of ordinary matter.

Acoustics calls for no special consideration ; like all other
physical sciences, it employs the method of Ideal construc-
tion. Some of its conclusions agree very closely with real
phenomena, while others do not accord very accurately with
experience. The metempirical conception of Sound gave
place, very early in the history of the Science, to the
empirical conception of a vibration of the particles of
sounding bodies.

The Ideal constructions employed in Electricity and
Magnetism are of much the some character as_ those
employed in the Sciences of Heat and Light. As one example
I may mention that of soft iron, an abstraction convenient
for expressing certain general laws of electricity, which
are not accurately true for real iron. There are also
metempirical conceptions of Electricity and Magnetism as
the unknown causes of electric and magnetic phenomena.
These two are, however, now considered to be one and the
same. Electric and magnetic phenomena are intimately con-
nected, and, whatever Electricity itself may be, we have no
need to assume an additional entity as the cause of mag-
netic phenomena. None of the attempts to replace the
metempirical conception of Electricity by an empirical
one, similar to that to which Heat and Light have been
reduced, can at present be considered perfectly satisfactory.
The conception of Electricity as an imponderable fluid,
although applicable to many problems, presents considerable
difficulty. The most plausible theory seems to be that put
forward by Mr. Clerk Maxwell, who considers the attraction
between two electrified bodies to be caused by some sort of
strain of a medium between them, rather than to any
affection of the bodies themselves. From the action of
magnetism on polarised light, he is led to believe that the
ultimate cause of electrical phenomena is “the rotation of
very small portions of the medium, each rotating on its own
axis,” *

* Clerk Maxwell’s ‘ Electricity and Magnetism,” vol. ii. p. 408.

30 On Some Processes of Scientific Reasoning.

Chemistry is almost entirely based on Ideal construction.
We popularly employ the term ‘‘gold” to denote various
objects which possess certain properties of weight, color, &.,
but the gold of the chemist is an ideal conception bearing the
same relation to real gold as a geometrical sphere does to a
real sphere; in fact, I believe I am correct in saying that
no chemical element or definite chemical compound exists in
nature, or can be produced artificially, in a state of absolute
purity. The law of chemical combination in definite propor-
tions ig not accurately true for real substances, although in
many experiments the deviation from the law is practically
insensible. The same is true of the relation between the
combining equivalent and specific heat of a gas, and, in
short, of all numerical chemical laws.

Chemical affinity is a conception which is at present of an
entirely metempirical nature. The phenomena of chemical
composition and decompositions cannot be explained by the
laws of ordinary physics, and it is convenient to assume an
“unknown something,” called Chemical Affinity, as the cause
of these phenomena. Chemical Affinity is sometimes used in
another sense, as a name for the peculiar relations between
phenomena which it is in its other meaning the cause of—
an unfortunate ambiguity—but the word has many com-
panions in misfortune.

I may here allude to the fact that the separation of the
different branches of Science from each other is purely an
artificial one. All the relations between real material sub-
stances are complicated relations, involving dynamical,
thermal, electrical, and, probably, chemical phenomena ;
and the perfect solution of the simplest mechanical problem
would involve the application of all the Sciences which
respectively deal with these phenomena. It is only by
adopting the method of Ideal Construction that the different
Inorganic Sciences can be separated from one another.

Passing now from inorganic to organic phenomena, in the
Ideal Vertebral Skeleton of Owen we have a capital example
of Ideal Construction. However, Biology has at present
scarcely reached the deductive stage, and until it has
become, to some considerable extent, a Deductive Science,
it cannot be expected to illustrate the full value of that
method of reasoning.

In Biology, we have the introduction of a metempirical
element, which has been the cause of very violent contro-
versy ;—I refer to the idea of Life, Vitality, or Vital Force,

On Some Processes of Scientific Reasoning. 31

Now, the only phenomena exhibited by organic bodies which
our senses can perceive are mechanical, thermal, electric, and
chemical phenomena; but the relations between organic
phenomena are different from the relations between physical
and chemical phenomena. Although physics and chemistry
may be competent to explain the actions which go on in a
dead animal, they are incapable of explaining those which
go on in a live one. If, then, we assume Vitality as an
‘unknown something” which is the cause of those changes
which Mechanical Force, Heat, Electricity, and Chemical
Affinity cannot be the cause of, we are only adopting a
method which has been adopted and found useful in the
lower divisions of Science. But let us remember that what
Vitality is we know not, any more than we know what
Matter is, or, than three hundred years ago, we knew what
Light was. It is possible that as the metempirical concep-
tions of Heat and Light as abstract entities have been
replaced by the empirical conception of vibratory motion,
so Vitality may some day be replaced by an empirical
concept ; but, at all events, the day when this can be suc-
cessfully accomplished seems to be far distant.

And as of Life, so of Mind. The relations between the
phenomena exhibited by what are called intelligent
beings are ultra-biological, as the relations between the
phenomena exhibited by all organic beings are ultra-
physical and ultra-chemical, and the introduction of a
metempirical conception Mind or Intelligence as the cause
of the ultra-biological relations is a Scientific process. - But
although the objective study of intelligent beings has as
yet given us no certain information as to what Mind is, we
have a subjective knowledge of, at all events, one species of
Mind, as we have a subjective knowledge of one species of
Force. We must not, however, too rasbly assume that all
Mind is the same as our Mind, as we must not assume that
all Force is the same as that species of Force which is
subjectively known as Effort. It is possible that some day
Mind, as considered objectively, may be replaced by some
empirical conception of vibration of nerve substance ;—Mr.
Herbert Spencer especially has made a very able attempt to
accomplish this;* but that Mind as known subjectively is
nothing but such vibrations ‘is, to me at all events, an
utterly inconceivable proposition.

* Vide Herbert Spencer’s ‘‘ Principles of Psychology.”

Be The Forth-coming Transit of Venus.

However, I fear I am getting into cloud-land, and, in
conclusion, I think I am warranted in saying that I have -
shown that both Ideal Construction and the Introduction of
Metempirical Conceptions are processes of frequent employ-
ment and of great value in Science, and that the thanks of
both physicists and logicians are due to Mr. Lewes for having
explicitly called attention to them.

Art. IX.—On the Photographic Processes to be adopted
in Observing the Transit of Venus.
By BR. .L. J. EUuEry, ER.S2 eRe
[Read 12th October, 1874.]

Notes on the Discovery of some Keys. 33

ArT. X.—WNotes on the Discovery of some Keys in the
Shore Formation of Corio Bay, near Geelong.

By T. Rawuinson, C.E.
[Read 16th November, 1874.]

In a conversation with Mr. Alex. F. Mollison, some few
days ago, he informed me of a statement made to him
in England, by Mr. C. J. Latrobe, formerly Lieut. Governor
of Victoria, of a singular incident which occurred about
1845 or 1846, namely, the discovery of some iron keys in
the vicinity of Corio Bay, embedded in what presented
all the characteristics of an old sea beach, and overlaid by
15 feet of diluvium, at a level of 10 feet above the present
high water mark in the Bay.

Mr. Mollison was at Geelong the day after the discovery,
and personally examined the locality, and to this extent
can confirm the statement made; and owing to his know-
ledge of the occurrence so far, he, on the occasion of a recent
visit to England, requested Mr. Latrobe to narrate the
circumstances in writing for him. Mr. Latrobe complied
with this wish about four years ago, by dictating to
his daughter the particulars as set down in the accompany-
ing paper.

The high character of the narrator, his known keenness
of observation, and his shrewdness in sifting facts, combined
with the confirmation of the statements to a certain point
by Mr. Mollison, a well-known colonist of many years,
gives an importance to the narrative which it would not
otherwise possess unless so vouched for; and beyond all
this there is the want of motive for Boucher to attempt
trick or deception in practising on Mr. Latrobe's credulity.
To reject the statements made, vouched for as they are by
persons of undoubted integrity, involves to my mind a’
much greater degree of hardihood than their acceptance.
The statements may be at present inexplicable, but I have
yet to learn that this is a valid reason for their rejection.

D

34 Notes on the Discovery of some Keys in the

The above considerations have induced me to think the
matter worth laying before the members of the Royal
Society, as a record of a singular experience, wholly irre-
spective of its value from a scientific point of view.

Mr. Latrobe’s narrative of what came under his own
notice is one thing, his hypothesis to account for what he
saw is quite another affair, and the latter bemg but a
matter of opinion, cannot influence the value of the state-
ment which | now propose reading.

Mr. Latrobe’s statement, copied from an original document
in the possession of Alex. F. Mollison, Esq., 2nd November,
1874, by the reader, Mr. Rawlinson.

“The Boucher Lime Kiln, near Geelong, and a Memo-
randum about Three Keys found there.

By C. J. Latross, C.B.

Formerly Lieut. Governor of Victoria.

“T believe it was either in the year 1845 or 1846, during
one of my occasional visits to Geelong, that I, understand-
ing from Mr. Addis, our Crown Lands Commissioner, that a
man, of the name of Boucher I think, who. had a license
for lime burning on the shore half a mile or more below
Geelong, had made a new excavation for a lime kiln, I
proposed to walk down and see it, as I thought it would
give me. some further information on the geological
structure of that portion of the coast line.

“We walked over the open down, descended the abruptly
swelling banks to the sea-side, a little beyond the first
point to the southward, and then proceeding along the
shore, entered the excavation from below over the rubbish
which had been thrown out.

“A labourer on the spot was sent up to the hut above,
to inform the lime burner of our visit.

« As soon as I entered the circular excavation, which was
about twenty feet deep, my eye was immediately attracted
by the appearance of a line of calcareous matter, presenting
itself about the level of my head, and I saw at a glance
that it was composed of decayed calcareous shelly matter,
the upper line of which was thickly strewn with sea-shells
of different species, exactly similar to those which lay on
the beach, a few yards below us. Many of these were
so little altered as to be scarcely decayed, even preserving
their enamel.

Shore Formation of Corio Bay, near Geelong. 35

“T directed my companion’s attention to the fact, and
to the certainty that at no very distant period this line
of shells must have formed the beach. This stratum was
so far consolidated as to render its removal, except by
the pick, very difficult.

“T was working with my knife, to detach some of the
shells, when the lme-burner joined us. On seeing how
I was engaged, and overhearing the conversation with
my companion, he said, ‘I found a bunch of keys yesterday,
just where your honour is picking the shells.” ‘Keys?’ I
said. ‘Keys, your honour,’ he replied. ‘What can you
mean?’ I enquired. ‘Yes, here,’ he said, laying his hand
just upon the shellbed. I asked him ‘ Where are they?’
‘Up at the hut, your honour, he replied. ‘Let me see
them,’ I said. He immediately left the excavation and ran
up the bank to his hut, returning a minute or two after-
wards with two keys, each about two inches in length,
which he handed to me, saying that there had been
three, but that the children had been playing with them,
and he could only lay his hand upon the two. There could
be no question but that they were keys, very little, if any
way corroded with rust, very similar to those of the present
day, except that they were a little longer in the shank, and
the wards smaller than is now usual. The latter were not
only distinguishable, but were partially filled and encrusted
with the calcareous matter upon which they had lain. They
were just of the description still used for a box or trunk, or
seaman’s chest, and I should judge from the form that they
were not more than a hundred or one hundred and fifty
years old at most. The position in which they were found
gave me the impression of their having been dropped on the
beach at the time when the shellbed formed the shore line.

“7 am thus circumstantial, in order to convey to the mind
the feeling of certainty that I have entertained from the
first, that there could be no doubt as to the fact, that these
three keys (probably only originally tied together) were
found at the time and in the position I have stated.

“TI immediately took a rough measurement of the over-
laying soil, which consisted of a compact bed of dark brown
sandy loam, tinged with iron, underlying a thin layer of
vegetable mould. This overlay was about 15 feet in thick-
ness, and the height of the old shelly beach above the
present high water mark about 10 feet, and the distance
from the actual shore being about 40 feet inland. I was

D 2

36 Notes on the Discovery of some Keys in the

very careful to see that the sloping down of the land above
showed no marks of a land slip, or wombat holes, or springs,
or any interstices through which the keys might have
reached the position in which they were found. In fact, I
came away thoroughly convinced that none such had existed,
but that at the time the keys were deposited the matrix
was an open beach, forming the then shore line.

“ Now, presuming that the facts above related be incon-
testible, two things are to be accounted for—

“Ist. The existence of a shore line so many feet above
that now existing.

“2nd. The overlapping and overlaying of that shore line
by the undulating down, descending to the shore from the
interior.

“ With regard to the first hypothesis, many may be tempted
to account for it by referring it to upheaval of the coast, an
occurrence of which in past periods at least the whole
southern Australian coast line affords so many undoubted
proofs, and it may be said there is no reason why such
should not have occurred here in very recent times; but the
second difficulty, however, presented by the overlapping of
the adjacent country, cannot be thus accounted for.

“Port Phillip was first discovered by Lieut. Murray, in
1802, and actually entered by Flinders the same year; and
as the latter mentions visiting Indented Head, and even
Station Peak, he may have visited Corio Bay.

“The first settlement was made by Col. Collins, in 1803,
on the Nepean side.

“ Possibly Lieut. Grimes, who was sent from his camp to
report upon the extent and character of the bay, may have
made the circuit, as it may be supposed the runaway Buckley
must have done before he permanently took up his residence
with the tribe of blacks frequenting the vicinity of Corio
Bay.

“No actual survey was made before the visit of the
‘Rattlesnake,’ under Captain Hobson, in 1836, Batman
having in the previous year formed his first station on
Indented Head. It is not impossible that runaway convicts
or shipwrecked mariners may have visited these shores prior
to the recorded discovery, and visits as above-mentioned.

“T remarked above that the first idea which might present
itself to the mind on viewing the signs of a former higher
level in the beach line in this and other localities in Port
Phillip, would be that there had been a sudden or gradual

Shore Formation of Corio Bay, near Geelong. 37

upheaval of the land; but I have been led to reject this
idea, and to ascribe the appearance of this elevated shore
line to an alteration in the level of the waters of the bay,
and their subsidence caused by the outbreak of the waters
through the great gap in the coast line, now existing between
Point Lonsdale and Point Nepean.

“There is every sign of the violent disruption of this part
of the enclosing barrier, and that one might be led to suppose
- within a very limited geological period.

“No one who has remarked the phenomena of the ripple,
and of the continuous line of foam (it might almost be
said ‘breakers’) which extends from Point Nepean to Point
Lonsdale at times, when the wind and tide coincide in
causing an extraordinary rush of the Port Phillip waters, or
returning tide through the opening, can doubt that the
foundations are still existing, and that they present proofs
of a disturbance of no ordinary character.

‘‘ Although the soundings ordinarily given at Port Phillip
Heads and the entrance of the bay show no very great
variation of depth, being generally from 9 to 16 fathoms
inside the bay, I would not only refer to the discovery since
my time of isolated pinnacles of rock rismg here and there
much nearer the surface, and only detected by accident, but
also to the positive existence of cavities marking a most
extraordinary disturbance of the sea bottom.

“The survey of the ‘ Rattlesnake’ in 1836, points out the
existence of such a hole just inside the ripple, towards the
Point Lonsdale side, the depth being 24 to 28 fathoms,
adjacent to soundings showing from 6 to 10 fathoms only.

“Tn the year 1854, in the month of February, I was with
the iate Captain Ferguson upon the ‘Pacific,’ crossing from
Shortland’s Bluff towards Point Nepean, making for the
Quarantine Station, or Capel Sound. The tide was running
out with great violence, and the wind failing us as we
approached the Point Nepean side, we found that we could
not with safety continue our course, and that it was abso-
lutely necessary for us to cast anchor where we were until
the turn of the tide, or the south wind would allow us to
proceed.

The anchor was let go in what we supposed to be about
10 fathoms, but to our great amazement the cable ran out,
and did not take the ground until it marked a depth of 35
fathoms. We found that we in fact must have cast anchor
in the middle of an enormous depression, like a crater of, as

s

38 Notes on the Discovery of some Keys im the

we found, but limited area, and a pretty arduous task it
was to heave anchor and disengage ourselves from this pit
when the tide turned.

“Tt may be gathered from the foregoing that I am inclined
to the opinion that before the epoch of the disruption of the
coast line at the present Heads, the waters of this large
interior bay were at a higher level, and I believe it probable
that the former outlet for its surplus waters is to be found
in the line of the present low marshes and lakes which
extend from Corio Bay to the Barwon Heads.

“The two keys in question were long in my possession, and
the original pencil memorandum and sketch (but unfor-
tunately not the precise date) still remain so.

“The circumstances of the finding were of course well
known among my friends, and if I remember right, were
the subject of a correspondence with my friend Ronald
Gunn, one of the few scientific men with whom I was then
acquainted in Australia. I have an idea that the keys were
given to the Mechanics’ Institute, which unfortunately
received from me before it went to the bad, many objects of
interest which are now seemingly lost. I do not recollect
that there was any mention of the finding of the keys at the
time in the Melbourne papers, but think it possible that
as it excited some curiosity among afew at the time, such
mention may have been made in the Geelong paper, then
conducted by Mr. Harrison.

“My only companion at the time was, as I have said,
Mr. Commissioner Addis, now unfortunately no more.

“T may still add, that circumstances during my residence
in the colony led to my becoming much better acquainted
with the character of a large extent of coast line, and of the
extraordinary phenomena it displays, than might have been
supposed.

“ Many portions of the coast, from the mouth of the Glenelo
to the Albert River in Gipps Land, came under my personal
observation; and some divisions, for instance that from
Portland to Cape Bunbury, east of Cape Otway, were in
fact explored chiefly on foot, and under circumstances which
have left an indelible impression upon my mind.

(Signed ) © Osu J LATBORED

Such is the copy of Mr. Latrobe’s narrative to Mr.
Mollison, with verbal alterations only, such as are commonly

Shore Formation of Corio Bay, near Geelong. 39

requisite in oral statements when committed to writing, but
every fact remaining intact, as dictated by Mr. Latrobe to
his daughter.

I now propose to briefly discuss the paper, and review the
causes, as suggested by Mr. Latrobe, in explanation of the
alleged facts as narrated.

The hypothesis of the waters of Port Phillip Bay having
at one time been impounded to a height of 10 or more feet
above their present level, is set at rest by an examina-
tion of the shells (see note annexed) from the elevated beach
line; for if the waters were ever impounded, as suggested, the
gulph must have been a fresh water lake, and the shells
would be of the usual lacustrine character, common to such
waters; but as the shells prove to be marine, it is clear
that the impounding theory must be abandoned.

It must also be, I think, admitted, that with such an
extensive area of inland waters as those of Port Phillip,
any intermittent theory of alternate opening and closing,
according as the dry or wet seasons prevail, is untenable,
owing to the enormous scouring power existent in such a
‘channel when once opened out.

The second hypothesis, of recent upheaval, is countenanced
by various facts known to exist along our coasts; and some
years back this question was discussed by the members of
the Royal Society, in connection with the alleged elevated
coast lines at Williamstown. The upheaval theory accounts
for some of the difficulties; but there are yet two serious
ones left, namely, the time and the causes required to produce
the deposit of the 15 feet above the old beach line, and the
additional elevation of 10 feet of the old beach above the
present sea level, in the period within which it is possible
that the keys could have lain there.

Always supposing that Mr. Latrobe’s examination of the
superincumbent strata was sufficiently minute to preclude
the possibility of the accidental lodging of the keys where
found, and dismissing as to the last degree improbable, the
possibility of Mr. Latrobe having allowed himself to be
imposed upon, the question naturally arises as to where the
keys could have come from originally, or by what means
could they have been lodged in such a locality at so remote
a period, as to allow of so great an accumulation above them
as described, namely, 15 feet.

The earliest known visit to Port Phillip was about 1802,
and the time which has elapsed since then appears very

40 Notes on the Discovery of some Keys in the

inadequate to produce so great results under present known
conditions ; and admitting the statements made as within
the range of possibility, I do not see any alternative
but to extend the period for from 200 to a little over
300 years back, during which period the Buccaneers
had made their presence felt in the Pacific; we know
that some of them visited Australia in their wanderings,
and it is almost a certainty that many of them left little
trace of their presence, except in traditions of lost ships and
ruined towns.

It may appear visionary to travel so far on mere conjec-
ture for a cause, but the whole of the circumstances are so
exceptional, that suggestions may be hazarded which could
not be tolerated under other conditions, and in doing this
I beg to remind the members of Hamlet’s warning to his
friend—‘ There are more things in heaven and earth than is
dreamt of in our philosophy.”

In New Zealand, not far from Hokitiki, there has been
seen the decaying remains of a ship’s keel, with a tree
growing through it, and evidences of copper fastenings found
in the vicinity, but no trace of its origin, or how it came
to be embedded in an inland basin far away from the
sea. Whether the ill-fated bark was driven in on an earth-
quake wave, or on one of the more terrible rollers which at
times break against Tristan da Cuna, and in the bay of
Panama, coming in like a wall 20 to 30 feet high, and tearin
ships from their moorings, rolling them over as if but a child’s
toy-boat, who can tell? Some such fate has been the closing
scene doubtless of many a gallant expedition in an unknown
sea, divided from civilisation by half a world; and the
discovery of the lost keys on the old Corio beach is full of
suggestions as to their possible history, and that of their
adventurous owners.

Since writing the above it has come to my knowledge
that the subject matter of the discovery of the keys was
communicated to the proprietors of the Argus many months
ago; but even with this knowledge I yet think the records
of the Royal Society the proper storehouse for narrations
such as the foregoing.

2nd November, 1874. THOMAS. E. RAWLINSON.
In a personal inspection made of the shore of Corio Bay

since the above notes were penned, and after an inspection
of the geological maps of the district, I incline to the opinion

Shore Formation of Corio Bay, near Geelong. 41

that there may have been an outlet for part of the bay
waters across the low lands from Corio Bay vid Connewarre
and the Barwon River to Bass’s Straits, as suggested by
Mr. Latrobe, and as indicated by Mr. Selwyn on the geological
maps; but it must have been under very different conditions
to those conjectured by the former, namely, a disruption of
the coast line between Point Nepean and Point Lonsdale,
because the deposits are marine, and as a consequence the
land must at that time have been submerged to a con-
siderable depth below the present level of the sea.

Between the Geelong wharves and Limeburners’ Point
there is still the remains of an old excavation, showing in
section the exact features as sketched and described by
Mr. Latrobe, although the Limekiln is a thing of the past.
Above the limestone is a thin bed of broken shell, Turritella
and others, and coarse sand, and above this a bed of clay and
two thin succeeding beds, surmounted by surface soil. The
whole of the beds present the usual features of fan aqueous
deposit.

Towards Limeburners’ Point the limestone rises con-
siderably, and the superior beds are reduced to one bed of
clay about 4 feet thick, and about 2 feet of clay and
vegetable soil above, and from this point the whole surface
declines to the eastward to below the level of the Samphire
flats, between Point Henrytown and Connewarre.

Assuming that the land was submerged sufiiciently to
permit the tidal flow of waters across the estuary beds of
Connewarre, it is probable that owing to the then changed
physical features of the country, a large body of water may
have entered Corio Bay from the north-west along the valley
west of the You Yangs, now drained by the Moorabool and
Duck Ponds rivers; and such being the case the several
deposits above the limestone of Corio Bay at Boucher’s Kiln
can be accounted for, the only really serious element of
difficulty remaining being the brief period of time within
which such a considerable upheaval (nearly 30 feet vertical)
is possible, although the extent of such a movement in the
time is not an insuperable objection.

On the table I submit sample of materials from the old
beach, and of a boring pholas embedded in the limestone, the
shell being as perfect as if dead only a few years.

No. 1 is a sample of the old sea beach shells from the
locality of Boucher’s Kiln, as described.

42 Notes on the Discovery of some Keys.

No. 2 is a sample of the old sea beach shells from Lime-
burners’ Point.

No. 3 is a sample of the soft white limestone, with pholas.
shell as described.

THomAs EK. RAwLINson.
6/11/74.
Sections to illustrate paper :

Mr. Latrobe’s sketch, section of Boucher’s Kiln.
No. 1. Section from Mud Island to Two Sisters.

No. 2. Section from Low Light, Shortland’s Bluff, to:
Quarantine Station.

No. 3. Section about one-third distance from Point
Lonsdale to Shortland’s Bluff to Point Nepean.

No. 4 Point Lonsdale to point Nepean.

No. 5. Sketch, Plan of Entrance to Port Phillip and of
Corio Bay.

N.B.—In the discussion on the paper the President,
in reply to a question, stated “there was no doubt as to
the shells of the old beach exhibited being marine.”
This decision is conclusive against Mr. Latrobe's, theory
of an inland lake.

One member stated that the circumstances of the dis-
covery of the keys were notorious at the time, and much
discussed, as he knew from having heard his father frequently
allude to the circumstances; and this is the more valuable,
as being still further an additional confirmation of the
accuracy of Mr. Latrobe’s notes of byegone events.

It was pointed out that owing to the peculiar formation
of the superincumbent beds ab Boucher’s Kiln, and their
limited extent, an indent or short. gully probably existed at
this point, and this would account for the lowness of the
limestone rock at this place, and the three distinct layers
of clay and loam between it and the soil, each deposit being
made at intervals of time, as the upper surface showed a
black line of deposit straight on the upper surface, and
evidence of settlement on the lower edge, into the fine
deposit below. Still water in a shallow ‘oully would be
quite sufficient to account for the several deposits, and
under such conditions the accumulations would be rapid,
owing to precipitations of mud from the surcharged waters

of the valley north-west of the You Yangs.

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THE GREAT PYRAMID OF JEEZEH.

AC HEIGHT oF PyRamip.

DB D1AMETER OF Pyramip = 365°242 Pyrramip Cusrts,
EFGH_ Bass or Pyrramoip.

ABCD. Dtamerrican VERTICAL SEcTION.

AKCJ Drtaconat Vertican SEction.

AG is to twice DB as 7, or as 1 is to 3°14159, or as the diameter
is to the circumference of a circle.

And ADB, the right section of the Pyrannen is to LFG AH, the
area of the base, as 7, or as 1 is to 3°14159, or as the diameter to
the circumference of a circie.

And AC, the height, is the radius of a cirele equal in circum-
ference to the external lines of the square base.

Thus actually squaring the circle as accurately as possible.

See Prazzi SmytTH’s ‘‘Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid.”

The Week. . 43,

The nature of the superincumbent beds being clay, .
points decidedly to precipitation in still waters, or those
having little current, and such being the case, the keys,
if lost overboard from a boat, would in the course of
time sink by their own weight through the soft impalpable
mud to the denser material of the old beach overlying the
limestone.

Several instances were given of such settlement.

fais Sivbesl 3:

Art. XI_—The Week.

By H. K. RuspeEn.
[Read 21st December, 1874.]

Circumstances have lately led me to investigate the
subject of The Week, so far as the limited time and oppor-
tunities at my disposal permitted, and asa result I havea
proposal to make, involving I conceive an improvement,
equally important, desirable, and practicable. Before how-
ever explaining it in detail, it will be proper to glance at
the natural history of the present conventional institution.

Materials for this investigation I have found to be meagre
and scattered. I think, however, that there exist sufficient
data to justify the decisive conclusion that the septenary
cycle comes to us from the remotest antiquity ; that is—
from a period altogether prehistoric. The wide distribution
of the week over Southern and Northern Asia, and also in
Northern Europe, long before our era, is, I believe, unques-
tionable. This in itself would have little significance, were
it not for a curious point of resemblance, which is unac-
countable on any other theory than that of a common origin.
It is very remarkable that the Scandinavians, the Chaldzeans,
the Persians, and the Hindoos, have always named the days
from the planets, and in the same very peculiar order ;
peculiar in its curious variation from their relative astrono-
mical order—real or supposed. The true order would be of
course Sunday, Wednesday, Friday, Monday, Tuesday,
Thursday, Saturday ; after the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Moon,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The Ptolemaic order would be
Monday, Wednesday, Friday, Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday,
Saturday. The deviation of all weeks from both these
arrangements is identical and universal, and should therefore

44 The Week.

be ascribed to a common source. Friday is the day held
sacred by the Mahometans since the 6th century, and by
the Hindoos for many thousands of years. Saturday is the
Sabbath of the Jews, who were therefore supposed, according
to Plutarch,* to be worshippers of Saturn. Sunday is held
sacred to rest or recreation wherever the Christian religion
prevails, and has been so since the 3rd century ; and as most
nations have worshipped the sun, it has probably been the
most generally observed in ancient times.

Though the septenary cycle has been used by most
branches of the Aryan family, it seems singularly to have
been unknown to the Greeks, and to the Romans and ancient
Etruscans; who used respectively cycles of eight and
ten days; the two former until about the 2nd century after
our erat. But though the dominion of the Romans in
Britain lasted till the 5th century, it is evident that our
ancestors did not acquire the week from them, but had
obtained it previously from Scandinavia, as is partly proved ©
by our present names of the days, which belong to the old
Scandinavian mythology. Indeed it seems not quite clear
whence the Romans acquired it. They did not get it with
their amended calendar from Egypt in Ceesar’s time, and it’
seems that they could have got it from the north as easily
as from the east; for the Saxons and Kelts and other
northern peoples had it long before their contact with the
Romans.t Dio Cassius§ reports that the Romans derived
it shortly before his time (born 155) from the Egyptians,
who he says named the days from the seven planets—or
bodies then known—of our solar system. But the Egyptians
are positively asserted || to have more anciently used a cycle
of ten—not seven—days; and if they thus only acquired
the week so lately from the east, the probabilities of the
Romans having obtained it from the north are increased.
The Egyptians had not even any original astronomy of their
own, as Sir G. C. Lewis shews in his Astronomy of the
Ancients, chap. v., nor were the Chaldzeans—from whom

* Symposia 5. Other points of resemblance between the Jewish and
other mythologies are too striking for mere coincidence. Abraham corre
sponds with Brahma as well as with Saturn, Samson with Hercules
Jephtha’s daughter with Iphigenia, &c., &.

t+ See Adams’ Roman Antiquities, pp. 84 and 331.

t Rees’ Cyclopedia (week) and English Cyclopedia.

§ History of Rome, vol. xxxvii. See Sir G. C. Lewis, Astronomy of
Ancients, p. 304.

|| Humboldt’s Cosmos, vol. iv. p. 412, quoting Lepsius in a note.

The Week. - 45

they appear to have acquired what they possessed—the
inventors or discoverers of it; nor were they the first to
misapply it to purposes of astrology, or to name the days
from the planets. Humboldt confidently says that shortly
before our era, the Egyptians had not named the days from
the planets, the signs of which were then perhaps only
recently known to them. But Humboldt does not apparently
consider, and perhaps could scarcely have been in possession
of the ethnological and philological evidence, which modern
research has revealed, of the great antiquity of a com-
paratively perfect civilisation and astronomy elsewhere, of
which the relics only were found in India and Chaldea. He,
however, mentions that the Peruvians had a nine day cycle,
with a day of rest in each ; and that the Aztecs used weeks of
five days, which they named from deities, one of whom,
Wodan, was the counterpart of the Scandinavian Woden,
from whom our Wednesday is named. The Indian Wed-
nesday, Budhavaram, is thought to be derived from the
same original as ours.

Mr. Proctor shows* that none of these peoples had any
original astronomy, any more than the Egyptians; and I
find elsewhere that they reckoned eclipses, &c., by rules, of
the origin and basis of which they had no knowledge. But
Mr. Proctor shows also that all their old astronomical records
present indications of having been derived from a far
superior but extinct civilisation, of which no historical vestige
remains, but which must have had its seat in a much more
northern latitude. He says, that the length of the winter
and summer days given in the oldest Brahminical and Persian
records—the oldest Babylonian star risings obtained by
Ptolemy—and the measurement of the earth adopted by
ancient astronomers, all correspond to a latitude of about
45° north. Finally he adduces reasons—from old Chaldean
representations, which he reproduces, of Venus, Jupiter, and
Saturn, as Mylitta, Bel, and Nisroch or Asshur ; and from
the fact of a plano-convex rock crystal lens having been
discovered by Layard at Nimroud—for believing that these
ancient astronomers probably possessed telescopic appliances
of sufficient perfection to enable them to discern the
crescent form of Venus, the satellites of Jupiter, and perhaps
even the ring of Saturn.

* Saturn and his System, (appendix on Chaldean Astronomy).
¢ Bailly’s Histoire de lV Astronomie.

A6 The Week.

From Sir Wm. Drummond’s* work on the Zodiacs I am
compelled to quote—though through an admittedly reliable
channel—at second hand (which I regret, as I thereby lose the
references to his authorities which he always gives).- He
says: “The fact however is certain, that at some remote’
period there were mathematicians and astronomers who
knew that the sun is in the centre of the planetary system,
and that the earth—itself a planet—revolves round the
central fire ; who calculated, or like ourselves attempted to
calculate, the return of comets, and who knew that these
bodies move in elliptical orbits, immensely elongated, having
the sun in one of their foci; who indicated the number of
the solar years contained in the great cycle, by multiplying
a period (variously called in the Zend, the Sanserit, and the
Chinese ven, van, and phen) of 180 years by another period
of 144 years; who reckoned the sun’s distance from the
earth at 800,000,000 of Olympic stadia’ (=91,931,818 miles
at 6063 feet to the stadium), ‘and who must therefore have
taken the parallax of that luminary by a method, not only
much more perfect than that said to be invented by
Hipparchus, but little inferior in exactness to that now in use
among the moderns” (much more exact, as it now appears,
for Sir W. D. knew nothing of the late corrections of the
estimated distance in question, which he only knew as 954
millions of miles); “who could scarcely have made a mere
guess when they fixed the moon’s distance from its primary
planet at 59 semi-diameters of the earth ; who had measured
the circumference of our globe with so much exactness that
their calculation only differed by a few feet from that made
by our modern mathematicians; who held that the moon and
other planets were worlds like our own, and that the moon
was diversified by mountains, and valleys, and seas; who
asserted that there was yet a planet which revolved round
the sun beyond the orbit of Saturn, who reckoned the
planets to be 16 in number, and who reckoned the length of
the tropical year within three minutes of the true time ; nor
indeed were they wrong at all, if a tradition mentioned by
Plutarch be correct.”—Drummond on the Zodiacs, p. 36.

* Sir Wm. Drummond died in 1828. He was a Fellow of the Royal
Society, and British Ambassador at the Two Sicilies and at Constantinople.
He wrote a Review of the Government of Sparta and Athens, Herculanensia,
Odin, Origines, Edipus Judaicus, and this work on the Zodiacs.

+ See Godfrey Higgins’ Keltic Druids, p. 50, and De Morgan’s Budget of
Paradoxes, p, 164.

The Week. — 47

With respect to the extent to which the Copernican or
Pythagorean system was received about the time of our era,
it will suffice to refer to St. Augustin (De Civitate Dei,
lib. 16, ch. 9, vol. vii. Paris 1685) and Lactantius (/nstitu-
tiones Divine, lib. 3, ch. 24, vol. i. Deux Ponts 1786),
who both found the doctrine so prevalent as to require their
special and too successful opposition and condemnation.*

I believe that M. Bailly, the historian of astronomy, is
the author of the specific hypothesis of an antediluvian
highly civilised people, who, as he says, “brought the
sciences to perfection ; a people who in the great enterprise
of discovering the exact measurement of the earth, dwelt
under the 49th degree of latitude.” He is often quoted
without specific references, and his works in our Public
Library are without that indispensable feature in the eyes of
inquirers—a good index. The cycles were special subjects of.
investigation with Bailly. He held that the week was
certainly antediluvian, concluding that it was impossible that
the seven days composing it could have been dedicated to the
same planets in Hgypt, India, and Chaldzea, in identical order
in these and in many other places beside, unless it had been
derived from some older common source. As regards the
prehistoric high civilisation his position seems impregnable.
But his theory that it was destroyed or scattered by the
traditionary flood seems irreconcileable with facts. In the
first place the date assigned to Noah’s flood, 1655 B.c., is
not nearly so old as the Chinese and the Brahminical eras,
which also imply a much older separate civilisation; and
as Bailly remarks, they evidently exhibit the débris rather
than the elements of science. But if the careful labours of
Piazzi Smyth at the Great Pyramid have not been altogether
thrown away and misrepresented too, the construction of
that most ancient of monuments alone bears ample and
irrefragable testimony to the existence—when it was de-
signed—of astronomical and mathematical science,{ far
excelling any which obtained for thousands of subsequent

* See Patrice Larroque’s Examen Critique des Doctrines de la Religion
Chretienne, 4th ed. Paris, 1870. Vol. ii. p. 68. See also Supernatural
Religion, p. 87, Australian Edition.

{ Maire de Paris, Garde honoraire des tableaux du Roi. L’un des
quarante de l’Academie Royal des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, de celle des
Sciences, et de l'Institut de Bologne, des Academies de Stockholm, de
Harlem et de Padoue, et de la Société des Antiquités de Cassel.

t See Plates I., IZ., and III., pp. 27 and 28. I take Professor Smyth’s
best attested facts, but do not accept his theories.

48 The Week.

vears, but which must have been entirely obsolete and
forgotten before the other pyramids in its vicinity were
built ; probably about 4,000 years ago. The Great Pyramid
should thus be clearly antediluvian.

It seems also above all improbable that any flood should
destroy so entirely all relics of a civilisation established— —
not on a low level—but on the elevated lands of high Asia.
It seems to me that subsequent experience of the decadence
of other civilisations gives a better key to the obliteration of
that, which—I think with M. Bailly—certainly existed over
fifty centuries ago to the north of Bokhara and Samareand.
We have every reason to believe that the esoteric
system of the monopoly of knowledge by a small number of
persons, prevailed in the greatest exaggeration in the most
distant times. The vitality of the principle—which, though
exploded in theory and in conscious practice, has still in a
modified form its advocates—is a guarantee of its antiquity.
I believe that that monopoly of knowledge and thence of
wealth, necessarily produced an antagonism of classes, which,
in the inevitable ultimate collision between them, resulted
in the annihilation of the instructed few by the exasperated
ignorant many ; and that this same cause has always been
the main factor in the evanescence and destruction of past
civilisations. This is in any case a most important problem,
which has met with wonderful neglect. But is it not
absolutely accordant with the allegorical Oriental habit, and
the esoteric system too, to understand this great deluge as
an irresistible flood of barbarism and ignorance overwhelming
all extant human wisdom? Have not such deluges been too
frequent within historical time? Can the old legend be
thus explained in a form in which—in strict accordance with
the spirit of the record—the misrepresentation of natural
catastrophes as possible manifestations of divine anger, is
transformed into important historical admonition? I think
so. I think—passing over many equally significant instances,
such as the Egyptian, Persian, Tyrian, Greek, and Roman
extinct glories, to one within our more immediate know-
ledge,—that the French revolution, which was essentially an
outcome of a like antagonism of classes, similarly produced,
and capable of entirely overwhelming a less distributed
civilisation, was merely history repeating itself for perhaps
the thousandth time ; and that the only security we possess
for the stability of our civilisation, lies in the wider and
wider dissemination of knowledge, which prevents its

The Week. 49

destruction in social cataclysms, and also tends to lessen the
antagonism of classes.

From this primeval high civilisation, antecedent to that
deluge, we derive I think, besides this significant lesson, the
weekly cycle, the Great Pyramid, the Sanscrit- language, the
Zodiacal signs and constellations, if not the symbols
of both—the still extant esoteric system of Freemasonry—
Chaldzean and Indian astronomy—the Aryan race and civil-
ising instinct—and in fact the germs of civilisation generally.
It may be said that the invention of the week belongs to a
very early period and rude condition in the history of
Astronomy; being probably but a subdivision of the lunar
cycle. Doubtless soit is. But that marks some progress
made, especially as I think the week was a subdivision of
the sidereal revolution of the moon in 27:32166 days, not of
the synodical one of 2953059 days; which is the more
obviously observable cycle, though not approximately divi-
sible by four; and which forms the apparent basis of the
Julian and other months of 30 and 3] days. The Kelts, I
find, had not only the seven-day week but twelve months
also ;* and I have met with a statement} with regard to
astronomy, to the effect that Rudbeck calculated from the
displacement of a festival recorded as being anciently fixed
at 20 days from the winter solstice, that the Swedes 2,300
years B.c. knew the right number of days in the year,
though they had not provided the intercalation necessary to
compensate for the fractional excess. Nevertheless, the
coincident order of the Scandinavian days, and _ the
Aryan roots in the Keltic languages, prove their indebted-
ness to the same stock as the Indian and Chaldean civilisa-
tions. For further instance, it can scarcely be a mere
coincidence that the British measure of capacity—the
quarter—that of which it is a quarter having otherwise
completely eluded research, corresponds closely with the
cubic measure of which the standard is extant in the ante-
chamber of the Great Pyramid, and which is an exact
- QUARTER of the contents of the great coffer or sarcophagus
in the King’s Chamber.{ Professor Piazzi Smyth considers
that he has identified many other interesting items of our
inheritance in the Great Pyramid.

* See Toland’s History of the Druids.
} Bailly’s Histoire de ’ Astronomie Ancienne, p. 324.
t See Plate IL. p. 27.

E

50 The Week.

I have alluded to the curious order in which the days of
the week succeed each other, which is found consistently
the same wherever the weekly cycle is known, and which
does not correspond at all to the real or supposed astro-
nomical order of the planets after which the days are named.
Dio Cassius says that the order of the days had relation,
1st, to the musical intervals; or 2nd, to the astrological
allotment of the planets to the hours of the day; or 38rd, to
their distribution among the signs of the Zodiac. It isa
curious fact, that the astrological appropriation of the hours
of the day, as well as of the days themselves, to the seven
bodies of our then known solar system—as being peculiarly
under their influence—should furnish the method of con-
nection between the universal order of the days, and the
order of the planets in the Ptolemaic solar system. For
the astrological order was of ancient date in Ptolemy’s
time, and his solar system was therefore scarcely his, but
was based upon that of the Astrologers. In the absence of
any other known or probable basis for the connection of the
order of the week days with that of the planets, 1 conceive
that it had its origin in the pernicious esoteric system, by
which everything was rendered enigmatical and obscure to
all but the initiated.

I am not aware of any particular probable site of the high
civilisation thus inferred by Bailly, Drummond, and Proctor,
as the common source of its various posthumous offshoots in
different directions. According to Mr. Proctor, it should be
five degrees farther north than Samarcand (39°56), and it
seems to me that the most moderate guess at its date must
be at least 6,000 years ago, and that it is probably much
further back. Bunsen* reckons the immigration of the
Aryans into India at from 80 to 100 centuries B.c., and
Laplace mentions two epochs, 2,000 and 15,000 years ago, at
which the significance of the signs of the Zodiac in the
position of the heavens was so marked as to suggest their
introduction then. He sayst—referring to the greater period
—‘Capricorn, or the constellation of the Goat, appears to be
more properly placed at the highest than at the lowest point
of the sun’s course.” J know not whether he included in
his scheme the fact of Canopus (in Arabic the south star)
having actually been about that time a south pole star,{ or

* Brande’s Dictionary (Aryan).
t Laplace’s Systéme du Monde, p. 316.
t Dupuis’ Origines des tous les Cultes, vol. ii. p. 426.

The Week. 5]

that the Samaritan Pentateuch commences with the words,
“Jn the beginning the Goat (Azima) created the heaven
and the earth,”* which is neither absurd nor unintelligible
if read—“ When the Zodiacal signs were first distributed,
Capricornus held the dominant position indicated by
Laplace.” These are merely coincidences with Dupuis’ great
work, which I remarked on reading Laplace’s statement.
Laplace had doubtless far more substantial reasons for his
opinion. It is, perhaps, right to mention that Laplace
respectfully differs from Lailly as to the antiquity of
astronomy ; but with all deference to his weighty authority,
I cannot but think that the philological evidence discovered
since his time, more than outweighs his objections.

The suicidal esoteric system seems to have subsisted in
this primeval civilisation in the most exclusive form, and to
have effectually prevented the spread and survival of more
than mere fragments of the knowledge upon which it was
based. But I believe that ethnology and philology both
point to the same approximate site for the original home of
the Aryan family and speech. ‘The patriarchs of the
Brahmin race seem to have been those who survived the
collapse of their ancestors’ civilisation, and are admitted to
have brought with them to India (but how long afterwards
must be mere matter of conjecture), amongst the relics of
their former state, the Sanscrit language, the weekly cycle,
and a half-understood or forgotten astronomy; together with
the most radical distinctions of classes known.

I think it reasonable to suppose, that if the Brahmins
exhibit signs of the most direct derivation from the primeval
civilised race, they were probably the immediate survivors
of the social convulsion, which is supposed to have almost
annihilated the antecedent civilisation. The customs (and
among them notably the week) which appear to be due to
the same source, and which still survive among the de-
scendants of the Kelts and Scandinavians, I should judge to
have spread westward long before the extinction of the
civilisation which gave them birth. Those which survive in
China were probably received thence at even an earlier date.
The Chinese appear to me to exhibit the rudiments rather
than the débris of an astronomical science, and never to have
advanced beyond them, though they have always made and
recorded observations. The authors of the Chinese calendar

~ T0s Vol. V. D. 67.
BH 2

52 The Week.

may have emigrated from, or only had communication with,
the Aryan patriarchs, after the division of the year into
months of the length of the sidereal lunar revolution, the
division of which by four gives the ordinary weekly cycle.
For although it is generally stated, mainly I believe on the
authority of Freret* in the last century, that the Chinese
have a cycle of ten days instead of seven, and though
Laplace ascribes to them a cycle of 60 days, as well as 60
years, still on referring to Sir John Davis’ work (an unim-
peachable authority I believe) on the Chinese, I find (vol. 1.
p. 73) that he, after admitting points of resemblance between
the astronomical systems of India and China, indirectly
shows that the Chinese have at least an equivalent of a
septenary cycle. He says “the Chinese reckon jwe planets,
to the exclusion of the sun and moon, but they give the
names of one of their twenty-eight lunar mansions” (into
which their Zodiac is divided) “successively to each day of the
year in a perpetual rotation, without regard to the moon’s
changes; so that the same four out of the twenty-eight
invariably fall on our Sundays, and constitute as it were,
perpetual Sunday letters. A native Chinese first remarked
this odd fact to the author, and on examination it proved
perfectly correct.” This coincidence appears to me to arise
from the simple fact that their cycle is a multiple, and
therefore a full equivalent of ours; and as they make no
intercalations of less than a full month of 28 days, the
coincidence is perpetual. Though the Chinese thus have
not a perfect septenary cycle, still their system without
doubt, regarding other coincidences, originated—though at
a very distant date—from the same source as ours, with
which it synchronises so well. Laplace says the seven
day week was known to them from the most remote
periods. Their monthly cycle, and their sixty year cycle,
are probably as old as their era, or 45 centuries, if not
as old as Fo Hi, or 52 centuries past.+ There is certainly no
geographical or chronological improbability in the derivation
of the Chinese calendar from the locality indicated, and
I think that the division of the 28 days cycle—based doubtless
on the sidereal lunar period in preference to the synodical
period—is strongly suggestive of a common origin with the
seven day week, after the more accurate determination of
the moon’s revolution.

* See Encyclopedia Britannica, art. Chronology.
7 See Meadows’ The Chinese and their Rebellions, p. 329.

The Week. - 5

Not only, however, is the great antiquity of the weekly
cycle sufficiently and conclusively established, but its wide
expansion over the world, even to islands of the southern
oceans, argues a far more ancient origin than that to which
it has been commonly referred. If, as modern criticism
claims to have shown, the Hebrew Scriptures were not com-
piled before the time of Ezra, or Hilkiah, or Samuel at
farthest* (that is the 5th, the 7th, or the 11th century B.c.),
the Sabbath (and the Jews had no specific names for the
other days of the week+), which is not mentioned from the
40th to the 15th century B.c., was actually not instituted—
even for the Jews—according to their own records, until at
least 15 centuries (and probably many more) after the
septenary cycle was in use by the Chaldeans, the Hindoos,
and probably the Scandinavians and Chinese. But even
supposing for the nonce that Moses himself really had insti-
tuted the Jewish Sabbath, his reputed date is only the 16th
century B.C., while Fo Hi’s in China was the 33rd ; the Kali
Yug in India was the 31st ; the Scandinavian was the 23rd;
and Egyptian records, according to Bunsen, extend back to
the 35th, when the astronomy from which their eras were
all derived was forgotten and lost. It has always been a
standing difficulty—why, if the Sabbath was, as such,
instituted at the supposed creation—or 40 centuries B.C., its
observance should never have been inculcated even on the
Jews for more than 20 centuries after. The accommodative
principle upon which the recorded six days of creation have
been expanded into as many geological periods, only
magnifies this difficulty indefinitely.

This rough sketch of the materials for forming an opinion
respecting the age and origin of the week, is far from
exhaustive, or even satisfactory in itself; being based
necessarily upon anything but original authorities. But itis,
I think, amply sufficient for my purpose, which is simply to
show that though doubtless Sunday was always as sacred
for us in Europe as Friday is for a Hindoo or a Mahometan,
or Saturday for a Jew; yet there is evidently nothing
intrinsic in the day itself, or in the septenary cycle, or in the
origin of either, to determine their perpetuation otherwise
than as they concur with human convenience. But if there
were other grounds for preserving either intact, still after
~ ® See Horne’s Introduction, and Sir Isaac Newton’s Observations on Daniel.

t Humboldt’s Cosmos, vol. iy. p. 413. English Cyclopedia and Horne’s
Introduction.

54 The Week.

the numerous changes and alterations of calendars by every
people, the identification of any particular day must now be
purely arbitrary, and the real original seventh day it must
now be a matter of impossibility to distinguish.* No objec-
tion therefore on that ground can be valid against a further
alteration of the day or week, provided that preponderating
reasons can be adduced on other grounds in favour of it. In
fact, the only way possible now, to make sure of sometimes
hitting on the right original seventh day, if any, is to alter
the cycle to another number of days, which would of course
make the new Sunday, or Sabbath, or day of rest, occasionally
coincide with the original one.

I now come to the proposition—the making of which is
the object of this paper. ‘This is, to shorten the week from
seven to five days, as the Romans formerly found it con-
venient to reduce theirs from eight to seven. I am satisfied
from a variety of reasons that the present week is too long.
I think that people work much harder now than they did
when the septenary cycle was first instituted, and that six
days of such continuous hard work to one of rest is too
much. This is proved by the innovations made upon the
Saturday, which is now neither one thing nor the other. It
is admitted that it is no business day; that for business
purposes it is practically worthless. People attend at their
offices as a mere matter of form, though as a business day
they allow that it is a delusion and a mockery. But as a
holiday it is worse than a delusion; itisa snare. Itis no
holiday. For no one worth noticing gets it all, and very
many—particularly those who most require it—never get it
at all. It is clear that the eight hours movement is of very
partial benefit, and the fact that numerous classes are entirely
and hopelessly excluded from it, makes it extremely desirable
to devise some method of affording them equivalent advan-
tages. I cannot see that this can be done, unless by a change
like that which I propose. In any case, the only thing that
the half-Saturday does plainly and completely, is this; it

* T find that it is a disputed point when the Hebrew calendar was formed.
It has been referred by some to our year 500, by others to 325, by others
300, while some contend for an older origin. (English Cyclopedia, art.
Calendar.) I am willing to concede a possibly much greater antiquity for it
than is even claimed, and I offer the following as a rational solution—in
strict accordance with the known style of esoteric Oriental tradition—of
a part of Genesis (ch. 5), which has hitherto defied reconciliation with
experience or probability. I think it not unlikely that the exceptional
longevity attributed to the antediluvian patriarchs, and which Professor

The Week. 55

furnishes ample proof that the week is felt by every one to
be too long.

Now the lunar synodic cycle is twenty-nine days and a
little over a half. A weekly cycle therefore of six days, or
five days, would synchronise with the lunar cycle much more
nearly than any division of twenty-eight could possibly do ;
if it were any object to conform to a lunar period at all. I
recommend the quinary rather than the sexenary cycle. It
would concur better with the denary scale now in use in
notation and computation ; it would leave no odd day over
in an ordinary year; and I believe it would better pro-
portion hard labour to rest. If any man works his best for
four full days continuously, I think that he will be quite ready,
and that it will be good for him, to rest on the fifth. This
is all that would really be necessary, except the rigorous
preservation of the fifth day as a day of rest from labour ;
and of intellectual cultivation, for which one day in five
would be little enough, though infinitely better than any
evening after a hard day’s work.

But the proposed change would not be nearly such a
startling innovation as it might at first sight appear. By
having a complete universal holiday, on one day in five,
instead of one day and a half (but the half-day neither
universal nor complete) in seven, there would be really a
difference of but one seventieth. That is, there would be in
seventy days—at four working days and one rest day to the
week—fourteen complete days of rest; and at five and a
half working days and one and a half rest days to the week,
fifteen days of rest. My plan would thus subtract just
one-seventieth of rest from those who get more than they
require, but would secure to those who really want it the real
equivalent of the half day which now they cannot get.

But the advantages of making the months of a uniform
length of thirty days or six weeks each, leaving an odd week,
and in leap year also an odd day, for an annual festival to
welcome the new year, are so very clear and great, as to

Owen has concluded to have been physiologically impossible, may really be
a symbolical record of the numerous attempts to discover the true length of
the annual cycle; and that Enoch the perfect man who was taken and
accepted by God, and who lived just three hundred and sixty-five years,
represents the epoch when that was discovered to be the true number of
days in the year, and the calendar was thenceforward upon that basis taken
and accepted as perfect. I am of course aware that the record refers to no
specific date, and that it was promulgated and perhaps written after the
10th Century, B.C.

56 The | Week.

induce me to include this amendment also in my proposal.
I think it would be a great convenience and advantage to
be able to know at once the day of the week by that of the
month ; or the day of the month by that. of the week.
Commercially and privately, the vast simplification of all
calculations of interest, wages, &c., by making all the months
of a uniform length, would prove of immense advantage,
Indeed, at present, in the calculation of interest, the great
inconveniences of reckoning by the week or month, are so
obvious, as to lead to their abandonment altogether ; and
interest tables are always constructed for the number of days
alone, which has then to be adapted in each case to the
actual period required. The constantly recurring complex
computations rendered inevitable by the weeks and months
being non-coterminous, and the months being of various
lengths, involve an enormous amount of unnecessary labour,
which my proposal would entirely obviate.

I will offer one or two simple illustrations of the advan-
tages of the change. Say—on what day of the week will
fall the 3rd of next September or October, or the 28rd of
those months? It would take some time under present
arrangements to ascertain this simple information, without
an almanac; and even with one the easiest plan would be
to refer to it for each required day separately. By my plan
you would know at once, without reference or calculation,
that the 3rd, 8th, 13th, 18th, 23rd, and 28th of every month
must always fall on the 3rd day of the week, and the like
would be as easily known of every other day of the week or
month. Say—next, to what does five shillmes a week for
nine months amount? or for one month? You cannot give
it at all, until the month or months are specified, and then
the amount will vary for other nine months, or another
month. Whereas by my system of having six weeks in each
month, you would know at once that five shillings a week is
thirty shillings a month, and adding one week to the twelve
months it is £18 5s. a year. The enormous saving in
trouble, time, and labour, which would thus constantly
accrue, must be obvious. Nearly all the ordinary every day
calculations of wages, &c., would be saved entirely, and
after the first year almanacs would be almost superfluous.

I think it would furnish also’a very good opportunity for
discarding the present old pagan names of our days, by
substituting others for them, such as “ Oneday,” “'Twoday,”
“Threeday,” “Fourday,” for the current heathen names of

The Week. 57

the week days, and some appropriate distinctive name in-
stead of Sunday, which has of course been a complete
misnomer ever since the worship of the sun on that day was
abolished. ‘“Restday” would too readily suggest idleness as
the proper use of it, and ignore the fact that the best mental
rest is variation rather than cessation of occupation. I think
that “Goodday” would best express the intended value and
right use of it. I also think that the odd intercalatory day
every fourth year should be a “ goodday” added at the end
of the year.

Such an alteration would interfere with the calendar no
further than as it would prove a convenience. All dates,
historical, legal, or commercial ; all anniversaries and calen-
drical epochs, are fixed by the day of the year or month, not
of the week, and therefore would not be affected. In fixing
the date of Haster-day, it would give two-sevenths more
precision. It would, in fact, greatly facilitate every com-
putation in which portions of a year, month, or week, were
factors. Indeed it is difficult to see whom or what it would
affect otherwise than advantageously. The proportion of
weekly to daily wages would adjust itself at once. To those
engaged in ordinary necessary labour on Sundays now, it
could, of course, make no difference ; while to those engaged
in the special ministrations and exercises which are regarded
as peculiarly appropriate to the Sunday, it would afford
additional opportunities, in the twenty-one more Sundays,
or total of seventy-three in the year, of performing duties
for which time is all too short, and must appear to those
who sincerely delight in them still shorter. From this class,
therefore, I count upon the strongest support.

I contemplate one possible effect with much complacence.
If our Jewish brethren would also adopt my suggestion, on
account of what I cannot but regard as its manifest advan-
tages, how gratifying it would be to know that they were
enjoying their holiday at the same time as ourselves. I
protest that I never meet a Jew going to or returning from
his synagogue on Saturday, without feeling a strong impulse
to apologise for doing my secular business upon his Sabbath,
while he is debarred from doing his upon our Sunday. The
present one-sided distinction always strikes me painfully as
a relic of ancient illiberality and alienation of feeling, which
should surely now be obsolete, and I cannot but think that
the adoption of a common day of rest would tend much to
promote the social feeling to which it is so desirable that

58 The Week.

there should be no exception. The fact that these excellent
fellow-citizens have hitherto had practically only five
working days a week to our six, is demonstrative proof that
six working days in seven are not indispensable. Four
working days in five are obviously a larger proportion by
3-35ths, than five in seven. But should the sect to which
I allude decline to adopt the quinary week which I propose,
were we to do so, there would still occur on every seventh
Goodday and fifth Sabbath,.a synchronism of practice which
would surely promote a sympathy of feeling. The prospect
of the attainment of such objects is surely % a strong ground
of recommendation of my scheme.

I propose thus simply to have a week of five days, instead
of seven. This would give exactly 73 complete weeks in a
common year, and one day over in leap year. I also recom-
mend the allotment of an equal number (80) of days, or six
weeks, to each month, leaving over one festival week, say at
the new year, with an extra “Goodday” added every leap
year. I presume that an act of the Legislature would be
necessary to give effect to the proposal, but public opinion
must, of course, precede legislative action. I have thought
it better to make the suggestion first to this Society, m order
that it may be at once subjected to the skilled criticism of
those competent to say whether any meonvenience could
possibly result in connection with the calendar, so that
objections on that score, which is really of primary import-
ance, might be disposed at once one way or the other. When
no rational objection can be discovered to a proposal of this
kind, it is not unusual to allege that, however desirable it
may be in theory, it would nevertheless be bad in practice,
or that it would be impracticable.* Such an argument of
course yields entirely the question of expediency, but is
itself obviously no better than the opposite simple assertion ;
and if reasons be on the other hand advanced to-show that
similar innovations have formerly been successfully made, it
stands refuted until at least the experiment be tried. But
in this case far more difficult innovations, even involving an
alteration of the calendar, have at different times been made
with perfect success by Julius Caesar, Pope Gregory XIII,
and others. But more, the week itself was actually altered
by the Romans, Greeks, and many other peoples; and, in

* For the refutation of this ‘‘ Fallacy of Confusion,” see Bentham’s Book
of Fallacies, ch. 9.

The Week. 59

fact, as there is no record of any attempt to alter the week
having ever failed, the allegation of impracticability is so far
proved to be utterly baseless. The probability is that there
would be no difficulty whatever.

I think the perfect practicability, as well as the many and
manifest advantages of this scheme, would be apparent on
the printing of the first almanac in conformity with it. But
the greatest of its benefits could not possibly be appreciated
until after it should have been carried into practical
execution. J mean the great relief to those who really
labour hardest and who cannot now secure opportunities
for self-improvement.

Doubtless some people can congratulate themselves upon
having rest and leisure enough. Some, there is shrewd reason
to suspect, have too much of both. My proposal accom-
modates even them, by reducing their superfluous leisure by
one-seventieth. But it isnot made expressly in their interest.
I make it in the interest of those who, by the force of cir-
cumstances, have too little ; who not only labour hard on five
days and a half in every week, but cannot secure time for
self-improvement on the other half of the Saturday which
their more fortunate neighbours have and do not appreciate,
and which they are never likely also to get, unless it be
ais to them by making it as inviolable as Sunday
itself.

I append a table showing the names of the days of the
week in ten different languages, and three diagrams from
Piazzi Smyth’s Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid,
giving sufficient proofs of the science displayed in the
construction of that ancient monument.

NAMES OF THE DAYS OF THE WEEK IN

English. French. Latin. Italian. Spanish. Portuguese.
Sunday Dimanche Dies Solis Domenica Domingo Domingo
Monday Lundi Dies Lune Lunedi Léones Secunda feira

Tuesday Mardi Dies Martis Martedi Martes Terza feira
Wednesday Mercredi Dies Mercurii Mercoledi Miercoles Quarta feira
Thursday Jeudi Dies Jovis Giovedi Jueves Quinta feira
_ Friday Vendredi Dies Veneris Venerdi Viernes Sexta feira
Saturday Samedi Dies Saturni Sabbato Sabado Sabbado

60 Notes on some of the Physical Appearances

German. Dutch. Arabic. Brahman.
Sonntag Zondag Youm el ahad Addita varam
Montag Maandag ~ Youm eth thani Soma varam
Dienstag Dingsdag Youm eth thaleth Mangala varam
Mittwoch - Woensdag Youm el arbaa Bouta varam
Donnerstag Donderdag Youm el khamis Brahaspati varam
Freitag Vrijdag Youm el djoumaa Soucra varam
Samstag Zaturdag Youm el effabt Sany varam

Based upon Arago’s Pop. Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 727.

Art. XII.—WNotes on some of the Physical Appearances
Observed in the late Transit of Venus.

By R. L. J. ELieey, 1 Rs. FAs:
[Read 21st December, 1875.]

In these brief notes relating to the physical appearances
observed during the transit of Venus, of December 9th, I do
not intend to refer, except in a cursory manner, to any of
the more mathematical data of the occurrence, for these are
not yet fully reduced, and will be only valuable when
combined with similar results obtained at other parts of
the earth’s surface.

The weather in Melbourne, and indeed nearly throughout
all Victoria, was very unpromising in the morning of
the occurrence ; but fortunately the clouds broke away in
Melbourne at the very nick of time, so that the first
internal contact and some of the preceding phases were well
seen. The previous rain and subsequent occasional showers
had the effect of rendering the atmosphere exceeding favour-
able for observation, and, so far as the earlier phases of the
transit were concerned, the atmospheric conditions were |
unusually good; for any one accusstemed to observing
the sun will know that it is only on such favourable
occasions when the sky is seldom clear of clouds that its
edge can be observed sharp and clear without what is
termed “boiling,” so that what was otherwise an unpromis-
ing state of the weather, was actually most favourable for
observation of the physical appearances of the transit. I

Observed im the late Transit of Venus. 61

dwell upon this fact, because I am of opinion it gives so
much more weight to the accounts of the different observers
who saw the phenomenon under such conditions.

The first phases seen at the Observatory, or indeed, so
far as I am yet informed, anywhere in Victoria, were when
the planet was about half or more on the sun’s limb. I
was observing with an eight-inch refractor, and at my first
glimpse Venus was about five-sixths of its diameter on the
sun. The first thing that struck me was the remarkable
distinctness with which the whole dise of Venus was seen,
that portion outside the sun’s limb being nearly as distinct
as that within. It appeared of the same tone, but was
margined by a bright thin edge of light.

I propose to give now the statements of other observers
with respect to this phenomenon, before referring to any of
the subsequent phases.

The late Professor Wilson, observing at Mornington with
our beautiful four and a-half “Simm’s ” Equatorial, remarks
respecting this phase :—‘“‘ About five minutes before internal
contact there was an appearance I do not recollect having
seen described. The circle of the dark body of Venus was
continued and completed outside the edge of the sun,
marked out by a narrow luminous arc. There was no doubt
about this appearance. I quite satisfied myself that it was
not a mere mental continuation of the circle.”

At Glenrowan, Mr. Gilbert, observing with four and
a-half inch refractor, by Cooke, noted about two and a-quarter
minutes before estimated internal contact “the, limb of
Venus visible outside sun’s edge, which appeared luminous,
the margin being quite distinct where the luminosity was
densest.”

Mr. Thomas Harrison, observing at the Observatory with
a two three-quarter inch refractor, remarks :—‘I several
times fancied that the disc of Venus appeared darker
than the surrounding glare of the sky, and seemed to
trace the dark outline even when the light streak was
not visible. The light line or streak outside the planet’s
disc (represented in sketch), although not of the thickness
shown, was scarcely as bright as represented.”

Mr. Anketel M. Henderson, observing with a Browning
eight and a-halfinch Newtonian, notes regarding this phase:
—‘“It cleared about 11.40, and I got my first observation.
Definition perfect, not the slightest tremor. At 11.53 or
thereabouts I was surprised by seeing the portion of Venus

62 Notes on some of the Physical Appearances

outside the sun distinctly visible on a faint phosphorescent
looking background. It remained visible for about 45
seconds, when clouds interfered.”

C. Todd, Esq., of Adelaide, observing with an eight inch
refractor, by Cooke and Son, remarks:—“ For some
time after internal contact at egress the portion of the
planet which had moved off the sun was distinctly visible,
appearing as though seen through a nebulous and
luminous haze of a purplish hue, extending beyond and
around the edge of the planet, and inclining to violet
towards the sun.”

I have no notes (except the last) of the visibility of the
disc of Venus outside the sun’s disc at egress. I could
get no trace of it myself, although the sky was clear, and
I looked carefully for it.

At Glenrowan the transit was seen earlier than at
Melbourne, and when the planet was about two-thirds on
the sun, Mr. Gilbert remarked, ‘“N.W. limb slightly
luminous.” A sketch was given to illustrate this, from
which it would appear that that portion of the planet
nearest the centre of the sun exhibited on its edge a
luminous segment, in the drawing not unlike one of the
polar spots on Mars, but less marked and defined.

We now come to the appearances presented at internal
contact.

Regarding this phase I find I noted as follows :—‘ This
phase was remarkably well seen, and was almost tangential,
and free from any haze, ligament, or other disturbance, the
sky remaining clear in the region of the sun till after internal
contact was well over.”

About 2 min. 30 sec. before contact, limb of sun appeared
to bulge out so as to embrace Venus, the outwardly bent’
cusps continuing around Venus like a thread of silver.
The next phases noted were near the time of the first
internal contact, when a slight flicker between the limbs of
Venus and sun was occasionally visible, then a hazy junc-
tion like thin smoke was noticed, and finally a very faint
smoky thread appeared to join the two edges. This
suddenly disappeard at 0 h.1 min. 9-4 sec., Melbourne time.

Mr. White, observing with a two and five-eighth inch
refractor, remarks :—“At about three minutes before the time
of the first internal contact, when I first watched with the
altazimuth, Venus was nearly on the sun’s limb; the part
off the sun was partly embraced by two bright horns

Observed im the late Transit of Venus. 63

stretching out from the surface of the sun. At the phase
marked ‘estimated tangential’ Venus appeared to be
attached to the sun by a very broad ligament nearly as
black as the planet itself, and the position of the planet was
such that if the dark face had been quite circular it would
have formed a tangent to the sun’s limb. At the phase
marked ‘ Chinaman’s cap’ the ligament narrowed very much
on the side of Venus, the broad part being still attached to
the sun’s limb. At the phase marked ‘bright streak of
light’ a bright are of light appeared between the broad part
of the ‘cap’ and the sun’s imb. The sun was now clouded
for about a quarter of a minute, and when the cloud had
opened the ‘cap’ had disappeared, and Venus had become
truly circular, and was well separated from the limb of
the sun.”

At Mornington the late Professor Wilson noted a fluffy
connection, which is undoubtedly the same phase I noted
as smoky connection.

At egress the atmosphere was more disturbed in
Melbourne, and the phenomena about internal contact were
more marked and troublesome. First, a haze or smoky
appearance between limbs of sun and planet was noted,
then a distinct darker thread in centre of haze, then a
tremulous or flickering junction of limbs, and finally a
distinct and final junction. The sun’s edge was very
tremulous, but the sky quite clear.

Professor Wilson stated of this phase that “the sun’s
edge was boiling. Venus did not look round, but as you
might imagine a spherical balloon not quite blown up; the
edge looked crumpled. A small dark object was seen
flickering backwards and forwards between Venus and edge
of sun; this increased, and there was no other phase to
which I could attach a definite time.”

At Sandhurst, the appearances of internal contact at
egress were noted by Mr. Moerlin, observing with a six and
a-half inch refractor. (Cloudy weather prevented observa-
tion of ingress observations.) “As the planet moved
gradually near the sun’s limb, the sun’s limb and planet
appeared sharp and well defined, and the streak of light
between the two was distinct and unmistakable. As it
came nearer and nearer, the same appearance was witnessed
without any change whatever, the streak of light between
the two became smaller, and all at once a sort of triangular-
shaped connection between the two took place, an appear-

64° Notes on some of the Physical Appearances

ance which I have seen with the artificial transit, but to a
more limited extent, the base of the triangle on the sun’s
limb and the apex on the planet as thus :—

- gan

The difference in the appearance from what I had seen with
the artificial transit consists in the much larger base. When
this phenomenon first appeared the time was taken b
Mr. Pirani, by chronometer 806 (Daniel’s), viz., 3 h. 26 min.
543 sec. The planet every once in a while jumped off the
apex of the triangle, and the rim of the sun’s dise could
be distictly seen between the two; the distance, however,
betwen the triangle and the planet—when jumping—
growing less. Inow looked out for the tangential contact,
watching at the same time the gradual diminution of the
separation between the planet and the apex of the triangle ;
the clouds became thicker, but still permitted me to see the
phenomenon distinctly, and what I considered the tangential
contact was observed at 3h. 27 min. 178 sec. The jumping
or separating of the apex of the triangle and the planet
ceased a few seconds before what I considered the tan-
gential contact.”

Mr. Todd says, respecting this phase, that “it was quite
clear at egress, which was well observed. No black drop,
but the continuity of the sun’s disc was first broken by an
exceedingly fine black line, or rather a minute speck, which
appeared as the smallest possible protuberance on the edge
of the planet, but the apparent contact occurred 12 seconds.
later. The planet was seen to be sensibly but very slightly
distorted immediately joining the sun’s limb, the circular
outline of the ball being apparently drawn out into a thick
band. This, however, was so slight, that it might easily
have escaped notice.”

Mr. Gilbert, at Glenrowan, reports of the appearances
at internal contact of egress:—‘“ The ligament commenced
to form at 11h. 58 min. 53 sec. a.m., Melbourne time, being
exceedingly well defined a minute afterwards ; the ligament
snapped very suddenly about 0 h. 0 min. 44 sec. p.m. Shortly
after this clouds came over, but still it was sufficiently clear
to note anything of interest. About 2 p.m. noted that the

Notes on the late Transit of Venus. 65

planet appeared ofa violet colour from the limb, extending
a quarter of its diameter inwards ; colour most dense at the
limb of the planet, the centre being almost black. During
the whole of the time the planet had a granular appear-
ance.”

Observations of the appearance of Venus during the
middle phases of the transit, for the purpose of ascertaining
if there were any indications of an atmosphere about Venus,
and for noting any peculiarity of appearance of the planet’s
disc, were obtained by most of the observers. No evidence
of a satellite was noted by any. Nearly all noticed a blue
colour about the outer circumference of the disc of the
planet, many of them stating it to be very marked, always
blue or wndigo. A light shade (by some called grey, by
others white) was also clearly seen on the central portion of
the disc, some observers stating it was condensed at the
centre almost to a nebulous point of light. The Rev. J.
Clarke, at Williamstown, observing with a eight and a-half
inch Browning Newtonian, describes the appearance of a
brownish halo encircling Venus while traversing the sun’s
disc. I madea very careful scrutiny, and the blue colour
of the outer portions, and hazy light, denser towards the
centre of Venus, were very well seen. I also noted a
“blurring” or “loss of definition” of the “Rice grain”
or “ willow leaf” structure of the solar surface immediately
around Venus. ‘This blurring was not symmetrical, but
projected towards the sun’s south limb. Perhaps Mr.
Clarke’s halo may have some connection with this.

These are the most noteworthy facts recorded during the
observation of the transit. They afford plenty of pabulum
for speculation, but I simply place them in their bare form
before you, partly with a view to inform you of what was
seen, and partly that they may, with any remarks they
may elicit, be recorded in our transactions whilst the
circumstances are fresh in our memories.

66 Notes on some Upper Paleozoic Polyzoa,

w !
Art. XIII.—-Notes on Some Upper Paleozoic Polyzoa,
from Queensland.

By R. Erueripee, Jun, F.GS.
[Read 12th April, 1875.]

The geographical distribution of fossil species being a
point of some importance in paleontological inquiry, I have
the pleasure of forwarding to the Royal Society a few notes
on the occurrence of certain species of polyzoa in the upper
paleeozoic rocks of Queensland, which have hitherto been
recorded from similar deposits in New South Wales and Tas-
mania. The specimens in question form part of a collection of
corals forwarded to me by my friend Richard Daintree, Esq.,
F.G.S., with a view to their identification, and for which
I take this opportunity of returning him my best thanks.
The specimens of polyzoa are all in the form of casts, but
from the manner in which some of the pieces of matrix are
crowded with the polyzoal remains, one of the species at
least, Polypora amypla, Lonsdale, must have existed in
considerable quantity. I have been enabled to recognise
three species, viz, Polypora ampla, Lonsdale, Fenestella
fossula, Lonsdale (a form allied to), and an undetermined
species of Fenestella.

For the very truthful drawings accompanying these notes
Iam indebted to my friend and colleague, CU. R. Bone, Esq.,
draughtsman to the Geological Survey, London.

PoLypora AMPLA, Lonsdale. Figs. 1 and 1a.

Description.—The polyzoarium is regular and infundibuli-
form, with the celluliferous surface looking inwards; the
interstices are straight, broad and flat, branching dichoto-
mously, with the celluliferous surface covered with numerous:
rows of alternating cell apertures, and they enlarge
considerably previous to bifurcation; the dissepiments are
short; the fenestrules large, with the margins sometimes a
little crenulate from the projection of the lateral rows of
apertures ; the cell apertures themselves are round, with
slightly projecting margins ; the reverse face is granular.

References.—Fenestella ampla, Lonsdale, Darwin’s Ceol.
Obs. Voleanic Islands, 1844, Appendix p. 163 ; 2bid., Morris,
Strzelecki’s Physical Descr. N. S. Wales, &c. 1845, pl. 9,

from Queensland. | * 67

f. 3; ibid., McCoy, Annals Nat. Hist. 1847, xx. p. 226;
abid., Dana, Geology U. 8S. Expl. Kxpd. p. 710, pl. 11, f. 1;
&e. &e.

The foregoing description is partly taken from Mr. Dain-
- tree’s specimens, and partly from Mr. Lonsdale’s description ;
the latter adds that the dissepiments are occasionally
celluliferous, and the rows of cells on the interstices sepa-
rated by slightly flexuose tuberculated ridges. These
characters are not displayed by the present specimens,
which, three in number, all possess the regular and uniform
habit of growth and large size, so well exhibited by
Prof. Morris’s figure in Count Strzelecki’s work. According
to Mr. Lonsdale, the numbers of rows of cells vary from two
to ten, the latter occurring on the widened portions of the
interstices previous to bifurcation. In the Queensland
specimens I have not been able to. detect more than four
rows, usually there are three. This species was originally
described as a Fenestella, but the increased number of rows
of cells, and other minor characters, will I think necessitate
its removal from that sts and place it in Prof. McCoy’s
genus Polypora.

Localities.—Blackfellow’s Diggings, Rockhampton, Queens-
land (Daintree Collection). The other localities at which
this species has been found are Spring Hill, Mount Wel-
lington, and Eastern Marshes, Tasmania (Morris); Muree,
Bell’s Creek, and Loder’s Creek, New South Wales (MeCo y)3
Glendon, New South Wales (Dana).

FENESTELLA FOSSULA (7) Lonsdale.

Accompanying Polypora ampla are two specimens of
a much more finely reticulated form, preserved in a similar
manner as casts, but not in a sufficiently good state of
preservation to permit of any detailed description being
given ; but the general habit and mode of growth would
lead to the belief that they are Lonsdale’s Fenestella
fossula.

References.—F. fossula, Lonsdale, Darwin’s Geol. Obs.
Vole. Islands, 1844, p. 166 App.; Morris, Strzelecki’s Phys.
ser) VS. Wales, &:,, 1840, pawog, t 9, £5 MeUny:
Annals Nat. Hist. 1847, xx. p. 226 ; Dana, Geology OS.
Hxpl. Kxpd. p. 710, Atlas, t. 11, fi 3. ie fossula et F. densa,
Etheridge, ide Jour. Geol. Soc. 1872, xxvii. p. 352,
t, 25, f. 1.

F 2

68 Results of the Challenge Expedition.

Localities—Blackfellow’s Diggings, Rockhampton, Queens-
land (Daintree Collection). F. fossula, Lonsdale, 1s recorded —
from Mount Wellington, Tasmania (Morris); St. Patrick’s
Plains and Raymond’s Terrace, New South Wales (Morris) ;
Bells Creek and Darlington, New South Wales (McCoy) ;
Glendon, New South Wales (Dana); Smithfield Reef,
Gympie Goldfield, Queensland (Htheridge).

FENESTELLA. Figs. 2 and 2a.

Fig. 2 represents another species of Fenestella from
Gympie, as a cast in yellow sandstone, evidently the remains
of a large and handsome species. The fenestrules appear to
have been oval, and tolerably large in proportion to the
other parts ; the interstices bore two rows of cell-apertures,
separated by a small flexuous keel, from four to six cell-
apertures to each fenestrule. In places a third row of cells
is developed, especially previous to the bifurcation of the
interstices or stems. This species has somewhat the appear-
ance of Lonsdale’s Fenestella internata (Darwin’s Geol. Obs.
Vole. Islands, App. p. 165; Strzelecki’s Phys. Descr. N.S.
Wales, &c. p. 269, t. 9, f 2); but it is apparently too large,
and there are too many cells to the fenestrule. As there is
only one specimen, and that a cast, I refrain from giving to
it any new specific name.

Locality — Gympie, Queensland (Daintree Collection).

EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES.
Fig. 1. Polypora ampla, Lonsdale, natural size.
», 1a. A portion of the same, enlarged.
' 4, 2. Fenestella, natural size; Gympie.
», 2a. A portion of the same, enlarged.

Art. XIV.—On the Importance of a more close and system-
atic Observation of the Oceanic and Atmospheric
Phenomena of our Coasts.

By T. E. Rawiinson, Esa.
[Read 12th April, 1875.]

Art. XV.—On some of the Results of the Challenge
Lapedition.
By GrorGeE Foorp, Esa.
[Read 17th May, 1875.]

Phenomena of the Approach and Recession of Bodies. 69

Art. XVIL—The Sciopticon.

By W. M. Cooke.
[Read 17th May, 1875.]

Art. XVII.—WNotes concerning the Phenomena of the
Approach and Recession of Bodies under the Influence
of Radient Energy.

By ALFRED Mica SmiTH, B.Sc.
[Read 14th June, 1875.]
[ ABSTRACT. |

The subject of this paper, the author said, is far from
bemg a new one, having engaged the attention of several
physicists of repute during the last eighty years. It has
recently been brought very prominently before the scientific
public by the elaborate experiments of Mr. William
Crookes, F.R.S., who has attacked the question of the
causation of the motions concerned with persevering
industry, and with the aid of refined apparatus of a
character wholly beyond the reach of the earlier investi-
gators. Mr. Crookes’ results and the expression of his
views have led to the performance of experiments and the
expression of theoretical views, on the part of Professor
Osborne Reynolds, of The Owens College, Manchester ;
Professor Reynolds’ views and deductions appearing to differ
widely from those of Mr. Crookes. The question of the
causation of these remarkable motions remains therefore yet
an open one. The quantities dealt with are small in
amount; the experimental means are delicate and susceptible
of influence from very slight disturbing causes; the whole
question is subtle, bordering closely on the confines of the
unknown in molecular physics. But the subject, although a
difficult one, is also confessedly one of high moment and
great interest, and as after many experiments the author
had arrived at certain results, some of which appeared to be
not wholly devoid of interest, he ventured to select a few
therefrom to place before the Society, in the hope that they
might contribute some small amount of collateral testimony
to be added to that already adduced. It was further added,

GO. Notes concerning the Phenomena

in apology, that while what he had to advance in this paper
was but a mere fragmentary contribution, he was not with--
out hope, leisure permitting, of prosecuting the inquiry by
further experiment.

A réswmé of the earlier phases of the inquiry was then.
given and the experiments of the Rev. A. Bennet * were
quoted: Mr. Bennet having been the first, as far as known,,
to record the fact that a light substance delicately suspended
in air moved towards warm bodies.

The author then passed to the modern phases of the.
inquiry, as represented by the investigations of Messrs.
Crookes and Reynolds. Mr. Crookes characterises the
results of the earlier workers as collectively unsatisfactory
and contradictory, and then proceeds to carry out a very
large number of most delicate and ingenious experiments.
with the assistance of all the refinements of modern science..
His apparatus in its simplest form consists of a light stem of
glass with pith-ball extremities, delicately suspended hori-
zontally within a glass globe. When a ray of heat or light
is allowed to fall on one of the balls, that ball swings.
towards the source of heat or light. When, however, the
globe is exhausted of air and the ray again directed on to
the ball, the ball then swings away from the source of the:
ray. Before the exhaustion is complete, when the vacuum.
gauge 1s within about half an inch of the barometer, a
neutral point is reached at which the balls remain inert.
under the influence of these rays.

The refinements and ingenious devices introduced by
Mr. Crookes into the method of conducting this fundamental
experiment were dwelt upon at considerable length, and his.
application of the chemical vacuum prepared by the method.

of Dr. Andrews fully described.+

After most elaborate experiment, Mr. Crookes expresses:
his views as to the causation of these phenomena in the
following terms :—‘‘ My own impression is that the repulsion
accompanying radiation is directly due to the impact of the
waves upon the surface of the moving mass, and not
secondarily through the. intervention of air-currents,
electricity, or evaporation and condensation.” (Philos. Mag.
vol. xlviii. p. 94.)

The experiments and views of Professor Reynolds{ were
next entered upon, this physicist referring the cause of these

* Chem. News, vol. xxxi. p. 1. + Ibid. p. 33.
t Philos. Mag., vol. xlviil. p. 146.

of the Approach and Recession of Bodies. 71

motions to the effects of evaporation and condensation. He
found that when he inclosed a little balance within a water
vacuum of from 4 to ?inch pressure and approached a flame,
the nearest pith-ball was driven away; but that when a
piece of ice was brought near the ball swung towards the
ice. Professor Reynolds finds this behaviour to be directly
deducible from the Kinetic theory of gases. A material
surface in the act of throwing off vapour is itself repelled by
the reaction, whilst a similar surface condensing vapour has
the pressure on that surface diminished, and is consequently
drawn forwards.

The author then proceeded to describe a few of the
experiments he was led to make whilst examining these
phenomena, in the following detail :—

“In order to examine these motions in air at the ordinary
pressure, a large glass shade, about two feet high and eleven
inches in diameter, was employed. This was inverted and
the open end covered with a glass plate. By the aid of a
fibre of raw silk, there was suspended horizontally within it
a balance consisting of a glass stem carrying cylinders of
pith at the ends, and hanging about 134 inches from the
glass plate. |

« Kxperiment 1.—When a flame or other source of heat is
brought near this glass shade, the nearest pith approaches
the source of heat. It swings steadily towards the flame, at
a more or less accelerating speed, until it nears the flame,
when it begins to slow. It usually passes some degrees
beyond this point, due to momentum as it might be, but
returns and comes to rest within some degrees of the flame.
The behaviour, however, varies somewhat, the balance in
some cases slows and stops before the pith ever reaches the
flame, sometimes it keeps slowly vibrating from side to side
of that position, but when it comes to rest it is in almost
every instance from 5° to 10° on one side of the flame.

“This suggests the action of two or more opposing forces
simultaneously at work upon the pith, the balance taking up
a position determined by the resultant of these forces.

“ Kaperiment 2.—Another observation that supports this
view of the case is this:—‘When a basin of water
is placed within the glass shade, the atmosphere of the
interior soon becomes saturated with water, and whenever
the temperature sinks below the dew-point, the inner surface
of the shade becomes bedewed with moisture. If now the
flame be approached when the shade is in this condition, the

72 Notes concerning the Phenomena

nearest pith first of all recedes from the flame, but very soon
turns and swings towards it in the usual manner.’

“Tt occasionally happens, when the flame is placed exactly
equidistant from the two pieces of pith, that the balance
remains in unstable equilibrium for four or five minutes,
until, probably, some little accident, such as a current of
outside air inpinging on the glass, gives one or other pith
the advantage.

“The two opposing forces that sidenaed themselves
were :—Air currents within the shade, setting towards the
flame and causing the pith to approach, and evaporation
from the surface of the pith or glass tending to withdraw the
pith from the flame.

“ Kapervment 3.—With a view to connecting air currents
with the production of these motions, the following
experiment was devised.

“A pith-ball balance was suspended within a dry flask,
and a piece of phosphorus introduced. A thin vertical
stream of fume rose from the phosphorus. When a flame
was then placed near, the fume took the direction of the
flame before the balance itself became sensibly affected, and
flowed in a circle rising on the side next the flame and
descending on the opposite side. When, again, the relative
position of the flame to any part was altered 180°, the
direction of the ascending current of phosphorus fume was
reversed, it then ascended on the side next the flame in its
new position, and soon the pith swung round to that part.
The setting up of the current was antecedent to the rotation
of the balance, and the reversal of the current was ante-
cedent to the reversal of the direction of the balance.

“ Kapervment 4.—In order to examine further the action
of convection currents, another medium was employed.

“A balance made of a glass rod drawn out so as to leave
heavy ends, was suspended horizontally in a vessel of water
by a fibre of silk. When a flame was placed near it and
allowed to remain for some time, the rod slowly but steadily
swung round, until it pointed straight at the flame, in which
position it remained stationary.

“ As evaporation has no place in this experiment, the
position taken up by the rod with reference to the flame is
quite what might have been expected—setting in the line of
least resistance.

“The course of the current may be rendered visible by
dropping a little colouring matter into the liquid just over

of the Approach and Recession of Bodies. 73

the end of the balance furthest from the flame ; the colouring
matter will then he seen to descend perpendicularly, move
along the bottom towards the flame. and rise up the side of
the vessel next the flame, as in the last experiment.

“These two experiments render it highly probable, I
think, that convection currents play an important part in the
production of the phenomena under discussion, so far at
least as they apply to air at the ordinary pressure.

“Tf, as had been suggested, evaporation from the surface of
the pith was involved in these motions, it was conceived
that some confirmation of this might be obtained by a
comparison of the effects of heat on the same balance in
moist and dry air, other conditions being as nearly as
possible the same.

“With this object in view a balance consisting of a
platinum wire carrying a pith ball at each end was sus-
pended horizontally within a round-bottomed glass flask.
The pith balls weighed about a grain each, and the platinum
stem considerably less than a grain. :

“ Kxpervment 5.—The flask, after having been well air
dried and warmed, had boiling oil of vitriol poured into it,
and was then closed with an indiarubber stopper carrying
the little balance. When a flame was approached, after the
air within the flask had reached the ordinary pressure and
temperature, the nearest pith came towards it as usual.
The pith almost never reached so far as the flame however,
but, after several vibrations, took up a position about 20°
short of the flame.

“ Kaepervment 6.—The oil of vitriol was next replaced by
water, which was caused to boil in the flask for some time
and then allowed to cool down. The inner surface of the
glass soon became bedewed with moisture. When the same
flame, under the same conditions as in the last experiment
was presented, the nearest pith moved towards it as usual.
But the motion was in this case much more rapid and the
swing farther; the pith usually went well past the flame,
repassed, and then vibrated slowly about 80° from the

starting point, or within 10° of the flame.

“ The difference in the motions exhibited in these two

eases of the moist and dry air, may be looked upon, I think,

as favouring the notion of evaporation as a cause operating
in the production of these phenomena.

“As, in the second case, the air was already saturated
with moisture, evaporation could not take place so readily

74: Notes concerning the Phenomena

as in the case of the dry air, and, consequently, the force
causing recession being weaker would enable the balance to
swing nearer the flame. |

“In considering, in the next place, the effect of con-
densation as a cause of approach, it was thought that if a
balance could be placed under such conditions that rapid
condensation or absorption would ensue under the influence
of heat, the effect might be so exaggerated as to be made
very conspicuous. For this purpose the property that oil of
vitriol possesses of rapidly absorbing moisture was taken
advantage of.

“ Kepervment 7.—A balance was constructed of a platinum
stem, with small plates of pumicestone at the ends, and
suspended horizontally within a flask by a fibre of silk. So
long as the pumicestone was dry the balance swung, but
slowly, towards the flame ; when, however, it was moistened
with oil of vitriol the motion was greatly accelerated. In
addition to this increased rate of motion towards the flame,
the following interesting behaviour was observed. The
heavier end always came towards the flame, even when the
flame was placed opposite the lighter. It then rapidly still
further increased in weight, by the attraction of moisture,
until sufficient had accumulated to form a drop. Directly
this drop fell, the end next the flame rose, being then the
lighter, and forthwith commenced to swing round until it
had changed positions with the other end, which, in its turn,
increased rapidly in weight, let fall a drop, and immediately
thereupon began to swing round as before. This periodic
exchange of positions continued so long as the drops
continued to fall.

“The question as to why the lower end of the balance
should always approach the flame, now offered itself for
solution. It was conceived that it might depend upon the
relative amount of condensation that was taking place on

the two ends; or again, that it might be a direct result of

the action of convection currents. In the endeavour to
settle this point a number of experiments were instituted.

“ Kapervment 8.—A very delicate balance, consisting of a
fine glass stem carrying small pith-discs at its extremities, was
suspended horizontally within a moist flask. A flame was
placed near and the movement of the balance attentively
watched, when it was found that its behaviour corresponded
with that of the balance in the last experiment. The end
next the flame was observed to rise slowly ; on its attaining

fi

~-

of the Approach and Recession of Bodies. T5-

a position a little above the level of the farther end, the
balance swung round, the two ends eventually changing
places ; this change of position being repeated at intervals
as before. Since in this arrangement, however, the altera-
tion in the relative level of the two ends was gradual, and
not sudden as it was in the oil of vitriol experiment, the
exchange of position between the ends was likewise less
sudden, one or more false starts being sometimes made before
the change was effected. When time was given this change
never failed to take place.

_ “Tn the attempt to eliminate as far as possible the effects
of condensation, and so to examine the effects due, as was
supposed, to air currents alone, on a balance with ends at
different levels, another form of experiment was thus
arranged.

_* Kepervment 9.—A balance was prepared congisting of a
glass stem furnished with a disc of paraffin at the end of
one arm, and having the end of the other arm bent in the
form of a hook. The hook served to support a number of
little glass riders. By adding or removing these little
weights the balance could be adjusted so as to swing in any
position. It was then suspended within a dry flask.

“When the paraftin disc was highest it retreated rapidly
on the approach of heat, as of the finger held close to the
glass. When weights were removed from the other end
and the disc was lowest it swung rapidly towards the finger.
When the balance was as nearly as possible horizontal the
nearest end always approached the heat. A source of
cold on being brought near produced just the opposite
effects.

“When balls of paraffin or pith were used the same
results were obtained ; and again, when the glass flask was
replaced by a tin vessel, only in the latter case the move--
ments were rather more rapid.

“If we consider the course of the air currents within the
flask, their effect of difference of level will receive a ready.
explanation.

“Tt has already been shown that the currents rise on the
side next the flame, and descend on the other side. As
suggested by Mr. F. J. Pirani, during a conversation with
him on the subject, these circular currents will not be
parallel to one another, but will converge towards the flame.
If we suppose the flask to be divided by a horizontal plane
passing through the centre of the flame, then it will be

76 Notes concerning the Phenomena

* evident that in the lower segment the currents will converge
towards the flame, whilst in the upper segment they will
diverge from it. The centres of flame and balance being in
a horizontal line, if one end of the balance be above this
line, it will be within the currents diverging from the flame,
and will consequently be swept away. If below the line, it
will be under the influence of currents converging towards
the flame, and will therefore be swept to the point nearest
the flame, and held there in position. With a source of cold
instead of heat, these effects will be reversed. |

“For examining these phenomenainavacuum, the Sprengel
pump used was one constructed by Mr. George Foord, of the
Melbourne Mint. It is fitted in a pyramidal frame of wood
(see figure), and has a six feet fall tube. The exhaust tube
is connected with a T shaped branch, which, in its turn, is
joined at one of its extremities to the apparatus containing
the balance, the subject of experiment, and at the other with
the mercurial gauge. In the cistern of the mercurial gauge
1s immersed the lower end of a barometer tube, so that gauge
and barometer, which are of the same calibre, stand side by
side. Over each slides an outer glass tube, graduated to
millimetres, which may be raised or lowered so as to allow
a pointer of glass, in which the lower ends of these outer
tubes terminate, to touch the surface of the mercury. This
lower point is the datum line of the graduations. The
glass scale tubes are raised and lowered by a very simple
mechanism of silk cords, pulleys, and keys of glass, round
which the cords are wound, in a manner comparable to the
tightening and relaxing of the strings of an ordinary violin.
All the junctions of the pump are of stout black indiarubber.
The instrument is very effective.

“The balance employed consisted of a very fine platinum
wire with pith-balls at the ends, suspended within a glass
bulb, which was connected with the Sprengel pump by its
lower extremity (see figure). In constructing this, a bulb
is first blown in the centre of a piece of carefully-selected
glass tubing. One end of the tube is then drawn out to a
point ; towards the other end it is contracted in two places,
one to give the indiarubber tubing by which it is to be
attached to the Sprengel a better hold, and the other as a
preparation for the sealing off. The little balance is tied by
a loop at its centre to a long fibre of cocoon silk, a minute
touch of cement being placed on the knot to prevent the
silk shifting. The other end of this fibre is tied to a

SPRENGEL PUMP
—WITH TUBES IN POSITION.—

SLE cord.

mIMUTINI
ti nh iN{l
os

NA

TTT
IMT EIT

SPRENGEL PuMmP
—WITH TUBES IN POSITION.—

of the Approach and Recession of Bodies. cE

piece of platinum wire ending in a loop, which has been
cemented with gold, so as to leave no rough edge where the
silk fibre might become fast. The fibre is chosen of such a
length that when all is in position the balance will hang in
the centre of the bulb. The tube is now inverted, point
downwards, and the platinum wire first introduced at the
wider end, then the balance, supported by a wire with a
hook at the end, is carefully allowed to slide in until the
free end of the platinum wire emerges from the pointed end
of the tube. The projecting wire is then caught hold of,
and the wire with the hook removed. The tube is now
inverted into position, and the balance adjusted so as to
swing in the centre of the bulb by raising or lowering the
wire at the top, before sealing it into the glass. The con-
traction towards the lower end, in anticipation of the
sealing off, is still further narrowed when it is ready for
attaching to the pump. After exhaustion it is sealed off.

“My experience of the phenomena, as exhibited by the
arrangement described, may be stated very shortly. Although
indications of recession on the application of heat were
certainly obtained when the gauge was within eight milli-
metres (4 inch) of the barometer, still these movements
were exceedingly feeble and uncertain. I found that the
exhaustion might reach to within = of an inch of the
barometer, or even so near as to be indistinguishable from it
by the cathetometer, and yet when heat was applied no
certain indications of recession could be detected, nothing
further than an occasional slight twitching taking place, and
this even when a part of the glass was heated until painful to
the touch. I could only obtain indications with certainty
when the pump was made to work vigorously for some time
after the vcid was to all appearance as good as the barometer
vacuum. But so long as the pump was working, with
such a perfect vacuum, the behaviour of the balls under
the influence of heat was very erratic. The balance would
suddenly start off, making several revolutions each way,
slowing as the balls passed the flame, then swing to and from
the flame regularly for some time, soon to repeat these
spasmodic movements.

“Tt was found on some occasions, when the Sprengel was
working under these conditions, that the approach of a stick
to within an inch or two of the glass caused one end of the
balance to swing towards and from the stick through 40°.
A test tube of hot water then caused the nearest ball to

78 Notes concerning the Phenomena

swing towards it first, then back again, continuing this
vibration. When a sheet of white paper was waved near it
the balance was caused to swing round several times.

«Such irregular behaviour on the part of the balance at
once suggests electrical action as a disturbing cause, and
that there is abundance of electrical disturbance within the
tube is very certain. Indeed, very little experience of the
-action of the Sprengel pump is sufficient to show that besides
its function of an air-pump it is also an electrical machine.
In warm weather especially sparks can be drawn by pre
senting the knuckle to the surface of the mercury in the
lower reservoir, and in a dark room, when a tolerably
attenuated atmosphere is reached, flashes of sheet lightning
are seen to quiver from time to time through ail the
airways.

“There can be little doubt that these discharges are
implicated in some of the irregular behaviour of the pith-
balls, which has just been described, so that for delicate
experiments we must either have the tube hermetically
-sealed off and detached from the pump after exhaustion, or
at least allow it sufficient repose for the restoration of the
electrical equilibrium.

“When these precautions are taken the behaviour of the
balance unc; the influence of heat or cold is perfectly
consistent anu’ regular; the balls receding from a source of
heat and approaching a source of cold.

“Touching the question of the causation of these phenomena,
in the first place I think it will be ceded that we may have
approach without attraction properly so called, and diverg-
ence without repulsion,—the weathercock is not attracted
in the direction of the wind, but is forced into the position
of least resistance.

“There are some beautiful experiments that bear upon this
point, by Dr. Frederick Guthrie, in reference to the approach
of vibrating bodies towards one another, as though in
obedience to an attractive force. He shows howa delicately
poised piece of card or handful of cotton wool moves towards °
a tuning-fork during the vibration of the latter. Also, how
a paper drum, suspended horizontally, approaches a drum
made by stretching parchment across the wide end of a funnel,
when the latter is made to vibrate by rapidly forcing air into
and drawing it out of the funnel.

‘He also advances in clear terms an explanation of these

of the Approach and Recession of Bodies. 79

phenomena, which, as they involve a general principle, I am
tempted to quote :—

«<The experimental results appear to me to point to the
following conclusions :—

«“«Whenever an elastic medium is between two vibrating
bodies, or between a vibrating body and one at rest, and
when the vibrations are dispersed in consequence of their
impact on one or both of the bodies, the bodies will be urged
together.

«The dispersion of a vibration produces a similar effect
to that produced by the dispersion of the air current in
Clement’s* experiment, and, like the latter, the effect is due
to the pressure exerted by the medium, which is in a state
of higher mean tension on the side of the body furthest from
the origin of vibration than on the side towards it.

««J77 mechanics—in nature there is no such thing as a
pulling force, though the term attraction may have been
used in the above to denote the tendency of bodies to
approach—the line of conclusions here indicated tends to
argue that there is no such thing as attraction in the sense
of a pulling force, and that two utterly isolated bodies
cannot influence one another. .

“<«Tf the etherial vibrations which are supposed to con-
stitute radiant heat resemble the erial vibi tions which
constitute radiant sound, the heat which all br .ies possess,
and which they are all supposed to radiate in exchange, will
cause all bodies to be urged towards one another.” +

“Clearly, then, we may have these rotations and approxima-
tions due either to currents or periodic vibrating impulses,
without the necessity of supposing either special properties
of attraction or the existence and exercise of any new force.

“When a gaseous atmosphere is present, it seems to me
that the existence of currents adequate for producing the
phenomena of approach is an obvious fact; and, when
moisture is present on solid surfaces, as in the case of the
bedewed glass shade, that the recession can result from its
evaporation. In short, that these two operating influences
are antagonistic to one another, and that we may have one
or the other effect, according as one or other of these
influencing causes is in the ascendant.

* The experiment of Clement shows that when a continuously renewed
current of air passes between two parallel discs from the common axis
towards the circumference, the discs are urged together.

+ Proceedings Royal Society, vol. xix. p. 41.

80 Notes concerning the Phenomena

“We pump out a portion of the air from the containing
vessel, and then the vapours and gases condensed in the
pores or on the surface of the balance come into play.

“And now the question arises whether, by any decree of
pumping, even with the aid of dessicating contrivances,
such as that employed in the method of Dr. Andrews, we
can ever completely rob the surface and pores of a solid body
of all vaporizable matter. It.is to be remembered that the
treating of the pith-ball before the experiment, so frequently
described by Mr. Crookes, implies a suspicion of something
condensed in its pores; and the possibility of that some-
thing, as fast as it is expelled from the one, being rapidly
condensed into the pores of the opposite ball, is too obvious to
need remark. Even charring the balls will be accompanied
by the formation of tarry matters of various volatility.

“There is a paper by Mitscherlich, published in the Annales
de Chimie et de Physique, for January, 1843, which has an
interesting bearing upon this question. He shows that
charcoal has the power of absorbing carbonic acid, and com-
pressing it within the pores with such force that it occupies
only one fifty-sixth part of its ordinary volume, one-third of
this being condensed within the pores in a liquid condition.
But it takes 36°7 atmospheric pressure to liquify carbonic
acid. The charcoal then holds the carbonic acid with a grasp
equal to 36'7 atmospheres. As the most perfect air pump
can only remove the pressure of one atmosphere, how can it
be expected to cope with such a force and remove all the gas
from the pores of the charcoal? But this is only one instance
of a general property of all porous bodies to condense gases
and liquids within their pores. Nor are porous bodies the
only ones that possess this power, for it is well known that
in some cases solid metals have the property of occluding
gases within their substance with stupendous force and with
enormous condensing power. We know that these gases can
be expelled by ignition, that is to say, by heat, but it is not
easy to see how the removal of-one atmosphere of pressure
from porous or even metallic bodies, even with accessory
dessicating appliances, can remove all vaporizable consti-.
tuents from their pores or surfaces, which antagonise a force
out of all proportion greater than that lifted off by the pump.

Mr. Crookes finds the ultraviolet rays to be also capable
of producing effects of recession. This I have not put to
experiment. But these rays admittedly have the power to
shake asunder the constituents of certain chemical com-

of the Approach and Recession of Bodies. 81

pounds, and may have other powers of a mechanical,
chemico-mechanical, or other hitherto undiscovered nature.

“The very doctrine of the equivalency and convertibility
of the natural forces implies, that we may have any kind
of energy as the educt of any other kind. These same rays
of high refrangibility are those which are absorbed by the
leaves of the plant, and constitute the force by which the
timber is grown, thereby effecting an enormous store of
mechanical energy.

‘Dr. Guthrie’s experiments would appear to prove that,
with an intervening vibrating ponderable medium, approach
between bodies freely suspended is a natural consequence.
But whether this applies, in an equal sense, in the case of a
vibrating imponderable ether is not so apparent.

“We know that the latter are potent in effecting molecular
motions, and we know that molecular motions anticipate the
motions of the mass, as instanced by nitro-giycerine.

“ But, with reference especially to these recessions of the
balance, what we want to know at present is,— What would
be the behaviour of a body, freely suspended, and proved to
be wholly freed from all vaporizable constituents, In a
perfect. void, under the influence of the several varieties of
radiant energy ?”

In closing, the author begged to record his best thanks to
Mr. George Foord, of the Melbourne Mint, for having most
kindly placed his private laboratory at the author’s disposal,
whilst conducting these experiments, for the pains he took
to construct with his well-known skill the most delicate of
the apparatus employed, and for his advice and sympathy

throughout the enquiry.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE.
a Bulb to be exhausted of air, containing balance—the subject of
experiment.
Tube from Sprengel branching into ¢ and d.
Branch tube leading to bulb.
Branch tube dipping into mercury in trough ¢ and constituting gauge.
Barometer standing side by side with gauge.

Soe 3

The scales of barometer and gauge are cn tubes external to each,
adjusted by the keys g and cords passing over pulleys at h.

A.B. C.D. Enlarged drawings of details.

Nots.—For clearness, certain minor details of construction are omitted
in the drawing.

G

82 The Arithmometer.

Art. XVIIL—A Universal Equatorial and an Instrument
for Facilitating the Observation of Mars.

By T. Harrison, Esq.
[Read 6th September, 1875.]

Art. XIX.—The Avrithmometer.

By W. C. KeErnot, Esq, M.A
[Read 6th September, 1875.]

The machine to which I propose to invite your attention
this evening is the invention of M. Thomas de Colmar, and
is termed by him the Arithmometer, or number measurer. It
was first patented in 1820. In 1822 the inventor exhibited
it to the Société d’ Encouragement pour |’ Industrie Nationale.
In 1851 the gold medal of that society was awarded to the
inventor, and one of the instruments was exhibited at the
Great Exhibition at London of that year; but, as far as I
can judge from the published records of that exhibition,
does not appear to have been so complete as those of
more recent construction. The first machine that reached
this colony, as far as I am aware, was imported by
J. M. Templeton, Esq., F.1.A., about three years ago. On
inspecting Mr. Templeton’s machine I became convinced of
its utility, and immediately ordered one, which you now see
before you. This instrument I have had in constant use for
more than two years, with the most satisfactory results.

The diagram accompanying this paper represents the
upper surface or “face” of the instrument, which consists of
two plates of brass, AA and BB. The plate A, which is
permanently fixed, is pierced by a series of slots, in each of
which is placed a metal button capable of motion from one
end of the slot to the other. At the side of each slot the
numbers 1 to 9 are engraved on the plate. Immediately
beneath each slot there is a square horizontal steel axis,
upon which a pinion of ten teeth is capable of sliding
longitudinally. This pinion is connected with the button,
so that its position on its axis will vary when the button is
moved. Below the pinion there is a drum or cylinder,
having nine teeth of successively diminishing length, so

The Avrithmometer. 83

arranged that when the button is placed at any given
number, the pinion will be opposite a part of the drum
presenting that particular number of teeth. This whole
combination of mechanism is repeated as many times as
there are slots, and all the drums are connected by bevel
wheels of equal size to a horizontal shaft, which is actuated
by the handle 6. The plate 6B, which is usually termed
the “slide,” is movable upon an elongated bar hinge at the
back, which permits longitudinal sliding as well as the
ordinary hinge action. In this plate there are a series of
openings ¢, having revolving discs beneath, each bearing the
numbers from 0 to 9. To each disc is attached a bevel
wheel, which gears with an equal bevel wheel on one of the
square steel axes previously mentioned. Hence each of the
result discs, as they are termed, will be moved through as many
tenths of a revolution at each revolution of the handle as is
expressed by the number opposite which the corresponding
button is placed, and by means of a simple reversing arrange-
ment, actuated by the “regulator” HL, this motion may be caused
to increase or reduce the numbers exhibited by the “result ”
discs. Thus, at each turn of the handle the number “set
on” the buttons is added to or deducted from that previously
exhibited by the result discs. But in order that this
operation may be continued indefinitely, it is requisite to
provide for “ carrying,’ and this is done by means of an
exceedingly elegant system of levers and cams, which come
into action whenever the number 0 passes beneath any of
the result openings. Thus, with the instrument set as in
the diagram, if the handle were turned once the right hand
or unit result disc would move through five-tenths of a
revolution, and would then present the number 0. The
carrying mechanism would thus be brought into action,
and would cause the tens result disc to move through one-
tenth of a revolution more than it otherwise would, so as
in the present case to exhibit the number 4, instead of 3,
to which the tens button is set.

The discs d, are known as the “quotient,” from their use
when dividing, and simply record the number of revolutions
of the handle, one of the quotient discs only, viz. that nearest
to the unit button, being in action at one time. Thus, in
the diagram, it is evident that the handle has been turned
three times with the slide in the position shown, eight
times with the slide moved one figure to the right, and
sO On.

G 2

84 The Arithmometer.

The large knobs C and JD, are known respectively as
the “result effacer,” and the “quotient effacer,’ and operate
upon a very simple and ingenious arrangement of wheels
and racks, whereby all the result and quotient discs can be
brought to zero, preparatory to undertaking a new calcu
lation. :

It is impossible to convey by a mere verbal description,
unaided by detailed diagrams, an adequate idea of the
numerous and ingenious mechanical contrivances with
which this instrument abounds. To give an idea of the
intricacy of the mechanism, I may state that in the smaller
of the two arithmometers exhibited on the present occasion,
and which has but twelve result discs, there are no less
than 120 separate cogged wheels, and 44 different springs,
all essential toits proper working. In spite of this apparent
complexity, the machine has never yet got out of order, has
never made a mistake; while of the springs, which are
regarded by the makers as the weak point of the whole
affair, not one has given way.

The machine, as will be seen from what has preceded,
essentially a difference engine, adding to or subtracting’
from the number in the result, an equal difference at every.
revolution of the handle. Hence, it is capable of computing
tables having a constant difference with great rapidity,
exhibiting successive results, at the rate of one for each
revolution.

Tables of this kind are very common, and although their
computation requires but very little arithmetical skill, yet
the operation is fatiguing and disagreeable, and an error
in any one item will vitiate all that follows; hence a
mechanical aid is by no means to be despised.

In many tables the difference, though not absolutely
constant, varies so slowly that it may safely be taken as
constant for a considerable number of successive items. In
such cases also the arithmometer can be used with —
advantage.

Another large class of tables has for its fundamental
formula y = aaz?. Here it can be shown that the difference
of the difference, or second difference, is constant, and by
altering the buttons by the amount of the second difference
with one hand, and turning the handle with the other,
results twelve figures long can be obtained very much
more rapidly than the most expert writer can copy them

1 cep dt Ng h NR ny ly

ai
|
ce |
=
a)
2?
[|
am |
.

The Avrithmometer. 85

down. To this class belong tables of squares, weights of
square and cylindrical rods of various materials, strength
of ditto, &¢. &e.

In order to understand the operation of the machine
when multiplying, it will be neccessary to observe that
multiplication is but a form of addition, ¢g., if we wish to
multiply 63 by 4, we may proceed thus—

252

and the method, though tedious, will be admitted to be
perfectly accurate. The corresponding operation will be
performed by the instrument, by settine the units button
to 3, and the tens button to 6, and turning the handle four
times, when the result discs will exhibit the number 252,
and the multiplier 4 will be presented by the unit quotient
disc. If the multipler were 24, we should need to shift
the slide one notch to the right, and turn the handle twice,
the result discs would then give 1512, while the quotient
discs would show the multipler 24. The operation being
sunilar to the subjoined addition :

1512

/

In this way long multiplication can be _ performed
expeditiously and accurately, a result 20 figures long being
obtained by actual trial in 45 seconds, with a machine
having 20 result discs.

By means of a simple algebraical artifice results containing
many more figures than the machine has result discs may
be obtained, ¢.g.,a result 24 figures long, expressing the
product of two factors, each 12 figures long, was obtained
from an arithmometer having only 12 result discs, in about
2 minutes.

86 The Arithmometer.

One notable feature is this, that should a mistake be
made in the number of revolutions of the handle, it may
be detected by a glance at the quotient discs on the
completion of the operation, and at once remedied by a
single motion of the handle, the slide, and if necessary
the regulator. 7 |

Should a number of products having a common factor
be needed, they can be similarly obtained without involving.
the necessity of effacing and recommencing. We simply
modify the multiplier as it is exhibited in the quotient
dises, and the result is correspondingly modified by the
action of the mechanism. In this way, the following set
of results was obtained, the time occupied being less than
2 minutes :

323,457 x 3817 = 102,535,869
ot dog 21887 68h053
» x 1,749 = 565,726,293
» x 2,438 = 788,588,166
| 196° Gao mae
» x 12,198 = 38,945,528,486
tik oy 1 ae Smee

In the corresponding case of a series of quotients having
a common divisor, the reciprocal of the divisor is set on,
nd we proceed as in multiplication.

One of the most important properties of the arithmometer,
is its power of accumulating results. If the result figures
instead of being at zero at the commencement of a
multiplication, be set at any particular number, at the
close of that multiplication they will exhibit the sum of
that number and the product obtained. Thus the sum-
mation of a series of products is rapidly effected. Nay
more, should any of the products be preceded by the
negative sign, that circumstance can be provided for by
setting the reculator # at division, while obtaining those
products. Thus, the algebraical sum of a series of products.
is obtained at one continuous operation.

As an example of this accumulation of results, I may
refer to the subjoined calculations, which actually occurred
in determining the capacity of one of our large reservoirs.
The figures in the right hand column represent the capacity
of the reservoir, for various depths of water. The first.
result was obtained by multiplying the first number in the
left hand column ‘12, by the common multiplier 653,400,
the second by multiplying 52 by 653,400, and adding the
product to the first result, and so on. The time required

The Arithmometer. 87

to obtain the fifteen results, OR ee in the ageregate
of 120 figures, with comfort was 5) minutes :
A ie eae oe 78,408

aay mes)", 418.176
Gao e,. a. ) Bghtg 686

oe |) B7B6256
TAS +. 19,131,552
97°88 .. .. 37,848,344
38:79 .. .. 62,693,730
49°81... .. 95,239,584
6165 .. .. 135,521,694
75:55 .. .. 184,886,064
Gieson v0 fee) 944,541 484
10927 .. .. 315,938,502
129-30 .. .. 400,423,122
149-99 .. .. 498,426,588
173°19 .. .. 611,588,934

In order to divide, the dividend must be placed in
the result holes, if it be not there already, which is
frequently the case, if multiplications or additions have
preceded, and the divisor beimg set on the buttons, and the
regulator at division, the slide is placed as far to the right
as is possible, consistently with the condition that it shall
be possible to subtract the divisor without reducing that
portion of the dividend immediately above it, below zero.
The handle being turned, the divisor is deducted
successively until the figures in the result holes directly
above the divisor form a number less than the divisor.
The slide is then shifted one step to the left, and the process
repeated, and so on until it is not possible to proceed
further. The quotient will be found in the quotient holes,
and the remainder in the result holes. If we wish to
obtain a more extended quotient, we must record and efface
the portion already obtained, and transferring the remainder
to the left hand end of the slide, proceed as before. We
shall thus obtain several additional figures of the quotient,
recording and effacing which we may proceed to obtain
another “batch of numerals, and so on ad infinitum. In
this manner the subjoined operation was effected with a
machine haying six buttons and twelve result discs, in
about four minutes :
987,647 x 129,343 __
318,644 ail
In conclusion, I would state that, like most other things,
the arithmometer acts far more efficiently under some
circumstances than others, and a very great deal depends

4-00902656007958725097601

88 On the Meteor of April 15th.

upon the shape in which the computation is presented to
it. It frequently needs special formule and_ peculiar
methods, such as do not at once suggest themselves to the
minds of persons inexperienced in its use, and there is
scope for the exercise of no small amount of ingenuity,
in so arranging the work as to gain the utmost benefit.
Some formula are peculiarly suitable for logarithmic work,
and rather unsuitable for the arithmometer; others are of
precisely the reverse character ; hence, while I believe the
arithmometer to possess great advantages, I do not for one
moment anticipate that it will altogether supplant tables of
logarithms and reciprocals. Each will be found to have
its own sphere of usefulness, within which it has no rival,
Moreover, different persons will form different estimates of
the value of the machine. Some who through years of
incessant practice have obtained a_ special facility in
arithmetical operations will be inclined to regard it as
unnecessary ; others, who find arithmetical work to con-
stitute a severe tax upon mental energy which could be
profitably employed in other directions, will value it
highly.

My own éxperience is, that I perform my. work in less
than half the time that I previously required, and with
not a tithe of the fatigue. Indeed, I calculate that the
saving of time and labour, consequent upon its use during
the past two years, has repaid its original cost several times
over.

a
t

ArT. XX.—On the Meteor of April 15th.
By J. Perry, Esq.

[Read 6th September, 1875. ]

On “Surcharge” of the Bullion Assay. 89

Art. XXI—On “Surcharge” of the Bullion Assay.

By Ropert Barton, Esq.
[Read 6th September, 1875. }

It is generally understood by assayers that the surcharge
of the gold cornet does not exactly represent the residue of
silver which the parting has failed to boil out, and that it is
on the contrary a resultant error, in fact the difference
between this silver residue and the loss which the gold
suffers by volatilization in the muffle and absorption by the
cupel.

Re these two opposite sources of error vary according to
circumstances of temperature of the mufile, porosity of the
eupel, thickness of the ribbon forming the cornet, quantity
of lead and proportion of silver employed, strength of acid,
time of the operations, &., it becomes necessary to control
the work by the use of “proof” assays of gold of known
fineness, which, passed with the work under exactly the
same conditions throughout, show what correction for
“surcharge” is to be made in each case.

The more closely a routine is adhered to—the same from
time to time in al] its minor details of temperature, &c.,
using cupels of the same make, acid from the same bulk—
the more uniform will the surcharge remain, from day to
day. But even when this approximate uniformity is secured,
there still remains an influencing cause, the neglect of which
will lead to reports of a comparatively inaccurate character ;
the loss on the cupel depends upon the quantity of gold in
the assay, so that the surcharge will be greater in samples
of gold of high fineness, than in those of low gold, passed
in the same fire and parted in the same acids.

The loss of gold may be so great as exactly to neutralize
the excess weight due to silver left in the cornet, when a
surcharge of 0 will result ; or the volatility may exceed what
is required for compensating the excess weight due to
remanent silver, when the surcharge will be represented by
a negative sign. Something must in such instances be
added to the weight of the cornet, in order to represent the
exact fineness of the sample assayed. :

In practice, the variation of surcharge in agreement with
the varying fineness of the samples may be compensated by
passing in the same fire proofs of fine gold of weights

90 On “Surcharge” of the Bullion Assay.

approximately corresponding to the presumed fineness of
the several assay pieces under trial, correcting each of the
latter by its corresponding proof; gold of ‘9 by the 9 grains
proof, gold of ‘7 by the 7 grains proof, and so on (supposing
the assay pound in these instances to be 10 grains). But
with rough gold especially, of which often a large range of
finenesses is passed in one fire, it would be exceedingly
operose to provide proofs for each variation and for com-
mercial, as distinguished from purely experimental work,
some kind of general rule or compromise has to be made.
The following experimental trials illustrate the case :

Silver employed 24 times the weight of the gold.
Lead » 84 grains.
All other conditions the same throughout.

According to the above results, when with full pound of
fine gold, the surcharge equals + ‘00085. Then,

With 8 grains under same influences the surcharge is reduced to one-half.
Witla .;, : = AS to one-quarter.
130, oe Cae B a3 a to zero.

At 2-5 the ‘“minusage” is nearly equal in amount to the ‘‘ plusage”’ at 10.

Of course by altering the weight of lead or in any other
manner modifying the ruling conditions, other figures would
be obtained, but special experiment under any given routine
would show the interrelation existing between the surcharge:
quantities for the several finenesses of gold.

The attached graphic illustration shows the results of
these experiments. The vertical column represents sur-
charge ; the horizontal series of figures shows fineness or
quantity of gold contained in the assay ; the line A (
connects the results of actual experiments; the line
B (--------- ) averages the results ; and the straight line
CG a ee ) connects the extreme results.

When samples of gold of different finenesses are passed
with proofs of the full pound of fine gold, with proportions
of silver and lead, &c., as already stated ; from the surcharge
indicated by these proofs, that for any low gold may be
approximately estimated by reference to the subjoined table
deduced from lines ruled parallel to C.

Half these experiments were performed by Mr. Foord, and
half by myself, so that personal error may be considered to-
be eliminated by the combination of results.

91

On “Surcharge” of the Bullion Assay.

+ + +

-|-

8000: +

*NVOLIT

+

Sy Ole = LG
Sie Olt aseiren ¢ 6
9209 na G
te 8) ied
C70 0 he 6 40)
LVO0 O We er 10)
260" = 1 ci GG 0
666 § 1 G
618 g
199 8000: + G6 6000:
ee ane

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WONG WTdad Xo AG GNOOW

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‘C10 WNIT

92

APPROXIMATE SURCHARGE TABLE.

10

On “Surcharge” of the Bullion Assay.

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The figures in the columns denote ten-thousandths of unity.

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FuUtCCES J\ 0

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i

oe
i
s

On a Proposed New Method of Weighing. 93.

Art. XXII—On a Proposed New Method of Weighing,
applicable to the Gold Bullion Assay.

By GeEorGE Foorp, Esq.
[Read 8th November, 1875.]

It is well known that the modern practice of the gold
assay includes many refinements upon the routine formerly
practised ; that it commands chemicals of greater purity,
balances of greater sensitiveness and accuracy, and certain
accessory tools which facilitate and expedite the work.
But it is also well understood, especially by those imme-
diately interested in the work, that although the method has
been thus refined, it still falls short of absolute certainty and
exactitude, and that further progressive improvement is still
possible. One of the chief sources of minor errors which may
yet be in part removed is that which belongs to the opera-
tion of weighing, and it is the object of this paper to propose
modifications, which promise some advantage over the
method of weighing hitherto practised.

It will assist my explanation if in the first place I offer a
few practical observations concerning the construction and
adjustment of the assay beam.

For weighing, in the ordinary routine of the gold assay,
there are required :—

1st.—A sensitive and accurate balance.

2nd.—A series of accurate weights.

The balance-beam should be as light as possible, the requisite
stifiness being at the same time secured. The arms of the
balance should be of exactly equal length, measuring from
the centre to each end knife edge. The knife edges must be
sharp. The centre of gravity should be a little below the
plane of the three knife-edges, and immediately under the
centre knife-edge. Hach arm of the beam should be accu-
rately and distinctly divided by lines into fifty parts, each
fifth mark from the centre, however, being distinguished by
a dot instead of a line; these dots will therefore indicate
tenths of the space between the centre and end knife-edge.
The pans, of whatever pattern, should be small and light.
The scale, measuring the sweep of the index or needle,
should be accurately divided, so that each division of this
scale represents uniformly a subdivision of the smallest

94 On a Proposed New Method of Weighing,

weight: for example, when the real weight of the rider is
=; of a grain the subdivisions of the index scale should
represent ;1,th part of the rider weight, or 001 of a grain.

The beam should be constructed as simply and of as few
pieces of metal as possible; the ized constituent members
of the beam should be fastened together as firmly as possible ;
the movable pieces, the ball and tongue, should be fitted to
move neither too stiffly nor too loosely, but so as to retain
whatever position they are placed in during the adjustment
and after-use of the beam.

When the skilled workman has exerted the utmost care
and ability in making such a balance-beam, the instrument
will require adjustment of the tongue and ball, that is to
say, of the centre of gravity of the beam, so as to suit it for
the special work for which it is to be used, whether for
quantity of work or for extreme accuracy regardless of the
quantity of work performed in a given time. When this
adjustment has been effected, it is probable that the index
readings on the scale will be found to deviate more or less
from the required decimal subdivisions of the rider weight.

A few sentences will elucidate the details of this final
adjustment of the beam. By screwing up the ball, over the
centre of the beam, we bring about two results :—

1. We raise the centre of gravity of the beam; and 2.
As the ball is at best only an approximation to a
true and uniformly dense sphere revolving on a vertical
axis, by its revolution we displace, in some degree, the centre
of gravity, in a direction other than the vertical. After
screwing up or lowering the ball, the balance of the arms of
the beam is found to be disturbed, and it becomes necessary
to restore equilibrium by adjustment of the tongue. The
tongue should be movable in azimuth on a plain cylindrical
pin, without rising or falling on a screw-thread.

We may raise the ball until the balance becomes unstable,
or we may lower the ball and consequently lower the centre
of gravity of the beam until stability (disturbed by raising
the ball) is fully restored. But when we require the greatest
sensibility consistent with stability, we must, by a series of
trials, brig the centre of gravity to a position a very little
below the point upon which the beam oscillates (the centre
knife-edge),

In the practice of this latter adjustment it will greatly
assist operations to paint a small neat black dot on the
equator of the ball, so as to be able by means of this mark

applicable to the Gold Bullion Assay. 95

to heighten or lower the ball with certainty a known
number of threads of the screw, or, if necessary, any sub-
division, as one half or a quarter of a turn.

These preliminary adjustments effected, the balance is to
be loaded with the full load employed in the actual work,
for example, with ten grains in each pan ; and by means of
the rider-weight, the two sides are to be brought into exact
equilibrium. Ascertain critically the justness of the
equipoise, then move the rider so as to make one side of the
beam ‘005 of a grain heavier than the other side, and now
observe, by aid of the seconds hand of a watch, the time
required for the oscillations of the Joaded beam; observe,
also, how many divisions of the index are equivalent to the
extra load of ‘005 ofa grain. Iwill suppose that in this
trial repeated experiments show that with the loaded pans
for this weight of 005 of a grain the needle sweeps from
zero across two divisions of the scale, returning again to
zero, and that the vibration is more than sufficiently rapid
for our work. We now make a second trial: the ball is
raised by two revolutions on the screw, the equilibrium of
the loaded beam is adjusted by altering the position of the
rider until the needle sweeps over an equal space on each
side of the zero mark of the scale, and now, by moving the
rider so as to be equal to an added weight of ‘005 of a grain,
we again try the time of oscillation and sensitiveness of the
balance: the oscillations have become less rapid in conse-
quence of the raising the centre of gravity of the beam, and
the beam has at the same time become more sensitive, the
‘005 of a grain being now represented by a larger sweep of
the needle.

But after two or more trials of this kind we not only
arrive at a nicer and still nicer adjustment of the sensitive-
ness and time of oscillation, but the comparison of our
results affords a valuation of the thread of the screw upon
which the ball is raised and depressed, as a means of
adjusting with certainty the performance of the beam; each
revolution of the ball, raising it by the width of one thread,
is found to retard the oscillation by a certain fraction of a
second, and to increase its sensitiveness by a certain fraction
of a division of the index-scale per ‘001 of a grain added.

Patient and careful trials of the kind will enable us to
adjust the balance so as to ensure the greatest sensitiveness
compatible with its weight and workmanship, or we may
compound between sensitiveness and rapidity, sacrificing the

96 On a Proposed New Method of Weighing,

former in some degree, so as to secure a speed suitable to
the quantity of work which is demanded in a given time.

Chemical balances of the best construction are known to
indicate the millionth part of the load, that is to say, with
1000 grains in each pan the index will move over one
division of the scale for 001 of a grain added. With the
assay balance, with 10 grains in each pan, if 001 of a grain
added is represented by one division of the scale, the sensi-
tiveness falls far short of that of the larger chemical balance ;
instead of one-millionth, the quantity indicated is one ten-
thousandth of the load; it is one hundred times less sensitive
than the former, although in each case 001 of a grain is
indicated by one division of the scale. The oscillations,
however, are quicker in the case of the assay balance.

Each individual assay balance will have its own degree of
sensitiveness when adjusted for the slowest speed, or its own
lesser degree of sensitiveness when adjusted for a given
rapid working speed; and by lowering and heightening its
centre of gravity, we may attain any combination of speed.
and sensitiveuess, gaining in the one while we lose in the
other, between these limits; but we are with each particular
assay balance, bound within these limits of performance of
the special instrument. Thus, if we have two assay beams,
without radical defects, but of different make and weight, it
will be found that their performances will differ ; one will
prove inferior to the other. If the inferior beam be adjusted
to the same degree of sensitiveness as the better constructed
beam, it will take a longer time for its oscillations; or if it be
adjusted to oscillate in the same time as the superior beam,
it will then fall short in sensitiveness.

But the knife-edges of the best balances, whether made of
steel or agate, wear and become blunted during use, and the ~

performance is, from this particular cause, gradually deterio-
rated. A large part of the keeping the balances in repair
consists in the reparation, from time to time, of the knife-
edges, and the readjustment of them in position in the beam.
But between the time when the knife-edges are sensibly
perfect and when they require the instrument maker's
attention there is of course a small progressive wear and
alteration of them, with consequent deterioration of the
performance of the beam ; the value of each degree of the
index scale becoming from time to time a larger weight.
These small progressive differences, within certain limits,
may be obviated by adjustment of the ball; but when we

applicable to the Gold Bullion Assay. 97

have thus restored the sensitiveness of the beam we have
thereby added to the time required for each weighing: the
beam will oscillate more slowly. A better arrangement is
that in which a series of scales, any one of which may be
easily and quickly slipped into position under the index, is
employed. The ordinary scale divides the full sweep of the
index into twenty equal divisions, ten on each side of the
zero point. If, now, we provide a series of five other scales
in which smaller ares are divided into twenty divisions, ten
on each side of the zero point, we can from time to time
substitute one or other of these scales for that originally in
use, which latter, for distinction, I will call the ordinary
scale. When the ordinary scale is replaced by one of these
scales, we can weigh with the same speed, and virtually the
Same sensitiveness of the beam, and with no other dis-
advantage than such as may belong to a scale of somewhat
closer divisions.

_In these proposed supplementary scales ten divisions on
each side of the zero mark are respectively equal to the
following proportions of the ordinary scale.

In seale No. 2, 10 divisions = an arc of 9 divisions on No. 1, the ordinary scale

” ’ 10 ” = ” 8 ” 2 ”
” 4,10 ” = ” 7 ” 9 ”
” 5, 10 9 = 9 6 ) ” ”
” 6, 10 ” = ” 5

+? LP) 9

and with this series we can preserve the decimal value of the
index readings until the sensitiveness of the beam has
diminished by one half. The following example will
illustrate the way in which these scales are brought into use :—
For some time after the new beam is employed, no measure-
able diminution of sensitiveness can be observed; but
eventually the knife-edges become a little impaired, and
when critically tried it is found that for ‘005 of a grain the
index sweeps only 44 divisions of scale No.1; this is
equivalent to sweeping 9 divisions for ‘01 of a grain, and we
can now readily compensate this diminished sensitiveness by
replacing scale No. 1 by scale No. 2, in which the are equal
to nine divisions of scale 1 is divided into ten divisions. We
may from time to time thus change the scales until the
instrument has deteriorated in sensibility by one-half, when
scale 6 will be used. A little consideration will make obvious
that the series of six scales will cover all possible cases of
wear between these wide limits. They provide ample and
ready means of adjusting the value of the index readings,
H

~ :

98 On a Proposed New Method of Weighing,

without modifying the speed of the weighing, and the
instrument maker can be resorted to for keeping up the
absolute sensitiveness of the balance as often as the quality
of the work demands, just as under ordinary circumstances
when these shifting scales are not employed. The method
of using these shifting scales, indeed, is intended for obtaining
more accurate readings of the index in decimal subdivisions of
the weight employed as the assay pound, and not in any
manner to supersede the necessary renovation and adyjust-
ment of the knife-edges by the instrument maker. It may
be stated that the proposition of movable scales is one which
has already been put into practice with complete and
satisfactory results.*

Another form of these shifting scales has been conceived,
but las not hitherto been put into actual use ; it seems to
promise special facilities for adjusting the index readings to
even a greater nicety than that belonging to the series of
flat scales above described. Instead of a series of inter-
changeable flat scales, a small ivory reel, revolving on
a horizontal axis, and retained in any position by a
small spring, is fixed between the pillars of the balance
support, immediately under the point of the index. The
curve of the sides of this reel corresponds to the are
described by the point of the index, and around this curved
surface, 72° apart, are inscribed the scales corresponding to
Nos. 1 to 5 of the ahove described series of flat scales. The
scale agreeing with No. 6 of that series 1s engraved in con-
tact with scale No. 1, or that which divides the full are swept
by the index into 10 degrees on each side of the zero point ;
the ten divisions of No. 6 exactly corresponding with five
divisions of No. 1. A series of diverging or scroll lines
connects these several scales, and in adjusting this revolving
index scale it will be merely necessary to turn it round until
that part, of which five divisions are found to be exactly
equal to 005 of a grain, is immediately under the index
point.

But there are other points concerning the performance of
the balance beam which are of great practical significance.
If a beam, after careful adjustment, is exposed to change of
temperature, its metallic constituent parts become altered in
dimensions by expansion or contraction, and, as change of

* These shifting scales were made for the writer many years since, by
Mr. L. Oertling, of London, who contrived them as a substitute for the
proposed reel, as it is described in the following paragraph.

applicable to the Gold Bullion Assay. 99

temperature in our apartments is the rule rather than the
exception, the balance-beam is to be regarded in the light of
a body constantly undergoing fluctuations in its size. We
take the best precautions practicable under the. circum-
stances, and we find that we are still unable wholly to
counteract the influence of this cause upon the equilibrium
of the beam; the effect of heated walls, stoves, &c, are
among the causes which bring about unequal heating, and
therefore unequal expansion of the arms of the balance ; and
it is only in a chamber sunk in the earth to the depth of
approximate constant temperature that we can hope to
escape from them, and it need hardly be added that such
subterranean arrangements are incompatible with the con-
ditions under which the ordinary assay of bullion is
conducted.

But if a balance-beam adjusted at 60° Fahr. were
slowly and equally raised in temperature to 90° Fahr.,
would all its parts remain so far just in their proportions
as to retain accurately for the instrument, at this higher
temperature, its original equilibrium and _sensitiveness ?
It cannot be said that this would follow. The following
extract from Professor W. H. Miller’s elaborate memoir
on the construction of the new imperial pound, in the Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of London, 1856, is conclusive
on this point :—

“In the course of making the preliminary observations
some peculiarities of the instrument were discovered, which,
though they probably exist in other balances, do not appear
to have been hitherto noticed. One of these is that the
expansion of one arm by heat, the left in the present case,
is a little greater than that of the other arm. Hence, when
the weights in the two pans are nearly equal and of equal
volume, the reading of the scale in the position of equi-
librium diminishes as the temperature of the beam increases.
Another is, that the sensibility of the balance, as measured.
by the number of parts of the scale, equivalent to a given
weight, was found to diminish with an increase of tempera-
ture. The cause of this is obvious. The beam being of
bronze and the knife edges of steel, the balance-beam
becomes an over-compensated pendulum, and an increase of
temperature increases the distance between the middle knife-
edge and the centre of gravity of the beam and weights,
supposing the latter concentrated in the extreme knife-
edges. Possibly, also, the flexure of the beam may increase

H 2

100 On a Proposed New Method of Weighing,

with the temperature, or the mean expansion of the upper
bar of the beam may be greater than that of the under bar.
The variation of the sensibility of the balance is so large
that it is necessary to determine the weight equivalent to a
given number of parts of the scale for each set of observa-
tions, except in cases when the temperature is very nearly
the same.”

Between 60° and 87° Fahr. the expansion of each arm of
a 10in. balance is 14 ten-thousandths of an inch; if, for
example, one arm of a balance were thus expanded, the
opposite arm remaining of its original length ; in that case,
as the load multiplied into the length of arm is equal to the
opposite load multiplied into the length of its arm, it follows
that ten grains on the elongated arm would balance ten
grains and ‘003 of a grain on the opposite shorter arm. But
although 003 of a grain is a minute quantity regarded in
the individual sense of so much gold, it is far from insigni-
ficant regarded in relation to the ten grains representing the
mass assayed. Three ten-thousandths of a million sterling
is no less than £300, and although it is not pretended that
any inequality of the length of the arms at all approaching
this proportion could occur through inequality of tempera-
ture or inequality of the coefficients of expansion in the
mass of metal of which the beam consists, it at least shows
that very small differences, due either to molecular constitu-
tion of the material of which the beam is made, or to
inaccurate workmanship, can sensibly affect the results, and
Dr. Miller’s observations teach us that differences due to
such causes actually exist in a measurable amount.

The adjustment of the centre and exterior knife-edges,
even when the greatest care and skill are observed, is, at
best, no more than a very close approximation to accuracy ;
with this closest approach properly ensured for one tempera-
ture, we are not to expect that it will obtain with certainty
at another. If our desire is that of obtaining, under the —
limiting conditions of rapid execution of the work, &c.
(which always belong to the bullion assay), the utmost
accuracy of result, in this case it would appear that our
attention should be devoted especially to the accuracy of the
weights, and to such a system of work as will adopt all the
reliable efficiency of the balance, at the same time counter-
acting the mixed and variable defects of the kind already
mentioned. The modes of “double weighing,” those of
Borda ani Gauss, are examples of methods by which a com-

applicable to the Gold Bullion Assay. 101

parison of two ponderable bodies is effected in such a manner
as to eliminate the errors proper to the balance itself.

In Borda’s method :—The weights to be compared may
be distinguished as Nos. 1 and 2. We counterpoise the
heavier of the two weights by shot in the opposite pan; we
now substitute for weight No. 1 that marked No. 2, and add
to the latter small fractional weights until an equipoise is
established. The weights added show how much No. | is
heavier than No. 2, and the result thus obtained is quite
independent of inequality of the arms of the beam.

In Gauss’ method :—The weights are placed in the
opposite pans and the difference noted; the pans with
weights are now reversed on the beam, and the difference
again noted; the mean of these differences is the real
difference of the weights in air, independent of any
inequality of the arms of the balance.

These examples of methods actually employed whenever
rigid determinations of weight are the object, show, beyond
question, that with balances rendered sensitive by lightness
and judicious distribution of metal, and by sharpness and
true position of the knife-edges, the accuracy of our work
will depend less on the accuracy of construction of the beam
itself than on the accuracy of the weights, and that a
method involving the principle of double weighing and —
‘depending especially on the accuracy of the weights is the
one at present to be sought for as likely to lead to a nearer
and more uniform approach to accuracy of results.

In proposing a mode of assay which involves the
principles of double weighing, | wish to explain that
although the method has been the subject of actual experi-
ment, it is yet quite new in my hands; I venture to
describe it in the sense of a proposition, the adoption of
which into daily practice must depend upon its ultimate
proved merits as compared with the routine of weighing at
present in use.

I will now make a short explanation concerning the
assayer's weights, those employed at the present time. Let
-us take the case in which the assay is made on 10 grains of
each sample, the weight representing this amount taken for
trial, is what is commonly called the “assay pound.” What-
ever proportion of pure gold this assay pound of the sample
is found to contain, such a proportion will the original bar,
from which the assay piece has been cut, contain: all
results being expressed according to a decimal notation.

102 = =On a Proposed New Method of Weighing,

Then, for this method the assay weights consist of :-—

10 grains and its subdivisions in grains.
7 ue =f in tenths of a grain.

ie ER ES Be his in hundredths of a grain.
and a rider of platinum or gilt silver wire carried by a lever
which slides parallel to the upper edge of the beam, per-
mitting the rider to be placed on any point of the divided
beam, or to be lifted off the beam altogether. This rider,
according to its position on the beam, represents thousandths
of a grain from ‘001 to ‘100, or its full weight when placed
in the pan, as will be obvious when we consider that the
beam is divided into 100 parts on each arm, and that the
rider weighs one-tenth of a grain. But because the ten-
grain weight, the assayer’s pound, is regarded as unity,
and all the smaller weights are regarded as decimal fractions
of unity, they are marked, conformably to this view, as.
follows :—

The 10 grain weight or pound is marked 1°

The grain subdivisions are marked respectively °6 °3 -2 and -1
The subdivisions of the grain ,, ts "06 :03 °02 and -01

The rider, weighing one-tenth of a grain, and used on the

principle of the steelyard, by placing it on one or other of

the divisions of the beam, furnishes all subdivisions of unity
from ‘01 to ‘0001.

In assay balances, as they are now made, a few sub-
divisions of the beam, namely, those nearest the outer knife-
edges, are wanting, a deficiency resulting from the particular
pattern of the beam ends. This incompleteness of the
divided beam is certainly not of an insurmountable character,
should complete subdivision of the beam be required ; and
that this complete subdivision is wanted for the routine
about to be proposed will presently become apparent.

But besides the weights just described, a second series is.
commonly used. ‘Taking the unit (or pound) weight, repre-
senting each bulk or bar of gold, and submitting this
quantity to the operations of the assay, and thus obtaining,
for each sample, the pure gold obtained in it ; the weight of

this pure gold product as ascertained with the above-—

described weights, expresses decimally the fineness of the
particular sample, and enables us to value the bar or parcel
of gold which it represents, as far as gold contents are
concerned.

For expedition and accuracy it is found best to have, in
addition to the above-described series of weights, a second

applicable to the Gold Bullion Assay. 103

set, such as will enable us to weigh these fine gold educts, or
cornets as they are called, with always a single weight in the
pan, and with the rider on the beam. ‘Twenty weights are
required, they range according to the decimal notation already
described from ‘80 to ‘99 (from eight grains to nine and
nine-tenth grains actual weight). Ifthe cornet weighs 9843
with the weight ‘98 in the pan, and the rider on the 42nd
division of the beam, we seek the additional ‘0001 by the
sweep of the index, and thus arrive at the weight of the
cornet ; the accuracy of the weighment, however, depending
more or less on those pornts which concern the accuracy of
the beam, to which reference has already been made.

One final explanation will prepare the way for what I
have to propose in amendment of the above-described
method. First, it is to be understood that for economy of
time, and for other obvious reasons, the proper weight of
each sample to be assayed is first prepared with tolerably
close approximation, by an assistant, and the assay pieces
thus prepared are finally weighed and adjusted by the
assayer. Secondly, it should be remembered that the cost
or care required for the preparation of weights of extreme
accuracy, even though the weights be multiplied in number,
is a matter of quite minor importance as long as the utmost
accuracy of the work is thereby maintained.

I will now proceed to a concise description of the proposed
method. First, as to the balance suitable for this modified
procedure: it is essential that it be light in the beam, simple
in construction, rigid, with sharp and hard knife-edges,
which must be truly set at right angles to the length of the
arms. These qualifications are essential ; they are commonly
to be found in the best description of assay balances, but
certain others commonly attempted in the best assay
balances are non-essentials for the particular method about
to be described. It is not necessary that there shall be
absolute or even approximate equality of the two arms, but
prime importance is attached to those requisites which
determine rapidity of oscillation and sensitiveness. Only
one minor alteration of the pattern of the common assay
beam is proposed, that, namely, which concerns the range of
the rider. It is suggested that an offshoot from the beam
for supporting the latter, as shown in the illustration, be
formed, so as to become rigidly a part of the beam and allow
the rider to rest over the outer knife-edge, or on any position
intermediate between that and the centre knife-edge of the

104 On a Proposed New Method of Weighing,

beam. Therange of the rider thus includes the whole extent
of one arm of the balance.

In adapting this piece to the assay beam of the usual
pattern it will be found necessary to set the divided upper
edge of it a little out of the vertical plane, which equally
divides the beam from end to end, and to incline it towards
the back of the lantern, so as to accommodate its position to
the sweep of the lever by which the rider is lifted (this is
shown in the sketch attached to the present paper). The
same lever will then serve for placing the rider on any part
of the beam itself, or on this auxiliary piece.

Besides the weights already enumerated, I propose an
additional series of twenty small weights, of gold or platinum,
weighing actually one-tenth of a grain, two-tenths of a grain,
and so by regular progression of one-tenth of a grain, up to
one and nine-tenths grains; and at the outset we must
convince ourselves that these weights are as accurate as care
and skill can make them, and then I think it can be shown
that with them we shall be able to perform all the work of
the assay independently of the relative lengths of the arms
of the balance, and that fortified by the series of weights ‘99
to 8 (as above described) in the position of weights of
reference, they will enable us to eliminate one of the chief
sources of error in the assay, that, namely, which results from
the wearing of the weights.

But the use of this series of weights which I now propose,
involves this principle, namely, that the load of the balance
is in all cases constant (the pound of ten grains), a condition
which is: also highly favourable to uniform and accurate
results. We adopt the conjoint advantages of double
weighing and a constant load.

We adjust our balance so as to effect an equipoise with
the pound in the right-hand pan, and removing this pound
we weigh in its place and adjust to equality with it each of
our samples to be assayed. The assay is conducted through
its several processes in the usual manner, and the resulting
gold cornets are each in succession placed in the pan of the
balance. What the trial piece has lost is base metal; what
is retained of its ponderable substance, subject however to
the usual variable correction for surcharge,* is pure gold.

* For the general reader, it is explained that the technical term “ sur-
charge,” used in its broadest sense, is understood to mean the correction
which it is necessary to make in order to reduce the weight of the cornet to
that of the pure gold which it represents; there is loss of gold on the cupel

applicable to the Gold Bullion Assay. 105

The weight which it is necessary to add to the cornet in the
pan of the balance so as to restore equilibrium, represents
what it has lost and what was alloy, and we may mark the
weight thus added not with its own real weight, but with
what is more convenient, namely, its difference from the
weight of the pound or unity. If ten grains or unity has
lost during the assay one grain, because it originally con-
tained that amount of silver, copper, or other foreign metals,
the cornet, when placed in the pan of the balance, will require
the addition to it of one grain weight to effect an equipoise,
and this one grain weight, by establishing an equipoise, will
signify that the cornet weighs nine grains, and that the
sample assayed has a fineness of ‘9.

This routine would possess the anticipated advantages in
all cases of gold bullion of finenesses between ‘8 and 1°,
excepting that the fractional parts, as determined by the use
of the rider, have as yet no solution by its means; the use
of the rider, so valuable in all appeals to the balance, need
not be excluded from this method, as I hope now to explain
by a more detailed description of the proposed method.

First, I will describe the new set of weights: they consist
of a progressive series from ‘1 grain to 1:9 grains, gradually
rising through the series by tenth of a grain differences,

and, for reasons to be presently explained, they are each
- marked as shown in the following table: —

TABLE OF NEW SERIES OF COMPENSATING WHIGHTS.

Real amount of weight “1 or. 2 oY. 3 gr. "4 or, 5 gr.
Mark - - “98 97 96 95 94

Real amount of weight 6 gr. 0) Sr: °8 gr. 9 or. 1:0 gr.
Mark - - "93 “92 aoe oo “89

Real amount of weight 1:1 gr. 1:2 gr. £3’ er. 1:4 er. 1°5 gr.
Mark - - 88 ‘87 "86 85 "84

Real amount of weight 1°6 gr. Dr (eta ae 1°8 gr. £:9 sr.
Mark - - °83 *82 “81 8

‘There is also to be provided a rider of the real weight of -1 grain, as usual.

All these weights, in addition to the pound of 10 grains,

are to be arranged on the right hand side of the balance,

by volatilization and absorption, and there is increase of weight of the

cornet by a small residue of silver which the parting operation has left in it,
and the difference of these two opposite errors constitutes the surcharge.

106 On a Proposed New Method of Weighing,

and the rider is to be placed on the slider of the same side
ready for use. Before commencing work, we place the
pound weight in the pan, and adjust, if necessary, the
tongue of the beam so as to effect an equipoise. We remove
the 10-grain weight and substitute, in order, our trial pieces;
as we now effect an equipoise with each of these, we are
sure we obtain a weight of each exactly the same as that of
the 10-grain weight, and quite irrespective of the relative
length of the two arms of the balance, and when we have
cupelled and parted these, and obtained their gold in the
form of cornets, we place these in succession in the pan of
the balance and add weights until an equipoise is effected.
We add weights and we also use the rider, placing the latter
always first over the end knife-edge and moving it progres-
sively towards the centre of the beam. We read the
divisions of the beam in an order inverse to that employed
in the common mode of weighing. When the rider is
placed on the mark immediately over the end knife-edge, it
is read ‘0000 of unity ; if placed over the centre knife-edge,
or what is the same thing, lifted off the beam altogether, it
is read ‘0100 of unity, and for intermediate positions, on the:
first of the nine major divisions between the centre and end
knife-eages (dividing the arm into ten equal parts), it is
read on that nearest the end knife-edge .0010, and on
the others as we progress ‘0020, 0030, to 0090, the major
division nearest the centre of the beam ; for in sliding the
rider-weight towards the centre of the beam we are in
reality taking off weight, which act implies a corresponding
amount of gold in the cornet. Whether in the pan or on
the beam, our weights placed so as to effect an equipoise,
make up with the weight of the cornet exactly ten grains ;
they are in this sense the complement to the weight of
the cornet, and the mode of marking the weights and
reading the position of the rider, is that which instead of
regarding the real value of the weight itself, indicates.
always the amount of which it is the complement. Thus,
to suppose a case, with cornets of the following weights, an
equipoise will in each case be obtained by the addition of a
single weight as marked, and by shifting the rider to the
position indicated in the table.

Sle lon asada Ds
a . ,

applicable to the Gold Bullion Assay. 107
FINENESS INDICATED. LOAD.

eee 3% 3 We 2 3%
2 3 4 os = oy 2. 288
ae et (8 eroiros Sha ge be
REE Mia WML hoteles <(dabhe 2
= a x Be he. S
Grains Grain grain. Grs’

94383 «94 + -00383 = 9433 | 9°433 + -500 + +067 = 10
9999 nil. -+- -0099 = -9999 | 9-999 -+- nil. + ‘001 = 10
9172-91 + -0072 = -9172 || 9:172 + -800 -+ 028 = 10
8426 «84 -} -0026 = 8426 | 8-426 + 1:500 + -074 = 10
8016 -80 -+ -0016 = -8016 || 8016 + 1900 + ‘084 = 10
9652-96 -+ -0052 = -9652 || 9652 -+ -300 -+ -048 = 10
9789-97 -l- -0089 = -9789 || 9-789 + -200 + ‘011 = 10

The notation involved in this method is as easy as that of
the old practice, the index readings are also asfacile. Thus,
suppose a cornet weighing ‘9958, and placing it in the pan
without any other weight, we now put the rider on the
division marked 60, this would read -9960; but as the beam
carries now a real weight of only 9:958 + -040 = 9-998, it will
show two divisions of the scale light on the right hand pan
or cornet side ; we may therefore either move the rider back
to the ‘0058, when the beam will have its full load
of 9958 + 0042 = 10 grains, making an equipoise, or we
may compute this 9960 — -0002 = 9958; for with any
given reading of the weights what falls short of an equipoise
is so much deficiency of the cornet below the fineness
indicated, and must be deducted from the reading to arrive
at the real weight of the cornet. Conversely with any given
reading of the weights, what is shown by the index to be in
excess of an equipoise, is so much excess weight of the
cornet beyond the fineness indicated by the weights, and
must be added to the reading of the weights for arriving at
the real weight of the cornet.

The greater part of Mint gold assay work, in Victoria at
least, concerns gold varying in fineness between ‘8 and 1°0,
or pure gold, for which the series of weights above recom-
mended is suitable. For the comparatively rare occasions
presenting gold of a fineness lower than ‘8 the ordinary
grain weights could be used as by the old method, but im
the sense of complements to the weight of the cornet; say
that with the cornet in the pan we are obliged to place three
grains, and one grain and ‘4 of a grain, and the rider on the
‘0043 to form an equipoise less two divisions of the index

108 On a Proposed New Method of Weighing,

scale: then we have 4:4 grains which, deducted from 9-9
grains — 5°5 grains, and ‘0043 — 0002 = 0041 indicated by
the rider. The fineness thus indicated is obviously ‘5541:
or a small card of reference might be used for showing at a
glance the complementary value of any combination of grain
weights and tenths of a grain in these extreme cases.

Twill now endeavour to enumerate the special advantages
of this method, premising that weights as much in use as
those of the bullion assayer, even when lifted with ivory or
horn forceps, are liable to wear, and that wear of the weights
is a dangerous source of error.

1. The proposed method is in all respects equivalent to
double weighing ; it is independent of the relative lengths
of the arms of the beam, whether arising from original
imperfect workmanship or from permanent molecular

alteration, or from daily vicissitude.

2. The weighments are all made with an uniform load,
which satisfies another condition of accuracy more exactly

than the common method, the sensitiveness of the beam

varying with the load.
3. Substituting the proposed new series of weights for the

old (for those described on page 103) we devote the latter

henceforth to the purposes of reference, upon which aplication
a few sentences may now be bestowed :—

With the rider over end knife-edge, each weight of the
new series added to that bearing the same mark in the old
series should effect an equipoise, thus :—

. Old Series + NewSeries -++ Rider = 10 grains,

Mark. Real weight. Real weight.

“99 9°9 grains —+- 0 -+- -1 grain = 10 grains.
“98 D3 9-55, -. all agin Samereiey sr Us ey
"97 97 ” | “2 + I ” == ld) ”

and soon. And for further verification of the new weights,

interchanges, too obvious to require explanation, can be
employed. Now, supposing a weight of the newseries to have
worn in use, say, for example, that the weight marked ‘97 has
become a thousandth of a grain short of its real weight (2 of
a grain) when just ; this becomes evident on placing it in the
pan with the ‘97 reference weight, the rider also in the pan

or over the end knife-edge ; this combination of weights will

fall short of an exact equipoise by ‘001 of a grain. To make

a fresh weight in place of the defective one, we have only to

fashion and reduce a piece of platinum or gold until with
the old ‘97 weight and the rider it effects an equipoise.

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applicable to the Gold Bullion Assay. 109:

One point may be added respecting the wear of weights,
in special reference to those of platinum, namely, that when
worn they may be easily restored to accuracy, by taking a
small piece of fine gold enough to make the particular
weight slightly heavy ; if the gold be placed on the weight
and heated before the blowpipe the gold on fusing will
attach itself firmly to the surface of the platinum, and the
weight may now be tried and reduced alternately, reducing it
first if necessary on a very fine file, and finally rubbing it on
a hone or touch-stone until the precise weight is arrived at.

Of course there should be a standard weight, and copies
of it with which the ten-grain weight can from time to time
be compared. A ten-grain standard weight of rock-crystal
offers the advantages of great hardness and inalterability ;
but as the displacement of air by equal weights of bodies.
differing so much in specific gravity as quartz and platinum
is considerable, and may cause under extreme variations of
atmospheric temperature, pressure, Wc, a difference of
apparent weight amounting to nearly two-thirds of a ten-
thousandth of unity, equal to sixty-six pounds in a million
sterling, this influence must either be allowed for by
correction in such comparisons of quartz and platinum
weights, or the comparisons must be always made under the
same atmospheric conditions. For the preparatory weighing
of the samples for assay, conducted usually by an assistant,
and for which the wear of the weight is likely to be com-
paratively great, a quartz weight will be found peculiarly
suitable. This quartz pound is counterpoised by a weight
in the opposite pan, adjusting the two by the tongue of the
beam until equilibrium is obtained; the quartz weight is
then removed, and the gold samples to be weighed substi-
stuted, one after the other, for it; this method gives the
advantages of double weighing, and if the beam be suffi-
ciently sensitive, very uniform weighments will be effected,
even though the arms of the balance be of irregular length.

Be eh chows DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

1. Theseries of platinum weights in common use by bullion assayers,
ranging from ‘80 to :99 inclusive; arranged in partitioned tray.
2. Proposed series of “compensating” weights, ranging from ‘80
to ‘98, the rider representing -99 ; arranged as the foregoing.
Plate 2 :—Shows the assay beam, with the notation of its major divisions
according to the compensating method. The additional end piece, as
described in the paper, is shown at (a), and a side view of git-at (6), in which
its inclination from the plane of the beam itself (c) is represented.
The index reel (d) is shown full size at (e).
For clearness the supporting columns of the balance and other accessories:
are omitted in the drawing,

110 The Past and Present of the Port of Melbourne,

Ant. XXIIT.—On the Past and Present of the Port of
Melbourne, and Proposed Works for tts Improvement.

By T. E. Rawiinson, Esq.
[Read 13th December, 1875.]

In resuming the question of harbour accommodation for
Victoria, after a lapse of twenty years, it is with advantages
which did not exist then.

It was pointed out that Hobson’s Bay and Port Phillip
Gulf, if left to natural agencies, would in time become things
of the past; but it was “little anticipated that such would be
so far facilitated by future harbour improvements.

Whilst left to itself Port Phillip Gulf was slowly but
_ surely silting up, in accordance with natural laws, as other
eulfs and inland seas have filled before; and evidence of
this fact exists in the made lands now lying between
Sandridge and Flemington, whilst the lines of soundings in
the bay indicate the same continuous action of shoaling
and filling, partly caused by the littoral drift created by
prevailing winds from the south and south west, and partly
by the deposit brought down by the rivers and ereeks being
precipitated in the bay.

The increase of land, owing to drift from the south east,
is shown by the make of foreshore at Sandridge ; but the
shoaling from river silt was not so perceptible, owing to the
river being permitted to sweep past the Williamstown shore
and precipitate in the waste of waters southwards towards
Point Cook, and possibly with certain winds towards Brighton;
whereas now, the recently constructed stone dykes at the
river mouth has diverted the Yarra waters direct into
Hobson’s Bay, where the current is rapidly lost, and pre-
cipitation takes place there.

To better understand the question, 1t will be well to take
a retrospect of Hobson’s Bay in 1853, and compare it with
the bay as existent in 1875.

In 1853, with the exception of one or two small boat piers
at Williamstown, which lay almost out of the stream, the
waters of the River Yarra had a clean sweep along the land,
with a sharp seg of current around Point Gellibrand, leaving
a comparatively clean foreshore ; whilst on the Sandridge side
there existed the Government and the Railway Piers, and a

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and Proposed Works for its Improvement. 111

narrow strip of beach opposite Liardet’s hotel, while a line
-of sounding extended south-west and south into and down
the bay, indicating the edge of the littoral drift from the east,
south, and south-west.

In 1875 there is a serious change of all this; for
at the river entrance we have a stone dyke, which, as
constructed diverts the river waters direct into the centre
of Hobson’s Bay, and the foreshore of Williamstown
literally bristles with piers, extending well into- deep
water, which effectually diverts any feeble remnant which
may be left of the river current from its original course in
1853. On the Sandridge side the piers have been extended
further into the bay, but this, as will be afterwards
shown, is in such locality as great a benetit as on the
Williamstown side similar structures have been and are
mischievous. ‘The increase of foreshore in front of Liardet’s
and the creep westwards of the line of shoal water, are
the natural and unavoidable consequence of causes which
are beyond man’s control.

Such was the position of things as existent in 1853-4,
and we have now this lamentable difference, that in 1875
there is several feet less of depth of water in Hobson’s Bay,
and the foreshore of Williamstown is silted up with mud.

Under the circumstances it should surprise no one that
such injurious changes have taken place, because theory
points out that we ought to realise them under the conditions
given, namely, checking of the river current and its diversion
into the still waters of the bay.

A consideration of the causes which have been, and are
still in operation forming and moulding the shores of
Hobson’s Bay and of the River Yarra, and afterwards a brief
allusion to the laws governing the precipitation of matters
held in mechanical suspension in water, will aid in showing
the origin of much the mischief done within the past
twenty years.

I premise that no geologist will question that the site
now occupied by the low lands between Sandridge and
Flemington, within a comparatively recent period, formed a
- portion of the Port Phillip Gulf, Emerald Hill existing as an
island, the River Yarra entering the bay at where Prince’s
Bridge now stands, the Saltwater entering at the racecourse,
-and the Moonee Ponds at North Melbourne.

That in the course of time, owing partly to solid matter
brought down these several streams, deposits formed at the

,

112 The Past and Present of the Port of Melbourne,

mouth of each as they lost their current in the still waters,
whilst the prevailing winds from the south and south-
west brought up the littoral drifts along the shore,
continuously edging the waters of the River Yarra along the
side of the rising land on the north, and forcing it to form
the curved bend to-the north, known as Humbug Reach,
until joining with the Saltwater, they kept the edge of the
high and rocky foreshores of Footscray and Williamstown ;
sweeping past Point Gellibrand, the current became dissipated
in the still waters of the gulf southwards.

Such is a brief theoretic history of the formation of
Hobson’s Bay and the channel of the River Yarra, as
inferred from the teachings of geology in the operations of
nature elsewhere, to which causes may probably be added
the slow upheaval of our coasts, as evidenced in the old
raised estuary beds between Corio Bay and Bass’s Straits.

Assuming the above theory to be granted as highly
probable, if not absolutely true, it follows that if Port
Phillip be left to itself, it can only be a question of time
for the complete filling up, not only of Hobson’s Bay, but
the gulf itself (the same agencies remaining in operation),
being a natural sequence of cause and effect.

It is a fact established beyond all doubt, that all land
degrades, and all waters shoal, following the natural law of
change ; but that areas of water receiving running streams
shoal more rapidly than waters remote from such action,
because running streams carry more or less of solid matter
in mechanical suspension of a fineness proportioned to the
velocity of the current, which solid matter is precipitated on
losing its velocity, and from fresh water more rapidly on
entering brackish or saline waters.

Now in the case of the River Yarra prior to 1853, it
debouched nominally at what is called the river entrance,
but practically, from the pressure of littoral currents along
the coast from the south and east past Sandridge, and alone
the north side of the bay, it was facilitated in its flow along
the Williamstown shore, owing to all such littoral currents
turning to flow with the river stream until past Point
Gellibrand, from whence, having no controlling line, it
enters into the broader waters and becomes lost; and this
view of the case is justified, because when the river is most
surcharged with mud, and discharging the heaviest freshets,
the winds usually blowing are strong from the south and
south-west against the Brighton and St. Kilda shores,

and Proposed Works for its Improvement. 113

causing a littoral drift northerly and westerly past Sandridge
towards the river’s mouth.

Such being the state of things prior to 1853, I propose to
examine what has been done since, and show the conse-
quences which theory leads us to expect, and what practice
has actually realised.

The construction of the stone pier and timber jetty at
Point Gellibrand and other timber jetties for the railway
in the vicinity, should, in accordance with theory, obstruct
and divert the current previously existing along the shore at
these points, and cause deposit, whilst the stone walls at the
mouth of the river must absolutely turn the stream into the
bay in the direction of Sandridge, and in doing so destroy
its current, and cause precipitation of all solid matters held
in suspension, and this precipitation will take place much
more rapidly on entering saline than in fresh waters.
Such are the teachings of theory, and they may be illustrated
by examples from practice.

The rivers entering the sea on our south coast have
all bars, and the rivers Latrobe and Mitchell are excellent
examples of bars in slightly brackish water, formed under
precisely similar conditions to those existent in Hobson’s
Bay, whether natural or artificial, but more especially the
latter.

Of the influence of open timber piling in checking currents
and causing deposit, I beg to instance two or three which
have fallen more immediately within the range of my own
experience and observation. At Caernarvon, in North Wales,
the River Sieont enters the Menai Straits, and at its mouth
a stone pier was built out to accommodate the shipping ; but
this being at right avgles to the tidal current, became silted
up, and was extended further out with open timber piling;
but. this also silted up, and about 1846 and ’47, a further
extension of timber pier was run out also at right angles to
the stream, finishing with an L end parallel to the current,
but before I left the district in 1850, the direct extension
had silted up, whilst the L end being exposed to the direct
scour remained clear, showing how very influential open
timber work is in checking and diverting current, and
causing deposit.

The next instance is an extension of the Beaumaris Pier,
aiso in the Menai Straits, which being at right angles to the
current, diverted it, and also caused deposit.

The next instance is the old pier at Leith, in the Firth of

; I

7

114 The Past and Present of the Port of Melbourne,

Forth, which was of open timber work, and was sufficient
obstruction to the passage of waves, that I have seen the
outside surface a mass of white water, whilst inside it
was comparatively smooth, and this at a time when, owing’
to the fury of the gale blowing, the spray was breaking
nearly over the Bass Rock. This last case is an illustration
of the influence of open piling in checking wave action,
and if wave action, also currents.

The above are given only as examples of cases which exist
in abundance, proving that currents are checked by open
timber piers, as well as by stone walls, and that both theory
and practice show that when such check takes place, matter
held in mechanical suspension must precipitate.

Now if we examine what has taken place on the Williams-
town shore and in Hobson’s Bay since 1853, we find precisely
the results which theory and practice point to as a probable
consequence of what has been done there, namely, a rapid
filling up in Hobson’s Bay and heavy deposits of mud en the
Williamstown shore, owing to the stone walls and timber
piers having diverted the river currents, whereas the shore
used to have a clean surface of rock and kelp before the
construction of the works named.

It is no unusual thing now, for one of our Colonial
steamers in passing Williamstown, to leave behind her a trail
of putrid mud, and it is only a few days ago a paragraph
appeared in the daily journals to the effect that mud had
deposited so thick at the steamboat jetty as to render it
inconvenient for use by the boats of light draft plying at
the pier, which is a state of things I imagine few will
regard as an improvement on the waters of 1853.

In time of freshets, the river bringing down waters heavily
surcharged with mud, the brown water can be seen as
diverted by the stone walls right across the bay to Sand-
ridge, whilst the waters south of Point Gellibrand are
comparatively translucent. After heavy westerly weather,
when the waters of the bay rise above the stone dykes, the
brown water may be seen driven over into the Williamstown
recesses, but with little or no current, and it is indicative of
the extensive character of the mischief being done. The
actual extent of the evil is only realised by reference to
the soundings by Captain Cox, and more recently by
Commander Stanley.

It has been suggested to me that the shoaling of the bay
waters may be accounted for by upheaval; but I do not

and Proposed Works for vts Improvement. 115

believe we have the slightest evidence ot such within the
period elapsed since the first settlement of Port Phillip,
although there is evidence of it in times past, such as the
raised estuary bed of Connewarre and Point Henry; but this
evidence, although geologically recent, is historically remote,
and has no bearing on the facts now discussed. Whereas we
have direct evidence of deposits taking place where none
existed before, and we can trace cause and effect in the
construction of the works enumerated, and the consequent
silting up on the foreshore and in the bay.

A quotation given by Commander Stanley, from one of
the late Chief Harbour Master’s (Captain Ferguson’s) reports
in 1866, alludes to the silting up of the bay as an established
fact, and traces much of the mischief to the construction of
piers in the bay, although he erroneously attributes the
injury to their shutting out the tidal waters, instead of their
direct effect in diverting the current of the river; being right
in fact, but wrong in theory.

Captain Cox notes on his chart that from 1864 to 1866
two feet of deposit was made in Hobson’s Bay, whilst
Commander Stanley is most absolute and positive in his
evidence as to the rapid filling in of the bay between the
period of Captain Cox’s survey and the date of his own,
and in attributing very much of the mischief to the form
and position of the stone walls at the river mouth having
diverted the muddy waters into the bay; and in recom-
mending the early removal of the cause of such a large
amount of injury.

One valuable result of the late surveys is, the absolute
proof given of the rapid silting up and its general direction.
Commander Stanley informs us that the six feet water line
has advanced towards St. Kilda at the rate of 1,100 ft. in
eleven years, and at a similar rate of progression, it will
take only eighty years to reach St. Kilda; but, as a
matter of course, long betore that period, Hobson’s Bay
will have ceased to have an existence. Such a statement
from so competent an authority is a very serious one indeed,
and gives point to warnings written twenty years ago, when
treating on the question of a harbour for Melbourne, the
following expressions were used : “ Having satistied ourselves
that the process of silting up is going on slowly although
surely in the bay, we are prepared to meet this difficulty in
the usual way when necessary to do so by dredging, but in
this we apprehend none; and as to the expense, it is

I 2

116 The Past and Present of the Port of Melbourne,

only a question that must arise sooner or later to any dock
pier or harbour constructed in Hobson’s Bay, it being only
a question of time when Hobson’s Bay and Port Phillip
Gulf itself will no longer exist, so surely is the process
going on by which this inland sea will be converted into dry
land, as former seas and lakes have been before, from the
date of creation up to the present day.” Such was the
language of myself and the gentleman acting with me in
these matters at that time, but we never for a moment
supposed that natural agencies would receive such an impetus
by the construction of the stone walls at the river mouth,
and timber piers in front of Williamstown.

Whilst availing myself of the very valuable series of
results of the recent survey of the bay, as given by Com-
mander Stanley, I must demur entirely to the prudence of
the remedial measures as set forth in his direct canal scheme,
and in a more modified form to his proposed extension of the
Sandridge Lagoon into a blind canal or long dock. To cut
a direct canal from the Queen’s basin to the bay, anywhere
near to the Railway Pier or Baths, would be most disastrous
in its results in every way, whilst its alleged advantages are
wholly mythical. A diversion of the river through the
short canal would of necessity weaken the scouring power,
as it exists at the present entrance, where the waters of the
Moonee Ponds and Saltwater Rivers, with those of Stony
Creek, are all concentrated with those of the River Yarra,
and are available,im so far as such a power under the
especial circumstances of a low rise and fall of tide are
useful ; and in the next place an entrance at such point
would ensure the very worst results of precipitation in
forming a bar, and hastening the silting up of the bay.
There is no scheme which could be more disastrous, and I am
happy to find that Mr. Gordon has arrived independently at
the same opinion on this point

The difference in length between the direct canal and the
longer one by way of the present embouchure is an advan-
tage in favour of the longer line, because every yard of quay
room on the longer line is valuable for trade purposes, and
every cubic yard of material excavated is valuable for raising
and reclaiming land which is now lable to flood, whilst the
trifling difference in time of transit is an unimportant item
to shipping. The blind canal or long dock would, in
my opinion, be found seriously to inconvenience trade in
another way, and be excessive in providing for the require-

and Proposed Works for its Improvement. 117

ments of the locality, whilst the material available for
embanking being so far from the place required, would
be costly in removal. I do not concur in Commander
Stanley’s opinion as to the alleged evil result of ships lying
alongside the piers, for supposing any current to exist
transverse to the line of pier, the tendency would be to
create an under draught below the ship, and whilst such
existed it would be beneficial rather than otherwise.

The evidence afforded by Commander Stanley of the make
of foreshore at Sandridge, and the shoaling of water between
that place and St. Kilda, is valuable in pointing out
the existence of another source of danger to the bay,
in the alleged existence of a littoral drift past Sandridge
in the direction of the Yarra mouth, as before alluded to in
this paper. The make of the foreshore in front of Liardet’s,
from a few feet to several chains between the house and high
water mark, and the contour of the soundings between
Sandridge, St. Kilda, and Brighton, have all told the same
story of increase, and from the quarter which Commander -
Stanley’s recent report and survey confirms; but I shall
have occasion to speak of this drift when submitting my
suggestions for improvements in the harbour.

Mr. Gordon’s report on the navigation of the Yarra evinces
his usual careful summary of facts bearing on the case, and
as before remarked, it is most important to have the benefit
of his opinion so decidedly expressed in favour of the
retention of the embouchure of the river in its present
position near Williamstown; and I attach greater importance
to his opinion in this matter because of the persistent
advocacy by many of the “direct canal,” in the face of a
series of adverse facts, and in direct opposition to the
teachings of theory and of practice, but more especially the
lessons taught by results in Hobson’s Bay.

The principal objection I have to Mr. Gordon’s proposals
is that they do not go far enough, and are only adapted to
meet a part of the difficulties which exist ; and being in the
nature of expedients are more likely to embarrass future
operations. Under the circumstances I beg to enter a protest
against any works being undertaken which are not part of a
comprehensive general scheme adapted to the difficulties of
our position and suited to the several requirements of the
case, and from this stand-point protest against all expenditure
in the river whilst the question is left untouched as to the
silting up of the bay, because if we cease to have a harbour,

118 The Past and Present of the Port of Melbourne,

a large expenditure in the Yarra will be money thrown away.
The Queen’s Wharf basin is far from being a credit to us,
and it is impossible that merely shortening the river bends
can be of much avail whilst we retain the narrow channel of ~
the river, bound in as it is with buildmgs and wharves, to
the obstruction of trade and shipping; and I submit that it

is useless to incur the expense of further deepening the river,™- -

unless we are prepared to widen it to allow room for working
the vessels in the river basin.

The great evil of the past has been that marine works in
and about the river have been carried on apparently as
matters of temporary expediency, and on no definite or
comprehensive plan, by which each portion however small
should be part of a complete whole; and it is with a hope of
showing the necessity for the adoption of some systematic
plan of works which shall be capable of affording immediate
relief for the present, and yet be part of a general system
capable of future extension and completion, that I have
undertaken this paper. Asa physician first makes a diagnosis.
of his patient’s ailment before attempting to cure, so I now
endeavour to point out the physical defects under which we
have been and are suffering, before suggesting remedial
measures; and it is for this reason I have given an epitome of
what our river and harbour was twenty years ago, and what
it is, pointing out the consequences of what has been accom-
plished, and by inference showing what ought to be done now.

The ports on the western coasts of England are notable
examples of the evils experienced by silting up, and perhaps
the most remarkable of them is the old Port of Chester,
which, owing to the silting up of the estuary of the River
Dee, is now but an inland city, its whole sea trade being
such as can be carried along an artificial canal.

Liverpool, with its magnificent estuary of the River
Mersey and its noble line of docks, would in a few years
become impracticable for large vessels, and be silted
up with mud, if it were not for the systematic skill of
the engineers in charge in dredging, sluicing, and other
means for keeping the port clear of accumulation.

Under present conditions, Hobson’s Bay is rapidly filling
up, and of late years the so-called improvements have
rapidly accelerated the process, so that if allowed to go on
without interruption it cannot be a very remote period
before the River Yarra will have to wind a sluggish course
through marsh lands to the Heads, as the River Thames

= tet? be Sadie
aa
.

and Proposed Works for its Improvement. 119

passes from London in its course to the German Ocean; with

this disadvantage, we have here no corresponding lift of

tide to give us the scouring power which exists in the
~ River Thames. |

In reference to the condition of the river and the low
lying lands between Emerald Hill and Melbourne, Mr.

- <« Gordon has very justly remarked, that in the case of heavy
floods we are in a worse position now than on the occasion
of the disastrous 14th December, 1863.

The remedy I propose for the above evils is, the removal
of Raleigh and Cole’s, and the Australian wharves, and
widening the river basin to 1000 feet to below the Gas-
works, and cutting an entirely new channel 1000 feet wide
from the Queen’s Wharf basin in the direction of Stoney
Creek, entering the bay at the old embouchure at Williams-
town, and removing the whole of the stone dykes con-
structed at the lower end of the Yarra, and deepening the
river, to give not less than 20 feet at lowest tide. Such a
width of channel would give ample space for the outilow of
flood waters, and the drawback of deposit must be met by
dredging. Many have objected to the length of the new
channel, and no doubt such objections will be strengthened
by the extreme width and depth proposed ; but when it is
borne in mind that every yard of materia] excavated is
highly valuable as a means of reclaiming land, which at
present is worse than useless, such objections ought to be
allowed to fall to the ground.

On the western side of the Gasworks, a water float
excavated as shown would not only accommodate a large
trade, but afford materials for reclamation of land which at
present is but a noxious swamp; and in lieu of a pestilential
marsh, give us land worth from five to six thousand pounds
per acre.

By extending the eastern wall of the river at the entrance
as shown, the current would be confined to its proper
channel, and check deposit in the bay from that source;
whilst on the east, from a point a little below the present
lagoon at Sandridge, a wall carried out over the rocky shoal
into five-fathom water would check the littoral drift from
the south and east. The lagoon at Sandridge should be
converted into a dock, as shown, with an entrance from the
harbour, the materials from which dock would reclaim land
equal in value to the cost of construction.

On the Williamstown shore the river current should be

120 The Past and Present of the Port of Melbourne,

regulated by a sea wall having a dock formed m the deep
bend as shown, and indented with basins for the patent slip,
eraving dock, and timber piers where required, by which
means the current of water both entering and flowing out
of the river would be restrained to certain limits, within
which no obstruction would exist to divert it from its
proper course.

With such a system of retaining walls and channels,
Hobson’s Bay when once dredged out to the proposed depth
of 30 feet, would have little or no deposit, for the sources
from whence it is now derived would be cut off, owing to
the river waters being kept out and the littoral drift from
the south stopped.

In the Queen’s basin the river and new channel, the
deposit svould after freshets be continuous, but it would
be under conditions easily dealt with by the dredge, and
being thus dealt with at the upper part of the river, the
great evil of deposit in the bay would be materially lessened.

One of the results to be anticipated in the bay outside of
the harbour woull be the rapid make of foreshore south
eastward of the east wall, but I should not deem this an
evil, owing to the fact that as we must have shoaling
and making of foreshore somewhere in the gulf, it is just as
well to let it occur where in place of doing harm it will
do good, by reclaiming land which at some future day will
be valuable.

It may be urged that such a scheme of works as above
suggested is much beyond our present requirements, but to
this I say most decidedly no, because in executing them it
is not sinking capital, but creating it by giving value to
lands that are now worthless, and which are even now
wanted for the extension of business, and this creation of
capital will be a certain result if the work is carried out
with economy and prudence.

In the general estimate of cost which I annex, provision
has been made for facing the walls with concrete, coped
with wrought bluestone, and faced with the usual fender
piling.

The estimated cost for a completed scheme of works as
above suggested, and shown on plan, would be wholly
recuperated by the value of the reclaimed lands, and the
whole cost of after working and superintendence, defrayed
from the leasing of wharf sites and frontages, so as to give a
free port and harbour, save and except light and pilot dues.

and Proposed Works for its Improvement. 121

ESTIMATE OF COST.

Excavation, 66,035,185 cubic yards, at 1s. 6d. £4,952,638 17 6
Material used for embanking, 27,348,148 cubic
yards ; balance, 38,687,037 cubic yards.

Quay wall, 34,666 lineal yards, at £121 .. £4,200,586 0 0
£9,153,224 17 6
Fender piling i a2 as ity 28 207,996 0 O
Miscellaneous we ae a ee a0 638,779 2 6
’ Gross total ve be as -. £10,000,000 0 O
Land reclaimed in—
Swamp ~» 9830 acres.
Quay walls SOA OO sas
From material available 2,398 ,,
SLO. his
Deduct for quays .. 1,000 ,,
Net .. 2,319 ,, at £5,000 .. £11,595,000 O 0
Surplus ae a ee -. £1,595,000 0 0
The gain to the port would be—
Water space—Harbour .. ae .. 1,002 acres.
Newchannel .. Se BOQ) og
River basin Bs Me DSi
Swamp do. oe ae 224 ,,
Sandridge aie abe SOhs) 33
Willamstown .. ae 1s aber
Gross area of water surface .. 2,104 ,,
Length of quay wall .. .. 34,666 lineal yards.
Area quay space .. oa -- 1,000 acres.

In the above estimate there is a nominal cost of ten
millions for the outlay, but it is shown that at a moderate
estimate of value for the reclaimed lands, there is an actual
surplus of value of over one and a half millions, besides giving
a free port for trade for ever.

In submitting the foregoing, I feel perfectly confident of
the cost being “highly estimated and the beneficial results
under-estimated, and it must be further borne in mind that
many things of large cost are included in the above which in
practice may be largely reduced or omitted for the present,
whilst the advantages and extent of gain has been in every
instance largely understated, my first object being to show
the vast means of benefit to trade which lies at our disposal,
if we do but take the necessary means to realise them, and
how lamentably we shall destroy our own prestige and

122 The Past and Present of the Port of Melbourne.

opportunity if we continue to temporise, as we have hitherto
done, in half-hearted attempts to provide for our need, and
continuous neglect of the great dangers with which we are
surrounded in reference to the maintenance of our present
port and harbour, and of which we have been warned from
time to time.

I cannot conclude without the expression of a hope that
my hearers will consider I have established the position
assumed at the beginning of this paper, of showing the past
of the port, its condition in the present, and of what it is
capable in the future.

Letter from R. C. Gunn, Esq., F.R.S. F.LS. &e., respecting
the Discovery of Keys in the Shore Formation of
Corio Bay, and the Paper relating to them read by
Mr. Rawlinson, C.E., on the 16th November, 1874.

“ Launceston, 29th May, 1875.

“DeEAR Srr,—Ever since the receipt of your letter of
16th December last, I have been too ill to attend to business
of any kind, or to make the necessary references to enable
me satisfactorily to answer your inquiry as to the (alleged)
‘discovery of some iron keys under 15 feet of diluvium
near Corio Bay, by Mr. C. J. La Trobe. I now annex all
the information I can supply on the subject, and which
I think will be deemed sufficient.

-“T remember the circumstances of the alleged discovery
of the keys in the position named by you perfectly well.

“TI saw the two keys (three were, I believe, found) in the
possession of my friend Mr. La Trobe, in Melbourne, in the
end of September or beginning of October, 1849 (not wm
1845 or 1846), immediately after they were picked up. He
promised to accompany me to Geelong on 4th October, but
early on the morning of that day I received a note from
him, in which he says, ‘I find it impossible to get away
from my office with a good conscience this week, and am
sorry that it is so. I have written the enclosed to
Mr. Addis to ask him to show you where the keys were
found. Let me know when you return.’

“T proceeded to Geelong on the above day, and next
morning, accompanied by Mr. Addis, visited the spot where
the keys were discovered. On questioning the lime-burner,
I ascertained that he did not pick the keys out of the
stratum of shells at the depth alleged, but found them at
the bottom of the hole, mixed with some shells, and
assumed that they had dropped along with them. I was
perfectly satisfied that the keys never had been embedded
in the stratum of shells, as supposed by the lime-burner and
by Mr. La Trobe, consequently all the theories based on that
assumption fall to the ground. The keys were small, about
the size ordinarily used for chests of drawers, of very
modern make, not encrusted with lime, and very slightly
corroded with rust.

124 Letter from R. C. Gunn, Esq.

“T have little doubt but that they had been dropped by
some inhabitant of Geelong, lay in the grass for some—not
very long—time, and fell to the bottom of the hole from the
surface after the excavation was made, the margin being
formed of a rather light, crumbling soil.

““T expressed my views and opinions to Mr. La Trobe on
my return to Melbourne, and thought the whole question
had been considered as settled, until I saw a letter from -
Mr. La Trobe in The Australasian of June 3rd, 1871, under
the heading, ‘ Port Phillip a Lake.’

“Yours very faithfully,
«“R. C. Gunn, F.R.S. F.LS. &e.
“FP. J. Prrant, Esq.

“ Secretary to the
Royal Society of Vectoria.”

1874.
PROCEEDINGS.

el

ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.

9th March, 1874.
The President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, in the chair.

The election of office-bearers and members of Council was held,
with the following results :—

President, R. L. J. Ellery, Esq.; Vice-Presidents, George Foord,
Ksq., and Professor Wilson ; Treasurer, Percy de Jersey Grut, Esq. ;
Secretary, Frederick J. Pirani, Esq.; Librarian, James Edward
Neild, Esq., M.D.; Members of Council, J. Bosisto, Esq., Rev. H.
P. Kane, J. Cosmo Newbery, Hsq., T. E. Rawlinson, Esq.,
H. K. Rusden, Esq., and A. K. Smith, Esq.

The secretary then read the Report of the Council, as follows :—_

REpoRT OF THE CouNCcIL oF THE RoyatL Society oF VICTORIA
FOR THE YEAR 1873, To THE MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY.

In laying before you Volume X. of the Transactions of your
Society, containing the papers and proceedings for the years 1869
to 1872 inclusive, your Council has to congratulate you on the
resumption of printing after an interval of five years, and hopes
that the Transactions will be issued at short intervals in future.
The liberality of the present Government has placed it in the power
of your Council to bring up the arrears of publishing to the present
date.

The papers read since the last annual meeting are as follow: On
the 14th May Mr. A. K. Smith read a paper on ‘‘The Storm Waters
of Swanston and Elizabeth-streets, Melbourne, and how to prevent
them.” A conversazione was held in the Hall on the 8th of August,
when, after the conclusion of the presidential address, an illustration
was given by Professor Wilson of the meaning of “ Electric
Potential ;” and a short paper was read by Mr. George Foord,
upon some of the characteristics of the metal ‘ Palladium.”
On the 13th of September a social or conversational character
was given to the proceedings, with a view of making them
more popular. Your President submitted some observations on
lightning and lightning conductors, and the general features of

126 Proceedings, &c., for 1874.

atmospheric electricity. On the 13th of October Mr. Sydney W.
Gibbons read a paper on “ A contaminated Water Supply ;” and your
President described an instrument called Eckhold’s Omnimeter. <A
paper by Mr. W. Etheridge, jun. (Edin.), on a new species of
Retepora, found in the tertiary deposits at Schnapper Point, was
presented and read by the President. On the 10th of November
Mr. E. J. White read some remarks on a method of finding Green-
wich time and the longitude, suggested by Mr. E. K. Horne, of
Adelaide. On the 18th November Mr. A. K. Smith read a paper
on the New Embankment near Princes Bridge, on the south bank
of the Yarra, which he considered likely to occasion much damage
in flood time. The same subject was revived at a meeting on the
8th of December, when also Dr. Neild read a paper on “ The
Advantages of Burning the Dead.”

Your Council has accepted a tender for the thorough repair of the
fencing around the Hall, with new gates, and has under considera-
tion the propriety of cementing the exterior of the building at no
very distant date.

The Society has been honoured in the course of the year by the
consent of his Excellency Sir G. F. Bowen to become the patron of
the Society, and by his presence at the annual conversazione.

Seven new members have joined the ranks of the Society during
the year.

Measures have been taken to distribute, with as little delay as
possible, the new volume of the Transactions to all those learned
societies with whom your Society exchanges publications, and to all
the members of the Society.

127

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Proceedings, &c., for 1874. 129

The report and balance-sheet were adopted on the motion of
Mr. A. K. Smith, seconded by Mr. P. Hunt.

The President briefly returned thanks for his re-election, and
expressed his hope of a busy session.

(Signed) R. L, J. Evtery.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.

13th April, 1874.
The President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, in the chair.

The Secretary stated that at a meeting of the Council, heldfon
April 10th, it had been resolved by an absolute majority of the
Council that Professor Wyville Thompson be recommended for
election as an honorary member of the Society.

Professor W. Thompson was nominated for election as an hon-
orary member by Mr. A. K. Smith, seconded by Mr. R. Willan.

Messrs. H. M. Andrew and J. J. Phelps were elected members of
the Society.

The Hon. Librarian reported the publications received since last
announcement.

Mr. Sydney Gibbons read a paper on ‘‘ The disposal and utiliza-
tion of Excreta.”

Discussion ensued.

(Signed) R. L. J. ELuery.

llth May, 187A.
The President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, in the chair.

Professor Wyville Thompson was unanimously elected an hon-
orary member of the Society.

The President having vacated the chair, which was taken by
Professor Wilson, read a paper on “ The forthcoming Transit of
Venus.”

Discussion ensued.

A paper by Mr. D. Kennedy was postponed till next meeting.
The President stated that the Council had resolved that it was

desirable that persons cultivating particular branches -of science
should bring before the Society occasional reports of the progress
of those branches, and requested all members who were willing to
assist in the matter to forward their names to the Secretary.

The President stated that the Council had resolved that copies of
those volumes of the Zransactions of which more than 100 were
in stock, should be obtainable by members for 2s. 6d. each.

(Signed) GeorcE Foorp.
K

130 Proceedings, &e., for 1874.

8th June, 1874.
Mr. G. Foord, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. E. 8. Parkes was elected a member of the Society.

The Secretary read a paper by Mr. D. Kennedy, on “A late
extraordinary Escape of a Miner from Drowning.” (See Transactions,
Art. No. iii.)

Discussion ensued.

The Secretary read a paper by Mr. R. Etheridge on “The Sand-
dunes of the Coast of Victoria.” (See Zvansactions, Art. No. iv.)

In the discussion which ensued, Mr. Rawlinson gave an account
of some Sand-dunes near Warrnambool.

(Signed) R. L. J. Evuery.

13th July, 1874.
The President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, in the chair.

Mr. A. M. Smith was nominated for election as an ordinary
member.

The President read a communication received from Mr. F. Corbett,
of Belfast, “On Abyssinian Tube Wells.” (See Transactions,
Art. No. v.)

The thanks of the Society were accorded to Mr. Corbett for his
paper, and to Mr. Danks, who exhibited a Tube Well of the kind
described by Mr. Corbett.

Mr. Sydney Gibbons read a paper on “ Grematign

Discussion ensued.

(Signed) R, L. J. ELLEry.

10th August, 1874.
’ The President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, in the Chair.

Mr. Alfred Mica Smith was elected a member of the Society.

Messrs. Parnell, Willimot, and Trail were nominated for election
at next ordinary meeting.

The President stated that the Annual Conversazione would be
held on the 27th August.

Mr. Bosisto read a paper entitled, ‘‘Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-
destroying Tree?” (See Transactions, Art. No. vii.)

Discussion ensued.

(Signed) R. L. J. Evuery.

12th October, 1874.
The President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, in the chair.

Messrs. Parnell, Willimot, and Trail were elected ordinary members
of the Society, and Mr. E. Dobson was nominated for election at
next meeting.

Proceedings, &e., for 1874. 131

The President announced that Volume XI. of the Zransactions
had been published, and that members could procure copies from
the Secretary ; also that three of the papers read during the session
had been printed in pamphlet form, that members could obtain a
copy of each, and could purchase additional copies at half the
published price. The President also stated that the Microscopical
Society intended holding a Conversazione on the 29th inst., to
which the Royal Society had been invited.

Mr. Pirani read a paper on ‘Some Processes of Scientific
Reasoning.” (See Transactions, Art. No. viii.)

The President described the photographic means by which the
forthcoming Transit of Venus would be observed, and also exhibited
Janssen’s apparatus for obtaining a number of photographs of the
phenomena in rapid succession.

A conversational discussion ensued.

(Signed) R. L. J. ELLEry.

16th November, 1874.
The President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, in the chair.

Mr. E. Dobson, was elected a member of the Society ;
Mr. Stuart Murray was nominated for election at next meeting.

Mr. Rawlinson read a paper on ‘The Discovery of some Iron
Keys under fifteen feet of diluvium in i845 or 1846.” (See
Transactions, Art. No. x.)

Discussion ensued.

(Signed) R. L. J. ELLery.

21st December, 1874.
The President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, in the chair.

Mr. Stuart Murray was elected a member of the Society.

The Secretary read the names of the retiring Office-bearers and
of the retirmg members of the Council, as follow :—President,
Mr. R. L. J. Ellery; Vice-President, Mr. G. Foord ; Treasurer,
Mr. P. de J. Grut ; Librarian, Dr. J. E. Neild; Secretary, Mr. F. J.
Pirani. Members of Council—Mr. E. Howitt, Mr. S.W. McGowan,
Mr. J. Marshall, Mr. F. Poolman, Mr. J. T. Rudall, Mr. E. J. White.

Mr. Rusden read a paper on “The Week.” (See Zransactions,
Art. No. xi.)

Discussion ensued.

The President, after vacating the chair, which was taken by
Mr. G. Foord, Vice-President, read a paper on “The Physical
Appearances observed during the recent Transit of Venus.” (See
Transactions, Art. No. xii.)

oer

132 Proceedings, &e., for 1875.

Mr. Kane referred to the great loss which the Society and the
colony had suffered by the death of Professor Wilson, and the
President stated that the observations of the Transit taken by
him (Professor Wilson) were of the utmost value.

(Signed) — R. L. J. Evtery.

8th March, 1875. °
The President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery, in the chair.

The election of office-bearers and members of the Council was
then held, with the following results :— President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery ;
Vice-Presidents, Mr. G. Foord and Professor McCoy ; Treasurer,
Mr. P. de J. Grut ; Librarian, Dr. J. H. Neild ; Secretary, Mr. F. J.
Pirani ; Members of Council, Mr. A. C. Allan, Mr. E. Howitt, Mr.
S. W. McGowan, Mr. F. Poolman, Mr. J.T. Rudall, Mr. E. J. White.

Twelve months’ leave of absence were, by unanimous resolve,
granted to the President.

The Annual Report of the Council was then reid and adopted.

The Balance-sheet and Statement of Assets and Liabilities were
then read, and their adoption moved by Mr. G. Foord, seconded by
Mr. E. J. White. :

An amendment, moved by Mr. A. K. Smith and seconded§ hy
Mr. T. Rawlinson, that the Treasurer be instructed to insert in the
Statement of Assets and Liabilities a debt of £217 due to the
Publishing Fund was, after considerable discussion, abandoned, on
the understanding that the subject of the Publishing Fund would be
immediately dealt with by the Council, The Balance-sheet and
Statement of Assets and Liabilities were then adopted. |

The Report, Balance-sheet, &c., were as follows :—

ANNUAL REPORT.

Your Council has the honor to report that since last Annual
Meeting Vol. XI. of the Transactions has been printed and issued.
Since the issue of that volume it has been determined to print each
paper in pamphlet form, as soon as possible after it has been read
before the Society, a course which it is considered will prove
convenient both to members reading papers and to the Society
generally. As soon as a sufficient number of the papers have been
printed, they will be published collectively to form Vol. XII.

The papers read since last Annual Meeting are as follows :—On
the 10th April, Mr. Sydney Gibbons read a paper ‘‘On the disposal
and utilization of Excreta.” On the 1lth May, Mr. R. L. J.
Ellery read a paper “On the forthcoming Transit of Venus.” On
the 8th June, the Secretary read a paper “by Mr. D. Kennedy “ On
a late Extraordinary Escape of a Miner from Drowning ;” and one
by Mr. R. Etheridge “‘On the Sand Dunes of the Coast of Victoria.”

+

2

Proceedings, &e., for 1875. 133

On the 13th July, the President read a paper by Mr. Corbett
“On Abyssinian Tube Wells ;” and Mr. Sydney Gibbons read a
paper “On Cremation.” On the 10th August, Mr. Bosisto read a
paper entitled “Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree?” On
the 27th August the Annual Conversazione was held. On the 12th
October, Mr. F. J. Pirani read a paper “‘On some Processes of
Scientific Reasoning ;” and Mr. R. L. J. Ellery read a paper “ On
the Photographic Processes to be adopted in observing the forth-
coming Transit of Venus.” On the 16th November, Mr. Rawlinson
read a paper ‘‘On the Discovery of some Iron Keys under 15 ft. of
diluvium in 1845 or 1846.” On the 21st December, Mr. Rusden
read a paper “On the Week ;” and Mr. R. L. J. Ellery read a
paper ‘On some of the Physical Appearances observed during the
late Transit of Venus.”

The papers which have been published in pamphlet form are :—
Mr. R. Etheridge “On the Sand Dunes of the Coast of Victoria.”
Mr. Bosisto ‘“‘Is the Eucalyptus a Fever-destroying Tree?” Mr.
Corbett “On Abyssinian Tube Wells.” Mr. Pirani ‘On some
Processes of Scientific Reasoning.”

The following are in the press :—Mr. Rawlinson “On the
Discovery of some Iron Keys under 15 ft. of Diluvium in 18495 or
1846.” Mr. Rusden “On the Week.” Mr. Ellery “On the late
Transit of Venus.”

A Catalogue of the Library is also in course of publication.

Your Council has to deplore the recent loss of one of your Vice-
Presidents, Professor W. P. Wilson. Professor Wilson was one of
the earliest members of the Royal Society, and always manifested a
great and active interest in its welfare. His death is a calamity
which will be severely felt both by the Society and the Colony
generally.

We have much satisfaction in stating that the Government has
again granted the subsidy in aid of the printing funds, and we have
every reason to believe that this course will be continued.

In presenting the Balance-sheet, your Council has much pleasure
in stating that the fencing account has been paid, the printing
account has been reduced by £100, and debentures have been paid
off to the amount of £200; a considerable reduction in the
liabilities of the Society has thus been effected. For the permanent
preservation of the building, a considerable outlay for cementing
must, however, soon be required.

The President stated that at last meeting the appointment of
Auditors had been omitted, and that the Council had consequently
appointed Messrs. Bosisto and Rusden, subject to the approval of
this meeting.

The action of the Council was confirmed.

(Signed) | GEORGE Foorp.

———

Proceedings, &e., for 1875.

154

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LUNSVIOLT, “WOFT OUT,

Proceedings, &e., for 1875. Loe

12th April, 1875.
Mr. G. Foord, Vice-President, in the chair.

Messrs. Morris, Aleock, Howitt, and Gould were elected members
of the Society, and Messrs. Daniels and Sutherland nominated for
election at next meeting.

The Secretary read a paper by Mr. Etheridge on “Some Upper
Paleozoic Polyzoa from Queensland,” (See Transactions, Art.
No. xiii.)

A vote of thanks was accorded Mr. Etheridge for his paper.

Mr. Foord, after vacating the chair, which was taken by Dr. Neild,
read a paper on “The Importance of a more close and systematic
Observation of the Oceanic and Atmospheric Phenomena of our
Coasts,” by Mr. T. Rawlinson.

Discussion ensued.

It was resolved that consideration of the subject of the paper be
referred to the Council.

(Signed) Gzorce Foorp.

17th May, 1875.
Mr. G. Foord, Vice-President, in the chair.

Messrs. Daniels and Sutherland were elected members of the
Society.

Mr. Foord, after vacating the chair, which was taken by
Mr. Rusden, read an account of some of the results of the
Challenger Expedition.

A conversational discussion ensued.

Mr. W. M. Cooke then described and exhibited a new form of
Magic Lantern, called the Sciopticon.

(Signed) GEORGE Foorp.

14th June, 1875.
Mr. G. Foord, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. A. R. Wallis was nominated for election at next meeting.

The Secretary read a letter from Mr. R. C. Gunn, of Launceston,
in reference to the alleged discovery of some iron keys in 1845 or
1846, concerning which a paper had been read by Mr. Rawlinson on
November 16th, 1874, and stated that the Council had ordered the
letter to be printed in the Vvransactions of the Society, and that
copies of it be distributed at next ordinary meeting. (See p. 122.)

Mr. A. M. Smith read a paper ‘On the Phenomena of Approach
and Recession exhibited by Bodies under the Influence of Radiant
Energy.” (See Transactions, Art. No. xvii.)

Discussion ensued.

136 Proceedings, &c., for 1875.

Mr. T. Harrison then exhibited and described a Universal
Equatorial, and an instrument for the Observation of Mars.
Discussion ensued.
(Signed) GeorcE Foor.

lst September, 1875.
Mr. G. Foord, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. A. R. Wallis was elected an ordinary member of the Society,
and Professor Nanson and Mr. C. W. Foster were nominated for
election at next meeting.

The Chairman stated that he had received a letter from the
President, Mr. Ellery, in which he (Mr. Ellery) desired to be
remembered to the members of the Society.

Mr. W. C. Kernot read a paper on ‘‘ The Arithmometer.” (See
Transactions, Art. No. xix.)

The Secretary read a paper contributed by Mr. J. Perry, “On the
Meteor of April 15th.”

Mr. R. Barton read a paper on “ Surcharge in the Bullion Assay.”
(See Transactions, Art. No. xxi.)

(Signed) GeEorcE Foorp.

Sth November, 1875.
Mr. G. Foord, Vice-President, in the chair.

Professor Nanson and Mr. C. W. Forster were elected members of
the Scciety, and Messrs. J. C. Ogier and Martin Gardiner were
nominated for election at next meeting.

The Chairman, having vacated the chair, which was taken by
Mr. Rawlinson, read a paper ‘‘On a Proposed New Method of
Weighing.” (See Transactions, Art. No. xxii.)

Discussion ensued.

(Signed) GEORGE Foorp.

13th December, 1875.
Mr. G. Foord, Vice-President, in the chair.

Messrs. J. C. Ogier and Martin Gardiner were elected members of
the Society.

The Secretary read a communication from the Colonial Institute,
15 Strand, London, in which it was stated that “Any member of
any Colonial Club or Society, with which the Institute may enter
into such an arrangement, may, on producing a letter from the
Chairman and Secretary of such Club or Society, be admitted to the
Rooms, without payment, for one month.”

Proceedings, &e., for 1875. 137

The Secretary read the list of the retiring office-bearers and
members of Council, as follows :—President, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery ;
Vice-Presidents, Mr. G. Foord and Professor McCoy ; Treasurer,
Mr. P. de J. Grut; Librarian, Dr. J. E. Neild; Secretary,
Mr. F. J. Pirani. Members of Council, Mr. J. Bosisto, Rev. H. P.
Kane, Mr. J. C. Newbery, Mr. H. K. Rusden, Mr. T. E. Rawlinson,
Mr. A. K. Smith.

Messrs. Bosisto and Rusden were elected Auditors.

Mr. T. E. Rawlinson read a paper ‘‘On the Past and Present
Condition of the Port of Melbourne, with suggestions for its
Permanent Improvement.” (See Zransactions, Art. No. xxiii.)

Discussion ensued.

(Signed) GrorGEe Foorp.

Name.

Objects.

Members
and.
Honorary
Members.

Patron.

Officers.

Manage-
ment.

Ordinary
Meetings.

General and
Anniversary

Meetings.

Retirement
of Officers.

LAWS.

L The Society shall be called “The Royal Society
of Victoria.”

II. The Royal Society of Victoria is founded for the
advancement of science, literature, and art, with
especial reference to the development of the resources
of the country.

III. The Royal Society of Victoria shall consist of
Members and Honorary Members, all of whom shall
be elected by ballot.

IV. His Excellency the Governor of Victoria, for
the time being, shall be requested to be the Patron of
the Society.

V. There shall be a President, and two Vice-
Presidents, who, with twelve other Members, and the
following Honorary Officers, viz.: Treasurer, Librarian,
and Secretary of the Society, shall constitute the
Council.

VI. The Council shall have the management of the
affairs of the Society.

VII. The ordinary meetings of the Society shall be
held on the second Thursday of each month during the
Session, from March to December inclusive, subject to
alteration by the Council with due notice.

VIII. In the second week in March there shall be
a General Meeting, to receive the report of the Council
and elect the Officers of the Society for the ensuing
year.

IX. All Office Bearers and Members of Council,
except the six junior or last elected ordinary Members,
shall retire from office annually at the General Meeting
in March. The names of such Retiring Officers are to
be announced at the ordinary meetings in November
and December, The officers and members of Council
so retiring shall be eligible for the same or any other
office then vacant.

Laws. 139

X. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secre- Election of
tary, and Librarian, shall be separately elected by
ballot (should such be demanded), in the above-named
order, and the six vacancies in the Council shall then
be filled up together by ballot at the General Meeting
in March. Those members only shall be eligible for
any office who have been proposed and seconded at the
Ordinary Meeting in December, or by letter addressed
to the Secretary, and received by him before the 1st
March, to be laid before the Council Meeting next
before the Annual Meeting in March. The nomination
to any one office shall be held a nomination to any
office the election to which is to be subsequently
held. And such ballot shall take place prior to the
ordinary business of the meeting.

XI. No Member whose subscription is in arrear Members in}
shall take part in the election of Officers or other
business of the meeting.

XII. An Address shall be delivered by the President Inaugural
of the Society at either a Dinner, Conversazione, or the eee
extra meeting of the Society, as the Council for the “™*
time being may determine, not later than the ordinary

meeting in June in each year.

XIII. If any vacancy occur among the Officers, Vacancies.
notice thereof shall be inserted in the summons for the
next Meeting of the Society, and the vacancy shall be
then filled up by ballot.

XIV. The President shall take the chair at all Duties of
meetings of the Society, and of the Council, and shall ;
reculate and keep order in all their proceedings ; he
shall state questions and propositions to the meeting,
and report the result of ballots, and carry into effect
the regulations of the Society. In the absence of the
President the chair shall be taken by one of the Vice-
Presidents, Treasurer, or ordinary member of Council,
in order of seniority.

XV. The Treasurer may, immediately after hig Duties
election, appoint a Collector (to act during pleasure), 7 "”
subject to the approval of the Council at its next
meeting. The duty of the Collector shall be to issue
the Treasurer’s notices and collect subscriptions. The

Duties of
Secretary.

Meetin gs of
Council.

Special
Meetings of
Council,

140 Laws.

Treasurer shall receive all moneys paid to the Society,
and shall deposit the same before the end of each
month in the Bank approved by the Council, to the
credit of an account opened in the name of the Royal
Society of Victoria. The Treasurer shall make all
payments ordered by the Council, on receiving a written
authority from the chairman of the meeting. All
cheques shall be signed by himself, and countersigned
by the Secretary. No payments shall be made except
by cheque, and on the authority of the Council. He
shall keep a detailed account of all receipts and
expenditure, present a report of the same at each
Council Meeting, and prepare a balance sheet to be
laid before the Council, and included in their Annual
Report. He shall also produce his books whenever
called on by the Council.

XVI. The Secretary shall conduct the correspondence
of the Society and of the Council, attend all meetings
of the Society and of the Council, take minutes of
their proceedings, and enter them in the proper books.
He shall inscribe the names and addresses of all
members in a book to be kept for that purpose, from
which no name shall be erased except by order of the
Council. He shall issue notices of all meetings of the
Society and of the Council, and shall have the custody
of all papers of the Society, and under the direction
of the Council, superintend the printing of the Trans-
actions of the Society.

XVII. The Council shall meet on any day within one
week before every ordinary meeting of the Society.
Notice of such meeting shall be sent to every Member
at least two days previously. No business shall be
transacted at any meeting of the Council unless
five Members be present. Any Member of Council
absenting himself from three consecutive meetings of
Council, without satisfactory explanation in writing,
shall be considered to have vacated his office, and the
election of a member to fill his place shall be pro-
ceeded with at the next ordinary meeting of members,
in accordance with Rule XIII.

XVIII. The Secretary shall call a Special Meeting
of Council on the authority of the President or of
three Members of Council. The notice of such meet-

Laws. 141

ing shall specify the object for which it is called, and
no other business shall be entertained. 7
XIX. The Council shall call a Special Meeting of Speciat,
the Society, on receiving a requisition in writing noses
sioned by twenty-four “Members of the Society,
specifying the purpose for which the meeting is
required, or upon a resolution of its own. No other
business shall be entertained at such meeting. Notice
of such meeting, and the purpose for which “it is sum-
moned, shall be sent to every Member at least ten
days before the meeting.

XX. The Council shall annually prepare a Report Annual
of the Proceedings of the Society during the past “?™
year, embodying “the balance-sheet, duly ‘audited by
two Auditors to be appoimted for the year at the
Ordinary Meeting in December, exhibiting a state-
ment of the present position of the Society. This
Report shall be laid before the Society at the Annual
Meeting in March. No paper shall be read at this
meeting.

XXI. If it shall come to the knowledge of the Expulsionot
Council that the conduct of an officer or a member is “™™*
injurious to the character of the Society, and if two-
thirds of the Council present shall be satisfied, after
opportunity of defence has been afforded to him that
such is the case, it may call upon him to resign, and
shall have the power to expe] him from the Society, or
remove him from any office therein at its discretion.

In every case all proceedings shall be entered upon the
minutes.

XXII. Every candidate for membership shall be Blection of
proposed and seconded by Members of the Society, “7
The name, the address, and the occupation of every
candidate, with the names of his proposer and of his
seconder, shall be communicated in writing to the
Secretary, and shall be read at a Meeting of Council,
and also at the following Meeting of the Society, and
the ballot shall take place at the next following ordinary
meeting of the Society. When the number of votes
in favour of any candidate shall be five times the .
number of those against him, he shall be declared duly
elected, and not otherwise.

Members
shall sign
Laws.

Honorary
Members.

Subscrip-
ions.

Entrance
Fee, &c.

142, Laws.

XXIII. Every newly-elected Member shall, at the
first meeting of the Society at which he may be pre-
sent, sign a declaration, in a book provided for that
purpose, that he will observe the laws of the Society.

XXIV. Gentlemen not resident in Victoria, who
are distinguished for their attainments in science,
literature, or art, may be proposed for election as
Honorary Members, on the recommendation of an
absolute majority of the Council. The election shall
be conducted in the same manner as that of ordinary
Members, but nine-tenths of the votes must be in
favour of the candidate. |

XXV. Members of the Society, resident in Mel-
bourne, or within ten miles thereof, shall pay two
guineas annually, and Members residing beyond that
distance shall pay one guinea annually. The sub-
scriptions shall be due on the Ist of January in every
year, and notice thereof shall be sent to every Member
during the preceding December. At the commence-
ment of each year there shall be hung up in the Hall
of the Society a list of Members, upon which the
payments of their subscriptions as made by Members
shall be entered. On and after the 1st of July, fresh
notice shall be sent to Members still in arrears. At
the end of each year a list of names of such Members
as have not then paid their subscriptions shall be
prepared and submitted for the consideration of the
Council, and hung in the Hall of the Society.

XXVI. Newly-elected Members shall pay an
entrance-fee of two guineas, in addition to the sub-
scription for the current year. Those elected after the
Ist of July shall pay only half of the subscription for
the current year. If the entrance-fee and subscription
be not paid within one month of the notification of
election, a second notice shall be sent, and if payment
be not paid within one month from the second notice,
the election shall be void. Members resident in
Melbourne or within ten miles thereof, may compound
for all Annual Subscriptions of the current and future
years by paying £21; and members residing beyond
that distance may compound in like manner by paying
£10 10s.

Laws. 143

XXVII. At the ordinary meetings of the Society a
the chair shall be taken punctually at eight o'clock, ae
and shall be vacated not later than halt-past ten
oclock.

XXVIII. At the ordinary meetings business shall Order and
be transacted in the following order. unless it be conducting

specially decided otherwise by the Chairman : the business.

Minutes of the preceding meeting to be read,
amended if incorrect, and confirmed.

New Members to enrol their names, and be in-
troduced.

Ballot for the election of new Members.
Vacancies among Officers, if any, to be filled up.
Business arising out of the minutes.
Cummunications from the Council.

Presents to be laid on the table, and acknowledged.

Motions, of which notice has been given, to be
considered. Notices of motion for the next
meeting to be given in, and read by the
Secretary.

Papers to be read.

XXIX. No stranger shall speak at a meeting of Strangers.
the Society, unless specially invited to do so by the
Chairman.

XXX. No papers shall be read, or business enter- What busi-
tained, at any meeting which has not been previously finacha”
notified to the Council.

XXXI. The Council may call additional meetings Additional
whenever it may be deemed necessary. Ess

exec Every Member may introduce two visitors Visitors,
to the meetings of the Society by orders signed by
himself.

XXXIIT. Members shall have the privilege of Members
reading before the Society accounts of experiments, paper
observations, and researches conducted by themselves,
or original papers, on subjects within the scope of the
Society, or descriptions of recent discoveries, or inven-
tions of general scientific interest. No vote of thanks

to any Member for his paper shall be proposed.

144 Laws.

Or depute XXXIV. If a Member be unable to attend for the
SIncbers, Purpose of reading his paper, he may delegate to any
Member of the Society the reading thereof, and his
right of reply.
Members XXXV. Any Member desirous of reading a paper
miceor, Shall give in writing to the Secretary, ten days before
their papers. the Meeting at which he desires it to be read, its title
and the time its reading will occupy.
The Secretary shall lay this communication before
the Council at its next meeting. Papers shall be read
in the order in which such notices are received by the

Secretary.

Papers by XXXVI. The Council may permit a paper of a

strane. nature similar to the above, not written by a Member
of the Society, to be read, if for any special reason it
shall be deemed desirable.

Papers shall XXXVI. Every paper read before the Society shall

paty of the be the property thereof, and immediately after it has

Society. been read shall be delivered to the Secretary, and shall
remain in his custody.

Papers must =XXXVITI No paper shall be published in the

moe Transactions unless approved by the Council, and
unless it consist mainly of original matter as regards
the facts or the theories enunciated.

Council may XXXIX. Should the Council feel a difficulty in

fo Members deciding on the publication of a paper, the Council
may refer it to any Member or Members of the
Society, who shall report on the same.

Rejected XL. Should the Council decide not to publish a

eed” paper, it shall be at once returned to the author.

Members XLI. The author of any paper which the Council

Brest has decided to publish in the Transactions may have

their papers] any number of copies of his paper, on giving notice of
his wish in writing to the Secretary, with his paper,
and on paying the extra cost of such copies.

Membersto XLII. Every Member whose subscription is not in

of Tees arrear, and every Honorary Member, is entitled to

aaa receive one copy of the Transactions of the Society as
published. Newly-elected Members shall, on payment
of their entrance-fee and subscription, receive a copy
of the volume of the Transactions last published.

Laws. 145

XLITI. Every book, pamphlet, model, plan, draw- Property.
ing, specimen, preparation, or collection presented to
or purchased by the Society, shall be kept in the
house of the Society.

XLIV. The Library shall be open to members of Museum.
the Society and the public at such times and under
such regulations as the Council may deem fit.

XLV. The legal ownership of the property of the tLegalowner-
Society is vested in the President, the Vice-Presidents, a)
and the Treasurer for the time being, in trust for the
use of the Society ; but the Council shall have full
control over the expenditure of the funds and manage-
ment of the property of the Society.

XLVI. Every Committee appointed by the Society committees
shall at its first meeting elect a Chairman, who shall °°
subsequently convene the Committee and bring up its
report. He shall also obtain from the Treasurer such
orants as may have been voted for the purposes of the
Committee.

XLVII. All Committees and individuals to whom Report
any work has been assigned by the Society shall pre- Pere No
sent to the Council, not later than the lst November
in each year, a report of the progress which has been
made; and, in cases where grants of money for
scientific purposes have been entrusted to them, a
statement of the sums which have been expended,
and the balance of each grant which remains unex-
pended. Hvery Committee shall cease to exist on the
Ist November, unless re-appointed.

XLVIII. Grants of pecuniary aid for scientific pur- Grants
poses from the funds of the Society shall expire on the “?"*
1st November next following, unless it shall appear by
a report that the recommendations on which they were
granted have been acted on, or a continuation of them
be ordered by the Council.

XLIX. In grants of money to Committees and Pore
individuals, the Society shall not pay any personal to be paid.
expenses which may be incurred by the members.

L. No new law, or alteration or repeal of an existing Alteration of
law, shall be made except at the General Meeting in
L

Cases not
provided for.

Sections.

Names and
pumber of
Sections.

Meetings of
Sections.

Members of
Sections.

Officers of
Sections.

146 Laws.

March, or at a Special General Meeting summoned. for
the purpose, as provided in Law XIX., and in pur-
suance of notice given at the preceding ordinary
meeting of the Society. |

LI. Should any circumstance arise not provided for
in these laws, the Council is empowered to act as may
seem to be best for the interests of the Society.

LIT. In order that the Members of the Society pro-
secuting particular departments of science may have
opportunities of meeting and working together with
fewer formal restraints than are necessary at the
ordinary meetings of the Society, Sections may be
established.

LITI. Sections may be established for the following
departments, viz. :—

Section A. Physical, Astronomical,and Mechanical
Science, including Engineering.

Section B. Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Metal-
lurgy.

Section C. Natural History and Geology.

Section D. The Microscope and its applications.

Section E. Geography and Ethnology.

Section F. Social Science and Statistics.

Section G. Literature and the Fine Arts, including
Architecture.

Section H. Medical Science, including Physiology
and Pathology.

LIV. The meetings of the Sections shall be for
scientific objects only.

LV. There shall be no membership of the Sections
as distinguished from the membership of the Society.

LVI. There shall be for each Section a Chairman. to
preside at the meetings, and Secretary to keep minutes
of the proceedings, who shall jointly prepare and for-
ward to the Secretary of the Society, prior to the Ist
of November in each year, a report of the proceedings
of the Section during that year, and such report shall
be submitted to the Council.

Laws. 147

LVII. The Chairman and the Secretary of each peasant 3
Section shall be appointed at the first meeting of the 6f officers of
Council after its election in March, in the first instance *°"°"*
from Members of the Society who shall have signified
to the Secretary their willingness to undertake these
offices, and subsequently from such as are recommended
by the Section as fit and willing.

LVIII. The first meeting of each Section in the Times ot
year shall be fixed by the Council; subsequently the Pair as aha
Section shall arrange its own days and hours of
meeting, provided these be at fixed intervals.

K 2

MEMBERS

Ghe Royal Society of Victoria.

Names marked thus * are those of Life Members.

Alcock, Peter C., Esq., 41 Swanston-street
Allan, Alex. C., Esq., Crown Lands Office
Andrew, Henry M., Esq., M.A., Wesley College

Barker, Edward, Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S., Latrobe-street East

*Barkly, His Excellency Sir Henry, K.C.B., Mauritius

Barnes, Benjamin, Esq., Rosslyn-street, West Melbourne

*Barry, His Honor Sir Redmond, M.A., Chancellor of the Uni-
versity, Supreme Court

Barton, Robert, Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint

Beaney, Se Ge , Esq., E.RGS, Ed., Collins-street Hast

Bear, J. P. , Esa., M.L.C., 834 Collins- street Hast

“Banniaon R., Esq., Sale

Blair, John, Esq., Collins-street East

Bland, R. H. , Hsq., Clunes

*Bleasdale, He J., Rev., D.D., F.G.S., St. Patrick’s College, Mel-

bourne

*Bosisto, Joseph, Esq., Bridge-road, Richmond

Brown, H. J., Esq., Park House, Wellington-parade, East Melbourne

Burrows, Thomas, Esq., Burwood-road, Hawthorn

*Butters, J. 8., Esq., Queen-street, Melbourne

Caselli, H. R., Esq., Ballarat
Comber, P. F., Esq., Royal Mint
Cook, William M., Esq., Crown Lands Department

Danks, John, Esq., Bourke-street West

*Detmold, William, Esq., 44 Collins-street East, Melbourne

Dobson, E., Esq., A.I.C.E., Claremont House, Grey-street, East
Melbourne

Duerdin, James, Esq., LL.B., Yorick Club

*Eaton, H. F., Esq., The Treasury, Melbourne

List of Members. 149

Ellery, Robert L. J., Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Observatory
*Elliott, S., Esq., 88 Collins-street West, or East Brighton
*Elliott, T. S., Esq., Railway Department, Spencer-street

Fitzpatrick, Rev. J., D.D., St. Patrick’s College
*Flannagan, J., Esq., Collins-street East, Melbourne
Foord, Geo., Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint

Foster, C. W., Esq., Collins-street

Gardiner, Martin, Esq., Crown Lands Department

*Gibbons, S. W., Esq., F.C.S., Collins-street East, Melbourne
Gilbert, J. E., Esq., Observatory

*Gillbee, William, Esq., M.R.C.S.E., Collins-street East, Melbourne
Gould, J. E., Esq., Collins-street East

Groves, J. W., Esq., Lands Department

Grut, P. de J., Esq., E. S. and A. C. Bank, Hotham

Harrison, Thomas, Esq., Registrar General’s Office

Henderson, A. M., Esq., C.E., Reed and Barnes’, Elizabeth-street

Henderson, J. B., Esq., Water Supply Department, Sandhurst

*Higinbotham, Hon. Geo., M.A., Chancery-lane, Melbourne

Higinbotham, Thos., Esq., M.I.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief, Railway
Department

*Holt, John, Esq., Ledcourt, near Stawell

Howitt, E., Esq., Yorick Club

Hope, A., Esq., Greville-street, Prahran

Hopkins, D. M., Esq., Eaglehawk

Howitt, A. W., Esq., P.M., Bairnsdale

Hunt, Robert, Esq., Royal Mint

*Tffla, S., Esq., L.F.P.S.G., Emerald Hill
Irving, M. H., Esq., M.A., Hawthorn

Kane, Rev. H. P., M.A., Darling-street, South Yarra
Kelly, Rev. William, St. Patrick’s College

Kennedy, Daniel, Esq., McKenzie-street, Sandhurst
Keogh, Lawrence F.., Esq., Warrnambool

Kernot, W. C., Esq., M.A., C.E., University

Lewis, Geo., Esq., Collins-street East
Linacre, A., Esq., Lygon-street, Carlton
Lynch, Wm., Esq., Collins-street West

McCoy, Professor F., F.G.S., University

McGillivray, P. H., Esq., M.A., M.R.C.S.E., Sandhurst
McGowan, S. W., Esq., General Post Office

Manton, C. A., Esq., Treasury

Marshall, John, Esq., M.A., Hotham

Miller, F. B., Esq., F.C.S., Royal Mint

150 Inst of Members.

Moerlin, C., Esq., Observatory

Moors, Henry, Esq., Office Chief Commissioner Police

Morris, R., Esq., 10 Hawke-street, Hotham

*Mueller, Baron Von, Ph. D., C.M.G., F.R.S., Government Botanist
Munday, J., Esq., Clunes

Muntz, T. B., Esq., C.E., Town Surveyor’s Office, Prahran

Murray, Stuart, Esq., Kyneton

Nanson, Professor E. J., University

Neild, J. E., Esq., M.D, Collins-street East

Newbery, J. Cosmo, Esq., B. Sc., Technological Museum
Nicholas, W., Esq., Mining Department

*Nicholson, G., Esq., Collins-street East, Melbourne
Noone, J., Esq., Lands Department

Officer, S. H., Esq., Dalgety and Co., Swan Hill
‘Ogier, J. C. H., Esq., P.M., Wood’s Point

Parkes, Edmund §., Esq., Bank of Australia

Parnell, E., Esq., High-strect, Prahran

Perry, Right Rev. Bishop, D.D., M.A., Bishop’s Court
Phelps, J. J., Esq., Melbourne Club

Pirani, F. J., Esq., M.A., C.E., University

Poolman, J., Esq., Sugar Works, Sandridge

“Rawlinson, T. E., Esq., C.E., Temple Court, Melbourne
“Reed, Joseph, Esq., 3 Elizabeth-street, Melbourne
*Reed, Thomas, Esq., Fiji

-Rudall, J. T., Esq., F.R.C.S., Collins-street East
Rusden, H. K., Esq., Tivoli Place, South Yarra

Sherrard, L. J., Esq., Flinders-lane East

Skene, A. J., Esq., M.A., Lands and Survey Department

*Smith, A. K., Esq., C.E., F.R.S.S.A., Leicester-street, Carlton
Smith, A. M., Esq., 5 Darling Terrace, Drummond-street, Carlton
Stawell, Sir William, M.A., Supreme Court

Steel, W. H., Esq., Public Works Department

Sutherland, Alexander, Esq., M.A., Scotch College

Taylor, W. F., Esq., M.D., Claremont, Queensland
“Thompson, H. A., Esq., Lucknow, New South Wales
Thomson, W., Esq., F.R.C.S. Ed., South Yarra

Ulrich, G. H. F., Esq., F.G.S., Yorick Club

Ward, Colonel, R.E., Royal Mint

Waugh, Rev. J. S., Wesley College

*Were, J. B., Esq., Collins-street West, Melbourne

*White, E. J., Esq., F.R.A.S., The Observatory, Melbourne
Wigg, H. C., Esq., M.D., F.R.C.S., Grattan-street, Carlton

List of Members. 151

*Wilkie, D. E., Esq., M.D., Collins-street East, Melbourne.
Wilkins, A., Esq., 31 Market-street

Willan, Robt., Esq., 39 Queen-street

Willimot, W. C., Esq., Waltham Terrace, Richmond
Wyatt, A., Esq., P.M., Stawell

HonorRARY MEMBERS.

Bowen, His Excellency Sir G. F., K.C.B., Governor of Victoria,
Patron -

Clarke, Sir Andw., Colonel, C.B., R.E., London

Goeppert, H. R., M.D., Ph. D., Breslaw

Haast, Julius, Esq., Ph. D., F.G.S., Canterbury, New Zealand

Neumayer, Geo., Professor, Ph. D., &c., Bavaria

Scott, W., Rev., M.A., F.C.P.8., Sydney

Smith, John, Esq., M.D., University, Sydney

Todd, C., Esq., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., Adelaide.

STILLWELL AND KNIGHT, PRINTERS, MELBOURNE.

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