Bema We HARVARD UNIVERSITY i i: i cy) ES. LIBRARY OF THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY —— S tango an eae | é ; 4h i j a ik , 4 e s r ° i 4 1 oF ~ wl + “ ‘ . 1 % une q . A i ee Py ie, 2 Paw tao Al coe ee TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE Aoval Society of Victoria. VO. ATV: PART I. Edited under the Authority of the Council. ISSUED SEPTEMBER 1887. THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOUNDNESS OF THE OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN. MELBOURNE: STILLWELL AND CO., PRINTERS, 78 COLLINS STREET EAST. AGENTS T0 THE SOCIETY: WILLIAMS & NORGATE, 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON, To whom all communications for transmission to the Royal Society of Victoria, from all -parts of Europe, should be sent. 1887. 4 cae yg : coaral . - V va mM LD cate c - 5% ees i. ’ ; ari “ / ai? ; yn : Bat CMe Ok Cen cue eee ny S| ! rh ay POLE MV: : i arte We ’ f u ii * r F 5, ’ ’ ' ' ; ’ y : i ; : Pare sat eae ; ; : eave sot 1,9 >A 74 z A (fie ei ; a t > i vie ; is G 4 we Livh.. Pius so Se ee RT el Te SU AR EIA bale Ot VARY wes Pik Pee | Roivi? yi ae “iy hid scat phe Bert bea i At’, ? Aes #1: fh Wate Oe ‘agra Pits Bah . ~~ wif > Sean aitioat i . rc a ad ‘ , A . ‘ ee be ‘ aie Manes to 5 raat ta! > y . g*) be ¥, . fit . bw AL . + — wis n CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIV.—PART I. Sa er a PAGE Art.I.—The Oceanic Languages Semitic.—Part II. By the Rev. D. Macpona.p, Fate, Havannah Harbour, New Hebrides ae Be a ee Ae 1—41 II.—Notes on Fungi in Mines.—Part Il. By H. T. Tispauu 41—44 III.—Notes on the Occurrence of Glaciated Pebbles and Boulders in the so-called Mesozoic Conglomerate of Victoria. By EH. J. Dunn, F.G.5S. He or 44—46 IV.—Notes on Fungi in Mines.—Part I. By H. T. Tispaun 46—47 V.—On the production of Colour in Bird’s Eggs. By A. H. 8. Lucas, B.Se., M.A. ve 52—60 VI.—The Geology of the Portland Promontory, Western Victoria. By G. 8S. GrirritHs, F.G.S. .. 61—80 Vil.—On the value of J and the value of g. By Professor H. M. Anprew, M.A. .. es aes 80 VilIl.—Note on the Proposed Photographic Charting of the Heavens. By R. L. J. Huuery, F.R.S., F.R.A.S... 80 PROCEEDINGS ee ae 6 is ape vi 83—94 ue de oN a — 4. ara a oa - . ‘ iN i ite tan is ae ahi ae Royal Society of Victorta. Patron. HIS EXCELLENCY SIR HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH, K.C.B. President. PROFESSOR W. C. KERNOT, M.A., C.E. Vice- Presidents. E. J. WHITE, F.R.A.S. | J. COSMO NEWBERY, B.Sc.,C.M.G. Bon. Creasurer. HENRY MOORS. Hon. Secretaries. H. K. RUSDEN. | G. W. SELBY. Hon. Aibvarian. JAMES E, NEILD, M.D. Council. E. BAGE, Jun. ; R. L. J. ELLERY, F.R.S., F.R.AS. C. R. BLACKETT, F.C.S. G. S. GRIFFITHS, F.R.G.S. A. H. 8. LUCAS, B.Sc., M.A. L. HENRY, M.D. S. McGOWAN. JAMES JAMIESON, M.D. W. H. STEEL, C.E. | H. F. ROSALES, F.G.S8. ALEX. SUTHERLAND, M.A. | J.T. RUDALL, F.B.G.S. A it ane i ie Kai y eres tas aie Demet fA Ad ity tis ta Die J Oa Ae Oe ALTA AL 4 - 4 . ehh o2t at PALE) Gye: ree it EL: Va PNR Ae ie a iy ‘ f " he | ‘ a" iJ i A‘ ny wy elt mee " Hs: NO Mat aoe f TRANSACTIONS. Art. 1.—The Oceanic Languages Semitic : By Rey. D. Macponatp, Fate, Havannah Harbour, New Hebrides. [Read 10th March, 1887.] Ill. THE PRONOMINALS. Under this head are included the Demonstrative Pronouns, meaning this (here), that (there); and the same Demon- stratives used as Articles or Emphatics; as Relatives; as Interrogatives ; as Indefinites; and as Reflexives. $1. THE DEMONSTRATIVES. a. The Fatese demonstrative elements may be thus given :— ma (fa, wa, wo). cue. O, Us 0; SU, Se. li, lu (rd, ru, 7a). Nt, WN, NO. ke (ga). te, UU. Se CoN The forms in brackets are phonetic variations. Of these seven demonstratives, 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 are sometimes used alone with a noun, meaning simply “this,” as fatw stone, jfatu ua, fatu i, fatu se, fatu im, fatu ke, this stone. The other two, 4 and 7, are used thus only in compounds, but their use in this way, and in other ways, clearly shows that they are demonstrative elements exactly like the other five. The compound demonstrative expressions are very common in Fatese (as indeed in other languages). Thus 1, 3 give mesa bs 2 ua; 5, 2,-nar; 1, 5, wane; 5, 6, naga ; Bs-8; netu ; Dy 3, Nis ; 4, 6, arog. Then we have sometimes three elements heaped together, or) éven. four, as, I; 5,..6 uanaga ; 4,1,2,riuat; 5, 3, 7, nistu; 6, 3, 7, histu ES uantu ; 6, 5, 7, kintu 3 A, i e 6, 7u or riuanuga ie DAM B 2 4, 2 ? ? ae The Oceanic Languages Semitic: eriuat. Sometimes the same element is doubled, as nin. The general effect of this heaping together of demonstatives is emphasis: compare the vulgar English emphatic “this ’ere” for this. These seven demonstratives are, as has been shown in JI. (on the Numerals), universal in Oceanic; this of course does not mean that they are all equally in use in every dialect. In the above the principal phonetic changes are in 1, m to f (v), wu (w), though those in 4, J to 7, and in 5, k to g, are also to be noted. b. The Malagasy demonstratives are thus given in Griffith’s Grammar, and are compounded, as will be seen, of the above seven elements :— Sing. aty, itoy, itony, 10, rzato, zatony, this. Pl. wreto, vretoy, retony, vreo, izatoana, these. Sing. trod, my, irikitra, vrokatra, that. PL. wretoana, wreny, vreroana, those. Sing. or Pl. izao,izany, ilehy, wy, this, that, these, those. The element |] (m) appears to be wanting in these, though it may be among them disguised as o (wu); it undoubtedly is in the Malagasy, as will be seen below. In the foregoing, ras tor’, U7 40r ¢, jt 10r ke. c. The Malay demonstatives may easily be seen to be composed of the same elements. Thus i, itu, nwn, and Javanese tka punika (p for m) same as Fa. wanaga. That s, k, and m (as p), and 7 for /, sometimes as d, are original demonstrative elements in Malay, as well as 2, , and ¢, will abundantly appear as we proceed. ' d. The Samoan demonstratives are composed of the same elements : — Sing. o lenez, siner, sia, this. Pl. 2a, nei, these Sing. 0 lea, o lena, o lela, send, sisi, siasi, sinasi, that. Pl. na, those. In these (0 is sometimes if not always for ko) 1 and 7 are wanting; but they are found in other Maori-Hawaiian dialects, as for instance, 7, Tahiti teze, tera, tena, this, that ; and 1 as a prefixed demonstrative or article in Tahiti vau, Maori waw (for muku), I, and Tahiti vera (ef. Fa. nara, I. § 24), they. This vera is for mera. The Pronomimals. 3 § 2. COMPARISON. a. The Semitic demonstrative elements, exactly corres- ponding to the above as they do, may be thus given :— 1. ma. Bey Uy. by, Bs For these see Dillman, Eth. Gr., 3. 8, Z SS 62-65. Beh Ldn 14% 5. an, Nh. NotTe.—3 and 7 were originally the 6. ka. same. ic bd. J For 1, ma, this, see Sayce, Assy. Gram., p. 60. This ma appears as the interrogative, &c., in all the Semitic, and in all our four Oceanic dialects. b. These seven demonstrative elements are also heaped together in the Semitic dialects for emphasis, exactly as in the Oceanic, thus :— Semitic. Heb. hua, hia, see L., § 23. Eth. u‘tu, Tig. ete Chald. den, dena. Chald. dek, Arb. daka Chald. diken Chald. hanak Chald. hen, Assy. annu Talmud inhu Tig. neswu Tig. nate Syr. horko (here) Assy. wllu Eth. eleku, Amh. elehe, pl. Eth. elu, pl. Heb. eleh, pl. Eth. elekuetu, eleketu, pl. Kth. elontu, pl. Chald. zlen, pl. Eth. ze, Heb. zeh Assy. swatu Assy. naga, aga Assy. ‘agannu, ’aganna Assy. agassu Oceanic. Sam. ia, Malay zvya (for 2a), Tongan aia. Mg. ity, My. ctu Tah tena, Mg. ttony Santa Cruz deka, Santo ituga Vanua Lava tigen Santo neka, naka Mg. my, My. wi, Fa. in, Na, Ne Fa. mea, My. iia Fa. 11s Fa. netw Fa. ervk (this) Mg. aroa, Fa. arat Mg. tlehy, sing. and pl. Mg. reo, pl. Tanna traha, cilia, ala, pl. Mg. troakatra, vrikitra, sing. Mg. vreto, pl. Mg. zreny, pl. Fa. se Mg. izato Lakon theog, Java ika Norbarbar gene, Fa. kin Fa. kis B 2 4 | The Oceanic Languages Semitic: Assy. ammuw (ma) Eromanga 7mo, yamu Assy. SW’asu, Susu Sam. sias2, sist Tig. ezvw, sing., pl. Mg. izao, sing., pl. Mod. Syr. ant, pl, sing. Sam. 7d, pl., sing. Note in the foregoing, on both sides, the change of k to h, and of / to 7; and as to the latter, compare further Ges. Heb. Dict. s.v. aru. Note also that the whole seven elements, and they only, occur on both sides of the comparison in these compounds. : § 3. ARTICLES OR EMPHATICS. a. The articles or emphatics by which is meant simply demonstratives, pre-fixed or post-fixed to nouns, have, as the above seven demonstrative elements applied in this particular way, already all come under notice in I. and IL, on the Personal Pronouns and Numerals, especially in the latter: see II, § 2. It was there remarked that these are found used with other nouns, as well as with the numerals. Thus (5) Fa. nakasu, nakau, Mg. ny hazo, tree ; (4) Sam. le lagi, (2) Fa. elugt, (5) Mg. ny lanitra, heaven; (1) Sam. masina, Sulu fasina, the moon; (5) Fa. nilagz, (1) Sam. matagz, the wind ; (1) Fa. makau, a cluster; (7) Ma. tekau, ten ; (6) Api or Epi, kabarvo, (3) sumberio and vario, Sanguir vwran, the moon; (4) My. rumah, (5) An. neom, (1) Ahtiago fezom, (3) Fa. suma, house; (6) My. kanak, and anak, (3) Mg. zanak, child; (1) My. bintang, Celebes bitwy, Sam. fetu, Fa. maset, An. moyeuv (final v emphatic), (4) Ja. luntang, (6) Mg. kintana, Ceram tot, Matabello town, star. In the above examples the word for “star,’ as will appear, begins with t (nt), so that we have as articles prefixed to it m (b, f, &c.), land k. In many cases these articles have been regarded by Europeans and even by natives, as parts of the original word, so that, for instance, the Fatese often say naswma for sumad, house, as if s were a part of wma, the original word. So the Samoans say o le laau, as if the la of laaw were radical, as Bopp also thought it was, in trying to trace it to the Sanserit brakasa; Prakrit rukka, (see his work “ Uber die Verwandtschaft der Malayisch-Polynesischen Sprachen, mit den Indisch-Europaischen,” p. 4); whereas it is the article prefixed to the original word aw for kaw, wood, tree. This may be called the unconscious article, and its being so unconscious, points to far distant ages in the past, when it was the consciously used article. Note in the above som? The Pronominals. 5 of the same suftixed as emphatics, as in the Numerals, to which we now add, completing the list thus :— Yap. tuv, An. moyeur, star. Epi vario, moon; Mota matat, eye. My. alas (Mg. ala), forest. My. layar (Tag. laywg), sail. Mg., My. volana, bulan, moon. Rotti bulak, moon. Sumatra bulet, moon. TESS eae b. The same may now be shown with the Personal Pronouns thus :— PREFIXED. Tah. ovaw, Ma. wau, I, Tah. vera, they. . Tanna zau, Fyi kor au (ko 7 au), I. . Mg. zaho, I, Tag. siya, he. . Sumatra rehu, New Guinea law, I (1V., s 4, L.). Torres Islands mau, Santo nau, I. Sam. ‘ow (for kokw), Fa. kinau, i. New Guinea tau, Negrito tiyac, I. ST Ste Go BO POSTFIXED. Fa. komam, Mota kamam, we. Pentecost kamai, Paama komaz, My. kam, we. Fa. akamus (also akam, kumw), ye. Mallicolo amru, ye (but ru compares with “eo” in Mg. anareo, probably). Fiji kemuni, ye. . Torres Islands noke (for nawke), I. . Duke of York muat, ye. Penn Ge Oat NID OH ce. The Fatese articles are 7, with vowel before or after, as m, Nt, or na, the common. article, and e which is more rare, and the indefinite articles, te (=any, whatever), and szkez, “one,” “an.” Used only with names of persons, we have masculine, or with names of males, ma, and feminine, or with names of females, laz (le, /2). The Malagasy articles are 2, ra, and ny (pronounced as Fa. 12), of which 7 and va are used only with proper names, and ny is the common article, and identical with Fa. v2, an, na. The indefinite is iray, “one, “an.” 6 | The Oceanic Languages Semitic : The Malay has no article like Fa. ni, Mg. ny. But int and itu, this, as Crawford remarks (Cr. p. 28), are used sometimes as “‘ equivalent to our definite article, the.” The indefinite is sa, “one,” “ an.’ The Samoan common article is le, o is often used with it, as o le Atua, God; or alone, as o Tangaloc, Tangaloa. The indefinite article is se. d. The commonest Oceanic article is n (nt, ny, &c.), and it is identical with Fa. wm, na, Mg. iny, My. ini, this. It prevails in Madagascar and Papuanesia. Several articles are more or less common to Papuan and Maori-Hawaiian, as Sam. ‘0, Fi. ko; Tah. e, Fa. e, ora. Te is common in Maori- Hawaiian, Santa Cruz te, Fa. (indefinite) te. The other articles are of comparatively limited use, except Sam. le. The Malay, which has no general article like the other three branches of Oceanic, makes up for it by a peculiarly large use of suffixed emphatics, somewhat like the Syriac. The unconscious article in the Malay, as J (d), in duwa, lima, 2, 5, is found also in the other branches. § 4. ARTICLES AND EMPHATICS, COMPARISON. ad. Kor the same demonstrative elements, so many as used, attached to the Semitic numerals (conscious and un- conscious articles), see Il. As to the Semitic personal pronouns, see I., an (5) is the demonstrative most commonly used, prefixed as an article. Thus it is, especially in the pronouns of the first and second persons, found generally in all the Semitic dialects: Heb. anoki, I. Arb. anta, thou, Heb. anachnu, Arb. nachnu, we, Arb. antum, ye. Now this same element (5) is the one most commonly used thus, with the pronouns in Oceanic, especially in Papuan and Malagasy, also, see I. Thus second person, Mg. hianao (ki ankao), My. angkaw (ankau), Fa. nago (nako), Mota iniko, With respect to this an (5), prefixed to the personal pronoun as an article, it is undoubtedly one of the most ancient features of the Semitic languages, and as, in Oceanic, the Papuan has it as fully as the Heb. or Arb., and more fully than the My. or Ma-Ha., or even perhaps the Mg. We see that in this point it preserves a more archaic aspect than these other two _ branches. But the Mg. and Pa. equally have this article as the common article for all nouns. Im Assyrian, we have ad The Pronominals. 7 s (3) in see, he, si, she; in Harar & (6) in skhakh, and the same in Assy. cata, thou, Mod. Syr. achton, ye. Tigre niska, thou, nisu, he, nis (5, 3) compound article, or nis, this, ka, thou, and uw, he. We find also in Semitic the same suftixed as emphatics, Tigre nisus, he, anas, I, nisatekwimos, ye. In this last example 7, s, t (5, 3, 7) are heaped together and prefixed, while s (3) is also suffixed. See Fa. akamus, ye, in § 3. In Chald. himon, they, we have 7 (5) final. b. Generally, as to nouns, the well-known Semitic articles, Heb. ha, Phen. a, Fa. Tah. e, a, § 3, is prefixed, but in Syriac it is suffixed as an emphatic. So Arb. al or le (as often pronounced), Sam. le (South Arb. m or wm), is prefixed. The Ethiopic has no article (prefixed), but appears to have traces of the same post-position article (in the Amharic w), as the Syriac. According to Halevy, the Sabaean (Himyaritic) has as suffixed articles or emphatics, hw, etymologically identical with Syriac a, m, and n, or hew (hu and x). This m (“mimation”) he describes as “a true indefinite article” (the other two being definite), and he compares it with the Arb. nunation: see his “Etudes Sabeennes,” VI. Thus Sabaean suffixes to nouns (1), (2), and (5), or (2, 5). ce. But, in addition, generally all the demonstrative par- ticles are found occasionaliy used in the Semitic like articles: just as in Oceanic: see Malay above. As the Latin zlle became the article in the Romance dialects, so manifestly both the Semitic and Oceanic articles have been analogously derived, that is, the article was originally a demonstrative, meamme “this,” or “he,” “she,’)‘4it,”.\Thus im 'Tigre, Jno. ix., 34, we have with sab, man, the demonstrative ete (Eth. u%u, he, this, the), as an article, etesab — the man. So, in verse 24, we have eze, this in ezesab = the man: compare, in verse 39, ze (ith, ze, Heb. zeh, this), in zeolam = the world. In Syriac, in like manner we have hwo, this, used as an article, for instance, in Acts vill. 35, huo ketobo = the Scripture. In Mod. Syr. “in general, the pronouns 0, €é, and ani, are used for the definite article :” Stoddart, Gr., p. 145. This o is in the Heb. hua, and e, hia. In the Semitic and Oceanic, demonstratives are found used both before and after the noun (though most commonly after), hence we find also articles or emphatics both prefixed and post-positive. d. The Fa. article e (or sometimes q@), as in e kobu, or ekobu, the house, is, as Gabelentz (“‘Sesake-Sprach ”) saw, a 8 | The Oceanic Languages Semitic: shortened form of the personal pronoun, third singular, and so, of course, in Tah. e (a). Maori a, Samoan 7 (with pronouns), San Christoval a, e, 2, Mg. 7, and My, a, in aku, I (and apa, what?) So Heb. ha, Phen. a, Syr. a, Sabaean hu, Eth. and Amharic uw (Halevy VI.), Mod. Syr. 0, @, are all shortened forms (Halevy) of the pronoun of the third person singular, which in Heb. is hua, hia. In Syr., Sab., Eth., and Amh., it is suffixed, in Heb. and Phen., prefixed. Eth. like Malay, uses no prefixed article, but uses for the article sometimes wu, which is identical with Malay tu, also in like manner used for the article: see for Eth., Dillm., Gr., § 172 a, and note; and for Malay, above, § 33 6. The common Semitic pronominal article an, im, is the common Pa. and Mg. article, not only with pronouns, but nouns, as an, ni, ny, in, na. What in Arb. is al (le), the article is also in Samoan the article le. Thus to exhibit the foregoing tabularly :— ARTICLES PREFIXED. (7) Tah. te (Rarat. te) Syr. dé (below § 5, 6.) (2) Fa. e, a, Sam. o Heb. ha San Christoval e, 7, a Phen. @ Tah. e, Ma. o Mod. Syr. 0, é My. a, Mg. 4 (4) Sam. le Arb. al (le) (5) Fa.in,ni,na, Me.ny,an Heb., &. an, mm Tag. ang (an), Article and Relative of Java img in ingkang, Rela- tive and Article. It must be remembered that, though these articles on both sides are undoubtedly identical etymologically, that does not imply that they are wsed identically in all points, and in fact they are not. The Mg. am is found, like the Heb. an, used with the pronouns in hianao (anao) thou, thee, hianario (anario) ye, and in anay, us. Anareo is for ankareo, and this has exactly the same elements as Amharic alanta, ye (ta being same as ka, by interchange of ¢ nd k), for ala = reo (areo) = these: see I. The placing of he plural demonstrative before (Amh.) or after (Mg.) he personal pronoun is a mere matter of syntactical transposition. The Pronominals. is) ARTICLES OR EMPHATICS SUFFIXED. Oc. § 3, IL. § 2. Se, abon, a, b. (1) v, m Sabaean ™m (2) 0, 2 Sabaean hu, Amh. uw, Syr. a (3) s Tigre s (5) na, n, na Sabaean 7 The remark as to etymological identity, and possible or actual difference of use, under the preceding table, applies here also. It will be observed that not all the seven demonstrative elements are on the Semitic side; this, however, may be set down to our ignorance of ancient (and even modern) vulgar Semitic dialects. In Se., as in Oc, the numeral “one” is also used for the indefinite article ‘“‘an,” “a.” We formerly showed (in II.) that the numeral “ one ” itself is of pronomi- nal origin. § 5. RELATIVES. a. In what follows, the bracketed figures refer to the demonstrative elements as numbered in § 1 a, or § 2 a. Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) iza0 yang te 0 le lihy nen UanNe Tah. te, ter Ja. sang, kung Ngo Rarat. te Tag. ang (an), na Ja. mngkang (inkan) There is a close connection between the article and the relative ; yang is often = the; fez is te, the, and 2 (2); 0 lé is o le, the, and e (2). For izao, and lehy, see § 2, b. Fa. wane (1, 5) is like the English “that,” demonstrative and a. as also is My. nen (5, 5), and Fa. S. dialect, naga 5, 6). b. COMPARISON. samg (8, 5), izao (2, 3,2) Eth. za (3, 2), Assy. sa, Heb. asher, she (2, 3, 4) kang (6, 5) Heb. kz (6, 2) yang, (a, see below, c.) Amh. yo, (of Eth. 2a, Dillm. | § 144 a.) té (7, 2), te Chald. di (7, 2), Syr. dé, d o lé Mod. Arb. elit, el, (Eth.ela, pl.) nago, nen, ang, NG Eth. enta (5, 7) wane (1, 5) Arb. man (1, 5), ma, Sab. ban, ba ip The Oceanic Languages Semitic: The Arb. man and ma differ from wane in being used “substantively,” Wright, Arb. Gr. § 248. In Fa, tea is used for both genders and numbers also substantively, and stands for he who, they who, that which, what. The Fa. wane preserves the original demonstrative force much more than the Arb. man, which can hardly be said to preserve it at all. The Amh. “ prefixed relative pronoun” yame is, like Fa. tea, used substantively for all genders and numbers. In Javanese (Crawford, Dissertation, p. 20) “the definite article is represented by the relative pronoun” kang, or sang. The ceremonial is ingkang, perhaps for inkan, if Fa. naga (for naka), thus inka-n, naka. Now in Mod. Syr. (Stoddart, p. 183) the ordinals are formed by prefixing the relative pronoun d, as an article, to the cardinals; d was also used thus in Anc. Syr., Uhlemann’s Cr. § 78, B 2, ¢. So in Fa, My., and Javanese ka, or ke (Fa.), identical with the relative pronoun Ja. kang, Heb. ki, is used exactly like the Syvr. d, as an article, prefixed to the cardinals, forming ordinals, thus :—Fa. ketolu or katolu, My. katiga, Ja. katalu, Mod. Syr. detela, Tahiti te toru, “third.” It occurs also in Mg. as ha, in, e.g., hateloana, three days; where, however, it does not form the ordinal. Now, for the Javanese katalu, we find in Javanese also pengtalu, “third,” that is peng appears to be a relative pronoun article ike ka. A comparison especially of the prefixed relative articles used in forming the verbal nouns in Ja, Mo., My., Tag, and Fa., shows clearly that it is, and that this p (of peng) is identical with (1), and the well-known Semitic prefixed relative article m (1) used in forming verbal nouns. Peng is the same as pun in Ja. punika, Fa. wanaga, see § 1, « The prefixed relative articles used in forming the verbal nouns are ka (in Mg. as ha) in My., Ja. Tag., and Mg., and in Ma. as kai; and p (in Mg. as mp and f) in My., Ja, Tag., and Mg., Fa., Tag., and Mg. also use n, as Fa. na, wm, Tagala ang (an), and Mg. ny. Fiji uses a, az, (and na, naz), which compares with Amh. ya (7a). Fa. uses te and tea in like manner. The Mg. My., Ja., and Tagala p (mp f), prefixed relative article, used in forming nouns from verbs, is, as will be shown, etymologi- cally identical with the common Semitic ™ similarly used. c. The relative (or relative article) is used in Oc. Se. prefixed to the pronoun, usually the suffix pronoun, to form the separate Possessive, both with and without an intervening Preposition. We treat here of the relative thus The Pronominals. ll used without the Preposition, leaving the other till the Prepositions come to be considered :— (2)a. Fa, Mg, Ma. (and Sam.) pretix a, Amh. ya, as Fa, agu, Mg. ahy, Ma. aku, Amharic yane, my, &e. (5) n. Fa., Mg., and Tah. prefix na, an, &c., Eth. enti., Tig. nat, and perhaps na, as Fa. anau, Mg. nyahy, Tah. nau, Eth. entiaya, Tig. nati, my, &e. (4) 1. Eromanga ari, Sam. la, Ethiopic eli, as Ero. ariyau, Sam. la‘u, Eth. elaya, my ; Ero. arika, Sam. lau, Eth. eliaka, thy, &c. (3) s. Tanna sa, Sam. sa, Ethiopic 2, as Ta. sevau, Sam. sa‘u, Eth. zzaya, my, &e. (7) t. Eromanga ete, Tah. ta, Mod. Syr. d, as Ero. etiyo, Tah. twu, Mod. Syr. diyi, my; Ero. eteko, Tah. ta oe, Mod. Syr. diuk, thy, &e. § 6. INTERROGATIVES. a. What? Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) inondg apa Msifa ole & ino Mand isa se a imnona pa insifana Ma. aha, ha ino Gin pabila) wmsana apa sefe Tah. eaha Mand nafite Ha. he aha nefe WAse Rarat. eaa nefeha Mota sava, sa Epi aba or apa Tanna nufe, tufe An. wnhe Stripping off the well-known articles and emphatics, we find that there is in all these but one interrogative element : thus Malay apa is the same as Ma.-Ha. aha, aa, @, and Fa. nefe, Tanna nufe, An. ihe, is the same as Mg. ino, and Fa. nife is the same as My. apa, as is more clearly seen by stripping off the articles ne and a, which leaves fe = pa = what? In like manner, Rarat. aa is the same as Mg. ino, An. whe, of which the articles @ and 7 being stripped off, this is more evident in a@ = 0 = he = what? Motasa, article s and @ = what? is by contraction for sava, as Fa. isa, article ins and a = what? is for insefa. Fa. nefe = 2 The Oceamrce Languages Semitic : sefe = what? the only difference being in the articles ne and se. Finally, to this interrogative element (0, pa, ma, fa, ua, fe, ha, he, a,) whether with or without a prefixed article, we find sometimes a demonstrative emphatic, meaning “this,” suffixed, as in Mg. in ona, My. mana, Fa. mse jana, or ims dna, and na fete, An. ne vitar, My. a patah, Fa. ne feha (on ne fesa), uwase. The interrogative element in the above is originally (1), that is ma, and the phonetic: changes of this m here exhibited, are already familiar to us. For the prefixed and suffixed demonstratives (articles or emphatics), see above. 6. Comparison. (in) o, (o le) a, (s) a Heb. mah (ins) a, (se) a, (a) a, (in)he Arb. ma (a) ha, (a) pa, (se) fe Eth. m2, Syr. mo (sa) va, (ne) fe, (tu) fe Sab. ma and ba, or va (m : (inse) fa to 6 or v) (in) ona, mana Syr. mun, Mon, mono (nse) fana, (ins) ana Amh. mene (na) fete, (ne) vitaa Mod. Arb. made (a) patah Mod. Syr. mude c. Who? Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) 10 siapa séi, Sé Oo a ZOVY supa Set, fe Mand, Ero. me (dw) = Ma. a war Tan, ba Tah. o var An. thi, Fi. 0 cer Santo ise Mallic, kihe Of these Fa. fe, Eromangan me (dialect wz), Tanna ba, Tahiti vat, Maori wat, Sam. ai, are identical, and consist of two parts, ma (1), as in @ and 6b above, and 2, the personal pronoun, third singular: see I., §§ 13, 23. Mg. zovy, My. siapa, sapa, Fa. séi, Fiji cét (2e, ther), Aneityum thi, are also identical, being exactly the same as those in the preceding sentence, with article s prefixed: thus Fa. sez (north dialect) is Fa. fei (south dialect), with (3) article s prefixed, sefer (Mg. zovy) being contracted to sé, or sé, as Me. zovy is to za in 72a; and as Mota sava is to sa, and Fa. sefa or safa to sa, and safana to sana, see a above. The Pronominals. 13 d. Comparison— Who ? Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) meé, ba, fei, vai, for mat = Heb. ma (for mai = Wat, eb what, he, or she? what, he, or she?) sét, Use, 12d, with (3) article cf. Heb. zehmz= this, who? supa, Zovy s prefixed Mand Mod. Arb. man, Ch. man Sab. man, ban, or van Who? plural: see I. §§ 6, 7, 24. Ero. meé-e-me Ma. wat ma cf Heb. mi hemah = who, they? Fa. se mei, se mant Fa. nara fei, nara sé Amh,. alaman = these, who ? Santo ro se § 7. INDEFINITES. a. In the Oceanic-Semitic, the interrogatives (1) in §6, single or re-duplicated, and with or without prefixed or suffixed emphatics, are used as indefinites, or relative indefinites, signifying “what,” “that, which,” ‘“ whatever,” ‘some,’ “of what kind soever,” “ something,’ “somewhere,” &e.; and “ whoever,” &e., thus :— Ma. aha, My. apa, Fa. sefa Heb. mah, Arb. ma Fa. matuna, fatwna Ch. mah, mahdi Syr. medem My. apaapa Heb. mewmah Me. na inona na Mona My. mana Syr. mono, Amh. mene So the personal interrogative who? is used indefinitely in the sense of “ whoever,’ “some one,” “some,” “any one,” thus :— Fa. se, Mota 2se7 Heb. m2 Mg. nazovy nazovy, na iza NA 120, My. stapa siapa : My. mana Arb. man In the Oceanic-Semitic, many other pronominals, indefi- nites, &c., are formed from the seven demonstrative elements in §$1, 2. As usual, in this also the Oc. has greater variety. b. But very remarkable, and worthy of special notice, is the use of the above (a) indefinite (1) after the verb, which is 14 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : preceded by the negative, somewhat as we say in English “at all,” “however,” &c., as “he did not come aé all,” thus: Fa. “ti mas mau,’ Amh. ‘“alematame” (i.e. ale mata me), Fo. (Ma.-Ha.) ‘(si mai mau,” Aniwa (Ma.-Ha.) “si mai mana.” These (leaving out the verbal pronoun) may all be rendered in English, literally, ‘“‘not come at all,” or “not come however ;” but as actually used, this suffixed indefinite makes no translatable difference in the sense, giving merely a vague emphasis. Harari agrees with Amharic in this use of this suffixed indefinite: see for Amharic Isenberg, Gr. pp. 152, 3; and for Harari, Burton’s “Footsteps in East Africa,’ Appendix. § 8. REFLEXIVES. In Mg. “self” is expressed by heany, or tena, or niany tena. These words are purely demonstrative, Compare Maori ano, self, and Arb. hanu, ‘ipse (tu).” Tena compares with My. den, self, Maori tonw, simply, only, self. The My. common word for “self” is dart, which looks like a redupli- cation of the personal pronoun, 3rd singular, dia, he, she, it. Dia is for ria, that is lia ; compare duwa for rwwa, that is luwa, the numeral 2. It (dirz) is also used for “ he,” and in Javanese as dewe (Ja. often vocalises My. 7) it alone is used for he, she, it. This diz2 is substantially identical with Eth. lala, lali, “er er, er selbst, selbst,” Dillm. Gram. §§ 62, 150. Like the Ethiopic lalz, it takes the genitive suffix of the pronoun, as Eth. lalikamw, My. dirikamu, yourselves, &e. But the further discussion of Reflexive Pronouns will come under the Verb in its Reflexive or Reciprocal forms. Note 1.—Also we shall now be prepared, as we proceed, to recognise the pronominal particles used in the conjugation of the Verb, formation of Nouns, Substantives, or Adjectives, and in Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. Note 2—As to the Alphabet and changes of letters, all that need be said, till they come to be specially treated, is that in I and II. changes in letters the Oceanic are exhibited very fully in the words compared ; and that, as to a comparison of Oceanic alphabets and letter changes with Semitic (see the Oceanic-Semitic words in I. and II. for some examples of letter changes), we find no other principles exemplified than those we find in comparing the various Semitic dialects, as to Alphabets and letter changes, with each other. The Verb. 15 IV. THE VERB. § 1. Before speaking of the Verb proper, it seems desirable to say a word or two as to the following particles. a. The particle of comparison in Oceanic-Semitice is k’ (alone or combined with other particles) “as,” thus :— Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) tahaka bagaar taka, takan jumper bagibagt baka, Fi. vaka koa ka hoatra Ja. kaya, kadi kite, kita Sunda kawas kua So “how?” literally ‘(as what?” thus :— ahoana bagymana kwa kuin akory mMangapa kasa, kasafa Bugis mago kaswna kaibea Epi kavar Fi. vakaever Saapefea b. Comparison, “as,” “ thus.” ha Heb. ka, ke hadi, kite Aram. kade, kediz tuha, taka Syr. dak Mod. Syr. daka takane (“as this”) Syr. dak ’ano (“as this ”) hoatra, kawas Eth. kamaze (‘as this”) hua Eth. Arb. kama baga (2), faa, baka, vaka Heb. bek (oh) bagaimana Eth. bakama bagini Sab. bakana, Heb. beken Comparison, ‘‘ how ?” (“as what ?”) kaibe E kavar Tigre kamaa kua (kuwa) kuin, ahoana, akory kasafa, kasa, kasana mangapa, mago bagimana vakaever, fawpefer 16 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : The Oceanic-Semitic particles “as” is ka, to which is prefixed the preposition 0’, Eth. ba, “in,” “to,” without any appreciable difference often in the sense, either in. Semitic or Oceanic: see the above examples. In Fate, we say either “ bisa baka Fate,” or “ bisa ki Fate,” speak Fatese, literally “speak as Fate.” So Eth. kama = bakama = as. 2. Now the ka or ki which we have just seen, denotes “as” with or without the preposition ba, denotes also a preposition “to,” “towards,” &c,as we shall now see, and as before, with or without ba. Halevy (‘‘ Etudes Sabeennes,” IX.) has shown that in Sabaean ka = “to” is used as the sign of the accusative and even of the dative, exactly as the preposition le in Hebrew, and especially in Syriac. In Ambh. ka (or ha) denotes “to, from, out of, (more) than,’ Isenberg, Gr., p. 154. We have already seen, III, §§ 1, 2, that ka (6) is an Oc.-Se. demonstrative particle, and IIT, § 5, that hi is a relative pronoun in Hebrew. As the preposition “to,” “towards,” we find it thus :— Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (Ma.-Ha.) ho and hank = any ka, akan ka ) (ank is perhaps | mea kr for ka) The other preposition, Eth. ba, Heb. be, ba, Arb. 62, fi, ba, Syr. ba, Fiji ver, Aneityum vai, is found joined with the preceding (k’) in the sense of “ to,” “towards,” thus :— Mg. My. Fa. ’ Sam. bagi, baka baka Ma. whaka : d. baka Fiji vaka = Fa. baka.= “as,” “thus ;” so Sam. faa, § 1: and My. bagi = Fa. baki, baka = Ma. whaka = “to,” “towards,’ § 2. But the Fate baka,-Fi. vaka, “as,” has the Heb. and Eth. ka, “as,” whereas the My. bagi, Fa. baka or baka, Ma. whaka, “ to,’ has the Sabaean and Amharic ka “to.” And so again, the causative prefix, Fa. baka, Fi. vaka, Sam. faa, Ma. whaka, is neither of these, neither “as,” nor “to,” though it has been generally held to be one or the other, or rather both, compare IIT, § 16. It cannot be “as,” because the ka which alone has the force of “as,” is very often entirely wanting in the Oceanic causative prefix; and it cannot be ‘‘ to,” because the 0’ and #&’ which express “to” are sometimes both wanting in the Oceanic causative prefix. The Verb. 17 The causative prefix, baka, is explained below as 6 for m, the participial m, a, the causative prefix, and ka, verb substantive. For ka is not only as we have seen, a demon- strative, the particle of comparison “as,” and a preposition “to,” but as we shall now see, also a final conjunction “ that,” “to,” “in order that,” and a verb substantive much used as an auxiliary. § 3. The final conjunction ha, signifying “ that,” “ to,” “in order that :”— Mg. My. Fa. Sam. ka, woka ka, ga i, Ma. hia COMPARISON. ka Arb. ka Tig. ka d (for kt) Heb. ki kia § 4. VERBS SUBSTANTIVE. These fall naturally to be considered before discussing the conjugation of the Verb. a. The particle ka, as a verb substantive. Owing to the practice in Oceanic-Semitic of prefixing the negative adverb to the verb substantive, and forming a compound word, meaning literally “is-not,’ “no,” we have a simple means of comparing Oc. and Se. verbs substantive. The three principal Semitic negative adverbs are Arb. ma, Heb. lo, la, le, Eth. ale, always prefixed, and Eth. 7 (or az) also always prefixed. Now these are the three principal negative adverbs in Oceanic also—Heb. le, Sam. le, Fa. t2, ta, 77, and tsi, My. ta, Mg. ts‘y and dz, are all identical; see for the phonetic changes of J II., on the numeral 2, where also Sam. retains the original l. Now the verb substantive fe is found thus in Oceanic, with prefixed negative :— (with 7 negative) Mg. My. Fa. Sam. tsia (for tsika) tak tika lead (for le kai) Palan diak rika diahoe (di akoe) tstka tsva 18 The Oceanic Languages Senvitic : Compare Arabic la yakun, layaku. (with m negative) My. bukan ef. Arb. ma yakun | Utanata (Pa.) pakana | Lifu pako, Epi maka Mod. Arb. (Baghdad) maku (with 7 negative) Sam. i‘ai, Tongan tkar Eth. ako As to the weakening of the initial & of this verb to h or a breathing in Mg. and Sam., compare the Amharic in which it is likewise changed to h. In Arabic its final n is sometimes elided. The Arb. kana is much used as an auxiliary: Eth. kon, Amh. hon, My. kana, to be able, seem radically identical with this, as also Mg. hay, to be able. My akan, shall, will, may belong here. b. The common verb substantive in Malay is ada, to be, identical with Mg. ary. This by the change of / to 7, and d, ef. numeral 2, in II., is identical with Eth. halawa, halo, Amh. ala, Tic. alt, verb substantive, to be, and used as an auxiliary. Halevy derives the Arb. article al or hal from this verb, that is, he derives this demonstrative from this verb. In My. with the negative we find it thus :— tiada, tida, tada, tadak, and in Mg. as tsiary, tsiadry, (Errub and Maer lola), Ambrym tolo, Bisayan dilt, Amharic lela. With m negative we find it in Epi. maraka = My. ta dak. Paama boel, Maori hore. Halevy (Polynesian Grammar) suggests that oloo is a verb substantive in Samoan : Pratt (Sam. Gr.) gives it as loo. c. In Mg. isy is the common verb substantive, with negative tsy, isy, ts, “isy. This is identical with Heb. es, Arb. aisa, with negative ‘laisa, leis, Syr. ith, with negative lath, Ch. ita and lo ita. This Semitic verb substantive is used also as an auxiliary in Heb., and especially in Aramaic. It seems to be this verb substantive that we have with negative ma in Segaar mati, Onim matio, Papua kowiay, marate. Connected with this probably, is the demonstrative t, IIL, § 2, a (7), or s (8), as some Semitic scholars think: see Ges. Heb. Dict. s. v., eth, at end. d. In Fa. the common verb substantive is bi, fi, in one dialect bat or bet, in another mz. This verb substantive is found widely used in the New Hebrides, with and without the negative. With negative it isin Fa. tiba, riba, tab. It The Verb. 19 is identical with Arb. fi, literally “in,” and Arb. jih, Eth. bu, literally “in, it,” used as a verb substantive in Mod. Arb., Caus. de Percival, Gram. Arab. Vulg., §§ 286-7, and in Ethiopic, Ludolf-Dict. s.v. With negative Eth. aleba, is identical with Fa. tiba, riba ; the Arb. with negative ma, is ma fi or ma fihk. With Fa. bi, bei, bai, is identical Tahiti var, ‘to be.” e. The Javanese verb substantive is ana, to be, to possess. This is found in Mg. manana, to possess, for which see Griffith's Me. Gr., p. 31. It is identical with Heb. hinneh (Ges. Dict., the demonstrative, ITT. § 2, a. (5), used as a verb substantive, or auxiliary.) Arb. ime (Newman, Handbook Mod. Arb., p. 43), Eth. ene (Dillmann, Eth. Gr. § 160, «.) and Amharic na, with pronoun na wé, “he is,’ which Isen- berg (Gr. p. 64) calls “the Irregular and Defective Verb Substantive.” In Oceanic, with the negative it appears in for instance, Gaudalcanar mania. Fa. ane, en (see Sf), means to be, to abide, to dwell. f. It has been shown in I, that the Personal Pronoun, third singular, is the same in Oceanic and Semitic. This pronoun originally demonstrative, III, § 1, 2, a. (2), was in Heb. hua, hia, Mod. Arb. hu, hie, Syr. hu, hi, u, 7, Mod. Syr. 0, é, &c., used as the verb substantive, and in fact, was radically identical with the well-known very ancient ver) substantive (much used as an auxiliary) Heb. hayuh, Ch. hawah, Syr. hwo and wo, in Mod. Syr., often a mere vowel. Hence in Mod. Syr. (Stoddart, p. 34), 1t is impossible to tell whether the modern verb substantive is derived from the ancient verb substantive or pronoun. So in Oceanic we find the verb substantive (whether derived from the ancient verb substantive or pronoun, amounts to the same thing), with the negative thus :— (With negative 1.) Gaudalcanar taw, Ysabel teo, Eromanga taw?, Fiji tuwe, Tongan ta. Syr. lau, or lao, and lowo, Mod. Syyr. le, wa, &e. (With negative m.) Ysabel bai, Gaudalcanar maz, Mara-masiki mau, Florida muda, Nifilole bawo, Mod. Arb. mahu, mu. Compare me jih, mmeemene: fle is fe, “in,” “is.’-and h for hu, “he,” “is.” The derivation of the preposition fi, and pronoun hw helps to explain how they can be used as verbs substantive. Compare also Mod. Syr. biwa, present participle of the verb Cc 2 20 The Oceanic Languages Semitic: wa, to be. For Arb. fi, Eth. ba, &., the derivation suggested by Halevy is the best. He derives it from the verb, which in Heb. is ba, to enter, come, the cognates in Arb. being ba and fa. The Fa. an, ane (see é.) 1s sometimes pronounced 4d, as if a were the verb substantive and the m suffixed to it for emphasis, “is, there.” The 1 certainly suggests the ideas of emphasis and distance. With the participial m (soon to be discussed) this in Fa. is ma, and man, as “i ma rarua,” it is in the canoe, or “i man tafa,” he is (away or yonder) on the hill) In Fa. av is used as an auxiliary to denote continuing action, as 2s, in “he 7s talking.” g. Note how most of these verbs substantive either are derived from pronominals, or become pronominals; for in every case it may not be easy to determine whether the verbal or pronominal idea was the more original. This throws a new light on the demonstrative elements in III. §§ 1, 2; with (2) compare 7 in this section; with (3) and (7), ¢.; with (4), b.; with (5), e.; and with (6), a. h. This throws light also on many of the Oceanic Personal Pronouns. Thus to take those beginning with /, it seems that the J, changed sometimes to 7, and d (see b. above) is rather the verb substantive than the article, IIL. § 3, b. (4), though, as this verb substantive and article are radically identical, it is difficult sometimes to distinguish between them. A comparison of form and use will prove however that it is really in this case sometimes the verb substantive used as an auxiliary and not the article :— I Thou He We Ye They Pt. Moresby law Lobo lakw Sumatra vrehw TL0 dio Malay daku dikau dia dikaw dia Ja dika Mg, rika roky Nigrito dicamw Fa. ru(eru) Dual ra (era) Sam. Dual] la Epi le Eth. haloku haloka halo halokemu halaww Avsnh. adlahu alah ale alu The Verb. 21 These generally correspond thus Fa., Eth., Amh., 7 or ¢7u, halawu, alw = they are, they were. Fa. erw is a “ verbal pronoun,” and corresponds to the auxiliary use of the Eth. and Amh. With Eth. elu, originally elwm = they are, ela feminine, simple meaning “these:” compare the common word for “they” or “these” in Oceanic (see I.) “They are” readily became “they” and “these.” This thoroughly explains the prefixed / (7, d) in the numeral 2, Mg. oa, My. duwa, Fa. rua, Sam. lua (see IL.), and in the Dual Verbal Pronoun, Fa. ra, or era, Sam. la (see I.) ; originally identical that with the Numeral is the Article, that with the Pronoun is the Verb Substantive. And thus we see also why the numeral is rua, lua (7-ua, l-ua), the pronoun ra, la (r-a, l-a), the numeral being the separate dual pronoun uma, huma, with the article / prefixed to it, whereas the pronoun is really the 3rd person dual of the perfect of the verb substantive. Thus va, la consists of 7 or 1, the verb substantive, and the suffixed verbal dual pronoun «@, contracted for huma, as it is found in, for instance, Arb. (@ contracted for hwma) in the 3rd person dual of the perfect of verbs. Ra, era, and la, and Fa. rw or erw (8rd person plural of the perfect of the verb substantive), point to a very ancient time when the Oceanic languages possessed the suffixes of the perfect, and we may infer the imperfect inflexion also, like all the ancient Semitic languages; and when probably the ancient Semitic mother-tongue of the Arb. and Eth. had not yet given birth to these two daughters ; but when, even then, before the Oceanic branch shot out over the sea, and become separate from the parent stem, the original hwma, as suffixed to the verb 3rd person dual perfect, had become contracted to a. It is quite certain then, that in Oceanic, some of the personal pronouns, whether separate or verbal pronouns, are really ancient Semitic inflexional compounds of the personal pronouns and a verb substantive, that in common use have come to be regarded as mere personal pronouns, or even in the third person, as mere demonstratives, like “this” or “« these.” | Take another Semitic verb substantive in Arb. kana, with sometimes the 1 elided, Eth. kon, usually as ka in Oceanie, with the » elided, and compare Eromangan kik, Fate kag, and kaiga (for kak, kaika,) Harari akhakh, Malay kungkau (cf. dikaw), thou, with Eth. konka, thou art (Arb. konta), second person singular of the perfect. aw } 22 The Oceanic Languages Semitic: The third great Semitic verb substantive and auxiliary, see f. above, is generally in Oceanic, and often in Mod. Syr., a mere vowel, and on this account, and because of the difficulty or impossibility of always distinguishing between the verb substantive and the demonstrative radically con- nected with it, we do not discuss it in this connection at present. As to the verbal pronouns or “ fragmentary pro- nouns,’ we find them in some dialects of Oceanic and Mod. Syr., the ancient so-called tense-inflexion being lost, used with the participle: see Stoddart, p. 161. But neither in Mod. Syr. nor Oceanic are they all the same as in the ancient Semitic. Yet some are the same, and those inde- pendently formed are equally with the ancient Semitic verbal pronoun, fragments of the full or separate pronoun, and having the same elements radically identical. See the separate and verbal pronouns in I., and compare the suffixed nominative “fragments” in the so-called “ pronominal ad- junctive” of the Malagasy. A fourth great Semitic verb substantive, see c. above, has the same ambiguity (verb or demonstrative) about it, and is used with the personal pronoun before a participle for the finite verb, thus Heb. eshka moshia, thou savest, literally “thou-art saving.” This explains the Oceanic method, and particularly the Mg. pronoun with the verb, thus, 7zaho = Jam; izy, he is; izahay, we are ; isikia, we are, inclusive ; that is, the Mg. iza, ist, is substantially identical with the Heb. verb substantive, esh, Aram. ith, and the compound of this with the personal pronoun expresses with the participle the finite verb: compare Negrito siko, Heb. eshka, thou (art), and Negrito stkwm, Heb. eshkem, ye (are), with Syr. itha, Iam, compare Sam. za, I (am). Again, to take the ambiguous or demonstrative verb substantive ot e above, it is used exactly in the same way before a participle in Semitic for the finite verb: thus compare Heb. hinka, Mod. Arb. wnnek, Amh. nah, with Sumatra enko, Mota iniko, Motlav. inek, nek, Fa. nago (for nako), Malay angkau (for ankaw), thou (art), the last is plural: compare Heb. hinkem, Arb. innekom, with it, and with Fa. nimu (for nikemu), ye (are). So compare My. amia, Fa. enea, nai, with Arb. inneho, Heb. hinno, Amh. awe, he (is). § 5. In the Semitic languages we find sometimes the finite verb, in the present, past, and future tenses, expressed in The Verb. 23 the manner just pointed out, by these verbs substantive or pronominal particles with personal pronouns attached, along with the participle; or by the participle alone: Ges. Heb. Gr. § 134. The participle with the separate personal pronoun, or noun in the nominative, in Anc. Syr. denoted the present tense (see Ahlemann’s Gram. § 64, 2, a); in the same way, and sometimes by help of the auxiliary verb and particles, it denoted the past and the future, Ibid. B. and C.; and the various moods, Ibid. 3. In Syr., Ibid. § 65, 1, A., the present is expressed “usually by the participle,” in the manner just noted; and so the past, Ibid. B. The Oceanic Semitic personal pronouns in the nominative include, more or less clearly, the idea of the verb substantive. The tenses of the Oceanic verb are, generally speaking, as we shall now see, expressed in the above way by means of the participle ; the ancient Semitic tense-forms, called the perfect and imperfect, having disappeared from the Oceanic, perhaps to a still greater extent than from the Mod. Syr. § 6. THE TENSES. a. The Present. The present tense in Oceanic is expressed generally by the participle alone, but sometimes emphasised by a verb substantive or particle. Crawford (My. Gr. p. 48) says, “The verb in its simple or compound form expresses present time, when no other is specified or implied, as diya makan, he eats.” So Mg. izy mihinana, Fa. 7 kani, Nam. e‘ai ota (ps. ‘wina), he eats. In the Sam. alone, in these examples, a particle e is used. In this word, m is prefixed in Me. and My., not in Fa. and Sam. But in Mg. azy matahotra, My. diya manakut, Fa. i mitaku, Sam. e mata‘u oid, he fears, the m is prefixed in all. But while this verb never appears in Fa. and Sam, without the m, in Ms. we have it as tahotra, and in My. as takut. This prefixed m is most used in Mg, next most in My.,; and in Mg. it is most used in the present tense, and hence by some people has come erroneously to be regarded as a mere sign of the present in that language. It is, however, in Mg. what it is in My., Fa. and Sam., and that is, the m of the participle, and it is because it is such that it so naturally and usually expresses the present, though it not infrequently expresses the past in Oceanic. This m is undoubtedly identical with the common and well-known Semitic , originally pronominal (III. § 2, w (1), Ges. Heb. Gr. § 52, 1) of the participle; and the Semitic participle, with and without 24 The Oceanic Languages Semitic: the prefixed m, is used in exactly the same way as the corresponding Oceanic participle, to express usually the present tense, but pretty often also the past: see § 5. This m will frequently come before us as we proceed in connection with the other parts of our subject. In My. the verb substantive ada, in Sam. loo and 0, § 4, b, f, in Fa. mo, bo, coming before the participle, have the same effect as the verb substantive in English before the present participle, as, ada makan = bo kani = is, or are eating. Fa. mo or bo is the verb substantive in § 4, 7, with the participial m prefixed, or it is the participle of the verb substantive. For the Sam. sign of the present (also of the future): see § 4, 7 b. The Past. Mg. My. Fa. Sam. iD de, dv ka ua (also present) (d. kur) Ma. kua (¢, with Tag. na Fi. ka Tongan na adverbs) | Lan. 2.4m, Sam. 2a Fi. a Rarat. @ Fi. sa (also present and future) 1. VN, in, na. For this demonstrative verb substantive auxiliary in Semitic: see § 4, e. It is used in Heb. with the participle to denote the present, the past, and the future: see § 5, and Ges. Dict. s. v. hinneh, at end. In Motlav (Pa.), it denotes the present, and also in Tagala (present and past), in Fiji, it denotes the future. 2. Sa (past, present, and future) ; ¢, Sam. te (present and future). For Semitic, see § 4, ¢. 3. Ka, kui, wa, kua (Tongan gua, Fotuna ko, present ; Rarat., Fotuna, Aniwa, ka, Florida and Gaudaleanar ke, Mg. h (for k), ho (for ko, with adverbs), future. For Semitic, see § 4, a., Mod. Syr. ke, narrative tense. | 4. De, di, past and future. For Semitic, see § 4, 0. 5. A, 7. For Semitic, see § 4, f Mod. Syr. a or 4, narrative tense. In Hawaiian, é before the verb, sign of present and future, after the verb, “signifies previous, beforehand, and forms thus, with the preterite a sort of pluperfect, and with the future a second future,’ as wa lawe e au, I had taken, e lawe e au, I shall have taken, Hale, Po. Gr. So in Fa., The Verb. 25 but in Fa. the e is put immediately after the sign of the preterite, ka (= ua, Hawaiian), and future, ga (= e, Hawaiian), thus a ka e ban, I had gone, a ga e ban, I shall have gone. For a pluperfect and future perfect formed by the same verb substantive, § 4, /, put after a preterite and future: see Uhlem. Syr. Gr., § 65, D.A., cf. Mod. Syr., Stoddart, p. 40. c. Future. Mg. My. Fa. Sam. h akan ga bo @, te de, di ga uo go Rarat. ka ka fo Fotuna ba mo Aniwa \ Florida ke Tah. e Fi. na Mota te, Tan. te San Christoval 2 na, see b. 1. . te, see b. 2. ._ h (for k), ka, ke, see 6. 3. . de, di, see b. 4. e, 2, see b. 5. The Syr. verb substantive (§ 4 7) before the participle expressed the future. 6. ka, ga, Fa., see § 3. 7. mo, bo, fo, see a. above. 8. ba, mba (Mg. fa, mba) = ga,in 6. Compare Arb. fa, which sometimes “plays the role of a final conjunction.” § 7. THe Moops. The Imperative, or Permissive, Conjunctive and Infinitive. OH G9 bO Mg. My. Fa. Sam. ef. ho and hi de ba 1a @, ina @ aoka (for as, § 4, f:) ko, ki ia (for kia) bafo, kofo Rarat. ka Fi. me kia Mota sz Gaudalcanar tz 1. ko, kt, 1a, ka, kia, see a. 2. 2. ba, me, see a. 3. ; < 3. aa &, ko fo, ba fo (contracted to bo), see for e and jo, 6, ¢. 26° The Oceanic Languages Semitic : So in Chaldee, the final conjunction, le (originally Arb. 1) prefixed thus to the same verb substantive, gives it a “ con- junctive, optative, and imperative power,’ Ges. Heb. Dict., s.v. 1. The Chaldee conjunction is le, the Fa., Fi.,and Sam. equivalents, ba, Fi. me (Arb. fa; ki, ta (for kia), ka (Arb. ka, Tigre ka), have already been dealt with. Gaudalcanar tz compares with Ch. Syr. dz, de, and Mota sz, with Eth. za, Sam. and Hawaiian 72a, with Arb. an, final conjunctions ; and with Sam. ima e; compare An. namu (mu = Fa. mo, fo, bo, § 6, a.) The infinitive thus expressed is like the English “to go,” or “that he go,” eg., “I told him to,” or “that he should go ;” so Mod. Syr. Stoddart, p. 166. Thus the Oceanic uses the same particles before the verb to express these moods as the Semitic; the Anc. Se. uses generally the imperfect (“future”) of the verb after these particles, but sometimes the participle: Syr. Gr. §64. The Oc., like the Mod. Syr., having lost the inflexion of the imperfect, uses the participle instead after these particles, just as does the Mod. Syr.: Stoddart, p. 108. This of course follows from the fact that in the tenses, §§ 5, 6, the participle has, in Mod. Syr. and Oceanic, taken the place of the Ane. Se. imperfect. In Oc.-Se. the infinitive is sometimes expressed by one verb following another, without any prefixed particle; the following verb in Oc. is the participle: compare Syr. for the same, Gr. § 64. My. de is to be compared with the Chaldee final conjunc- tion le, Arb. li. 4, The infinitive verbal noun will be treated of below. 5. The My. imperative is expressed very much like the English by the verb used alone, as makan, eat, or with the pronoun following it, makan kamu, eat ye. 6. The Mg. expresses the imperative, 2nd person, by suffixing @ to the verb, as mandrobo, to flatter, mandroboa, flatter, So Javanese suffixes a, and sometimes a7, as balang, to throw, balanga, throw, ion, to order, onan, order. Crawford, Diss. p. 25, says, “The Javanese imperative affords, with the exception of the Javanese genetive, the only example, that I am aware of, in the Malayan languages of an inflexion.” This Mg. and Ja. @ is undoubtedly the same @ which is suffixed to the ordinary imperative in Heb. to form the emphatic imperative (Ges. Gr. § 48, 5), as “qum, stand up, guma, up! ten, give, téna, give! In Mg. also the suffixing of this a causes the accent to be strongly thrown The Verb. 27 torward towards the end of the word, thus, “mandrara, to forbid, mandrara, forbid.” So mandeha, to go, mandehdana, begone! And the suffixed av of the Javanese seems also undoubtedly the same as the ai of the Energie Imperative of the Arb., as wgtul, ordinary imperative, kill, ugtulan, kill! § 8. THE PARTICIPLE. We have seen in the foregoing that the Oc. verb, present tense, corresponds to the Anc. Semitic participle. The m participial inflexion is one of the striking features of the Semitic languages, as it is also in an unmistakable manner of the Oceanic languages: see § 6. More will be found below on the passive participle with m, and the formation of verbal nouns. § 9. PARTICLES CONNECTING THE VERB WITH ITS OBJECT. a. These particles direct the action of the verb to the object, giving it either a transitive or a causative force. Many of them have been glued on as suffixes to the verb, especially in Mg. and My., though in Fa. and Sam. also, and now appear in the dictionaries as radicals ; thus the verb “to drink” appears in the My. dictionary as minum, as if the final m were a radical letter, whereas a comparison of dialects, Fa. manu, Sam. vu, shows that it is not, being the suffixed transitive particle. Not all verbs take these particles in Oceanic ; some govern the object directly, without any intervening particle :— Mg. My. Fa. (Pa.) Sam. (a) kan, % ki, bake 2, UW ami. Ja. ake, akan Js 9%, mA, ti, 10 aa, te 1,0, kakan st, saki, make Rarat hk Bugis 72 taki, raki, nake 2, W Fi. a, ca, ga, ka ma, na, ra, ta Va, Wa, ya, caka kaka, laka, maka raka, taka, vaka waka, yaka Ero. ra, ira, pu, or bu An. 27a, vai, an Tan. ya, te Epi. ba, ban, ka, kan Florida lz, lagi Ut, Vagr 28 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : b. The force of these, and the extent to which they are used in different dialects vary. In Mg. a, in Sam. te (ia te) are used before pronouns. We may now compare :— 1. A, ta, i, ki, ya. Arb. iya, ka, ki, kan (“to”), Amh. ka, Eth. kiya, Sab. ka. 2. An, ni. Tig. en-, or ne, accusative sign. Heb., Ch., an, en, “nun epenthetic,” or ‘nun demonstrative.” 3. Ca, te, ti, ta; sit. Heb. oth, et. 4. Mg. ami, Fa. mi, Fi. ma, Heb. im, Arb. ma, ko ame (“ with,” &.) 5. Ri, ra, li, vra (to, at”), Heb. le, Arb. la. 6. Ba, va, bu, vi, fi (to, in”) Syr. ba, Heb., Arb., Eth. ba. Eth. kiya, Arb. vya, Heb. oth or et, are pronominals or demonstratives used as signs of the accusative before pronouns. But Eth. kiya in Sabaean as ka (Halevy 93, rightly) is used as the mark of the verb object before pronouns and nouns; Heb. et is so also; and Arb. tya, identical with Eth. hiya, as ki, 4, and 4a, ‘or ya, is used in Oc. as the mark of the verb object before nouns and pronouns. On the origin of kiya, see Dillmann Eth. Gr. §§ 65, 150. Thus Sam. i, ia, 1s for kv, kia, and so of course Malay 71s for ki, as Arb. Lyd (another form nearer the original is hiya, Wr. Arb. Gr. I. § 188) is for kiya. For the pronominal origin of Heb. oth, et (Aram. at, iat or yat), see Ges. Heb. Dict. s. v. Eth. kiya is a compound of the demonstrative k’, and the demonstrative used as the 3rd person singular 2, or za, he, ipse, self, Ges. s. v. This is why these compounds, Eth. kiya, Arb. cya or hiya, Heb. oth or et, Aram. yath (i.e. va th, cf. Sam. 2a te), also have the meaning sometimes of self. As to the double use as a demonstrative and a preposition, see III. §§ 1, 2, and IV. § 2; and as to the derivation of prepositions generally from pronominals, see Bopp, work cited, p. 113. It is certain, however, that not all the Oc.-Se. prepositions are derived from pronominals. c. As to the prepositions 1, 4, 5, 6, their general meanings are given above, but when used as particles connecting the verb with its object, it is impossible to give briefly their very various meanings and uses. The dictionaries and grammars must be consulted. For instance, 5 is much used, especially in Aramaic, as a mere mark of the verb object, as it is in Bugis 72, Eromanga ira, ra (Gordon’s M. S. The Verb. 29 Grammar), Aneityum 7a, vrai (in Gabelentz) ; exactly so, 1, ka (ki, 2, &c.), is often used as a mere mark of the verb object in Sabaean, and in My., Fa., and Sam. (7 for /i, ef. Raratongan). So also 6, ba. &c., is used in Heb. sometimes as a mere transitive particle (Ges.) between the verb and its object, as in Fi. vet and An. vai (in Gabelentz). In each of these three particles, the notion of motion to is radical. In Hazlewood’s Fi. Gr., 2nd Ed., p. 33, it is said, “it appears also to be a rule that verbs of motion will take va for their termination, as lakova” (lako, to go), and on p. 35, va is identified with the preposition vez, “to,” ‘in,’ literally “in it,’ An. vai, it being pointed out that “va in the Rewa dialect is still the same as vez or ki, to:” compare IIL, § 2. Fi. combines these two prepositions, thus kivei (ki first) = Fa. baki, Maori whaka, Malay bagi, “to,” “towards,” (ba first). The preposition, 4, ‘with,’ &., is very common in Mg., Papuan, and Ma.-Ha. But when used as a particle between the verb and its object, its meanings are very various, as may be seen by consulting on the one hand, the Mg. Dict. of Freeman and Johns, and Cr. Gr., pp. 198, 221-2 ; and on the other, Ges. Heb. Dict., under the word. d. It has already been remarked that the verb followed by these particles, has either a transitive or causative force. Thus Fi. “sobuca na vanua (go down), sobutaka na vanua (take down),” that is, the latter with compound particle, taka, is causative, the former has 7@ merely pointing to the verb object. Compare Fi, rogo ca, to hear (cw makes it transitive), rogo taka, or rogorogo taka, to tell, to cause to be heard. In Fa. this verb is transitive, by merely putting the object after it without any particle, like ca, but the particle ki, instead of taka, makes it causative, as rog nafisan, hear the word, rogorog ki nafisan, proclaim, or make to be heard the word. In My. the transitive is dangar, in which the particle 7, 5, is glued on to the verb danga = Fa. rogo, (pronounced vongo), and Ero. dig? (pronounced ding). My. 2 (for kz) and kan (kz strengthened by demonstrative 7 or an), are exactly like the others, thus My. tangisi, to bewail, and tangiskan, id., are the same as Fi. tagica and tagicaka, Fa. tagisi, all being merely transitive ; but in My. takuti, takutkan, to frighten, the particles (i and han) give the verb a causative force. To both of these words, tangis and takwt, before the particles 7 and kan are attached, it is to be noted that the particles s and ¢ had been in ancient 30 The Oceanic Languages Senitic : times attached, so that now they are treated as if a part of the root. This, however, they are not, for these verbs in, for instance, Fa. are intransitive, tagz, to wail, tagist, transitive, to bewail, Sam. tagi, to wail, passive, tagista (when the same particle s appears); Fa. mitaku, to fear: cf Sam. mata ‘u, Fa. transitive, nutau kz, Bugis, mataw rr, Sam. passive, anucta ‘utia, In which the same ¢ transitive particle, as in takut, appears: cf. also Mg. matahotra (which seems to be for mataku-ra, rather than mataku-ta: compare ampitahorind, in which the tr is 7), in which the tr may be for 7, the same transitive particle (72), as appears in the Bugis. These examples show how the verb object particles or ancient prepositions used as such, have become disguised in the lapse of ages, and made to appear radical parts of the verbs ; and they show also, that at least, to a large extent, the particles are used for one another in different dialects, in Oceanic, just as in Semitic. Such particles sometimes gave to the verb, in Semitic also, a causative as well as a transitive force ; thus Ges. says, “Since be in this signification is a particle of transition, it is not to be wondered at that it should give a transitive power to some verbs, and even a causative, such as is elsewhere expressed by the conjugation Hiphel.” The common Oceanic particle giving this causative force to some verbs is @ (for ki), or ki, ku, either compounded with other particles for emphasis, as ake, kan, or alone, and synonymous with ba as a “particle of transition,” having the meaning of “ to.” e. With respect to the Sam. passives tagista, mata‘utia, the s and @ are the verb object particles, and the other particles, as well as these are found in the Ma.-Ha. passives i, and reciprocal form 2, and in the Mg., My., Fa. and Sam. verbal noun terminations 3, thus :— 2. Sam. %, 4%, fad, saa, tar, mae nae, lat. l. Ma. kia, ngia, Sam. fia, gia, lia, mia, sia, tia. 3. Ma ranga, manga, wnga, Sam. saga, taga, ‘aga, laga, fuga, maga, aga. In these ga (1.e. nga) is for na, the original 2 having been changed to ng. The verbal noun terminations, 3, in Fa. are a or end, siend, tiena, kien, rien, flen, mien, nien (the final @ not always pronounced, e is for a); so My. san, tun, gan, Tan, pan, man, nan; so Mg. ana, sana, zana, tana, hana (for kana), rana, funa, vana, mand. The Verb. 31 In the above 1, 3, the first letter is in every case the verb object particle, with which we are now familiar ; in 2 these particles are, except the first, compounded (cf. Fi. aka, vaka, &e.) of a, fa, sa, ta, ma, na and la, and ki. It may be remarked that these particles are found occasionally in the Sam. Dict. glued on to the simple verb (as in Mg. and My., and sometimes in Fa.), for instance “% in tafa%, fad in atoja%, w% in gavat, tut in lapatad, sad in leoleosa%, nad in taonw%, and ma‘t in tanwmat. Note.—The Semitic preposition (often used like the above 1, 4, 5, 6, as a verb object particle) “from,” &c., in Heb. and Arb. min, nv, Syr. men, Eth. éma, Sab. m, b (Halevy 95) is undoubtedly in Oceanic used as a verb object particle like the above, but it need not be said that it is impossible to distinguish it, so far as its form or sound is concerned, owing to phonetic similarity and corruption from 4 (7m), and 6 (b). It can only be distinguished from them by the sense and the usage. § 10. THE DERIVED VERB Forms. A. The Causative. This is formed by a prefixed particle which is really the same in every case, though sometimes apparently different, thus :—- Mg. My. Fa. Sam. 1. ma, man, &e. ma,man ba, bt Ma. wha a, wv mang Fi. Mota va : Ja. a, an Lifu, Marea 2. manupt, mampa, ang Aneityum 7 ampr, ampa, ampan Ero. api 3. maha, mampaha Fa. baka, faka Sam. faa aha, anvpaha Fi. vaka Ma. whaka Mota vaga Rarat. aka The causative particle in all these prefixes is a, which sometimes, but rarely, is weakened to é or? Thus to take :— Ll. Mg, ma, man, Fi, Fa., Mota ba, va, Ma. wha, and My. ma, are all identical But Mg. ma is a compound of the participial m, and the causative prefix a; in the future and past tenses only the w appears, as velona, alive, mamelona, make alive, future hamelona, shall make alive, past namelona, made alive. The w alone therefore is the causative prefix. Compare Lifu and Mare a. In Fa. ba, Fi. va, Ma. wha, the 32. The Oceanic Languages Semitic : participial m is changed into b, v, and wh, and like the My. m in ma is inseparably attached to the a, that is (as in the Mod. Syr. causative) only the participle is used. 2. We have the very same as this Fa. ba, F1. and Mota va Ma. wha, in An. imi, Ero. ampi, Mg. ampi, ampa; but to this also Mg. prefixes the participial m. The same is found sometimes in Papuan, Araga as ma va (Codrington, “The Melanesian Languages,’ p. 187.) It is really doubling the participial m, though unconsciously. 3. In Mg. maha we have the participial m as before separable, a the causative prefix, and the verb substantive hv (see above § 4, a., and § 6, b.), so that aha means make to be. In Papuan and Ma.-Ha. this m being as before insepar- able and changed to 6, f, and v, and wh, in baka, faa, vaka, whaka, vaga, and in Mg. itself, as in 2, inseparable and changed into mp., as in ampa, in ampaha. Again as in 2, before ampa, so before mapaha, Mg. admits the participial m. b. The above may be thus shown :— 1. The simple caus. Oc. prefix Mg. a. Lifu, Mare a. 2. This a@ with the participial m (changed to b, f, v, wh, mp, &e.) as Me. ampa, An. vmi, Ero. ampe, My. ma, Fa. ba (bt), Fi, Mota va ma, wha. 3. The simple a prefixed inseparably to the verb substan- tive Mg. aha, Rarat. aka. 4. The a with the inseparable m, in 2, prefixed inseparably to this verb substantive, Mg. ampaha, Fa. baka, faka, Fi. vaka, Mota vaga, Sam. faa, Ma. whaka. Note 1.—Perhaps Rarat. aka belongs to 4, not to 3. Note 2.—While the above as compared are etymologically identical, allowance must be made for difference of use. Nore 3—In Mg. and My. man, mang, Ja. an, ang, the n, ng, may be roughly described as euphonic, though, as will be seen below, they are not perhaps purely euphonic. The other phonetic changes are mainly those of ™ (participial) to b, f,v, wh, and mp. The a also appears sometimes, but rarely, as 7 or €. c. Comparison: see Semitic Grammars. The causative is formed in Syr., Assy., Arb., and Eth., by prefixing a. (sometimes weakened to 6, 7%), this has been softened from ha, of which the h is retained in Sab. and The Verb. 33 Heb. This h is generally believed by Semitic authorities to be weakened from an original s (sometimes si and f¢, in Shaphel and Thaphel) : see Dillmann, § 79, Wright L., § 45, Halevy, p. 37, points out that this / is regularly s in one Sab. dialect. Shaphel, as well as Aphel, is used in Aram. In Assy., Shaphel is the more prevalent, as well as original form: Layer, Assy. Gr., p, 63. The causative participle has of course the ™ prefixed, and its vowel was originally « as preserved yet in Heb. and Syr. The Syr. causative parti- ciple is of the form Maphel, Heb. Maktil. This participle came to be used sometimes in Syr. as a distinct causative form, and was called the Maphel (conjugation) form, and it is the only causative form now used in Mod. Syr.: Stoddart, p. 110. Thus the @ of b. 1, is the a of the Aphel form; and the ma (ba, fa, &e.) of b. 2, is the ma of the Maphel form ; in b. 3, we have the Aphel or causative of the verb substantive, ha, ka ; and in b. 4, the causative of the same Maphel form. Norr.—As to the nasal n, ng, of b., note 3, while it is so far euphonic, it may sometimes or 1n some measure, represent the consonant of the original Semitic causative particle : Mg. My. Fa. Sam. live, velona idwp maurr, El. vola ola die, maty mate mate (Fi. id.) mate fear, tuhotra takut mitaku mata “uw An. imtae Causative. mamelona mangidupr bakamaure Jauaola Fl. vavola mahafaty mamatikan Fi. vakamatea tamate mahatahotra manakuti bakamatakuki faa An. imumtac mata “wv Note 1.—Fi. and My. use the transitive suffixes with the causative ; in Fa. kz is often used in like manner. Notr 2.—The same changes of this participial m to f, and mp, occurs in the verbal nouns. So also in Mg. fahadimy ny, ampahadimy ny (dimy 5). Compare Mg. “faharoany, ampaharoany, the second,” for change of fa and ampa; and compare Santo “vakaruana, second ” (Gordon). For “to do a second time,’ the Mg. uses in the foregoing instances, the causative prefix without the verb D \ 34 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : substantive ha, as manindroa, for manvroa, 2.e., marua = Epi. varua ; so for ‘to do a third time,” Mg. manintelo, for manitelo, ie, matelo = Epi. vatolu. In Fa. and Sam. the causative of the verb substantive (ku) is used, as bakatolu, faatolu, bakarua, faalua. To turn the numeral into a verb, | with very various meanings is common to Oc. and Se.: compare in Heb. the numeral 3, which treated as a verb, Piel form, has as one of its meanings (Ges), “ to do a third time ;” and the numeral 10, which in either the Piel or Hiphil (causative) form, means “to give tithes,” “ to tenth.” In these it is not the verb form, but usage, that has determined special meanings. It may be observed that just as in Pa. and Ma.-Ha. va, and vaka have about the same force (My. never uses the verb substantive, ka, thus) ; so Mg. ma, and maha, and mampa, and mampaha, have all about the same force, thus :—isy, to be, manisy and mampisy, to make to be; so vitrikia, vigour, causative mahavitrikia, and mampahavitrikia, to make vigorous, to inspirit. d. It will be noticed in the above that the Sam. causative of the verb mate, to die, is tamate; that is the causative prefix ista. This is a well-known causative prefix in the Ma.- - Ha. Halevy (Ro. Gr. § 54) has observed that in most, if not all, of these dialects, tw 1s also employed as a causative prefix, “as Tahiti tamd, to cleanse, from md, clean.” It is especially common in Tahiti: see the Tah. Dict. s. v., where it is said to have the same force as faa. Sam. faafana, to warm food over again, Tah. tahana, Mg. maenafana, and mahafanafana. This ta, causative prefix, is the tha or ta that appears in Syr. Thaphel (Heb. Tiphel) of which we formerly spoke. e. If we have in Oceanic the one form of the Semitic causative prefix in ta, it is only reasonable to expect to find the other sw (Shaphel or Saphel). In Fa. we have jera, or berafera, to be scattered, dispersed ; taferafera, scattered (reflexive to be explained below); My. tabur; causative sabera ki, to scatter (anything); My. stbar; Java sabar (and mawur),id. In Fa. we have gara (kara), strong; the causative of which is szgiv, to strengthen, to make strong. In Sam. we find a word vila in viligia, to air, dry in the wind, and in savili, to blow. Compare fue and safue, to beat ; lulu and salulu, to shake. Compare also My. salam (Ja. silam) to dive, immerge, plunge, with kalam, to sink to to the bottom, and dalam, deep. The Verb. 35 f. The signification of the Se. causative form is 1, transitive or causative ; 2, intransitive ; and 3, intensive: see the Se. Grammars, and particularly Syr. Gr. § 23, 2, and § 24, 2, - comparing the Mod. Syr. It may be remarked that Saphel _ (Shaphel) is commoner in Fa. and My., and Thaphel (Tiphel) in Tahitian, than they are in, for instance, Hebrew. Nore 1.—The force and use of My. causative prefix ma _ (Ja. a) has been somewhat obscured by the enormous use in _ that dialect of the transitive suffixes, or rather suffix 7 (ki), kan, yet Marsden rightly called it the “ transitive prefix.” Note 2—In Meg. manka (for maka), and maha are identical, being the one a mere phonetic variation of the other. B. The Reflexive or Reciprocal. In Mg., My., Fa., and Sam., along with the causative or transitive, we find the intransitive Reflexive or Reciprocal forms, now to be considered : a. The simple Reflexive. Mg. My. Fa. Sam. a bebo. © [2, 1a] [zna, ia, &e.] 4 miha Madura e tha Meg. 7 is the reflexive pronoun, self. It is identical with the personal pronoun, third person, in Mg., My., Fa., and Sam. In Madura, ¢ is the same; thus causative Mg. ma, a, Madura a, reflexive Mg. mi, 7, Madura e. This latter is called the passive (or which it serves), by Crawford. Fa. 1 or id, is simply the pronoun, third person singular, used also for “self” in the accusative ; and Sam. 7, in ina, and 7a, is the same, and used thus, forms in that dialect, and Ma.-Ha. generally, the passive, that is, the refiexive-passive. Comparison— The Mg. reflexive form compares substantially with the Assy. and Heb. niphal, Arb. infala, and Sab. similar forms. This ancient Semitic form is made by prefixing to the verb the reflexive pronoun (in Heb. hin), apparently the personal pronoun, third person, strengthened by the demonstrative 7, and this 7 is often assimilated. This personal, in Heb. hua, D2 36 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : hia, is identical with the Oc., Mg. 7. Sam. suffixes both the Mg. 72, as ia, and the Semitic 7m, as ima. Mg. also suffixes ind, using it for the passive, like the Sam. It is remarkable that the Mg. and Javanese infix retains the 7, as does the Semitic, thus Mg. fiteka, deceit, finrataka, deceived ; faoka, wipe, finaoka, wiped ; vidy, buy, vinidy, bought. So Javanese charita, a tale, chinarita, to be told ; rayah, to plunder, rinayah, to be plundered; panggih, to find, ponanggih, to be found, (Crawford, Diss. pp. 24, 27). The Arb. XIV. and XV. forms infix 1 after the second consonant of the triradical verb. So of quadrilaterals, the _ IIIRp form “corresponds to the VIITH of the triradical, with this difference, that the characteristic 7 is not prefixed, but inserted between the second and third radicals,” Wr. Gr. § 71. In Assy. the compound reflexive tan is infixed after the first radical in “ Iftaneal,’ as zctwm, ictantwm. In Ambh. this tan is prefixed. b. The Reflexive prefix ta. This, as already observed, occurs (see above, A. e¢.) in Fa. | taferafera, My. tabur, scattered, of which see the causative in the place cited. So Fa. tagara, strong (Shaphel szgirz, to make strong), My. tagar, id. Fa. folo, to twist, tafolo, twisted, &c., &c. See Codrington, work cited, for this prefix in other Papuan dialects, pp. 183-4. Sam. fulr, tafuli, Fa. tafulus ; fo, tafo%, to turn over, return; tagulu, My. dangkur, to snore, Fa. goro, koro; My. ngrok. My pelaka, broad, mitapelaka, to be wide; boroaka, taboroaka, bored through ; borotsaka, nutaborotsaka, to slip. My. prefixed tar, “ passive,” may be this ta and 7 reflexive pronoun (as in bar, see below): cf. Amh., as to form of compound tan. Comparison— Fa. bora, to slit, tear lengthwise, Arb. fara, id.; Fa. tabare, to be opened (as a door), to be chinked, Arb. tafarre (VTH form) slit, rent. This ta, reflexive pronoun, is also the prefix of the Arb. VITH form ; it compares with the Syr. eth, in Ethpeel, Ethpaal, &c. The Arb. VTH is made by pre- fixing this ta to the IIND, which is intensive by doubling, like Piel, the second radical. Hence in Fa. this form is often intensive, as bisa, to speak, tabisa, to speak earnestly ; ust, to investigate, tdéusi, to investigate thorcughly, Arb. takuzzt, id. Fa. usi is for kusi, the k being sometimes pronounced. This twis prefixed in the three Eth. “ Reflexive- The Verb. 4) Passive” forms, and in the Amh. [VrTH form (passive and reflexive,” ¢. The Reciprocal Prefix. Mg. My. Fa. Sam. ofa be, bar bi, fu fe Fi. ver Fagani far Mota var This combines the causative and the reflexive prefixes, the Mg. being reflexive and causative, the others causative and reflexive ; and in Fi. and Sam., are suffixed also to the verb with this prefix, the transitive particles, ¢g., 17 in F1. veilomant, Sam. fealofant. The causative prefix alone, or aided by these, directs the attention away to a more distant and complicated object, to ‘‘ one another,” instead of “ one- self” (reflexive form). But it is the same reflexive pronoun 7, in both the simple Reflexive and the Reciprocal. The My. bar compares with the Mota var (Codrington), but bar forms intransitives, or the simple Reflexive, var the Reciprocal. Is this r = dirt (My.) = self? My. be much _used in talking (Marsden), as bar is in writing, may be identical with Sam, fe. Fa. bi, fi form is sometimes re- ciprocal, and sometimes intransitive or simple reflexive, like Malay. Comparison— The prefix in Syr. Ethtaphal, like the Mg. is reflexive and causative, Assy. [taphal, and that in Assy. Istaphal or Istanuphel, is like the My., Fa, and Sam. causative and Reflexive; so (by “ transposition”) Syr. Eshtaphel. In these we have eth or ta (see 0.), or tan. As to meaning, there is exact enough correspondence; “ Eshtaphel has sometimes a passive, and sometimes a reciprocal signification, or it forms intransitives : see Syr. Gr., § 24, 2. § 11. Tue Passtve Voice. In Oc. the passive voice is either formed by a, the reflexive pronoun attached to the verb, or b, a verb sub- stantive, or c, it is marked by a prefixed m. As to a— Mg. Sam. 1. ma. ana l. ~na, 1a, a 2. fina, nina, mind 2. fia, gia, lia sina, tuna Mia, Sia, tia 38 The Oceanic Languages Semitic : In 1 we have the Oc.-Se. reflexive pronoun alone in 7, 2a, a, or strengthened by the demonstrative 7 (see § 10, B. a). But here it is suffixed, there prefixed or infixed. In 2, the initial consonants f, 7, m, &e., in mina or mia, fina or fia, &c., are the transitive or verb object particles: see § 9, e. Halevy (Ro. Gr.§ §55-6) observes, “ It is remarkable that some of the active verbs of the Eastern dialects seem to be derived from the passive forms of New Zealand,as . . . kini, N.Z., to pinch, passive kinitia, Hawaiian “initi, to pinch.” This verb is in Fa. kini, as kina naus, “nip reeds,” kinitia, “nip or pinch it.” Thus kinitia is not passive at all in Fa., and the ¢ is simply the transitive particle directing the action of the verb to ia, “it,” or “self” When Fa. uses this wa (or 2) for “ self,” as it sometimes does (with and without a transitive particle), the expression is always reflexive, not passive ; on the other hand, in Sam. the expression is always passive, the original reflexive meaning having passed into the passive. 1. The Malagasy, rarely the Ja., often infixes this in, which the Mg. usually, the Sam. always, suffixes, and the original reflexive meaning has passed into the passive. The Mg. drops, or does not use the » with the suffixed reflexive pronoun in the “Imperative passive,” as “sotro, drink, sotroina, is drunk ; imp. sotroy, let it be drunk, 7.e. drink ;” prefixed to the verb in Mg. it is also without the n, and reflexive rather than passive, as it is also in Sam. and Fa. (prefixed) : § 10, B. a. b. The Se. Niphal form is much used as a passive. 2. The reflexive pronoun ta prefixed makes a form frequently used as a passive in Oc. and Se. My tar forms a passive: § 10, B. a. 6b. As to the “change of the reflexive into the passive” in Indo-European, as well as in Semitic, see the Note in Ges. Heb. Gr. § 51, p. 86. b. The passive formed by a prefixed verb substantive. My. Fa. (Pa.) di.-, ka- Fiji, ra-, ka- Ja. da-, ka- (My. kana) My. di and Fi. ra are probably the same. My. dz seems to be an abbreviation of the verb substantive ada, which is identical with Mg. ary and ala, Tig. ali, Eth. halo, see § 4, b. The Verb. 39 In the Fa. ra does not form a passive, thus, wsi, to follow, &e., rast, to follow, literally, is following. My. ka (and kana) is same as Fi. ka: for this verb substantive, see § 4, a. In Oc., as well as in Arb., it is found as an auxiliary, not only of tense and mood, but also of voice. Here as in Arb. (Newman, § 133) it is used “to make a passive verb, as in English.” This formation is also found in Ma. and Me. ce. The passive (in a limited sense) marked by a prefixed m. This 7 is the participial m, and it is of course not to it that the passive force of the word is due. Fa. baku, to pluck out, mafaku, Sam. mafa “ifa %, plucked out. Fa. ligi, ligisi, to pour out, passive maligisi, maligi, Sam. malig, poured out. Fa. lubaki, to pour out, passive malubaki, poured out ; reflexive-passive, talubaki, id. Mg. My. Fa. Sam. malemy lamah meilun (soft) malemilemy - meilumlum Manizy . nipis, mimpis maniferifi manifinifi (thin) mafanafana pando (ben) mafanafana mafand Ma. mahana, warm These are simply participles or verbal adjectives, and correspond to the Semitic participles or verbal adjectives, formed from the active or passive voice of the verb, by prefixing m. In Ma., mahana is an adjective, “ warm ;” in Tahiti, it is a noun, signifying “ the sun,” “a day.” d. The Fa. like the Mod. Syr., makes little use of the passive, and like the Mod. Syr. can only express it usually by a periphrasis. § 12. THe VERBAL Nouns. a. The verbal noun suffix, ana, an. In Mg, My., Fa., and Sam., a verbal noun is formed by suffixing to the verb 7, an, ana; this in Sam. and Ma.-Ha., has been corrupted to nga, anga. This verb may have suffixed to it a transitive particle, before taking the verbal noun particle ; thus My. minwm, has the transitive particle AQ) The Oceanic Languages Semitic: m, to which the an is suffixed, giving mimwman. Hina in Ma.-Ha. (cf. Halevy, Po. Gr. § 57), we have the simple anga, and with the transitive particles, kanga, manga, &e.; and so in Mg., My., and Fa., see § 9, ¢e. In Fa. at least, the verbal noun, with, has a slightly different meaning from that without the particle ; with it, it is active, without it, passive (cf. Halevy, loc. cit.) The verbal noun of mate, to die, is in Mg, hafatesana, My., kamatian, Fa., nwmatiana, Mangareva (Ma.-Ha.), materanga, (and matenga), dying, death. My. and Fa. are without a transitive particle, but Mg. and Mang. have the one s, the other 7: see § 9, @. for lists. b. The Verbal Noun Prefixes. 1. In the above words, hafatisana, My. kamatian, ka, ha is prefixed, and in Fa namatian, na is prefixed. Fa. na is the article, and ka (ha), is an article also; see III. § 5. This article ka, with another pronominal element, 2, as kai, prefixed, forms in Maori the verbal noun denoting the agent, as hanga, make, hathanga, maker. 2. The relative article in My. forming the verbal noun denoting the agent, is pa, connected with the interrogative pa and for ma, see III. § 5. In Mg. this is mp (and f/f), as in the case of (the identical) participial m, § 10, A. e, note 2. Examples—My. pambunuh, Mg. mpamono, a killer, one who kills. The same relative article, My. p, Mg. f, is used with the verbal noun that is formed by the suffix an, as My. pambunuhan, murder; and Mg. has fahafatisana, as well as hafatisana, death. Me. fisotro, drink tea, is an example of the f prefixed, without the suffixed an. It will be observed that the suffix an gives the verbal noun a passive signification. Fa. famien (fami, to eat), may mean edtable, to eat, for eating, and food. c. Comparison— 1. Suffix an. We find this in all the Semitic languages, and the word korlean, offering, may be taken as an example. In Eth., Dillm. Gr. § 122, -an and -na form abstract substan- tives, as, berhan, light, from barha, to be bright, and erekan, and erekana, nudity, from areka, nudus fuit; so Fa. malamala, to be naked, malamalan, nakedness. Dillmann says of this av “sie ist sicher fiirwortlichen ursprungs.” It is the common Se. demonstrative an, na: see III. §§ 1-2. The Verb. 41 2. The prefixes p, 7p, f, are all phonetic variations of the one original m. This is the m, of pronominal origin, that plays so conspicuous a part as a formative prefixed letter in the Se. languages, forming nouns from verbs. Thus the Aram. (cf. Ges. Gr. § 84, II. 14) forms the infinitive of the verb by it, and (Isenberg, Amh. Gr. 62) in Amh. “ the infinitive or verbal substantive is formed by the prefixion of mw to the simple form.” Dillmann (Eth. Gr. § 113) says: “dagegen ist der in allen Semitischen Sprachen vielgebrauchti Vorsaz ma im Sinne von der, welcher, oder das, was (der Fragewurzel § 63 entstammerd), auch im Aeth. tiberaus stark verbreitet um Aussageworter, nabur Participia mit partici- pahnlichen Adjectiven, und Sachworter abzuleiten.” Like Me. mp, My. pa, this Eth. ma forms the verbal noun denoting the agent, Dillm. § 114. And like Meg. f, My. p, this Eth. ma forms nouns denoting the instrument, vessel, ‘production, thing of any kind, action, manner of the action, Dillm. § 115. §$ 13. The foregoing discussion covers a good deal, but not the whole of the ground. Corrections— | I. § 25. The comparison between tomi and tome is given up. IT. § 11, 3. It should have been stated that Sumatra sukoorang, 9, 1s perhaps from sa, 1, and koorang, “less.” Art. IL—On the Fungi Growing m Mines. By Henry THomas TIsDALL, F.LS. [Read March 10, 1887.] Parr The northern portion of the district between the River Thompson and the River M‘Allister, in Gippsland, is covered with a series of hills, ranging from 1000 to 3000 feet above the level of the sea. These hills form three main ridges running northward, and culminating in Mounts Aberfeldy and Useful. 42 On the Fung Growing im Mines. Geologically speaking, it is all of upper silurian formation, the stratification showing shales, sandstones, alternating with layers of hard diorite and quartz. During a trip with Mr. Reginald Murray, he pointed out the horizontal layers of basalt overlying the almost vertical rocks, Mount Useful, Mount Aberfeldy, Fullarton’s Spur; in fact, nearly all the higher mountains in the district are covered in this manner, while the lower hills show no trace of later volcanic action. - Masses of orthocerate limestone are found in the basin of the River Thompson. One enormous mass, over 200 feet thick, rises out of the Deep Creek. Veins of quartz abound everywhere, and in some places it becomes auriferous. Cohen’s reef is a splendid specimen of these auriferous veins; like the rest of the rocks in the district, the strike of this reef trends 20° west of north, and it has a westerly underlie. The lode itself is very rich in minerals, iron and arsenical pyrites abound, and for years it yielded an average of 2 ozs. to the ton. The total quantity of gold obtained has already reached nine tons. When first discovered, the gold-bearing stone was at the surface, but northwards it dips so much that long tunnels had to be driven, and shafts sunk in order to follow its course. In the Long Tunnel, for instance, the adit level was commenced about 100 feet above Stringer’s Creek; it is driven in about 800 feet, principally through hard diorites intersected with occasional veins of quartz; at the end of the tunnel a large chamber was excavated about 100 feet long by 40 feet wide. Here are placed the pumping and winding engines, worked entirely by compressed air, obtained through iron pipes from an immense pneumatic engine outside. The shaft is sunk in the middle of the chamber, and has been opened out at every hundred feet in order to catch the ever- dipping lode. They are opening out now at the nine hundred feet level. The plan adopted for opening a level is to drive a tunnel from the shaft until it cuts the lode, then work upwards to the next level, removing everything between the hanging wall and the other side. This varies in thickness from five to fifty feet, the empty space is then filled up with mullock. The tunnels in the various levels are lined with round timber, about two feet in diameter, placed vertically a few feet asunder. The logs on each side of the tunnel are kept apart by cap pieces of the same size, heavy slabs, placed horizontally, reach from one set of timber to the next, thus covering both walls and ceiling with wood. In the older On the Fungi Growing in Mines. 43 and unused tunnels this timber is covered with fungoid growths. Masses of white silky hyphomycetes hang from the roof, shaped like stalactites, and often reach four or five feet in length. The timber used in the mine consists chiefly of Eucalyptus Sieberiana, E. Capitellata, E. Obliqua, EK. Amygdalina, E. Viminalis; the first of these, E. Sieberiana, is by far the best ; it lasts many years. It is remarkable to see the great varieties of colours assumed by the fungi in the mines, when we consider that they never receive any light from the sun. White is certainly the prevailing hue, but black, red, scarlet, delicate pink, and all shades of brown and yellow, are quite common. An instance of the rapidity of growth of this vegetable product, came under my notice whilst in Walhalla) The manager had occasion to have a - plat cleared of timber and well scraped at 12 oclock midnight, at 6 next morning he was astounded at finding the whole plat covered with fungi. He immediately sent for me, and I found that not only were they fully grown, but the spores perfectly ripe. It was an Agaricus (Psathyrella). Berkeley gives wonderful instances of the rapid growth of fungi, and Dr. Lindley says that the cells of the Lycoperdon giganteum multiply at the extraordinary rate of 60,000 million in a minute. The growth of fungi, even when deprived of light is exemplified by Dr. Badham’s story of a gentleman placing a cask of wine in a cellar by itself for three years; the cask leaked ; a fungus sprung up, and grew to such a size that when the cellar was opened it was com- pletely filled by this winebibbing vegetable, the empty cask was found on the top of the fungus, pressed closely against the roof. Dr. Carpenter mentions that the paving stones in the town of Basingstoke were completely lifted out of their places by the growth of Agarics underneath. The most noticeable plant in the mine is the Hyphomycetes already mentioned ; it hangs down from the roof, sometimes by a narrow stem formed of loose fibres, then swells out very much, finally tapering towards the end. It is entirely composed of very fine silky fibres, interwoven so as to form a kind of fleece. So watery are these fungi that, having dried one five feet long and eighteen inches in diameter, it _ just weighed one ounce. On submitting a piece to the microscope, very small transparent cells may be perceived fastened like tiny nobs on the hairs, these are the spores, and they fall off in such quantities that the air is quite full of them ; I feel convinced that the stifling suffocating 44 Notes on the Occurrence of Glaciated Pebbles and feeling, which comes over any one that breathes the atmo- sphere of the tunnel for some time, is due to their presence. A curious species of Cantharellus is not uncommon, it is of a brownish-yellow, tinged with a delicate green. In the dark corners behind the posts, bright yellow patches may be perceived ; these are polyporei. A very pretty Agaricus (Mycena) is found at the foot of partly decayed posts, it grows on the dust which crumbles off. In a future paper I propose to deal more systematically with this subject. Art. II].—Notes on the Occurrence of Glaciated Pebbles and Boulders in the so-called Mesozoic Conglomerate of Victoria. By E. J. Dunn, F.GS. [Read May 12, 1887.] At Wooragee, near Beechworth, there occurs a con- glomerate of peculiar character. In a base of fine clay are distributed in a heterogenous manner, well rounded pebbles and boulders of many varieties of schist, quartz-rock, sand- stones, shales, granite, agate, jasper, porphyry, &c., and also angular and sub-angular fragments and masses of rock. The approximate area of this conglomerate was com- municated to the Mining Department in 1871. The depth is not known, but in the very early days of gold mining in this neighbourhood, a shaft was sunk 100 feet into it, at Magpie Swamp, without piercing the underlying rock. This con- glomerate rests either upon granite or silurian beds. Outliers of similar conglomerate occur to the N.W. of El Dorado ; at various points on the road between Wan- garatta and Kilmore; and are also mentioned by Mr. R. A. F. Murray, in the Geological Survey Progress Report for 1884, as existing at Bacchus Marsh, at the Barrabool Hills, and in South Gippsland. In this report, a glacial origin is suggested, as best explaining the peculiarities of this con- glomerate, but no distinct striations had been observed in the pebbles. Boulders in the so-called Mesozoic Conglomerate. 45 In New South Wales, what appears to be the same conglomerate, is described by Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, F.GS., Government Geologist, and allusion is made to the oreat angular masses found in it, and a glacial origin also surmised, but no direct evidence was attained of. stri- ations. Quite recently, while examining the conglomerate at Wooragee, I detected distinct striations on the boulders and pebbles, and also observed flat surfaces, and the peculiar fractures of the pebbles, so characteristic of conglomerates that have been formed through glacial action. In South Africa, what appears to be the exact counterpart of this conglomerate, exists. It is known there as the Dwyka conglomerate, and it forms the base of a great system of fresh water strata. The lowest division of these beds is known as the Ecca beds or Lower Karroo beds. They are probably carbonaceous in the lower portion, and are characterised by an abundance of fossil wood (silicified), and by a Glossopteris that appears to be identical with the Glossopteris Browniana of New South Wales; also small sauroid remains. The second division is known as the Karroo beds, and best known for its richness in sauroid and other remains that have been so wonderfully worked out by Sir R. Owen. The third and newest division is known as the Stormberg beds, in the lower portion of which are the coal measures, and workable seams of coal. Associated with the coal seams, are shales thickly studded with fern impressions, among which Sphenopteris Elongata, Pecopteris Odontopteroides, Cyclopteris Cuneata, Taeniopteris Daintreei, &e., abound. The glaciated nature of the conglomerate was established in South Africa in 1872, by the writer finding numerous examples of striated, grooved, and otherwise glaciated stones on the banks of the Orange River, but the full extent and the relations of this conglomerate to the Karroo beds was not fully worked out until last year, when my report on it was published by the Cape Government. Sir R. Owen after having all the available fossil evidence before him, inclines to the view that the Karroo beds belong to the carboniferous period ; if such is the case, the glacial conglomerate in South Africa must, at any rate, be palzeozoic in age, and enquiry is suggested as to whether the Victorian conglomerate is not older than mesozoic. AG On the Fungi Growing in Mines. Should the conglomerates on the two continents prove to be stratigraphically identical, they will furnish excellent bench-marks for working out the comparative geology of the two regions. Examples of the striated stones from Wooragee, are placed in the Technological Museum for inspection. Art. IV.—On the Fungi Growing in Mines. By Henry Tuos. Tispauy, F.LS. [Read May 12, 1887.] Part II. In accordance with my promise, I visited Walhalla during the Easter holidays, in order to secure some fresh specimens of Fungi from the Long Tunnel Mine. Mr. Ramsay Thomson, the manager, gave me every facility for exploring the mine ; but warned me that the fresh timber and increased ventilation would greatly impede, if not entirely destroy, my chances of SUCCESS. I arrived on Thursday afternoon, and as the next day would be a holiday, Good Friday, I was only allowed to visit number three level. This tunnel was dry and very warm, and I found the managers assertion was quite correct; for instead of having to stoop or almost crawl, as formerly, amongst half rotten ~ timber, crushed down to less than three feet by the superin- cumbent rock masses, I found upright seven-foot posts supporting a good roof, the whole being well slabbed and made very comfortable for every one except myself, as, alas, fungi were apparently things of the past. After traversing nearly a thousand feet of the level, I was rewarded by finding a partly deserted nook, with roof and sides fairly covered with fungi. Hyphomycetes hung from the cap timbers, their fleecy masses taking innumerable shapes, the commonest being like a huge pear made of snow, hanging by a long thin dark stem. Amongst these I discovered a very pretty agaricus ; it hung from the roof by means of a number of fine thread-like fibres, springing from abovt the On the Fungi Growing im Mines. 47 centre of the pileus; these fibres join in one string, and are fastened to the partly decayed roof. The pileus was a pure creamy white, flattish, but the margin turned downward and then inward, margin not even, but bulging in separate lobe-like sections. In other specimens, the campanulate form, with a fairly even edge, was common. ‘The lamelle, at first a beautiful hight orange, afterwards becoming brown ; the gills were decidedly forked, fleshy, shallow and separated. These characteristics would place them amongst the genus Cantharellus Fe. As I quite agree with the remarks made by our President at the last meeting, namely, “‘That the main object of an outlying Society, such as ours, is more the obtaining of facts and placing them on record, than of merely theorising concerning them,” I am quite content, therefore, to state such characteristics concerning fungi as [ am in a position to describe, leaving the responsibility of classification to such veterans in science as Dr. Cooke or Professor Berkeley. To return to our cantharellus, the fibres connecting the pileus with the timber of the roof do away with the use of the stem, which is accordingly absent, and its place is shown by a raised ring, similar in width and thickness to the lamellze. The plant is generally solitary, but very often three or four grow so close together as to overlap ; and, in some instances, I discovered groups of several dozens springing from bundles of fine dark intermixed fibres. A very curious hydnum was occasionally to be found hanging from the beams by innumerable fine silky hairs springing from all upper portions of the pileus, which consists of a rough whitish floccose membrane. The hymenium is spread over spines, which are cylindrical, or rather conical, very even, tapering towards the tops; each of which ends in a circular plane. These spines grow rather crowded, and are of an orange yellow colour. It might be supposed that at a thousand feet below the surface seasons would cease to influence plants, but I found that many fungi were either altogether absent, or their hard dry remains only left to tell the tale. I was very anxious to explore the lower and damper levels of the mine, so I went down at midnight after Good Friday. In the sixth and eighth levels I found many fungi that would not grow in the dryer atmosphere of No. 3. T was particularly struck with some lovely agarics growing in tufts from the decayed 48 On the Fungr Growing in Mines. remains of a hyphomycetes hanging from the roof, pileus ~ campanulate, strize very distinct, giving the edge a crenulate form ; so soft and brittle were they that I did not succeed in saving a single specimen; however, I stood under an umbrella, up to my ankles in water, for nearly half an hour, to get a fair sketch of the plants with their surroundings. The lamellee grow from the margin in two lengths, remote, white stem, almost translucent, long, attenuated towards centre, solid, with very short floccose hairs. In No. 8 level it was very wet, and fungi were to be found even on comparatively new timber. A semi-transparent polyporus is very common, hard, very uneven, all over knobs and excrescences, except where the hymenophorum appears, the pores are small, but deep and irregular, and the hymenium presents a bright orange, contrasting well with the browns and glassy grays of the matrix. Some of the slabs were almost covered with a creeping hyphomycetes, spreading out in all directions, in the same manner as lichens; they are protean in shape, some as fine as threads, creeping in radial form from a somewhat thicker centre; in other specimens the branches get wider and wider until they look like ribbons, but the ends of all invariably split up into very fine threads. The foregoing are formed of exceedingly fine soft silky fibres, which take root in the timber as they radiate, making it impossible to remove them without destruction. In one species the substance is thicker and the structure is not so soft and silky but rougher, almost corky, although still brittle. This fungus is covered with excrescences, and all the specimens I found were divided into three thick branches, each ending in knobs thicker than the stems; the knobs were coloured brown, whilst the remainder was white with occasional brown patches. Another distinct species was leathery, and peeled off easily from the post on which it grew ; the structure was floccose, and all branches ended in from three to five pointed ends, even in the very young plants the clavate endings were | distinctly visible. I noticed that the timber most lable to the attacks of fungi was that of the messmate (Eucalyptus Obliqua) easily recognisable by its bark. I should mention that the clavate endings were of an elongated cone-shape, white, and velvety to the touch, but much firmer than the rest of the plant. In a very wet part of No. 8 level the rotten timber produced a very pretty agaric, pileus campanulate, of a light lavender colour, strize well-marked, On the Fungi Growing in Mines. 49) making the edge of the pileus uneven. The stem long, solid and firm, the lamellze white and remote. I was so impressed with its likeness to the agarics, which I found on the decayed hyphomycetes in No. 6 level, that I went back to compare them, but the colour, general shape and mode of growth are so different that I am convinced they are a separate species, though both evidently belong to the genus Agaricus Mycenz, as the spores are white, the form campanulate, margin straight, and stem cartilaginous. In No. 8 level I found some very poor half dried specimens of an exeeedingly curious fungus, no living ones could be observed anywhere. Mr. Thomson has forwarded me some since, and | have examined them minutely. They grow in bunches, like wire grass, hanging down from the cross beams as long branched fibres. The stems are solid, varying from 4 inch in diameter to mere threads. The cross section is nearly circular, flattening slightly where the stem branches, which it invariably does dichotomously. The mode of branching is peculiar ; the stem becomes thicker and flatter, then stops short, and the twin branches sprout from each side, widening abruptly. The substance of the plant, as revealed by the microscope, is floccose, the fine hairs being closely pressed together. A thick, very dark purple bark surrounds the stem, this becomes brittle when dry, and sometimes scales off At the tips of the branches the bark ceases, and a light coloured fleshy substance appears; this is quite white in the living plant, and is crowded with tiny spores, fastened like bunches of black grapes. The form of this fungus seems to me to bring the algze and fungi into very close relationship ; it looks exactly like seaweed, as it hangs from the roof, floating loosely in the air. Some years ago my attention was drawn by a miner to an extraordinary vegetable production growing in No. 3 level, at the base of some rotten slabs; being anxious to watch its growth, I would not remove it, and I determined to copy it an situ. I obtained four candles, placed them on the ground with the flames touching, then I lay down at full length on the dry floor of the drive, and after a couple of visits, obtained a faithful, if not artistic copy of the fungus. The main portion of the plant was stiff, 1 might say leathery, and this was crossed by girdles made of fine white silky hairs, each of these hairs was dotted all round With spores. I visited the mine several times to examine the fungus, and as it seemed to retain its original form, I at E 50 On the Fungi Growing in Mines. length intended to remove it out of danger, but I had delayed too long ; the ruthless foot of some passing miner must have kicked it from its hiding place and I saw it no more. Since then I have diligently explored, but was never successful in finding another specimen. A miner brought me a species of clavaria, which he said he had picked off a post in No. 3 level, but I have never been able to find one of that particular kind myself. Many kinds of club-shaped fungus have been found by me in the mine, but I have not been fortunate enough to get sufficient data in the shape of spores, &c., to determine their proper classification. However, Baron von Miiller has kindly promised to send the specimens to Europe, with my notes thereon, and doubtless, in a short time I shall be enabled to append a full and correct list of them, with descriptions in the Transactions of the Society. I have questioned the miners concerning luminous fungi in the mines, but they say they have never seen any; this is singular, for agaricus candicans 1s very plentiful in the neighbourhood, and Humboldt is quite enthusiastic as to the splendour of some luminous species in mines. In fact, that is the only mention I have seen of fungi in connection with mines. Another curious proof of nature’s modifying her apparently fixed rules, is exemplified in some of the agarics and hydnei which I found. The rules amongst these orders are, that the hymenium should turn from the light, and that the stem, if any, should support the plant above it. Of course, there is no light except the passing candle of the miner, but the hymenium faces such as there is; again, the stems in these plants are suppressed altogether, and fibres from the top of the pileus support the weight which is placed below it. Turning from the plants themselves to their effect on those who are brought in close and hourly contact with them, I may premise, by stating the well-known fact, that fungi are plants that imbibe oxygen and exhale carbonic acid, this alone would have a prejudicial effect on those working j in their neighbourhood. Professor eneelees speaking on this subject, in his “ Outlines of British Fungiology,” says, “ Fungi were long regarded as the mere creatures of putrescence, ae therefore, as the consequence, not the cause of disease, but almost everyone is now ready to acknowledge what a weighty influence they have in inducing diseased condition. Un- On the Fungi Growimyg im Mines. 5] fortunately, the fungi which occur in the diseases of man, have seldom been examined by persons intimately acquainted with these fungi, so that the species or even genera in question are often doubtful. It is, however, certain that many of those which are found on different parts of the mucous membranes of animals, in a more or less advanced stage of growth, are like the fungi of yeast, referable to common species of mould. It is not probable, that in these cases, fungi originate disease, though they frequently ageravate it. ‘The spores of our common moulds float about everywhere, and as they grow with great rapidity, they are able to establish themselves on any surface where the secretion is not sufficiently active or healthy to throw off the intruder. Where the spores are very abundant, they may sometimes, like other minute bodies, obstruct the minute cells of the lungs, but there is no reason to believe that they induce epidemic diseases.” I may here remark, that I had not seen the foregoing paragraph when I first formed the idea that fungi spores might have something to do with the lung diseases common amongst miners, but whilst hunting up information on the subject, I came across this passage which certainly upholds my preconceived idea. The greater proportion of the fungi which I have been describing, are certainly closely related to the moulds referred to by Professor Berkeley ; in fact, I have very little doubt that they are nothing but huge overgrown members of the same family, swollen to ex- travagant dimensions by the heat and moisture by which they are surrounded. In Dr. Cunningham’s report of his “Microscope Examination of Air,” conducted in India (1872), he says, ‘That spores and similar cells were of constant occurrence, and were generally present in considerable numbers. ‘That the majority of cells were living, and ready to undergo development on meeting with suitable conditions was very manifest, as in those cases in which preparations were retained under observation for any length of time, germination rapidly took place in many of the cells.” With reference to the size of these spores, Dr. Cooke remarks, that “The largest spore is microscopic, and the smallest known scarcely visible under a magnifying power of 360 diameters.” Taking into consideration the confined Space in which miners must necessarily work, and the immense number of spores from such a quantity of fungi as E 2 52 On the Fungi Growing in Mines. used to crow in the tunnels, I think we may safely take it for granted that fungi are, or were, deleterious to weak lungs. The next question then is how to get rid of them? The manager of the Long Tunnel at any rate has answered this question, to a certain extent, In a very practical way, for his repairs have nearly extirpated the fungi from some of the levels. But if we turnagain to professor Berkeley’s ‘‘Outlines,” we find the following: “The rapidity with which spawn penetrates, and the depth to which it enters, is often quite surprising. The most solid timber in a few months will sometimes show unequivocal traces of spawn. I have seen, for instance, elm trunks which were perfectly sound when felled, penetrated by the end of the second year with spawn to within a few inches of the centre; and in this case it must be remembered that vegetation goes on in the trunk for nearly a twelvemonth before any fungi can establish themselves.” Now it is simply absurd to suppose that a mining company could keep on constantly renewing timber to keep down these destructive pests. Several gentlemen belonging to our Society suggested painting the timber with certain acids, and I intended to try this plan at Walhalla, but my short stay prevented me; however, I have asked the manager, Mr. Ramsay Thomson, to paint certain marked posts with different acids, and so find out which is the best, and I have little doubt that he will accede to my request. The following remedies are mentioned by Berkeley—salt, lime, sulphate of copper, corrosive sublimate, and arsenic. If we are fortunate enough to hit on a really good and cheap remedy, we will not only be able to show how to extirpate an enemy to human life, but also to offer a premium to mine owners to use the remedy, for if the fungi in mines can be destroyed the timber will most certainly last twice as long. Art. V.—On the Production of Colour in Birds’ Eggs. By A. H. 8. Lucas, M.A. Oxon., B.Sc. Lond. [Read May 12, 1887.] The question of the cause of the coloration of birds’ eggs has often been referred to, but has not, to my knowledge, been adequately treated of in any work on Oology. Perhaps On the Production of Colour in Birds’ Eggs. 53 we may consider the latest views on the subject to be those enunciated by Mr. H. Seebohm in his lecture at the London Institution, December 20,1886. I had published in the Melbourne Leader of December 26, 1885, a popular account of the colours of Australian birds’ eggs, in which I advanced suggestions which seemed to me to throw light on the subject. After reading the abstract in Nature of the interesting lecture by this high authority, I have thought it worth while to make a more formal scientitic record of the ideas broached in the Leader. My hypotheses may well be encountered with criticism, but they do serve at least very conveniently to connect a multitude of facts together. The antiquity of the Australian Avi-F'auna, and the preservation of ancient types, render a comprehensive consideration of Australian eggs of the greater value. My suggestions have been founded on studies of large collections, and after a certain amount of experience in the field. Australian eggs yield a rich abundance of facts which are of scientific interest per se, and which will be of still higher value if we can discern their bearing on biological problems. We take it that the natural or original colour of birds’ egos is the pure white of the mineral substance (carbonate of lime) of which they are composed, just as the natural colour of bone is white, and that, too, of the shells of mollusca, &c. All shells are secreted by animal membranes. In the mollusca, an external layer of membrane usually remains free from admixture of mineral matter, as an animal epidermis, which can be peeled off. But this is not the case with birds’ egos ; they possess a membranous lining, generally white, occasionally brownish or bluish, but outside this the animal substance and mineral matter are intimately commingled to the very surface. Colour, if produced, is then, in almost all egos, inorained. Often it can be detected incorporated in inner layers of the shell, as blotches beneath the sur- ace. Birds’ eggs have many foes. Even where man has not appeared upon the scene, a number of systematic nest- robbers exist. Snakes, the great lace-lizard (Hydrosaurus or Varanus varius), which takes such liberties with the settlers’ hen roosts, the “native cats” (Dasyurus viverrinus and D. maculatus), perhaps the bush rats, and last, but by no means least, other birds, and especially the crows, are very destructive of our native birds’ eggs, and of the young birds 54 On the Production of Colour in Birds Eggs. in the nest. To such intruders pure white eggs would be a conspicuous and gratuitous advertisement, and the birds would be exposed to undue danger while in the egg. As has been remarked hundreds of times before, we accordingly find that white eggs, and especially eggs of shining or pearly whiteness, are almost always found in nests which either conceal the egos completely, or which are themselves com- pletely concealed. Thus the cookatoos, parrots, parrakeets, and other members of the family, in almost all cases, build in holes of trees, usually high up and quite out of reach. Owls build in holes of large gum trees; kingfishers, including the laughing jackass (Dacelo gigas), in holes of trees or banks; the diamond birds, the roller, and bee-eater, in holes in trees or in burrows. The penguins and many of the petrels lay their eggs at the extremities of long burrows in the ground, facing the sea. The eggs of all of these groups of birds are white. The eggs of the doves, pigeons, and podarguses are beautifully white, often shining as if enamelled. The birds construct slight nests of twigs, placed crosswise on horizontal branches of trees. Much light can pass through the inters- tices between the twigs, and it is a difficult matter, even for the trained human eye, to detect from below whether there are eggs in the nest or not. Here the white, light-reflecting egos are at a positive advantage. The Australian finches conceal their eggs in the depths of relatively huge covered baggy nests, provided with side spout-like entrances. The eggs are in no way visible from without, are securely stowed away, and are pure white. All of the English finches, on the contrary, lay in open nests, and the eggs are spotted, usually, too, on a neutral- tinted ground. In this case we may presume that we have preserved the ancestral type in Australia. Since a glaring uniform white must be a dangerous colour for exposed eggs, we are not surprised to find that variations, favourable to preservation, have been originated and preserved, and that colour is now a protection to the great majority of egos. In all cases we have to consider two questions: (1) How could the colour have been acquired? and (2) How is the colour now protective or otherwise beneficial? That natural selection would be called into play to preserve favourable markings or tints we may allow, but we believe, with Mr. Seebohm, that “natural selection is not the cause of evolution ” in this case, “ but only its guide.” Un the Production of Colour in Birds Eggs. 55 The first question then is, how could the colour have been acquired? and I do not know that anyone has attempted hitherto to give any answer to it. The following has occurred to me as a probable explanation of the process ; at least the phenomena are referred back to principles already recognised. In the first place, it is important to note that the shell of the ovum is formed in the third portion of the oviduct (‘the uterus”), and entirely during the 12-18 hours which immediately precede the expulsion or laying of the egg. This is the length of the period in the case of the common fowl; we may assume, generally, a similar number of hours, probably shorter, in the case of the smaller species. That the formation of the shell is a process distinct from the formation of the yolk, is further brought before us strikingly, by an experiment of M. Tarkhanoff: He introduced a small ball of amber into the upper part of the ovarium, and obtained later on a quite normal egg, with chalaze, albumen, and shell, but with the ball of amber in place of a yolk. At the breeding season, the females of certain animals are well-known to be especially impressionable, and we think that the effect of the surroundings during the time of the formation of the shell, upon the mental or nervous consti- tution of the bird, is a main factor in the production of colour in the eggs. Any variations of value are seized on by natural selection, and transmitted by the principle of heredity. Individuals at the present day are influenced in part by the surroundings, but mainly restricted by the tribal habits of generations. We have, in fact, sufficient adherence to type for an experienced collector to be tolerably sure of the species of bird to-which a particular ege belongs, but sufficient variation to make him wonder at the differences which often exist between eggs of the same clutch. As we find in all groups, that some species are more stable and less variable than others, so the eggs of some birds are apparently fixed in colour and pattern, while those of others vary within wide limits. We will now consider in detail, the influence of surround- ings, and the utility of the effects produced. The general tint of the egg is often protective. The colour of the ground prominently before the vision of the laying bird, is reproduced in various shades in the eggs of the pheasants and partridges, and in our mallee hen (Leipoa ocellata) and megapode. In the rich brown 56. = =On the Production of Colour in Birds’ Eggs. variety of the egg of the domestic fowl, we probably see the colour developed in the feral state, now usually lost by reversion to the original white, as there is no longer advantage to be gained by its retention. In addition to the protective ground tint, darker spots and markings lend further security. The eggs of the sand- pipers and dottrells cannot be distinguished, even when seen, from the sands on which they lie, without close con- centration of the attention. Grouse and quail, rails and night-jars, plovers and terns, oyster-catchers and gulls, all lay on the ground, with or without nests, and the egos exhibit different shades of the soil or of the rocks, with an appropriate ornamentation of spots, blotches, and smears. White eggs become similarly less conspicuous if the white be broken up, by the introduction of spots or blotches of shading. This is a very simple, but by no means, ineffective means of avoiding detection. The eggs of the Australian shrike-thrushes, white-winged corcorax, and frontal shrike-tits, are good instances of exposed white eggs so protected. In many families it 1s noteworthy that those kinds of eggs which are quite concealed are white, while those which are exposed are speckled or freckled. In the tree swallows and martins, we find a graduated series. The egos of the English sand-martin, laid at the ends of tunnels in soft sandstone, are quite white. Those of the Australian tree-martin which lays in spouts of trees, are very slightly spotted. Those of the fairy martin, laying ia social colonies, under the eaves of houses, &, are more freely flecked. Lastly, the English swallow, and the Australian welcome swallow, which builds under bridges, or in shallow spouts of trees, in more exposed situations, are plentifully covered with spots. So amongst English titmice (a family want- ing in Australia), the only purely white eggs are those of the long-tailed titmouse, whose long and roomy mossy nest, with side entrance, often contains a clutch of a dozen or fourteen eggs. The warblers, the larks, and the honey- eaters, are other families of birds with spotted eggs. The experiments of Jacob (Genesis xxx. 37-43) are recorded as having been successful in producing mottled colours in the animals under his charge. By the simple device of placing green rods before them at the time of conception, in which he “ pilled white strakes, and made the white appear which was in the rods.” ‘And the flocks conceived before the rods, and brought forth cattle ring- On the Production of Colour in Birds Eggs. 57 straked, speckled and spotted.” It is then not difficult to understand that surrounding objects of very different appearance, but of unequally coloured surface, might as readily produce spots and speckles on bird’s eggs, as on the skins of mammals. In the case of the honey-eaters, we may venture a surmise as to what the parti-coloured objects are which produce the spotted eggs. ‘The eggs of these birds are of various shades of ground colour, white, buff, salmon, flesh-coloured, with small dots or flecks of purple, chestnut, reddish-brown, or even black. ‘The birds, as their name denotes, may be seen busily extracting the honey from the flowers by means of their long tongues. Familiarity with pale and warm-tinted flowers and with the dotted orange, red, purple, or black anthers, may possibly account for the coloration of this type of ege. Many birds which nest in trees or bushes have eggs which are of a pale or darker green ground hue, speckled or splashed over with olive or brown, reminding one of the different shades of the surrounding foliage, and, moreover, difficult to see from a distance through a bower of leaves. Such are the eggs of the crows, magpies, and crow-shrikes, the species of grauculus, the English black-birds, and the Australian mountain thrush and robins. In this case both origin and use of the colour are apparent. Kegs with irregular streaky lines of bizarre appearance are found in a few families. In England, the yellow-hammers and buntings are good examples. In Australia, we have the Pomatoston. ‘The eggs of the latter are about an inch long and three-quarters of an inch at the widest, olive-brown, with all kinds of hieroglyphic pencillings in black. Both families line their nests with hair, and the eggs are pretected by their resemblance to the lining of the nest. Gould simi- larly remarks, in speaking of the Victorian lyre-bird, “the colour resembles, in fact so closely, that of the feathers with which the nest is lined, that it is not easy to detect the egg.” Kegs of a pale bluish or greenish uniform tint are common. Such neutral tints are found in the grebes, cormorants, swans, ducks, and geese, the mangrove bitterns, the glossy ibis ; and attaining to the deepest and loveliest shade in the herons. Just as the hue of the eggs of the pheasants, &c., may have been suggested by that of mother earth ever before their eyes, so these tints of the water birds’ eggs may have arisen from the contemplation of vast sheets of water. 58 On the Production of Colour in Birds Eggs. and the consequent impression upon the mental organisation of the parents. This peculiarity of colour, too, has been of service in rendering the eggs less easy of detection, as being of neutral hues, or as resembling, more or less, the water around or near the nest. But the brightest blues of all occur, very exceptionally, in groups of birds of totally different habits, in no way adapted to an aquatic life. Such are, for instance, amongst English birds, the thrush and the starling, the hedge sparrow and lesser redpole, the wheatear, and to a less extent, the stone-chat and whin-chat. Amongst Australian birds, are those of the naturalised Indian or Ceylon mynah, the coach-whip bird, and the wedge-bill, and the species of Zosterops, a small family allied to the honey-eaters. Such examples, it is to be noted, are extremely scarce. It is difficult to surmise the causes which can have combined to produce this unique coloration. If the “motive” be pro- tection, it must fall under the general principle, that intruders are shy of the brightly coloured objects. Some support for this view may be derived from Mr. Bates’ well- known observations on deterrent colours amongst insects. lt is difficult, moreover, to discover a blue in the surround- ings of the birds, which could produce so pronounced a mental conception of this colour. It may be the blue of the butterflies on which they feed. It may be the blue of the aerial vault above. It would seem, if this second suggestion be the right one, that very few indeed of the birds have their attention attracted strongly by the azure of the skies, while they occupy their aerial homes. The eggs of the ostrich vie in colour with the pale yellow sand of the African desert, in which they are buried for the sake of incubation by the sun’s heat; but those of the emu, laid in the Australian bush, are, as every one knows, dark green. Here we have an indication that the Australian bush is not made up of yellow sandy deserts. The emu, in fact, scoops out a hole in the ground amongst low scrub, and contemplates eucalypts and salt-bush, and other dull vegeta- tion. Its egos are exposed and protected by their colour. The cassowary, laying and living amongst the bright green of the tropical grasses, and the vivid green of a more diversified tropical foliage, produces lighter and brighter green eggs. With the birds of prey the mental perception of habitual surroundings seems to have been intense (as might have been On the Production of Colour in Birds Eqgas. 59 gg expected from their known keenness of vision), and the influence upon the colouring of the eggs remarkable. The nests of the eagles, falcons, and hawks are large, and exposed on the tops of trees or on the ledges of lofty cliffs. The eggs are generally more or less blotched with rusty red, presenting a marked resemblance to old blood spots, such as the family are so well acquainted with. The nankeen kestrel breeds in spouts of trees, where, of course, the colour cannot be protective, yet the eggs retain the family peculiarity. Here we see natural selection apparently ruled out of court, and mental receptivity as the sole cause of the variations in the one specified direction. The eggs of the other members of the family are, from their situation, maccessible, and it therefore seems very questionable whether the factor of natural selection has operated at all in the case of the eggs of this group. We find very different degrees of development of the blotches. In one clutch of the sparrow-hawk (Accipiter torquatus) one ege was white, a second smudged, and the third well blotched. In a clutch of the goshawk (Astur approzimans), again, one egg was smudged, one smudged and blotched, and the other blotched. Similar gradations are to be observed in the average colour of the species. The eggs of the harriers (Circus), which lay on or near the ground, and generally among thick scrub, and those of the crested hawk (Baza subcristata), which builds in the holes of trees, are pure white ; and we have gradually more and more colour introduced, until the climax is reached by the brown hawks (Jeracidea berigora) and kestrels (Tinnunculus cenchroides). Great irregularity and much play of variation amongst individuals, characterise eggs, which derive their colour from changing and varying appearances. We obtain thus a natural explanation of the infinite variety of colouring in the egos of the rapacious birds, and of such birds as the magpies and the sparrows. Many birds continue to protect their eggs themselves, consciously or unconsciously. Some, as the partridge, will cover up the eggs when they leave the nest. The grebes lay eggs which are at first white, but become stained by mud from the body of the sitting mother bird, usually brown and gradually browner, a tint well in keeping with the colour of the nest, of the dead reeds and leaves. Many of 60 On the Production of Colour in Birds’ Eggs. the sea birds, too, by fouling their eggs, no doubt materially assist In preserving them. The English cuckoo commonly chooses the nests of larks or of wagtails for its egg. When found in the nest of a lark, especially of a tit-lark, the ege is very dark ; and when found in that of a wagtail, much lighter. This looks lke proof positive of the effect of mental impression in producmg the colour of the egg. More rarely, the ege of the cuckoo is found in other nests, such as that of the hedge sparrow. Jt is most likely that in this case, the cuckoo had in the course of nature laid its egg, and not being able to find an appropriate nest near, was driven to make use of that readiest to hand. For nothing could be more conspicuous than the contrast between the colours of the eggs. Our Victorian cuckoos are likewise eclectics. The pallid cuckoo | often plants its cream or flesh-coloured and spotted eggs in the nests of honey-eaters, the eggs of which its own thus resemble. The bronze cuckoo patronises the dome- shaped nests of little birds, in which the egg will not be seen, and into which it doubtless conveys its egg by means of the bill, for the cuckoo is much too large a bird to obtain entrance into the nest by the tiny opening which serves for the rightful owners. The brush and the narrow-billed cuckoos place their egos in the nests of superb warblers and acanthizas, and the eggs of both are white, with very fine dots. The subject it will be seen is as yet still entirely in the domain of observation. Experiments are wanting. It is to be hoped that they will be forthcoming. Opportunities exist, notably in the case of the domestic birds, and of birds which breed easily in confinement. But we must not expect too much, to be able to produce extreme effects. Mr. E. B. Poulton’s interesting series of experiments on the production of colour in the pupze of certain British Lepidoptera, show that the capacity for variation in each species is (for a single generation) limited, and that the variations tend in quite definite directions. It is probable, however, that results of sufficient, and perhaps in some cases of striking, interest are to be obtained by careful and systematic experimentation. And the field is open. Art, VIL—The Geology of the Portland Promontory, Western Victoria. By G. 8S. GriFFirus, F.G.8. [Read June 9, 1887.] The area which I propose to describe is a promontory, terminating in three bold rocky headlands, Capes Bridge- water, Nelson, and Grant, and two open bays, and these features jointly constitute one of the most southerly exten- sions of Australia. The town of Portland, which gives its name to this promontory, is situated on the eastern side of its neck. If we take a map of the locality, and run a line from Narrawong due west, until it cuts the beach at Discovery Bay, it will mark the base of the promontory, which we shall find to be about twenty-two miles across, while the length of its coast line is some sixty miles. The promontory is for the most part a low table land, which increases in height as we go from north to south, and which has bold bluffs for most of its sea margin. Where the coast is low, as it is between Whalers Bluff and Narrawong, the strand crosses the site of a former shallow arm of the sea, the bed of which has been elevated just sufficiently to form dry land, and the old margin of this ancient bay is formed in part of bold bluffs, similar to those which edge so much of the promontory. The surface of this tableland is very undulating, which characteristic 1s, on the south-western edge, largely due to the presence of sand dunes, and else- where is the result of unequal erosion. Its highest points ~ are Mount Richmond, 740 feet high, and the extinct Bridge- water volcano, 449 feet. IL.—Its EXTERNAL RELATIONS. From a geological point of view, the Portland Promontory is but a corner of a large area occupied by upraised seabeds of Tertiary age. Some time in the Eocene, if not before it, the south coast of Victoria and South Australia was depressed, and the ocean extended several great arms for considerable distances within the present shore line. One 62 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, of these gulfs stretched from near Adelaide to near Geelong, and occupied a great part of the valley of the Lower Murray. The Grampians and the Otway Ranges were islands in this tertiary sea. Miocene marine beds are exposed in the banks of the Murray at the north-west bend, and in the cliffs of the south coast, in patches from the head of the Australian Bight to Western Port, and a snow-white horizontal stratum of that formation is visible in the craters of some of the volcanoes which stud the centre of the region. These miocene beds rest unconformably upon mezozoic rocks at Cape Otway ; upon paleozoic rocks in South Australia; and upon both of these formations at different points around the Grampians. They are nearly everywhere covered by beds of a more recent age, and at Portland, the miocene rock forms the base-course of the cliffs. The area having been covered with marine deposits, was then raised sufficiently to expose them to view, and these, with others of zolian or volcanic origin, which are super- imposed, will form the subjects of this sketch. Jl.—TwHE PoRTLAND PROMONTORY. In this locality the undermentioned formations are exposed, but I would remark, that no single section any- where contains all the members : Recent.—The sand dunes of the coast; the marine sands and clays of Narrawong Bay; the marine shell bed of Nelson; the latest lava flows of the Bridgewater volcano. Pleistocene.—The false bedded or eolian limestone; the lower lava flows of Bridgewater. Pliocene.—The lava flows of Nelson, and the lowest flows, with the bedded volcanic ash, of Bridgewater. Upper Miocene or Upper Murravian.—The oyster bed of Whaler’s Bluff; the lava flows of Portland Bay. Lower Miocene or Lower Murravian.—tThe foraminiferous limestone, or chalk with flints, of Portland Bay. Ii1.—TuHeE MIocENE FORMATIONS. The foraminiferous limestone, or chalk with flints. This rock is a conspicuous feature in the cliffs at Portland. The Western Victoria. 63 exposed portion forms a syncline about two miles long, the crest of which rises some thirty feet or so above the beach at the Whaler’s Bluff, whilst the extremities dip out of sight at the lighthouse to the south, and at the Narrawong siding to the north. The upper edge of the synclinal fold has a serrated appearance, probably due to the slipping down of masses of the much decomposed miocene basalt, which forms the upper portion of the cliff. The rock is a snow-white material, moderately hard, but friable, and very porous. Its matrix is a chalky dust, a mass of microscopic foraminifera, which have been identified as being for the most part, globerigina bulloides, and orbulina universa. There is with these an abundant admixture of bryozoa, echini, pectens, terebratellee, and pteropods, all more or less broken, and an occasional fishbone. The coarser ingredients are often arranged in layers one or two inches thick, and of considerable horizontal extent. These layers. stand out in a slight relief on the cliff face, and this seems to be due to the presence in them of great numbers of siliceous organisms, which afford, by thei partial decom- position, a siliceous cement, less affected by weathering than the calcareous cement which elsewhere binds the mass. This chalk-like limestone is overlaid, conformably as it seems, by a bed composed principally of oyster shells (Ostrea Sturtiana). Owing to the talus of loose decomposed lava from overhead, it is not easy to say what may be the exact thickness of this bed, but I think that it probably averages a foot. These two formations, the limestone and the oyster bed, weather more slowly than the volcanic rock above them, and consequently, the cliff face, where it is built up of these different materials, presents a section having a marked character. The portion composed of lava, slopes at an angle of about forty degrees, while that of limestone is almost vertical. (See Sketch H.) These formations (the limestone and the oyster bed) are exposed at the surface only in one locality, that of the Borough of Portland. The outcrop there extends from the Courthouse, along the Cliff Road, to the bridge at the mouth of the Wattle Hill Creek, a distance of about a quarter of a mile, and thence it runs inland up the valley, for about a mile. The creek has cut through a great thickness of volcanic rock, and it has eroded to a small 64: The Geology of the Portland Promontory, extent the underlying chalk limestone; thus the exposure of the latter at this spot is to be accounted for. Although the chalk-limestone dips under foot at the Portland lighthouse, and is not again visible until the South Australian border is approached, yet there is evidence of its continuity. It must outcrop in the sea bed, not far beyond low water mark, and that frequently, for flints derived from it are plentiful on the beach as far as I went, viz., up to the east end of Discovery Bay. At Danger Point I found, thrown up on the lava rocks, a block of this chalk, about 20 Ibs. in weight. The mass was clasped by the roots of a thick fucus (macrocystis pyrifera). Probably the seaweed had been violently torn up in some storm, and being very tough, it had wrenched the block of chalk, on which it had grown, out of its sea bed, and then had, by its great buoyancy, floated it ashore. Again at Bridgewater, there isa stratum of pure white colour, which forms a most conspicuous undulating stripe along the cliff face, for it is sandwiched in between ash-beds of a dark brown or buff colour. It is about five inches thick. It appeared to be the ejected powdery débris of a chalk substratum, that had been drilled through as the vent of the volcano was being formed. There can be little doubt but that the rock occurs there at a comparatively shallow depth. Investigations by the Rev. Julian Woods and Professor Tait, into the fossils of these formations, and of their exten- sions along the coast and elsewhere, place the oyster beds in Upper, and the foraminiferous limestone in the Lower the Murravian series—-respectively the equivalents of the Upper and Lower Miocene. IV.—TuHeE Voutcanic Rocks. Rocks of volcanic origin cover a large portion of the Promontory. The most considerable accumulation occurs along the south-west shore of Portland Bay. It extends from Cape Grant to the Narrawong siding; thence it turns to the north-west, or inland ; its thinned edge crosses the railway line near the nine mile post ; it overlaps Bat’s ridges on the north side of them; and then it dips under the falsebedded limestone at the Black Gully on the Bridge- water road. Probably there are outliers of this much eroded rock outside of this area, just as there are small patches of the underlying limestone exposed within it. Western Victoria. 65 The Rev. Julian Woods thought that this lava flowed from a crater situated where isolated rocks now form the group known as the Laurence Rocks. I know of no facts inimical to this theory, and the circumstance that the lava beds thin out as they recede from that neighbourhood is in its favour. I searched carefully for elongated vesicles in the lava, as evidence of the direction of its flow, but could find none 7 situ, though I saw them in many of the loose boulders, where they were valueless tome. It is right to say, that Mr. Dennant, F.G.S., questions this view, on the ground that the Laurence Rocks are capped with limestone and not with ash, as asserted by Mr. Woods. As I did not visit the islets, I cannot say which of these authorities gives the correct facts, but 1t seems to me that such a low vent might easily have become covered up with a limestone deposit subsequently, and, therefore, I think that Mr. Woods may be right in his theory as to the location of the crater, even if he should prove to have been wrong as to the nature of the capping. The lava of this area is in some places at least 150 feet in depth, but the mass is built up of an enormous number of separate flows. These vary in thickness from one to ten feet. The beds are lenticular in transverse section, and none that I saw were more than 100 yards wide. They are bedded more or less horizontally. The thickness of the whole mass varies greatly within short distances, and I think that much of this inequality is due to aqueous erosion, for the most marked differences occur in the neighbourhood of the existing or of the sites of former watercourses. The biggest of these have but a feeble flow now, though it is likely that during some portion of the post-miocene period their streams were of a much greater volume than they are to-day, and consequently, that they then had much more power. This eroding action has been further promoted by the fact that the coast edge has been rising rather faster than the parts inland; for just as a circular Saw cannot cut into a log unless the latter be pushed against it, so a stream, that has reached its base-level of erosion, cannot deepen its channel, unless the latter is being raised so as constantly to expose a lower stratum of of its floor to the scour. The south-east margin of this peninsula has cockled up, but the flowing water has preserved its channel by cleaving the rim to sea level. E 66 The Geology of the Portland Promontory. In places the lava lies immediately upon the miocene shell bed, but I did not detect any changes in the latter, such as are usually caused by contact with heated masses. I was much struck with the great differences in colour, degree of hardness, vesicularity, decomposition, and thickness of bedding, displayed by the lava within short distances. Woods has tested the rock, and he assigns to it the following composition :— Si. O, oe ia Ne ‘60 Fe. O. “ee ae ne 20 ATO. om ats ee 10 Ca. O. | Mg. 6. atts wae ae ‘10 FeO: 1-00 He terms it an augitic or doleritic lava, and it seems to me that it might equally well be called an andesite. A fine grained yellow, slightly vesicular and very decom- posed lava occurs in a little bay immediately south of the lighthouse. It is found at, and a little above, the low water level, and its softness probably accounts for the formation of the little bay. Similar flows occur at the sea level in all the indentations between this bay and Danger Point, and I noticed that wherever the coast juts out the rock at the sea level is a dark durable lava. The yellow lava appeared to me to be of a more acid nature than the darker kinds, for it preserves its light colour even where it is very hard and undecomposed. At Black Nose Point the rock is a dark © massive hard basalt, and it is so very vesicular that a gas cavity, which I measured, had a major axis 18 inches long and a minor one measuring 12 inches; and I saw many others as large as it. A tiny rivulet enters the sea near to this point, and thereabouts the cliffs lose their height, and then the coast forms a low double shelf. (See Sketch K.) A pebble ridge extends from this place to Danger Point, a distance of one mile. The boulders are of basalt, with an abundant admixture of rolled blocks of volcanic ash, and fiints. The ash may come from the Laurence Rocks, one mile to seaward of the ridge; but if it does not, it is hard to say whence it is derived, as there is no other deposit of the material, known to me, nearer to it than Cape Bridgewater, which must be 15 miles distant. This volcanic formation Western, Victoria. 67 dips out of sight under pleistocene limestone about two miles to the west of Cape Grant. Another volcanic flow occurs at Cape Nelson. The traveller from Portland strikes the south end of Nelson Bay, at a point about two miles from the lighthouse. He there finds himself standing on the brink of an amphi- theatre of limestone cliffs, almost vertical, and in height from 150 to 200 feet. The beach which fringes the centre of the bay disappears towards its two seaward extremities, and here the lofty cliffs are undercut by the waves. Hereabouts also, there is a slight bend in the line of cliff, low down on the salient angle, of which a bed of black lava is a conspicuous feature in the buff coloured wall. It is about three or four feet thick ; it appears to be about thirty feet above the sea level, and it dips inland, 7¢., to the south-west, at an angle of about six degrees. The same bed re-appears in the next jutting point, which is distant about 300 yards to the south. A second flow appears below it, some twenty feet thick of limestone lying between the two beds. The bottom flow forms the base of the cliff Here again, the dip of the flow is inland (south-west), but the angle is about ten degrees. (See sketch T.) As the clifis were inaccessible, [ had to make my observa- tions from above, at a distance of about 250 yards. The lava again creeps up the cliff from under foot as we proceed south, and it forms its base, from this pot outwards, all round the cape. I was able to descend and examine it only at one point, and that was under the hghthouse. The cliff there is 180 feet high. The upper 100 feet consists of a current bedded calcareous sand- stone (termed by me limestone, for brevity), and the lower 80 feet of black lava, the latter formation apparently sub- dividing again into two major divisions, each akout 40 feet thick, and each made up of several flows. The lava forms two platforms, and the cliff bas a profile shown in the sketch. (See sketch M.} The under surface of the limestone is as level as a shelf, and in some places, it projects over the lava as much as 20 and 25 feet. (See sketch J.) The latter weathers the faster of the two rocks, and its face is tattooed with the concentric rings of brown and yellow, characteristic of the decay of lava. From the centres of many of these boulders nodules of darker rock project, and a great number of F 2 68 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, greenish-white zeolites stud the surface of the lava, standing out in bold relief. Streams of hard water leak out at the junction of the two formations. These have coated much of the lava with a crust of slippery magnesian travertine. Its colour varies between shades of dirty brown and dirty green, but these tints may be due to the growth of microscopic plants on the moistened surfaces. Every pool in the upper rocks has a margin of lime crystals, due to the evaporation of this hard water. As the water drips from the limestone cornice it forms stalactites, the white forms of which, being relieved by the shadow cast behind them by the deep ledge, stand out as a rude dog-tooth moulding along the junction. (See sketch V.) The step-like profile of the cliff indicates a change in the sea level. Volcanic rock appears to underlie the whole of this cape. It dips under limestone in Bridge- water as in Nelson Bay, but what its northerly extension under the limestone may be, it is impossible to say. The third occurrence of volcanic rocks within this area is at Cape Bridgewater. The dunes end, and bold hills begin, at the west end of Bridgewater Bay, half way between Vance’s and McKinlay’s. At the point where the fishermen’s undercliff road starts, smooth wave-worn tabular rocks peep up through the sand of a wide beach, between the high and low water marks. These are stratified ash beds of a buff colour, but they are speckled with minute black cinders. The layers are each from one to four inches thick, and the tint of each is proportioned to the abundance of the cinders. On the beach one hundred yards south of these ash beds other smoothed rocks crop up, but they are composed of a dark hard lava. Immediately beyond these rocks, beds of both ash and lava are to be seen in the face of the cliff. The ash here is intensely hard, and is very massively bedded. The colour of the upper part is buff, and that of the lower is brown, and the upper edge of the brown bed forms a syncline. The dip of the beds varies both in angle and direction within short distances. The angle of those first seen does not exceed ten degrees, and their dip is north- east; but near McKinlay’s (half a mile further south) the dip is first east, then east south-east, while their angle has risen to 40°. The ash begins to contain larger scoria as we go south, and these have their vesicles filled with amygdules. The upper edge of the ash is some 25 feet above the beach, and the upper part of the bold cliff is composed of the false-bedded limestone, first noticed at Cape Nelson. Western Victoria. 69 At the fishermen’s huts, the limestone rests directly on the lava, but it is unaltered along the plane of contact. About a quarter of a mile south of the fishermen’s huts the cliff shows an interesting section. At the top there is about 40 feet of limestone, then 30 feet of thick bedded lava, 3 feet of olive green ash, in thin layers, then eight or nine distinct shallow flows of black slaggy lava ; and under these 5 or 6 feet of olive green bedded ash, and then the face is marked by a bouldery beach. The special feature of the section is the lower lava flow. The nine thin beds of the latter form a mass crescentic in section, with the horns pointing slightly downwards. It is about 20 feet thick in the centre, and at a distance of 50 feet on either side of the central point it tapers out. No parting material separates the several flows; the lowest lies conformably upon an ash bed, and is tolerably compact, but the top one has a slaggy scoriaceous surface. The south edge of the flow is truncated, by the cliff turning sharply to the west, so as to give a section of it almost at a right angle to that just described. In this longitudinal section the lava and ash beds are seen to have a dip to the east of forty degrees. (See sketches X' and X*) About 50 yards south of the crescentic-sectioned lava beds, the ash beds are traversed by a vertical lava dyke, which, emerging from the sea, rises to a height of about fifty feet. It is composed of two slabs of about equal size, the total thickness of the dyke being about two feet; its strike is north-east and south-west. The ash beds are darker for a few inches on either side of it, as if they were somewhat burnt. Mr. Dennant has recently stated, that this dyke joins the overlying basalt, and his paper contains a drawing showing such a junction. After a very careful examination of the cliff, I must say that I could see no such confluence. The dyke tapers toa point at the top, and terminates in the ash at a considerable distance beneath the lava. There may bea junction, nevertheless, though it is not visible in the section. To the south of the dyke most of the cliffs rose sheer out of deep water, and could not be reached. Examined through a glass, they presented a solid smooth wall of ash 250 feet high, and nearly vertical. It will be noticed, that between the first place of appearance of the ash and this point, a distance of half a mile, the ash beds have increased in thickness from 5 feet to 250 feet, and their dip has increased from ten to forty degrees. The cinders contained in the ash have 70 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, increased from the size of peas up to that of blocks a foot long. At some points I noticed pseudo-dykes in the ash, formed of a sort of soapstone. Having ascended the cliffs from the fishermen’s huts, I found that the limestone disappeared about half way up the hill, at about 200 feet above sea level, and lava, weathered into boulders, then showed through the turf When nearly over the dyke, I found that the hill rose inland from the cliff edge very steeply. Its crest is a few hundred feet distant from the cliff edge, and it has an altitude of 449 feet. Over an area of six or seven acres the surface is a mass of rugged lava. Immediately to the north of this outcrop is a a slight hollow or dell, in extent about one acre. This depression may be the nearly obliterated vent of a small and much decayed volcanic cone. A lava flow extends from the rocky crest towards the south-west; it is about a chain wide and a quarter of a mile long, and it does not reach the sea. This flow has a quite fresh look, and it is the only one within this area that I have seen, which has such a very recent appearance. Both the strike of the lava dyke and the dip of the lenticular lava bed are directed towards this crater. The dip of the ash beds from a point near Vance’s up to Cape Bridgewater forms a series of radial lines, which centre here also, and if the strikes of the several beds were worked out, I believe that they would form segments of circles grouped around this hill. About a mile south from the crest of this extinct volcano, the cliffs, from trending south-east, turn abruptly to the west. This corner forms Cape Bridgewater. Directly the cape is rounded the ash beds dip steeply to the north-east, and disappear under level bedded lava flows, which then form the whole height of the cliff. A mile to the west this cliff is 150 feet high perpendicular, and built up of level layers of solid lava, as regular in their courses as mason work. A thin stratum of the false-bedded limestone and some loose sand cap the whole. (See sketch P.) At Liddle’s Watering Place, a spot some three miles north-west of the crater, the cliffs are 130 feet high ; the lava portion being about 70 feet, and the limestone 60 feet thick. The lava is hard and dark, and occurs in rude hexagonal columns. It has been cut into two well-marked wide platforms, and the upper one is greatly encrusted with travertine, deposited by the calcareous springs. (See sketch R.) Western Victoria. 71 It will be noticed that the height of the lava in the cliffs just west of Cape Bridgewater is 150 feet. At Liddle’s it is only 70 feet, and at White’s, only a mile away, it disappears altogether under the limestone, which, appearing at the Cape as a layer a foot or so through, becomes 60 feet thick at Liddle’s, and is still deeper at White’s. Therefore it appears to me, that this cinder cone was breached on its south-west side, at the extreme point of Cape Bridgewater, where the wall of ash ends abruptly, leaving a chasm which was then filled to its brim with lava flows. I set down the ages of these volcanic rocks as being pliocene, pleistocene, and recent. At Portland the extremely decomposed and oldest flows lie conformably upon the Upper Miocene oyster beds. At Nelson Bay a lava bed is intercalated between beds of limestone of pleistocene age, and at the Bridgewater crater a great thickness of rock is crowned by a little lava flow, already described, which looks as fresh as if it had welled out but afew years ago, although the lower flows dip under the pleistocene limestone. V.—THE PLEISTOCENE, OR FALSE-BEDDED EOLIAN LIMESTONE. This is the most extensive formation exposed in this district, and its position upon the western or windward side of the promontory, challenges attention when we are con- sidering its mode of origin. The rock is a moderately compact breccia, composed of broken marine organisms, mainly shells, cemented together by a calcareous paste, which is coloured by iron oxides. These latter give to the strata various shades of red, yellow, and grey. ‘The stone appears to harden with exposure, and this probably is the result of the more complete solidification of the external portions, by the infilling of all the interstices of that part of the breccia, with travertine, supplied by the soakage through it of rain and spray, carrying carbonic acid. The composition of the rock seems to vary slightly from point to point, for Mr. Woods describes it as containing lime, magnesia, and silica, with traces of sesqui-oxide of iron, and sulphate of lime, while Mr. Dennant says that it is a carbonate of lime, with four per cent. of silica. The formation is composed of beds from 10 to 20 feet thick, and these are disposed horizontally. They are all 72 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, markedly false or current bedded, the minor laminations ~ being about two inches thick, and seldom longer than 15 or 20 feet. The latter dip in all directions, and at all angles up to about thirty degrees. Mr. Dennant asserts that their dip is often gud-qua-versal, though I cannot confirm this statement. 1 understand, that a dip to be qua- qua-versal, must slope from a centre, but I have discovered none that were so arranged; still, if the term may be stretched to describe strata which, being contiguous, dip in all directions, but which nevertheless, have no relation to any common centre, then I can admit that it is applicable in this case. Another statement made by Mr. Dennant is, that the laminations of the strata are “always parallel to the bedding planes.” My observations failed to discover any example of this parallelism. ‘The laminations were at an oblique angle to the bedding planes in all the sections that I saw, and I noticed that nearly everystratum was characterised by a mean angle of dip peculiar to itself, and that this mean angle was persistent in the same stratum, over long distances. The section at Liddle’s Watering Place is an interesting example of this peculiarity. (See Sketch R.) The formation is very barren of fossils, but Professor Tate has discovered in the South Australian extension of the deposit, land shells at various depths. Upon the evidence afforded by these land shells, the rock has been pronounced to be of an eolian origin. Mr. Dennant believes that it is a mass of consolidated sand dunes, and states that the outline and structure of the original dunes are displayed in some of the cliffs, but I have not been able to recognise them, even in the “ Cloven Rock,” the locality which he instances. The stratification of the rock, as illustrated by the Liddle’s Water- ing Place section, is I think, incompatible with the view that the formation consists of sand dunes merely consolidated, for there, each stratum has its own horizontally arranged peculiarities of colour and lamination, a feature which is not illustrated in the sections of any sand dunes that I have seen, and which could not be produced, as far as I know, where the materials accumulate upon the undulating surfaces assumed by blown sand. | It may be said that the horizontal bedding planes are merely divisional joints, due to changes in the materials occurring subsequent to their deposit. Were such their origin then, the false bedding would, as often as not, pass Western, Victoria. 73 out of one stratum into the next, and the colouring matter would be distributed without reference to the lines of joint. Now, I have already said that each pair of bedding planes enframes its own pattern of dip, and that it outlines a particular tint. Such a linear distribution of these features must indicate a different age, and a separate, though other- wise similar origin for each stratum in the formation, and if this deduction be allowed, then it must also be admitted that the rock cannot be merely consolidated sand dune. The embedded land shells would appear to indicate that its origin must be eolian, but it seems to be equally clear, that the several strata must have been, ab origine, so many distinct formations deposited at different times, and under conditions which, although mainly similar, were variable in some minor respects. It seems to me that each of these rock courses is but the truncated remnant of a separate generation of sand dunes, a thin horizontal slice of their confluent hardened bases. What agency is there that could grind down such mammillated deposits, until but a a thin veneer of the material of each one is left? The only one known to me is that of the sea, assisted by repeated slight land oscillations. Rapid and repeated changes in the sea level are not improbable occurrences upon a coast line which is studded with volcanic craters, and scarred with raised beaches. The latter phenomena testify to a condition of unstable equilibrium existing between the subterranean forces, which would account for the mobility of its surface, and would explain its alternate emergence and immersion ; its burial under a beach drift at one period, and its dis- appearance under a shallow sea at another. This limestone deposit does not appear to be a thick one, for many years ago, two bores were put through it in a search after coal in Nelson Bay. The records of the strata passed through appear to have been lost, but Mr. Must, who with the Messrs. Henty, controlled the enterprise, tells me that the first bore was sunk on the top of the limestone cliff, and that it was stopped by basalt. The second one was started on a ledge which occurs low down in the face of the cliff The rod passed through the limestone into a thin stratum of red sandstone, and then through beds of red and blue clay. It was stopped in the latter at a total depth of only seventy feet. This would give 250 feet as the thickness of the limestone at this point, and this is probably as thick as it is anywhere. No basalt 74 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, was met with in the second bore, and no chalk, although it is likely that the latter would have been reached within a short distance further down, as elsewhere, a shallow deposit of red and blue clays overlies it.* For instance, a Mr. Smith has sunk to obtain water in his strawberry garden, near to the Bridgewater Road, and within the Borough of Portland. He tells me that after passing through beds of red and blue clay, and then through a shell bed, the bore entered the chalk, and struck water at a depth of thirty feet. At this spot there is no eolian lLme- stone, and the surface stratum is a very thin deposit of decomposed lava. The centre of the Portland Promontory is occupied by a low range of hills, known as Bat’s Ridges. These hills are an extension of this limestone formation, and they are perforated by many caves, some of which are of consider- able length. Professor Tate has assigned this limestone for- mation to the pleistocene period, and while the Rev. Julian Woods says that it is pliocene, Mr. Dennant describes it as “* Recent.” VI.— THE RECENT FORMATIONS—THE SAND DUNES. Sand dunes occur in long narrow strips, bordering those portions of the coast which are exposed to the strong south westerly winds which prevail here. Their spread inland appears to me to be an exceedingly recent movement, due to artificial causes. Mr. Kennedy who has resided at Bridgewater for forty years, tells me that when first he came to the district, the sand dunes were very much narrower than they are now, and that their surfaces were then bound down by various grasses. These began to be eaten down when cattle were introduced, and the coastwise traffic commencing simultaneously, the dray wheels destroyed the roots left by the cattle, and so let loose the sand. By these means the surface features of the parts adjacent to the coast have been greatly altered of late years. The dunes are composed of comminuted shells, mixed with a little siliceous sand. The materials are coarser than those which compose the false-bedded limestone, and they * Had these operations been conducted under the direction of any one with geological knowledge, the bore would have been started in the neighbourhood of the Botanical Gardens, at Portland, in the chalk. The money was wasted in putting a bore through the limestone at Nelson Bay. Western Victoria. 75D are considerably coarser than the sand now on the beach at the spots where I took samples for comparison, but Mr. Dennant tells me that he has found beach sand in the locality of a very similar character. Where the dunes have been breached I saw some very faint traces of bedding, the layers being about two inches thick. I saw no horizontal divisions, and no linear arrange- ment of either dip or colour, such as characterises the false-bedded limestone. On the contrary, all the material seemed to be perfectly homogeneous and almost structureless at every level that 1 could examine it. VII.—MaARINE BeEpDs, BRIDGEWATER. On the summit of the Cape Nelson cliffs, 180 feet above sea level, the limestone is partly covered by a sand bed, which originally may have been three or four feet thick, but which is now so far blown away that only wind-swept and smoothed knolls are left. All these knolls are capped by a bed of recent shells, two or three inches thick. A similar shell bed occurs further inland, as for instance where the Bridgewater road crosses a little rivulet opposite to Wilson’s farm. This spot must be two miles from the beach and about 175 feet above sea level. The vehicular traffic has cut trenches into the soil and these expose shallow sections. These show a stratum of shells a few inches below the surface. The shell bed rests upon a shallow sand bed, and this lies upon the pleistocene limestone. As the road winds round and over the hills, this bed is noticed closely following their contours, indicating that they are parts of the bed of a sea or lake which has disappeared. I noticed upon the crests and sides of many of the hills, patches of a much whiter and denser limestone. These may be deposits of travertine, due to the oozing out of drainage waters, which have now, from some cause, ceased to flow; but I understand Mr. Woods to say, that they are marine deposits, formed when these rocks were the bed of a shallow sea, and that he has found marine fossils in them. These marine deposits have suggested to me that, at the time when the land stood 200 feet lower than it does now, and when these hills were just immersed, that then high lava cliffs probably extended as a sea wall or break- water for some miles to the south of the present coast line. 76 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, That these cliffs were somewhere breached so as to admit the sea over the lower land behind them, and thus an inland sea was created, resembling, in the form of its sea wall, Port Phillip Bay, Port Jackson, or the Gippsland Lakes. In the quiet waters of such a closed-in sea, the undulating surfaces of the limestone hills, with their shelly investiture, might have been preserved intact. Similar shaped banks now occur in Port Phillip Bay, especially towards the Heads, and they are known to be similarly covered with shells. The slowly retreating waters of Port Phillip Bay are to-day leaving behind them, all round its shores, shell beds in nowise different in appearance from those on the hills and cliffs of Nelson and Bridgewater. These shell beds are intermediate in age between the pleistacene limestone and the recent dunes. VIIJ.—MarineE BeEps, BoLWARRA. Between Portland and Narrawong the cliffs recede inland. Alluvial flats, crossed by low sand ridges, take the place of the bold hills of lava and limestone. A very old resident of Portland, Mr. Douglass, to whom I am considerably indebted for local information, tells me that a farmer living on these flats has bored for water. The rod passed through many beds of drift sand, mud, and clay, and reached a depth of 100 feet without meeting with any indication of a bed- rock. From the nature of these beds, I judge that the locality was once the site of an arm of the sea, and the present contour of the land suggests that, in the immediate past, a narrow strait cut off the bold extremity of the Portland promontory from the main land, leaving it a small, steep-sided, volcanic island. IX.—TuHe RAIsED BEACHES AND THE SEA CAVES. All along this coast there is evidence of much recent — change in the sea level. On the Portland beach, in front of the Court House, the chalk cliffs are undercut, showing that the waves once reached them. The entire cliff face is vertical, and is so sharply cut and so slightly weathered, that much time cannot have elapsed since this happened ; but the grass-grown sand heaps at their bases indicate that the sea has retreated. Western Victoria. 77 Nearly opposite to the south end of this cliff, a boulder bed bars the creek mouth, the boulders of which have probably accumulated in comparatively deep water. Now, however, it forms a grass-grown ridge, about 6 feet high, and permanently out of the. water, so “that houses have been built upon it. The sea is now removing this spit by cutting it backwards. Mr. Pile, a shipping agent long resident at Portland, assures me that a shallowing movement has been continuous, rapid, and marked along the south coast for many years ast, The local fishermen say that many well-known rocks, to reach which they had to wade through the surf thirty years ago, are now high and dry ; and the masters of the coasting steamers declare that, from the Otway westward, the sound- ings are getting shoaler. And there is other evidence which shows that an upward movement of the land, or the retreat of the ocean, has a considerable antiquity. For instance, in the sloping face of the cliff, underneath the Portland light- house, I found a bed of recent shells 2 feet thick (sandwiched between beds of decomposed basalt, which are evidently only so much talus), and situated about 30 feet above sea level. (See sketch I.) Between Blacknose and Danger Points, there is a raised beach, about one chain wide, and this also is about 30 feet above sea level. It is covered with a growth of large ti-tree and shrubs. (See sketch K.) In Nelson Bay, the limestone cliffs are from 150 to 200 feet high, and nearly perpendicular. At a considerable height above the beach, there is a shelf which runs for miles. It is quite a chain wide in many parts and it is well covered with trees and shrubs. (See Sketch L.) At Cape Nelson there are two well defined platforms cut out of the basalt, one at about 10 feet, and the other at about 30 feet above sea level. (See Sketch M.) As Bridgewater is approached by the road, the country is ridged and furrowed with rolling hills, mostly parallel with the beach. Half a mile east of Vance’s the road enters a trough formed by two of these land rolls. The seaward ridge seems to be merely a sand dune, but the inland one, presents to the road a vertical wall of limestone, undercu into caves. I estimate that the base of this cliff must be quite 20 feet above sea level, and be seven chains distant from high-water mark. This is an old sea cliff, and its 78 The Geology of the Portland Promontory, appearance is best shewn in the sketch and section. (See Sketches S! and S?) At Cape Bridgewater a wide flat platform occurs in the hard ash beds some three or four feet above low water level; it has once been quite a mile long, but it has been oreatly broken down. It is now 50 feet wide in places, and it is level in a striking degree. (See Sketch O.) At Liddle’s watering place there are two ledges in the basalt, one about five feet, and another at about 25 feet above sea level. (See Sketch R.) | All these platforms are now disappearing. The action of the sea at its present level is highly destructive of the lower ones, and in the very act of breaking them down it is carving out a still lower shelf some 15 or 20 feet below those which are being destroyed. In consequence of this action, the ledges everywhere are more or less breached; in many places they have been almost entirely removed, and the remnant form ragged edged, but broad flanges along the cliff foot. Another evidence of the altered levels is supplied by the caves at Bridgewater. They occur only in the cliffs which are composed of volcanic ash. The largest one is situated at the extreme point of this Cape, which it drills through. My examination of it was hurried by the nature of the weather, so that I had not time to measure its dimensions, but I should say, that it is about 300 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 40 feet high. At low water the floor of the south or ocean end is three feet above the tide, and that of the north or Bridgewater Bay end, has then about four feet of water over its sill. The sea flows into the cave for a distance of about 70 feet in ordinary weather, and the waves break upon a steeply inclined beach of sand and shingle. Fifty yards west of this cave there is another one which is about 50 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 10 feet high near the entrance. It is situated about 30 feet above sea level, and its mouth is almost closed up with grass-grown cliff-talus. The upper end of the cavern is full of large and sinall water-worn boulders. The fishermen told me that the — cave mouth had been choked with fallen rock as I saw it, during all the twenty-five years of their residence at the Cape. A third cave, known as the water cave, lies immediately north of the big cave. Its floor is still so deep under water Western Victoria. 79 that in fine weather the rollers do not break when they enter it. I judge that the depth of water must be 20 feet. A fourth cave, near by, is three or four feet above high water mark, and it is so dry that the fishermen have lived in it for months at a time. The positions of these caverns relative to the sea level, point to a still proceeding elevatory movement of the coast. The big cave must have been quite 20 feet lower when the ocean carved it out. The second of those described is now far out of reach of the waves. It must have stood 50 feet lower than it does to day, when the grind of the surf bored it out of the rock, and ages may have passed since its rolled stones were last wet with the surf. The fisherman’s cave must have altered its level by 24 feet, but the great water cave is still in the course of erosion having its floor about 20 feet beneath the sea surface, and its roof 15 feet above it. Every lift of the sea must roll the grinding shingle upon its floor, and, in rough weather, the air suction due to the draw-back, must be an enormous force, quite sufficient to drag out of its walls every block of stone that the battering of the breakers has loosened. While the existence of these raised beaches is evidence of an upward movement, the occurrence of exceedingly deep water at the very foot of some of the cliffs is an indication that the present elevatory movement was immediately pre- ceded by a considerable depression. If we take the Admiralty chart and note the soundings we shall see that the cliffs on the east side of Cape Grant have their bases in 72 feet of water. They rise almost sheer from that great depth. The soundings and the outlying rocks show that the present line of cliffs does not represent the original southern edge of the lava flow. That margin lay out in the offing. Its present position is due to the fact that the cliff has been cut back by the sea. The rocky floor, now 70 feet deep under water, must once have been at least 50 feet higher, to allow the waves to operate upon the mass out of which its precipices have been carved. Since that time there has been a down- ward movement, and an upward one, the latter of which has long been in progress, and has, moreover, been varied by several periods of rest. CONCLUSION. It may be noticed, that my sketch map differs materially from the Geological map issued by the Government. I might 80 The Geology of the Portland Promontory. say, that before I commenced the task of preparing mine, to avoid going over ground already occupied, I took the precaution of asking at the office of the Geological Survey Department what data it possessed in relation to the Portland promontory. In reply to this enquiry I was told that the Government Geological Surveyors had not visited it, and that the department had no official records of its character, nor any plans of the district. My map does not pretend to be more than a first sketch. Before it can be complete many details will have to be filled in, and some parts of the boundaries of the formations on the north-western base of the promontory may be modified, as the result of a fuller examination. In the mean time, if it should point out an interesting field of work to other geologists, it will have served its purpose. Art. VII—On the value of J, and the value of g. By Proressor H. M. AnpRew, M.A. [See Proceedings, page 91.] Art. VIII —Note on the Proposed Photographic Charting of the Heavens. By R. L. J. Evuery, F.RS., F.R.AS. [ See Proceedings, page 93.] COS TOEAN EN) 5 STEROID Ba SSO eee ey = —— iT | Pertland ht, ls. “Natlekvdl dt doubt. heal. Sn Iborpua. Waters tiluf, ‘ P eS ane HOG a ee = ip PANG . ie ———EEE = SS Wk PAG, i == EE g ——— - — —— —— Ss 5S ae Le IO) Ups LY a) AG ———— = ——_ SSS xa LSS eee == TESS ae “aore" ee 3) = SS Se we PS ASA DALGP M L as & Tidgeoalin “bo Arann Nero He. | Fore, toape Yuan; Manger He Halls s Waites Liddle Kenrudys dolinol bh. A: Ahinlay. » Lanews 4s 4ufedho ih. 5 THE PORTLAN PROMONTORT Kieast, Section yum ok 4o Dusenvery hay abeul Ap le wf A PL. = ES Lad. rae thishene Sirmestene RRR Noh D umes aE Micceiie hyoti hal ES foleanic LE] Avivene-bhalh, HE] ee (Edad dunes 51 Secon Avarine iam LH sendonos<_. the anew heads onthe coast be Lottevedythub, rH ,refar bs Aectional dramas. ae GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP OF THE PIATLAND PROMONTORY SCALE TWO MILES TOTHE INCH | 48 Grafh EGS. etl, a Pe a ishlon, | See eee, 2 | (CLIFF PROFILES amd RAISED BEACHES, PORTLAND PROM™®. snl of Zo E = Dl H i K emo way the Cathe ly: fo neh | nd tyrone) A. ; hi Weg t two miles Nb. of bape elton haghthous bach, a em =e fitied Baad at ae psa Bridqueraler fay . Forteclion sexs “< ‘ 1S, Dui lhe . E - — ation nrowiteol, wuhtrarrvine ; = er Lia ded. AA tata PROCEEDINGS. . | ; : ; ss ae r sd *, : : 1887. PROCHKEDINGS. ROYAL SOCIETY: OF VICTORIA. |N.B.—The remarks and speeches in the discussions are taken down verbatim by a shorthand writer, and afterwards written out at length with a typewriter, for reference and repro- duction, if required; and therefore, more is seldom given herein than an indication of their general drift. If any person should wish to refer to the verbatim report, he can apply to the Secretary to the Society, who will give him an opportunity of transcribing it; or if he reside at a distance, so much as he requires will, upon payment of the cost of reproducing it, be forwarded to his address. | ANNUAL MEETING. Thursday, 10th March, 1887. Present: the President, Professor W. C. Kernot, in the chair, and twenty members and associates. The following Office-bearers for the ensuing year were duly --elected :—President, Professor W. ©. Kernot, M.A.; Vice- ’ Presidents, Mr. J. Cosmo Newbery, B.Sc., C.M.G., and Mr. HK. J. White, F.R.A.S.; Treasurer, Mr. H. Moors; Librarian, Mr. J. E. Neild, M.D. ; Secretaries, Mr. H. K. Rusden and Mr. G. W. Selby ; Members of Council, Mr. E. Bage, Mr. C. R. Blackett, F.C.S., Mr. A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., F.G.S., Mr. 8. W. McGowan, Mr. W. H. Steel, C.E., and Mr. Alexander Sutherland, M.A. The following Members of Council continued in office :— pir, R. L. J. Ellery, F.R.S., Mr. G. 8. Griffiths, F.R.G.S., Mr. Louis Henry, M.D., Mr. James Jamieson, M.D., Mr. H. F. Rosales, F.G.S., and Mr. J. F. Rudall, F.R.C.S. The Annual Report of the Council and Balance-sheet for 1886 were then presented, and after some discussion as to the manner in which the credit balance was brought to account, and some G 2 S84. Proceedings, &e., for 1887. questions asked and answered respecting the Davy Fund, they were received and adopted on the motion of Mr. Marks and Mr. A. H. Jackson, as follows :— ANNUAL REPORT. Your Council has the honour to report that the following papers were read during the session of 1886 :— On the 11th March, Dr. M‘Gillivray’s “‘ Description of New or Little-known Polyzoa,” Part X., and Rev. D. Macdonald’s ‘‘ The Oceanic Languages Semitic.” On the 8th April, Mr. F. A. Campbell’s “On the Stability of Structures in regard to Wind Pressure.” On the 13th May, Mr. Griffiths’ ‘‘ Notes on Kerguelen’s Land.” On the 10th June, Mr. Wakelin’s “On the Possibility of the Force Producing Gravitation not Acting Directly on every Particle of a Planet,” and Mr. F. A. Campbell’s ‘On the Stability of Structures in Relation to Wind Pressure, No. 2.—Bridges.” ' On the 8th July, Dr. M‘Gillivray’s “Description of New or | Little-known Polyzoa,” Part XI., and Dr. Verbeek’s “ Report on the Eruption of Krakatoa.” On the 12th August, Professor Kernot’s paper “On Lightning Conductors,” and Mr. W. M. Bale’s “On the Genera of the Plumulariide, with Observations on various Australian Hydroids.” On the 9th September, Mr. Griffiths’ “On the Official Reports of the Tarawera Eruption.” On the 14th October, Mr. A. W. Howitt’s “On the Area of Intrusive Rocks at Dargo,” and Mr. A. H. 8. Lucas’ “On the Sections displayed in the Coode Canal,” and “On the Sound © Organs of the Green Cicada.” On the 11th November, Dr. M‘Gillivray’s “‘ Descriptions of New or Little-known Polyzoa” Part XII, and “Catalogue of the Marine Polyzoa of Victoria,” and Mr. John Dennant’s “ Notes on Post Tertiary Strata in South-western Victoria.” On the 9th December, Professor Krause’s ‘‘On the Tripolite _ Deposits at Lilicur,” and Mr. F. A. Campbell’s “On the Want of a Uniform System of Experimenting upon Timber.” During the year five gentlemen were elected as ordinary members of the Society, namely, the Hon. F. D. Derham, and Arthur Lynch and A. C. Wannon, Esqs., on the 13th May; and Wm. Lucas and Gerard Wight, Esqs., on the 12th August. Three as country members, namely, John Dennant, Esq., on the 8th April; D. M. Davies, Esq., M.L.A., on the 10th June; and W. D. T. Powell, Esq., on the 9th September. Six as Associates, namely, R. W. Chapman, James F. Cole, and Sydney Horsley, Hsqs., on the 13th May ; and T. E. Jackson, Richard Matthews, Esqs. Dr. J. J. Wild, on the 10th June; Proceedings, &e¢., for 1887. 85 Dr. R. D. M. Verbeek, of Buitenzorg, Java, author of an elaborate report on the Krakatoa Eruption, was, on the 9th September, specially elected as an honorary member under Law XXIV. On the 3rd June the Council appointed as members of an Australian Antarctic Exploration Committee (jointly with the Royal Geographical Society of Australia, Victorian Branch, who appointed a like number) Professor Kernot, Messrs. Ellery, Griffiths, Rusden, Selby, and Dr. Wild, and the Committee was re-elected in December, to enable it to act during the recess. Also, on the 11th November, Messrs. Ellery, Griffiths, and Rusden were appointed as a Printing Committee to attend to the prepara- tion of the Twenty-third Volume of the Transactions during the recess. A conversazione was held in the new Masonic Hall, Collins Street Hast, on the 26th October, at which His Excellency the Governor and a large number of ladies and gentlemen attended. The President delivered his annual address, Mr. Griffiths read a paper on ‘Antarctic Exploration,” and Mr. Sutherland gave a paper on “ Allotropism,” illustrated by experiments. ATT Suory “PETG — IBF 7BOr4) ‘a3 4¢ ‘jouer 8 re oy yooayg Aopyreg ‘I0AINO Suope ‘ § “s “qT ET O19N CL G9 ory vt JO01}Q SOABOISIVET “ApOTBI Jn “popoory "I & . 08% ; “ ATTN eprepepy ‘YSNnoue—UAMOp JOAMOT OO MoT YW "ty GZ Ws 0&z% - = 3 se [evs oo7, ‘4 61 : 02 ; punory Joyo1Ip ‘popooy uegyfo ‘yoTUL peg "4T Eg *q1OATNO 009 - ey AT[N.) 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TP: 00-T VIL G8: GG: 9F- 08: 09- ST- GG- OD: OT- 89: Tg: 09- ‘TUOVy wad aNO0,9 Wad “L,7 POUVHOSIC, CHLVWILS OOTY G9 "MOP}IOAO SUIPNPOUL G.TT poop +8 Og 6-01 IT L aNO0,9 Ud ‘“LiT ‘TOUVHOSIC, CHLYNILS 066 882 866 OVE SVG 996 L6G qoATND “Hy ST edid ‘ut GT ‘om ‘jouuUvyD 66 cal ee €-GL JLOATOYY “9F G jouusyo V:GV edid ‘Ur LT FLOAT “FF G joeuuvyo 66 “Ul CT UL ST edid ‘ul @T *‘NOILODQ 000‘0T cs ‘49 Jopty * "48 ofdeyq “ "40 Torney ‘S 498 Yjoog * ‘bg uepfoy ‘* esplig “36 eTA4y 99 TSIM PUBS i=) re ‘ CO ia) re 1 N bs | ' ‘SHUOV — Vay ‘0% ‘SHDUVHOSIQ GULVNILSY| CNV SCHHSUMLVA\ JO SVEUV ‘SLETLAQ 40 SVEYY 'IVNOLLOGG 40 LSI] 66 66 66 YoorD OsIpueg ‘19011Q SOAVOISIV]T "O19 ‘ ‘S48 [lossny puw oymog TaeLTS mel VAN IC OUINOQ OP ‘JO01G WoysuUBAG qoorzg AINGIs9\A joey WOU qooryg jodeyO qooyg o[Acry yoong jodeyp JooTJG WOYSUITTOM 4oo1}Q SopIVyH BPIIM “48 ‘J2011g UoysuIyVg *RLIIVOO'T Art. XV.—Eapervments on the Range of Action of the | Digestive Ferments. By JAMES JAMIESON, M.D. [Read November 5, 1887.] No subject in the whole range of physiology has had more attention given to it, than that of digestion. Especially since Dr. Beaumont published the results of his observations and experiments on St. Martin, there has been almost an uninterrupted series of investigations into the properties of the digestive juices, and the ferments contained in them. But in spite of the excellent work done, there are still points left unsettled, this being true especially of the active con- stituents of the pancreatic juice. It has long been known that the pancreas forms a secretion possessed of very powerful digestive properties, and these of a very mixed kind. It has been proved to be capable of digesting all three of the chief ingredients of food, viz., the albumens, the fats, and starch, though there has not been much progress made in the direction of isolating, in a pure state, the ferments which exert these actions. Pancreatine, or pancreatic extract, is assumed to contain at least three distinct ferments—itrypsin, the solvent of albuminous sub- stances ; steatopsin, that which emulsifies fats, and splits them up into their constituents ;- and amylopsin, the ferment which converts starch into sugar. Of these, only the first thas been obtained in the separate state, and in a tolerably pure form; but of them all it is known, that they exert their special actions best, if not only, in alkaline or neutral media. The pancreatic juice itself is alkaline in reaction, and complete neutralisation of the acid contents of the stomach, when poured into the small intestine, is secured by the further help of the bile which is also strongly alkaline. But, while it has been sufficiently shown that the pancreatic secretion, in the fresh state or in the form of an extract, does convert starch into sugar, and albumen into peptones, in an alkaline mixture, there has been almost no exact enquiry into the influence exerted on it by acidulation of the media in which it may be called upon to act. And 160 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. yet this is by no means an idle enquiry. For although within the body, under normal conditions, an alkaline, or at least a neutral reaction of the chyme may be secured, almost immediately after it has passed out of the stomach, there is sufficient practical reason for desiring to know whether the activity of the pancreatic ferments is stopped by the presence of an acid, and ifso, in what degree of concentration. For these ferments have now entered largely into commerce, and are used in various ways as helps to digestion. It is important to know the limits to the range of their action, so that agents which are powerful for good, when rightly used, may not be misapplied. And further, it is interesting to know the fate of such agents, when subjected to conditions other than those they ordinarily meet with; whether, that is to say, their powers are only kept in abeyance temporarily, or are completely destroyed. Experiments with the view of testing these points have become possible, only since good and reliable forms of these ferments have been prepared, and the importance of having them tested is increased by the fact, that they are now largely used in practical medicine. The first of these uses 1s in the preparation of artificially digested food, for adminis- tration in cases where digestion is greatly impaired, or where for any reason it is desired to spare the labour to the stomach involved in carrying on the process of digestion. For this purpose, the pancreatic ferments have a marked superiority over pepsin, which acts only on albumens, and does so only in acid solutions. But when it is proposed further to give these pancreatic preparations internally, as a help to digestion, the question is at once raised, whether there is not simple waste in doing go, there being considerable grounds for supposing that their powers are in complete abeyance in the presence of the acid of the gastric juice. And even supposing that this abeyance of activity is proved to come about in the stomach, there remains the further question, whether the ferments themselves are actually destroyed by continued exposure to the action of the acid and pepsin of the gastric juice, or are capable of resuming activity when an alkaline reaction is again brought about in the duodenum. It was for the purpose of testing — these points that the following experiments were devised. The preparation tested was the article of well-established activity, known as zymine, a powder containing the mixed ferments formed by the pancreas. In the stomach Range of Action of Digestive Ferments. 161 there may be found a variable amount of acid (hydro- chloric acid), according to the stage and activity of digestion, and the character of the food; but there is good reason to suppose that it readily reaches the proportion of 1 part in 500 of the mixed contents of the stomach. A considerable time, as much as three or four hours, may elapse before the extreme degree of acidity is reached; but there ean be no doubt, after the observations of Beaumont and others, that an intensely acid secretion is poured out as soon as the lining membrane of the stomach is stimulated by the contact of food. The first series of experiments consisted in heating a mucilage of 10 grains of arrowroot in 20 cubic centimetres of water, for two hours, at 95° F’., under different conditions as regards reaction and presence or absence of the ferment :— I. Mucilage heated alone for two hours, still remained thick, and would not filter. II. Mucilage heated, as above, with addition of 2 grains each of zymine and bicarbonate of soda. In a few minutes there was distinct thinning of the mixture, which at the end of the time was quite liquid, and filtered easily. Ill. Mucilage, with 2 grains of zymine only. The result was the same as in No. II., though the mixture had a very slight acid reaction. IV. Mucilage, with z>5é55 part of hydrochloric acid, and 2 grains of zymine. V. The same, but ae od part of acid. VI. The same, but z¢b5 part of acid. Even with No. IV., there was some retardation of the solvent action, while with No. V., and still more with No. VL, there was a considerable amount of the swollen starch left in clotty pieces at the end of two hours. VIL. and VIII. To test this effect further, and with reference both to the amylolytic and tryptic elements in the mixed ferment, 10 grains of zymine were heated for two hours at 95° F., in 40 c. ctrs. of water, containing zoo part of hydrochloric acid. The mixture was then divided into two eyual parts, to one of which was added pressed fibrin, 10 grains, and to the other, 10 grains of starch boiled in 20 c. cs. of water. Each of these was again kept for a full M 162 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. hour at 95° F., but little if any solvent action was observed at the end of that time. It was thus made clear that the action of the mixed ferment is almost completely checked in the presence of hydrochloric acid, in the proportion of 1 part per 1000, and to a considerable extent when the acid was present in the strength of 1 to 5000. IX. For the purpose of discovering whether loss of power was only temporary, or if the ferment had been permanently injured ; the mixtures of starch and acid (Exps. IV., V., and VI.) were rendered alkaline, by the addition of 2 grains of bicarbonate of soda to each, and again kept at 95° F. for two hours. In that which had contained only zo$55 of the acid, there was complete liquefaction, while in those which had contained 3755 and zea respectively, there was slight. breaking down of the clotty particles, but no great change. In both of these, therefore, there had been permanent injury to the ferment. though it did not seem to be completely destroyed. X. For the purpose of discovering whether this destructivu.. would be effected by the presence of pepsin in the acid mixture, the following experiment was carried out. Zymine (10 grains) was heated for two hours at 95° F., in 40 ¢. ctrs. of water, with 10 grains of Fairchild’s scale pepsin, acidulated to the strength of 1 in 1000. At the end of that time the mixture was divided into two equal parts, each of which was rendered slightly alkaline with bicarbonate of soda, and heated again for an hour with 10 grains of pressed fibrin, and the mucilage of 10 grains of starch respectively. It was found that both the fibrin and the starch were almost completely dissolved. This difference from the experiment before detailed (IX.), was due probably to the larger amount of zymine present, 5 grains instead of 2. It was made clear that the pepsin, as such, had not acted at all on the zymine, though placed under very favourable conditions for doing so. For the sake of completeness, the following counter- experiment was tried :— XI. Five grains of pepsin were kept at 95° F. for 2 hours, along with 5 grains of zymine and 2 grains of bicarbonate of soda. Hydrochloric acid was then added in sufficient amount Range of Action of Digestive Ferments. 163 not only to neutralise the soda, but to leave an excess equal to 1 part in 500 of the mixture. To this was then added coagulated white of egg in thin slices, and the whole kept for 3 hours at 100° F. At the end of that time the albumen — was not appreciably altered ; while similar slices, treated in the same way with fresh pepsin and hydrochloric acid, ] in 500, were found, at the end of 3 hours, to be completely dissolved. The quality of the pepsin being thus shown to be good, it follows that the treatment to which it had been subjected had had a destructive influence on it. Whether this was owing chiefly to the action of the bicarbonate of soda, or to that of the zymine, remains, of course, undeter- mined, though the probability is that the latter Praga is the correct one. As this question did not enter into the scope of the original inquiry, though it is of great interest, it had to be left, the investigation having proved sutiiciently laborious. The general conclusions are :— I. That the pancreatic ferments are not merely temporarily ‘ inhibited in their digestive action by small quantities of hydrochloric acid, but are permanently injured, when the strength of the acid reaches the proportion of 1 to 1000, or even 1 to 5000, for 2 hours. II. That pepsin does not seem to have any power, in association with the acid, in bringing about or even hastening this destructive action. III. That, on the contrary, the trypsin of the pancreatic secretion seems to bring about the destruction of pepsin in slightly alkaline solutions. I have to acknowledge my great obligations to Mr. Frederick Dunn, public analyst, for assistance in the way of carrying out the practical details of the experiments. Without that assistance, indeed, I fear that the inquiry would scarcely have been carried out at all. M 2 Art. XVI—The Anatomy of Megascolides Australis. By Proressor W. BALDWIN SPENCER. [Received October 6, read November 10, 1887.| The following is an abstract of the full paper which, with illustrations, is in course of publication as a separate monograph. Since it was written and read before the Society, a short account of the macroscopic anatomy ot the same worm has been published in the Journal of the Linnean Society of New South Wales by Mr. Fletcher, whose paper was read in September, one month before the reading of this paper. The papers were written quite independently of one another, and, as far as the macroscopic anatomy of this interesting worm is concerned, are in almost perfect accord. | Professor M‘Coy’s description in the Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria (Decade 1, Pl. 7), contains the first account published of the worm, and deals merely with its external anatomy. In this description the worm is placed in the family Lumbricide, and thus close to the common earth-worm, a mistake which would appear to have been due to the counting of the annuli as segments. Mr. Fletcher does not seem to have recognised the worm from Professor M‘Coy’s description, and himself giving a perfectly correct one, placed it in his genus Notoscolex, containing several other species, so that in his recent paper the worm appears under the name of V. Guppslandicus. The worm lives in deep burrows, principally by the sides of creeks in Gippsland. The burrow is devoid of “castings” at its mouth, is of about the diameter of ? to 1 inch, and contains a slimy fluid ; but only in very rare cases any trace of leaves dragged into it. With care, the animal, whose presence can easily be recognised by a peculiar gurgling sound made when retreating through its burrow, can be dug out. It has been described as brittle, but though it easily tears, the word “brittle” is most imapplicable, as it stretches to a very great amount before even tearing. Its odour, as pointed out by Prof. M‘Coy, is very characteristic, resembling somewhat that of creosote. The Anatomy of Megascolides Australis. 165 The body varies in length from three to six feet, or even longer, and contains upwards of 500 segments. Anteriorly, it is somewhat swollen and hard, due to the very strong septa internally. The anterior segments contain from two to four annuli, which are often incomplete and slightly irregular. The seement boundaries are clearly marked, and posteriorly to about the 18th segment each one shows in the median dorsal line a large “ dorsal pore,” through which, in contraction of the body, the ccelomic fluid is pressed out in little jets. In the middle and posterior regions of the body the septa are inserted into the body-wall somewhat anteriorly to the line bounding the segment externally. Segments 13 to 20 are usually of a dark purple colour, are provided with an especially strong development of nephridia, and have externally to the muscle layers a strongly-marked develop- ment of glands. Ventrally, a portion which, as described by Professor M‘Coy, is evidently equivalent to the cingulum of other worms, is found on the 17th, 18th, and 19th segments, where it forms three white prominent ridges, in the middle one of which are the male apertures. The whole of this region is called clitellum by Mr. Fletcher. The setze are arranged in four pairs in each segment, but cannot be seen in front of the 13th segment. _ The paired external openings of the receptacula seminis lie between the 8th and 9th and the 9th and 10th segments, the oviduct openings close to one another ventrally on the 14th segment, and the male on two small papille in the part of the cingulum on the 18th segment, and correspond in position to the internal two pairs of setee, which here cannot be seen macroscopically. No nephridio-pores can be detected. SEPTA. The first clear septum bounds anteriorly the fifth segment. Posteriorly, as far as the 16th segment, the septa are very thick, strong, concave anteriorly, and bound to one another by numerous connecting strands of muscle. Behind this they become membraneous until the hinder end of the body is reached, where they become again more muscular and have very. definite supporting strands, radiating from the walls of the alimentary canal. This strong anterior and posterior development gives the worm great power of rapid swelling of its body so as to become very tightly jammed 166 Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria. against the burrow walls, and renders it difficult to extract _ the worm from its hole. The posterior end especially seems to have a strong power of suction. ALIMENTARY CANAL. The mouth is overhung by the ridged prostomium, and leads into the strong muscular pharynx, extending back to the 5th segraent. There is a good development of salivary glands which microscopically appear to resemble nephridia in structure. The 5th segment contains the short cesophagus and longer gizzard, then follows the long intestine which, in segments 12 to 18, contains a series of very vascular dilatations, and from the 19th runs backwards to the terminal anus. Its walls are very distinct, yellow-brown in colour, and consist internally of an epithelium of deep cylindrical cells, with large nuclei and nucleoli, external to these a layer of circular muscle fibres, then a series of longitudinal fibres, and then a layer of cells whose thin internal ends send processes between the longitudinal fibres, and perhaps deeper still whilst their external parts are filled with yellow-brown eranules. The cells contain large nuclei, and are to be regarded simply as modified cells of the membrane lining the body cavity. There is no structure present representing the typhlosole. NERVOUS SYSTEM. This resembles that of the ordinary worm, save that the distinction into ganglia and connecting commissures is not so clearly marked. Sections show clearly its double nature, and the arrangement of the large ganglion cells on the ventral and lateral aspects, and of the fibres in a double longitudinal band dorsally and internally. Dorsally are three, and at times, even four, of the so-called giant-fibres present. Each one, however, is very distinctly not hollow, but has the form of a solid homogeneous rod, surrounded by a considerable amount of ensheathing connective tissue. Three pairs of lateral branches pass off in each segment, and im sections can be traced towards the surface till they spread out on the internal side of the circular muscles in the body- wall. The Anatomy of Megascolides Australis. 167 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. A dorsal and ventral vessel are present. Lateral vessels, or “hearts,” connect the two in the 13th to 6th segments inclusive, and from the 14th segment forward a lateral vessel is present on each side, and a small supra-intestinal branch in each segment. Posteriorly there is no direct connection between the dorsal and ventral vessels, and the former gives off two pairs of branches in each segment to the walls of the alimentary canal, in which they come to lie just externally to the cylindrical epithelium. Around the dorsal vessel posteriorly is a curious ensheathing structure which gives off more or less solid diverticula into the body cavity. These processes are filled with distinctly nucleated, somewhat granular, polygonal cells. The nature and function of this structure is as yet unknown. In each segment it opens into the coslom close to the anterior septum. NEpPHRIDIA (OF Two KinDs). (1) Very numerous, and varying in number in different segments. They are especially numerous in the 13th to 20th segments, and are scattered irregularly over the body wall. ach consists ot a much coiled duct which is clearly antra-cellular, and surrounded by connective tissue very rich in blood vessels. These nephridia have no internal openings. (2) A series of larger nephridia in the middle and posterior regions, one pair in each segment, with distinct ciliated funnels opening internally. ) A paper “On the Production of the Tides Mechanically Considered,” by Mr. T. Waxketin, B.A., of Greytown, N.Z., was then read by the President. (See Transactions, Art. XIX.) Proceedings, &c., for 1887. 197 Mr. WHITE said it was impossible to treat the tides dynamically. The best mathematicians had tackled the subject, but it was still said that the dynamical theory was a disgrace to science. The tides at the Port Phillip Heads differed from the Admiralty tables by four hours. Mr. Extery said that Mr. Wakelin in all his papers started a speculation, but went no further. Dr. Wixp noticed that Mr. Wakelin stated that he had a difficulty in obtaining books to consult. That partly accounted for his inability to conceive how the small moon could raise the waters of the ocean against the attraction of the earth. After a few more remarks the discussion terminated. REPORT OF THE PORT PHILLIP BIO- LOGICAL SURVEY COMMITTEE, Presented and read on 15th December, 1887. W. M. Bats, F.R.M.S. P. H. McGiitvray, M.R.C.S. Rev. A. W. CressweLt, M.A. | W. Batpwin Spencer, B.A. A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. | C. A. Topp, M.A., F.LS. J. BRACEBRIDGE Witson, M.A. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED BY THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA TO INITIATE A BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PORT PHILLIP. Your Committee have held four meetings, on July 30, August 19, September 30, and November 28. At the first meeting, all the members being present except Mr. Bale, whose duties detained him, the objects to be aimed at by the Committee were more precisely defined. It was resolved : J. That a catalogue of the existing literature relating to the fauna and flora of Port Phillip be compiled, and that annual additions should be made of such similar publications as shall appear in each succeeding year. It was decided that by Port Phillip should be indicated the salt waters inside of a straight line joining Point Lonsdale to Point Nepean. That the 198 Royal Society of Victoria. systematic survey should be limited to Port Phillip as thus defined, but that any results of scientific value which can be obtained in other Victorian seas should be, as far as possible, recorded. The work of compilation of existing books and papers bearing on the living forms of Port Phillip, &c., was divided amongst the Members of the Committee. II. That Port Phillip be divided into a number of littoral and marine stations to be determined from the charts, and that the stations be numbered, and the life-forms of each explored under the direction of the Committee. Ill. That a base catalogue of the plants and animals found living in Port Phillip should be prepared, each species to have appended to it the numbers of all the stations from which it is recorded. IV. That an extended catalogue of the plants and animals should also be prepared, and that under the heading of each species all particulars observed concerning its life, history, associations, and commercial value, be inserted. V. That the specimens obtained should be submitted for identification to competent scientists, in order to secure as far as possible absolute accuracy in the published records. VI. That the Committee shall arrange, as opportunity arises, for the investigation of such biological questions as may be suggested by the material acquired. VII. That the Committee shall, from time to time, furnish the Royal Society with reports of the results of their work. Your Committee decided to ask the Council for a grant of £50, in aid of their researches, and acknowledge with gratitude the generous spirit in which their request was granted. Mr. A. H. 8. Lucas was appointed Honorary Secretary and Treasurer of the Committee. It was decided that, pro tempore, the specimens obtained should be kept at the University, under the care of Professor Spencer and the Hon. Secretary. A large order for spirit and for jars, bottles, and preservative re-agents, was given to Messrs. Felton, Grimwade and Co., and the Committee have to acknowledge the kindness of Mr. HK. Bage, a Member of the Council, in aiding them greatly in their selection. A first list of thirty-two stations was carefully drawn up by the Committee, the outer ones in accordance with the extensive previous experience of Mr. Bracebridge Wilson. Three dredging excursions have already been made to the inner stations, viz., to Hobson’s Bay, Laverton Bay, and Brighton, and some shore work has also been done by the members. Arrange- ments have been made for an early visit to Geelong, and the outer stations of the Bay will receive attention during the summer 199 Proceedings, &e., for 1887. months. Mr. Wilson has been having his yacht repaired, and will continue his work in this field in the ensuing vacation. A large number of animal specimens have been obtained, and will be exhibited at the general Conversazione. Great care has been exercised in preserving them in such a condition that they shall be fit for histological as well as for zoological examination. Several interesting lunicates, annelids, and alcyonatians have been taken. Mr. Wilson has recorded Amphioxus from the South Channel, and Mr. Lucas is engaged on a careful comparison of this indigenous specimen with the European form. TZ'rigonia has been found in Laverton Bay. Some of the number of our active workers took part in the King’s Island Expedition of the Field Naturalists’ Club. This to a certain extent deferred work in the Bay. ; Your Committee have much pleasure in announcing that records of the work done previously on the sponges by Mr. Wilson will pass through their hands, Mr. Wilson having forwarded to the University Biological School, through your Committee, the whole of his fine and well-preserved collection. The Committee is in communication with several eminent specialists in England and in the colonies, in order to secure their services in the identification of species. In reviewing the work done, the Committee would point out that the preliminary arrangement of necessity involved much care and time, but they trust that the lines on which the survey has been inaugurated are broad and scientific, and that the results obtained will, in consequence, be easily classified, and of more than local value. It is, of course, during the summer vacation that most of the members of your Committee are more free from professional engagements, and we hope to be able to devote much more time accordingly to the survey, with which the Royal Society have entrusted us. Signed on behalf of the Committee, A. H. 8. LUCAS, 29th November, 1887. ‘ Hon. Sec. The collections of specimens of Sponges dredged in the inner waters of Port Phillip, by Mr. J. Bracebridge Wilson, M.A. ; of Victorian Forms of Sponge Skeletons, and of Victorian Crustacea and Echinodermata, by Mr. A. H.S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc., formed a prominent and interesting portion (No. 21 in list) of the objects exhibited in the large hall of the Athenzum at the Conversazione on the 9th December. Pht FOLGE MEMBERS OF Ghe Roval Society of Victoria. PATRON. Loch, His Excellency Sir Henry Brougham, K.C.B., &., &e. Lire MEMBERS. Bage, Edward, jun., Esq., Redan-street, East St. Kilda. Barkly, His Excellency Sir Henry, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., Carlton Club, London. Bosisto, Joseph, Esq., C.M.G., M.L.A., Richmond. Butters, J. S., Esq., Collins-street West. Eaton, H. F., Esq., Treasury, Melbourne. Elliot, T. 8., Esq., Railway Department, Spencer-street. Elliott, Sizar, Esg., 18 Malvern-road, Prahran. Gibbons, Sidney W., Esq., F.C.S., care of Mr. Lewis, Chemist Collins-street East. Gilbert, J. E., Esq., Money Order Office, G.P.O. Melbourne. Higinbotham, His Honour Chief Justice, Supreme Court. Howitt, Edward, Esq., Rathmines-road, Auburn. Mueller, Baron F. Von, K.C.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Arnold- street, South Yarra. _ Nicholas, William, Esq., F.G.8., Melbourne University. Nicholson, Germain, Esq., Domain-street, South Yarra. Reed, Joseph, Esq., 9 Elizabeth-street South. Rusden, H. K., Esq., 75 Greville-street, Prahran. White, E. J., Esq., F.R.A.S., Melbourne Observatory. Wilson, Sir Samuel, Knt., Oakleigh Hall, East St. Kilda. 202 Royal Socrety of Victoria. 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Fowler, Thomas Walker, Esq., C.E., P Mecoke street, Hawthorn. Godfrey, F. R., Esq., Pevensey, Hay, N.S.W. Gregson, W. H., Esq., Sale. ‘Henderson, J. B., Esq., Water Supply Department, Brisbane. Howitt, A. W., Esq., P.M., F.G.S., Sale. Hunt, Robert, Esq., Royal Mint, Sydney. Jones, J. J., Esq., Ballarat. Keogh, Laurence F., Esq., Brucknell Banks, Cobden. 206 Royal Socrety of Victoria, Loughrey, B., Esq., M.A., C.E., City Surveyor, Wellington, New Zealand. . Luplau, W., Esq., Lydiard-street, Ballarat. McClelland, D. C., Esq., State School, Buninyong. MacGillivray, P. H., Hsq., M.A., M.R.C.S. Ed., Sandhurst, Manns, G. 8., Esq., Leneva, near Wodonga. Manson, Donald, Esq., Elgin-buildings, Sydney. Moffat, W. T., Esq., Romsey. Munday, J., Esq., care of J. Hood, Esq., Exchange, Melbourne. Murray, Stewart, Esq., C.E., Kyneton. Myles, Dr., Winchelsea. Naylor, John, Esq., Stawell. Oddie, James, Esq., Dana-street, Ballarat. Oliver, C. E., Esq., C.E., Yarra Flats. Powell, Water D. T., Esq., Harbour Department, Brisbane, Queensland. Richards, C. H., Esq., School of Mines, Sandhurst. Stuart, Rev. J. A., B.A., Harkaway, near Berwick. Sutton, H., Esq., Sturt-street, Ballarat. Vickery, 8S. K., Esq., Ararat. Wakelin, T., Esq., B.A., Greytown, Wellington, New Zealand. Wall, John, Esq., Town Hall, Sebastopol, Ballarat. Williams, Rev. W., Pleasant-street, Ballarat. Wilson, J. B., Esq., M.A., Church of England Grammar School, Geelong. Wooster, W. H., Esq., Bolwarrah. CoRRESPONDING MEMBERS. Bailey, F. M., Esq., The Museum, Brisbane. Clarke, Hyde, Esq., 32 St. George’s Square, London, 8. W. Etheridge, Robert, Esq., jun., F.G.S., Department of Mines, Sydney. Stirton, James, Esq., M.D., F.L.S., 15 Newton-street, Glasgow. Ulrich, Professor G. H. F., F.G.8., Dunedin, Otago, N.Z. Wagner, William, Esq., LL.D., Philadelphia, U.S.A. Woods, Rev. Julian E. Tenison, F.G.S., Union Club, Sydney. HonorARY MEMBERS. Clarke, Colonel Sir Andrew, K.C.M.G., C.B., C.I.E., London. Goepper, H. R., Esq., M.D., Ph.D. Neumeyer, Professor George, Ph.D., Hamburg. List of Members. 207 Perry, Right Rev. Charles, D.D., Avenue-road, London. Scott, Rev. W., M.A., Kurrajong Heights, N.S.W. Todd, Charles, Esq., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., Adelaide, S.A. Verbeek, Dr. R. D. M., Buitenzorg, Batavia, Java. ASSOCIATES. Anderson, D., Esq., Fair View, Stawell. Askew, David C., Esq., C.E., 43 Bourke-street West. Bage, C., Esq., M.D., 81 Toorak-road, South Yarra. Bage, W., Esq., C.E., Fulton-street, St. Kilda. Bale, W. M., Esq., Walpole-street, Hyde Park, Kew. Baracchi, Pietro, Esq., Melbourne Observatory. Blackburn, J., Esq., 140 Fitzroy-street, Fitzroy. Booth, John, Esq., C.E., Rennie-street, Coburg. Brockenshire, W. H., Esq., C.E., Railway Department, Yea. Brownscombe, W. J., Esq., Bridge Road, Richmond. Challen, Peter R. , Esq. , Post Ottice, Talbot. Champion, H. V., Esq., Council Chambers, Williamstown. Chapman, Robert W., Esq., Lincoln-street, Richmond. Chase, L. H., Hsq., Queensberry-street, Carlton, or Railway Department, Selborne Chambers. Clark, Lindesay, Esq., Main Camp, Yarra Flats. Cole, J as. F'., Esq., 194 Fraser’s Buildings, Queen Street. Colvin, Owen F., Esq., Melbourne University. Conley, H., Esq., Union Bank of Australia, Collins-street West. Creswell, Rev. A. W., St. John’s Parsonage, Camberwell. Crouch, C. F. Esq., 7 Darling-street, South Yarra. Danks, A. T., Esq., 42 Bourke-street West. Dawson, W.8., Esq., Runnymede, Essendon. Dunlop, G. H., Esq., 60 Montague-street, South Melbourne. Edwards, J. E., Esq., Colonial Telegraph Exchange, 133 Little Collins Street East. Fenton, J. J., Esq., Office of Government Statist. Finney, W. H., Esq., 81 Graham-street, Port Melbourne. Fletcher, R. E., Esq., 2 Exchange Court, Princes-st., Dunedin, N.Z. Fraser, J. H., Esq., Railway Department. Gabriel, J., Esq., Simpson’s Road, Collingwood. Gaunt, Thos., 14 Bourke-street East. Grant, A. M., Esq., Kerferd-road, Albert Park. Guilfoyle, W. R., Esq., F.L.8., Botanical Gardens. Haig, R. G., Esq., 23 Market-street. Harding, F., Esq., 28 Little Flinders-street West. Hart, Ludovic, Esq., 109 Hlizabeth-street. Holmes, W. A., Esq., Telegraph Engineers’ Office, Railway Department, Spencer-street. Horsley, Sydney, Esq., Melbourne University. 208 Royal Society of Victoria. Howden, J. M., Esq., 46 Elizabeth-street. Irvine, W. H., Esg., Selborne Chambers, Chancery-lane. Jackson, F. C., Esq., 47 Great Davis-street, South Yarra. Kernot, Frederick A., Esq., Royal Park, Hotham. Kirkland, J. B., Esq., Lygon-street, North Carlton. Lindsay, James, Esq., 172 Bouverie-street, Carlton. Lucas, T. P., Esq., M.R.C.8., Belgrave-street, Brisbane. Maclean, C. W., Esq., Walsh-street, South Yarra. Magee, W. 8S. T., Esq., Toorak-road, South Yarra. Maplestone, C. M., Esq., Princes-street, Kew. Matthews, Richard, Esq., Errebendery, Hanabalong, N.S.W., wé Hillston. Mills, H. W., Esq., Glan-y-mor, Brighton. Moors, E. M., Esg., University, Sydney. Murray, L. L., Esq., West Beach, St. Kilda. Murray, T., Esq., C.E., Victoria Water Supply Department. Newham, Arthur, Esq., B.A., Trinity College, Melbourne. Outtrim, Frank Leon, Esq., Morris-street, Williamstown. Parry, E. W., Sydney-road, Carlton. Paul, A. W. L., Esq., Railway Works, Stratford, Gippsland. Phillips, A. E., Esq., 29 Perth-street, Prahran. Porter, Thomas, Esq., M.D., 2 Royal Villas, Victoria Parade. Pringle, G. A. M., Esq., Melbourne Observatory. Quarry, Herbert, Esq., Alma Cottage, Macaulay-road, Kensington. Rennick, E. C., Esq., Mont Albert Road, Balwyn. Rennick, W. R., Esq., Denham-street, Hawthorn. Schafer, R., Esq., 17 Union-street, Windsor. Shaw, A. G., Esq., Shire Hall, Bairnsdale. Shaw, E., Esq., 5 Lydia Terrace, Moor-street, Fitzroy. Slater, H. A., Esq., 121 Collins-street West. Smibert, G., Esq., General Post: Office. Smith, Alex. C., 90 Cecil-street, South Melbourne. Smith, B. A., Esq., Imperial Chambers, Bank-place, Collins-st. W. Smith, HE. L., Esq., Hazelhurst, George-street, Kast Melbourne. Steane, W. P., Esq., 63 Park-street West, South Melbourne. Stewart, C., Hsq., 9 Murphy-street, South Yarra. Taylor, Norman, Esq., Studley Park Terrace, Simpson’s-road, Richmond. Thompson, J. J., Hisq., 11 Bouverie-street, Carlton. Thorne, T. Rhymer, Esq., General Post Office. Tyers, A., Esq., C.H., 3 St. James’ Buildings, William-street. Walsh, Fred. 5 LOC 6 Bridge-street, Sydney. Wilkinson, A. Percy, Esq., Mount Zion, Broken Hill, N. S.W. Williams, Gy. , Esq., C.E. , Queenscliff, Wilson, i ames, Esq., Belmont, 10 Johnston-street, Collingwood. Wills, Arthur, Esq., Camelon, Ascot Vale Road, Ascot Vale. Wing, Joseph, Esq., 33 Wellington-street, Collingwood. LIST OF THE INSTITUTIONS AND LEARNED SOCIETIES THAT RECEIVE COPIES OF THE “TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.” ENGLAND. Agent-General of Victoria Anthropological Institute Bodleian Library Botanical Gardens British Museum Sane Colonial Office Library ... “ Hlectrician ” 3: Foreign Office Library Geological Society Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers Institution of Civil Engineers Linnean Society Literary and Philosophical Society Natural History Museum Ci Naturalist’s Society “« Nature ” Owen’s College Library Philosophical Society Royal Asiatic Society Royal Astronomical Society Royal Colonial Institute .. Royal Geographical Society Royal Microscopical Rociety Royal Society ... Statistical Society University Library ScoTLAND. Botanical Society Geological Society Royal Observatory Royal Physical Society London London Oxford Kew London London London London London Niaweasnle London London Liverpool London Bristol London Manchester Cambridge London London . London . London London London London . Cambridge Edinburgh Edinburgh Edinburgh Edinburgh P ss 210 Royal Society of Victoria. Royal Society ... Royal Scottish Society of Arts Scottish Geographical Society University Library University Library TRELAND. Natural History and Philosophical ee 26 Royal Dublin Society Ee Royal Geological Society Royal Irish Academy . Trinity College Library .. GERMANY. Gartenbauverein Grossh. Hessische Geologische Anstalt Konigl. Botanische Gesellschaft Konigl. Offentl. Bibliothek 3 Konigl. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften Konigl. Sachs Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften Konig]. Societat der Wissenschaften Nat urforschende Gesellschaft Naturforschende Gesellschaft Naturforschende Gesellschaft Naturhistorisch Medizinischer Verein Naturhistorische Gesellschaft Naturhistorisches Museum Naturhistorisches Museum Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein... Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur & Heilleande Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir Vaterland. Cultur. Verein fiir Klkunde ee Verein fiir Erdkunde .... see Verein fiir Naturkunde .,, AUSTRIA. K. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft ... K. K. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum Imperial Observatory Edinburgh Edinburgh Edinburgh Edinburgh ... Glasgow Belfast Dublin Dublin Dublin Dublin Darmstadt Darmstadt Regensburg . Dresden Berlin Leipzig Gottingen Emden Halle Leipzig Heidelberg . Hanover Hamburg . Hanover Bremen Frankfurt Giessen Breslau Darmstadt Halle Kassel Wien Wien Wien Wien Prague Inst of Institutions, ée. 211 SWITZERLAND. Geographische Gesellschaft aS a4 .. Berne Geogr. Commerc. Gesellschaft . pe? St. Gallen Geoor. Commerc. Gesellschaft se ; fe Aarau Bele civerische Naturforschende (ecolaclixehe: fr3 Berne Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle ... ... Geneve FRANCE. Académie des Sciences et Belles-Lettres et Arts Ne Lyon Société Académique Indo—Chinoise a AP Paris Société de Géographie _... pe is ote Paris Société Geologique de France ae ee .2 Paris ITALY. Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele ai Roma British and American Archeological Society 22) SEvOnie Museo di Zoologia ed Anatomia Comp., R. Universita Torino Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici ms oe ws Roma Reale Academia di Scienze Bas ... Palermo Reale Academia di Scienze, Lettre Ed Arti .... ee Lucea Regia Academia di Sas Lettere ed Axi ... ... Modina Socisté Geografica Italiana Hs Rae Roma Societa eine di Scienze Nacorali: S%e ALS Pisa SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales Madrid Sociedade de Geographia ae oa oe yo LES On HoLLAND AND BELGIUM. Académie Royale de Belgique i Bruxelles Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Weten- schappen ... a tee ae ... Batavia Natural Science Society . e axe Amsterdam Natuurkundig Genootschap tas Gave Groningen N ederlandisch Botan. Vereeinging .. ons Nijmegen Magnetical and Meteorological Obser vatory ... .. Batavia Société Hollandaise des Sciences... es ... Haarlem Société Provinciale des Arts et Sciences ae .. Utrecht P 2 212 - Royal Society of Victoria. DENMARK, SWEDEN, AND Norway. Academie Royale Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Belsky an pea dee Sciences RussiA AND ROUMANTA. Institut Météorologique de Roumanie Jardin Botanique Impérial e Société des Naturalistes de la Nouvelle Russie Société Impériale des Naturalistes ... Société Imperiale Russe de Géographie Inpia AND Mauritius. Geological Survey of India Madras Literary Society Meteorological Society Natural History Society Royal Bengal Asiatic Society CHINA AND JAPAN. Astronomical Observatory China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society ce Imperial University Seismological Society of Ji apan CANADA. Canadian Institute Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada Royal Society of Canada . os UNITED STATES. Academy of Natural Sciences Academy of Natural Sciences Academy of Sciences American Academy of Arts and Sciences American Geographical Society Copenhague Kjobenhavn Jhristiania Bucharest St. Petersburg Odessa Moscow St. Petersburg Caleutta Madras ...Mauritius Bombay . Calcutta Hong Kong .. Shanghai Tokio Tokio Toronto Ottawa .. Montreal Davenport Philadelphia San Francisco : Boston New York List of Institutions, ée. 213 American Philosophical Society... ~ Philadelphia Bureau of Ethnology _... bis 7 Washington Colorado Scientific Society .... Denver Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science ‘and Art New York John Hopkins University oh ai Baltimore “‘ Kosmos ” és ae ao San Francisco Maryland Historical Society sh sik Baltimore Natural Academy of Sciences MS hell Washington Office of Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army ah Washington Philosophical Society ee ae Washington ** Science ” teh das ty is New York Smithsonian Institute... oe ss Washington Society of Natural History yi ‘i ... Boston Society of Natural Sciences en rE ... Buffalo United States Geological Survey ... ey Washington MExIco. , Ministerio de Fomento ... .1. . Mexieo Observatorio Meteorologico, Magnetico Central ~' ... Mexico Observatorio Astronomico National r. ... Tatubaya Sociedad de Ingenieros de Jalisco ... sa . Guadalajara Secretaria de Fomento .... a ae Guatemala ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Academia de Ciencias... poe B, ... Cordoba AUSTRALASIA.— VICTORIA. “Age” ih ae Fs, ie Melbourne “ Argus” nas ‘ide ve ae Melbourne Atheneum =... is “fe Melbourne Astronomical Observatory uae an Melbourne Australian Health Society ae si Melbourne “ Australian Journal of Pharmacy ” ae Melbourne Chief Secretary’s Office... us ~ Melbourne Department of Mines and Water Supply a5 Melbourne Eclectic Association of Victoria... ts ‘Melbourne Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria... Se Melbourne Free Library ... ee a. eee ... Echuca Free Library ... Le See ee ... Geelong Free Library ... a ces Sandhurst Geological Society of Australasia A = Melbourne German Association fot ber5 Pn Melbourne 214 — Royal Society of Victoria. Medical Society Parliamentary Library Pharmaceutical Society of Australasia Public Library Office of the Government Statist Royal Geographical me School of Mines School of Mines School of Mines University Library be Victorian Chamber of Commerce (Manufactures) ‘Victorian Engineer ” sd “‘ Victorian Government Gazette ” Victorian Institute of Surveyors New SoutH WALES. Australian Museum Astronomical Observatory Linnean Society of New South Wales Parliamentary Library BE Public Library Royal Geographical Society Royal Society ... Technological Museum SoutH AUSTRALIA. Parliamentary Library ... =e Royal Society of South Australia ... QUEENSLAND. Parliamentary Library Public Library .. Royal Geographical Society Royal Society of Queensland TASMANIA. Parliamentary Library Public Library .. Royal Society of Tasmania Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne . Ballarat Castlemaine Sandhurst Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney Sydney .. Adelaide *e. Adelasde .. Brisbane .. Brisbane .. Brisbane .. Brisbane Hobart Hobart Hobart List of Institutions, &e. 215 New ZEALAND. Auckland Institute and Museum ... Auckland Colonial Museum and Geological Survey Department Wellington New Zealand Institute ... bss ih Wellington Otago Institute red +? aaa ... Dunedin Parliamentary Library ... pea : Wellington Public Library ie ive e Wellington STILLWELL AND CO., PRINTERS, 78 COLLINS STREET EAST, MELBOURNE. TEAC ALA 3 2044 106 281 §