TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

£*

WILLIAM SKEY.

See p. 554.

TRANSACTIONS

AND

PROCEEDINGS

OF TJIK

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

1901

VOL. XXXIV.

(Seventeenth of New Series)

EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF
GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE

BY

SIR JAMES HECTOR, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.

Director

Issued July, 1902

WELLINGTON
JOHN MAGKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

KEGAN. PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNEB, <fe CO., PATERNOSTER HOUSE,
CHARING CROSS ROAD, LONDON

CORRIGENDA

Page 246, line 30. For C. Pattisson read C. Patteson.
Plate XIXa. For C. Pattisson read 0. Patteson.

Page 134 and page 325. In explanation of plate* add Plate XIXa
Map of Chatham Islands.

CONTENTS

TEANSACTIONS.

I. — Miscellaneous.

PAGES

Art. I. Presidential Address. By James Stewart, C.E. .. 1-17
II. On the Senses of Insects. By G. V. Hudson .. 18- 31

III. Notes on the Comet of April, May, and June, 1901.

By G. V. Hudson . . . . . . . . 31- 33

IV. The Diversions of the Whare Tapere : Some Account

o£ the various Games, Amusements, and Trials
of Skill practised by the Maori in Former Times.
By Elsdon Best . . . . . . . . 34- 69

V. Maori Magic : Notes upon Witchcraft, Magic Rites,
and various Superstitions as practised or believed
in by the Old-time Maori. By Elsdon Best . . 69- 98
VI. The Beginnings of Literature in New Zealand :
Part II., the English Section — Newspapers. By
Dr. T. M. Hocken, P.L.S. .. .. .. 99-114

VII. On the Recent Statistics of Insanity, Cancer, and
Phthisis in New Zealand. By H. W. Segar,
M.A., Professor of Mathematics, University Col-
lege, Auckland . . . . . . . . 115-123

VIII. On some Relics of the Moriori Race. By Arthur
Dendy, D.Sc, P.L.S. , Professor of Biology in the
Canterbury College, University of New Zealand . . 123-134
IX. A Philological Study in Natural History. By Taylor

White .. .. .. .. .. 135-145

II. — Zoology.

X. On the New Zealand Lamprey. By Arthur Dendy,
D.Sc, Professor of Biology in the Canterbury
College; and Margaret P. Olliver, M. A. .. 147-149

XL Note on an Entire Egg of a Moa, now in the Museum
of the University of Otago. By Professor W. B.
Benham, D.Sc, M.A., P.Z.S., University of Otago 149-151
XII. An Account of the External Anatomy of a Baby
Rorqual (Balcenoptera rostrata). By Professor
W. B. Benham .. .. .. .. 151-155

XIII. Notes on Cogia breviceps, the Lesser Sperm Whale.

By Professor W. B. Benham . . ' . . . . 155-168

32396

vi Contents.

Art. XIV. On a Small Collection of Diptera from the Southern pages
Islands of New Zealand. By Captain P. W.
Hutton, F.R.S. .. .. • • •• 169-175

XV. The Beetles of the Auckland Islands. By Captain
P. W. Hutton, F.R.S., with Descriptions of New
Species by Captain T. Broun, P.E.S. . . . . 175-179

XVI. Additions to the Diptera Fauna of New Zealand. By

Captain P. W. Hutton . . . . . . 179-196

XVII. On a New Fossil Pecten from the Chatham Islands.

By Captain F. W. Hutton . . . . . . 196

XVIII. On the Occurrence of Alepisaurus ferox on the Coast

of New Zealand. By Captain P. W. Hutton . . 197

XIX. On a Marine Galaxias from the Auckland Islands.

By Captain F. W. Hutton . . . . . . 198-199

XX. On Mites attacking Moths and Beetles. By W. W.

Smith, P.E.S. .. .. • • •• 199-201

XXI. Notes on Coleoptera. By J. H. Lewis . . . . 201-204

XXII. On the Land Mollusca of Little Barrier Island. By

Henry Suter . . . . • • • • 204-206

XXIII. List of the Species described in F. W. Hutton's
Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca, with the
Corresponding Names used at the Present Time.
By Henry Suter . . . . • • • • 207-224

XXIV. Notice of an Electric Ray new to the Fauna of New
Zealand, belonging to the Genus Astvape. By
A.Hamilton.. .. •• • • •• 224-226

XXV Embryology of New Zealand Lepidoptera : Part II.

By Ambrose Quail, P.E.S. . . . . • • 226-238

XXVI. Notes on New Zealand Fishes. By Sir James Hector,

F.R.S 239-241

XXVII. On a New Polyno'id. By W. Malcolm Thomson,

M.A. 241-242

III. — Botany.

XXVIII. A Short Account of the Plant-covering of Chatham

Island. By L. Cockayne . . . . • • 243-325

XXIX. On a New Zealand Isotachis new to Science. By
Ernest S. Salmon. Communicated by Robert
Brown . . . . • • • • • • 325-327

XXX Revi-ed List of New Zealand Seaweeds : Part II.

By Robert M. Laing, B.Sc. . . . • • • 327-359

XXXI. On the Occurrence of Panax arboreum as an Epi-
phyte on the Stems of Tree Ferns in the Mauku
District. By H. Carse . . • • • • 359-362

XXXII. On the Flora of the Mauku District. By H. Carse 362-386
XXXIII. Notes on the Growth of Indigenous and other Trees

in New Zealand. By H. D. M. Haszard . . 386-387

XXXiV. Remarks en New Zealand Trees planted at Parawai,
Thames, at and subsequent to the Year 1S73. By
J. W. Hall .. .. •• •• •• 388-3S9

XXXV. Descriptions of New Native Plants, and Notes. By

D. Petrie, M.A. .. .. •• •• 390-396

XXXVI. The Vegetable Caterpillar (Cordiceps robertsii). By

H. Hill, B.A..F.G.S... .. •• ..396-401

XXXVI 1. On the Prothallium of Phylloglossum. By A. P. W.
Thomas, M.A., F.L.S., Piofessor of Biology, Uni-
versity College, Auckland . . . • • • 402-408

Contents.

vn

Art. IV.-Geology. PAGES

XXXVIII. Notes on the Napier-Greenmeadows Road. By P.

Hutchinson, jun. .. .. .. .. 409-414

XXXIX. On the Volcanic Grits and Ash-beds in the Waite-

mata Series. By E. K. Mulgan, M.A. . . . . 414-435

XL. Notes on some Andesites from Thames Goldfield.
By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director, Otago
University School of Mines . . . . . . 435-440

XLI. On the Secular Movements of the New Zealand Coast-
line. By Professor James Park .. .. 440-444

XLII. Notes on some Glacier Moraines in the Leith Velley,

Dunedin. By Professor James Park .. .. 444-447

XLIII. On the Septarian Boulders of Moeraki, Otago. By

A. Hamilton . . . . . . . . 447-451

XLIV. Note on an Artesian Well at Aramoho. By J. T.

Stewart, C.E. .. .. .. .. 451-452

XLV. The Volcanic Beds of the Waitemata Series. By

C. E. Fox .. .. .. .. .. 452-493

V. — Chemistry and Physics.

XL VI. Studies on the Chemistry of the New Zealand Flora :
Part II.— The Karaka-nut. By T. H, Easter-
field, Professor of Chemistry, Victoria College,
and B. C. Aston, Chemist to the Agricultural De-
partment
XLVII. Raoult's Method for Molecular Weight Determina-
tion. By Professor Easterfield and James Bee,
M.A.
XL VIII. The Vapour Densities of the Fatty Acids. By Pro-
fessor Easterfield and P. W. Robertson
XL1X. The Latent Heats of Fusion of the Elements and
Compounds. By P. W. Robertson, Junior
Scholar in the University cf New Zealand
L. Some Observations on the Fourth Dimension. By

the Rev. Herbert W. Williams, M.A.
LI. The Equatorial Component of the Earth's Motion in

Space. By Douglas Hector
LII. Mathematical Treatment of the Problem of Produc-
tion, Rent, Interest, and Wages. By Douglas
Hector
LIII. On the Phenomena of Variation and their Symbolic
Expression. By E. G. Brown

I. — Miscellaneous — continued.

L1V. List of Papers on New Zealand Fishes and Fishing.
By A. Hamilton

495-497

497-499
499-501

501-507
507-513
513-514

514-519

519-538

539-548

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

Thirty-third Annual Report
Accounts for 1900-1901
In Memoriam — William Skey
ii

551-553

553

554-558

viii Contents.

PROCEEDINGS.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

PAGES

Acclimatisation of Rosella Parrots in New Zealand . . . . 561-562

On Caves in the Martinborough District, and Moa-bones found

therein. By H. N. McLeod . . . . . . . . 562

On the Distribution of Moa Remains in New Zealand. By Sir

J. Hector . . . . . . . . . . . . 562-563

Remarks on a Specimen of Mesoplodon hector i. By Sir J. Hector 563

Remarks on New Zealand Pishes, and on a Collection of Draw-
ings of Native Fisti by the late P. E. Clarke. By Sir J.
Hector . . ' . . . . . . . . . . 563-564

Note on an Octopus. By Sir J. Hector . . . . . . 564

Notes on Coleoptera. By J. H. Lewis . . . . . . 565

Remarks on the Whau (Entelea arbor escens). By Professor

Easterfield .. .. .. .. .. .. 565-566

On the Chemistry of the Karaka-nut. By Professor Easterfield 566-567
On Raoult's Method for Molecular Weight Determination. By-
Professor Easterfield . . . . . . . . . . 567

Abstract of Annual Report .. .. .. .. .. 568-569

Election of Officers for 1902 . . . . . . . . 569

The Theory of the Polar Planimeter. By C. E. Adams, B.Sc. . . 569

Notes on the Sydney Chain Standard. By C. E. Adams . . 569-570

Natural History Notes from Dusky Sound. By Richard Henry 570-571
Notes on the Entomology of New Zealand. By Captain J. J.

Walker, R.N. .. .. .. .. .. .. 572

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

Brain versus Muscle in the Production of Wealth. By F. G.

Ewington . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

The Measurement of Time. By Professor F. D. Brown . . 573
Account of the Maori House formerly at Taheke, Lake Rotoiti.

By J. Stewart, C.E. .. .. .. .. ..573-574

Greek Painted Vases : their Importance, Form, and Design. By

Professor Talbot-Tubbs . . . . . . . . 574

Exhibition of Astronomical Photographs. By A. D. Austin,

F.R.A.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 574

Ruskin's Influence on Economic Science. By E. V. Miller .. 575

Across the Mountains. By Professor Thomas . . . . 575

Abstract of Annual Report . . . . . . . . . . 577

Account of Purchase of the Mair Maori Collection . . 576-577

Note on the Little Barrier Reserve for Birds . . . . 577

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.

On some Conditions of Progress. By Professor Dendy .. 578

On the Chatham Islands. By L. Cockayne . . . . . . 578

Suggestion for an Index Faunae Novse-Zealandias . . . . 578

Exhibit of Graptolites from Preservation Inlet. By Captain

Hutton .. .. .. .. .. .. 579

Exhibit of a Fresh-water Shrimp (Xiphocaris compressa) from

Norfolk Island. By Dr. Chilton . . . . . . 579

The Sense of Sight. By Professor D<mdy . . . . . . 579

Contents.

IX

Remarks on some Schizopod Crustaceans. By Dr. Chilton

Evolution in Literary Types. By Professor Wall, M.A.

On the Learned Societies of Europe. By Dr. Chilton

On a New Pelagic Hydroid. By Professor Dendy

Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Tuatara. By James Ashley

Abstract of Annual Report ..

Election of Officers for 1902

PAGES

579
579
579
579
580

580-

•581
581

OTAGO INSTITUTE.

Report on the Proposed Fish-hatchery. By G. M. Thomson,

F.L.S.
On a Collection of Stone Implements. By P. R. Chapman
The Relations of Mosquitos to Malarial Fever. By Dr. Colqu

houn
On Charity Organizations. By Miss K. Browning
Proposal for an Index Faunae Novas Zealandise
The Beginnings of Literature in New Zealand. By Dr. Hocken
Exhibits by Professor Benham
Tennyson and Science. By Dr. Colquhoun
On Erasmus. By T. D. Pearce, M.A.
Exhibits by Mr. C. Brown

On Leaf-beds in the Kaikorai Valley. By Dr. P. Marshall
Exhibit of Ethnological Specimens from the New Hebrides. By

Professor Benham
On the Method of Feeding by the Rorqual. By R. Henry
Exhibit of a Boar fish
Note on a Specimen of Lampris lima
Abstract of Annual Report

Note on the Proposed Fish-hatchery
Election of Officers for 1902
Address on the Surroundings of the City of Dunedin. By G. M

Thomson

582
582

582-583
583

583-584
584
585
585
585
585

585-586

586

587
587
587
587-588
588
588
588
588

WESTLAND INSTITUTE.

Abstract of Annual Report .
Election of Officers for 1902

589
589

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.

Some Aspects of Technical Education. By W. Dinwiddie . . 590

Comets, with Special Reference to the Recent Comet. By T.

Tanner . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

Pond Life, or Dick's Dive in a Duck-pond. By Dr. Kennedy,

M.A. .. .. .. .. .. • .. .. 590

The Wonders of Creation as revealed by the Telescope. By T.

Tanner . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

Food-adulteration. By Dr. Leahy . . . . . . . . 590

Abstract of Annual Report . . . . . . . . . . 591

Election of Officers for 1902. . .. .. .. .. 591

NELSON INSTITUTE.

Abstract of Annual Report .
Election of Officers for 1902 .

592
592

Contents.

APPENDIX.

Meteorology of New Zealand— pages

Comparative Abstract for 1901 and Previous Years . . 595
Average Temperature of Seasons compared with those of the

Previous Year . . . . . • • • • • 595

Bemarks on the Weather during 1901 . . . . . . 596

Earthquakes reported during 1901 . . . . • • 597

Records of Milne Seismograph No. 20 at Wellington, 1900-

1901 .. •• •• •• •• •• 598-606

Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 at Christchurch, 1901 607

New Zealand Institute, Honorary Members . . . . . . 608

New Zealand Institute, Ordinary Members . . . . . . 609-616

List of Institutions and Persons to whom this Volume is pre-
sented by the Governors of the New Zealand Institute . . 617-622
Index .. 623-627

Corrigenda . . . • • - • • • • Back of title.

Contents ..

List of Plates

Board of Governors and Officers of the New Zealand Institute

Abstracts of Rules and Statutes of the New Zealand Institute

Roll of Incorporated Societies

Officers of Incorporated Societies, and Extracts from the Rules xvi.-xix.

XI.

xiii.

xiii.-xv.

xvi.

LIST OF PLATES.

Portrait of the late William Skey

Frontispiece.

[Note.— These are placed at the end of the volume.]

Plate

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XIXa.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

XXVII.

XXVIII.

XXIX.

XXX.

XXXI.

XXXII.

XXXIII.

XXXIV.

XXXV.

XXXVI.

XXXVII.

XXXVIII.

XXXIX.

XL.

XLI.

XLII.

Hudson. — Cornet of April, 1901
Segar. — Diagram of Health Statistics

Dendy. — Moriori Eelics

Benham. — Moa's Egg
Hutton. — Pecten dendyi, n.s
Alepisaurus ferox
Hamilton. — Astrape aysoni, n.s

Quail. — Embryology of Lepidoptera
Hectob. — Chimcera and Callorhynchus

Auchenopterus aysoni, n.s.
Cockayne. — Chatham Island Plants

Map of

Cockayne and Dendy

Islands
Salmon. — Isotachys stephanii, n.s.
Hill. — Cordiceps robertsii
Mulgan. — Rock Sections, Waitemata Series

To

illustrate

Article

III.

VII.

VII.

VII.

VIII.

VIII.

XI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XXIV.

XXIV.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

XXVI.

XXVIII.

XXVIII.

XXVIII.

XXVIII.

Chatham

VIII. & XXVIII.

.. XXIX.

XXXVI.
XXXIX.
XXXIX.
XXXIX.
XXXIX.
XXXIX.
XLII.
XLII.
XLIII.
XLIII.
XLIII.
XLIII.
XLIII.
XLIII.
XLIII.
LIII.
LIII.
XLV.
XLV.
XLV.
Hogben. — Records of Milne Seismograph No. 20 pp. 598-606

Park. — Moraine, Leith Valley, Dunedin
Hamilton. — Moeraki Boulders

Cone-in-cone Limestone

Brown. — Diagrams of Phenomena of Variation

Pox. — Sections of Waitemata Series
Lava Sections

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW
ZEALAND INTITULED "THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867."

Board of Governors.

(ex officio.)

His Excellency the Governor.
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary.

(nominated.)

W. T. L. Travers,F.L.S. ; Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D.,
F.B.S. ; Thomas Mason; E. Tregear, F.E.G.S. ; John
Young; J. W. Joynt, M.A.

(elected.)

1901.— Martin Chapman ; S. Percy Smith, F.E.G.S. ;
Hon. C. C. Bowen.

Manager : Sir James Hector.

Honorary Treasurer: W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S.

Secretary : B. B. Gore.

ABSTBACTS OF BULES AND STATUTES.

Gazetted in the "New Zealand Gazette," 9th March, 1868.

Section I.
Incorporation of Societies.

1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the
provisions of "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867," unless such so-
ciety shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in
the aggregate a sum of not less than fifty pounds sterling annually for
the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for

xiv New Zealand Institute.

which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satis-
faction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the Chairman for
the time being of the society.

2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incor-
porated with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said
society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of
money annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less
than £50.

3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall
provide for the expenditure of not less than one-third of the annual
revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public
museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not
less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and main-
tenance of the Museum and Library of the New Zealand Institute.

4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid, which shall in any one
year fail to expend the proportion of revenue affixed in manner provided
by Rule 3 aforesaid, shall from thenceforth cease to be incorporated with
the Institute.

5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated
with the Institute shall be deemed to be communications to the Insti-
tute, and may then be published as Proceedings or Transactions of the
Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Insti-
tute regarding publications : —

Regulations regarding Publications.

(a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of a current
abstract of the proceedings of the societies for the time being
incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled " Proceedings
of the New Zealand Institute," and of transactions, comprising
papers read before the incorporated societies (subject, however,
to selection as hereinafter mentioned), to be intituled " Trans-
actions of the New Zealand Institute."

(b.) The Institute shall have power to reject any papers read before
any of the incorporated societies.

(c.) Papers so rejected will be returned to the society in which they
were read.

(d.) A proportional contribution may be required from each society
towards the cost of publishing the Proceedings and Transac-
tions of the Institute.

(e.) Each incorporated society will be entitled to receive a propor-
tional number of copies of the Proceedings and Transactions
of the Institute, to be from time to time fixed by the Board of
Governors.

(/.) Extra copies will be issued to any of the members of incorporated
societies at the cost-price of publication.

6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from incor-
porated societies, and placed in charge of the Institute, shall be vested
in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board
of Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the
property of the Institute.

7. Subject to "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867," and to the
foregoing rules, all societies incorporated with the Institute shall be
entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the by-laws
for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs.

8. Upon application signed by the Chairman and countersigned by
the Secretary of any society, accompanied by the certificate required
under Rule No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under the
seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the foregoing
rules of the Institute are complied with by the society.

Abstract of Bules and Statutes. xv

Section II.
For the Management of the Property of the Institute.

9. All donations by societies, public departments, or private indi-
viduals to tbe Museum of the Institute shall be acknowledged by a
printed form of receipt, and shall be duly entered in the books of the
Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as
the Board of Governors may direct.

10. Deposits of articles for the Museum may be accepted by the
Institute, subject to a fortnight's notice of removal, to be given either by
the owner of the articles or by the Manager of the Institute, and such
deposits shall be duly entered in a separate catalogue.

11. Books relating to natural science may be deposited in the Library
of the Institute, subject to the following conditions : —

(a.) Such books are not to be withdrawn by the owner under six
months' notice, if such notice shall be required by the Board
of Governors.

(b.) Any funds especially expended on binding and preserving such
deposited books at the request of the depositor shall be
charged against the books, and must be refunded to the
Institute before their withdrawal, always subject to special
arrangements made with the Board of Governors at the
time of deposit.

(c.) No books deposited in the Library of the Institute shall be
removed for temporary use except on the written authority or
receipt of the owner, and then only for a period not exceed-
ing seven days at any one time.

12. All books in the Library of the Institute shall be duly entered in
a catalogue, which shall be accessible to the public.

13. The public shall be admitted to the use of the Museum and
Library, subject to by-laws to be framed by the Board.

Section III.

The laboratory shall for the time being be and remain under the
exclusive management of the Manager of the Institute.

Section IV.

(Of Date 23rd September, 1870.)

Honorary Members.

Whereas tbe rules of the societies incorporated under the New
Zealand Institute Act provide for the election of honorary members of
such societies, but inasmuch as such honorary members would not
thereby become members of the New Zealand Institute, and whereas it
is expedient to make provision for the election of honorary members of
the New Zealand Institute, it is hereby declared, —

1. Each incorporated society may, in the month of November next,

nominate for election, as honorary members of the New Zea-
land Institute, three persons, and in the month of November
in each succeeding year one person, not residing in the colony.

2. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated,

together with the grounds on which their election as honorary
members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the
Manager of the New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be
submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting.

3. From the persons so nominated the Governors may select in the

first year not more than nine, and in each succeeding year not
more than three, who shall from thenceforth be honorary
members of the New Zealand Institute, provided that the
total number of honorary members shall not exceed thirty.

xvi New Zealand Institute.

ROLL OF INCORPOEATED SOCIETIES.

NAME OF SOCIETY. DATE OK INCORPORATION.

Wellington Philosophical Society - 10th June, 1868.

Auckland Institute - 10th June, 1868.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury 22nd Oct., 1868.

Otago Institute ----- 18th Oct., 1869.

Westland Institute - - - 21st Dec, 1874.

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute - 31st Mar., 1875.

Southland Institute - 21st July, 1880.

Nelson Institute ----- 20th Dec, 1883.

OFFICERS OF INCORPORATED SOCIETIES, AND
EXTRACTS FROM THE RULES.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Office-bearers for 1902. — President — W. T. L. Travers,
.3. ; Vice-presidents — Sir J. Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D.,
F.R.S., and R. L. Mestayer, M.Inst.C.E. ; Council— H. N.
McLeod, E. Tregear, F.R.G.S., Martin Chapman, G. Hogben,
M.A., R. C. Harding, G. V. Hudson, and Professor Easter-
field, M.A. ; Secretary and Treasurer — R. B. Gore ; Auditor —
Thomas King.

'O'

Extracts from the Rules of the Wellington Philosophical Society.

5. Every member shall contribute annually to the funds of the
Society the sum of one guinea.

6. The annual contribution shall be due on the first day of January
in each year.

7. The sum of ten pounds may be paid at any time as a composition
for life of the ordinary annual payment.

14. The time and place of the general meetings of members of the
Society shall be fixed by the Council, and duly announced by the
Secretary.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

Office-bearers for 1902. — President — E. Roberton,
M.D. ; Vice-presidents — J. Stewart, M.I.C.E., and Pro-
fessor H. W? Segar; Council — Professor F. D. Brown,

C. Cooper, H. Haines, F.R.C.S., E. V. Miller, T. Peacock,

D. Petrie, J. A. Pond, H. Swale, M.D., Professor H. A.

Incorporated Societies. xvii

Talbot-Tubbs, Professor A. P. W. Thomas, F.L.S., and J. H.
Upton ; Secretary and Curator — T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S.,

F.Z.S.

Extracts from the Rules of the Auckland Institute.

5. Any person desiring to become a member of the Institute shall be
proposed and seconded by two members of the Institute, and shall be
balloted for at the next meeting of the Council.

6. The annual subscription shall be one guinea. Members may at
any time become life-members by one payment of ten guineas in lieu of
future annual subscriptions.

9. The annual subscription shall become due on the first day of April
for the year then commencing. The first year's subscription of a new
member shall become due on the day of his election.

30. An annual general meeting of the Institute, convened by ad-
vertisement or circular, shall be held in the month of February in each
year.

32. Ordinary meetings for the reading of papers, and for transacting
the general business of the Institute, shall be called at such times as the
Council shall decide.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OP CANTERBURY.

Office-beakers for 1902. — President — J. B. Mayne,
B.A. ; Vice-presidents — C. C. Farr and A. E. Flower ; Hon.
Secretary and Treasurer — Dr. Charles Chilton ; Council —
Captain F. W. Hutton, Dr. W. P. Evans, B. M. Laing,
L. Cockayne, B. Nairn, and Miss Olliver ; Hon. Auditor —
George Way, F.I.A.N.Z.

Extracts from the Rules of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury.

8. Every member of the Institute other than honorarv shall pay one
guinea annually as a subscription to the funds of the Institute. The
subscription shall be due on the 1st January in each year.

9. Members may compound for all annual subscriptions of the current
and future years by paying ten guineas.

15. The ordinary meetings of the Institute shall be held monthly
during the months from May to November, both inclusive, on such day
as the Council may determine.

OTAGO INSTITUTE.

Office-bearers for 1902. — President — Professor Ben-
ham ; Vice-presidents — F. B. Chapman and C. W. Chamber-
lain ; Hon. Secretary — G. M. Thomson ; Hon. Treasurer —
W. Fels ; Council — Professor Park, Dr. Hocken, Dr. Col-
quhoun, Dr. Marshall, A. Hamilton, T. D. Pearce, and
A.Bathgate; Auditor— D. Brent.

Extracts from the Constitution and Rules of the Otago Institute.

2. Any person desiring to join the society may be elected by ballot,
on being proposed in writing at any meeting of the Council or society by
two members, and on the payment of the annual subscription of one
guinea for the year then current.

xviii Neio Zealand Institute.

5. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment
of ten pounds and ten shillings in lieu of future annual subscriptions.

8. An annual general meeting of the members of the society shall be
held in January in each year, at which meeting not less than ten mem-
bers must be present, otherwise the meeting shall be adjourned by the
members present from time to time until the requisite number of mem-
bers is present.

(5.) The session of the Otago Institute shall be during the winter
months, from May to October, both inclusive.

WESTLAND INSTITUTE.

Office-beakers foe 1902. — President — Dr. Teichelmann ;
Vice-president — J. B. Lewis ; Hon. Treasurer — E. McNaugh-
ton ; Trustees — Messrs. Beare, Clarke, Heinz, Michel, Hick-
son, Morton, Park, Perry, Macfarlane, Mahan, Dawes, and
Dr. Macandrew.

Extracts from the Rtcles of the Westland Institute.

3. The Institute sball consist (1) of life-members — i.e., persons who
have at any one time made a donation to the Institute of ten pounds ten
shillings or upwards, or persons who, in reward of special services ren-
dered to the Institute, have been unanimously elected as such by the
committee or at a general half-yearly meeting; (2) of members who
pay two pounds two shillings each year ; (3) of members pay hi g smaller
sums, not less than ten shillings.

5. The Institute shall hold a half-yearly meeting on the third Mon-
day in the months of December and June.

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.

Office-bearers for 1902. — President- — J. P. D. Leahy,
M.B., M.S., B.A., D.P.H. ; Vice-president— T. C. Moore,
M.D. ; Council — W. Dinwiddie, T. Hall, H. Hill, B.A.,
F.G.S., F. Hutchinson, jun., J. S. Large, T. Tanner; Hon.
Secretary — James Hislop, District School ; Hon. Treasurer —
J. W. Craig; Hon. Auditor — G. White.

Extracts from the Rules of the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute.

4. The annual subscription for each member shall be one guinea,
payable in advance on the first day of February in each year.

6. Members may at any time become life-members by one paymer.t
of ten pounds ten shillings in lieu of future annual subscriptions.

(5.) The session of the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute shall be
during the winter months from May to October, both inclusive ; and
ordinary meetings shall be held on the second Monday in each of those
six months, at 7.30 p.m.

Incorporated Societies. xix

SOUTHLAND INSTITUTE.

Office-bearers. — Trustees — Ven. Archdeacon Stocker,
Kev. John Ferguson, Dr. James Galbraith.

NELSON INSTITUTE.

Office-bearers for 1902. — President — H. W. Eobinson ;
Vice-president — D. Grant ; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer —
A. J. Eedgrave ; Acting -Curator of Museum — W. F. Worley ;
Librarian — B. Eeeves.

Extracts from the Rules of the Nelson Institute.

4. Members shall be elected by ballot,

6. The annual subscription shall be one guinea.

7. The sum of ten guineas may be paid in composition of the annual
subscription.

16. Meetings shall be held on the second Monday in every month.
23. The papers read before the Society shall be immediately delivered
to the Secretarv.

TRANSACTIONS

TEANS ACTIONS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE,

1901.

I. — MISCELLANEOUS.

Art, I. — Presidential Address.

By Jas. Stewart, C.E.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 3rd June, 1901.]

We this night commence the thirty-fourth session of our
Institute, a fact which carries our existence practically over
one-third of a century ; and, although it might be excusable
to utilise this landmark as a peg on which to hang a retro-
spect of the past and anticipations more or less prophetic or
imaginative in respect to the future, I prefer to touch lightly
on this scope, and leave it to the occupier of this chair sixteen
years hence, when the jubilee of the Institute will be cele-
brated in, there is no room for doubt, a manner befitting the
occasion, and with the participation of, I hope, all of those
whom I now see before me. Nevertheless, I am deeply
sensible of the privilege I now enjoy of opening our first
session in the new century, and it is pleasing to be able on
such an occasion to congratulate the Institute on its solid
and prosperous condition. We are able to keep up a steady,
if not large, increase in all sections of the Museum, and in
the ethnological section especially we may claim to lead the
colony. Our roll of membership has taken a turn upwards,
with every prospect of a yearly balance on the right side, the
result in no small degree of the lectures, scientific and popular,
which for many years past have been -given, often at no small
1

2 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

trouble and some expense, by those who have thus evinced in
such a practical manner their interest in the work.

"When I addressed you on a similar occasion to the pre-
sent eleven years ago some of the present applications of
science were in comparative infancy, and the advance that
has been made since then offers a tempting opening to enlarge
on what may be achieved iu the future. But I have no
intention of inflicting on you a tirade in the gushing style of
which we have had a good deal of experience since the com-
mencement of the century. Some of the conclusions reached
in these predictions might eventuate if the law of gravitation
could be repealed. But just as we have experienced the pos-
sible, so also we have a clearer conception of what is impos-
sible ; just as we have learned the possibilities of electric
transmission of heat, light, and force, so have we learned the
laws by which these things are governed, and wbich are as
immutable as those pertaining to the older science of
hydraulics. When one takes up a specimen of these florid
predictions, such as I have now before me in a cutting from
an American newspaper, and eliminates therefrom all that is
equivalent to perpetual motion — and, singular to say, many
things that are already in use ; others, again, long known
but not in use — it is wonderful how little remains of what is
possible and at the same time new.

There are, however, among those who have been forecast-
ing future possibilities the names of some who have scored
their mark indelibly in the annals of time. And if, as is
asserted, Nikola Tesla predicts that electric messages and
power will be sent from England to Australia without wires,
we have no scientific warrant for disbelief, although we have
not the smallest foundation in our present experience for
hoping that such a thing may be possible.

But to enter into a train of speculative thought on these
and kindred subjects on this occasion would be somewhat
out of place, and I shall therefore endeavour to enlist your
attention in matters having a more or less practical bearing
and influence on every-day life. This opens out a very ex-
tensive field of vision," far too much for either your time or
patience, and I will endeavour to exhaust neither.

The advance of engineering during the last fifty years has
been suggested as a theme of general interest, and it is to me
in many points attractive, for it is just fifty years ago last
New Year since I entered to serve my time to the work of my
life, a raw youth of eighteen fresh from Ian Maclaren's Scots
Grammar School. I will therefore glance at a few of the
changes which have taken place in the practice of what has
been happily defined as the " art of directing the great sources
of power in nature for the use and convenience of man."

Stewart. — Address. 3

Sixty years ago the design of bridges adhered, with few
exceptions, to the arch or suspension type. But stone or
brick arches were going out, and designs in cast or wrought
iron were coming in. The suspension type had been tried for
railway-work and found unsuitable without such application
of stiffening as led it practically to partake quite as much of
the girder type as of suspension. The disastrous breakdown
of the Dee Bridge, near Chester, in which a deep cast-iron
girder was reinforced in a rather unscientific manner by
malleable-iron ties, led to the abandonment of cast-iron for
all but very small spans, and even for such it has long dis-
appeared. With the last of the " forties " came the tubular
bridges of Conway and Britannia ; but with the succeeding
great Victoria Bridge over the St. Lawrence at Montreal this
design may be said to have been abandoned. The design is
not economical, really very much the reverse, but the mathe-
matical investigations necessary to its evolution bore imme-
diate fruit in the inception and development of the open-girder
pattern, which in some of its many modifications has become
the standard of all long and short span bridges the design of
which is not governed by aesthetic traditions. It will be
readily granted that it is the size of the span, and not the
mere length of the structure, that stamps the importance of a
bridge, and the advance of engineering in this particular in
fifty years cannot be more forcibly illustrated than by the
comparison put forth by Sir Benjamin Baker — that is to
say, the span of the Britannia Bridge, 460 ft., is to that of
the Forth Bridge, 1,710 ft., as a newly born babe is to a life-
guardsman. The bridge now in progress over the St. Lawrence
at Quebec is to have a span 90 ft. longer than that of the Forth,
and the designs of the proposed great suspension-bridge over
the Hudson, between New York and Hoboken, show a span
of 2,700 ft., or 60 ft. more than half a mile.

In direct contrast to bridges are tunnels, and in this line
an enormous advance has been made, not only in the magni-
tude of the works, but in the facility and certainty wTith which
operations can be carried out under all circumstances, even to
driving under the Thames at Blackwall with only a few feet
of mud between the water and the lining of the tunnel.
Driving railway-tunnels for miles under cities like London or
Glasgow is now such an every-day occurrence as to call for
no remark. During the last half-century the Mont Cenis
Tunnel, seven miles and a third, and that of the St. Gothard,
nine miles and a quarter, have been constructed, and at the
present time the Simplon is being pierced by twin tunnels of
twelve miles and a half in length.

Turning to railways, the principal departure seems to be
in the direction of application to steep and mountainous

4 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

countries formerly considered to be inaccessible to the loco-
motive. It is true that more than sixty years ago a gradient
of 1 in 37-J- was worked by ordinary locomotives on the
Bromsgrove-Lickey Incline, between Birmingham and Ox-
ford, but that was exceptional. Soon, however, in the period
under review, it was recognised that railways must be
adapted to circumstances, and not limited to conventional
gradients or curves. Main lines in North and South America
have now many hundreds of miles of gradients of 1 in 25 and
1 in 20. What this means may be imagined when it is con-
sidered that it is not far from double the rate of ascent of the
heaviest of our New Zealand lines as worked with ordinary
locomotives. It is worthy of remark that we have, in some
of its phases, a renewal of the "battle of the gauges," which
in the early " forties " was being fought through many parlia-
mentary campaigns. And it is somewhat disquieting to find
that there are some among us who, ignoring the lessons of
the past, would calmly condemn a future generation to the
trouble and expense which a break of gauge forced on Britain
and America, a trouble which will loom more and more into
view as a disturbing factor in the railway policy of the Aus-
tralian Commonwealth. Locomotives have been practically
trebled in weight and power during the last fifty years. The
express speeds are somewhat, but not very much, higher —
that is, on the average. But we are promised within the
next two years or so the startling development of railway
speed up to 120 miles per hour. Some anticipate much more.
This is by the monorail system, which Mr. Behr has pushed
into prominence, and which is likely to be exploited on the his-
toric field, in railway history, of Liverpool and Manchester.
Such speeds can only be attained by carriages not liable to
derailment, and propelled by other than reciprocating ma-
chinery. It is possible that, for express passenger traffic and
under exceptional conditions, this system may come into use.
But I fear that several defects, such as shunting difficulties
and others, inherent in its design will prevent its adoption
otherwise.

In marine engineering we see a most marvellous advance,
and it would take all the time at our disposal this night to
follow up, step by step, the steady march in the direction of
speed and reduction of fuel per unit of power. The double,
treble, and quadruple phases of compound engines, with pro-
portionately high initial steam-pressure and high piston-speed,
have worked results which in the early " fifties" would have
been declared impossible by nearly all the marine engineers
in Great Britain. I say nearly all. I might extend it to all
but one. In 1852 John Elder, the descendant of a race of
grand old Fifeshire mechanics, and the possessor of all that

Stewart. — Address. 5

can be conferred by heredity in such a case, entered into
business on the Clyde. Although the compound engine had
been invented and iu mining use in Cornwall at the close of
the eighteenth century, it was left for John Elder to see the
vast possibilities of the application of the principle to marine
work. Previous to his time the steam - pressure used in
marine boilers was about 7 lb. per square inch, and the diffi-
culty in introducing the compound design lay principally in
the deeply rooted prejudice existing against high pressures
at sea. In 1853, however, Messrs. Randolph, Elder, and Co.
commeuced the innovation entailing the most radical de-
parture from former practice. I well remember the opposi-
tion set up, alike by owners and the engine-room staff, and I
watched with much interest the steady, if not rapid, triumph
of high initial pressure and expansion to extreme limits in
separate cylinders. John Elder died in 1869, at the early age
of forty-three. Had he survived to the present day, what
would he have seen as the result of his sound judgment of
fifty years ago ? He would have seen marine boilers carrying
steam at 2801b. to the inch, and expanding in three or four
stages through five cylinders, with piston-speeds of 900 ft. per
minute. He would have seen the consumption of fuel at sea
reduced from more than 6 lb. per horse-power per hour to less
than 1 lb. And, solely as the outcome of these results, he
would have seen the Atlantic Ocean virtually a ferry, crossed
by more than half a million of passengers last year, and our
own colony, for the Panama service of which he built the
" Rakaia," served with steam-liners not one of which would
have been possible under the old system. And, lastly, he
would have seen the cargo-steamer " Inchmarlow " carrying
1 ton one sea mile by the combustion of one-third of an ounce
of coal, which, taking the price at 15s. per ton, is equivalent
to carrying 1 ton 550 miles for Id. But the most startling
innovation in the marine engine is undoubtedly the steam-
turbine of the Hon. Mr. Parsons. By this means velocities
have been reached of forty-three statute miles per hour, with
an utter absence of that vibration which, at high speeds, is at
once so distressing and destructive. Whether the steam-
turbine can be applied to an Atlantic liner remains to be
seen. There are several drawbacks inherent to the design,
the principal of which is the impossibility of reversing the
turbine, so that separate machinery has to be provided for
going astern, and which is allowed to run loose when the
vessel is going ahead. It is certainly not in its favour that,
even in the small vessels in which this turbine has been tried,
the power has to be applied through three propeller-shafts,
each with three screws, the whole revolving at the enormous
velocity of two to three thousand revolutions per minute.

6 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Full efficiency also can only be obtained wben full power is
being exerted. At half and quarter speeds the loss of effi-
ciency is very great, and as yet the efficiency is at best very
considerably below that of the average ordinary marine engine
of the day. But in this turbine the long-sought realisation of
a successful rotary engine has been attained.

In electrical engineering we have the third great branch of
the profession; and it is one which, in its far-reaching
ramifications, already exceeds the most diversified practice of
the conventional civil engineer or his brother of the marine.
To draw a contrast between electrical engineering fifty years
ago and to-day would indeed be comparing small things
with great. The electrical engineer as known to us now had
no existence in those days. Electricity was employed, we
may say, in only two works of commercial importance — those
of electroplating and telegraphy. The original patents for
both of these applications were overridden by what was called
"magnetic plating" and the "magnetic telegraph." Per-
manent magnets were used in both cases, and it was not
until it was found that electro-magnets could be substituted
that the phenomenal advance in the science and practice of
electricity took place. To speak in detail of the evolution of
the electrical engineer is not my purpose. My endeavour
is to interest you, not to weary you if I can avoid it ;
but I may mention one circumstance which stands out
boldly in my memory in the light of present experience.
My worthy old friend the rector of the Scots Gram-
mar School aforesaid, in his lectures on electricity, held
it to be impossible that the electric light should be
commercially successful. His reasoning was based on the
difference between the atomic weights of carbon and zinc.
At that time this was given as 6 to 32, now more ac-
curately stated as 11-97 to 64-9, but the ratios are very
nearly the same. Had the electric light been possible of
production only by the primary battery, in which zinc is
the fuel, the old gentleman would have been right, for
1 ton of coal, or rather of carbon, would go as far in
chemical combination as more than 5 tons of zinc. But the
invention of the dynamo gave coal its opportunity; and yet
it is at a heavy disadvantage, in so far as it cannot be
applied directly in a primary battery like zinc, but must be
used through the intervention of the steam or gas engine.
Now, the steam-engine is the most wasteful of prime movers,
so far as the conversion of the thermodynamic value of fuel
into work is concerned. It has an efficiency of only from 10
to 12 per cent., and very seldom reaches 15 per cent., while
the efficiency of the primary battery may be averaged at
90 per cent, or more. If, therefore, carbon could be used

Stewart. — Address. 7

directly in a primary battery as zinc is, a saving of fuel cf
about 75 per cent, would result. With a prize like this in
prospect we cannot wonder that for many years a primary
carbon battery has been the dream of electrical inventors.
But, although thermo cells of several kinds are known, we
are practically no nearer the realisation, and I very much fear
that we shall never see the boilers of an Atlantic liner
replaced by electric batteries, into which a few stokers
working in a cool and pleasant atmosphere will shovel
one-seventh of the coal now required by steam. The diffi-
culties attending the practical application of such batteries
would be enormous, and may be clearly conceived by sup-
posing zinc to be as plentiful and cheap as coal, and to
form the fuel, in fact, as we would like to see carbon. We
have only to imagine the number, dimensions, and arrange-
ment of cells, each of a pressure of about one volt, which
would have to be grouped and arranged in serried masses to
give out from 15,000 to 30,000 horse power. No ; I am more
than doubtful of the utility, for marine purposes at all events,
of the primary carbon battery, even if it does become a fact.

In electric traction the last decade of the century has
furnished probably the greatest revolution ever witnessed in
the realm of applied science, although so far as Great Britain
and the Continent of Europe are concerned it has only just
commenced. There are many reasons for this great success,
but I have no intention of entering into them in detail at this
time. I hope that before our meeting next year on a similar
occasion to the present we shall have a practical illustration
of electric traction in our midst. The scale on which it is
being installed in America is immense. The New York
elevated street railway is now being transformed from a loco-
motive to an electric system, and the traffic with which it has
to cope may be imagined when the record of two consecutive
days' work is looked at. On these days 1,700,000 passengers
were carried. During the heaviest rush of traffic 280 trains,
or 1,280 cars, were run per hour, and during twenty-four
hours 4,820 trains were despatched on the various sections.
The electric power on this system, when the installation at
present in progress is complete, is stated to be eight units of
8,000-horse power, or a total of 61,000-horse power. In
London the work of transformation of the metropolitan
and metropolitan district railways is in progress, and
it will be a welcome change from the smoky dungeon-
looking holes they are now to the white walls and clear air
they will in a short time present to a vastly increased traffic.
While on the question of electric traction it may be men-
tioned that a discussion has arisen in all sincerity respecting
the possibility of replacing locomotive traction on railways in

8 Transactions . — Miscellaneous.

general by electric power. It is held by some that power-
stations located at regular distances along the lines could, by
the three-phase system, transmit energy at a more economical
rate than is obtained with locomotives. The question is indeed
a large one, but is bound to be threshed out to a finality. It
is like the question of change of gauge. The enormous
sacrifice of plant involved delayed that for many years, but
it had to be faced in the end, and so it may in this instance
also.

During the last fifty years, but at somewhat long intervals,
the subject of wireless telegraphy has come before the public.
The first exponent of this, so far as I know, was a native of
Forfarshire, Mr. J. Bowman Lindsay. I well remember his
experiments in transmitting signals across the River Tay,
near Perth, during the year I left Home, now just forty-two
years ago. Later Mr. Lindsay essayed to transmit signals
between Dundee and the southern shore near Newport. His
method was by conduction, making the earth or water, in
fact, act as conductors between pairs of earth-plates on either
side of the space over which he wished to communicate. The
possibilities of wireless telegraphy under this system are
extremely limited and of no practical value, and it is not hard
to understand why the labours of Lindsay — one of the most
earnest and self-sacrificing workers in practical science the
country has ever known — were not taken up for actual use.

Towards the end of the century the experiments of the
late lamented Hertz demonstrated the existence of a medium
which, ever since the days of Newton, was suspected as the
agent by which the laws of gravitation and light act in
force throughout all space. This medium has usually been
designated the "ether," and now the tendency of thought is
towards identifying it with electricity itself. Whether this is
so or not, it is certain that, in accordance with the number of
billions of vibrations or etheric waves per second, there appear
to our senses the component parts of light as separated by a
refracting prism. Beyond the range of vibrations which give
out the spectrum are the Rontgen or x rays, which have the
power of penetrating many otherwise opaque substances, as
the solar rays do glass. And, curiously enough, the Hertzian
waves are in frequency placed far below those of the dullest
red, the lowest of the spectrum, and yet they have the power
of vibrating through solids, or what we have hitherto been
calling solids. Had Hertz survived he most certainly would
have followed up his discoveries to the point of controlling the
despatch and receipt of the etheric waves, and by reinforcing
them by an ordinary relay effect what is now known as wire-
less telegraphy. This work has been taken up by Marconi,
Dr. Lodge, F.R.S., and others; but to Marconi seems to be

Stewart. — Address. 9

clue the form of coherer which appears to be the most sensi-
tive and practical method of catching vibrations in the ether
set in motion by powerful sparks discharged it may be a
hundred miles distant.

The question now arises, To what extent, from a com-
mercial point of view, is wireless telegraphy likely to come
into use? Gushing writers, in crowding together the coming
achievements of the century, take for granted that all wires,
alike for telegraph and telephone, will be abolished. Granted
that perfection is reached in practice, and that it is possible
to dispense with telephone-wires between any two instru-
ments, it will be readily admitted that a system by which a
receiver could respond to and translate into speech all or
any of the efcheric vibrations set up by thousands of instru-
ments would be of no value, to say the least of it. Hence
Marconi endeavoured to devise means by which the vibrations
could be reflected, or, at all events, very much strengthened,
in a given direction. But it is hard to conceive Hertzian
waves, which are supposed to be able to pass through stone
walls, being reflected by anything. This reflection idea,
therefore, has not been much in evidence of late. But it is
asserted that a receiver may be tuned so as to syntonize
with a particular transmitter, and that signals would be in-
telligible only between these two. Granted again, what
follows in practice ? Each subscriber must be supplied with
instruments tuned to those of every other member of the
Exchange. This, of course, is unthinkable, and therefore for
telephony wires cannot be superseded. For telegraphy it
might be possible to use a cryptograph, by which messages
might be deciphered only by those holding the key. It may
be objected that all ciphers are solvable by scientific methods,
but there is one very simple instrument, known as the Wheat-
stone Cryptograph, which is absolutely unsolvable without
the key, and that key may be varied through millions of
commutations.

It is thus more than doubtful if wireless telegraphy may
become commercially useful. But there is a large and very
important field of usefulness otherwise open. At sea espe-
cially, both in peace and war, it must become of immense
importance. We all remember the long search that took place
some time ago after two disabled steamers. Had they, and
also those engaged in the search, been supplied with Marconi's
instruments, the work would have extended to days instead
of weeks or months, and been one of system instead of
chance. So, also, for enabling an admiral to communicate
with his fleet during foggy weather, or with detached ships or
squadrons, and for lighthouses and lightships communicating
with shore stations, the invention appears to be perfect. It

10 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

is stated that, owing to some atmospheric conditions, this
system has not been a conspicuous success in South Africa.
If so, it would seem that there is some subtle connection
between the ether and the atmosphere that is rather disturb-
ing to the ideas we have been forming on the subject. But
wireless telegraphy as yet is only effected by bold and ex-
plosive discharges which generate the waves, and who can
say that the new century may not see the same effect pro-
duced by vibrations as mild as those set up between the
transmitter and receiver of an ordinary telephone circuit ?
Those vibrations represent an electric current so feeble that
no known galvanometer can even detect their presence, and
yet they effect the most delicate reproductions of the human
voice. Nothing is known of the still more feeble currents
circulating in the human brain ; but that in the cells of that
organism currents are transmitted through the nerves, and
having performed the behests of the will are returned, much
in the same manner as in ordinary electrical work, can
hardly be doubted. And, further, it only requires the sup-
position that among the millions of human-brain batteries
two may be now and then found so accurately syntonized as
to respond without the conducting nerves being physically
joined, and that Hertzian waves may in this manner be the
foundation of thought-reading, of the possibility of which
many very startling demonstrations have been given. It is
also possible that by much training and practice certain indi-
viduals may acquire the power of syntonizing the transmitting
cells of their brains with the receptive cells of others, who
may be already nearly in syntony with them, and thus the
phenomena of hypnotism may yet be elucidated.

I have, I fear, allowed this rather jerky and disjointed
disquisition, if I may presume to use the term, to extend to
undue length, and I will endeavour to utilise the remaining
time at my disposal by touching on one or two subjects having
general interest, and which are calculated to affect the well-
being of our colony. Foremost among these stands technical
education. I observe with pleasure that this subject has been
engaging the attention of the Chief Justice, Sir Robert Stout,
and, after his master-mind and perspicuity of diction, I might
well let the matter rest. But if only to add my testimonv
to the truth of his line of argument, and recall a few illustra-
tions within my experience, I have the temerity to follow on.
The first thing that strikes me is what is commonly under-
stood by the term " technical education." We have had a
technical school in our midst for some years, and towards
gaining an insight as to what the term is understood locally to
mean I very gladly availed myself of an opportunity of visiting
it and seeing for myself. Well, I saw a school in which

Stewart. — Address. 11

various handicrafts were practised and taught, together with
the elements of machine-drawing. The workmanship was in
most cases very good, in some cases perfect. A great deal of
attention was devoted to carving in wood, and many very
creditable productions were to be seen finished or in progress.
The whole reflected much credit on the promoters of the
institution so far as the scope of teaching went. But that
does not represent what technical education in its true sense
means, which, as it happens, has been defined by Act of Parlia-
ment. I have had many opportunities of observation, and have
come to two conclusions bearing on technical teaching. The
first is : A youth cannot be taught a given trade at any such
school in a manner to enable him to take his place among
those who have served a regular apprenticeship to that trade.
Nothing can take the place of, or effect the same results as,
an apprenticeship, regular or not, but in any case comprising,
say, four or five years of actual work and earnest application.
Of course, there are exceptions, as now and then there may
arise a Nasmyth, who was self-taught and served no appren-
ticeship and yet was perfect in his workmanship. The second
point I note is that, of all things a youth can try, the use of
his hands in mechanical handicraft is the easiest to acquire,
notwithstanding the length of time it takes to perfect his
workmanship. This must be understood as in comparison
with anything requiring the use of his brains. I cannot too
strongly emphasize the difference that exists between a me-
chanic and a mechanical workman. Hugh Miller's friend,
David Fraser, who was so expert a stone-cutter that he could
easily do, and regularly did, as much work as three ordinary
men, was a mechanical workman of the first order, but
nothing more — a human machine, in fact. On the other
hand, the late Lord Armstrong, who began life as a solicitor,
was no workman, and never even acquired the art of the
draughtsman, but he was by nature a mechanic, and became
one of the foremost mechanicians of the age.

There are, of course, some handicrafts ever so much more
difficult to acquire than others ; but I am safe in estimating,
as the result of a lengthened and close observation of a good
few representative trades, that not more than one in five
hundred of good workmen gets further than that stage by the
exercise of mental capacity. 1 have, to be on the safe side,
taken the above proportion ; but I fear that were a close in-
vestigation possible the result would be much more unfavour-
able. This is under the system of no higher education than
that to be obtained at the bench ; and the work of joinery
plumbing, &c, which 1 saw at the technical school goes very
little further. I need not say that such is not the system of
technical training which has worked so great a change in

12 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Germany and elsewhere. There the great aim is to prepare
the intellect to receive and master the scientific basis of all
construction or other process of manufacture. Under such a
course a very large proportion of the students, who depend on
the workshops for their skill and expertness with their hands,
rapidly learn to become more than mere human automata. I
know that I am treading on much-debated ground, but I feel
sure that a little observation of the results of this dual train-
ing will support my conclusions, which are in accordance with
those of the Chief Justice and a host of eminent men who are
devoting much time to the study of ways and means towards
the elevation of the masses.

The late Sir Joseph Whitworth left a very large endow-
ment for the establishment of technical scholar-ships. The
conditions of entry therein were very clearly outlined by him
and formulated by the trustees, and are in principle very
simple. An intending student who has acquired an ele-
mentary knowledge of any of the sciences — say, of chemistry,
geometry, or other branches of mathematics — may be a work-
man in any of the trades allied to engineering ; or he may be
a scientific or mathematical student who has acquired a cer-
tain well-defined but not severe degree of expertness in the
use of hand-tools. I am speaking from memory of the first
regulations for the scholarships. There may be alterations in
some respects since, but in any case the degree of "Wh.Sc.
carries great weight in the scientific and technical world. I
have mentioned this foundation particularly because it was
the creation of one of the small minority I speak of — one who,
not content with being unsurpassed as a workman, used his
great abilities towards the perfection of tool and machine
design and manufacture, having a clear intuition of the possi-
bilities of the advancement of the British workman with the
necessary educational facilities at his command. But in ad-
dition to the Whitworth endowment and schools — such as the
Owens College, at Manchester — there is in Great Britain the
Department of Science and Art, under the Board of Educa-
tion, with a disbursement of nearly £600,000 per annum.
The scope of this department is very large, and embraces
schools of science and art, museums, training and technical
schools scattered throughout the three kingdoms, with ex-
amining functions in thousands of provincial and colonial
places, including New Zealand.

I have alluded to the parliamentary definition of technical
education. It is defined by "The Technical Instruction Act,
1889," to mean the principles of science and art applicable to
industries ; the application of special branches of science to
specific industries ; and a further and rather elastic definition
embracing any other forms of instruction, including modern

Stewart. — Address. 13

languages, commercial and agricultural subjects, which may
in the opinion of the local authority be required by local cir-
cumstances. During about ten years County Councils and
other local authorities have administered this Act. A special
tax on beer and spirits provides the funds, supplemented in
some cases by local grants. In this way two years ago very
nearly a million pounds was disbursed. It will be admitted
that this is not a large expenditure in a population of forty
millions — about 6d. per head, in fact. Probably the whole of
the technical education in the United Kingdom does not ex-
ceed Is. per annum per head of population. It must be ad-
mitted that this 'is not likely to effect the desired end if we
are to keep — or shall we say regain — our commercial and
manufacturing supremacy.

Great and manifold, from a social and literary point of
view, are the advantages of a classical education, but by itself
it is not on the lines required for the subject in hand. There
is an amusing preface by an engineer, the author of a work
on bridges which has become a standard. He details his
classical education, and the time, trouble, and expense he
spent in acquiring a proficiency in the Latin language. And
in all his after-experience in his profession he pathetically
relates that he found not one instance in which his accom-
plishment served him for good. But that it should not be
always so he entitled his book " De Pontibus," and proudly
points to this as one instance in which he has been able to
air his Latin in his profession.

I came across some time ago a simile intended to indicate
a degree of condescending patronage, a certain supercilious
bearing not unmingled with a shade of contempt. It was
likened to the bearing of an Oxford don towards an engineer-
ing professor in a northern university. This sort of thing, no
doubt, has some foundation in fact, and has to be reckoned
with. It is hard to get out of a deeply scored groove in con-
ventionalism. I recall an incident in my own experience. I
was at one time in the course of my public duties much inter-
ested in the subjects prescribed for the Senior Civil Service
examinations, in so far as they concerned the admission of
cadets into the Public Works Department. I found that
Latin was compulsory, while trigonometry or statics was not.
Now, Latin was of no manner of use in the Public Works
Department, while trigonometry was indispensable. In re-
sponse to a vigorous protest on my part the subjects were
altered to this extent : It was made optional for a candidate
to substitute trigonometry for Latin. This practically met
the case in point, but it would still allow of a young man per-
meated with classical lore, but with only the most hazy idea
of trigonometry or mechanics, entering a profession where it

14 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

is essential that a knowledge of these things should be like a
second nature.

Another conventionalism to be reckoned with is the depre-
ciation implied in the comparison of theory and practice. An
ounce of practice is said to be equal to a ton, I think it is, of
theory. If there is any foundation for this at all it must be
infinitesimal. Theory which is held so cheap cannot be
theory in fact. By theory I mean scientific deduction, and
not hypothesis merely. The three angles of any triangle are
in theory equal to 180°, but if in actual measurement they
amount to more or less, then practice is wrong. If, however,
it is held to be theoretically possible that the angles may be
so carefully measured with an instrument so absolutely per-
fect that they may sum up exactly to the known figure, then
practice will show that this theoretical supposition is wrong,
and that only by accident can such absolute perfection be
attained. An incident in point came under my observation
in the Old Country very many years ago. One of the best
workmen I ever knew — a foreman fitter — was marking off on
a circle the centres of six bolt-holes. As usually happens,
the dividers, opened to the radius of the circle, did not, on
stepping round, exactly close on the commencing-point. My
friend remarked that it never did— that the radius of a circle
did not divide the circumference exactly into six, but only
very near it. Of course, I said that it was a geometrical fact
that such a division wTas exact, but was met with the remark
that it might be so in theory, but practice showed the con-
trary.

A good many years ago the Messrs. Denny, of Dumbarton,
recognised that among the thousands of their workmen there
ought to be much latent talent for the invention of improve-
ment in tools and methods of application, only requiring some
incentive to bring it into action. The firm accordingly insti-
tuted a scheme by which rewards were to be given in pro-
portion to merit for any improvement by which time could
be saved or better work performed than was possible with
previous appliances. This scheme has proved very success-
ful, and for many years numbers of important improvements
of all kinds, large and small, were the result of an incentive
to the use of their heads as well as their hands by men who
had nothing to learn in mere workmanship.

Among those misguided searchers after perpetual motion,
of which we have evidence even to this day, there is not
one true mechanic. Either they are workmen more or less
expert or mere mathematicians, in neither case with any
knowledge of or capacity to acquire true mechanics. 1
have met several of both classes, and found in all cases
their craze incurable. I noticed very latelv that a gentle-

Stewart. — Address. 15

man informs the Winton Record that after forty years' ex-
perimenting he has succeeded in attaining perpetual motion,
and protected the invention over the world. It is hard to
conceive what sort of intellect could labour for forty years at
a mechanical impossibility without discovering it to be so.

But even the primary- school master must be abroad now
and then, and I am tempted to give one or two instances of
a rather comical nature. I dare say many here present have
observed that the terms " square feet " and " feet square " are
often used indiscriminately, evidently under the impression
that they are synonymous. In a description which appeared
lately in a local newspaper of the Duke of Cornwall's apart-
ments on board the " Ophir " the drawing-room was stated to
be 1,200ft. square! Even in these days of big ships this is
rather startling, for it means that that room has an area of
more than 33 acres; 1,200 square feet, which, of course, was
meant, would still indicate a good-sized room at sea, and
might mean 40 ft. by 30 ft. Another local paper told us that
it is interesting to know that the late Queen's walking-
stick was one that had belonged to her " ancestor," King-
Charles II.

I have taken up more space than I intended when I
touched on technical education, but I cannot conclude with-
out mentioning, if I do little more, two or three subjects of
economic importance to our community. The first is the
drainage of towns and cities, which has always been a sub-
ject of first importance ; but the recent plague scare brought
it more to the front, and showed us unmistakably what a
genuine visitation may mean. It is possible that very few
could be found who would own to a belief that plague ever
entered Auckland, and it is certain that not one would care
to deny the importance of being prepared for combat with the
pestilence. What such a visitation would mean to Auckland
some may know, but not many actually realise. But with
our commerce destroyed, and the influx of all visitors — and
their money — stopped, together with the stampede of that
large section of our residents who are here for the sake of
health, all would soon become alive to the reality. And is
anything being done to meet such a contingency ? Practi-
cally nothing, so far as the first requirement — complete and
thorough drainage — is concerned. Without that no amount
of cleaning of back yards and slums will be of any use.
Such measures without perfect drainage only serve to dis-
tribute filth over a wider area than it before occupied.

But measures that are sufficient in one town may not be
applicable to another. Sydney carries the sewage out to the
rock-bound coast of the Tasman Sea. London, after allowing
the sewage to settle in tanks, runs the effluent, more or less

16 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

clear, into the Thames, and employs a fleet of steamers to
carry the sludge practically out to sea. In both cases nature
is left to finish the work. It is an axiom in engineering, as it
should be in every calling, not to fly in the face of the work-
ing of nature, but to assist nature and nature will assist you.
So, as there are means provided by which the refuse of the
world is turned to good account, we have only to make use of
them and the mysterious operations of nature will do the
work. The septic treatment of sewage therefore seems to
offer to us more prospect of dealing with the drainage of
towns which have not the advantage of being able to dis-
charge it into the open sea. Much has been already achieved
in this direction, but much remains to be added by experi-
ence. Nevertheless, I anticipate that within a very few years
the treatment of sewage will be as certain and successful as
that of any other process or manufacture.

The utilisation of natural sources of power must always be
of importance, and the question seems to be now occupying a
good share of attention. Water-power from rivers is usually
the first in such schemes, and, in conjunction with long-
distance transmission of energy by electrical means, offers a
good field ; but the scope and results are more restricted than
are usually believed. It is very seldom that river rapids or
falls can be harnessed into work except at a very large cost,
and even where in more favourable cases power can be got in
hand cheaply the distance over which it must be conveyed
rapidly absorbs the efficiency, and it is wonderful how soon
the economy of water-power is overtaken and surpassed by
steam-power with all its low efficiency.

The harnessing of the tides is another scheme oftener
talked about than practised. There is probably no power in
nature at once so vast, so visible, and so difficult to utilise as
that of the tides. There are exceptional cases where tidal
power has been economically used, but as yet they are very
few. It seems to me, however, that much more might be
done in this direction, and that there are places where a very
considerable amount of energy might be made available by
a judicious arrangement of floating wheels, dynamos, and
secondary batteries, all under automatic control. The har-
nessing of wave-power on the sea-coast has been less often
proposed, and, with the exception of bell-buoys, still more
seldom put in practice. It may be found, however, that there
are by this means greater facilities for gathering up and
storing energy than by the tides. There appear to be situa-
tions peculiarly adapted for such an installation, such as at
some breakwaters which have been designed by flying a good
deal in the face of nature. At these places I believe the wave-
power might be so used that it would effectually keep down

Stewart. — Address. 17

the accumulation of shingle by conveying it beyond the
harbour and leaving it free to resume its travel along the
coast.

I think it unquestionable that before very long a large
amount of power will be generated at our coalfields by the use
of slack coal, nearly all of which goes now to waste. Either
by the use of steam, or by producer gas, electrical energy
could be generated and sent with economy certainly to a
distance of about a hundred miles.

Our thermal springs form, I believe, an asset in the capital
account of the Auckland Provincial District the value of which
it is difficult to estimate, and I am sure this is even now
not sufficiently recognised. Looked at from the lowest point
of view, the amount of hard cash brought into the country
year by year by foreign tourists must amount to a very large
sum, so large that it would take an immense area of the finest
agricultural lands to produce profits equal to it. I speak in
general terms, because I have no data on which to found
estimates of tourist expenditure. But, taken on a social and
humane basis, the value of the several thermal centres,
although more generally recognised, can never be stated in
money. It is very satisfactory to observe that the Govern-
ment seems at last to be fully alive to the importance of
fostering the traffic ; but very much yet remains to be done in
this direction. One essential line of action has never been
attempted — I allude to the compilation of an authoritative
list of all that can be procured of the very remarkable cures
effected during, say, the last twenty years. There is yet time
for this ; and, now that the tourist traffic has become a branch
■of a special department of administration, we may hope that it
will not be lost sight of. It is now over twenty-three years
since I first knew Rotorua, and ever since I have had excep-
tional opportunities of observation, and have known of many
cures of a most startling character. Many of these, no doubt,
are on record at the Sanatorium, but numbers of others —
indeed, the great majority — were never treated there. The
principal cases are, no doubt, well remembered by residents
and business people, and a systematic inquiry might easily
furnish authentic material, which, compiled and issued under
official authority, would carry weight wherever published,
which should be the world over.

I have thus endeavoured to enlist your interest in a few
subjects of economic importance, and if I have been successful
in respect to even one of them in any degree 1 shall feel more
than repaid for the effort.

18 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Art. II. — On the Senses of Bisects.
By G. V. Hudson.

[Presidential Address to the Wellington Philosophical Society, delivered

25th June, 1901.}

The few remarks I propose to offer to-night contain but little
original matter, and probably many members will find that
they are quite familiar with most of the facts about to be
related. My primary object in recounting these observations
is, however, to show the large amount of valuable work which
may be done by any one who is endowed with a fair amount of
leisure, and has a taste for observing natural-history objects.
Unlike other branches of entomological field-work, the study
of the senses and intelligence of insects can be pursued with-
out the observer leaving his own home, and this, no doubt,
will be a recommendation to many whose health, and other
considerations perhaps, do not permit of prolonged visits into
the wilds of New Zealand.

Observations on senses and habits, &c, do not require that
minute and technical knowledge of species and genera the
acquisition of which is often regarded as dry and laborious.
A few of the commonest and most easily recognised insects
will suffice for this class of work, and it is only necessary for
the student to know the names of these in order that he may
place his observations on record.

I should state that most of the observations here given are
taken from the works of Sir John Lubbock (now Lord Ave-
bury), who has done so much to encourage the investigation
of living insects, and has so clearly shown that the systematic
collection and classification of dead insects is not the whole
science of entomology, as some entomologists appear to
imagine.

Begarding the senses of insects, there seems to be little
doubt that they have in some degree all the senses possessed
by man ; but in certain cases these senses are considerably
modified. There are also some reasons for supposing that
insects may be endowed with other senses which we do not
possess, and of which we can consequently have no conception.
The most primitive of the senses, that of touch, is undoubtedly
possessed by insects in a very marked degree. It was formerly
supposed to reside chiefly in the antennas and in the palpi, but
more modern investigations tend to show that the sense of
touch in insects is chiefly situated in certain special hairs
which occur on various parts of the body and appendages.
The bases of these hairs penetrate the horny integument of

Hudson. — On the Senses of Insects. 19

the insect, and are connected with special nerve-fibres. They
are much more numerous on some points of the creature than
on others. They occur in very large numbers, for instance, on
the proboscis of the common house-fly. The skin of insects is
so much harder and more insensible to outside impressions
than the covering of most other animals that special tactile
organs are necessary, and it appears that these hairs perform
the needed function.

The possession of the sense of taste in insects cannot be
questioned. No one who has ever watched a bee or a wasp
can entertain the slightest doubt on the subject. It is, again,
probably by taste that caterpillars recognise their food-plant.
[Moreover, this is partly the effect of individual experience, for
when first hatched caterpillars will often eat leaves which
they would not touch when they are older and have become
accustomed to a particular kind of food. Special experiments
have, moreover, been made by various entomologists, particu-
larly by Forel and Will. Forel mixed morphine and strych-
nine with some honey which he offered to his ants. Their
antennae gave them no warning. The smell of the honey
attracted them and they began to feed ; but the moment the
honey touched their lips they perceived the fraud. Will tried
wasps with alum, placing it where they had been accustomed
to be fed with sugar. They fell into the trap and ate some,
but soon found out their error, and began assiduously rubbing
their mouth-parts to take away the taste.

Will found that glycerine, even if mixed with a large pro-
portion of honey, was avoided, and to quinine they had a
great objection. If the distasteful substance is inodorous and
mixed in honey the ant or bee commences to feed unsus-
piciously, and finds out the trick played on her more or less
quickly according to the proportion of the substance and the
bitterness or strength of its taste. The delicacy of taste is
doubtless greater in bees and ants than in omnivorous flies or
in carnivorous insects. At the same time the sense of taste in
ants is far from perfect, and they cannot always distinguish
injurious substances. Forel found that if he, mixed phos-
phorus in their honey they swallowed it unsuspectingly and
were made very unwell. It cannot, then, be doubted that in-
sects possess a sense of taste. The seat of it can hardly be
elsewhere than in the mouth or its immediate neighbourhood ;
and in all the orders of insects there are found on the tongue,
the maxillse, and in the mouth certain minute pits, which are
probably the organs of taste. In each pit is a minute hair, or
rod, which is probably perforated at the end.

Passing to the sense of smell, we find that there are good
reasons for supposing that most insects are well endowed in
this respect. The seat of the sense is supposed to be situated

20 Transact whs. — Miscellaneous.

in a number of minute cylinders and pits which are piaced
on the antennae and on the palpi. The evidence obtained
from experiments is somewhat conflicting as between the
antennas and the palpi ; but, if the sense of smell is supposed
to reside partly in each of these appendages, the results of
the various observations are brought into accord. In connec-
tion with this subject the following observation, which I made
on the 4th September, 1882, on a specimen of one of our
common butterflies (Vanessa gonerilla), may be of some in-
terest : At 9 a.m. I placed some moistened sugar in a small
china colour-pan about tf-in. square. The butterfly was
rather torpid owing to the low temperature, and I therefore
removed it from the cage and placed it on the edge of the
vessel containing the sugar. Almost at once it began to
uncoil its proboscis, and whilst doing so it steadily elevated
and depressed its antennas, the tips of which frequently
touched the sides of the vessel. Sometimes each antenna
was elevated and depressed singly ; at other times both
organs were moved together. These remarkable movements
of the antennas were, I think, merely indicative of the insect's
pleasure, and this explanation is supported by the observa-
tions of Sir John Lubbock respecting the movements of the
antennas in ants. When the butterfly had completely un-
coiled its proboscis it felt all round the vessel with the
sensitive extremity of that organ, which certainly appeared
to be endowed with the sense of smell. Soon it found the
liquid sugar, which it eagerly sucked for about three minutes ;
and during the whole of this time the butterfly continued to
move the antennas in the manner above described. As soon
as the insect ceased feeding, however, the antennas were re-
stored to their normal position — i.e., almost perpendicular to
the main axis of the insect's body. After this I made several
very sharp noises — whistling, and ringing on a tumbler — but
the butterfly did not appear to hear them, and the antennas
were held perfectly motionless throughout. This experiment
appears to indicate, I think, that in butterflies the sense of
smell is situated in or near the extremity of the proboscis,
and that the sense of hearing is absent or but little de-
veloped. I have often tried to frighten butterflies in the field
by shouting at them, but have never succeeded in making
one of these insects rise from its perch in this way, although
the slightest movement on the part of the observer would at
once have caused the insect to take flight.

The following are some of the experiments related by
Lord Avebury in connection with testing the organs of
smelling in insects. He says, " I myself took a large ant
(Formica ligniperda) and tethered her on a board by a
thread. When she was quite quiet I tried her with tuning-

Hudson. — On the Senses of Insects. 21

forks, but they did not disturb her in the least. I then
approached the feather of a pen very quietly so as almost to
touch first one and then the other of the antennae, which,
however, did not move. I then dipped the pen in essence of
musk and did the same ; the antenna was slowly retracted
and drawn quite back. I then repeated the same with the
other antenna. I was, of course, careful not to touch the
antennae. I have repeated this experiment with other sub-
stances with several ants, and with the same results. Perris
also made the same experiments with the palpi, and with the
same result ; but if the palpi were removed the rest of the
mouth gave no indications of perceiving odours."

Graber also made a number of experiments, and found that
in some cases (though by no means in all) insects which had
been deprived of their antennae still appeared to possess the
sense of smell. But if, as we have, I think, good reason to
suppose, the power of smell resides partly in the palpi, this
would naturally be the case. He also tested a beetle (Silplia
thoracica) with oil of rosemary and assafoetida. It showed its
perception by a movement in half a second to a second in the
case of the oil of rosemary, and rather longer — one second to
two seconds -in the case of the assafoetida. He then de-
prived it of its antennae, after which it showed its perception
of the oil of rosemary in three seconds, on an average of
eleven trials ; while in no case did it show any indication of
perceiving the assafoetida, even in sixty seconds.

This would seem to indicate a further complication— not
only that both the antennae and the palpi may possess the
sense of smell, but also that certain odours may be per-
ceived by the former, and others by the latter. As regards
flies (Mn sea), Forel removed the wings from some blue-
bottle flies and placed them near a decaying mole. They im-
mediately walked to it, and began licking it and laying eggs.
He then took them away and removed the antennas, after
which, even when placed close to the mole, they did not ap-
pear to perceive it.

Plateau also put some food of which cockroaches are fond
on a table, and surrounded it with a low circular wall of card-
board. He then put some cockroaches on the table. They
evidently scented the food, and made straight for it. He then
removed their antennae, after which as long as they could not
see the food they failed to find it, even though they wandered
about quite close to it.

On the whole, then, the experiments which have been
made seem clearly to prove that in insects the sense of smell
resides partly in the antennae and partly in the palpi. This
distribution would be manifestly advantageous. The palpi
are more suited for the examination of food, while the an-

22 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

tennas are more conveniently situated for the perception of
more distant objects. The remarkable power possessed by
the males of many species of moths which enables them to dis-
cover a newly emerged female of the same species, even when
enclosed in a box situated perhaps a considerable distance
from the insect's natural haunts, is well known to collectors ;
and its truth is sufficiently proved by the very much higher
prices charged by dealers in entomological specimens for the
female specimens of all such species. This faculty of finding
the female at a distance is in all probability resident in the
antennas of the male, which are always very amply pectinated
in all those species possessing abilities of the kind. It is not,
however, by any means certain that the sense involved is that
of scent only. In the mosquitoes, at any rate, it has been
practically proved that the ability to discover the location of
the female is due to a sense nearly akin to that of hearing,
and that this sense is situated in the extensive pectinations of
the antennae possessed by the male of that insect.

In connection with this subject the following ingenious
experiment made by Mayer is of interest : He fastened a
male mosquito down on a glass slide, and then sounded a
series of tuning-forks. With an Ut4 fork of 512 vibrations per
second he found that some of the hairs were thrown into
vigorous movement, while others remained nearly stationary.
The lower (Ut3) and higher (Ut5) harmonics of Ut4 also caused
more vibration than any intermediate notes. These hairs,
then, are specially tuned so as to respond to vibrations num-
bering 512 per second. Other hairs vibrated to other notes,
extending through the middle and next higher octave of the
piano. Mayer then made large wooden models of these hairs,
and, on counting the number of vibrations they made when
they were clamped at one end and then drawn on one side,
he found that it " coincided with the ratio existing between
the numbers of vibrations of the forks to which co-vibrated
the fibrils." It is interesting that the hum of the female gnat
corresponds nearly to this note, and would consequently set
the hairs in vibration. Moreover, those auditory hairs are
most affected which are at right angles to the direction from
which the sound comes. Hence, from the position of the
antennas and the hairs, a sound will act most intensely if it is
directly in front of the head. Suppose, then, a male gnat
hears the hum of a female at some little distance. Perhaps
the sound affects one antenna more than the other. He
turns his head until the two antennas are equally affected,
and is thus able to direct his flight straight towards the
female.

The auditory organs of insects, then, are situated, in dif-
ferent insects, in different parts of the body ; and there is

Hudson. — On the Senses of Insects. 23

strong reason to believe that, even in the same animal, this
sensitiveness to sounds is not necessarily confined to one
part.

From the above it will be seen that there are good reasons
for supposing that the organs of hearing are situated in the
antennae of insects, and there is much to support this view,
though modern investigation has revealed the existence of
well-developed organs of hearing on other parts of the body.
Before relating a few of the experiments which have been
made in connection with the power of hearing in insects it
will, perhaps, be well to very briefly describe the curious ears
which have been discovered on the tibiae of the anterior legs
in many grasshoppers, and which are very well developed
and easily seen in the specimens of one of our native wetas,
which I have pleasure in exhibiting this evening. The re-
searches of Muller, Siebold, Leydig, Hensen, Graber, and
Schmidt conclusively prove that these drum-like organs are
veritable ears. In grasshoppers and crickets the auditory
organ lies in the tibia of the anterior leg, on both sides of
which there is a disc generally more or less oval in form, and
differing from the rest of the surface in consisting of a thin,
tense, shining membrane, surrounded wholly or partially by
a sort of hame or ridge.

If now we examine the interior of the leg, the trachea,
or air-tube, will be found to be remarkably modified. Upon
entering the tibia it immediately enlarges and divides into
two branches, which reunite lower down. To supply air to
this wide trachea the corresponding spiracle, or breathing-
hole, is considerably enlarged, while in the dumb species it is
only of the usual size. The enlarged trachea occupies a con-
siderable part of the tibia, and its wall is closely applied to
the tympanum, which thus has air on both sides of it, the
open air on the outer the air of the trachea on its inner
surface. In fact, the trachea acts like the Eustachian tube
in our own ear : it maintains an equilibrium of pressure on
each side of the tympanum, and enables it freely to transmit
the atmospheric vibrations.

On the 17th January, 1890, I made the following experi-
ment on a female specimen of weta (Deinacrida megacephala),
an insect possessing well-developed ears on the tibiae of its
anterior legs. 11.20 a.m. : I placed the insect on a board
suspended from the ceiling, where no vibrations except those
of sound could reach it. First I tried a piano, but insect
did not appear to hear either treble or bass notes. Then
tried beating a kerosene-tin with an iron rod, but apparently
insect could not hear noise except when the sounds were
very rapidly made and of loud pitch. At this stage the
insect seemed to wake up and put out its antennae and palpi.

24 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

When I ceased making the noises the insect again reposed,
but on my resuming it jumped off the board and ran away.
The creature appeared alarmed at the sounds. The palpi
were spread out whilst it was listening, and the antennae
moved up and down. 11.40 a.m. : Placed insect in a cage,
also suspended, and allowed her to settle down. Eepeated
the loud jarring sounds. The insect started, and then
squeezed itself into a corner of the cage as though in great
fear. After this it took no further notice although sounds
were continued for about half a minute. Five minutes later
I repeated the sounds, but no notice was taken of them,
and 1 think that the insect was asleep, as in the first instance.
11.50: Again repeated sounds, very loudly this time. The
insect trembled and moved its antennas, but five flies perched
on the string supporting the cage took no notice. The female
D. megacephala appears to only regard the very discordant
sounds made with the kerosene-tin and poker. It does not
appear to hear the piano at all. 12 noon : Eepeated, with
same result ; insect started, put out palpi, and moved
antennas. Feel sure that when she does not hear she is
asleep.

The following experiments are related by Lord Avebury :
" Kirby states that ' once a little moth was reposing upon my
window. I made a quiet, not loud but distinct, noise. The
antenna nearest to me immediately moved towards me. I
repeated the noise at least a dozen times, and it was followed
every time by the same motion of that organ, till at length
the insect, being alarmed, became more agitated and violent
in its motions.' And again, ' I was once observing the
motions of an Apion (a small weevil) under a pocket micro-
scope. On seeing me it receded. Upon my making a slight
but distinct noise its antennae started. I repeated the noise
several times, and invariably with the same effect.' "

Will has made some interesting observations on some of
the Longicorn beetles which appear to confirm the view that
the antennas are the organs of hearing. These insects pro-
duce a low shrill sound by rubbing together the prothorax
and the mesothorax. The posterior edge of the prothorax
bears a toothed ridge and the anterior end of the mesothorax
a roughened surface, and when these are rubbed together a
sound is produced something like that made by rubbing a
quill on a fine file. Will took a pair of Gerambyx (beetles),
and put the female in a box and the male on a table at a dis-
tance of about 4 in. They were at first a little restless, but
are naturally calm insects, and soon became quiet, resting as
usual with the antennas half extended. The male evidently
was not conscious of the presence of the female. Will then
touched the female with a long needle and she began to

Hudson. — On the Senses of Insects. 25

stridulate. At the first sound the male became restless,,
extended his antennae, moving them round and round as
if to determine from which direction the sound came, and
then marched straight towards the female. Will repeated
this experiment many times, and with different individuals,
but always with the same result. As the male took no
notice of the female until she began to stridulate, it is
evident that he was not guided by smell. From the manner
in which this Cerambi/x was obviously made aware of the
presence of the female by the sound, Will considered it clearly
proved that in this case he was guided by the sense of hearing.
Will has also repeated with these insects the experiments
Lord Avebury made with ants, bees, and wasps, and found
that they took no notice whatever of ordinary noises; but
when he" imitated their own sounds with a quill and a fine
file their attention was excited — they extended their antenuae
as before, but evidently perceived the difference, for they
appeared alarmed, and endeavoured to escape.

Hicks, in 1859, justly observed that " whoever has ob-
served a tranquilly proceeding Capricorn beetle which is
suddenly surprised by a loud sound will have seen how
immovably outward it spreads its antennae, and holds them
porrect, as it were, with great attention as long as it listens,
and how carefully the insect proceeds in its course when
it conceives that no danger threatens it from the unusual
noise."

Passing now to the organs of vision in insects, we find no
difficulty in exactly locating their position. The eyes of these
animals" as is well known, are of two distinct kinds — Firstly,
the compound eyes, which are made up of an immense
assemblage of minute hexagonal eyes usually collected into
two large hemispheres situated on each side of the insect's
head ; secondly, simple eyes, or ocelli, of which there are a
variable number usually situated on the top of the head.
The compound eyes are present in almost all fully developed
insects, but the ocelli are very frequently absent. In insect
larvae and in spiders ocelli are the only organs of sight.

With regard to the actual power of vision possessed by
insects little is known with certainty at present. There is no
doubt that some species see much better than others. I re-
member specially noticing this when the European blowfly
(Calliphora erythrocephala) first appeared in New Zealand
during 1888. At that time both the native and introduced
species were to be seen resting on fences in the Wellington
Botanical Gardens. I experienced considerable difficulty in
capturing the European species, owing to its great agility,
but could capture the native insect with comparative ease.
This circumstance was undoubtedly due to the superior power

26 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

of vision possessed by the European insect. I afterwards
proved this by experiment. When a number of both insects
were resting close together I would gradually move my hand
towards them, and I noticed that the introduced blowflies
invariably saw my hand and took wing before the native
species. I verified this by numerous experiments and always
obtained the same results.

Ordinary observation in the field proves that some insects
undoubtedly have very keen sight, and almost every one must
have noticed that dragon-flies and butterflies are especially
well endowed in this respect.

Another interesting question in connection with the vision
of insects is the relative functions of the simple and com-
pound eyes. A large number of experiments have been made,
and it appears probable that the ocelli are useful in dark
places and for near vision. Lord Avebury adds : " Whatever
the special function of the ocelli may be, it seems clear that
they must see in the same manner as our eyes do — that is to
say, the image must be reversed. On the other hand, in the
case of the compound eyes it seems probable that the vision
is direct, and the difficulty of accounting for the existence in
the same animal of two such different kinds of eyes is certainly
enhanced by the fact that, as it would seem, the image given
by the medial eyes is reversed, while that of the lateral ones
is direct."

The modern theories of the evolution of flowers through
the agency of insect visitors is now very generally accepted
amongst naturalists, but it is obvious that these ideas would
be effectually disproved if it could be demonstrated that
insects were unable to distinguish colours. The following
experiments conducted by Lord Avebury prove, I think,
that bees, at any rate, possess the faculty of distinguishing
colours : " I brought a bee to some honey which I placed
on a slip of glass laid on blue paper, and about 3 ft. off I
placed a similar drop of honey on orange paper. With a
drop of honey before her a bee takes two or three minutes
to fill herself, then flies away, stores up the honey, and
returns for more. My hives were about 200 yards from the
window, and the bees were absent about three minutes, or
even less. When working quietly they fly very quickly, and
the actual journeys to and fro did not take more than a few
seconds. After the bee had returned twice I transposed the
papers ; but she returned to the honey on the blue paper. I
allowed her to continue this for some time, and then again
transposed the papers. She returned to the old spot and
was just going to alight when she observed the change of
colour, pulled herself up, and without a moment's hesitation
darted off to the blue. No one who saw her at that moment

Hudson. — On the Senses of Insects. 27

could have the slightest doubt about her perceiving the
difference between the two colours. I also made a number
of similar observations with red, yellow, green, and white."

The remarkable power which many animals have of find-
ing their way back after having been carried a long distance
from home has been explained by some persons as due to a
special faculty which has been termed a " sense of direction."
In connection with this subject M. Fabre made a number of
interesting and amusing experiments. " He took ten bees
belonging to the genus Ghalicodoma, marked them on the
back with a spot of white, and put them in a bag. He then
carried them half a kilometre in one direction, stopping at a
point where an old cross stands by the wayside, and whirled
the bag rapidly round his head. While he was doing so a
good woman came by, who was not a little surprised to find
the professor standing in front of the old cross solemnly
whirling a bag round his head, and, M. Fabre fears, strongly
suspected him of some satanic practice. However this may
be, M. Fabre, having sufficiently whirled his bees, started off
back in the opposite direction, and carried his prisoners to a
distance from their home of three kilometres. Here he again
whirled them round and let them go one by one. They made
one or two turns round him, and then flew off in the direction
of home. In the meanwhile his daughter Antonia was on the
watch. The first bee did the mile and three-quarters in a
■quarter of an hour. Some hours after two more returned ;
the other seven did not reappear. The next day he repeated
this experiment with ten other bees ; the first returned in five
minutes, and two more in about an hour. In this case again
seven out of ten failed to find their way home. In another
experiment he took forty-nine bees. When let out a few
started wrong, but he says that, ' while the rapidity of the
flight allows me to recognise the direction followed,' the
great majority flew homewards. The first arrived in fifteen
minutes. In an hour and a half eleven had returned, in five
hours six more, making seventeen out of forty-nine. Again,
he experimented with twenty, of which seven found their way
home. In the next experiment he took the bees rather
further — to a distance of about two miles aud a quarter. In
an hour and a half two had returned, in three hours and a
half seven more ; total, nine out of forty. Lastly, he took
thirty bees. Fifteen, marked rose, he took by a roundabout
route of over five miles ; the other fifteen, marked blue, he
sent straight to the rendezvous, about a mile and a half from
home. All the thirty were let out at noon ; by 5 in the even-
ing seven ' rose ' bees and six ' blue ' bees had returned, so
-that the long detour had made no appreciable difference.
These experiments seem to M. Fabre conclusive. The

28 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

demonstration is sufficient. Neither the bewildering move-
ments of a rotation like I have described ; neither the obstacle
of hillocks to pass over and of woods to cross ; neither the
snares of a track which starts, goes back, and comes again by
a very circuitous way can confuse the Chalicodomas on their
homeward way and hinder them from coming back to the
nest." When these experiments are summarised, however, it
appears that only forty-seven bees out of 144 actually found
their way home, which is a very small proportion when the
question of a special unerring instinct is involved.

The following experiment, conducted by the late Mr.
Eomanes, conclusively proves that it is by sight, and sight
alone, that bees find their way home: "In connection/' he
says, " with Sir John Lubbock's paper at the British Asso-
ciation, in which this subject is treated, it is perhaps worth
while to describe some experiments which I made last year.
The question to be answered is whether bees find their way
home merely by their knowledge of land - marks, or by
means of some mysterious faculty usually termed a ' sense
of direction.' The ordinary impression appears to have been
that they do so in virtue of some such sense, and are there-
fore independent of any special knowdedge of the district in
which they may be suddenly liberated ; and, as Sir John
observes, this impression was corroborated by the experi-
ments of M. Fabre. The conclusions drawn from these
experiments, however, appeared to me, as they appeared to
Sir John, unwarranted by the facts, and therefore, like him,
I repeated them, with certain variations. In the result I
satisfied myself that the bees depend entirely upon their
special knowledge of the district or land-marks, and it is be-
cause my experiments thus fully corroborate those which were
made by Sir John that it now occurs to me to publish them.
The house where I conducted the observations is situated
several hundred yards from the coast, with flowTer-gardens on
each side and lawns between the house and the sea. There-
fore bees starting from the house would rind their honey on
either side of it, while the lawns in front would be rarely or
never visited, being themselves barren of honey and leading
only to the sea. Such being the geographical conditions, I
placed a hive of bees in one of the front rooms on the
basement of the house. When the bees became thoroughly
well acquainted with their new quarters by flying in
and out of the open window for a fortnight I began
the experiments. The modus operandi consisted in
closing the window after dark when all the bees were in
their hive, and also slipping a glass shutter in front of the
hive-door, so that all the bees were doubly imprisoned.
Next morning I slightly raised the glass shutter, thus enabling

Hudson. — On the Senses of Insects. 29

any desired number of bees to escape. When the desired
number had escaped the glass shutter was again closed, and
all the liberated bees were caught as they buzzed about the
inside of the shut window. These bees were then counted
into a box, the window of the room opened, and a card well
smeared over with birdlime placed upon the threshold of the
beehive, or just in front of the closed glass shutter. The ob-
ject of all these arrangements was to obviate the necessity of
marking the bees, and so to enable me not merely to experi-
ment with ease upon any number of individuals that I might
desire, but also to feel confident that no one individual could
return to the hive unnoticed ; for whenever a bee returned
it was certain to become entangled in the birdlime, and when-
ever I found a bee so entangled I was certain it was one I
had taken from the hive, as there were no other hives in the
neighbourhood. Such being the method, I began by taking
a score of bees in the box out to sea, where there could be no
laud-marks to guide the insects home. Had any of these
insects returned, I should next have taken another score out
to sea (after an interval of several days so as to be sure that
the first lot had become permanently lost), and then before
liberating them have rotated the box in a sling for a con-
siderable time, in order to see whether this would have con-
fused their sense of direction. But as none of the bees
returned after the first experiment it was clearly needless to
proceed to the second. Accordingly I liberated the next lot
of bees on the sea-shore ; and as none of these returned I
liberated another lot on the lawn between the shore and the
house. I was somewhat surprised to find that neither did
any of these return, although the distance from the lawn to
the hive was not above 200 yards. Lastly, I liberated bees in
different parts of the flower-garden, and these I always found
stuck upon the birdlime within a few minutes of their libera-
tion ; indeed, they often arrived before I had had time to run
from the place where I had liberated them to the hive. Now,
as the garden was a large one, many of these bees had to fly
a greater distance in order to reach the hive than was the
case with their lost sisters upon the lawn, and therefore I
could have no doubt that their uniform success in finding
their way home so immediately was due to their special
knowledge of the flower-garden, and not to any general sense
of direction. I may add that, while in Germany a few
weeks ago, I tried on several species of ant the same experi-
ments as Sir John Lubbock describes in his paper as having
been tried by him upon English species, and here also I
obtained identical results — in ail cases the ants were hope-
lessly lost if liberated more than a moderate distance from
their nest." Mr. Eomanes's experiments, therefore, as he

30 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

himself says, entirely confirm the opinion Lord Avebury ex-
pressed— that there is not sufficient evidence among insects
of anything which can justly be called a " sense of direction."
In conclusion, I should like to allude to the very remark-
able discovery made by Lord Avebury some years ago in con-
nection with the limits of vision in ants — i.e., the power
possessed by those insects of perceiving the ultra-violet rays
of the spectrum, which are invisible to human eyes. This
fact was elicited by means of a very exhaustive series of ex-
periments, during which the ants were placed under variously
coloured glasses, and also under two distinct, though exactly
similarly coloured, chemical solutions, one of which intercepted
the ultra-violet rays, whilst the other allowed these invisible
rays to pass through it. The results of these numerous ex-
periments are very conclusive, and are recounted at length in
Lord Avebury's delightful book on " Ants, Bees, and Wasps."
I will not now repeat the details of these experiments, but the
following general reflections suggested by this discovery are
of more than passing interest, and may well conclude this
address : " Again, it has been shown that animals hear sounds
which are beyond the range of our hearing, and that they can
perceive the ultra-violet rays, which are invisible to our eyes.
Now, as every ray of homogeneous light, which we can per-
ceive at all, appears to us as a distinct colour, it becomes prob-
able that these ultra-violet rays must make themselves
apparent to the ants as a distinct and separate colour (of
which we can form no idea), but as different from the rest
as red is from yellow or green from violet. The question
also arises whether white light to these insects would differ
from our white light in containing this additional colour. At
any rate, as few of the colours in nature are pure, but almost
all arise from the combination of rays of different wave-
lengths, and as in such cases the visible resultant would be
composed not only of the rays we see, but of these and the
ultra-violet, it would appear that the colours of objects and
the general aspect of nature must present to animals a very
different appearance from what it does to us.

" These considerations cannot but raise the reflection how
different the world may — I was going to say must — appear to
other animals from what it does to us. Sound is the sensa-
tion produced on us when the vibrations of the air strike on
the drum of our ear. "When they are few the sound is deep ;
as they increase in number it becomes shriller and shriller ;
but when they reach forty thousand in a second they cease to
be audible. Light is the effect produced on us when waves of
light strike on the eye. When four hundred millions of
millions of vibrations of ether strike the retina m a second
they produce red, and as the number increases the colour

Hudson. — On the Comet of 1901. 31

passes into orange, then yellow, green, blue, and violet. But
between forty thousand vibrations in a second and four
hundred millions of millions we have no organ of sense
capable of receiving the impression. Yet between these limits
any number of sensations may exist. We have five senses,
and sometimes fancy that no others are possible. But it is
obvious that we cannot measure the infinite by our own
narrow limitations.

" Moreover, looking at the question from the other side, we
find in animals complex organs of sense richly supplied with
nerves, but the function of which we are as yet powerless to
explain. There may be fifty other senses as different from
ours as sound is from sight ; and even within the boundaries
of our own senses there may be endless sounds which we can-
not hear, and colours, as different as red from green, of which
we have no conception. These and a thousand other ques-
tions remain for solution. The familiar world which sur-
rounds us may be a totally different place to other animals.
To them it may be full of music which we cannot hear, of
colour which we cannot see, of sensations which we cannot
conceive. To place stuffed birds and beasts in glass cases, to
arrange insects in cabinets and dry plants in drawers, is
merely the drudgery and preliminary of study ; to watch their
habits, to understand their relations to one another, to study
their instincts and intelligence, to ascertain their adaptations
and their relations to the forces of nature, to realise what the
world appears to them — these constitute, as it seems to me at
least, the true interest of natural history, and may even give
us the clue to senses and perceptions of which at present we
have no conception."

Art. III. — Notes on the Comet of April, May, and June, 1901.

By G. V. Hudson.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 25th June, H01.~\

Plate I.

My wife and I simultaneously saw this comet from Karori on
the morning of the 25th April, at 5.25 a.m. It was then rising
behind the eastern ranges, and was sufficiently bright to be
conspicuous as a distinct streak of light through some light
cirrus cloud in the sky at the time. At about 5.40 it rose
clear of the cirrus, and its brightness was so great that I was
much surprised that it had not been reported as previously
observed. A cablegram announcing that it had been seen in

32 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

New South Wales the same morning — though, of course, some
two hours later — was, however, received during the day.

Bad weather prevented further observations until Sunday
morning, the 28th April, when the comet was visible for a few
minutes only, owing to its close proximity to the sun. It
rose about 5.53 a.m., and was overpowered by the daylight at
6.10 a.m. Unfortunately, my observatory is so situated that
I could not reach it so low in the heavens, and, although I
carefully swept for it between 7 and 8 a.m., I did not succeed
in finding it. Judging from the view I bad of the planet Mer-
cury, I am disposed to think that the comet might have been
seen with my 3J in. telescope at that hour, as the morning
was extremely clear and bright. I next saw the comet on
Tuesday, the 30th April, at 5.40 p.m. My point of observa-
tion was the main road across the Kelburne Estate. At this
time the comet appeared about as bright as Mercury ; the tail
was indistinct, owing to the strong daylight. As it set ten
minutes after T first saw it, I was unable to get home to my
telescope.

The next evening — Wednesday, the 1st May — I bad the
first satisfactory view of the comet through the telescope. The
nucleus was very bright, comparatively distinct, and somewhat
bean-shaped. The coma was some distance in front of it, and
swept round on either side, flowing away behind the nucleus
aud forming two very distinct tails. There was little change
on Thursday, the 2nd May. On Friday, the 3rd May, some
traces of the long, faint southern tail, which afterwards became
such a remarkable feature of this comet, were first seen, but
not clearly until Sunday. Whilst the tails were increasing in
length and brightness the nucleus declined in size, brilliancy,
and distinctness. The coma appeared to be gradually swept
back, until on Tuesday, the 7th, the nucleus was entirely in
front of it. By this time I think the comet was beginning to
decrease in brilliancy, though the disappearance of the moon
during the early evening of Monday, the 6th, rendered it diffi-
cult to make any reliable comparisons with previous observa-
tions. I was, however, in the habit of noticing what stars could
be seen when the comet first became visible in the evening twi-
light, and, from these comparative observations, I am confident
that the nucleus, at any rate, considerably decreased in bril-
liancy before the 6th May. This, I may mention, was the first
evening without the moon, and it is therefore probable that
the comet would have been seen to much greater advantage
had the evenings been dark during the first week of its appear-
ance in the evening sky. The two sketches (Plate I.) which
accompany these notes were made on the evening of the 6th
May. One is a telescopic view of the head, and the other an
attempt to show the comet as it appeared to the naked eye.

Hudson. — On the Comet of 1901.

33

The 9th, 10th, and 11th May were cloudy, and on the
12th, when the comet was again seen, with its tail straight
along the belt of Orion, a very great decrease in brilliancy
had taken place. Beyond a further steady decrease I did not
observe any noteworthy features during the succeeding week ;
but several other observers remarked to me that the space
between the long, faint southern tail and the two brilliant
northern tails appeared to be filled in with cometary matter of
extreme tenuity.

From this period to the final disappearance of the comet
in my telescope on the 15th June there is nothing special to
note, except, perhaps, that after about the 20th May the
nucleus became slightly brighter in relation to the tail,
though, of course, the entire object was continually becoming
faiuter.

The following rough positions of the comet, taken on the
dates stated, will enable amateur astronomers, who are in-
terested, to mark out the track it followed through the con-
stellations during the period I observed it. They were taken
with an equatorial telescope of only 3^ in. aperture, and are
merely rough approximations. The right ascensions are pro-
bably correct within about one minute of time, and the
declinations within ten minutes of arc. I have inserted them
as they may be of some interest to other amateur observers,
and it is also, perhaps, possible they may be of some little use
to professional astronomers in estimating the probable orbit
of the comet : —

Eight

Declina-

Right

Declina-

Ascension.

tion.

Ascension.

tion.

H. m.

o '

H. m.

o /

April 25

. 1 22

4 ON.

May 15

.. 5 33

3 35 N.

May 1

. 3 07

0 30 S.

. 16

.. 5 40

4 ON.

2

. 3 22

0 45 S.

„ 17

.. 5 45

4 20 N.

3

. 3 38

0 30 S.

„ 19

.. 5 57

4 55 N.

4

. 3 50

0 20 S.

„ 20

.. 5 59

5 15 N.

5

. 4 0

0 05 S.

„ 22

..6 8

5 45 N.

6

. 4 14

0 ION.

„ 23

.. 6 13

6 ION.

7

. 4 25

0 35 N.

„ 24

.. 6 18

6 20 N.

8

. 4 38

1 ON.

„ 25

.. 6 23

6 30 N.

„ 12

. 5 11

2 30 N.

June 9

.. 7 03

9 ON.

„ 13

. 5 20

2 55 N.

„ 10

.. 7 06

y 15 N.

„ 14

. 5 28

3 15 N.

„ 15

.. 7 12

9 40 N.

34 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Art. IV. — The Diversions of the Whare Tapere : Some
Account of the various Games, Amusements, and Trials of
Skill practised by the Maori in Former Times.

By Elsdon Best.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 7th October, 1901.]
" Ka kaivea tatou e te rehia " (We are allured by the arts of pleasure).

Among races not possessing a written language and literature
it is not surprising to find that great prominence is given to
games and amusements of various kinds, more especially to
those which would serve to while away the hours of darkness.
The Maori people of this land, although possessing no
graphic system prior to the arrival of Europeans, had, never-
theless, a most extensive collection of ancient sagas, songs,
history, folk and other lore retained by their wondrous
memories, and thus handed down orally from one generation
to another. Such knowledge was most extensively drawn
upon during winter evenings or inclement weather for the
amusement of the people. They possessed, moreover, a great
liking for amusements in the form of games, dancing, toys,
and, as we have said, story-telling. As little has been placed
on record anent such matters, I propose to bring together
in this article such notes under the above heading as have
been collected from the Tuhoe Tribe of natives. It is there-
fore safe to say that this article will be by no means an
exhaustive one, and will but serve to give an idea of what
forms of games, &c, were indulged in by the denizens of
Tuhoeland in pre-pakcha days. Such amusements would be
described by the modern Maori as " almareka," but in the
days of yore they were described by the term "rehia," and
" Nga mahi a te rehia " meant " the art of pleasure."

THE WHARE TAPERE.
The whare tapere was a house where the young people
of a fort or village would gather at night in order to
amuse themselves in various ways — i.e., with singing, danc-
ing, playing of games, &c. It was the play-house of the
neolithic Maori, and doubtless the prototype of the modern
theatre of the intrusive pakeha (Europeans). It was not
necessary that a village should have a house set aside or
used specially for amusement. Such terms as " whare
tapere," "whare potae," "whare pora," &c, are to a great
extent mere figures of speech. Still all amusements are
spoken of as the arts of the whare tapere — i.e., the art of
pleasure.

Best. — On Maori Games. 35

In this article I propose to deal not only with such forms
of amusement as pertained to the ivhare tapere, but also to
pass out from that edifice in order to mention certain outdoor
games of past generations ; for of all the ancient games of
Maoriland but few have survived, and those few are not as
the men of old knew them: the trail of the pakeha is over
them all.

The Personification of Pleasure.

Kant speaks of the category of causality as being a neces-
sary form of pure reason. It is highly improbable that the
ancient Maori had perused the works of the latter-day
Teutonic philosopher. There are a few chronological and
other reasons against such an assumption. And although
his primitive intellect has ever felt that causality exists,
yet he would but know it in an abstract form — that is to
say, as a law of thought. That half-knowledge, however,
prompted his crude mental powers to seek not the true
cause of things, but the agency by which they were pre-
sented to his sight, hearing, or understanding. Thus the
ancient Maori had, after how many centuries of groping
through the gloom, personified almost everything that came
under his notice. His limited mentality sought an agent for
all things, and that agent was invariably presented to his
vision in human form. Thus in the extensive and wondrous
Maori mythology we find personifications — i.e., anthropo-
morphous agents — which represent war, peace, disease, the
sky, the earth, the sun, moon, and stars, meteors, rainbows,
fire, water, fish, birds, trees, heat, the seasons, death, &c.

In like manner are the arts of carving, weaving, &c,
supplied with such personifications, and a myth of a similar
nature is attached to the art of pleasure. Games and
amusements have their mythic agent or tutelary deity, to
whom is attributed their invention. Among the majority of
Maori tribes this personification or agent is Eau-kata-uri, a
name often coupled with that of Eau-kata-mea. To these are
attributed flute-playing and games of amusement. Among
the Tuhoe Tribe, however, the places of the above are taken
by Marere-o-tonga and Takataka-putea. These two mythical
beings were, to the Child of Tamatea,* the origin and per-
sonification of nga mahi a te rehia — the art of pleasure. The
names of many such personifications, &c, differ among the
Tuhoe Tribe, which may be explained by the fact that among
these people are preserved the purest versions of the myths,
rites, and legends of the original migration of Polynesians to
this land, a migration that probably emanated from the

* The Child of Tamatea : A term applied to the Tuhoe Tribe.

36

Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

western Pacific, whereas the latter migration came from the
far east.

It should be here remarked that these personifications or
tutelary genii are not termed " gods " (atua) by the Maori,
but merely " parents " or " origins." In like manner the ren-
dering of the word " atua" by the term " god" is objection-
able ; " demon " is more acceptable.

The following is a genealogy of Takataka-putea and
Marere-o-tonga, although certain traditions place them
much further back. It is well to note here that the Maori
looks upon most of the singular personifications of Polynesian
mythology as ancestors of man, and traces his descent from
many of them, as, indeed, he does from the sky, the earth,
the heavenly bodies, &c. : —

Rangi-whakere

I

1
Whare-roa

Wao-nui

I

1
Whare-manahanaba

Wao-roa

I

1
Hana

Wao-waeneke

1

1
TaDgi-haruru

Te Uniuhanga

1

Hui

Haehae

I

1
Ruru

Tane-hikapua
1

1
Katau

Rongo-i-te-ata

1

1
Tawake-hore

Takataka-putea

1

1
Marere-o-tonga

1

Te Pupara

1
Whare-koiwi

Puhao-rangi

i

Hine-baere

Obo-rnai-rangi

1

1
Te Putu

Mutu-rangi

i

1
Manawa-tu

Taupo

1

1

Tamaku

Ripeka.

Manawa-rere

I

1

Turu

Takurua.

Manawa-obo

i

1
Mibi

Manawa-kotokoto

1

(Ngati-whare Tribe).

1
Whare-nui

1

In White's "Ancient History of the Maori," vol. in.,
page 23, is the following sentence : " Nukutere was the vessel
of °Whiro-nui, ancestor of Porou-rangi, and of his wife Arai-

Best. — On Maori Games. 37

ara. The wise men (tohunga) of that vessel were Takataka-
putea and Marere-o-tonga." Again, at page 7 is the following :
" Uenuku asked, '0, Whena ! Where are our children?'
And Whena replied. 'They are allured by pleasure (rehia).
They are enjoying the arts of their ancestors, of Takataka-
putea and Marere-o-tonga.' ' In Shortland's " Maori Ee-
ligion," page 17, these two are said to be twins, and the off-
spring of Papa-tuanuku, or Mother Earth.

Takataka-putea is the name of one of the nights of the
moon, either the last or one of the last. When the moon
dies then the wise men say, " Takataka-putea is in the hole
(abyss or space) rolling about."

The following fragment of mythological lore, preserved by
Ngati-awa, places this pair far back in the night of time :
" When Kongo was defeated by Tu-mata-uenga he went to
the whare patahi, to Marere-o-tonga and Timu-whakairia, to
fetch the ivananga to seek for peace. The ivananga brought
to this land (New Zealand) was the wananga of witchcraft.
It was brought on Takitumu." The whare patahi appears to
have been some sacred place or receptacle for sacred things.
" Wananga is a difficult word to define the meaning of.
Meanings thereof given to me are — (1) A priest or seer;
(2) a receptacle for sacred things ; (3) a medium, as of a
god ; (4) (as a verb) to recite, as a genealogy, or declaim, as
in reviling a person. In Paumotuan "vananga" means "to
warn by advice, counsel ; to discourse." Hawaiian wanana,
"to prophesy." In Mangarevan vananga is "a herald, an
orator, a prayer"; as a verb, "to name again and again,"
&c. ; while etua-vananga means "a war-chief." Wanawana
in Maori (New Zealand) means "spines, bristles, rays," &c.

The whare patahi was probably some form of primitive
temple or repository, material or imaginary. Possibly it may
have been the ancient prototype of the whata puaroa. The
following fragment seems to denote that it was a sort of
temple of peace, or talisman : —

Te whare patahi
E hui te rongo,
E hui te rongo,
E puta mai ki waho.

The following song was sung when peace was desired or
about to be cemented. Tuhoe say that it was composed by
Te Turuki (Te Kooti of infamous memory), but it bears an
ancient impress : —

E mahi ana ano a Tu raua ko Rongo
I ta raua mara, koia Pohutukawa
Ka patua tenei, koia moenga kura
Ka patua tetahi, koia moenga toto
Na raua ano ka he i te rir

38 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Ka tikina ki raro ra

Kia Marere o-tonga, kia Timu-whakairia

E ora ana te wananga — e

Mauria mai nei ko te rongo-a-whare

Ko te rongo-taketake

Ki mua ki te atua

Ka wbakaoti te riri — e.

The following song is very old, and refers to the period of
the Maori sojourn in Earotonga, about five hundred years
ago. It contains references to a well-known incident in Maori
history, and also mentions the name of Marere-o-tonga : —

Noho noa whati tata, haereere noa ra te takutai

Kua pono ano ki te iwi no paraoa

Mauria mai nei hai heru 'tahi taha

Hai patu 'tahi taha

Manaakitia mai nei e Uenuku

Tae noa mai nei kua he te iringa o te heru

Me ui ra ki te poupou o te whare,

Kaore te ki mai te waha

Me ui ra ki te tuarongo o te whare,

Kaore te ki rnai ts waha

Me ui ra ki te tiki nei, kia Kahutia-te-rangi

Kai hea taku heru?

Tena ka riro i te tabae poriro tiraumoko nei

Moenga-hau nei, moenga raukawakawa nei.

Ka mate tera i te whakama

Ka hiko ki tona waka

Kia Tu-te-pewa-a-rangi nei

Ka hoe ki waho ki te moana

Ka unuhia te koremu

Kamate i reira Epipi, ka mate i reira Tahau

Ka mate i reira te ara o Tu-mahina nei

Matariki ka* kau i te ata nei — e

Tena a Ruatapu kai te whakakau

I te moana e takoto nei — e

Te hinga nei — e. Te wharenga nei — e

Te marara nei — e

Pokia iho ra te Puke ki Hikurangi

Tutu noa ana Marere-o-tonga kia mau.

Hamiora Pio, of the Children of Awa, says, " Eongo
visited Marere-o-tonga and Timu-whakairia. When Eongo
returned from his visit to the heavens he saw Marere-o-
tonga blocking up a cave to enclose him in. Then Eongo
slew Marere-o-tonga, wTho may be seen by looking up into
space — he is suspended from the heavens."

But the door of the whare taper e is open. The young
people of the year 400 Anno Tui are collected therein, and the
games and amusements of old are in full swing. We will
enter and seat ourselves on the right-hand side, against the
wall. We are looking upon the young people of that date,
clothed simply in kilt or girdle, and collected in picturesque

* Or hakau, a star.

Best. — On Maori Games. 39

groups. We stay time and roll back the years that you may
see the amusements of the Children of Toi, the arts of the
whare tapere — nga main a te rehla, a te harakoa — the arts of
pleasure and of joy. We produce the modern notebook. Ka
kaivea tatou e te rehia : —

Haka : Postuee Dances.

The haka was the most general and popular form of
amusement in the whare tapere of old, and it is one of the
few that have survived the advent of the white man. There
were, and still are, many different forms of haka, some of
which, as the haka koiri, are now obsolete, and many show
traces of European influence. They are interesting to on-
lookers inasmuch as the performers keep such remarkably
good time in the various movements. And such movements
are many; the limbs, head, hips, and body are all subjected
to various flourishing, swaying, or quivering motions, many of
a dadalian nature and none awkward or uncouth, but grace-
ful and pleasing to the eye.

Haka are composed in honour of a distinguished guest or
important personage, to satirise or show approval of some
individual or tribal act, or to deride and belittle an enemy.
The latter, however, is probably more properly termed a
" ngeri."

New haka are often composed, even in these degenerate
times, on the lines given above.

The following fragment will explain the way of rendering
a haka :—

The fugleman (solus) : " A-a-a-a-a-a ! He ringa pakia."

[Here all players begin to strike their hands on their thighs, in
time.]

Fugleman : " I ki mai nga iwi o te motu nei ma te rohe potae au ka
mate."

Chorus : " Kaore ! "

Fugleman : " I ki mai nga iwi o te motu nei ma te rohe potae au au
ka mate."

Chorus : "Kaore! Kaore!"

All continue : " Ma (mea tangata), he aha! Ma (mea tangata), he
aha ! Ma Timi Kara e whakawhahi," &c.

The origin of the haka is, so say the Maori, the haka a
Baumati (the dancing of Raumati, the personification of sum-
mer). This term is applied to the quivering appearance of
heated air as seen on a hot day. Another name for it is te
haka a Tane-rore, the latter being the offspring of summer. In
the ancient Maori mythology Te Ra (the sun) married Rau-
mati (summer), their offspring being Tane-rore, the quivering
heat. When Ruaumoko (god or demon of the underworld
and originator of earthquakes) pulls the cords that move the

40 Transactio7is. — Miscellaneous.

earth, then the haka a Tane-rore is seen. The following is
the haka of Kaurnati : —

E whiti te ra, paroro ki te kiri
Ka haramai koe, ka ruru i aku iwi
I te hinapouri kerekere
I taia iho nei ki raro ra i au e
Pai aha ha !

The following is the original haka, the first one known in

the world : —

Aue ! Te ra, te whefcu, ka rere mai i te pae
Ko Kopu koia kapokapo mai e i te tautara
Kia auroroa i au e.

If in summer-time you look upwards you will see the
haka of Raumati flashing and twinkling in space. That is the
origin of the haka of the world.

The following is an old-time haka : —

Ka tito au, ka tito au, ka tito au, kia Kupe

Te tangata nana i hoehoe te moana

Tu ke a Kapiti, tu ke Mana, tu ke A.ropawa

Ko nga tohu tena a taku tupuna a Kupe

Nana i whakatomene Titapua

Ka toreke ia te whenua — e.

When performing haka the performers always vie with
each other as to who shall give the best rendering, and many
traditions are extant as to young women being captivated by
the grace of movement displayed by men in these dances.
For the whire tapere was the place where the young people
met together in former times to pass the evening in various
amusements, after the labours of the day were over. Elderly
people would also be present, and some of them would take
part in games or haka. I have seen an old native of seventy
unable to resist the fascinations of a haka, and throw off his
blanket and join in.

The words of a haka are either sung by all the performers,
or, in some cases, the fugleman leads off for a line or two and
the others join in as a kind of chorus, as we have shown.
The term " haka" is applied to both the dance and the song
which accompanies it. The time for the various motions
appears to be taken from the song.

The following haka is one of a type known as a manaioa
wera, which were sung and danced on the return of an unsuc-
cessful war-party. As the defeated warriors marched into the
village home they were met by a band of people, principally
women, dressed in old disreputable garments (the sackcloth
and ashes of the Maori), who pranced before them and in-
dulged in those violent energetic movements termed " whd-
kapi" or " pikari," the emitting of most distressing grunts,
and the exhibiting of the whites of the eyes. They would

Best. — On Maori Onmes. 41

perform and sing the haka, which, with the above perform-
ances, denoted grief for those slain and anger against the
hapless who had lost the day and returned alive. Such is the
manawa wera, or seared heart.

Te kotiritiri, te kotaratara, o tai, o huki, o hope — e

Whakatitaha rawa te waha o te kupenga ki uta

Kia tairi — a-ba-ha !

Hoki raai, hoki mai — e

Kia kawea koe ki tera whenua

Ki era tangata,

Nana i ki mai

Uhi! Uhi!— e-e

A — ha-ha !

Another class of haka are those repeated while playing
certain games, as we shall see anon. Others, again, are
juvenile jingles repeated by children for their own amusement.
The following are samples of such : —

1.

No wai te waka e rere i waho i te moana
No Kari-momona te wawata tiko tata.

2.
Tikina kotatia te waka o nga tainariki
Kai te hoko titi, kai te hoko tata
E ka poroporo mai hoki
Te poro ki to tehe.

3.
Po kaka, tahuna mai he rama
Kia marama a Pipora tatutatu na
Takere ! Takere ! Takere !

The following are specimens of modern haka. They were
composed and sung, with the usual wild gestures, by the
Tuhoe Tribe when the Land Commission first sat at Te
Whaiti and the long battle commenced for the possession of
that land : —

Te tangi mai a te ika nei, a te poraka

Ku-ke-ke — e !

Ku-keke-keke a Tuhoe ki Te Whaiti !

Kai a Raharuhi te paenga mai o te ure putete

Te huruhuru a e apu ra i te kirikiri tai — e-ha !

Titiro ki ruDga ! titiro ki raro !

Titiro ki te mana motuhake e rere mai nei — e !

Hihi ana mai te pene a te Komihana !

A hihi ana mai ! Aue !

In the above Tuhoe compare their descent on Te Whaiti,
in order to establish claims by conquest and mana, with the
appearance and rapid increase of the frog, which has only of
late reached these parts. In the sixth and seventh lines they
call upon their old-time serfs to look up and gaze upon the
flag of Tuhoeland, across which runs the legend: " Te mana
motuhake mo Tuhoe " (The special mana for the Tuhoe Tribe).

42 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Homai aku kura

Naku ano aku Komihana i tiki

Ki te puna o Poneke heri mai ai

Titiro ki raro ! titiro ki runga !

Titiro kia Matariki !

Titiro ! Titiro ! Titiro !

The Poi.

The poi may be said to be allied to the haka, and is so
styled by the natives. The poi dance (so termed) is performed
by females. Each performer has a small, light ball made of
leaves of the raupo tightly rolled, and having a string attached
to it. In times past these poi balls were ornamented by at-
taching the long hair from the tail of the Maori dog, now
extinct. The players hold the string, and, timing each move-
ment to the poi song (rangi poi), twirl the light balls in many
directions — now in front of the body, now over the right
shoulder, then the left, &c. The players stand in ranks while
performing. One of these time songs commences thus : —

Kia rite ! kia rite ! kia rite !
Kokiri kai waho, &c.

Here the words " kia rite " mean " keep time," and the players
take their time from the words, the movement of the ball
changing at the second line. This game has been revived of
late years, and was one of the attractions of the Maori meet-
ing at Eotorua at the time of the visit of our Eoyal guests in
June, 1901. We give below some of the old poi time songs
as sung or chaunted during the game.

The following was used both as a- rangi poi and as an
oriori, or lullaby. It was composed by one Hine-i-turama to
sing to her child, which same child was in the form of a stone,
and which that estimable woman used to nurse and sing to
— a by no means uncommon thing among childless native
women. It reminds one of the Dutch sooterkin : —

E noho ana ano 1 tona taumata i Tihei

B papaki kau ana te paihau o te nianu

Kei tata mai ki taku taha

E poi ana te tara i raro

Kia riro mai taku ipu kai ra

Ko Te Heuheu, i whakatapua ki te aha te hau tapa

Tikapo au anake e kai nei 1 te roro o Takeke

Kai atu, whakairihia ki te patanga (pataka)

Kai atu patanga, ko te kai ra i korongatia

Te ngakau ko Tukino

Kia utaina ki te tiwai, e hoe au ki tawhiti

Ki au, i tauhou au ko Whakaari

Ki te puke tapuku Paepae-o-Aotea

Kia takahia atu te moana o Kupe

Ki Whanga-ra ko Matioro

Ka toi au ki Hawaiki, ki te kai ra i rauri (rari) noa mai

Te raweketia e te ringan'nga

Me whakatangi te korowhiti ki Tauri-toatoa,

Best. — On Maori Games.

43

Kia Te Ngahue, ki Matakawa, kia Te Pori-o-te-rangi

Ko te au ra i nohoia e td takupu o te Whai-a-Paoa

Kia ope noa te kutikuti, kia ope noa te whakairoiro

Hai maru haerenga mo maua ko taku tamaiti poriro.

Mo Tu-wairua, mo paki kau noa mai

E te ngutu o te tangata.

Nau mai hoki ra, e te iwi !

Kia kite koe i te whare whanaurjga tamariki

Ka whakaaro- rangi tenei ki Tikirau, kia Te Puta-hou

Kia tawaria taku tua ki te kope rawhiti ki tae iho

Me kore te matarae i Whanga-paraoa

Ko te Wewehi-o-te-rangi

E aki kau ana te tai ki Ahuriri

Ka tika tutuki te koronga ki te Kaha-makau-rau

Kia te noa a Tiki ko te rawa hoki e Whata

I whakairia ai toku teke mai tutakina na mata kia karapipiti

Ako rawa ake ki te ai a te tui ko te ngutu koikoia

Na kete tahora mo kai toku whaea i riro atu na

I waiko ai kai hikihiki taua ki te ihu o Pauanui

Ko te hapu pararaki to Peha taua te kiri wharauna

Ki te whare ka to poriro au na

I moe atu aku kanohi kia Tukorehu

Ki te hunga nana i takitaki taku mate

Ka ea Waipohue

Kati ra te wbakakeke na i te patarga

Huatakitini te hapai o taitaia Maui

Kia tihao atu te tihi ki Tongariro

Kia matotoru, e rua aku ringa

Ki te haramai ki te aitanga a Tuwharetoa

Hai kai — e.

A Rangi Poi.

Poi maru nui, maru roa, whiu noa, ta noa,

Ki te hika tamariki, ki te hika ropa

Te tauwheke kui, te tauwheke koro ki te hika

Ka harubaruatia, ka ewe kuritia

Ka hanga ta te pakeke pirori haere ai

Te mahi a te pakeke ka motu kai te wka

Kai te whakapokanehane tara kai raro

Matoetoe ano te warubanga e tu nei

Te whakatau iho, te whakatau ake

Kai kea he ara rerenga mai e te poi

Kei Kawhia, kei Marokopa, kei te akau

Kei te tipuranga mai o te poi — e ha !

I kinitia i te tou o te tamariki

Whainga whekiki ki au— e poi e.

A Rangi Poi.

Tenei te poi, tenei te poi

Horohoronga e to ringaringa

Hokohokona ki te tamaiti

Tamaiti rurenga rau, e ha!

Hurua ki raro ki te kaka

Ka kotamu toku, ka kotamu to Ngaroria

Ka kotamu ki taua tangata

Tahi ano ko te pakuru anake

E hia po e whai atu ai, ka tahuri mai tu Hakaraia

Haere, whakataha te haere

A kura-winiwini tara koa

44 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Kai hea he ara rerenga mai mou, e te poi
Kai Kawhia, kai Marokopa, kai te akau
Kai te tipuranga mai o te poi— e ha !
Kinitia i te tou o te tamariki
Whainga whekiki ki au
E poi— e !

A Rangi Poi.

Poi inarungarunga iho, mararoraro ake
Tupotupou ana ka eke kaipuke hamua
Kei whea he ara rerenga mai mou, e te poi," &c. (see ante).

A Rangi Poi (composed by Ruinga-rangi).

Poia atu taku poi, wania atu taku poi

Nga pikitanga ki Otairi

Papatairite mai ki Patea

Ka tirotiro ki te One-tapu, taiawhio tonu ki Taupo

Ko Te Rohu, ko Te Berehau

E whae ma ! Kia tika mai te whakaaro ki konei

Mo aku haere ruahine ki kona

He nui tonu mai, he iti taku iti

Ehara i muri nei no tua whakarere

No aku kaumatua i whaia ki Heretaunga

Ko Puoro-rangi, ko Tarapuhi ki rawe ra

Maua taku tara ki te hapai awe

Ki nga whenua tapapa ana i te hiwi ki Horohoro

Ka matau tonu au ki Tarawera, ko Te Hemahema

Ka rere titaha te rere a taku poi

E oma ana i te tai pouri ki Rotorua

Ko Pare-hokotoru, ko Te Apoapo, ko Ngatoro

Kai hea te rae ka hapainga mai,

Kai Tauranga (a) Tupaea

Ko te mea ra e wawatatia e maua ko taku poi

Tiherutia i te wai ki Hauraki, ko Hapai, ko Taraia

Tu tonu mai taua-iti kai Mahurangi

Ko Te Ao-hau, ko Tiaho

Ka taupatupatu te rere a taku poi

Nga ia tuku ki Wai-kato

Ko Potatau, ko Te Paea, ko Matutaera

E taoro nei i te nuku o te whenua

Hai mana mo Aotea-roa, potaea.

TlTI-TOUBETUA.

Here is another game of the ivhare tapere of old. The
titi-touretua is played by six or raore persons, who sit in a
circle a little distance apart from each other. Four sticks,
some 2 ft. or 2^- ft. in length, are used. These are sometimes
quaintly carved. Four of the players have each a stick, held
vertically before him in the right hand. In time to the
accompanying song they swing these sticks up and down,
and, at a certain word in the song, the sticks are thrown to
others across the circle and dexterously caught. The sticks
are thrown simultaneously, and must not be allowed to strike
each other in their flight. Every movement is performed at
the proper time, which is given by the song sung by the

Best. — On Maori Games 45

players. One movement is to throw the sticks round the
circle of players. At other times, instead of swinging or
throwing them, they must be lowered until the lower end
rests upon the floor, the song giving the cue for all these
different motions. At other times the sticks are thrown
across the circle, but always they must be caught by the
proper person. It is quite interesting to watch. The players
sometimes kneel instead of sitting at this game, and the
former is probably the correct attitude.

The following is a ngari titi- tour etua, or time-giving song
or chaunt, sung by the players of the above game : — •

Titi torea

Whakanoho ke te kupu o te karakia

Ko ana titapu hoki te kapu

Ko te ra to hoki ka riakina ki runga

Ka bakahaka ki raro, aue

Ara ra mai tahi, mai rua, mai toru

Mai wha, mai rima, mai 0110

Mai whitu, mai waru, mai iwa

Mai ma ngahuru

E ka wbakakopa ona perehina

Ki te huruhuru tipua — e

Koi heri, koi bera, maka titi, maka tata

He maka titi he mea

A ka turia te tara o Moetara

Te tara titi touretua.

Matimati.

This game is played with the hands alone. Either two or
more persons play at it, the players sitting opposite to each
other, and playing the game in pairs. A long series of words
or short abrupt sentences is repeated by the players very
quickly, and this alone is quite difficult in order to avoid
making an error. At each signal- word or remark the hands
are quickiy moved, each time in a different manner. We
give an example of this game below : —

First cry : " Matimati." (Tbe players here strike the closed hands
together.)

Second cry : " Tahi matimati." (The same action.)

Third cry: "Rua matimati." (The hands opened, fingers apart,
right thumb struck across left.)

Fourth cry : " Toru matimati." (The right hand clenched and
struck on open palm of left hand.)

Fifth cry : " Wha matimati." (The two hands open, brought to-
gether arid fingers interlocked.)

Sixth cry : " Rima matimati.''' (Thumb of right hand struck be-
tween first and second fingers of left hand.)

Seventh cry : " Ono matimati." (Same as first movement.)

Eighth cry : " Whitu matimati." (Same as No. 3.)

Ninth cry : " Waru matimati." (Heel of hands struck together.)

Tenth cry: " Iwa matimati." (Same as No. 1.)

Eleventh cry : " Piro matimati." (The open right hand struck on
back, and front of open left hand.)

4:6 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

The word " piro," as used in games, means much the
same as our word " out " as applied to game-players — Cf.
" jM'oku," v.i., go out ; be extinguished.

The game of ti ringaringa is similar to the above, and is
most amusing to watch.

Pakuru, or Pakakau.

This is merely a piece of wood, one end of which is placed
between the teeth of the operator; the other is held in the
left hand, while in the right is held a smaller stick, which is
struck upon the other, and thus time is kept to the special
songs sung. The pakuru is made of matai, mapara, or kai-
whiria wood. It is about 15 in. in length, about l^in. wide
at one end, and fin. at the other. It is flat on one side and
convex on the other. These were sometimes carved and
sometimes plain, or with serrated edges. In former times
many persons used to take part in this amusement. We
give below two specimens of the rangi pakuru, or songs
sung : —

Kiri pakapaka, kiri pakapaka

Kiko kore, kiko kore, kiki

Tau ka riri, ka riri

Tau ka rara, ka rara

Kai patuki, patu kahakaha

Hai kona turei ai tana niho, tana niho

Pakakau, pakakau, tu tahi, tu rua, tu toru,

Tu wha mai na ki to mate o te aitu

Toto poro kuri, poro kuri, poro tangata

Poro tokorua nga whakahaukanga

Kiki poro, ki poro, ki poro, ki poro kuri

Toro rororo, turi raukaha, kiki to.

A Rangi Pakuru.

Hara mai ana te riri i raro

I a Muri-whenua, i a Te Mahaia ra

Ehara ra teke pakupaku e ko

Kai te uru, kai te tonga

Kai te rakau pakeke — khi — aue !

Takoru te raho o Te Kete

I te ngauDga iho a ta Taiarorangi — ha !

Kai riri koe ki te waihotanga iho

0 te parekura

Ko Maunga-tautari

Te tangata tirotiro mo te aha ra

Mo te hanga ra

E tatari tonu mai te hanga kiki to

Toro rororo, turi raukaha, kiki to.

Karetao.

The karetao, or keretao, known among Nga-puhi Tribe as
" toko-raurape," is a wooden figure in human form, often
ornamented with carving, and the face thereof tattooed in the
orthodox lines, the lines being blackened by the use of soot of

Best. — On Maori Games. 47

the mapara wood, as in the tattooing of the human body.
This figure is usually about 18 in. in length ; a portion of
the timber projects below the legs, in order to serve as a
hand-hold. The arms are loose, being merely semi-attached
to the figure by means of strings which pass through holes in
the shoulders of the figure and are secured to the upper parts
of the loose arms. The two strings are fastened together
behind the figure. The operator held the figure in one hand
by grasping the hand-hold base or projection. In the other
he held the cord, which, being pulled taut, caused the
arms of the figure to be gripped firmly to the shoulders, and
were thus made to assume different positions, both in front or
both extended backwards, or one extended in front and one
behind. At the same time the arms were made to quiver as
in a real haka a la Maori, the movement being imparted
thereto by the hand of the operator. A specimen may be
seen in the Auckland Museum. We give two oriori karetao,
songs chaunted while putting the figure through its paces : —

Kohine, kohine
Tutara koikoi tara ra
Wheterotero koi arai ake
To marutuna, to maru wehi.

The following is an oriori karetao composed by Hokina for
a karetao known as " Tukemata-o-rangi " : —

E rua aku mate, be kauwbau pakihore

Whakatau rawa atu te aro mai ki ahau

Pau te whakatau, he taDgata rakau mai

Me whakahiuga te whare a Pohe, a Uhia

Koinei kahu tai moana

Whakaeke i wnhn ra, he kahuhu waiarangi

Tapoto ki to ringa, me ko tahuna — e

Hei rakau a tungatunga turanga riri

A te koroua i te ao o te tonga

Hoki mai ki muri ra

Kia hoaia atu te maro o Tawhaki

. . . . i rucga o Te Inaki

Tapuitia mai na taumata- e

. . . . ka pae roto Te Papuni

Ki te iwi ka ngaro

Na to tupuna ra, nana i oro i te whenua

E tama — e ! Tenei ou tupuna kai te morehu noa

A mana e ui mai — e ahu ana ki hea ?

Horo te ki atu — he mate ka tuafcini no to papa

E moe tonu mai rara roto Waihau

Ma wai e whakaara te mea ka oti atu

E tama — e !

Tokere, or Bones.

These were made of matai or mapara wood, and were used
in the same manner as with us, a pair in each hand. The
same songs were used for the tokere as for the pakuru.

48 Transactions . — Miscellaneous.

Eiddles ; Guessing Games ; Kai, or Panga.
These are simple. A person will take some small object
and show it to his companions. He then brings his two
hands together and draws both across his mouth. One is
then allowed to guess where the object is. It may be in
either hand or in the mouth. When one guesses aright he
then becomes leader. Or the small object may be between
two of his finger-tips, all being pressed together.

KOEOROHU, OR PUROROHU, OR POROTITI.

This is a small, flat, and thin piece of wood, matai or ma-
para, about 3 in. long. Some are rounded at the ends, and
some left square or brought to a point like a tipcat. Two
holes are made near each other in the centre, and an endless
string passes through same. By pulling the string in opposite
directions the stick is twirled rapidly round in alternate direc-
tions, making at the same time a whizzing noise. The bights
of the cord are placed over the thumbs of the operator. The
following was sung while operating the kororohu : —

A Ngari Porotiti (Kororohu),
Ka kukume, ka kukume au
I te tau o taku porotiti
Ki whakaawe ki Rangi-taiki
Ko Te Koha, ko Muru-takaka, ko Te Ahi-kai-ata
Ko te Koroki, ko Poututu, ko Te Au-tahae
Ka hoki mai te tau o taku porotiti
Hu-hu, wheo-wheo !

PUREREHUA, OR BULL-ROARER.

A thin, flat piece of matai wood, an elongated oval, 18 in.
■or more in length. A cord about 4 ft. long is attached to one
end, the other end of the cord being fastened to a stick 3 ft. in
length, which serves as a handle by which the operator swings
the "roarer" round, causing it to make a loud whirring,
booming sound. This noise is said to be made by the loairua
(spirit) of the operator. A similar belief obtains among cer-
tain Australian tribes, who use these bull-roarers at certain
rites and initiation ceremonies.

Porotiti.'

This has also been described to me as the name of a tee-
totum made from a piece of gourd-rind pared down and
having a small sliver of wood stuck in the centre. It was
twirled by this stem between the thumb and forefinger.

Whai, or Cat's Cradle.
The principal string game of the tvhare tapere of yore was
the above, known in full as the " ivhai ivawewaioe a Maui."
It was a favourite amusement of young people, and the elders

Best. — On Maori Games. 49

often took part in it. A great many different patterns ob-
tained, some of them being most intricate and difficult to
acquire. One pattern is known as " te waka-o-Ta7iia-rereti,"
and when made the following lines were repeated : —

Hoea te waka o Tama-rereti
Ki te take harakeke
Hoea !

Another pattern was termed the " Tiremiremi," and when
formed the parts were worked to and fro (me he tangata e ai
ana) to the following words : —

E ai ana hold, e pare he ana

Te waha o to kotore ki rau o te whenua

Ira to puta, te kainea o te ariki

Aua nene, aua rekareka.

Te ivliare-o-Takoreke, another design, is supposed to repre-
sent a house decorated with carvings, while te tohare-toto-
kaic represents a plain house. Takoreke, above mentioned,
was an ancestor of very remote times. He was the husband
of Hine-te-iwaiwa, of immortal fame, she who invented the
art of weaving, and who is looked upon as the mother and
patroness of the ancient whare yora, or school of weaving.

Other designs in whai are : Te alii i tunua ai te manawa o
Nuku-tau-paroro , te ana o Karanga-hape or te ana i Taupo, te
whakahua horopito, pae kohu, te tutira o Maui, te rara matai
(represents a tree with branches), tu-nui-a-te-ika, te xohare
pora, komore, tami-a-roa, tamahine, mouti, wiwirau, whare-
puni, tonga-nui.

This game of whai is said to have been invented by
Maui-pae, as well as the string game termed " pa-tokotoko."
The originator of tops is said to have been Maui-mua, while
the tekateka is ascribed to Maui-tikitiki. Hence it would
appear that the Maui family are well represented in the
whare taper e.

Pa Tokotoko.

This is another string game. It is played by two persons.
Each is provided with a piece of string with a loop at one
end — a running noose. It is held between the thumb and
forefinger of the right hand. The players make passes at
each other's hands, each endeavouring to snare or catch the
extended forefinger of his adversary in the loop of the string.
Each player has seated beside him, or her, a female com-
panion, termed the " ruahine." When a player succeeds in
snaring the finger of his opponent he quickly touches the
hand of the latter with his own, and then turns and touches
the hand of his own ruahine. This act transfers the ha
{strength or dexterity) of his opponent to his ruahine, who
really holds the skill or cleverness which he may display in
4

50 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

the game. In regard to the term and office of the ruahine,
this is an aping of more serious matters. In olden times a
woman was usually employed, under priestly direction, in
taking the tapu off a person or house, &c. This woman was
termed a " ruahine."

The taking or abstraction of the dexterity of one's oppo-
nent, as above described, is on the same lines of belief as the
taking of the hau, or vital life principle of the human body,
and thus causing the death of the individual. The ruahine
could cure a person suffering from the evil effects of trans-
gression of the laws of tapu, and was an extremely useful sort
of person to have in camp.

Musical Instruments.

Several forms of nose and mouth flutes were manufactured
in olden times from wood and bone. The former were termed
li koauau " and the latter " pu-torino." Young men or chiefs
would amuse themselves of a summer evening by playing on
these instruments as the people were assembled in the marae,
or plaza, of the village. Chiefs at such a time would prob-
ably be seated on the tapurangi, a stage or platform erected
in front of the house occupied by a chief. Songs were sung
to the sound of these flutes. One such, a rangi pu-torino, is
given in " Nga Moteatea," at page 175.

Other instruments used were the bones and paktiru,
already described. The pu-tatara are a sort of trumpet made
from a sea-shell. They were sometimes carried by chiefs in
olden times, who would use them to summon his people or to
announce his approach to a village. The pu-kaea was a long
wooden trumpet, about 6ft. in length; it was used in war to
assemble the fighting-men, or to give warning of an enemy's
approach. A sort of imitation pu-kaea was made by children
from leaves of the native flax wound in a spiral manner.

The pahu, or war-gong, was made by hollowing out a piece
of matai wood. The ends, by which it was slung between
two uprights on the watch-platform of a fort, were sometimes
ornamented with carving. It was struck with a wooden
mallet.

Korero Tar a.

A favourite amusement during long winter evenings was
the repeating of fabies, folk-lore, and weird legends, the whole
being included under the term of "korero tara," or '• paki-
waitara." Some of these would be fables of olden times,
handed down for centuries by succeeding generations. Such
are the fables of the ant and the cicada, that of the lizard and
the gurnard, and that concerning the Wai-kato and Eangi-
taiki Eiveis in their race for the sea ; as also the wild legend

Best. — On Maori Games. 51

anent the forming of the Whakatane and Wai-mana Valleys,
and that describing the weird journey of Maunga-pohatu,
Putauaki, and Kakara-mea Mountains from the south. We
give a specimen of these fables : —

The Popokorua and the Kihikihi (the Ant and the Cicada).

The ant said to the locust, " Let us be diligent and collect
much food during the summer-time, that we may retain life
when the cold season comes." " Not so," said the locust ;
"rather let us ascend the trees and bask in the sun, on the
warm bark thereof." So the ant remained on the ground and
worked exceeding hard, collecting and storing food for the
winter. But the locust said, " This is a fine thing, to bask in
the warm sun and enjoy life. How foolish is the ant that
toils below." But when winter arrived and the warmth went
out of the sun, then the locust perished of cold and hunger.
But the ant, how snug is he in his warm home underground,
supplied with an abundance of food.

The Song of the Locust.

He pai aha koia taku pai

He noho noa, piri ake ki te peka o te rakau— e

E inaina noa ake ki te ra e whiti nei

Me te whakatangi kau i aku paihau — e

Hohoro mai, e te hoa,

Kauaka e whakaroa ara ra

Ka turua ta te popokorua

Rawe noa ta nga taki whakahau

Hau mai ki te keri i te rua

Mo te ua o te rangi me te makariri

Wero iho i te po nei — e

Me te kohi mai ano i te kakano — e

Hai o mo tamaroto

Kia ora ai — e.

Often stories were improvised at these nightly meetings-
simple, old-world tales of a primitive people, tales modelled
on ancient prototypes of the past, tales of strange beings in
human form who dwelt in lone forest depths and occasionally
carried off women from the villages of man, and tales of
daring voyagers of old who went down to unknown seas in
their frail craft, and saw strange sights and strange people in
far-off lands. I have often listened to such stories in the
murky sleeping-houses of Tuhoeland.

Children's Games.

Upoko Titi.

This game is played by three or more children. Each
player crooks the little finger over the next, that again over
the next, and that over the forefinger. Both hands are

52 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

served alike. One player then holds his right hand out
with the forefinger pointing downwards. Another player
places his right hand in a similar position, the end of the
forefinger resting lightly on the back of the other player's
hand, and so on, each player so placing his right hand.
The first then places his left hand in like manner on the
top hand, and so on until each player has both hands in
the pile. The child whose hand is uppermost then re-
peats : —

Te upoko titi, te upoko tata

Ki te wai nui, ki te wai roa.

Whakataogihia te pupu

Haere ki to kainga !

As the reciter repeats the last word he lifts the topmost hand
and thrusts it away. The owner of the said hand then holds it
with the forefinger against his, or her, breast, and so on until
all the players are standing with their hands pointing so to
their breasts, the forefinger just touching same. The leader
then asks, " Ma wai taku ihu e kai " (Who will eat my nose) ?
x\nother will reply, ''Ma te attia" (The demon will). The
leader repeats, " Waeivae nunui, waewae roroa, pokia ki te
ahi ! " At the last word all the players cast down their
hands with a motion as if throwing something down. The
leader then asks, " Ma ivai taku kanohi e kai ? " and receives
the same reply, all hands being again thrust downwards.
And so on, naming each time some portion of the body, the
final question being, " Ma wai taku tinana katoa e kai "
(Who will eat my whole body) ?

Tara-koekoea.

In this game each child closes the thumb and three fingers
on the palm of the hand, leaving the forefinger projecting.
All hands are then piled on each other as in the upoko titi,
except that the forefinger points upwards. Then all the
players repeat the following : —

Ka haere, ka haere a Para

Ki te wero kuku, ki te wero kaka

Ka tangi te tara koekoea.

At the last word of the jingle the players all snatch their
hands away and place them behind their backs, but as they
do so they endeavour to strike or touch the hand of another
player. Any player so touched is out of the game.

Hapi Taw a.

Two or more play at this. Child No. 1 places his, or her,
open hands together, with the palms pressed against each
other and held out in front of the bodv. Child No. 2 draws

Best. — On Maori Games. 53

his hands over those of No. 1 — i.e., stroking the back of them
towards himself, and repeating this : —

Hukea, hukea,
Te hapi papaku
Ma to kuia
Ma Whare-rau-roa.
Kia hoki mai
I te kohi tawa
Kinikini raupaka
Te hoia to taringa
He kapi kurnara
He hapi taro
He hapi kereru
He hapi Koko
He hapi kaka.

Child No. 1 asks, " Na ivai koe i tono mai ? "

Child No. 2 replies, " Na Pitau."

Child No. 1 asks, " Pitau whea ? "

Child No. 2 replies, " Pitau toro."

Child No. 1 asks, " Toro hea 9 "

Child No. 2 replies, " Toro tat."

Child No. 1 asks, " Tai whea ? "

Child No. 2 replies, " Tai matua."

Child No. 1 asks, " Matua wera ? "

Child No. 2 replies, "He ahi."

Child No. 1 asks, " Pi koko 9"

Child No. 2 asks, " Me aha koia ? "

Child No. 1 replies either "Me xvhakaora " or "Me patu."

Should the first of these replies, meaning " Spare him,"
be given by No. 1, he will receive a light box on the ear.
Should the second answer, meaning " Strike him," be given,
he will then be spared the blow.

Child No. 2 then takes the hands of No. 1, which are still
pressed together, and bends the two thumbs away from the
fingers, saying, "He hapi kumara." He then pushes the
two forefingers over against the thumbs, saying, " He hapi
taro." And so on until all the pairs of fingers are pushed
over and are thus close together again. No. 1 then opens his
hands in cup form, into which No. 2 darts an extended, thumb
and forefinger, as if hastily picking something out of the hol-
lowed hands. Meanwhile No. 1 tries to catch the hand of
No. 2 as it is thus darted. When so caught the game is ended.

Kura-winiwini .
In this game a string is used, one end of which is held in
the mouth of one of the players, who are seated in double
lines facing each other. Tne string passes down between the
two lines, and each player on either side grasps it with both
hands, thus the string is hidden from sight. The game lies in
guessing where the free end of the string is, and in carefully

54 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.

concealing the same. Sometimes the player who holds the
end in his mouth will draw in the string until he has it all
concealed in his mouth, but the hands of the others are kept
in position as though still grasping it. This is baffling to the
guesser. The following ngeri, or chaunt, is recited during the
game : —

Kura, kura

Kura winiwini, kura wanawana

Te whaia taku kai Dei

Ki te kai patiti, ki te kai patata.

Ka rawe taua ki hea?

Ka rawe taua ki pahu nui, ki pahu roa

Hai tako titi, bai tako tata

Haere pakiaka

To reti kai whea.

Tatau Tangata.

The children form in a circle and one repeats the following
doggerel. It is repeated in a jerky manner, as shown by the
placing of the commas, and at each of the latter the reciter
points his forefinger at one of the ring of children, and keeps
on thus round the circle. The player at whom he points at
the final word falls out, and so on until onlv one remains, who
is said to have won : —

Tokotahi, tokorua, e ka, kurupatu,

Te oia, te kotiti, te kowhewhe, i waiho, i reira,

E wbewhe, tikina, toetoea, he karaka,

Hai wero, mo to, iwi, tuarua, taro, pahaba,

Ki runga, i te karaka, toro, pahaha,

Te mea ao, to whaea, koro houa.

Tatai Whetit, or Tatau Manaica.

The following doggerel was repeated by children, the
object being to see who could go through it in one breath.
But it was also used as a tatai whetu. The latter was a
singular act performed in former times in order to kill a frost
— i.e., to stop a frost and cause the night to become warm,
thus saving the crops. A person would take a firebrand and
proceed to the urinal of the settlement, where he would walk
round, waving the firebrand so as to light up the ground.
Then, throwing the firestick away, he would face to the east
and repeat the following two effusions, holding his right arm
up, and with index-finger point from one star to another as
he kept repeating his jerky lines, as a person does when
counting a number of objects : —

Katahi, ka ri, ka wara, ka tikoki,
Manu ki, manu ka toro, kai o, tungongo,
Kai te, koata, raua riki, tara kama, e hi,
Tarera, e tika, ra wabo, tikina,
Kapohia, te arero, o te rangi,
Wivvi, wawa, heke, heke,
Te manu ki, ki taikeha.

Best. — On Maori Games. 55

A Tatai Whetu.
Katahi ti, ka rua ti, ka hara mai, te pati tore,
Ka rauna, ka rauna, ka noho, te kiwikiwi
He po, he wai takitaki, no pi, no pa,
Ka huia, mai, kai ana, te whetu,
Kai ana, te marama,

Ko te tio, e rere, ra runga, ra te pekapeka, kotore,
Wiwi, wawa, heke, heke,
Te manu, ki o, tau, tihe.

Outdoor Games.
Not but what the foregoing games, &c, were not played
out-of-doors, but what we propose to deal with now are the
special outdoor games, &c.

Wi.
This is similar to one of our own boys' games. A circle,
known as the " wi," is formed on the ground, and the players
stand round it. The base or wi keeper then recites the
following tatau tangata in the jerky manner and with the
same actions as described above : —

Pika, pika, pere rika,

Papa rangi,

He, hi, rate, mai,

Hau, haunga, te, hati, mai, putu,

Piki, piki.

On repeating the last word of the above the child at whom
the reciter's finger then points drops out, and so on until but
one is left, who then becomes base-keeper. The children
then endeavour to enter the wi, or base, without being touched
by the base-keeper, whose business it is to defend it. Should
any be touched before entering the wi they must then assist
the base-keeper in defending it. Those who succeed in
entering the circle without being touched are said to have
won. A base-keeper will sometimes pursue players in order
to tag them. The term " piro " is applied to those who enter
the base untouched (kua piro amea).

Tops.

The ancient Maori tops were of two kinds — the potaka ta,
or whip-top, and the potaka takiri, or humming-top. As
already stated, the top is said to have been invented by Maui.

The whip-top was similar to that used by us in the days
of our youth, and was whipped in the same manner, the whip
being made from the fibre of the native flax. These tops had
sometimes small pieces of sea-shell* inserted, countersunk in
the wood, which shells would, of course, form apparent circles

* Either a white shell or the shell of the pdua (Haliotis, mother of
pear), the abalone of the Californian coast) was used. The whip was
termed a " kare."

56 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

as the top whirled round. Small hurdles were sometimes
erected, over which the tops were whipped. The potaka
whero rua was a double-ended whip-top, pointed at both
ends, and was made to turn ends by means of the whip.
Tops were made of matai, mapara, or totara wood. " Kai-
hotaka" is given in Williams's dictionary as meaning "a
whipping-top," but that term is not used among Tuhoe.

Some of the humming-tops were made of wood, and were
solid like the whip-top. :|: Both were of the same form, save
that the whip-top was flat on the top, while the humming-
top had a piece of wood projecting from the top vertically, in
order to receive the string. This upright piece would be part
of the original piece of timber from which the top was made,
and was not an inserted piece. The body of the humming-
top was also larger and longer than that of the whip-top, and
was a solid piece of wood.

The word "potaka" means a top. " Ta" is to beat,
hence the name applied to a whip-top. " Takiri " means " to
loosen ; to draw away suddenly ; to start or fly back, as a
spring," &c. As applied to the humming-top, the word refers
to the mode in which the top is set up by the operator.

The string used for the humming-top was a thin, strong
cord made from fibre of the native flax, the kind of cord
known as " karure," which is made by twisting together two
miro, or twisted threads of fibre. This string is wound round
the piece of wood projecting from the head of the top. The
handle or hand-hold by which a purchase is gained is a small,
flat piece of wood, and is known as the "papa takiri." It is
not slipped over the upright projection of the top as with
us, but is held against the side thereof. This papa is about
6 in. in length and ^in. in width.

In former times children liked to see their tops " asleep "
when spun. To describe this state the term " neivha," or
" anewhancwlia" or " iunewha " is used. In the following
effusion, which is a kai-oraora, composed by one Te Horo in
revenge for the death of his son Pohokorua, these terms are
evidently used as meaning " dazed by grief."

A Tangi Kai-oraora.

Pinohia. ki te kowhatu

Ka korowhivvbicifi. ake tona roro

Ote tohunga nana nei au

Koi huna ki te po

Ui rnai koia — he aha te rawa?

He manawa whiti, be manawa rere,

He manawa kapakapa

Ka noho kai a te ihu.

* Not that tbe solid tops hummed muoh, but I have no other name
for them. They were spun as we spin humming-tops. The gourd tops
made a loud humming noise.

Rest. — On Maori Games. 57

Whiti Tuarua.

E kui ma ! Kia ata tono mai ki abau

Kaore raia he lwi tu atu ki runga ra

E taia ana au e te mate

Kai te potaka tu-nawhanewka,

Ka taia, ka haere, ka anewhanewha.

Humming-tops were also made of a small hue, or gourd,
through which a stick was thrust and both ends thereof left
projecting, the lower one to serve as a spinning-point and the
upper one to wind the string on. A hole was made at one
side of the gourd, which caused a humming, wailing sound
when the top was spinning. This was the true humming-
top ; the name was used by myself to denote the wooden
potaka takiri for want of a better term.

These gourd humming-tops entered into a very singular
custom among the denizens of Tuhoeland and adjacent
peoples. They were used in order to avenge death, in the
same manner" that, the wailing of a lament or dirge, with
weeping, was said to avenge the stroke of death. This is a
world-old idea, a relic of universal personification of all
natural events, &c. As the men of old said, " Ko roimata, ko
hupe, anakc nga kai utu i nga vain a aitua " (By tears and
grief only may the strokes of misfortune be avenged).

Humming-tops were spun that the wailing sound thereof
might accompany the lament for the dead chaunted by the
people after a defeat in battle. The humming of the tops, of
which many were used, resembled and represented the mur-
muring wail of the mourning widows. Appropriate songs or
chaunts, termed " whakaoriori potaka," were composed for
such occasions, and were chaunted as the tops were spin-
ning.

When after they had been defeated in battle a party of
people came to condole with them, they all assembled in the
plaza of the village to receive them, and there was chaunted
the lament for the dead. And as the lament was sung the
wailing tops were spun- — hai ranaki i te mate — as an avenging
of the defeat. The tops were spun at a given word at the
conclusion of each whiti, or verse, of the song. After this
performance was over the tops, together with presents of
clothing, &c, would be handed over to the visitors.

Many of the people would be provided with tops for this
performance. This custom was revived after the defeat at
Orakau. The following whakaoriori potaka was thus sung
in many a native village after the defeat of Ngati-porou and
Te Whakatohea on the field of Maketu : — ^-r.

Kumea ! Toi te roroa o ta tangata— e
Ina noa te poto ki te oma i Hunuhunu — a

Hai ! Tukua ! AC

\

58 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Na (nga) morehu, ma te kai e patu — e
Ko te paku kai ra mau, E Te Arawa — E !

Hai ! Tukua !
E ki atu ana Karanama, e noho ki tamaiti nei — e
Takiri ana mai te upoko o te toa — e

Hai ! Tukua !

Koro Mokena, huri mai ki te Kuini— e
Koi rawerawe ana ou mea kanu kaka — e

Hai! Tukua!

Na Tamehana ano tona whenua i utu
Ki te maramara taro — e
Waiho te raru ki to wataine — e

Hai! Tukua!

At the word " Tukua " all the tops are set spinning. When
the tops fall then another verse is commenced, and the tops
are wound up again ready for the next signal- word.

Kites.

Kite-flying was a favourite amusement in the days of old,
but, like most other old-time amusements of the Maori, has
long been abandoned. Kites were termed " maim," the same
word meaning " bird," and were made to resemble a bird in
form, with long outstretched wings. The best kites were
made of the bark of the aute shrub, or paper-mulberry. In-
ferior ones were made of upoko-tangata, a coarse sedge or
swamp-grass, or of the leaves of the raupo, a bulrush.
These kites were very neatly made, the material being
fastened to a light frame. Long tails or streamers, termed
" puhihi," were suspended from the wings (paihau) and tail
(ivaero) of the kite. Kites made of raupo do not rise well,
but sag from side to side. Sometimes shells were attached
to the kites, and when flying, should the cord be held, the
oscillation would cause the shells to rattle in a manner pre-
sumably pleasant to the Maori ear. Shells of the kakahi,
or fresh-water mussel, were used for this purpose, evidently
on account of their lightness. Adults used to indulge in
kite-flying. The kites of children were generally the inferior
ones made of raupo.

" In the days of old our people would weave kites, and the
wings and body thereof would be covered with aute, hence
the name ' manu aute.' Horns or points would be fastened
to the head of the kite. The cord would be secured by which
the kite is let out. When the wind rose the people would go
a kite-flying (ivhakaangi manu), and many would gather to
look on. An expert person would be selected to cast off the
kite that it might rise, and, if a large kite, he would have to
be careful lest the thing swoop down and he be struck by the
points thereof. When the kite rose it would soar away like
a bird, and the cord wrould be paid out as it ascended. Then
the karakia would be repeated.

Best. — On Maori Games. 59

" A Karakia Whakaangi Manu (a Kite-flying Charm).

Piki mai, piki mai,

Te mata tihi o te raDgi

Te mata taha o te ratigi

Ko koe, kai whaunumia e koe

Ki te kawe tuawhitu, ki te kawe tuawaru

Tahi te nuku, tahi te rangi

Ko te kawa i hea ?

Ko te kawa i Taumata-ruhiruhi

Te takina mai taku manu nei

Ka piki.

" Then a round object, a disc, would be sent up the cord,
.along which it would travel. It was to take water to the kite,
and show that the kite had reached the heavens. And it
would reach the kite, although the latter might be so distant
as to be out of sight. Then the cord would be drawn in, and
finally the kite be recovered. And on being looked at it would
be found quite wet. A peculiar wetness this which clings
to the kite. It is not like the water which flows here below ;
it is like dew, or the misty wet which settles upon the high
ranges." A reference to the above messenger sent up the cord
of a kite may be noted in Mr. White's Lectures, page 176.

Teka, or Neti.

This was a favourite pastime of olden times, and quite a

game of skill. It was Maui-tikitiki who invented the game of

teka. He expectorated upon his dart and repeated this

charm : —

Taku teka, tau e kai ai he tangata
Haere i tua o nga rnaunga
Me kai koe ki te tangata
Whiwhia, rawea.

Then Maui threw his dart, which flew apace and stuck in the
jaw of an old man who was sitting in the entrance of the
house known as Tane-kapua. The old man's jaw dropped off.
Maui arriving, said, "Old man, your jaw has dropped off."
The old man nodded. Maui said, " I will take your jawbone
with rne." That old man was Muri-ranga-whenua, the grand-
father of Maui. That jawbone was the hook by which this
land was caught and dragged from the ocean depths. The
fish caught with that hook was Papa-tuanuku (Mother Earth)
herself. The hook may still be seen at Heretaunga.

But about the teka. It is a dart, usually made of a stalk
of the fern rarauhe, about 3 ft. in length, the after-end bound
round with a piece of flax. This dart is thrown so as to
glance off the surface of a small mound of earth, which is
cleared of weeds and made smooth. The thrower stands a
little way behind the mound and holds the dart (tek<x) by the
rear end, between thumb and second finger ; the forefinger is
on the end of the dart, to propel it. The dart was thrown

60 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

underhand, so as to glance off (palm) the smooth top of the
mound. Each player casts his dart in turn, and he whose
dart is cast the greatest distance wins the round. When a
player wins his first round he cries, " Katahi ki rui." On
gaining his second round he says, " Ka rui ki torn." At the
third, " Ka torn kiwha," and so on; thus each player keeps
his own tally. The first to win ten rounds wins the game.
The cry of a player for the ninth round won is, " Ka iwa ki
ngahere," the expression "ngahere" being here used for
"ngahuru" (ten). The cry at the tenth round won is " Ka
piro.''

Each player, as he proceeds to cast his teka, would repeat
the following charm to render his cast effective : —

Patu atu taku pehu ki mua

Me he matakokiri anewa i t9 rangi

Te rokohina ko te teka na Tuhuruhuru

Kia tika tonu te haere

Mau e piki atu, mau e heke atu

I tua o nga pae ma,unga

Toroi e taku pehu

Ko te pehu, ko te koke

Marie kia tika.

The Topa, or Kske.

The topa is an amusement of children. A broad, sound
leaf of the wharangi shrub is plucked, and into the stem of
the midrib (tuaka) thereof is inserted the thick end of a culm
of karetu grass. The caster, standing on an eminence, holds
the top of the leaf between thumb and two fingers, and on
casting the leaf forth horizontally it will sail on for some
distance, and even ascend, before descending to the ground.
The descent of the leaf is very gradual, it being balanced by
the grass culm. A child would repeat the following charm to-
cause the leaf to make a long flight : —

Topaina atu ra taku topa nei
Ki tai nui, ki tai roa
Koki, kokere, whai
Tohia, nuku, tohia rangi
To kai, topa rere
Ki o rua whangai.

These leaves are sometimes thus cast across a river of con-
siderable width.

Pirori (Hoops).

The hoop is an old-time Maori toy. They were made of a
tough forest creeper known as aka tea, the join being neatly
bound with a lashing of flax-fibre. They were 18 in. or 2ft.
in diameter. Players stood opposite each other on either side
of the marae, or plaza, and each held a short stick in his hand.
The hoop was not trundled as with us, but was thrown so as

Best. — On Maori Games, (il

to roll across to the opposite player, who would strike it with
his stick in order to drive it back to No. 1 ; but he would not
follow it up. Should the hoop not run true, but wobble in
its passage, that is termed a " tiko-rohe-tu."

At page 58, vol. v., of White's "Ancient History of the
Maori " is an account of how a certain old-time gentleman,
having slain a much-hated enemy, did thereupon flay the
same and proceed to stretch his skin upon a hoop, with
which he, together with other chivalrous warriors of that
ilk, amused themselves, after the manner of their kind, by
trundling the aforesaid hoop and belabouring it unmercifully
with cudgels.

Hoops were sometimes thrown so as to rebound from the
earth and jump over high hurdles.

Eeti.

This was a kind of toboggan, and was used on a steep
bank or hillside, on which a slide would be prepared and made
slippery by pouring water upon it. The reti, or toboggan, was
a flat piece of wood about 2^ ft. in length and 4 in. or 5 in. in
width, square at the rear end and pointed in front, the nose
being also " sniped," so as not to catch in the ground, and
thus leave the "riding side" of the reti free. Two projec-
tions were left on the top side for the rider's feet to press
against, one foot being placed behind the other. Such was
the toboggan, ox papa reti. The slide was known as retireti.
" Pajja reti " is a term applied to an epidemic of sickness
wherefrom many die.

Pou-toti, or Stilts.
Stilt-walking was a pastime of the young people. The
stilts were often made with foot-rests 3 ft. from the ground.
Mimic battles were waged by stilt-walkers, who tried to over-
throw each other, the result being numerous and sometimes
severe falls.

Swings.

Another amusement over which Takataka-pucea presides
is the moari, or morere, a peculiar swing. The Maori had no
swing with a seat such as we use. The moari was, if pos-
sible, erected over a deep pool in a stream or river, or on the
shore of a lake. A tall sapling was set up inclining somewhat
over the water. On the top of the pole a loose cap of tim-
ber was fitted, to which the ends of long cords or ropes were
fastened, the ropes trailing down for the players to swing by.
As the players hung on to the ropes and swung round the
pole the wooden cap thereon revolved, so that the ropes did
not twist round the pole. In the case of those set up over
water, the swingers would grasp the ropes with both hands

62 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

and gain momentum by running round the pole on the land
side, and then swing off the edge of the bank out over the
water, where they would release their hold of the rope and
drop feet first into the water below, which same is the Maori
form of diving {ruku). This form of diving is done from a
height of 40 ft. or 50 ft. sometimes. At some places a running
jump is taken from a steep bank into a river or lake, or a
pole is secured in a horizontal position over the water, from
which the jump is taken. At others, again, a tree growing on
a cliff and leaning out over tbe water is used in a like manner.
Such an one is a rata-tree just above the Pari-kino Settle-
ment, on the Whanga-nui Eiver, and from wbich the jump is
some 30 ft. or 40 ft. Some time back a woman was there
killed by falling flat on the water, instead of entering the
same feet first in the proper manner. It is surprising to see
what heights very small children will jump from.

At settlements where water was not available for jumping
into, the moari was erected at any suitable place near by,
where it was used as a sort of revolving swing. One such
formerly stood at the Ngati-tawhaki village of Kiritahi, at
Eua-tahuna, and was known as Tama-te-ngaro. Another
stood near Mana-te-pa, a fortified village on the Mana-o-
rongo Creek, near Tatahoata. The latter one was named
Tara-kai-korukoru. Each of these swings had eight cords.
A singular story is attached to these two swings. When my
informant had told me of them, he added, " They were
erected in order to avenge those of Ngati-tawhaki who were
slain at Mana-te-pa." This caused me to make inquiries,
believing that I was about to lift the trail of some quaint,
barbarous custom. I had heard of the intev-hapit un-
pleasantness at that fort, where Te (Jre-wera clan had slain
three of Ngati-tawhaki, but the swings were new.

"Ngati-tawhaki had fallen before the volley of Te Ure-
wera. Then our assailants migrated to Eua-toki, lest evil be-
fall them. Our people were much troubled over the matter.
Then the thought grew : We would avenge that disaster.
Tu-kai-rangi, of Tawhaki, rose and caused to be erected those
two moari. Tama-te-ngaro was erected just by the cherry
grove yonder, and Tara-kai-korukoru was set up by yon
kahika- trees on the terrace. Then a song was composed,
to be sung by the performers when swinging. And this
should be our revenge for the death of our men at Mana-
te-pa. No ! Of course, it was not an actual revenge or
equivalent for our loss, but it was to dispel the grief and
fretting over the death of our friends ; hence it was termed
an avenging of their deaths — " Hai xohakangaro i te rawaki-
waki mo nga mea i mate, koia i kiia ai he takitaki mate."
Here is the song. The eight ropes of the moan would be

Best. — On Maori Gamrs. 03

manned, and all the performers and onlookers would sing
the first verse (whiti). At the last word thereof they would
swing off and fly round the pole. When they stopped the
second verse would be sung, and the performers swing off

again."

Whiti 1.
Tu-kai-rangi — e
Hangaa he moari

Kia rere au i te taura whakawaho*
Kai te pehi hiri whakamau
Na wai takahia.

Whiti 2.

Taku aroha kia Te Haraki — e
Nga whaiaipo a te hiri whakamau
Na wai takahia.

Whiti 3.

He taura ti — e. He taura harakeke
Nga taura o te hiri whakamau
Na wai takahia.

A famous moari used to stand at Kirikiri, on the shore of
Waikare-moana.

Pendent aka, or forest creepers, were often used as swings,
and from the swing of them the players would gain impetus
for a flying trip through the air to Mother Earth. These
were termed " tar ere," or " himorimori." A cross-piece of
wood was sometimes lashed on to the aka to serve as a seat.

The kai-rerere, or long jump, was another form of amuse-
ment. Te Kai-rerenga-a-te-Rangi-houhiri is the name of a
crossing-place of the Whakatane Eiver where, in former
times, travellers used to cross by jumping from one stone
to another, a feat at which Mr. Rangi-houhiri excelled all
others, hence the name.

Piu (Skijjping).
A long cord was used, a child being stationed at either end
to swung same. Several players would skip at the same time.
As the game commenced the cord-swingers would chaunt :
•- E piu — e ! Ka taha te ra ki te rua."

Pioi.

The term "pioi" was applied to the seesaw, a pole
balanced across a log, as our own children play ; and also
the name was applied to a limber branch, usually of a fallen
tree, and which players would bestride and cause to swing up
aud down.

Concerning the pioi, let me tell you an anecdote. In the
days when Ngati-mahanga, of Te Whaiti, they who slew the
Drooping Plume and erstwhile went down to Hades before

* The outer cord is the most difficult to manipulate.

64 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

the stabbing spears of Tuhoe — when the Children of
Mahanga, I say, were sore beset by the Hine-uru clan of
Tarawera they bethought them of applying to their overlord
for armed assistance. A band of Tuhoean mountaineers
therefore marched to the Wairoa Fort, on the Upper Whiri-
naki. On their arrival, however, instead of having food
presented to them, as is usual in such cases, a great nothing-
ness prevailed, and no refreshments were forthcoming. Then
the heart of the Child of Tamatea became sad within him, for
Tuhoe, albeit famous warriors — as we ourselves discovered in
later times at Orakau and elsewhere— are a most touchy
people, and passing rich in dignity and sense of affront. They
therefore, with intent and malice aforethought, and doubtless
being possessed of the divine afflatus, did proceed to compose
a most virulent ngeri, or jeering-song, as a scathing rebuke to
their churlish hosts. Hard, by the fort of Te Wairoa was
a famous pioi, a swinging tree-branch of great length and
elasticity. On this branch the Children of the Mist ranged
themselves, and, swinging high to the spring of the weighted
branch, roared forth their incisive song of derision. After
which, their anger and hunger being still unappeased, and
possibly annoyed at the "innocuous desuetude" of the Sons
of Mahanga, they fell upon them, smiting them hip and thigh,
with the result that several of them were soon killed, cooked,

and eaten.

The above is not necessarily a form of amusement or per-
taining to the w hare tapere, nor do I know that Takataka-
putea and Co. would countenance such acts. It is merely
inserted here as a quiet hint to any luckless wights who may
find themselves neglected by their hosts.

Foot-races.

Foot-races over long distances were sometimes arranged.
A certain place would be agreed upon, where, as soon as
one of the runners arrived, he would leave or make some
mark, on a tree or elsewhere; and this mark would be pointed
out with pride by his descendants. A foot-race of this kind
took place from Te Whaiti to Te Teko, a distance of nearly
fifty miles.

Sling (Kotaha).

I am informed that slings made of flax-fibre, used for sling-
ing stones in play, were formerly used, and were termed ko-
taha. I am not clear that they were used prior to the advent
of Europeans. The term " kotaha1' was also applied to the
whip used in casting the spear known as a " tarerarera,"
which was so cast into besieged places.

The kakere was an amusement of children, sticking some

Best. — On Maori Games. 65

object on a stick and " flirting " it off, tc see how far it could
thus be cast.

Bipi (Ducks and Drake).

Same as with us, the skimming of flat stones along the
surface of water. The name is also applied to the throwing of
flat, rounded pieces of bark upwards. This would be done
near a tree, to enable the children to see which player flung
the highest.

Boiv and Arrow.

The Maori of New Zealand are true Polynesians in their
non-use of the bow and arrow. It was never used by the
Maori in war. Some natives here assert that the bow and
arrow were used as toys in olden days, but I have met with
nothing in tradition or song to support the assertion. The
word given me for " arrow " is " kopere," a term applied to
the sling or whip by which spears are thrown.* The term
given me for " bow " is " zvhana," which would be applied to
anything curved or bow-shaped. I am told that a bow of
supplejack was used by children, with an arrow made of a
ferustalk, the rear end of which was bound with string, and
the head was furnished with a point of katote, the hard
black fibres of the kaponga, or fern-tree. It is said to have
been used for killing birds. Personally I have no faith in the
bow and arrow being used in ^xe-pakeha days.

In the first place, the games and toys, implements,
weapons, &c, that were used in ancient times are mentioned
in many historical traditions, legends, stories, songs, &c. In
none of these have I ever noted any allusion to the bow and
arrow. Certainly the term " pere," meaning " a dart," is met
with, but it refers to the spear thrown with a whip. Other
tribes may have had some knowledge of the implement in
former times, but I do not believe that Tuhoe had. In the
second place, many European words, implements, foods, and
arts reached the remote inland tribes long before such peoples
were brought into contact with white men. Hence they
often assert that some art, or vegetable, or English expres-
sion was known before the arrival of Europeans, whereas it
was not, but filtered through other tribes before Europeans
were known in the interior.

Taupunipuni was a game like our " hide and seek,"
played by children.

Poro-teteke was a boy's amusement of walking on the
hands with feet in the air.

It is most amusing to note small children playing — the
peculiar things they do and say. You may see two mites

* Probably also to the spear so thrown.

66 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

sitting gravely opposite each other, each one trying to make
the other laugh. One will take the other by the hand and
then draw its other hand down the arm, repeating, " Paki-
paki te ivhatitiri, No — e I No — e I " until one of them is fain
to laugh.

I have heard children repeating the genealogies of the
village dogs in true orthodox style, learned while listening to
the recital of tribal genealogies in the sleeping-houses.

Small girls will play at imitating the labours of their
mothers, and will make little steam-ovens and collect and
earth over potatoes in true kojnUu style, or carry appalling
swags of firewood weighing several pounds.

Para-ivhakaivai.
The para-ivhakaivai may be termed a " school of arms."
It is applied to meetings of young men on the plaza of the
village for the purpose of acquiring and practising the use of
weapons, such practising being known as " ivhakahorohoro
rakau." Such practice, or trial of arms, is carried on under
the eyes of veteran warriors, who are known as " Ika-a-
tvhiro." Here the young Maori learned to use the arms of
old — to guard, parry, thrust, and strike. Wrestling was also
indulged in, and women used sometimes to join in this — pro-
bably two women opposed to one man. Some of the women
were famous wrestlers.

Whatoto (Wrestling).

This was a common amusement among young men, and
much interest was displayed when two noted wrestlers were
pitted against each other. My notes under this head are,,
however, meagre in the extreme. The various holds or grips
were termed " azvhiaivhi," " uru-tomo," " taha," " tvhiri,"
and " ivhiu." The rou was the thrusting of the leg
between those of the opponent in order to throw him.

When a man was about to engage in a wrestling bout he
would expectorate into his hand, which he would then close
and repeat the following charm (karakia) to strengthen
him : —

Taku uaua ko te rangi e tu nei
Taku uaua ko papa e takoto nei
Whiri kaha, toro kaha te uaua.

Then, opening his hand, he repeats a second charm to weaken
his enemy and render him powerless : —

Te umu a te ruhi, a te ngenge

A te paro (?) a tineia kia mate

Te umu tuku tonu te ika ki te Po

Te umu tuku tonu, heke tonu te ika ki te Reinga

Ka mui te rango, totoro te iro

Kaki whatiia.

o

Best. — On Maori Games. 67

This latter charm or spell is known as " tuaumu," and belongs
to the art of makutu, or witchcraft.

The Game of Ruru.

In this game five stones are used. They are round (potaka-
taka) and symmetrical ; often they were chipped into the
desired form by means of striking them with a piece of quartz,
as flakes are struck off a flint core. Old men often amused
themselves by making them, as well as other toys, &c, as
playthings for children, and even for elders, inasmuch as the
elderly people often entered into this and other games. Of
these stones one was marked and styled the " hai" ; it was
the principal one used for throwing, and was looked upon as
the leader of the game. The other four stones were termed
the " kai-mahi," or common ones.

As many as ten players would sometimes take part in this
game. First the operator would take the five stones in his
right hand and throw them up ; then quickly reversing his
hand he would catch on the back of it as many as possible of
the descending stones. Some will thus be caught and some
will fall on the ground, where they are allowed to lie for the
present. The hai is then taken in the right hand and
thrown up. While it is in the air the player snatches up
one of the fallen stones with the right hand and, holding it,
catches the descending hai with the same hand. This is-
continued until all the fallen stones are picked up. This is
termed " takitahi."

In the takirua the same process is gone through, save
that two of the stones are snatched up at once.

In the takitoru, or third stage, it is the same process again,
but three stones must be snatched up before catching the hai.

And in the takkvha four stones must be so snatched up.
The next stage in the game is termed " poipoi." In this a.
mark is made on the ground — a straight line — on either side
of which one stone is laid, these two and the hai being the
only ones used. The hai is taken in the right hand and
thrown up ; then with the same hand one of the stones by
the mark — the one on the right side — is taken and thrown up ;
then the descending hai is caught and thrown up again with
the right hand ; then the other descending stone is caught
with the left hand and thrown up again. The remaining
stone on the ground is thrown up by the left hand and caught
with the right, and so on.

The next act is termed " koropu." A small circle is
marked on the ground, around the outside of which are ranged
the hai and three of the other stones. The hai is taken in
the right hand and thrown up, and before it descends the
same hand must move the other three stones into the centre-

68 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

of the circle, where they must be arranged so as to touch each
other ; the right hand then darts back to catch the descending
hai, which it again throws up, and the right hand snatches up
the three stones on the ground and then catches among them
the descending hai , thus the right hand now holds all four
stones. All motions of the koropu are performed by the
right hand.

The final performance is the ruru. Three stones are laid
on the ground ; the hai is thrown up, then another stone is
snatched and thrown up, then the descending hai is caught
and thrown up again, then another stone is clutched from
the ground and cast up, then the second stone is caught and
thrown up again, then the hai, and so on until all the four
are in use. But the hai must always be caught in the right
hand and the other stones in the left.

When the common stones are lying on the ground together
they touch each other, and the operator must be very careful
in taking one away to throw up, for if he causes the other
stone or stones to move in so doing, then he falls out of the
game and another operator takes his place. It is quite a trial
for the eye and hand to watch the descending stones so as
not to miss catching same, and at the same time to take up
one of the stones on the ground without causing any of the
others which are in contact with it to move.

" When other villages hear that we a.re adepts at this game
they will send a party over to challenge us to a game, and
then interest runs high. Young men would always be eager
to excel in games of all kinds, because they would then be
admired by the girls."

The term " rehia," mentioned above, is now practically
obsolete, and must be sought for in song and tradition. It is
met with in Mr. Wnite's volumes, and also occurs in the
following : —

A Lament composed by Te Hou (Pari only).

Ka riro i aku tarnariki

Kai te rebia, kai te harakoa kari hika

Ko au auake i mahue nei

Hai tiaki pa ki Hiwarau ra

He keho koia e te ngutu poto

E whakaheke ra e te oi kau

Kei parea ki O-tarana

Kei niapu noa niai e tohe.

The seeker after the lore of the ivJiare tapere will find some
notes on the subject in the Eev. E. Taylor's "Te Ika a Maui."

Rati. — We will now cease, inasmuch as we have exhausted
our stock of notes anent the diversions of the ivhare tapere, as
obtained from the denizens of Tuhoeland. It remains for the
compilers of the future to pick up the broken threads and

Best. — On Maori Magic. 69

evolve a more complete description of the games and amuse-
ments of old.

'.- V jj< -,; '*,<

The gleaming row of fires within the tvhare tapere have
burned low down, the Children of Toi have dispersed, as we
pass out again into the morn of the twentieth century, while
the sliding -door closes behind us on the ivhare tapere for
ever.

Art. V. — Maori Magic : Notes upon Witchcraft, Magic
Bites, and various Superstitions as practised or believed
in by the Old-time Maori.

By Elsdon Best.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 7th October, 1901.]

*

To the Maori of past days there were practically but three
causes of death, as follows : (1) Mate taua, or death on the
battlefield ; (2) mate aitu, or mate tara ivhare, death from sick-
ness— i.e., a natural death ; (3) mate whaiwhaia, or death caused
by witchcraft.

Deaths from mafaitu, or witchcraft, were, according to
Maori ideas, exceedingly numerous in the days of yore, and
still occur even in these times of the pakeha. Such deaths
need not be the result of an active force, as in the mdtakai,
the rua-iti, &c, to be hereinafter described, but may also be
brought about by what might be termed a semi-passive or a
semi-active medium, which is not dangerous to life until it be
interfered with. Of such a nature are the ivaro rahui, rongo-
takaivhiu, pa, and trees or places endowed with tapu in order
to prevent persons interfering with them, &c.

There is also a third class or kind of makutu, or witchcraft,
which is non-aggressive, and which is merely intended to ward
off the magic spells of others, and protect the life, spirit, and
physical and intellectual vigour of the performer. Of such a
nature are the rites of the matdpuru, ahureiva, ngau-pae-
pae, &c.

Yet another variety is that which not only wards off and
nullifies the effect of the magic spells of one's enemy, but also
causes such spells to recoil on the performer thereof, and so
destroy him or them. Such are the kai-ure and ahi-whakaene
rites. These two latter varieties of magic are known by the
generic terms of " ripa," " parepare," " momono," " whiti,"
and " ivhakataha."

70 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

After the above preamble I would wish to explain that the
following notes on Maori magic comprise but a very small
portion of the items of that extensive, far-reaching pseudo-
science. For two reasons — first, such items, invading as they
do all departments of Maori life, necessarily come under
many headings, as "War," "Birth," "Marriage," "Death,"
" Woodcraft," " Social Life," " Sickness," &c. Hence to give
a description of all branches of magic would be to compile a
practically complete account of Maori life, and would result
in an article of such appalling length that it would probably
be returned to me with or without thanks. (See Skeat's
" Malay Magic " as an illustration, and the review thereof
which appeared in the London Times.) The other reason is
that I have already described many of the items in papers
prepared on different subjects, that on " War " alone running
to some 250 pages of foolscap. Again, practically the whole
of these notes have been obtained from the Tuhoe or Urewera
Tribe alone, and hence the article makes no pretence of being
& compendium of the magic rites of the Maori of New Zealand
as a whole. Kites, customs, and superstitions differ to a
■certain extent among the various tribes.

It was Bastian who defined magic as " the physics of
mankind in a state of nature." Moreover, it is quite clear to
those who study the origin of religions, and also primitive
cults, that the realm of magic must be invaded in either case
in order to fully understand such cults and origins. Magic
has ever been closely associated with religion. The Ark of
the Covenant was the mauri of the Polynesian. The hirihiri
of the Maori finds its counterpart in the bones or toe-nails of
the rnediasval gentlemen who struck work and declined to
wash themselves. The tatvhito and kai-ure beliefs yet linger
in European lands. Do not laugh at the magic of the Maori ;
our houses are yet partially of glass.

Belief in magic was formerly universal with the Maori,
and is yet believed in to a very great extent. Tapu and
makutu were practically the laws of Maoridom. Property,
crops, fish, birds, &c, were protected by them. The old-time
Maori had to carefully guard himself against magic rites,
against infringing the laws of tapu, for a hair of his head,
a shred of his clothing, a portion of the earth whereon he had
left his footprint would, in the hands of an enemy, be suffi-
cient to bring about his death. In every walk of life, during
every action, whether eating, drinking, sleeping, or taking his
walks abroad, whether among friends or foes, if no enemy were
•within a hundred miles, yet death ever attended the Maori
and walked side by side with him, awaiting the opportunity
to strike him down and despatch his spirit to the gloomy
underworld — the Po, or realm of darkness, of oblivion.

Best. — On Maori Magic. 71

The ancient inhabitants of New Zealand are credited with
having possessed the power of magic, as the story of Tama-o-
hoi will show. This gentleman is also known as Te Mahoi-
hoi, and is said to have been a past-master in magic —those
forms of magic dangerous to life.

That strange person Tama-o-hoi was of the ancient
people of this land. He was a descendant of Maui. His
descendants are among the Maori people, and also the fairies
wTho dwell upon the great ranges. Tama-o-hoi lived at Te
Eoto-iti, but his dwelliug-place was underground.

There are three legends anent the feats of Tama-o-hoi or
Te Mahoihoi : One occurred in the far-back period when
mountains were gifted with the faculties of speech, locomo-
tion, &c. ; another just after the arrival of the canoe " Te
Paepae-o-Earotonga " from Hawaiki ; and the third when
" Te Arawa " canoe arrived.

In regard to the two names applied to our wizard, it is
probable that Te Mahoihoi is the more correct, for this reason :
This ancient personage is spoken of as an atua, or demon —
a being possessed of supernatural powers. Now, in the
Paumotu dialect "mahoi" meaus "a spirit"; in Tahitian
" mahoi " means " the essence or soul of a god." Among the
New Zealand branch of the Polynesian race Te Tini-o-te-
mahoihoi is a name applied to an apparently mythical people
— spirits, elves, or fairies similar to Te Tini-o-te-hakuturi
and Te Heketoro. Therefore Te' Mahoihoi is probably cor-
rect.

In the days of yore the mountains grouped around Taupo
Lake were very numerous. They lived together amicably for
some time, but when Tongariro took unto himself two wives —
Pihanga and Ngauruhoe (two mountains) — then dissensions
arose, and the mountain family broke up, many leaving the
district. Taranaki went to the west, and some went east,
including Whakaari (White Island), Paepae-aotea (an islet off
White Island), Mou-tohara (off Whakatane), Putauaki (Mount
Edgecumbe), and Kakara-mea (Eainbow Hill, at Wai-o-tapu).
Putauaki had two wives, Whatiura and Pohatu-roa (latter at
Atiamuri) .

Now, Eua-wahia (mountain) was coming along all the
time. And there was a certain demon coming from the east.
That demon was Te Mahoihoi. He was the person who had
great knowledge of magic. The two met and quarrelled.
Eua-wahia struck at Te Mahoihoi, who warded off the blow
and struck back so stoutly that Eua-wahia was cleft in twain,
as may be seen to this day. Look at Tarawera. Look at
Euawahia.

Such is the earliest feat of Te Mahoihoi on record. The
name Tama-o-hoi we will drop. It appears to be used by the

72 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

modern migration of the Maori, those whose ancestors came
in " Te Arawa," " Matatua," and other vessels. The former
and correct term is used by the descendants of the ancient
people of New Zealand — i.e., of the Bay of Plenty tribes, the
descendants of the old-time peoples known as Te Hapu-one-
one, Te Tini-o-toi, Te Kotore-o-hua, Nga-potiki, &c. These
latter are the people who have preserved many ancient Poly-
nesian words not found in our Maori dictionaries, but many of
which may be found in the dialects of Paumotu, Tonga, Ma-
ngareva, Earotonga, Nukuoro, &c. — more especially such
sacerdotal terms as " mahoi," " puri," " turimia," &c.

We give a genealogy from Tangotango to Te Mahoihoi,
but have not secured the generations from the latter to the
present time : —

Tangotango

I
Kopu-nui

I
Te Ata-tu

Te Marohirohi

Hikohiko-o-te-rangi

I
Te Tuhi-o-te-rangi

I
Paeroa-a-rangi

Te Rangi-a-tu

I
Tu-hikitia

I
Tu-hapainga

I
Tamarau-apu

I
Tapu-ariki

I
Tarna-ewa

I
Te Mahoihoi-o-te-rangi.

We commence again. Rua-wahia is the mountain that

»&

was interfered vdth by Te Mahoihoi. That was before the
vessels arrived (i.e., " Te Arawa," "Matatua," &c, the modern
fleet of the fourteenth century). Waitaha-ariki-kore had
arrived. His vessel was " Te Paepae-ki-Rarotonga." It came
to land at Tara-o-muturangi, near Matata. Waitaha went to
Rua-wahia, where he met Te Mahoihoi. The latter looked at
Waitaha and saw that he was a stranger, whereupon he com-
menced his magic spells, in order to slay him. But Waitaha
proceeded to avert the evil spell ; he raised his incantation, it
was the taivhito, the whakakuruki : —

Whakataha ra koe

E te anewa o te rangi e tu nei

He tupua, he tawhito to makutu

Kei taku ure e patu nei

Na te tapu ihi, na te tapu mana

Takoto ki raro ki to kauwhau ariki

Kuruki whakataha

Tau e patu ai ko koe ano

Haere ki te Po uriuri

Mau ka oti atu, oti atu.

Then the eyes of Te Mahoihoi weakened (momohe), and he

Best.— On Maori Magic. 73

fled to Taupo, to Taranaki ; hence the people of those parts
are versed in the arts of magic.

In the above account are used some most singular expres- .
sions, which, when inquired into, lead us into various interest-
ing channels of research. My aged informant said, " Te
Mahoi-o-te-rangi, te tangata tena nana te makutu. He tama-
tane tena main a te hoi Maori, e kore ia e kaha i te tama-
wahine" (Te Mahoi-o-te-rangi was he who practised magic.
That practice of the Maori people was a tama-tane — male
child, or son ; but it cannot contend against the tama-wahine
— female child, or daughter). Here " tama-tane " seems to be
a term applied to witchcraft, active magic, while the expression
" tama-wahine" denotes defensive magic. I have nearly one
hundred notes collected on these two expressions, and they
appear to be applied to everything in the heavens, on earth,
and the waters under the earth. It would take up too much
space to go fully into the matter here. Tama-wahine is ap-
plied to the west, sometimes to the north, and to the ruahine
who performs the closing act of all sacred rites — that is to say,
the lifting of the tapu or sacredness — also to descent from
Papa, the Earth Mother (the female line of descent), and to
numberless other things

Here is another remark of my venerable authority. In
speaking of Te Mahoihoi's encounter with Waitaha he con-
tinues : " Ko tauaioaha a Te Mahoihoi, he ivaha rawhiti. Ma
te tawhito anake a Waitaha e kore ia e ora, ahakoa loaha
rawhiti, waha hauraro, tama-wahine. Ka hu i te tama-tane,
ka ora te rangi, ka ora te iwi" (That voice of Te Mahoihoi
was an eastern one. The tawhito alone could not have saved
Waitaha, albeit an eastern or northern voice, or the tama-
wahine — (?)west. When the thunder resounds in the tama-
tane — east — then the sky clears and man is safe). Here are
more side issues. The latter part of the remark refers to
oho rangi, a rite performed by the priests (tohunga Maori) in
reference to certain sacred matters, in order to cause thunder
to resound. The term " iowhito " is practically the same as
"ure" (membrum virile). The latter is the ordinary term,
while the former is the sacred or sacerdotal term, and which
may be translated as the " Ancient One." It was used when
referring to the organ as being used in various rites, as to
ward off evil, especially magic spells. "The tawhito," said
one of my aged teachers, "is the salvation of man." But
more of this anon.

After a perusal of countless notes I have evolved the
following. 1 fear it is not a clear formula, but appears
mixed and vague ; but there is something of great interest
behind these ancient, dim, and metaphysical abstrac-
tions : —

74 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

1. Tama-tane = waha rawhiti — east = male descent, and
tawhito active, and active magic.

2. Tama-ioahine = ioaha hau-raro = west = female descent,
and tawhito passive, and passive magic.

3. In magic the latter prevails or is the most important,
if backed by sufficient mana (power, prestige, intellectual,
natural, and supernatural), mana, according to the Maori,
being derived from ancestors.

4. Tawhito = lire = procreative organs.
Hence, —

5. Tama-tane = male = active force.

6. Tama-wahine = female = passive force.

7. Waitaha could not be saved by the male taiuhito alone.
It needed a blending of the tama-tane and tama-wahine (male
and female forces) in order to preserve life. In like manner,
when both the tama-wahine and tama-tane thunders have
resounded, then the sky clears.

The whole being the results of the attempt of a primitive
people to explain the male and female forces, and to apply
such to all departments of nature. And probably these items
are the remains of, and point to, a system of phallic worship,
as practised by the ancestors of the Polynesian race in times
long passed away.

Kai Uke.

The rite known by the above term is performed in order to
save the life of a person who has been subjected to the magic
spells of an enemy, and to cause such magic to recoil upon
the author thereof. Ka rere te ringa ki te ure, ka titoiria,
katahi ka hapainga te karakia : —

Kai ure nga atua,
Kai ure nga tapu,
Kai ure ou makutu, &c.

And, again, in the whakau rite the following is repeated : —

To kai ihi, to kai ihi
To kai Rangi, to kai Papa
To kai awe, to kai karu
To kai ure pahore, &c.

In speaking of the above rites an old Maori said to me,
"The ure is the important mana (power, prestige, &c.) of the
tapu." An interesting kai ure invocation may be found in
" Nga Moteatea," page 305.

An aged native wrote me, saying, " Friend! I am send-
ing the means by which you may ward off the shafts of magic
and confound your enemies. Behold this invocation, the
tawhito, the kai-ure, which saves man. When a person
attempts to interfere with you in any way do as I tell you
and you shall retain life ; but your enemy, he shall descend to
Hades for all time." He then proceeded to explain how I

Best. — On Maori Magic. 75

was to act, and also wrote out the magic spell. I have not
yet tried it on any of niy enemies, hut hope to be able to do
so in the future. This subject is an extremely interesting
one, but my notes thereon have really become so numerous
that they must be reserved for a separate paper.

It is said that the Takitumu migrants brought a great
knowledge of magic with them to New Zealand.

One of the most common forms of makutit, or witchcraft,
is that in which a medium is used in order to connect the
spells of the wizard with the object to be acted upon by them.
This medium, termed "ohonga" and " hohonga," when man
is the object, is usually a fragment of his clothing, a lock of
his hair, a portion of his spittle, or a portion of earth on
which he has left his footprint. By obtaining such a medium
the wizard will be able to bewitch the owner thereof by utter-
ing his spells and performing certain rites. This is sympa-
thetic magic. It may work all right, but if the object be-
comes aware that arts of magic are being practised against
him he can divert (wlnti, or whakataha, or ripa) such by
counter-spells and rites, as the kai-ure, the parepare, the
momono, and many others. It will then be resolved by the
fact as to which possesses the greatest mana or power (in-
tellectual and supernatural).

The above is generally termed "taking the halt" of a
person. The hau of man means his intellectual and spiritual
and supernatural power (mana). The hau is the immaterial
essence or representation of such powers, while the olwnga is
the material representation of the hau, and through such
medium the hau of the subject is affected. When a person's
hau is affected by magic his body perishes, it can no longer
•exist ; his intellectual and spiritual force has departed.

If you meet a wizard, a person famed for his magic spells,
■and you happen to be carrying some food, do not give him
any of it or he will use it as a medium and bewitch you.
But when he has passed you do you stop and wave that food
across the track, and repeat an incantation to nullify the
effects of his spells. The action of waving the article of food
across the trail traversed by the magician will carry with it
the " wrarding-off' " power of the karakia or charm.

When the ohonga is taken it is fastened to a branchlet of
the karamuramu shrub and taken to the tudhu, or sacred place
•of the village, and there the necessary spells are repeated over
it in order to cause the death of the subject, who will be
afflicted by wasting sickness.

If you are talking to me and I wish to lay a spell upon
you, I can take the hau of your voice by uttering certain
incantations. Such spells as this and others practised in the
presence of the subject are not repeated aloud.

76 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

The earliest case of slaying a person by magic contained in
my notes is the destruction of Maui by Hine-nui-te-po,
Goddess of Hades (the Po) and personification of death.
The origin of the quarrel was the slaying of the children of
Mahuika (origin and personification of fire) by Maui. After
that Maui and Hine differed as to whether or not man should
grasp eternal life. The ohonga, or medium, obtained by Hine
was a drop of Maui's blood, which Namu, the silent sandfly,
procured for her. The mosquito was sent first, but proved to
be too noisy a messenger, and was heard and killed by Maui.
Verily it was well to be wary in the days of old, for death was
ever near.

There were many ways by which personal hau might be
protected from magic, so long as the enemy's magic was not
tbe more powerful. For instance, the ahua or semblance of the
hau of man could be taken and protected by means of magic.
The material token of such semblance would probably be a
lock of the person's hair. This would be taken to the tuahu,
or sacred place of the village, and buried at the base of the
Ahurcwa, which is one of the forms of tuahu, and is re-
presented to the eye by a carved stick stuck in the ground.
The depositing of this talisman was accompanied by the
repetition of appropriate incantations or spells to render it
effective.

A similar thing was the ika purapura, or taitai. This was-
a bird into which the semblance of the health, vitality, vigour,
productiveness, &c, of the people and tribal lands had been
instilled. After being hung up for a time, this talisman or
semblance of the hau of man and land was buried, as an ika
purapura. It would retain the essence of the desirable
qualities of man and land, and guard them against magic arts.
For reasoning in a metaphysical and anagogic sense the
Maori has probably no superior, so far as his understanding
went.

The hau of land, or of a forest, or of a productive tree, can
be protected in the same way as personal hau, and in much
the same way, by the concealing (with proper charms or
invocations) of a material semblance of such land, forest, or
tree. Take, for instance, a tree which is much frequented by
birds, and hence a desirable one on which to set bird-snares.
It is deemed advisable to protect the tree from being killed or
blasted by an enemy's magic, or the birds driven therefrom by
tbe same means, or from being poached by other persons.
Therefore the tree is made tapu by the priest; after which,
should any one interfere with it, such person will be afflicted
by the atua or familiar demon of the priest. If that person,
so afflicted, wishes to save himself he must go to the priest
or wise man who rendered the tree tapu and place himself in

Best — On Maori Magic. 77

his hands for treatment. Nor is it wise to delay the matter ;
the gods who live for ever are not to be trifled with.

In the above rite the priest takes the hau of the tree, or
the semblance thereof. The usual plan is to take the first
bird snared upon the tree — or the long wing-feathers (kira) —
which is taken away and hidden in the forest somewhere,
aud incantations said over it to render the tree tapu and so
protect it. It cannot now be injured by the magic spells of
enemies.

Should a person sell or barter the property of another,
that is termed a " hau ivhitia," or " averted hau." The
person who so received the article will surely die ; he will not
survive.

Theft was often punished by the dread arts of magic in
this wise : When a person lost an article by theft he would
take the alma (semblance of personality) of such article to
the priest, the material token of which ahua would be some-
thing that had been in contact with the stolen article. Two
cases came under my notice. In one some eels were taken
from a man's eel-pot. In the other case money was stolen
from a box. In the .first case a fragment of the eel-pot was
used as a material token of the personality of the eels. In
the other a coin which had been overlooked by the thief
was used. This medium would be taken to the priest and
laid before him, with the explanation that it was the ahua of
an article which had been stolen. The priest would look at
the material medium and say to the applicant for justice, " I
see the wairua (spirit) of the thief standing by your side."
He would then describe the appearance of the thief whose
spirit he saw. Such spirits are always anthropomorphous
with the Maori, and probably to all other primitive races.
The plaintiff in the above case would, when he recognised
the thief from the priest's description, sometimes go and
demand his property so as to give him a chance of escaping
the awful effects of the priest's spells of witchcraft. When
the thief refused to return the article stolen it was time
enough to put the law of makutu in force. Sometimes, how-
ever, the sufferer of the theft would say at once, " Patua
■atu" (Destroy him). The priest would then perform his
magic rites over the medium which had been brought to him.
' And it was not well for that thief ; death or insanity lay
before him. The priest who performed the above rite would
be one of the class of tohunga (priests) known as a " tohunga
ruanuku." Other classes of priesthood are tohunga taua, or
war-priests ; tohunga pukenga, or teachers ; and tohunga
puri, who are also magicians. The above priest would also
be a matatuhi (matakite) , or seer. The material medium
mentioned above is sometimes termed " hau " or " maawe."

78 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

When it comes to the knowledge of a person that he is
under the influence of magic directed by some enemy, or
when he is taken ill, he at once hies him to the priest, who
will tell him to return to him in the evening. When the sun
sets they go together to the icai tajm, or sacred water of the
village. This is a pond, spring, or stream set apart for sacred
purposes, and no one may interfere with such water or make
use of it. To take a drink of it is about equal to taking a
dose of poison ; it is even dangerous for an individual un-
accompanied by a priest to approach it. On arriving at the
water the priest looks at the patient and says, " You have
been bewitched. I see the wizard standing by your side.
What shall I do with him?" The answer will probably be,
" Slay him." The priest then repeats the spell to destroy
the wizard, after which he taps the patient with his sacred
wand and recites : —

To ara

Haere i tua, baere i waho

Haere te maramatauga

Haere i nga kapua o te rangi

Haere rnahihi ora

Haere i nga kapua o te rangi

Haere ma hihi ora

Ki te whai ao, ki te ao mararna

Ko rou ora

Haere i a moana nui

Haere i a moana roa

Haere i a moana te takiritia

Ki te whai ao, ki te ao marama

Ko rou ora.

With his wand the priest sprinkles water over the body of
the patient. At dawn next morning the sacred umu, or
steam-oven, is kindled, and food cooked therein. Among the
food is a special piece placed. When the oven is uncovered
if that special article of food is thoroughly cooked, then it is-
known that the wizard has perished or is nigh unto death.
Then the patient recovers. It would appear that the above
may be a form of crystallomancy, and that the priest, by
intense will-power or other means, sees reflected in the water
the form of the magician — i.e., if the acting-priest's mana is
strong enough to overcome that of the offending wizard.
Such rites as the above are always performed in the evening
or early morn, for the simple reason that the xoairua, or spirit
of man, does not wander forth or roam about in the broad
li<mt of day, and hence is not available to be influenced by
the magic spells of the priest. In like manner, when such a
rite is being performed the people of the village or fort will
remain in their houses, lest their spirits roam forth and
approach the spot where the magic rites of the priest are
being performed, which would probably destroy such wander-

Best. — On Maori Magic. 79

ing spirits, when, of course, the physical bases of such would
infallibly perish.

Those who have been simply rendered insane or mentally
deranged (Jceka) by magic for such a crime as theft would
spend the balance of their days wandering aimlessly about,
clutching at the air, and repeating meaningless words and
phrases.

Whakamatiti.

The ichakamatiti is a spell of magic, or magic rite, which
is employed by a priest in order to punish a thief without kill-
ing him. This causes him to become mentally deranged, as
described above, and also contracts his fingers and weakens
his hands, so that he can take or hold nothing with them.
This rite is sometimes termed " ahi matiti." It is mentioned
in an oriori, or lullaby, of olden times : —

Waiho te whare, E hine !

I to tipuna i a Paia

Hua rawa atu nei ka matau rawa i a ia

Te whata a to tipuna, a Raumati-ninihanga

Para wbetau — e

Na Turuwhatu te whata a Pouroa

I Tahuna-a-tapu.

Mou ra, E hine !

Koi hikaia koe ki te ahi o te ruhi,

Ki te ahi o te ngenge,

Ki te ahi o te whakamatiti

Mo te kore rawa, E hine !

There were in former times a great number of charms or
spells of an inferior kind, which had no power to destroy life,
but simply unnerved or weakened the subject. They were
often put in the form of a song or chaunt (tcaiata). The fol-
lowing is a specimen thereof. It is one of the class of songs
known as a " makamaka kaihaukai," which are chaunted by
the people who present food to guests at a feast. The
following was composed by one Euru, of Tuhoe, in order to
unnerve a rival and render him incapable of performing with
good effect before the visitors at a feast : —

He Waiata Makamaka Kaihaukai. Na Euru : He Karakia kia kore e
kaha tana hoa Makamaka Kaihaukai, kia hinga i a ia.
Korokoro whiti, korokoro whiti
Tu ana te manu i runga i nga puke ra
Tenei hoki te kame ka whakairi
Te kame ka whakarere
Te kame i pokaia noatia
I runga i a Tu-ka-riri
I a Tu-ka-niwha, i a Tu-ka-ritarita
E haere ana Rita, he tangata kamenga kore
Ka pau te ki hanga maka
He nui kame maoa e tu ana i ou atua roa
He tini te kame, he mano te kame, he tutae taua
Ka kame tiko iho ki waenga

SO Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

He aha aku kai te pau noa ai

Naku te tohenga ki te whitu, ki te waru

Ki te roa o te tau

Waiho nei matau hai timokomoko kai

Ma te ngahuru (? Ngahuru)

Tangi ana te whakatopatopa o karae

0 kame maunu, he toroa, he taiko — e, &c.

The following is also a charm to weaken a person and pre-
vent him from finishing the building of his house. It might
be used out of ill-will, or to punish the builder for having
made an error in the plan of the house or in the measuring
(tieke) thereof : —

He tai panuku, he tai wheranu

E Nuku ! E ruoe nei, ka riri koe e koe

E Papa e moe nei

Tauia mai ra te papa o toku whare

Ko Hauhau-tu-ki-terangi

He ra ka hinga, he ra ka newha

Ka tupeke hinga ki tai o Motutapu (or Ka tupe, ka hinga ?)

Uahatia taku manu i te rangi

He toroa, he karae, he taiko

Ko te manu tangi reo

Ki te muriwai o Wai-rarawa

Turakina, ka hinga ki te Po whekerekere

Ka takoto i Muriwai whenua

Ka eke i ona irohia.

There are two varieties of charms or magic spells known
as " rotu." One is termed a "rotu moana" ; it is used in
order to calm the ocean — to put it to sleep, in fact. " Rotu "
means " heavy-eyed," as for want of sleep. " Rorotu " means
"to oppress with sleep." The other rotu is used in order to
make a person sleep. The following is such an one : —

E moe ! E moe !

Ko te po nui, ko te po roa

Ko te po i whaka-aua ai to moe

E moe !

Tamoe, ok Umu Tamoe.

" Tamoe" means to suppress the evil designs and enmity
of people by means of a magic rite — the umu tamoe. When
the Matatua immigrants were coasting along the shores of
the Bay of Plenty they performed this rite before landing, in
order to calm the enmity of the people of the ancient tribes
of that part. After a battle has been fought the victors per-
form the umu tamoe in order to prevent the enemy being able
to avenge their defeat. The umu horokaka is a rite performed
before attacking an enemy. A fire is kindled by the priest,
whose magic spells are to cause the wairua, or spirits, of the
•enemy to be drawn into the magic fire and therein be con-
sumed (ka rotua nga wairua o nga hoariri ki roto).

The umu Juki is a rite performed in order to cause a people

Best. — On Maori Magic. SI

to forsake their lands and migrate to pastures new. It is an
easy way of disposing of objectionable people.

The ka-mahunu is a rite performed in order to render an
evil person ashamed of his ways — to cause his conscience to
prick him, in fact. This is probably one of the highest points
to which Maori ethics reached.

The wero ngercngcre is an incantation to cause a person to
be attacked by leprosy. It is a Taupo product, and used to
be practised there.

Tu-matapongia is a spell to cause a person to become in-
visible to others. It is useful when being pursued by an enemy.

The papaki is a spell to destroy or render demented a
woman who will not consent to marry a man who desires her.
There are many charms and magic rites in connection with
birth, love, marriage, conception, divorce, &c, which would
occupy too much space here.

The hau-o-puanui is a wind raised by magic in order to
accelerate a person's speed in travelling, or the return of a
truant wife, &c.

The ivhakamania is to pass disparaging remarks about a
person to his face, not behind his back, to which latter the
terms " kohimu," " ngau tuara," " rae onecne," &c, are
applied. The term " ivhakamanioro " is similar in meaning
to " ivhakamania." These disparaging remarks, when uttered
by a person of importance, are looked upon as being ominous
of evil. When the sons of Tuwharetoa, of Kawerau, wished
to go a slaying their aboriginal neighbours their father ob-
jected, and told them to wait until the tapu was lifted from
his crops. However, the sons persisted, which angered the
old gentleman. He said to them, " Haere i a tukunoa, i a
heke voa, e popo, e anea, man ka oti atu, oti atu," which was
equivalent to telling them that they could go to the deuce and
end in Hades. So fell they in the fight of Kaka-tarae.

The umu-pururangi is a rite and incantation used to
destroy life. When the two wives of Uenuku-koihu quarrelled
one slew the other by means of this magic rite, which I refrain
from publishing, for obvious reasons.

The puru-rangi is an incantation used to block up the
flood-gates of the heavens, in order to make the rain and wind
cease and bring fine weather. It is an extremely useful
charm to have in camp. When winds become too boisterous
to be pleasant the first invocation or spell repeated was the
tokotoko, which was to cause the wind to betake itself to other
parts. After that the puru-rangi was recited : —

Tokona nga hau
Tokona ki waho
Tokona nga hau
Tokona ki uta

He rangi kia purupurua, &c.
6

82 Transactions. — Miscellaneous .

The wind known as " tutaka,nga-hau " is laid by means of
cursing it vigorously, as follows : —

Pokokohua !
Poko-ko-hua !
Riri — e! Riri— e !
Riri te rangi i runga nei
Riri nga hau.

The umu-pongipongi is also a rite of magic used in order
to take human life {he umu kai whanaunga). Compare
fakabogi = murder, in Tongan, as also fakabogibogi.

A strange legend of Te Eoto-iti mentions a horde of demons
or uncanny objects which were despatched by Te Rongo-
pu-iti against the Moturoa Fore at that lake. These taniioha,
or goblins, appeared in most extraordinary forms, such as
he uma kau (a being all chest), he upoko anake (a bead only),
lie tap aim (war-cloak), &c. I much fear that the seer who
saw these wondrous beings must have been unwell at the
time. However, the Maori priests and mediums had some
very extraordinary hallucinations.

Ahi Whakaene.

This was a rite by which many different spells of magic
were performed in the good old days. It is said to have
been a sacred fire kindled by a priest, and over which the
ka-mahnnu and other rites were performed.

A rite is performed at the ahi whakaene whereby the
personality (alma) or the hau (intellectual and spiritual force)
of man is destroyed, when the body of such man must perish.
When the priest kindles the sacred fire he repeats the follow-
ing charm, known as hika ahi (fire-generating) : —

Hika atu ra taku ahi, Tu ma tere
ToDga tere ki te umu toko i-a-i — e
Tere tonu nga rakau
Tere tonu ki te umu — e.

Another rite performed at the ahi whakaene is that known
as whakautimtu. To encounter the moko kakariki, or green
lizard, or the moko tapiri was an evil omen. The person
seeing one in his path would at once know that it had been
sent by an enemy to destroy him and possibly his clan also.
Such an occurrence is termed a " kotiptt." The first thing to
do in such a case is to kill the reptile and get a woman to
step over it, in order to avert the omen. This is called a
"ripa" or '" ivhiti." The people then collect to perform
the whakautuutu rite. The priest kindles the ahi ivhakaene,
and the reptile is cut into pieces, which are thrown into the
fire. As each piece is thrown in the name of a tribe, or
sub-tribe, or noted magician is mentioned : " So-and-so shall
eat you" — mentioning all people whom it is thought likely

Best — On Maori Magic. 83

might have sent the ill-omened reptile. Also a charm known
as "hirihiri" is repeated, in order to banish the threatened
disaster to other parts. Then the people will pull out some
of the hair of their heads and cast it into the fire, and all
expectorate upon the dead lizard. Thus will the evil omen
recoil upon he or they who sent it. Kaitoa !

I tahuna mai ahau ki te ahi whakaene
Ki mate te wairua. — Old Song.

The hirihiri is repeated by a person when he believes that
some one is directing, or may shortly direct, spells of magic
against him. Also, a priest will recite a hirihiri over a sick
person, in order to discover who is "meddling" with him —
that is to say, what magician is bewitching him. The follow-
ing is an example : —

Kotahi koe ki reira

Kotahi kia Te Reretautau (name of a priest or magician)

Kotahi koe ki reira, kotahi ki nga ariki

Kotahi koe ki reira, kotahi ki nga rnatfimua

Kotahi koe ki reira, kotahi ki nga wanaoga

Kotahi koa ki reira, kotahi ki nga tapu

Kotahi koe ki reira, kotahi kia Te Haraki.

In the particular case from which I take the above, when
the patient heard the name of Te Haraki (a wizard) pro-
nounced his life departed in a last sigh (puhanga manawa =
the last expelling of breath by a dying person). Thus it was
known that the worker of magic, Te Haraki, had been the
cause of his death. Had the illness of the sick person been
caused by that violation of tapu known as " kai-ra-mua "
(the eating of food set apart for the first-born, matamua,
of a high-born family, a most intensely tapu individual),
then he would have expired (ka puha ake te vvinaiva) at
the word matamua ; and so on with the other terms.

Be clear, the offender would be afflicted in this manner
during times of peace. But if he ate of the food of a
matamua in time of war, then he would be afflicted by
Tu-mata-rehurehu of dread memory ; of a verity the afflic-
tions of the pahumi, hinapo, and parahuhu would descend
upon him. His strength would wane, his sight wax dim,
no enemy would he slay or catch, the fear which springs
from sin committed would be upon him. All of which
troubles are inflicted by the gods.

Ngau Paepae.

A person falls ill. The priest is sent for. He finds that
the illness has been caused by some infringement of tapu.
The priest will then proceed to cure the patient by means
of the rite known as " Ngau paepae." He conducts him to

84 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

the village latrine, and says to him, "Bite the yaepae"
(wooden bar), which the patient does, the priest reciting : —

Ngaua i te pae, ngaua i te wehi
Ngaua i te upcko o te atua
Ngaua i a Rangi e tu nei
Ngaua i a Papa e takoto nei
Whakapa koe ki te ruahine
Kia whakaorangia koe
E tahito nuku, e tahito rangi
E tahito pamamao
Ki Tawhiti i Hawaiki.

The following is another such karakia (charm, spell, in-
cantation, invocation) : —

Ka kai koe ki tua

Ka kai koe ki te paepae

E takoto nei

Koia Dga tnpu, koia rga popoa

Koia rga whare, koia Dga uruDga

Koia nga tapu nei

He atua kahu koe

Haere i tua, haere i waho

Haere i te langi nui e tu nei

MaMhi ora

Ki te whaio ao, ki te ao marama

Ko rou ora.

After this rite the patient is noa, or free of the dread
tapu, and so recovers.

Matakai.

The matakai is a spell recited in order to bewitch a person
while he is in the act of eating, that the food and power of
the spell may pass together into his stomach. In two days
he will be assailed by illness. (See an account of the same
sort of magic in Welby's travels in Abyssinia.) It is said by
some that this spell causes a person to choke ; he cannot
swallow his food, it sticks in his throat.

Tangi Tawhiti.

This was a spell of magic in the form of a chaunt or dirge.
It was used in order to slay a person or persons sometimes
living far away. The following is a tangi taivhiti composed
and chaunted by the Tuhoe people in order to avenge the
death of Te Umu-ariki, one of their chiefs who had been slain
at Whangara : —

Tangi taukuri ai, e te mamae ra
Takaio ra rnota ki whakaaro iho
Koia te tangata ringa taupoki patu kohuru
Ko tama e tu, ko Rehua tu roa
Rite rawa iara te toa taurekareka
Whakaorahanga ki te ra, ki te marama
Nou te kaha ki te ika tere
Ka pae kai a Matioro

Best. — On Maori Magic. 85

Turanga o te tipua o Paoa, o Takiturnu
! O Ruawharo, o Tirnu-whRkairia, o Rongokako

Ka rnene kai roto o te puku nui o Tahaia
Aurara ou ringaringa, kai te rokiroki
Kai te penapena, kai te rakai whenua
Tetea nga mho o Tara-mai-nuku
Te niho o Tipoki ka whakatara ki te whetu
Te niho o Tipoki ka whakatara ki te rnarama
Ona niho kai tangata
Ka ngau ki te mata o Hoturoa
Ripia mai nei e te paea
Te taha maui ki tana (ripi)
Te Tipi a Houmea ki te oue poutama
Tena te tohu na te tipua
Ka mau kai te kiri o te toa horopu
He rioga kia tu
Ka maha noa atu e roto — i.

The tipi a houmea mentioned above is identical with the
papaharo, a most grievous affliction. It is a rite of magic
which is used to blast the fertility of lands and render them
sterile, or to destroy shellfish, &c, on a beach. The perform-
ing priest smooths a little sand or earth, which represents the
lands whose fertility is to be destroyed. He then scores it
across with a wand, repeating at the same time his spell of
magic to blast the fertility of that land. Or he will take a
stone and recite over it his spell, and then throw the stone
across the land or water to be sterilised. It is the mana of
his ancestors, whom the priest invokes, that is the de-
structive power. The incantation to restore the good products
of such lands to their original state of vitality is known as
" pare-hao-kai."

The following is an interesting tangi tawhiti : A female
relative of Piki, of Tuhoe, was bewitched by Taratoa. Piki,
who was at Whakatane, chaunted this tangi tawhiti in order
to slay Taratoa, who, with all his people, was living inland.
Taratoa saved himself and two relatives by means of counter-
charms, but the rest of his relatives died : —

E hine, Marunui i te tapui

Ka taka i ou tuakana

Tu ake hoki, e hine ! I te tu wharariki

Hai whakakakara mo hine ki te moenga

Te moenga te whita, te moenga te au

Oti tonu atu koe ki raro — e — e

Taupae atu ra i tua o Te Wharau — e hine !

Ka wehe ko te po, ka wehe ko te ao i a koe

Tokona atu ra ki tawhiti

He tokouri, he tokotea, he mapuna, he kai ure

Kai ure noa ana, e hine !

Nga tohunga i nga atua kia mate

Koi tonu nga niho ki te ngau.

Na Maui i hangarau, e hine !

Tana ika tapu, ko te whenua nui

E noho nei taua

86 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

I tikina ki raro wheuriuri, kia Hine-nui-te-Po

Hai ngaki i te mate

I tukua mai nei ki ana karerp,

Ki te waeroa, ki te nainu poto

Hai kakati i te rae.

I te rnata o te hurupiki — e nine !

Ko ta paua (?) ka ea te mate

0 te hiku rekareka nei, o te tuna — e-i
Takoto mai ra, e nine !

1 roto i te whare papa

Ko te whare ra tena o to tipuna, o Tama-a-mutu,

I tuhia ai— e-ki te tuhi rnarei kura

Koia a Ngai-Tama-tuhirae

I whakairi ai — e-ki runga ki te rakau

Koia te kauhau i to papa, i a Maui, e nine !

Tera ia te rua o tini raua ko mano

I karia ki te oneone ika nui — e hine !

Hurihuritia iho ra, e hoa rna— e !

Ta tatau mahuri totara

No te wao tapu nui a Tane

No te awa-e-i Oatua

No runga e-i Okarakia

No nga pinga-e-i roto i te Kopua

Taku totara haernata,

Te rite ai, e hire !

Ki a koe — i — a.

Oatua is a stream and Okarakia a settlement at Eua-
tahuna. The tuna mentioned is Puhi, the eel-god, who was
slain by Maui for interfering with Hine-nui-te-Po, Goddess of
Hades.

The Maori possessed spells of potent magic to contract
the land, and others to stay the sun in its course. These were
used by travellers. Others were used by persons engaged in
searching for anything. If a person were supposed to have
been slain or perished from hunger or in a snowstorm while
travelling, a priest (tohunga ruanuku, or magician) would
perform a certain rite in order to "awaken" the bones of
the dead — a ka hu mai aua wheua, and the bones would
resound to show their whereabouts.

The punga was a spell to lessen the speed of a person
pursuing one, or of a person one is pursuing.

The hearts of slain enemies were cooked at a fire termed
" ti-rehurehu," and spells were repeated over them to sap
the bravery of the enemy and render them faint-hearted.

The whakaumuumu is a magic spell used to destroy
human life. To ward off a threat of magic the following
brief phrase is used : " Kuril ki whakataha."

If a person is put to shame before people he may wish to
be transported elsewhere. He will therefore call upon his
familiar taniwha, or monsters — probably ancestors of his, who
assumed that form at death — to bear him hence. He will
summon them by repeating the following : —

Best. — On Maori Maaic. 87

Tangi atu au ki te ninihi nui o te moana

Ki te p*rata nui o te moana

Ki te taniwha nui o te moana

Ki te paikea nui n te moana

Kia hara mai, kia horomia hine

Ko Hine whakaruru taua

Kei a rawea e koe

Tutakina ki te rangi taua.

The toko-uri and toko-tea are said to be two posts or sticks
which are erected at the sacred place of a village. One is the
emblem of misfortune, sickness, and death ; the other is the
emblem of health, vigour, and life. The one is subjected to
magic rites that misfortunes may not assail the tribe — to
expel sickness, death, &c. The other is similarly treated to
cause it to retain the health, vigour, &c, of the tribe.

It is excessively bad form to be inhospitable to a visitor.
Should he arrive while you are eating, ask him at once to
join you. Should you neglect so to do, thinking, perhaps,
that he is a person of low birth and an ignorant, yet he may
possess powers of magic and destroy you for slighting him.
Hence the old saying, " Kai ana mai koe he atua, noho ana
aha a he tangata" (You are eating there as a god; I am
sitting here as a man).

When red war has siezed upon the land it is quite prob-
able that you will find yourself, spear in hand and patu in
belt, about to measure strength with an enemy ; or trouble
may arise in other ways, and it is decided that you settle the
matter by single combat. You first carefully perform the rite
of tuaimu, and repeat the spell or incantation known as a
" mata-rakau " or " hoa rakau." This has the effect of
rendering a thrust or stroke of your weapon most effective.
Before you commence to repeat the charm you must spit
upon your weapon. If you wish to kill your adversary you
add the words " Mau ka oti atu ki te Po, oti atu" (Away
to the shades for ever) to your tuaimu spell which is meant
to weaken your enemy. But, if your adversary is a relative,
you probably do not wish to slay, but merely to wound him.
Therefore the above words are omitted, and when you have
struck down your foe you stand over him, and, expectorating
upon your fingers, rub them over the face of the fallen man,
at the same time repeating : " Mau ka hoki mai ki te ao nei "
(Beturn you to the world of life). Understand, you yourself
are under tapu at this time, and therefore your spittle even
is, as it were, impregnated with that tapu. Therefore the
action just described has the effect of imparting mana, or
power, to your magic.

BUA-ITI, OR BUA-TORINO.

This is another method of destroying life by magic spells
acting upon the human hau. Ngati-awa Tribe describe the

88 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

rua-torino as being a mound of earth formed in human shape
by the priest. In this supposed human body he makes a hole,
and then recites his spells of magic, in order to cause the
spirit of the subject to descend into that hole, where it is
affected or destroyed by the spells of the priest.

Tuhoe describe the rua-iti as follows : The priest makes a
hole in the ground. This is the rua-iti. He has already ob-
tained a piece of cord, the property of the subject, obtained by
theft. He holds one end of the cord in his hand and allows
the other end to trail down into the hole. He then repeats a
spell to cause the wairua, or spirit, of the subject to descend
the cord into the rua, or hole, where it is confined and de-
stroyed by an incantation known as " kopani-harua."

If a man finds out that some one is trying to destroy him
by means of magic, his atua, or familiar demon (probably the
spirit of his father or of an ancestor) will warn him, or his
own wairua (spirit) will discover the fact that a magician is
"meddling" with its physical basis and so return and warn
the same (this refers to dreams : a person dreams that he is
being so treated ; to the Maori it is his spirit which has seen
it) ; and he, the subject, will despatch a person to obtain a
piece of any kind of cord belonging to the wizard. This cord
is the medium between the subject (who now becomes an
active agent) and the magician. The person makes an incision
on his shoulder and smears the blood therefrom on the cord,
which he then burns. I have not the special incantation here
used. This rite is to ward off the spells of the magician who
has bewitched him, and if it has sufficient mana it will destroy
him. The performer must then whakanoa or lift the tapu
from himself. To effect this he will obtain the services of a
ruahine, a woman who is employed to make common people,
houses, &c, under the influence of tapu. He cooks a single
kumara and hands it to the woman, who eats it, while more
invocations are repeated. Another way is to place the kumara
under the threshold of his house, which the ruahine then steps

over.

In war, when flying from an enemy, the pursued would
turn and score a line across the earth or water behind him,
at the same time repeating a karakia, which is said to destroy
the pursuer so soon as he crosses the aforesaid line. When
it was known or suspected that a war-party was approaching
in order to attack a fort or village, the priest of the latter
would go forth and bury a kumara (sweet potato) under the
trail by which the enemy was supposed to approach. When
such enemy crossed that spot they would be assailed by the
paliunu or mahunu, a loss of nerve, an indefinable fear, pro-
duced by the spells of the priest recited when burying the
kumara. Sometimes a spear would be laid across the track

Best. — On Maori Magic. 89

with the same object' in view. Of course, the hoa rakau charm
was repeated over the weapon thus deposited.

In the far-back misty past, when gods and men mingled
and deeds of passing strangeness occurred, it was Maahu who
strove with Haere-atautu, their weapons being the magic of
old. This was probably after the separation of Maru, Haere,
and Kahukuva. Both those beings were destroyed, each by
the other. Haere (a rainbow god) was lured by Maahu to the
paepae, where he was entered by Noke, the earthworm, and
so destroyed ; while Maahu of old was lured by Haere into
the calabash known as Tipoki-o-rangi and therein destroved.

When travelling through an enemy's country always walk
in the water as much as possible, so as to avoid leaving your
footprints on earth or sand, the hau (personality) of which
might be taken by an enemy and used as an ohonga, or
medium, through which to destroy you by his dark spells.
Also be careful not to expectorate as you traverse a trail or
cast away any article you have touched, for any of these
articles may serve as a medium for the rites of magic. Again,
when in mixed company, of whom you are not sure that a
member thereof may not bear you ill-will, never rise from a
seat without putting down your hand and "scooping up"
therewith any fragments of your hau, or personality, which
may have adhered to the seat. It is not well to neglect these
precautions.

A priest or magician of sufficient mana, or power, can
eause a flood by means of an invocation known as tuku-
rangi, addressed to Para-whenua-mea, the origin and per-
sonification of floods or flood-waters. He can also cause a
flooded river to subside. To do this he would take in his
hand a stone, over which he would repeat his karakia
(charm, &c). He would then cast the stone across the
flooded river. The tohunga rua-nuku had also incantations
in his budget wherewith to blast trees, to shatter rocks, and
many other marvellous things.

When invited to a feast it behoves one to be cautious when
the presents of food are placed before you, for maybe that
food has been bewitched by some evilly disposed persou, and
it is well to avert (whiti) the misfortune. You know, of
course, that when the long heap of food is placed before
guests the right-hand end as you face it is the kauru (head)
and the other end the take (base). Before commencing to
eat, your priest or man of knowledge will rise and, taking
the basket of food from the extreme right, or kauru, he will
place it on the extreme left, and shift the one on the left to
the extreme right. This is a whiti ora, an averting of mis-
fortune.

If you should happen to wound yourself — say, a cut by an

90 Transactions. — Miscellaneous .

axe — you should instantly rub the axe on the wound and re-
peat the charm known as " ivhai fnotu." If in walking you
trip and hurt your foot, repeat the words " Tina ora."

Mawake, of Kawerau, waxed old and died. He was buried
at Waitaha-nui. After some time one Manaia was strolling
past that spot and possessed himself of Mawake's jaw-bone,
out of which he fashioned himself a fish-hook. One day
Manaia and his people went out to sea to fish. As they lay
fishing on the banks a fish leaped from the sea and dropped
into the canoe of Manaia. That fish was an alio. Then the
demons of the sea rose and utterly destroyed that people.
Behold the power of the gods !

The custom of protecting crops or fish or forest products,
or flax or ochre springs, &c, by means of a rahui was wide-
spread in Maoriland — in fact, a universal custom. A post,
termed pou rahui, would be set up and a bunch of fern or weeds
tied thereto as a token of the rahui. Sometimes the head of a
slain enemy was so used. When Tuhoe slaughtered Ngati-
rangitihi at Eere-whakaitu they brought back to Sua-tahuna
the heads of many chiefs. That of Tionga was taken to Tara-
pounamu and there used to guard a famous bird-snaring tree.

The above post had no power in itself to punish poachers,
but an object, such as a stone or branch, &c, was used as a
whatu (kernel, an object to absorb the magic power), and was
termed a " kapu." Over this the incantations were repeated
which had the power of destroying any person who interfered
with the things protected by the rahui. The kapu, or ivhatu,
was concealed near the pou rahui.

Waro rahui is another term used. "Waro" means a pit
or chasm. A Maori would say, " A waro was dug that those
who went to steal might descend thereby to death." It by
no means follows that any pit was dug. The pit was the
power of the spells of magic by which poachers and thieves
were slain ; that was the real pitfall. Such is one of the
beauties of the Maori tongue. A person often means some-
thing totally different from what he says.

But, apart from the rahui, if it was found that poachers
were snaring birds in a forest where they had no right, an
offence known as " kai haumi," search would be made for
some of the feathers that may have fallen from the birds
taken. These would be taken to the priest of magic, to act
as an ohonga, or medium, between the incantations of the
priest and the subjects ; and trouble lay before the kai
haumi gentry.

The causes of magic spells being employed were innumer-
able. Among others were quarrels concerning women, con-
tentions between men as to items of ancient history, etc.,
jealousy, envy, and other causes too numerous to mention.

Best. — On Maori Magic. 9t

One of the earliest acts of magic (makutu) on record is the
act of Maui when he caused Irawaru to assume the form of a
dog. The cause of this act was that Whatu-nui, wife of
Maui, had received attentions from Maui's elder brother,
Maui-mua.

Kaka, a chief of Kahungunu Tribe, derived his name from
the following circumstance : A leading chief of the tribe had
been slain by a priestly magician named Moeroa, who, in con-
junction with one Meke, of Te Wairoa, obtained some kaka
birds and performed over them their magic rites, and then
sent them to the above chief, who, eating of them, died the
death. It was then that Kawatiri took the name of Kaka, in
order to keep green the memory of that killing.

Another good way in which to dispose of enemies is to
obtain one of the (cooking) stones from their ovens. You
then have certain spells recited over this by a magician and
return the stone to the oven. When next those people eat
food that has been cooked in that oven — lie parekura ! there
will be trouble.

Sometimes bitter wars arose in consequence of acts of
makutu, or witchcraft. When Ngati-maru, of Hauraki, raided
the eastern shores of the Bay of Plenty they took back home
with them numbers of Ngai-tai and Ngati-ira. Some time
after this Te Whata, son of Tu-te-rangi-anini, of Ngati-maru,
died, and Ngai-tai were accused of having bewitched him and
so caused his death. Ngai-tai denied the truth of this, but
said that Te Aitanga-a-mahaki had done so. Whereupon an
expedition of Ngati-maru sailed from Hauraki, under the
chiefs Tu-te-rangi-anini, Te Popo, and Te Kohu, to square
matters up. After their departure Ngati-ira and Ngai-tai
evolved the idea that Hauraki was a good place to migrate
from. They therefore left, and returned home by an inland
route through Tuhoeland, eventually reaching Torere. The
Ngati-maru party attacked and defeated Ngai-tai at Pare-
paopao. One account says that they went on and attacked
Te Aitanga-a-mahaki, a Turanga tribe. Before returning
home Ngati-maru also defeated Te Whaka-tohea, the fight
being known as " Paenga-toitoi."

We have seen that when a person is taken sick he is taken
to the waterside in order that the warlock may discover, by
magic arts, the cause of the illness. Possibly you would
like to know why a sick person is taken to the water. The
reason is this : Wainui (the personification and origin of
waters) is an ancestress of man, hence man is taken to her to
be saved. And whether is his ailment a house, or a bed, or
a sacred place, or a cacodemon, or a burial cave, there shall
it be made clear— i.e., violation of tapu places.

There is another way in which the arts of makutu, or

92 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

black magic, are used. When a man has served his time as
a learner of the sacred history, religious rites (including
magic), genealogies, mythology, &c, of his tribe, the time
then comes when he must make some sacrifice in order to
give power, force, mana, to the magic rites which he has
learned during his novitiate, taught to him by the learned
priests of the tribe. The teacher is not paid for his services
by the pupil (tauira) ; the only payment made by the latter
is the sacrifice above mentioned. The priest who taught him
will tell the pupil that he must now, by his newly acquired
magic powers, destroy one of his relatives — his wife, or father.
or brother &c. This is done, and the rites of the pupil will
thus have due effect afterwards. Sometimes the pupil would
first be given a stone, over which he would recite one of the
numerous incantations which come under the generic term of
" hoa." He would then cast the stone down on the ground,
where it would be shattered. Should it not break, however,
then his learning has been in vain, his karakia, or charms, will
not be effective.

To prevent an enemy from passing up a river in canoes
a pole is stuck in the river-bed, and a bunch of fern, <fcc, tied
on to the part of the pole above water. After certain magic
spells are recited over it any enemy passing up the river
above the pole will be afflicted by divers disorders. Also,
when a tribe wishes to prevent eels from going up a river
beyond the limit of the tribal lands they set up a similar
pole. A totara log in the river Eangi-taiki, at Nga-huinga,
held this magic power until it was interfered with by the
godless soldiers of Fort Galatea.

The evil eye (titiro makutu) is believed in by the Maori.
When bathing one day at Bua-tahuna I was amused when a
small child said to me, " I titiro makutu a poti ki a koe,
i a koe e kaukau ana " (The cat was looking upon you with
an evil eye whilst you wrere bathing). Fortunately I felt no
evil effects from the evident hostility of her cat ; possibly my
immunity from trouble lay in my knowledge of the art of
matapuru.

Fire-walking.

You have heard of fire-walking as practised by the
Tahitians and Fijians, as also by Oriental peoples. Maori
traditions assert that this rite was formerly practised by their
priests in order to give force, power, to their incantations.
The following is the only clear account of the rite that I have
succeeded in collecting : —

"Te Rangi-kaku, of Nga-maihi, was in a bad way. Evi-
dently the gods had deserted him, or he had not sufficient
mana to call the demons of the deep to his rescue. It was in

Best. — On Maori Magic. 93

this wise : Eangi had paddled merrily forth from Te Awa-a-te-
atua to take the offspring of Tangaroa, who swarm in the Sea
of Toi. A storm arose, the canoe was swamped, and Eangi,
the fisherman, perished. His body drifted ashore at Wai-
rakei, where it was found by the Tauranga people, who
promptly cooked and ate it. Te Hahae, a noted warlock of
Ngati-awa, heard of this occurrence, and inquired concerning
the appearance of the drowned person. The answer was,
' He was a light-haired man, and had the puhoro pattern of
tattooing on his left arm.' Te Hahae cried, ' Alas ! He
was my grandson, Te Eangi-kaku.' He at once despatched
his daughter, Te Eere-wairua, to Puketapu (at Te Teko), to
her brothers, Ouenuku, Eehe, and Tikitu, saying, ' Should
your brothers consent to my proposition, let there be seventy
separate ichaivharua (holes in which taro are planted), and
onlv one taro in each, which must be cultivated so as to
grow to a large size.' So she went, and arrived, and said,
' Te Eangi-kaku is dead and has been eaten. Te Hahae
spoke in this manner : That taro be cultivated, that eels be
caught (and cured).' These labours were commenced. The
woman returned. Te Hahae asked of his daughter, ' How
did your brothers receive the message which you took ?
She "replied, 'The taro are being cultivated.' Autumn
arrived. The Tauranga people came to get the taro and
eels. The dawn of the morrow came. The old warlock
cried to Nga-maihi, ' Arise ! Collect fuel and stones and
covering (for the steam-ovens).' These things were col-
lected. The old man said, ' The sacred oven, I will attend
to that.' The people cooked their food, and Te Hahae pre-
pared his sacred umu (oven). As he dug the hole he repeated
a charm. As he placed the fuel therein he repeated a charm.
As he placed the stones on the fuel he repeated a charm.
When the stones were red with heat Te Hahae, clad merely
in a girdle of green twigs and leaves, entered the oven and
stood upon the red-hot stones thereof. There he stood and
repeated his magic spells, yet was he not injured by heat, nor
was his girdle affected in any way by flame or heat. Then he
stepped out and proceeded to put the taro in the oven. Then
he covered the taro with green branches and fern-fronds, and
covered the oven with earth, repeating a charm as he per-
formed each act. When the food was cooked he uncovered
the oven and put the food in baskets, and placed these in a
row, and presented the food to the people of Ngati-pukenga
and Ngai-te-rangi. And each of these acts was accompanied
by further spells of magic. Then those people thought as to
what return they could make for this present of food. And it
was said, ' We will go to the fishing-grounds.' Then those
people paddled out upon the ocean. Te Hahae said to Nga-

"94 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

niaihi, ' Arise ! ' And Nga-maihi returned to their homes.
They left the old man behind. He entered the water and by
his magic power raised the wind (uru-karaerae) in furious
violence. Thus appeared the wind, the lightning, the thunder,
the hail. The sea' was torn up. That storm caught the
fishing-fleet anchored on the hapuku-grounds, and utterly de-
stroyed it and the people thereof. So fell Tauranga ; and the
eating of the body of Te Rangi-kaku was avenged. Wrought
by Te Hahae, the works of the wizards of old. Friend ! This
is the end."

Certain tribes are famed for their knowledge of witchcraft.
Among these are the two divisions of Ngati-awa, and also the
section of Ngati-kahungunu which lives in Te Wairoa district,
on the East Coast. " Wairoatapoko rau" is a saying applied
to that district. It is equivalent to " Wairoa, the engulfer of
myriads," so many have been slain by the dark arts of those
people. A sub-tribe of the Wairoa people, Ngati-hika by
name, who lived at Te Mahia, are said to have made them-
selves so objectionable to their neighbours by means of their
magic powers that the latter rose up and expelled them.
They, or a portion of them, came to Tuhoeland, where they
were given wives and settled down, thus becoming merged in
the Tuhoe Tribe.

Only this morning I had a visit from three old women of
Tuhoe. Passing by my camp, they called in to exchange
greetings, and to weep over a photograph of one of their
number who but recently drank of the waters of Tane-pi and
lifted the world-old trail for Te Reinga. Anyhow, we got
talking, and some questions of mine led to the following narra-
tive from one of my visitors : When she was a young girl,
eight years or so of age, she was ivhahapakuwhatia, or be-
trothed, by her tribe to a man of the Ngati-awa Tribe. Her
aunt took her to that tribe, where they remained some time,
but she, not liking the man, returned with her aunt to their
own tribe. Some time after a party of Ngati-awa visited Rua-
tahuna, and one of their number abstracted a few threads of
her clothing, which fragment was taken away to serve as an
ohonga, or medium. Thus she and several of her relatives and
friends were bewitched by Ngati-awa. The case called for
instant action. One of the tribal tohunga, or wise men, who
was kauivaka, or medium, of the atua (god, demon) known
as Taimana, took all the patients to Matuahu pa, or fort, on
the shores of Waikare-moana (where he made them live for
several seasons). He said, "Let a cord and a mussel-shell
be sought." These were found, and he proceeded to avert the
magic of Ngati-awa and destroy the wizard. He bled each
of the patients on the right shoulder and smeared the blood on
the cord, which, together with the shell, he carried off to work

Best. — On Maori Magic. 95

the spells of old therewith. The old lady did not know what
the rest of the rite was. A shell was sometimes used by the
wizard in such rites as the rua-iti, in order to " scoop" the
spirits of the subject into the pit of death. The above people
left Matuahu just before Witty's expedition against that pa in
1869.

There would appear to be a great similarity between
different races in regard to their superstitions and magic rites.
The finding of the mdtakai in Abyssinia is interesting, but
primitive races appear to evolve similar ideas all the world
over. In this connection an article on " Chinese Magic "
which lately appeared in the Nouvelle Revue is interesting.

Do not imagine that makutu is a thing of the past. Not
so. It still obtains and is still dreaded. I heard but yester-
day of a case wherein a half-breed of the descendants of
Tionga is said to have been bewitched by Tuhoe, on account
of his claiming their lands at Te Whaiti.

Tama-rae, of Ngati-awa, is said to have slain Tikitu by
means of magic. So Tikitu's son promptly shot the wizard,
and, being pursued by the Armed Constabulary, fled to Eua-
t ah una.

I am informed that native magicians have tried to destroy
white men by means of magic, but somehow it does not
succeed.

In the above pages are given but a portion of the number-
less ways in which people were slain or affected by means of
the black art. We will now give a few more items by means
of which the spells of magic are averted and life saved. You
are now aware of some of the innumerable dangers to which
human life is exposed. Be equally diligent in learning how
to save life.

Matapuru.

I had been getting some information regarding Maori
religious rites from an old man of Tuhoe. When the inter-
view was over he said, "I must matapuru, that the in-
formation I have given you may not return (recoil) and kill
me.

In the days of yore and the mana Maori, when the dread
atua (demon) Tu-nui-a-te-ika (a meteor) was seen, the priests
would at once proceed to matapuru — i.e., to perform certain
rites and recite divers incantations or invocations in order to
ward off the aitua, or evil omen. The matapuru is an ex-
cellent plan by which to avert the effects of magic. Should
I hear that a wizard is in the vicinity I would at once proceed
to matapuru. I tie a number of pieces of green flax round
my body, arms, and legs — say, three or four on each. This is
termed a " ruruku," or binding-together of the body. I then

96 Transactions . — Miscellaneous.

recite the matapwru incantation. The following is a speci-
men one ; it is termed a " momono " : —

Monokia te waha o te tipua
Monokia te waha o te tahito
Me puru to waha ki pari a nuku
Me puru to waha ki pari a raDgi
E ki mai na koe, he tahito koe
He koeke, he kai-ure.

This mdtdpuru is performed by travellers before entering a
village where they imagine they may possibly be in danger
of being bewitched.

The karakia known as " iitikura " possesses great powers
of healing, and is most useful in restoring to life those appa-
rently dead.

Another good item is the whakaeo. This word means " to
deprive of power." If you are attacked by a taniicha, or
demon, you should at once pull a hair from your head and
cast that hair towards your assailant, at the same time repeat-
ing the appropriate incantation, which is a variety of the
tuaimu.

Here is another spell by which you may avert the evil
omen of meeting or seeing the little green lizard : —

E tarn a !

E patu koe ki tua

E patu koe ki waho

E patu koe ki te hau e pa nei

E patu koe ki te papa e takoto nei

E patu koe ki te rangi nui e tu Dei

Tau e riri ai, ko uta, ko tai

Ko rou ora

Ki te whai ao

Ki te ao marama.

The above is a whakaeo ; it deprives the evil omen of power.

The following is said to be effective when you are in trouble
with a taniwha, or water demon : —

Haere i tua, haere i waho

Haere i a moana nui, haere i a moana roa

I a meana te takintia

Ki t9 whai ao, kite ao marama.

But do not forget the hair.

The expression " tvhakaeo " is also applied to man ; certain
spells are recited or actions performed in order to deprive
enemies of strength, vigour, energy, &c. Sometimes the
medium of the tribal war-god will explain to the warriors
that a certain act must be performed in order to whakaeo the
enemy.

A man dies and is buried. Something causes his friends
to think that he has been bewitched. The priestly worker of
mysteries takes the matter in hand. He proceeds to the
grave, carrying with him a stalk of the rarauhe fern. Over

Best. — On Maori Magic. 97

this he repeats one of the innumerable spells which come
under the generic term of " hoa." The stick is left there.
If it sinks and disappears in the earth it is known that the
person died through the power of magic, and also that all
persons implicated in that dark work will perish before long.
If the stick does not so disappear, then the person was not
bewitched.

The sterility of the women of Ngati-whare, of Te Whaiti,
is said to be the result of magic spells of Ngati-awa Tribe.

The following is a karakta repeated in order to avert any
misfortune, sickness, trouble, &c, which may be lurking about
— i.e., to preserve the people from all harm : —

Tua mai te whiwhia, tua mai te rawea — oi

Hao ki uta, hao ki te ratigi nui e tu nei — oi

Haere ki waenga tapu

Tapu ihi, tapu rargi, toro i rangi

Tonoa mai te Pu, tonoa mai te More

More ki tua, More ki waho ra

Hukia mai te ihi

Hukia mai te hata papatea

Korihi te manu, korihi te po, te ata haea.

Huna mai te ruruku, kobera mai te ruruku

Uru ki tua, uru ki waho

Kei te awhenga, kei a tutakarewa.

I can accomplish the slaying of a person by going to the-
tuahu, or sacred place, and taking therefrom food which has
been placed there for the gods, or some of the remains of
meals partaken of by a first-born child, which remnants are
also there deposited. I bring the same away and put it
among the person's food that he may eat thereof. will

perish.

When travelling it is always desirable to protect yourself
against magic, and you can do this by means of the whakau
rite. The people of the land may bewitch your food, or work
some other evil art. You take a small portion of cooked fcod
and repeat over it : —

To kai ihi, to kai ihi
To kai Rangi, to kai Para
To kai awe, to kai karu
To kai uie pahore
Tintiria makamaka
Kia kai mai te ati tipua
Kia kai mai te nti tawhito
E kai, e horo o tatau kaki
Kia kai nuku tatau
Kia kai rangi tatau
Kia kai matamua tatau.

Enough said. If any cne has been bewitching you his magic
spells will recoil upon his own head and slay him.

When in jour sleep your uaiitta (spirit) goes forth from
your body and wanders atout, it is ever seeking to discover
7

98 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

any danger that may be threatening you, its physical basis.
Should it discover that some person is bewitching you, it will
at once return and you become aware of the fact. So soon as
you awake go at once to the tuahu, or sacred place of the
village, and stand there ; but you must face in the direction of
the place where the wizard lives, and then, stretching forth
your hand, you repeat the charm beginning " Whakataha ra
koe e te anewa o te rangi e tic net " (Pass by thou whirlwind of
the heavens, &c). Having finished that, you then repeat the
titaimu charm, which has a most enervating and dangerous
effect upon vour enemv : —

Te imu kei te ruhi

Te imu k-i te ta, kei te anewa

To ringa i tu, to ringa i pe

Pepehi nuku, pepehi rangi

Rere taka o rangi ki waho

Kaki whatiia

Tuku tonu, heke tonu

Te ika ki te Po

He ika ka ripiripia

He ika ka toetoea

He ika ka haparangibia

Muimui te ngaro, totoro te iro

Mau ka oti atu ki te Po

Oti atu ki te Po wherikoriko.

The wind known as " Te Aputahi-a-pawa " is most
boisterous. It begins with a gentle wind, known as " hau
mntdriki," but after continuing for some time it becomes most
fierce and is dangerous. Hasten at once to the water, to
your mother Wai-nui, and stand therein. You have brought
with you a piece of dead ember. You take this in your left
hand and pass that hand under your thigh. Biiough, the
fierceness of that wind will at once abate.

Heoi ! You have now seen how beset bv dangers is man's
path through life. You have also learned how to avoid such
dangers. But the way is thick with snares and pitfalls ;
relax your vigilance for a few brief moments and the workers
of evil shall fasten upon you. Above all, revere the laws of
tapu. Keep green the memory of your ancestors, for of such
are the gods of the Maori. They can save you from danger
or send you down to Hades.

»v 4, .'- .'- .•-

"f* n» 'i- i* f

The long, weary fight against superstition which you have
waged for many centuries, through sorrow and darkness and
much suffering, it has just commenced here. Old Waihui, a
frail survivor from the days of the levelled spear, when she
heard of the marvels of the white man's hospital, said to me,
"Oh! and if we had taken my son there he might still be
-with me.".

And so the struggle goes on.

Hocken. — Early New Zealand Literature. 99

Art. VI. — The Beginnings of Literature in New Zealand :
Part II., the English Section — Neivspapers.

By Dr. T. M. Hocken, F.L.S.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th July, 1901.]

Last year I had the pleasure of placing before this Institute a
sketch of the first, or Maori, section of New Zealand literature.*
This had the interesting feature of being one introduced by
ourselves and presented in their own language to a race
whom we, as the superior intrusive people, are destined to
supersede. On this occasion I propose to give some account
of the purely English section of the subject as it struggled into
life during the early period of this colony's existence.

The definitions of literature have been very various. Some
would include under the term only the worthiest utterances or
creations of the human mind made known to mankind through
the art of writing. But for our purpose we must have some-
thing much more comprehensive, and must consider literature
to mean the collective term for all writings. When our pre-
decessors, the heroic colonisers, first came to these shores,
and for many years after, life was beset with daily difficulty
and danger, a condition which left little opportunity for
cultivating the Muses ; yet they brought with them provision
for the production of a newspaper — that inseparable require
ment of an Englishman — and it is in this adjunct that almost
the first germs of New Zealand literature are contained. It
cannot be pretended that much literary excellence is to be
found in these early newspapers, but some account of them
and of their writers — for editors in the present meaning of the
word did not exist — must be interesting, and has an historical
value.

On the 18th April, 1840, the first New Zealand paper saw
the light. It was issued by Mr. Samuel Revans, who was
thus the father of the Press in this colony. Its birthplace was
in a raupo whare on the banks of the Eiver Hutt, which falls
into Port Nicholson. It was in this vicinity that the chief sur-
veyor of the New Zealand Company was engaged in planting its
earliest township, which was first called "Britannia," but
afterwards by its present name of Wellington. Mr. Eevans's
previous history was sufficiently stirring, and marked him as
one well suited to participate in the foundation of the young
settlement. Born in 1808, and connected with the printing
business, he emigrated to Canada in 1833, where he joined his
friend Mr. H. S. Chapman, so well known to us as Mr. Jus-

Trans. N.Z. Insfc., xxxiii., p. 472.

100 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

tice Chapman. The two engaged in newspaper ventures, and
brought out the first daily journal published in British North
America — the Montreal Daily Advertiser. This was at a time
when the country was seething in that prolonged political dis-
content which finally developed into insurrection, and even
into rebellion — the so-called Canadian rebellion. Heart and
soul the partners entered into the conflict, espousing, as we
should say now, the side of right against might and oppres-
sion. Mr. Revans was denounced as a rebel, and a price was
put upon his head ; but he escaped pursuit, and then, meeting
Edward Gibbon Wakefield and others interested in New Zea-
land colonisation, cast in his lot with them and their scheme.
These gentlemen purchased a press and type for the benefit of
the settlers who were about to sail, and intrusted the manage-
ment and control to Mr. Revans. The first number of the
paper was published in London just prior to the departure of
these first settlers. There were two editions of it, one dated
the 21st August and the other the 6th September, 1839.
These were devoted to a history of the movement, and gave
information to intending emigrants. A fortnight afterwards
the first three vessels sailed — the " Aurora," " Oriental," and
"Adelaide," in the latter of which was Mr. Revans and his
freight. She took six months for her voyage ; but there was
no delay in the appearance of the second number, which, as I
have said, was on the 18th April. It was of four pages, demy
folio — that is, the size of the present Otago Witness or
Christchurch Press, and also the size of all the earliest news-
papers of the colony. Its original name was the "New Zea-
land Gazette." To this was appended in the twentieth number
the further title of " and Britannia Spectator," after the name
given to the first town of the settlement. In November the
name of the infant settlement of Britannia was altered to the
more euphonious one of Wellington, and the paper assumed its
final title of "New Zealand Gazette and Wellington Spectator."
It was issued weekly at a price of £2 per annum, or Is. for single
numbers. As a comparison the Otago Daily Times costs £1 6s.
a year, for which we get a paper six times a week and at least
five times larger. After eighteen months had elapsed — that isr
in October, 1841 — the Gazette was issued twice weekly, and
so continued until a few months before its decease, when it
reverted to the original weekly period. As we should expect
from a knowledge of Mr. Revans's former experience, he con-
ducted the paper with considerable business ability, if with
little or no literary pretension. His politics were decidedly
against the Government, not only, perhaps, because of old
proclivities, but because of the constant antagonism be-
tween Auckland and Wellington. One was the seat of the
Governor and British Government, the other was founded

HocKEN. — Early New Zealand Literature. 101

by the New Zealand Company ; their interests clashed, and
bitter feeling and jealousy resulted. In its columns the
company was. warmly defended against its enemies, and
the Wakefield system of colonisation had no more constant
and able exponent. In these two features of its policy
rested the germs of the paper's final decay and death. Its
pages contain quite a mine of historical incident, gathered
chiefly by scissors and paste from all parts of the young
colony, and give another instance, if that were needed, of the
necessity of preserving newspaper records containing, as they
do, so many side lights of history and glimpses of a life so
different from that of the present. From time to time the
journals of exploration into the unknown country around are
given at length, and occasionally there are articles on the
natural history and productions of New Zealand, for amongst
the early settlers were a few men of scientific mark. Dr. Fre-
derick Knox, the well-known brother of the eminent Edin-
burgh anatomist, and Mr. Swainson, F.K.S., so celebrated as
a naturalist, are examples.

Then came a time when the community ceased to thrive,
misfortunes befell it, and discontent prevailed. From causes
partly beyond its control the New Zealand Company showed
diminished interest in its emigrants, and especially failed to
place them in possession of the lands they supposed them-
selves to have purchased prior to leaving the Home-country,
and it was then contended that the Gazette neither expressed
the sentiments nor advocated the interests of the community.
Such loss of confidence meant failure and invitation for a
rival, and so on the 25th September, 1844, in its 363rd
number, this interesting pioneer of New Zealand journalism
closed its existence. I am inclined to think that Mr. Kevans
himself was not an inconsolable mourner. Long he had
fought an uphill game, and frequently had deplored his
diminished advertisements and his forgetful subscribers.
After this he commenced sheep-farming in the Wairarapa
in conjuction with his old friend Captain Smith, formerly
the company's chief surveyor. But his life was destined
yet to continue one of change and vicissitude. In 1851
he left for California, when the "diggings" were at
their height, taking with him merchandise of timber and
potatoes ; but, like so many who abandon dissatisfied these
happy shores, he speedily returned, never again to leave them.
For a time he represented his district in the old Provincial
Council of Wellington, but gradually he withdrew from public
life, confining himself to farming pursuits, and died at Grey-
town on the 14th July, 1888, at the age of eighty years, un-
married. I can recall him as one of my first acquaintances
in this country. Impelled by that special curiosity which

102 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

was so frequent amongst the earliest colonists, he came down
to Dunedin to view the stirring life and change that had so
suddenly transformed the quiet of this plodding settlement,
and an attack of illness brought us into contact. He was of
rough exterior, careless in dress, and wore a conspicuously
large Panama hat. His eyes were dark, penetrating, and
deeply set, surmounted by thick, bushy eyebrows. His
manner was restless, and his speech, though intelligent, often
coarse. Some of those adjectives will apply as qualities of
his leaders.

The old press had its vicissitudes too. It was of the
simple old type known amongst printers as the " Columbia,"
capable of printing two or three hundred copies per hour.
From the Gazette office it passed into the service of one if not
two subsequent newspaper offices in Wellington, and then,
finding its way to Masterton, there printed the local journal
until it and the whole plant were destroyed by a fire. An old
pressman who had worked on it from the first then secured
its remains, and these were exhibited as an interesting curiosity
in the New Zealand Exhibition of 1889-90. I traced these
six years ago, lying rusty and uncared-for on a small farm in
the neighbourhood of Masterton, but failed in my efforts to
secure them.

I have thus given at considerable, and perhaps tiresome,
length an account of New Zealand's first newspaper, and
specimens of it are here exhibited, as well as of those to which
I shall later refer. The curious interest connected with it
may be an excuse. Unfortunately, it is not possible within
this evening's limit to treat the rest of my subject at similar
length. The best mode of pursuing it will be to describe our
newspaper literature rather according to locality than the
sequence of date.

Continuing, then, with Wellington, the paper above re-
ferred to as a rival of the Gazette — though an unsuccessful
one — was the New Zealand Colonist and Port Nicholson
Advertiser, published twice weekly, at 6d. per copy, or 10s.
quarterly, and at a charge of 3s. for an advertisement of six
lines and under. Fifty of the aforesaid dissatisfied persons
subscribed to its establishment, and Mr. (afterwards Sir)
Eichard Davies Hanson was its editor. This gentleman was
one of the earliest Wellington settlers, and as a solicitor was
there appointed Crown Prosecutor. In 1846 he left for
Adelaide, and there became Chief Justice of South Australia,
and also the first Chancellor of the University. He died in
1876. The first number of the paper appeared on the
2nd August, 1842, and the 105th and last precisely a year
later. The increasing depression, together with the calami-
tous fire of November, 1842, which destroyed fifty-seven

Hocken. — Early New Zealand Literature. 103

houses on Lambton Quay, contributed to its early death.
Its leaders were well written and free from the rough lan-
guage so often a feature of the Gazette.

The existence of this paper is barely known ; but the
direct successor of the Gazette was the Neiv Zealand
Spectator and Cook's Straits Guardian, which was the out-
come, as above indicated, of a sentiment that the pioneer had
forfeited confidence and was no longer a representative
mouthpiece. It was conducted by a committee of half a
dozen of the principal gentlemen in the settlement, amongst
whom were the well-known names of the Hon. Henry Petre,
Mr. Clifford, and Mr. Lyon. Mr. Eobert Stokes, formerly on
the survey staff, was chosen editor; the issue was weekly,
and the price, as with the Gazette, Is. a copy and £2 per
annum. The charge for advertisements was, however, soon
reduced to 3d. a line. An active canvass resulted in 130
annual subscribers, and with the scanty income so derived,
and further supplemented by advertisements, the Spectator
commenced on the 12th October, 1844, what proved to be a
difficult career. Barely had six months elapsed before a very
scandalous advertisement appeared in its columns, followed in
the ensuing week by an equally scandalous rejoinder. These
were inserted by the printers without the knowledge of the
committee, who, ashamed and indignant, removed at once
their printing elsewhere. The offending printers were five in
number, one of whom (Mr. Thomas Mackenzie) still survives,
a very old and well-known citizen of Wellington, and all had
been employed on the old Gazette. Without delay they issued
a prospectus detailing and justifying the circumstances from
their point of view, and accusing the committee of seeking to
deprive them of their daily bread. And they did more than
this, for on the 2nd April, 1845, they issued the first number of
the Wellington Independent, for which they charged but 6d.
a copy, considerably reduced the price of advertisements, and
published twice a week.

This was carrying reprisals into the enemy's camp with
a vengeance ; and they were, moreover, well supported by a
section of settlers of as good social standing as that of the
committee, for, small though the community was, it yet
possessed cliques. Mr. Mantell, for instance, son of the
eminent geologist, lent his aid by carving several blocks to
serve as divisional headings or woodcuts for the paper,
which gave it a decidedly quaint and unusual aspect. These
he carved from the native wood maire (Olea), which he found
to be superior for the purpose to the usual boxwood. It
must be confessed that the quantity of printing-ink requisite
for these primitive illustrations too often communicated a
smudgy appearance to the paper. Though the lofty Spec-

104 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

tator preserved a disdainful silence towards its humble rival,
whose existence it deigned not to notice, it was preparing
a most effectual means of extinguishing it. This was by
purchasing the whole of the Independent' s plant over the
heads of the unsuspecting printers, who rented it and en-
joyed a feeling of security in its unmarketable nature. But
suddenly and secretly purchased it was, and on the 9th
August, four months after starting their venture, the unlucky
printers found themselves again adrift. They told the story
to their subscribers in piteous terms whilst taking leave of
them in the final issue. But their friends rallied round again
and stoutly supported them. Fresh material was procured
from Sydney, and in less than four months they jubilantly
started anew. From this time onwards the two papers ran
side by side as steady rivals for more than twenty years, until
by the curious irony of fate the formerly poor persecuted
Independent swallowed up or incorporated its more aristocratic
opponent, which published its last number — the 2,088th — on
the 5th August, 1865. Thus left the master of the situation,
for a time at least, the Independent flourished nine years
longer, issuing tri-weekly a six-page paper of large size at
3d. per copy, and then, on the 30th April, 1874, it in turn was
incorporated with the New Zealand Times, which put forth
its first number on the following day and has continued to
the present time.

The pages of the two papers formed the arena of many a
hard-fought battle in days when fighting was incessant and
apparently an enjoyment, and when champions were doughty.
In its earliest days the Independent boldly opposed the New
Zealand Company and its land-purchasers ; later it was a
bitter opponent of Governor Grey and his methods, as well as
an ardent supporter of Dr. Featherston and Mr. Fox, who
were principal contributors to its columns.

An example of one of the many difficulties papers suffered
under in those days — shortness of paper — is here exhibited.
For many weeks the Spectator was obliged to appear on red
blotting-paper, and uncommonly well that porous material
appears to have taken the type. Sometimes they were com-
pelled to print on paper of variable size, material, and colour,
and specimens are extant printed in green and blue, such as
might be used nowadays for handbills. In an early number
of the Nelson Examiner the printer makes an earnest appeal
to its readers for treacle. He says, " We beg to inform our
readers that there is great probability of our press being ren-
dered utterly useless for want of rollers. These are used for
inking the formes, and an essential ingredient is treacle, and
treacle we have been unable to procure for money. If any of
our readers have any of this important article, and will spare

Hocken. — Early New Zealand Literature. 105

us some of it for love and money united, we shall be infinitely
obliged. We are not very particular as to the price, but
treacle we must have, or not only the Examiner, but bills,
cheques, and the laws of the benefit society must remain for
ever unbedevilled." It is satisfactory to know that a supply
was forthcoming, inasmuch as the following number of the
paper appeared on its due date. The old Otago Witness ap-
pealed at least once to its readers for paper of any kind, other-
wise it would cease to appear ; and cease to appear it did.
This must surely have been at the time when the grocers
requested their customers who required tea and sugar and
suchlike incoherent articles to bring their own paper with
them.

The Bay of Islands and the earliest Auckland newspapers
come next in order, and they present quite a family re-
semblance in their poorness of paper and printing and meagre
contents. The earliest of them — the Neiv Zealand Advertiser
and Bay of Islands Gazette — first appeared on the 15th June,
1810, just six months after the institution of British govern-
ment in these islands, and two months after the birth of its
contemporary, the Neiv Zealand Gazette, at Wellington. It
has thus the distinction of being the second paper issued in
New Zealand. It was published at Kororareka, which ad-
joined the infant Township of Bussell, where Governor Hob-
son had selected his seat, and it thus became the organ in
which were published the first official notices and Proclama-
tions. The Bev. B. Quaife was editor — a Congregational
minister, and a gentleman who, in addition to his editorial
functions, combined those of preacher and instructor of the
young. Whilst the contents of his paper were, as might be
expected, eminently respectable, they were undoubtedly poor.
The burning question of the hour was the land-claims, which
bore a somewhat different aspect from the same question
amongst the settlers at Wellington. But in both instances
the common ground of complaint was that the Government
refused to recognise the validity of any purchase of land from
the natives until official inquiry had been made and a Govern-
ment grant issued — a tedious and expensive process indeed.
Whilst this grievance was attacked in the distant south with
the utmost vigour and acerbity, in the north it was ap-
proached with great circumspection, for there the Government
was close by, and its iron hand was felt at once. The two
classes of settlers represented, moreover, different types — one
whose leaders were of a superior class, accustomed to all
the advantages of responsible government and free institutions,
which they had but just left, and who in emigrating recog-
nised the true heroism of colonisation ; the other who flocked
<lown in numbers from New South Wales, ready to seize any

106 Transactions. — Miscellaneous .

advantage in England's newly acquired territory, and glad,
no doubt, to escape from the despotism of that Crown colony.
It was thus that the land question proved the absorbing theme,
to which all others were subsidiary, and that it, and the native
connection with it, formed the almost sole politics of daily dis-
cussion. Not for long did, or could, Mr. Quaife avoid it, espe-
cially as other matters of perhaps more domestic concern, such
as police, post-office, &c, were shamefully mismanaged. So, like
the proverbial moth, he circled nearer and nearer to his doom,
and after the issue of his twenty-seventh number, on the 10th
December, which contained various moderate suggestions for
reform, he w7as peremptorily directed to appear before Mr.
Shortland, the Colonial Secretary, and threatened with all the
pains and penalties of an old New South Wales Act regarding
the printing and publishing of seditious newspapers. This
meant, and proved to be, the extinction of his paper. To-day
we might well ask, How could such things be? A meeting of
the inhabitants was called, whereat there was much plain
speaking, and it was resolved that a deputation should inter-
view Governor Hobson on the matter and report The late
Sir F. Whitaker, then a young and inexperienced man, was
one of the number. What the result was I could never learn,
but unfavourable, no doubt, for the paper never reappeared.

Then followed, in foolscap folio, a rag indeed, called the
" New Zealand Government Gazette" for it was necessary that
the Government should have an organ for its notifications.
From internal evidence I am inclined to think that the printer
of the crushed Advertiser was employed, and that he was per-
mitted to make the best private use of the paper after satisfy-
ing official requirements. Comical juxtapositions thus hap-
pened— private advertisements for lodgings, salt beef, and
other merchandise displayed on the same page as those signed
by His Excellency's command ; and, in addition, there were
a few items of news. It was published gratis, which, remem-
bering the mode in which it rose from the ashes of its
predecessor, seems enough. ^Yith the exception of the
" Gazette Extraordinary " of the 30th December, 1840, which
was really the first number, and printed at Paihia on the
Church Mission press, it was issued at Kororareka from the
19th February, 1841, until the 15th July, nineteen numbers in
all, and then it was superseded, at Auckland, on the 7th
July, by the publication which has descended to us from that
date, and is known to us all as the " New Zealand Government
Gazette."

It would appear that, though scotched, the Eev. B. Quaife
was not killed, and had not forgiven the infliction of his old
injuries. A company was soon projected, himself amongst the
number, to protect the interests of the public from, as they

Hocken. — Early New Zealand Literature. 107

phrased it, the " continuous misrule and indifference of the
Government," and their mouthpiece, the Bay of Islands
Observer, accordingly made its first appearance on the 24th
February, 1842 — price Is. a number, or 10s. quarterly, and
3s. 6d. for twelve lines of advertisement. Mr. Quaife, who
was again editor, no longer approached abuses in a gentle,
indirect manner, but handled them with so much candour
and bluntness as to find himself and his company in danger
of an action for libel, which was only averted by humble con-
fession and apology. A little later — in October — and in it&
39th number, it ceased to exist, deploring the little aid it had
received from subscribers and the public.

More than a year now elapsed before the Bay of Islands
Advocate published its first number, on the 4th November,
1843. Little need be said of it. It indulged in personalities,
and was mourned by no one when it-closed its short existence
of three months in February, 1844. With it ends the list of
Bay of Islands newspapers — four of them, with an average life
of ten months each, surely an unusual record.

The Bay of Islands had always been the notable point of
New Zealand. Its praises as a harbour and its beauty had
been sung by Captain Cook, and after him it formed the
rendezvous for whalers and the numerous shipping from
Sydney, with which it was the proximate point. It was also
the headquarters of the Church Mission, and thus it came to
be selected as the seat of Government. But for this it was
entirely unsuited, and after considerable search for a better
site the British flag was finally unfurled on the banks of the
Waitemata on the 19th September, 1840, at future Auckland.
Then the glory of Kororareka began to depart, despite the
hopes and efforts made to retain it, and the flocks that came
dowm with Governor Hobson from New South Wales now
took fresh wing to the newly selected capital, where the
Governor began his permanent residence not earlier than
March of 1841.

On the 10th July in the same year, at the usual old
price of Is. per copy, the first of Auckland's numerous news-
papers appeared, the New Zealand Herald and Auckla?id
Gazette, which has the distinction of being the third in order
of New Zealand journals. Like its fellows in the farther
north, its career was short and stormy, though at first seeming
to possess the requisites of longer life and prosperity, and its
promoters ought surely to have gained experience enough to
avoid the rocks which had already caused so much disaster.
Quite an extensive plant of printing material was brought down
from Sydney, as well as a staff of pressmen for working it,
amongst whom are names well known in early history — Mr.
John Williamson, for instance, the first Superintendent of Auck-

108 Transactions. — Miscellaneozis.

land and editor of the Neiv-Zcalander, Mr. Wilson, of the
New Zealand Herald, and others. The whole was the property
of a company called the " Auckland Printing Company," under
the management of another well-known name, J. C. Moore.
The newspaper, however, with which we are concerned was a
branch or part of the business, and its affairs were intrusted
to four gentlemen, also well known — Major Richmond,
Dr. Johnson, Mr. Montefiore, and Mr. William Mason, the
latter of whom is well known to us as the first Mayor of
Dunedin and member of the firm of Mason and Wales, archi-
tects. These gentlemen assisted the editor, Mr. Corbett, Mr.
Montefiore, however, doing by far the most of the writing ;
but they knew nothing of newspapers, and failed to recognise
how largely their success depended on advertisements. More-
over, the paper rather represented the views and desires of a
Government clique than, the needs of the public, and thus,
receiving no sympathy, it soon showed signs of failure.

They then procured from Sydney the services of Dr.
Martin, a medical man of considerable literary ability, forcible
utterance, and powerful frame. Prior to colonisation he had
been in New Zealand on a land-hunting quest, but, like so
many others, had returned to New South Wales in high dis-
gust when it became evident that the Government treated all
so-called land-claims with a high hand and no favour. It will
thus be conceived that, though the paper increased in literary
abilitv, the chances of its survival were diminished. And so
it speedily proved. Dr. Martin wrote with an iron pen, and
laid about him with such flail-like agility that before two
months had elapsed he was threatened with two or three
actions for libel. Matters culminated when one day Mr. Fitz-
gerald, a Government official, Registrar of Lands and the
Supreme Court, entered the office and seized from the printer,
under threat of pains and penalties, some of the editors'
manuscripts. Dr. Martin was furious, and, failing to secure
the return of his property, challenged Mr. Fitzgerald to fight a
duel. This the latter refused, and Dr. Martin thereupon
posted him in various parts of the town as a blackguard and
coward. The further details of this sanguinary business I do
not here pursue, but before its termination it became a very
pretty quarrel indeed, involving not only the officers of the
garrison, but also such peaceable citizens as the late Dr.
Shortland, so well known as the author of various works con-
nected with old New Zealand history, and the present Dr.
John Logan Campbell, now Mayor of Auckland.

The trustees of the paper grew penitent, finding too late
that they had indeed replaced King Log by King Stork.
Whilst they insisted that the paper should in the meantime
be reduced to a mere advertisement sheet, supplemented with

Hocken. — Early New Zealand Literature. 109'

newspaper clippings, their fighting editor insisted that the
appearance of his articles was more than ever desirable. And
so amidst this wild tumult Auckland's first paper ended in
April, 1842, after ten months' existence. The whole printing
plant of the company and the copyright of its defunct paper — ■
quoad valeat — were sold by auction to the Government for
£1,700, and remained under the management of the same
printer, J. C. Moore.

Upon its ruins, and in a week's time, was erected the
Auckland Standard, the second paper, and issued presumably
in the interests of the Government, as might be expected.
Yet, curious to say, it was not wholly so, for government in
those days was not of the responsible type, and many of its
supporters were half-hearted, swaying the balance according
to personal interest. Besides, Governor Hobson was not
entirely popular. Though strictly honourable and of high
integrity, his manner was often overbearing and passionate,
and had much of the quarter-deck character. The same may
be said of his chief officials, Lieutenant Shortland and Mr.
Coates.

The Standard was edited by Mr. William Swain son, who
had recently arrived at Auckland under appointment as
Attorney-General by the British Government. The prevailing
fatality of early extinction befell it also, and on the 28th
August, 1842, after but four months' struggle, the Standard
also departed, mournfully deploring its own exit and the
gloom which seemed gathering over the whole community.

Now appeared, on the 5th September, 1842, what surely
was — or after the publication of its first few numbers was —
the most extraordinary-looking paper ever printed. This was
the Auckland Times, owned and edited by Mr. Henry Fal-
wasser, formerly a storekeeper or merchant in Sydney, whose
sister married the Rev. J. F. Churton, the first Auckland
clergyman. At first it was printed by the accommodating Mr.
John Moore on the type the Government had so recently pur-
chased ; but, whether any suspicion arose as to Mr. Falwasser's
ability to pay for tbe printing or as to the doubtful odour of
his articles, it is certain that Lieutenant Willoughby Short-
land, then the Acting-Governor, speedily stepped in and
stopped the paper somewhere about the tenth number. But
Mr. Falwasser was a man of ingenuity and resource. From
any quarter he gathered a miscellaneous assortment of old
type, such as is mostly used for printing bill-heads and rough
jobs, and, with the aid of a mangle and coarse paper, triumph-
antly produced these weekly specimens now regarded as such
a curiosity. His original motto had been " Veluti in specu-
lum " ; now he changed it to " Tempora mutantur — nos non
mutamur in Mis." His imprint was: "Auckland: Printed

110 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

(in a mangle) and published by Henry Falwasser, sole Editor
and Proprietor." It is plain from the specimens here shown
that the compression of the mangle varied much : sometimes
it was so violent as to drive the ink through the paper, so that
the letterpress can there be read by reversal, and sometimes it
is so faint as to be barely legible. Words were printed with
letters of various type, so that small capitals, italics, and
old English met together in the same word, producing a
most comical and mystifying result. If not a confusion
of tongues, it was certainly a confusion of letters. Of
course, the paper afforded great amusement, and doubtless
had a good circulation, especially as it lashed out to
the complete satisfaction of the public. Its comical charac-
teristics and scanty pages no doubt protected it from the
fiery persecution of those days, especially as the numbers were
issued gratis until, as the editor assured his readers, proper
type and paper could be procured from Sydney. But
gradually its strange appearance improved with the occa-
sional addition of a little new-found type, better paper, and
better handling of the mangle, until, in its forty-second
number, on the 13th April. 1843, it said farewell in quite a
presentable form. On the 7th November it reappeared in
legitimate form and in its new Sydney dress, once a week, and
continued in its former hearty and independent style until
the 17th January, 1816, when its 159th number was issued.
A week later Henry Falwasser died, and with him ceased
his journal, which, with all its vicissitudes, almost equalled in
duration the united age of its predecessors.

The last of this class of old Auckland newspapers was the
Auckland Chronicle and New Zealand Colonist, which put
forth its first number on the 8th November, 1841, and shortly
afterwards ceased, but when I have not been able to discover.
Its second appearance, however, was on the 12th November,
1842, and in September, 1843, it commenced its second
volume. It was printed by the usual John Moore in the
interests of the Government, and was thus doubly obnoxious
to the "mangle," which sneeringly spoke of it as " that ad-
ministerial thing called ' the Chronicle ' — bah ! " In return the
Chronicle dubbed its rival "The Old Lady of the Mangle,"
and advertised: "For sale, a mangle; apply to the proprietor
of the Auckland Times." These little endearments were con-
tinuous, and it must be allowed that the "mangle" won the
honours. Mr. John Kitchen — "which was where he came
from," as Mr. Falwasser said— was editor of the Chronicle, and
had previously been on the United Service Gazette. After leav-
ing New Zealand he went to Hobart and Melbourne as a short-
hand reporter. The final fate of this paper I have not been able
to learn, but conclude that it must have closed its career early

Hocken. — Early Neiv Zealand Literature. Ill

in 1845. The Southern Cross in its first number was very
bitter with it, and indulged on the occasion in one of those
newspaper amenities which were then so common. One of
its bitter references was : " For sale or hire, in about a fort-
night, a defunct Government engine used for stifling the fire
of the people ; rather shaky, having lately stuck fast in the
swamp of Queen Street. . . . Has been well greased
lately, its head turning with marvellous facility in any
direction. Apply at the Chronicle office."

I have now to say a few words regarding the Southern
Cross and the New-Zealandcr, and with them can close the
reference to the early Auckland papers. Both were of, or
soon assumed, a very different and superior character from
their predecessors, of whom so little can be said beyond a
mere cataloguing, and both form a link connecting the old
with the modern newspaper literature.

Dr. Martin, it will be remembered, terminated the exist-
ence of the old Herald, much against his will, in April, 1842,
when the plant was sold to the Government. He was, as we
have seen, highly indignant with the weak-kneed proprietors
of that journal, and his first act was to bring an action against
them for breach of his engagement as their editor. This he
won, and £640 was awarded him. He further relieved his
wounded feelings by writing a little pamphlet or letter, now
extremely rare, addressed to Lord Stanley, then the Principal
Secretary of State for the Colonies, entitled " New Zealand
in 1842 ; or the Effects of a Bad Government on a Good
Country." This pamphlet of thirty-two pages, 8vo, may, I
think, be considered the first pamphlet printed in New Zea-
land. No longer restrained by interference with the freedom
of the Press, or Newspaper Acts, or charge of libel, he here
writes to his heart's content and in his most vigorous style.
His next step was to receive type and press, and on the
22nd April, 1843, appeared the Southern Cross, New Zealand
Guardian, and Auckland, Thames, and Bay of Islands Adver-
tiser. The motto chosen was " Luceo non Uro" ; but, as we
can well fancy, it would have been better "Luceo et Uro."
The proprietor was Mr. William Brown, of the well-known
firm of Brown and Campbell, a gentleman of wealth, attain-
ments, and true citizenship. The old shanty in which it was
printed was in Shortland Crescent, where I saw it about
twelve years ago on the point of removal. Dr. Campbell gave
me at the time much information regarding the history of the
paper.

In 1844 Dr. Martin and Mr. Brown visited the Home-
country — the former never to return — leaving the charge of
the paper in Dr. Campbell's hands, Mr. Terry editing it, at
a considerable loss, however. Dr. Campbell accordingly de-

112 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

cided to stop publication in April, 1845, and it was not re-
sumed until July, 1847, upon Mr. Brown's return. In May,
1862, it became a daily paper, and shortly afterwards was
sold by Mr. Brown to Mr. (afterwards Sir) Julius Vogel and
his company, and was again sold in 1876 to Mr. Horton,
and was soon afterwards amalgamated with the Neiv Zealand
Herald, belonging to Messrs. Wilson and Horton, who still
own and conduct it, one of the leading and best journals in
the colony.

During Mr. Brown's proprietorship the paper never paid.
From first to last he lost £10,000 in it, and it was always
making enemies; "nor was it conducted," says Dr. Camp-
bell, " on commercial principles."

A final word may be said of Dr. Martin. He went Home
a disappointed man, and there remained until he received the
appointment of Stipendiary Magistrate in British Guiana. He
died near Berbice on the 10th September, 1848.

The Netv-Zealander was fortunate in starting just after the
temporary cessation of the Southern Cross, and on the 7th
June, 1845. It belonged to Mr. Williamson, so well known in
early New Zealand politics. He was soon joined in partner-
ship by Mr. W. C. Wilson, and the two composed a firm long
and well known as the printers of nearly every publication
that issued from the Auckland Press. Amongst its editors and
contributors were many men of note in New Zealand, such as
Dr. Bennett, afterwards Eegistrar-General; Bev. T. S. For-
saith, of " white-shirt Ministry " fame ; Dr. Giles, afterwards
editor of the Southern Monthly Magazine; Mr. (now Sir John)
Gorst, and many others.

Mr. Elliott tells me that Dr. Bennett, whilst of peculiar
appearance, was of remarkable eloquence. He came down to
Wellington, where he was almost unknown, about the time
when the Duke of Edinburgh so narrowly escaped from the
hands of the Sydney assassin, O'Farrell. A meeting of con-
gratulation and sympathy was held on the occasion, at which
the late Mr. FitzGerald made so eloquent a speech that other
speakers were afraid to follow. In this difficulty one or two
recognised the stranger's presence, and in a moment there was
a cry of "Bennett! Bennett!" Dr. Bennett rose and de-
livered so brilliant a speech as quite to pale the fires of his
predecessor. Such was his introduction to his new duties
in Wellington.

The Netv-Zealandcr had the distinction of starting as the
first morning penny paper on the 3rd April, 1865. A year
later — in 1866 — it closed publication.

An incident in the early life of the New-Zealander must
not here be omitted. An article on Heke's war gave great
offence to the naval men, who considered their honour con-

Hocken. — Early New Zealand Literature. 113

siderably tarnished thereby. Accordingly, armed with a
hawser, a large number of sailors belonging to the warships
in Auckland Harbour unexpectedly appeared at the door
of the New- Zealand 'er office in Shortland Crescent, through
which they passed their rope to the back and then over the
roof. A full retractation was demanded, failing which the
building would be overturned. The beleaguered inmates,
Messrs. Williamson and Wilson, yielded the point. But how,
again the question may be asked, could such things be?
What a liberty, or license, has been granted the Press during
the last sixty years !

These two papers, comprising as they do more than a period
of twenty years each, and dealing with the great transition
period of New Zealand history, are laden with interest.
Time forbids me just now to prolong this sketch of Auckland
papers, and of even referring by name to several others which,
though of less note, are yet old.

The next section in point of order is that of Nelson,
like Wellington, a settlement of the New Zealand Company ;
like it, too, in that the first settlers came well provided with
type and press, and, still further, with men of great literary
ability. Hence it is that the Nelson Examiner and Neiv Zea-
land Chronicle must be considered as by far the best and most
literary of all the early journals, at least in its early existence.
It was the property of Messrs. Charles and James Elliott,,
who had been previously engaged on the Morning Chronicle.
The first editor was Mr. George Ry croft Richardson, a
lawyer, who was afterwards killed at the Wairau massacre in
June, 1843. The first number of the paper appeared on the
12th March, 1842, at the usual price of Is., or £2 per annum.

Mr. Alfred Domett, that eminent New Zealand settler,
succeeded to the editorship, and it is needless to say that in
his hands the paper assumed a still higher character. The
leaders can be read to-day with pleasure and profit. One is
tempted to introduce extracts from some of them, but this is
not the time or place to do so. Suffice it to say that they
aimed higher than merely discussing the position and require-
ments of the settlers. Such important matters were never
neglected, but they were discussed with a freedom from
dogmatism and a respect for the opinions of others which
conferred on them a power and force of conviction which
belonged to no other paper in the colony. Always the readers
were kept in touch with the important questions of politics
and progress in the home which they had left. This was
only what might be expected from one of Mr. Domett's
ability. As we know, he was the friend of Browning, and
the " Waring " of his well-known poem. Perhaps we know
him better as the author of that New Zealand day-dream
8

114 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

" Eanolf and Aruohia," and as one of our foremost early
legislators and eminent colonists.

But Domett was not the only one whose name is in-
scribed on the roll of New Zealand history, and who con-
tributed to make the Examiner what it was. The names
of Dr. David Monro, William Fox, Dillon Bell, Richmond,
Dr. Greenwood, and others must be added. And when these
able men, as they were sure to do, went to other parts of the
colony to discharge the high duties required from them by
the advancement of New Zealand, then the paoer gradually
became an echo of its former self, and it expired in, I think,
1873.

I have by no means exhausted my subject, and must
return to it. It was only when beginning to treat this second
part that I realised its extent, and that it must be treated
separately and alone from that higher class of literature which
only developed later, and to which I hope yet to devote
attention.

I will close my lecture with a few words of reference to
New Plymouth, which, unlike its sister-settlements of Wel-
lington and Nelson, brought with it no press provision. This
was because its early settlers were not of the same superior
and cultivated class. The bulk of them were small farmers
and labourers from Devon and Cornwall, sober, industrious,
and persevering men, than whom no part of New Zealand
had better. Of course, such men as Thomas King, Charles
Brown, and the Richmonds stood out in bright relief as men
of culture, but they were few. Then came the Constitution
in 1852 ; this made a newspaper necessary, and the require-
ment was satisfied by the Taranaki Herald, which first
appeared on the 4th August, 1852, under the editorship of
Mr. Wicksteed and Mr. Crompton for a short time, and then
of Mr. Richard Pheney, a very clever and gifted man. Prior
to its publication a board placed in a conspicuous position,
and with any notices or notifications affixed in writing, did
the duty of a newspaper. The Herald was until recently
under the journalistic control of Mr. W. H. J. Seffern, who
died last year.

Segaii. — On New Zealand Health Statistics. 115

Art. VII. — On the Becent Statistics of Insanity., Cancer,
and Phthisis in Neiv Zealand.

By H. W. Sbgar, M.A., Professor of Mathematics, University

College, Auckland.

Plates II.-IV.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 2nd September, 1901.]

I have previously pointed out the rapid way in which the
age-distribution of the population of New Zealand is chang-
ing.* Because of this rapidity of change in the population,
numbers giving the proportion which those subject to any
disease or infirmity bear to the whole population at different
times are of little or no service for purposes of comparison
unless the people of all ages are about equally subject to the
complaint. If people of certain ages have more than the
average liability to the disease, an increase in the proportion
which the number of people of those ages bears to the whole
population must tend to increase the proportion of the
population subject to that particular affliction.

It follows that, for the proper investigation of the progress
of any affection during any period, we must consider the ex-
tent to which each section of the people of about the same
age has been affected by it during the period. This work I
have carried out for insanity, cancer, and phthisis, three affec-
tions which, as they afflict severally a greater number of the
human race than almost any other single disease, are likewise
more the objects of popular interest than any others. With
respect to each of them I have taken, for each sex and for
various age-periods, the statistics for each year from 1879
to 1898, and have grouped them in five-year periods, each
having a census year as the central year. I have then taken
the averages for each period of five years and compared them
with the populations of the same sex included in the various
age-periods at the corresponding censuses.' The results are, I
think, of considerable interest, and will be described in the
following sections.

There is no attempt made to institute comparisons with
other countries. Such comparisons are of little value unless
the statistics of each country are treated in some such way as
that I have used in treating New Zealand; for' the same
reason that makes this method of treatment necessary in

* " The Population of New Zealand " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii
p. 453).

116 Transactions. — Miscellaneous .

properly comparing the statistics of the same country for
different years — that is, the difference in the age-distribution
of the population — makes it necessary also in comparing the
statistics of one country with those of another. Unfor-
tunately, the necessary data for dealing in this manner with
the statistics of any other country are not available in Auck-
land, and the work, therefore, cannot be attempted, though the
results to which it would lead would be, I believe, of supreme
interest.

Insanity.

The New Zealand Official Year-book tells us that the
proportion which the inmates of the lunatic asylums of the
colony, and those out on trial, bear to the whole population
changed from 1 in every 383 of population in the year 1884 to
1 in every 288 in 1900, this being equivalent to an increase,
relative to the whole population, of about 33 per cent, in six-
teen years. The change was regular and continuous from
year to year, and was not confined merely to the period just
referred to.

On the strength of these and similar figures alarmist
articles on the great increase of insanity frequently appear in
our newspapers and magazines, and the greater strain of
modern competition and the unhealthy conditions of city life
are generally assigned as the chief causes. But others doubt
the reality of so great an increase in insanity, and these
suggest that the large number of good asylums, with the
greater use made of those institutions, consequent upon the
increased consideration shown for those suspected of in-
sanity, may be responsible for much or all of the apparent
increase, whilst the inclusion of a greater number of mental
maladies under the head of " insanity " may still further
tend to swell the numbers which so affright us. In any
case, it appears generally accepted that, without these or
similar explanations, the statistics of insanity indicate a con-
tinued increase in the modern man of liability to that mental
disorder.

Now, I propose to show that the statistics of New Zealand
do not indicate any real increase in liability to insanity, even
if the numbers returned be taken as the proper measure of the
amount of insanity in the colony. For this purpose I shall
take the yearly admissions into the various lunatic asylums of
the colony. As these will be classified according to age, it is
necessary to leave out of consideration the small number of
patients of age unknown, but this will not appreciably vitiate
the results. The statistics must also be taken as given in the
annual volumes of statistics issued by the Government — that
is, with the idiotic included amongst the insane. The number

Segar. — On New Zealand Health Statistics.

117

of the former class, however, bears but a comparatively small
ratio to that of the latter.

Table I. represents the results obtained in the manner
described in the introduction.

Table I. — Average Yearly Number of Patients received into the
various Lunatic Asylums in the Colony per 10,000 op Popu-
lation of each Sex of various Age periods.

Males.

Females.

Ages.

1879-83.

1884-88.

1889-93.

1894-98.

1879-83.

1884-88.

1889-93.

1894-98.

0-5

o-o

00

00

o-o

00

o-i

00

o-o

5-10

0-5

0-5

0-2

03

0-4

0-2

0-4

03

10-15

1-3

0-9

0-9

07

0-9

0-4

0-7

06

15-25

7"1

55

4-9

6-3

6-9

5-7

4-1

5-1

25-35

16-8

13-2

13-3

12-9

139

132

104

10-0

35-45

189

17-7

15-2

16-7

186

12-6

137

157

45-55

17-5

150

14-3

152

14-4

133

15-9

18-2

55-65

17-7

14-8

13-1

16-2

11-7

108

9-6

13-6

65 and over

15-7

15-7

18-5

19-5

102

10-8

12-0

12-8

The results given in this table for the first and last of
the four periods considered are illustrated graphically in
Plate II.

Comparing generally the figures given in this table for
the two sexes, it appears that there is little difference for
the sexes for ages up to 55 years, but after that the
tendency to insanity is markedly greater in males than in
females.

With respect to the males, it may further be noted that
there was actually, during the whole period, a diminution in
the number of patients supplied for each 10,000 of population
for all ages up to 65 ; only for ages 65 and over is there an
increase, and this is from 157 to 19-5. Further, during the
years 1879-83 there were 1,207 male patients of known age
received into the various asylums, and during the years
1894-98 the number was 1,508 ; but, if the populations of the
various age-periods had supplied patients in the latter period
in the same proportion to their numbers as in the former, the
number of admissions from 1894 to 1898 would have been as
many as 1,771. Thus the statistics, if they fairly correctly
represent the amount of insanity, indicate an undoubted sub-
stantial diminution in the chance of insanity for the average
male.

In the case of females there was, during the period con-
sidered, a diminution in the number of fresh cases of insanity
relative to the population for all ages up to 45 ; in the three

118 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

age-periods above this age, however, there was an increase.
But the earlier age-periods supply so few patients that it is
not apparent from these facts alone whether on the whole
there was a true increase or decrease of insanity amongst
females. We find, however, that during the years 1879-83
there were 739 female patients of known age received into the
various asylums, and during the years 1894-98 the number
was 1,095 ; but, if the populations of the various age-periods
had supplied patients in the latter period in the same pro-
portion to their numbers as in the former period, the number
of admissions from 1894 to 1898 would have been as many as
1,230. Thus we get with respect to females a result, as far
as the figures are concerned, like to that we formerly obtained
for males — namely, an undoubted falling-off in liability to
insanity. The same result thus follows for the population as
a whole.

To what degree of correctness the statistics represent the
actual state of things is another question, into which I do not
propose to enter ; but the concern about the increase of in-
sanity, which inspires so many articles, is founded on the
figures as roughly put in statistical works, and I have shown
that these figures, properly interpreted, afford no justification
whatever for the inference usually deduced from them, but
rather indicate a strong tendency in the direction of growing
sanity.

If the reasons usually assigned to explain the commonly
supposed increase in the tendency to insanity have really any
force, if many are now classed as insane that would not have
been so classed some years ago, and if many are now placed
in institutions for the care of the insane that some time since
would not have been so provided for, then there must indeed
have been in recent years a very real and very marked
diminution in the liability of the New-Zealander to insanity,
in spite of modern competition and the disadvantages of city
life. In fact, explanations are now wanted to account for
statistics indicating a falling-off, and not a growth, in the
tendency of the race to insanity.

Thus far we have considered only the yearly contribu-
tion of the colony to the total insane population, and it
may not be yet quite clear how it is that the total in-
sane population is increasing so much more rapidly than
the population as a whole. The explanation lies in the
great changes taking place in the age -distribution of the
people, which has been fully explained in the paper already
referred to.

Table I. shows that there is no great liability to insanity
till about the age of 25, whilst after that age there is no very
great change in this liability ; indeed, the number of insane

Segar. — On New Zealand Health Statistics. 119

persons under the age of 15 might, for most purposes, be
entirely neglected. Now, whereas the total population of the
colony increased between 1881 and 1896 by 43'8 per cent.,
the population in some of the later age-periods considered
as much as trebled. Further, the number of people that
become insane in any age-period during any year, as repre-
sented in Table I., does not represent the number actually
insane in that age-period, for that number includes the sur-
vivors of all those belonging to that age-period who became
insane in previous years and failed to recover. Thus the
number of insane in any section of the people is cumulative
relatively to the population, and the number of insane per
10,000 of the population must increase rapidly in the age-
periods of maturity as we rise from one age-period to a higher
one. This is quite distinct from the liability of sane persons
at those ages to develope insanity, and, with the rapidly
increasing proportion of the whole population included in the
later age-periods, completely explains the continually growing
proportion of the population that are afflicted with insanity.
Considerations brought forward in the paper already referred
to, leading us to expect a continued rapid increase for many
years to come in the proportion that the old bear to the
whole population, also lead us to expect a similar increase
with respect to the insane, and this without the aid of any
increased liability of the race to insanity, and possibly even in
spite of a falling-off in such liability.

Cancer .

The statistics of cancer as commonly presented make it
appear that that relentless disease is increasing its ravages at
a rate that is somewhat horrifying. In the year 1879 there
were 118 deaths from cancer, forming 2-11 of the whole
number of deaths, and being at the rate of 2-63 deaths
per 10.000 of population, whilst in 1898 the number of deaths
from cancer was 471, forming 6-50 of the whole number of
deaths, and being at the rate of 6-40 deaths per 10,000 of
population. The number of deaths from cancer thus in-
creased some two and -a half times relatively to the population
during the period of twenty years under consideration. We
shall apply, however, the same kind of analysis as that just
used for the case of insanity ; and the results, though not
yielding a conclusion just the reverse of the popular notion, as
in the case of insanity, will still be found to considerably
modify the estimate generally formed of the progress of this
disease.

Table II. presents the results obtained in the manner
already described.

120

Transactions. — Miscellaneous .

Table II. — Average Yearly Number of Deaths from Cancer per
10,000 of Population of each Sex of various Age-periods.

Ages.

Ma

es.

Females.

]

1879-83.

1884-88.

1889-93.

1894-98.

1879-83.

lfe84-88.

1889-93.

1894-98.

0-5

0-2

0-2

0-4

02

0-3

0-0

0-2

o-i

5-10

0-0

02

0-1

o-i

01

00

01

0-2

10-15

00

0-1

0-1

o-i

0-1

01

o-i

o-i

15-20

01

0-3

0-3

02

00

01

00

o-i

20-25

06

0-3

0-6

0-4

o-i

01

03

03

25-30

04

0-9

06
07

03

0-9

06

0-5

0-8

30-35

11

0-9

1-0

2-1

2-6

2 2

2-4

35-40

1-5

1-5

25

2-3

42

43

53

4-5

40-45

4-2

4-9

4-3

55

8-9

9-7

10-1

10 2

45-50

7-2

9-2

86

99

14-9

153

12-5

20-3

50-55

11-9

137

16-3

17-4

208

243

226

22-0

55-60

17-5

223

24-1

29-0

29-7

33 6

34-1

354

60-65

20-1

31-7

395

43-4

27-7

34-0

36-7

40-1

65-70

34 2

42-8

52-8

47-7

458

36-7

601

47-1

70-75

23 8

44-5

58-4

64-0

373

517

39-4

53 5

75-80

48-2

46-8

58-8

77-0

58-4

47-4

55-6

64-S

80 and over

31-1

38-1

446

42-8

38-2

51-3

318

36-4

The results given in this table for ages 30 and over, and
for the first and last of the four periods considered, are illus-
trated graphically in Plate III. For ages under 30 the num-
bers of cases are too small to give fair averages.

The figures of this table show that from 30 to 60 years
of age females are more subject to the disease than males ;
indeed, between the ages of 30 and 50 the chance of dying of
cancer is about double in the case of the female of what it is
in the male, but after the age of 60 there is an opposite
tendency, though one not so marked.

In this table, it may be further noted, the results for ages
up to 30 years indicate how small is the chance of death
from cancer at those ages compared with subsequent ages,
but are otherwise of little service, the number of deaths being
too small to give a fair average.

From the age of 40 in males and 35 in females the number
of deaths from cancer is considerable for each age-period, and
is generally the greater the greater the age, with the excep-
tion that, after the age 80 years, there appears to be a falling-
off in liability to death from this complaiut.

Thus cancer is eminently a disease associated with degene-
ration, and most commonly afflicts the aged. Consequently
much of what has been said with respect to insanity will
apply to cancer, and we are thus prepared to find that much
of the apparent increase in cancer is due really to a relative

8egar. — On New Zealand Health Statistics. 121

increase in that portion of the population most liable to suffer
from its inroads — namely, the aged. But we are not so for-
tunate in this case as to find the whole increase thus ex-
plained, with a credit balance on the other side. There is
undeniably an increase in cancer, as represented by statistics.
This is generally, however, not nearly so great as would appear
.at first from the simple statements with the quotation of
which this section opened. The increase in cancer, as pro-
perly represented by statistics, is thus more capable of being
explained away by the reasons that have been given from time
to time for its apparent increase in New Zealand and else-
where. The Registrar-General of England, for instance, ex-
pressed the opinion that part of the increase was due to
improved diagnosis and more careful statement of cause, in
support of which opinion he pointed out the greater propor-
tionate apparent increase in the deaths of males from cancer,
a fact plainly apparent for the case of New Zealand in
Table II. This disproportionate increase for the two sexes
he explained as being due to the fact that " the cancerous
affections of males are in much larger proportion internal or
inaccessible than those of females, and consequently are
more difficult of recognition, so that any improvement in
medical diagnosis would add more to the male than to the
female figures." Whether all or how much of the apparent
increase in liability to deaths from cancer can be explained
by these suggestions of the Registrar-General of England is
a matter, however, on which I cannot venture to express an
opinion.

Phthisis.

Phthisis, commonly known simply as consumption, has
of late excited none of that alarmed interest that has centred
round insanity and cancer ; it has supplied no startling
figures appearing to indicate irresistible conquest. At the be-
ginning of the period we are considering, in the year 1879,
the number of deaths from phthisis was 399, or 890 per
10,000 of population, while in 1898 the number of deaths was
597, but only 8T1 per 10,000 of population. These figures
in themselves should not, however, be taken to indicate a
real decrease in liability to death from phthisis. As far as
these figures go, the relatively smaller number of deaths from
phthisis might be due to the section of the population of
those ages most liable to death from phthisis forming more
recently a smaller proportion of the wThole population. To
draw proper conclusions we must proceed to a more de-
tailed analysis.

Table III. exhibits the result of applying the same method
•as that already applied to the other two diseases.

122

Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Table III. — Average Yearly Number of Deaths from Phthisis
per 10,000 of Population of each Sex of various Age-periods.

Ages.

Males.

Females.

1879-83.

1884-88.

1889-93.

1894-98.

1879-83.

1884-88.

1889-93.

1894-98.

0-5

2-0

1-3

0-6

0-8

22

1-6

15

0-8

5-10

05

0-5

0-3

03

1-2

1-3

0-7

03

10-15

0-9

09

1-1

1-0

2-9

2-6

1-8

1-8

15-20

7-2

7-0

5-8

46

10-5

9-7

10-7

11-4

20-25

15-6

17-3

14-2

150

163

17-0

166

14-5-

25-30

16 6

19-1

18-1

14-3

21-8

15-2

160

14-5

30-35

185

16-9

14-0

13-4

18-2

19-1

15-3

13-5

35-40

17-7

156

15-3

14-0

15-6

15-4

15-4

14-3

40-45

14-9

14-4

13-0

11-5

144

10-8

101

13-3

45-50

16-2

15-6

14-2

11-6

12-5

10 1

110

9-4

50-55

13-6

17-2

14-3

133

96

9-7

12-3

73

55-60

233

15-9

16-1

13-6

14-8

9-5

10-7

88

60-65

14-3

15-8

15-3

17-7

7-1

8-2

8-1

8-3

65-70

16-0

13-8

15-9

17-6

5-a

94

6-2

6-9

70-75

85

7-6

13-6

11-2

2-2

4-9

3-2

1-8

75-80

10-3

7-0

50

14-1

o-o

30

8-5

5-8

80 and over

00

7-6

5-6

8-2

7-6

00

o-o

4-6

The results given in this table for ages up to 65, and for
the first and last of the four periods considered, are illustrated
graphically in Plate IV. For ages over 65 the numbers of
cases are too small to give fair averages.

This table shows that during the ages from 10 to 20
females are much more liable to death from phthisis than
males, but from 45 onwards the position is more than re-
versed.

Phthisis is often regarded as a disease of youth, but this
table shows that though this is the case to a considerable
extent for females, yet for males from the age of 20 yearsr
when the chance of death from phthisis first becomes con-
siderable, it remains comparatively constant up to the age of
70 years, when a decrease sets in.

Leaving out of further consideration the ages 65 and over,
because of the comparatively small number of cases they
supply, we see that for other ages the number of deaths per
10,000 of population fell off during the period under con-
sideration for the great majority of age-periods. In fact, in
the case of males the only age-period showing an appreciable
increase was that of 60-65, and in the case of females the
only age-periods showing an increase were those of 15-20 and
60-65, a>nd the increases in both these cases were compara-
tively slight.

Dendt. — On Moriori Belies. 123

Thus, on the whole, there was during the period a very
gratifying falling-off in the ravages made by this insidious
disease.

Conclusion.

It is somewhat beyond my province to attempt to com-
ment on the figures I have brought forward from a point of
view that should be left to the medical expert. My only
object has been to present the statistics of the three diseases
in the manner in which I think they should be presented, and
one that leads to the possibility of sound and not fallacious
inference. My only regret is that I have not been able, from
lack of material, to extend the investigation to other popula-
tions than that of our own colony. If others with the avail-
able material to hand will take up the work, I am convinced
they will succeed in obtaining results of supreme interest to
all who are interested in statistics so closely concerned with
the health and welfare of the race.

Art. VIII. — On some Belies of the Moriori Bace.

By Arthur Dendy, D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in
the Canterbury College, University of New Zealand.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd, October,

1901.]

Plates V. and VI.

The Moriori race is already on the verge of extinction, and at
the time of my visit to Chatham Island, in January, 1901,
there were only about a dozen pure-blooded individuals re-
maining, some of whom were of great age, while the youngest
was a lad of about sixteen. Under these circumstances it
must be considered as extremely fortunate that any reliable
record of this interesting people has been preserved. That
such is the case is due chiefly to the energy and enthusiasm
of Mr. Alexander Shand, who for more than thirty years has
lived amongst the Morioris, and has made a special study
not only of that race, but likewise of their Maori conquerors.
Mr. Shand, whose acquaintance I first had the pleasure of
making at his home on the island, has published a series of
very valuable papers on the subject in the Journal of the
Polynesian Society, from which, as well as from my personal
intercourse with the author, much of my information has been
derived.

124 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

It appears from their language, customs, and traditions,
as well as from their physical characteristics, that the
Morioris were closely related to the New Zealand Maoris,
from whom, indeed, none but an expert could distinguish
them, though Mr. Shand considers that they are, if anything,
a shade darker and perhaps even more of a Jewish cast.
Mr. Travers, in his extremely interesting paper on the
"Traditions and Customs of the Morioris," * gives good
reasons for believing that they are of mixed origin.

The discovery of the island, known to the 5lorioris them-
selves as Rekohu, in 1790 by the brig "Chatham" may be
said to have sealed the fate of these unfortunate people,
though it is doubtful whether any serious injury ensued until
the advent of the whaling and sealing vessels in 1828. These
vessels took many undesirable visitors to the island, and pro-
bably introduced a disease which soon played havoc with the
native race. On board some of these vessels were Maoris
from New Zealand, who, on their return, painted such a
glowing picture of the land of plenty that a large number of
their fellow-countrymen determined to emigrate to Chatham
Island — or, as they called it, Wharekauri — en masse. In
order to effect this purpose they took possession of the brig
" Rodney " at Port Nicholson about the beginning of Novem-
ber, 1835, seizing the crew and by fair means or foul com-
pelling the captain to take them to the island, whither, in two
trips, about nine hundred Maoris were transported and let
loose upon the unfortunate inhabitants, already decimated by
some virulent disease.

Those who are fond of extolling the virtues of the Maori
race would do well to study the history of their occupation of
Chatham Island. At the time of the invasion the Morioris
are said to have numbered some two thousand, and had they
attacked the new-comers on their first arrival, when they
were too weak from the effects of their voyage to resist, they
might have exterminated them with little trouble. Unfor-
tunately for themselves, however, the Morioris had lost the
noble art of self-defence ; killing was forbidden by their laws,
and, like the wingless birds of New Zealand, they fell an easy
prey to the first enemy. The invaders proceeded to parcel out
the country amongst themselves, claiming not only the land
but also the inhabitants thereof, who were speedily reduced to
the condition of slaves and put to hard labour for their brutal
masters. Mr. Shand tells us how " Te Wharekura, of Te
Raki, with his hapu, killed and roasted fifty Morioris in one
oven — it might have been more than one — for no reason what-
ever that could be assigned " ; while at Waitangi one Tikaokao

* Trans. N.Z. lust., vol. ix., p. 15.

Dkndy. — On Monori Relics. 125

and others massacred men, women, and children of the con-
quered race, and laid them out on the sandy beach touching
one another, some of the women being left to die with stakes
thrust into them.

It may be of interest to compare with this account the
brief remarks on the Morion race made by the Bishop of New
Zealand, who visited Chatham Island in 1848: " In appear-
ance they are not very different from the New-Zealandersf
and their language at the time of the invasion (about ten
vears ago) was perfectly intelligible to the Ngatiawa Tribe,
who usurped their territory. Their name, as spoken by them-
selves, is ' tangata Maoriori,' differing from the name of the
New Zealand people only in the reduplication of the last
svllables ; but the conquerors have given them the title of
' Paraiwhara,' the meaning of which I could not ascertain.
Their number at the time of my visit, by a careful census
which I took of the names of men, women, and children, was
268 ; but the very small number of children and the un-
married state in which they seemed for the most part to be
living wTould lead me to fear that they were rapidly decreas-
ing. The relation in which they stand to the New-Zealanders
is not satisfactory. They have been reduced to the condition
of serfs, and are obliged to obey the orders of every little
child of the invading race. The common expression of
' Ngare Paraiwhara ' (Send a Paraiwhara) shows that a
' fagging ' system has been established, more injurious, per-
haps, to the masters than to the servants, as there is no
appearance of harshness or severity, but a great decrease of
personal activity in the dominant race. A long residence on
the island would be necessary to do away entirely with this
evil ; but I did what I could in a short visit by paying
personal attention to the poor Paraiwhara, and explaining
how they were descended from the elder branch of the family
of Noah, by which they obtained the name of the ' tuakana o
te Pihopa' (the elder brother of the Bishop). They are a
cheerful and willing people, and, like many persons in a
subordinate station, more obliging than their masters. Amus-
ing stories are told of the first invasion of the island, at which
time the chief food of the Paraiwhara was the supply of eels
from the numerous lakes which cover perhaps half the sur-
face. When potatoes were first given to them they impaled
them upon skewers, after the manner of cooking eels, and sat
watching till the oil should drop from them. Their canoes
are ingeniously made of small sticks carefully tied together,
as there is no wood on the island suitable for a solid canoe."*

*" Church in the Colonies (No. xx., New Zealand, part v.): A
Journal of the Bishop's Visitation Tour through his Dioce=e, including a

1 26 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Considering how comparatively soon his visit followed
upon the atrocities recorded by Mr. Shand, it is difficult to
understand how the good Bishop could have been kept so
much in the dark as to the true history of the Maori usurpa-
tion as his remarks would lead one to suppose. It is not
difficult to believe that whoever invented the title " elder
brother of the Bishop " for the unfortunate Moriori was gifted
with a certain sense of humour, but tbe "amusing stories"
of the first invasion were probably very carefully selected
before they were allowed to come to the ears of the dis-
tinguished visitor.

With tbe advent of European settlers the condition of the
Morioris was doubtless greatly improved. As, however, the
Maori occupation of the island took place prior to the Treaty
of Waitangi, their ownership of the land by right of conquest
has been admitted, with the exception of 2,000 acres, which
they have been obliged to set apart as a reserve for their
former slaves, of whom the remnant appear now to be very
well treated, and to live on terms of equality with both Maoris
and Europeans. The younger ones, at any rate, dress like
Europeans and follow the same occupations— in fact, they are
so completely " civilised " as to be no longer of much scientific
interest.

The extent of the Moriori population in former years is
still attested by the immense quantity of human remains with
which the shores of the island are littered, and by the abund-
ant evidence of native handiwork. At intervals along the
low sandhills which fringe the greater part of the shore old
burying-places and huge shell-mounds or "kitchen-middens "
are met with. It was the custom of the race to bury some,
at any rate, of their dead in the sand by the sea-shore, in a
sitting posture, facing the west, with the elbows down and
the knees up. In many places the remains have been exposed
by the wind, and the shore is strewn with skulls and bones in
various stages of dismemberment. Owing doubtless to the
ease with which graves are scooped out in the loose sand, the
Maoris chose (at any rate, at first) similar situations on the
island for their cemeteries, so that it is now by no means easy
to say whether any particular skull or other bone picked up
on the shore belonged to one of the conquered or one of the
conquering race. The only safe plan for those who wish to
obtain specimens for scientific investigation is to dig out the
entire skeleton, when the sitting posture may be regarded as
sufficient proof of Moriori origin, for the Maoris appear to
have buried their dead in a horizontal position.

Visit to the Chatham Islands in the Year 1848." Loudon. Printed for
the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and sold by the Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1851.

Dkndt. — On Moriori Belies. 127

When out riding on the shore close to the chief centre of
population (Waitangi) I came upon a place where the sand-
cliff was crumbling away, and old coffins were tumbling out in
fragments and discharging their contents in ghastly medley —
in one lay the remains of a man, with an old toothbrush,
numerous buttons, and clay pipes close by ; in another the
remains of a child with the bones of the feet still in the
boots, for the corpses appear to have been buried in their
clothes, together with their personal effects. On at least one
occasion the Maoris are said to have removed the bones from
one of these burial-places to a more suitable locality.

Although human remains are left to be kicked about on
the beach by the hoofs of the horses in the most promiscuous
manner, yet the Maoris and half-castes have a strong objec-
tion to any one interfering with the bones. One of them tried
to persuade me that any such interference was punishable by
fine, though I believe there is no power on the island autho-
rised to inflict such a penalty. The Maoris, however, still
own much of the land, and, with the half-castes, are about
equal in number to the Europeans, with whom they are quite
on terms of equality. Hence they can make things uncom-
fortable in many ways if they choose to do so, and it is desir-
able for the sake of peace to observe their prejudices as far as
possible, though it certainly seems a little strange, in view
of their treatment of the Morioris, that they should feel so
strongly with regard to the removal of the bones of their
victims. Possibly there is some superstitious feeling about it,
perhaps some lingering idea of tapu, or perhaps they fear lest
the remains of their own people might also be disturbed. I
had the pleasure of being hospitably entertained by one
half-caste who had fenced in an old Moriori burying-place on
his own property in order to keep the stock away from it,
with the unexpected and very pleasing result that the great
forget-me-not (Myosotidmm nobile), the so-called " Chatham
Island lily," with its huge rhubarb-like leaves and bunches of
blue flowers, elsewhere almost exterminated by the sheep, has
begun to spread again vigorously in this locality.

At Wharekauri, Mr. Chudleigh's estate iu the northern
part of the island, I saw many bones lying beneath the trees
in a dense thicket near the shore, and was informed that the
Morioris sometimes tied their dead to trees in erect postures
with a stick in hand pointing upwards to represent a pigeon-
spear, the bodies being tied with the stems of that curious
climbing plant, the supplejack of the settlers (Rhipogomim
xcandens). Mr. Gilbert Mair, in a paper read before the
Wellington Philosophical Society in 1870,* also refers to this

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. iii., 1870, p. 311.

128 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

mode of burial. He says, " In some instances the corpses
were placed upright between young trees and then firmly
bound round with vines, and in course of time they became
embedded in the wood itself. Sometimes they were placed in
hollow trees. Several skeletons have lately been discovered
by Europeans in trees which they were cutting up for fire-
wood, &c. In other cases the corpses were placed on small
rafts constructed of the dry flower-stems of the flax. Water,
food, fishing-lines, &c, were then placed by them, and they
were set adrift and carried out to sea by the land breeze.
Not long ago an American whaler discovered one of these
rafts with a corpse seated in the stern many miles from land.
Not knowing that it had been set adrift purposely, the cap-
tain had a rope attached to it and towed it into Whangaroa
Harbour, much to the annoyance of the natives." Mr. Man-
makes no mention of burial as a mode of disposing of the
dead.

In considering the funeral customs of the Morioris we
must certainly take into account the extraordinary tree-
carvings so abundant in some parts of the island. It is
remarkable how little attention these carvings have hitherto
excited. A good painting of some of them, by Miss Stoddart,
may, however, be seen in the Canterbury Museum, which has
also, since my visit to the island, acquired three actual speci-
mens. Mr. Travers also, in his extremely interesting paper
on the "Traditions and Customs of the Morioris,"* gives
illustrations of some of these figures, which he explains as
follows : "Their quarrels appear to have arisen chiefly out of
conflicting claims to the possession of valuable karaka-trees,
the fruit of which was a staple and much-liked article of food,
and my son informs me that nearly all the older karaka-trees
on the island are marked with devices indicating their special
ownership — a fact of very great interest. He made drawings
of many of these figures, which are very rude, but were
evidently sufficient for the purposes of the owners."

I myself took the opportunity when on the island of making
a number of sketches of these tree-carvings, which are repro-
duced in the accompanying plate (Plate V., figs. 1-4). They
are commonly about 3 ft. in total height, and those which
I saw, as well as those in the Canterbury Museum, those
drawn by Miss Stoddart, and some of those figured by
Mr. Travers, are evidently intended to represent the human
skeleton in the sitting attitude. The elbows are represented
pointing downwards and the knees upwards, and some of
them have unmistakable ribs (figs. 3, 4). The head is
commonly represented with a curious cleft on top (figs. 1-3),

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. ix., p. 25.

Dkndt. — On Moriori Relics. 129

so that the outline becomes somewhat heart-shaped. In one
case (fig. 4) the head was replaced by what appears to be the
figure of a hand with an eye on each side of it. This had
possibly some symbolical significance. The hands and feet
show a varying number of digits up to five, and the backbone
is represented by a straight line.

The figures in question appear always to have been carved
in the bark of the kopi-tree or karaka (Coryiiocarpus Icevigata),
whose large succulent drupes formed one of the principal
articles of food amongst the Moriori, and whose smooth bark
is particularly suited for the purpose. The outlines are
generally incised, but in two of the specimens in the Canter-
bury Museum they are left in relief. These figures may, as
indicated by Mr. Travers, have been marks of ownership, or
they may have been intended to represent tutelary deities.
The Maoris on the island appear, from what I learnt from a
half-caste, to have a curious idea that the carvings were a sign
that the Moriori race was doomed.

For my own part, I am inclined to believe that the human
figures on the kopi-trees were connected with their burial
customs, for in no other way does it seem possible to explain
the peculiar attitude of all and the prominent ribs of some of
the figures. "When dead," says Mr. Travers, "the arms
were forced back against the chest and securely bound there
with plaited green-flax ropes, the hands were bound together
aud drawn over the knees, and a stick was then inserted
between the arms and knees. This was the orthodox method
of trussing a body, and it was sometimes a work of great
difficulty, for when the body became rigid the efforts of
many men were required to bring it into a proper position.
This being done, the dead was enveloped in plaited flax
matting and interred as far as the knees, the upper portion
of the body being invariably above the soil."

It seems tolerably certain that another method of dis-
posing of the dead was by placing them in or against trees
in the manner described by Mr. Mair. The particular mode
of dealing with any dead body was probably determined by
the character of the individual to whom it had belonged, and
probably great importance was attached to the proper per-
formance of the ceremony. The earlier methods of disposal
may very likely have been given up for sanitary reasons on
the advent of Europeans, a possibility which had struck
me even before I came across the following significant pas-
sage from Mr. John Amery's work on the Chatham Islands,
quoted by Mr. Travers : "In my rambles through the bush I
have frequently observed a time- and weather-bleached skele-
ton grinning at me from some old tree. Walking one day
with an ancient native woman, she suddenly stopped and
9

130 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

commenced an affectionate and whining korero with a skull
suspended from a branch. I said, ' What old friend is
that?' 'Oh,' said she, 'it is my first husband; he was a
tine pai' (a good husband). My wife and I used both
entreaties and arguments to break them from such inde-
cent and unholy customs. One day, during my absence
from home, a person was about to be interred in the usual
manner. My wife, however, hastened to the spot and in-
sisted upon having a deep grave dug. She was instantly
obeyed, upon which she read an appropriate prayer, and the
body was interred with decency. From that time the old
custom was never revived."

If for any reason the Morioris really did abandon their
ancient custom of tree-burial, it is not difficult to believe that
they might, in place of the actual bodies, carve upon the bark
•of the trees those remarkable figures which are so clearly
intended to represent skeletons. Such carvings would serve
as a memento mori almost as well as the corpse itself, without
the obvious disadvantages of the latter. There are several
reasons why the kopi-trees should always have been selected
for the carving. It is almost the only tree large enough, and,
on account of the smooth nature of the bark, quite the most
suitable ; while, if there was any right of individual ownership
in the trees, it is not unnatural to suppose that the effigy of
the departed would be placed on his own property. This
view of the case may also in some measure explain the
Maori idea that the carvings indicated the doom of the
Moriori race, for the abandonment of the ancient burial
custom would probably be regarded as a most serious in-
fringement of tapu, and as such would be expected to entail
disastrous consequences. In this connection it is interesting
to note Mr. Shand's statement that " the Morioris began to
die very rapidly after the arrival of the Maoris, the cause
of which they attribute to the transgression of their own
tapu, for the Morioris were an exceedingly tapu race."

There are also rude rock-carvings on the island, but these
are of quite a different type from those which I observed on
the trees. At the entrance of a shallow cave at Mororoa the
soft limestone rock is scored with bird-hke figures in endless re-
petition (Plate V., fig. 5). These may possibly represent shags.
Mr. Shand told me that a Moriori showed him two figures on
the rock at Moutapu, which they say were the models from
which all the bird-figures were taken ; but they seem, accord-
ing to the same authority, to have called the figures on the
trees birds, so that there is doubtless some confusion here.
I was also told by a lady on the island that she had found
the figure of a shag carved on hard wood in a Moriori grave.
Possibly the shag was regarded as a sacred bird.

Dendt. — On Monori Relics. 131

Whatever they may have intended to represent, the
Moriori idea of carving appears to have been extremely
crude. The figures certainly were to a large extent con-
ventionalised, but the inferiority to the workmanship of the
New Zealand Maori, both in conception and execution, is,
considering the undoubtedly close relationship of the two
races, very remarkable. Taken in conjunction with their
apparently complete ignorance of the art of tattooing, it cer-
tainly appears to indicate that the two races must have
branched off from one another at a very remote period in
their history, although the language appears to have under-
gone very little alteration.

As manufacturers of stone implements of various kinds the
Morioris appear to have more nearly approached, if they did
not equal, the Maori standard of excellence. Stone chisels
of two very distinct types are met with. I give photographs
of two specimens which were given to me on the island.
Plate VI., fig. 10, represents a small chisel of yellowish chert,
almost cylindrical in form, and with a narrow cutting-edge.
This is probably one of those which Mr. Shand says were
termed "w/iao," and which were used for making holes.
Rg. 11 is a broad, flat chisel or adze of a hard grey stone,
well polished ; one side is quite flat, the other gradually
bevelled to the cutting-edge, while the side edges have been
ground flat. Eudely flaked chert " blubber-knives," such as
are represented m figs. 8 and 9, are still common on the
shore, but I was not fortunate enough to obtain any of the
well-known stone clubs described and figured by Sir Julius
von Haast.* Bone fish-hooks may be found amongst the
sandhills. Figs. 6 and 7 represent a couple which I picked
up in the neighbourhood of an old kitchen-midden, or shell-
mound, at Maturakau ; and sharpened pieces of birds' bones,
used, as I was told, for extracting shell-fish from their shells,
may be met with in similar situations (fig. 13). Sharks'
teeth bored for stringing as ornaments (figs. 14 and 15) are
also not uncommon.

One evening, whilst staying with Mr. Chudleigh at
Wharekauri, I received an invitation from Mr. Abner
Clough, who is employed on the estate, to visit him
in his own quarters. Amongst the miscellaneous collec-
tion of articles which littered his table a remarkable-
looking piece of whalebone at once arrested my attention.
I found on inquiry that Mr. Clough had picked this speci-
men up in an old Moriori burial-ground amongst the sand-

* Haast, " On the Stone Weapons of the Moriori and tne Maori "
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xviii., p. 24). For further information concerning
Moriori stone implements, see Shand {Journal of the Polynesian Society,
vol. iii., p. 84 and Smith (Op. cit., vol. i., p. 80).

132 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

hills on the shore near a place called Okawa, near Kainga-
roa. The bone, which is represented in Plate VI., fig. 12, had
evidently been, carefully shaped and carved, and I had no
difficulty in recognising in it a very typical example of that
extremely interesting instrument of primitive races known to
ethnologists as the " bull- roarer." Probably this bull-roarer
is of ancient date, for the whalebone of which it is made is
honeycombed with decay. Moreover, Mr. Shand had never
heard of such an instrument existing amongst the Moriori ;
though this might readily be accounted for if, as in other
races, the bull-roarer was a sacred article — projbably, indeed,
in the case of the Moriori highly tapu, for these people
"possessed the tapu in all its forms and terrors" (Shand).
The specimen is broad and flat, elliptical in cross-section, and
remarkably short, with one end much broader than the other.
The side edges are approximately straight, except for the
notching to be mentioned directly, the broad end slightly
excavated or curved inwards. The narrow end is a good deal
worn with age, and has a deep notch in the middle, which
may possibly be the remains of a hole through which a
string may have been passed. The side edges are also deeply
notched near the narrow end, evidently to allow of secure
tying. Beyond these "fastening-notches" the edges are
beset with smaller notches all along, and this notching is
continued along the broad end. The broad, flat surfaces are
also grooved. On the best-preserved side there is a pair of
longitudinal grooves extending from end to end, one on each
side of the middle line. In the region of the fastening-
notches, which are a good deal broken away, these longi-
tudinal grooves are crossed at right angles by two others.
On the opposite surface, which has apparently been more
exposed to the weather, only the two longitudinal grooves
can be distinguished. The total length of the specimen is
exactly 6 in., the breadth at the narrow end about If in., and
at the broad end about 2f in. (6 by If to 2f).

Much has been written of late years about the bull-roarer,
which, as a toy, is familiar to many an English schoolboy.
It is essentially a noise-making instrument. The schoolboy
takes a thin wooden lath, notches the edges, ties a striug to
one end and whirls it round rapidly in the air. A peculiar
humming noise is produced which is very suggestive of wind.
In a specimen which I made recently I find that when hum-
ming, or " buzzing," the instrument also rotates rapidly about
its long axis, and that unless it does so no noise is produced.
Whether this rotation about its own axis is necessary in all
cases I cannot say.

In a more or less typical form the bull-roarer is distributed
amongst native races over perhaps the greater part of the

Dendt. — On Moriori Relics. 133

inhabited world. Professor Haddon has written an extremely
interesting chapter on the subject in his work on the " Study
of Man," and has there tabulated the uses and distribution
of this remarkable instrument. It appears to have been used
(1) as a sacred instrument in the mysteries in ancient Greece,
on the west coast of Africa, amongst the Kaffirs, in North
America, in the Solomon Islands, in Banks Island, in New
Guinea, and in Australia; (2) in initiation ceremonies amongst
the Kaffirs and in New Guinea and Australia ; (3) as a sum-
mons to ceremonies amongst the Kaffirs and in North
America and Australia; (4) to summon spirits in South
America ; (5) to frighten away spirits in North America and
Banks Island ; (6) as a god on the west coast of Africa and in
Australia; (7) associated with judiciary powers, &c, on the
west coast of Africa and in the Solomon Islands; (8) for
producing wind amongst the Kaffirs, in North and South
America, and in Torres Strait ; (9) for producing rain amongst
the Kaffirs and African Bushmans, in North and South
America, in Torres Strait, and in Australia ; (10) for pro-
ducing thunder and lightning in North and South Ame-
rica ; (11) as a charm in hunting or fishing by the African
Bushmans, in Torres Strait, and in Australia ; (12) for
driving cattle by the African Bushmans and the Malays ;
(13) as a toy in the British Isles, Central Europe, amongst
the Eskimo, in South America, amongst the Malays, in the
Solomon Islands, in Banks Island, and in Torres Strait.

The bull-roarer was tabooed to women by the Kaffirs, the
South Americans, the Solomon-Islanders, the Papuans, and
the Australians.

In New Zealand it appears to have existed in a modified
form, consisting of an oval flattened piece of wood without
notches, but the use which the Maoris made of the instru-
ment is not known. Professor Haddon observes, " It is also
entirely wanting, so far as we know, from Polynesia, with the
exception of New Zealand. It is worth bearing in mind that
these islands were almost certainly inhabited by Melanesians
before the Maori invasion," and the bull-roarer may belong to
the older population. A highly decorated specimen occurs in
the British Museum ; it was first figured and noted by Lang.
We have no information as to its use." I may add to this
that there is in the Canterbury Museum, at Christchurch, a
bull-roarer made to order by a Maori from the Urewera
country. This specimen is a flat ovoid piece of wood with
smooth surface and smooth edges, quite unornamented, and

* Captain Hutton informs me that there is no sufficient ground for
believing in a Melanesian occupation of New Zealand before the advent
of the Maoris. — A. D.

134 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

with a hole through the narrower end for the attachment of
the string. It is intended to be swung by means of a stick
attached to the other end of the string.

It must be observed that the Maori bull-roarer is of a very-
different form from the Chatham Island specimen, so much so
that one would hardly suppose the two to have been made by
closely related races.

I also learnt from a European boy on Chatham Island
that the bull-roarer is there known to the Maori school-
children, presumably as a toy. This being the case, it might
be suspected that my specimen is of recent origin, and not of
Moriori workmanship ; but its evident antiquity, its peculiar
form, sculpture, and material, as well as the locality where it
was found, afford pretty conclusive evidence that it is not of
modern manufacture. The great difference between the
Chatham Island and New Zealand bull-roarers perhaps af-
fords another indication that the Maori and Moriori races
branched off from one another at a very remote period.

EXPLANATION OP PLATES V. AND VI.
Plate V.

Fig. 1. Human figure cut in the bark of an old kopi-tree at Moro-

roa, Chatham Island.
Fig. 2. Similar figure at Wharekauri, Chatham Island.

Figs. 3, 4. Figures on two kopi-trees close together at Mairangi, near

Wharekauri, Chatham Island.
Fig. 5. Figure of shag (?) carved in soft rock forming the entrance

to a shallow cave or rock-shelter at Mororoa, Chatham

Island.
(Figs. 1 to 5 from sketches by the author.)

Plate VI.

Bone fish-hooks.

Chert " blubber-knives " or scrapers (?).

Cylindrical chert chisel.

Flat chisel or adze of hard grey stone.

" Bull-roarer " of whalebone.

Bird's bone sharpened, and probably used for extracting
shell-fish.

Figs. 14, 15. Sharks' teeth bored for stringing.

(Figs. 6 to 15 from photographs of specimens brought by the author from

Chatham Island.)

Figs.

6,7.

Figs.

8,9.

Fig.

10.

Fig.

11.

Fig.

12.

Fig.

13.

White. — A Philological Study. 135

Art. IX. — A Philological Study in Natural History.
By Taylor White.

[Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 21st October,

1901.]

Pkimitive man was a hunter of the beasts and birds. In
Europe the climatic conditions were arctic ; snow and ice
extended from the far north even to the centre of France
and Germany. Notwithstanding the rigours of the climate,
various animals suitable to these conditions of life inhabited
the outer margin of this great snow-cap. Man (as we see in
the Esquimaux of the present time) was there also as a
hunter of wild beasts, and as time went on he became herds-
man and utilised the reindeer, as Lapps do even now. From
certain osteological evidence as examined by scientists we
know this to have been the case. To myself it seems also
proved by philological deductions in the German language.

When the Boman general, Julius Caesar, led his conquer-
ing armies through Gaul — a name which he gives to France
and part of Germany — he noticed several strange animals in
that country of which he had no previous knowledge, and
which he mentions in his history of his battles and con-
quests. One animal he names reno, or rehno, which I con-
sider to mean the reindeer, from comparing it with French
reune and German renn-thier (a reindeer), also with German
renn-pferd, a race-horse, renn-hirsch, a reindeer (literally, run-
ning- or race-stag, from renncn, to run) ; and renn-schlitten,
a sledge, also abbreviated to schlitten, a sledge, is a suit-
able name for the vehicle to which the animal renn-thier
was harnessed and utilised as a draught animal by his
owner. The suffix or additional word thier in renn-thier is
equivalent to beast or animal, which makes the whole word
mean " run-beast " or " race-beast," and I see no cause for
the special term runner, or racer, otherwise than as referring
to the speed of the animal when driven in a sledge. The
word thier, an animal, is the Teutonic form of our English
word deer, which we use now as a general term for the
Cervidcs, or stags, as in fallow deer or red deer. The word
fallow is from Anglo-Saxon fealu, fealo, a pale-red colour ;
therefore we get the " pale-red beast " and the "darker-red
beast " as the plain meaning of the two names. As to
whether the German rind, cattle, rinder-pest (rin-thier-peat),
cattle disease, is connected with rennen, to run, I find no evi-
dence, it being a word coined at a later date.

When the climate of Europe became more ameliorated or

136 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

temperate other species of deer occupied the land, coming
possibly from the east and south. Julius Caesar mentions an
animal of Gaul under the name of alces (which is kindred
to Russian olene, a stag ; German elch, an elk or moose ;
French elan, an elk), probably a large stag or red deer. The
Dutch colonists in South Africa name the largest of the
antelopes eland.

Our English word wild — or, rather, its original form is
in German used to denote game (animals or birds which may
be hunted), and occasionally is used in place of our word deer,
as roth-ivild, roth-hirsch, the stag or red deer (roth meaning
red), roth-huhn (literally, red hen), the red-legged partridge;
schwarzes-wild (black game), the wild boar; wild-kalb (literally,
wild calf), a fawn or young deer; wild-huhn, a ptarmigan; wild-
sprossen, antlers; wild-stand, a covert or game preserve; wild-
hirt, a gamekeeper; wild-bann, right of hunting; wild-e, open
moorland or uncultivated land, from which we derive English
wild-er-ness. Another connection is reh-icild, a deer ; reh-
bock, the roebuck ; reh-geiss, the doe or female of the roebuck,
The terminal word geiss is a female goat, and geiss-bock is a
buck goat, also a roebuck. Beh-fleck is a purple spot ; rth-
fleisch, venison ; hirsch-reh, musk deer. In French chevreuil
is a roebuck ; chevrette, a roe or doe ; chevre, a female goat.
An assumed likeness in this animal to the goat is evident
from its naming. Professor Skeat gives roe as a female deer ;
mid-English, ro ; Anglo-Saxon, rah ; Icelandic, rd, &c. ; deriva-
tive, roe-buck. An allied word is English doe, a female deer,
and doe-rabbit, or hare. The German dam-wild and dam- thier
look rather naughty words, but they are the neuter form for
the fallow deer ; dam-bock and dam-hirsch are the male, and
dam-geiss or dam-kuh the female animals. This seems akin
to Latin dam-a, a deer ; French daim, a fallow-deer buck,
daine, a doe. The English word fallow comes through
Anglo-Saxon fealu, fealo, pale-red or yellow in colour. In
French fauve is fawn-coloured or tawny : thus, bete-fauve
and also fauve is fallow deer, which is equivalent to
tawny - coloured beast. The English word deer is con-
nected with Anglo - Saxon dear, a wild animal ; Dutch,
dier ; Danish, dyr ; Swedish, djur ; Icelandic, d'yr ; Gothic,
dius ; German, thier ; Latin, fer-a ; Greek, ther and
pher, a wild beast. German thier will not specially refer
to wild animals, but rather to any animal, beast, or brute ;
in sporting, to doe. The following are examples : Thier-
arzt, veterinary surgeon ; ihier-garten, zoological garden, or
a park ; thier-kreis, the zodiac (literally, the animal circle) ;
thier-kalb, a fawn ; haus-thiere (in the plural), domesticated
animals (literally, house-animals, or animals kept in the vici-
nity of the house) ; jung-thier, a fawn (literally, young beast).

White. — A Philological Study. 137

The Greek word 0-qp (ther), in an equal manner to the German
wild, indicates specially hunting and the killing of feral
animals, as thera, hunting, the animal hunted and caught ;
therao, to hunt ; therates, a hunter or pursuer; therion, a wild
beast ; theriodes, savage, fierce. This word also, with varying
suffixes, refers to the gladiatorial encounters with wild beasts
within the enclosed area of the amphitheatre. English hind,
the female of the stag, I would suppose to refer to the habit of
the females composing the harem of the stag in following the
lead of their lord and master — that is, in the meaning of hinder
ones — Anglo-Saxon, hind; Dutch, hinde.

It is noticeable that to define the sex of many of these
wild animals the term buck is used for the males, and kuh,
cow, kalb, calf, is used, especially in the German or Teutonic,
to define the female and her young ; but we do not find any
word equivalent to bull (German stier) to mean the male of
any of the animals mentioned. At a later date, however,
in America the male moose is called the bull and his consort
the coiv, yet they are of the order Cervidce, and carry solid
branching antlers, which are annually cast. The Germans
have renn-thier-kuh, the female reindeer, but the use of kuh, a
cow, could hardly originate in connection with a reindeer,
for surely it must belong by right to the female of the ox.
If so, the special definition of the sexes of the above animals
must have remained in abeyance until after the knowledge
of or the domestication of the ox. But, if so, why not
also the use of an equivalent to bull to denote the males,
as in the bull, cow, and calf of the whale and seal ? If
used to the walrus, we would have whale, horse, bull, &c,
from ros, a horse. In place of bull we get buck or boc. Now,
this name certainly is an original term for the male goat. In
German geiss and zeigel both mean the female goat, to which
is added the suffix bock, to mean the male ; at the same
time German bock is a male goat, and we find its variants
in Anglo-Saxon bucca, Dutch bok, Icelandic bukkr, Danish
buk, Welsh bivch, Gaelic boc, and even Sanskrit bukka. And
English butcher comes through mid-English bocher, French
boucher, originally meaning "one who kills goats," from old
French boc (French, boac), a he goat. These people, there-
fore, must have known and held in domestication the goat
previous to the use of the word buck to denote the male of
different species of Cervidce, and, in fact, the use or equivalent
of the German wild must have been greatly modified since
first coined, unless we are to come to the conclusion that
those people using it to mean feral animals had already several
kinds of domestic or tame animals, and we might also say
birds, meaning the specially tame bird Gallus domesticus
(the cock and hen of our poultry-yards — hahn and henne of

138 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

the Germans ; huhn, a fowl ; connected by Skeat with Latin
can-ere, to sing, from its noisy habits, or crowing).

To further point this : In English we have such names as
moor-hen, water-hen, black-cock and his female the grey-hen ;
and we have brought this custom to New Zealand in calling
Oci/dronms the wood-hen. Again, in the name of one of the two
ships of Tasman's expedition when he discovered New Zealand
we get Zee-lii Jin, or sea-hen, a name of a kind of sea-bird ; we
have also named a large petrel cape-hen, mostly seen when a
vessel is rounding Cape Horn. You will observe that we
speak of a wood-hen or a cape-hen without consideration as to
whether it is male or female — the comparison is simply
between these birds and the domestic fowl of our childhood's
knowledge. Notice, also, our term for the stormy petrel, one
of the smallest (perhaps the smallest) of the birds of the ocean
— " Mother Carey's cJiickeus.'1 These little black-and-white
birds are most persistent in following in the wake of sailing-
vessels.

Here are several other German words, or names of wild
fowl, which are compounds of the term huhn, the neuter
form, of hahn, the masculine form, and of henne, the feminine
form, of Gallus domesticus, our barn-yard fowl, which are
extremely suggestive of the question as to whether these
people owned the tame form of Gallus bankiva or whether
the bird at some later time became known as the cock and
hen par excellence, as the king and queen of all birds. Ger-
man au and auer, a plain or meadow ; auer-weit, extended as
a plain, weit in composition meaning far or wide ; auer-icild,
the grouse, and so equal to moorland game; auer -hahn (male)
and auer-henne (female) in my dictionary is given as both
grouse and woodcock, which must be an error, for wald-
schnepfe, or wood-snipe, is evidently the woodcock. A second
meaning given is "the grouse," but a scientific correspondent
once wrote me that the capercailzie, or cock of the woods, was
ur-hahn, now written auer-hahn, the former name being latin-
ized in its generic title as Uro-gallus, the meaning being "the
original cock, or cock of yore," as if in contradistinction to Gal-
lus domesticus. The German ur in compound words = primi-
tive, primeval, original; ur-aim, great-grandfather; therefore
ur-huhn would be the first or original, or perhaps, rather, the
fowl of that country to which the immigrants came. I would
rather accept the form auer-hahn, or moorland cock, but was
it not a bird of the forests ? The name capercailzie is said to
come through Gaelic capull-coille, great cock of the woods
(literally, horse of the wood, from Gaelic capull, a horse,
co Me, colli, a wood).

Also in German we have tvild-huhn, the ptarmigan, wild or
game fowl ; reb-huhn, the vine fowl, or partridge ; birk-hahnt

White.— A Philological Study. 139

the birch (tree) cock, the black cock ; birk-lienne, said to be
the red-grouse, but must be the grey-hen, the female of the
birds we name black-game ; kurre, a turkey-hen ; kurr-hahn, a
turkey-cock. It may be of interest to make a guess how the
English came to use the word turkey to designate this bird. I
would say that the red head and curiously elongated caruncu-
lar tassel, also of scarlet hue, gave the fancied resemblance to
a Turk and his scarlet fez, or cap. This bird, originating from
North America, has no other connection with the Turk, except
as supposing the use of the diminutive form Turk-ie, or little
Turk. We also have ivasser-huhn, the moor-fowl, and wasser-
lienne, the water-hen.

Following the word cock into the French language, we have
coq, the male Gallus domesticus ; coq-d'Inde, cock of India
(i.e., American Indians), a turkey-cock ; coq-de-bruyere, cock
of the heather, the grouse ; coq-a-queue-fourchue, the cock with
the forked or branching tail, which is very descriptive of
the black-cock, whose tail-feathers bend outward to either
side somewhat in the form of two J's placed back to back :
thus, ")p. The woodcock is coq-des-bois, or cock of the
woods, and coq-de-combat is a game-cock, which in German is
kamph-hahn. This latter is also the name of a small bird,,
the ruff, which is allied to the plover, and is sometimes kept in
captivity on account of its great pugnacity towards others of
its kind. The female, being without the neck-ruff, we name
reeve. Kamph means "combat" or "conflict," as kamph-
hahn, battle-cock.

The French word coquerico means cock-a-doodle-do, and
is on the same lines as coquette, a flirt ; coqueliner, to crow, to
run after the girls. In Sanskrit kukkuta is a cock, probably so
called from the call of the bird. As the bird carries his voice
to all countries, we may expect to find in most cases it is
named therefrom, as, for instance, Malay kukuk, the crowing
of cocks ; kakak, the cackling of hens. In French the female
bird is named poule and poule d'Inde, hen of India (North
American Indians), the hen turkey. You will remember that
the early voyagers, on reaching the coast of America, supposed
they had reached India, hence the name of West Indies. The
natives of America were thus misnamed Indians, and the term
became so much in use that Captain Cook and others wrote of
the aborigines of the islands of the Pacific Ocean as Indians,
even the Maori of New Zealand being so named. Poule d'eau
is the moor-hen, and is also termed more correctly water-hen.
Poule would seem allied to Latin pull-us, young animal or
foal ; English derivatives, pullet, a young hen ; poultry, and
others.

Gochon d'Inde, the pig of India, is the guinea-pig, and is a
native of South America. The same derivative is disguised in

140 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

French dindon, a turkey-cock ; dincle, a turkey-hen ; and
dmdonneau, a young turkey. German meer-schiocin-chen (lite-
rally, " sea-pig-small ") is a guinea-pig — probably small pig
from over the sea. But a guinea-fowl is called perl-huhu,
pearl fowl, most likely from the circular wmite spots on the
feathers. Meer-schwein is the porpoise, the English name of
which is said to be from Latin porc-us, a pig, and piscis, a fish.
Another example of the application of the terms cock and hen
is seen in English peacock, peahen, pea-fowl; German, pfau
(male) , pfau-henne (female: note the suffix henne as approxi-
mate to English hen), pfauge-flugel (pea-fowl); French, paon
(male), paonne (female), paon-sauvage-des- Pyrenees (the ruff
and reeve mentioned above : why called paon I do not under-
stand, perhaps from spreading ruff feathers on the neck of the
male bird, but note its fighting qualities in sativage) ; Latin
pavo ; Greek, taos and taon (a peacock). Skeat connects with
Tamil tokei togei, a peacock ; this might well be called " the bird
of India," but is not so named. Some years ago, when I was
called upon to assist in the amusement of some children on a
wet day, the entertainment consisted of each person present
taking the name or role of some animal or bird. One small
girl elected to be a peacock, and as the narrator of the story
to the play arrived at the word "peacock" the child, in a
peculiar tone of voice, cried out pa-oo, making the two syl-
lables in a somewhat different tone. At once I saw the simi-
larity in this perfect imitation to the call of the bird to Latin
pavo, and am satisfied that the voice of the bird originates its
own name.

French coq, a cock, would seem connected with the Greek
kokkv£, a cuckoo, as seen in kokkv(o, to crow like a cock, to call
as the cuckoo. As an ally Skeat has cockatoo, a kind of parrot,
from Malay kaka-tua. This latter is evidently seen in the
Maori kaka (the Nestor meridionalis , a species of parrot), and
in kaka-riki, a parrakeet (literally, a small kaka). From the
plumage of this bird comes the standard for the colour
green; also kaka-riki, green colour; kaka-po, the night parrot,
from po, night. The name for Gallus domesticus among the
Polynesians is moa, but when Captain Cook brought the fowl
to New7 Zealand the name moa was then used to denote differ-
ent varieties of Dinornis ; so seemingly the Maori has invented
two different original words founded on the call of the bird.
The word lien Skeat connects with Latin can-ere, to sing,
Anglo-Saxon, hana, a cock (literally, the singer) — as I have
already indicated.

Whatever may be the origin of the words cock and hen, it
seems to me from the above study that before man took the
thought to distinguish between the sexes of birds and animals
he had already domesticated the Gallus bankiva, now found

White. — A Philological Study. 141

chiefly in the forests of Hindustan, and also herded or held in
captivity the goat and the ox — that is, judging from European
languages. The domestic fowl seemingly was by its Latin
name gall-its introduced to the south of Europe by way of
Gaul, or France. (Note the German word Gallien, Gaul. How
do we derive the term Gallic cock in reference to the French?)

In Latin the two words bestia and bellua originally had
special reference to wild beasts, but these same words in
other languages, and through changes brought about by
lapse of time, now have reference to domestic cattle. In
Latin bestia is a beast, an irrational creature, in opposition
to man, while animal includes man and all living things.
Bcs iarius is one who fought with wild beasts in the arena or
or circus, as a public entertainment. If we follow bestia into
Greek we come back to words already referred to — therion
and ther (bestialis = theriodes). In French, by elision of
letter s and change of pronunciation, we have bete, a beast,,
which, with the addition of either of the kindred words fer-
oce and sauvage, means a wild animal. Bete, in conjunction
with distinguishing terms, has reference to domestic animals,
as betes -a-lame, sheep (beasts having laine, wool) ; bete a
comes, horned beast; bete de somme, beast of burden; bete,
de Vierge (of the mother of our Lord), the ladybird (beetle) ;
betail (plural, besti-aux), cattle; gros betail, large cattle;
menu betail, small cattle ; exposition de betail, cattle show.
In Italian bestiame is cattle. Gros-betail is elsewhere said
to be neat or black cattle, so I suppose menu-betail to be
sheep and goats.

From our other Latin word — bellua, a wild beast — we get r
Latin, bell-um, war; English, bcll-i-cose, the desire of battle,
and bell-my, the challenge call to fight of stags and their
allies during the rutting season ; German, bell-en, to bark, to
grumble, and brull-en, to bellow. We also get : English,
bell, a hollow piece of metal for producing a loud noise or
sound, and bull (the beast) ; mid-English, bellen ; Anglo-
Saxon, bellan, to make a loud noise ; Icelandic, belja, to
bellow ; German, briill-frosch, a bull-frog, briill-ochs, a bull.
English boulder, a large water-worn stone, so named from
the noise made by these stones when driven by flood-waters
along the bed of a river or stream, is in Sweden buller-steen ;
Swedish, bullra, to thunder, roar, and steen, a stone; in Danish
Id for 11 gives buldre, to roar, and bidder, a crash. Bull, as
the bellowing beast, is shown in old French bugle, a wild ox ;
French, beugle-ment , a bellowing ; English, bugle, which is
short for bugle-horn (compare English comet, a horn, also a
wing of a troop of horse led by a cornet or bugle, also an
officer of such troop ; Latin c ,mu, a horn) ; because the
horns of oxen were in old times used as loud-sounding

142 Tr ansae tions . — Miscellaneous .

instruments, we have a hunting-/ior« or huntsman's horn,
which he blew in the chase ; a horn of beer could be ob-
tained (or asked for) when I was a small boy; the larger
portion of a horn with a wooden bottom let in was the
drinking-cup of our ancestors. The word bull is not found
in Anglo-Saxon, but its derivative or diminutive is bull-
uca, a bull-och. I am unable to trace the suffix uca or its
later form och, which has certainly no connection with
German ochs, an ox. Possibly the same terminal diminutive
is shown in Latin bu-cula, a heifer, from bos, an ox, bull, or
cow. A kindred word to bucula seemingly by inference is
found in the Latin buccina, a trumpet or crooked horn : note
German bugle, curve, anything bent, bilgle-riemen stirrup-
leather ; tuba being the name of the straight trumpet. This
word is also written bu-cma, which would seem the correct form
though seldom used. The confusion is owing to close simi-
larity to buccula, the diminutive of bucca, a cheek or mouth,
and bucco, one who has the cheeks distended. Here may
even be a connection, for a person occupied in blowing a horn
has the cheeks puffed out. In Italian buccina is a trumpet ;
buccm-are is to proclaim with sound of the trumpet ; and
buciacchio is a bullock. In French bou-villon is a bullock.
The proof of the argument is in Latin bucerus, having horns
like an ox; Greek, bou-keros, having bulls' horns (from bous,
a bull, and hems, a horn).

But to return to the consideration of Latin bestia, a beast,
or wild beast. Through the French besti-aux, cattle, we pro-
bably have adopted the use of the term beast and beasts in
reference to our domestic oxen — that is, to our horned cattle;
for in our form of speech we make no provision in the generic
term for the polled races of oxen, such as the Angus and Gal-
loway breeds, originating in Scotland.

As an illustration I will give a clipping from a newspaper
report of the annual fair at Ipswich in May, 1891, curiously
called "St. George's Fair": "Fat beasts not quite so nu-
merous, but buyers attending in strong force : a decided
improvement in values was noticed. Fat sheep and lambs
in request, and recent prices maintained. Numbers at
market : Beasts, 1,359 ; sheep, 2,815 ; swine, 759. Messrs.
Day and Sons, of Crewe, advertise ' zomo-sal,' a saline blood
tonic for horses and beasts." And also the following from
the " Live Stock Journal" of the 28th June, 1901, under the
heading " Scraps " : "Plough cattle were not expensive in
1310. At Cardiff two beasts bought for a cart cost only 18s. ;
twenty-three plough-oxen cost 13s. 4d. per head ; while a bull
and fourteen cows bought to stock a manor cost 10s. per
head." And this from an English newspaper: "Spalding,
Tuesday. — A small show of fat beasts and a slow trade, 7s.

White. — A Philological Study. 143

per stone being the top price. Store beasts sold rather better
in proportion. Small supply of mutton, and trade hardly so
good. From 6d. to 8d. per pound was realised. Good trade
for pork, which was in demand at 6s. to 7s. per stone, accord-
ing to quality."

In prehistoric times, and even down to the date of Julius
Caasar's conquest of Gaul, there existed in Europe two species
or varieties of the ox, living in a wild state in the extensive
forests, named Bos primigtnus and Bos longifrons, and their
fossil remains are even found in Britain. The B. primigenus
is considered by most naturalists to be the progenitor of the
larger breeds of domestic oxen, and it is generally considered
to be the great beast ur, mentioned by Cassar in the history of
his wars. Caesar thus describes them : " These ivri are little
inferior to elephants in size, but are bulls in their nature,
colour, and figure. Great is their strength and great their
swiftness ; nor do they spare man or beast when they have
caught sight of them. These when trapped in pitfalls the
hunters diligently kill. The youths, exercising themselves in
this sort of hunting, are hardened by the toil, and those
among them who have killed most, bringing with them the
horns as testimony, acquire great praise. But these uri
cannot be habituated to man or made tractable, not even
when young. The great size of the horns, as well as the
form and quality of them, differs much from the horns of
our oxen. These horns, when carefully selected, they ring
round the edges with silver, and use them for drinking-cups
at their ample feasts."

In speaking of the untamable disposition of the young
of the ur, it seems probable that the character and well-
known disposition of another ally of the Bovidce is con-
fused with it — namely, the European bison, which is known
in Germany as the aur-ochs, or aucr-ochs, the latter of the
two names appearing the more correct form, as meaning
tf the moorland-ox, the ox of the uninhabited or uncultivated
land." This animal is still preserved by Boyal edict in Lithu-
ania, and is also found among the hills and valleys of the
Caucasus. It is there called zubr, a name which, curiously
enough, contains the letters ur. This name ur is assumed by
rnany to be the German prefix ur, ancient, or original ; but if
that were so it would seem necessary to use the suffix " ochs,"
and so get primeval or ancestral ox. But my German diction-
ary also gives ur as the ure-ox (masculine) without the suffix
ochs. So the Germans seemingly have two separate names
for the bison, and that of ur for Bos yrimigenus. Now,
ure is French, and is translated as the ure-ox, the uru& (also of
male gender). The German ur as a prefix gives ui aim, great-
grandfather ; ur-alt, very ancient, primeval; ur-all, the

144 Transactions. — Miscellaneous .

universe. Auer-ochs, a bison, is also male, as of a wild beast
whose sex is immaterial. Why is this ? And note aucr-iueit,
extended as a plain ; weit, wide, broad, extended, far off,
distant. We have already met the prefix as in auer-hahn,
when treating of the wild game, and so may take auer-ochs to
be "the ox inhabiting the moorland or open country" (the
bison).

We have seen that great use was made of the names of
the domestic fowl in naming the sexes or quality of game
birds, and the use of hoc, a male goat, to indicate sex in certain
animals in the German — cow and calf being the opposite
terms — but we have in no case met with the use of bull as a
sexual denominative, though in English we find bull-mooset
bull-whale, a.nd probably bull-ival-rus, which latter word,
when analysed, gives bull-whale-horse — German ros, a horse.
In English buck is used as the mate of the doe among smaller
kinds of deer and the male of the goat. Can it be possible
that the great beast ur was the wild bull, which came and
served the domestic huh (cow) ? The bull, being of dangerous
habits and of a roaming disposition, could not be attached to
one place, or be safely held in captivity. He was bellua, the
bellower; bestia, the beast; fer-us, thier, the wild animal. He
was the ur, thur, tur, taur-us— German stier, a bull ; stier
possibly stood for sta-thier, the beast confined in a sta-ll or
sta-ble — Latin sta-bulum, a stable, from stare (for sta-are), to
sta-nd, the animal being kept sta-tion-ary or confined, or shut
up in a sty, as seen iu pig-sty. According to Skeat taur-us
is used for sta-ur-us.

In Scotland stirk is a calf not yet a year old, and is pro-
bably derived from the animal being shut up in a pen or sty
away from the cow, or as a hostage for the return of the cow,
or that the owner might secure the first of the milk. The
word is possibly connected with Latin stirc-us, dung, owing
to being dirty from its enclosure. But in the Caucasian
Mountains tur is the ibex {Gaper caucasica), and, I understand,
is used also for Caper agogrus, the supposed original wild form
of the domestic goat. A similar sound is in thar, a native
name for Hemitragus jemlaica, a kind of wild sheep. Note
also chimerical, from Greek ximaira, a she goat ; also the
chimcera, a fabulous monster slain by Bellerophon. In the
Doric ximaira denoted a young she goat under a year old.
Compare English gimmer, a female or ewe lamb not a year
old. Possibly all these words may have meant " the wild
animal " originally.

To return to the goat. At the present time it is a surprise
to find that our word tragedy is derived from the Greek word
trag-os, a he goat, through trag-odia, tragedy (literally, "goat-
song," from Greek ode, a song or ode) ; trag-ic, from Greek

White. — A Philological Study. 145

trag-ikos, literally goatish. One authority gives the explana-
tion that a he goat was the prize given for the best tragic
poem in a competition, "probably," as Professor Skeat says,
" because a goat (as the spoiler of the vines) was sacrificed
to the Greek god Dionysus (Latin, Bacchus)." This latter
theory, however, will not explain the connection between a
goat and the tragic poem.

It is worthy of note that, in the German, zeigel and geiss are
used in the feminine only, as denoting the she goat, as though
they, being the more numerous members of the flock (fifty to
one against the male animal — bock), gave the designation to
the species. In olden times the males of the flock were
chiefly killed for food, which is well shown in the Bible
stories of entertainment of visitors and sacrificial rites. Ob-
serve the following : Zeigel-bock and geiss-bock, a male goat ;
geiss-rebe = goat-vine, the honeysuckle — i.e., the climber :
perhaps from this Professor Skeat connects the goat and
the vine, as "the spoiler of the vines": also geiss-blatt
("goat-leaf"), the honeysuckle; geiss-melker, the bird goat-
sucker or night-jar, in French teite-chevre, teat goat.

The goat being the earliest of the truly domesticated
animals tamed by man, gives us the word butcher, through
French bone ; old French hoc, a male goat; French, bouch-er;
mid-English, bocker, a butcher (literally, "one who kills
goats"). The name bukka, a goat, extends even to the Sans-
krit ; but in German a butcher is fleischer, fleisch-hacker, and
fleisch-hauer , derived from fleisch, flesh or meat.

In the word pheasant we are reminded that this game-bird
was of comparatively late introduction to the forests of
Europe, the name being derived from Phasis, a river in
Colchis, to the east of the Euxine or Black Sea.

The domestic fowl is said to have reached Europe 600 B.C.,
but was domesticated in China 1200 B.C., and it is remark-
able that the sexes of other birds should in many European
languages be named after those of the domestic fowl. As
the goat denoted the sex in certain animals, so the use of
cock and hen signified the sexes of birds.

10

II. — ZOOLOGY.

Art. X. — On the New Zealand Lamprey.

By Arthur Dendy, D.Sc, Professor of Biology in the
Canterbury College ; and Margaret F. Olliver, M.A.

[Rend before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th November,

1901.]

The lamprey has been found in New Zealand in three well-
marked stages of growth — the Ammoccetes, the larval form,
very similar to the corresponding stage in the European lam-
prey ; the adult Geotria, with a well-developed gular pouch ;
and the Velasia, a form intermediate between the other two,
with no gular pouch. Little is known of its life-history or
habits ; but in October the Velasia come up some of the
rivers in shoals, and are caught by the Maoris for food, and
the Maoris say that they come down again in December
with gular pouches. Very few specimens of any stage have
hitherto been preserved, but recently a large number of
Velasia were sent to us alive from the Mataura Eiver, up
which they were making their annual migration, and as
regards this stage we were able to work from the fresh
material.

Both the Velasia stage and the adult Geotria were first
described by Gray in 1851, and were classified by him as
distinct genera (Geotria and Velasia) of the family Petromy-
zomdce. Giinther, in 1870, ranks the two forms as separate
species of the genus Geotria; the pouched form he calls
Geotria australis, and the Velasia he calls Geotria chilensis,
since Geotria in the Velasia stage was first discovered in
Chili. Recently Ogilby, in reclassifying the Australian lam-
preys, reverts to Gray's system of classification, and places
the two forms in different genera.

Before minutely examining the animals themselves it had
occurred to us that possibly, since the larval Ammocoetes was
formerly regarded as a separate genus, a similar mistake had
been made in the case of the Velasia, which might be only an
intermediate form (since it was only found in New Zealand,
Australia, and Chili, where the Geotria was also found), and
that, if Velasia and Geotria actually were distinct species, it

148 Transactions. — Zoology.

was impossible to account for some forms which have been
found intermediate between the Velasia stage and the adult.
Gunther himself, in speaking of one such form, suggests that
Velasia may possibly develope a gular pouch later in life, in
which case the distinction between the two forms would be
doubtful. Ogilby, however, as already noted, actually reverts
to the idea of a generic difference between the two. The dis-
tinctions upon which the old classifications were based are
merely external ones — the shape and size of the oral disc,
the position of the teeth, the presence or absence of a gular
pouch, and the shape and position of the fins.

In the Velasia stage the head is small, the oral disc is
round and small, and the teeth are closely packed together in
rows, whilst in the adult Geotria the head region is enor-
mously developed, the oral disc being very large and flattened
on the lower margin, owing to the growth of the gular pouch
below it ; and the teeth, which, as we have ascertained by
careful examination, correspond in number and position to
the teeth of the Velasia form, are some distance apart, owing
to the growth of the disc between them. The gular pouch is,
of course, only fully developed in the adult Geotria, but in-
termediate forms have been found possessing a slight gular
pouch.

There is no very great difference between the fins of the
Velasia and the adult. They are larger and situated re-
latively farther forward in the Velasia, but they change
gradually with the growth of the animal, and we have a
series of four specimens which exhibit the different conditions
of the fins at different stages in life.

Fourteen specimens of the Velasia which were dissected
were found to be sexually immature, males and females,
whilst the only two pouched forms which we have dissected
are sexually mature, or nearly so. None of the former ob-
servers appear to have examined the internal anatomy at all,
but have drawn their conclusions from the external differ-
ences, probably because of the scarcity of material at their
disposal.

In other respects the Velasia closely resembles the adult,
but is longer and thinner. We could not compare the living
forms, as we have not yet been able to obtain a fully grown
Geotria alive, and we find by experiment that spirit-preserved
specimens undergo considerable shortening.

As the two generic names Velasia and Geotria have been
applied to the same animal, we have had to decide which to
retain, and, following Giinther's nomenclature, we propose to
call the adult form Geotria australis, and to use the term
''Velasia" to distinguish the intermediate form, just as the
term " Ammoccetes " is still used to distinguish the larva.

Benham. — On m Moo's Ey</. 149

Thus it appears that, whereas the northern lampreys of the
genus Pctromyzon undergo only one metamorphosis — namely,
from the Ammoccetes to the adult — the southern form (Geotria)
undergoes two well-marked changes, from the Ammocoetes to
the Velasia, and then from the Velasia to the adult, which
latter represents a further stage in development never reached
by the northern forms.

Art. XI. — Note on an Entire Egg of a Moa, noio in the
Museum of the University of Otago.

By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, M.A., F.Z.S., University of

Otago.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 11th June, 1901.]

Plate VII.

Fragments of moa eggshell and more or less complete eggs
have long been known, but the acquisition of an absolutely
uninjured egg is of some interest, both on its own account
and on account of the manner in which it was obtained.
As far as I am aware, no entire egg is on exhibition in any
museum. The specimen obtained at Kaikoura was injured by
the pick in excavation.

The egg which forms the subject of this note was secured
by a dredge-hand on the Earnscleugh gold-dredge, working
on the Biver Molyneux, Otago.

The bank of the river is composed of very fine river-silt,
and was formerly cultivated as a farm. It is so fine that
when dug and dried it soon becomes reduced to fine powder,
and is blown away in impalpable dust. The river, especially
Avhen in flood, scours the bank considerably, and it was after
such a scouring, and when, fortunately, the dredge was not
actually at work, that the egg was set free from the silt, and,
floating in the river, drifted into the " well " between the two
pontoons of the dredge. Luckily it was observed floating
here and secured by one of the men, who also noted the
hollow in the bank left by its removal, at about 14 ft. below
the surface of the ground.

The egg was acquired for the Otago Museum through the
kind services of Mr. Alexander Black, of Dunedin, who ob-
tained it from the dredge-hand for £50, towards which Mr.
Black himself and the Otago Institute contributed £5 each,
while the balance was paid by the University.

150 Transacti&ns. — Zoology.

It is not my intention to enter into a detail account of
the structure of the eggshell, but I append references to
literature in which these details will be found.

The present egg has the usual pale-buff colour. The sur-
face is more or less worn or dissolved away by the action
probably of the water passing through the soil ; and, in
comparison with various fragments of eggs from elsewhere,
the surface is not shiny, though worn smooth, but over two
areas at opposite ends of the equator the surface is fairly
perfect. It is here marked by numerous small pits and short
linear furrows of various lengths and depths (vide Hutton),
but averaging 1 mm. in length. They are irregularly ar-
ranged, but always disposed lengthwise. There are about
twenty such furrows to the square centimeter, and about as-
many pits ; but the relative numbers vary in different parts,
for by comparing this complete specimen with other less
perfect eggs, in which the surface is not weathered, it ap-
pears that the pits are rather more numerous towards the
poles and the linear furrows round the equator. In shape this
moa's egg is relatively longer and narrower than that of an
ostrich, and in this particular specimen one pole is slightly
larger than the other ; but in this matter there appears to be
some variability in moas' eggs. I have seen others in which
the two poles are precisely alike. The following measure-
ments were taken: Length between vertical uprights, 195mm.
(7f in); breadth between vertical uprights, 135 mm. (5^ in.);
greatest circumference, 522 mm. (20^ in.); lesser circumfer-
ence (equatorial), 428 mm. (16| in.) ; weight, 286-5 grammes.

I had an opportunity of examining a second entire egg,
which was obtained some months later by the same man
about a hundred yards below the spot at which our specimen
was taken. The egg had been dipped in shellac (?), and was
in a very dirty condition when it was brought to the Museum
in order that the taxidermist might clean it before its trans-
mission to London for sale. He refused, however, to under-
take the responsibility. I took the following measurements,
from which it will appear that this second egg was rather
larger than our specimen ; the two ends were similar, so
that the egg was a perfect ovoid: length, 201mm.; breadth,
138 mm.; greater circumference, 540mm.; lesser circumfer-
ence, 440 mm. I did not weigh it.

Both these eggs, as well as two or three other more or less
damaged specimens that have been through my hands, appear
to belong to the same species of raoa, if we may judge from
their agreement in dimensions. As the commonest genus in
Otago was EurycqAeryx, we may safely regard some species of
this genus as the parent. It would be dangerous, however, to
attempt to indicate the species, for size of egg is no guide to

Benham. — On a Young Rorqual. 151

size of bird, as we know from the extraordinary disproportion
between the great egg and the small body of the kiwi ; but I
think we may go so far as to say that this egg was laid by
either E. ponderosus or E. elephantopus.

Bibliography.

Enys, J. D. : Trans. N.Z. Inst., iv., 1871, p. 403. (Dis-
covery of the Kaikoura egg.)

Hector, Sir J.: Proc. Zool. Soc, 1867, p. 991; Trans.
N.Z. Inst., iv., 1871, p. 110, also p. 363, pi. iv. (Egg with
remains of embrvo.)

Hutton, F. W. : Trans. N.Z. Inst., iv., p. 166. (Micro-
scopical structure.)

Liversidge : Trans. N.Z. Inst., xiii., p. 225. (Analysis.)

Nathusius: Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool., 1871.

Newman : Zoologist, 1886, p. 34. (Account of the Kai-
koura egg.)

Owen : Extinct Birds of N.Z., vol. i., p. 317.

Eowlev : Ornithol. Miscell., hi., 240.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.
Photograph of raoa's egg (reduced).

Art. XII. — -An Account of the External Anatomy of a Baby
Rorqual (Balaenoptera rostrata).

By W. Blaxland Benham, D.Sc, M.A., F.Z.S., Professor
of Biology in the University of Otago.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 11th June, 1901.]

On Monday, 6th August, 1900, I was informed that a "young
whale, about 12 ft. long, had been cast ashore on the beach
outside the Otago Heads." It was offered to me for a sum of
money, and I arranged to purchase it. It turned out to be a
young rorqual, about 10 ft. long overall, in excellent condition,
the skin being damaged here and there, partly from being
handled no doubt, partly from being cast ashore. On Tues-
day I had photographs taken of it in various positions, and,
with the help of Mr. Hamilton, made measurements and
observations on its outer anatomy. On Wednesday I had a
mould taken of it, and was able to commence dissection on

152 Transactions. — Zoology.

that afternoon while the cast was being made. The cast is
now exhibited in the University Museum.

Colour : In its general colouration it agrees pretty closely
with the description given by Von Haast (Trans., xiii.). The
upper surface of head and back is dark-grey — practically
black, including dorsal fin and dorsal surface of the caudal
fluke. The belly is pure snow-white (which after exposure to
rain and air during twenty-four hours became a bluish- white).
The lower jaw is very dark-grey, fading rapidly to white a few
inches below the gape. Behind the angle of the mouth the
colour is paler grey. The pectoral limb dorsally is grey, deep-
ening to black along the posterior margin ; but the tint gets
lighter towards the anterior margin, which is white. The line
of junction between grey and white is about on a level with
the mouth, the base of the pectoral limb, and the caudal fluke.
But the tone of the grey varies : Above the base of the
pectoral are wavy lines of dark and light grey, obliquely
vertical, with the upper ends directed backwards, one of which
is particularly noticeable, starting from the axilla upwards
and backwards ; a second, more or less parallel to this, lies
above the base of the pectoral. About midway along the
body the darker tint is more extensive, invading the generally
lighter grey, so as to form an irregularly oval darker patch
about midway between pectoral and dorsal fins.

Mouth : The roof of the mouth is bright-pink ; the baleen,
which forms but a narrow band on each side — only about
If in. broad at its broadest — is purplish-pink for about half
its depth, the free ends — that is, about lower half— being pink.
But during the day these colours changed to pink and almost
white respectively. The base of the baleen is yellowish.

The tongue is pink ; the back of mouth pink, with a few
black pigment spots. The tongue itself is margined laterally
along the region that is free (which is Sin. in length) with
thin fleshy folds, irregular in shape and size, vertically dis-
posed, overlapping one another; soft, flexible, and no doubt
an aid in capturing food.

Hair : There are about fifteen hairs on each side of the
face, and evidence, in the presence of follicles, of five or six
more. On the chin, or anterior rounded extremity of the
lower jaw, are two vertical rows of hair-follicles, from most
of which a single short white hair protruded. Each pit is
very distinctly marked, owing to the very dark-grey colour
round its margin. The two rows, one of which presented
seven the other eight follicular pits, are about ^in. apart,
though the upper pair of pits are distinctly more widely
separated. There is a space of about J in. between each pit
of a vertical row. The bristles, of which I counted six on the
right and four on the left side, issuing from the upper pits of

BenhaM. — On a Young Rorqual. 153

each row, are about £ in. long. Along the upper and lower
jaws is a horizontal series of similar white hairs of larger
size. Along the upper jaw is a row of four bristles, and two
or three black hairless follicular pits anteriorly. The first hair
is 8f in. from anterior end of the snout, the last 15f in., and
the series lies about l£in. above the lower margin of jaw.
The hairs on the lower'jaw constitute a row of five bristles,
the first of which is 10 in. from the anterior end, the last
15|in. The row slopes downward posteriorly, so that, while
the first hair is l\ in. below the upper margin, the last is
5|in. below. The" hair is £in. in length. This line follows,
more or less accurately, the line of junction between grey
and white. The spaces between bristles, starting from an-
terior end of series, are : If in., 2£ in., l^in., 1-J in.

The baleen is coloured as above. Each row forms an
elegant curve close to the outer margin of the roof of the
mouth. The right and left rows nearly meet anteriorly,
where each is very narrow and the baleen short. The rows
then diverge, following the outline of the jaw, but behind
the angle of the gape curve inwards for a short distance.
The total length of the row, measured in a straight line, is
1 ft. 9 in. The greatest distance separating the rows is 6^- in.
This, then, is maximum width of palate. The greatest length
of baleen is 4£ in., and this is not the outermost margins ; the
breadth is If in., which is retained for greater part of course.

The animal was a young female, and had not long been
born, as the navel was a slit-like depression 2 in. long and
about Jin. deep, with vascular walls; it is situated 5 ft. 4 in.
from tip of lower jaw. On each side the skin shows a pink
patch a short distance above the navel. The navel is situated
in an oval or diamond-shaped area with rounded angles,
limited by a shallow furrow, and from the posterior angle a
distinct furrow passes backwards to the urino-genital depres-
sion, or vulva, which lies 1ft. 5 m. behind it.

This vulva is slit-like, the lips being close together ; but
this slit, which is 6£in. long, bifurcates posteriorly, leaving a
small triangular area, which is the base of a ridge which can
be traced forwards into the vestibule. On pressing apart the
lips a deep depression is visible, the bottom of which is sur-
rounded by a folded wall. The depression is funnel-shaped,
but compressed laterally, and along the anterior and posterior
sloping wall a ridge passes downwards towards the bottom.
The anterior ridge terminates in a freely projecting subconical
clitoris, overhanging the urinary aperture, which is transversely
extended and has soft plicated lips.

The clitoris is separated from the ridge by a transverse
curved furrow. The posterior ridge is at its base more pro-
minent, but gradually diminishes towards the bottom of

154 Transactions. — Zoology.

the pit ; it terminates at the hinder margin of an irregularly
rounded vaginal aperture, the lateral margins of which are
folded in the usual way.

The mammarv clefts are situated on either side of the
hinder region of the vulva, and about 1^ in. from it. Each
slit is about 1 in. in length, and is the opening of a pit 1 in.
deep, from the bottom of which a small rounded nipple rises
upwards. Above each mammary cleft, about 1 in. from it, is
a shallow furrow parallel with it, marking out with it a
slightly rounded area.

The anus, which lies a short distance behind the vulva, is
2 ft. 5 in. from the middle cleft of caudal fin.

The characteristic gular furrows extend from about 4 in.
from anterior end of jaw for a distance of 4 ft. 8 in., terminating
behind the level of the flipper. There are forty-five furrows
between the two flippers, while further forward the number is-
increased, and at the angle of the mouth eight additional
short furrows exist, on each side, dorsal of the longer ones.
Each ridge which separates two furrows is -|in. wide.
These ridges are not produced by mere folding of the skin, but
are delimited by straight grooves, -J- in. deep, into which the
epidermis, of course, dips. But in transverse section of the
skin it is evident that the blubber does not share in the
folding, for its inner surface is plane, and consequently it
is of less thickness below the furrows than below the ridges,
where it measures 1|- in. The middle series of furrows are
rather shorter than the more laterally placed ones, whose
length is given above ; the ventral rugae being 4 ft. 2-i- in., and
beginning Si- in. from chin.

Measurements of External Features.

Total leDgth from tip of snout to end of fluke, measured over

back
Length of body — i.e., to notch iu fluke. .

(in straight line)
Length of upper jaw, tip to angle of gapa

lower jaw
Tip of snout to anterior base of pectoral limb
axilla

base of dorsal fin
Length of base of dorsal fin . .
Height (greatest) of dorsal fin..
Distance from posterior margin of dorsal fin to tip of body — i.e ,

median notch of fluke
Distance of vulva from anterior end
Greatest circumference of body, at a distance of 5 ft. 7 in. from

snout
Circumference at axilla

„ middle of dorsal fin (but, of course, excluding it)

immediately anterior to root of fluke

Weight, about 12cwt. (estimated).

Ft. in.

10

5

10

1

9
1

9£
10

1

11

3

2

3

9

6

9

0

8

0

4

2

8

7

6

5
4
3

2£
6

1

64

Benham. — On the Lesser Sperm Whale.

155

Measurements of Head. Ft. in.

Gape

Tip of snout to anterior corner of eve

Eye-
Length
Height

Ear-
Distance from posterior angle of eye
Length of auditory cleft . .

Nostrils (blowholes) —

Tip of snout to anterior end

Length of nostril

Distance between anterior ends

posterior ends . .

Length of median internasal furrow

Pectoral fin —

Distance from snout
Breadth of base
Length along preaxial margin
postaxial margin
Breadth (greatest)

Caudal fluke-
Breadth (sreatest) at end
Length, from rooi*
Length, behind end of body*

Breadth of body at base of c.f.

[After this article was set up I received from Sir William
Turner his account of "The Lesser Eorqual in Scottish Seas,"
in Proc. E.S. Edin., 1892, xix., p. 36, in which he gives full
details of external anatomy of several specimens. I regret
that I cannot make use of the facts for comparison.]

. 1

10

. 1

11

. 0

n

. 0

Of

. 0

5

. 0

Of

. 1

4

. 0

H

. 0

03

. 0

2|

. 0

4i

. 3

2

. 0

7

. 1

8

. 1

3

. 0

5

. 2

4

. 1

5

. 0

6£

. 0

3*

Aet. XIII. — Notes on Cogia breviceps, the Lesser Sperm

Whale.

By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, MA., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology,

Otago University .

[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1901.]

On the 30th August, 1900, I heard from Mr. Stronach, of
Dunedin, that a small whale had been beached at Purakanui,
and at once arranged to go down next day with the taxider-
mist, Mr. E. Jennings, to inspect it. On our arrival we
ascertained that the whale had been driven ashore on the
preceding Friday — just a week before. We obtained the
services of Mr. Ewart, the fisherman living at the entrance of
the bay, who rowed us across to the sandy spit that projects

* Measured three days after death. The sides had curved somewhat.
The length is too great.

156 Transactions. — Zoology.

from the north side of the bay, and showed us the whale.
We found the carcase just above high-water mark, nearly
imbedded in sand, which had thus preserved the animal from
decay, so that it appeared quite fresh. On removing the
sand we discovered that the animal had been a good deal cut
about — the head had been disarticulated from the vertebral
column, and lay near at hand ; the lower jaw, however, had
been removed, and the top of the head had been injured by
the removal of the little spermaceti contained there. The
dorsal wall of the body had, likewise, been cut away for the
blubber, and with it the dorsal fin. The tail-flukes were also
missing, and the abdomen had been opened by a cut through
the right sternal ribs, and the viscera lay outside the body.

Owing to the damage done I was unable to trace the true
outlines of the body, or to locate the dorsal fin. This is the
more to be regretted since specimens of this whale are rare ;
but fortunately Von Haast was able to give some further
details of his specimen. Through the kind offices of Mr. Ewart
I was, however, able to obtain the flukes from the Maori
who had first discovered the whale, and who had cut away
the blubber, &c. ; and at a later period I obtained the lower
jaw from a fisherman, who had retained and cleaned the bone
as a " curio." Thus I obtained the entire skeleton — -not a
bone was missing.* The carcase was conveyed to Dunedin,
together with some of the viscera — the stomach, larynx,
generative organs — an account of which I have forwarded to
the Zoological Society of London.!

The " short-headed sperm whale" has been described from
our seas in the Transactions by Dr. Von Haast under the
name of Euphysetes pottsii, but cetaceologists are now agreed
that the various whales described as various species — Euphy-
setes simus, Owen, from India; Euph. grayii, Wall, and Euph.
macleayi, Krefft, from the Australian seas ; K. floioeri, Gill,
from the American coast of the North Pacific ; and our New
Zealand form — are all members of one and the same species
— viz., Rogial breviceps, originally described by De Blainville
from a specimen from the Cape of Good Hope.

The various differences relied upon by these authors as of
specific value are merely such as are due either to differences
of sex or of age, or individual variations in the various speci-
mens taken in various localities.

The specimen under consideration was a male, not quite

* With the possible exception of the pelvic bone.

t See my papers — (1) "On the Larynx of certain Whales," P.Z.S.,
1901, vol. i., p. 278 ; (2) " On the Anatomy of Cogia breviceps," 1901,
vol. ii., p. 107.

I So spelt by Gray ; but Flower, in his text-book on mammalia,
spells it " Cogia."

Bknham. — On the Lesser Sperm Whale. 157

fully grown, measuring 8 ft. 9 in. from tip of the snout to the
bottom of the notch in the fluke ; Von Haast's was a young
female, the length of which was only 7ft..2in.:;: I took no
measurements of girth, as the animal was too much injured
for such measurements to have any value.

The flipper, or pectoral limb, measured 14 in. in a straight
line from base to tip, or 15 in. along the slightly curved
anterior margin. Its breadth was 5^ in. across the widest
part, and 5 in. across the base. The form of the flipper is
shown in the figure. The anterior margin has a regular,
slightly convex curve ; the posterior margin is angulated, the
angle being rounded, and enclosed by a shorter proximal limb
of 4 in. and a longer distal concave limb of 8 in. in length.

The tail-flukes measured 2 ft. 3 in. across their ends; each
fluke is 12 in. across (parallel to the axis of the body) in its
widest part ; the median notch between the two flukes is 5-|in.
deep, measured from a line joining the two tips of the flukes.

The head measured 1 ft. 4 in. — in other words, is rather less
than one-sixth the total length of the body, in which it is con-
tained six and a half times.

One of the most interesting of the anatomical features is
the asymmetry of the blowhole and of the structures re-
lated to " spouting." The single blowhole, or left nostril,
lies on the upper surface of the head ; is crescentic, with the
convexity forwards and outwards, and therein differing from
the usual form m Odontocetes. The distance between the
horns of the crescent is 2^ in. ; the inner (mesial) horn being
rather further forward (1-| in.) than the outer one, and about
12 in. from the tip of the snout (measured after the blubber
had been removed). Von Haast states that the " slit was 2 in.
long, of which 1^ in. was on the left side and -| in. on the right
side." In my own specimen it appeared to be wholly on the
left of the middle line.

Without going into details, which I have published else-
where, I may briefly describe the apparatus connected with
the blowhole. The crescent leads into a wide, shallow pit or
vestibule, closed by a fleshy valve, on raising which the two nos-
trils are seen. The left one is a wide crescentic aperture lead-
ing into a wide circular and simple canal, which passes directly
downwards through the skull to open into the naso-palatine
canal which communicates with the mouth by the posterior
nares. The right nostril is, however, very small and slit-like,
situated at extreme right corner of the vestibule, and the
canal into which it leads passes obliquely forwards and down-

*This is precisely the length given by Mr. Elliott, who supplied
Professor Owen with the material on which his paper is founded. (See
Trans. Zool. Soc, vi., p. 172.)

158 Transactions. — Zoology.

wards to open into a large chamber, 5 in. by 3 in. in diameter ;
thence a short canal passes into a second chamber of less
dimensions, the hinder wall of which rests against the roof of
the skull. The anterior wall is fleshy, and evidently capable
of considerable movement in contraction and expansion. This
lower chamber is somewhat pear-shaped, with the narrow end
downwards, and thence a very narrow short canal opens into
the naso-palatine canal.

Owing to the removal of the lower jaw I am unable to
describe the form, size, or position of the mouth, which is
described by other zoologists as small, and situated some
distance from the tip of the snout. The lower jaw is pro-
vided on each side with thirteen conical, pointed, and slightly
curved teeth; each tooth fits into a pit in the gum of the upper
jaw. In the upper jaw are only two teeth, situated far for-
ward, and carried by the premaxillary bones. On the right
side the tooth projected from the gum for T3F in., but the left
tooth had only just " cut " the gum, so that only the extreme
tip projected.

The alimentary canal had been torn out of the body, but
the stomach was preserved and the intestines and contents
examined. The length of the intestine is about 32 yards, of
which the small intestine measured 30 yards ; then it dilated
to form a great sac a yard or so in length and 10 in. across,
filled with dark-brown, almost black, fluid of considerable
consistency, which consists of " sepia," or contents of the
ink-sacs of the cuttlefishes upon which the whale had fed.
The stomach contained great quantities of squid-beaks, lenses
of squids' eyes, and pens of squids. Von Haast's suggestion
that the whale feeds on " smaller hydroid zoophytes" is an
error, due partly to the absence of beaks in the stomach of
his specimen. ' Van Beneden and Gervais suggest, from
the form of the teeth, that Cogia probably feeds on fishes
(p. 354) rather than cuttles. I found no trace of fish.

The Skeleton.

As I have above indicated, I was able to obtain a complete
skeleton." There is one bone which, however, may have
been present — the pelvic bone. But I carefully examined the
region in which it should lie, and, moreover, removed and
dissected the penis, of which an illustrated account appears in
another journal.!

* This skeleton has been purchased by the Cambridge University
Zoological Museum; and an illustrated account of certain bones has
been laid before the Zoological Society by me, and will be published in a
forthcoming volume of the Proceedings of the Society.

fP.Z.S., 1901, vol. ii., p. 107.

Benham. — On the Lesser Sperm Whale.

159

Now, as is known, certain structures— the corpora cavernosa
— are attached to the pelvis in mammals, and in some whales
the bone is almost imbedded in this structure ; but in Cogia I
was unable to find it. On the other hand, Wall describes and
figures the pelvis as consisting of four bones in a transverse
row, an inner and outer, more or less quadrangular plates,
on each side. I feel certain that no such bones existed in my
specimen, for I looked specially for them. We may, I think,
conclude that the pelvis is absent, and in this respect Cogia
differs from the sperm whale.

The length of the vertebral column when the cleaned
bones were set in position touching one another is 6ft. 8 in.,
which, with the skull, measuring 1 ft. 3|in., gives a total of
7 ft. 11^ in. for the axial skeleton. To this must be added
several inches for the intravertebral discs. The epiphyses are
separate.

The seven cervicals are in this genus entirely fused ;
and the usual evidences of the individual vertebrae, such as
neural arches, spines, and transverse processes, are almost
entirely obliterated. The atlas has its outlines distinct
enough, and the neural arch and transverse process of the
second vertebra are evident, while the seventh is also well
marked out, but the intervening four vertebrae are so
fused that it is practically impossible to distinguish their

boundaries : —

Cervical Vertebral Mass.

Greatest
Height.

Centrum.

Greatest
Length.

Height.

Breadth.

Anterior.

Posterior.

Anterior.

Posterior.

45 mm.

107 mm.

30 mm.

38 mm.

126 mm.

57 mm.

In this case the total length is measured along the
ventral mid-line ; the height, from the ventral mid-line to tip
of the neural spine, which projects backwards from the hinder
end of the mass, which is, really, the height of the 7th
cervical vertebra. The anterior central breadth is across
the facets from the occipital condyles.

This cervical mass is followed by forty-six free vertebrae,
giving a total of fifty-three vertebrae, of which thirteen are
thoracic, bearing ribs,* nine are lumbar, and twenty-three are
caudal, of which the first thirteen bear chevrons. Von Haast's

* The 13th thoracic has on left side a small articular surface at the
end of the transverse process, but on the right fide this is absent.

160 Transactions. — Zoology.

specimen contained only fifty vertebrae, which are made up of
seven cervical, twelve thoracic, eleven lumbar, and twenty
caudal, with only eight chevrons. Wall's Australian specimen
contains fifty-one vertebrae — seven cervical, fourteen thoracic,
nine lumbar, and twenty-one caudal — with thirteen chevrons ;
KrefiVs, fifty-five vertebrae — seven cervical, thirteen thoracic,
nine lumbar, and twenty-six caudal — with ten chevrons. In
Wall's specimen the 14th rib is represented in the figure as
quite a small nodule, entirely unconnected with the vertebral
column, and is only l^in. in length, in contrast to the 13th
rib, measuring Hi in. In Krefft's specimen, too, the last
(13th) rib is much smaller (4 in.) than the 12th (12 in.) on
the left side.

In addition to the twelve pairs of long ribs, the measure-
ments of which are given below, I found amongst the debris
of the macerating-pan, which had been carefully preserved
by the taxidermist (Mr. Jennings, who took a very great
deal of trouble to preserve every piece of bone and cartilage),
a small bone, measuring liin. in length {i.e., 35 mm.) by
about fin. (9mm.) in greatest breadth: this appears to be
a 13th rib of the left side. One end of this small bone is
broader than the other, and appears to be the lower end.
One surface of this bone is flat, the other strongly convex,
and the general form agrees precisely with the shape of the
12th rib just below its curved region. Moreover, we found a
long piece of cartilage, 4 in. long, broader at one end and pointed
at the other, flattened and curved, which I believe to be the
unossified distal portion of the rib. The proximal cartilage
which may have connected this rib to the 13th thoracic ver-
tebra is, unfortunately, missing ; possibly the connection was
ligamentous. We found no corresponding bone for the right
side, but a short piece of cartilage, about 1 in. in length,
corresponding to the upper end of the aforementioned car-
tilage, indicating the possible existence of a 13th rib on
right side. There can be no doubt but that, except in a very
carefully macerated skeleton, this last rib would be overlooked,
and in skeletons found on shore there is little likelihood of its
being preserved.

The figure given by Wall (who only found the ribs of right
side and the 1st left rib) is wrong, in that he places this 14th
rib in line with the lower end of the preceding one ; it
should be in line with the upper end, just where the curve
commences to descend.

Van Beneden and Gervais, in the brief account (p. 515)
given of an incomplete skeleton from Japan, find thirteen
thoracic vertebrae, recognisable by articular facets for ribs, but
add " there may have been fourteen pairs of ribs, the last
being free."

Benham. — On the Lesser Sperm Whale.
Measubement of Vertebra.

161

ra.

43

cx

a

<B

43

'3
W

43

2
<s
u

«

Centrum.

Hy

Verteb

Transverse
Diameter.

Vertical
Diameter.

papophysis.

An-
terior
Face.

Pos-
terior
Face.

An-
terior
Face.

Pos-
terior
Face.

An- Pos-
terior terior
Face. Face.

Thoracic 1

Mm.
25

Mm.
87

Mm.
106

Mm.
43

Mm.
47

Mm.
38

Mm.

M

m. Mm.

//

2

31

123

112

44

44

38

ti

3

35

135

111

42

43

39

It

4

40

143

108

40

45

40

tt

5

40

149

106

42

44

38

tt

6

42

148

100

43

47

38

tl

7

44

150

105

43

46

38

41

tt

8

47

154

114

45

46

40

43

tt

9

50

157

130

47

49

42

. .

10

51

161

142

50

51

45

. .

„

11

53

165

157

50

53

44

47

,

//

12

55

170

104

54

55

47

49

m

13

56

172

182

54

55

48

50

2

Lumbar J

57

183

181

57

, .

48

52

13

»

2

58

184

184

58

57

57

53

]

L5 12

«

3

59

189

185

59

57

53

. ,

]

L9 20

«

4

61

191

185

58

59

53

55

i

21 20

■

5

60

192

183

59

57

54

56

(

21 21

a

6

59

189

181

58

58

54

57

i

12 25

w

7

59

182

177

59

58

55

57

i

55 25

a

8

59

177

173

58

58

54

57

i

23 20

„

9

59

163

165

60

60

56

56

c

20 17

Caudal

1

58

145

154

60

. .

55

58

]

L2

2

57

122

145

60

. ,

57

58

w

3

55

112

128

58

. ,

56

57

„

4

53

102

108

57

. ,

55

. ,

a

5

50

96

92

56

55

54

53

a

6

48

92

80

55

54

52

53

a

7

46

84

70

54

51

52

50

n

8

44

73

58

52

49

50

49

a

9

41

70

54

50

49

49

46

n

10

40

65

50

50

45

49

45

a

11

37

57

42

46

45

45

46

a

12

32

50

38

43

41

43

41

„

13

26

40

41

40

36

35

36

„

14

21

33

36

32

26

30

29

a

15

19

29

34

30

24

26

20

a

16

18

24

32

26

22

23

18

a

17

16

24

31

24

20

20

16

a

18
19

14
13

20

18

27
25

21

22

18

18

a

20
21

13

12

15
11

22
19

a

22

12

11

15

a

23

10

8

11

11

162 Transactions. — Zoology.

The foregoing table gives the principal measurements of the
vertebrae : these are in millimeters, and taken with calipers.
The length of the vertebra is the length of centrum mea-
sured from the centres of the epiphyses. The height is the
greatest distance from the ventral surface of the centrum to
tip of the neural spine. The breadth is taken from tip to tip
of the tranverse processes where they exist, or across the
widest part of centrum where the transverse processes are
absent. The diameters of the centrum, or body of the ver-
tebrae, are taken at the anterior and posterior extremities of
the body itself.

It will be noted that the bodies of the vertebrae increase in
size up to the middle of the lumbar series, and then decrease.
This increase is quite gradual, but in the case of the decrease
in height there is a sudden drop at the end of the lumbar
series, owing to the sudden diminution of the neural spine.
The bodies of the vertebrae are much larger in the middle of
the vertebral column, the greater number of caudals having
larger centres than the thoracics, which are relatively
slender.

The hinder caudals, as in other whales, are incompletely
formed — i.e., the neural arch is imperfectly closed above; the
11th caudal has no neural spine, though the right and left
neural laminae meet, but in the 12th they do not meet, and by
the 14th they are practically non-existent, so that the 15th et
seq. consist of centrum only. The lumbar vertebrae exhibit a
peculiarity, which appears to be characteristic, in the presence
of the anterior and posterior prominences on the ventral sur-
face of the centra, in the mid-line.

I have not thought it necessary to reproduce my detailed
notes as to the form of the individual vertebrae. They are, on
the whole, closely similar to those of the sperm whale (Phy-
seter macrocephalus) as described by Flower ; while the gene-
ral appearance of the entire skeleton has been figured — more
or less imperfectly, it is true — by Owen, Wall, Van Beneden
and Gervais, and Von Haast.

The Chevrons. — The usual form of these bones is Y-shaped
— i.e., each consists of a right and left lamina meeting at an
acute angle, and the fused plate so formed is produced down-
wards to form a keel. But there are variations of this type.
The 1st chevron is U-shaped, each lamina having an outer
face which is very convex; and, further, they only meet over
a comparatively short area, so that there is no keel. The
7th, again, is V-shaped, the keel being practically absent ;
while the 12th is a short half-cylinder of bone with a shallow
groove on its upper surface. It will be noticed that the 3rd
chevron is the largest of the series.

Benham. — On the Lesser Sperm Whale. 163

Chevron Bones.

Vertical Diameter

(Height).

Anteroposterior
Diameter

Transverse
Diameter

(Length).

(Breadth).

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

J.Su • • • •

39

28

30

2nd..

61

26

35

3rd ..

70

33

36

4th ..

65

29

35

5th ..

57

27

37

6th ..

50

26

34

7 th ..

41

25

32

8th ..

32

25

29

9th ..

28

25

28

10th ..

24

23

26

11th ..

20

21

24

12th ..

17

17

22

13th ..

10

12

20

The Bibs. — Of the thirteen ribs four are connected to the
sternum by sternal ribs. The first vertebral rib, as in other
cases, is much stouter and shorter than the following. It is
broad, compressed antero-posteriorly and expanded distally.
It has a distinctly marked "angle" near the proximal
extremity, below which it curves suddenly downwards and
inwards to meet its sternal rib. The proximal extremity
bears distinct capitulum and tuberculum, as Von Haast
noted, and herein our New Zealand specimens appear to
differ from Wall's specimen ; while in Physeter, which is its
nearest ally, Flower states that these are not separate and
distinct.

The two articular facets are nearly of equal size, though
the capitulum is slightly the smaller. They are separated by
a small "neck" measuring 14mm. in length. This capitu-
lum articulates with a conspicuous facet at the side of the
hinder end of the cervical mass— i.e., of the 7th cervical
vertebra. The tuberculum, of course, articulates with the
transverse process of the first thoracic.

The 2nd rib is much longer, but less stout ; it is flattened
and broad, however, like the first.

The capitulum and tuberculum are separated by a distance
of 20 mm., the former being rather the larger facet of the two.
The angle is well marked, but less acute than in the first rib,
and the curvature is more gradual.

In this and the following four ribs the capitulum articu-
lates with the posterior end of the preceding vertebra only,
and not with its own vertebra.

The 3rd to 6th ribs are practically similar, but the cur-
vature is different, for in the first place the angle is less

164

Transactions . — Zoology.

marked in all the ribs following the 2nd, and the curvature
is more gentle and regular. The upper region, instead of
being horizontal, is inclined downwards, and this general
form is retained by the rest ; but the convexity of the curve
decreases, so that the ribs, as traced backwards, tend to
become straighter.

In the 7th and following ribs the capitulum ceases to
articulate with any vertebra ; it is bluntly pointed, and pro-
bably connected by ligament to the column.

The 13th rib has been described.

There is no important difference between the ribs of the
right and left sides. I add a table of measurements. The
length of the rib is measured in a straight line from the inner
margin of its articular extremity to the inner margin of the
distal extremity. The "curvature" is really the distance of
the most remote point on the inner margin from the line
joining the two extremities of the ribs.

Bibs.

Length.

Curvature.

Mm.

Mm.

1st

• > • •

• •

168

72

2ad

.

. B •

277

100

3rd

.

• ■ •

330

115

4th

. .

• . .

352

115

5th

. .

• • B

355

115

6th

, .

a • •

353

105

7th

. .

• ■ •

365

93

8th

.

• • •

343

73

9oh

. .

• • ■

312

61

10th

. .

• > ■

285

55

11th

. .

• • •

260

46

12th

, .

• • •

215

33

13th

•

.

35*

••

The sternum, has not, as far as I am aware, received a
detailed description by any previous author, for it was onlv
partially recovered for Wall's specimen, and Von Haast
makes no mention of it. In the present specimen it and the
sternal ribs are complete. It consists of three sternebrae^
the first and second formed of a single bone, the last of a pair
of small bones imbedded in cartilage. There are four pairs of
sternal ribs, measuring respectively 90 mm., 75 mm., 60 mm.,.
and 30 mm.

The total length of sternum, including the cartilage at
each extremity, is 260 mm. ; the greatest breadth, measured
just behind the articulation of the first sternal rib, is 155 mm. -r

Together with cartilage above and below.

Bknham. — On the Lesser Sperm Whale.

165

and the least breadth, measured across last sternebra, is
45 mm.

The cartilage of this and other parts of the skeleton has
been treated by the glycerine-gelatine method, and retains its
true form and relations ; but, since the cartilage is not likely
to be present in all skeletons, I give the measurements of the
bony parts as well : —

First bony sternebra —

Length (lower surface) ...
Breadth (anterior end) ...
Breadth (posterior end) . . .
Thickness (dorso-ventral) in middle

Second bony sternebra —
Length

Breadth (anterior end) ...
Breadth (middle)
Breadth (posterior end)...
Thickness

Third bony sternebra —

Right ossicle — Length ...

Breadth
Left ossicle — Length

Breadth . . .
Thickness

The anterior end of the sternum is slightly bent upwards,
but otherwise the bones are flat, with rounded lateral margins.
The 1st sternebra is thinner at anterior than at posterior end.
The thickness increases from the anterior end of sternum
(where it is 8 mm.) to hinder end (13 mm.). The margin of
the last sternebra — or, rather, of each of the two constituent
ossicles — is not rounded, but slopes away from the dorsal
surface outwards and downwards, so that the lower surface
is wider than the upper (43 mm.).

The hyoid bone is very briefly referred to by Wall, and is
rather more fully described by Van Beneden and Gervais,
who figure it. In the Purakanui specimen it was complete,
the bones and cartilages being uninjured.

The basi-hyal is a flat irregularly semicircular bone, at the
anterior margin of which is a pair of cartilages, which evidently
correspond to the bony apex of the basi-hyal of Physeter, but
which in Cogia do not appear to ossify. The thyro-hyal bones
are circular discs imbedded in a large cartilaginous plate.

The anterior cornu consists of two segments, a proximal
short, curved, subcylindrical cartilage (cerato-hyal) and a longer
distal region, in the middle of which is a cylindrical bone (the
stylo-hyal).

Mm.

... ...

... 90

... ...

... 100

... ...

... 60

die

... 10

... 76

. . . • . •

... 54

... ...

... 43

... ...

... 51

...

... 12

... 31

... ...

... 20

. . . ...

... 32

... ...

... 20

• . • ...

... 13

166 Transactions. — Zoology.

The two anterior corrma arise close to one another from
the cartilages referred to as joining the anterior end of the
basi-hyal.

Basi-hyal : Greatest breadth, 84 mm. ; greatest length,
66 mm. ; thickness, 5 mm. ; length of cartilaginous cap, 18 mm. ;
breadth, 20 mm. ; length of ossification in thyro-hyal, 55 mm. ;
breadth, 46 mm. ; length of each half of basi- and thyro-hyal
from anterior end of cap to posterior end of cornu, 156 mm. ;
greatest width across external margins of posterior cornua
188 mm.

Anterior cornu: Total length, 220 mm. ; cerato-hyal car-
tilage (along middle line), 37 mm.; stylo-hyal, ,175 mm. ;
length of bone (along middle line), 65 mm. ; thickness, 15mm. ;
greatest length along hinder margin, 75 mm.

Skeleton of Fore Limb. — This has been but indistinctly
figured by Von Haast, whose specimen was imperfect, and by
Wall, but more accurately by Krefft. The scapula is a nearly
equilateral triangle, the upper border being curved. The
greater part of the outer surface (post-axial fossa) is feebly
concave. The inner surface is nearly flat, but as the anterior
border is slightly everted so as to form a low rounded but
depressed ridge, extending nearly across the bone, and as the
superior border is also somewhat everted, the inner face is
slightly convex.

The spine is but feebly developed, but the acromion is a
large compressed squarish process, obliquely truncated dis-
tally. It bears on its upper margin a shorter process.

The coracoid process is large and well marked, nearly as
long as the acromion, but narrower. The glenoid cup is oval.

Measurements of Scapula, in Millimetres.
Greatest height (measured from highest point of superior

border to anterior margin of glenoid facet) ... 164

Length of posterior border ... ... ... 107

Length of anterior border ... ... ... ... 159

From antero-posterior angle to origin of acromion ... 76
Breadth, greatest (from anterior to posterior angle of

superior border) . . ... ... ... 184

Breadth immediately above acromion ... ... 83

Breadth from posterior margin of glenoid to tip of acro-
mion... ... ... ... ... ... 101

Acromion: Length ... ... ... ... 48

Acromion: Vertical height, near root ... ... 35

From posterior margin of glenoid to end of coracoid ... 84

From anterior margin of glenoid to end of ccracoid ... 47

Coracoid: Height at root ... ... ... ... 22

Glenoid facet : Length ... ... ... ... 46

Glenoid facet : Width ... ... ... 31

Benham. — On the Leaser Sperm Whale. 167

The humerus is provided with a small deltoid crest 15 mm.
long and 5 mm. in height. The head and tubercle are
firmly united to the end of the shaft, as is also the distal
epiphysis ; but the epiphyses of the radius and ulna are
not as yet united to these bones. Each of these epiphyses
is still imbedded in a great mass of cartilage and is in-
visible in the preserved specimen ; the bone can, how-
ever, be felt by probing the cartilage with a needle. The
proximal epiphysial cartilage of the ulna is prolonged
downwards to form a spur on the post-axial side of the
limb, which in Physeter is represented by a bony olecranon.
Possibly this becomes ossified in a fully matured animal,
though it is not shown in Von Haast's drawings ; but the
photograph accompanying the second edition of Wall's paper
and the woodcut in Krefft's just indicate a small process here.

The carpal bones are five in number, three in the proximal
row and two in the distal. Each is an irregular circular
disc of bone imbedded in cartilage, with vertical sides. The
pisiform is cartilaginous. There is, too, a curious prolonga-
tion of the distal epiphysial cartilage of the radius, which
extends outside the pre-axial carpal and touches the 1st meta-
carpal.

In the fingers each phalanx is provided with its own
epiphysial cartilage, but with no bony epiphysis, and the
neighbouring cartilages are distinct, not fused as in Mys-
tacocetes. The metacarpals are short, not much longer than
the phalanges.

The 1st digit consists of a rounded metacarpal resembling a
carpal. This is followed by a long phalanx and a shorter one.
In the 2nd the metacarpal is broader than that of the other
digits, but not so long as in the 3rd. This is followed by ten
phalanges, of which the terminal is very small, and the three
sub-terminals are circular. The 3rd has seven phalanges, the
4th six phalanges, and the 5th three phalanges, which are all
nearly circular, as are the terminals of the other digits. On
the left hand the 1st has two phalanges, rather larger than in
the right ; the 2nd has nine, the 3rd seven, the 4th six, and
the 5th two only.

The lengths of the digits in ascending order are — I. shortest,
V., IV., III., II. The following are the lengths of the digits :
Right hand — The 1st measures 55 mm. along pre-axial border,
and including cartilage; 2nd, 183mm.; 3rd, 148mm.; 4th,
102 mm. ; 5th, 68 mm. The terminal cartilages are missing in
the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th digits. Left hand — The 1st mea-
sures 52 mm.; 2nd, 185 mm.; 3rd, 158 mm.; 4th, 114 mm.;
5th, 52 mm.

The total length of limb from head of humerus to tip of
2nd digit is 372 mm.

168 Transactions. — Zoology.

Humerus: Length (including cartilage), 95mm.; bone
only, 65 mm. Transverse diameter of bone — Upper end,
45 mm. ; lower end, 50 mm. Thickness, 24 mm.

Eadius : Length along pre-axial side, 75 mm. ; post-axial,
60mm. Length of bone only (along its middle), 60mm.
Least breadth (along its middle), 30 mm. Thickness, 12 mm.

Ulna: Total length along post-axial, 63mm.; pre-axial,
60 mm. Total length bone (in middle), 55 mm. Least
breadth, 26mm. Thickness, 10mm. Olecranon, 25 mm.

Total breadth at distal end of RU. (including cartilage),
80 mm.

In the 2nd edition of Wall's paper a photograph of the
right limb is given, which appears to agree well with the
limb of the present specimen, although the bones of the
former had to be pieced together, and were not found in
situ, so that the cartilaginous parts do not exhibit that
characteristic feature above referred to. Wall describes
" seven " carpal bones, but it is pretty evident that the
"two linear transverse bones" are the distal epiphyses of
the radius and ulna, at the ends of which he locates them.
The remaining five are accurately shown in the photograph
and described in the text. It is a more accurate representa-
tion of affairs than the woodcut illustrating Krefft's paper.
The figure also seems to show the peculiar prolongation of the
cartilage from the radial epiphysis towards the metacarpal of
the first digit. The pisiform, however, is not shown.

Bibliography.

1. Van Beneden and Gervais. " Osteographie des Cetaces,'
1880, pp. 349 and 515, pis. 20 and 61.

2. Gray. Zoology of " Erebus " and " Terror," 1846.

3. Von Haast. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vi., 1873, p. 97.

4. Krefft. P.Z.S., 1865, p. 708.

5. Owen. Trans. Zool. Soc, vi., 1865, pp. 30 and 171.

6. Wall. " Skeleton of New Sperm Whale (Euph. grayt)."
Australian Museum, 1887 (2nd ed.).

Hutton. — Diptera of Southern Islands. 169

Art. XIV. — On a Small Collection of Diptera from the
Southern Islands of New Zealand.

By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.E.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd July, 1901.']

This collection was made by myself last January, when, at
the invitation of His Excellency the Earl of Eanfurly, I
visited the islands in the Government steamer " Hinemoa."
The time for collecting was short. I landed once on the
Snares, five times on Auckland Islands, once on Camp-
bell Island, and once on Antipodes Island. From what
I saw I am convinced that there are many more species
to be obtained. I saw spiders on all the islands, and
a millepede on Auckland Islands ; but, unfortunately, my
foot slipped just as I was going to put it in a bottle and I
could not find it again. The common house-fly (Musca
domestica) was common on the steamer, but I did not find
it on any of the islands. This may be due to the fact of
there being no horses on the islands. Also, Calliphora
quadrimaculata came freely on board while we were lying
at the Auckland Islands, but all left before we got to Camp-
bell Island, only a few hours' steaming, and I did not find the
species there at all. These facts show that flies are not so
easily spread by steamers as is commonly supposed.

Simulium vexans.

S. vexans, Mik, Verh. d. zool.-bot. Gesell. in Wien, vol. xxxi.,

p. 201 (1881).

" Fern. — Nigro-fuscum, polline cinerascenti obtectum,
fronte thoracisque dorso orichalceo-pilosulis ; halteribus
pallidis, pedibus fuscis, geniculis metatarsique posticis pallidis.
Alarum venis posterioribus sat crassis. Long. corp. 3 mm.,
long. alar. 3-3 mm." (Mik).

Hob. Auckland Islands. Not very abundant.

This species differs from S. australiense in being larger, in
the absence of yellow spots from the shoulders, and in the
femora and tibiae being dark ; also, the fifth and sixth longi-
tudinal veins are stronger.

There are ten joints in the antennae.

Beris micans.

B. micans, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii., p. 6 (1901).

Hah. The Snares.

A single specimen. The antennae are very dark-brown.

170 Transactions. — Zoology.

Empis, sp. ind.
There is in the collection a specimen from the Auckland
Islands belonging to this genus, but it is not in a sufficiently
good state to allow of description.

Helophilus campbellicus, sp. nov.

Female. — Vertex blackish olivaceous, with black hairs ;
face, including a band above the antennae, fulvous, shining.
Antennas black, the third joint fulvous margined with black.
Proboscis black ; a few white hairs on the cheeks. Thorax
blackish olivaceous, with four broad grey bands and a
median narrow grey line. Scutellum tawny, pale at the tip.
Abdomen metallic bronzy-green, with a few scattered white
hairs, especially at the sides and below. Legs fuscous ; the
tibiae inside and the tarsi fulvous. Halteres fuscous, tipped
with red. Alulae white. Wings tinged with brown, the
veins black, passing into brown at their insertions. Length,
11 mm. ; wing, 10^ mm.

Hab. Campbell Island. A single specimen.

This species differs from H. chathamensis and from
H. latifrons in the colour of the abdomen and in the white
hairs with which it is partially clothed. In general appear-
ance it closely resembles Galliphora eudypti, but I do not
suppose that this is caused by mimicry.

Calliphora quadrimaculata.

Length, 10-11 mm. ; wing, 9 mm.

Hab. Auckland Islands. Very common.

Calliphora icela.

Length, 8 mm.; wing, 7^ mm.

Hab. Auckland Islands. A single specimen.

Calliphora eudypti, sp. nov.

Frontal band of the head blackish-brown, the sides and
cheeks brownish-yellow in some lights, brown in others, some-
times yellow, with a brown transverse band. Eyes bare.
Antennae with the first and second joints brown, the third
black, sometimes rufous at the base. Proboscis black. Palpi
orange or tawny. Thorax bluish-black, with hoary pollen,
and three longitudinal black stripes. An oval orange spot on
each side of the prothorax, and another on each side of the
metathorax. Scutellum bluish-black. Abdomen metallic
bronzy-green, with scattered black hairs. Legs tawny or
rufous ; the fore femora for nearly the whole length, the middle
and hind tibiae on the basal half, black. Halteres rufous-
orange. Alulae brownish, margined with fulvous. Wings
colourless ; the first posterior cell open, the apical transverse

Hutton. — Diptera of Southern Islands. 171

vein only slightly curved backwards near the bend ; posterior
transverse vein slightly sinuated. Veins black, becoming
bright-rufous at their insertions. Length, 8-10 mm.; wing,
7-8 mm.

Hab. Snares, Auckland Islands, and Campbell Island.
Especially abundant at the penguin rookeries on the Snares.
The Campbell Island specimens have the legs darker, and
more black on the femora.

This and the following species are very different from those
of New Zealand in the colour of the abdomen, and approach
more to the species from Tasmania. Perhaps G. tibialis is
the nearest ally of G. eudypti; but in that species the abdo-
men is tessellated with yellow on an olive ground, and the
antennae are fulvous.

Calliphora antipodea, sp. nov.

Head black, with a narrow white band on each side of the
face below the insertion of the antennae. Antennae black.
Thorax and scutellum blackish -blue. Abdomen metallic
bronzy-green, with scattered black hairs. Legs black. Hal-
teres rufous-orange. Wings colourless ; like those of C. eu-
dypti, except that the apical transverse vein is nearly straight.
Length, 7^ mm. ; wing, 7f mm.

Hab. Antipodes Island.

This species, perhaps, comes nearest to C. clausa, of Aus-
tralia ; but there is no grey on the face, the third joint of the
antennae is black, there are no blue reflections on the abdo-
men, and the first posterior cell is not closed.

Tricophthicus villosus, sp. nov.

Vertex jet-black, face yellowish-white ; antennae and pro-
boscis black. Third joint of the antennae about one and a
half times the length of the second ; arista minutely pubes-
cent. Eyes hairy. Palpi long and narrow. Head hairy.
Thorax brownish-grey, with three obscure longitudinal black
bands, generally broken ; a number of short black hairs
among the longer ones. Abdomen grey ; the second to
fourth segments with a pair of triangular black spots, the
fifth segment with a central black line. Legs brown ; the
tibiae lighter than the femora, which are almost black.
Halteres fulvous. Alulae brownish-white, margined with
brown. Wings slightly tinged with brown ; the veins dark-
brown, almost black. Auxiliary vein distinct from the first
longitudinal ; the posterior cross-vein nearly straight. Length,
9 mm. ; wing, 8 mm.

Hab. Auckland Islands.

This species differs from T. dolosus in being darker in

172 Transactions. — Zoology.

colour and more hairy. The abdomen of the male is espe-
cially hairy.

Homalomyia fraxinea, Hutton.
Hab. Auckland Islands and the Antipodes.

Homalomyia fuliginosa, Hutton.
Hab. The Snares.

Limnophora aucklandica, sp. nov.

Eyes wide apart; vertex dark-brown, face yellow. An-
tennae dark-brown, the third joint about one and a half
times the length of the second ; arista pubescent. Eyes naked.
Ocellar and vertical cephalic bristles. Thorax reddish-brown,
with three obscure biack lines. Abdomen browTn, with grey
spots on each side of the segments. Legs dark-brown ; the
tibiee testaceous, the femora with grey pollen. Halteres
fulvous. Alulae white, unequal. Wings without spots ; the
veins black, passing into fulvous at the insertions. Distance
between the cross-veins about one and a half times the
length of the posterior cross-vein. The sixth and seventh
longitudinals well marked, the seventh rather the longer.
Length, 7 mm. ; wing, 7 mm.

Hab. Auckland Islands.

Ccelopa littoralis, Hutton.

Legs rather lighter in colour than in New Zealand speci-
mens.

Hab. Auckland Islands and Campbell Island.

In this species and the next there are no oral vibrissa?,
and perhaps they would be better placed in Actora. But
there are no costal bristles either.

Ccelopa curvipes, sp. nov.

Vertex reddish-bi'Own, the ocellar triangle and sides of
the face grey ; a spot between the antennae rufous, dusted
with grey. Antennae piceous, the arista pubescent. Pro-
boscis and palpi piceous. Thorax and abdomen brown, the
former dusted with grey, especially on the sides. Legs
fulvous ; the tibiae clouded with fuscous, but very variable.
Hind legs elongated, the tibiae much curved inwards.
Halteres pale - brown. Wings colourless, unspotted, the
veins brown ; no bristles on the costa. Chief cross-vein
short ; the first posterior cell broadest opposite to the pos-
terior cross-vein. Length, $ 4} ram., 2 5H| mm. ; wing,
3 4 mm., $ 7 mm.

Hab. Auckland Island. On the sea-shore.

Easily distinguished by its elongated and curved hind
legs.

Hutton. — Diptera of Southern Islands. 173

Coelopa rufa, sp. nov.

Vertex dark-brown ; the face and two first joints of the
antennae fulvous. Proboscis and palpi piceous. Thorax and
abdomen brown, dusted with grey. Legs fulvous, the femora
fuscous in the middle for the greater part of their length.
Wings colourless ; the veins brown, passing into fulvous at
their insertions. Length, 5 5 mm.; wing, 5 mm.

Hab. The Snares.

Heteromyza laquei, sp. nov.

Fulvous, paler below than above ; the thorax with several
narrow dark lines ; abdomen brown above. Front broad.
Antennae testaceous, the third joint nearly round, consider-
ably longer than the second ; arista bare. Oral vibrissa? pre-
sent, but no bristles on the face. Three bristles in the
median dorsal row of the mesonotum, not including those of
the scutellum. Middle tibiae with strong spurs, all of them
with a subapical bristle. Wings pale-tawny, the costal border
without any long bristles. Distance between the cross-veins
about one and three-quarter times the length of the posterior
cross-vein. Length, 5 mm. ; wings, 5 mm.

Hab. The Snares.

This species is in appearance much like the New Zealand
species of Lena, but there are no bristles on the costa.

Lauxania carbonaria, sp. nov.

Entirely black except the eyes, which are red ; the
abdomen with greenish submetallic reflections. Apices of the
tibiae and tarsi pale-brown. Third joint of the antennae
linear, its length about three times its breadth ; the arista
bare. There are two pairs of fronto-orbital bristles, none on
the front ; and no oral vibrissas. Tibiae with a preapical
bristle Wings yellowish, the veins fulvous. Distance
between the cross-veins about one a half times the length of
the posterior cross- veiu, which is three-quarters of its own
length from the margin. Length, 3^ mm. ; wing, 4 mm.

Hab. Auckland Islands.

Lonchaea aucklandica, sp. nov.
Front broad, blackish-grey, four fronto-orbital bristles in a
row. Face with bristles, one pair of which, near the mouth,
are longer than the others. Eyes red. Palpi fulvous. An-
tennae short ; the third joint oval, truncated, its length less
than twice its breadth ; the arista bare. Thorax and abdo-
men black. Femora black, the tibiae and tarsi brown. No
preapical bristle. Halteres fulvous. Wings nearly colour-
less ; the veins black, getting brown near the insertion. Dis-
tance between the cross-veins one and a half times the length

174 Transactions. — Zoology.

of the posterior cross-vein, which is about three-quarters of
its own length from the margin. Length, 3i mm. ; wing,
3 mm.

Hab. Auckland Islands.

Milichia littorea, sp. nov.

Brown ; sides of the face, ocellar triangle, and four stripes
on the thorax darker. Eyes round. Antennae and palpi
piceous ; third joint of the antennas round ; the arista bare.
Mouth large, oval, the anterior margin thin and sharp, with a
pair of small vibrissas. Legs and lower surface dark-brown,
dusted with grey. Abdomen short. Mesonotum with bristles
in the middle, four in a row. Halteres fulvous. Wings fus-
cous, with pale spots, three in the submarginal cell, two in
the first posterior cell, one in the second posterior, and one in
the discal cell. The costal, exterior part of marginal, and
first basal cells are clear. There are three distinct basal cells.
Veins verv dark-brown. No incision on the costa before the
tip of the first longitudinal vein. Posterior cross-vein present,
situated nearly in the middle of the wing ; not much more
than its own length from the margin. The distance between
the cross- veins is quite twice the length of the posterior cross-
vein. Length, 3^ mm. ; wing, 4^ mm.

Hab. Antipodes Island. On pools between tide-marks.

Ochthiphila australis, sp. nov.

Black, the eyes reddish. Halteres white. Abdomen
narrow. Front with long bristles. No oral vibrissas, but a
row of bristles on each side of the mouth. Mesonotum with
two rows of five bristles each in the middle. Wings fuscous ;
basal cells small but distinct. Distance between the cross-
veins about twice the length of the posterior cross- vein, which
is situated rather more than its own length from the margin.
Length, 2 mm. ; wing, 3 mm.

Hab. Campbell Island.

Drosophila enderbii, sp. nov.

Blackish-brown, the face with yellowish tomentum. A
little grey tomentum on the lower surface and the legs. A
row of bristles on each side of the face, but none on the
mouth. Arista with a row of six bristles. Wings clear, the
veins black. Only one basal cell. Distance between the
cross-veiUs about three times the length of the posterior
cross- vein, which is situated at about its own length from
the margin. Length, 2 mm. ; wing, 2 mm.

Hab. Enderby Island, Auckland group.

Smaller and darker than any of the described New
Zealand species.

Hutton and Broun. — Beetles of Auckland Islands. 175

Asteia levis, sp. nov.

Head fulvous, the eyes black. Antenna? short, the third
joint round ; arista slender, bare. Front broad. Thorax and
abdomen brown above, pale-fulvous below. Legs pale-
fulvous. Wings slightly tinged with yellow, the veins
fulvous. No posterior cross-vein. Second longitudinal
short, nearly attaining to half the length of the wing.
Length, 3 mm. ; wing, 3^ mm.

Hab. Stewart Island.

This species differs from A. amcena in having no hairs on
the arista, and in the second longitudinal vein being longer.

Art. XV. — The Beetles of the Auckland Islands.

By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.B.S., with Descriptions of Neiu
Species by Captain T. Broun, F.E.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th November,

1901.]

Last January, at the invitation of His Excellency the Earl of
Ranfurly, I visited the southern islands of New Zealand in the
Government s.s. "Hinemoa," commanded by Captain Bollans.
The chief object of our visit, in addition to examining the pro-
vision depots, was to make a collection of birds for the British
Museum. But, as I had nothing to do with the collection of
the specimens, I devoted all the time I could to the Diptera.
No systematic attempt was made to collect Coleoptera, and
only five specimens were obtained. These were all new to
science, and belong to four new species and one new genus.
This is a very good proof that a great deal remains to be done
in collecting insects in these islands. Indeed, it is remark-
able that after the visits of four scientific expeditions to the
Auckland group — -two French, one English, and one German
— so very little should be known about the insects.

Lijperobius Iceviusculus was captured on the high land of
Adam's Island, when the party were going to the albatros
nesting-ground. They were feeding, I believe, on Ligusticum
antipodum. Inocatoptes incertus was obtained on the hi»h
land at the head of Port Eoss, but I do not know on what
plant it was feeding. Both specimens of Euthenarus were
found under stones in Carnley Harbour, near where the
•• Grafton " was wrecked.

I also saw on the islands, several times, a moth which
appeared to be a Crambus, of which I did not take specimens ;

176 Transactions. — Zoology.

also a Myriapod, belonging to the Polydesmidce, which I failed
to secure. On Antipodes Island the magpie moth (Nyctemera
annulata) is common. I also saw spiders on all the islands,
but as my bottles were full of Diptera I could not collect
them.

The following is a list of the beetles at present known
from the Auckland Islands : —

Family Caeabid^.

Calathus rubromarginatus , Blanchard.
Euthenarus cilicollis, Broun.
Euthenarus huttoni, Broun.
Heterodactylus nebrioides, Guerin.
Heterodactyhis castaneus, Blanchard.
Pristanclus brevis, Blanchard.
Oopterus clivmoides, Guerin.
Oopterus plicaticollis, Blanchard.

Family Tenebeionid^:.
Adelium tuberculatum, Guerin.

Family Cueculionid^.
Inocatoptes incertus, Broun.
Lyperobius Iceviusculus , Broun.

Of these all the species and the genera Heterodactylus ,
Pristanclus, and Inocatoptes are endemic. Oopterus and
Lyperobius are confined to New Zealand and the Auckland
Islands. Adelium extends to New Zealand, Australia, Tas-
mania, New Caledonia, and Chili. Calathus is a northern
(Holarctic) genus extending as far south as India and
Mexico. There is only one species in New Zealand, C. zea-
landicus, Bedtenbacher, having been erroneously referred to
this country (see " Zoological Becord, 1891," Insects,
p. 89). It is, however, doubtful whether our southern species-
really belong to Calathus.

Descriptions by Captain T. Beoun, F.E.S.
Group HARPALIDJ1.
Euthenarus (?) cilicollis, sp. nov.

Body fusco-piceous ; elytra with a testaceous streak along
the outer posterior margin of each ; tibiae and antenna? red,
palpi paler. Head rather short, somewhat uneven. Labrum
truncate. Eyes prominent. Thorax one-third broader than
long, its base truncate and minutely ciliate ; the sides
rounded, widest just before the middle, much narrowed

Hutton and Broun — Hepfles of Auckland Islands. 177

behind; posterior angles rectangular but not projecting, the
anterior slightly prominent but obtuse; disc a little convex,
the longitudinal dorsal groove feebly impressed, the simple
basal fossae rather shallow and almost united by a curved
transversal impression which is enlarged at the middle ;
there are some slight linear impressions across the surface.
Elytra quite oval, slightly convex, not sinuate posteriorly ;
humeral angles obsolete ; with simple regular striae ; inter-
stices impunctate. Anterior tibia slightly thickened and
ciliate at the extremity. Tarsi with brush-like soles, joints
2-4, of the front pair only, dilated and cordiform ; the basal
articulation longer, slender at base but broad at apex ; the
fourth joint deeply emarginate and with its inner angle some-
what prolonged ; the posterior tarsi elongate, their fourth
joint excavate above and prolonged underneath, without
definite angles but longer externally, and cihate below.
Antenna reaching backwards to the shoulders, their seven
terminal joints pubescent ; the first is as elongate as the
fourth but stouter, the second is one-third shorter than the
following one. $. Length, 5 \ lines ; breadth, 2§ lines.

Auckland Islands. One mutilated individual has been
placed at my disposal by Captain Hutton.

Obs. It was at first intended that this and the following
species should be placed with Blanchard's Calathits rubromar-
ginatus, but after studying the structure of the tarsi it became-
apparent that the present species should not be located in
the group Anchomenida. Although Blanchard's species is
unknown to me except by description, I have little hesitation
in uniting it with those now described as exponents of one
genus ; but I am not prepared to make a new generic name:
for them until more specimens can be got for dissection.
Under these circumstances, they are placed temporarily with
Euthenarus in the group Harpalidce.

B. huttoni, sp. nov.

Body rufo-piceous. slightly nitid ; legs pitchy-red, an-
tennae and palpi paler. Head finely rugose, not short.
Thorax about as long as broad, widest near the middle, only
moderately rounded there ;' anterior angles slightly pro-
minent, the basal rectangular, and, owing to the large and
deep fossae, appearing as if slightly elevated ; the median
dorsal groove is distinct. Scutellum short. Elytra oblong-
oval, rather broad, with fine, regular, impunctate striae ;
interstices simple, g . Length, o lines ; breadth, 2-§- lines.

Auckland Islands. One specimen only, preserved in the
Canterbury Museum. This species has been named in
honour of its discoverer.

In this species the eyes are less prominent and more dis-
12

178 Transactions. — Zoology.

tant from the thoracic margin than in E. cilicollis. The
thorax is rather longer, and differs in form ; its sides are quite
obviously marginated, and the basal foveae are large and deeply
impressed. The elytra also differ in contour, owing chiefly
to being much less narrowed towards the shoulders.

Group OTIOBHYNCHIDyE.
Inocatoptes, gen. nov.

Rostrum moderately short and broad. Scrobe well de-
fined near the apex, but becoming shallow behind. Eyes
moderately prominent, distinctly facetted, subtruncate in
front. Prosternum incurved. Mesostcrnum with a raised
lamina between the coxae. Abdomen finely setose ; basal seg-
ment medially emarginate, third and fourth short.

This should be located between Inophlceus and Catoptes.
From the latter it differs in the shape of the eyes, in the direc-
tion of the scrobes, and in the less-developed ocular lobes.
From the former it may be at once distinguished by the
•absence of the double series of ciliae at the extremity of the
posterior tibiae, by the distinct intercoxal process, and by the
absence of the usual nodosities and acuminate apices of the
elytra.

Inocatoptes incertus, sp. nov.

Subovate, without nodiform elevations, thinly clothed with
decumbent yellowish setae. Rostrum rather flat, with a fine
longitudinal carina, terminating in a fovea between the eyes.
Scajie clavate at extremity, extending to back part of the eye.
Funiculus sparsely setose ; basal two joints almost equally
elongate, third slightly longer than fourth. Club finely pubes-
cent, elongate-oval, its three joints of nearly equal length.
Thorax transverse, base and apex truncate ; uneven above,
but without distinct sculpture. Scutellum distinct. Elytra
oviform, a little broader at the base than the thorax ; each
elytron with six discoidal series of moderate punctures, the
external two coarser; the four nearest the suture form fine
striae. Legs elongate, femora incrassate near the middle ;
tibiae setose, the front pair slightly arcuate externally, some-
what thickened and produced at the inner apices. Tarsi.
normal. Length (rost. included), 8 lines ; breadth, 3-^ lines.

Colouration has not been alluded to because the only
specimen extant is somewhat immature, and, although it
is rufo-castaneous, it may become dark or greyish. The de-
ciduous supplementary mandibles are conspicuous.

Described from one example in the Canterbury Museum.
It was found on the main island, Auckland group, by the
Hon. H. C. Butler. Type in the Canterbury Museum.

Hutton. — On New Diptera. 179

Group MOLYTIDiE.

Lyperobius laeviusculus, sp. nov.

Pitchy-black, sometimes rufo-piceous; hind-body sparingly
clothed with depressed, testaceous, setiform scales. Bostrum
nearly plane above, medially narrowed, rather finely
punctured. Head broader than the rostrum, with a shallow
median groove before the eyes and some transversal linear
impressions behind. Eyes more rotundate than those of the
typical species. Scrobes deep in front, but quite indefinite
behind. Scape thickened apically, attaining the back of the
eye. Funiculus sparsely pilose, second joint only slightly
shorter than the first ; joints 3-7 moniliform. Club Particu-
late, rather elongate, finely pubescent. Thorax somewhat un-
even, without central carina, finely punctate. Elytra oblong-
oval, humeral angles narrowed and rounded, rather acuminate
posteriorly ; each elytron indistinctly tricostate, suture
slightly elevated, interstices nearly smooth, with only feebly
impressed series of punctures. Legs rather elongate ; femora
clavate ; tibiae flexuous, without the usual inner armature just
above the extremity ; the anterior pair with pale erect setae
along the inside. Underside nearly smooth, almost nude.
Presternum a little emarginate. Length (rost. included),
10-12 lines ; breadth, 3^—5 lines.

Auckland Islands. Captain Bollans, of the Government
steamer " Hinemoa," found two specimens on Adam's Island.
The larger one has very indefinite elytral costae. One speci-
men retained in Captain Broun's collection, the other placed
in the Canterbury Museum.

Art. XVI. — Additions to the Diptera Fauna of New Zealand.
By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.B.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th November,

1901.]

Family PSYCHODID^.
Genus Psychoda, Latreille, 1796.
Wings pointed ; two simple veins between the forked
veins, the second of these two ending at or before the apex.
Proboscis compressed, the maxillae nearly as long.

Psychoda phalsenoides, Linnaeus.
Dark-brown, with pale-grey hairs on the head and
abdomen and brown hairs on the mesonotum. Antennae

180 Transactions. — Zoology.

with black bands. Wings without spots, pellucid, with pale-
grey hairs on the veins ; veins brownish. Halteres white.
Legs dark-brown, with pale-grey hairs. Length, Hmm. ;
wing, 2 mm.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.), common ; Auckland
(Suter).

Introduced from Europe.

Genus Pericoma, Walker, 1856.

Wings pointed or rounded ; two simple veins between the
forked veins, the second of these two ending distinctly be-
hind the tip of the wing. Proboscis with broad liplets.

Pericoma funebris, sp. nov.

Head and thorax very dark- brown ; thorax nearly bare,
but some white hairs at the root of the wing. Abdomen
paler brown, covered with reddish-brown hairs. Legs brown,
with some white hairs near the tips of the tibiae. Wings
broad, rounded at the apex, densely covered with dark-brown
hairs, passing into reddish-brown a little below the tip.
No spots. The fork of the second longitudinal vein lies
rather inside that of the fourth longitudinal. The anterior
of the two simple veins reaches the margin a little before the
apex of the wing, while the second one is distinctly behind it.
Length, 3^- mm. ; wing, 4 mm.

Hab. Wellington (G. V. Hudson).

Pericoma variegata, sp. nov.

Head and anterior portion of thorax velvety black, the
posterior portion foxy-red. Abdomen brown. Legs brown,
the tarsi blackish. Wings broad and rounded at the tip.
Dark-brown, with spots and streaks of foxy-red and some
white hairs sprinkled through the brown ones. Neuration as
in the last species. Length, 4 mm. ; wing, 5f mm.

Hab. Wellington (G. V. Hudson).

Family CHIRONOMID^E.

Key to the Genera.
Only one basal cell.
Wings bare.

Front metatarsi longer than the tibiae . . Chironomus.

Front metatarsi shorter than the tibiae.

Posterior branch of the fifth longitudinal

vein straight . . . . . . Orthocladius .

Posterior branch of the fifth longitudinal

vein sinuous . . . . . . Camptocladias*

Wings hairy.

Front metatarsi longer than the tibiae . . Tanytarsus.

Two basal cells .. .. .- •• •• Tanypus.

Hutton. — Un New Diptera. • 181

Genus Chironomus, Meigen, 1803.

" Antennae 14-jointed in the male, 7-jointed in the female.
Thorax usually with three stripes. Wings naked. Costal
vein not extending beyond the tip of the third longitudinal.
Fore metatarsus longer than, or occasionally as long as, the
tibia. Anal joint of the male abdomen longer than broad, the
forceps generally filiform or falcate " Skuse).

Key to the Species.

Thorax pale, with dark stripes.
Wings without spots.

Tip of subrnarginal cell acute . . .. C. zealandic

Tip of subrnarginal cell rounded . . . . C. lentus.

Wings with two small blaok spots . . . . C. opivnts.

Thoiax blackish.

Third longitudinal vein slightly curved near the tip C. vavidus.
Third longitudiual stroDgly curved ntar the tip .. C. ignavus.

Chironomus zealandicus.

C. zealandicus, Hudson, Man. N.Z. Ent., p. 43, pi. iv., fig. 2

(1892).

First joint of the antennae pale-yellow, the rest brown,
with brown plumes in the male. Clypeus and palpi dark-
brown. Thorax pale-yellow, with three longitudinal dark
bands, either fuscous or dark- fulvous. The lateral bands
start near the middle and gradually narrow to the posterior
margin, the central one beginning at the collar and ending
near the middle, but continued as a narrow pale-brown
median line to the posterior margin. Pleurae with an oval
brown spot under the wing. Scutellum pale-yellow. Meta-
notum brown. Abdomen brown, with long yellow hairs;
each segment bordered posteriorly with pale-yellowish,
except the second, which is almost entirely brown. Legs
pale-yellow, each joint generally minutely tipped with
brown ; the last joints of the tarsi slightly fuscous. Fore
metatarsus about one and a third times the length of the
tibia ; intermediate tibia less than twice the length of its
metatarsus ; each joint of the tarsi shorter than the ones
before it. Wings hyaline, glabrous ; the costa, cross-vein,
and internal portion of the fourth longitudinal brown. Auxi-
liary vein joining the costa some distance outside of the
cross-vein. Second longitudinal indistinct aud close to the
first. Third longitudinal meeting the costa a little before the
apex of the wing ; submarginal cell acute at the tip. Fourth
longitudinal reaching the margin of the wing a little below
the apex. Length, 6-8 mm. ; wing, 5^ mm.

Hab. Wellington (Hudson) ; Chnstchurch (F. W. H.) ;
Auckland (Suter).

This species is allied to C. nepeanensis, Skuse, but

182 ' Transactions. — Zoology.

differs from it in the colour of the bands on the thorax and
in the fore tibiae not being brown at the base. The Christ-
church specimens have the thorax much darker and less
distinctly marked than those from Wellington and Auckland,
and might, perhaps, be distinguished as a distinct species.

Chironomus lentus, sp. nov.

Female. — Antennae tawny, palpi dark-brown, clypeus black.
Thorax tawny, with three brown longitudinal streaks each bear-
ing a series of tawny hairs ; of these the lateral streaks curve
downwards on the sides of the thorax, and the central stripe
is narrow. Scutellum tawny. Metanotum dark-brown. Ab-
domen brown, with short yellow hairs. Legs pale-tawny,
the joints fuscous. Fore metatarsi about one and a half
times the length of the tibiae. Intermediate tibiae not much
longer than the metatarsi ; each joint of the tarsi shorter
than the one before it. Halteres pale-tawny. Wings hyaline,
the veins pale-tawny. No spots. Auxiliary vein joining the
costa some distance outside the cross-vein. Second longi-
tudinal indistinct, close to the first. Third longitudinal vein
meeting the costa at the apex of the wing ; submarginal cell
rounded at the tip. Fourth longitudinal reaching the margin
considerably below the apex. Fork of the fifth longitudinal a
little outside the cross-vein Length, 4 mm. ; wing, 3Jmm.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

Chironornus opimus, sp. nov.
Male. — Antennae pale - brown ; clypeus brown. Thorax
yellowish-green, with a pair of median dark-brown lines close
together, bordered outside with tawny ; also on the sides, in
front of the wings, a kidney-shaped dark-brown spot bordered
above with tawny. Scutellum pale-green. Metanotum tawny,
broadly tipped with dark-brown. Abdomen bright-green, with
yellow hairs ; the sixth and seventh segments slightly fuscous.
Legs pale-tawny ; the distal end of the fore femora, a band in
the middle of the intermediate and hind femora (as well as
their apices), a broad band at the proximal ends of the fore
tibiae, and narrow bands in the same place of the intermediate
and hind tibiae, as well as the three last joints of the fore tarsi,
brown. The fore metatarsus is nearly one and a half times
the length of the tibia. Halteres green. Wings with two
small black spots, one on the cross-vein, the other at the
apex of the fourth posterior cell. The membrane bare, but
short hairs on the fourth longitudinal vein and on the anterior
branch of the fifth. Third longitudinal much curved back-
wards near the tip, reaching the costa at the apex of the
wing ; the submarginal cell rounded at the tip. Auxiliary
vein joining the costa opposite the cross-vein. Fourth longi-

Hutton. — On New Diptera. 183

tudinal reaches the margin not far from the tip of the third
longitudinal. Fork of the fifth longitudinal considerably out-
side the cross-vein. Length, 4 mm. ; wing, 3 mm.

Female. — Thorax fulvous, with three rows of yellow hairs
and a brown patch on the pleura before the wing. Abdomen
and halteres pale-brown. The rest as in the male.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.) ; Auckland (Suter).

Chironomus pavidus, sp. nov.

Male. — Head blackish-brown; the antennae brown, and
with brown plumes. Thorax blackish-brown, with two longi-
tudinal rows of scattered tawny hairs. Abdomen dark-brown,
with yellowish hairs. Legs pale-tawny, the last joint of the
tarsi fuscous ; the coxa? brown ; the fore metatarsi about one
and a half times the length of the tibiae. Halteres pale-
yellow. Wings and veins bare ; veins almost colourless ; the
membrane with pale iridescent spots or patches, one in front
of the cross-vein, two in the first posterior cell, another in the
fork of the fifth longitudinal vein, and another in the second
posterior cell. These spots are not seen by transmitted light.
The third longitudinal vein meets the costa a little before the
tip ; it is not much curved ; submarginal cell acute at the tip.
Fourth longitudinal ends below the tip and inside the third.
Fork of the fifth a little outside the cross-vem. Length,
4^- mm. ; wing, 3 mm.

Female. — Wings iridescent, but without soots.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

This species differs from G. nubifer, Skuse, in the propor-
tions of the fore metatarsi and tibiae, and probably in colours
also.

Chironomus ignavus, sp. nov.

Male and Female. — Dark-brown, scutellum paler, abdo-
men with pale hairs. Legs pale-tawny, the tarsi fuscous.
Meso- and meta-thorax with a raised central ridge. Fore
metatarsus about one and a quarter times the length of the
tibia. Intermediate metatarsus nearly as long as the tibia.
Halteres pale-brown, with dark tips. Wiugs with a slight
tawny tinge, unspotted ; veins pale-tawny. Third longi-
tudinal vein much curved backward, meeting the costa near
the apex of the wing ; submarginal cell rounded at the tip.
Tip of the fourth longitudinal further from the apex of the
wing chan the third. Fork of the fifth longitudinal slightly
outside the cross-vein. Length, 4-4^- mm. ; wing, 3-3^ mm.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

Genus Okthocladius, V. d. Wulp, 1874.
" Antennae 14-jointed in the male, 7-jointed in the female.
Thorax with three stripes. Wings naked. Third longi-

184 Transactions. — Zoology.

tudinal vein straight or slightly curved, going nearly to the
apex of the wing. Costal vein sometimes extending a little
beyond the tip of the third longitudinal. Posterior branch of
the fifth longitudinal straight or a little bent. Legs uni-
coloured, or only darker at the articulations. Fore meta-
tarsus considerably shorter than the tibia. Forceps of the
male slender" (Skuse).

In the New Zealand species, here described, the thorax is
not striped.

Orthocladius publicus, sp. nov.

Male. — Uniform dull-brown, the legs rather paler. The
fore tibia not much longer than the metatarsus. Abdomen
and legs with distant hairs. Halteres brown. Wings pale-
brown, unspotted, the veins brown. The third longitudinal
vein nearly straight and joining the costa considerably before
the tip of the wing, the costa not produced beyond it. Fork
of the fifth longitudinal lies outside the cross-vein. The
fourth longitudinal ends at the apex of the w7ing. First longi-
tudinal ends nearer to the cross-vein than to the tip of the
third longitudinal. Length, If mm. ; wing, 2 mm.

Female. — The long hairs on the legs are absent.

Hab. Christchurcn (F. W. H.).

Orthocladius cingulatus, sp. nov.

Male. — Dark, shining, brown; the sides of the thorax,
distal ends of the coxae, halteres, and anterior portions of the
second, as well as of the fourth and fifth abdominal segments,
pale-yellow. Legs pale-brown, with short close hairs. Abdo-
men with a few distant hairs. Fore tibia rather more than one
and a half times the length of the metatarsus. Wings hya-
line, the veins brown. The first longitudinal vein reaches the
costa abDut halfway between the cross- vein and the tip of
the third longitudinal. The third longitudinal reaches the
margin a little before the apex of the wing, and the costa is
produced slightly beyond it. The fourth longitudinal ends a
little below the apex of the wing. The fork of the fifth
longitudinal is nearly on a line with the cross-vein. Length,
3 mm. ; wing, 2^ mm.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

Genus Camptocladius, V. d. Wulp, 1874.

Antennae 14-jointed in the male, 7-jointed in the female.
Wings naked. Third longitudinal vein bent upwards, some-
times short and terminating considerably before the apex of
the wing, or running for some distance close along the
anterior margin ; consequently the first posterior cell is very

Hutton. — On New Diptera. 185

broad. Posterior branch of the fifth longitudinal sinuated.
Legs unicoloured, usually black. Fore metatarsus consider-
ably shorter than the tibia. Anal joint in the male short and
broad ; the forceps broad, white, or with white hairs.

Camptocladius vernus, sp. nov.

Blackish-brown, the tibiae and tarsi brown. Fore tibia
about twice the length of the metatarsus. Abdomen and legs
hairy. 'Wings pale-greyish, the veins fulvous, except the
costa and the first and third longitudinals, which are
blackish. Third longitudinal running near the anterior
margin of the wing and ending at a considerable distance
before the apex, the costa being produced beyond the tip of
the third longitudinal. Fourth longitudinal ending at the
apex of the wing, or very slightly below it. The fork of the
fifth longitudinal lies outside the cross-vein ; the posterior
branch is sharply bent backwards to a right angle with the
margin of the wing. Length, 2J mm. ; wing, 2 mm.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

A common species, and about the first to appear in
spring (October).

Genus Tanytarsus, V. d. Wulp, 1874.

" Antennae 14-jointed in the male and 7-jointed in the
female. Wmgs hairy. Third longitudinal vein straight, or
nearly straight, running to the apex of the wing. Posterior
branch of the fifth longitudinal straight, or only slightly bent
backwards. Fore metatarsus longer than the tibia. Forceps
of the male slender" (Skuse).

Tanytarsus vespertinus, sp. nov.

Male. — Head black, antennae and palpi brown. Thorax
tawny, with three dark-brown stripes. Scutellum and meta-
thorax brown. Abdomen greenish-brown. Legs tawny ; the
fore metatarsus nearly one and a half times the tibia.
Halteres yellowish-white. Wings with fine hairs, unspotted.
The third longitudinal joins the costa at a very acute angle
some distance before the apex of the wing, and the costa is
not prolonged beyond it. The fourth longitudinal ends very
slightly below the apex of the wing. The fork of the fifth
longitudinal lies slightly outside the cross-vein. Length,
4 mm. ; wing, 3 mm.

female. — -Yellowish -green, the bands on the thorax
brownish-yeilow. Legs pale-yellowish. The rest like the
.male.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

186 Transactions. — Zoology.

Genus Tanypus, Meigen, 1803.

" Antennae 15-jointed. Wings pubescent. Marginal cross-
vein and second longitudinal distinct. Fork of the fifth longi-
tudinal situated at the base of the posterior cross-vein "
(Skuse).

Key to the Species.
Legs unicoloured, except at the articulations.

Metanotum dark-brown . . . . . . . . T. languidus.

Metanotum fulvous . . . . . . T. debilis.

Tibise and metatarsi wkh a dark band in the middle . . T. mains.

Tanypus languidus, sp. no v.

Male. — Antennae pale-brown, with brown plumes; eyes
and face dark-brown. Thorax pale-yellowish, with a double
central brown stripe reaching halfway, and a lateral stripe
on each side, commencing a little before the end of the median
pair; posterior margin of the mesonotum, and a median line
from the posterior margin towards the central stripes dark-
brown ; scutellum pale-yellow ; metanotum dark-brown.
Abdomen brown, each segment with a square pale-yellow
spot on each side, except on the last two segments. Femora
pale-yellow, broadly tipped with brown ; tibiae and tarsi tawny.
Fore metatarsus about one- half the length of the tibia.
Halteres white. Wings hairy, yellowish, with brown spots on
all three cross-veins, at the tips of the longitudinal veins, and
two each in the first posterior and anal cells ; veins yellow.
Auxiliary vein rather indistinct, not reaching the costa. Third
longitudinal much curved, meeting the costa at the apex of
the wing. Posterior branch of the fifth longitudinal meeting
the margin of the wing at right angles. Marginal cross-vein
joining the costa. Length, 5 mm. ; wing, 4 mm.

Female. — Abdomen brown, the anterior portion of each
segment pale. Legs pale yellowish-tawny, the tips of the
joints brown. Wings broader than in the male, and the
marginal cross-vein joining the tip of the first longitudinal.
Length, 4^ mm. ; wing, 4 mm.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

Tanypus debilis, sp. nov.
Male. — Head and antennas pale-tawny. Thorax pale
greenish-yellow, with a double central brown stripe ending
halfway, and a brown spot on each side opposite the ter-
mination of the stripe. Scutellum pale-green ; metanotum
pale-tawny, with four brown spots. Abdomen green, the
anterior half of each segment darker than the posterior half ;
the hairs white. Legs pale-tawny, the articulations brown.
Fore metatarsus about two-thirds the length of the tibia.
Wings hairy ; the anal angle white, the rest brownish, with
bluish iridescent spots (in reflected light) in the first, second,

Hutton. — On JVpw Diptera. 187

and third posterior cells and in the anal cell, these spots being
more or less bordered with brown ; a dark-brown mark on
the cross-veins. Auxiliary vein indistinct. Third longitudinal
considerably curved near the tip. meeting the costa a little
before the apex of the wing. Marginal cross-vein joining
the first longitudinal below its tip. Both branches of the
fifth longitudinal strong, the posterior meeting the margin
of the wing at right angles. Length, 3 mm. ; wing, 4-J mm.

Female. — Abdomen greenish-brown. Wings without irides-
cent spots. Brown spots on the cross-veins, at the tips of the
longitudinals, and near the apices of the first posterior and

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. II.).

Tanypus malus, sp. nov.

Male. — Head brown ; the antennae tawny, with pale-brown
plumes. Thorax tawny, with two brown median stripes, and
a spot on each side, the median bands nearly broken by a
tawny curved streak. Scutellum dark-tawny. Metanotum
dark-brown. First five segments of the abdomen white, with
brown marks on the anterior portion ; the rest brown. Legs
almost white, with dark articulations and dark median bands
on the tibiae and metatarsi. Fore metatarsus about two-thirds
the length of the tibia. Halteres white. Wings hairy,
white, with many small dark spots. Third longitudinal not
much curved, joining the costa considerably before the apex of
the wing. Marginal cross-vein very short, joining the costa.
Fourth longitudinal rather weak. Posterior branch of the
fifth longitudinal meeting the margin of the wing at right
angles. Length, 4 mm. ; wing, 3 mm.

Female. — -Abdomen brown, banded dark and pale. Length,
3 mm.; wing, 4 mm.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

Family TIPULIDvE (brevipalpi).
Genus Bhypholophus, Kolenati, 1863.

"Two submarginal cells; four posterior cells; discal cell
present or absent. Wings pubescent on the whole surface.
The second longitudinal vein originates at a more or less acute
angle before the middle of the anterior margin ; the subcostal
cross-vein is at a considerable distance (two or three lengths
of the great cross-vein) anterior to the tip of the auxiliary
vein. Antennae 16-jointed. Tibiae without spurs at the tip ;
ungues smooth on the under-side; empodia distinct" (Osten-
Sacken).

This genus differs from Molophilus and Erioptera in having
hairs all over the surface of the wing, instead of on the veins-
only.

188 Transactions. — Zoology.

Rhypholophus insulsus, sp. no v.

Pale-tawny, the joints of the antennae dark-brown at their
bases. Palpi brown. An irregular brown dorsal stripe on the
abdomen. The last three or four joints of the tarsi fuscous.
Halteres pale-tawny. Wings tinged with tawny, the veins
darker ; all the cross-veins slightly bordered with brown, and
a small brown spot at the origin of the second longitudinal
vein. No discal cell. Submarginal cross-vein opposite the
tip of the auxiliary vein. Third posterior cell with a short
petiole. Seventh longitudinal siuuated. Forceps of the male
double ; the outer pair tawny ; the inner pair slender and
dark-brown. Lengch, $ 7 mm.. 5 5-6 mm. ; of antennae,
$ 9 mm., 2 3^mm.; wing, J 9 mm., 2 8 mm.

Hab. Wellington (G. V. Hudson).

Rhypholophus fatuus, sp. nov.

Female. — Dark-brown, the legs nearly black, with two
pale rings on the femora, one at the tip the other beyond the
middle. Wings rather smoky, darker towards the tips ; a
dark fascia from the tip of the auxiliary vein to the chief
cross-vein ; a dark spot on the upper margin of the first
basal cell and another at the apex of the second basal cell.
Neuration as in the last species.

Hab. Wellington (G. V. Hudson).

I have only one specimen, the antennae of which have six-
teen joints, those of the flagellum with whorls of short hairs.

Genus Opifex, gen. nov.

Two submarginal cells, of which the second is nearly
twice as long as the first ; four posterior cells ; no discal cell.
Wings hairy along the veins only. Second longitudinal
originates at a very acute angle before the middle of the
anterior margin. No subcostal nor marginal cross-veins.
Anterior branch of the fourth longitudinal forked, the pos-
terior branch simple. Seventh longitudinal short, straight,
not reaching the margin. Tibiae without spurs at their tips ;
empodia indistinct or absent. Antennae 16-jointed. Rostrum
short. Proboscis elongated, much longer than the head,
cylindrical, rather swollen at the apex. Palpi long, but
shorter than the proboscis. Legs short.

This genus differs from Erioptera not only in the long
proboscis and short legs, but also in the absence of a
marginal cross-vein, and in fourth posterior cell being pointed
at its base.

Opifex fuscus, sp. nov.

Uniform brown ; proboscis, palpi, antennae, and legs
lighter than the body. Wings brown. Second posterior cell

Hutton. — On New Diptera. ISO

with a long petiole ; the posterior cross-vein not in a line
with the chief cross-vein. Proboscis about four times the
length of the head ; palpi about two and a half times its
length ; the last joint swollen, shorter than the penultimate.
Antennae rather shorter than the proboscis. Length, 5 mm. ;
wing, 5 mm.

Eab. Wellington (G. V. Hudson).

The short legs, long proboscis, and hairy veins make
this species look very like a mosquito.

Genus Trochobola, Osten-Sacken, 1868.

Trochobola dohrni.

T. dohrni, Osten-Sacken, Berlin, ent. Zeitschr., xxxix., p. 264
(1894). T. ampla, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxii.,
p. 36 (1900). T. fumipennis, Hudson, Man. N.Z. Ent.,
p. 48 (1892), no description.

I unfortunately overlooked this species and the next when
writing my paper on the Tijmlidce. The following is Osten-
Sacken's description : —

"Head, rostrum, palpi, and antennae brown, the latter
sometimes reddish on the second joint. The proximal part
of the flagellum is almost moniiiform, the joints 1 to 4
somewhat urn-shaped, with a little brush of microscopic hairs
on one side and some scattered longer hairs on the other ; the
rest of the flagellum has more elongate joints, with scattered
short hairs. Thorax brown or reddish-brown, with four dark-
brown stripes and a covering of yellowish sericeous pollen.
Abdomen reddish-brown, with somewhat darker lateral margins.
Legs rather long, yellowish-brown, with a distinct dark-brown
space just before the tip of the femora, and a narrower yellow
ring immediately proximal of the brown ; knees paler. Hal-
teres wdth a brown knob. Wings nearly the same as in annu-
lata and argvs, but the proximal two-tbirdsof the second basal
cell are filled out, or nearly so, with brown. There is a large
brown spot in the region of the stigma, between the third vein
and the costa ; within it there is a small yellowish spot on
the costa, a little beyond the tip of the auxiliary vein, and a
round hyaline spot in the proximal end of the submarginal
cell ; along the apex the distal end of the submarginal and
first posterior cells has a dark-brown irregular margin. Male
forceps (very much shrunken in drying) has apparently the
same structure as that of the European T. annulata. Length,
from 12 mm. to 16 mm. ; length of the wing, from 13 mm. to
23 mm.

" Hab. Five males and one female from Professor Hutton,
in Christchurch, and Helms, in Greymouth. The first speci-

190 Transactions. — Zoology.

men I received was from Dr. C. A. Dohrn, and I believe it
came from the North Island."

Trochobola venusta.

T. venusta, Osten-Sacken, Berlin, ent. Zeitschr., xxxiv., p. 265
(1894).

"Body brownish ; the usual thoracic stripes brown, coales-
cent, leaving only a paler space in the humeral region ; an-
tennae brownish-yellow, scapus brown ; halteres with a brown
knob. Femora brownish-yellow, with a brown ring before tbe
tip ; tibiae and tarsi yellowish-brown. Wings : The ocellar
spots which distinguish the other Trochobola exist here too,
but are rendered less distinct by the numerous brown irregular
spots which fill their intervals. The basal portion of the
wing is densely filled with little brown spots, assuming a
more or less irregularly ocellar shape, with still smaller brown
spots in their centre; the very distinct cross-vein between the
sixth and seventh longitudinal veins is clouded with brown ;
in the middle of the wing a kind of cross-band is formed by
larger and darker brown spots, one on the anterior margin,
surrounding the origin of the prefurca, the other on the pos-
terior margin, near the end of the sixth vein ; the space be-
tween the larger spots is filled with irregular smaller ones ;
upon this dark cross-band follows a subhyaline one, within
which the brown spots are more scarce ; the distal third of
the wing is darker again, containing three large brown spots
mottled with paler dots, and leaving an irregular, subtri-
angular, subhyaline space between them. Length, 9 mm. ;
wing, 11 mm."

Hab. Grey mouth (Helms).

" Easily recognisable by the colouration of the wings." It
is evidently related to my T. picta, but I think that it is a dis-
tinct species, especially as no mention is made of the irregu-
larly shaped discal cell which distinguishes T. picta. Baron
Osten-Sacken speaks of the wings in both these species as
being ocellated, while in my paper I say that they are not
ocellated. The explanation of the difference is that I con-
fine the term " ocellated " to a distinct dark ring with a
spot in the centre, while Osten-Sacken gives it a wider mean-
ing. In the figure of the wing of T. picta * I do not recognise
my own drawing.

Limnophila skusei, sp. nov.

Pale yellowish-brown. Proboscis dark-brown ; each joint
of the antennae dark-brown near its base. A fuscous stripe on
each side of the abdomen. Femora rather darker than the

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxii., pi. iii., fig. 2a.

Hutton. — On New Diptera. 191

tibiae, with an indistinct paler band beyond the middle. Tibial
spurs moderately long. Empodia large. Wings pale-yel-
lowish, with five brown spots along the anterior border. Of
these the second and third are somewhat horse-shoe-shaped.
The fourth is the largest and occupies the stigmatic region.
The fifth is close to the tip of the wing. The cross-veins are
slightly bordered with brown. The second longitudinal vein
is oblique and gently curved at its origin. The subcostal cross-
vein is close to the tip of the auxiliary. The first submarginal
cell is more than three-fourths of the length of the second.
There are five posterior cells. The posterior cross-vein is
nearly straight, and arises near the inner edge of the discal
cell. Female: Length, 15-16 mm. ; wing, 14 mm.

Hab. Wellington (Hudson).

This species comes nearest to L. sinistra, but is easily dis-
tinguished by the markings on the wings. I have named it
after the late Mr. F. A. Skuse, who did so much good work
towards getting the Australian Tipulidcs into order.

Family KHYPHID,E.

Genus Ehyphus, Latreille, 1802.

One marginal and five posterior cells ; a discal cell.
Antennae 16-jointed. Legs slender, moderately long ; hind
tibiee with small apical spurs. Eyes contiguous in the
male, separated in the female.

Rhyphus notatus, sp. nov.

Eeddish-tawny, the flagellum of the antennas dark-brown.
Thorax with five brown stripes, the middle one shorter than
the lateral pair ; scutellum and metanotum brown. Tips of
the femora and tibiae brown. Halteres pale-yellowish. Wings
pale brownish ; the pterostigma and the tip, from the discal
cell outwards, darkish-brown. A distinct round white spot
in the submarginal cell, and another, touching it, in the first
posterior cell. A brown spot in the anterior basal cell, and
another on the chief cross- vein. Posterior cross- vein bordered
with brown. Veins brown. Length, 6 mm.; wing, 6 mm.

Hab. Auckland (H. Suter) ; Wellington (G. V. Hudson) ;
Christchurch (F. W. H.).

Easily distinguished from B. nova-zealandice by the round
, white spot in the submarginal cell. The thorax and abdomen
are lighter in the female than in the male.

Family MYCETOPHILIML

Sub-family Sciarinse.
Genus Sciara, Meigen, 1803.
Antennae 16-jointed, longer in the male than in the
female ; the joints of the scapus cyathiform, almost bare ;

192 Transactions. — Zoology.

those of the flagellurn cylindrical, pubescent, sessile or sub-
sessile ; the last joint elliptical or elongate. Legs slender,
the coxae moderately elongated ; tibiae with small spurs.
Wings large, microscopically hairy. Chief cross-vein in a line
with the second section of the third longitudinal. Furcations
of the fifth and sixth veins near the base of the wing.

Sciara marcilla, sp. nov.

Male. — Antennae rather longer than the head and thorax ;
the first and second joints pale, the others brown, the joints
sessile ; eyes not contiguous ; palpi dark-brown. Head and
thorax dark-brown, the latter with a few black hairs.
Abdomen nearly black, with short black hairs. Middle and
hind coxae yellow, the rest of the legs tawny. Halteres
brown, with a yellow stalk. Wings colourless, the veins
almost black, and bordered with fuscous. The first longi-
tudinal vein joining the costa inside the base of the fork of
the fourth longitudinal. Tips of the third longitudinal and
posterior branch of the fourth at nearly equal distances from
the apex of the wing. Costa continued some distance beyond
the tip of the third longitudinal ; origin of the third longi-
tudinal situated very slightly beyond the middle of the first
longitudinal. Length, If mm. ; wing, 2| mm.

Female. — Head, thorax, and abdomen pitchy-black; the
legs tawny. Wings colourless; the veins tawny. Length,
3 mm. ; wing, 2|mm. The rest as in the male.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

This species belongs to the same section as S. finitima,
Skuse, but the eyes are not contiguous above, the abdomen
is darker, and the legs are lighter. S. rufescens, Hutton,
from Dunedin, belongs to the section in which the first
longitudinal vein joins the costa outside the base of the fork
of the fourth longitudinal.

-

Genus Trichosia, WTinnertz, 1867.

Characters the same as Sciara, but the surface of the
wings distinctly hairy.

Trichosia remota, sp. nov.
Female. — Uniform reddish-bx*owTn, the middle and hind
coxae lighter. Joints of the flagellum subsessile, about one
and a half times as long as broad. Fore tarsi longer than
the tibiae ; hind tibiae only with short spurs. First longi-
tudinal vein short, joining the costa at less than half the
length of the wing, its tip lying inside the fork of the fourth
longitudinal. Origin of the third longitudinal oblique; the
chief cross-vein about the same length as the first section of
the third longitudinal. The anterior branch of the fourth

Hutton. — On New Diptera. 193

longitudinal ends at the apex of the wing ; the third longi-
tudinal ends inside the tip of the posterior branch of the
fourth. Anterior branch of the fifth is nearly straight ; the
posterior branch runs near the anterior for some distance
and then turns abruptly down to meet the posterior margin.
Length, 2 mm. ; wing, 2^-mm.
Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

Family BIBIONID^.

Genus Dilophus, Meigen, 1803.

Two basal cells ; the third longitudinal vein simple ; no
(iiscoidal cell. Head almost entirely occupied by the eyes in
the male, very small and inclined in the female. Palpi 5-
jointed ; the third joint dilated. Antennae cylindrical, in-
serted beneath the eyes ; 11-jointed ; the third joint a little
larger than the others ; the last four hardly distinct from
each other. Eyes hairy in the male. Prothorax elevated,
with two series of spines. Legs hairy ; the fore femora thick
and grooved ; the tibiae spined in front and terminated by a
coronet of eight spines ; tarsi with three pulvilli.

Dilophus nigrostigma.

Bibio nigrostigma, Walker, Cat. Dipt, in Brit. Mus., p. 121
(1848). Dilophus spectabilis, Nowicki, Mem. der Kra-
kauer k.-k. Akad. d. Wissen., band 2, p. 10 (1875).

Male. — Black, shining, thinly clothed with black hairs.
Wings brown, stigma and anterior veins black; the others
tawny. Length, 6|-7£ mm. ; wing, 6 mm.

Female. — Thorax variegated with red and black ; the fore
coxae and all the femora red ; the latter with black tips. The
rest as in the male. Length, 9 mm. ; wing, 9 mm.

Hab. Auckland ; Ashburton.

The legs are hairy in both sexes.

Variety zealandicus, Walker, Trans. Ent. Soc. of London,
1858, p. 235 (Bibio), differs only in the abdomen of the
female being ferruginous beneath.

Hab. Auckland ; Wellington ; Chatham Islands.

If it should be proved that the variety zealandicus is of
any importance, and not merely individual, we must then
consider this species as dimorphic, for it is impossible, I
think, to distinguish the males.

Dilophus insolitus, sp. nov.

Male. — Black, the legs brown and the eyes red ; wings
clear, with a brown stigma. Fore and middle femora in-
flated ; the hind legs elongated, with the femora and tibiae
13

194 Transactions. — Zoology.

clavate, metatarsus and second joint much swollen, the other
joints vasiform. Neuration of the wing the same as in D.
nigrostigma. Length. 5 mm. ; wing, 5 mm.

Female. — Head and antennae dark-brown, the rostrum
brown below. Thorax fulvous. Abdomen brown. Legs
fulvous, except the last three joints of the tarsi, which are
brown. Wings slightly tinted with yellowish, iridescent, the
stigma _ brown. Legs slender, the joints of the hind tarsi
cylindrical. Length, 5 mm. ; wing, 5 mm.

Rob. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

This species and the next belong to the same section as
D. varipes, Skuse (Pro. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. v., p. 636),
but the colours are different.

Dilophus segnis, sp. nov.

Male. — Black, the femora and tibiae piceous ; eyes brown.
Hind legs elongated, the femora nearly black ; femur and
tibia clavate, the metatarsus and second joint swollen. Fore
femora slightly inflated ; middle femora not inflated. Halteres
black, with white stalks. Wings hyaline, the stigma blackish-
brown. Length, 5 mm. ; wing, 4 mm.

Female. — Head and eyes black ; thorax, abdomen, and
legs dark-brown. Hind legs rather elongated ; the femur and
tibia clavate, but the metatarsus not inflated. Wings tinged
with brown, iridescent ; the stigma blackish-brown. Length,
5 mm. ; wing, 5 mm.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

The legs in both this species and the last are nearly
smooth.

Genus Scatopse, Geoffroy, 1764.

One basal cell ; third longitudinal vein simple ; three
posterior cells, the second of which is petiolated. Antennae
cylindrical, 11-jointed, the last four hardly distinct; palpi
concealed, of one distinct joint. Eyes reniform. Hind meta-
tarsi shorter than the remaining joints together.

Scatopse carbonaria, sp. nov.

Entirely black, the veins of the wing fuscous. The first
longitudinal vein rather more than half the length of the
second. The third longitudinal about two- thirds of the
length of the wing. The costa extends round the apex of
the wing to the posterior branch of the fourth longitudinal.
Fork of the fourth longitudinal situated inside the tip of the
third longitudinal. Fifth longitudinal not reaching the border
of the wing. The wing-fold, between the fourth and fifth
veins, forked. Length, 2£ mm. ; wing, 2 mm.

Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

Hutton. — On New Diptera. 195

Scatopse notata, Linnaeus (Tipula).

S. longipennis, Skuse, Pro. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. iii.,

p. 1383, and vol. v., p. 638.

Black, with a white or yellowish mark on each side of the
thorax behind the origin of the wing. First longitudinal less
than one-third the length of the wing. The third longitudinal
more than two-thirds the length of the wing.

Hab. In a letter to Mr. Skuse Baron Von Osten-Sacken
says that he has received numerous specimens from New
Zealand. No doubt it has been introduced from Europe.

Family ASILIMJ.
Saropogon fascipes, sp. nov.

General colour blackish-brown. Head and face yellow,
antennas brown, proboscis black. Bristles of the epistome
vellow. Thorax with golden spots on the shoulders and on
the sides of the metanotum. Scutellum golden. Legs dark-
brown ; the bases of the femora, knee-joints, the whole of the
fore and middle tibiae, and the basal half of the hind tibiae
brownish - yellow. Halteres pale - yellowish. Wings very
pale-brownish, the tips clouded with fuscous. Male: Length,
14 mm. ; wing, 10 mm.

Hab. Wellington (Hudson).

A very distinct species, easily distinguished from S. anti-
podus by its darker colour and banded legs.

Family AGEOMYZID^.
Milichia picata, sp. nov.

Head silvery ; the eyes large, black, nearly round. Second
joint of the antennae broadly oval, reddish-brown, broadly
margined with white. Arista minutely pubescent. Bristles
on the vertex and front as far as the antennae. Oral vibrissae
present. Thorax black, with some irregular white marks on
the sides ; the dorsum with four rows of short setae, two of
which are on the pleurae and two on the sides of the dorsum.
Scutellum yellow, with two black setae at the end. Abdomen
velvety black, the fourth and fifth segments margined pos-
teriorly with white, which is interrupted in the middle on the
fifth ; the sixth with white marks on the sides. Femora
black, the knees tawny ; the tibiae yellow, with two black
bands ; tarsi pale brownish-yellow. The middle and hind
tibiae with a strong subapical bristle. Halteres white, the
stalk pale-yellow. Wings pale-yellowish, with numerous
dark-brown spots. Five spots in the marginal cell, nine or
ten in the submarginal, eight in the first posterior, three in
the second posterior, one or two in the discal cell. Posterior

196 Transactions. — Zooloyy.

cross-vein margined. Axillary cell entirely brown. Costa
tawny ; the veins black, but tawny at their bases. No bristles
on the costa. Auxiliary vein completely joined to the first
longitudinal; the first basal cell short. Distance between the
cross-veins about three times the length of the posterior
cross-vein. The posterior cross-vein distant about its own
length from the margin. Membrane of the wing pubescent.
Length, 2-i-mni. ; wing, 3 mm.
Hab. Christchurch (F. W. H.).

Abt. XVII. — On a Neiv Fossil Pecten from the Chatham

Islands.

By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th November,

1901.]

Plate VIII.

This fine Pecten was brought from the Chatham Islands bv
Professor A. Dendy, and was given to me to describe.

Pecten dendyi, sp. nov.

Shell equivalve, compressed, inequilateral, the posterior end
produced. Ears rather unequal ; the anterior larger, with five
ribs, the posterior with two ribs. Byssal notch almost obso-
lete. Valves plicated, eight ridges on the left and nine on the
right valve. Ridges narrower than the sinuses on the left
valve, broader than the sinuses on the right valve. The
whole surface, both ridges and sinuses, covered with fine
radiating ribs, crossed by delicate growth-lines, which are
almost obsolete on the right valve. Length, 2-6 in. ; height,
2-3 in. ; greatest thickness, 07 in.

Locality. — In a calcareous sandstone, Chatham Island.

This species differs from P. bumetti in being larger,
inequilateral, more compressed, and in having more than
seven folds. It is probably of Miocene age. The type is in
the Canterbury Museum.

Hutton. — Occurrence of Alepisaurus ferox. 197

Art. XVIII. — On the Occurrence of Alepisaurus ferox on the

Coast of Nciv Zealand.

By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.

'Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd July, 1901.]

Plate IX.

Last September three specimens of this fish were found on
the beach at Riversdale, sixteen miles south of Castle Point,
on the east coast of Wellington. Some time later photographs
of two of them were sent to me for determination.* One
photograph (Plate IX.) was of a dried head, and is sufficient
to settle the genus to which the fish belongs. The other
photograph is of a whole fish. It is very inferior to the first,
but sufficient can be made out to corroborate the conclusion
arrived at from the skull.

The skull closely resembles the figure of the Tasmanian
specimen, but differs in the numbers of the large lanceolate
teeth in the jaws. In the New Zealand specimen there are
two anterior and one median large teeth on each side of the
upper jaw. The lower jaw has three pairs of large teeth
situated in the middle of the jaw, and opposing the two pairs
of anterior teeth of the upper jaw. Also, there is a smaller
pair of large teeth near the end of the lower jaw.

Judging from the photograph of the whole fish, I should
say that the length of the head was about one-fifth of the
whole length, without the caudal, and that the length of
the gape was about one-eighth of the length. The dorsal fin
is much elevated. The pectorals are long, but terminate at a
considerable distance from the ventrals. The caudal lobes
are, apparently, equal in length.

References.

Alepisaurus ferox, Lowe. Trans. Zool. Soc. London,
vol. 1, p. 395, pi. 59 (1835).

Alepisaurus sp., Richardson. Voy. Ereb. and Terr., Fish,
p. 34, pi. 22, figs. 1-4 (1844).

Alepidosaurus ferox, Gunther. Cat. Fishes in Brit. Mus.,
vol. 5, p. 421 (1864).

Plagodus ferox, Gunther. " Study of Fishes," p. 586,
fig. 270 (1880).

Plagodus ferox, Gunther. " Challenger Reports,"
vol. 22, p. 203, Deep-sea Fishes (1887).

Alepisaurus ferox, Good and Bean. " Oceanic Ichthyology,"
p. 117, pi. 38, fig. 142 (1895).

* By Mr. R. Barcham, of Masterton.

198 Transactions. — Zoology.

Art. XIX. — On a Marine Galaxias from the Auckland

Islands.

By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.E.S.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th February, 1902.]

This fish was taken out of the mouth of a specimen of
Merganser australis during the collecting excursion to the
southern islands of New Zealand made in January, 1901, by
His Excellency the Earl of Eanfurly. This expedition, which
only lasted three weeks, collected twenty-two undescribed
species of animals — viz., one bird, one fish, one slug, four
beetles (including a new genus), fourteen flies, and one earth-
worm. In addition, much new information was obtained about
the birds and about the development of some of the plants.
This shows how much must yet remain to be done.

Galaxias bollansi, sp. nov.

Body elongated, the height being less than one-sixth of
the length. Breadth of the head about equal to the height of
the body. Length of the head one-fourth that of the body.
Diameter of the eye about one-fourth the length of the head,
or two-thirds the length of the snout. Lower jaw a little
shorter than the upper. Maxillary reaching to the posterior
margin of the eye. Length of the pectoral fins two-thirds the
distance to the base of the ventral fins. Ventral fins two-
thirds of the distance to the anal. The anal fin, when laid
back, does not extend to the commencement of the caudal.
The least depth of the tail is less than the distance between
the end of the dorsal and the end of the tail. Caudal fin
rounded. Dark olive-brown, with irregular vertical bands
of dark-brown on the tail. A large pale spot on the pre-
operculum. Fins dark, unspotted.

I have named this fish after Captain John Bollans, of the
Government steamer " Hinenioa," who is an acute observer,
and takes a great interest in natural history.

The following are the dimensions of the specimen : Length
(without caudal), 3'5 in. Depth of the body, 0-55 in. Least
depth of the tail, 035 in. Length of the head, 0-88 in. ;
length of the snout, 0-25 in. Diameter of the eye, 0-18 in.
Breadth of the head, 06 in. Length of pectoral fin, 0-6 in. ;
of ventral fin, 0-6 in. Distance from base of pectorals to
ventrals, 0-9 in. Distance from base of ventrals to anal,
09 in. Distance from dorsal to end of tail, 055 in.

This species is most nearly related to G. fasciatus, but
differs from that species in its more elongated form, the larger

Smith. — On Mites attacking Beetles, etc. 199

maxillary, the short anal fin, and the distance between the
dorsal and the caudal, as well as in its markings.

Its eye is rather larger than usual, but I do not think that
it is the young of G. fasciatus, on account of its large maxillary
bone and the pale spot on the preoperculum, which is pro-
bably very constant in all ages of the fish. Also, G. fasciatus
is not known to breed in the sea in New Zealand ; the old
ones are never caught going down to sea, nor the young ones
going up the rivers. The only species of Galaxias in New
Zealand which breeds in the sea is G. attenuatus, and the
young, known as whitebait, ascend the rivers in spring in a
much earlier stage of development than the present fish.

Art. XX. — On Mites attacking Beetles and Moths.
By W. W. Smith, F.E.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th November,

1901.]

The late Mr. Maskell was the first to record* the occurrence
in New Zealand of the parasitic mite (Uropoda vegetans, De
Geer) attacking the introduced woodlouse (Porcellio scaber,
Latr.) and a native beetle. The beetle mentioned by Maskell
is a species of Elater, and generally known as " click-beetles,"
from the click-like sound they produce when springing off the
ground. The larvae of several species of Elater have de-
stroyed enormous areas of gorse fences in New Zealand
during the last ten years by consuming the roots of the
gorse-plants. I have now to record the occurrence of Uro-
poda vegetans parasitic on eight additional species of beetles
and on two species of native moths.

On the 8th September last Mr. Edwin Thomas, of Ash-
burton, sent me a specimen of Tricosternus antarcticus, a
large carnivorous ground-beetle, with many thousands of the
minute reddish-brown mites adhering thickly to every part of
the beetle's body. When the specimen reached me the mites
were so numerous that they completely enveloped its body and
legs so as almost to conceal it from view. They were nearly
Jin. in depth on its back, while on the legs, especially the
thighs and underparts, they were so matted together that it
was with difficulty the beetle could walk. An examination of
the parasite with the microscope showed it to be attached to

* Trans. N.Z. lust., vol. xxv., p. 199.

200 Transactions. — Zoology.

its prey by an infinitesirnally fine thread or cord. I have not
seen De Geer's description of U. vegetans, but Maskell has
defined its structural characters and its method of attach-
ment to its host. Notwithstanding that I have collected seve-
ral thousand specimens of Coleoptera in Ashburton County
during the last fifteen years, I have not previously observed
this mite parasitic on any specimens I have preserved.
Captain Hutton, however, informs me that when collecting
Coleoptera some years ago he noted it parasitic on several
species in the neighbourhood of Christchurch.

Mr. J. H. Lewis, of Ophir, who is an enthusiastic collector
and student of New Zealand Coleoptera, has also recently
informed me that he has observed U. vegetans parasitic on the
undermentioned species: Uloma tenebrionides , Lissotes reticu-
lata, Thoramus tuakefieldi, Pterostichus pracox, Mmona
hirta, Coptomma variegatum, and Xilotoles griseiis. The
three first named are wood-eating species, the fourth is a
Carabid, and the three last are Longicorns, which shows
that many species of beetles of very different habits are
liable to be attacked by the mite. Mr. Lewis mentions
having also observed it on a fly (unknown) in the Welling-
ton District.

When on a visit to Ashburton lately Mr. G. W. Howes,
F.E.S., informed me that he had twice observed U. vegetans
parasitic on two species of native moths (Xanthorrhoe beata
and X. rosearia) at Invercargill. They were attached to the
sides of the thorax and the thighs of the moths. Although
the mite would be of great service to man by destroying
the destructive Elater and detestable woodlice, it is regret-
table to see it attacking beautiful and useful native insects.
The predaceous ground - beetles are invariably beneficial
on farms, but are becoming rare in settled districts. Mr.
Howes, my son William, and I, lately spent half a dav
collecting on the flax flat below the town of Ashburton
and near the Ashburton Eiver. Instead of finding great
numbers of ants' nests, as formerly, under the half-embedded
stones, we found their old homes tenanted by swarms of wood-
lice, some of them being abnormally large and robust, and
very variable in colour. In several parts of this district the
woodlice have almost displaced the native ants. Although
we seai-ched very carefully we were unable to detect the pre-
sence of the mite on any woodlice, or under the cool slightly
damp undersides of the stones, to which they occasionallv
cling in groups. The year Mr. Maskell recorded the occur-
rence of U. vegetans in New Zealand I sent him infested
woodlice from Ashburton ; but I have not detected them in
this neighbourhood since then, until the infested Carabid was
received lately from Mr. Thomas. The specimen was found

Lewis — On New Zealand Coleoptera. 201

in a cucumber-frame where woodlice are unpleasantly numer-
ous, but they are apparently free from the mite in the frame.

Some time ago Captain Hutton remarked to me that it
would be interesting to know if U. vegetans is indigenous or
was introduced with Porcellio. It has only been detected in
certain districts within the last few years, which indicates its
being an introduced species now rapidly dispersing in New
Zealand. The so-called "red-spider" (Tetranychus telarius),
so destructive to fruit-trees, is also an introduced mite, common
in America, Europe, and Australia.

The habit of some species of beetles and moths of conceal-
ing themselves in damp cool places during the day where the
mite inhabits would readily enable the latter to attach itself to
its host and become parasitic on many species. The milder
climate of New Zealand will unquestionably favour its rapid
dispersion and increase, as it has done many other both bane-
ful and beneficial species of insects.

Art. XXI. — Notes on Coleoptera.
By J. H. Lewis.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 5th November, 1901.]

With the exception of moths and butterflies, none of the
orders of insects occurring in New Zealand can be considered
to be catalogued in even a moderately satisfactory manner.
The most extensive order, that of Coleoptera, is in almost as
bad a state as any, for although much has been done and a
long list of species published, yet the number of coleopterous
insects occurring here is so great and the students so few
that it will be many generations before all the forms are
described. Description, though a dry and tedious process, is
a needful preliminary to the elucidation of the problems con-
nected with distribution and variation, which are the most
attractive portions of the study of natural history.

As in other orders, so among beetles, the male insect is
often different in form from the female. Not sufficient cog-
nisance has been taken of this fact, except where the describer
of a species has himself been able to study the insects in their
homes, or where he has attached some weight to the obser-
vations of the field naturalist who has collected for him.
Some results of this are evident in Captain Broun 's list, and
a few are noted below with other synonyms. The frequent
description of identical species in New Zealand and England

202 Transactions. — Zoology.

will not cause so much trouble, as in most instances the
identity is obvious.

It is not for me to attempt to criticize the work of the able
naturalist who has for a quarter of a century studied this
order, but the reflection suggests itself that the larger genera
might very well be tabulated by the only one who is at
present in a position to do so. Among the genera most in
need of such a tabulation are Bembidium, Cyphon, Acalles,
and the Pentarthra. Is it too hazardous to say that when a
table cannot be prepared, then the species are not distinct?
I have tabulated some families with much advantage to my-
self, but I am not anxious to publish my work while Captain
Broun is able to do the same thing in a more accurate
manner.

Descriptions of three new species are submitted, all from
the south.

Broscides.
Mecodema bullatum, n. sp.

Elongate, parallel, coppery-black, shining. Head rugosely
sculptured, longitudinally on clypeus and above eyes, trans-
versely on vertex, which is sometimes almost smooth. Neck
closely punctate. Eyes moderately prominent. Thorax quite
similar in shape to that of sculpturatum, with strongly crenate
margins. The central and basal foveae are well marked, and
the surface has, in addition to moderately distant but con-
spicuous striae, a band of punctation along both base and
apex. Elytra parallel - sided, rounded behind. Each has
eight rows of finely punctured striae, somewhat obscured
by transverse rugosities. The alternate interstices are the
widest, and, being interrupted, present each the appearance of
being formed of from six to ten oblong flattened tubercles.
The lateral sculpture is inconspicuous. The sculpture of the
underside is similar to that of sculpturatum, but less pro-
nounced. Length, 25 mm.

Puysegur Point ; Mr. P. Sandager.

The species belongs to the sculpturatum group, and is
most nearly allied to itttoreum, the sculpture of whose wing-
cases might easily be developed into that of bullatum.

Mecodema infimate, n. sp.

Elongate, parallel, medially narrowed, shining fusco-
nigrous ; femora, palpi, and basal joints of the antennae
shining-red. Head with the vertex quite smooth, the occi-
put punctured, the clypeus and the swollen orbits wrinkled.
Thorax elongate, not much narrowed in front but consider-
ably so behind, the sinuation gentle. Its sculpture consists of
the usual basal foveae and central line. The disc bears well-
marked transverse striae, and the apical and basal margins

Lewis — On New Zealand ^oleoptera. 203

are strongly striated longitudinally. The basal foveae are
punctured. The elytra have each nine striae almost without
punctures. The alternate interstices are twice the width of
the intermediate, and, with the exception of some scattered
punctures, are without sculpture. The underside of the head
(except the gula), the flanks of the prothorax, and the meso-
sternum are rugosely sculptured. The abdomen is sparingly
punctured. The intermediate tibiae are strongly punctate, as
are the front on the apical half of their inner face. Length,
16 mm.

West Plains, Invercargill ; Mr. A. Philpott.

This species may be readily distinguished from the others
of small size by the almost simple striae of the elytra.

Lucanides.
Lissotes acmenus, n. sp.

$ . Head and thorax black, shining ; abdomen shining-
brown. Head finely and obscurely punctured, most densely
on the vertex; the hind angles prominent. That portion of
the side margin that encroaches on the eye is more prominent
than in helmsi. Prothorax transverse, wider than the elytra,
finely and distantly punctured ; not so broad in proportion to
its length as in helmsi; with a fine medial line and three
punctiform impressions, one in the middle of the medial line,
the other two midway between that point and the side margin.
Its shape is similar to that of helmsi, but the base is more
markedly sinuate. Elytra short and broad, shining, each with
four obscure costae, which are more finely punctate than the
intervals between them. The margins of the thorax and elytra
and the four hind tibiae externally are clothed with short
golden setae, indistinct traces of which are sometimes seen on
the elytral costae. The mandibles are exactly similar to those
of smaller specimens of helmsi. Length, including mandibles,
20-25 mm.

The female will probably be very similar to the same sex
of helmsi.

This fine beetle is very closely allied to both helmsi and
aviulus ; indeed, Dr. Sharp considers that it is identical with
the former species. It is sufficiently easily distinguished by
its bright appearance, narrower form, and the smaller size of
fully developed individuals. I am indebted to Mr. G. Howes,
Invercargill, for a good series of males.

As a first step towards a revision of the catalogue, I would
suggest the following synonyms as extremely probable : —

Cicindela dunedxnensis, Castelnau = C. wakefieldi, Bates.

Mecodema crenaticolle, Eedtenbacher = M. lineatum,
Broun.

Dryocora hoivittii, Pascoli = Adelostella jjunctatum, Broun.

204 Transactions. — Zoology.

Parabrontes setiger, Broun = P. picturatus, Sharp.
Dasytes stewarti, Broun = D. nigripes, Broun.
Echinopeplus dilatatus, Broun = Heterodiscus horridus, Sh.
Oreocharis picigularis, Broun, $ = O. bicristata, Br., 2 ■
Acalles maritimus, Broun, $ = A. cryptobius, Br., 5 .

Art. XXII. — On the Land Mollusca of Little Barrier

Island.

By Henry Suter.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 7th October, 1901.]

In the Christchurch Press of the 21st November, 1892, some
notes on Little Barrier Island were published re the visits of
Messrs. Henry Wright and Boscawen, of the Lands Depart-
ment, the notes being probably quoted from the Neiu Zea-
land Herald. There occurs the following passage: "He
(Mr. Boscawen) also found the pupurangi, or New Zealand
snail {Helix busbyi), which is about 4 in. or 5 in. long, and
lays an egg like that of a bird." It is curious that Mr. Shake-
spear, the curator of Little Barrier Island, has never found
this large snail, nor has Mr. Cheeseman, on his repeated visits
to the island, come across it. Possibly Mr. Boscawen's speci-
men was "the last of the Mohicans." Be this as it may, the
fact remains that up to the end of the last century nothing
else was known about the land molluscan fauna of Little
Barrier Island.

In January last Mr. J. Adams, of the Thames, was paying
a visit to the island, and, knowing him to be a very good
collector of land-shells, I asked him to have a good look out
for these mostly minute and inconspicuous creatures. On Mr.
Adams's return he kindly handed over to me the harvest of
his collecting, which enables me now to publish the first list
of land-shells from this our native reserve. To Mr. Adams I
wish to express my gratitude for the great trouble he has
taken to get this nice and interesting collection together. No
new species were amongst these shells, which belong to four
genera and represent twelve species. There is little doubt but
that further collecting will produce many additions to the list.

Fam. KHYTIDIDjE.
(1.) Rhenea coresia, Gray.
Distribution. — North Island only, but more common in
the northern part of it. It is not uncommon in the bush
near Auckland, and occurs also on Chicken Island.

Suter. — Land Mollusca of Little Barrier. 205

Fain. PHENACOHELICIDiE.

(2.) Plammulina (Allodiscus) urquharti, Suter.
Distribution. — This minute brown shell is, no doubt, easily
overlooked ; and, on the other side, it must be mentioned that
all the species of the subgenus Allodiscus are not common
shells at all. The type was found on Mount Pirongia, and
specimens from the Hunua Eange are also in my collec-
tion. North Island only.

(3.) Plammulina (Therasia) celinde, Gray.

Distribution. — A fairly common shell in the northern parts
of the North Island, but has not been found on it further
south than the Urewera country. In the South Island it was
found in Happy Valley, Canterbury, where also Phenacharopa
uovoseelandica, Pfr., occurs.

(4.) Flammulina (Therasia) decidua, Pfeiffer.
Distribution. — Found from Auckland to Otago. This is
one of the very few New Zealand snails I have seen leaving
its hiding-place after a warm rain and crawling up on shrubs
with smooth bark, or devoid of it.

(5.) Flammulina (Suteria) ide, Gray.

Distribution. — Occurs over the entire North Island, in moist
situations of the bush, and the northern part of the South
Island. Its southernmost limit is, to my knowledge, near
Lake Mahinapua, where it was found by Dr. A. Dendy.

(6.) Flammulina (s. str.) pilslbryi, Suter.

Distribution. — Like most minute forms, this species is
widelv distributed over New Zealand, and is found on both
Islands. In the South Island I found it near the Mueller
Glacier in some native bush.

Fam. LAOMIDiE.
(7.) Laoma (s. str.) pcecilosticta, Pfeiffer.

Distribution. — This is a North Island shell, not uncommon
in the bush near Auckland, but rare in the southern parts.
It is one of the few specifically northern species that has
reached the South Island, as specimens were found in Marl-
borough.

(8.) Laoma (Phrixgnathus) glabriuscula, Pfeiffer.
Distribution. — Hitherto only known from Auckland Pro-
vince, Hawke's Bay, and Taranaki, in the North Island, but,
like the foregoing species, also from Marlborough.

206 Transactions. — Zoology.

(9.) Laoma (Phrixgnathus) phrynia, Hutton.
Distribution. — This rather rare species has been found
from Whangarei to the Seventy-mile Bush, in the North
Island ; Marlborough, Nelson, Canterbury, and Hooker Valley.
in the South Island ; and a variety on Stewart Island.

(10.) Laoma (Phrixgnathus) allochroida, var. lateum-

bilicata, Suter.

Distribution. — A very minute form, living in mould in the
bush, and hitherto only known from Auckland to the Forty-
mile Bush, in the North Island ; also from Chicken Island.

Fam. PATULIDJE.
(11.) Endodonta (Charopa) coma, Gray.
Distribution. — This is the only one of our land-shells that
can be called common. It is found almost everywhere in the
North Island, also on the Great Barrier Island. In the South
Island it is, to my knowledge, not found south of the 44th
degree of latitude ; in the east, towards Banks Peninsula, it is
replaced by Endodonta pseudocoma, Sut.

(12.) Endodonta (Charopa) colensoi, Suter.

Distribution. — The type is from the Forty-mile Bush, and
it has also been found near Auckland, and in Hawke's Bay,
Waipawa, and Manawatu. Unknown from the South Island.

Thus it will be seen that most of the shells brought from
Little Barrier Island are rather widely distributed in our
colony.

With regard to the distribution of the genera, I may just
mention that Bheuea, comprising small carnivorous snails,
occurs as far as Queensland, New Caledonia, and one species
(B. gradata, Gould) on the Tonga Islands. Flammulina is
also found in Tasmania, Australia, Lord Howe Island, Nor-
folk Island, New Caledonia, and the Carolines ; and nearly
allied to it are Amphidoxa and Stephanoda, from South
America, and Trachycystis, from South Africa. Once the
anatomy of these genera is well known, they will most likely
prove to form only one genus. Laoma, subgenus Phrixgna-
thus, is also known from Tasmania and southern Australia,
but Laoma (restricted) is only found in New Zealand. To the
same family belongs the genus Punccum, which occurs in
North America, Europe, part of Asia, and northern Africa.
Endodonta, a Polynesian genus, occurs also in Tasmania,
Australia, New Caledonia, the Philippine Islands, and over the
Polynesian islands as far as the Hawaiian and Society
Islands.

Stttke. — List of New Zealand Mollusca. 207

Art. XXIII. — List of the Species described in F. W. Huttons
Manual of the Nero Zealand Mollusca, with the Corre-
sponding Names tised at the Present Time.

By Henry Suter.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 7th October, 1901.]

Since the publication of the Manual in 1880 considerable
changes in nomenclature have taken place, and for many
species the New Zealand habitat has proved to be erroneous.
The writer has thought that it might be useful to students in
conchology to publish the present list. The chief work has
been done by Captain Hutton himself in his revisions pub-
lished in the " Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New
South Wales," which, however, are not always available to
New Zealand workers in conchology.

In the first column the names are given in order of the
Manual : —
Page

1. Octopus maorum, Hutt. = 0. maorum, Hutt.

2. Pinnoctopus cordiformis, Q. and G. = P. cordiformis, Q.

and G.

2. Argonauta tuberculata, Shaw = A. nodosa, Solander.

3. Onychoteuthis bartlingii, Lesueur = O. banksii, Leach.
3. Ommastrephes sloanii, Gray = Todarodes sloanii, Gray.
3. Sepioteuthis lessoniana, Fer. = S. lessoniana, Fer.

3. Sepioteuthis bilineata, Q. and G. — S. bilineata, Q.

and G.

4. Spirula peronii, Lam. = S. peronii, Lam.

5. Patula chordata, Pfr. = Flammulina (Phenacohehx)

chordata, Pfr.

6. Patula iota, Pfr. = Flammulina (Phenacohehx) pilula,

Reeve.
6. Patula dimorpha, Pfr. = Flammulina (Allodiscus) di-

morpha, Pfr.
6. Patula hypopolia, Pfr. = Flammulina (Phacussa) hypo-

polia, Pfr.
6. Patula decidua, Pfr. = Flammulina (Therasia) decidua,

Pfr.

6. Patula celinde, Gray — Flammulina (Therasia) celinde,

Gray.

7. Patula ziczac, Gould = Flammulina (Thalassohelix)

ziczac, Gould.
7. Patula kappa, Pfr. = Flammulina (Thalassohelix) ziczac,
Gould.

208 Transactions. — Zoology.

Page

7. Patula varicosa, Pfr. = Endodonta (Thaumatodon) vari-
cosa, Pfr.

7. Patula tiara, Mighels, not Neiv Zealand (Hatvaiian

Islands).

8. Patula coma, Gray = Endodonta (Charopa) coma, Gray.
8. Patula tau, Pfr. — Endodonta (Thaumatodon) tau, Pfr
8. Patula gamma, Pfr. — Endodonta (Charopa) buccinella,

Reeve.

8. Patula egesta, Gray = Endodonta (Charopa) egesta,

Gray.

9. Patula obnubila, Reeve = Flammulina (Thalassohelix)

igniflua, Reeve, var. obnubila, Reeve.
9. Patula anguiculus, Reeve = Endodonta (Charopa) angui-

culus, Reeve.
9. Patula ide, Gray = Plammulina (Suteria) ide, Gray.
9. Patula eta, Pfr. = Endodonta (Charopa) corniculum,

Reeve.
9. Patula zeta, Pfr. = Endodonta (Charopa) infecta, Reeve.
10. Patula venulata, Pfr. = Plammulina (Allodiscus) venu-

lata, Pfr.
10. Patula portia, Gray = Flammulina (Thalassohelix) ziczac,

Gould.

10. Patula omega, Pfr. = Flammulina (s. str.) compressi-

voluta, Reeve.

11. Patula tullia, Gray = Flammulina (Allodiscus) tullia,

Gray.
11. Patula lambda, Pfr. = Flammulina (Thalassohelix)
igniflua, Reeve.

11. Patula biconcava, Pfr, = Endodonta (Charopa) bicon-

cava, Pfr.

12. Vitrina dimidiata, Pfr. = Otoconcha dimidiata, Pfr.

12. Vitrina zebra, Le Guillou = Flammulina (s. str.) zebra,

Le Guill.
12. Daudebardia novoseelandica, Pfr. = Schizoglossa novo-

seelandica, Pfr.

12. Hyalina corneo-fulva, Pfr. = Vitrea cellaria, Midler

(introduced).

13. Hyalina novara?, Pfr. = Xesta novaras, Pfr.

13. Succinea tomentosa, Pfr. = Limnasa tomentosa, Pfr.

14. Tornateilina novoseelandica, Pfr. = Tornatellina novo-

seelandica, Pfr.
14. Placostylus bovinus, Brug. = Placostylus hongii, Lesson.

14. Placostylus novoseelandicus, Pfr. = Placostylus hongii,

var. novoseelandica, Pfr.

15. Placostylus antipodum, Gray = Cochlostyla fulgetrum,

Brod. (introduced).
15. Pupa novoseelandica, Pfr. = Endodonta (Phenacharopa)
novoseelandica, Pfr.

Suter. — List of New Zealand Mollusca. 209

Page

16. Helix (Rhagada) reinga, Gray, not Neiu Zealand (Aus-
tralia).

16. Helix (Ehytida) greenwoodi, Gray = Rhytida gree.i-
woodi, Gray.

16. Helix (Rhytida) dunniae, Gray = Rhytida dunnise, Gray.

17. Helix (Thalassia) regularis, Pfr. = Laoma (Phrixgnathus)

regularis, Pfr.
17. Helix (Thalassia) heldiana, Pfr. = Laorna (Phrixgnathus)

erigone, Gray.
17. Helix (Thalassia) conella, Pfr. = Laoma (Phrixgnathus)

conella, Pfr.

17. Helix (Thalassia) poecilosticta, Pfr. = Laoma (s. str.)

poecilosticta, Pfr.

18. Helix (Thalassia) erigone, Gray = Laoma (Phrixgnathus)

erigone, Gray.
18. Helix (Thalassia) alpha, Pfr. = Endodonta (iEschro-

domus) stipulata, Reeve.
18. Helix (Thalassia) beta, Pfr. = Endodonta (iEschro-

domus) barbatula, Reeve.

18. Helix (Thalassia) ophelia, Pfr. = Flammulina (Therasia)

ophelia, Pfr.

19. Helix (Thalassia) zealandiae, Gray = Flammulina (Tha-

lassohelix) zelandiae, Gray.
19. Helix (Thalassia) fatua, Pfr. = Laoma (Phrixgnathus)

fatua, Pfr.
19. Helix (Thalassia) antipoda, H. and J. = Flammulina

(Thalassohelix) zelandiae, Gray, var. antipoda, H.

and J.
19. Helix (Thalassia) aucklandica, Le Guilt. = Flammulina

(? Thalassohelix) aucklandica, Le Guilt.

19. Helix (Thalassia) sciadium, Pfr. = Laoma (Phrixgna-

thus) sciadium, Pfr.

20. Helix (Thalassia) irradiata, Gould = Flammulina (Car-

thaea) kivi, Gray.
20. Helix (?) kivi, Gray = Flammulina (Carthaea) kivi, Gray.
20. Helix granum, Pfr. = Flammulina (Allodiscus) granum,

Pfr.

20. Helix guttula, Pfr., not Neio Zealand.

21. Laoma leimonias, Gray = Laoma (s. stif) leimonias,

Gray.

21. Paryphanta busbyi, Gray = Paryphanta busbyi, Gray.

22. Paryphanta hochstetteri, Pfr. = Paryphanta hochstet-

teri, Pfr.
22. Paryphanta urnula, Pfr. = Paryphanta urnula, Pfr.

22. Paryphanta phlogophora, Pfr. = Flammulina (s. str.)

zebra, Le Guilt.

23. Paryphanta glabriuscula, Pfr. = Laoma (Phrixgnathus)

giabriuscula, Pfr.
14

210 Transactions. — Zoology.

Page

23. Paryphanta epsilon, Pfr. = Endodonta (Charopa) caput-

spinulae, Reeve.
23. Paryphanta chiron, Gray = Flammulina (s. str.) chiron,

Gray.

23. Paryphanta rapida, Pfr., not Neiv Zealand.

24. Paryphanta crebriflammis, Pfr. = Flammulina (s. str.)

crebriflarnmis, Pfr.
24. Paryphanta jeffreysiana, Pfr. = Ehenea jeffreysiana, Pfr.

24. Paryphanta coresia, Gray = Ehenea coresia, Gray.

25. Nanina rnariae, Gray = Laoma (Phrixgnathus) mariee,

Gray.

25. Limax molestus, Hutt. = Limax agrestis, L. (introduced).

26. Milax antipodum, Pfr. = Amalia gagates, Drap. (intro-

duced).
26. Milax emarginatus, Hutt. = Amalia gagates, Drap. (in-
troduced).

26. Arion incommodus, Hutt. = Ariou fuscus, Midi, (intro-

duced).

27. Janella bitentaculata, Q. and G. = Athoracophorus biten-

taculatus, Q. and G.

27. Konophora marmorea, Hutt. = Athoracophorus (Kono-

phora) marmorea, Hutt.

28. Onchidella patelloides, Q. and G. = Oncidiella patel-

loides, Q. and G.
28. Onchidella nigricans, Q. and G. = Oncidiella nigricans,
Q. and G.

28. Onchidella irrorata, Gould — Oncidiella irrorata, Gould.

29. Latia neritoides, Gray = Latia neritoides, Gray.

29. Latia lateralis, Gotdd = Latia neritoides, var. lateralis,
Gould.

29. Physa wilsoni, Tryon, not New Zealand.

30. „ antipodea, Sow. = Isidora antipodea, Soiv.
30. „ gibbosa, Gould, not Neio Zealand (Australia).
30. „ guyonensis, T. -Woods — Isidora variabilis, Gray.
30. „ novse-zealandiae, Sow. = Isidora variabilis, Gray.

30. „ tabulata, Gould = Isidora tabulata, Gotdd.

31. „ variabilis, Gray = Isidora variabilis, Gray.
31. „ mcesta, Adams = Isidora tabulata, Gould.
31. „ liA,ta, T. -Woods — Isidora tabulata, Gould.

31. „ cumingn, Ad., not Netv Zealand (Australia).

32. Planorbis corinna, Gray = Planorbis corinna, Gray.
32. Melamyus commodus, Ad., not New Zealand.

32. „ zealandicus, Ad., not Neiv Zealand.

33. Tralia costellaris, Ad., not Neto Zealand.

33. „ adamsianus, Pfr., not Neio Zealand.

34. Ophicardelus australis, Q. and G. = Tralia (Ophicardelus)

australis, Q. and G.
34. Marinula filholi, Hutt. = Marinula filholi, Hutt.

Suter. — List of New Zealand Mollusca. 211

Paee

. age ,

34. Leuconia obsoleta, Hutt. = Leuconopsis obsoleta, Hutt.

35. Amphibola avellana, Chemn. = Amphibola crenata,

Martyn.

35. Amphibola quoyana, P. and M., not Neiv Zealand (Aus-

tralia).

36. Siphonaria obliquata, Sow. = Siphonaria obliquata, Sow.
36. Siphonaria sipho, Sow. = Siphonaria zelandica, Q.and G.
36. Siphonaria cancer, Reeve = Siphonaria zelandica, Q.

and G.
36. Siphonaria australis, Q. and G. = Siphonaria australis,

Q. and G.
36. Siphonaria spinosa, Eeeve, not New Zealand (Natal).

36. Siphonaria redimiculum, Reeve = Siphonaria tristensis,

Leach.

37. Gadinia nivea, Hutt. = Gadinia nivea, Hutt.

37. Cyclophorus lignarius, Pfr. = Lagochilus lignarius, Pfr.

37. „ cytora, Gray = Lagochilus cytora, Gray.

38. Paxillus peregrina, Gould = Paxillus peregrinus, Gould.

38. Diplommatina chordata, Pfr. — Palaina chordata, Pfr.

39. Ee'alia hochstetteri, Pfr. = Realia hochstetfceri, Pfr.
39. „ egea, Gray = Realia egea, Gray.

39. „ turriculata, Pfr. = Realia turriculata, Pfr.

39. „ carinella, Pfr. = Realia carinella, Pfr.

40. Ornphalotropis vestita, Pfr. = Omphalotropis vestita,

Pfr.

40. Assiminea purchasi, Pfr. = Hydrocena purchasi, Pfr.

41. Conus zealandicus, Hutt., not New Zealand (Australia)

= C. anemone.

42. Acus kirki, Hutt. = Terebra tristis, Desh.

42. Pleurotoma buchanani, Hutt. = Surcula trailli, Hutt.

42. Pleurotoma trailli, Hutt. = Surcula trailli, Hutt.

43. Pleurotoma zealandica, Smith = Surcula cheesemani,

Hutt.
43. Pleurotoma antipodum, Smith = Surcula albula, Hutt.
43. Pleurotoma albula, Hutt. = Surcula albula, Hutt.

43. Drillia novae - zealandiae, Reeve = Surcula novae - zea-

landiae, Reeve.

44. Drillia laevis, Hutt. = Drillia laevis, Hutt.

44. „ maorum, S?nith = Surcula trailli, Hutt.
44. „ cemula, Aug., not New Zealand (Australia).

44. „ cheesemani, Hutt. = Surcula cheesemani, Hutt.

45. Lachesis sulcata, Hutt. = Columbella sulcata, Hutt.

45. Defranchia luteo-fasciata, Reeve = Clathurella sinclairi,
Smith.

45. Daphnella cancellata, Hutt. = Daphnella lymneiformis,

Kiener.

46. Cancellaria trailli, Hutt. = Cancellaria trailli, Hutt.
46. „ ampullacera, Less., not New Zealand.

212 Transactions. — Zoology.

Page

46. Murex zealandicus, Q. and G. = Murex zelandicus, Q.

and G.

47. Murex octogonus, Q. and G. = Murex octogonus, Q.

and G.
47. Murex angasi, Crosse = Murex angasi, Crosse.
47. Murex Candida, H. and A. Ad. = Trophon ambiguus,

Phil.

47. Typhis cleryi, Petit, not New Zealand (Australia).

48. Trophon ambiguus, H. and J. = Trophon ambiguus,

Phil.
48. Trophon stangeri, Gray = Trophon stangeri, Gray.
48. Trophon incisus, Gould, not New Zealand (California).

48. Trophon inferus, Hutt. = Trophon inferus, Hutt.

49. Trophon dubius, Hutt. = Taron dubius, Hutt.
49. Trophon paivae, Crosse = Trophon paivae, Crosse.

49. Trophon duodecimus, Gray = Trophon duodecimus, Gray.
49. Trophon spiratum, H. and A. Ad. = Trophon stangeri,
Gray.

49. Trophon coronatum, H. and A. Ad., not New Zealand

(Japan).

50. Fusus spiralis, Ad. = Fusus spiralis, Ad.

50. Neptunaea zealandica, Q. and G. = Siphonalia man-

darina, Duclos.
50. Neptunaea caudata, Q. and G- = Siphonalia mandarina,

var. caudata, Q. and G.
50. Neptunaea dilatata, Q. and G. = Siphonalia dilatata, Q,

and G.

50. Neptunaea nodosa, Mart. = Siphonalia nodosa, Mart.

51. Neptunaea traversi, Hutt. = Euthria lineata, var. tra-

versi, Hutt.
51. Euthria lineata, Chemn. = Euthria lineata, Martyn.

51. Euthria vittata, Q. and G. = Euthria vittata, Q. and G.

52. Euthria bicincta, Hutt. = Euthria vittata, Q. and G.
52. Euthria littorinoides, Beeve = Euthria littorinoides,

Reeve.
52. Euthria martensiana, Hutt. = Euthria martensiana,
Hutt.

52. Euthria antarctica, Reeve = Euthria antarctica, Reeve.

53. Cominella maculata, Mart. — Cominella maculata, Mart.
53. Cominella testudinea, Chemn. = Cominella testudinea,

Chemn
53. Cominella nassoides, Reeve = Cominella nassoides,
Reeve.

53. Cominella lineolata, Lam. = Cominella virgata, Adams.

54. „ lurida, Phil. — Cominella lurida, Phil.
54. „ huttoni, Kob. = Cominella huttoni, Kob.
54. „ melo, Less. = Cominella maculata, Mart.
54. „ funerea, Gould = Cominella lurida, Phil.

Stjteb. — List of New Zealand Mollusca. 218

Page

54. Columella quoyi, Kiener = Cominella virgata, Ad.

54. „ lactea, Beeve = Cominella lineolata, Lam.

55. Nassa rutilans, Eeeve, not Neiv Zealand (Australia).
55. Nassa nigclla, Reeve, not New Zealand (Australia).

55. Nassa nova-zealandia, Reeve, not Neiv Zealand (Philip-
pines).

55. Nassa corticata, Ad., not New Zealand (Australia).

56. Purpura haustrum, Mart. = Purpura haustrum, Mart.
56. Polytropa textiliosa, Lam. = Purpura succincta, Lam.
56. Polytropa succincta, Lam. = Purpura succincta, Lam.
56. Polytropa striata, Mart. = Purpura striata, Mart.

56. Polytropa squamata, Hutt. = Purpura striata, var. squa-

mata, Hutt.

57. Polytropa retiaria, Hutt. = Trophon stangeri, Gray.
57. Polytropa quoyi, Beeve = Trophon stangeri, Gray.

57. Polytropa scobina, Q. and G. = Purpura scobina, Q.

and G.
57. Polytropa patens, H. and J. = Trophon patens, H. and J.
57. Polytropa biconica, Hutt. = Purpura scobina, var. albo-

marginata, Desk.

57. Purpura tesselhata, Less., not again recognised.

58. Bicinula iodostoma, Less., not Neiv Zealand (Polynesia).

58. Ancillaria australis, Sow. = Ancilla australis, Sow.

59. Ancillaria pyramidalis, Beeve = Ancilla pyramidalis,

Beeve.

59. Coriocella ophione, Gray = Marsenia ophione, Gray.

60. Lattrus decoratus, Ad., not New Zealand (Andaman

Islands).
60. Mitra obscura, Hutt. = Mitra obscura, Hutt.

60. „ rubiginosa, Hutt. = Vulpecula rubiginosa, Hutt.

61. Columbella zebra, Gray, not New Zealand (Polynesia,

dc).
61. Columbella choava, Beeve = Columbella choava, Beeve.

61. Voluta pacifica, Lam. = Scaphella pacifica, Lam.

62. Voluta gracilis, Swains. = Scaphella gracilis, Swains.
62. Voluta kirki, Hutt., not New Zealand (Vol. flavicans,

Gmel.).

62. Marginella albescens, Hutt. = Marginella infans, Beeve.

63. „ vittata, Hutt., not New Zealand.

63. Erato lactea, Hutt. = Marginella muscaria, Lam.

63. Tritonium australis, Lam. = Lotorium nodiferum, Lam.

64. Tritonium spengleri, Chemn. = Lotorium spengleri,

(Chemn.) Lam.
64. Tritonium olearium, L. = Lotorium olearium, L.
64. Tritonium fusiformis, Kien., not New Zealand (Australia).

64. Ranella leucostoma, Lam. = Apollo leucostomus, Lam.

65. „ vexillum, Sow. = Apollo argus, Gmel.

6o. Dolium variegatum, Lam. = Dolium variegatum, Lam.

214 Transactions. — Zoology.

Page

66. Cassis pyrum, Lam. = Semicassis achatina, var. pyrurn,

Lam.
66. Cassis achatina, Lam. = Semicassis achatina, Lam.

66. Cyprcea punctata, L., not Neiv Zealand (Philippines).

67. Trivia australis, Lam. = Trivia australis, Lam.

67. „ coccinella, Lam. = Trivia europaea, Montagu.

67. Struthiolaria papulosa, Mart. = Struthiolaria papulosa,

Mart.

68. Struthiolaria australis, Gmel. = Struthiolaria vermis,

Mart.
68. Struthiolaria inermis, Sow. = Struthiolaria vermis, Mart.

68. Struthiolaria tricarinata, Less. = Struthiolaria tricari-

nata, Less.

69. Trichotropis inornata, Hutt. = Trichotropis inornata,

Hutt.

69. Scalaria zelebori, Frfld. = Scalaria zelebori, Frfld.

70. „ lyra, Soto. = Scalaria tenella, Hutt.

70. Philippia lutea, Lam. = Solarium luteum, Lam.

71. Janthina communis, Lam. = Janthina fragilis, Lam.
71. „ iricolor, Reeve = Janthina globosa, Swains.
71. „ exigua, Lam. = Janthina exigua, Lam.

71. Natica zealandica, Q. and G. = Natica zelandica, Q.

and G.

72. Lunatia australis, Hutt. = Natica australis, Hutt.
72. „ vitrea, Hutt. = Natica vitrea, Hutt.

72. Obeliscus roseus, Hutt. = Pyramidella rosea, Hutt.

72. Chemnitzia zealandica, Hutt. = Turbonilla zealandica,

Hutt.

73. Odostomia lactea, Ang. = Odontostomia angasi, Tryon.

73. Eulima chathamensis, Hutt. = Rissoina rugulosa, Hutt.

74. Cerithidea alternata, Hutt. = Potamides alternatus,

Hutt.
74. Cerithidea bicariuata, Gray = Potamides bicarinatus,

Gray.
74. Cerithidea nigra, H. and J. = Potamides subcarinatus,

Sow.

74. Bittium terebelloides, Mts. = Cerithiopsis terebelloides,

Mts.

75. Bittium exilis, Hutt. = Bittium exile, Hutt.

75. Triphoris angasi, Crosse = Triforis angasi, Crosse.

75. Triphoris gemmulatus, Ad. and Reeve = Triforis gemmu-

latus, Ad. and Reeve.
78. Melanopsis trifasciata, Gray = Melanopsis trifasciata,

Gray.
78. Melanopsis strangei, Reeve = Melanopsis trifasciata,

Gray.

78. Littorina cincta, Q. and G. = Littorina cincta, Q. and G.

79. „ coerulescens, Lam. = Littorina mauritiana, Lam.

Sutee. — List of New Zealand Mollusca. 2L5

Page

79. Littorina luctuosa, Reeve = Littorina cincta, Q. and G.
79. „ novce-zealandice, Reeve, not Nexo Zealand.

79. Risella nielanostoma, Gmel. = Risella melanostorna,
Gmel.

79. Fossarina varius, Hutt. = Fossarina varia, Hutt.

80. Rissoina plicata, Hutt. = Rissoia plicata, Hutt.

80. „ rugulosa, Hutt. = Rissoina rugulosa, Hutt.

80. „ purpurea, Hutt. = Rissoia subfusca, Hutt.

80. „ subfusca, Hutt. = Rissoia subfusca, Hutt.

80. „ fasciata, Ad. = Rissoina fasciata, A. Ad.

81. Barleeia flamulata, Hutt. = Phasianella buttoni, Pilsbry.
81. „ rosea, Hutt. = Barleeia rosea, Hutt.

81. „ nana, Hutt. = Rissoia huttoni, Sut.

81. „ impolita, Hutt. = Odontostomia impolita, Hutt.

81. Bythinelia antipoda, Gray = Potamopyrgus antipodum,
Gray.

81. Bythinelia zealandia3, Gray = P. antipodum, var. zea-

landiae, Gray.

82. Bytbinella egena, Gould = P. antipodum, var. egena,

Gould.
82. Bythinelia spelgea, Frfld. = Potamopyrgus spelaeus,

Frfld.
82. Bythinelia fisheri, Dkr. = Potamopyrgus corolla, Gould.
82. Bythinelia badia, Gould = Potamopyrgus corolla, Gould.

82. Bythinelia reevei, Frfld. = Potamopyrgus corolla, Gould.

83. Potamopyrgus corolla, Gld. = Potamopyrgus corolla,

Gould.

83. Turritella rosea, Q. and G. = Turritella rosea, Q. and G.

84. „ vittata, Hutt. = Turritella vittata, Hutt.

84. „ fulminata, Hutt. = Turritella fulminata, Hutt.

84. „ pagoda, Reeve = Turritella pagoda, Reeve.

84. Eglisia symmetrica, Hutt. = Turritella kanieriensis,

Harris.

85. Siphonium lamellosum, Hutt. = Vermicularia lamellosa,

Hutt.
85. Cladopoda zealandica, Q. and G. = Vermicularia zelan-
dica, Q. and G.

85. Stephopoma roseum, Q. and G. = Vermicularia rosea, Q.

and G.

86. Siliquaria australis, Q. and G. = Tenagodes australis, Q.

and G.
86. Trochita scutum, Less. = Calyptraea scutum, Less.

86. Trochita novae-zelandiae, Less. = Calyptrgea maculara,

Q. and G.

87. Crypta costata, Desh. = Crepidula aculeata, Gmel.
87. „ monoxyla, Less. = Crepidula monoxyla, Less.

87. „ unguiformis. Lam. = Crepidula crepidula, L.

88. Hipponyx australis, Lam. = Hipponyx sp.

216 Transactions. — Zoology.

88. Acmaea pileopsis, Q. and G. = Acmaea pileopsis, Q. and G.
88. „ cantharus, Reeve = Acmaea cantharus, Reeve.

88. „ fragilis, Chemn. = Acmaea fragilis, Ghemn.

89. „ corticata, Hutt. = Acmaea corticata, Hutt.

89. Nerita atrata, Lam. = Nerita nigra, Gray.

90. Neritina zealandica, Eecl., not New Zealand (Polynesia).

90. Turbo smaragdus, Mart. = Turbo helicinus, Born.

91. Turbo granosus, Mart. = Turbo granosus, Mart.
91. Turbo shandi, Hutt. = Astralium(?) shandi. Hutt.

91. Turbo lajonkairii, Desh., not New Zealand (Indian Archi-
pelago).

91. Turbo undulatus, Chemn., not New Zealand (Australia).

92. Calcar cookii, Lam. = Astralium sulcatum, Mart.

92. „ davisii, Stowe = A. sulcatum, var. davisii, Stowe.
92. „ imperialis, Lam. = Astralium heliotropium, Mart.

92. Eotella zealandica, H. and J. = Ethalia zelandica, H.

and J.

93. Anthora tuberculata, Gray = Trochus viridis, Gmel.

94. Anthora tritonis, A. Ad. = Trochus viridis, Gmel.
94. Anthora viridis, Gmel. = Trochus viridis, Gmel.

94. Anthora chathamensis, Hutt. = Trochus chathamensis,
Hutt.

94. Anthora tiarata, Q. and G. = Trochus tiaratus, Q.

and G.

95. Clancukis variegatus, Ad., not New Zealand.
95. Euchelus bellus, Hutt. = Euchelus bellus, Hutt.

95. Diloma aethiops, Gmel. — Monodonta aethiops, Gmel.

95. Diloma hectori, Hutt. = Monodonta corrosa, A. Adams.

96. Diloma undulosa, Ad. = M. corrosa, var. undulosa, Ad.
96. Diloma nigerrima, Chemn. = Monodonta coracina, Tros-

chel.
96. Diloma corrosa, Ad. = Monodonta corrosa, A. Adams.
96. Diloma concolor, Ad. = Monodonta aethiops, Gmel.
96. Diloma gaimardi, Phil. = Monodonta lugubris, Gmel.
96. Trochocochlea subrostrata, Gray = Monodonta subros-

trata, Gray.

96. Trochocochlea mimetica, Hutt. = Monodonta crinita,

Phil.

97. Trochocochlea excavata, Ad. and Aug. = Monodonta

excavata, Ad. and Ang.
97. Chlorostoma niger, Chemn., not Neiv Zealand.

97. Thalotia conica, Gray = Cantharidus conicus, Gray.

98. Zizyphinus punctulatus, Mart. = Calliostoma punctu-

latum, Mart.
98. Zizyphinus granatum, Chemn. = Calliostoma tigris,

Mart.
98. Zizyphinus spectabilis, Ad. = Calliostoma spectabilis,

Ad.

SlTTER. — List of New Zealand Mollusca. 217

Page

98. Zizyphinus scitulus, Ad., not New Zealand (Australia).
98. Zizyphinus selectus, Chemn. = Calliostoma selectmen,
Chemn.

98. Zizyphinus cunningharni, Gray = Calliostoma selectuna,

Chemn .

99. Cantharidus iris, Cimel. = Cantharidus iris, Gmel.

99. Cantharidus zealandicus, Ad. = Cantharidus iris, Gmel.
99. Cantharidus purpuratus, Mart. = Cantharidus purpuratus,

Mart.
99. Cantharidus texturatus, GUI. = C. purpuratus, var. tex-
turata, Gld.
100. Cantharidus jucundus, Gld., not Nero Zealand.
100. Cantharidus pallidus, H. and J. = Cantharidus purpur-
atus, Mart.
100. Cantharidus episcopus, H. and J. = Cantharidus pru-

niuus, Gould.
100. Cantharidus huttoni, Smith = C. tenebrosus, var. hut-
toni, Smith.

100. Cantharidus pupillus, Hutt. = Cantharidus pupillus,

Hutt.

101. Cantharidus tenebrosus, A. Ad. — Cantharidus tene-

brosus, A. Ad.
101. Cantharidus rui'ozona, A. Ad. = Cantharidus rufozona,

A. Ad.
101. Elenchus dilatatus, Soiv. = Cantharidus dilatatus,

Soiv.

101. Bankivia varians, Beck. = Cantharidus varians, Beck.

102. Monilea egena, Gould = Monilea egena, Gld.

102. Gibbula sanguinea, Gray = Cantharidus sanguineus,

Gray.
102. Gibbula simulata, Hutu. = Cantharidus dilatatus, Sotu.
102. Gibbula nitida, Ad. and Ang. = Gibbula nitida, Ad. and

Aug.
102. Gibbula inconspicua, Hutt. = Gibbula nitida, Ad. and

Ang.

102. Gibbula oppressa, Hutt. = Trochus oppressus, Hutt.

103. Margarita antipoda, H. and J. = Gibbula antipoda, H.

and J.
103. Margarita fulminata, Hutt. = Gibbula fulminata, Hutt.
103. „ rosea, Hutt. = Gibbula rosea, Hutt.

103. „ zealandica, Soto. = Monilea egena, Gould.

103. Scissurella mantelli, Woodw. = Scissurella mantelli,

Woodw.

104. Haliotis iris, Mart. — Haliotis iris, Mart.

104. Haliotis rugoso-plicata, Chemn. = Haliotis rugoso-pli-
cata, Chemn.

104. Haliotis gibba, Phil. = Haliotis virginea, Chemn.

105. Haliotis zealandica, Eeeve, not Nerv Zealand(l).

218 Transactions. — Zoology.

Page

105. Haliotis cruenta, Reeve = Haliotis rugoso - plicata,
Chemn.

105. Haliotis stomatiaformis, Eeeve, not Neiv Zealand (Aus-
tralia).

105. Fissurella squamosa, Hutt. = Fissurella squamosa,

Butt.

106. Lucapina monilifera, Hutt. = Megatebennus moni-

liferus, Hutt.
106. Emai'ginula striatula, Q. and G. — Emarginula striatula,

Q. and G.
106. Emarginula australis, Q. and G., not Neiv Zealand

( Aiis tr alia).
106. Tugalia parmophoidea, Q. and G. = Subemarginula par-

mopboidea, Q. and G.

106. Parmopborus unguis, L. = Scutum ambiguum, Chemn.

107. Patella magellanica, Mart. = Patella strigilis, -H". and J.
107. Patella inconspicua, Gray = P. ornata, var. inconspicua,

Gray.

107. Patella redimiculum, Reeve = P. strigilis, var. redimicu-

lum, Reeve.

108. Patella reevei, Hutt. = Patella denticulata, Mart.
108 „ argyropsis, Less. = Patella radians, Gmel.

108. „ aftinis, Reeve = P. radians, var. pholidota, Less.

108. „ pholidota, Less. — P. radians, var. pholidota, Less.

108. „ radians, Gmel. = Patella radians, Gmel.

109. „ denticulata, Mart. = Patella denticulata, Mart.
109. „ flava, Hutt. = P. radians, var. flava, Hutt.
109. „ antipodum, Smith = Patella tramoserica, Mart.
109. „ tramoserica, Mart. = Patella tramoserica, Mart.
109. „ stellularia, Q. and G. = Patella stellifera, Chemn.

109. „ stellifera, Chemn. = Patella stellifera, Chemn.

110. „ stella, Less., not New Zealand.

110. „ earlii, Reeve = P. radians, var. earlii, Reeve.
110. „ flexuosa, Hutt. = P. radians, var. earlii, Reeve.

110. „ rubiginosa, Hutt. = Acmaea lacunosa, Reeve.

111. Chiton pellis-serpentis, Q. and G. — Chiton pellis-ser-

pentis. Q. and G.
111. Chiton sinclairi, Grau — Chiton sinclairi, Gray.
111. Chiton stangeri, Reeve = Chiton stangeri, Reeve.

111. Chiton concentricus, Eeeve, not Neiv Zealand (= Ch.

jugosus, Gld.).

112. Chiton sulcatus, Q. and G. = Chiton limans, Sykes.
112. Chiton insculptus, A. Ad. = Chiton canaliculars, Q.

and G.

112. Chiton glaucus, Gray = Chiton quoyi, Desh.

112. Chiton aereus, Reeve = Chiton aereus, Reeve.

112. Lepidopleurus canaliculars, Q. and G. = Chiton canali-
culars, Q. and G.

Suter. — List of New Zealand Mollusca. 21i>

Pag

113. Lepidopleurus contractus, Reeve, not New- Zealand.

113. Lepidopleurus longicymbus, B lain v. = Ischnochiton

longicymba, Q. and G.
113. Lepidopleurus circurnvallatus, Reeve = Ischnochiton par-

keri, Sut.
113. Lepidopleurus empleurus, Hutt. = Callochiton empleurus,

Butt.

113. Lepidopleurus rudis, Hutt., not Neiv Zealand.

114. Tonicia undulata, Q. and G. = Onithochiton undulatus,

Q. and G.
114. Tonicia rubiginosa, Hutt. = Acanthocbitus rubiginosus,

Hutt.
114. Tonicia lineolata, FremLy = Onithocbiton undulatus, Q.

and G.

114. Tonicia atrata, Soio. = Plaxipbora subatrata, Pilsbry.

115. Acantbopleura cffilatus, Reeve = Plaxipbora caslata,

Reeve.

115. Chsetopleura nobilis, Gray = Eudoxocbiton nobilis, Gray.

116. Mopalia ciliata, Soiv . = Plaxiphora suteri, Pilsbry.

116. Plaxiphora birarnosa, Q. and G. = Plaxipbora biramosa,
Q. and G.

116. Plaxiphora terminalis, Smith = Plaxiphora caelata,

Reeve.

117. Acanthochites zealandicus, Q. and G. = Acanthochites

zelandicus, Q. and G.
117. Acanthochites porphyreticus, Reeve = Acanthochites
violaceus, Q. and G.

117. Acanthochites ovatus, Hutt. = Plaxiphora ovata, Hutt.

118. Acanthochites violacea, Q. and G. — Acanthochites vio-

laceus, Q. and G.

118. Cryptoconchus porosus, Burrow = Acanthochites porosus,

Btirrow.

119. Carinaria australis, Q. and G. = Carinaria australis, Q.

and G.
119. Buccinulus kirki, Hutt. = Actaeon kirki, Hutt.

119. „ albus, Hutt. = Solidula alba, Hutt.

120. Bullina lineata, Wood = Bullinula scabra, Gmel.

120. Cylichna striata, Hutt. = Bullinella striata, Hutt.

121. Bulla oblonga, Ad. = Bulla autralis (Gray), Q. and G.
121. „ quoyi, Gray = Bulla quoyi, Gray.

121. Haminea zealandias, Gray = Harninea zelandise, Gray.

121. Haminea obesa, Sow. = Haminea zelandiae, Gray.

122. Haminea acuticulifera, Smith = Haminea cuticulifera,

Smith.

122. Akera tumida, Ad. = Akera tumida, Ad.

123. Philine angasi, Crosse = Philine aperta, L.

123. Aplysia brunnea, Hutt. = Tethys brunnea, Hutt.
123. „ venosa, Hutt. = Tethys venosa, Hutt.

220 Transactions. — Zoology.

Page

123. Aclesia glauca, Cheesem. = Notarchus glaucus, Ch.

124. Pleurobranchus ornatus, Cheesem. = P. ornatus, Ch.
121. Pleurobranchaea novae-zealandiae, Cheesem. = P. novae-
zealandiae, Ch.

125. Doris punctata, Q. and G. = Doris punctata, Q. and G.

125. „ tubercuiata, Guv. = Archidoris tubercuiata, Cuv.

126. „ granulosa, Abrah. = Doris granulosa, Abrah.
126. „ longula, Abrah. = Doris longula, Abrah.

126. „ muscula, Abrah. = Doris muscula, Abrah.

127. „ lanuginata, Abrah. = Doris lanuginata, Abrah.

127. „ wellingtonensis, Abrah. = Doris wellingtonensis,

Abrah.

128. „ carinata, Q. and G. = Atagena carinata, Q. and G.
128. Acanthodoris mollicella, Abrah. = A. mollicella, Abrah.

128. „ globosa, Abrah. = A. globosa, Abrah.

129. Phidiana longicauda, Q. and G. — Facelina longicauda,

Q. and G.

130. Dentalium zealandicum, Soto. = Dentalium zelandicum,

Soto.
130. Dentalium pacificum, Hutt. = Dentalium zelandicum

Sow.
131; Hyalea amnis, d'Orb. = Carolinia tridentata, Forskal.

132. Barnea similis, Gray = Barnea similis, Gray.

133. Pholadidea spathulata, Sow. — Pboladidea tridens, Gray.
133. „ tridens, Gray = Pholadidea tridens, Gray.

133. Teredo antarctica, Hutt. = Nausitora antarctica, Hutt.

134. Saxicava australis, Lam. = Saxicava arctica, L.

134. Panopaea zealandica, Q. and G. = Panopea zelandica,
Q. and G.

134. Panopaea solandri, Gray = Panopea zelandica, Q. and G.

135. Corbula zealandica, Q. and, G. = Corbula zelandica,

Q. and G.
135. Corbula erythrodon, Lam. = Corbula erythrodon, Lain.

135. „ adusta, Hinds, not N rew Zealand.

135T „ haastiana, Hutt. = Corbula haastiana, Hutt.

136. Anatina tasmanica, Reeve = Cochloclesma angasi, Crosse

and Fischer.

136. Lyomia vitrea, Hutt. = Thracia vitrea, Hutt.

137. Neaera trailli, Hutt. = Cuspidaria trailli, Hutt.

137. Myodora striata, Q. and G. = Myodora striata, Q. and G.

137. „ plana, Reeve — Myodora brevis, Sow.

137. „ ovata, Reeve = Myodora subrostrata, Smith.

137. „ rotunda, Soiv. = Myodora rotundata, Sou\

138. Chamostraea a.lbida, Lam. = Chamostrea albida, Lam.
138. Mactra discors, Gray == Mactra discors, Gray.

138. „ murchisoni, Desli. = Mactra discors, Gray.

138. „ scalpellum, Desh. = Mactra scalpellum, Desh.

139. „ aequilateralis, Desh. = Mactra aequilateralis, Desh.

Suter — List of New Zealand Mollusca. 221

PclCG

139. Mactra donaciformis , Gray, not New Zealand.
139. Standella ovata, Gray = Standella ovata, Gray.

139. Standella elongata, Q. and G. = Standella elongata, Q.

and G.
149. Standella notata, Hutt. = Standella elongata, Q. and G.

140. Zenatia acmaces, Q. and G. = Zenatia acinaces, Q.

and G.
140. Zenatia deshayesi, Beeve = Zenatia acinaees, Q. and G.

140. Vanganella taylori, Gray = Eesania lanceolata, Gray.

141. Eaeta perspicua, Hutt. = Kaeta perspicua, Hutt.
141. CcBcella zelandica, Desh., not New Zealand.

141. Psainmobia stangeri, Gray = Psamraobia stangeri, Gray.

142. Psanimobia lineolata, Gray = Psammobia lineolata,

Gray.
142. Psammobia zealandica, Desh. = Psammobia zealandica,

Desh.
142. Psammobia affinis, Beeve = Psammobia affinis, Beeve.
142. Soletellina nitida, Gray = Solenotellina nitida, Gray.

142. „ siliqua, Beeve = Solenotellina siliqua, Beeve.

143. „ mcerta, Beeve = Solenotellina incerta, Beeve.
113. n nitens, Tryon = Solenotellina incerta, Beeve.
143. Tellina alba, Q. and G. = Tellina alba, Q. and G.

143. „ deltoidalis, Lam. = Tellina lactea, Q. and G.

143. „ disculus, Desh. = Tellina disculus, Desh.

144. „ subovata, Soto. = Tellina strangei, Desh.
144. „ ticaonica, Desh. = Tellina ticaonica, Desh.
144. „ strangei, Desh. = Tellina strangei, Desh.

144. „ glabrella, Desh. = Tellina glabrella, Desh.

145. „ radiata, Desh. = Solenotellina radiata, Desh.
145. Mesodesmanovae-zealandise, Chemn. = Mesodesmanovse-

zealandise, Chemn.
145. Mesodesma ovalis, Desh. = Mesodesma novae-zealandise,
Chemn.

145. Mesodesma ventricosa, Gray = Mesodesma ventricosa,

Gray.

146. Mesodesma lata, Desh. = Mesodesma ventricosa, Gray.

146. Mesodesma spissa, Beeve = Atactodea subtriangulata ,

Gray.

147. Venus nodosa, Dkr., not New Zealand (West Africa).
147. „ oblonga, Hanley = Venus oblonga, Hanley.
147. „ crebra, Hutt. = Venus crebra, Hutt.

147. Chione lamellata, Lam. = Venus lamellata, Lam.

147. „ yatei, Gray = Venus yatei, Gray.

148. „ stutchburyi, Gray = Venus stutchburyi, Gray.
148. „ costata, Q. and G. = Venus costata, Q. and G.
148. „ lima, Sow., not Nero Zealand.

148. „ mesodesma, Q. and G. = Venus crassa, Q.
and G.

222 Transactions. — Zoology.

Page

148. Chione gibbosa, Hutt., found fossil only.

149. „ pauper xula, Cbemn., not Neiv Zealand (India).
149. Callista multistriata, Sow. = Meretrix multistriata, Sow.

149. „ disrupta, Sow., not New Zealand (Australia).

150. Artemis australis, Gray = Dosinia australis, Gray.
150. „ subrosea, Gray — Dosinia subrosea, Gray.
150. „ lambata, GUI. = Dosinia larnbata, Gld.

150. „ carpenteri, Bom. — Dosinia lambata, Gld.

151. „ gi'ayi, Zittel = Dosinia grayi, Zittel.

151. Tapes intermedia, Q. and G. = Tapes intermedia,

Q. and G.

151. Tapes fabagella, Desh., not New Zealand.

151. Tapes galactites, Lam., not Neiv Zealand.

152. Venerupis reflexa, Gray = Venerupis reflexa, Gray.
152. „ paupercula, Desh. = Venerupis reflexa, Gray.
152. „ siliqua, Desh. = Venerupis siliqua, Desh.

152. „ elegans, Desh. = Venerupis elegans, Desh.

153. Petricola serrata, Desh., not Neiv Zealand.

153. Cardium striatulum, Soiv. = Cardium pulchellum, Gray.

154. Sphaerium novse-zelandiae, Desh. = Sph. novas-zelandiae,

Desh.

154. Sphaerium lenticula, Dkr. = Sph. novae-zelandiae, Desh.

155. Pisidium novaa-zealandias, Prime = P. novae-zealandiae,

Prime.
155. Lucina divaricata, Lam. = Divaricella cumingi, Ad. and
Aug.

155. Lucina lactea, A. Ad., not New Zealand (Australia).

156. Diplodonta zealandica, Gray = Diplodonta zealandica,

Gray.
156. Diplodonta globularis, Lam. = Diplodonta globularis,
Lam.

156. Diplodonta striata, Hutt. = Diplodonta striata, Hutt.

157. Kellia cycladiformis, Desh. = Kellya cycladiformis, Desh.

157. Solemya parkinsoni, Smith = Solenomya parkinsoni,

Smith.

158. Crassatella obesa, Ad. = Crassatellites obesa, Ad.
158. „ bellula, Ad. = Crassatellites bellula, Ad.
158. Cardita australis, Lam. = Venericardia australis, Lam.
158. Cardita zealandica, P. and M. = Venericardia australis,

Lam.
158. Cardita lutea, Hutt. = Venericardia compressa, Reeve.
158. „ bimaculata, Desh., not Neiv Zealand (Tasmania).

158. „ amabilis, Desh., not Neiv ZealandiJ).

159. „ difficilis, Desh. = Venericardia diflicilis, Desh.

159. „ purpurata, Desh. — Venericardia australis, Lam.

160. Mytilicardia excavata, Desh. = Cardita aviculina, Lam.

160. Unio menziesii, Gray = Diplodon menziesii, Gray.

161. „ aucklandica, Gray = Diplodon menziesii, Gray.

Suter — List of New Zealand Mollusca. 223

Page

161. Unio zelebori, Dkr. = Diplodon zelebori, Dkr.
161. „ hochstetteri, Dkr. = D. menziesii, var. hochstetteri,
Dkr.

161. „ lutulentus, Gld. = Diplodon lutulentus, Gld.

162. Barbatia decussata, Sotv. = Area decussata, Sow.

162. „ pusilla, Soto. = Area reticulata, Chemn

163. Pectunculus laticostatus, Q. and G. = Glycymeris laticos-

tata, Q. and G.
163. Pectunculus flammeus, Reeve = Glycymeris laticostata, Q.
and G.

163. Pectunculus striatularis, Lam. = Glycymeris striatulare,

Lam.

164. Nucula nitidula, A. Ad. = Nucula nitidula, A. Ad.
164. „ strangei, A. Ad. = Nucula strangei, A. Ad.
164. „ sulcata, A. Ad. = Nucula lacunosa, Rutt.
164. „ castanea,^. Ad., doubtful for New Zealand.

164. „ striolata, A. Ad., not New Zealand (China).

165. „ grayi, d'Orb., not New Zealand (South America).
165. Leda concinna, A. Ad. = Leda concinna, A. Ad.

165. „ fastidiosa, A. Ad., doubtful for Neiv Zealand.

165. „ micans A. Ad., doubtful for Neiv Zealand.

166. Solenella australis, Q. and G. = Malletia australis, Q.

and G.

166. Mytilus magellanicus, Lam. = Mytilus magellanicus,

Lam.

167. Mytilus polyodontes, Q. and G. = Mytilus magellanicus,

Lam.
167. Mytilus latus, Chemn. = Mytilus latus, Chemn.
167. „ edulis, L. = Mytilus edulis, L.

167. „ ater, Frfld. = Volsella ater, Frfld.

168. Crenella impacta, Herm. = Crenella impacta, Herm.
168. Modiola australis, Gray = Volsella australe, Gray.
168. „ areolata, Gld. — Volsella australe, Gray.
168. „ fluviatilis, Hutt. = Volsella fluviatilis, Hutt.

168. Lithodotnus truncatus, Gray = Lithopbagus truncatus,

Gray.

169. Lithodomus gruneri, Eeeve, not Neiv Zealand (West

Africa).
169. Pinna zealandiae, Gray = Pinna zealaudiae, Gray.

169. Avicula glabra, Gld., not New Zealand.

170. „ fucata, Gld., not Neiv Zealand.

170. Pecten zealandias, Gray = Pecten zelandiae, Gray.

170. Pecten gemmulatus, Reeve = Pecten zelandiae, var.

gemmulata, Reeve.

171. Pecten multicostatus, Reeve = Pecten zelandiae, Reeve.
171. „ pica, Eeeve, not Neiv Zealdnd.

171. „ australis, Sow. = Pecten asperrimus, Lam.
171. „ radiatus, Hutt. = Pecten radiatus, Hutt.

224 Transactions. — Zoology.

Page

171. Pecten vellicatus, Hutt. = Pecten convexus, Q. and G.

171. Vola laticostatus, Gray = Pecten laticostatus, Gray.

172. Lima zealandica, Sow. = Lima zealandica, Soiv.
172. „ angulata, Sow. = Lima angulata, Sow.

172. „ japonica, A. Ad. = Lima bullata, Born.

173. Plicatula nova-zealandia, Sow., not Neio Zealand.
173. Anomia stowei, Hutt. = Anomia stowei, Hutt.

173. „ alectus, Gray = Anomia alectus, Gray.

174. „ cytaeum, Gray = Anomia cytseum, Gray.

174. Placananomia zealandica, Gray = Placunanomia ze-
landica, Gray.

174. Placunanomia ione, Gray = Placunanomia ione, Gray.

175. Ostrea edulis, L. = Ostrea angasi, Sow.
175. „ discoidea, Gld., not New Zealand.

175. „ gloinerata, Gld. = Ostrea glomerata, Gld.

175. „ reniformis, Souk = Ostrea reniformis, Soto.

Bbachiopoda.

176. Waldheimia lenticularis, Desk. = Magellania lenticu-

laris, Desh.

176. Terebratella cruenta, Dillio. = Terebratella cruenta,

Dillw.

177. Terebratella rubicunda, Sol. = Terebratella rubicunda,

Sol.

177. Magas evansii, Davidson = young of Terebratella cruenta.
177- Waltonia valencienni, Davidson = young of Terebratella

rubicunda.

178. Bouchardia cumingi, Davidson, not New Zealand.
178. Kraussia lamarckiana, Davidson, not New Zealand.

178. Khyncbonella nigricans, Sozv. = Hemithyris nigricans,
Sotv.

Art. XXIV. — Notice of an Electric Bay neio to the Fauna
of Neio Zealand, belonging to the Genus Astrape.

By A. Hamilton.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 12th November, 1901.]

Plates X.-XII.

During the cruise of the " Doto " in the southern coastal
waters of New Zealand, in the early part of 1900, a specimen
was caught in Foveaux Strait, in the seventy-sixth haul, in
shallow water, of a cramp-fish or torpedo ray, which appears
to be an addition to the list of our New Zealand fishes. I

Hamilton. — On a New Electric Ray. 225

received the specimen from Mr. Ayson, who was in charge of
the experimental trawling, on his return to Dunedin. The
fish had been placed with other specimens in a jar of strong
alcohol, and presented a very shrivelled appearance, the skin
being very loose and full of creases and folds. The shape of
the body, excluding the short tail, was nearly circular, being
Sin. in each diameter (Plate X.). The total length of the
body, including the tail portion, was lOf in.

In November of the same year I obtained a fresh speci-
men of this curious fish from a fish-shop in Dunedin, which
had been caught the previous night by the steam-trawler
some distance outside of the Otago Heads. The general
shape and appearance of this specimen was so unlike
the other that I thought they must be different species,
but on examination I find no material points of differ-
ence, except in the general outline, as shown in the
plate. The outline figures there given are mechanically
reduced from outlines made by passing a pencil round the
edges of the fish while it rested on a piece of paper. I am
therefore compelled to think that the first specimen must
have been much altered in shape by the action of the spirit.

The proper shape of this interesting fish appears to be
more of a long oval than a circle, the measurements being
7 in. in greatest diameter and 14-Jin. in length.

The very minute, almost invisible, eyes, the single dorsal,
and the position of the vent, place it in the genus Astrape
of Muller and Henle. In the absence of further specimens
(both those obtained being males), and not having the neces-
sary literature, I cannot say that it is absolutely the same as
Astrape capensis. I have therefore, as already intimated in
my report of the 5th July, 1900, called the New Zealand
specimens Astrape aysoni, after their first discoverer.

The British Museum catalogue records Astrape capensis
from the Cape and from the coast of Madagascar, and an
allied species is recorded from Japan, but I cannot get any
description for comparison with the New Zealand specimen,
nor any illustrations.

Family NAKCOBATIDJE.
Genus Astbape, Mull, and Henle.
Astrape, Mull, and H.

Tail with a fold on each side. Body entirely naked ; upper
surface reddish-brown, lower surface white and yellowish-
white. One dorsal fin only on the tail, without spine.
Caudal well developed. Anterior nasal valves confluent into
a broad flap overhanging the mouth. Teeth pointed ;
dental laminae scarcely extending beyond the other margin
15

226 Transactions. — Zoology.

of the jaws. Spiracles immediately behind the eyes, which
are very minute, and hardly traceable under the skin. An
electric apparatus between the head and pectoral fins.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES X.-XII.
Plate X.
Astrape aysoni, n. sp.

Plate XL
Astrape aysoni, head.

Plate XII.

Astrape aysoni, under-surface : fig. a from live specimen ; fig. b from
spirit specimen ; fig. c, tail.

Art. XXV.- — Embryology of Neiv Zealand Lepidoptera :

Part II.

By Ambrose Quail, F.E.S.

\Head before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 11th February,

1902.']

Plate XIII. (See also pi. ix., vol. xxxiii.)

Embryology in interest supersedes the pleasures of collecting
and preserving specimens in the imago stage, and enhances
the scientific value of the Lepidoptera in entomology. Breed-
ing insects is a means towards an end — good specimens to the
collector. On the other hand, the desire of the student is to
know what can be iearnt of structure, habits, and so forth.
I know prominent embryologists in England who, after devot-
ing great attention to breeding and hybridizing species, hand
over the resulting imagines to some collector friends.

Probably most collectors would at once kill and set a
female specimen of any scarce or rare species, if in perfect
condition, but an embryological student would almost cer-
tainly try and procure ova. Such a case I well remember.
A party of several entomologists were at the New Forest,
England, and my friend Mr. Arthur Bacot took a freshly
emerged female of a scarce species — Peridea trepida, I think —
which he decided to keep until night and try to assemble
some males. Any other of the party would have killed it at
once, on the principle of " a bird in the hand is worth two
in the bush." That evening, before sugar commenced, we
hung her ladyship like a songster in a cage, from a branch of

Quail. — On New Zealand Lepidoprera. 227

a tree. Later on she caused an assembly of the opposite sex
of her species, and as they hurried up we could see their
little eyes glow in the darkness quite a distance away. They
would, fly straight to the cage and crawl all over the gauze
sides, and the light from our lantern did not scare them. As
they flew up we netted them, until quite a number of males
had been taken ; and when the flight was over one was let
into the cage, when it immediately copulated and fertile ova
resulted. The captured males were handed over to the other
entomologists present.

For the purpose of embryology and of classification it is
necessary to describe the pattern of the ovum, the structure
of the larva and pupa. Although we may not know the why or
the wherefore, there must be some functional, constitutional,
or environmental reason for such structures. Without further
preface I will now offer for your consideration such observa-
tions on some species of New Zealand Lepidoptera as my
limited time has permitted.

A Contribution to the Life-history of Metacrias (Meyr.)

strategica (Hdsn.).

For my material I am indebted to Mr. George Howes, who
recorded the occurrence of this species at Invercargill.* The
apterous female of this and of the two congeneric species
raises the interesting problem of the cause of such a condi-
tion. The Arctid genus Ocnogyna, of Europe, has females
with rudimentary wings, but I know of no others in the group.
Liparidce, which by derivation must have more or less remote
affinities with Arctids, have some completely apterous females,
some with rudimentary wings. Other groups of Lepidoptera
not associated with these exhibit the same phenomena.
Such must be considered specialised, and the apterous condi-
tion of the female is intimately associated with reproduction.
Lessen productivity and the species is nearer extinction.
Whether specialisation of the ovum and its chemical contents
is the great factor in reduction of productivity can hardly be
proved, but I am inclined to think it is so. The organism,
after exclusion from the egg, builds up physiologically from
matter assimilated as food ; but before exclusion from the egg
the organism is formed entirelv from matter contained within
the egg, derived wholly from the female parent (granted
seminal stimulus of the male) by the primary unicellular
germ using up surrounding cells in the ovary of the parent
until the ovum developed. This, at least, is as I understand
the process. The quantity of cellular matter absorbed per
ovum would affect the quantity of ova resulting; specialisation

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii.

228 Transactions. — Zoology.

no doubt would cause greater absorption, and consequent re-
duction, in number of ova. This might be partially counter-
acted by conversion of energy towards the formation of
cellular matter in the ovary at the expense of imaginal
structures, until, as in Metacrias, the female becomes a helpless
ova-bag.

In his letters Mr. Howes tells me that a male M. strate-
gica copulated with three separate females in the course of
perhaps twenty-four hours. It is interesting to get authentic
records of such. Many entomologists believe the males
among Lepidoptera only pair once I have no doubt male
M. strategical would assemble to a virgin female if exposed at
the proper time of flight and in a suitable locality.

Ovum.

Deposited, 4th November, 1900 ; hatched, 27th November,
1900 — 23 days. Spherical in shape ; pale honey-colour ; egg-
shell apparently exceedingly thin, with irregular hexagons
over its surface, more distinct than on Nyctemera annulata.
It may here be noted that I have examined batches of N. an-
nulata ova which were quite smooth, others having a faint
hexagonal pattern. Mr. Howes mentions that the young
newly hatched larvae eat the eggshell. This is done by N.
annulata*

Larva. (Plate XIII. , fig. 8 ; vol. xxxiii., pi. ix., fig. 18.)

Newly hatched. — Eobust ; all the segments approximately
uniform except head, prothorax, and the two posterior ab-
dominal segments, which are smaller than the others.
Tubercles are crowded together and give the larva a rather
dark colour, though the skin is yellowish-brown. The head,
scutellum, dorsal anal shield, and tubercles are brown ; the
seta3 are black. The setae are spinulose, and the skin is
covered with minute (secondary) hairs. At first the head
appears to be larger than prothorax, but, enclosed in its chi-
tinous envelope, it does not grow, and prior to ecdysis tiie
prothorax is larger than the head. The dorsal and lateral
multisetiferous tubercles are at first prominent elevations on
all the segments, but when the skin is fully distended prior
to ecdysis the dorsal tubercles of 9th abdominal segment
only appear to be specially prominent. When full fed in
first skin the length is -£$ in., and there is a slight reddish
mottling on the skin.

Head : The ocelli are crescentic ; the numerous hairs are
spinulose.

Prothorax : Dorsal shield has on each side of the median

* Entom., vol. xxxiv., p. 141.

Quail. — On New Zealand Lepidoptera. 229

line three anterior marginal setae and. two posterior setae.
Supraspiracular and prespiracular tubercles each have three
setae. The spiracle is circular in shape, and posterior. A
tubercle above the legs has two setae.

Meso- and post-thoracic segments : Trapezoidal tubercles
appear to be coalesced, forming large dorsal tubercles with
about six setae. Supraspiracular has about eight setae,
slightly below which a small posterior (subspiracular) tubercle
has a single very fine seta ; a larger anterior subspiracular
tubercle has a single seta. Tubercles above the legs have two
setae.

The thoracic legs have spinulose hairs, and terminate with
a long claw, a rudimentary claw, and a flattened seta, to
which Dr. Chapman gives the name " battledore palpus "
in describing Arctia caia.*

Abdominal segments (vol. xxxiii., pi. ix., rig. 18) : Anterior
trapezoidal tubercle has three setae, posterior trapezoidal one
seta. Supraspiracular tubercle is anterior above the small cir-
cular spiracle, and has about seven setae. One subspiracular
tubercle is below the spiracle, but posterior to it, with one
seta, and almost beneath this, but a little anterior, is another,
with a single seta, and still lower a tubercle-like area without
seta. On the base of abdominal feet are one spinulose seta,
one smooth seta ; on the footless segments 1 and 2 these rise
from a subventral tubercle and are both spinulose ; the sub-
ventral tubercle of segments 7 and 8 have only one seta
(spinulose). Segment 9 has a very large dorsal multi-
sttiferous tubercle, one lateral, one subventral, each with
only one seta. Segment 10 has a dorsal multisetiferous
tubercle, a lateral spinulose seta, and some setae on claspers ;
also on each side of the anal orifice a single smooth seta
curved upwards. On all the segments one seta of each
supraspiracular tubercle is about twice the length of any
other. Mr. Howes mentions the presence of several long
grey hairs from the anal extremity. This is a very striking
feature, and persists, I believe, until the larva is full fed.
These hairs are actually the post-trapezoidal setae of abdo-
minal segments 7 and 8, which are about four or five times
the normal length, are spinulose throughout, and greyish
beyond.

Second Skm. — Length immediatelv after ecdvsis J§L in.
The tubercles, being more setiferous, are larger, and form
very prominent elevations on all segments. The skin is
yt-llowish-brown, the setae brown and spinulose

Head has spinulose setae, but not noticeably more nu-
merous than in first stage.

* Ento. Record, vol. 4, p. 267.

230 Transactions. — Zoology.

Prothorax : Dorsal tubercle very prominent, having about
a dozen anterior and two posterior setae on each side. Supra-
spiracular tubercle about three setae, prespiracular about ten
setae ; spiracle posterior ; tubercle above leg has about ten
setae.

Meso- and post-thorax : The dorsal tubercles (medio)
appear to be coalesced, and are exceedingly setiferous. A
subdorsal and two other tubercles are one below another,
with about ten to fourteen setae each ; a smaller tubercle,
slightly anterior, above the legs bears three or four setae.
Above the subdorsal tubercle is a small posterior tubercle
with one seta.

The thoracic legs terminate as in the preceding stage.

Abdominal segments : Anterior trapezoidal about a
quarter the size of posterior, and bears three setae ; post
trapezoidal bear ten setae. Supraspiracular is midlateral,
bearing about fourteen setae. The spiracle is immediately
anterior to the uppermost seta of the post subspiracular
tubercle, which bears about ten setae. Immediately below
this the other subspiracular bears the same number of setae,
and below this a small tubercle bears three setae. The
abdominal feet bear several single setae.

The numerous setae render it extremely difficult to make a
description which is absolutely accurate. The larva lived
until about three-quarter grown, and I did not observe any
further structural difference. The setae throughout were
brown, but the subspiracular setae were lighter brown than
the dorsal setae. Mr. Howes states that the larva, when full
fed, is ljin. in length.

Pupa. (Plate XIII., figs. 9, 10.)
The pupa is enclosed in an oval cocoon of coarse silk
threads interwoven with larval setae. The cocoon is rather
dark-brown in colour, and the enclosed pupa can be seen
through it.

Male pupa: Length, about fin.; at widest, Jin. Colour
very dark-brown, with paler incisions. Wing-cases extend to
the middle of 4th abdominal segment ventrally. Abdominal
segments 5 and 6 are free; 7, 8, 9, 10 are consolidated and
lessen rapidly, forming a rounded extremity with a rather
sharp terminal process. The anal armature consists of about
twelve stout bristles, with innumerable sharp points at their
clubbed end (fig. 10). The anal armature of Nyctemcra
annulata (fig. 11) consists of numerous hooks, not straight
bristles, and under a high power these are seen to be ball-
tipped, resembling closely the anal armature of some Noctua
(fig. 7, Melanchra mutans). In the position of larval tu-
bercles numerous rudimentary setae, pale yellowish-brown in

Quail. — On New Zealand Lepidoptera. 231

colour, resemble the longitudinal yellow spots on the pupa of
Nycteviera annulata. On dehiscence the wing-cases separate
from the ventral juncture and along the sides of the ab-
dominal segments to the suture with thoracic segments,
which separate mid-dorsally, and remain attached to either
wing-case. The face, antennas, and leg-cases remain welded
together, but separate from the wing-cases almost to the
juncture of the 5th abdominal segment.

Female pupa about the same length as male, but extremely
robust in comparison. It tapers sharply from the 3rd ab-
dominal segment to head, dorsally and laterally ; 4, 5, 6
appear to be wholly free segments, and are the widest — fully
xein. ; 7, 8, 9, 10 are consolidated and form on extremity,
with armature similar to the male. Small wing-cases ex-
tend to the posterior edge of 3rd abdominal segment, and
abdominal rudimentary setae correspond to the male. The
head also is covered with numerous similar setae.

Duration of pupal existence, about twenty days.

[Since my paper was written I received from Mr. George
Howes several larvae of Metacrias strategica, which, after very
little feeding, pupated in the usual cocoons amongst moss or
grass, and subsequently produced several male and female
imagines. I may say, so far as colouration or size is con-
cerned, there appeared to be no difference between the several
larvae such as might be interpreted as an indication of sex.
Owing to the fact that the female did not leave its cocoon, I
was unaware of it for at least several days, when it appeared
to me to be dead, but had already deposited several ova —
pale-yellow colour, with distinct hexagonal sculpture. On
emergence the female entirely ruptured the pupa-case at every
suture, and only remnants remained intact. The female cer-
tainly deposits its ova in a normal and proper manner
amongst the wool which lines the cocoon. This wool (hair-
like scales) acts as an envelope, possibly incubator, for the
ova, in the manner observed amongst Psychidcs.* M. strate-
gicai however, has wool all over its body ; but at the time of
my examination this had been almost entirely rubbed off,
except from the two or three posterior segments. Probably
when the burden of ova has been disposed of the empty
female M. strategica crawls out of the cocoon, as is the case
with Psychidce. In my previous remarks I was under the
impression that the female M. strategica was entirely apterous.
This is not strictly so, as there are rudiments of both fore and
hind wings, though so small as to be entirely functionless.
The several organs of the caput are better developed than are
those of the female CEketicus omnivorus, which latter has,

* Dr. Chapman, Trans. Ent. Soc, Lond., 1900, 403.

232 Transactions. — Zoology.

however, a greater capacity for the production of ova as re-
gards quantity. With regard to assembling males of M. stra-
tegica, I have received a note to the effect that Mr. Philpott,
of Invercargill, was successful in taking a large number by
exhibiting virgin females. No doubt similar results would be
obtained with other species of this genus.]

A Contribution to the Life-history of Nelanchra (Hb.)

vi titans (Walk.).

Ovum. (Plate XIII., figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.)

A batch of ova was found on the 14th April, 1901, which
hatched on the 19th April, 1901. The parent female had
pushed them between a blade and stem of withered grass,
where they were effectually hidden. The ova were laid in
two parallel rows of six each, three others separate, and two
rows of three each were laid on top of the first ; total number,
twenty-one.

Ova : Dull to the naked eye, shining under the microscope.
Colour, pale-whitish, upper half irregularly coloured a dirty
brown. Shape, a flattened sphere — i.e., wider at equator than
in vertical section. Micropyle at top with irregular hexagons,
from which strong corrugations diverge towards the equator,
converging below. About one in three of the corrugations
coalesce with another at the shoulder of the egg, and there is
irregularity in this respect : in more than one instance three
corrugations coalesce. About twenty-one corrugations meet
the micropylar depression. Between the corrugations equi-
distant finer lines' apparently form four-sided figures, but.
examined with a higher power, it is found they are really
modified hexagons, with strong longitudinal sides. The evo-
lution of parallel ribs on specialised ova from more primitive
hexagonal forms is here clearly evidenced.

The contents of a female abdomen were microscopically
examined. Within the abdomen the ova are pale-green in
colour, placed end on end, pressed flat against each other,
so forming continuous rouleaux of ova, from which each ovum
is easily separable. This fact is due to the absence of con-
necting-tissue such as envelopes the ova of Hepiali within the
abdomen.

The exact process is, necessarily, not easy to detect, but I
was fully satisfied that the rouleaux of ova are bathed length-
wise by a fluid (fat?). So long as this continues the ova
are smooth, but as activity decreases and the quantity of
fluid diminishes on exposure to the air sculpturing appears
on the eggshell. When quite dry the ova have the orthodox
sculpture of deposited ova.

That the sculpture is due to the fluid is nearly certain —

Quail. — On New Zealand Lepidoptera. 233

i.e., in the process of drying it forms into natural crystalline
shapes. Of course, this crystalline formation would occur so
rapidly on deposition of the ova that it would be difficult, if
not impossible, to detect. It is probable, however, that the
bathing of the ova continues until the ovum is excluded from
the oviduct.

At the top of the egg-mass, where the incision would be
first made, a few ova remained smooth when dry. This
detracts nothing from the foregoing, as I conclude that these,
being earliest exposed to air, were insufficiently bathed by the
necessary sculpture-producing fluid.

The results of this examination justify the conclusions
suggested by the experiments of Messrs. Woodhead and
Dawson, to which I refer in Part I. of this paper.

Larva. (Plate XIII. , figs. 5, 6.)

The first meal consists of the empty eggshell, and, though
frequently disturbed so that the larvae moved away or
dropped by a thread, they invariably returned and recom-
menced feeding on the eggshells.

Newly hatched. — Eobust, slightly tapering towards pos-
terior ; head large and long, tubercles prominent, setae long
and widened at tip. The first two pairs of abdominal feet are
small, that of segment 3 being little more than large tuber-
cles provided with hooks. Neither pair of segments 3 and 4
seems to be used, so the larva in walking progresses in serni-
looper manner (fig. 5). Colour, reddish. Skin smooth.

Head : Setae pointed, mandibles serrate.

Prothorax : Scutellum bears on each side two separate
anterior and two posterior setae. Supraspiracular tubercle
bears two setae ; prespiracular two setae (?) ; tubercle above
legs two setae. Meso- and post -thorax, three smgle-seta
tubercles, one below the other ; one anterior and one posterior
lower each with one seta.

Abdominal segments : All the tubercles bear a single seta.
Trapezoidals normal. Supraspiracular beneath the anterior
trapezoidal and above the round spiracle, immediately pos-
terior to which is one subspiracular tubercle, and below the
spiracle is the other. The abdominal feet bear two single-
pointed setae, which are subventral on segments 1 and 2. On
segments 7, 8, and 9 there seems to be only one subventral
seta each ; segment 10 has all pointed setae. Two subdorsal
posterior, curved downward, two posterior, curved upward,
and two on each of the claspers.

On the 1st May some of the larvae had changed to second
and some to third skins.

Second Skin. — Colour, pale-green, head pale - brown ;

234 Transactions. — Zoology.

tubercles, setae, and spiracles brown ; faint pale spiracular
line, tbe skin above being really darker tban below. Anterior
segments darker tban posterior.

Structure : Prothorax (fig. 6) apparently as in first stage.
Meso- and post-tborax bave an additional tubercle. Careful
comparison of first and second stages induces me to think
this is not the one immediately above the leg, but the pos-
terior tubercle above it in position. Abdominal segments
also have an additional tubercle above the legs in a pos-
terior position. The posterior subspiracular tubercle ap-
pears to be rather lower down in relation to the spiracle than
in the first stage. The abdominal feet bear three pointed
setae ; the first two pairs are larger than in first stage.

In succeeding changes of skin the abdominal feet gradu-
ally become normal. This, I think, takes place not earlier
than the fourth skin, but I have no note on this point. Adult
markings are also gradually assumed. In that skin preceding
tiie last, two larvae confined in the same pot of grass assumed
entirely different plumage as regards colour, one being wholly
green, the other brown (this was probably green, more or
less, ventrally, but I omitted to note). This striking differ-
ence is not unusual amongst Noctua larvae, and appears to
be attributable to environrnental causes. One at least fre-
quently rested during tbe day-time on the reddish earthen-
ware pot. In a state of nature they rest on the earth, or
on a stem of food near the earth. The exciting cause of tbe
variation may be considered to depend on whether the larva
rests habitually on the earth or on the stem. In the former
case we might expect them to assume a brown colouration, in
the latter green, each being to respective individuals equally
protective during the period of rest from feeding.

Immediately preceding pupation the length is about 1 in. ;
colour above spiracular line reddish-brown, below pale-green
(the larva mentioned above lost its green colour at last ecdy-
sis). A rather indistinct medio-dorsal line is marked more
distinctly at the incisions as a brown spot. Thm dark sub-
dorsal line is edged with lighter, and very distinct dark
spiracular spots on all the segments. In preceding stage
these were oblique dashes. The clypeus of head is dark-
brown, middle of lobes a dark streak, edges dark- brown.
Under the microscope the larva-skin is mottled, and the
pattern of markings not apparent. No doubt the larva is
more inconspicuous to small foes than to our eyes, which
take the whole form and markings at one comprehensive
glance. Even so. to us the larva seems wonderfully protected
by its colouration when at rest.

1 omitted to note the exact duration of larval existence.

Quail. — On New Zealand Lepidoptera. 235

Pupa. (Plate XIII., fig. 7.)

Colour, reddish - brown ; length, j^in.; widest at 4th
abdominal segment. Wing-cases extend to posterior ridge of
4th abdominal ventrally ; hind-wing margins show laterally
from post-thorax to anterior edge of 4th abdominal. On
dehiscence the headpiece, leg-covers, antennas, and proboscis-
covers remain intact, but separate throughout their length
from the wing-cases. Spiracles are transverse and fully de-
veloped on 2nd to 8th abdominal segments ; on 2nd and 3rd
the position is subdorsal, on others normal. Posterior edges
of 4th, 5th, and 6th abdominal segments term prominent
ridges; the other segments are smooth and taper gradually
to the 10th viewed laterally and dorsally, but ventrally the
10th is depressed suddenly from the suture to anal armature.

The anal armature is more especially a dorsal apparatus,
though the two strong hooks are terminal processes. On the
dorsum there are two pairs of weaker hooks. Somewhere I
believe I have seen a statement of Dr. Chapman in which he
says that the more he studied the structure of the pupal anal
armature the less value it seemed to be. With this species and
31. composita (vol. xxxiii., pi. ix., fig. 21) there is decided af-
finity in the anal armature, which in both consists of six hooks,
yet there is abundant specific distinction.

The moths emerged about the 10th September, 1901.

A Contribution to the Life-history of Asaphodes (Meyr.)

megaspilata (Walk.).

Ovum. (Vol. xxxiii., pi. ix., fig. 4.)

Colour, pale-green when laid, partly reddish to the naked
eye, but salmon-colour under microscope in two days. Shape
is longer then broad, small end rounded, broad end rather
flat, transverse section almost circular. The whole shell is
covered with hexagonal cells. The ovum is laid on its side.
The larva emerges at the broader end.

Deposited on the 2nd December, 1900 ; hatched on the
16th December, 1900 — fourteen days.

The young larvae do not eat the empty eggshell.

Larva. (Vol. xxxiii., pi. ix., figs. 5, 6, 7, 8.)

Newly hatched. — Colour, pale yellowish - brown. The
thoracic segments have thin red longitudinal lines ; the in-
cisions between abdominal segments 1 to 7 are ringed with
red all round. The abdominal segments also have yellow
spiracular and subspiracular lines running through the red
rings.

The larva is robust, with uniform segments, but 7, 8, 9,
and 10 are very crowded. The thoracic segments have legs ;

236 Transactions. — Zoology.

the abdominal feet are midway between the 6th and 7th seg-
ments, and 10 has claspers.

The arrangement of the thoracic segments is not quite
clear, but appears to agree with the structure in the second
skin. The head has pointed hairs.

The abdominal tubercles have single setae, which are club-
tipped. Owing to the robust build of the segments the
tubercles are very wide apart. The trapezoidals are normal.
Supraspiracular and anterior subspiracular are both anterior
to the spiracle and equidistant ; post-spiracular moved up
close to the spiracle. There are anterior and posterior sub-
ventral tubercles. The setae on the abdominal feet are
pointed. The larva-skin appears to be covered with very
fine hairs.

Second Skin. — Larva attenuated, tubercles still widely
separated. Head yellowish, spotted with red. From pro-
thorax to anal segment yellow and red lines alternate longi-
tudinally.

Head : Anterior hairs are pointed, posterior clubbed.

Prothorax : On each side of the thin median line of scu-
tellum there are two anterior, two posterior, equidistant
setae. The prespiracular tubercle has a single seta. Above
the spiracle, close to the scutellum, a very fine seta. The
spiracle is posterior. Prespiracular tubercle has a single
seta. Tubercle above the legs has two separate setae.

Meso- and post-thorax : Close to the median line a minute
normal tubercle bears a single seta, below this a larger
tubercle and anotber (subdorsal) ; anterior and posterior
tubercles are equidistant from the subdorsals beneath ; the
tubercle above legs bears one seta. All the tubercles bear
only a single seta.

Abdominal segments have an additional tubercle below the
spiracle. The spiracle is level with the posterior subspiracular
tubercle. On the abdominal feet there are seven single setae,
and numerous setae on claspers. Abdominal 9 has all the
tubercles on the posterior edge ; 10 has, above the anal orifice,
two normal setae, two pointed setae on each side.

Full fed (30th January, 1901). — Length, join., wider at
oth abdominal, from which it tapers to head and to anus.

Colour : Brown, with mediodorsal pale line on the thoracic
segments, represented on abdominals 1 to 5 by an inverted V
— apex anterior, and line resumed but wider on the posterior
subsegments of 6 to 9. The posterior trapezoidal setae of 6th
and 7th abdominals are on elevated humps ; segment 8 has
pale-coloured humps ; 9 also has pale humps, but with a larger
hump between them.

Laterally there is no definite marking, the whole skin being
finely mottled brown and whitish. The setae are all very

Quail. — On New Zealand Lepidoptera. 237

dark — black(?). The tubercle arrangement appears to exactly
correspond with second skin.

In an earlier stage there is a lateral subspiracular and
spiracular line in addition to the dorsal markings. The skin
also has numerous white dots.

A slight cocoon is made on the top of earth.

On the 6th February, 1901, all had pupated.

Pitpa. (Vol. xxxiii., pi. ix., fig. 22.)

Colour: Reddish; antennae, leg-covers, &c, pale-brown,
eye-covers dark- brown, wing-covers brown.

Length, T5F in. From tip of head to tip of wing-cases is
fully two-thirds total length of pupa, the posterior third con-
stituting abdominal segments 5 to 10. Pupa is thickest at
1st, 2nd, and 3rd abdominals, and there is sharp irregular
tapering from 7 to 10 ; 9 appears as a large swollen area over-
lying 10, which fits into it as if it were a cap, and terminates
with two lateral, two central, hooks, with which a very firm
hold is taken of the silk in the cocoon.

The eye-covers are large and prominent ; antennae extend
to tips of wing-cases, enclosing legs and proboscis, which also
extends to the tips of wing-cases.

Only the slightest portion of the base of hind-wing cases
can be seen at the juncture with post-thorax. Spiracles on
1, 2, and 3 are subdorsal, 4 to 8 lateral. All the segments
except 8 to 10 are deeply pitted.

Imagines emerged as follows : On the 25th February, a
male ; on the 26th February, a male and a female ; on the
28th February, a male* ; on the 2nd March, a male ; and on
the 4th March, a female.

It is not my intention to discuss imaginal structures;
indeed, this would not be in keeping with the title of my
paper. What I have to say is rather in the nature of inquiry.

The larval antenna consists of a base, one or two joints,
and appendages of a fleshy nature (Plate XIII. , fig. 12).
The imaginal antenna consists of scape (base), pedicel (2nd
segment), and clavola (segments beyond). The scape is the
muscular base and the pedicel is the nervous base, these
being more or less simple in external structure (fig. 13).
The clavola segments of A. megaspilat't, male, have paired
appendages attached to the shaft ventrally, and on this
surface the segments are devoid of scales ; dorsally the shaft
is thickly protected with scales (figs. 14 and 15). The pecti-
nations have no scales, but numerous fine hairs. The clavola
segments act as sense-conductors.

The functions of the larval and imaginal antennae are no
doubt similar, and the homology of their respective parts
should prove an interesting study. That such is possible is

238 Transactions. — Zoology.

suggested by the experiments of Dr. Chapman* on regenera-
tion of the thoracic legs of Liparis dispar, which prove the
homology of the larval and imaginal legs.

The marginal wing-bristles admit of further study (fig. 16).
My note on those of Melanippe ftuctuata\ was, I understand,
the first publication in England in reference to these. Dr.
ChapinanJ has dealt with the same, but I have not yet seen
his paper on the subject. Messrs. Furbush and Fernald had
previously published observations on these structures in
America. They are to be observed at the termination of
the nervures, but are not of the nervures, since they occur
at the wing-margin between the nervures. Professor Fernald
believes they are found on the wings of all Lcpidoptera. The
function of the marginal wing-bristle is unknown.

Fig.
F.g.

1.
2.

Fig.
Fig.
Pig.

3.

4.
5.

Fig.

6.

P.g.
Fig.
Fig.

7.
8.
9.

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XIII.

Melanchra mutans, micropylar area of ovum; x 200.
longitudinal ribs of ovum ; x 200.
ovum ; x 50.

ova from female abdomen ; x 50.
larva, first skin, showing the imperfect
development of abdominal feer.
„ larva, second skin, thoracic segments ;

X 200.
pupa, terminal armature ; x 50.
8. Metacrias strategica, iarva, first skin, thoracic segments ; x 200.

pupa, segments 5 to 10 ; x 50.
Fig. 10. „ pupa, anal bristle ; x 200.

Fig. 11. Nyctcmcra annulata, pupa, anal bristle ; x 200.
Fig. 12. Asaphodes megaspilata, antenna of larva.
Fig. 13. „ antenna of imago, scape, pedicel, first

clavola segments ; x 200.
F'g. 14. „ . antenna of imago, terminal clavola seg-

ments ; x 200.
Fig- 15. „ intermediate clavola segments ; x 200.

Fig. 16. „ marginal wing-bristles ; x 200.

* Entom. Record, vol. xii., 141.

f Entom., vol. xxxiv., 47.

\ " Some Wing-structures," Trans. South London Nat. Hist. Society,

1900.

Hector. — On New Zealand Fishes.

239

Art. XXVI. — Notes on Neiv Zealand Fislies.

Bv Sir James Hector, F.B.S.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th February, 1902.~\

Plates XIV. and XV.

1. Chimaera monstrosa, var. australis.

This remarkable fish is related to the sharks and the rays
or skates, but is quite distinct from either of these groups.
Only two generic forms are known — (1) Chimcera, which
abounds in the Arctic seas ; aud (2) Callorhynchus, which,
so far as known, is confined to the Antarctic seas.

In the northern seas this fish is known as the "king
of the herrings," also as the " rabbit-fish." Its southern
representative is popularly known as the " elepbant-fish,"
on account of the proboscis-like appendage to its upper jaw.
A few specimens of the northern genus Chimcera have
been found off the Cape of Good Hope and off the coast of
Chile, but so far as I know this is the first New Zealand
example of the genus which has been found. It was ob-
tained by the trawl on the Wairau bar, and presented to the
Museum by Mr. Fernandos, of this city. The specimen is a
female, both oviducts containing eggs in various stages of
development. It is somewhat curious that the first specimen
obtained in New Zealand should be a female, as the male fish
is far more abundantly caught in the Northern Hemisphere
than the female. In the case of the southern representative,
or the elephant-fish, on the other hand, most of the specimens
caught are females, and they are quite common at certain
seasons. However, a few days after I obtained the female of
the Chimcera a male elephant-fish was brought to the Museum,
being the first of the sex I had ever seen. It has wonderful
grippers armed with strong teeth on the forehead, and on
each side of the body near the ventral fin, and has two extra
lateral ventral fins involuted so as to form intromittent
organs.

The following are the measurements of the female speci-
men of Chimcera monstrosa, var. australis : —

Inches.

36
4

Total length

Greatest height

Snout to eye

Orbit

Snout to dorsal spine

Height of spine

Base of 1st dorsal

240

Transactions. — Zoology.

1st to 2nd dorsal, subcontinuous
Base of 2nd dorsal
Snout to mouth
Snout to pectoral
Base of pectoral
Branchial collar to vent
Snout to ventral fins
Pectoral fin, length
„ width

width at base of rays

Ventral fin,

length
width at base

Caudal fin
Filiform appendage

Inches.

3

16

2-5

5

2

5-5
16

8

4

2-5

6

2

5

7

There are two genital orifices, one on each side and
anterior to the vent, each with a distinct ovarian sac con-
taining twelve to fifteen eggs in various stages of develop-
ment, varying in size from a small pea to a nut. Each egg
is enclosed in an elongated ovid membrane, the largest beinc
on the right side 1-5 in. long.

Colour. — Olive-black above, silvery- white beneath the head,
and dark-grey elsewhere. Head with small ocellated spots,
and round the base of the dorsal five distinct white spots. As
far back as the vent three rows of nine spots in each, and one
broad but interrupted line of white. A pseudo-lateral line of
forty-three pores marked by golden scales, which latter are
also found on other parts. On the tail are thirteen bold white
blotches, in continuation of the white lateral line on the body.

2. Auchenopterus aysoni, n. sp.

This elegant little fish is one of the blennies, a family fairlv
well represented in New Zealand waters, Grysticeps australis
and Try pterygium nigripenne being close allies. Only one
species of the genus is previously known, from the west
coast of South America, but it differs in important respects
from the specimen under consideration, which was presented
to the Museum by Mr. Ayson, Inspector of Fisheries. Unfor-
tunately, the spirit in which it was sent was too strong, so
that the scales and many of the lateral pores were destroyed.

The following is a minute description of the fish : —

Total length, 5 in.
Height

Length of head
Base of 1st dorsal
Snout to 1st dorsal

Mm.

143
30
35
12
10

Thomson. — On a New Polynoid.

241

Mm.

Space of notch in dorsal ... ... 8

Continuous dorsal ... ... ... 80

To caudal ... ... ... ... 15

Extension of caudal rays ... ... 21

Snout to pectoral ... ... ... 23

„ ventral ... ... ... 21

„ vent ... ... ... 48

Length of pectoral ... ... ... 27

„ ventral ... ... ... 20

Snout to eye ... ... ... ... 9

Diameter of eye ... ... ... 4

Fin Formula. — B., 4 ; D.
and indistinct) ; A., 10; LL.,

Scales very minute.

Body compressed. Height one-quarter of length and one-
sixth less than length of head.

Pair of branched tentacles from above the snout, not from
the nostril.

Colour uniform light-brown, with four oval translucent
spots on the dorsal fin.

Teeth minute on jaws and vomer.

Gill-opening wide.

Tail slightly unsymmetrical, and caudal distinctly separate
from both dorsal and anal.

hoc. Bay of Islands ; collected by Mr. Stephenson.

3-33 ; P., 8 ; V., 3 (but broken
22-3-5, interrupted.

EXPLANATION OP PLATES XIV., XV.
Plate XIV.

A. Female of Callorhynchus antarcticus.

B. Male cf Callorhynchus antarcticus.
G. Female of Ghimcera colliei.

D. Male of Chimcera colliei, L. (after Giinther).

Plate XV.
Auchenopterus aysoni.

Aet. XXVII. — On a Neiu Polynoid.

By W. Malcolm Thomson, M.A.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1901.]

Polynoe comma, n. sp.

Body slender, long, linear, tapering slightly at the hinder
end. Average length 50 mm., and breadth 6 mm. (spirit
specimens).
16 •

242 Transactions. — Zoology.

Segments, 70-90 ; elytra, 35-45 pairs, borne on segments
2, 4, 5, 7, 9 and all subsequent odd segments.

Anus dorsal.

Prostomium embedded in tbe peristomium, urn-shaped,
broadest between the eyes, slightly longer than broad, pro-
duced anteriorly into the bases of the lateral tentacles,
between which the base of the median tentacle is wedged.

Eyes, two pairs, quite sessile and quite lateral, situated
nearly at the point of greatest diameter. Median tentacle
longer than the lateral ones, and longer than the prostomium.
Palps about three times as long as the prostomium, stout at
the base and tapering continuously to the tips, studded all
over with minute spines.

Parapodia stout, conical, almost uniramous ; dorsal chsetas
few and extremely small, accompanied by a stout aciculum,
tapering, serrated on each side, and ending in a fine needle-
like tip. Ventral chsetae also few, but longer, fairly stout, and
slightly hooked at the tip, which is blunt ; provided with two
asymmetrical spines on the dorsal surface, followed by two
rows of four or five " combs " on each side.

Nephridial papillae distinct, cylindrical, slightly fluted,
beginning at the 10th or 11th segment and continuing to the
penultimate segment ; rendered conspicuous by segmental
pigment patches near their bases.

Elytra subcircular ; margin entire ; surface smooth, ex-
cept for a very few small tubercles on the first two or three
pairs ; pigment in the shape of a broad dark comma on the
mediad moiety of the elytron. The first four or five pairs
have a patch of russet-brown pigment on the convex shoulder
of the comma-shaped mark ; the first elytron is colourless but
for this russet patch. The elytra of a side do not overlap in
the hinder region of the body, but anteriorly they do. Only
the first three or four pairs meet across the back. The rest of
the back, being uncovered, exhibits dorsal bars of pigment at
the back of each segment, which, well marked in front, vanish
in the posterior region.

The ventral surface has a median and two lateral bands
of dark pigment.

The worm was collected at Moeraki by Dr. Benham, of the
Otago Museum, and all the specimens were found to be com-
mensal with a Terebellid.

III.— BOTANY

Art. XXVIII. — A Short Account of the Plant-covering of

Chatham Island.

By L. Cockayne.

rRead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th November,

1901.]

Plates XVI.-XIX.

The group of islands and rocks known collectively as the
" Chatham Islands " lies isolated in the South Pacific Ocean,
at a distance of about four hundred and fifty miles east-
south-east from the nearest point in New Zealand. It lies
between the parallels 43° 30' and 44° 30' south latitude, and
the meridians 175° 40' and 177° 15' west longitude. The
largest member of the group — Chatham Island — is about
thirty miles in length, and contains 222,490 acres. Pitt
Island is next in size, with a length of barely eight miles
and a half, and an area of about 15,000 acres. The only
other islands sufficiently large to contain flowering-plants to
any extent are Mangere and South-east Island, each of which
is about a mile and a half in length. Pitt Island lies to
the south of Chatham Island, from which it is separated by
a narrow passage of water, about fourteen miles in width,
called Pitt Strait. Mangere lies to the west and South-east
Island to the south-east of Pitt Island, from which the
former is distant a mile and a half and the latter a mile and a
•quarter.

The botanical history of the Chathams dates from the year
1840, when Dr. Dieffenbach visited the islands on behalf of the
New Zealand Company, and made at the same time a small
collection of the plants. These are recorded in the " Flora
Nova>Zelandiae," and comprise only some twelve species
of phanerogams and vascular cryptogams. For a space of
eighteen years after Dr. Dieffenbach's visit nothing more was
done botanically, when, a direct trade being established between
Melbourne and the islands, a few plants were from time to
time brought to Baron F. von Mueller, including the remark-
able Myosotidium nobile (45, p. 2) ; but it was not until the
year 1863 that the first real botanical exploration of the

244 Transactions. — Botany.

islands was undertaken, when Mr. W. T. L. Travers, who
previously had done so much to advance the knowledge of
New Zealand botany, sent his son, Mr. H. H. Travers, to
Chatham and Pitt Islands to make as complete a collection of
the indigenous plants as possible. The expedition resulted
in a very interesting collection of plants, from which Baron F.
von Mueller compiled his well-known work "The Vegetation
of the Chatham Islands." This was published in 1864, and
contains descriptions or notes of 129 species of phanerogams
and twenty-five species of ferns and lycopods, of which seven
were species new to science. Had the distinguished author of
the work not been a most staunch believer in the fixity of
species (45, pp. 7 and 8), the number of species recorded
would have been considerably larger, in proof of which state-
ment it is only necessary to note his treatment of Veronica,
Calystegia, Epilobium, and certain other genera.

In 1867 a paper appeared (24), written by Mr. Halse,
which gives a most excellent idea of the general aspect of
certain parts of the main island. Much more important,
however, is the account of his journey in 1863 by Mr.
H. H. Travers, published in the first volume of the " Trans-
actions of the New Zealand Institute" in 1869 (51). In
1871 Mr. Travers paid a second visit to the islands, and his
new collection added very considerably to the known number
of their plants. Baron F. von Mueller contributed a short
note on this collection to the " Transactions of the New Zea-
land Institute" (46), giving a list of certain genera" not col-
lected during Mr. Travers's former visit.

In 1874 Mr. John Buchanan published a revised list of
the flowering-plants and ferns of the Chatham Islands, based
on the two collections cf Travers (3), bringing the genera up
to 129 and the species to 205, describing three new species
and recording the occurrence of that very interesting restia-
ceous plant Sporadanthus traversii, now referred to the genus
Leinjrodia (32, p. 969). Mr. Buchanan's list seemed at the
time it was published to quite exhaust the possibilities of the
Chathams as a field for new species, and so for many years
Chatham Island botany appeared to be at a standstill. But
during part of that time a most enthusiastic naturalist, Mr.
F. A. D. Cox, who resides in Chatham Island, was collecting
and studying its plants during his few intervals of leisure, so
when the late Mr. T. Kirk sought aid with regard to Chatham
Island plants, during the compilation of the "Students' Flora
of New Zealand," Mr. Cox was very able and very willing to
supply him with material, and, better still, with information

* In this list Myosotis is noted, so I was mistaken in writing of it as
an unrecorded genus for the Chathams (11).

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 245

gathered at first hand from the plants themselves. In conse-
quence of this valuable assistance Mr. Kirk treated the flora
of the Chathams in a more searching and thorough manner
than had been the case previously.

From the foregoing short history of the botany of the
Chathams, it may readily be seen that botanists and collectors
have been mainly concerned with the classification and find-
ing of plants, and that very little indeed has been published
regarding the plant-covering itself, the plant-formations, the
conditions under which the members of the formations are
living, the plant-forms which these conditions have evoked or
preserved, the changes which civilised man has brought about
in the vegetation, or many other matters of high cecological
interest. It was with the intention of observing and studying
such matters, and, above all, in the hope of being able to put
on record a fairly accurate picture of a most remarkable vege-
tation, doomed in its primeval condition to extinction, that I
paid a visit to Chatham Island at the beginning of this pre-
sent year 1901. I stayed on the island during part of January
and February, six weeks in all, but did not visit any of the
other islands, so the details in this paper refer only to the
vegetation of the principal member of the group, as notified in
the title. I had not time to visit every part of the island.
Details on this head are noted in the part of this paper deal-
ing with the physiography ; here it need only be mentioned
that I camped for eleven days on the southern tableland, and
was thus enabled to examine with some degree of care the
vegetation of a portion of the island not previously visited by
any botanist. And this was the more important since there
alone may be seen tracts of country clothed with unaltered
primeval vegetation, but which unique and interesting spots
are every day becoming fewer in number and more limited in
extent, so that without doubt in a year or two there will be
no longer any virgin plant-formations on the island, except
those of inaccessible rocks or of the larger pieces of water.
As I write, Mr. W. Jacobs sends me word that the previously
inaccessible forest lying under the precipitous cliffs of the
south coast has been opened up to stock, and in consequence
the last remnant of the Chatham Island forest will soon be a
thing of the past so far as its primitive physiognomy is con-
cerned.

Although Chatham Island is only small, its very irregular
shape, the great lagoon which occupies its centre, and the
difficult travelling through a vegetation sometimes extremely
dense would require a much longer time than I was able to
devote in order to make anything like an exhaustive examina-
tion of the plant-covering. This paper must be looked upon,
then, as an introductory and most general one, and intended

246 Transactions. — Botany.

merely to pave the way for much more thorough oecological
investigations. I have purposely usually only treated with
any detail those plants which are endemic, and in this case
the sins of omission are many, while a too rapid examination
of most of the formations has probably in some cases led to
error.

Before concluding this introduction I must express my
most hearty thanks to all those residing on Chatham Island
with whom I came in contact. All sought to render me every
assistance possible, and whatever success may have attended
my visit is due principally to their great hospitality and ex-
treme kindness. Also, I must specially express my great
obligation to the following : Mr. F. A. D. Cox, Mr. A. Shand,
Mr. E. E. Chudleigh, Mr. W. Jacobs, Captain F. W. Hutton,
F.E.S., Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., Mr. D. Petrie, M.A.,
F.L.S., and Mr. H. Carse.

Physiography.

For the sake of convenience Chatham Island may be
divided into three portions — a northern, a central, and a
southern. The northern portion consists of two peninsulas,
the western and the eastern, which are separated from one
another by the northern and widest portion of Te Whanga
Lagoon, and are connected only by the very narrow strip of
land which in the north separates the lagoon from the ocean.

The western peninsula — Whareka on the map (49) — is
about 16^ miles in length from Te Eaki Point to Waipapa on
the lagoon, and some seven miles broad at its base from the
north of Waitangi Beach to the shore near Wharekauri. In
the north two triangular pieces of land jut out northwards,
culminating in Capes Young and Pattisson respectively. The
eastern peninsula is a narrow triangular piece of land nearly
nine miles and a half in length and five miles in width at the
base, its widest portion. The northern portion of the great
lagoon is eight miles and three-quarters in width, and is
separated from the ocean by a narrow strip of land varying
from a mile and a quarter in its widest to one- eighth of a mile
in its narrowest part. The central portion of the island is
occupied for a great part of its area by the southern part of Te
Whanga Lagoon. This is separated from Hanson Bay on the
east by a very narrow strip of land, varying from a mile and a
half to a quarter of a mile in width ; but on the west the land
bounded by Petre Bay is of greater size and importance, having
a width in the south of from two and a half to three miles
and in the centre a mile and a half, while in the north a broad
triangular piece of land stretches into the lagoon, measuring
seven miles and a quarter from Karewa to the Waitangi
Beach.

Cockatne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 247

The south portion of the island forms a compact four-sided
block of an almost uniform length of nine miles and a half
from Petre Bay to Pitt Strait, and with a breadth of, from
east to west, 13£ miles. The south-east corner beyond Ouenga
juts out slightly towards the east.

The greatest length of the island as a whole is thirty miles,
measuring from Cape Young to Te Eahui, and its greatest
breadth, measuring in the north from Te Whakaru Island to
Te Eaki, is thirty-five miles. From the above it may be seen
that, owing to the peculiar shape of the island, no place in the
interior is at any great distance from the sea or the great
lagoon : in the north two miles and a half is the extreme
limit, in the centre only one and a third miles, and in the
more compact south four miles and three-quarters. Hence,
no part of the island is beyond the reach and influence of a
strong sea-breeze.

Speaking generally, the surface of the land is low, though
in most places more or less undulating. The southern portion
of Chatham Island is by far the highest above sea-level, and
in comparison with the rest of the island looks quite hilly.
Its highest portion, however, the Trig, station near Te Awa-
tapu, is only 286 m., and Pipitarawai, the highest point of the
main ridge and watershed of that part of the island, is about
2 m. lower. From this ridge to the sea stretches a kind of
tableland, culminating in some abrupt cliffs, which vary in
height from 182 m. to 213 m., and are cut in places into deep
gorges by the small streams which drain the tableland. From
the other sides of the Pipitarawai Eidge the land slopes
gradually downwards to the coast. The flat but usually
undulating surface of the northern and central portions of the
island is relieved here and there by conical hills, which reach
at times a height of 152 m. or 182 m., and of which the most
important are the forest-clad Korako, Wharekauri, and Mau-
nganui. The extensive coast-line varies in character from flat
ground bordered with sandhills or low rocks to the high cliffs
of the south coast. Small streams are abundant all over the
island, but only two, the Waitangi and the Awainanga, rise to
the dignity of rivers. Most of the streams flow slowly, and
the water is always dark-brown, from the large amount of peat
which it holds in suspension. The great lagoon, Te Whanga,
is nearly fifteen miles in length, and its area is estimated at
46,000 acres (18). In certain places the lagoon is so shallow
that it can be forded on horseback ; indeed, under certain con-
ditions of the wind the northern ford may be quite dry. Be-
sides Te Whanga there are many other lagoons and lakes ;
indeed, it is stated that fully one-third of the surface of the
island is occupied by water (18). Bogs of considerable size
are very frequent, and occur both on the high and low ground.

248 Transactions. — Botany.

Thus both the very low north-west of the island and the
highest parts of the tableland of the south consist of quaking
bog. Even when the ground is not boggy its water-content
is usually very considerable ; and, speaking generally for the
whole island, excepting in places long cultivated, wet ground
is much more common than dry.

The soil in most parts of Chatham Island consists of
peat, which must in many places be of a very great depth,
Mr. Travers stating that it is often 50 ft. deep (51). If the
peat through any reason should become dry it will burn with
great readiness, and should it be set on fire it may slowly
burn for many years. Such burning— and it is perhaps from
this that he gave his estimate of the depth of peat — is thus
described by Mr. Travers (51, p. 177): "In several parts of
the island this peat has been on fire for years, burning at a
considerable depth below the surface, which, when sufficiently
undermined, caves in and is consumed. I have seen the loose
ashes arising from these fires upwards of 30 ft. deep." On
the peaty plain on the north-west peninsula I saw a hollow
caused by the peat having been burned, wbich even then was
smouldering in places. This hollow was about 3 m. in
depth — i.e., only one-third of the depth stated by Mr. Travers
—and its area about 2 acres. The burning must have taken
place many years ago, for the bottom of the hole was a dense
mass of vegetation, thus affording a very interesting example
of what species of indigenous plants will, under present climatic
conditions, people a piece of virgin ground. Very often these
burnt-out hollows become filled with water and remain as
permanent lakes ; indeed, Mr. A. Shand is of opinion tbat
probably all the lakes of the island, including even those of
the tableland, have originated recently in this manner.
Besides peat, a much richer soil, called locally "red clay"
and formed of disintegrated volcanic rock, occurs in some few
places — much of the country from the south of Lake Huro to
the Whanga Lagoon and for some distance further south-
east is of this character ; other patches occur from the Ngaio
to Waitangi along the coast, and others again in the neigh-
bourhood of some of the old volcanic conical hills.

As pointed out in the introduction, I did not visit quite a
number of important localities. Of these the chief were the
extremity of the north-western peninsula, from Maunganui
to Te Eaki Point ; the south coast of the north-western
peninsula ; the narrow slip of land along the north coast
from Wharekauri to Matarakau ; the east coast of the island
from the ford over Te Whanga to Ouenga ; and the greater
part of the coast- line on the east from Waitangi to the
Horns.

COCKA.YNE. — Plants of Chatham Island. 219

Geology.

Not very much is known about the geology of Chatham
Island. Mr. Travers collected rock specimens and a few
fossils. From these specimens and from notes supplied by
Mr. Travers Sir Julius von Haast published the only paper
(a very short one, occupying a page and a half) which, so
far as I am aware, has appeared on the geology of the island.*
Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., has also examined Mr. Tra-
vers's specimens, and he tells me that he agrees with the
main conclusions in Haast's paper — namely, that the Chat-
ham Islands first emerged from the ocean during some
portion of the Tertiary period.

The following is abstracted from Haast's paper (23) :
" The, principal island is of volcanic origin, and consists
chiefly of basaltic and doleritic rocks and tufas." " Several
cones" with a crater-like character show in the different
centres of eruption, whilst around them and extending from
one to the other marine sands have formed barriers enclos-
ing tracts of low land favourable for the formation of peat
swamps." I may here point out that, as probably the islands
have extended over a much wider area than is now the case,
these sand barriers must be of comparatively recent origin,
while also these tracts of low land are in the north and not
in the south of the island, which also contains most exten-
sive deposits of peat. " The oldest rocks visible occur near
Kaingaroa, and consist of micaceous clay slates, silky and
of a pale-grey colour." These rocks, Captain Hutton tells
me, must be a portion of an ancient rocky platform from
which the new volcanic islands arose. " Some beds of lime-
stone fringe the south-western shores of that lagoon " — Te
Whanga. Haast concludes, "Thus clear evidence is offered
to us that in an early part of the Tertiary period volcanic
action took place in this part of the Pacific Ocean, and,
although we meet on the main island some signs of the
existence of old sedimentary rocks, there is no doubt that
these volcanic eruptions gave birth to this archipelago."
Haast also mentions the occurrence of lignite beds overlaid
by limestone on Pitt Island, and Mr. Florence (18) calls at-
tention to the occurrence of lignite in the north of Chatham
Island.

Climate.

Meteorological observations have been taken for a number
of years by Messrs. Shand and Cox in the neighbourhood of
Waitangi, the thermometers being kept in a screen standing
on the grassy slope facing south-east in front of Mr. Cox's

* See TraDS. N.Z. Inst., vol. ii., art. xliii. : " NotiS on the Geology of
the Outlying Islands of New Zealand" (including Cnatham Inlands),
v. 183, by J. Hector.— [Ed.]

250 Transactions. — Botany.

residence. This locality is about 30 m. above sea-level. In
an area so small as Chatham Island, where every part is
within a few miles of the sea, and where the highest land
only attains a height of 286 m., it seems unlikely that there
should be any marked differences in temperature or rainfall ;
but Mr. W. Jacobs, who is intimately acquainted with the
high southern portion of the island, assures me that there the
rainfall is greater and the cold more severe than in the neigh-
bourhood of Waitangi. With regard to differences in tem-
perature, I think he is mistaken ; but, as for the rainfall, my
own very limited experience goes to confirm his statement.
Mr. Cox also writes to me of the greater rainfall in the neigh-
bourhood of Pipitarawai as if it were a well-known fact.

The average rainfall at the meteorological station
is 30-4 in. (18). This is by no means high when compared
with many places in New Zealand, but the number of rainy
days is considerable. For example, 28"32 in. of rain fell on
192 days in 1890; 34-46 in. fell on 187 days in 1899;
24-29 in. on 185 days in 1897; 3217 in. on 194 days in
1896; 34-48 in. on 194 days in 1895; and 35-01 in. on 190
days in 1894. Thus light showers, very often of short
duration, are frequent, while heavy rain is exceptional,
although there is usually at least one fall during the year of
from 1 in. to 2 in. or even more during the twenty-four hours.
The rain usually comes from the north, consequently it is a
warm rain ; but, as is so often the case in many parts of New
Zealand, this is immediately followed by much colder rain
from the south-west, which has a direct effect on restraining
vegetable growth. The driest month is December, with an
average rainfall of 1*67 in., while the wettest is July, with an
average of 3-92. Taking the seasons of the year, summer is
the driest and winter the wettest, the figures being : Spring
(September, October, November), 6-11 in. ; summer (Decem-
ber, January, February), 5-97 in. ; autumn (March, April,
May), 7-76 in.; and winter (June, July, August), 8-83 in.
The character of the vegetation of any region depending more
upon the number of rainy days than upon the total rainfall,
the average number of rainy days for each month of the year
is of special interest ; these are : January, 11-7 ; February,
11 ; March, 12-1 ; April, 13-7 ; May, 17-8 ; June, 19 ; July,
23-2; August, 18-2; September, 16-8 ; October, 17-7; Novem-
ber, 14-7 ; December, 10-9.

Turning now to the temperature, the mean yearly tempera-
ture is 51-4° Fahr., and the mean daily range 10-4° Fahr.
The extreme maximum and minimum temperatures for each
month are respectivelv : January, 73° Fahr., 35° Fahr. ; Feb-
ruary, 70° Fahr., 35°" Fahr.; March, 69° Fahr., 40° Fahr.;
April, 67° Fahr., 37° Fahr. ; May, 64° Fahr., 34° Fahr. ; June,

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 251

58° Fahr., 32° Fahr. ; July, 59° Fahr., 31° Fa*hr. ; August,
58° Fahr., 30° Fahr. ; September, 59° Fahr., 31° Fahr. ; Octo-
ber, 60° Fahr., 34° Fahr. ; November, 67° Fahr., 36° Fahr. ;
December, 74° Fahr., 38° Fahr. The mean daily maximum
temperature for a series of years ranged between 67° Fahr. and
60° Fahr. for January, the hottest month, and between 51-6°
Fahr. and 48-8° Fahr. for July, the coldest month ; similarly,
the mean dailv minimum ranged between 56-3° Fahr. and
48-6° Fahr. for January and 42-6° Fahr. and 38-2° Fahr.
for July. Such figures as the above are of very little
value in estimating the degree of heat to which the plants
are subjected, since the readings were taken in the shade.
On this point Mr. T. H. Kearney writes, in a recent work
on the vegetation of a certain island near the coast of the
United States (34, p. 262) : " Eeadings were taken in the
shade, consequently they do not represent the tempera-
ture to which most of the vegetation is actually exposed,
being subject to insolation during the hours of sun-
shine ; they are chiefly valuable for purposes of comparison
with other climates." Although the thermometer very
frequently falls below 40° Fahr. in Chatham Island, owing
chiefly to the frequency of the cold south-west wind, it rarely
reaches the freezing-point. The frost never exceeds 1° or 2°,
or perhaps double this amount on the ground ; while not un-
frequently there is no frost at all during the year. Some years
are quite without snow, in others snow has fallen on one or
two days ; but it usually melts as it falls, and never lies
on the ground for more than a few hours. Associated with
the frequent showers is a cloudy sky, and mists are not un-
common, especially in the early hours of the morning. The
average number of calm days during the year is only seven.
This fact speaks volumes as to the importance of the wind
factor on the plant-life of Chatham Island. The most im-
portant winds are the rain-bringing north-west and south-
west winds ; if to the former are added those marked " N." in
the statistics and to the latter those marked " S.," the
average number of days on which it blows from north-west
to north are 116-3, and on which it blows from south-west to
south are 139. Taking the east, south-east, and north-east
winds together, these blow on an average on 71 T days, while
the west wind blows on 283 days.

Speaking generally regarding the climate of Chatham
Island, as shown by the above figures and others in the statis-
tics not quoted here, also from information given to me both
by Messrs. Cox and Shand, the climate is exceedingly mild
and equable — the summers are never very hot, while in
winter there is occasionally a very slight frost. Light
showers, lasting only a very short time, are frequent. The

252 Transactions. — Botany.

sky is often cloudy, and mist accompanies the northerly
winds, especially in spring. The winter is the wettest season
of the year, and in consequence of the wet nature of the
ground, even in dry weather, much water lies about in flat
places and hollows during that season. The wind is always
blowing from some quarter or another, and often with con-
siderable violence. The air, in part owing to the wet nature
of the ground, must contain a great deal of moisture.
Thunder-storms occur occasionally, after which there is
nearly always a week or more of unsettled weather.

A good deal can be learnt about the climate of any district
by observing the plants which are cultivated in gardens or
fields. In Chatham Island all the ordinary vegetables grow
very well indeed ; potatoes especially succeed so well that in
the early days they were to some extent a source of revenue.
The first early potatoes are dug at the end of October or the
beginning of November. Cereals are not much cultivated,
oats alone being grown to any extent. These are sown in
xAugust or September and reaped in February, yielding, when
grown on good ground, 40 or 50 bushels to the acre. Wheat
is not now grown ; neither the climate nor the soil is espe-
cially suitable, but probably the chief reason for its exclusion
is that flour can be more cheaply imported than produced on
the island. Certain plants growing in Mr. Cox's garden
testify to the mildness of the climate. Amongst these are
greenhouse Pelargoniums forming large bushes, greenhouse
Fuchsias of a similar size, Scmpervivum arborcum, and an
arborescent species of Aloe not hardy in Canterbury gardens.
Growing side by side with the above are most of the indigen-
ous Olearias and Veronicas, two or three species of New Zea-
land subalpine Veronicas, and a most magnificent specimen of
Olearia lyallii from the Snares, a plant very difficult to culti-
vate in many parts of New Zealand. All the ordinary hardy
fruit-trees thrive and bear fruit abundantly. At Te \Yhakaru,
only a few metres above high-water mark, is one of the
orchards planted more than fifty years ago by the mission-
aries. The trees at the time of my visit were almost break-
ing under the weight of fruit. But the most interesting
fact about this orchard is that it is quite free from all those
kinds of animal and vegetable pests now so common on New
Zealand fruit-trees.

History of Man on Chatham Island.

The mfluence of man through the disturbing factors, which
in direct proportion to his degree of civilisation he has intro-
duced into the vegetation of all inhabited lands, is a matter of
very great interest and importance. It therefore seems neces-
sary, before discussing the plant-formations in detail, to give

Cockaynk. — Plants of Chatham Island. 253

some account of man's history on Chatham Island, so that it
can be seen what new factors he has added to the surround-
ings of the vegetation, and for how long a time they have been
influential and to what degree of power they have attained.
Then, having pictured as accurately as my limited investiga-
tions allow the primeval plant-covering in its various phases,
an attempt is made to pourtray the changes in that vegetation
which man purposely or accidentally, by means of cultivation,
animals, exotic plants, and fires, has brought about. All this
is the more interesting since it seems to me that but the
merest fraction of the vegetation of civilised or semi-civilised
portions of the Old World can be in its primeval condition* —
that, for example, forests, and even alpine meadows, which
appear to all intents and purposes primeval are but artificial
productions after all. But the vegetation of Chatham Island
has, ever since it first became isolated on that land, been,
prior to the advent of man, exposed to no foreign influences,
not even to those attacks of wild herbivorous mammals under
the modifying influence of which much of the vegetation of
the earth has been developed.

The aborigines of Chatham Island are Polynesians, and ap-
pear to be merely a branch of the Maori race. According to
Mr. A. Shand they, before the arrival of any other people, had
lived on Chatham Island for about seven hundred and seventy
years. They did not cultivate the ground at all. The only
vegetable foods they made use of were the rhizome of Pteris
esculenta and the fruit of Corynocarjms Icevigata. Their settle-
ments were not confined to any one part of the island, but
they moved about here and there according to plentifulness of
food in certain localities. When the sea-birds came to lay
their eggs on the " clears "t in the south of the island they
would live in that part. So important was this article of food
to them that they made a sort of rude calendar based on the
period when any particular egg was most abundant. The egg
season over, they would move about the rocky portion of the
coast for fish, along the lakes and lagoons for eels, or they
would visit those places where the holes of the mutton-birds
most abounded; even they would visit in their large canoes the
neighbouring islands and rocks in search of birds. All the
above would have little effect on the vegetation. The dense

* Mr. W. L. Bray writes regarding the vegetation of western Texas
(2, 118): "Under what may be called natural conditions to distinguish
them from conditions which prevail under the present era of exploitation
the grass-formations held their own in the perpetual struggle against
woody vegetation. With the advent of the cattle business, however, this
advantage was lost, and the present is an era of the rapid encroachment
of timber-formations."

f The name " clears " is given by the white settlers to those places
not covered with forest.

254 Transactions. — Botany.

forests and bogs the Morioris would avoid, and foot-tracks
would come to be formed over the easiest ground, which
are possibly identical with the main tracks through the island
at the present day. The only way in which they could do any
damage to the plant-covering would be through setting the
swamp and dry ridge vegetation on fire, for the forest, happily,
will not burn ; and probably some of the present lakes originated
in that manner, through the peat catching fire during the
Moriori period.

In November, 1791, Lieutenant Broughton, Commander of
H.M.S. "Chatham" (47), discovered Chatham Island. He
sailed along the north coast, landing in the neighbourhood of
Kaingaroa. There he hoisted the British flag and took
possession of the island in the name of King George III.
While on shore he had an encounter with the natives and
one was killed.

No more white men visited the island until 1834, when
a Sydney whaling-ship arrived, which had on board four young
Maori sailors. Probably the captain of this ship, or of some of
the other whalers which about this time visited the island, in-
troduced the pig; at any rate, in the early "fifties" these
animals were more numerous in a wild state than they are at
the present time. The four Maoris brought the tidings to their
tribe of the excellence of Chatham Island, and, as it offered a
haven of refuge from Te Bauparaha, the whole tribe decided to
leave New Zealand and settle on the island. Accordinglv, in
1835, they seized a vessel and compelled the captain to take
them from Wellington to Chatham Island. Two trips were
made to the island, and about nine hundred Maoris were
landed on its shores. The Morioris, the number of whom
has been estimated at from fifteen hundred to two thou-
sand, being essentially a most peaceful race, and in con-
sequence of their isolated position knowing nothing of the
art of war, were quickly subdued and reduced to a state of
slavery by the invading Maoris, who, moreover, were armed
with firearms. The Morioris rapidly decreased in numbers,
some hundreds being soon killed by the Maoris. Famine
and disease also decimated them, and so they have decreased
year by year until now less than a dozen pure Morioris are
in existence. The Maoris brought with them potatoes, taro,
and kumaras, but found the climate suitable only for the
potato, which they cultivated in sufficient quantities to supply
their wants.

In the year 1843 five German missionaries, of whom one,
Mr. Engst, is still alive, and resided on the island till quite re-
cently, were sent from Berlin by a German missionary society,
and with their advent must date the first beginnings of change
in the vegetation, for they made gardens, cultivated wheat to

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 255

some extent, and a little later on planted orchards. With the
fruit-trees came over a grass, Mr. Shand informs me. This I
have not seen, but it was probably one of the first introduced
plants to spread spontaneously on the island. As the fruit-
trees would not grow without shelter, the missionaries made
use of the indigenous Olearia traversii for this purpose, and it
answered admirably.

The most important event for the future of the vegetation
was the introduction of sheep, cattle, and horses. In 1841
Mr. Hanson, who had visited Chatham Island on behalf of the
New Zealand Company, sent a few cows and a bull to be pas-
tured on the island. At a later date most of these cattle and
their offspring were removed to New Zealand, but a few were
secured by the missionaries. Shortly afterwards a few merino
sheep were brought to the island, but they did not evidently
increase to any great extent, for in 1855 there were probably
only about two hundred sheep on the island, and these mainly
in the neighbourhood of Ouenga. At a little later date than
the cattle and sheep, horses were introduced, but for a long
time they were scarce, and it was not until the year 1868 that
they became wild in the unsettled districts. Cattle must have
become wild much earlier, for Mr. Shand tells me that traps
were made for them in the early part of the " sixties," and at
the present time they are very numerous indeed on the table-
land. It was not until the year 1866 that sheep-stations were
organized as at present, at which time there would be perhaps
two thousand sheep on the island. Since the above date sheep,
horses, and cattle have increased enormously, horses as well
as cattle being wild in many places and in considerable
numbers, while some sixty thousand sheep roam over the
whole of the island.

In addition to the animals many exotic plants have come
over in the train of the white man, every one of which, when
once established, must play a part in altering the aspect of the
different plant-formations of which it is able to become a
member.

The direct influence of the white man on the vegetation
has not been very great, cultivation not having been under-
taken on a very large scale.

Plant-formations.
In an island so small as Chatham Island, where herb-
ivorous animals have roamed almost everywhere at their
own sweet will ever since their first introduction, and where,
moreover, much of the vegetation has been burnt again and
again, hardly any of the plant-covering can still be in its
virgin condition. On this account the plant-formations may
be divided into the recent, or modified, and the original, or

256 Transactions. — Botany.

unmodified. From a careful study of the present plant-
covering in a large number of places it seems certainly
possible in many instances to get a fairly accurate idea of
the original formations, especially when aided by the in-
formation of those who have resided on the island almost
from its first settlement by Europeans. Those small pieces
of original vegetation which from their peculiar situation
have up to the present been undisturbed also aid most
notably in affording a clue to the character of similar forma-
tions in other parts of the island ; but, of course, the results
deduced from such a comparison must be accepted with
caution, since a slight difference in edaphic conditions may
lead to more or less considerable changes in a formation.
In some instances the descriptions of the individual plant-
formations which follow are limited to certain stated locali-
ties.

Dr. H. C. Cowles very justly observes (142, p. 178) that
"plant societies must be grouped according to origins and
relationships, and the idea of constant change must be
strongly emphasized"; and, further, "The laws that govern
changes are mainly physiographic ; whether we have broad
flood plains, xerophytic hills, or undrained swamps depends
on the past and present of the ever-changing topography."
The above ideas I have attempted to in some small degree
carry out, and have taken for the most part the plant-forma-
tions in what seems to me their order of sequence, and have
sought in some instances to point out their relationships.
To have attempted, however, a physiographical classification
of the formations with any degree of thoroughness was out
of tne question. Such would require, in the first place, to be
based on what does not yet exist — a description of the topo-
graphical geology of the island by a competent geologist ;
and, in the second place, a very much more accurate study
of the formations than I was able to make would be essential.

There are on Chatham Island two distinct regions of
vegetation, of which the most marked difference is shown
by the forests. The one is confined to the tableland, and
the other comprises all the remainder of the island. For
this latter I suggest the name "lowland region," a not par-
ticularly good name, but sufficiently applicable, since most
of its surface is only a few metres above sea-level, while its
hills are low isolated volcanic cones. Probably some of the
differences between the vegetation of the tableland and low-
land regions have been accentuated by fires, &c, while the
woods above the north-west and west coast of the southern
part of the island seem, so far as a rapid examination showed,
to be in some degree a transition between lowland and
tableland forest. All the same, the differences between the

Cockayne — Plants of Chatham Island. 257

vegetation of the two regions is sufficiently well marked, and
that such should occur on two adjacent parts of a very small
island is a matter of considerable interest.

Sandy Seashore.
The only portion of this formation examined with any
degree of care was the shore in the north of the island,
stretching from Wharekauri to Cape Young. Here the shore
gradually merges into the dunes by way of very low mounds and
ridges. The conditions for vegetation establishing itself and
thriving in such a position are very severe, owing to the loose-
ness and dryness of the soil, exposure to frequent sea-breezes
causing drifting of the sand and excessive transpiration from
the leaves of the plants, liability to submersion by salt water
at periods of abnormally high tides, more or less salt in the
soil at all times, and strong insolation. The sand is rather
coarse in texture — much more so, indeed, than in some other
parts of the island (Waitangi Beach, e.g.) — and contains an
abundance of very small pieces of minute shells. Just above
high-water mark grow Calystegia* soldanella and Banun-
czdtis acaulis in patches here and there, but forming only a
very thin covering on the loose and easily moved sand. The
trailing stems of G. soldanella, furnished with a few fleshy
leaves, are very short, being rarely more than 4 cm. in
length ; the rest of the plant is subterranean, with the ex-
ception of the flowers. These latter are large, lilac and
white in colour, semiprostrate, with their peduncles buried
beneath the sand right to the base of the calyx. This small
development of Calystegia contrasts greatly with the same
species when growing on sand-dunes at some distance from
the sea in many parts of New Zealand. There it forms great
masses trailing over the sand, or, when growing in sheltered
positions amongst other plants, it actually assumes a climbing
habit of growth. Ranunculus acaulis grows in small rosettes,
connected together by white underground stems. The leaves,
of which there are four or five in each rosette, lie flat on the
sand, are ternate in shape, of a rather thick texture, and
varnished on the upper surface. The roots are fleshy, seven
or eight times as long as the leaves, and descend deeply into
the sand. The flower-stem, by the time the fruit is mature,
usually arches downwards towards the ground, thus often
depositing the ripe achenes below the surface of the sand.
This may be merely the result of a mechanical bending of the

* This Hooker (29, p. 198) considered identical with the European
and Australian forms of this species, bui, as he held the opinion then so
prevalent that specieR w^re large conjunctive groups, it rnav quite well
be that the New Zealand plant differs from the European, or even the
Australian, in ccitaiu particulars.
17

258 Transactions. — Botany.

stem by the drifting sand aided by the increasing weight of
the fruit, or it may be an adaptation for sowing the seed,
thus hindering it from being blown inland into positions
where the seedlings would have little chance of maintaining
themselves amongst a more luxuriant vegetation. Whether
such bending of the stem is hereditary can only be ascertained
by experimental culture.

The sandy shore plant-formation is distinctly a modified
one, though to the casual observer there is nothing to notify
that fact. In its primitive state it might well have received
the name of " Myosotidium formation." Just* above high-
water mark, where the great masses of kelp accumulate,
right up to the junction of shore and dune, on to the
dunes themselves, and into the open part of the Myrsine-
Olearia " scrub," formerly extended great clumps and patches
of this truly magnificent plant. Not only on the sandy
shore was it found, but it occupied low peaty ground near
the sea, rocky shores, and rocky ledges of cliffs covered
with sand, where, with the immense sow-thistle, it must
have struggled for sovereignty. At the present time, as ex-
plained further on, it is hardly to be found wild in the
island. Myosotidium nobile has a stout rhizome creeping
either just below the surface of the ground or often with its
greater part above the surface, in the manner of the New
Zealand Ranunculus lyallii or the Californian Saxifraga
peltata. Such a rhizome in a wild plant which I examined
measured 5-2 cm. in diameter. The leaves in shape and form
are not unlike those of the garden rhubarb, and consist of a
comparatively thin lauiina held in position by au extremely
strong framework of midrib and veins beneath, and the course
of which is defined by channels on the upper surface. The
leaves are nearly always bent in the form of a funnel, which
must be very advantageous for catching the water of the light
showers and conducting it to the channelled petiole, flowing
down which it reaches the roots. Petioles, midribs, and
veins are very fleshy and juicy. Certain leaves which I
measured were 25 cm. by 29-5 cm. ; 27 cm. by 22 cm., with
petiole 12 cm.; 32 cm. by 38 cm., with petiole 44 cm. The
large leaves, after being cast off, very soon become dry, and
in course of time a very considerable depth of humus results.
The peduncles are stout, and raise the flowers above the foli-
age. In one case a peduncle measured was 60 cm. tall and
18 mm. in diameter, bearing a close head of racemes 12 cm.
in diameter. The central half of the corolla is bright blue,
changing afterwards to purple, and the outer half is white.
Mrs. Chudleigh, of Wharekaun, discovered a form with white

* According to Mr. F. A. D. Cox.

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 259

flowers some years ago, and through her instrumentality this
has become fairly common in cultivation. There is a notion
prevalent that M. nobile cannot be grown inland at any dis-
tance from the sea, Mr. A. Bathgate, e.g., stating that it
requires the salt air (l1), but this is quite a mistake. One of
the finest plants I ever saw in cultivation was shown to me
by Mr. T. W. Adams in a garden situated at Greendale, on
the Canterbury Plains, at a distance of twenty-four miles from
the sea, the plant in question having been there for more than
ten years, flowering regularly and bearing abundance of seed.
It seems to me that most likely M. nobile has been thrust into
its present maritime position not by choice, but by the pres-
sure of encroaching plants or other enemies. M. Battandier,
as the result of eleven years' close study of the flora of Algeria,
has come to a similar conclusion with regard to certain mari-
time plants, and in a most interesting paper details the facts
on which his opinion is based (1).

Sand-dunes.
Sand-dunes of considerable extent and varying height
occupv a large proportion of the ground adjacent to the sea.
They extend along the whole east coast from Te Whakaru in
the north to Ouenga in the south, along most of the north
coast from Kaingaroa to Waitangi West, and along a very
large part of the coast of Petre Bay in the west. Before the
introduction of herbivorous animals these dunes were covered
in many places with a dense forest, consisting chiefly of
Olearia traversii and Myrsine chathamica, and reaching in
many places almost to the water's edge. At that time moving
sand-dunes may have been unknown. But now there is a
very different state of affairs. True, the forest still fringes
the" coast-line in many places, but here and there it is broken
through by great hills of drifting sand, which have ouried
wholly or in part the former plant-covering. Such moving
hills have in some instances passed beyond the limits of the
former wooded area, and are encroaching rapidly on the
inland meadow land. A striking example of this encroaching
sand burying the forest may be observed between Waitangi
and Te One. Tnere in places tree-tops project from the
summit of the highest dunes. In one spot on the landward
side on the flat is a grove of Olearia traversii where every
stage of burial can be observed, from the tree-tops almost
covered, to their bases just covered by the sand. This
advance landwards of the sand is very serious from the
economic point of view ; but happily the settlers have found a
remedy within recent years in tne planting of marrarn-grass
on the moving dunes. This, as might be expected from the
results of planting this grass in other countries, has proved a

260 Transactions. — Botany.

very great success, and now, where but three or four years
ago was a desert of sand, tall grass may be seen waving in
the breeze, each clump so close to the next that no sand is.
visible. Nor need a grass little relished by stock be alone
made use of. Elymus arenarvus has also been planted, and
thrives equally well, and Mr. J. Barker tells me that at
Kaingaroa stock eat it with avidity. :;: Although the sand-
dune vegetation has been much changed by the advent of
domestic animals, it is possible to get a fairly good idea of
what it was like in its original state by examining, in as
many localities as possible, those portions which have been
the least changed. The dunes abutting on that part of the
Wharekauri Beach the plant-covering of which has been
described above are well adapted for the purpose in view,
insomuch as they are still covered with vegetation almost to
high-water mark, the forest forming a wide belt, separated
from the sea-shore by a narrow zone, only a few inches in
width, of stable dunes covered with certain characteristic
sand-dune plants of more lowly growth. And this locality
also affords a striking example of the different stages in the
evolution of the vegetation of a sandy coast, commencing
with the more or less open vegetation of the strand, and pass-
ing by way of low dunes fixed by various sand-binding plants
to the final higher dunes covered with forest.

Commencing at the junction of shore and dune, the sand
at first forms merely low mounds or ridges. The vegetation,
though fairly abundant for a medium such as sand, is open,
many places being quite bare. On the ridges grows the
common New Zealand grass Festuca littoralis. This gra^s
casts its " seeds"! in large masses alongside the parent plant,
where, being soon buried by the drifting sand, they readily
germinate. Behind the Festuca are higher mounds clothed
with Pimelea arenaria, the long cord-like underground stems
of which put forth adventitious roots near their extremities,
which latter, bending upwards, raise themselves above the
encroaching sand. The leaves are closely imbricating near
the extremities of the branches, but below are a little more
open. They are all most densely silky on the under-sur-
face, a most efficient protection against excessive transpira-
tion. Owing to the leafy extremities of the stems being erect,

* Other plants used fcr binding sand with success in Europe are
Ammophila baltica, Calamagrostis epigea, Carex arenaria, and with
these are used various species of Pinus, Picea, Betula, and Abuts.
(See " Handbuch des deut&chen Dunenbaues," P. Gerhardt, Berlin,
1900.)

f For the sake of conveniencp, the term " seed" is used throughout
this paper in its popular acceptation, and includes, of course, various
kinds of fruits.

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 261

the semi-rosettes of leaves can receive the incident light to the
best advantage. Below, the stems are marked faintly with the
old leaf-scars, thus defining those portions of the plant which
have formerly been terminal. It is probable that the oldest
portions of the plant — i.e., the most deeply buried portions —
die, while the plant continues to increase by the rooting of its
terminal shoots. Such a plant might, then, attain to a very
great age, so long as it was able to hold its own against ad-
vancing sand or denuding wind. The Pimelea mounds are
from Ira. to 1*2 m. in height. Sometimes the Pimelea grows
unmixed with other vegetation, but more often its protection
is taken advantage of by other plants, especially by Deyeuxia
billardieri, Isole.pis nodosa, and Accena novce-zela"dim. Such a
plant of Pimelea arenaria as described above averages about
4 m. in length. 3 m. in breadth, and 47 cm. in height. Another
abundant plant of this zone is Gar ex ptcmila, which here
grows in association with Convolvulus soldanella. This Carex
has also the power of growing upwards as the sand covers it,
and, with its stout, long, creeping rhizomes, assists the dune
very materially in resisting the wind and the advancing sand.
Ranunculus acaulis is also abundant here, playing its part as
a sand-binder, and in habit much the same as described before
when treating of the strand vegetation. Less abundant than
any of the foregoing is Euphorbia glauca, which forms small
colonies extending sometimes into the more open parts of the
adjacent forest. Its seedlings are fairly plentiful on the sand
near the parent plants. Although not very abundant on that
part of the dunes here treated of, Scirpus f rondo sits is by far
the most characteristic sand-dune plant of the island, and,
indeed, of the whole New Zealand area. It can form settle-
ments and hold its own in positions where no other New Zea-
land flowering-plant can exist, and only the most constant
and furious winds can destroy a dune where it is properly
established. Indeed, for sand-binding power it is probably
not equalled either by Ammophila arenaria or by Elymus
arenarius.

The sand-dunes bearing the forest zone are higher than
those just described, and extend inland for a distance of
300 m., more or less. The plant-covering consists near the
sea entirely of Olearia traversii and Myrsine chathamica ;
further inland other trees put in an appearance. 0. tra-
versii always maintains its character as a low tree, but
M . chathamica loses altogether its tree-like habit as it nears
high-water mark, and under the influence of the numerous
and sometimes violent sea-breezes becomes a leafy shrub
with dense close branches. The difference in appearance
between the two forms of this plant is so great that one
might very easily mistake them for two distinct plants.

262 Tr ansae tions. — Botany.

Originally such dune forests" must have been very dense;
even now the trees are quite close in many places. On the
dunes facing Petre Bay in more than one locality the liane
Muhlenbcckia adpressa may be seen climbing over the Olearias,
with its numerous interlacing, bare, rope-like stems.

Compared with the sand-dunes of most parts of New Zea-
land! a marked difference lies in the extreme closeness with
which the arborescent vegetation of the Chatham Island dunes-
approaches the shore. This has been brought about, I should
imagine, by the general moisture of the atmosphere, the
extremely equable climate, and the freedom from periods of
drought. In such a climate as this, as long as the dunes are
stable, there is little hindrance to trees, especially those of
xerophytic habit, establishing themselves and driving the
original sand-fixing vegetation towards -the sea into an ever-
decreasing area, until finally such plants, with their special
adaptations against drought and salt m the soil on the one
hand and instability of the substratum on the other, would
be confined to the narrow zone where in the least changed
portions of the sand-dune formation they are now to be
found. Moreover, the sand usually, or perhaps alwavs, over-
lies a layer of peat, and this will be of great benefit for tree-
growth. As an example of how a sand-dune forest might
originate, my notes furnish the following clue: "On the
sand-dunes between Waitangi and Te One Pimelea arenaria
occurs in large quantities, forming fixed dunes. Where this
plant has quite conquered the drifting sand" — this is, of
course, recent drifting sand caused by the destruction of the
original vegetation by cattle and sheep — "it encourages
the growth of other plants — e.g., Accena, Ghiaphalium luteo-
album, and even young seedling plants of Olearia traversii."
With no enemy to trample it down or feed upon it, and under
the shade of the Pimelea, 0. traversii, thanks to its ran id
growth, would soon be well established, and with its enor-
mous number of "seeds" and their extreme suitability for
wind dissemination, to say nothing of its xerophytic structure,
young plants would soon be established in all favourable
localities. Olearia traversii, as it occurs on the dunes, is a
low tree, with a rather dense head of foliage and a bare trunk
covered with rough bark. The leaves are 5 5 cm. long by
2-5 cm. broad, or shorter and narrower. They are rather
thick but soft, of a bright shining-green on the upper surface
and with the under-surface clothed with extremely dense

* The more inland part of the dune forests are treated of under the
heading " Lowland Forest."

f For an account of certain sand-dunes in the North Island of
New Zealand, see Cheeseman (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxix., p, 364).

Cockayne — Plants of Chatham Island. 263

white tomentum, as are also the short petioles and ultimate
branchlets. The epidermis is two-layered, and the vascular
bundles are surrounded by a sheath of stereome.

Probably Sonchus grandifolius originally grew in some
abundance on the fixed dunes, bun at present it is to be found
only in a few places. Tetragonia trigyna also must at one
time have been more or less common. In one place on the
inland side of the dunes, near Lake Te Eoto, I noticed a few
plants of Dodoncea viscosa.

Sand-covered Ledges on Bock.

Closely related to the saud-dunes are those flat places and
ledges on maritime rocks on to which sand has blown. Eed
Bluff, on the west coast of Chatham Island, furnishes a good
example of the vegetation of such stations. There, just above
high-water mark, Sonchus grandifolius grows with great luxu-
riance, its large fleshy leaves pressed closely against the sand.
This plant is furnished with a very thick juicy creeping
rhizome. The leaves are of very great size, but unfortunately
I had no measure with me at the time of observation.
According to Mr. T. Kirk (37), they are -'from 1ft. to 2ft.
long by 4 in. to 7 in. broad." The plant is truly a herbaceous
one, its aerial portion dying down to the ground every year —
an uncommon phenomenon with the plants of New Zealand
generally. The young leaves make their appearance in Sep-
tember, and grow with considerable rapidity. The mature
leaves are thick and rather hard. The pale-green upper sur-
face is slighty concave, owing to the leaf-segments being bent
upwards ; the under-surface is glaucous, probably owing to a
covering of wax. The florets are pale-purple towards the
circumference of the head, assuming a lighter colour toward
the centre, where finally they are pale-yellow. The under-
surface of the florets is dark-purple near the apex. The outer
involucral bracts are extremely thick, and armed with short
thick spines. Such spiny bracts, with the addition of those
more internal, form an excellent protection to the young bud
which would otherwise be exposed to danger of injury from
the sand, often blown against it with great violence by the fre-
quent high winds. Growing in company with S. grandifolius,
and in considerable quantities, oxeApium australe, Samolus re-
pens. Salicomia australis, and the remarkable grass Agropyrum
coxii/-'- This latter forms large sheets lying on the sand.
It spreads by means of rather stout underground steins. Its
extremely supple filiform leaves are so much incurved as to

* For the various new species mentioned, see further on, towards the
conclusion of the article.

264 Transactions. — Botany.

form an almost closed pipe, into which the dry air can with
difficulty penetrate. A transverse section of the leaf shows that
it is conduplicate, and appearing almost as if terete. The two
halves of the leaf are slightly asymmetrical. Between the
margins of the leaf is a very narrow opening, which leads into
a wider channel in which the midrib projects. On each side
of the midrib are one or two, perhaps more, lateral furrows
reaching more than halfway to the dorsal surface of the leaf.
The epidermis of the dorsal surface has a fairly thick cuticle
and three layers of cells ; that of the ventral surface consists
of one row of rounded cells with thin walls, a few of the cells
being drawn out into unicellular hairs. The stomata are
situated in the furrows, and the guard-cells are sunk below
the level of the epidermal cells. The other plants mentioned
above, excepting Sonchus grandifolius, are all common New
Zealand halophytes with thick leaves and much-creeping
underground stems.

Besides the sand having blown on to ledges, it is often
drifted against the lower parts of rocks, and forms there a
plant-station which puts one in mind of some of the slopes of
fine limestone debris in the Southern Alps of the South Island
of New Zealand. In such unstable ground grows the ex-
tremely succulent Atriplex billardieri, while patches of Tillcea
moschata are abundant.

Stony Sea- shore.

The only locality where I examined this formation was
Te Whakaru. Unfortunately, my notes are so few that I can
only give very general and by no means exact details. So far
as I can remember, the shore at Te Whakaru varies from large
loose slabs of stone piled one upon another to coarse gravelly
sand, containing large quantities of broken shells and having
very many rocks rising out of it. Such a shore is much more
stable than the dry sandy one before described; the presence
of stones on the surface helps to conserve the moisture, so
offering permanently moist spots for the ramification of roots,
and the large rocks afford shade and shelter. In consequence
of these altogether more hospitable edaphic conditions, the
stony shore formation is richer in species and its plant-cover-
ing more dense than the sandy shore, nor are special adapta-
tions against shifting sand or such strongly marked xerophytic
structure indispensable. All the same, the rich development
of the underground stem and lowly habit of growth to be
found in all the species — Urtica australis excepted — fits them
both for resisting drought and the attacks of sheep.

Growing on the sand close to high-water mark are Bumex
neglectus(7), with its leaves flattened close to the ground,
Ranunculus acaulis, Cotula muelleri, and an introduced

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 265

species of Trifolium. Within a few metres of high-water
mark the strand, sloping upwards, gradually merges into the
gently sloping peaty ground, which in some places is oarpeted
with grasses, and in others has small belts of Olearia traversii
coming right down to the shore.

Just at the junction of shore and meadow is a turf of
Selliera radicans, a plant with a slender stem creeping on or
close to the surface of the ground, and with numerous short
roots descending into the gravel ; its thick leaves also are
pressed close against the ground. That very curious umbel-
liferous plant, Crantzia lineata, also forms a turf in similar
situations. Its rush-like hollow leaves are described by Asa
Gray as "petioles in place of leaves" (22, p. 205), while
Hooker, in the " Flora Antarctica " (30), speaking of specimens
from the Plate Eiver, remarks that the leaves sometimes ex-
pand into a plane linear-lanceolate obtuse lamina. Goebel
calls attention to the same fact (21, pp. 45, 46), and shows
clearly that the peculiar structure of Crantzia is a protection
against drought, although the South American form grows in
swampy meadows. How efficient such an adaptation is for
xerophytic conditions, and yet how it can live also in hygro-
phytic "stations, is well illustrated by the Chatham Island
plant, which I collected in very wet swamps, on fairly dry
sand dunes, on rocks by the sea exposed to frequent drench-
ing with salt water, on extremely dry limestone rocks, and in
the shade of the forest on moist peaty ground. Near New
Brighton, Canterbury, New Zealand, it grows in a Phormium
swamp on the bank of the Eiver Avon, subject to some hours'
immersion daily in water, which is often slightly brackish,
and even at times extremely salt.

Growing near the rocks which jut out of the stony shore
is Urtica australis, a very large nettle, which, as will be seen
further on. forms thickets in some parts of the island. At Te
Whakaru it is not very tall, being 30 cm. to 35 cm. in height,
but the leaves measured 15 cm. by 10 cm. Its thick stems,
15 cm. in diameter, enable it to resist the wind. Here and
there on the shore grows the introduced Plantago media,
which is so much reduced in size and changed generally that
it might easily be taken for a different species, were it not for
examples of the type growing in a position more favourable
for its development further inland.

No doubt a number of other plants occur as constituents
of this formation, but none are mentioned in my notes. But,
at any rate, the formation is distinctly a modified one, for not
only have exotic plants invaded it, but it must have been
much changed by sheep, since Te Whakaru was one of the
first European settlements on the island.

266 Transactions. — Botany.

Rocky Sea-shore.

This formation, closely related to the stony shore, con-
sists of scattered assemblages of plants living on low and
often flat rocks, exposed to sea-spray and subject at times to
complete drenching by the waves. The station is eminently
xerophytic, but the crevices and hollows often contain a good
deal of peaty soil, which easily becomes saturated with water
during the frequent showers. The only rock-formation of this
character studied was at Te Whakaru. In those places on
the rocks where earth had filled up the chinks, crevices, or
hollows, is often a fairly dense covering of Grantzia lineata
and Samolus repens ; in similar situations are large rounded
green patches, 15 cm. in diameter, of Triglochin striatum and
a small species of Schcenus, or occasionally Tillcea moschata
forms still larger patches. This latter plant has red stems
and numerous very small but exceedingly succulent leaves.

In crevices of the rocks where there is not much soil
Senecio radiolatus and a curious species of Senecio with entire
leaves and solitary flower-heads grows here and there. This
latter may be merely a depauperated form of Senecio lautus.
Seedlings of Olearia traversii are not uncommon even on
such rocks as are surrounded at high water by the sea.
Pratia arenaria, a plant occurring in almost every plant-
formation on the island, not excepting Sphagnum bogs, and
a few plants of the trailing Ghenopodium triandrum complete
the list.

Maritime G tiffs and Large Bocks.

Here are included only those lower portions of the coastal
cliffs which in many cases, at some time or another, are
exposed to the sea-spray, the degree of exposure varying
considerably according to the proximity of the rock or cliff
to the sea, while often the landward side of many large
rocks may never be under the influence of the sea-
spray at all. Also here are included certain cliffs situated
at a little distance from the sea along lagoons, &c, such
as at Lake Waikaua, which, originally actual maritime cliffs,
have, since the cutting-off of such lagoons from the sea,
become clothed with a modified vegetation. The highest
portions of certain cliffs, especially those of the south coast,
bear an altogether different vegetation, which in the latter
region is in many places closely related to " tableland
forest." The maritime cliffs offer two different kinds of
stations : that of the more or less solid portions of the
rock and that of sand lodged on flat places or ledges, already
discussed.

The plants of the more or less solid rock are such as can, by
means of long roots, penetrate the rock through its crevices,

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Inland. 2(57

thus procuring a sufficiency of water, which they store up in
certain tissues, or prevent escaping too quickly by special
modifications of the leaves. Veronica chathamica is the most
characteristic plant of this formation. It roots in crevices and
clefts of the rocks, which often contain a certain amount of
peat, varying in depth in some particular cases from 5 cm. to
6-3 cm. From the crevice issues a rather thick main stem,
from which numerous lateral very supple branches proceed,
trailing over the surface of the rock in all directions, or hang-
ing downwards over its steeper portions. The leaves in the
bud have the usual decussate arrangement of the Veronicas,
and the first two fully formed leaves are in their normal posi-
tion ; but all the other leaves are more or less twisted at their
bases, so as to bring the upper surface to the light, the shoot,
viewed from the back, showing only the under-surface of the
leaves. Even where a vertical cutting is rooted in a flower-
pot the newly formed shoot is plagiotropous almost from the
first, being bent at right angles to the parent stem, and with
all the leaves twisted at the base, so as to bring them into two
opposite lateral rows. In nature the leaves are usually some-
what crowded near the ends of the branches, which are quite
bare beiow. The leaves themselves are rather thick and
fleshy, pale-green in colour, and covered with numerous short
dowmy hairs on both surfaces and on the margin. They vary
considerably in size, and plants differing markedly in this
particular may be observed growing side by side. This varia-
tion seems the more remarkable, since the life-conditions to
which V. chathamica is exposed might well be expected to
have produced an invariable species.

Geranium traversii, described at some length in the next
section, is also common on maritime cliffs in all parts of the
coast. In many places the vegetation becomes somewhat
luxuriant through great sheets of Mescmbryauthemum australe,
accompanied by smaller sheets of Salicomia australis and
large green patches of Apium australe hanging down and
covering the rock. Associated with the above are dotted
about plants of Chenopodium glaucum and Atriplex patula.
Occasionally, even in places where the sea-spray reaches at
times, are stunted, gnarled specimens of Olearia traversii.

The fern Lomaria dura probably grows on the maritime
rocks proper, as it does, e.g., at the Bluff, in New Zealand;
but in Chatham Island it is especially luxuriant on the cliffs
bordering the Waikaua Lagoon. Its dimensions vary accord-
ing to the amount of soil and the moisture of its station. In
stations facing south on the very steep cliffs it forms colonies
to the exclusion of all other vegetation. The leaves of one
plant measured 64 cm. in length by 12cm. in breadth, and
it had a stem like a small tree fern, 21cm. long. Near this

268 Transactions. — Botany.

mass of L. dura grows the large nettle, while below Apium
australe is abundant. On the dry solid rock where soil is
altogether absent L. dura is of very much smaller dimensions,
but I took no measurements.

Shallow Peaty Soil underlaid by Bock.
As the rock weathers away and becomes flatter the vege-
tation described above becomes more and more abundant
until finally a considerable layer of peat results, which sup-
ports a plant population different in many respects from that
of the original rock. Te Whakaru Island offers an example
of such a station, and exhibits the gradual change from the
lowly vegetation of the flat ground close to the sea to the
grove of 0. traversii on the higher ground, many of which
trees are of the largest size to which that species can attain.
The open parts of the island are covered with a dense carpet
of Mesembryanthemum australe, some of which have red and
some green leaves. Here and there where the latter has not
taken possession, especially in the rather moist places, are
patches of turf consisting of Crantzia lineata, ^ Triglochin
striatum, Gotula imielleri, Pratia arenaria, Selliera radicans,
Schcenus sp., and Banunctdus acaulis. Sometimes the
Pratia forms large patches unmixed with any other vege-
tation. Where the surface of the ground is higher and the
soil probably deeper grows the endemic Gotula featherstonii
(Plate XIV.). This plant forms large colonies on the dry peaty
ground in which the mutton-birds make their holes, probably
the presence of the birds' manure defining the habitat of
the plant. It possesses a stout, smooth, upright stem,
13 mm. or more in diameter, which gives off about five
branches rather close together, which latter again branch in
a similar manner, the whole plant being from 15 cm. to
30 cm. in height. The leaves are soft and slightly succu-
lent, but not sufficiently so for water to be squeezed out of
them. They are crowded into rosettes at the extremities of
the branches, the internodes being very short. The whole
plant is of a greyish colour, and puts one in mind of the
biennial stock (Matthiola incana). The roots are stout,
strong, and woody, and form, with their rootlets, a mat,
which lays hold firmly of the adjacent soil. As to the
duration of life of C. featherstonii, there seems little doubt but
that the plant is a perennial. At Maturakau Myosotidmm
nobile grows in large clumps near those of C. featherstonii
(Plate XV.), all the rest of the ground being covered by
Mesembryanthemum australe, which also hangs in sheets
from the adjacent cliffs. On Te Whakaru Island a few
plants of Phormium tcnax on the peat and others on the
rocks testify to the former greater abundance of this plant ;

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 2(59

indeed, the whole formation, especially as seen at Te Wha-
karu, must have been enormously modified.

Limestone Cliffs and Bocks.

These cliffs bound the shore of the great lagoon in various
places, while often rocks extend from their base into the
water. At one time the base of the cliffs was laved by the
waters of the ocean, so that they are closely related to
maritime cliffs. From such cliffs, as before described, they
differ in their inland position and consequent freedom from
the influence of salt water, also in the very different nature
ot the rock. Many of their plant inhabitants are doubtless
part of the original flora, while others have come from the
neighbouring inland formations, their seeds blown into cre-
vices of the rocks or brought by birds, while the xerophytic
structure of the plants has enabled them to hold their own
in such a position.

Taking the case of New Zealand, it seems well established
that sea-coast plants can continue to occupy an inland ancient
maritime station. Mr. T. Kirk has called attention to such
an instance (422), and I have also shown that Angelica geni-
culate/, occurs at the lower Waimakariri Gorge, on the upper
Canterbury Plains (102, p. 101), a station which Captain Hut-
ton brings good evidence to show was formerly maritime (332; .

As in all rock-formations, there is here no struggle for
existence amongst the plants. Any plant which can gain a
foothold will be unmolested by its neighbours. Many parts of
the cliffs are quite bare ; others are clothed with a fairly
abundant vegetation. Very characteristic of this formation is
Veronica dieffenbachii, the branches of which spread out
laterally or hang downwards from a thick main stem firmly
embedded in some crevice. Its leaves are confined to the ex-
tremities of the branches. They are rather thick and fleshy,
6-5 cm. long by 1-9 cm. broad. The shoots, unlike those of
V. chathamica, are not at all dorsi-ventral, and the branches
are so extremely pliant that a twig 4 mm. in diameter can be
rolled round and round the finger without breaking. Other
plants growdng in company with V. dieffenbachii are — Linum
mottogynum var. chathamicum, its white flowers striped or
flaked with pale-blue ; Senccio latitus ; Phormnim tenax ;
Leucopogon richei ; Accena novee,-zeiandice. In hollows in the
cliff Adiantum affine is very abundant, while in some places its
delicate fronds form great sheets of greenery on the rocks.
Geranium traversii, another common plant of this formation,
can thrive in extremely dry positions ; for example, I noted it
growing on a perfectly dry limestone rock pear the margin of
the lagoon. Its roots are very thick and stout ; one example
measured was 1-5. cm. in diameter, and at 10 cm. from the

270 Transactions. — Botany.

base of the root 75 mm. This particular root was 70 cm. long,
and three other roots of nearly equal length and thickness
were given off from the root axis. The main stem is usually
very short and stout ; in one case measured it was 1 cm. long
and 9 mm. in diameter. From this stem arise radical leaves
and trailing stems. The radical leaves are furnished with
very thick petioles, 6-5 mm. in length and 4 mm. in diameter.
Tiie petioles are pale-pink in colour, especially below, and
densely pubescent with short white hairs ; at the base thev
are sheathing, and furnished with triangular stipules. The
leaf-blade is reniform-orbicular and deeply lobed, rather
thick, and on each surface is covered with pubescence, which
gives it a somewhat silvery appearance. Cultivated speci-
mens, which have originated from self-sown seed in my
garden, have the leaves much less succulent than the wild
plant, the petioles very much longer, more slender, and with-
out a trace of the red colouring.

Limestone Forest.
The limestone cliffs do not form an unbroken precipi-
tous wall all round the lagoon, but they are separated
by steep banks and hollows, arising probably from weather-
ing of the original rock. In such places certain trees grow
m association, so as to form small woods. The under-
growth of these woods is almost entirely destroyed by the
ravages of stock, and possibly the proportion of the species
of trees is no longer what it originally was. But what
gives special interest to the formation is the presence
of Sopiiora chatkamica. Regarding this tree Mr. H. H.
Travers wrote (51, p. 178) : " In connection with the
recent introduction of the New Zealand pigeon,* I may
mention that in a small tract of bush on the margin of the
great lagoon I found three trees of the Edwardsia micro-
phylla, all growing close together, and being the only spe-
cimens of that plant which I saw on either island. They
were not in flower or fruit at the time. They were appa-
rently all of equal age, and were about 5 in. in diameter and
15 ft. in height. Mr. Hunt, to whom I pointed them out,
stated that he had never seen the plant before. During my
residence at Pitt. Island I was in the habit of examining the
coast of the bay in which Mr. Hunt's house is situated twice
a day for some months, and on one occasion I saw a sawn
plank of totara, and on another a seed of the Edioardsia,
which had evidently been washed from New Zealand. The

* I may point out tbat the pigeon is a distinct species from that
of New Zealand (see remarks on this species, Carpopliaga chathamiensis,
Rothschild, by Sir W. Buller, in Trans. N.Z. List.., 1892, vol. xxiv.,
p. 80).

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 'Ill

seed was hard and apparently sound. I gave it to Mr. Hunt,
who sowed it, but I have not yet heard the result." This
statement of Travers's has seemed so reasonable that Mr.
Hemsley writes of "the doubtful occurrence" of Sophora in
the Chatham Islands (28). That S. chithamica is indigenous
in Chatham Island there can, however, be no doubt. Even if,
unaided by man in any way, it had arrived a few years before
Mr. Travers's visit it would have bef-.n indigenous, of course;
but it has probably occupied Chatham Island since that land
was first colonised by its arborescent plant inhabitants. It
occurs abundantly in all the small woods along the lagoon,
and in quite as great a proportion as the other trees. More-
over, its seedling form is different from that of any other
species or variety of the genus, as I pointed out some years
ago (9, p. 337) ; and so far as I have been able to ascertain,
both from Mr. Cox and from personal observation, it does not
at any period of its existence assume a xerophytic habit of
growth (10, p. 279). Concerning this latter matter, as men-
tioned towards the end of this paper, I hope before long to
make a definite statement. The other forest trees found in
conjunction with S. chathamica are Plagianthus chathami-
cus, P&cudopanax chathamicus, Coprosma chathamica, Olearia
traversii, Myrsine chathamica, and Gorokia macrocarpa, of
which the Sophora, the Plagianthus, and the Pseudopanax are
the most abundant.

Why S. chathamica should be confined to the limestone
and found in no other part of Chatham Island, when a closely
allied species grows abundantly over volcanic rock in New
Zealand, is a very difficult question to answer. It may simply
be that it cannot compete in a wet position with the other
forest trees, and that the limestone forest is drier than any of
the other forest-formations on the island. At any rate, it is a
very striking example of the local distribution of a plant, and
of how a fall of a few metres in the general level of Chatham
Island would probably exterminate the species. The seeds of
Sophora found on the beaches by Travers and others were
most likely merely from the trees by the lagoon, and had
never come from New Zealand at all.

Lagoon.

If a portion of the sea be cut off from the main body of
water by an enclosing barrier of sand a lagoon is the result,
of which Te Whanga is the most important example. Its
waters are usually shallow for a considerable depth from the
shore, and so are favourable for plant-life ; but, being brackish,
only a limited number of phanerogams can exist in this
station, while frequent winds agitate the surface of the water
to such a degree that only those plants specially adapted to

272 Transactions. — Botany.

resist the action of waves can exist. In consequence the
lagoons of Chatham Island possess only a very small pha-
nerogamic flora; nor so far as observed were Alga numerous.
Ruppia maritima often occupies large portions of such shallow
places in lagoons, and its leaves and stems, floating at times on
the surface of the water, form a mat of such density as to have
attracted the attention of the Maoris, who call it the " eels'
blanket." The floor of the lagoons consists of sand or of
sandy peaty mud, formed from the decay of many generations
of plants. Such muddy peat is the commencement of a
transition from the bed of a lagoon to salt meadow, for as it
gradually accumulates it rises out of the water and becomes
at once occupied by an abundant plant population. Such a
spot forms the line of tension between lagoon and salt
meadow. In several places Te Whanga Lagoon is, as before
pointed out, sufficiently shallow to be crossed on horseback,
the depth of water at the crossing varying according to the
direction of the wind ; and with a north-west wind blowing in
summer it may be quite dry, and clouds of dust and sand
mark its position. On this portion of the lagoon-bed large
round patches of Samolus repens are abundant; so here is one
of the most characteristic of salt-meadow plants taking pos-
session of the ground almost before the station is fit to receive
it. A very slight rise indeed of the land and the bed of the
lagoon would be transformed by nature into salt meadow,
which probably might be succeeded by forest, especially if the
land were elevated a little more. It is also easily conceivable
how such a lagoon could be transformed into a bog, and it
seems very probable indeed that the low-lying boggy ground
in the north-west of the island has had this origin, as
suggested by Haast (23).

Lagoon-shore.

The vegetation of the lagoon-shore, as shown above, is not
directly related to that of the sea-shore proper, but is rather
an embryonic salt meadow. Of course, originally, before the
lagoon was cut off from the ocean, it must have been true
sea-shore, though possibly its plants might even then have
been affected by the lime in the soil.

I had only an opportunity of examining a portion of the
western shore in one or two places, and have no notes at
all regarding the eastern shore. The soil consists of sandy
peat usually very wet, but varying considerably in its water-
content. That portion within reach of the wash of the waves
is sopping wet, and so soft that one cannot tread on it with-
out sinking halfway to one's knees. There Grantzia lineata
grows most luxuriantly, forming large green masses. Calli-
tricJie muelleri, Limosella aquatica, var. tenuifolia, Cotula

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 273

muelleri, Cotula coronopifolia, and Eleocharis gracillima are
also abundant, and form a kind of turf on the peaty mud.
Drier parts of the shore are occupied by thickets of Urtica
australis, while in other places are very large patches of
Samolus repens. Where the shore is drier still, and altogether
out of reach of the water at any time, is a grassy flat made up
of certain grasses, of which I have no specimens — Cotula
muelleri, Samohts repens, Selliera radicans, Crantzia lineata,
Pratia arcnaria, and probably a number of other plants not
specially noted.

Salt Meadow.

Along the great lagoon, especially on its eastern side, are
large stretches of flat land bordered on the east by forest, at
one time probably the bed of the lagoon, but now, so far as I
can remember, salt meadow. Unfortunately, I had no oppor-
tunity of examining this interesting formation, and so must
leave it undescribed for the present.

Running Water.
Chatham Island, with its many lagoons, lakes, and
streams, might reasonably be expected to contain a con-
siderable number of phanerogamic water plants. On the
contrary, as pointed out by Travers (51, p. 177), these are by
no means plentiful. Most of the streams are very sluggish,
their slowly moving water is of a dark-brown colour, and
their bed a deep layer of peaty mud. During the rains of
winter they often overflow, and so give rise to numerous
swamps of greater or less extent, which, if in a forest, con-
tain the characteristic swampy forest trees. Such streams
sometimes contain no vegetation beyond certain Alga; in
others Myriophyllum elatinoides and Polygonum minus, var.
decipiens, grow in company with one another; while in the
very still pools of forest streams Callitriche muelleri is some-
times abundant, growing at 0-5 m. or more below the surface
of the water and extending on to the damp floor of the
forest. Potamogeton natans is by no means common, though
it is occasionally met with in shallow streams and in pools
formed from their overflow. The introduced watercress
{Nasturtium officinale) is abundant in many of the small
streams, but it does not seem to attain to anything like the
same dimensions as in certain South Island waters. On the
margin of the streams, growing right in the water, are usually
a number of swamp plants — Carices, Coprosma propinqua,
Arundo conspicua, &c. — or, if the stream be within a belt of
trees on the tableland, Myrsine coxii is often abundant,
growing right in the water. A station of this kind offers
much the same conditions as a swamp, but is more favour-
able for plant-life, the constantly moving water preventing
18

274 Transactions. — Botany.

stagnation. Eapidly flowing screams are very rare, and, un-
fortunately, I have no notes regarding their plant-life.

Swamps.

The swamp formation occurs principally in the lowest por-
tions of the central and northern part of Chatham Island, in
the immediate vicinity of lakes, lagoons, or sluggish streams,
and is distinctly a transition, in some cases, between lake and
forest ; indeed, the line of tension may be often observed
where swamp and forest plants intermingle. The swamp at
the southern end of Lake Huro is easy to examine, and is
of especial interest, since it offers every transition from the
waters of the lake to the ordinary lowland forest. The vege-
tation of the swamp seems determined by the average depth
of the water which more or less covers its floor. Where the
water is deepest there is to all intents and purposes an ori-
ginal formation, for the ground is altogether too boggy to per-
mit the inroads of cattle ; but in all other parts the trampling
of cattle and horses has consolidated the ground more or less
and reduced its water-content, thus making it suitable for
other plants, both indigenous and introduced. The floor of the
swamp in its unchanged portions consists of black peaty mud,
upon which it would probably not be safe to walk. Every-
where are large pools of water, 50 cm., more or less, in depth ;
while in winter the whole floor of the swamp, I learn from
Mr. Cox, is under water. Here there are no shrubs of any
kind. The vegetation consists of the curious restiaceous plant
Leptocarpus simplex, a well-marked xerophyte, which in New
Zealand occurs in salt meadows and sand-dunes (122, p. 119).
In this formation Leptocarpus often forms very large patches,
to the complete exclusion of every other plant. Growing near
but not mixed with the Leptocarpus is Carex secta* in great
quantities, its " trunk " composed in large part of dead rhi-
zomes and roots matted together, on the summit of which the
living plant, raised out of the water, can avoid excess of mois-
ture, sending its roots far down into the decayed and semi-
decayed " trunk."

As the water of the swamp decreases in quantity the
ground becomes quite covered with vegetation and decaying
vegetable matter. There the floor is very uneven, with its
many mounds of peat and decaying vegetation separated from
one another by holes full of water. In such a part of the
swamp Coprosma propinqua is very abundant, making a sub-

* Pastor G. Kiikenthal, who is preparing an account of the genera
Carex and Uncinia for "Das Pflanzenreich," informs me that he con-
siders C. secta distinct from the European C. paniculata, to which
Cheeseman had previously referred it as a variety (8).

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 275

formation which occurs so frequently on the island as to have
attracted the notice of the settlers, who call it " Mingimingi
scrub." Mixed with the Goprosma are the tall grass Arundo
conspicua, Phormium tenax, Carex secta, Carex forsteri(?),
Deschampsia ccespitosa, and quantities of Epilobium pallidi-
Jlorum, E. billardierianum, E. chionanthum var., and a large
species of Astelia which is perhaps new.

As soon as the swamp becomes a shade drier small trees
make their appearance, and this point is evidently the line of
tension between swamp and forest. The first tree to appear
is the xerophytic Olearia traversii ; then Dracophyllum ar-
boreum becomes abundant, mixed with Coriaria ruscifolia,
Pseudopa7iax chathamica, and Myrsine coxii. Hymenanthera
chathamica and Senecio huntii also occur to some extent.
Mixed with this arborescent vegetation are all the swamp
plants mentioned before, Leptocarpus simplex excepted, and
large quantities of the fern Lomaria procera. Such a "scrub"
is often extremely dense, and almost impossible to be tra-
versed. On the banks of Sandstone Creek a very dense for-
mation of this kind, almost in its virgin state, may be seen.

As the water-content of the swamp gradually decreases,
through accumulations of vegetable matter becoming peat, so
do the trees become more and more numerous, until finally, as
in the case of Lake Huro, mentioned above, a true forest makes
its appearance. The trees of the formation need not be re-
duced to mere shrubs ; on the contrary, the Pseudopanax,
Coriaria, and others, attain in the Huro Swamp a height of
6 m. Wherever a sluggish stream flows through a lowland
forest, and at times inundates the neighbouring ground, the
character of the forest changes, and a formation of Goryno-
carpus Icevigata, Goprosma chathamica, Bhopalostijlis baueri{?\,
Hymenanthera chathamica, and Myrsine chathamica changes
to one of Myrsine coxii, Dracophyllum arboreicm, and Olearia
traversii, this latter plant being of more lowly growth than
when growing in the drier forest.

Those of the swamp plants which differ little from the New
Zealand forms of the same species growing under similar con-
ditions need not be further dealt with here ; Dracophyllum
arboreum and Senecio huntii are treated of at some length
further on, when dealing with the "tableland forest," so
there only remains Myrsine coxii for special mention.
This is a rather twiggy shrub, attaining under favourable
circumstances a height of 3 m. or 4m. Its leaves are close
together, and form rather a dense mass at the ends of the
branches. They are small, averaging about 1-8 cm., including
the leaf-stalk, by 8 mm., and are narrow-obovate in shape.
The fruit is of a beautiful mauve colour, and was doubtless
originally distributed by means of native birds. These latter,

276 Transactions. — Botany.

however, are for the most part nearly extinct, so this method
of distribution no longer exists. However, as Mr. G. M.
Thomson points out for New Zealand, introduced birds (50,
p. 317) are now playing a most important role in the spread
of plants ; indeed, they may very well supply the place of
the indigenous birds in this particular. Myrsine coxii is
the first of all the Chatham Island trees to come into bloom,
flowering as it does from the end of July.

Most of the swamp formation of Chatham Island has been
much modified through consolidation of the soil consequent on
the trampling of cattle and horses, which also destroy the
trees which otherwise would seize on the "reclaimed" ground;
so instead of following its natural course and becoming a forest
the swamp becomes gradually transformed into meadow land,
in which certain native and introduced plants which are not
destroyed by the grazing of animals become dominant and
form a turf.

Lowland Forest.

The climate of Chatham Island is distinctly a " forest cli-
mate" (48, p. 178) — that is, the whole island would be covered
with forest were the edaphic conditions suitable. These con-
ditions vary much for different kinds of trees, but, generally
speaking, the soil must be deep enough for the trees to become
firmly fixed ; it must be firm, but loose enough to contain a
sufficiency of oxygen ; it must be well watered, but not satu-
rated with water ; and there must be enough drainage to for-
bid stagnation. In addition, humus is usually present in large
quantities, while nitrifying bacteria and various fungi abound.
Finally, there must not be too great a quantity of inorganic
salts or of humic acids in the soil (53, p. 292). From the
above it is easy to see the reason why, notwithstanding its
forest climate, so much of Chatham Island is without trees,
since so large an area is occupied by swamps, bogs, and wet
ground. It is not quite so easy to understand how a large
area quite suitable for tree-life is also treeless, being occupied
chiefly by the fern Pteris esculenta. In the section of this
paper dealing with burning of the vegetation an explanation
of this anomaly is suggested.

The lowland forest of Chatham Island, though consisting
of trees very much smaller in their dimensions than those
which make up the forests of New Zealand, are distinctly
forests nevertheless, and not mere assemblages of large shrubs.
Below, all the trees have bare trunks, sometimes of consider-
able thickness, and above, spreading branches covered with
abundant foliage. Seen from a distance the forest is blackish-
green in colour, but not nearly of so dark a hue as is the sub-
alpine Fagus forest of New Zealand. If a forest be viewed

Cockatnk. — Plants of Chatham Island. 277

from an eminence, so that the tree-tops can be looked clown
upon, it will be noticed that these form a compact and level
mass of greenery, no one tree rising above its fellows. Within
the forest the customary shrubby growths of the New Zealand
mixed forest are absent ; here, indeed, are no shrubs of any kind,
if Piper excels um be excepted, their place being taken up en-
tirely by tree ferns, many of which are of very great dimen-
sions. The ground itself may be bare, or covered with ferns
or various lowly plants. On the stems of the tree ferns grow
many epiphytes, seedling plants, and even young trees of no
small size. Two lianes, Bhipogonmn scandens and Muhlen-
heckia adpressa, climb to the tree-tops and mingle their foliage
with that of the trees, while the bamboo-like stems of the
former and the rope-like stems of the latter form at times a
complete entanglement which it is very difficult to penetrate.

The soil of the forest consists sometimes of " red clay,"
sometimes of peaty loam, or, in the case of the coastal forest,
of sand underlaid by peaty loam, while a considerable surface
layer of humus, resulting from the decaying vegetation, is
always present. The trees, with one exception, are evergreen,
their leaves numerous, of fair size, and in some cases rather
thick. Here and there the palm, Bhopalostylis batoeri(?),
raises up its huge and graceful leaves to the light through the
leafy canopy. The dense foliage of the tree-tops tends to
keep the interior of the forest moist and its atmosphere damp.
This is plainly manifest by the filmy ferns, liverworts, and
mosses, formerly common in many places, but now somewhat
rare in lowland forests ; indeed, their presence or absence
may be taken as a measure of the average humidity of the
atmosphere.

As is well known, the New Zealand lowland forest con-
sists usually of a very great number of trees and shrubs, but
that of the Chatham Islands, on the contrary, consists of
quite a few species, and these occur in remarkably equal
quantities. To enumerate them in what is perhaps their
order of most frequent occurrence these are : (1) Coryuocarpus
laevigata, (2) Olearia traversii, (3) Coprosma chathamica, (4) Hy-
menanthera chathamica, (5) My r sine chathamica, (6) Corokia
macrocarpa, (7) Pseudopanax chathamica, (8) Veronica gigan-
tea, (9) Piper excelsum, (10) Bhopalostylis baueri(?). Besides
the above, Plagianthus chathamicus is abundant in some
localities. This is a very different combination indeed from
that of any New Zealand forest. Of the eleven trees six are
endemic, the palm is perhaps the same as that of the Ker-
madecs, Hymenanthera chathamica is recorded from only one
locality in New Zealand, and Myrsine chathamica from one
station in Stewart Island. All the trees vary in size accord-
ing to the character of the soil and extent of the forest. In

278 Transactions. — Botany.

the "bush" between Te Whanga and Petre Bay there are
trees 15 in. in height or more, but usually they are smaller,
and vary from 6 m. to 13 m. On the outskirts of the forest,
and occasionally within its interior, especially in very wet
ground, Senecio huntii and Dracophyllum arboreum occur in
greater or less abundance. These do not properly belong
to this formation at all, and such portions may perhaps be
looked upon as remnants of a former tableland forest.

Although the conditions under which the lowland forest
plant -formation exists are distinctly hygrophytic, and the
formation a hygrophytic one, belonging to Schimper's great
class of " rain forests," yet that part of the formation
which is exposed to almost constant and often very severe
winds — viz., the tree-tops — shows in its general form and in
the structure of tbe leaves of most of its members certain
xerophytic adaptations. Thus the general closeness of the
tree-tops, the density of the foliage, the remarkable uniformity
of height of the trees, and the lowness of their growth are in
direct relation to the strong sea-breezes which by turns strike
the forest from every side. Such direct action of the wind is
very markedly shown in those isolated groves of Corynocarpus
Icevigata which have been left in certain places when the re-
mainder of the forest has been destroyed by human agency,
their branches and leaves on the windward side forming a
dense flattened mass, in striking contrast to the more open
growth on the sheltered side.

Eegarding the leaves themselves of the forest trees, those
of Gorynocaryus Icevigata are in appearance not unlike
those of the North American Magnolia grandiflora. They
are rather thick and leathery, bright-green in colour, ob-
long-lanceolate or sometimes obovate in shape. Their size
varies ; certain leaves measured varied in size of blade
from 12 cm. by 6 cm. to 9 cm. by 5-4 cm. The epider-
mis is three-layered. Pseudopanax chathamica has thick
leaves, dark dull-green in colour on the upper surface,
but much paler beneath. The leaf-blade measures 15 cm. or
16 cm. by 3-6cm., and points upwards at an angle of about
45c to the axis of the shoot. The petiole is short and very
stout. There is a four- or sometimes three-layered epidermis
on the upper surface ; the outer wall of the first layer is
strongly cuticularized. Myrsine chathamica has leaves rather
thick and leathery, obovate or obovate-oblong, their lamina
5-5 cm. by 3 cm., rather dull-green in colour, and crowded
at the ends of the branches. Gorokia macrocarpa has leaves
lanceolate or oblong -lanceolate in shape, with the lamina
7-2cm. by 3 cm., or rather shorter, and the upper surface of
a shining dark-green colour. The under-surface is white,
with very dense tomentum. The margin of the leaf or the

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 270

sides of the lamina are often much recurved or rolled back,
rendering the under-surface of the leaf concave. The epider-
mis has a much-thickened outer wall, and the cells are equal
in length to those of the palisade parenchyma, while their long
axis is at right angles to the surface of the leaf. Hymenanthera
chathamii a"'- has lanceolate leaves, which are thick and coria-
ceous, and the lamina is 8 cm. by 2'7 cm., more or less. They
are of a rather pale-green colour. The epidermis of the upper
surface is three-layered, the lateral walls of the two inner
layers being very thin. A stereome sheath surrounds the
vascular bundles, and adjacent to some of them is a colour-
less water-tissue. Coprosma chathamica has leaves rather
thinner in texture than most of the other forest trees, oblong
or obovate in shape and variable in size, the lamina often
being about 4-9 cm. by 2-3 cm. They are dark-green and shin-
ing on the upper surface, and very pale on the under-surface.
The small pits ('' Domatia ") common on the under-surface of
the leaf of Coprosmas, and first called attention to by Cheese-
man (7), at the junction of a vein with the midrib, are
very distinct. Mr. Hamilton has written about them more
recently (32), but has added nothing to our knowledge of
their function. The epidermis is two-layered, and a trans-
verse section of the leaf shows a layer of water- tissue
stretching from the epidermal cells to the vascular bundles
through the palisade parenchyma. Veronica gigantea has
narrow-lanceolate, quite sessile leaves, averaging probably
about 8-3cm. by l-8cm. They are soft, bright-green in colour
on the upper surface, thicker in texture than any form of
V. salicifolia with which I am acquainted, and crowded to-
gether rather closely at the ends of the branches. Piper
excelsum is distinctly a hygrophyte. It has very thin dark-
green leaves, with their laminae 10-6 cm. long by 9-3 cm.
broad, and the apex drawn out to a fine point.

With the exception of 0. traversii and Corokia macrocarpa ,
the former having multitudes of white daisy-like flower-heads,
and the latter many small but bright-yellow flowers, the trees
of the lowland forest have very inconspicuous blooms. Their
fruits, on the contrary, are often large and showy. For ex-
ample, Corynocarpus laevigata has great clusters of very large
fruits, each measuring 4 cm. by 2 cm.; Myrsine chathamica
has the naked branches below the leaves covered with most
beautiful mauve-coloured drupes, which, according to Mr.
Cox, take fully a year to develope their brilliant colour. The
bare stems of Hymenanthera chathamica are similarly covered
with large white berries. Corokia macrocarpa is frequently

* Diels's figure of the anatomy of the leaf of H. latifolia (16, p. 230)
shows almost identical structure with that of the Chatham Island plant.

280 Transactions. — Botany.

covered thickly with its bright-orange drupes, and Coprosma
chathamica has large drupes, 12 cm. by 9cm., which are
probably of a yellow colour.

The tree ferns composing a large part of the forest under-
growth are chiefly Dicksonia sguarrosa and D. antarctica.
Besides these Gyathea dealbata and Cyathea meclullaris occur,
but more sparingly. Sometimes the tree ferns grow very
closely, and do not permit many other plants to spring up
amongst them ; at other times they are further apart, and the
ground is then densely covered with ferns similar to those
of the New Zealand forest growing under the same circum-
stances, such as Asplenium bulbiferum, A. falcatum, Lomaria
lanceolata, Aspidium aculeatum, Hymenophyllum demissum,
and others.

Besides the ferns, Epilobium rotund if olium, E. linnceoides,
Uncinia australis{?) , a few grasses, a species of Hydrocotyle
with very large leaves, which is either H. robusla or an
undescribed endemic species, and often great numbers of
seedling trees, form the general carpet of the forest. In
places where the humus is deep are the orchids Ptero-
styiis banksii and Acianthus sinclairii. On the floor of
very damp forests, in places where stock have access,
and where much of the original vegetation is destroyed.
Callitriche muelleri and Grantzia lineata carpet the ground,
mixed with considerable quantities of Ranunculus rivularis,
the Crantzia being of very great size. At the present time
the forest carpet is in many places almost obliterated by the
trampling and grazing of stock; indeed, in no place now on
the island is the lowland forest in its virgin condition.

The stems of the tree ferns hold in their matted roots
and the bases of their stipes a good deal of water, and also
no inconsiderable amount of fine humus, which must have
originated from the decay of the leaves. Thus it is that
many plants, crowded out probably from the soil by more
vigorous competitors, have chosen the stems of the tree ferns
for their permanent home ; others live equally well either
upon the ground or on the fern-stems. The tree-fern stems,
with their good drainage conditions and the abundant food-
supply from the humus, offer a most excellent station for the
germination of all kinds of seeds ; indeed, seedlings of the
forest trees abound in such a situation. This is still more
marked in the " tableland forest," under which head the matter
is further discussed. Amongst the plants growing on the
tree-fern stems are Tmesipteris tannensis, Trichomanes veno-
sum, Polypodium billardieri, P. pustulahim, Aspidium capense,
and Earina mucronata. Several of these plants also grow
on the trunks of the forest trees, in which position the
xerophyte Polypodium serpens is very common. Although

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Inland. 281

this latter plant grows at times on all the forest trees, it is by
far most frequently met with on the smooth bark of Coryno-
carpus laevigata. Even where Corynocarpus is without the
forest it often affords a home for this fern, which in such
stations of extreme dryness grows most luxuriantly.

The lowland forest occurs in all parts of the island except
on the tableland. In the neighbourhood of the Horns and
at Te Awatapu the forest is intermediate in type between
that of the lowland and tableland, the result perhaps of in-
termediate edaphic conditions. The most extensive lowland
forest now existing is that between Petre Bay and Te
Whanga. The volcanic hills, Korako, Wharekauri, and
Maunganui, are forest-clad. In the neighbourhood of Wha-
ngamarino there is a forest of considerable size bordering on
Lake Huro and covering the adjacent slopes ; and finally
lowland forest fringes much of the coast-line, as was shown
when dealing with the sand-dunes. It has been explained
how a forest may originate in a swamp ; but, besides this, the
beginnings of forest may be seen in those patches of " bush "
which line the bottoms and sides of gullies, such gullies
having been hollowed out by the action of streams. In such
sheltered positions, where the drainage conditions are good,
trees can easily take possession of the ground, and from
thence may spread out on to the neighbouring slopes or flat
land.

Heath.

One of the most important factors which determines the
presence or otherwise of forests is wind. Where constant
high winds are the rule, even though every other condition is
eminently favourable, very few trees can gain a footing on the
ground, while if such have in addition to contend against
other plants better equipped for the contest, especially such
as are provided with strong subterranean members, they must
succumb. This accounts, I believe, for the absence of forest
over much dry ground quite suitable for its reception and
maintenance. For the plant-formation of such ground I pro-
pose the term ''heath" rather than "meadow," since the
latter name suggests the presence of grasses as the dominant
plants, whereas here these latter are in the minority, and
bracken fern is the most important constituent. The whole
of this formation, no matter where it occurs on the island, is
a modified one, so no exact presentation of its original aspect
is possible. It seems to follow directly after the bog forma-
tions, and it may, I think, replace them without any inter-
mediate stage of 0 tear ia-Dracophy Hum bog or Dracophyllum
scrub having occurred.*

* For meaning of these terms, see " Bog Formations," further on.

282 Transactions. — Botany.

The presence of the heath plant-formation seems to de-
pend upon the amount of water in the soil, and, as mentioned
above, upon the exposure of the station to wind, while, ac-
cording to the relative dryness of the substratum, certain
plants may be present or absent. Thus, the following occur
only on the driest ridges : Leucopogon richei, Cyathodes
robusta, Pimelea arenaria, Isolepis nodosa, Libertia ixioides,
var. In such a position L. ixioides at times almost con-
stitutes a subformation, forming, thanks to its power of
spreading by underground stems, very large patches. Its
xerophytic, coriaceous, vertical, iris-like leaves also help to
maintain the plant in its dry station. Growing in these
Libertia patches, but in very limited quantities, are Agrostis
cemula, Gnaphalium involucratum, Accena nova-zelandia,, and
a few stunted plants of Dracophyllum paludosum and Pteris
escuienta. In many places the heath consists of nothing but
Pteris escuienta, which often grows with great luxuriance,
and attains a height of 1*5 m. or more. Where the fern is
not so tall a number of other plants are found in association
with it. In such positions the following were noted : Epilo-
bium sp. (perhaps related to E. novce-zelandics), Lageno-
phora forsteri, Gnaphalium filicaule, Oreomyrrhis colensoi,
Gentiana pleurogynoides var. umbellata, Pratia arenaria,
Isolepis nodosa, Accena nova-zelandia, Hydrocotyle mos-
chata, Danthonia semi-annularis , Dichelachne crinita, Thely-
mitra lougifoiia, Microtis porrifulia, Luzula sp. Also plants
of Dracophyllum paludosum and Olearia semidentata are
occasionally present, a remnant of the original bog forma-
tion.

The soil of this formation is usually peaty loam, varying
much in the amount of water it contains, but except on the
ridges mentioned before it is never really dry. Formerly
there was probably, as pointed out further on, only a limited
extent of heath, with bracken as the dominant plant, and
undoubtedly Phormium tenax would play a very important
part in the vegetation. A proof of this is afforded by Phor-
mium occurring in very large quantities in the hollow before
mentioned, where the peat had been burned, and the steep
sides of which prevent the entrance of grazing animals.

Except on the southern tableland the heath formation is
found in all parts of the island ; indeed, so far as I can
judge, it occupies a larger area than any other formation.
On the large extent of flat land raised a little above sea-
level, marked " Kekerione " on the map (49), and intersected
here and there by puny watercourses, wherever the surface
sinks a little below the general level is boggy ground ; but
all the remainder, by far the greater part, is covered with
bracken, varying from a vegetation of almost pure Pteris

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 283

esculenta to one in which that fern and Gleichenia circinata
occur in almost equal quantities.

Lakes.

It may be remembered that I included the lowland lakes
with the lagoons ; the lakes here to be considered are those of
the tableland. It seems very probable that such sheets of
water were more numerous earlier in the history of Chat-
ham Island, and that now they are transformed into bogs; but
I can bring forward no direct evidence on this point. At the
present time, in one instance — that of Lake Te Kua Taupo —
the water is on one side actually gaining on the land through
the beating of its waves against the soft peaty ground,
which falls in large masses into the lake, bearing with it its
vegetation. Where this steep bank oi the lake possesses an
unbroken surface grow in considerable quantities a species
of Veronica of a spreading habit and Aciphylla traversii, both
of which plants are in such a position safe from the attacks of
sheep. The water of these lakes is, like all the other water of
the island, dark-brown in colour. I noted no aquatic plants
of any kind. In the shallow water near the margin of Lake
Rangatapu, the largest of the tableland lakes, grow Carex
sp. and stunted Phormium ten ax. Here lake and bog join —
the one gradually merging into the other.

Aciphylla traversii was evidently originally a bog plant, as
evidenced by its reproduction in certain bogs after tire, but to
which formation it belonged I cannot say. Its leaves are
certainly altogether more flaccid than the New Zealand A.
colensoi, but they are more rigid than I had been led to
expect. The apex of the leaves is pointed, but it is quite soft,
and will not prick the skin even when forcibly pressed against
it. The plants vary considerably in size, and the female
plant is taller than the male. The largest plants seen mea-
sured 80 cm. tall for the female and 33 cm. for the male.
The leaves of the female were 34 cm. long, with pinnae 17 cm.
long. A transverse section of the leaf shows an extreme
xerophytic structure. The guard-cells of the stomata are
sunken, the cuticle is extremely thick ; wedge-shaped masses
of stereome abut on the resin passages, and these on the
vascular bundles, alternating with and separating the palisade
parenchyma, while the interior of the leaf consists of rather
loose spongy parenchyma, which is completely surrounded by
the stereome and palisade parenchyma. This xerophvtic
structure of Aciphylla in the Chathams was considered by
Diels as quite out of keeping with the present climatic condi-
tions (16, p. 288), and that is quite true; but, as 1 show, the
edaphic conditions are eminently xerophytic, and can well
account for its structure.

284 Transactions. — Botany.

Bog Formations in General.

A very large proportion of the tableland and a consider-
able part of the lowland, especially on the north-west
peninsula, consists of boggy ground. The vegetation of the
bogs has been burnt in some places again and again, in others
only occasionally, but in very few places indeed is it still in
its primeval condition. To tell whether a portion of vegeta-
tion is primitive or modified is not easy. Much of the plant-
covering, looking to all intents and purposes unmodified,
Mr. W. Jacobs assures me has been burnt at any rate once,
although that may have happened twenty years ago or more.
Phormium ienax, which certainly played a very conspicuous
part originally in the plant-covering of all places except the
very wettest, is now almost extinct, and the exclusion of so
large and characteristic a plant from a formation must have
led to far greater extension of others with which it formerly
shared the ground. The bog soil consists of peat, varying
considerably in its water-content, thus leading to several dis-
tinct combinations of plants, one combination giving place to
another according as the ground becomes drier, until, com-
mencing in the wettest part with a Sphagnum bog and pass-
ing through various shrubby stages, a " tableland forest " may
finally replace the bog. Below, the bog formations are
treated of in what I take to be their order of development,
beginning with the earliest, the Sphagnum bog, which for its
part would originate in a lake or low-lying ground covered
with water.

Sphagnum Bog.

At one time in the history of Chatham Island the Sphag-
num bogs must have been very extensive ; even when the
white man first arrived Sphagnum must have been much
more abundant than it is at present. Here and there on the
tableland primitive Sphagnum bogs may be encountered ;
others of considerable extent occur in other parts of the
island, of which one on the high ground between Whanga
marino and Te Whanga is of great interest, but most likely
even this is not by any means in its primitive condition. The
Sphagnum bogs of the tableland usually form small islands in
the midst of the second stage of bog, the Lepyrodia formation,
described in the next section. The Sphagmwi, perhaps an
undescribed species peculiar to Chatham Island, is extremely
wet, and, in the centre of the bog, pools of water lie on the
surface. Walking on the surface one sinks up to the ankles,
and in the centre of the bog much deeper still. Growing on
the Sphagnum, in the very wettest places, is a small quantity
of Isolepis sp. and Garex sp. Where the bog is a little drier
Hierocltloc redolens, Poa chathamica, and Pratia arenaria are

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 285

scattered about here and there. Just where the Sphagnum
formation abuts on the Lepyrodia formation stunted plants of
Olearia semidentata and Dracophyllum paludosum, two very
characteristic plants of this latter formation, make their
appearance, showing the line of tension between the two
formations. Growing on the Sphagnum the two plants
mentioned above remain very small, and often flower when
only 10 cm. or less in height. Similar dwarf plants are
common in peat bogs elsewhere, Professor Conway McMillan,
for instance, mentioning spruce-trees in the bogs of Minne-
sota seventy-five years old, and but little more than l^in. in
diameter (44, p. 460). It must have been such miniature
plants of Dracophyllum paludosum that Buchanan referred
to Drac. rosmarinifolium in his list of Chatham Island plants
(3, p. 338).

In the bog on the Whangamarino Eun the Sphagnum
forms large rounded mounds, on which grow many plants of
Gleichcnia circinata and a few of Pteris esculenta. Growing
in the hollows between the Sphagnum mounds are Myrio-
phyllum pedunculatum, Drosera binata, Utricularia mou-
anthos, Pratia arenaria, and Poa chathamica. In many
places the Sj)hagnum becomes less abundant ; here the soil
consists of imperfectly decomposed remains of moss and other
vegetable matter 1-2 cm. in depth, below which is black
rather sticky peat of a fairly firm consistency. In the upper
layer Myriophyllum, growing to a height of 45cm., and
forming a dense mat on the ground, stretches its rhizomes,
while its roots penetrate for a distance of 5 cm. into the black
peat. Growing through the Myriophyllum are many tufts
of the Isolepis and Eleocharis gracillima. In places the
Isolepis becomes so abundant as to almost conceal the Myrio-
phyllum. At times also that extraordinary fern Schizcea fis-
tulosa puts in an appearance. Where the Sphagnum appears
the substratum is much wetter, the decayed remains of the
Sphagnum being wringing wet. In such places Isolepis almost
altogether replaces Myriophyllum. Where the ground is a
little drier Gleichcnia circinata forms an unbroken sheet ; and
growing in company with it are all the bog plants enumerated
above, together also with many stunted plants of Dracophyl-
lum paludosum, like those before described. Many of these
latter tiny plants were in full bloom.

Lepyrodia- Olearia Bog.

This formation appears to follow on directly after the
Sphagnum, so soon as the ground has become a shade drier.
It is now altogether a more common formation than the
Sphagnum proper, but it also is rapidly being destroyed,
chiefly through the agency of fires. Although Lepyrodia

286 Transactions. — Botany.

traversii itself is by no means uncommon in the northern
part of the island, the formation there, although at first sight
looking distinctly a primitive one, has probably been burnt,
but reproduced almost unchanged. Even on the tableland
there was only one small piece of this formation that I could
feel sure had never been exposed to the influence of fires and
stock. This is situated on the south bank of Lake Rangi-
tapu and occupies a space of an acre or more.

The soil consists of peat completely saturated with water,
into which a stout stick 2 m. in length can be thrust up to
the hilt with the greatest ease. Water can be squeezed out
of this soil as from a very wet spouge by quite a slight pres-
sure of the hand. At a depth of 20 cm. the soil is rather of
the consistency of porridge. So powerful is the water-holding
capacity of such a soil that, if a deep drain is cut through
ground such as the above, it will remain saturated with water
for years right up to the margin of the drain ; even the
abundant natural drainage by means of many creeks flowing
at a considerable depth below the surface of the peaty table-
land, and having a final fall of 210 m. into the sea, have no
apparent effect on reducing the water of the bogs.

The vegetation of the formation is extremely dense in most
places, and consists of Lepyrodia traversii mixed with Olearia
semidentata and Dracophyllum paludosum. In such a dense
patch one has to walk right on the top of the L. traversii,
which sinks with every step ; but it is then not on the ground
that one is walking, but on the Lepyrodia itself, while the
soil is at a considerable distance beneath. In such a place
L. traversii reaches to one's neck. Neither 0. semidentata
nor D. paludosum are usually quite so tall as the Lepyrodia,
though in some places the Dracophyllum is the tallest of all.
The lower parts of the Dracophyllum and the Olearia are
usually quite leafless, owing to the density of the Lepyrodia.
In such a dense portion there is no visible undergrowth on the
wet, black, peaty ground, nothing being there but the remains
of the decaying vegetation and the many matted roots. If a
small hole be scooped out in this soil, it will very quickly be-
come filled with water.

The surface of the formation is not all at one level. The
Lepyrodia, being bent downwards either by the wind or owing
to its rigidity not being sufficient to keep it upright, overlies
and becomes entangled with the other shrubs, its shoots lying
mostly towards the south, owing to frequently violent north
winds. In places, not quite so dense as that described above,
Gleichenia circinata puts in an appearance, its long wiry leaf-
stalks raising up the laminae to within less than 50 cm. of the
surface of the vegetation. Here, or more frequently in more
open places, the surface of the ground is covered with various

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 287

liverworts and mosses, especially with Sphagnum, a relic of
the parent Sphagnum formation. In places where the three
dominant plants are growing more thinly still, and the under-
lying Sphagnum is exposed to the light, seedlings of Olearia
and Dracophyllum occur ; also Drosera hinata and Gentiaua
umbellata make their appearance, but these two latter are by
no means numerous.

In some places the original Sphagnum is still quite thick ;
there the shrubbv growth becomes at once much reduced,
and its height quite one-half less. In such a place the sun-
light can have some effect, and in consequence more plants
appear. For instance, Corysanthes macrantha and Gar ex sp. ;
while Gentiana, Drosera, and Utricularia occur in greater
numbers.

Here and there through the formation are a few stunted
plants of Phormium tenax which have strayed from the drier
ground, but which certainly do not really belong to this
formation. The most important constituents of this forma-
tion are Lepyrodia traversii, Olearia semidentata, and Draco-
phyllum paludosum. Of these Lepyrodia traversii, a strongly
marked xerophyte — as, indeed, are the other dominant plants
— occurs only in very wet bogs, and a slight diminution in
the wetness of the ground will cause it to disappear. It is
furnished with a strong rhizome 3 cm. in diameter, which
creeps through the Sphagnum or the peaty ground at a depth
of 5 cm. Prom this rhizome upright rush-like shoots are
given off at intervals, each bare for the lower third of its
length, but above branching laterally. These upper branches
are terete, dull-brown in colour, very smooth, stiff but quite
flexible, and about 1mm. to 1*5 mm. in diameter. These
stems function as leaves, and are provided with a dense
palisade parenchyma. A transverse section shows an irre-
gular-shaped lacuna in the centre of the stem, surrounded by
a large-celled parenchyma. This, again, is enclosed in a
ring of stereome, and round the periphery is a one-layered
epidermis with a very thick cuticle. The strong rhizome is
of great importance to the plant in assisting it to spread,
and in so preventing the advent of other plants. Whether
L. traversii is able to grow on dry ground like its relative
Leptocarpus simplex only experimental culture will prove,
though its structure should certainly fit it for very dry sta-
tions. Mr. Cheeseman, who first pointed out that L. traversii
occurred in New Zealand as well as the Chatham Islands,
where it was thought to be endemic, thus writes (4, p. 325) :
"In the Ohaupo locality Sporadanthus " — the genus under
which the plant was then placed — " is seldom found near the
margin of the swamp ; but towards the centre, where there is a
great depth of peat, which affords ample room for its creeping

288 Transactions. — Botany.

rhizomes and long stringy roots, it occurs in immense abund-
ance, often covering hundreds of acres to the exclusion of all
other vegetation. Mr. J. Stewart, C.E., informs me that the
workmen engaged in constructing the railway dreaded to
encounter it, as its thick matted roots not only made it
difficult to open out the drains, but were always a sure sign
of a very bad part in the swamp."

Olearia semidentata varies in form according to the posi-
tion in which it is growing. When it forms a constituent of
the wettest portion of the Lepyrodia bog it is of a straggly
growth, its lower part leafless and concealed by the thick
mass of Lepyrodia, while only the ends of the branches,
which project into the light, bear leaves. When growing
where it has more room to spread it forms rounded bushes
sometimes 85 cm. in height and 1-24 m. in breadth. Such
plants, as I have pointed out elsewhere (12s), bear a rather
close resemblance to certain cultivated species of south Euro-
pean Cystus. The leaves are variable in size, thick and coria-
ceous, slightly cottony and shining on their upper surfaces ;
but the lower surface, which alone contains stomata, is thickly
covered with white tomentum. The ultimate branchlets are
so dense as to touch one another. Usually the flowers of
New Zealand plants are either white or yellow, but 0.
semidentata is a notable exception, the ray-florets being of
the most brilliant purple (see coloured plate, 232, pi. ii.) ;
indeed, a group of these shrubs covered with heads of
blossom each 4 cm. in diameter is a most beautiful spec-
tacle. The roots, which are of considerable length, pro-
ject laterally, and not vertically, downwards. This manner
of growth is evidently strongly hereditary, since it ap-
pears in the seedling at quite an early stage. It would
be thought that a plant such as 0. semidentata, growing
under edaphic and climatic conditions of extreme con-
stancy, would vary little. On the contrary, so far as
the leaves are concerned, the amount of variation is very
great. I specially measured the leaves of a considerable
number of plants growing near one another in the vicinity of
Lake Eangatapu. The largest measured 6-5cm. by 1cm.,
and the smallest 3-6cm. by 7 mm. The following measure-
ments give examples of the variability of length with regard to
breadth : 6'5 cm. by 1 cm. ; 5-l cm. by 1 cm. ; 4 cm. by 1 cm.
The tomentum on the upper surface of the leaf varied, accord-
ing to my notes, from "none" to "very abundant." The
number of teeth on the margin are also very variable, both on
different leaves and on the opposite sides of the same leaf,
some leaves having no teeth at all and some as many as nine,
while others showed all the intermediate numbers. My notes
on this subject conclude thus : " Where I write, three plants

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 289

are growing side by side, which, so far as general appearance
goes, might be taken for three distinct species."

Dracophyllum paludosum, like O. semidentata, when grow-
ing amongst L. traversii, is only leafy on those stems which
emerge from that latter plant. It often occupies much drier
ground than even 0. semidentata. When fully grown and
under the most favourable conditions it may be about 1-8 m.
in height, and is of rather a fastigiate habit." It has long
creeping woody underground stems, giving off numerous strong
cord-like roots. Seedling plants also show this rhizomatous
habit. This spreading of roots or underground stems near the
surface of the bog is a special characteristic of bog plants all
over the world, for in such a position it is possible to get the
supply of oxygen for these underground organs which is so
deficient in the deeper layers of the boggy peat. Professor
W. F. Ganong describes how he traced a stem of Rubus
chamcemorus in a New Brunswick peat bog for a distance of
17 ft. without finding an end (19, p. 142). The leaves of D.
paludosum are much like those of certain other New Zealand
Dracophyllums, being needle-shaped and stiff. They are 4 cm.
long by 1mm. broad, and have a short sheathing base.
Usually they are semivertical, but sometimes almost quite
vertical. The upper surface is slightly concave and the
under- surface convex ; both surfaces have a strong cuticle,
and possess stomata. The vascular bundles are surrounded
by stereome, which extends from one surface of the leaf to
the other, and alternates with the chlorenchyma.

Originallv the Lepyrodia formation must have occupied
very large areas not only on the southern tableland, but on
other parts of the island, especially on the low-lying ground
in the north, where many relics of this formation still exist ;
such, for example, may be seen in abundance in the boggy
ground south of Wharekauri Hill. In another part of the
flat land of the north-west peninsula several acres which had
evidently once been this formation were covered with young
plants of Olearia semidentata. On these northern bogs
Cladium gunnii is often quite common.

The xerophily of bog plants is a most astonishing pheno-
menon, and has received various explanations, none of which,
however, seem to me altogether satisfactory. The most
generally accepted at present is that of Schimper (48, p. 18),
which is thus stated by Dr. Cowles (142, p. 145) : " Schimper
believes that these structures" — i.e., xerophytic structures —

* Compare Kirk's remarks (42, p. 225) on D. scoparium, which, of
course, may be the same species as the Chatham Island plant : " It
is a compact plant of fastigiate conical habit of growth, exactly like that
of Cupressus semper vir ens, and quite unlike that of any other plant."
19

^90 Transactions. — Botany.

" are due to the difficult absorption in peaty soil, the humus
acids and the lack of oxygen being detrimental to normal root
activities. For similar reasons the normal soil activities of
bacteria and fungi are lessened, and, as a result of this
relative lack of decay, great quantities of peat accumulate."

Olearia-Dracopliyllum Bog.

How far this may be considered a primitive formation I
cannot tell, but certainly at the present time the majority of
the bogs of the tableland are of this character, and it seems
likely that, though all or nearly all of these have been burnt
more than once, they have reproduced themselves in large
measure as they originally were. On examining such an area
after fire it looks at first as if 0. semidentata was going in
large measure to replace D. paludosum ; but this appearance
is more apparent than real, and depends on the more rapid
growth of Olearia, and upon its greater distinctness of aspect,
owing to its whitish leaves.

The soil of this formation is not quite so boggy as that of
the Lepyrodia bog, therefore there must be slightly better
drainage. All the same, the ground is extremely wet ; water
can be always wrung out of the soil, while after a shower of
rain the small holes made by the hoofs of cattle and horses
remain full of water for many hours.

Probably this formation originally contained a good deal of
Phormium tenax, but that plant at present, as will be seen
later on, is almost altogether absent. The undergrowth is
much the same as in the Lepyrodia formation. The relative
proportion of Dracophyllum and Olearia depends entirely upon
the water-content of the soil — the wetter the bog the more
plentiful the Olearia. Finally, when the ground becomes a
little drier still, the Olearia- Dracophyllum bog merges into the
next formation to be described, the Phormium bog, or, if the
ground be still more dry, into the Dracophyllum pahulosum
formation, a transition between bog and forest.

'O

Phormium Bog.
This formation, so I learnt from Mr. W. Jacobs, and could
also see from its scattered remains, was at one time one of the
most important bog formations of the tableland, while P. tenax
also, in other parts of the island, was, according to Mr. A.
Shand, very abundant in bogs, swamps, and even on the drier
ground. At the present time a piece of primeval .Phormium
bog is almost unknown, even on the tableland. On a semi-
dry ridge near Lake Eangatapu still remains a very small
piece of Phormium bog, while all around are the blackened
remains of burnt plants. Here Phormium tenax is easily the
leading plant. Mixed with it in large quantities is Olearia

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 291

semidentata and Dracophyllum paludosum, the whole growing
quite as closely as do the plants in the Lepyrodia bog. My
notes give no list of the undergrowth ; possibly in so dense a
mass there could not be much.

Phormium, before it was eradicated, grew in especial pro-
fusion on the banks of the tableland streams, where the
drainage would be better and the humus acids of the soil less
than in the more stagnant parts of the bog. Such a stream
may have the water visible in the centre of the channel, the
rest of its bed being full of Sphagnum, while growing just
in the water and on both sides of the creek are Phormium
tenax, Carex secta, Hierochloe redolens, the whole mixed
with Dracophyllum paludosum and Olearia semidentata.
Growing on the Sphagnum is Cotula asiatica, Isolepis sp.,
Poa chathamica, and Juncus planifolius.

Phormium tenax of the Chatham Islands differs from the
forms usually seen in New Zealand in that its leaves are not
so stiff, are broader, and usually droop considerably at their
extremities.

Dracophyllum paludosum Formation.

This formation seems to be a distinct transition between
bog and forest. It is usually found adjacent to the forest,
and consequently on the summit of a ridge, for the forest
occupies the sides of gullies. The dominant plant is Draco-
phyllum pahidosum, mixed with which are here and there
small trees of D. arborcum; or juvenile plants of this latter
nearly as tall as the D. paludosum may be abundant, and
which still possess only their broad leaves. The D. pahi-
dosum is about 1*6 m. tall, and the shrubs so close to-
gether that one has to force them apart in walking through
the formation. On the ground grows Poa chathamica, Gen-
tiana umbellata, Pratia arenaria, Pteris esculenta (occasion-
ally), and a few seedlings of both forms of Dracophyllum.
Not unusually seedlings of other of the forest trees are
present, and there is no reason why, when they attain a
larger size, they should not destroy the adjacent D. palu-
dosum. Here and there are also a few full-sized plants
of Olearia semidentata, but in this drier ground that plant
cannot compete with the Dracophyllum. The part most
adjacent to the forest contains the greater number of D.
arboreum, and that zone may be considered the line of tension
between forest and bog.

The Tableland Forest.

Greater moisture and a more peaty soil with a great
capacity for holding water seem to be the chief cecological
factors which have separated this formation from the lowland

292 Transactions. — Botany.

forest as a distinct plant-formation. As a proof of this we
find the two trees which give the distinctive character to this
forest, Senecio huntii and Dracophyltum arboreum, occurring
in lowland swamps and in swampy forests, but they are al-
most absent from the drier ground. It is true that other
Chatham Island trees also grow in swamps (see " Swamp For-
mation "), but they most likely are merely the plants of a line
of tension between forest and swamp, and would be readily
eradicated by trees better adapted for wet surroundings.
Thus, Olearia traversii, Coronocarpus Icevigata, and Bhapalo-
stylis baueri are absent from the tableland forest ; Hy-
menanthera chathamica is rare ; and, with the exception of
Veronica giganteu, the other trees of the lowland forest are
much inferior in numbers to the two above-mentioned domi-
nant species. The largest forest on Chatham Island be-
longs to this formation. It occupies the whole of the
south-west corner of the island, extending north -wards
to a line connecting Tuku and Pipitarawai. All the gul-
lies of the tableland are also filled with this class of forest;
and in some cases, these gullies becoming deep as they ap-
proach the sea, their forests are of considerable size. In most
other cases the trees of the tableland gullies form merely
patches or long lines. The most abundant tree of the forma-
tion under consideration is Dracophyllum arboreum ; next
comes Senecio huntii, which, besides occurring in the interior
of the forest as a regular constituent, forms the outermost row
of trees, almost to the exclusion of all others, near the line
of tension between forest and bog. Such a line of Senecio
huntii is a magnificent spectacle when the trees are covered
with their masses of yellow blossoms. Veronica gigantea occurs
also very abundantly, while the remaining forest trees, Co-
prosma chathamica, Myrsine chathamica, Pscudopanax chat-
hamica, and Corokia macrocarpa, are found in smaller but
still very considerable numbers. These seven trees do not by
any means always occur in the proportion just stated; indeed,
almost any one of them may become of more importance in
the small patches of forest. The central portion of the large
forest mentioned above has only quite recently been disturbed,
a sheep-track having been cut through it about a year prior to
my visit. This had been very little used, so, with the excep-
tion of some trifling damage by wild pigs, that part of the
forest was fairly unmodified. Its trees are low, varying in
height from 6 m. to 9 m., and their foliage forms a flat upper
surface, as does that of the lowland forest before described,
except that here and there Dracophyllum arboreum raises its
needle-like leaves slightly above the general level. The tree-
trunks are rarely straight, but lean at various angles. The
soil consists of black peat with a layer of brownish humus

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 293

on its surface. Everywhere the floor of the forest is very-
uneven, and is covered with many dead and decaying steins
of trees or tree ferns and mounds of humus. Every
tree-trunk, tree-fern stem, and dead tree is covered with
multitudes of filmy ferns. The lowest layer of vegetation
consists of young tree ferns, especially of Dicksonia squar-
rosa and other ferns such as were enumerated hefore for the
lowland forest. Here and there at certain seasons of the
year the small red fruit-body of a fungus is abundant. The
next layer of vegetation is composed of the fully grown tree
ferns Dicksonia squarrosa and Dicksonia antarctica. Many of
these latter are more than 4-5 in. in height, and their huge
spreading fronds serve to intensify the shade of the forest and
to conserve the moisture of the atmosphere. This under-
growth of tree ferns is often so dense that their stems
almost touch each other. Epiphytic on the tree-fern stems
are Trichomanes venosum, Hymenophyllum multifidum, H. di-
latatum, Trichomanes rcniforme, Aspidium capense, Asplenium
lucidum, and various seedling trees. The filmy ferns are
often so thick that they completely hide the trunk of tree or
fern on which they grow. In many places the ground also is
covered with a thick carpet of these delicate plants. In deep
forest-clad gullies, where a stream at the bottom and the wet
ground constantly discharge water-vapour into the air of the
forest, where it is confined by the double shade of tree-tops
and fern -fronds, it can readily be seen that such a gully is a
station of the most intensely hygrophytic character, espe-
cially if the climate of Chatham Island, with its many
morning mists and light showers, be borne in mind. In
such a place, too, the wind, that factor nearly always to
be reckoned with when considering NewT Zealand plant
forms or distribution, can have but little drying influence.
In such a station Trichomanes reniforme, the kidney fern,
often grows with extreme luxuriance, the ground, fallen trees,
tree-trunks, and tree-fern stems being covered with its great
almost round green leaves, the younger ones of which are
much brighter green and so thin as to be almost trans-
parent. In many places this fern receives a considerable
amount of sunlight ; but this can do no damage, since the
air which surrounds the fronds is always sufficiently moist.

It has already been pointed out what an excellent station
for the welfare of seedling plants tree-fern stems offer — a
very much better one, indeed, than the crowded and some-
times not too well-drained forest floor. Such seedling trees
very frequently reach a large size, especially Dracophyllum
arboreum, the roots of which plant, penetrating deeply into the
soft mat of aerial roots of the fern, finally reach the ground.
The plant then grows with redoubled vigour, and in the

294 Transactions . — Botany.

end the tree fern, enclosed between these now very thick
roots, slowly dies, and Dracophyllum arboreum remains in
its place as a forest tree, its former roots now playing
the part of a stem. Sometimes a large number of roots
growing so closely together as to apparently coalesce make
up such a " root-stem," to use a term from a letter of Mr.
H. Carse. In one instance where a tree of D. arbo-
reum had been felled while making the forest track, thus
giving an opportunity for examining its structure, I counted
thirty roots, which varied in thickness from 16 cm. bv 7 cm.
to 5 cm. by 3 cm., or even smaller, and, as seen from the above
measurements, longer in one direction than the other, owing
to the pressure, the whole making a "root-stem" 45cm. in
diameter. The similar behaviour of certain trees, notably of
Panax arboreum, in the New Zealand forest is well known,
and the Eev. W. Colenso has gone into the matter at con-
siderable length so far as the Seventy-mile Bush, in Hawke's
Bay, is concerned (13, p. 252, et sag.). Mr. H. Carse, who
very kindly sent me some notes on this subject, taken in the
forest near Mauku, Auckland, has written an account of this
interesting matter, which I anticipate will appear in this
volume, so there is no need to go into the subject at greater
length here.

Dracophyllum arboreum, the dominant tree of the table-
land forest, is especially interesting because of the changes
which it exhibits during its life-history. In its final form
it is a low tree, attaining at times a height of some 9 m. It
has a short thick trunk below, and, above, spreading branches
bearing masses of needle-shaped leaves, resembling much
those of Dracophyllum paludosum before described. Besides
occurring in the tableland forest, the tree is found in lowdand
swamps and in the drier portions of the bogs, where it marks
either a retreat or advance of the present forest. The early
seedling leaves are very much broader than the adult, and
resemble the seedling leaves of Dracophyllum paludosum,
which, however, are rather narrower. The early seedling
form persists for a long time in the ODtogeny of the in-
dividual, and young plants are quite common loin, in
height possessing only the broad leaves, as shown m the
photograph I took in the neighbourhood of Lake Te Kua
Taupo (Plate XIX.). Usually when a plant has attained
to this size it suddenly puts forth leaves of the adult type,
and both leaf-forms exist upon the same individual at the
same time. As the tree continues to develope all trace of
seedling leaves may vanish, and finally there will be a plant
merely with the nefedle-like leaves, looking like a very large
spreading specimen of Dracophyllum paludosum. Usually,
however, many <: reversion shoots " of the most extreme

Cocka.tne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 295

juvenile type make their appearance from any part of the
tree — indeed, it is uncommon to see a tree without these "re-
version shoots."

Senecio huntii, second only in importance to Dracopliyllum
arboreum as a constituent of the tableland forest, grows to
about the same height as the latter. It has a stout erect
trunk, varying in thickness according to the size of the tree.
The trunk at a distance of lm., more or less, from the
ground divides, giving off two or more branches, which at
first spread out laterally, but finally bend upwards. These
branches divide again and again into smaller ones, which
always at first spread out laterally, the whole branch system
from beneath looking not unlike the ribs of a huge umbrella.
At the extremities of the branches are rosettes of leaves.
These consist usually of from twenty to twenty-four leaves in-
serted so closely together that the whole occupy 2 cm. or rather
more of the end of the branchlet on an average. In some cases,
however, the internodes are more greatly developed ; in the
most extreme case measured twenty-three leaves occupied a
space of 10 cm., while an opposite case gives twenty-seven
leaves for 2 cm. These ultimate branches are suffruticose,
and 2 cm. in diameter. The leaves themselves are lanceolate
and sessile, 12 cm. long by 3-5 cm. broad in the broadest part.
Their upper surface is pale, bright shining-green in colour,
except where covered by a thin pellicle of whitish cobwebby
tomentum. The under-surface is of a paler colour, being
greyish-green, and provided with numerous short glandular
hairs. The margins and adjacent portions of the leaves are
often more or less recurved, thus rendering the under-surface
of the leaf concave. So flexible is the leaf that it can be rolled
up into a spiral from apex to base without tearing or breaking
it in any way. On the under-surface of the leaf is a strong
keeled midrib, which is of great importance, since it serves to
maintain the rather flaccid blade in the best position with
regard !o the light. Each ultimate leaf-bearing or flower-
bearing branchlet increases in length until it has brought its
leafy portion side by side with the neighbouring rosettes of
leaves ; and in order to get its leaves into a suitable position
with regard to the light such a branchlet is often arched first
downwards and then upwards. Thus all the rosettes are
brought side by side, touching but not getting in the way of
each other, the whole leafy head of the tree having the form
of a half-globe. Seen at a distance, the foliage of S. huntii
forms a dense bluish hemispherical mass, which when in full
bloom exhibits leaves and bright-yellow flowers in an equal
proportion. The branches are extremely brittle, a sudden
snap quickly breaking them; but yet they are not easily broken
by the wind, their great weight of foliage notwithstanding,

296 Transactions. — Botany.

since they are at the same time more or less elastic, while the
suffruticose extremities of the ultimate branchlets can yield
very considerably to the wind-pressure. The branches are
marked with many old leaf -scars and covered with a pale
bark, which is somewhat papery and readily peels off. The
flower-heads are in subcorymbose panicles, pyramidal in shape,
10 cm. to 14 cm. long by 10 cm. broad through the thickest
portion. Flower-stalks and involucres are densely covered
with glandular hairs, which, together with those of the leaves,
give out a peculiar aromatic odour to the atmosphere.

Te Awatapu Forest.

Standing on the edge of the cliffs not far from the Trig,
station which marks the highest point on Chatham Island,
one looks down upon a large piece of forest lying in a basin
far below. This basin is formed from a great mass of the
upper surface of the tableland, which, probably undermined by
water, long ago fell into the sea below. In some places per-
pendicular cliffs, still devoid of vegetation, show whence
this great mass of land must have fallen. In other places
the cliffs are covered with a good deal of soil, in which is
growing a luxuriant vegetation. This forest at the time
of my visit was in its virgin condition. A few sheep cer-
tainly had just previously found their way down the steep
cliffs, but their presence was not felt by the vegetation.
Eecently the forest, as mentioned in the introduction, has
been opened up to stock by means of a cut track, so it seems
very necessary to put on record its general appearance.

The ground of the forest consists of clay mixed with a
certain proportion of peat, the clay being derived from that
stratum which doubtless underlies all the tableland bogs.
The surface, which as a whole slopes to the sea, from which
it is separated by a jagged wall of rocks, is very uneven ; the
soil at the time of the landslip must have been heaped up in
some places, and with corresponding hollows in others. This
unevenness has also been accentuated by erosion. Through
the centre of the forest a stream flows, which puts one in
mind of some small New Zealand mountain torrent. This
stream is fed by the never-failing supply of water from the
bogs above, whence the main branch leaps down the pre-
cipitous cliffs as a waterfall.

The forest, as pointed out before, resembles in part the
tableland and in part the lowland forest. It differs from
the tableland forest in that it contains Plagianthus chat-
hamicus, Piper excelstim, and Bhipogonum scandev.s, in large
quantities ; but, on the other baud, Dracophyllum arborcum
and menecio huntii are plentiful. The presence of Coriaria
ruscifoiia, here quite a tree, also separates this formation

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 297

from that of the tableland. The undergrowth of ferns is
greater than I observed elsewhere on the island. Polypodium
rugulosum with fronds 1-5 m. in length, Aspidiwn oculatum
of nearly equal size, and Lomaria procera with fronds rather
larger than either of the above, form dense masses on the
steep well-drained slopes. Asplenium bulbiferum was ex-
tremely proliferous ; on one pinna were as many as fourteen
young ferns, several of which were 32 cm. long. Some of
such young ferns had fronds 8 cm. long, with sometimes three
together. This proliferous habit of Asplenium bulbiferum
seems evoked by excessive moisture in the atmosphere, for
such ferns are met with only in the dampest forests ; but this
has not been established experimentally as yet. Tree ferns
so tall as to reach into the tree-tops are, as in all Chatham
Island forests, very abundant, and, as usual, their stems have
a large plant population.

The most striking feature of the forest is the enormous
number of the climbing stems of Rhipogonum scandens. These,
together with the closely growing thin liane-like stems of
Piper excelsum, made travelling through certain parts very
laborious, one having actually in many cases to crawl along
the ground for considerable distances.

Besides ferns, the floor of the forest is covered in many
places with the thin-leaved Australinia pusilla, while seed-
lings of the different trees are very abundant. Within the
forest there are two natural ponds, and one or most likely
more open spaces. The ponds, though plainly visible from
the summit of the cliffs, I unfortunately missed finding, owing
to the density and difficulty of the " bush."

The open space was covered with Polypodium rugulosum
1-4 m. tall, Carex temaria(7) , and Agrostis cemula, with
Acana novce-zelandice climbing through the whole. Such an
open space, taken in conjunction with the ponds and their
surroundings, looks like a remnant of the original vegetation
which first took possession of the ground after the landslip
and prepared the way for forest trees. This view is supported
by the fact that young trees of Plagianthus chathamicus are
growing on the open space mentioned above, and that such
a place consequently at no very distant date would, if not
disturbed, become uniform with the rest of the forest.

Olearia chathamica Formation.
This formation is cecologically related to the drier phases
of 0. semidentata bog, but to what formation it is related
genetically I cannot suggest. If the structure of the leaf and
the general habit of the plant be taken into consideration,
there seems no reason why 0. chathamica should not share
the same station with 0. semidentata ; indeed, from its larger

298 Transactions. — Botany.

stature and robustness it would seem the more powerful of
the two in " the struggle for existence." Be this as it may,
0. chathamica is almost exclusively confined to the drier
ground just at the edge of the cliffs, in which places 0. semi-
dentata is not abundant. Here 0. chathamica forms dense
thickets, unmixed for the most part with any other shrubs; or,
if growing more in the open, each plant forms a large rounded
bush. The branches radiate upwards and outwards from
usually several short thick main stems, and are leafy only at
their extremities for a distance of about 18 cm. or so. Their
ultimate branches are covered with dense white pubescence.
The leaves vary in shape, some being merely lanceolate, but
others much broader. On the upper surface they are of a vivid
green, and either glabrous or show the remains of a pellicle of
tomentum ; on the under-surface they are exceedingly tomen-
tose with white tomentum. A transverse section of a leaf
shows an extreme xerophytic structure — viz., a thick cuticle
on the upper surface, a two-layered epidermis, four rows of
very close palisade parenchyma of much greater breadth than
the spongy parenchyma, strong stereome round the vascular
bundles, and the stomata on the under-surface of the leaf
protected by the densely interwoven hairs. The leaves spread
out horizontally, but point a little upwards.

Growing underneath the plants of 0. chathamica is a vari-
able amount of vegetation, consisting of Lomaria procera,
Hydrocotyle sp., Uncinia sp., Ptens esculenta, and here and
there a young tree fern. Mr. W. Jacobs tells me that Phor-
rriium tenax used to grow abundantly amongst the Olearia
chathamica, and that probably the shrubs which I was examin-
ing, now 1 m. to 2 m. in height, are simply a new growth since
a first burning, perhaps twenty years ago or more. Whether
this is so or not, there is at the present time a distinct zone of
0. chathamica extending for a distance of 12 m. or more along
the south cliffs of Chatham Island, and following the dry ridges
inland, but usually only for a short distance ; and there are
no traces of this formation elsewhere in the island, except that
an isolated plant or two have been found on his run by Mr.
Cox. In the north of the island 0. chathamica is altogether
absent. On Pitt Island it is represented by the very closely
allied species or variety which I am naming dendyi, and
which has purple and not white flowyers, and a different kind
of tomentum on the under-surface of the leaf.

Tableland Dry Ridges.

The word " dry " is used merely as a comparative term to
distinguish the soil of this formation from that of the wet
bogs; but it is only dry insomuch as, although very moist,
water cannot be squeezed out of it. The summits of many

Cockay>'E — Plants of Chatham Island. 299

tableland ridges are covered with this formation, and it seems
probable that much of the bracken-covered ridges of other
parts of the island was originally of this nature. Whether
the formation is almost a primitive one or whether it has
become considerably modified I cannot say ; probably at one
time it contained a good deal of Phormium tenax.

The most characteristic plant is Cyathodes robust a. This
forms large rounded bushes of considerably greater breadth
than height, with the leaves all touching, and forming quite a
dense mass. The leaves are 15 mm. long by 3 mm. broad,
more or less, stiff, coriaceous, green on upper surface, but with
the under-surface marked with parallel ridges separating about
nine furrows, which are covered with wax. The drupes are
large and very abundant ; on some bushes they are red and
on others white, when ripe. The bushes of C. robusta are
situated at some distance apart, and growing in the open
ground between them are tussocks of Uncmia sp. ; Gentiana
pleuroqynoides var. umbellata; Accena novce-zelandice ; Gna-
phalium filicaule, forming large round silvery patches after
the manner of the Baoulias of New Zealand river-beds ;
Lomaria procera ; Hydrocotyle asiatica ; Pteris incisa ; Pteris
esculenta ; Lagenophora forsteri ; Luzula sp. ; P ratio, are-
naria.

The ridges on which this formation occurs are much ex-
posed to the wind, which may account for the ball-like shape
of the Cyathodes. Growing close to the Cyathodes formation
on one ridge examined was a small patch of trees of Coprosma
chathamica, Myrsine chathamica, and Gorokia macrocarpa ;
while at the margins of the formation the vegetation became
mixed with Dracophyllum paludosum and D. arboreum. It
seems from this that here, as in the bracken formation of the
lowland, wind is the factor which decides whether forest shall
take final possession of the soil. There are certainly a num-
ber of plants in this formation which are not included in my
notes, but here, as elsewhere, only those are quoted which
were actually written down, and throughout this paper no
exhaustive list of plants is anywhere attempted.

Bock.

Leaving out of the question the mosses, the lichens, and
those other cryptogams which are the first plants to clothe
the naked rock, and consequently a most primitive plant-for-
mation, the phanerogams and ferns which inhabit unshaded
rocks are only such as, aided by special xerophytic adapta-
tions, can tolerate a position of such extreme dryness. They
usually consist of such plants as can be brought readily by birds
or wind. Some of these come doubtless at first as mere casual
visitors, but, being able to maintain themselves by various

300 Transactions. — Botany.

temporary adaptations, have stayed, and in the course of many
generations have become specially differentiated for the rock
life. Others, again, belonging naturally to xerophytic stations,
may have been driven on to rocks by certain aggressive plants,
which have ousted them from their original position. The
study of such matters as this latter is, with regard to New
Zealand plants, in its infancy, and little can be said of any
scientific value. Chatham Island, however, furnishes one
very interesting case where a plant once very abundant is
almost driven from its principal stations, and will before
many years be found only in two places of the most opposite
character — viz., rocks and margins of lakes. From what has
gone before it may readily be guessed that I allude to Phor-
miuvi tenax. How its destruction has come about and how
it has settled in its new quarters will be explained in another
section. I need only say here that, although in this case
human influence has been the chief agent, how can one tell
that such also has not been a determining factor in bringing
about certain local distributions of plants in the Old World?
Also, it is well known that without human agency of any
kind one plant can replace another.

The cone-like volcanic hills have in some instances rockv
summits. On such bare volcanic rock grow the orchid Earina
autwnnalis and the very thick-leaved fern Polypodium serpens,
both of which are also epiphytes of the forest. The decay of
the earlier lichens and mosses paves the way for this later
vegetation. In such vegetable matter on the perpendicular
side of Maunganui Hill grows a short-leaved form of Asplenium
Jiaccidum in company with Polypodmm serpens. The roots of
the Asplenium are densely covered with hairs, and form a mat
spread out for a distance of 15 cm. No station much more dry
can be conceived than the face of such a perpendicular vol-
canic rock. Of course, in wet weather the decayed vegetable
matter will absorb water readily, but at the time of examina-
tion it was as dry as dust, and certainly the plants would not
be able to absorb any moisture from it whatsoever. Under
such circumstances these plants must depend entirely upon
the water stored up in their thick leaves. On the summit of
another rock near by I saw a number of both young and old
forest trees, the latter much stunted, growing in peat, then
quite dry, of not more than 20 cm. depth.

The Horns is the name given to a volcanic hill at the
south-west corner of the island, and which receives its name
from there being two rocky cones rising close to one another,
and much of the same height. On the steep rocky face of
the more easterly horn are growing Phormium tenax, Poly-
podium billardieri, Veronica sp. (neither V. dieffenbachii nor
V. chathamica), Muhlenbeckia. adpres^a, Linum monogynum

Cockayne — Plants of Chatham Island. 301

var. chathamicum, Cyathodes robusta, Pteris esculenta, Olearia
chathamica, and a form of Goprosma propinqua, this latter
being a most remarkable plant. As usually seen in Chatham
Island it is the principal constituent of one part of the swamp
formation ; but here, if the species be the same, it is a pros-
trate shrub with long, trailing, slender branches, which in
places send down adventitious roots into the rock-crevices.
The whole plant is flattened close against the rock ; indeed, it
bears no resemblance at all to the erect bushy swamp plant.
In certain of the bogs also what I took to be the same form of
this species of Goprosma assumes a trailing habit not unlike
the rock form just described. The Muhleubeckia mentioned
above was growing over the Goprosma, and to some extent
they would mutually protect one another from the wind.
How far this peculiar adaptation to the rock mode of life is
fixed, or if it is merely the effect of wind, &c, and is not
hereditary, I cannot say. The plants secured for testing this
question unfortunately died.

It is on the cliffs of the south coast that the richest rock
vegetation of Chatham Island is to be found. Here a good
deal of accumulated vegetable matter and soil in places, great
unevenness of surface, and a south aspect promoting moisture,
with much soakage from the wet tableland, have given far
more favourable conditions for vegetation, with the conse-
quence that the greater part of the coast cliffs are clothed
with a beautiful green mantle. This covering is closely re-
lated to the tableland forest, but, owing partly to the greater
amount of light which can penetrate the vegetation, some of
the other plants of the tableland are abundant, notably
Phormium tenax and Olearia chathamica.

Effect of Introduced Animals on the Plant-covering.*

As I have suggested when speaking of the aborigines, very
little change would be wrought in the vegetation of the island
by either Moriori or Maori. They would have little object in
setting fire to large tracts of country; and, even in case of such
being burnt, there would be neither the foreign plant nor
animal factor to cause a marked change in the reproduced
vegetation. Even at the present time it is almost impossible
to discriminate between a piece of bog vegetation which has
been burnt many years ago and a piece of the primitive
formation. It may therefore be assumed that, to all intents
and purposes, the plant-covering of the island at the time of
the advent of the missionaries was precisely as it had been for

* In connection with this, and with the effect of burning on the
vegetation of New Zealand, the interesting paper of Canon Walsh may
be studied (53).

302 Transactions. — Botany.

a very long period. But as the animals which were intro-
duced increased in number and spread over the entire island
a very different state of affairs arose for the indigenous plants.
They too, like the Moriori, had been long isolated, and the
various species had become finally differentiated without any
regard to the attacks of grazing animals. Cattle and horses
roaming over the sand-dunes would loosen the sand, and also
feed in many instances on chose plants which bound the sand
together.

There are few balances more finely adjusted than that be-
tween sand blown inland and its fixation by plants. Once
disturb that balance, no matter how slight the disturbance
may be, the equilibrium will be destroyed, and the resistance
of the sand-binding plants overcome. Thus the destruction
of a few plants growing on the dry sand of the shore just
above high-water mark, the great source from which all
inland-blown sand arises, will increase the volume of wind-
driven sand against which the dune plants have to contend.

In Chatham Island, as pointed out before, quite a number
of plants grew on this upper strand, conspicuous amongst
which was the majestic forget-me-not Myosotidium nobile.
The leaves of this plant are much relished by sheep, and so,
as the settlements of both white man and Maori are usually
near the coast, this plant would very early on be attacked.
Not only do sheep eat the leaves, but pigs dig up and feed on
the great rhizomes, with the natural consequence that the en-
demic M. nobile, one of the most magnificent and interesting
plants in the world, is now all but extinct in the wild state.
A few plants still exist on the north coast of the island,
notably near Matarakau and Waikauia, and there are a few in
the neighbourhood of Eed Bluff, while below Te Awatapu
there is a bed of plants still in its virgin state ; but the long
line of this plant on the sea-shore, with its huge shining green
leaves and great heads of blue flowers, is lost to the world for
ever. Happily the plant is very amenable to cultivation in
favourable localities, and almost every settler's garden con-
tains some fine examples. Were a piece of ground fenced
in from sheep, &c, the plant would again reappear, as in the
case of an old Moriori grave-yard fenced in by its owner,
Mr. H. Grennel, and described by Professor A. Dendy in a
paper read at a recent meeting of our Institute (15). The
sand, no longer held by the strand plants, blew inland, became
piled up against the dune forests, and, gradually accumulating
and advancing inland, it finally buried them, so that now,
instead of a fringe of trees all round the sandy parts of the
coast, there are high moving dunes in many places.

In the forest cattle and horses eat the foliage and bark of
the trees, at the same time breaking down the undergrowth and

Cockayne — Plants of Ghat ham Island. 303

the lianes. I was much struck when first examining Chatham
Island forests by their want of undergrowth and lianes, which
did not accord at all with Travers's description when writing
of the Moreroa Bush, thus : " The whole so interwoven with
our old friend the supplejack as to be almost impenetrable "
(51, p. 176). However, when visiting the Te Awatapu Forest
I saw clearly that the lowland forests were no longer in their
primitive condition. Messrs. Chudleigh, Shand, and Cox
have also all assured me that the forests were formerly very
much denser and lianes more abundant than is now the case.
In addition, at the present time the forest on the Horns is
undergoing an early stage of destruction by cattle, which have
only reached that part of the island recently. Almost every-
where are trees broken or, in the case of Piper excelsum, up-
rooted, while the ground is much trodden and seedling trees
and young ferns destroyed.

Another change which concerns the proportional repre-
sentation of species in a forest-formation is destruction of
certain trees through animals eating the bark. Pseudopanax
chathamicus, Placjianthus chathamicus,* and Coprosma chat-
hamica very often suffer through this cause. Such trees being
destroyed, others easily and rapidly produced from seed take
their places, and so are now more numerous than formerly.
Mr. W. Jacobs tells me that, owing to this cause, the con-
stituent trees of the Moreroa Forest no longer exist in the
same proportion as they did twenty years ago. Certain plants
have been almost eradicated by grazing and uprooting. The
case of Myosotidium nobile has been already referred to. Aci-
phylla traversii, another very characteristic Chatham Island
plant, is now very scarce. Its leaves are greedily eaten by
sheep, and its thick tap-root is devoured by pigs. At the pre-
sent time isolated plants may be found in boggy ground in all
parts of the island, but large areas may be traversed without
encountering a plant. Even in the fairly primeval tableland
district it only exists in any quantity on the steep banks of
some of the smali lakes which are not easily reached by stock.
Veronica dieffenbachii and the other forms of Veronica closely
allied to that species are. according to Mr. Cox, greedily eaten
by sheep. These Veronicas, in consequence, are now confined
to rocks and banks of creeks or lakes ; doubtless at one time
they were much more plentiful. It is probable also that the
great sowthistle, Sonchus grandifolius, found now chiefly in
places inaccessible to stock, was at one time much more
abundant on the sand-dunes ; but I have no proof as to

* This plant is aiso destroyed by the settlers, who at times use the
bark for making hats. The same remark als > applies to the palm. Other
trees, especially Olearia traversii and Pseudopanax chathamica, are cut
down for fencing- posts and firewood.

304 Transactions.— Botany.

whether it has been reduced through being eaten by stock or
through instability of the dunes. At any rate, either cause
can be traced to the advent of domestic animals.

Besides changing the vegetation through feeding upon it,
horses and cattle have also had a very great influence on the
water-content of the soil. Wandering over the swampy and
boggy ground in search of the food which was originally very
plentiful there, they gradually consolidated the surface of the
ground. By this means many of the swamps of the island
have been turned into rich grazing land. The racecourse at
Waitangi is an excellent example, and such " reclamation " of
ground by grazing animals can be observed in every state of
progress from quite dry meadow to almost primeval swamp.
In this particular instance, too, the effect of the final close
cropping of the herbage by sheep may be observed, and the
change wrought by this on the vegetation estimated. Certain
plants which formerly did not form any large percentage of
the original vegetation, or which were altogether absent, now
make up the meadow land of the racecourse and the ground
between the low forest and sand-dunes from Waitangi to Te
One. On this piece of ground sheep in very large numbers
are constantly grazing, and yet the present vegetation
manages easily to hold its own, and has entirely replaced that
of the original swamp, which must in large measure have been
similar to that described under the heading " Swamp Forma-
tion." The plants consist almost entirely of those which pos-
sess a far-reaching and rapidly growing prostrate or sub-
terranean stem-system, which, through the great power of
vegetative increase which it gives, the abundant food-supply
which it contains, and its being secure from damage, enables
its possessors easily to resist the attacks of grazing animals.
At present the Waitangi Bacecourse is a flat meadow marked
with many small hillocks or unevennesses, which proclaim
the presence of former clumps of swamp vegetation. Every-
where the ground is covered with a thick turf. This is com-
posed of Crantzia lineata in very large quantities ; also Pratia
arenaria, the introduced Poa pratensis, a small species of
Juncus, Potentilla anserina, all in large quantities ; Hydro-
cotyle asiatica abundant, but hardly so much so as the pre-
ceding ; a variety of Epilobium caspitosum, Myriophyllum
pedunculatum, Lagenophora forsteri, Eleocharis gracillima,
and Gnaphalium collinum, also fairly plentiful. On the driest
portions of the hillocks is abundance of Gnaphalium filicaule.
The whole of these plants have stems which are either under-
ground or creep close to the surface, and several, as we have
seen, have great powers of adaptation either to wet or dry
conditions of soil. Also, some may not be much eaten by
sheep, but it is significant that the two which are especially

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 305

abundant, Crantzia lineata and Pratia arenaria, are considered
by Chatham Island sheep-farmers" most valuable pasture
plants ; and there seems little doubt that these two plants at
any rate, owing to former plant adversaries having been re-
moved, partly through changed edaphic conditions and partly
through close grazing by animals, have become very much
more abundant in Chatham Island generally than was formerly
the case — helped, of course, by the great vegetative increase
of their stems rendering them safe from the attacks of sheep.
But if a plant be isolated and there is no other food for the
grazing animals it may not be able to hold its own. Thus
Poa chathamica, notwithstanding its strong wire-like rhizome,
cannot resist close grazing on the tableland bogs, where no
other food is present for the hungry animals, and it may be
eradicated for a time.

Besides domestic animals, certain European birds have
been brought over to the island, and others, strange to say,
amongst which are the sparrow and blackbird, are said to
have made their way from New Zealand unaided. Such
birds play a much more prominent part with regard to the
introduced than to the indigenous vegetation, doing a great
deal of damage to the crops and gardens of the farmer. They
also carry and distribute the seeds of both native and intro-
duced plants ; in this case, as pointed out before, doing the
work of the former indigenous birds, which now for the most
part have become very limited in number. Perhaps the
greatest work such birds are performing is that of spreading
the blackberry all over the island, but this matter concerns
the next section.

As for the effect of introduced insects, I procured no infor-
mation ; probably the hive bee plays an important part in
fertilising certain of the introduced plants, and so causing
their spread.

Effect of Introduced Plants.!

With regard to the influence of introduced plants on the
vegetation of Chatham Island I can say little, the time at my
disposal not permitting me to collect examples, or even make
a list of the species. Mr. T. Kirk published a list of those
introduced plants which Travers collected (35), but it contains
only twenty-eight species. Probably there were even then

* Mr. E. R. Chudleigh, for instance.

f On the importance of this subject Mr. Hemsley, speaking of the
work of the late Mr. T. Kirk (38), writes in Nature (27): " He "— Mr.
Kirk — "has put on record facts connected with the introduction and
colonisation of exotic plants in New Zealand that positively throw a new
light and suggest new ideas on the present distribution of plants in
cultivated countries generally."

20

306 Transactions. — Botany.

a great many more, and most certainly others must have put
in an appearance during a period of more than thirty years.
All the same, speaking generally, I do not think introduced
plants have taken possession of the soil to anything like the
same extent as in hoth Islands of New Zealand. When
Chatham Island vegetation is destroyed by fire or cultivation,
thus making way for introduced plants, it is certain indige-
nous plants which have become weeds rather than those
which are introduced. For example, Accena nova-zelandia
now abounds everywhere, becoming an actual torment to the
pedestrian during certain seasons of the year, one's lower
garments becoming completely concealed in a few minutes
with a dense brown mass of its barbed fruits Again, the
extremely wet character of the soil is antagonistic to the
spread of many of those plants which have replaced the
vegetation of New Zealand ; while, on the other hand, the
shade of the forest demands special adaptations from those
plants which seek to get a foothold." Certain plants, how-
ever, have spread very considerably. Of such the blackberry
{Bttbiis fruticosus) seems to be the only one which is a menace
to any large proportion of indigenous plants. At first it
was planted for hedges ; but these hedges have now ex-
ceeded all bounds and are hedges no longer, but dense
thickets. Were this all little harm would accrue, but through
the agency of introduced birds the plant is spreading all
over the island, especially within the forest areas. I noticed
seedling plants in many places, even in the partly primitive
tableland forests. On the banks of the Waitangi Eiver are
enormous thickets which hang right down into the water ;
indeed, in certain places considerable areas are occupied by
this plant, and the original vegetation is entirely replaced. It
is possible, if the spread of this plant is not checked in some
manner or another, it may destroy the forest undergrowth
entirely, as well as seize on large areas of open ground.

Poa pratensis is much valued in Chatham Island as a
pasture grass ; it has spread considerably in many places,
and has even taken possession of certain stable sand-dunes,
covering them with a turf. In wet meadows, such as the

* Introduced plants spread especially where the indigenous vegetation
has been more or less disturbed. Where r,he plant-covering of a region is
in its virgin condition, and there is nothing to bring any introduced plants
except the wind, they often fail to become established. Thus Mr. T. F.
Cheeseman saw only two naturalised species on the summit of Pirongia
Mountain (5, p. 321), and these, he writes, " had in all probability been
accidentally brought by the surveyors." At the source of the River
Poulter, in Canterbury, South Island of New Zealand, I saw no intro-
duced plants of any kind in places where man, sheep, or fires had never
been, although such country was fully exposed to the north-west wind,
which must bring many light "seeds " from Westland (12).

Cockayne. — Plants' of Chatham Island. 307

racecourse before described, although it has become a dis-
tinct component of that recent plant-formation, id is no more
dominant than some of its indigenous competitors. On dry
slopes, where fires are constantly opening up room for the
advent of introduced xerophytes, none have yet arrived which
can make the slightest headway against Pteris esculenta.

Certain other causes distinctly operate in checking the
spread of introduced plants, amongst which may be men-
tioned— the small area of cultivated land ; the absence usually
of roads, there being merely horse-tracks over the greater
part of the island ; the small amount of traffic with other
countx*ies ; and, finally, the large number of sheep which
graze on such land as introduced plants could best establish
themselves on.

Effect of Fiees on the Plant-covebing.

Of all the factors which have changed the plant physiog-
nomy of Chatham Island, fires have been by far the most
important. In order to provide young growths of grass for
his sheep, the farmer sets fire to the bracken fern of the heath
or the Dracophyllum of the bog. Such fires in dry weather
spread over very large areas, and the whole of the vegetation
is burnt right down to the ground, leaving only the blackened
bases of the plants. This destruction leads to the spreading
of certain plants which had been kept in check by others. It
also leads indirectly, especially when aided by the trampling
of stock, to the drying up of the ground in wet places.

Of all the plants which gain an ascendency after burning
none can approach Pteris esculenta. As burning succeeds
burning so does the Pteris increase, until at the present time
it must occupy a very much larger area than it did originally ;
indeed, it seems to me hardly an exaggeration to affirm that
it occupies ten times its original area. In this opinion I
am supported by Mr. E. R. Chudleigh, who tells me that
" bracken has increased enormously since the advent of
the white man, and, owing to burning, stocking, and other
causes, it has replaced much of the original vegetation."
Even after burning the Sphagnum formation bracken takes
the place of Gleichenia circinata, and with repeated burnings
the Sphagnum altogether disappears and the ground becomes
dry and covered with a thick mantle of bracken. Mr. D.
Petrie also writes (50, p. 323), speaking of the spread of
certain plants in the Auckland Province : " The most aggres-
sive plant of all is Pteris aqivilina, which is rapidly over-
running much of the land that has been cleared of bush, and
which permanently establishes itself before roots are suffi-
ciently decayed to admit of ploughing."

It is only by studying the plant-formations of the table-

308 Transactions. — Botany.

land that the change wrought by constant burning can be
properly estimated. Nor is it burning alone, as already
pointed out, which brings about changes in the vegetation,
but rather burning plus the attacks and trampling of
animals. As to the effect of these two causes combined
upon the plant-covering, no plant is so instructive as Phor-
mium tenax. This, once extremely common nearly all over
"the clears' of Chatham Island, as shown before is now
almost extinct. How this came about seems worthy of a de-
tailed explanation, since misstatements regarding the causes
which lead to the eradication of P. tenax have been circu-
lated so often as to be accepted by the scientific world as
fact. Thus Wallace writes: " White -clover (Trifolium
repens) spreads over all the temperate regions of the world,
and in New Zealand is exterminating many native species,
including even the native flax (Phormium tenax), a large plant
with iris- like leaves, 5 ft. or 6 ft. high " (52, p. 29).

If we consider the stations in New Zealand where P. tenax
grows, we find that in several of them white-clover can only
grow with difficulty or not at all. Such are rocks, very dry
river-terraces, sand-dunes, and very wet swamps, this latter
a most characteristic station. Moreover, the reclaimed Phor-
mium swamps in which white-clover is now established and
Phormium eradicated have usually been artificially drained,
and the Phormium itself constantly set fire to, thus bringing
about a very different state of affairs for the white-clover to
become established than an undrained swamp.

But the introduced-plant factor and the fire factor would
be of no avail to destroy Phormium and lead to its replace-
ment by a comparatively insignificant plant did not stock eat
its leaves with avidity, especially the young and comparatively
tender ones which spring from its rhizome after burning,
with the result that, the growing-point being destroyed again
and again, the rhizome finally rots and the plant dies. This
is what has happened to the Phormium in Chatham Island.
After fire its succulent leaves are almost the only food avail-
able for the hungry stock ; they are eaten and the plant
perishes. So also every seedling that cannot establish itself
out of harm's way is destroyed. In the lowland swamps, out
of reach of the stock, young plants of Phormium may be occa-
sionally seen on the stems of Garex secta. With the drain-
ing of the swamps that haven of refuge will be gone, and Phor-
mium will only be met with on rocks and in shallow lakes,
where under the two opposite conditions there seems every
chance for two new species being evolved.

In the place where Phormium originally grew there is no
reason why white-clover, or any plant whatsoever that can
maintain itself against other competitors, should not re-

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 309

people the ground ; but this is certainly not an example of
one plant exterminating and so replacing another. As an
example of the power of Phormium growing in ordinary soil
to resist aggression, a plant in my garden has grown luxuri-
antly for nine years in ground which is a complete mat of the
rhizomes of Triticum repens, almost the most aggressive
introduced garden weed with which I am acquainted.

To give an exact account of the changes which come
about in a plant-formation after repeated burnings would
require close observation extending over a considerable period
of time. All that my limited stay on Chatham Island per-
mitted was the examination in a number of places of vegeta-
tion reproduced after fire growing by the side of portions of
original vegetation, or of a vegetation burned at an earlier
date, as the case might be. The following are extracts from
my notes oil this matter : —

(a.) " Clear" in Forest at South-west of Island; burned
about fifteen months. — Such an open spot as this is probably
the remains of a bog once much more extensive, but which is
now nearly all replaced by forest. Everywhere the blackened
stumps and burnt shrubs are standing, while in the wettest
ground the burnt Sphagnum forms large round hummocks.
The original vegetation was Olearia semidentata, Lepyrodia
traversii, and Dracophyllum paludosum, with the characteristic
undergrowth of this particular plant-formation. In the driest
places are Lomaria procera, Lepyrodia traversii 15 cm. tall
from old rhizome, and also seedlings 3 cm. tall, seedlings
of 0. semidentata 8 cm. tall, and D. paludosum seedlings 1cm.
tall. In the moister places towards the centre of the
"clear" are Carex sp., often forming large green masses,
Gleichenia circinata, Lepyrodia travt-rsii, Drosera binata, and
seedlings of the Dracophyllum and Olearia as before. The
Dracophyllum seedlings are so close together as to touch
one another. In 20 cm. by 20 cm. of ground are twenty
Carex sp. + one hundred D. paludosum -f- nine 0. semi-
dentata + forty stems of L. traversii -\- one Gleichenia cir-
aiiitta, but the Olearia, being much larger than the Draco-
phyllum, is more conspicuous in the formation generally.
From the above it seems that in this case a formation closely
akin to the Lepyrodia formation will replace the original pure
Sphagnum formation, while in other parts perhaps there will
be little change.

(b.) Boggy Ground near Lake Te Kua Taupo ; vegetation
burnt three years ago. — From the remains of the burnt vege-
tation still standing it can be seen to have originally consisted
of Olearia semidentata 1-8 m. tall, and Dracophyllum palu-
dosum perhaps hardly so tall, and probably with the under-
growth common to such a combination. The reproduced

310 Transactions. — Botany.

plants on the wettest portion of the ground are 0. semi-
dentata 35 cm. tall, sometimes in clumps of three or more,
and 1 m. or 2 m. apart. Between the Olcarias is a carpet of
Cotula asiatica, tussocks of Uncinia sp.. Epilobium novce-
ndi<2(.?), Accena novce-zelandue, Pratia arenaria in very
large quantities, and Marchantia sp. Here and there Pteris
escuienta and Genitalia pleurogynoides var. umbellata are on
the 3t places. On the still drier ground the vegetation

originally consisted of D. paludosum and 0. semia- iai 1 m.
or so in height, and in about equal proportions. The present
vegetation is 0. semidentata, 20 cm. tail and nearlv as much
through, and vast numbers of D. paludosum, while nearly the
whole ground is green with Pteris escuienta and nia

circinata. Where bare patches not seized on by the above
ferns occur are Pratia arenaria. Gentiana umbellata, Iso-
lepis sp., and Cotula asiatica. In the moister hollows of
the drier ground 0. semidentata is in greater number, while
the green carpet of ferns is entirely absent, and in its stead
is Carex sp.. a little Lomaria procera, aud a smaller quan-
tity of Lepyrodia traversii. On the driest part the fern is
quite 23 cm. tall, and covers the Dracophyllum seedlings.
This is a very instructive list, and shows clearly how greatly
Gleichenia. and especially Pteris escu increase after fire.

The increase of Praria arenaria is also important. Were a
number of hungry cattle to wander for a time over such a
burnt tract there would be little chance of the original bog
. -ration ever returning, while the fern would increase in
power.

(c.) Boggy Ground formerly occupied by Phormium tenax
-f Dracovhyuum paludosum + Lepyrodia traversii + Olearia
semidentata + Lomaria procera ; burnt perhaps eighteen mo
berore. — Tne new vegetation consists of 0. semidentata and D.
paludosum seedlings in abundance, Carex sp., Gleichenia
circinata, Drosera binaia. Ctricularia monantnos, Lepyrodia
traversii. Lomaria procera. Here no more Phormium has
appeared, and Gleichenia is in greater abundance than for-
merly.

(d.) Holloic near Lake Eangatapu formerly occupied by
Olearia-Dracophylium Formation, and burnt quite recenily. —
The ground is fairly tirm on the surface, but it is a quag-
mire below, and water can be wrung out of the surface-
soil. The ground is rapidly becoiring covered with a
green carpet of piants 3 cm. or less in height. Gleichenia
circinata is everywhere : so are innumerable seedliugs
of Dracophyllum paludosum with ten leaves, more or less,
1 cm. to 1*5 cm. tall, and with one or two branches from the
base. Olearia semidentata is not so abundant as the Dra-
cophyllum, but 11 cm. tall. Carex sp. is extremely abund-

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 311

ant, and about the same height as the Olearia. Lepyrodia
traversii is reappearing, but to much less extent than in the
original formation. Gentiana uvibellata is more plentiful
than before. Finally, there is a certain amount of Drosera
binata, Utricularia, Pratia arenaria, and Isolepis sp.

(e ) Dry Ridge near Lake Bangatapu ; burning quite
recent. — Original vegetation, Phormium tenax, Dracophyllum
arboreum and D. paludosum, Cyathodes robusta ; under-
growth of Lomaria procera, Luzula sp. in large quantities,
Pteris esculenta, Gnaphalium filicaule. The reproduced
vegetation consists of Pteris esculenta, Hydrocotyle ■mos-
chata, Gentiana umbellata, Erechtites sp., Gnaphalium luteo-
album, Lomaria procera, Accena novce-zelandice, Epilobium
novce-zelandim.

( f.) Burnt Forest. — It is almost unknown for forest to be
burnt in Chatham Island, but this was an isolated patch
round which the bog fire mast have raged furiously Where
the forest stood is now one dense mass of tree ferns coming
into leaf.

(g.) Burnt Vegetation of Tableland Dry Ridges. — On the
very driest ground, where formerly Cyathodes robusta was
tbe leading plant, the vegetation of which has probably been
burned several times, Pteris esculenta is very abundant.
Also in fair numbers are Dracophyllum paludosum seedlings,
Lomaria procera, Epilobium pedunculare, Accena novce-
zelandice, Luzula sp.

(h.) Piece of Vegetation near Lake Te Kua Taupo ; pro-
bably burnt only once, and that many years ago. — Dracophyllum
paludosum, 38 cm. tall, forms to the eye the almost entire
vegetation, except for here and there a few plants of Olearia
semidentata of nearly the same height. All the plants of
D. paludosum grow very closely together, but here and there
are small patches where Dracophyllum is absent. In such
places Glcichenia circinata 21 cm. tall, mixed with a small
quantity of Pteris esculenta, is present. Where the Gleichenia
is lower and without any dead fronds at its base the bare
black soil becomes exposed, and in it are growing Cala-
denia bifolia and Gentiana umbellata. On one patch
59 cm. by 29 cm. are fifteen plants of the orchid and four
of the gentian. Often through the tall Gleichenia a
few plants of Dracophyllum emerge for a distance of
12 cm. The ground m which the Dracophyllum is growing
is covered for a depth of perhaps 2 cm. with shed leaves,
growing amongst which is Pratia arenaria. In places a
little Gnaphalium filicaule is present, and in some of the
open patches Pteris esculenta is more abundant than Glei-
chenia circinata. In the largest open patches Uncinia sp.
and Accena novce-zelandice are present ; also Gentiana umbel-

312 Transactions. — Botany.

lata, Pratia arenaria, and Lomaria procera. Such an open
place of 1-25 square metres has Gleichenia scattered through
it, a few plants of Dracophyllum paludosum, one plant of
Uncinia sp., abundance of Lomaria procera 2 cm. or 3 cm.
tall, seven plants of Gent i ana umbellata, some Accena and
Pratia, a few plants of Caladenia, Epilobium novce-zelandice( ?),
two plants of Luzula sp. Wherever the ground is more boggy
Olearia semidentata becomes more abundant and Lepyrodia
appears. Here also Carex sp. puts in an appearance.

(i.) Example of Reproduction after burning twice. — Where
the recent formation described under the heading (h) has been
burnt we have an example of reproduction of bog vegetation
after two burnings. The ground is not so boggy as in the
original bog, although it sinks slightly when trodden upon.
Here the principal vegetation is a carpet of Gleichenia cir-
cinata mixed with Pteris esculenta 75 cm. tall. There is more
of the Gleichenia than of the Pteris. All over the ground are
the burnt dead stems of D. paludosum. Here and there the
fire has missed a few patches of secondary Lepyrodia-Lraco-
phyllum formation. Through the Gleichenia projects Poa
chathamica, Lomaria procera, and Gentiana umbellata. On
the barer spots, where the fern is absent, occur numerous
seedlings of Dracophyllum paludosum about 6 cm. tall. In
other places, on bare spots, are Gotula asiatica, Caladenia
bifolia, Dnsera binata, Utricidaria monanthos, Epilobium
novce-zelandice(? ), and Pratia arenaria. In some places seed-
lings of D. pakidosum are very numerous — e.g., on a piece
of ground 32 cm. by 25 cm. are sixty plants of various sizes.

(k.) Plants occurring immediately after burning Pteris
esculenta on the Ridge between the River Makara and the
River Aicainga ; the bracken here must have been burnt many
times. — The fern had been burnt very recently, and new
growth of other plants was just commencing. The chief
plants appearing were Gnaphalmm filicaule, the first plant of
all to appear ; Luzula ; Accena novce-zelandioe ; Hydrocotylc
asiatica ; Rammcuhis plebeius ; Microtis porrifolia ; Pratia
arenaria.

(I.) Where two or three burnings have taken place on
a boggy flat piece of ground a mile or so to the south of
Lake Eangatapu Poa chathamica was growing in tufts 15 cm.
or less apart, the whole ground looking not unlike a field
of oats, The culms were 58 cm. tall, and in each tuft
were twelve to twenty leaves each 20 cm. in length. Mr.
Cox. who was with me at the time, had never seen this grass
growing in such profusion before, and was much struck with
its evident capability of being used as a fodder plant on very
boggy country.

Speaking generally, the following seem some of the most

Cockayne. — Plants- of Chatham Island. 313

important effects of five upon the vegetation of Chatham
Island : —

(1.) Small plants which in the original formation are pre-
vented from spreading get a foothold, and at first, at any
rate, form a much larger proportion of the vegetation than
formerly.

(2.) The ground, being exposed to wind and sun, gets drier
on the surface, and so becomes occupied by plants which
could not thrive so well on the wetter ground, consequently
the plants of the wetter ground become fewer in number.
Thus repeated burnings substitute Dracophyllum paiudoswm,
for Olearia semidentata, while at the same time Gleichenia
circinata and Pteris esculenta increase in quantity.

(3.) The ground being cleared of vegetation allows the
inroad of grazing animals, which consolidate the ground and
feed upon certain plants, which consequently decrease, while
others untouched will increase. This leads finally to the
destruction of certain plants altogether, such as Phormium
tenax, as before mentioned. On the other hand, the Uncinia
is not touched at all by stock, and it increases very con-
siderably, especially on the outskirts of forests ; but Pteris
esculenta increases most of all.

(4.) One or two burnings may make very little change
indeed in the vegetation of a bog, so that after a lapse of
many years it is quite impossible to tell whether such a
formation has been burnt at all ; and it is, moreover, very
likely that the early changes after a first or even a second
fire may not be permanent, and that the original formation
may be to all intents and purposes reproduced. But this,
I fancy, will depend a good deal upon the number of grazing
animals in the neighbourhood, while their influence is regu-
lated by the nature of the soil. Thus some pure Sphagnum
formations are too boggy for sheep, which, however, can walk
with safety on the soil of any of the other formations Many
places are quite inaccessible to cattle, and still more so to
horses.

Before concluding this section I must again emphasize the
fact that, in considering the changes which have taken place
in the vegetation of any region since the advent of man, it
is conjointly and not separately that the influence of exotic
plants, introduced animals, and fire must be considered.

History of the Vegetation of the Chatham Islands.

I do not intend to discuss at any length the history of the
vegetation of the Chatham Islands, and the affinities between
its species and those of other parts of the New Zealand area.
A comparison of the species common to New Zealand and the
Chatham Islands, detailing exactly any differences, however

314 Tr ansae tions. — Bo tan y .

slight, which distinguish the forms of the Chatharns from
those of New Zealand, would be a matter of high biological
interest, but one which is hardly possible in the present state
of knowledge regarding the plants. Judging by previous
experience, species of the Chatharns supposed to be endemic
may be eventually shown to exist in other parts of the New
Zealand biological area" when its botany is more fully in-
vestigated ; while unrecorded species of local distribution
may very possibly be discovered in the Chatham group.
So far as genera are concerned, the Chatham Islands possess
only one endemic genus, Myosotidium. Taking next the
species of Buchanan's list (3), omitting a few the occur-
rence of which appears doubtful and adding others re-
corded here and elsewhere (37, 39, 40, 41) since its publi-
cation, there are about 166 species and distinct varieties of
flowering-plants and fifty-one of vascular cryptogams in the
Chatham Islands, giving a total of 217, t of which about thirty-
one — i.e., 14 per cent. — are considered by me to be endemic,
while one, Leucopogon (Styphylea) richei, is, according to Baron
Von Mueller, identical with an Australian species. All the
remainder occur in some part or other of the New Zealand
region ; indeed, with the exception of Rhopalostylis batteri(?),
Myrsine chathamica, and Pratia arenaria, they are all to be
met with in New Zealand proper. But many of the endemic
species are so very closely related to New Zealand forms
that it will always be a matter of opinion whether such are
at best varieties, and not species at all.

From the above it may be seen clearly that there is little
difference so far as species are concerned between the Chat-
ham Islands and New Zealand, and, if the differences be-
tween related plants be taken as a measure of the length
of time since they deviated from a parent stock, it seems
right to consider the flora of the Chatharns as a recent offset
from that of New Zealand.

As to how the New Zealand plants made their way to the
Chatharns in the first instance geology teaches us that New
Zealand at one time extended very much further to the east
than at present, and that it is not unlikely that there was
actual land-connection between the two groups of islands
(33, p. 177), or if not land, then merely a narrow piece of
sea across which the plants could easily migrate by means of
birds, wind, and the other agencies discussed by Hemsley (28).
Even if the ocean barrier had always been as wide as at
present it seems quite possible that plants could find their

* Lepyrodia traversii, Hymenanthera chathamica, and Myrsine chat-
hamica were formerly considered endemic. The latter was collected by
Mr. G. M. Thomson at the head of Wilson Bay, Stewart Island (50a).

t Drude gives only sixty-two indigenous phanerogams (17).

CoCKATNE. — Plants of Chatham Island. 315

way from New Zealand to the Chathams without much
difficulty. The sparrow and the blackbird, both now a
nuisance on Chatham Island, reached that land, as pointed
out before, unaided by man ; the smoke of bush-fires from
the North Island of New Zealand at times fills the air of
Chatham Island when the wind blows from the north-east ;
finally, logs have again and again been cast up on all the
sea-beaches. Old logs of Podocarpus totara are to be found
in considerable numbers in the vicinity of the north coast
buried under sand and in the beds of creeks, while in some
places they occur at some distance inland, although there is
no reason to think that such trees grew on the island.

But I do not think we need postulate any carriage over a
broad tract of ocean for the Chatham Island plants ; on the
contrary, the geological evidence in favour of a wide extension
of New Zealand eastwards is very strong, while zoological^ and
botanical support is not wanting. With regard to this latter,
I am not in a position to make any further additions, either
confirmatory or the contrary, to my recently published state-
ments (10) regarding the difference in the life-history of
certain so-called species according as they are indigenous to
New Zealand or the Chatham Islands, so I reserve dealing
with this part of my subject until such time as a number of
seedling plants now under control are sufficiently developed
for me to speak in a definite and exact manner as to their
behaviour. All that can be said now on this head is that an
examination of the conditions of life on Chatham Island
has convinced me that local edaphic influences have played a
greater part in modifying the vegetation than I had supposed,
and that in consequence, although some of the plants of the
Chatham Islands may much resemble certain Pliocene plants
of New Zealand, the flora as a whole is not identically what
it was in the Pliocene period, for some species must have de-
viated very considerably from the original type.

One of the difficulties that suggests itself in the way of
accepting actual land -connection between New Zealand
and the Chathams, and which supports the view that the
breadth of ocean between the two lands must always have
been wide, is the absence in the Chatham Islands of so
many characteristic New Zealand genera ; for it seems in-
conceivable, for example, that so common a New Zea-
land plant as Cordyline australis, or that so few of the other
New Zealand species having fruits readily carried by birds,
should not have reached the Chathams, even if there had

* One of the strongest zoological proofs is the migration from Chat-
ham Island of the New Zealand shining cuckoo, a New Zealand migra-
tory bird. As to the significance of this, see Captain Hutton's paper,
" Our Migratory Birds " (33s).

316 Transactions. — Botany.

been a narrow piece of water to cross. If, however, a
large area containing an abundant plant population becomes
by degrees much restricted the struggle for existence must
become much keener, and only those plants can survive,
as certain stations become of very limited area, which can
drive their competitors out of such stations ; or. if themselves
forced to move elsewhere, possess powers of rapid adaptation
to the new conditions ; or, what is often more important,
some structure designed primarily for another purpose may,
being put to a secondary use, enable them to hold their own
in another station. Under the above circumstances many
plants must be eradicated altogether, and others must take
refuge in the most inhospitable places, while others, again,
may easily occupy a quite different station from that to which
they are accustomed. According to this view, the species of
plants in the Chatham Islands must have decreased enor-
mously in numbers since the time when the Ghathams formed
part of Greater New Zealand."

How a very slight change in edaphic and climatic condi-
tions can affect the vegetation of Chatham Island is exhibited
by the two distinct regions of vegetation, the tableland and
the lowland, each of which contains plants unknown or
very scarce in the other. With quite a small modification of
the above conditions numbers of plants would perish.

Several plants are extremely local ; for instance, Gunnera
monoica has been found in only one place in Chatham Is-
land (11), although the ground in many places would seem to
be an ideal station for it. There seems no reason why there
should be only a very few trees of Goprosma robusta on the
island when G. cliathamica is one of the commonest trees. Dis-
caria toumatou, found now in one or two places, should surely
have become established on the fixed sand-dunes ; but these,
being suitable for forest growth, would not allow it to occupy
what is a characteristic habitat in New Zealand. Other trees
or shrubs of very limited distribution are Dodoncea viscosa,
Myoporum latum, Leptospermum scoparium, and Plagianthus
divaricatns. Make the tableland a little wetter and Olearia
cliathamica would become simply a rock plant, and with the
weathering of the rock on which it grew might be eradicated.
Reduce the level of the island a few metres and Sophora
would exist no longer. Bearing facts such as the above in

* For a different view of the case, see Mr. Cheeseman's paper on the
"Flora of the Kermadec Islands " (6). The occurrence on Chatham
Island of Goprosma cliathamica, so closely related to C. ■petiolata of the
Kermadecs, and of Ehopalostylis baueri in both regions, if the iden-
tification of the latter be correct, suggests that they travelled along the
coast, which would, in the event of an east and north-east extension of
New Zealand, join the Kermadecs and the Chathams.

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 317

mind, it is not unreasonable to suppose that Chatham Island
contained at one time many more species than is now the
case, and that even such a ubiquitous tree as Cordyline aus-
tralis may have been there and been destroyed in the struggle
for existence caused by the shrinking of the land.

New Species or Varieties mentioned in this Paper,
with Notes or Descriptions.

The material at my disposal is in nearly every case quite
insufficient to enable me to draw up satisfactory diagnoses, so
for the present it must suffice to point out what seem to be
differences between the species considered to be new and
those to which they are most closely allied. In some cases
differences in the seedling form are used as a specific charac-
ter, and such seem, indeed, to me to be among the very best
characters that can be presented, showing a distinction be-
tween species which is constant, and not one which depends
so much on environment as the leaf-form of the adult, or at
times even the flower.

1. Coprosma chatlmmica, sp. nov.

A low tree attaining a maximum height of 15 m., never a
trailing shrub. Extremities of ultimate branchlets pubescent
with short greyish-white hairs ; bark brown, wrinkled and
glabrous below.

Leaves oblong, obovate, obovate - oblong, or sometimes
lanceolate, tapering gradually into the short petiole, often
about 4-9 cm. long by 2-3 cm. broad ; glabrous except for pu-
bescence on short petiole, and a few scattered hairs on midrib
and margins; upper surface dark-green and shining; under-
surface very pale, strongly marked by reticulations of veins.

Female flowers : Calyx-limb truncate ; corolla deeply
divided into four lobes; lobes 3*5 mm. to 4 mm. long; drupe
large, ovoid, 1-2 cm. long by 9 mm. through its thickest por-
tion.

Seedling : Cotyledons large, 3 cm. by 1-8 cm., or larger or
smaller, obovate, obtuse, glabrous except on short petiole ;
early seedling leaves larger than the cotyledons, oblong, acute,
thin, densely ciliated and hairy on petioles and midrib, with
hairs scattered also over surface of lamina; lamina 3-4 cm. by
1*9 cm. to 2-25 cm. by 12 cm, or larger or smaller. Stem
and upper part of hypocotyl pilose, with hairs similar to those
of leaf ; hairs white, but sometimes red.

This species is C. baueriana of Buchanan's list. It is re-
ferred to C. petiolata, Hook, f., by Mr. T. Kirk (37, p. 232).
Mr. T. F. Cheeseman has kindly sent me specimens of the
latter species, collected by himself in the Kermadec Islands,
for comparison. These have shorter pubescence than G.

318 Transactions. — Botany.

chathamica, giving a grey colour to the twigs ; the corolla
lobes are very short, and the stigrnatic hairs are much shorter
than in 0. chathamica. G. chathamica is also always a tree,
and never a shrub, as is the case with G. petiolata. Seed-
lings of Goprosma petiolata are much wanted.

2. Dracophyllum arboreum, sp. nov.

Always a low tree, never a shrub. Passes in course of
development through a broad-leaved juvenile form, which
persists until plant is 35 m. tall, when the adult shorter
needle-shaped leaves make their appearance. Adult trees
usually have some shoots bearing only juvenile leaves. Ju-
venile leaves 20 cm. long by 15 cm. broad, gradually taper-
ing from base to a fine point. Adult leaves needle-shaped,
7-5cm. long by 2 mm. broad. Both forms of leaves tomentose
on margin. Flowers very similar to those of D. scoparium.
See coloured plate in " Flora Antarctica " (30).

If Dracophyllum scoparium, to which this plant was re-
ferred by both Hooker and Buchanan, does not go through
the same remarkable changes, I cannot see that they can
possibly be the same species, notwithstanding similarity of
flowers.

3. Drac'>phyllum paludosum, sp. nov.

After a good deal of hesitation I decided to give a name to
this species, for it was necessary to have some name to distin-
guish this plant from D. arboreum. From the latter species
it differs in its shrubby habit, and especially in its never pass-
ing through an extended juvenile stage with broad leaves.
Its racemes are rather shorter than those of D. arboreum, and
its flowers rather smaller. Perhaps this plant may prove
identical with D. scoparium or with some of the forms of D.
urvilleanum.

4. Myrsine coxii, sp. nov.

A shrub with ultimate branchlets pubescent and leaves
forming rather a dense mass, reaching a maximum height of
about 4 m., but often very much lower.

Leaves narrow-obovate, tapering gradually at base into a
short petiole, averaging about 2-4 cm. by 9 mm.

Flowers in fascicles of three or more, rarely in pairs,
crowded together on the naked portions of the ultimate
branches, occasionally 1-flowered in the axils of the upper
leaves ; almost sessile, but pedicels lengthening a little in
fruit.

Calyx 4-fid to slightly below middle ; segments ovate, with
broad base, pale-green, ciliated, marked with a few red
glandular dots, acute.

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 319

Petals 4. narrow obovate-oblong, 3-25 mm. by 2 mm., pale
yellowish-green with margin stained pale-purple, much more
purple in bud, ciliated, marked towards apex with several
glandular red dots, obtuse.

Fruit globose, bright mauve-coloured, 5 mm. long, by 6 mm.
broad.

This plant is probably the Myrsine nummularia of Bu-
chanan's list, to which it bears no resemblance whatsoever.
It differs from M. chathamica in several points, the latter
plant being a small tree with a thick trunk, with leaves
larger and proportionately broader than M. coxii, and having
flowers in fascicles of more than three, with distinct pedicels.
It also comes into bloom a month later than M. coxii. It
gives me great pleasure to cali this species after my friend
Mr. F. A. D. Cox.

5. Veronica gigantea, sp. nov.

This is V. salicifolia of Buchanan's list. It differs from
V. salicifolia in being always a low tree with a distinct
trunk. Its seedling form also is quite distinct from that of
any form of V. salicifolia examined by me. The early leaves
are very coarsely and deeply toothed, and their margins are
evenly and closely ciliated with hooked white hairs. The
stem is extremely pubescent, and even the hypocotyl is quite
downv. Later juvenile leaves are larger than the adult leaves,
lanceolate, sessile, entire, acute, ciliated, and with still longer
hairs on the prominent midrib, and such are found on a plant
32 cm. tall or even much taller. The stem is usually purple,
rather soft, and covered with many long soft hairs pressed to
its surface. My notes say, "The intense hairiness of this plant
even at this stage is very remarkable." The juvenile plant
much resembles V. pubescens of New Zealand, for a specimen
of which rare plant I am indebted to Mr. Cheeseman, but the
inflorescence brings it closer to V. S'dicifolia. The adult
leaves are narrow-lanceolate, quite sessile, 8-3cm. long by
1-8 cm. broad, minutely ciliated, and with the midrib not
nearly so much keeled as in V. salicifolia.

6. Plagianthus chathamicus, sp. nov.

I have separated this plant from P. betulinus because
they differ in the seedling state, and P. chathamicus is also
never furnished with reversion shoots. I have gone at some
length into this matter elsewhere, and have, as before stated,
nothing further to add at present (10).

7. Sophora chathamica, sp. nov.

Exactly the same remarks apply to this species as those
made above with regard to Plagianthus chathamicus. I have

320 Transactions. — Botany.

already published a note as to its seedling form (9, p. 373),
and shown it to be probably distinct from that of any other
hitherto described New Zealand species of Sophora.

8. Geranium traversii, Hook, f., var. elegans, var. nov.
Petals pink, veined on upper surface with fine lines of

darker pink. The typical G. traversii has white flowers.

9. Linum monogynum, Forst., var. chathamicum, var. nov.

Petals broadly striped or flaked with pale blue. The
type has white flowers.

10. Olearia chathamica var. dendyi, var. nov.

Tomentum (when dry) yellower and denser than that of
the type. Florets purple. The type has white florets,
which, when fading, are of a purplish colour.

Hab. Pitt Island. Collected by Professor A. Dendy,
after whom I have much pleasure in naming this variety.

11. Agropyrum coxii, Petrie, sp. nov.

A description of this very distinct grass by Mr. Petrie is,
I understand, to appear in the same volume of the Transac-
tions as this paper.

12. Poa chathamica, Petrie, sp. nov.

Mr. Petrie considers this grass closely related to P. anceps.
A description is included in the same paper as that con-
taining Agropyrum coxii.

Plants collected during the Author's Visit which had
not been previously recorded for the chathams.

Acana nova-zelandice, T. Kirk.
Gladium gunnii, Hook. f.
Epilobiwn ccespitosum, Hausskn.

„ peduncular e, A. Cunn.

„ insulare, A. Cunn.

„ chionanthum, Hausskn., var., perhaps var. nov.

„ novce-zelandia, Hausskn(?).

Galium tenuicaule, A. Cunn.
Gunnera monoica, Raoul.

Hydrocotyle robusta, T. Kirk. This may be a new species,
and not H. robusta.

Limosella aguatica, L., var tcnuifolia.
Myosotis spathulata, Forst. So named in Kirk's hand-
writing in the herbarium of Christchurch Museum.

There are probably also one or two undescribed species of
Veronicas amongst my collection.

Cockayne. — Plants of Chatham Island. 321

Species recorded in Buchanan's List the Occurrence
of which seems very doubtful.

Epilobium confertifolium, Hook, f., var. a.

Aciphylla lyallii, Hook, f., and Aciphylla monroi, Hook. f.
These two are most likely forms of A. traversii.

Coprosma baueriana, Endl. = Goprosma chathamica, sp.
nov.

Br achy come sinclairii, Hook. f. = perhaps Lagenophora
forsteri.

Pratia macrodon, Hook. f. = Pratia arenaria, Hook. f.

Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium, Hook. f. = depauperated
forms of D. paludosum, sp. nov.

Gentiana pleicrogynoictes, Griesb. = G. pleurogynoides var.
umbellata, Kirk, which is probably a distinct species, as
suggested to me as possible by both Mr. Petrie and Mr.
Cheeseman.

Veronica salicifolia, Forst. = V. gigantea, sp. nov.

Myrsine nummularia, Hook. f. = M. coxii, sp. nov.

Areca sapida, Sol. = Bhopalostylis baueri, Wendl. and
Drude('?). Whatever species the Chatham Island palm may
be, it is not B. sapida, for it differs altogether from that
species in the seedling form.

Astelia cunning hamii, Hook. f.

Poa folios a, Hook, f., var. a.

Trisetum subspicatum, Beauv.

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21

322 Transactions. — Botany.

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Cockayne — Plants of Chatham Island. 323

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of New Species." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxviii.,
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324 Transactions. — Botany.

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EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVI.-XIX.*

Plate XVI.

Cotula featherstonii growing under cliffs at Matarakau. In foreground
is Mesembryanthemum australe.

* Reproduced from original photographb by the author.

Salmon. — On a yew Isotachis. 325

Plate XVII.
Myosotidium nobile. growing in same locality as Cotula, in Plate XVI.

Plate XVIII.

Isolated plant of Olearia semidentata, with formation of Dracophyllum

paludosum in background. Tableland .-outb of Ctiatharn Island.

Plate XIX.

Portion of formation shown in Piute XVIII., with juvenile plant of
Dracophyllum arboreum in foreground still in the broad-leaved
stage. In background is Dracophyllum paludosum.

Art. XXIX. — On a Neiv Zealand Isotachis new to Science.

By Ernest S. Salmon.

Communicated by Robert Brown.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th November,

1901.}

Plate XX.

The following description of a New Zealand Isotachis by
Mr. E. S. Salmon, of Charlton House, Kew, was taken from
specimens which I sent to him for determination. His de-
scription (which I am able to confirm) was published in
the Revue Bryologique for June. 1901, at page 75. He has
sent me copies of his paper, with drawings, one of which,
with specimens of the plant, has been placed in the Mu-
seum at Christchurch.

Isotachis stephanii, sp. nov.

Robusta, dense caespitosa, flaccida, sordide badia ; caule
usque ad 8 cent, longo flexuoso supra in ramulos subjulaceos
partito interdum simplici inferne sordide badio apice lsete
badio, foliis distichis dense imbricatis flaccidis tenuibus
erectis vel erecto-patentibus amplexicaulibus subcomplicatis
late oblongis 3-3-5 mm. longis 2 5-3 mm. latis basi ventri-
cosis margine integro vel obtuse dentato ad 1/7 bifidis sinu
infra plus minus angustato segmentis late triangularibus
plerumque minute apiculatis cellulis superioribus firmis
quadratis et breviter rectangulis 30-50 /x longis 12-20 p latis
parietibus plus minus incrassatis trigonis nullis, cellulis
inferioribus elongato- rectangulis, amphigastriis foliis paulo
minoribus 2-5-3 mm. longis 2 mm. latis parum concavis
caeteris conformibus.

Reliqua ignota.

326 Transactions. — Botany.

I. grandi Carr. et Pears, affinis, sed habitu robustiore,
foliis et amphigastriis majoribus minus profunde bifidis dis-
tincta.

Hab. Growing in water in large round tufts on the top
of a hill at Orepuki, Foveaux Strait ; on the summit of
Mount Thompson, one of the spurs of Mount Anglem,
Stewart Island, New Zealand (Eobert Brown, in litt.,
January, 1901).

The hepatic above described was sent to me by Mr.
Eobert Brown, of New Zealand. The specimens sent,
although sterile, clearly belonged to Isotachis, a genus
which, as Gottsche has remarked (see Carrington and Pear-
son, in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., sec. ser., ii., p. 1012,
1888), "is readily recognised by its evenly arranged leaves
and stipules, which last so nearly resemble the leaves in
size and form that the foliage might almost be called tri-
farious." Not being able to identify the plant with any
species of Isotachis in the Kew Herbarium, I sent a speci-
men to Herr Stephani, who kindly informed me that it was
a new species. I am indebted to Herr Stephani for the
following note on the affinity of the present plant: "It is
very near I. grandis, Carr. et Pears., but that plant has
asymmetric leaves, the postical part being more rounded
than the antical. It is a particular feature of the New
Zealand plant that the leaves and stipules are perfectly
symmetric. I. grandis also has the leaves (not always, but
often) 3-lobate."

There is a small specimen of I. grandis (" on wet rocks,
Lawson, Blue Mountains, N.S.W.") in the Kew Herb., and in
this the largest leaves measure 2 mm. by 1-75 mm. (Carring-
ton and Pearson give 1-75 mm. by 1-5 mm.); the stipules
measure l-5 mm. by 1 mm. I. stepkanii, besides having
much larger leaves and stipules, differs in the manner in
which the apex of these is bipartite. This is seen most
clearly in the case of the stipules — in I. grandis the stipule
is concave at the base of the sinus, and the sinus is not
narrowed towards the base ; in /. stephanii the apex of the
stipule is plane, and the shallow sinus is distinctly narrowed
downwards.

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XX.
Isotachis stephanii, sp. nov.

Pig. 1. Part of plant, about natural size (left-hand branch turned

round to show the stipules).
Fig. 2. Leaf (flattened) ; x 17.
Fig. 3. Stipule ; x 17.

Fig. 4. Areolation of leaf towards apex ; x 270.
Fig. 5. Areolation of leaf towards ba^e ; x 270.
Fig. 6. Transverse sectiou of stem ; x 170.

Laing. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 327

Isotachis grandis, Carr. et Pears.

Pig. 7. Leaf (flattened) ; x 17.
Pig. 8. Stipule; x 17.

Additional notes on the habitats of this plant : It grows
on the nearly flat portions of the summits of the hills already
named, in the drainage, which flows very slowly, varies in
width from 1ft. to several feet, and is about lin. in depth,
with a muddy bottom. It is a very beautiful plant, being
lustrous and nearly black. Like a large number of New
Zealand plants, it appears to be very local. It is not plen-
tiful in the localities named, which up to the present are
the onlv places where it has been found. Fruit not known.
— E. B"

Art. XXX. — ■ Revised List of Netv Zealand Seaweeds :

Part II*

By Eobert M. Laing, B.Sc

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th November,

1901.]

Here, as in the previous part of this paper, no attempt is
made to give a complete synonymy of the species. Only such
references are given as will introduce the student to the chief
literature of the subject, where he will find full descriptions,
and also fuller lists of synonyms, which will enable him to
pursue his investigations. I have to express my thanks to
Major Beinbold»for his kindness in identifying a number of
specimens.

Sub-class FLOBIDE^l.

Order Ceramiacese.

96. Rhodocorton parkeri, Harvey Gibson, Journ. of Bot.,

1893, p. 161.
Brighton, Otago : Professor Parker.

This plant was apparently found epiphytic on Lychcete
darwinii (vide Laing, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxvii., p. 300).

97. Rhodocorton (Callithamnion) rothii. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 260.
Hawke's Bay and Cape Kidnappers : Colenso.

This plant has not been collected lately, but might be
overlooked on account of its smallness.

* For Part I., see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxii., art. xiv.

328 Transactions. — Botany.

98. Antithamnion ptilota, Harvey Gibson, Journ. of Bot.,

1893, p. 161 (Callithamnion ptilota, Hook, and Harv.,
Lond. Journ. Bot., iv., p. 272).
New Zealand : Professor Parker.

99. Antithamnion (Callithamnion) adnatum, J. Ag., De Alg

N.Z. mar., p. 12.

Bav of Islands, on Gelidum comeum : Berggren. Lyall
Bay : B. M. L.

Specimens found by Major Eeinbold amongst seaweeds
sent Home by myself from Lyall's Bay seem to belong
to tbis species. It is, however, by no means a well-known
plant.

100. Antithamnion (? Callithamnion) applicitum. Fl. Nov -

Zel, p. 258.
Parasitical on Amphiroa : Colenso.
A little-known and not recently collected species.

101. Antithamnion (Callithamnion) plumula. Fl. Nov. -Zel

p. 258.
D'Urville Island : Lyall.
Var. investiens. St. Clair : J". C. S. (Conf. J. Ag.).

102. Callithamnion flaccidum. Fl. Nov. -Zel., p. 258.
Otago : Lyall.

I bave some plants from the west head, Wellington, which
come close to this ; but in the absence of type specimens it
is practically impossible to identify them with certainty.

103. Callithamnion puniceum. Fl. Nov. -Zel., p. 259.
Tauranga : Davies.

I know nothing about this plant. It appears among
Agardh's " Species inquirendae."

104. Callithamnion consanguineum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 260.
Port Nicholson : Lyall. Bluff : J. C. S.

I know nothing about this plant. This plant also appears
among Agardh's " Species inquirendae."

105. Callithamnion byssoideum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 260.
Bluff and Otago : Lyall. Maketu : Chapman.

106. Callithamnion brachygonum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 259.
Blind Bay : Lyall. Tauranga : Davies. Dunedin Wharf :

J. C. S. and B. M. L. Warrington : Berggren. Wellington
Harbour : B. M. L.

107. Callithamnion hirtum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 258.

Port Cooper, Otago, Port Underwood, Port William, Tory
Channel : Lyall.

This is probably the commonest of our species of Calli-
thamnion. It is everywhere plentiful in the South Island.

Laing. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 329

108. Callithamnion colensoi. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 259.
East Coast and Hawke's Bay : Colenso.

109. Callithamnion mucronatum, J. Ag., Sp., p. 29.
Dunedin : B. M. L. ; J. C. S.

110. Callithamnion(?) confusum, Harv. J. Ag., Epicr., p. 250.

(Wrangelia squarrulosa : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 236.)
New Zealand : Lyall.

111. (?'?) Warrenia comosa, Harv. (Callithamnion comosum,

J. Ag., Epicr., p. 19.)

The Nuggets, Wvckliffe Bay, St. Clair: B. M. L. St.
Clair : J. G. S.

A beautiful plant ; the identification due to Agardh, but to
me it seems very doubtful.

112. Pleonospormm brounianum, Harv. (Harvey Gibson,

Journ. of Bot., 1893, p. 161.)
Brighton (?) : Professor Parker.

113. Ballia callitricha. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 257. (Vide "On

the Minute Structure of Ballia callitricha," Archer,

Lin. Soc. Trans., Dec, 1876.)

Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland. Bluff, Dunedin,

Warrington, Banks Peninsula : Berggren. Common along

the east coast of the South Island ; Lyall Bay : B. M. L.

Dredged in 8 fathoms at Akaroa : H. Suter !

114. Ballia scoparia, Harv. (Callithamnion scoparium : Fl.

Nov.-Zel., p. 259.)
Common along the east coast of the South Island.

115. Griffithsia sonderiana, J. Ag., Epicr. Flor., p. 62.

This is probably the common species of Griffithsia, but
the New Zealand forms are not sufficiently known.

116. Griffithsia antarctica. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 258.

East Coast : Colenso. Buapuke, Foveaux Strait, and
East Coast : Lyall.

I have not yet been able to recognise this species with
certainty among my specimens.

117. Pandorea, traversii, J. Ag., in Enuni. Alg. Chatham.
Chatham Islands : Travers. Lyall Bay : Berggren.

Paterson's Iniet ; also abundant for some months in Sumner,
at Taylor's Mistake, and on the coast near Wellington :
B. M. L.

118. Ptilota pellucida. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 257.

Otago : Lyall. Dunedin, Warrington, Banks Peninsula :
Berggren. The Nuggets, Lyall Bay: B. M. L. St. Clair:
J. C. S.

Mr. Smith informs me that this plant was by no means
uncommon in the neighbourhood of St. Clair some four or five

330 Transactions. — Botany.

years ago, but that it seems to have disappeared completely
since then. My Wellington specimens (1901) are epiphytic
on P. formosissima.

119. Ptilota formosissima. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 257.
Probably everywhere abundant. Bluff, Dunedin, War-

rington(?), Banks Peninsula, Lyall Bay: Berggren. Kai-
koura : B. M. L. Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland
Brighton (Otago) : J. C. S.

120. Ceramium virgatum, Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 256.
East Coast : Colenso. Taylor's Mistake : B. M. L. Chat-
ham Islands (identification doubtful) : Dr. Schauinsland.

(Vide also Anal. Algol., cont. ii., p. 41.)

121. Ceramium diaphanwn. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 256.

Port Cooper, Akaroa, and Otago: Lyall. Petone : B. M. L.
St. Clair (common) : /. C. S.

122. Ceramium nodiferum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 99.
Chatham Islands : Travers. New Zealand : (Agardh).
(Vide also Anal. Algol., cont. ii., p. 40.)

123. Ceramium stichidiosum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 105. (Anal.

Algol., cont. ii., p. 21.)
Cape Kidnappers : A. Hamilton ! Chatham Islands : Dr.
Schauinsland. Var., Lower Green Island beach : B. M. L.

124. Ceramium vestitum. Fl. Nov.-Zei., p. 256. (J. Ag.,

Anal. Algol., cont. ii., p. 40).
Port Adventure: Lyall. Dunedin, Banks Peninsula:
Berggren.

This is a little-known and somewhat doubtful species.

125. (?) Ceramium pusilhcm var. lanceolatum, Harv., in Syn.

Phyc. Austr., No. 619. (J. Ag., Alg. N.Z. mar., p. 14 ;
also Anal. Algol., cont. ii., p. 21.)
Tauranga : Berggren.

126. Ceramium uncinatum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 257. (J. Ag.,

Anal. Algol., cont. ii., p. 36.)
Turnagain : Colenso. Lvttelton, Lvall Bay, Whangaroa :

This is a very distinct species, and probably common
all along the coast. The tetraspores do not seem to have
been previously described. They are of the usual type, and
are arranged in a single verticillate series round the nodes.
Originally totally immersed, when mature they emerge almost
completely vertically, and are surrounded by a conspicuous
hyaline membrane. It therefore belongs to the tribe Iso-
gonia rather than to Zygogonia, in which Agardh provisionally
placed it. The arrangement of the spines has been also im-
perfectly described by Harvey and Agardh. There are gene-

Laino. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 331

rally five at each node, a large one on the anterior side of
the ramulus, two smaller ones on the posterior side. The
remaining two are still smaller, and are intermediate in posi-
tion on either side between the large one and the two smaller
ones. They are difficult to distinguish until the specimen has
been decolourized.

127. Ceramium apiculatum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 105. (C. can-

ccllatum : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 265.) (Vide also Anal.
Algol., cont. ii., p. 20.)
On various parts of the coast (common) : Lyall ; Colenso ;
Davies ; Chapman. Lyall Bay and Tauranga : Berggren.

128. Ceramium' rubrum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 256.

Brighton (Otago), Lyttelton(?) : B.M.L. Bluff, Owaka
Beach, Green Island, St. Clair : J. G. S.

According to Harvey many varieties of this plant are
abundant throughout the Islands. It does not seem to me
that this is the case, and so I give a list of the localities at
which I have obtained apparently authentic specimens of it.
Further examination will probably show that the name has
been used as a cover for several species.

129. Ceramium divergens, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. ii., p. 27.
New Zealand: (Agardh. No locality given).

130. Ceramium nobile, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. ii., p. 41.
Brighton (Otago) : B. M. L. St. Clair : /. C. S.

131. Ceramium gracillimum, Harv., Phyc. Brit., tab. 206.

(J. Ag., Epicr., p. 95; also Anal. Algol., cont. ii.,

p. 43.)
Major Reinbold has kindly identified this plant for me
from specimens forwarded to him and collected by myself
at Lyall' s Bay and in the neighbourhood of Wellington
(Petone). The species is perhaps the same as C. byssoideum
(Harv., Ner. Bor. Amer., ii., p. 218).

132. Ceramium miniatum(?), (Suhr) J. Ag., Epicr., p. 105.

To this species Agardh somewhat doubtfully refers speci-
mens collected by myself and Mr. Crosby Smith in Otago
Harbour.

133. Microcladia pinnata, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. iv.,

p. 34.
Brighton (Otago) : J. C. S. ; B. M. L.

134. Microcladia novce-zelandice, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. iv.,

p. 35.

This is almost certainly M . coulteri of Professor Harvey

Gibson (Journ. of Bot., 1893, p. 161). It is very common

from Lyttelton southwards, and it is strange that it has not

been noted by any of the earlier collectors. This species

332 Transactions . — Bo tany .

varies a good deal, and perhaps runs into the preceding ; but
there also appears to be a third form yet unnamed. The two
species were named by Professor Agardh from specimens sent
Home by Mr. Crosby Smith and myself. But in the inter-
change of letters some mistake has arisen about the labels,
and I am now unable to lay my hands on type specimens of
M. pinnata.

135. Gentroceras clavulatum. PI. Nov.-Zel., p. 277.
Common on the coast and in river-estuaries : R. M. L.

Order Cryptonemiacese.

136. Schizymenia stipitata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 121.
Banks Peninsula (very sparingly) : Berggren.

137. Schizymenia nova-zelandia, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 677 (also

Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 76).
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

138. Nemastomamtestinalis. PI. Nov.-Zel., p. 255.
Preservation Harbour : Lyall. Chatham Islands : Dr.

Schauinstand.

139. Nemastoma laciniata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 128. (Vide

Note, Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 76.)
Dunedin and Banks Peninsula (very sparingly) : Berggren.
I have a specimen (from Lyall Bay, I think), but I have
unfortunately lost the name of the locality.

140. Pachymenia lusoria, J. Ag.. Epicr., p. 145. (Iridea

lusona : PI. Nov.-Zel., p. 252.)
Apparently abundant from Mongonui to Stewart Island.
I may have occasionally mistaken some other plant for it,
for its identification is often impossible without a very close
examination ; but it appears to be one of the commonest of
our red seaweeds on exposed tidal rocks.

141. Pachymenia dichotoma, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 146.
Bluff: Berggren, R. M. L.

142. Pachymenia himantophora, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 680.
Bay of Islands : Berggren. Stewart Island : R. M. L.
Identification somewhat doubtful.

143. Pachymenia laciniata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 145.
Bluff, Dunedin (sparingly) : Berggren.

144. Modes nitidissima, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 630.

Bay of Islands : Berggren. Mongonui : R. M. L.
There is a specimen in the Canterbury Museum, from
Tauranga.

145. Grateloupia prolifera, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 150. (? Nema-

stoma prolifera, Harv., in PI. Nov.-Zel., ii., p. 255.)
Chatham Islands : Trovers. Lower Green Island beach,
Wyckliffe Bay, and Lyttelton : R. M. L. ■

La in (j. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 333

146. Grateloupia (Arceotes) stipitata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 151.

(? Nemastoma attenuata, Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 255.)
Dunedin : Berggren. Lower Green Island beach and
Lyall Bay : B. M. L.

147. Grateloupia (Gloiogenia) pinnata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 151.

(Nemastoma pinnata, Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., ii., p. 255.)
Akaroa, Tauranga, Port Underwood, Blind Bay(?), Port
Nicholson : Lyall and Davies. Tauranga and Lyall Bay :
Berggren. Gore Bav, Wellington Harbour, Lyttelton :
B. M. L.

148. Grateloupia filicina, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 153.
Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland.

149. Gryptonemia latissima, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 682.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

Order Gigartinaceae.

I have a large number of species belonging to this order,
but so far have been able to identify a few of them only. It
presents unusual difficulties.

150. Bhodoglossum latissimum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 187. (Also

Bidr. Alg. Syst., hi., p. 27 ; (?)Halymenia latissima,
Harv., Fi. Ant.)
New Zealand : Berggren. Lyall Bay : Beinbold (amongst
specimens sent Home by myself).

151. Gigartina divaricata, Hook.. Crypt. Fl. Ant., p. 75.

(J. Ag., Epicr., p. 195; Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 10.)

G. pistillata : Fl. Nov.-Zel. (partim).
Bay of Islands : Berggren. Kekeraugu : B. M. L.
Var. gymnongongriodes, J. Ag., he. cit.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

152. Gigartina livtda, Turn., Hist. Fuc, vol. iv., pi. 254.

(J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 11.) G. pinnata,
J. Ag., Sp. Alg., p. 270; Epicr., p. 196 : Harv., Phyc.
Austr., pi. 68.
Wyckhffe Bay : B. M. L.

153. Gigartina flabettata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 194.

New Zealand : Harvey Gibson (Journ. of Bot., June, 1893).
Lvall Bav : B. M. L.

154. Gigartina clavifera, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 194.

Bluff: Berggren. Akatore, Brighton, Lyall Bay: B. M. L.

155. Gigartina laciniata, J. Ag., Epicr.-, p. 197.
Chatham Islands : (Agardh).

156. Gigartina protea, J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., part iv.,

p. 29.
Western coast of New Zealand : (Agardh). Kekerangu,
Lyttelton : B. M. L.

334 Transactions. — Botany.

The identification of my Lyttelton specimens is due to
Agardh, but is somewhat doubtful.

157. Gigartina polygiotta, J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., part iv.,

p. 29.
Western coast of New Zealand : (Agardh).

158. Gigartina atveata. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 547. (J. Ag.,

Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 20.)
New Zealand : Banks ; Cunningham ; Hooker. Bay of
Islands : Berggren.

159. Gigartina angulata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 197. {Vide also

Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 20.) (? G. stiriata, Harv.,
Fl. Nov.-Zel.)
Chatham Islands, Bluff: Berggren. Brighton (Otago),
Double Corner (Amberley), Lyall Bay: B. M. L. Probably
common in the South Island at least : B. M. L.

Professor Harvey Gibson also describes G. stiriata as from
New Zealand (Journ. of Bot., June, 1893). I have seen one
of his specimens, and am satisfied that it is G. angulata,
J. Ag. The true G. stiriata is a native of Cape Colony.

160. Gigartina chapmanni. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 291, pi. 119.

(J. Ag., Epicr., p. 190.) ■
Tauranga, Bay of Islands: Berggren{7). Petone (Wel-
lington Harbour) : B. M. L.

161. Gigartina macrocarpa, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 683. {G. pis-

tillata : Fl. Nov.-Zel., ii., p. 252, partim.)

Bay of Islands : Berggren.

The old species G. pistillata has been split up into several
by Agardh. It was said to be common on the New Zealand
coast. It will probably be found that the common form is
G. divaricata.

162. Gigartina disticha, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 194. (Anal.

Algol., cont. v., p. 10.)
Dunedin : Berggren.

163. Gigartina marginifera, J. Ag., Epicr., pp. 196,683.
Dunedin, Warrington, Banks Peninsula: Berggren.

164. Gigartina decipiens. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 547. (J. Ag.,

Epicr., p. 195; also Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 20.)
Dunedin, Banks Peninsula : Berggren. Akatore, Lower
Green Island, Double Corner (Amberlev), Lvall Bav :
B.M.L.

As most of my specimens are barren, it is possible that an
allied species may sometimes have been mistaken for G. deci-
piens.

165. Gigartina insidiosa, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 22.
This plant is apparently from New Zealand, though no

definite locality is given for it.

Latng. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 335

166. Gigartina ancistroclada, Montagne. J. Ag., Bpicr.,

p. 198.
Akaroa : D' Urville Otago : Lyall.

167. Gigartina burmanni, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 204.

" Specimen vero [i.e., Gigartina burmanni) me habuisse ex
littore occidentali Novae- Zelandiae habui mihi a Ferd. de
Mueller missum quod quonam modo a capensi specie dignos-
ceretur, mihi quidem hodie non liquet." (J. Ag., Anal. Algol.,
cont. v., p. 27.)

168. Gigartina lanceata, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 29.
West coast of New Zealand : Baron F. von Mueller.

169. Gigartina fissa, Suhr. J. Ag., Epicr., p. 20. (Iridea

lanceolata, Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., ii., p. 252.)
Auckland Islands : Captain Fairchild. New Zealand :
Baron F. von Mueller. Otago : Lyall. Bluff : Berggren.

170. Gigartina circumcincta, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 202. {Gigar-

tina radula, Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel.)
Apparently a very common species from the Bluff north-
wards : B. M L.

171. Gigartina atropurpurea. Bidr. Alg. Syst., iv., p. 31.

(iridea atropurpurea, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 181.)
Bay of Islands(?) : Berggren. Worser Bay : B. M. L.

172. Gigartina apoda, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 31.
New Zealand : (Agardh).

173. Gigartina grandifida, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 684.
Chatham Islands : Travers(7).

(Vide Bidr. Alg. Syst., iv., p. 30.)

174. Gigartina rubens, J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., iv., p. 30.

(Anal. Algol., cont. iv., p. 34.)
New Zealand : (Agardh).

175. Gigartina orbitosa, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 36.
New Zealand : (Agardh).

I have specimens of one or all of the last three species,
but "at present am quite unable to distinguish them satisfac-
torily, so I give no localities.

176. Gigartina longifolia, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. v.,

p. 39.
New Zealand : (Agardh).
111. Garpococcus linearis, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 586. (Anal.

Algol., cont. v., p. 43.)
Chatham Islands : Travers.

178. Ahnfeltia torulosa, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 208. (Gymnogon-
grics furcellatus, in part, Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 250.)
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

336 Transactions. — Botany.

179. Ahnfeltia furcata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 208. (Plocaria

furcata, Hook, arid Harv., Lond. Journ., iv., p. 545(?).
Gymnogongrus furcellatus, in part, Fl. Nov.-Zel.,
p. 250.)
New Zealand : (Agardh).

180. Gymnogongrus nodiferus, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 210.

(Gymnogongrus furcellatus : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 250, in
part.)
Bay of Islands : Sinclair. Bluff, Lyall Bay, Bay of
Islands : Berggren. Dunedin, Kekerangu : B. M. L.

181. Stenogramma interruptum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 249.
Blind Bay (Nelson), Cook Strait, and Chalky Bay (West

Coast) : Lyall. Bluff, Lyall Bay, Tauranga, Bay of Islands :
Berggren. Lyall Bay : B. M. L. Biverton, Dunedin :
J. C. S. Kidnappers : Hamilton !

182. Dactylmenia berggreni, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. v.,

p. 51. (Kallymenia berggrenni, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 221.

K. harveyana : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 251(?).)
Bluff and Lyall Bay (very sparingly), Bay of Islands
(plentifully, on calcareous incrustations) : Berggren. Lyall
Bay : Beinbold (amongst specimens sent Home by myself).

183. Dactylmenia digitata, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. v.,

p. 52.
New Zealand : (Agardh).

184. Dactylmenia laingii, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. v., p. 54.
Akatore : B. M. L. St. Clair, Green Island beach :

J. C. S.

185. Callophyllis calliblepharoides, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 231.

(C. hombroniana, Hook, and Harv., in Fl. Ant., tab. 72,

fig. 2.)
Common along the east coast of the South Island from
the Bluff to Banks Peninsula : B. M. L. Lyall Bay :
Beinbold (amongst specimens sent Home by myself).

186. Gallo'phyliis hombroniana, Mont. J. Ag., Epicr., p. 232.

(C. erosa, Hook, and Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 250,

figs. 1, 3, and 4, but not 2.)
Probably the most abundant species of the genus, but
Agardh' s description is by no means satisfactory. Ap-
parently common on the east coast of the South Island,
but perhaps confused with other species.

187. Callophrjllis coccinea. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 250.
Tauranga : Davies.

Var. a carnea, J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., part iv., p. 37.
Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland ; B. M. L. Akatore,
Lvttelton : B. M. L.
" Var. (3 crinalis. St. Clair: J. G. S. !

Laing. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. :YA7

188. Callophyllis lambertii, Turn. Hook, and Harv., in Lond.

J our n.
New Brighton : Dr. Schauinsland.

It is very difficult to distinguish this species from the
preceding, into which it passes.

189. Callophyllis asperata. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 250.
Cook Strait : Lyall.
T kuow nothing of this. It appears in Agardh's list of

" Species inquirendae."

190 Callophyllis variegata. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 250.

Tauranga : Davies.

G. variegata var. Paterson's Inlet : B. M. L. (identified
by Reinbold).

191. Callophyllis erosa. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 250. (J. Ag.,

Epicr., p. 233.)
Double Corner: B. M. L. Bluff: J. C. S.
In both of these cases the identification is not quite
certain.

192. Callophyllis centrifuga, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 688.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

193. Callophyllis dccumbens, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 688.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

194. Callophyllis tenera* J. Ag., Act. Holm., 1849, p. 87.
Dunedin and Banks Peninsula : Berggren. Moeraki,

Lyall Bay : B. M. L.

195. Ectophora depressa, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 690.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

196. Ectophora dichotoma, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 691.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

Order Spyridiaceae.

197. Spyridia opposita. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 256. (Anal. Algol.,

cont. iv., p. 14.)
Chalky Bay : Lyall.

Not recently collected, but not likely to have been mis-
taken for anything else.

198. Spyridia biannulata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 267. (Anal.

Algol., cont. iv., p. 13.)
Tauranga : Berggren.

Order Areschougiaceae.

199. Thysanocladia colensoi, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 284. (Anal.

Algol., cont. ii., p. 55.)
Cape Turnagain : Colenso. Hokianga : Berggren. Ram
toto Channel, Mongonui : B. M. L. /\\

* Vide note under 229, Rhodophyllis erosa. / ^ O

22 /^" i" ^A

'LI

338 Transactions. — Botany.

Order Champieae.

200. Fauchea coronata(?), J. Ag., Epicr., p. 294.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

201. Chylocladia secunda. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 253. (J. Ag.,

Epicr., p. 297.)
Akaroa : Raoul. Port Cooper : Lyall.

202. Ghylocladia umbeilata. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 273, tab. 119c.

(Vide also Anal. Algol., cont. iii., p. 75.)
Lyall Bay, Sumner (drift weed) : B. M. L. Lyall Bay,
Tauranga : Berggren.

203. Chylocladia(?) ccespitosa. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 253.
Port Nicholson : Lyall.

A very doubtful species.

Champia.

I have been considerably puzzled by the New Zealand
species of this genus. Agardh (De Alg. mar. Nov.-Zel., p. 18)
recognises only one, while in the " Flora Novae-Zealandiae "
(p. 235) Harvey recognises three. Amongst my own speci-
mens, which are fairly numerous, I have three forms; of these
two perhaps which coincide with Harvey's Champia nova-
zelandice and C. parvula respectively, and the third is possibly
distinct from any of Harvey's species. The only species ad-
mitted by Agardh is Champia novce-zelandice, and it seems to
me that this species 'properly defined should include both
Champia novce-zelandice, of Harvey, and C. parvula, of
Harvey, for the following reasons : Agardh's specimens of
Champia novce-zelandice came from the Chatham Islands, and
are apparently incomplete. He rightly distinguishes the
juvenile from the mature form, but wrongly describes the
whole frond as articulate. In the lower portions of the
branches the articulations frequently quite disappear in the
mature specimens. In the young frond, too, the stems inos-
culate, forming a dense tufted mass. In this form Raoul,
who tirst identified the New Zealand form with C. parvula,
probably mistook it for the European species, which it then
resembles. I have a form from the Bay of Islands which
Agardh thought might be a new species. It is but little
branched ; the branches are broader than in Champia novce-
zelandice, and the branchlets, particularly those bearing
tetraspores, are more or less swollen and submoniliform.
The branchlets, too, are rarely whorled, as in the Champia
novce-zelandice, but generally opposite. It may perhaps
stand at present as a variety (tumescens) of Champia novce-
zelandice.

Laing. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 339

204. Champia novce-z dandia , Hook, and Harv., London

Journ., iv., p. 541. (J. Ag., Epicr., p. 306.)
Common throughout the North Island. Driftweed, at

Sumner : B. H. L. Chatham Islands : Travers.

Champia nova-zelandia var. tumescens. Bay of Islands :

B. M. L.

Order Rhodymeniacese.

205. Abrotcia suborbicularis, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 692. (Nito-

phyllum(?) suborbiculare : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 242.)
On Carpophyllum maschalocarpum, Blind Bay : Lyall.
Hawke's Bay : Colenso(.-). Tauranga : Berggren

206. Hymenocladia lanceolata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 314. (? Bho-

dymenia lanceolata, Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 248.)
Chatham Islands : Travers. Dunedin, Banks Peninsula :
Berggren. Lower Green Island, Brighton (Otago), Lyttel-
ton, Double Corner, Kaikoura, Lyall Bay : B. M. L.

207. Chrysymenia saccata, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. v.,

p. 88.
Bluff, Warrington : Berggren.

208. Chrysymenia apiculifera, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 320.

Lyall Bay : Berggren. Oriental Bay, the Esplanade
(Wellington), abundant : B. M. L.

209. Chrysymenia(?) polydactyla. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 253.
South Harbour : Lyall.

I know nothing of this.

209a. Cordylecladia irregularis(?), Harv. J. Ag., Epicr.,
p. 328.

On fishermen's nets, Evans Bay, Wellington : B. M. L.

Major Reinbold, to whom I submitted the plant, says our
species is very close to or the same as the American one.

210. Bhodymenia leptophylla, J. Ag., De Alg. N.Z. mar.,

p. 20. (B. linearis, Harv. (■partim?), Fl. Nov.-Zel.,
p. 248.)
Otago : Lyall. Chatham Islands : Travers. Tauranga,
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

I have specimens of this and B. linearis from Lyttelton,
Petone, Cape Kidnappers, and Mongonui, but so far I have
not been able to distinguish the one from the other.

211. Bhodymenia corallina. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 248.
D'Lrville Island and lat. 43°, East Coast: Lyall. Chat-
ham Islands : Travers.

212. Bhodymenia linearis, J. Ag., Sp., p. 379.
Bay of Islands.

340 Transactions. — Bo taut/.

213. Epymenia wilsonis, Sond. J. Ag., Anal. Algol., p. 92.

(E. obtusa : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p 249.)

Common along the east coast of New Zealand from
Paterson's Inlet to Lyall Bay : B. M. L.

Epymenia obtusa is stated by Agardh (loc. cit.) to be con-
fined to South Africa. He further emphasizes as one of the
chief differences between E. obtusa and E. toilsonis that in
E. wilsonis each fertile leaflet bears only one cystocarp, and
in E. obtusa numerous ones. I find on specimens of what I
take to be E. toilsonis, from Lyall Bay, that there are
several — sometimes four or five — cystocarps on each leaflet,
and these sessile when young, though provided with a very
short pedicel when old. Evidently we have not as yet got a
good definition of our common species of Epymenia.

214. Evymenia acuta, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 334. Anal.

Algol., p. 93. Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 249.

Akaroa : Lyall. Chatham Islands : (Agardh).

This is possibly only a form of the preceding. I have also
a very distinct plant, apparently an Epymenia, from Welling-
ton Harbour. Agardh considered it as probably new.

215. Plocamium leptophyllum, Kiitz. J. Ag., Epicr., p. 338.

(Ploc. coccineum (partim), of Harvey.)
Dunedin, Banks Peninsula, Lyall Bay : Berggren. Pe-
tone : B. M. L. St. Clair : J. G. S.

Var. strtctum. Kidnappers : Hamilton I

216. Plocamium brachiocarpum, Kiitz. J. Ag., Epicr., p. 341.

(P. coccineum (partim), of Harvey and of Agardh.)
Bav of Islands : Berggren. The Bluff, Lvttelton, Wel-
lington : B M. L. St. Clair : J. G. S.

217. Plocamium abnorme. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 246.

Lyall Bay : Berggren. Stewart Island, St. Clair: /. G. S.

218. Plocamium dispermitm, Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 246.
Foveaux and Cook Straits : Lyall. French Pass : Dr.

Schauinsland. Akaroa Heads (in 8 fathoms) : Sitter !

219. Plocamium angustum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 246.
Common on the east coast of the South Island, and pro-
bably also in the North Island : B. M. L.

220. Plocamium costatum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 246.
Common from the Bluff to Mongonui : B. ilf. L.

221. Plocamium rigiclum (var.?), Bory, Bel. Voy., p. 142.

(Major Beinbold, Sonder-Abdr. a Abh. Nat. Ver.
Brem., 1899, bd. xvi., H. 2.)
French Pass : Dr. Schauinsland.

222. Plocamium cruciferum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 246.

Bluff, Warrington, Dunedin, Banks Peninsula : Berggren*
St. Clair : J". G. S.

Laing. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 341

223. Plocamium dilatatum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 347.
Dusky Bay : Forster. Dunedin: Berggren.

224. Bhodovln/llis acanthocarpa, Harv., Fl. Nov. - Zel.,

p. 251. (J. Ag., Epicr., p. 364.)
Patterson's Inlet, Lyttelton : H. M. L. Chatham Islands :
Travers. Lyall Bay : Beinbold (amongst specimens sent
Home by myself).

225. BJwdophyllis gunnii. El. Nov. -Zel., p. 247.
Preservation Harbour, Chalky Bay (West Coast) : Lyall.

Dunedin, Warrington, Banks Peninsula, Lyall Bay : Berg-
gren. The Nuggets : B. M. L.

226. BJiodophyllis(?) lacerata, Harv., El. Nov. -Zel., p. 247.
Port William : Lyall.

Not recently identified.

227. BJwdophyllis membranacea. Fl. Nov. - Zel., p. 247

(partial f). (J. Ag., Epicr., p. 365.)
A single specimen from the Bay of Islauds : Agardh.

228. BJiodopJiyllis(') angustifrons, Harv.. Fl. Nov. - Zel.,

p. 247.
Port Nicholson and Bluff : Lyall.

Like the previous species, not recently identified, and but
little known. •

229. Bhodopkyllis erosa, J. Ag., De Alg. N.Z. mar., p. 22.

(CallopJiyllis erosa, Harv., Fl. Nov. -Zel., tab. 118, fig. 2.)
Bluff, Banks Peninsula, Bay of Islands : Bi rggren.
I am completely puzzled as to this plant from lack of
fruiting specimens, and also from lack of literature. On
sending a plant Home to Professor Agardh, he returned it as
probably Callophyllis tenera, but as it was sterile he was not
certain as to the accuracy of his determination. On sending
from Lyall Bay what I believed to be the same species as the
preceding to Major Eeinbold, he determined it as Craspedo-
carpus erosus (Harv.) Schmitz = Bhodopkyllis erosa (Harv.)
J. Ag. = Callophyllis erosa, Harv., par vim. The specimens
sent to Major Eeinbold bore tetraspores.

Order Sphaerococcoideae.

230. Phacelocarpus labillardieri. Fl. Nov. -Zel., p. 242.

(J. Ag., Epicr., p. 399.)
Stated by earlier writers to be common ; but this is cer-
tainly incorrect. The only specimens I have are from Lyall
Bay, collected by myself, and some sent me from the neigh-
bourhood of Castlepomt.

231. Curdiaa coriacea, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 401. ; Anal. Algol.,

cont. hi., p. 95. (Gracilaria coriacea, Harv., Fl. Nov.-
Zel., p. 243.)
Lyall Bay, Bay of Islands : Lyall. Bluff, Dunedin,

342 Transactions. — Botany.

Lyall Bay : Berggren. LyallBay ('? identification) : B. M. L.

232. Curdiaa laciniata, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 402. (Harvey

Gibson, Journ. of Bot., 1893, p. 161.)
Bay of Islands, Cook Strait : Lyall. Otago : Lindsay.

233. Melanthalia abscissa. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 242.
Common from Bluff to Mongonui : B. M. L.

234. Gracilaria harveyana, J. Ag., Biclr. Alg. Syst., p. 59.
Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland .

Specimens sterile, and the identification therefore some-
what doubtful.

235. Gracilaria flagellifera, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 412.
Chatham Islands : Travers.

236. Gracilaria confervoides. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 243.
Everywhere common : B. M. L.

237. Gracilaria dura, J. Ag., Sp., p. 589.

Bluff: Berggren. Dunedin(?) : Professor Parker.

23S. Gracilaria secundata(?), J. Ag., Epicr., p. 418.

Moeraki, Taylor's Mistake : B. M. L. Otago Harbour :
J. G.S.

Tbis plant is abundant at the above-named localities, so
that it is surprising that it has not been previously collected.
As yet, however, it is very imperfectly identified. On sending
specimens to Professor Agardh he returned them as G.
distich". Major Eeinbold, however, regards the plant as
possibly G. secundata. There is no question but that
Professor Agardh was wrong in identifying it as G. disticha.

239. Gracilaria multipartita var. polycarpa. Fl. Nov.-Zel.,

p. 243. (J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., iv., p. 62.)
Blind Bay : Lyall.

240. Sarcodia crateriformis . J. Ag., Epicr., p. 697.
Hokianga, Bay of Islands : Berggren.

(Vide also J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., iv., p. 59.)

241. Sarcodia montagneana. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 242.

Bay of Islands: Lyall; Berggren. Mongonui: B.M.L.
Berggreii also obtained a few fragments at Lyall Bay.

242. Gracilaria ramulosa, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 417. (Harvey

Gibson, Journ. of Bot., 1893, p. 161.)
New Zealand : Professor Parker.

243. Callibhpharis prolifera, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 432. (Bhody-

menia prolifera : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 249.)
Hawke's Bay : Golenso. Bay of Islands : Berggren.

244. Galliblepharis(?) tenuifolia, Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 243.
Chalky Bay : Lyall.

Laing. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 343

245. Dicranema, aciculare, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 436.
Warrington : Berggren.

Order Delesseriae.

246. Nitophyllum berggrenianum,- J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,

part iii., p. 55.
Tauranga, Bay of Islands : Berggren.

247. Nitophyllum variolosum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 241.

Port Cooper, Banks Peninsula : Lyall. East Coast :
Golenso.

Agardh (Sp. Alg., vol. iii., part iii., p, 55) considers that
the plant he formerly identified as N. variolosum, of Harvey,
probably belongs to another genus, perhaps Bhodymenia. On
a specimen sent by me from Lyttelton he writes, " Videtur
planta eadem quam N. variolosum olim credidi, quam hodie
suspicor Rhodymenia(?) [this word is almost illegible] .
Specimen cystocarpiis mihi exoptatum.

248. Nitophyllum gattyanum, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,

p. 59.
Agardh (Anal. Algol., cont. iv., p. 41) states that Baron
Von Mueller sent him specimens of this plant from New
Zealand.

249. Nitophyllum undulatissimum, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,

part iii., p. 59.
Sent from tbe shores of New Zealand to Agardh by Baron
Von Mueller.

250. Nitophyllum denticulatum, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,

part iii., p. 41.
Blind Bay, Cook Strait : Lyall. Maketu : Chapman.
Tauranga: Berggren; Davies.

251. Nitophyllum decumbens, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 458. (Also

Sp. Alg., vol. iii., part iii., p. 64.)
Var. fucicola. Dunedin and Lyall Bay : Berggren.
Paterson's Inlet : B. M. L.

252. Nitophyllum uncinatum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 465. (Also

Sp. Alg., vol. iii., part iii., p. 65.)
Blind Bay : Lyall. Bluff, Lyall Bay, Hokianga : Berg-
gren. Cape Kidnappers : A. Hamilton. Stewart Island :
J. C. S.

253. Nitophyllum harveyanum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 462. (N.

pahnatum var. pinnatifidum : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 240.)
Bluff to Banks Peninsula : Berggren.

254. Nitophyllum pahnatum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 462. (Also

Alg. Sp., vol. iii., part iii., p. 79.)
Chatham Islands : Travers. East Coast : Lyall. Lyall
Bay : B. M. L. (identified bv Major Reinbold).

344 Transactions. — Botany.

255. Nitophyllum polyglossum, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,

part iii., p. 79.
On the shores of New Zealand : (Agarclh).

256. Nitophyllum semicostatuvi, J. Ag., Epicr.,p. 699. (Sp.

Alg., vol. iii., part hi.', p. 80.)
Dunedin : Berggren. Akatore, Brighton, St. Clair :
B. M. L. I have a fragment apparently belonging to this
species from Kekerangu.

257. Nitophyllum d'urvillei. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 240.

This species was formerly confused with the preceding by
Agardh and Harvey, but Agarclh states (Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,
part iii., p. 80) that he is compelled to say that he has not
seen any specimens of this plant, and further considers that
he cannot give any opinion as to its identity from an examina-
tion of the original figure (Borv, Voy. " Coquille," tab. 19,
fig- 1).

258. Nitophyllum multinerve, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 464. (Sp.

Alg., vol. iii., part iii., p. 57.)
Massacre Bay, Chalky Bay : Lyall. Tauranga : Berggren.
Paterson's Inlet, Akatore, St. Clair : B. M. L.

259. Nitophyllum minus. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 241. (J. Ag.,

Sp. Alg., vol. iii., part iii., p. 66.)
Not recently collected. It may be doubted whether the
form reported from New Zealand is that originally de-
scribed by Sonder.

260. Nitophyllum smithii, Hook, and Harv., Crypt. Anat.

Ant., tab. 178. (J. Ag., Epicr., p. 454.)
Chatham Islands, Dunedin Wharf : B. M. L.

261. Nitophyllum dilapidum, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,

part iii., p. 77.
Sent from New Zealand to Agardh by Baron F. von
Mueller.

262. Nitophylkim{? ?) microphyllum, Crosby Smith (Mscr.).
On the back of a Haliotis shell, Green Island beach : J. C. S.
Mr. Crosby Smith has furnished me with the following

description of this plant, which seems to be a new and dis-
tinct species, belonging perhaps to a new genus. In all
particulars except one it belongs to Agardh' s tribe Monanthece,
sub-genus Aglceophyllum, genus Nitophyllum ; but, though in
its vegetative structure its place is exactly here, its cruciately
divided tetraspores would seem to throw it outside the genus
Nitophyllum altogether. I have, however, retained it here for
the present, marking the genus with two queries. The dis-
covery and examination of the cystocarps may help to deter-
mine its position more exactly. I have deposited specimens
in the Canterbury Museum.

Laing. — List of New Zeal it ml Seaweeds. 345

Sub-genus Aglceophyllum, J. Ag.,Sp. Aig., vol. iii., part iii.,
p. 38. Tribe Monanthcce, J. Ag., loc. cit., p. 46: " Nitophyl-
lum microphyllum, Crosby Smith (Mscr.). Root an irregularly
creeping rhizome. Fronds clustered, many from the same
base, ecostate, stipitate, linear clavate, obtuse, 3-15 mm. long,
distantly toothed or proliferously pinnate. The principal
frond is often abruptly terminated, and from its apex springs
a secondary leaflet similar to the primary one, and proliferous
from the margin. Sori solitary in the terminal expanded
lobes, and girt round by a sterile margin, the fertile portion
expanding into an ovate, obovate, rotundate, or very irregular
lamina. The tetraspores are cruciately divided, thus appa-
rently distinguishing the plant from all others of the order.
Colour when fresh bright-red, and on drying much darker.
Substance membranous. This seaweed was found on a Haliotis
shell on the Green Island beach. It completely covered the
shell in a moss-like fashion. I have given it the specific name
Mwrophyllum, as it is, so far as my knowledge serves, the
smallest of the genus."

From the above description and classification it will be
seen that the plant probably comes nearest to the Australian
N. monanthos, J. Ag. (Sp. Alg., p. 655), from which, however,
it differs in many ways — in the smaller size, the almost entire
margin, the shape of the fronds, and, above all, in the cruciately
divided tetraspores.

263. Nitophyllum affine, Harv., in Hook. Journ., 1844,

p. 447. (J. Ag., Epicr., p. 456 ; Sp., vol. iii., part iii.,
p. 68.)

264. Schizoneura dichotoma, J. Ag , Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,

part iii. (Delesseria dichotoma : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 239;
J. Ag., Epicr., p. 480.)
Ruapuke and Chalky Bay : Lyall. Chatham Islands :
Dr. Schauinsland.

265. Schizoneura davisii, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. hi., part iii.,

p. 168. (Delesseria davisii : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 239; J.
Ag., Epicr., p. 480.)
Ruapuke, Preservation Harbour, Chalky Bay : Lyall.
St. Clair : B. M. L. ; J. C. S. Wyckliffe Bay : J. G. S.

266. Schizoneura hookeri, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii., part iii.,

p. 168. (D. hookeri: Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 238.)

Lyall Bay, Foveaux Strait : Lyall.

Mr. Smith has obtained a specimen of this at Riverton,
and also when trawling outside Otago Heads ; and I found
what can scarcely be anything else than a fragment of this
magnificent species at the Signal-station, Wellington Heads.
What was apparently another fragment was found by Mr.
Smith in the baths at St. Clair.

346 Transactions. — Botany.

267. Schizoneura quercifolia, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. hi.,

part iii. , p. 168. (Delesseria quercifolia : Fl. Nov.-Zel.,
p. 239 ; J. Ag., Epicr., p. 481.)
East Coast, lat. 43°: Lyatl. Dunedin Wharf: B. M. L. ;
J. G. S.

268. Schizoneura laurifolia, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,

part iii., p. 168.
The Nuggets : B. M. L.
A very rare plant apparently.

269. Pteridium(?) pleurosporum, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,

part iii., p. 226. (Delesseria pleurospora : Fl. Nov.-
Zel., p. 239.)

A species not recently collected in New Zealand. Agardh
hesitatingly refers it to the new genus.

Preservation Harbour : Lyall.

270. Hemineura cruenta, Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 240. (J.

Ag., Sp Alg., vol. iii., part iii., p. 110, footnote.)
Massacre Bay : Lyall.
A little-known species and not recently collected.

271. Apoglossum oppositifolium, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii.,

p. 193. [Delesseria oppositifolia, Harv., Fl. Nov.-
Zel., p. 339; J. Ag., Epicr., p" 491.)
Stewart Island (rare) : Lyall.

272. Apoglossum montagneanum. Delesseria montagnea, J.

Ag., Epicr., p. 492 ; Sp. Alg., vol. iii , p. 194.
Tauranga : Berggren.

273. Apoglossum ruscifolia, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. iii., part iii.,

p. 194. (Delesseria ruscifolia : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 239.)
Blind Bay : Lyall.

274. Phitymophora linearis. (P. laingii, J. Ag., Sp. Alg.,

vol. iii., part iii., p. 173. Delesseria linearis, E. M. L.,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxix., p. 449.)
Lyall Bay, Moeraki (very rare) : B. M. L.
After describing this plant under the name Delesseria
linearis, I sent specimens to Professor Agardh, who unfor-
tunately, not identifying it with my description, renamed it
Phitymophora laingii.

275. Delesseria nereifolia. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 239.
Preservation Harbour and east coast of Stewart Island :

Lyall.

276. Delesseria crassinervia, Mont., Voy. au Pole Sud, 164,

t. 8, f. 1. Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel'., p. 239; E. M. L..
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxix., p. 448.
St. Clair, Wyckliffe Bay : B. M. L. ; J. G. S. Trawling
outside Otago Heads : J. G. S.

Laing — List of New Zealand Seaiveeds. 347

I ventured (loci cit.) to identify a species of Delesseria with
D. crassinervia. Agardh (Sp. Alg., vol. iii., part iii., p. 217)
animadverts on my criticism of his treatment of the species
D. crassinervia, and states that he is altogether doubtful as
to the identity of my plant. He suggests again that D. crassi-
nervia, Mont., may be Nitophyllum endivicefolium. Whether
my plant is identical with that of Montagne may perhaps be
left an open question in the absence of his type specimens,
but it seems to me to agree better with his description than
any other species which I know does. Agardh (Epicr.,p. 496)
points out that D. crassinervia. Hook, and Harv., is in part
D. epiglossitm, J. Ag., and again refers to this in Sp. Alg.,
vol. iii., part iii., p. 218; but my plant is certainly quite dis-
tinct from D. epiglossum. Further, I have a specimen of A".
endivicefolium sent me from Victoria by Mr. H. T. Tisdall, and
this is certainly also distinct from D. crassinervia. It is pos-
sible my species may be Apoglossam montagneanum, J. Ag., of
which I have seen no specimen ; but, judging from the pub-
lished descriptions, it differs considerably also from this.
Since describing it previously I have observed the cystocarps
but not examined them microscopically ; they are solitary, and
placed on the veins of the leaflets. It must be admitted that
my photographs as they appear in the "Transactions of the
New Zealand Institute " (vol. xxix.) perhaps justify Agardh's
criticism of them.

277. Caloglossa leprieurii, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 499. (J. Ag.(?),

Sp. Alg., vol. iii., part iii., p. 228. Delesseria leprieurii:
Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 240.)
Bay of Islands : Hooker ; Berggren.

Order Helminthocladiacese.

278. Helminthocladia polymorpha (vel lanceolata).
Lyall Bay : B. M. L.

Major Eeinbold thus names a plant sent from Lyall Bay
by myself, but I can find no published description of it in the
literature accessible to me.

279. Batrachospermum sp.

B. moniliforme, Both., is described as occurring in New
Zealand (Fl. Nov.-Zel, p. 261) in the fresh-water streams of
Canterbury. I have specimens collected in a tributary of the
Avon crossing the Ham Road by Robert Brown and myself,
but the species is distinct from the European moniliforme,
and possibly new

280. Nemalion ramulosicm. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 245. (J. Ag.r

Epicr., p. 508; Harvey Gibson, Journ. of Bot., 1893,
p. 161.)
Otea : Lyall. Brighton or Lyall Bay : Professor Parker.

348 Transactions. — Botany.

I have a species of Nemalion from the Piangitoto Channel,
which may be the same.

Order Chaetangieae.

281. Chcetangium variolosum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 539.
St. Clair : J. C. S.

Identified by Professor Agardh from specimens sent Home
by Mr. Crosby Smith.

282. Scinaia furcellata. Fl. Nov.-Zel. p. 245. (J. Ag.,

Epicr., p. 512 )
Hokianga, Bay of Islands : Berggren.

283. Apophlcea sinclairii, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 637. (Fl. Nov.-

Zel., p. 244.)

Bay of Islands, Mongonui, Whangaroa : B. M. L.

I have also a fragment from one of the West Coast sounds
(Milford Sound, I think), given to me by Captain Hutton.
This would seem to point to a curiously discontinuous distri-
bution.

284. Apojjhloea lyallii, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 538.
Preservation Harbour : Lyall. Bluff, Tauranga : Berg-
gren. Common along the east coast of Otago from the Bluff
to Seacliff : B. M. L. ; J. C. S.

Order Gelideae.

285. Gelidium longvpes, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 547.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

286. Getidium caulacantheum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 548. (/ (J.

corneum var. subuli folium : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 243.)
Tauranga, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Auckland : Berggren.
Taylor's Mistake, Wellington Harbour : B. M. L.

287. Gelidium corneum, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 548. (Fl. Nov.-

Zel., p. 243.)

Hawke's Bay : Golenso. Banks Peninsula : Lyall. Bay
of Islands, Hokianga, Napier, Lyall Bay : Berggren.
Lyttelton, Lyall Bay : B. M. L.

This cosmopolitan species has been subdivided by Bornet,
but in the absence of literature I am unable to determine
how the forms we have in New Zealand should be named.

288. Pterocladia lucida. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 244. (J. Ag.,

Epicr., p. 545.) .

Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Lyall Bay : Berggren. Com-
mon along the east coast from Kaikoura to Mongonui :
B. M. L.

Another very variable plant, perhaps including several
species.

Lajng. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 349

Order Hypneaceae.

289. Hypnea muscifonms. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 244. (J. Ag.,

Epicr., p. 561.)

Taurauga : Berggren.

The occurrence of this plant in New Zealand is doubtful,
as Berggren' s specimens were not complete, and it was
received into the Fl. Nov.-Zel. on the authority of Banks.
I have seen no specimens of it.

Order Solieriae.

290. Caulacanthus spinellus. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 244. (J. Ag.,

Epicr. : G. ustulatus var. (?) spinclla.)
Bay of Islands : Berggren. Petone, Lyall Bay : B. M. L.
St. Clair, Green Island, Bluff, &c. : J. C. S.

291. Gatenella opuntia. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 254.
Hokianga : Berggren.

Var. fusiformis, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 588. Chatham Islands,
Puketeraki : J. C. S.

292. Gatenella oligarthra, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 587.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

Order Chondrieae.

293. Laurencia gracilis. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 234.
East Coast : Golenso.

294. Laurencia virgata. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 234.

Cape Kidnappers, Parimahu : Colenso. French Pass :
Dr. Schauinsland. Hauraki Gulf, Banks Peninsula : Lyall.
Hokianga, Bay of Islands : Berggren. Bay of Islands,
Mongonui : B. M. L.

295. Laurencia distichopyhlla. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 234.
Hawke's Bay, Parimahu : Golenso. French Pass : Dr.

Schatiinsland. Waitemata Harbour : Lyall. Bay of Islands :
Hooker, &c. Hokianga : Berggren. Kai-iti Beach (Gisborne) :
B. 21. L.

296. Laurencia thyrsifera, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 654.
Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland, &c.

297. Laurencia elata. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 233.
East Coast : Colenso.

This plant has not been recently collected in New Zealand,
and its occurrence here may be regarded as doubtful.

298. Laurencia botrychioides. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 234.

Bay of Islands : Hooker ; Berggren. Parimahu : Colenso.

299. Laurencia hybrida, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 655. (? L. ccespi-

tosa: Fl. Antarct., i., 184.)
Akatore : B. M. L.

350 Transactions. — Botany.

Identification due to Major Eeinbold.

Other species of Laurencia are to be found in New Zealand,
but they are as yet insufficiently well known. Harvey gives
Laurencia pinnatifida as occurring in the Auckland Islands,
and I have badly preserved specimens from Cook Strait and
Dunedin Heads which may possibly belong to this species.

299a. Laurencia heteroclada, J. Ag., Epicr., p. 648.
Kai-iti Beach (Gisborne) : B. M. L.

300. Chladymenia lyallii. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 235.
Bay of Islands : Berggren ; Lyall.

301. Chladymenia oblong if olia. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 235.
Apparently common from Banks Peninsula to Bay of Is-
lands : B. M. L. Hokianga : Berggren. Chatham Islands :
(Agardh; B.M.L.).

302. Ptilonia magellanica. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 233.
East Coast : Lyall.

Not recently collected in New Zealand.

303. Asparagopsis armata. (Asparagopsis delilei, Fl. Nov.-

Zel., p. 233 ; J. Ag., Epicr., p. 666.)
Dredged at D'Urville Island: Lyall. Lyall Bay (drift-
weed), Taylor's Mistake : B. ill. L. Chatham Islands : Dr.
Schauinskmd. Dusky Sound : J. G. S.

304. Delisea elegans. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 233.

Dredged at Preservation Harbour and Akaroa : Lyall.
Dredged in 8 fathoms, Akaroa : H. Suter ! Wellington Har-
bour (driftweed) : B. M. L. St. Clair, Owaka, Stewart Is-
land : J. C. S.

305. Delisea pulchra, Grev. J. Ag., Epicr., p. 671.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

Only a single specimen has as yet been found in New
Zealand.

Order Wrangelieee.

306. Wrangelia lyallii. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 236.
Euapuke and Preservation Harbour: Lyall.

307. Wrangelia squarru.osa. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 236.
St. Clair : J. C. S. Preservation Harbour : Lyall.

(Vide also J. Ag., Epicr., p. 25, under " Geramium con-
fusnm," and p. 52.)

Order Rhodomelese.

The species of this order are perhaps less well known than
those of most of the preceding orders Some of the genera
(e.g., Polysiphonia, B'nodomela) present unusual difficulties,
though even where the species are well defined but little work
seems to have been done upon them.

Laing. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 351

Chondriopsis.
Our New Zealand species are common, but as yet very
imperfectly described. I have many specimens of this genus,
including at least three species ; but none of the species
represented agree altogether satisfactorily with any of Har-
vey's descriptions, yet two at least of them are very common.
(For the limits of the genus, vide J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Svst., iv.,
p. 89.)

308. Chondriopsis (Chondria) flagellaris. Fl. Nov. - Zel.,

p. 222.
Port Nicholson, Paterson's Harbour: Lyall.

309. Chondriopsis (Chondria) macrocnrpa. Fl Nov. -Zel.,

p. 223. (J. Ag., Anal. Algol., p. 148.)

Foveaux Strait : Lyall. Otago : Lindsay. Warrington,
Dunedin, Banks Peninsula: Berggren. Chatham Islands:
Dr. Schauinsland. Lyttelton, Pigeon Bay, Double Corner
(Amberley) : B.M.L." .

I have some specimens from Brighton (Otago) which may
belong to this species, but more probably to a new and unde-
scribed one. •

310. Chondriopsis capensis(?). Harv., Ner. Austr., p. 86.

(J. Ag., Anal. Algol., p. 149.)
Some specimens collected by Mr. Crosby Smith at St. Clair
are considered by Agardh to come nearer to this than to any
other described species.

311. Bostrychia mixta. Fl. Nov. -Zel., p. 225. (J. Ag.,

Anal. Algol., cont. iv., p. 69.)

Bay of Islands : Hooker. Otago : Lyall. Invercargill
-Tetty, Cape Saunders (identification uncertain) : J. C. S.

It may be doubted whether our plant comes within the
stricter limits of the species described by Agardh (loc. cit.).

312. Bostrychia lamgii, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., loc. cit., p. 72.
Otago Harbour : J. C. S.

In a footnote to this species Agai*lh refers to a B.
disticha as occurring on the New Zealand coasts; of this I
know nothing.

313. Bostrychia novce-zelandim, J. Ag., loc. cit., p. 75.
St.vClair: J. C. S.

314. Bostrychia ccespnula, J. Ag., loc. cit., p. 81.
Middle Island of New Zealand : J. Ball.
Sent to Agardh by Baron Von Mueller.

315. Bostrychia harveyi, Mont.(?). Harv., Phvc. Austr.,

pi. 252. (J. Ag., loc. cit., p. 80.)
Paterson's Harbour, Wellington, Banks Peninsula : Lyall.
Warrington, Banks Peninsula, Bay of Islands : Berggren.
Island Bay : T. Kirk ! Invercargill Jetty : J. C. S.

352 Transactions. — Botany.

316. Bostrychia arbnscula. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 226.

Bluff, Warrington, Dunedin, Banks Peninsula: Berggren.
Brighton (Otago), Lower Green Island beach : B. M. L.
Probablv common along the East Coast of the South Island :
B. M. L.

317. Bostrychia rivularis (?), Harv. J. Ag., Anal. Algol.,

cont. iv.. p. 75.
I found a species of Bostrychia growing abundantly im-
mediately underneath the waterfall in Long Bay, near Akaroa
Heads. On forwarding some of it to Agardh, he considered
it was perhaps the same as the American B. rivularis, but see
footnote on B. simpliuscula (J. Ag., loc. cit., p. 73).

318. Bhodomela ccespitosa. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 225.
Parimahu, &c. : Colenso. Bluff: Berggren.

319. Bhodomela gaimardi. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 225.
Hawke's Bay : Colenso. Blind Bay, Akaroa : Lyall.

320. Bhodomela traversiana, J. Ag., De Alg. N.Z. mar.,

p. 28.

Chatham Islands : Travers. Bluff: Berggren. New Biver
Heads, Brighton (Otago), Lower Green Island beach, Moeraki:
B. M. L.

It is but right to say that, on forwarding some of my
specimens to Agardh, he identified them merely as belonging
to the genus Bhodomela, but refused to give them a specific
name, as they were rather imperfect ; but there is certainly
abundant in Otago a species of Bhodomela which agrees well
with Agardh's description of B. traversiana. The same plant
is found from the Bluff to Moeraki, and if not B. traversiana
is an undescribed species.

Polysiphonia.

Our New Zealand list for this genus is still very far from
completion, and I have many plants of the genus which I am
quite unable to name. Some of these are probably new. The
following list can only be regarded as tentative. I have left
out a considerable number of species unknown to Agardh or
regarded by him as doubtful, though previously described
from New Zealand. One or two of these are British, and
probably represent wrongly identified New Zealand forms;
of the others none have been recently collected, and may
be left in abeyance until found again and redetermined.
Here, as elsewhere, I have not introduced any fresh species
to the list on my own authority alone, nor have I attempted
to classify the species under any of the sub-genera ; the
references given will enable the investigator to do so for
himself.

La-ING. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 353

321. Polysiphonia dendritica. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 232.
Napier, Bay of Islands : Berggren. New Zealand : Pro-
fessor Parker.

322. Polysiphonia colensoi. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 229, pi. 122c.
Lyall Bay : Berggren. Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauins-

land.

323. Polysiphonia ceratoclada. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 232.
Banks Peninsula, Lyall Bay : Lyall. Lyall Bay : Berg-
gren.

324. Polysiphonia simplicifilum, J. Ag., De Alg. N.Z. rnar.,

p. 28.
Bay of Islands : Berggren.

325. Polysiphonia pennata. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 231.
Cape Kidnappers : Golenso. Lyall Bay : Berggren.

326. Polysiphonia abscissa. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 227.

Akaroa : Baoul ; Lyall. Blind Bay, Paterson's Harbour :
Lyall. Warrington : Berggren.

327. Polysiphonia strictissima. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 227.

New Zealand : Baoul. Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauins-
land.

328. Polysiphonia variabilis. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 228.

Blind Bay, Port Nicholson, Otago : Lyall. Tauranga :
Davies ; Berggren.

329. Polysiphonia lyalli. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 231.
Preservation Harbour, Foveaux Strait : Lyall. Hawke's

Bay, &c. : Golenso. Bluff, Warrington, Lyall Bay : Berg-
gren.

330. Polysiphonia isogona. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 231.

Blind Bay : Lyall. Cape Kidnappers : Golenso. Tau-
ranga : Berggren.

331. Polysiphonia comoides. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 231.
Akaroa, Port Cooper : Lyall. Tauranga : Berggren.

332. Polysiphonia corymbifera. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 231.
Maketu : Chapman. Warrington : Berggren.

333. Polysiphonia decipiens, Mont. (Vide J. Ag., De Alg.

N.Z. mar., p. 29.)
Bay of Islands : Berggren. Otago Harbour : J. G. S.

334. Polysiphonia aterrima. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 230.
Warrington, Dunedin, Banks Peninsula, Lyall Bay :

Berggren. Taylor's Mistake, Wellington Harbour : B. M. L.

335. Polysiphonia ramulosa. Fl. Nov.-Zel.. p. 230.
Parimahu : Golenso. Bluff : Berggren.

23

354 Transactions. — Botany.

336. Polysiphonia botryocarpa. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 230.
Otago, Foveaux Strait : Lyall.

337. Polysiphonia muelleriana, J. Ag., Alg. Chatham.
Stewart Island, Port Cooper, Banks Peninsula : Lyall.

Chatham Islands : Travers. Lyall Bay(?) : B. M. L.

338. Polysiphonia implexa. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 229.

Akaroa: Raoul. Cape Kidnappers and Parimahu: Go-
lenbo. St. Clair: J. C. S.

339. Polysiphonia roeana, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. ii., part iii

p. 967.
St. Clair : J. C. S.

340. Polysiphonia cancellata. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 230.
Banks Peninsula : Lyall. Stewart Island : R. M. L.

341. Polysiphonia mallard ia, J. Ag., Sp. Alg.. vol. ii.,

part iii., p. 1020. (Harvey Gibson, Journ. of Bot '
1893.)
Taylor's Mistake, Double Corner (Amberley) : R. 31. L.
New Zealand : Professor Parker. St. Clair (common) :
/. C. S.

342. Polysiphonia hooked, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. ii., part iii.,

p. 1019. (Harv., Ner. Austr., p. 40.)
Akatore, Green Island beach. Lvall Bay : R. M L
Wyckliffe Bay : J. G. S.

343. Polysiphonia hystrix, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. ii., part iii.,

p. 1017. (Harvey Gibson, Jonrn. of Bot., 1893.)
New Zealand (probaoly Brighton) : Professor Parker.
Probably the plant so identified by Professor Harvey Gib-
•son is the same as that identified above by Professor Agardh
as P. hookeri, but as I have none of Harvey Gibson's speci-
mens at hand I keep the two species separate.

344. Polysiphonia gaudiciiaudii, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. ii,,

part iii., rj. 1060. (Harvey Gibson, Journ. of Bot..'
June, 1893.)
New Zealand : Professor Parker.

345. Polysiphonia cloiophylla, J. Ag.. Sp. Alg., vol. ii.,

part iii., p. 934.

Var. corymbosa, Harvey Gibson, Journ. of Bot., June,
1893.

New Zealand (? Brighton) : Professor Parker.

346. Polysiphonia heteroclada, J. Ag., Bidr. Syst., iv., p. 98.

(Eeinbold, Sonder-Abdr. a Abb. Nat. Ver. Brem!. 1899.
bd. xvi., H.2, p. 296.)
New Zealand : (Agardh). Chatham Islands : Dr. Schaui /is-
land.

Lainc+. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 355

347. Polysiphonia dumosa, Hook, and Harv., Fl. Antarct.,

182, t. 75 (Reinbold, loc. cit.).
Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland.

348. Polysiphonia frutex, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. ii., part iii.,

p. 1047.
Wyckliffe Bay : J.C.S.

349. Polysiphonia blandi, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. ii., part iii.,

p. 976.
Petone : B.M.L. St. Clair, Otago Harbour : J.C. S.

350. Polysiphonia monilifera, Hook and Harv. (J. Ag., Sp.

Alg., p. 927.)
Paterson's Inlet : B. M. L.
The identification is due to Major Reinbold.

351. Polysiphonia infestans(?), Harv., Mar. Bot. of West.

Austr., p. 539. (J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. ii., part iii.,

p. 959.)
St. Clair : /. G. S.

Some specimens collected by myself at Petone are some-
what doubtfully referred to this species by Agardh.

352. Polysiphonia caulescens, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. iii.,

p. 111.
St. Clair: J. G. S. Chatham Islands: Travers.

353. Polysiphonia versicolor, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., vol. ii.,

part iii., p. 927. (Anal. Algol., cont. iii., p. 111.)

St. Clair: J, C. S.

Other species not included in this list, and doubtfully
identified by Agardh from specimens sent Home by Mr.
Crosby Smith and myself, are P. ferulacea, P. neglecta.

354. Rytiphlcea delicatula. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 228, pi. 112.
Cook Strait and Akaroa : Lyall.

This species has not been collected recently.

355. Lenormindia chauvini. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 222 (excluding

variety). (J. Ag., Anal. Algol., p. 169.)
Bluff, Lyall Bay, Bay of Islands : Berggren. Worser
Bay : B. M. L. Otago Harbour, St. Clair: J. C. S.

356. Lenormandia angustifolia, J. Ag., Alg. N.Z. mar. ;

Anal. Algol., p. 169.
Bluff, Dunedin, Lyall Bay, Bay of Islands : Berggren.
Brighton (Otago), Green Island beach, St. Clair, Lyall Bay :
B. M. L. St. Clair, North Head (Dunedin) : J". C. S.

357. Placoyhora marchantioides , J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst.,

part iv., p. 111. (Amausia(??) marchantioide : Fl.
Nov.-Zel., p. 223 ; Anal. Algol., p. 136.)
Cape Kidnappers and Hawke's Bay : Golenso.

356 Transactions. — Botany.

358. Vidalia colensoi, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., p. 1127. (Epineuron

colensoi : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 223.)
East Coast : Golenso. Bay of Islands : LyalL Hokianga,
Tauranga. Bay of Islands : Berggren. Mongonui : R. M. L.

359. Epineuron(?) lineatum. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 223.
New Zealand : Banks.

A very doubtful species indeed.

360. Polyzonia bipartita. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 227. (J. A»

Alg. N.Z. mar., p. 31.)
Lyall Bay : B. M. L. Green Island : J. G. S.

361. Polyzonia incisa, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., p. 1165. (Polyzonia

harveyana : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 227.)
Almost everywhere common : B. M. L. Chatham Is-
lands : Dr. Schauinsland.

362. Polyzonia cuneifolia. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 226.

Stewart Island, Preservation Inlet : Lyall. Lvall Bay •
B. M. L. St. Clair : J. G. S.

363. Polyzonia flabellifera, J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., vi.,

p.1 74.
St. Clair : J. G. S.

364. Polyzonia adiantiformis. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 226.
Bluff: Berggren.

365. Polyzonia ovalifolia. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 226. (J. Ag.,

Florid. Morph.. pi xxii., fig. 23.)
On Amphiroa corymbosa : Golenso.

366. Dasyclonium acicarpum, J. Ag., Anal. Algol., cont. ii.,

p. 81.
St. Clair : J. C. S.
Identified by Agardh.

367. Lophothalia onstralis, J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., vi., p. 59.

(Polysiphonia australis, J. Ag., Sp. Alg., p. 1044.
P. cladostephus : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 332.)
Akaroa : Lyall ; Baoul. Bluff, Lyall Bav : Berggren ;
B. M. L. Maori Kaik, Otago Harbour : J". G. S"

368. Dasya collabens, Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 222.
Akaroa southwards : Baoul. Dusky Sound : J. C. S.
Identification not certain.

369. Dasya (Heterosiphonia) firma, J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst.,

vi., p. 73.
Paterson's Inlet : B.^M.L. Chatham Islands : Travers.
The identification of my specimens is due to Major Rein-
bold, and the species is somewhat doubtful.

370. Dasya squarrosa. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 232. (J. Ag., Bidr

Alg. Syst., vi., p. 83.)
Port William : Lyall. St. Clair: J. G. S.

Laing. — List of New Zealand Seaweeds. 357

A specimen sent to Agardh from St. Clair was considered
by him to be either D. squarrosa or new.

371. Dasya (Hetercsiphonia) tessellata. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 233.

(J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., vi.. p. 86.)
Blind and Massacre Bay : Lyall. French Pass : Dr.

Schauinsland.

372. Dasya concinna. (Bodomela concinna : Fl. Nov.-Zel.,

p. '225, pi. hi.) (J. Ag., Alg. N.Z. mar., p. 28; also

Anal. Algol., p. 135, footnote.)
Foveaux Strait and Chalky Bay (West Coast) : Lyall.
Bluff: Berggren. The Bluff, Brighton (Otago) : R.M.L.
Lyall Bay: {Beinbold). Chatham Islands: Dr. Schauins-
land.

Order Corallineee.

373. Arthrocardia (Amphiroa) corymbosa. Fl. Nov. - Zel.,

p. 237.
East Coast : Colenso. Bav of Islands, Chatham Islands :
B. M. L.

Probably common.

374. Arthrocardia wardii. Ner. Austr., p. 99.
Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland.

375. Amphiroa elf gaits. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 237.
Cape Kidnappers : Colenso.

375a. C 'oral Una armata. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 237.

East Coast : Colenso. Lyttelton : B. M. L. St. Clair,
Brighton : J". C. S.

376. Corallina pedunculated, Lmx.
Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland.

377. Corallina officinalis. Fl. Nov.-Zel.. p. 237.
Auckland : Lyall. East Coast : Colenso. St. Clair :

J. C. S. Lyall Bay, Brighton (Otago) : B. M. L. Chatham
Islands : Dr. Schauinsland.

378. Jama cuvieri. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 237.

Common, Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland. Stewart
Island, Dunedin : J. C. S.
Probablv common.

379. Jania pistillaris. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 237.
Bay of Islands (in holes of rocks) : Hombron.
Not recently collected.

380. Jania micrarthodia. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 237.

East Coast : Colenso. Port Cooper : Lyall. Chatham
Islands : Gisborne. Ohiro Valley (Wellington) : B. M. L.
St. Clair, Brighton, Stewart Island : J. C. S.

358 Transactions. — Botany.

381. Melobesia (Lithophyllum) patena. Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 238.
Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland.

Probably common.

382. Melobesia amplexifrons. Harv., Ner. Ausfcr., p. 110.
New Zealand : Professor Parker. Chatham Islands :

Dr. Schauinsland .

383. Lithothamnion sp. ? (near Goniolithon congestion, Fosl.).
Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland.

384. Lithothamnion calcareum, Aresch. (Melobesia calcarea,

Harv., Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 238.)
Bay of Islands : Hooker.

385. Lithothamnion agariciforme (Pall.), Fosl., forma (?) decus-

sata = L. decussation, Ell. et Sol., not of Solms.
Chatham Islands : Dr. Schauinsland.

386. Lithophyllum car pophy Hi, Heydr. Corallines, in B.D.B.,

Ges. xi., p. 78.
Chatham Islands, New Zealand : Dr. Schauinsland.

Addendum to Part I.* of this Paper.

Order Codiaceae.

387. Bryopsis plumosa. (B . plumosa : Fl. Nov.-Zel., p. 261,

partim(?).) J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., v., p. 24.
New Zealand : (Agardh).

11. Codium mucronatwn, J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., v., p. 43.

This replaces, possibly entirely, C. tomentosum (Fl. Nov.-
Zel., p. 261) of the first part of this list.

388. Codium muelleri, J. Ag., Bidr. Alg. Syst., v., p. 42.
Chatham Islands : (Travers).

Order Ulvacese.

389. Porphyra subtumens, J. Ag. (Mscr.).

A small species of Porphyra grows very commonly on
D' Urvillesa, and on forwarding specimens to Agardh he
named it as above; but I have not seen any published de-
scription of it, and am unaware if there is one.

Akatore (on D'Urvillesa) : B. M. L.

Order Dictyotaceae.

70. Dictyota ocellata. Anal. Algol., cont. i., p. 68.

This species replaces D. dichotoma of the first part of this
list.

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vo). xxxii., p.. 57.

Ca.rsk. — On Panax arboreum. 359

References.

The following are the chief references additional to those
given in the first part of this paper. The references to the
" Flora Novse-Zelandise " are all to volume ii.

1. " Species Algarum," 1848-63. (J. Agardh.)

2. " Bidrage till Algernes Systematik," parts iv., v., vi.

o

Lunds Univ. Arsskr.. torn. xxi. and xxiii. (J. Agardh.)

3. " Epicrisis Floridearum," 1876. (J. Agardh.)

■i. " Analecta Algologica,"* 1892-99. (J. Agardh.)

5. " De dispositione Delesseriearum," 1898. (J. Agardh.)

6. "Flora Antarctica." 1847. (Sir J. D. Hooker.)

The species of the order Sphacelariacece are being revised
in the "Journal de Botanique " by Professor Sauvageau
(August, 1900, et seq.). Already several New Zealand forms
have been dealt with. De Toni's " Sylloge Algarum," unfor-
tunately, is not procurable in the colonies, but would be of
considerable assistance to the student.

I cannot close this paper without referring to the death, at
a ripe old age, of the greatest of algologists, Professor J. G.
Agardh I found him always ready and willing to assist me,
and I regret that he was unable himself to draw up this list,
when it would have been of much greater value than it is.

Art. XXXI. — On the Occurrence of Panax arboreum as an

Epiphyte on the Stems of Tree Ferns in the Mauku
District.

By H. Carse.

[Head before the Auckland Institute, 7th October, 1901.]

In a paper read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical In-
stitute on the 9th August, 1886, by the late Mr. Colenso,
mention is madef of the peculiar growth of a Panax arboreum
upon and around the stem of a tree fern, Cyathca dealbata.
Mr. Colenso said, " I have a curious anomaly to mention,
which, as far as I know, is quite unique. Four years ago,
while botanising in the high and dry woods near Matamau,
I came upon a fine tree fern (Gyathea dealbata) whose caudex

* I have, unfortunately, not seen the sixth part of this work. —
R. M. L.

f Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xix., p. 257.

360 Transactions. — Botany.

below was almost wholly surrounded by its former epiphytal
foster-child, a stout spreading specimen of Panax arborea,
from which or out of which the fern- tree luxuriously grew as
if it were springing from a large vase. On the one side (or,
rather, speaking correctly, on three sides) the tree fern was
wholly enclosed."

I am not aware whether any other botanist since Mr.
Colenso's time has drawn attention to this peculiar habit of
growth of Panax arboreum, or whether it is of frequent occur-
rence, but I have noticed so many examples of this curious
combination that I thought it might prove of some interest
once more to draw the attention of the students of plant-life
of our country to this subject.

For some reason which I am unable to explain Panax
arboreum is almost invariably an epiphyte on the stems of
tree ferns in the forest regions around Mauku. In open
Leptospermum scrub, on banks of streams, and on declivities,
when tree ferns are not present, Panax grows as a standard.
As an epiphyte Panax arboreum may be seen as a seedling
a few inches high, as a sapling a few feet high, or as a tree
20 ft. high. The roots of the seedling appear to strike
inwards among the damp fibrous remains of old stipes until,
reaching the hard inner coating of the caudex, their further
inward progress is barred. One root, which I take to be the
tap-root, now begins to make its way earthwards, usually in a
more or less straight line, though occasionally they appear to
progress spirally. As the young tree increases" in stature
other roots are given off from the original base of the Panax —
i.e., from the point on the trunk of the tree fern where the
seed germinated. In some cases these roots follow the line
of the first ; in others they appear to grow for a time laterally
before descending. With increased growth of the tree the
roots become so crowded together that they grow one into
another and coalesce, forming a continuous mass of what for
want of a better name I have called " root-stems," for by
this time they have ceased to be roots, and true roots are now
developed in the soil round the base of the fern-tree. While
the "root-stems" have been growing downwards the upper
stem has ascended, in some cases in line with the fern-tree, in
others at a greater or less angle with the caudex. In some
cases the "root-stems" have entirely enveloped the caudex
of the fern-tree for 5 ft. or 6 ft. above the ground, and have
grown so closely together as to present the appearance of
a solid Panax trunk, thus giving the appearance of a
growing from an urn, referred to by Mr. Colenso. In other
fern-tree cases they have formed a more or less open net-
work, through the meshes of which the caudex of the fern-
tree is visible.

Cabsk. — On Panax arboreuin. 361

In some of the specimens I noticed the tree fern was
perfectly healthy and in a robust state ; in others it was
apparently suffering from the close embraces of its too
vigorous foster-child, as was shown by the poorly developed
fronds. In two cases I saw the enclosed tree ferns had
succumbed. In one of these instances the lower part of
the caudex was entirely surrounded by the coalescing "root-
stems " of the Panax, except at one point, where about 6 in.
of the caudex was visible. Rising above the point where I
judged the germination of the Panax to have taken place was
seen about 2 ft. of caudex half imbedded in the trunk of the
Panax. What remained of the caudex was dry and brittle,
having apparently been dead for many years. Judging from
the remains, I concluded that it had been a Dicksonia squar-
rosa, which fern is plentiful in the immediate vicinity. In
the second case the circumstances are very similar, save that
the enveloping and fatal " root-stems " have formed a ring
about 3 ft. above the ground and have then coalesced, forming
a concave trunk containing the compressed remains of the
fern, apparently also a Dicksonia. In these two cases no
" Crowner's quest " appears necessary as to the cause of
death. The self-evident verdict must be "Death from con-
striction." But in another case further inquiry is called for.
The facts are as follow : A Panax arboreum has germinated
on a Cyathea dealbata, has grown and flourished until it
became a tree 20ft. high, its coalescing "root-stems" envelop-
ing a considerable portion of the stem of its foster-parent.
The strange thing in this case is that, while the tree fern is
in a state of luxuriant growth, producing a fine crown of
fronds, the Panax is dead and dry.

From my observations I have arrived at the conclusion
that Cyathea dealbata probably in many cases suffers in
health from the embraces of Panax arboreum, but rarely, if
ever, succumbs ; but that Dicksonia. squarrosa, being usually
less robust, is more apt to find these embraces fatal.

Whether this peculiar habit of Panax arboreum shows its
natural affinity with the ivy-piant (Hedera), as suggested by
Mr. Colenso, or no, I leave to more advanced students of
nature to decide ; but it seems to me we might say the
same of the rata (Metrosideros robusta), which usually begins
life as an epiphyte in the clefts of the upper branches of
forest trees, and frequently serves its. foster-parent in a
manner similar to that described above in the case of
Dicksonia squarrosa.

Subjoined are a few notes of measurements in some of the
cases referred to : —

No. 1. Cyathea dealbata, 15 ft. high ; Panax arboreum,
20 ft. high. Point of germination, 6 ft. above ground.

362 Traits actions. — Botany.

Caudex entirely enveloped 4 ft. upwards from ground. Cya-
thea unhealthy.

No. 2. Cyathea deatbata, 10 ft. high ; Panax arbor eum,
15 ft. high. Point of germination, 8 ft. above ground. Single
" root-stem '" descending spirally.

No. 3. Dicksonia squarrosa (?) ; Panax, 20 ft. high. Ger-
minating-point, 6 ft. above ground. Crushed remains of dead
fern show near ground, and again 7 ft. up.

No. 4. Dicksonia squarrosa (?) ; Panax, 15 ft. high. Point
of germination, 4 ft. up. Crushed remains of dead fern show
on opposite sides of coalescing " root-stems," 2 ft. and
5 ft. up.

Art. XXXII. — On the flora of the Mauku District.

By H. Caese.

lEead befare tlie Auckland Institute, 2nd September, 1901.]

" All rivers flow to the sea," and every stream helps to
swell the volume of some river. I am sending forth the
little creeklet of my observations to help to swell the great
river of botanical knowledge, which is constantly bearing use-
ful information and pleasure to thousands of true lovers of
nature.

These notes are the outcome of a suggestion that the ob-
servations on botanical subjects by a resident in a particular
district may be of some use to botany generally, in that thev
afford opportunities of comparing the flora of one district with
that of others in the same country. This suggestion was made
to me at one time by Mr. Cheeseman. and again by Mr.
Petrie. I am glad to avail myself of this opportunity to
tender to these gentlemen my hearty thanks for the great
encouragement, ready assistance, and valuable information I
have received from tiiem from time to time during the period
— a few years only — in which I have devoted my spare time
to the fascinating study of plant-life.

The region to which my notes refer is that part of the
Manukau County which is bounded on the north by the
Manukau Harbour, on the east by the railway-line, on the
south by the Waikato Eiver, and on the west by the Tasman
Sea. The Settlement ol Mauku is fairly central, and was
my headquarters. When first I arrived in the district, two
years ago, I was afraid that as a field for botanical research
it would prove very poor. But longer acquaintance with it

Carse. — Flora of the Mauku District. 363

has shown it to be not, indeed, a rich district botanically, but
certainly much better than I had at first anticipated.

My neighbour, Mr. Heywood Crispe, who has lived here
all his life, and who served against the Maoris in the war-
time, tells me that in his younger days all the land round
here, where now fertile soil and prolific crops repay the
settlers' toil, was covered by dense primitive forest. Indeed,
that such was the case is even now evident from the stumps
and roots of old monarchs of the glade remaining here and
there. Small isolated patches of bush, many of them of
second growth, and these rapidly disappearing Defore axe and
fire, are all that are now left of the great forest which a few
decades since covered a vast tract of countrv.

The most fertile part of this region, which was in con-
sequence of that fertility the first to be settled, was acquired
by confiscation from the natives for their share in the war.
It consists mainly of a more or less undulatory tableland,
stretching from Pukekohe nearly to Waiuku. The avei'age
height of this tableland is, I believe, about 300 ft. above sea-
level, and rising from it are two points of higher elevation
— viz., Pukekohe Hill, near the village of Pukekohe, and the
Bald Hills, near Mauku. These hills rise to a height of about
700 ft. above sea-level. Towards the north the area above
referred to sinks more or less gradually to the level of the
Karaka Flat ; on the south it is bounded by the lands sloping
down to the Waikato Eiver and the Ake-ake Swamp, the
latter being little above sea-level ; on the west lies the
Waiuku arm of the Manukau Harbour, beyond which the
country is more or less broken and rises towards the sand-
hills which lie parallel to the coast from the Manukau to the
Waikato Heads. It is in this stretch of country that most of
what remains of bush is to be found.

The Karaka Flat is an undulating stretch of country ex-
tending from near Drury almost to Waiuku, and lying
between the area above referred to and the Manukau
Harbour. It is intersected by the Mauku arm of the Manu-
kau Harbour, the W7aiau arm, and other smaller openings.
This part of the district is somewhat dreary in appearance,
the vegetation as a rule being low and stunted, except in a
few spots more sheltered than the general run of the surround-
ing land. In fact, were it not for the frequent clumps of
introduced shelter-trees surrounding the houses of settlers
here and there the scene would be very monotonous.

One thing that has struck me as remarkaoie in this
district is the absence of certain plants which, in most parts
of the country, both north and south of Auckland City, are
more or lets common. Nowdiere along an)' of the creek-
banks — not even along the Waikato — have I seen Plagianthus

364 Transactions. — Botany.

betulinus or Hoheria populnea, though I understand they
occur about Tuakau, a district I have not vet been able to
include in my notes. Weinmannia sylvicola, so plentiful in
many districts, is here conspicuous by its absence. In vain
have I explored the Karaka Flat, a most likely country, for
Dracophyllum urvilleanwn and D. sauarrosum. Nor have I
yet seen a single plant of Bliabdothamnus solandri in the
district ; and the same thing is noticeable of many other
plants. On the other hand, several plants occur in this
region, more or less plentifully, of which I have seen few or
none m other places I have visited. Melicytus micranthus
var. longiusculus occurs very sparingly. Hydrocotyle dissecta,
which according to the late Sir. Kirk is " a remarkably rare
and local lowland species," is here very plentiful in almost
every piece of bush. Recently I discovered an unusually
large iorm of this species, of which Mr. Cheeseman says,
"I have never seen Hydrocotyle dissecta so large as the
specimen you send." The graceful little plant Gratiola nana
is not uncommon in the swampy parts of the Karaka Flat.
Here also Utricularia novce-zelaudice, U. colensoi, and Drosera
spathulata occur freely. So far I have looked in vain for
D. pygmceum. Prasopkyllum colensoi is very rare in the dis-
trict ; in fact, I have only found one plant of this beautiful
and interesting orchid. The recently named Schcenus carsei
occurs sparingly in two localities. Bulbophyllum tuberculatum,
another very interesting orchid, originally discovered in the
Hawke's Bay District by Mr. Colenso in 1883, is plentiful on
the upper branches of trees in the swampy bush bordering the
Waikato River. I understand that this plant was not seen
after its discovery by Colenso until rather more than a year
ago, when it was rediscovered almost simultaneously by my
friend Mr. R. H. Matthews at Kaitaia, in the Mongonui
County, and by myself in this district. Mr. Petrie's Hydro-
cotyle hydropkila is not uncommon, and Myosotis spathulata
and Pterostylis graminca occur sparingly.

Of ferns and allied plants, Hemitelia smithii (two plants
only), Lindsay a viridis, Ncphrodium thelypteris, and Marattia
fraxinea, the edible para of the natives, are of considerable
interest. But certainly the most interesting plant in this
class is Lycopodium scariosum, which occurs on a clayey bank
at only a few feet above sea-level. I understand this species
rarely occurs below an elevation of 1,000 ft. in the north of
New Zealand.

In what remains of forest the trees of most frequent
occurrence are Beilschmiedia taioa, B. tarairi, Dysoxylum
spectabile, Pittosvorum tenuifolium, P. eugenioides, Hedycaria
dentata. Vitex littoralis, &c. Of those less plentiful, but still
frequently observed, may be mentioned Knightia excelsa,

Carsk. — Flora of the Mauku District. 305

Metrosideros robiista, Coprosma arborea, Panax arboreum,
Olearia cunning haviii, Olea lanceolata, &c. Many of the
forest trees are festooned by such vines and climbing-plants as
Metrosideros florida (whose gorgeous scarlet flowers lend
colour to the bush from February to May), M. scandens,
M. hyperici folia, Parsonsia albi flora and P. rosea, the supple-
jack vine (Rliipogonum scandens), the bush-lawyer (Rubies),
and Passiflora ktrandra, which grows with great luxuriance
in this district.

The undergrowth consists mainly in many places of
Coprosma areolata intermixed with other Goprosmas, Melicope
simplex, Melicytus micranthus, Myrtus bullata, Geniostoma
ligustrtfolia, and Pennantia corymbosa.

Of plants growing as epiphytes those most frequently met
with are various species of Astelia, among which grow Pitto-
spornm cornifolium and the beautiful Senecio kirkii, with its
large daisy-like flowers. Griselinia lucida, with its large
shining leaves, is a conspicuous feature on many of the
forest trees. The trunks and branches of the trees are more
or less clothed with a luxuriant growth of smaller orchids,
ferns, lycopods, and mosses.

In many places in the more shady parts of the bush the
ground is fairly carpeted with Hydrocotyle dissecta, Galium
umbrosum, Dichondra repens, Gorysanthes macrantha, G. tri-
loba, Oplismenus undidatifolius , and other plants. Pterostylis
banksii is plentiful, P. trullifolia not uncommon, while P.
graminea is rare. The lower parts of the trunks of trees and
rocks are frequently clothed with a luxuriant growth of Pepe-
romia endlicheri. Acianthus sinclairii is fairly plentiful, and in
damp spots Gorysanthes oblonga and Chiloglottis comuta are
frequently met with.

Among Leptospermum scrub, near the edge of the bush,
Clematis indivisa, the only species of this genus I have found
in the district, is not uncommon. Here also are to be found
Gaultheria antipoda, Luzula campestris, Caladema minor,
Lycopodium vohebile, L. densum, and only one solitary speci-
men of the usually plentiful Adiantum hispidulum, while A.
(Zthiopicum and A. ajflne are not uncommon.

In nearly every piece of bush Lomaria discolor is plenti-
fully distributed, and the graceful Pteris macilenta is a con-
spicuous feature. Large masses of the beautifully slender
Hypolepis distans are of frequent occurrence.

The Bald Hills are well worth a visit. They consist of a
group of several rounded hills within a couple of miles of
Mauku. The summits of these hills are almost bare of vege-
tation, save a slight growth of native and introduced grasses,
with here and there clumps of Pteris. Approaching the Bald
Hills from the Mauku-Waiuku Eoad we first pass Titi Hill,

366 Transactions. — Botany.

famous as the scene of an encounter between the Forest
Rangers and the Maoris during the war, when the old church
of St. Bride was utilised as a stockade.

Ascending the first hill, we follow a track through a piece
of bush in which the more interesting plants are Melicope
ternata and its variety mantellii, Gahnia lacera, Uncinia
banksii, Pterostylis trullifolia, bulbophyllum turberculatum,
Botrycliium tematuvi, and Piper excelsum. Passing on
through Leptospermum scrub, we enter the remains of an
old pa, and so to the summit of the highest hill. From this
point a splendid view is obtainable all around. Not far from
the Trig, station on the summit is a small patch of Luzula
campestris. Towards the west there are several small gullies
which furrow that side of the hill. In one of these are two
plants of Entelea arborescens, the only ones I have yet seen
in the district. Mr. Cheeseman, however, informs me that
it is found in the sandhills between Waiuku and Manukau,
a part of the district I have not yet had time to explore.

In several places on this and the other hills are outcrops
of sandstone, usually of a more or less rounded appearance,
as though (as probably was the case) they had at some dis-
tant date formed bluffs on the bank of some river, or, per-
haps, sea-shore. In a dry spot at the base of one of these
bluffs I found a stunted form of Carex inversa, a plant not at
all common in the district. Here and there, in crevices of
the rocks or among the scrub which clothes a greater part
of the north and west sides of this hill, are to be noted plants
of Doodia media and Aspidium richardii, neither of which are
at all well represented in this neighbourhood. In many of
the larger gullies separating the Bald Hills there are still
considerable patches of bush. In the upper part of one of
these, where the soil is light and dry, I found the finest
specimens of Asplenium Jiookerianum I have yet seen. In the
lower part of another, through which flows a small stream,
in the deep shade of the forest, are some tine specimens of
Marattia fraxinea, now becoming so rare in our Island. On
many damp clay banks, on the edge of or near to the creek,
are many hundreds of seedling plants. In this same bush
Coprosma, spathulata occurs freely, and here I discovered one
plant with crimson drupes, a rather unusual occurrence.
Higher up and near the edge of the bush Carex vacillans is
not uncommon, and among scrub just outside the bush are
a few plants of Dodoncea viscosa.

Ascending this hill from the bush we come to a large pa
on its summit, passing, in the more open parts, Burner
flexuosus. Scirpus nodosus. and here and there Olearia
solandri. The two last are usually maritime plants. This
hill overlooks the Lower Waikato and the Ake-ake Swamp.

Cause — Flow of the Mauku District. 'A67

The southern face is an abrupt descent, from which sandstone
rock crops out in several places. In some places this rock is
covered with a growth of Metrosideros diffusa, one of the
handsomest plants of the genus. On the drier parts of the
hills Carex breviculmis is of frequent occurrence.

The Mauku Creek and its banks are not without botanical
interest. This creek rises beyond Puni, and. flowing for the
greater part of its way through a fairly level valley, has in that
part a very slight fall. In the deeper parts of the creek Myrio-
phylliim robustum is plentiful. This handsome plant roots
in the muddy bottom ; its stems, long or short according to
the depth of the water, slope diagonally with the current. In
early summer the new growths are produced. These emerge
from the water like miniature pine-trees, and produce flowers
and fruit in the axils of the leaves. In a small coppice on the
bank of the creek, in land subject to inundation, occur a few
plants of Myoaotis spathulata, the only specimens I have seen
in this region. Lower down in a shady wood Adiantum did-
phanum is not uncommon. Here also, among Cordyline aus-
tralis, are to be found Melicytus micranthus, Paratrophis micro-
phylhis, and various species of Coprosma. All along the banks
and in the swampy land bordering the creek occur Phormmm
tenax, Spar ganium simplex, Cladium teretifolium, Carex pseudo-
cyperus, and other water-loving plants ; and in one swampy
feeder of the creek the graceful grass Hierochloe redolens
is found.

In Mauku the creek is dammed up to work Mr. Notts's
flax-mill. In the mill-dam among other plants Cladium arti-
culatum is plentiful. About a mile lower down, the stream falls
abruptly over rocks of basaltic formation into a ravine 45 ft.
below the surrounding country. The most interesting planls
on the wet rocks below the fall are Nertera cunning it a mil
(the only place where I have seen this species about here),
Mentha cunningiiamii, Pratia angulata, Corysanthes macran-
tha, Gnaphalium collinum. and Adiantum affine. Among the
loose rocks which cover the greater part of the ravine grow
Br achy glottis repanda, Melicytus ramiflorus, Metrosideros dif-
fusa, Schefflera digitata, Myrsine salicina. &c. ; and on the
rocks and in their crevices Peperomia endlicheri, Polypodium
billardieri, P. cunningiiamii, Hymenophyllum javanicum, Tri-
chomanes hwnile, and Asplenium bulbiferum are more or less
plentiful. In the upper and drier parts of the ravine are to be
found Asplenium hookerianum, A. bulbiferum var. tripin-
natnm, and Astelia cunningiiamii.

About a couple of miles lower down we reach the highest
point affected by the tide, which comes up the Mauku arm of
the Manukau. On the muddy flats occur Scirpus lacustris,
S. maritimus, Juncus maritimus, Cladium junceum, Carex

368 Transactions. — Botany.

littorosa, Leptocarpus simplex, Selliera radicans, Apium fili-
forme, and Plagianthus divaricatus. On the clay banks of the
creek, and extending a considerable distance inland, Olearia
furfuracea is very plentiful. On the clay bank also a few
plants of Veronica macrocarpa are to be found.

Lower down the creek, where the channel at high water is
about a quarter of a mile wide, is a favourite picnic spot
known as " The Bluff." Here cliffs formed of clay rise 40ft.
or 50 ft. above the level of the water. A few interesting
plants are to be noted here — viz.. Ranunculus acaulis,
Samolus repens, Veronica macrocarpa. Here, too, I found
two lycopods which I have not seen elsewhere in this dis-
trict. One of these is Lycopodium cenmum, the other L.
scariosum. The latter, as before noted, has not previously
been reported in north New Zealand at an elevation of less
than 1,000 ft.

Still lower down a branch creek strikes off at right angles.
Here on a high sloping bank are several interesting plants,
the most interesting being a small kauri-tree about 20 ft.
high, bearing, when I first visited the spot, well-developed
cones. This is certainly a most unexpected spot to find a
kauri-tree, for at present, unless I am much mistaken, there is
not another tree of this species within ten miles. Long, long
ago, no doubt, kauris were pleutiful here, as a considerable
amount of gum has been dug in the immediate neighbour-
hood. Is it possible that this small tree is a descendant of
its prehistoric ancestors which grew on the surrounding
Karaka Flat ? If not, how did the seed get to this out-of-the-
way spot ? At the foot of this interesting tree is a clump of
Phebalium nudum, and under that again a large patch of
Gleichenia cunning hamii, the only specimens I have yet seen
in this district. Here, also, Goprosma lucida is not un-
common.

Leaving the water-side, we now strike across the Karaka
Flat. Frequent tires have destroyed much of the vegetation.
Low Leptospermum scrub covers vast areas, except where a
few enterprising settlers are rapidly clearing and ploughing.
Here and there, on the edges of small gullies and upon
hillocks, the monotony of the scene is broken by the presence
of Olearia furfuracea, 0. solandri, Leucopogon fasciculatus,
Gassinia retorta, and Gyathodes acerosa. Among the low scrub
such plants as Sclicenus tend <, Lepidosperma concava, L.
australis, Leucopogon fraseri, Epacris pauciflora, and Poma-
derris phylicifolia are of common occurrence. Haloragis tetra-
gyua, the typical plant, is not uncommon in more or less open
spots, and its variety diffusa is everywhere abundant. Large
areas, too, are covered with the long trailing stems and
graceful fronds of Lycoyodium volubile. In many places,

Cause. — Flora of the Mauku District. 369

especially in the more open parts, Thelymitra longifolia is
especially plentiful, and here and there Prasophyllum pumi-
lum is to be found.

In the frequently occurring swampy patches the most
interesting plants are Drosera spathulata, I). binata, Utri-
cularia colensoi, U. nova - zelandi.ee, Gratiola peruviana,
G. nana, Thelymitra pulchella, Gladiwm capillaceum, Schoenus
tenax, and S. carsei.

In some parts of the Karaka Flat Epacris purpurascens
grows freely, and I am informed by Mr. A. T. Urquhart, of
Karaka. that this species occurs on his land associated with
E. microphylla and E. pulchella. How these Australian
species have become naturalised in this district, and as far
as I am aware nowhere else in New Zealand, is, I believe, an
unsolved problem. It has been suggested that they may be
indigenous, but, seeing how remarkably local they are, this
seems hardly probable.

At the mouths of some of the tidal creeks opening into the
Manukau Harbour the mangrove, Avicennia officinalis, occurs,
and here and there are a few trees of Metrosideros tomentosa.
On the bank of a small stream flowing into the Waiau Creek
I found, among Leptospermum scrub, Galadenia minor, Gotula
minor, Hydrocotyle moschata (a dwarf form), and fine speci-
mens of Botrychium ternatum.

Another favourite picnic spot is Waitangi, near Waiuku.
A small creek is here dammed up to drive the wheel of the
Waitangi flour-mill ; it then enters the Waiuku arm of the
Manukau. Among the more interesting plants growing here
may be mentioned Sophora tetraptera, which is by no means
common in this district, Dodoncea viscosa, Gyathodes acerosa,
Veronica macrocarpa, Gorohia buddleoides, Phebalinm nudum
and Gladium sinclairii growing along the cliffs. On a sandy
flat I also noted Rammcidus acaulis and Sticeda maritima,
and in one spot, among Leptospermum scrub, I found one
plant of Epilobium alsinoides, a rare plant in this neigh
oourhood. Near here also occur a few small ngaio- trees
KMyoporum latum), a species by no means plentiful in this
region.

A favourite excursion of mine is to the west coast. The
distance is about eleven miles, and the route lies through
the village of Waiuku. A noticeable feature along many
parts of the road between Mauku and Waiuku is the great
number of young totara-trees. This tree seems to thrive
better in the open than almost any other native tree. Not
far from the Waitangi School one can hardly fail to notice,
in the flowering season, two plants of Metrosideros florida with
yellow stamens growing on the edge of a small piece of bush.
This form of the species is the late Mr. Kirk's "variety
24

370 Transactions. — Botany.

aurata." In his " Students' Flora " Mr. Kirk mentions three
localities only in which this form has been observed, and
states that only one specimen has been seen at each of
the places he names, none of which are in the Auckland
District. I am of opinion that this form, while not common,
is by no means as rare as has been supposed, for I know of
two plants at Maungatapere, near Whangarei, and four plants
in this district. Near Mauku, too, a form with orange-red
stamens is not uncommon.

By making a short detour from the road we can visit a
piece of bush on Mr. West's land, in which a few trees of
Libocedrus doniana and Phyllocladus trichomanoides are to
be seen. Neither of these species are at all common. In
another part of this bush are a few plants of Marattia
fraxinea.

Skirting the village of Waiuku, we come on to the Kario-
tah Eoad, which leads to the coast, and after about two miles
on an easy grade the road begins to ascend. Just before
reaching the first of the sandhills there is a small pond on
the roadside, dry in summer. In this I found the somewhat
rare grass Amphibromus. This has been figured and described
by the late Mr. Kirk as a new species, but I understand there
are doubts as to whether it is not the Australian species, A.
neesiana. Judging from his figures, the specimens Mr. Kirk
obtained in the Waikato lakes were very poor compared with
those I got in this little wayside pond.

From this spot a few minutes' ride brings us to the first of
the sandhills. On the right is a clear and apparently deep
lagoon covering an area of 5 or 6 acres. This lakelet has
been formed by the ever-advancing sand damming up a
small creek, whose waters now percolate through about a
quarter of a mile of sand and come out in a deep ravine,
through which the creek flows down to the beach.

We now enter the Kariotahi Gap. These " gaps," of
which there are several between the Manukau and Waikato
Heads, are the only means of access to the beach. Through
each of these flows a small creek, which probably assists in
some measure in keeping these passes open. When well in the
gap the scenery, to my mind, is suggestive of a desert. The
sand is generally of a dark hue, owing to the presence of con-
siderable quantities of ironsand. The monotony of the scene
is broken by a view of the ocean at the lower end of the gap,
and by a few arenaceous plants, such as Co'prosma acerosa,
Scirptis frondosus, and Arundo conspicua, the latter being al-
ways a most conspicuous plant on sand-dunes and in inland
swamps. In a swampy place at the edge of the gap I found
Mentha cunvinghamii, Epilobium billardierianum, Haloragis
depressa, and Juncus ccespititius. The lower part of the

Carse. — Flora of the Mauku District. 371

gap narrows to a mere track, which reaches the beach at the
mouth of the creek above mentioned. Here a grassy fiat
affords a uood place to allow our horses to have a rest and
feed before proceeding along the beach, and good water and an
abundant supply of watercress suggest the advisability of
boiling the " billv " for lunch.

I regret that I have not been able to devote as much time
as I could wish to this interesting part of the district ; but,
still, I have explored to some extent. On the drier parts of
the cliffs, and not unfrequentiv ou blown sand, Mesembryan-
themum australe is plentiful. Where water drips I noted
Sonciius asper var. Itttoralis in great abundance, and here and
there Cutula dioica occurs. Such plants as Apium australe,
Sunolus repens, Selliera radtcans, Lobelia anceps, and Triglo-
chiib triandritm are abundant. In wet sand, usually at the tops
of the cliffs, are large matted patches of Gu»nera arenaria. In
drier sandv spots Goprosma acerosa, Linum monogynum, Tillcea
sieberiana, Muhlenbechia compiexa, Cassiuia retorta, Zoysia
pungens, and Seuecio lautus are common, as also are Pimelea
arenaria and P. Icevigata. In rather damp places between the
cliffs and the beach stunted forms of Curynocarpus Icevigata
are of frequent occurrence, intermixed with Pseudopanax
lessonii, Goprosma baueriana, and often as an undergrowth
large patches of Pteris comans. In some places Tetragonia
trigyna climbs 6 ft. or 7 ft. up the shrubs, and T. expansa
is often met with. Parietaria debilis also occurs in shady
places. In sandy spots Carex pumila, G testacea, and Spinifex
nirsutus are of frequent occurrence. In a few damp spots I
noted P<>a austraiis var. Icevis. and on the low cliffs the
beautiful renga lily (Arthropodium cirrhatum) is of frquent
occurrence.

I have ridden along the splendidly smooth beach as far as
the Manukau Heads, but as it was in the teeth of a howling
nor'-wester, accompanied by heavy rain, I was unable to do
much botanically. I noted a large group of pohutukawas
with straight trunks, very unlike the usual gnarled and
♦twisted forms so familiar all along the coast. I understand
from Mr. Petrie that Myriophyllum peduneulatum and Dis-
caria toumatou occur among sandhills near Waikato Head,
but I have not yet been able to look up that part of the
coast.

Another very interesting botanical excursion is to the
Lower Waikato. This is about seven miles from Mauku. A
considerable part of the way lies along what is known as
" The Tram." Before the railwaywas formed it was proposed
to connect the Waikato district with Auckland by means of
a tramway joining the Manukau to the W'aikato River.
Goods were to be sent from Onehunga up the Mauku branch

372 Transactions. — Botany.

or arm of the Manukau, thence by tram to the river some-
where near Cameron Town. The road was formed for over
three miles, and is still 2 chains wide, one side being intended
for the tramway and the other for ordinary traffic. The
formation of the railway, however, knocked tbis scheme on
the head. Much of the tram between Mauku and Puni
passes through low-lying swampy land from which a good
deal of gum has been dug. On either side of the road is high
Leptospermum scrub, among which grow Panax arboreum,
Quintinia serrata, Carpoditus serratus, &c. In a swamp on the
edge of the road I found one specimen of the beautiful orchid
Prasophyllum colensoi, the only one I have seen so far in the
whole district.

Turning down by the Puni School and up a long hill we
reach Mr. Shipherd's house, from which a magnificent view
of the Lower Waikato is to be obtained. The river is seen,
studded with numerous small islands, winding about through
the low-lying land which stretches for miles in places on
either side. Much of this level land is covered with dense
kahikatea forest. In the bush near Mr. Shipherd's is one
plant of Pteris comans. This is the only plant of this species
I have ever seen so far from the sea.

A ride of about two miles brings us to the bank of the river
at the site of an old flax-mill. In this part of the river in some
places there is a high bauk close on the water's edge, while in
others is a stretch of swampy land from a few yards to a mile
or more in breadth, frequently covered with kahikatea bush,
or, where it is open, with Typha angusiifolia and other
swamp plants. These swamps are, as a rule, negotiable in
the summer, but are very awkward places to get into, and
much more so to get out of again, owing to the great height of
the raupo and sedges. In and on the margin of the water
(for the river is affected by the tides) the more interesting
plants are Potamogeton ochreatum, P. ckeescmami, Myrio-
phyllum varicefolium, M. elatinoides, Limosella aquatica, and
a curious dwarfed form of Pratia angulata. Mr. Petrie's
Hydrocotyle hydrophila is also fairly plentiful. In muddy
spots Elatine americana and Callitriche muetleri are of fre-
quent occurrence. In drier spots the typical form of Pratia
angulata, Hydrocotyle novm-zelandia, and Ophioglossum vul-
gatum occur. Floating on wet swamps are Lemna minor
and Azolla rubra. In most of the swamps such plants as
Scirpus maritivius, Garex ternaria, and G. subdola are plenti-
ful. In land more or less submerged Mazus pumilio and
Viola lyallii occur ; and here also I found a few plants of
Nephrodium thely pteris. In a warm sheltered spot I noted
a few plants of Asplenium umbrosum, a fern somewhat rare
in this district.

Caese. — Flora of the Jlmiku District. 373

Perhaps the most interesting plane in the Lower Waikato,
or, in fact, in any part of the district, is the dainty little
orchid Bulbophyllum tuberculatum. In December, 1900, I
discovered large quantities of it in the upper branches of
trees that had been felled. It was then in fruit, having
flowered evidently in November. While I write — May,
1901 — I have this species flowering on an apple-tree.
Probably it flowers right through the warm season, and
even into the winter. Unfortunately, the plants I dis-
covered in 1900 have all been destroyed in the burning of
the felled trees, but I think it is probable that the species
is plentiful in the upper branches of trees all along the
river- side.

In the swampy bush, which consists chiefly of Podocarpus
dacrydioides, Coprosma rotundifolia is not uncommon, and
other Copro&mas are plentiful. Plere I found a kauri-tree, its
roots being in water nearly all the year round. A few other
trees of this species grow on a dry bank not far away.
Along the river-bank is the only place in the district where I
have seen Calystegia tuguriorum, and here also I found
Bidens pilosa quite 6 ft. high, and Potentilla anserina.
Ranunculus macropus is common, but owing to its being
so frequently submerged does not flower. Carex dipsacea
is plentiful along the river-side, and here too I found one
solitary plant of C. inversa.

While speaking of the genus Carex, I would like to refer
to a somewhat peculiar form of C. lucida which is not un-
common in the Lower Waikato region and in Mauku. Tins
form has compound $ spikelets, a rather unusual state, but
not so uncommon as was at one time thought. This species
frequently has the culms much elongated in fruit. I care-
fully measured the culms of a specimen recently, and found
it had attained the unusual length of 7 ft. 4-| in.

And now I must draw my notes to an end. I have, on
paper, revisited many of the scenes of interesting botanical
discoveries, and trust that these notes may be of some use
botanically.

In the subjoined list will be found the names of 405
flowering-plants and ferns observed in this district. The 405
species represent seventy-eight natural orders. The largest
orders are Filices, with seventy-one species ; Cyperacea,
forty-four species ; Orehidece, twenty-two ; Composites, twenty-
one ; Rubiacece, eighteen ; and Grammece, seventeen. The
largest genera are Coprosma and Carex, with fourteen species
each ; Hymenophyllum, with ten species ; Epilobium and Poly-
podium, with eight species each; and Sen pus, Cludium, and
Lomaria, with seven species each.

374 Transactions. — Botany.

Catalogue of the Flowering-plants and Ferns observed
in the Mauku District.

Ranunculaceee.

Clematis indivisa, Willd. Mauku ; Bald Hills ; Lower Wai-

kato.
Eanunculus hirtus, Banks and Sol. General,
plebeius, B. Br. General,
rivularis, Banks and Sol. Not uncommon in

wet places,
acaulis, Banks and Sol. ■ Moist sandy shores,
macropus, Hook. f. Wet swamps, Lower Wai-
kato .

Cruciferae.

Nasturtium palustre, DC. Not uncommon in wet places.
Cardamine hirsuta, L. In damp places ; common.

Violarieae.

Viola lyallii, Hook. f. Swampy places, Lower Waikato.
Melicytus ramiflorus, Forst. In woods ; common.
Melicytus micranthus, Hook. f. Var. microphylhcs : Common.
Var. longiuscuhts : Not common, Mauku.

Pittosporeae.

Pittosporum tenuifolium, Gartn. Common in woods.
„ covuifolium, A. Gunn. Common in woods.

„ eugenioides, A. Gunn. Not uncommon in woods.

Caryophylleae.

Stellaria parviflora, Banks and Sol. Plentiful in shady places.

Elatinese.

Elatine americana, Arnott. Wet places, Lower Waikato.

Hypericinese.

Hypericum japonicum, Thunb. Not uncommon in wet

places.

Malvaceae.

Plagianthus divaricatus, Forst. Plentiful along tidal creeks.

Tiliaceae.

Entelea arborescens, R. Br. Bald Hills; rare. Between

Waiuku and Manukau Heads: Glieeseman.
Aristotelia racemosa, Hook. f. Generally distributed.
Elaeocarpus dentatus, Vahl. Not uncommon in woods.

Lineae.

Linum monogynum, Forst. Not uncommon on coast.

Cabse. — Flora of the. Mav.hu District.

Geraniaceae.

Geranium dissectum, L., var. australe. General.

„ inicrophyllum, Hook. f. Generally distributed.

„ molle, L. Common.

Pelargonium australe, Jacq. Not uncommon.
Oxalis corniculata, L. Generally distributed.

375

Rutaceae.

Phebalium nudum, Hook. Waitangi ; Bluff.
Melicope ternata, Forst., and its var. mantellii.

throughout the district.
Melicope simplex, A. Cunn. Plentiful.

Scattered

Meliaceae.

Dysoxylum spectabile, Hook. f. Very plentiful.

Olacineae.

Pennantia coryrnbosa, Forst. Not uncommon in woods.

Rhamneae.

Pomaderris phylicifolia, Lodd. Generally distributed.

Sapindaceae.

Dodonasa viscosa, Jacq. Bald Hills ; Waitangi.
Alectryon excelsum, Gcertn. Plentiful.

Anacardiaceae.

Corynocarpus laevigata, Forst. Common on coast ; less
common inland.

Coriarieae.

Coriaria ruscifolia, L. Common.

Leguminosae.

Carmichaelia australis, Br. Generally distributed.
Sophora tetraptera, Mill. Waitangi ; Lower Waikato.

Rosaceae.

Rubus australis, G. Forst. Generally distributed.

„ cissoides, A. Cunn. Not uncommon.

„ schmidelioides, A. Cunn. Not uncommon.
Potentilla anserina, L. Lower Waikato ; not common.
Acaena sanguisorbae, Vahl. Plentiful in woods.

„ novas-zealandiae, T. Kirk. Plentiful in open places.

Saxifrageae.

Quintinia serrata, A. Cunn. Puni ; not common.
Carpodetus serratus, Forst. Common in wet places.

376 Transactions. — Botany.

Crassulacese.

Tillaea sieberiana, Schult. Dry sandy bank, Kariotahi.

Droseracese.

Drosera spathulata, Labill. Swamp, Te Karaka Flat.
„ binata, Labill. General in swamps.

auriculata, Backh. Common on dry hills.

Haloragese.

Haloragis alata, J acq. Generally distributed.

tetragyna, Hook. f. The typical form not un-
common ; var. diffusa, plentiful.
„ depressa, Walp. Kariotahi Gap; rare.

„ micrantha, R. Br. Generally distributed.

Myriophyllum intermedium, DC. Common in streams and
wet places.
„ elatmoides, Gaudich. Lower Waikato.

„ rob'ustum, Hook. f. Mauku ; Kariotahi.

pedunculatum. Hook. f. Sand-dunes near
Waikato Head : Petrie.
Gunnera arenaria, Cheesem. West Coast ; plentiful.
Callitriche verna, L. Lower Waikato.

„ muelleri, Sond. Common in wet places.

Myrtacese.

Leptospermum scoparium, Fcrst. Common.

„ ericoides, A. Rich. Not uncommon.

Metrosideros florida, Sm. Common in woods.

„ diffusa, Sm. Mauku Pall ; Bald Hills.

hypericifolia, A. Gunn. Common in woods,
robusta, A. Gunn. Common in woods,
tomentosa, A. Rich. Not uncommon on coast.
„ scandens, Soland. Common in woods

Myrtus bullata, Soland. Common.
Eugenia maire. A. Gunn. Edges of creeks and swamps.

Onagrarieae.

Epilobium chionanthum, Haussk. Swamps ; not uncommon.

„ junceum, Soland. Not uncommon.

„ [erectum, Petrie] . In swamps ; not uncommon.

„ pallidiflorum, Soland. In swamps; common.

„ billardierianum, Ser. Coast ; not uncommon,

pubens, A. Rich. Not uncommon.

„ alsinoides, A. Gunn. Mauku ; Waitangi ; rare.

„ rotundifolium, G. Forst. Common in wet places.

„ nummularifolium. R. Gunn. Not uncommon.

Fuchsia excorticata, L. f. Generally distributed.

Carse. — Flora of the Mauku District. 377

Passifloreae.
Passiflora tetrandra, Banks and Sol. Margin of woods ; very
plentiful and luxuriant.

Ficoideae.

Mesembryanthemuiii australe, Sol. Sea- cliff ; plentiful.
Tetragonia expansa, Murr. Coast; not uncommon.

„ trigyna, Banks and So I. Coast; not uncommon.

Umbelliferae.

Hydrocotyle hydrophila, Petric. Lower Waikato.

dissecta, Hook. f. Shady places ; plentiful,
pterocarpa, F. Muell. Wet places ; not uncom-
mon,
novse-zelandise, DC. Wet' places ; plentiful,
moschata, G. Forst. Mauku ; Waiau ; not

common,
asiatica, L. Generally distributed.
Apium australe, Thou. Coast ; plentiful.
Apium filiforme, Hook. Banks of tidal creeks and brackish

marsbes ; common.
Crantzia lineata, Nutt. Common in brackish marsbes and
moist sand.

Araliacese.

Panax arboreum, G. Forst. Generally distributed.
Scbefflera digitata. Forst. Not uncommon in damp places.
Pseudopanax lessomi, C. Koch. Coast ; plentiful.
Pseudopanax crassifolium, C. Koch, var. unifoliolatum.
Generally distributed in woods.

Cornaceaa.
Corokia buddleoides, A. Cunn. Waitangi ; not common.
Griselinia lucida, G. Forst. Common in woods.

Caprifoliaceae.

Alseuosmia quercifolia, A. Cunn. In woods; not plentiful.

Rubiacese.

Coprosma grandifolia, Hook. f. Not uncommon in woods.
„ lucida, Forst. Not uncommon.

„ baueri, Endl. Coast ; not uncommon.

robusta, Baoul. Plentiful.
„ cunningbamh. Banks of streams and damp

places.
„ arborea, T. Kirk. Common in woods.

spathulata, A. Cunn. Plentiful in places,
rotundifolia, A. Cunn. Swampy bush, Lower
Waikato.

378 Transactions. — Botany.

Coprosma areolata, Cheesem. Very plentiful.

„ tenuicaulis, Hook. f. Common in damp woods.

„ rhamnoides, A. Cunn. Not uncommon.

rigida, Cheesem. Plentiful.
„ acerosa, A. Cunn. Sand-dunes; plentiful.

„ propinqua, A. Cunn. Damp spots; not uncommon.

Nertera cunninghamii, Hook. f. On wet rocks, Mauku Fall.
Nertera dichondraefolia, Hook. f. Plentiful in woods and

swamps.
Galium tenuicaule, A. Cunn. Mauku, rare; Lower Waikato,

common.
Galium umbrosum, Soland. Plentiful in woods.

Compositse.

Lagenophora forsteri, DO. Generally distributed.

Olearia furfuracea, Hojk.f. KarakaPlat; Waitangi; Waiuku.

„ cunningbamii, Hook. f. Common in woods.

„ solandri, Hook. f. Mauku; coast, common.
Gnaphalium luteo-album, L. Generally distributed.

japonicum, Tliunb. Generally distributed.
„ collinum, Labill. Generally distributed.

Cassinia retorta, A. Cunn. Plentiful, especially near coast.
Siegesbeckia orientalis, L. In woods ; not uncommon.
Bidens pilosa, L. Banks of Waikato River.
Cotula coronopifolia, L. Plentiful in wet places.

„ minor. Hook. f. Not uncommon in wet places.

„ dioica, Hook. f. Wet rocks, west coast.
Centipeda orbicularis, Lour. Low land ; not uncommon.
Erechtites prenanthoides, DC. Mauku.

arguta, DC. Generally distributed.
„ quadridentata, DC. Not uncommon.

Brachyglottis repanda, Forst. Generally distributed.
Senecio lautus, Soland. Coast : common.

„ kirkii, Hook. f. Not uncommon in woods.
Sonchus asper, Hill, var. littoralis. Sea-clitfs ; plentiful.

Goodenovieae.

Selliera radicans, Cav. Abundant in salt marsbes.

Campanulaceae.

Pratia anguiata, Hook. f. Lower Waikato, plentiful ; Mauku;

Kariotabi.
Lobelia anceps, Linn. f. Plentiful.
Wablenbergia gracilis, A. DC. Generally distributed.

Ericaceae.

Gaultberia antipoda, Forst. Generally distributed.

Carse.— Flora of the Mauku District. 379

Epacrideaa.

Cyathodes acerosa, Br. Generally distributed.
Leucopogon fasciculatus. A. Rich. Common.

„ fraseri, A. Cunn. Generally distributed.

Epacris pauciflora. A. Rich. Te Karaka Flat.

Primulaceae.

Samolus repens. Pars. Plentiful in salt marshes and along

the coast.

Myrsineae.
Myrsine salicina, Heiuard. Not uncommon.

„ urvillei, A. DC. Plentiful in woods.

Oleaceae.

Olea lanceolata, Hook. f. Not uncommon in woods.
„ cunninghamii, Hook. f. Mauku.

Apocynaceae.

Parsonsia albiflora, Baoul. Common in woods.
„ rosea, Baoul. Common in woods.

Boragineae.

Myosotis spathulata, Forst. Bank of creek near Puni ; rare.

Loganiacese.

Geniostoma ligustrifolia, A. Cunn. Generally distributed.

Convolvulaceae .

Calystegia sepium, Br. Abundant.

„ tuguriorum, Br. Lower Waikato.

„ soldanella, Br. Plentiful on the coast.

Dichondra repens, Forst. Plentiful in places.

Solanaceae.

Solanum aviculare, Forst. Plentiful.

„ nigrum, L. Generally distributed.

Scrophularineae.

Mazus pumilio, Br. Moist ground, Lower Waikato.
Gratiola peruviana, L. Not uncommon in moist land.

nana, Benth. Swamps, Te Karaka Flat.
Glossostigma elatinoides, Benth. Lower Waikato ; west

coast.
Limosella aquatica, L. Lower Waikato.
Veronica macrocarpa, Vahl. Banks of tidal creeks.
„ salicifolia, Forst. Generally distributed.
„ plebeia, B. Br. Low land ; plentiful.

380 Transactions. — Botany.

Lentibularieae.

Utricularia novse-zelandiae, Hook. f. Swamps, Te Karaka

Flat, and along the Tram.
Utricularia colensoi, Hook. f. Swamp, Te Karaka Flat.

Verbenaceae.

Vitex littoralis, A. Gunn. Generally distributed.
Avicennia officinalis, L. Manukau Harbour.

Myoporineae.
Myoporum la3tum, Forst. Waitangi ; Manukau Head.

Labiatae.
Mentha cunninghamii, DC. Mauku Fall ; Kariotahi Gap.

Plantagineae.

Plantago raoulii. Dene. Mauku ; not common.

Chenopodiaceae.

Chenopodium glaucum, L. Brackish-water swamps.
Salicornia australis, Sol. Along the shores,
Suasda mantima, Duvi. Mud-flats, Waitangi.

Polygonaceae.

Polygonum minus, Huds. Plentiful in wet places.

„ aviculare, L. Not uncommon.

Eumex flexuosus, Sol. Bald Hills.
Muhlenbeckia australis, Mcisn,. Plentiful.
„ complexa, Meisn. Abundant.

Laurineaa.

Beilschmiedia tawa, Benth. and Hook. f. Common.

„ tarairi, Benth. and Hook. f. Common.

Litsasa cahcaris, Hook. f. Generally distributed.

Monimiaceae.

Laurelia nova3-zelandia3, A.' Gunn. Plentiful in woods.
Hedvcarva dentata, Forst. Common in woods.

Proteaceae.

Knightia excelsa, B. Br. Common in woods.

Thymeleae.

Pimelea arenaria, A. Gunn. Plentiful on sandhills.
„ laevigata, Gcertn. Common.

Euphorbiaceae.

Euphorbia glauca, Forst. Common on the coast.

Caksk. — Flora of the Mauku District. 381

Santalaceae.

Fusanus cunninghamii, Hook. f. Not uncommon in woods.

Urticaceee.

Paratrophis microphylla. Not uncommon.
Elatosteinma rugosum, A. Gnnn. Lower Waikato.
Parietaria debilis, Forst. West coast.

Piperaceae.

Piper excelsum, Forst. Plentiful in woods.
Peperomia endlicheri, Miq. Generally distributed.

Coniferae.

Phvllocladus trichomanoides, Don. Not common.
Dacrydium cupressinum, Sol. Plentiful in woods.
Podocarpus ferruginea, Don. Plentiful in woods.

„ totara, Don. Plentiful in woods.

„ spicata. R. Br. Not uncommon.

„ dacrydioides, A. Rich. Abundant in low land.

Libocedrus doniana, Endl. Near Waiuku ; rare.
Agatbis australis, Steud. A few scattered trees only.

Orchidese.

Barina mucronata, Lindl. Plentiful in woods.

„ suaveolens, Lindl. In woods ; not common.
Dendrobium cunningbamii, Lindl. Not uncommon.
Bulbophyllum pygmaeum, Lindl. Upper branches of trees ;

common.
Bulbophyllum tuberculatum, Col. Upper branches of trees,

Lower Waikato, not uncommon ; Mauku, rare.
Sarcochilus adversus, Hook. f. Branches of trees ; not un-
common.
Acianthus sinclairii, Hook. f. In woods ; common.
Microtis porrifolia, Br. Generally distributed.
Pterostylis banksii, R. Br. In woods ; plentiful.

„ trullifolia, Hook. In woods ; not uncommon.

„ graminea, Hook. f. Wet place, Mauku Fall, rare.

Thelymitra longifolia, Forst. Common in open land.

„ pulchella, Hook. f. Te Karaka Flat.

Corysanthes triloba, Hook. f. In woods ; plentiful.

macrantha, Hook. f. In woods ; plentiful.
„ oblonga, Hook. f. Wet places ; not uncommon.

Spiranthes australis, Lindl. Swamps ; not uncommon.
Prasophyllum colensoi, Hook. One plant seen in a swamp

between Mauku and Puni.
Prasophyllum pumilum, Hook. f. Te Karaka Flat.
Orthoceras solandri, Lindl. Not uncommon in open places.

382 Transactions. — Botany.

Liliaceae.

Rhipogonuin scandens, Forst. In woods ; plentiful.
Phormium tenax, Forst. Creek-banks, edges of swamps ;

common.
Cordyline australis, Hook. f. Generally distributed.

„ banksii, Hook. f. Dry woods ; not uncommon.

„ pumilio, Hook. f. Among scrub ; not uncommon.

Astelia cunnmghamii, Hook. f. On cliffs and rather dry spots.

„ solandri, A. Gunn. Common in woods.

„ banksii, A. Gunn. Common in woods.

„ grandis, Hook. f. Swampy places ; not common.
Arthropodium cirrhatum. Not uncommon on sea-cliffs.
Dianella intermedia, End!. Common.

Juncaceae.

Juncus maritimus, L. Common in salt marshes.

effusus, L. Generally distributed.

planifolius, Br. Wet places ; common.

caespititius. Wet places near the coast.

prismatocarpus. Wet places ; plentiful.

bufonius, L. Not uncommon.
Luzula campestris, DC. Vicinity of Mauku.

Palmeae.

Rhopalostylis sapida, Wendl. and Druce. Common in woods.

Typhaceae.

Typha angustifolia, L. Abundant in swamps.
Sparganium simplex, Huds. Common in swamps.

Pandaneae.

Freycinetia banksii, A. Gunn. Common in suitable localities.

Lemnaceaa.

Lemna minor, L. Not uncommon in stdl water.

Naiadaceae.

Triglochin triandrum, Mich- mx. Common in salt marshes,

and in moist sand on the coast.
Potamogeton cheesemanii, A. Bennett. Common in streams.
„ ochreatus, Baoul. Waikato Eiver.

„ polygonifolius, Pourr. Common in wet places.

Zostera marina, L. XIanukau Harbour and tidal creeks.

Restiaceae.

Leptocarpus simplex, A. Bich. Brackish- water marshes,
plentiful; Mauku Creek (fresh water).

Cause — Flora of the Mauku District. 383

Cyperaceae.

Cyperus ustulatus, A. Rich. Plentiful in wet places.
Eleocharis sphacelata, br. Wet swamps ; not uncommon.
„ acuta, Br. Common in swampy places.

„ gracillima. Common in swamps.

Scirpus cevnuus, Vahl. (S. riparius, Br.). Common.
„ inundatus, Poir. Plentiful in wet places.
„ prolifer. Not uncommon in swamps.
„ nodosus, Rottb. Generally distributed.
„ lacustris, L. Banks of streams ; common.
„ maritimus, L. Waikato River ; Mauku Creek ; coast.
„ frondosus, Banks and Sol. Sandhills ; common.
Schoenus axillaris, Poir. Common in wet places.

„ tenax, Hook. f. Te Karaka Flat ; not common.
„ tendo, Banks and Sol. Te Karaka Flat ; common.
„ carsei, Cheesem. Te Karaka Flat ; not common.
Lepidosperma australe, R. Br. Generally distributed.

„ concava, R.. Br. Te Karaka Flat ; common.

Cladium articulatum, Br. In swampy places; common.
„ glomeratum, Br. Common in swamps.
„ teretifolium, Br. Common in swamps.
„ gunnii, Hook. f. Common throughout the district.
„ junceum, Br. Brackish- water marshes ; abundant.
„ sinclairii, Hook. f. Cliffs of tidal creeks
„ capillaceum. C. B. Clarke. Common in swampy
places.
Gahnia hectori, Kirk. Mauku ; not common.
„ lacera, Steud. Not uncommon.
„ gaudichaudii, Steud. Dry places ; not uncommon.
„ setifolia. Wet places ; common.
Uncinia australis, Pers. Common in woods.

„ banksii, Boott. Common in dry woods.
Carex paniculata, L. The varieties secta and virgata are
plentiful in swamps.
„ inversa, R. Br. Bank of Waikato, rare ; Bald Hills,

rare.
,, subdola, Boott. Generally distributed in wet places.
„ ternaria, Forst. Common in wet places.
„ lucida, Boott. Generally distributed.
„ dipsacea, Berggren. Between Mauku and Lower Wai-
kato.
„ testacea, Sol. Not uncommon on the coast.
„ littorosa, Baker. Muddy flats, Mauku (tidal) Creek.
„ dissita, Soland. The typical form, var. a lambertiana

and var. y, are common throughout the district.
„ neesiana, Endl. Vicinity of Mauku.
„ breviculmis, R. Br. Dry hills ; common.
„ pumila, Thunb. Sandy coast ; common.

384 Transactions — botany.

Garex vacillans, Sol. Bald Hills.

„ pseudo-cyperus, L. Common in wet land.

Gramineae.

Microlsena stipoides, Br. Throughout the district.

„ arenacea, Hook. f. Common in woods.

Hierochloe redolens, Br. Wet places, Mauku; coast.
Spinifex hirsuta, Labill. Common on the coast.
Paspalum distichum, Burmann. Bank of Waikato River

and moist brackish marshes.
Opiismenus undulatifolius, Beauv. Common in woods.
Isachne australis, Br. Swamps ; plentiful.
Zoysia pungens, Willd. Common on sand-dunes.
Stipa micrantha, Nees. Brackish-water marshes.
Dichelachne crinita, Hook. f. Not uncommon.

„ sciurea, Hook. f. Generally distributed.

Deyeuxia forsteri, Kunth. Common.

„ billardieri, Kunth. Brackish swamps ; common.

„ quadriseta, Benth. Not uncommon.
Arundo conspicua, Forst. Sandhills and inland swamps ;

plentiful.
Poa anceps, Forst. Not uncommon.

„ australis var. laevis. Wet places on the coast.
Danthonia semi-annularis, Br. Generally distributed.

Filices.

Gleichenia circinata, Swz. Generally distributed.
„ dicarpa, Br. Common.

„ cunninghamii, Hew. The Bluff; not common.

Cyathea medullaris, Sivz. Common in woods.

„ dealbata, Swz. Common in woods.
Hemitelia smithii, Hook. Mauku ; two plants only.
Dicksonia squarrosa, Swz. Common in woods.
Hympnophyilum tunbridgense, Sm. Common in woods.
„ multifidum, Swz. Patumahoe ; rare.

„ rarum, Br. Not uncommon.

„ polyanthos, Sicz. Common in woods.

„ javanicum, Sprcng. On rocks; not uncom-

mon.
„ dilatatum, Swz. In woods ; common.

demissum, Sivz. Plentiful in woods.
„ scabrum, A. Rich. Mauku ; rare.

„ flabellatum, Labill. In woods ; not uncom-

mon.
„ subtihssimum, Kunze. Mauku ; rare.

Trichomanes reniforme, Forst. In woods ; not common.

„ humile, Forst. On damp rocks ; not uncommon.

„ venosum, Br. On tree ferns ; common.

Uarse. —Flora of the Mauku District. 385

Trichomanes rigidtim, Sivz., var. elongatum. Shady clay

banks ; common.
Davallia nov^-zelandiae, Col. Mauku ; rare.
Lmdsaya linearis, Sivz. Te Karaka Flat ; plentiful.

„ viridis, Col. Mauku, on stems of ferns ; not common .
Adiantum diaphanum, Blume. Creek-sides ; not uncommon.
„ affine, Willd. Common.

„ fulvum, Baoul. Not uncommon.

aethiopicum, L. Mauku; not uncommon.
„ hispidulum, Sivz. Mauku ; rare.

Hypolepis tenuifolia, Bernhard. Not common.

distans, Hook. Mauku, plentiful ; Lower Waikato.
Pellaea rotundifolia, Hook. Common in woods.
Pteris tremula, Br. Plentiful in woods.

scaberula, A. Rich. Mauku; Puni ; Lower Waikato.

Not common,
macilenta, A. Cunn. In woods ; plentiful,
comans, Forst. Puni ; one plant. Plentiful along the
coast.
„ aquilina, L., var. esculenta. Generally distributed.
„ incisa, Thunb. Not uncommon.
Lomaria discolor, Willd. In woods ; plentiful.

lanceolata, Spreng. Banks of creeks, &c. ; common
„ procera, Spreng. Generally distributed.
filiformis, A. Cunn. In woods ; plentiful,
fluviatilis, Spreng. Bald Hill bush ; rare.
„ membranacea, Col. In woods ; not uncommon.
„ frazeri, A. Cunn. In woods ; common.
Doodia media, B. Br. Not common.

Asplenium obtusatum, Forst., var. obliquum and var. lucidum.
Common in woods.
„ falcatum, Lamarck. Plentiful in woods.

hookerianum, Col. Mauku ; Lower Waikato.
„ bulbiferum, Forst. Plentiful in woods.
„ flaccidum, Forst. Common in woods.
„ umbrosum, /. Smith. Not common.
Aspidium richardii, Hook. On rocks ; not uncommon.

„ capense, Willd. Usually an epiphyte ; common.
Nephrodium thelypteris, Desv., var. squamulosum. Swamp,
Lower Waikato ; not common.
„ decompositum, B. Br. Not common.

„ glabellum, A. Cunn. In woods ; plentiful.

„ hispidum, Hook. Common in woods.

Polypodium punctatum, Thunb. Generally distributed.

pennigerum, Forst. Plentiful throughout the
district.
„ grammitidis, B. Br. Not uncommon.

tenellum, Forst. In woods ; not uncommon.
25

386 Transactions.— Botany .

Polypodium cunninghamii, Hook. On rocks and tree-trunks ;
plentiful.
„ serpens, Forst. Common throughout the district.

„ pustulatum, Forst. In woods ; plentiful.

billardieri, Br. Generally distributed.
Todea hymenophylloides, Rich, and Less. Banks of creeks ;

common.
Schizsea fistulosa, Labill. Te Karaka Flat ; common.

„ bifida, Sivz. Te Karaka Flat ; plentiful.
Lygodium articulatum, A. Rich. Common in woods.
Marattia fraxinea, Sm. Bald Hills, not uncommon ; Puni ;
Manukau Head, in deep gully.

Ophioglosseae.

Ophioglossum vulgatum, L. Bank of Waikato Eiver.
Botrychium ternatum, Sivz. In scrub ; not uncommon.

Salvinieae.

Azolla filiculoides, Lam., var. rubra. Swamps, Lower Wai-
kato.

Lycopodiacese.

Lycopodium billardieri, S'prcng. In woods ; not uncommon.

„ densuin, Labill. Among scrub ; common.

„ cernuum, L. Clay cliffs, the Bluff; rare.

„ laterale, Br. In damp open places ; common.

„ scariosum, Forst. Clay cliffs, the Bluff; rare.

„ volubile, Forst. Generally distributed.

Tmesipteris tannensis, Beriih. In woods ; common.

Art. XXXIII. — Notes on the Grotvth of some Indigenous
and other Trees in Neto Zealand.

By H. D. M. Haszard.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 7th October, 1901.~\

Through the courtesy of Mr. J. W. Hall, of the Thames, who
for the last thirty years has made a hobby of arboriculture, I
have been enabled to take the measurements of a number of
trees growing on his estate at Parawai, Thames, which may
possibly be worth placing on record.

The situation of Mr. Hall's plantation is on the rising
ground at Parawai, the lower portion dipping into a gully and
being fairly well sheltered, the upper part rather exposed to
the southerly winds, the whole having a south-westerly aspect,

Haszard — Growth of Trees.

387

with high hills at the back cutting off the morning sun. The
soil is a stiff clay of rather poor quality.

Mr. Hall informs me that the plants when set out were
seedlings that would average about 6 in. in height; but, as
Mr. Hall is himself sending a paper describing his method of
operations, it is not necessary for me to do more than give
the measurements as taken, except that I would like to em-
phasize his remarks on the advantage of more being done in
the way of planting native trees, and making it generally
known that a great many of them may be propagated from
cuttings.

The girths given by me have in all cases been taken at
1 ft. from the ground, with the exception of the last on the
list, which is a magnificent specimen of macrocarpa, growing
on my place at Mount Pleasant, and whose gnarled roots
necessitated the measurements being taken at 3 ft. above the
surface. It is a beautiful symmetrical tree, 62 ft. in height,
and its branches cover a circle 216 ft. in circumference. From
what I can gather it was planted about 1872. All heights
have been taken approximately with an Abney level.

a
o 3'

CO

Name.

Girth.

Height.

§1
"ft

1

2

2a

3

4

5

6

7

9
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

Kauri (Agathis australis)*

it i, • • • • . .

(-4. mooreii)\
Purni (Yitex littoralis)l

tt ti * • • •

Matai (Podocarpus spicata)
Tot^ra (Podocarpus totara)

Miro (Podocarpus ferruginea)
Kainkatea {Podocarpus dacrydioides)
Rinm (Dacrydium cupressinum)

ti . ft • * • •

Kawaka (Libocedrus doniana)
Tanekahd, (Phyllocladus trichomauoides)

ti n * •

Ma.mmoth of California (Wellingtonia seguoia)
Blue-gum (Eucalyptus globulus)
Peppermint gam (Eucalyptus amygdalina) . .
Stringy-bark gum (EticalypniH obliqua)

rt tt

Cupressus macrocarpa

[Ft. in.

Ft. in.

1 10

36 0

1 11

34 0

1 7

22 0

4 4

39 0

2 10*

36 0

0 7*

14 0

2 9

42 0

2 4

39 0

1 1

16 0

1 6

35 0

1 10

33 0

1 11

35 0

1 6

22 0

1 11

24 0

1 7

32 0

1 9

30 0

5 3

56 0

8 7

74 0

6 5

48 0

7 4

70 0

7 0

67 0

14 9

62 0

1877
1878
1878
1872
1877
1877
1873
1873
1876
1876
1873
1874
1878
1875
1876
1878
1873
1872
1875
1875
1875
1872

* Cone-bearing for three years, f From New Caledonia. \ Branches
at 3 ft. from the ground. § Well sheltered.

388 Transactions. — Botany.

Akt. XXXIV. — Remarks on New Zealand Trees planted at
Paratvai, Thames, at and subsequent to the Year 1873.

By J. W. Hall.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 7th October, 1901.]

It is much to be regretted that a well-organized arbore-
tum for indigenous trees and shrubs has not been established
in each of the great centres of population. The extensive,
and frequently wanton, destruction of the native bush has
been going on at such a pace that it will soon be difficult, if
not impossible, to get sight of some of the rarer species. And,
unfortunately, the planting of our beautiful New Zealand
trees has not generally been adopted, perhaps from the mis-
taken idea that they are difficult of culture. Partly to dis-
prove this, but principally because I had a great liking for the
occupation, I some thirty years ago began a plantation on a
piece of land at Parawai, Thames. My success may be
gauged by the report just read by Mr. Haszard, giving the
data and measurements he has so kindly taken.*

One plantation is in a rather shallow gully, and is about
an acre in extent ; the other is on a gently rising hill,
and is about 2 acres. The trees are grown under almost
natural conditions, without cultivation, and were gene-
rally less than 1ft. high when planted. A hole about 2 ft.
square was dug for their reception, and a handful of bonedust
added. The plants were then left almost unattended, except
that the fern and scrub were occasionally cleared from around
them. Unfortunately, a few fir trees, originally intended for
shelter, were left too long — indeed, some are there yet — and
thus the growth was impeded.

Measurements of the pohutukawa and puriri were difficult
to obtain, as these trees, especially the pohutukawa, run much
to branches. The latter tree should be more extensively
planted than it is at present. It is easily grown, and, unlike
most New Zealand trees, will bear a slight scorching. It
would be a very suitable tree for planting on railway cuttings
and embankments, as its closely matted roots would prevent
the ground from slipping. One of my pohutukawas, planted
about thirty years ago, is quite 40 ft. high, and makes a pro-
digious display of deep-crimson blossoms about Christmas time.
It is greatly to be regretted that more of these fine and useful
trees have not been planted in the Auckland Domain and

*See Art. XXXI II.

JPEali..— Growth of Trees. 389

Albert Park. The Domain might easily be converted into a
splendid arboretum of New Zealand trees.

Compared with Cupressus macrocarpa, Pmus insignis, and
the Eucalypti, our indigenous trees are certainly of slow
growth ; but in a favourable situation and suitable soil the
kauri, rimu, totara, puriri, and others make fairly rapid pro-
gress and require very little attention, though cultivation and
bonedust will certainly hasten their growth. The aspiring
development of the kauri, the deep- green foliage of the puriri
and karaka, and the graceful habit of a young rimu are all
very attractive to the lover of trees.

Some of the shrubs and low-growing trees are also very
beautiful — for instance, the whau, the leaves of which some-
times exceed 1 ft. in width and 2 ft. in length. The climbing
ratas (Metrosideros) are also well worthy of attention. M.
diffusa, displaying its wealth of crimson blossoms early in the
spring, M. albiflora, laden with large white flowers late in
December, and the scarlet M. florid a in the early autumn, are
well worthy of cultivation, and, though difficult to transplant,
grow freely from seed. This, however, is a slow process, but
if planting were carried on extensively it would have to be
resorted to.

Cultivators are too apt to think that selecting a large
specimen will insure rapid development, whereas the reverse
is generally the result. It may not be generally known that
the puriri and totara, and doubtless many others, can be grown
from cuttings. Surrounding part of my plantation is a well-
established totara fence grown exclusively from cuttings.

Besides the trees mentioned in Mr. Haszard's list, there are
many others too recently planted to make the measurements
worth recording. Additions are constantly being made to
my collection to replace failures and establish fresh species.
Some of the commonest kinds I have found most difficult of
cultivation. I have not yet succeeded with the tawa, the
taraire, or the pukatea. Perhaps the most troublesome of all
are the semi-alpine ones — they suffer so much from the
drought in summer and the frost in winter.

One object in making these plantations was to induce the
visits of our rapidly disappearing native birds. The frequent
visits of the riro-riro, the piwakawaka, and the kotare, with
occasional incursions of the ruru, the tui, and the pipiwharau-
roa, and still more rare appearance of the kaka, kukupa,
kohoperoa, weka, and miromiro, have amply repaid my
expectations.

In conclusion, let me express a hope that these few
cursory remarks may induce others to attempt the cultivation
of our indigenous flora.

390 Transactions. — Botany.

Art. XXXV. — Descriptions of New Native Plants, and Notes.

By D. Petrie, M.A.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 5th August, 1901.}

1. Epilobium erectum, sp. nov.

Stems simple, erect, rigid, terete, stout. 3 ft. -5 ft. high,
reddish, glabrescent or sparingly pubescent with rather long
curved hairs, marked by ridges decurrent from the edges of
the sessile leaves, sparingly leafy, the successive leaves or
pairs of leaves barely overlapping or more distant. Leaves
contracted at the broadly sessile base, opposite below, alter-
nate above, ovate-lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, tapering uni-
formly to the acute tips, membranous, l^in.-2fin. long;
closely, shortly, bluntly, and regularly toothed along the
margin, the midrib and nerves prominent ; glabrous or pubes-
cent on the midrib, nerves, and edges, gradually diminishing
upwards, the lower often bearing undeveloped shoots in their
axils. Inflorescence much branched, the lower branches long
and leafy, all springing from the axils of leafy bracts. Flowers
numerous, clustered, short, nearly sessile, densely and loosely
pubescent, opening singly and for a short time only. Calyx
deeply divided, the lobes narrow linear - lanceolate, acute,
finely pilose. Petals magenta or paler, one-half longer than
the calyx (rarely twice as long,), shortly 2-lobed, the lobes
obtuse. Pedicels of mature capsules Jin. long or less, cap-
sules slightly curved, 2-^in. long, tapering at the apex; like
the pedicels, hoary with fine loosely appressed longish pubes-
cence. Seeds ovate, flattened on one side; testa papillose.

Hob. Wet and boggy stations in the lowlands of Auckland
Province — Dargaville, Whangarei, St. John's Lake (Auckland),
Port Charles, marshes of Lower Waikato, Morrinsville,
Pongakawa, Matata; Kaitoke Valley (Wellington) ; and north-
western lowlands of Nelson. I have not observed it in
Canterbury or Otago.

The leaves are sometimes gradually narrowed at the base,
especially in shaded situations. Where several stems grow
up together, as sometimes happens when the main stem is
broken off or arrested, the lower leaves often present the same
feature. The ridges on the internodes are usually four, but
occasionally adjoining pairs coalesce. At Kaitoke, in a small
bog surrounded by tall forest, I gathered specimens 6 ft. high
and as stout as one's little finger.

Tiie present species is E. junceum, Solander, var. macro -
phijlla, Haussknecht. Mr. Kirk appears not to have known

Petrie. — On New Plants. 391

it, as he does not refer to the variety in his " Students' Flora
of New Zealand." It differs from E. jtmceum in a number of
characters that are constant throughout a range extending
over more than half the colony. These characters are the
simple stout glabrescent tall stems, the large ovate- or linear-
lanceolate membranous glabrescent strongly nerved leaves, and
the much-branched leafy inflorescence with shortly pedicelled
capsules. The spacing of the leaves on the stems is remark-
ably uniform and elegant. Only E. 'pallidifloritm, Solander,
and E. chionanthum, Haussk., approach it in height and
robustness. It is not a hybrid between these species or any
others. In the marshes of the Waikato it is a most abundant
plant, and imparts to them a distinct facies that is easily
recognised from the windows of railway-carriages.

2. Note on Bhrharta thomsoni, Petrie.

I can now record the occurrence of this grass in the
Auckland Islands, having recently found a number of short
flowerless stems in a tuft of Poa gathered there by Mr. F. E.
Chapman in January, 1890. The foliage of the species is so
characteristic that I have no doubt of the accuracy of this
determination. In Mr. Cheeseman's herbarium I have also
seen similar flowerless specimens from the mountains in the
neighbourhood of Westport, where they were collected by Mr.
Townson. The species thus proves to have quite an exten-
sive range.

3. Note on Danthonia australis, Buchanan.

This species extends to Campbell Island, as is proved
by a specimen given me, a good many years ago, by Mr.
Buchanan, under the name "Danthonia raoulii, Hook, f."
The specimen is quite distinct from the latter species, and is
doubtless part of a young tuft of D. australis. The stem is
short and unbranched, but in all other respects the grass
matches typical specimens from the mountains of the Nelson
District. The occurrence of these grasses on the southern off
islands establishes further links in the close botanical connec-
tion between them and the main islands of New Zealand.

4, Poa seticulmis, sp. nov.
Tufted or spreading, branched below, slender, smooth,
pale-green or yellowish, 4 in. -10 in. high. Leaves shorter
than the culms, very slender or filiform, erect, striate, smooth,
involute. Sheaths broad, membranous, striate, and grooved ;
contracted just below the short broad ligule. Culms erect,
slender, often filiform, perfectly smooth, clothed almost to
the top by the sheaths of the cauline leaves. Panicle ovate,
1-J in. -3 in. long ; the branches in pairs, ascending or

392 Transactions. — Botany.

almost divaricating, sparingly subdivided, scabrid, bearing
few shortly pedicelled spikelets at the tips of the branchlets.
Spikelets rather small, narrow, very uniform, pale, polished
and shining, glabrous, about -Jin. long, 3- to 5-flowered,
obscurely nerved. Empty glumes shorter than the flowering,
about half the length of the spikelet, membranous, narrow,
acute, subequal. Flowering-glumes coriaceous, subacute,
faintly 3- to 5-nerved, glabrous or slightly downy on the
back, webbed at the base, sometimes serrate along the mid-
rib, as is occasionally the case in the empty glumes also ;
palea rather stiff

The typical state of this grass is that found on sandhills
on the west coast of the North Island to the north of the
Waikato Heads, but I cannot separate from it by any good
or constant characters a darker-green inland form that ranges
throughout both Islands as far south as Catlin's Eiver, in the
south-east of Otago.

Its closest affinity is with Poa colcnsoi, Hk. f,, and Poa
pusilla, Berggren. I consider it impossible to identify the
typical sandhill plant with Berggren's species, but some of
the inland forms included in my species approximate to what
appear to be large forms of Berggren's plant. Specimens
from distant and diverse stations display great uniformity
of character. Variation is chiefly seen in the flatness or
involution of the leaves, woodland specimens being decidedly
flatter, the scabrid serrature of the back of the glumes, and
the extent of the downiness and the webbing at the base
of the flowering-glumes. I have not noticed any panicle
having more than two branches at one node.

The present species has been long known, but it was con-
founded with Poa breviglumis, Hook, f., by most botanists,
and most likely by Hooker himself. It is now certain that it
does not belong to that species. The following stations are
from labels in my herbarium : Typical form — Ahipara Bay,
Maunganui Bluff, Kaipara Heads, Waitakerei West, Manukau
Heads. Inland form — Opanaki (Kaihu Valley), Tirau (Upper
Thames), Hiruharama (Waipiro Bay), Bealey (Canterbury
Alps), Maungatua, Catlin's River. A number of my speci-
mens have been received from Mr. Cheeseman and Mr. Kirk,
those of the latter under the name "Poa breviglumis, Hk. f.,"
an identification which Mr. Kirk abandoned in later vears.

5. Poa matthewsii, sp. nov.

A slender tufted or spreading grass, m the typical form
sparingly leafy, 10in.-20in. high. Stems branched at the
base, striate and grooved, smooth, clothed at anthesis to the
base of the panicle by the sheaths of the cauline leaves.
Leaves narrow, flat or involute, glabrous, longer than the

Pktrie. — On New Plants. 393

pale grooved sheaths ; ligule oblong. Panicle narrow (in the
typical form) or effuse, usually inclined, 10 in. long or less,
distantly branched ; branches 2-4, capillary, glabrous or
scabrid, sparingly subdivided, bearing few small shortly
pedicelled spikelets chiefly along their upper half. Spikelets
small, narrow-ovate, |in. long and about half as broad,
usually 4- to 6-flowered, the flowers sessile and crowded on
the rachis. Empty glumes unequal, membranous, subacute,
half as long as the flowering-glume next above. Flowering-
glumes compressed, green or pale, membranous, 5-nerved,
acute, glabrous or slightly scabrid on the nerves, not webbed
at the base, the midrib scabrid ; palea two-thirds the length
of the glume.

Hob. Waipahi, Kelso, and Cromwell, in Otago, on alluvial
flats.

Besides the typical form, I have two well-marked varieties
of this grass.

Var. minor. — Plant shorter and more densely tufted ;
leaves slender, involute, much shorter than the culms ;
panicles shorter and more effuse ; spikelets smaller and
fewer flowered. This variety grows at Ngapara, near
Oamaru, and is most abundant on alluvial flats in the
Manuherikia Plain, in Central Otago. A form closely akin
to it occurs at Kakanui Mouth, but its panicle is long and
very effuse, and the flowers, though small, are normal in
number.

Var. tenuis. — Very slender, spreading, with flat leaves
and long narrow green spikelets ; flowers more distant, with
acute strongly nerved glumes that are sometimes slightly
webbed at the base. This variety was abundant in valley -
bottoms in the Catlin's Eiver district before settlement began.
The clearing of the bush and the attacks of stock have since
almost exterminated it in this district. A better series of
specimens than I now possess might prove that var. tenuis is
an independent species. Unfortunately, the rich collection
of specimens from various stations that I once possessed has
been lost, through being lent to the late Mr. T. Kirk to aid
him in his preparation of a new Flora of New Zealand.

The present grass is of considerable economic value, and
would well repay cultivation. It is now to be found only in
spots protected from cattle and sheep by shrubby thickets
and bushes of Phormium. Var. minor is, however, still
abundant, but its value is much less.

Poa mattheivsii is, no doubt, one of the grasses of the main
islands that Sir Joseph Hooker included in Poa breviglumis,
a species, so far as we know, confined to the southern off
islands. It is easy to understand how Hooker, with his
scanty materials and his desire to avoid setting up invalid

394 Transactions. — Botany.

species, came to mass into one specific congeries several dis-
tinct plants. It is certain that no form of Poa breviglumis,
Hk. f., collected on the main islands exists in any colonial
herbarium.

The species is named in compliment to Mr. H. J.
Matthews, of the State Forest Department, who has con-
tributed much useful material to my collection, and has for
a number of years done notable service, to New Zealand
botany by collecting and growing numbers of alpine and
other interesting native plants. His cultivated series of
Veronicas, Gelmisias, Olearias, Oitrisias, &c, are of remarkable
interest. His garden at Hawthorn Hill, Mornington, Dun-
edin, is well worth a visit from any one interested in the
rarer and more beautiful native plants.

6. Poa incrassata, sp. nov.

A very short, densely tufted, perfectly glabrous grass,
2 in. -3 in. high. Culms hardly exceeding the leaves, but
elongating slightly in fruit, branched at the base, glabrous.
Leaves folded, the folded sides appressed, not involute, nearly
setaceous ; sheaths broader, grooved, almost as long as the
blades; ligule very short. Panicle iin.-lin. long, branches
few and short, not scabrid. Spikelets 6 or fewer, on pedicels
twice their own length, ^in. long and nearly as broad, turgid,
purplish-brown, usually 4-flowered. Empty glumes unequal,
broad, obtuse, half as long as the nearest flowering-glume.
Flowering-glumes slightly incurved at the tip, obtuse, coria-
ceous, distinctly 5-nerved, the midrib very prominent, not
scabrid and not webbed at the base ; palea nearly as long as
the glume.

Hab. Auckland Islands. Collected by Mr. F. E. Chap-
man, of Dunedin, in January, 1890.

7. Poa chathamica, sp. nov.
Loosely tufted or spreading by wiry rhizomes, leafy below,
lft. -lift, high, growing in Sphagnum swamps. Leaves flat,
narrow, grooved and striate, subrigid, ending in stiff rather
sharp points ; the lower sheaths much shorter than the
blades ; ligule very short, marked by a band of short stiff
hairs. Culms 1ft. -lift, high, erect, rigid, smooth, pale.
Panicles contracted, narrow - ovate or almost linear, 2 in.
long or less, sparingly branched ; the branches capillary,
scabrid, springing in pairs from alternate sides of the rachis.
Spikelets 4- to 5-flo\vered, ovate, Jin. long, pale or purplish,
almost sessile. Empty glumes nearly equal, lanceolate,
acute, somewhat incurved, 3-nerved, scabrid along the mid-
rib above, half as long as the spikelets. Flowering-glumes
subacute, strongly 5-nerved, glabrous (in the typical form),

Petrik. — On New Plants. 395

more or less ciliate along the margin and the midrib,
sparingly webbed at and above the base ; palea almost as
long as the glume, 2-nerved, nerves ciliate.

Rob. Sphagnum bogs at the Chatham Islands, where it
was collected by Messrs. L. Cockayne and F. A. D. Cox in
January, 19U0.

Mr. Cockayne writes me that he considers this a grass of
great economic importance. He has seen about 100 acres of
worthless quaking peat bog, from which the natural covering
of heath and sedge had been burned off, occupied so closely by
this grass that the land looked like a planted cornfield. He
thinks it will prove of great value in wet, sour lands. The
rhizomes spread with such vigour that it would not be readily
eaten out by stock.

In my collection are specimens of this grass from the
Auckland or Antipodes Islands, collected by Mr. T. Kirk, and
sent to me under the name of " Festuca scoparia, Hook, f."
It differs from the typical plant of the Chatham Islands in the
long, rigid, involute leaves equalling the culms, in the nearly
linear panicle, and in the soft pubescence of the glumes. It
is clearly a form of the present species, and presents only
such subvarietal differences as might be expected from the dif-
ference of habitat combined with long isolation. It is no
doubt the same grass as Mr. Buchanan referred to Poa foliosa,
Hook. f. It is much more closely related to Poa anceps,
Forster.

8. Agropyrum coxii, sp. nov.

Densely tufted, slender, leafy, about 18 in. high. Leaves
longer than the culms, very slender, involute, terete, perfectly
smooth, limp and pliant, midrib and striae obscure, the lower
incurved edges delicately serrate. Sheaths much shorter than
the blades, and three or four times as broad, smooth, finely
puberulent, striate but not grooved; ligule short. Culms erect
or slightly geniculate, slender, leafy to the base of the flower-
ing-spike, which is 3 in. long. Kachis once branched at the
base, the branch short and bearing two or three spikelets.
Spikelets (including the awns), T7^-in. long, 3- to 5-flowered, the
lower pedicellate, the upper sessile. Empty glumes half as
long as the spikelet or less, unequal ; the lower narrow-linear,
acute, ending in a terete scabrid point, midrib obscure ; the
upper narrow-lanceolate, 3-nerved below, produced into a long
terete scabrid point. Flowering -glumes coriaceous, boat-
shaped, produced into a long, tapering, scabrid awn that is as
long as the glume or longer than it, faintly nerved, finely
scabrid, serrate along most of the back ; veins of the palea
prominent, remotely ciliate.

Hah. Seaside rocks and sands at the Chatham Islands.
Collected by Messrs. L. Cockayne and F. A. D. Cox.

396 Transactions. — Botany.

This grass is no doubt a true Agropyrum, in spite of its
branching rachis and pedicellate spikelets. The species is
named in compliment to Mr. Cox, who has done a great deal
to advance our knowledge of the interesting flora of the Chat-
ham Islands, where he has long been resident.

Art. XXXVI. — The Vegetable Caterpillar (Cordiceps

robertsii).

By H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.

[Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 21st October,

1901.]

Plate XXI.

There is a small company of active scientific inquirers along
the east coast of this North Island. In order to put down
their thoughts and gain information from others of like tastes
to themselves they issue a newspaper in manuscript, known
as the "East Coast Naturalist." In one of the numbers of
this interesting publication appears a letter signed " W. M.,"
in which the writer calls attention to an article by James
Buckland on the " Vegetable Caterpillar." " W. M. " does
not say where the article appears, but mention is made of the
differences between the generally accepted information con-
cerning the caterpillar (Cordiceps robertsii) and the informa-
tion given by Mr. Buckland. No doubt there is a good deal
of misapprehension with respect to this curious product, and
it may be that a study of its life-history will even prove of
benefit to the students of bacteria in relation to their effects
on animal organisms.

Comparatively little appears to be known concerning the
vegetable caterpillar beyond the fact that it is found in cer-
tain places in the North Island of New Zealand. The first
published account of the caterpillar is in the " Tasmanian
Journal of Science" for the year 1842. In vol. i., pages 307,
308. there is an account, accompanied by two illustrations, of
the bulrush caterpillar (Sphceria robertsii), native name
" aweto-hotehe," by the Bev. B. Taylor, Waimate, New
Zealand. " This singular plant " — so runs the account —
" which is a native of New Zealand, may be classed amongst
the most remarkable productions of the vegetable king-
dom. . . . The aweto is only found at the root of a
particular tree — the rata. The female pohutakara (sic), the
root of the plant which in every instance exactly fills the

Hill.— On Cordieeps robertsii. 397

body of the caterpillar in the finest specimens, attains a
length of 3^ in., and the stem which germinates from this
metamorphosed body of the caterpillar is from Gin. to 10 in.
high. Its apex when in a state of fructification resembles
the club-headed bulrush in miniature, and when examined
with a powerful glass presents the appearance of an ovary.
There are no leaves ; a solitary stem comprises the entire
plant, but if any accident break it off a second stem arises
from the same spot. The body is not only always found
buried, but the greater portion of the stalk, as well as the
seed-vessel, alone is above ground. When the plant has
attained its maturity it soon dies away. These curious plants
are far from being uncommon. I have examined at least a
hundred. The natives eat them when fresh, and likewise
use them when burnt as colouring-matter for their tattooing,
rubbing the powder into the wounds, in which state it has a
strong auimal smell. When newly dug up the substance of
the caterpillar is soft, and when divided longitudinally the
intestinal canal is distinctly seen. Most specimens possess
the legs entire, with the horny part of the head, the mandibles,
and claws. The vegetating process invariably proceeds from
the nape of the neck, from which it may be inferred that the
insect, in crawling to the place where it inhumes itself prior
to its metamorphosis, whilst burrowing in the light vegetable
soil, gets some of the minute seeds of this fungus between the
scales of its neck, from which in its sickening state it is un-
able to free itself ; and as a consequence these, being nourished
by the warmth and moisture of the insect's body, then lying
in a motionless state, vegetate, and not only impede the
process of change in the chrysalis, but likewise occasion the
death of the insect. That the vegetating process thus com-
mences during the life of the insect appears certain from the
fact of the caterpillar, when converted into a plant, always
preserving its perfect form ; in no one instance has de-
composition appeared to have commenced, or the skin to
have contracted or expanded beyond its natural size."

The "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute " con-
tain some information on this interesting question, but no
experiments seem to have been carried on by any of those
who have written on the subject, and the information that
contains the first descriptive account of the hotehe is
perhaps as full and as correct as anything that has since
appeared.

In the " Proceedings of the Wellington Philosophical
Society," 14th November, 1894, there is an abstract of a
paper on vegetable parasites by the late W. M. Maskell, and
some valuable remarks are given as to the action of vegetable
parasites on insects. Eeferring to the house-fly fungus {En-

398 Transactions. — Botany.

tomophthora musca) and various fungi that attack hom-
opterous bush insects, the vegetable caterpillar came under
notice. " The grub," said Mr. Maskell, " was stated to be
the larva of some large moth, probably of the genus Hepialus,
and the fungus belonged to the genus Cordiceps. The action
of the fungus on the insect was practically the same as in the
case of the fungus on the house-fly, as it took possession of
and destroyed all the internal organs ; but, as the caterpillar
was subterranean, the fungus, in order to reach the air and
scatter its spores, pushed out a long stem through the earth,
and at the extremity of the stem the 'asci,' or small bags
containing the spores, were developed."

Following Mr. Maskell's remarks, Sir Walter Buller ven-
tured to challenge Mr. Maskell's description of the vegetable
caterpillar, because he considered it unscientific and mislead-
ing, and he pointed out that in Mr. B. Wakefield's book,
" New Zealand after Forty Years," there was an erroneous
figure of the vegetable caterpillar, which was represented as
lying horizontally, with the stems growing upwards at a right
angle with the body. Mr. T. W. Kirk at the same time
remarked that specimens of Hejnalus do not take to the
ground, and that the steins of the vegetable caterpillar " grow
from either end, and from both ends, of the single specimen."

In the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute " for
1894, page 155, Sir Walter Buller has a paper on the vege-
table caterpillar, but he brings no new facts to bear on the
life-history of this interesting insect. He gives, however, the
following statement from the late Mr. Skey, then Government
Analyst, touching the so-called skin of the vegetable cater-
pillar : "The skm does not give any indication of the pre-
sence of chitine or other animal substance. It burns without
intumescence, and does not evolve the odour of nitrogenous
matter in combustion." Sir Walter found, however, that it
was necessary to correct a statement that he made at the
meeting referred to above, to the effect that in every instance
that had come under his observation the caterpillar, in the
living state, had descended into the ground tail foremost, his
subsequent examination of specimens in his collection showing
a specimen caterpillar that had evidently buried itself head
foremost.

As to where this caterpillar is found, I quite agree with Sir
Walter Buller as to the general distribution of the vegetable
caterpillar over the whole of the North Island ; and, of course,
the statement made by the Rev. Mr. Taylor, as quoted above,
is erroneous. I have found specimens all over the North
Island except on the peninsula to the north of Auckland.
Along the Bay of Plenty and in the bush country between
Lichfield and Eotorua they are very plentiful. They are

Hill — On Cordiceps robertsii. 399

common in the uplands where the soil is porous and
pumiceous, as between Napier and the volcanic country, and
the specimens vary remarkably in size and general appear-
ance. They are not obtainable at all times of the year. I
have gathered them at Tarawera and Te Haroto, in the bush,
during October, November, and December, and they were
being sold fresh and in good condition by the native children
along the railway-line leading to Eotorua late in March two
years ago.

The specimens vary from If in. to 3^- in. in length, and the
shoots or stems vary from 3 in. to as much as 15 in. I
happen to have available for reference two collections of the
vegetable caterpillar, one of my own and one belonging to my
friend Mr. A. Hamilton. They were collected from different
districts, and a careful inspection of them seems to point to
the fact that a special study of the vegetable caterpillar will
provide some valuable information in the direction suggested
by the late W. M. Maskell.

It is not yet known what grub it is that inhumes itself in
the earth, but I do not think it is the Hepialus, as the seg-
mentation is different, and the mandibles do not agree. I
am endeavouring to obtain specimens of the live caterpillar
from the natives, who say that it can be got at certain times
of the year ; but, unfortunately, it is difficult to get a native to
proceed into the bush for the mere purpose of gathering a few
caterpillars.

In order to show that the prevailing idea about the vege-
table caterpillar is an incorrect one, I have photographed a
number of specimens, each being different from the others :
(1) Caterpillar with a single stem ; (2) caterpillar with two
stems at the same end ; (3) caterpillar with bifurcated growth
from the same end ; (4) caterpillar with much- branched stem,
like a stag's horn ; (5) caterpillar with two stems united 2 in.
or so from the head, followed by a bifurcation, one with and
one without spines ; (6) caterpillar with two stems, one at
the head and one at the tail. These examples suffice to show
that the caterpillar, when it inhumes itself in the ground, is
affected by the spores at a different period in its movements,
and there seems to me not a shadow of doubt that the cater-
pillar moves head foremost into the earth. I have quite a
number of specimens where it is evident the fungus began to
shoot as the caterpillar was head downwards, others where
the caterpillar was seemingly preparing to leave the earth
when the fungus began its deadly work, and absorbed the
whole of the life's-blood of the caterpillar in the nourishment
and maintenance of its own organism. The specimen with a
shoot at either end is a proof in itself that the animal was in
an almost horizontal position when it was attacked by two of

400 Transactions. — Botany.

the active spores, that seemingly found a more than ordinary
place for nourishment and generation.

The photographs, with the scale of inches beside the
specimens, will explain the unusual length of some of the
stems. It is a pity they do not show what might easily
be shown by means of micro-photographs — viz., how the
spores are generated. The spores, it would seem, are
caught in a fold of the insect's skin iu the process of
inhumation, and the moisture of the earth causes the
spores, or " asci,"' to send out a large number of fila-
ments like a fan, and these grip the skin, just like the rata
is seen to grip a matai. The skin, or chitine, is subsequently
absorbed, and the fine cilia pass within the animal and are
nourished by the juices which are undoubtedly kept for use
by the fungus until it is wanted in the process of growth,
just in the same way as a spider preserves the juices of its
prey by wrapping about it a material that takes the place of
the skin or integument. Thus the growth of the stem of the
fungus depends for its strength and nourishment solely upon
the caterpillar which it surrounds, and in a measure replaces,
keeping the internal organism for the sustenance of the plant
in its growth and reproduction. I have made a number of
experiments with the spores, and it appears they easily gene-
rate when placed under favourable conditions.

If a few are slightly moistened in a saucer the " asci " are
seen to change at a great rate. At the part where they are
fixed on the stem a kind of swelling takes place, and fine
cilia-like spirules are thrown out in the form of a fan. The
swelling represents a gelatinous-like substance of a whitish
appearance. The growth takes place at a rapid rate, and I
have noticed on several occasions that, if the spores are
allowed after moistening to dry, a peculiar smell is given off
like that of decaying fish. I am unable to account for the
cause. Sir Walter Buller says that the late Mr. Skey could
discover no traces of animal matter in any of the remains of
the caterpillar. By burning the hardened and shiny portions
of the head, claws, and tail a most pronounced animal smell
results, and this is more perceptible in the case of specimens
just dug from the ground.

Possibly the caterpillars when dug from the ground vary
considerably in their structure and condition, and it is certain
that until the full development of the spores has taken place
and the growth dies there must remain a certain part of
the caterpillar's body unused. As long as there is food for
the sustenance of the fungoid growth it is evident that the
stem continues to grow, and this can be seen whenever an
unusually large caterpillar is discovered. The stem of the
plant, as shown in the illustrations, extends to as much as

Hill. — On Cordiceps robertsii. 401

15 in. in the largest specimens, and in the smallest ones the
seem is only 2 in. or so.

I have made a number of experiments to discover whether
the spores would germinate on other caterpillars, but have
been as yet unsuccessful. I believe, however, that it will be
possible to trace the effect of the growing spores upon cater-
pillars when inhumed under favourable conditions, and experi-
ments are now being carried on to test whether such is
possible. To me it is evident that we know nothing whatever
as to the life-history of the caterpillar known as Cordiceps
robertsii. How it lives, where it lives, under what conditions
it is inhumed and attacked are all questions yet to be decided.
That the caterpillar is attacked by a spore externally is
evident by a mere examination of the specimens, and I am
inclined to the opinion that the mycelium-like growth merely
surrounds or envelopes the caterpillar, but does not absorb
the juices whilst the animal is living. It is curious that the
spores only appear to find a favourite locality for production
on the Cordiceps robertsii. All the specimens I have belong
to the same variety of caterpillar, and, although I can culti-
vate the spores, all my attempts to get them to grow on other
caterpillars have up to the present time failed. But the con-
ditions under which the caterpillars have been placed may
account for the failure, and further experiments are necessary
before definitely stating that the fungoid growth is special to
Cordiceps.

In any case, the growth of a vegetable organism upon an
animal, from whicK it obtains sustenance, is suggestive to
the scientist. The forms and functions of organized life have
gone back, as it were, in these latter days to the study of
the lowest known organisms, and the world of intelligence has
been moved at the discoveries which scientific men have made
in the domain of bacteriology. I make no remark upon the
wonders of this noble science beyond suggesting that the
vegetable caterpillar supplies a fine illustration of a vegetable
organism depending for its life and its development upon an
animal ; and may it not be that the bacteria which flit here
and there, sometimes to destroy and sometimes to renew,
act upon animal functions in a similar way, and eventually
destroy that upon which they are sustained and are brought
to ripeness? ^

Appended are pnotographs of the varieties of the vegetable
caterpillar referred to in this paper.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI.

Fig. 1. Cordiceps robertsii.

Fig. 2. „ asci, showing mode of growth (micro-photo.).

26

402 Transactions. — Botany.

Art. XXXVII. — On the Prothallium of Phylloglossum.

By A. P. W. Thomas, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Biology,
University College, Auckland.*

Our knowledge of the development of the isosporous Lyco-
podincB is still so incomplete that no apology seems necessary
for the present preliminary statement. A special interest
attaches to Phylloglossum since it has been recognised as a
permanently embryonic form of lycopod.f Phylloglossum
is a genus with a single species — P. drummondii — confined to
Australia and New Zealand. The sporophyte generation is a
small plant growing from a tuber, which forms a tuft of a few
cylindrical tapering leaves. In fertile plants the apex of the
stem forms a peduncle, terminated by a cone or strobilus of
small scale-like fertile leaves.

Treub has shown that the embryo of L. cernuum shows a
remarkable likeness to a barren plant of Phylloglossum, for the
first formed leaves have the character of the leaves of Phyllo-
glossum ; hence the term " protophylls " has been given to
these structures, so different from the ordinary leaves of
lycopods. Further, the embryo of L. cernuum forms at a
vfry early stage a tuber (protocorm), above which its proto-
phylls rise. To this protocorm the tuber of Phylloglossum is
apparently comparable, but in Phylloglossum it is not a passing
embryonic structure, but is repeated annually on the forma-
tion of a new protocorm. Treub regarded the protocorm as
the representative of a primitive structure originally possessed
by the pteridophytes, a structure which may have served an
important part in the phylogeny of the higher plants, in
enabling the sporophyte to attain an existence independent
of the gametophyte.

The prothallia of Phylloglossum have been obtained growing
naturally amongst the parent plants, but it is a significant
fact that in most places, even where older plants are abundant
enough, no prothallia could be discovered, though many days
were spent in fruitless search. In three localities only were
prothallia discoverable. It appears clear that very special
conditions are necessary for the germination of the spores,
conditions which are not of regular annual occurrence wher-
ever Phylloglossum grows. Perhaps the most important of
these conditions is the presence of a fungus with which the

* Reprinted fiorn the Proceedings of tho Royal Society, London,
vol. 69, p. 295, 5th December, 1901.
t Bower, Phil. Trans., 1886, p. 676.

Thomas. — On the Prothallium of Phvlloglossum. 403

prothallium lives symbiotically. Such a symbiotic fungus
has been found in the prothallia of almost all the species of
Lycopodium in which the development is known.

Before describing the prothallia it will be well to state that
they vary remarkably in external form. Such variations as
depend upon the stage of development present no difficulty,
but there are other differences which are probably accidental,
being due to obstacles in the soil- or to the depth beneath the
surface at which the prothallium commenced its development.

One of the simplest, and perhaps the youngest observed,
consisted of an oval tuber below, from which rose a simple
cylindrical shaft with rounded apex. Such a prothallium
appears to closely correspond with the oldest prothallium of
L. ceriucum obtained in laboratory cultures by Treub. We
may take the tuber, which is of constant occurrence, to corre-
spond to the primary tubercle seen in the prothallium of
L. cemuum.

A more advanced prothallium shows the cylindrical part of
greater length and thickness, and its end slightly expanded
into a crown, on which the first sexual organs appear. A
little below the crown the tissues of the cylindrical body are
conspicuously meristematic, especially on one side. This
meristem lies below the archegonia, and its formation appears
to be anticipatory of the descent of the embryo.

Older prothallia in which an embryo is already present are
much more irregular in form. The crown, which may be
conical, rounded, or projecting to one side, and then often
shaped like the head of a horse, is commonly separated by a
slight constriction from the much-enlarged part of the body of
the prothallium. This latter part bears the embryo on one
side ; it is evidently formed by the increase of assimilatory
tissues for the nutrition of the embryo. Below this swollen
part the body contracts again to a cylindrical shaft, which
passes downwards, to swell out again and terminate in the
primary tubercle. It is this shaft which varies most ; it may
be long and narrow, straight or curved, or it may be shorter
and stouter, or occasionally, perhaps when the primary
tubercle has been formed near the surface of the ground, it
may be almost obsolete. The shorter thick-set prothallia
may be less than 2 mm. long ; others may range up to thrice
this, according to the length of the shaft. Bhizoids are pro-
duced in considerable numbers from the lower part of the
prothallium, more especially from the tubercle.

The whole of the upper part of the mature prothallium is
green, except the archegonial necks, but the minute chloro-
plasts are most abundant in the part below the crown. The
cells of the shaft may contain chloroplasts, but the green
colour passes away as we follow it downwards into the soil.

404 Transactions. — Botany.

Sections of the prothallia show little internal differentiation
of the tissues, certainly nothing which is comparable to that
described in L. complanatum and L. clavatum. The cells of
the tubercle appear of a rounded polygonal form. They show
scanty protoplasmic contents, and appear partly exhausted.
Those of the shaft are elongated ; on the surface they are rect-
angular, in the centre they tend to become longer and more
pointed. Starch is often abundantly present in the cells,
esnecially of the central part. An endophytic fungus may be
traced in the cells of the lower half of the prothallium. The
hyphae are exceedingly fine ; they have been traced passing
in through the rhizoids. Around the tubercle they often form
a close felt, which may pass below into a strand, which
suggests at first sight that the base of the tubercle passes into
a root. The tubercle is commonly brownish on the surface,
and the strand is a darker brown and almost opaque. But
sections show that it consists of fungus hyphaB.

The prothallia are monoecious, and the archegonial necks
are a conspicuous feature on the crown. On a young pro-
thallium I have found two or three only, but on plants bearing
an embryo there may be from ten to twenty. They appear to
be formed in basipetal succession. In a young prothallium
they may be found on the summit of the crown, but in older
ones they seem to occupy a lateral position around about half
the circumference. The neck of the archegonium projects
from the surface of the crown as a hemisphere of colourless
cells, usually in two tiers of four cells each. The venter, with
the large oosphere, lies at a little depth below the surface.
The antheridia can scarcely be said to show in surface views,
as they lie sunk in the crown. Sections show that the
antheridial cavity is elongated at right angles to the neigh-
bouring surface. The cover-cells form a single layer. The
sexual organs would seem to resemble those of L. cermmm
more closely than those of other species of Lycopodium.
There are no multicellular paraphyses amongst the sexual
organs as in L. selago and L. phlegmaria, but on some parts
of the crown the surface-cells are slightly papillose.

The thickness of the tissues renders it impossible to follow
the details of the early development of the embryo, except in
microtome sections. But it seems clear from the stages
which have so far been examined that the development at
first is much like that of the embryo in L. cermmm. The
embryo grows obliquely downwards and outwards ; the part
near the archegonial venter is the foot, at the opposite end
are formed the stem- apex and leaf. The first part of the
embryo to appear outside the prothallium is the tip of the
leaf ; it breaks out at a point on the side of the thicker part
of the prothallium, below the crown. A fissure extends thence

Thomas. — On the Prothallium of Phylloglossum. 405

down the side of the prothallium, and the embryo appears as
a short cylindrical body, bluntly pointed at both ends, placed
vertically, and still connected with the prothallium by the
foot, which now has a lateral position. The ends of the
embryo grow downwards and upwards respectively, and at a
later stage what is ready the apex of the stem appears inside
the lower part of the embryo — that is, the embryo im-
mediately on escaping from the prothallium forms a proto-
corm, apparently in the same manner that the adult plant
forms its annual tuber. The pedicel of the tuber elongates
downwards until the latter is placed at a safe depth, about
3 mm., in the soil. In the meantime the leaf grows up and
attains a height of 2 mm. to 5 mm. above the ground. I have
not hitherto seen any formation of root during the first year
of growth, the sporophyte seemingly depending largely for its
supply of moisture upon the prothallium, which sometimes
retains its vitality even after its crown becomes injured by
drought. But sometimes, at any rate, rhizoids may be de-
veloped on the pedicel and protocorm. The leaf becomes
green even before it escapes from the prothallium, and as
soon as it reaches a little above the soil stomata are formed,
and air passes into the intercellular spaces, whilst a slender
strand of tracheids appears in the centre. The first proto-
phyll has, in fact, exactly the structure of a small leaf as
produced in later years. The further development of the
sporophyte appears to be slow. By carefully dissecting out
the plants in the soil one can find the remains of tubers and
roots produced in former years. In many cases the plant
comes up a second and a third year with only a single leaf.

It should be mentioned here that Crie has stated that he
sowed the spores of Phylloglossum and obtained a colourless
prothallium like that of Ophioglossum. But his statements
have not been accepted, and recent writers, as Vines, Bower,
Campbell, Goebel, Pritzel,* distinctly state that the develop-
ment of Phylloglossum is not known. I have not had access
to Crie's original account, and Bertrand,f who quotes Crie's
statements, was unable to obtain a germination of the spores
during six years' experiments. But in any case it is clear
that Crie's account was incomplete, for the prothallium
becomes green, and even vividly green. According to Bert-
rand, Crie can only have seen the tubercle which precedes
the prothallium proper.

It is not improbable that the prothallium may start life as
a saprophyte, aided by the endophytic fungus, and I have

* E.g., Goebel, " Organograpbie der Pflanzen," 2te Teil, 1900, p. 439.
Pritzel, -in Engler and Prantl "Die Naturlicben Fflanzen-familien,"
Lief. 205 (1900), p. 575.

f " Archives Botaniques du Nord de la France," 1886, p. 221.

406 Transactions. — Botany.

found a young prothallium which was quite colourless save
for a faint yellow tinge at the upper end, as well as two
others, still without sexual organs, which showed only scanty
chloroplasts. It is quite probable that on the germination of
the spore the tubercle is first formed, and when this is at too
great a depth in the soil to receive any light it will doubtless
be colourless. But I have never observed any fully developed
prothallium that was not green above, whilst all prothallia
which had succeeded in producing an embryo had reached the
surface and attained a considerable development of chloro-
phyll.

A comparison of the prothallium of Phylloglossum with
those of the few species of Lycopodium in which the gameto-
phyte is known shows that it is distinctly of a Lvcopod
type. But, as is well known, there is a remarkable diversity
amongst the prothallia of the different species of Lycopodium.
On the whole, the prothallium of Phylloglossum nrobablv
resembles a prothallium of the L. cemuum type more closely
than any other, though it is quite without the leaf-like assimi-
latory lobes of L. cemuum. Perhaps we are justified in
regarding it as the simplest known type amongst the iso-
sporous Lycopodince.

The general simplicity of the structure of the prothallium
of Phylloglossum seems to favour the view that it is a primi-
tive form of lvcopod. It is, of course, recognised that Phyllo-
glossum is a permanent embryonic form, but the simplicity of
structure of the mature sporophyte does not necessarily prove
that it is a primitive form of the lycopodiaceous phylum.
Bower has expressed the view that Phylloglossum is probably
a reduced form, and the absence of transitions between the
simple cylindrical pointed protophylls and the scale-like
sporophylls, so like those of some species of Lycojjodiuru, may
favour this view, if we regard these structures as homologous.
Some observations which appear to be new may throw some
light upon this question. Bower states that Phylloglossum
has been seen branched. I am able to say that branching
occurs in at least two distinct ways : —

1. The spike or strobilus occasionally branches ; perhaps
one strobilus in two thousand will be found forked, the two
divisions becoming equally developed. I am, of course, only
speaking of the form which grows in New Zealand, and this
may possibly be a slightly more robust form than that found
in Australia. The branching usually takes place above the
lowest sporophyll, sometimes quite at the base of the spike,
near the lowest leaf, sometimes further up, or even close to
the apex of the strobilus.

But even when the strobilus forks there is no transition of
form between the sporophyll and protophyll. I have occasion-

Thomas. — On the P roth allium of Phylloglossum. 407

ally observed on the peduncle a leaf some distance below the
rest of the strobilus, but such a leaf has always been of the
sporophyll type. In the Australian form, investigated respec-
tively by Bower and Bertrand, to whom we are indebted for
most of our knowledge of Phylloglossum, eight was the largest
number of protophylls found on a plant, whilst Bertrand
urges on anatomical grounds that six is the normal number
of protophylls. I have collected plants with twenty proto-
phylls, whilst others with ten to fifteen such leaves are of
common occurrence. But even in plants richest in proto-
phylls no transition occurs between protophylls and sporo-
phylls. So far as any evidence here available goes, it would
almost seem as if the two structures were not strictly homo-
logous.

To express my meaning in the language of a modern
theory, the protophylls may have arisen from the differentia-
tion of the lower region of a sporogonium (or the homologue
of a sporogonium) in which this region had already acquired
sterilised tissues, whilst the sporophylls arose from the upper
fertile region of the sporogonium. If so, the protophylls
cannot be regarded as sterilised sporophylls.

There appears to be no necessary connection between
the number of protophylls and the reproduction by spores.
Plants with two protophylls only may produce a weak spike,
whilst plants of twenty protophylls may be barren.

2. In barren plants the new tuber is formed by the
lowering of the apex of the stem, but in fertile plants a new
outgrowth is formed, which Bower regards as adventitious.
This may doubtless be considered as a form of branching.
Neither Bertrand nor Bower observed more than a single
tuber formed in the examples at their disposal. Bower,
indeed, was inclined to infer that, as no other mode of vege-
tative reproduction was known, the plant depended for its
multiplication solely upon the germination of the spores.
But I have found that the formation of two new tubers is
quite a common occurrence, though plants which form a
single tuber are still in the majority. The two new tubers
may be formed on opposite sides of the plant, in which case a
slight dispersion of the plants takes place. Sometimes the
two tubers arise close together. Apparently they may be
formed almost simultaneously, or in succession. Naturally,
it is the stronger plants which most frequently multiply thus,
but plants of a smaller number of protophylls may branch in
this way. One plant of a single protophyll was found with
two tubers forming.

The occasional occurrence of branching in the strobilus
might be interpreted as an indication that the ancestors of
the plant were once more abundantly branched. But it

408 Transactions. — Botany.

would be possible to take the opposite view, that such branch-
ing is a nascent feature, that it is a new feature in the
phylogeny. Bertrand regarded Phylloglossum as a form re-
duced on account of its semi-aquatic mode of life. But it is
necessary to point out that Phylloglossum is not a semi-
aquatic ; Bertrand never had the advantage of seeing the
plant in its native home. Phylloglossum, it is true, being a
very small plant, can only grow whilst the surface soil is
fairly moist, hence it forms a tuber and rests during the dry
season. So far as I have seen, the plant grows rather better
on a hill-top ; or. at any rate, it grows there at least as well
as it does lower down on the slope, and I have never found it
in an actual swamp. It grows well on a slope where water
can never lodge. Its roots spread rather horizontally, and
seldom far downwards in the ground, as though it objected to
a waterlogged soil.

Whilst it is possible that evidence may yet be adduced
that Phylloglossum in some measure owes its simplicity to
reduction, there appears to be little evidence for this at pre-
sent. On the other hand, it may yet prove that Phyllo-
glossum is an exceedingly primitive plant, possibly the most
primitive of existing pteridophytes. We have an explanation
ready to hand of this exceptional retention of ancient charac-
ters— namely, the annual renewal of the embryonic stage in
the formation of the protocorm. But. however this may be
decided, the relatively simple character of the gametophyte
and the comparison of the mature sporophyte with the em-
bryo of Lycopodium eernuum are in favour of the view that
Phylloglossum is the most primitive of existing Lycopodina.

IV.— GEOLOGY.

Art. XXXVIII. — Notes on the Napier-Greenmeadoivs Road.
By F. Hutchinson, Jun.

[Bead before the Haivke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 10th June, 1901.]

The following rough notes on the natural history of one of
our main roads are given not from any scientific value that
they may have at the present time, but from a possible
historic interest, as the area through which the road runs is
changing rapidly from swamp and mud-flat to dry land, with
a corresponding and most striking change in its living in-
habitants, both plant and animal. This change is from causes
both natural and artificial. The natural causes may all be
summed up practically in one word — floods. From the
smallest up-country freshet that just tinges the river-channel
with yellow to the wild outpourings of April, 1897, each and
every manifestation of the power of rain helps the spread of
the dry land seaward.

It is to the work of that wild Easter-tide on this road that
we may turn for a vivid illustration of reclamation, change,
and renewal. Before 1897 the first section of this road that
is clear of the town — that between the railway-crossing and
the Tutaekuri Bridge — was bordered on each side by mud-
flats covered daily by the tide. Tenanted by countless crabs
and estuarine shells, a feeding-ground for gulls and curlews,
its only plant-growth mats of sea-grass — Zostera marina — this
area looked as if its time as habitable dry land was very far
off. But the great flood buried the mud-flats and their
denizens deep in silt, so deep that the area rose above the
influence of the tide and stretched on either side a sweep of
featureless sand for the rest of the winter. With the spring,
however, the salt-weed, Salicomia indica, began to creep
in from the landward edges, and a small green rush-like plant
sprang up in great quantities. This latter plant was Triglochin
triandrum. Till this visitation of 1897 it was somewhat un-
common here. Mr. Colenso, in a delightful paper on the flora
of the Napier Swamp in the old days, speaks, if I remember

410 Transactions. — Geology.

rightly, of finding it only along the banks of a certain creek
near Clive. Another well-known botanist told the writer to
look out for ft under the description of " a plant like a rush,
but with a fruiting-spike like a loose-headed plantain." This
fits the plant exactly, and it was found shortly afterwards on
the banks of the creek by the Petane Hotel. It must have
been plentiful enough in some part of the region swept over
by the flood, for upon large areas of flood silt it sprang up
thickly, and is now almost as common a feature on the swamp
and harbour shores as the salt-weed.

These two plants, Triglochin and Salicomia, are both
natives : it seems fitting that these pioneers of the silt should
be of our native flora. They are followed very closely by an
introduction from Europe, the buckhorn plantain (Plant-ago
coronopus). Like the Triglochin, it showed up but little till
after this flood, but has since increased enormously, and is
doing very good work here, being the first plant to take hold
of the swamp that is useful from a stock-raiser's point of
view.

The area raised above tide-level, and all its molluscan and
crustacean life buried deep in silt, the gulls and curlews left
it for better feeding-grounds, and it was not till a strong
square-stemmed sedge sprang up thickly in the damper parts
that it could boast of any bird-life save an occasional ground-
lark. But now that a few species of Mollusca (Potamojnjrgus
antipodarum) in great numbers, and an occasional speci-
men of Amphibola avellana, have worked up the chan-
nels again, and there are pools in places deep enough for
eels, one may sometimes see a bittern here, mostly on the
seaward side of the road, which is much the lowest and
wettest portion. Towards the New Cut, where salt- weed is
the largest growth, it is very barren of higher life. But, if the
crabs have vanished, their place is taken in point of numbers
by land-loving relatives — the common " slater " or woodlouse,
an introduced species, and a smaller native species of a marbled
brown and white colour, the introduced outnumbering the
native by a hundred to one. The vanished shells are repre-
sented, too, by a land species — the common grey slug of our
gardens. Besides slugs and slaters, spiders and a small
hymenopterous insect are fairly plentiful — a poor list after
the rich water-life that lies buried under them.

We can hardly think that it ever crossed the minds of
the builders of this road that their embankment would in time
act as a boundary between two distinct zoological provinces.
Yet. from the Tutaekuri Bridge to the Wharerangi turn-off
this road has been for some years practically the boundary
between sea-birds, sea-shells, and sea-plants, and land-birds,
fresh- and brackish-water shells, and land-plants : the sea

Hutchimsox. — The Napier- Qreenmeadows Road. 411

groups on the mud-flats and shallows of. the Inner Harbour
side ; the land groups in the scrub and reeds and weed-
choked channels that stretch away into the swamp on the
other.

The mud-flats are the resort of black swan, gulls, terns,
curlews, and stilts, the last four often within a short distance
of the roadway ; but the swan, except in the wildest weather,
keeps far out of gunshot in the harbour shallows. In the low
scrub of the opposite side blackbirds and thrushes chatter and
whistle, starlings and mynahs wheel in flocks, with sparrows,
linnets, and yellow-hammers. Besides these introduced
species natives are fairly common ; bitterns may often be seen
during the season, hawks figure largely, with more rarely
pukeko and weka, and, still more rarely, the swamp-crake.

It is interesting to note some of the typical land-birds
simulating the habits of waders and fishers. I pulled up the
other day to watch a large black-brown bird wading far out
in the sluggish channel by the roadside, thinking it must be
a rail, but it was only a hen blackbird ; and I have watched
larks busy m the same manner, thigh deep on the trailing
strands of the weed that chokes the channel, picking off, I
presume, the small shells and water-folk that swarm upon it.

The contrast between the molluscan life of either side is as
marked as in the birds ; in fact, from their slow mode of loco-
motion, still more so. Land-birds and sea-birds trespass to a
certain extent on each other's ground, but the fresh- and
brackish- water molluscs of the sluggish landward channel
would perish as surely in the salt water of the seaward side
as would the sea-shells of the tidal channel in the fresh
water. It is the roadway, acting as a dam between the out-
going fresh and the incoming salt water, that has caused this
sharp distinction between the inhabitants of these channels,
a distinction which would be sharper still were it not for the
culverts allowing a certain amount of salt water to mix with
the fresh and make it brackish. This mixing adds to the
interest of the landward channel, for brackish water has its
own peculiar fauna and flora. The Mollusca of the landward
channel are : Potamojiyrgus antipodarum (common alike in
fresh and brackish water) ; P. cumingiani (in Hawke's Bay
found only in brackish water, but reported a fresh- water shell
in some localities) ; and P. pupoides (found only in brackish
water). The Crustacea consist of great numbers of sand-
hoppers {Gammarus ?), both in and about the water, with
slaters (Oniscus) equally abundant on the dry land. The
channels and mud-flats on the harbour side have a popula-
tion that must be in or about more or less pure salt water.
The Mollusca are : Potamides nigra and bicarinata, Cominella
maculata and ftmerea, Monodonta cethiops, AmpJdbola avel-

412 Transactions. — Geology.

lana, Tralia costelkiris, Chione stutchburyi, and Mesodesma
novce-zelandia. The Crustacea are : Crabs, shrimps, and sand-
hoppers.

These sea and salt-marsh shells are being driven gradually
seaward year by year by the encroaching flood deposits.
Tralia costellaris, a curious little member of the family
Auriculida, was, before 1897, very plentiful in the salt-weSd
on the harbour side of the Wharerangi Road. But that
flood practically exterminated it from this area ; it is now
very scarce, and is only found on the highest banks of the
sea-creeks that run up to the road. It is plentiful enough
still at the Petane end of the harbour, where I have found it
climbing high on the rush-bushes after rain, reminding one
that some tropical species of this family have taken to an
inland and forest life as true land-shells.

The flora of the seaward side of this road is interest-
ing only from its contrast to the opposite side. Once past
the shooting- butts point, the tide swirls up almost to the
roadway, leaving naked on its retreat mats of sea-grass
{Zoster a) ; then these harbour shallows shrink to ever-
narrowing channels, which lose themselves towards the
Wharerangi turn-off in silt-flats given over solely to Sali-
cornia and Tngloclnn.

On the landward, or rather the swamp, side there is
much more variety. We get here the typical sea-marsh flora,
flourishing on the neck of comparatively dry land that divides
the road from a large lagoon. The pioneers of the silt-flats
nearer town, Salicornia and Triglochui, are here in abund-
ance, with wild celery {Apiiim australe), Samolus littorahs,
Selliera radicans, and Mimiilus repens. The weed that
chokes the channel is a brackish-water plant, Buppia
maritima.

A-pium australe is the wild celery, so common alike on our
coastal cliffs and sea-marshes. It is said that Cook's seamen
used this plant as an antidote to scurvy. Samolus littoral-is
is of interest from being the one and only representative of the
primrose family native to New Zealand. Its pale-pink flowers,
which it bears in great profusion, relieves the somewhat
sombre colouring of this roadside during the early months of
summer. Mimulus repens, a curious little creeping ally of the
snapdragon, is only to be seen at one place by the roadside,
and that nearly opposite the Wharerangi turn-off ;♦ but it is
very plentiful in other parts of the swamp, notably round the
wetter portions of the paddocks of the North British Freezing-
works.

The work of the flood of 1897 has been given as an exampie
of natural reclamation. Turning to the artificial, it is interest-
ing to watch the inroads made by man by means of draining

Hutchinson — The Napier— Oreenmeadows Road. 413

and cultivation. A few years ago an enterprising person
fenced in a section of sea-marsh bordering the Wharerangi
Road. It consisted of a desolate stretch of salt-weed bordered
by pools, tenanted by just such a population as described
from the seaward side of the road. It was then ploughed (it
must have been wet work in many places for the horses),
harrowed, and sown down in oats. These came up strong
and green on the higher portions of the paddock, then redden-
ing, lessened and failed altogether over the lower portions,
nearly three-quarters of the area. Here the salt-weed sprung
up refreshed, and the crabs returned to bore again in the
sodden furrows. But in spite of apparent relapse the plough-
ing had acted beneficially for land-plants. Co tula repens,
the " bachelor's button," sprang up thickly in the salt-weed ;
then on the unbroken furrows a clover (the black medick,
Medicago lupulina) got a grip, and that pioneer of the
silt the buckhorn plantain. Then it was ploughed again
and sown with mangold-wurzels, with about the same result
as with the oats — a fair crop inland, but dwindling outward
to little yellow bulbs no larger than a radish. The second
ploughing strengthened the land-plants ; a sward of plantain
and a feather-topped grass all but ousted the salt-weed. A
third ploughing was followed by maize, which still left the
outer edges to the plantain and grass, but brought in with it
a wonderful collection of foreign weeds — fat-hen, Prince of
Wales' feather, and others — which, now the maize is cut for
green fodder, have taken full possession. The some-time
marsh is now a paddock, waiting only the plough to fall into
the same state as the monotonous grassy levels inland.

Bevond the Wharerangi turn-off the sea-marsh fauna and
flora are soon lost in paddocks, whose alien weeds and grasses
are encroaching yearly upon them. It is curious to note that
here and there an ill-drained portion has, in spite of culti-
vation, gone back to its original salt- weed ; and Samolus
iittoralis and Selliera radicans follow the drain-sides right
up to Greenmeadows Township. But these drains have quite
lost their sea-marsh fauna ; crabs and sand-hoppers have
given place to woodlice again, and of all the shells
only Potamopyrgua antipodarum has survived the change to
pure fresh water. It is here with its relative P. corolla
and the limneids Amphipeplea ampulla and Planorbis corinna.
These last three species are emphatically denizens of fresh
water. If careful notes were taken year by year of their
habitats, I think they would be found to be encroaching on
the sea-marsh by water, just as the snails, slugs, woodlice,
weeds, and grasses are by land. At present they are down
as far as the Napier Park Racecourse, on the Greenmeadows
side ; at Napier they are in the swamp channel opposite the

414 Transactions. — Geology.

gasworks ; and they are in the Tutaekuri as low down as the
mouth of the New Cut.

These rough notes are taken mainly from the point of
view of a lover of shells and plants ; but it would seem that
this area would afford a most interesting harvest to those
interested in crustacean and insect life, the crustacean life of
the salt and brackish water giving place to the insect-life of
the fresh, and of the insects themselves the littoral giving
place to the inland species. The fauna of the New Cut gives
a fair illustration of this. Where this canal joins the channel
just below the recreation - ground the hand-net brings up
small crabs, shrimps, sand- hoppers, and a crustacean very
like a woodlouse with swimming-lobes to its tail-segments.
Following up the Cut with the net, the crabs soon disappear,
then the water-slater; sand-hoppers and shrimps become
scarce ; and as one nears the Tutaekuri the larval forms of
insects come up in the net — the hideous masked nymphs of
a dragon-fly, and lesser relatives, the sand and horny tubes of
caddis-worms, with fresh -water shells and drowned land-
shells, and the seeds of many inland plants, just such a haul
as one may take from a mat of watercress in one of our up-
land streams.

Akt. XXXIX. — On the Volcanic Grits and Ash-beds in the

Waitemata Series.

By B. K. Mulgan, M.A.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 5th August, 1901.]

Plates XXII- XXVI.

Section I. — Introduction.

The object of this paper is to describe a deposit of volcanic
grit which occurs in a Tertiary formation known as the
" Waitemata series." This series, of Bower Miocene age,
is developed from the Auckland isthmus northwards for
upwards of twenty miles, and stretches completely across
the Island. The volcanic grits outcrop for the most part
along the shore-line, and lie conformably between the sedi-
mentary strata. To trace individual beds in this series is
a matter of great difficulty, as these not only thin out
and disappear, but are in places considerably disturbed
and faulted. Fossils, moreover, occur but sparingly. The
grits, however, are amongst the most distinctive beds, and
in nearly all cases are fossiliferous. For these reasons they

Mulgan. — The Waitemata Series. 4<15

form a valuable factor in correlating different parts of the
series, and hence the importance of determining whether
there are several bands of grit or only one, and whether,
moreover, the material is due to air-borne or water-borne sedi-
ment. It is important also to locate as nearly as possible the
position of the vents from which the material originated.

The microscopic appearance of the sections as shown in
the plates will facilitate the comparison of the rocks under
discussion.

Section II. — Literature.

Dr. Von Hochstetter, in 1859, stated that beds of volcanic
ashes were interstratified with the sedimentary rocks occur-
ring on the shores of the Auckland Harbour. Subsequently,
in 1861, he made the same statements, and also alluded to
the remarkable blocks of volcanic rock which occur on the
Whangaparaoa Peninsula interbedded with the stratified de-
posits.

Twenty years later, in 1879, Mr. S. H. Cox, late Assistant
Geologist, reported on the country from Auckland northwards.
The whole of the Waitemata series as developed round Auck-
land and to the north of that city he placed as'equivalents of
the Pareora beds and of Lower Miocene age. In his report
he says, " Above these beds (Orakei Bay beds) the Parnell
grit comes in interstratified with sandstone and thin beds of
sandy marl ; and this grit, together with a certain quantity of
volcanic ash and occasional angular stones, represents the
commencement of the volcanic outburst which, while some of
the ash and smaller stones were spread far and wide over the
sea-bottom on which the Waitemata series was deposited,
attained its greatest development near the Manukau Heads,
where beds of breccia at least 700 ft. and probably more in
thickness may be seen resting in direct sequence on the
marls, &c, of the Waitemata series, the higher beds of this
series being notable for the great abundance of volcanic
material which is mixed with the sand and clay. It seems
probable that the volcanic activity which must have prevailed
during the latter part of the deposition of the Waitemata beds,
and the consequent rapid accumulation of material on the
sea- bottom, may account for the great absence of animal life
during the latter part of this period."

In 1881 the same writer, in a second report on the country
north of Auckland, endeavours to show that the Parnell grit
overlies conformably the Orakei Bay beds.

Two years later Mr. A. McKay, Assistant Geologist,
wrote a brief account of the coast-line from Lake Takapuna
northwards to the Wade, in which he conjectures that the
volcanic ash-bed known as the " Parnell grit" is the southern

416 Transactions. — Geology.

extension of the Takapuna ash-beds. He says, "Immediately
north of the lake, where the sea-cliffs are higher and the rocks
better exposed, they are easily identified as those underlying
the Parnell grit. . . . Nearly two miles bevond the
lake grey sandy marls referred to the lower beds are overlaid
by a volcanic agglomerate which corresponds to the Parnell
grit, differing only in the coarser material which composes it,
blocks of volcanic rock more than a foot in diameter being
common."

In the following year, 1884, Professor Hutton read a paper
before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury on the age
of the Orakei Bay beds, in which he reviewed most of the
literature bearing on the Waitemata series. He contended —
(1) That there is no evidence to show that the Orakei Bav
beds are older than the Parnell grit ; (2) that on the whole
the evidence, both stratigraphical and palaeontological, is in
favour of Orakei Bay beds belonging to Pareora svstem
(Lower Miocene).

Sir James Hector, in his progress report for 1885, briefly
referred to the interstratified volcanic grits in the Waitemata
series. He dissented from Mr. McKay's view that the Parnell
grit is the southern extension of the Takapuna ash-beds.

In 1885 Mr. James Park, F.G.S., in a report on "The
North Shore to Lake Takapuna," wrote, " In the cliffs at the
end of Cheltenham Beach occurs the volcanic breccia or grit
seen on the coast north of Takapuna. Here it is almost
identical with the Parnell grits. At Judge's Bay the strike is
north-north-east, which would carry them under the tuffs at
the North Head to the place indicated at Cheltenham Beach.
These sandstones, although much disturbed in places, nave a
general dip to the west, and at the first point north of the
lake are lying on a volcanic ash-bed or breccia bed containing
many large angular fragments of scoriae and lava, which
appear so recent in character that when broken off it would
be impossible to distinguish them from the basalts of Mount
Eden."

Section III. — Sketch of Geology of District.

The rocks comprising the cliffs and shores of the Auckland
Harbour fall readily under four heads, and serve to indicate
as many distinct periods of geological time.

The oldest rocks of the district are the Palaeozoic or
Maitai slates (presumably of Carboniferous age), a compact
indurated sandstone which covers considerable areas in
Waiheke, Motutapu. and several other islands in the Hauraki
Gulf, and is continued into the Wairoa Ranges.

Following these slates, lying, indeed, unconformably on
them in places (as at Motutapu), are the Waitemata beds, of

Mulgan. — The Waitemata Series. -117

Lower Miocene age. These consist of soft or muddy sand-
stones and friable shales. An average section usually shows
bands of sandstone and softer shales alternating with each
other. The sandstones are often hard, and vary considerably
in texture from fine to coarse. In a few places they are
fossiliferous, though as a rule fossils are absent from the
great body of strata, though wood in fragments may occur.
The strata themselves vary in thickness from a few inches to
several feet, the shales or sandy clays forming, on the whole,
much thinner layers than the sandstones, seldom, indeed,
reaching a thickness of more than a foot. They are, more-
over, much softer than the sandstones, and readily crumble
away when exposed to the action either of the weather or the
sea.

A noticeable feature of the series is the horizontal or
gently undulating position which, on the whole, the beds
maintain. Here and there, however, great disturbances
have taken place, resulting in the rupture and dislocation
of the strata, the formation of numerous faults, and the
consequent obliteration of connecting-links between individual
beds.

To the third group belong Hochstetter's Quaternary beds,
consisting of plastic clays and sands, occurring, for instance,
along the Tamaki Creek and on the southern shores of the
Manukau Harbour.

The fourth group comprises the Pleistocene lavas and tuffs
which have been ejected from the numerous volcanic vents in
the neighbourhood and spread over the greater portion of the
isthmus. The lava, consisting entirely of basalt, varies much
in texture. It is, on the whole, a hard compact rock, and is
always rich in olivine. (See rock section E, Plate XXVI.)

Section IV. — Grit-beds on South Side of the Auckland

Harbour.
On the eastern side of Judge's Bay there occurs a band of
volcanic grit some 10 ft. in thickness dipping west at an angle
of about 12°. The band consists of fine volcanic material, the
fragments ranging from minute specks to particles somewhat
larger than a pea. The whole is firmly united together, and
forms a reef which runs about 100 yards into the harbour and
is exposed at low water, its hard character enabling it to
withstand the action of the waves, which have worn away
the softer sandstones and shales. It lies conformably be-
tween other members of the Waitemata series, is distinctly
marked off from the layers both above and below, and
can be traced round Point Resolution, where it forms a
long outcrop on the western side of Hobson's Bay. About
three miles further east, at St. Helier's Point, and again at
27

418

Transactions. — Geology.

Tamaki Point, a similar band appears, almost identical in
texture and mineral contents with that outcropping at Parnell.
(In point of fact, the only difference is that the St. Helier's
Bay beds are slightly coarser at the base.) To the west it
appears in St. George's Bay, dipping east at an angle of 30°,
the connection between the two bands being shown in section
in fig. 1. Between the two exposures the sedimentary strata
are much disturbed, in places being thrown on end. There
seems to be little doubt that to the same band of grit can be
traced the exposures at St. George's Bay, Judge's Bay, St.
Helier's Point, and Tamaki Point.

Fig. 1.

P' Resolution

Judge's Bay

ScGeorge'j
Bay

Plan. D. Section through AB, showing connection between outorops
of volcanic grit at Judge's and St. George's Bays, known as the " Par-
nell grit": 1. Volcanic grit. 2. Sandstones and shales.

Following the shores of the harbour westward, a similar
band of volcanic grit is met with about a mile and a half fur-
ther on below Point Acheron. The exposure occurs on the
shore-line, and the band appears to dip west at an angle of
10° ; but since it cannot be traced into the cliff it is impos-
sible to estimate its thickness or be sure of its dip. Half a
mile beyond this, near Point Erin, a similar band, 12 ft. in
thickness, outcrops in the cliff and dips west at an angle of
17°. A few hundred yards further on, at Shelly Beach Point,
it again appears, lying almost vertically between the other
sedimentary strata. (See fig. 2.)

The band of grit strikes north from Shelly Beach Point
and sends out a long reef into the harbour in that direction.
As in the case of the Parnell grit, the strata between the out-
crops are disturbed and faulted. The grit in this exposure is
composed of volcanic material similar to that comprising the
Parnell ash-beds.

Mulgan.- —The. Waitemata Series.

419

It muse be uoted that both these and the Parnell ash-beds
are of a fairly constant texture, and contain no large included
fragments. As previously stated, the Point Acheron outcrop
can only be seen as a short platform on the beach. It cannot
be connected stratigraphically with the exposures at Point
Erin ; but the distance separating the two places is not great,
and in composition the bands are identical. It seems an
obvious conclusion, therefore, that the Ponsonby outcrops are
connected.

Fig. 2.

Ft. Erin

E <-

■w Shelly Beach Pt

Section from Point Erin to Shelly Beach Point, showing connection
between the two outcrops of grit : 1. Volcanic grit. 2. Sandstones
and shales.

It is impossible to correlate with certainty the Parnell
ash-beds and those occurring at Point Erin, because — (a) A
great portion of the City of Auckland is built on the land
lying between them ; (b) the intervening strata are much
disturbed ; (c) most of the intervening country is covered
with tuff from some of the Pleistocene volcanic vents. But
the great similarity in the material composing all these beds ;
the fact of there being an undoubted connection between the
Parnell and St. Helier's Point outcrops on the one hand, and
on the other between the various exposures at Ponsonby ; and
the further fact that, whereas the distance from Judge's Bay
to Tamaki Point is upwards of three miles, that from St.
George's Bay to Point Acheron is considerably less — would
at least point towards the very great probability of the
Ponsonby outcrops being extensions of those found at Parnell :
— that is, the outcrops of grit occurring along the southern
shores of the Auckland Harbour are merely different exposures
of the same band.

Section V. — Grit -beds on the North Side of the

Auckland Harbour.

Across the harbour, just below Takapuna Point, at a dis-
tance of some two miles and a half from Judge's Bay, there
occurs another exposure of volcanic grit. This formation,
known as the " Cheltenham Beach beds," consists of a band
of about 12 ft. in thickness containing both coarse and fine
material. At the bottom is a layer a few inches in thickness
of coarse grit or fine conglomerate, the particles being from

420 Transactions. — Geology.

lin. to 2 in. in diameter and slightly waterworn. Above this
the matenai is finer and similar to that met with on the
southern side of the harbour, at Judge's Bay and Point Erin.
Through the band are scattered numerous angular or sub-
angular fragments ranging up to 8 in. or more in diameter.
Some of these are close and compact ; others, again, are
vesicular and amygdaloidal, the infiltrating mineral being
principally calcite.

The rocks comprising the fragments are considerably
altered and weathered, the feldspar crystals being many of
them kaolinised. Large crystals of augite are plainly visible
in most of the included fragments.

A section from one of the fragments examined under the
microscope showed a microcrystalline ground-mass consisting
of a tricliuic feldspar, minute augite crystals, and numerous
specks of magnetite, with larger porphyritic crystals of
feldspar and augite, as well as those of an altered mineral.
Many of the feldspars were kaolinised, and most of them con-
tained inclusions of magnetite and augite. They were tri-
clinic, and comprised the varieties andesine and oligoclase.
Small augite crystals were numerous, but only a few were
idiomorphic. The crystalline form and mode of occurrence of
the altered mineral suggested the possibility of its being
altered olivine. On the whole, however, the evidence was not
sufficient to pronounce definitely on the constituent. The
rock is obviously an augite-andesite containing perhaps a
little olivine. (See rock section D, Plate XXV. ; specific
gravity, 2-8.)

The first outcrop of conglomerate and grit met with is at
the north end of Cheltenham Beach. The band dips east at
an angle of 35°, and, running nearly horizontally for about
200 yards, suddenly disappears, as shown in fig. 3. From
this onwards the strata are much disturbed and faulted,
in places being thrown on end. Beyond a well-marked dome
a little further north the grit again appears in a band
some 8 ft. or 10 ft. thick, but the thickness cannot be accu-
rately determined as the band does not show well in the
cliff. Here it dips west at an angle of about 15°, and, running
out to sea, forms a long reef. From this point northwards for
a few hundred yards the cliffs give place to a low sandy flat
over which the sea flowed not many years ago, but which
has now become dry, the land being raised partly by the
wash from the hills and partly by the sand carried in by wind
and sea. When the beds (Waitetnata) next appear they are
dipping west at an angle of 20°. Half a mile or less further
north from the outcrop of grit mentioned last another
exposure of the same material occurs. Here the band strikes
north and presumably dips west ; but, as it only shows as a

Mulgan. — The Waitemata Series.

121

low platform on the beach, it is difficult to be sure either of
the direction or the angle of the dip.

Fig. 3.

Auckland

Ha rb our

Y.

A',

arrow

Neck

Plan
1

N

A

Cheltenham
Beach

of Cheltenham Beach ash-beds:
Band of volcanic grit. 2. Sand-
stones and shales (shows here (2) as
dome). AB. Low sandy flat called
the " Narrow Neck." 3. Outcrop of
grit further north, only showing on
beach.

The two outcrops showing along
the shore-line at CD and again at E
are evidently portions of the same
land as shown in above plan. This bed, dipping east at CD,
has presumably had its dip changed by the same force which
formed the dome, and appears again at E dipping west. The
strata at the end of the point are truncated by a fault as
shown. To the southern side of the point the dip rapidly
increases until at the fault the strata become vertical.

In a paper read before the Auckland Institute in 1889 Mr.
Park gave a plan of the Cheltenham Beach ash-beds. In
this, however, no notice is taken of the change in the direction
of dip in the two exposures, nor is any mention made of the
dome. Both of these matters have an important bearing on
the question under discussion. Furthermore, the northern
outcrop is obtained by producing the line CD (fig. 3),
whereas in point of fact it occurs considerably to the west of
this position.

The outcrop at F (fig. 3) may have reached its present
position owing to being horizontally displaced by a strike fault
running east and west. The low swamp occurring between
the higher cliffs on either side may well indicate some faulting
of the strata, in consequence of which the sea has been able
to effect an entrance and erode the narrow valley, now become
a dry sandy flat. Additional force is lent to this theory by
the fact that a line drawn across the narrow neck east and
west would pass through low mud-flats and the waters of

422

Transactions. — Geology.

Shoal Bay, and could be continued for upwards of two miles
before reaching high ground. The following diagram will
furnish a further explanation of this theory : —

Fig. 4.

Suppose CG to be the line of fault. Then if the down-
throw occurred on side A, and subsequent denudation planed
the whole surface level, the band would appear displaced at
E and F as shown, the surface at D representing the low
ground between the two outcrops. Furthermore, the amount
of lateral displacement would increase and that of vertical
displacement decrease with the angle of hade. A normal
strike fault hading at a large angle would cause the necessary
lateral displacement with a relatively small amount of throw.

It would seem, therefore, that the exposure occurring at
Cheltenham Beach, marked CD (fig. 3), is undoubtedly con-
nected with that marked E, which is almost to a certainty the
same band as the one outcropping further north at F.

Mr. Park states (page 5) that the strike of the Judge's
Bay bed would carry it to Cheltenham Beach. This may be
so," but the bed at Judge's Bay dips west, whereas that at
Cheltenham Beach dips east. Besides, the strata at Chelten-
ham Beach are so disturbed as to render their correlation
with those occurring at Parnell a matter of extreme diffi-
culty ; indeed, no stratigraphical connection can be estab-
lished between the beds on the opposite sides of the har-
bour. Considerable difference, moreover, is to be found in
the material composing the beds at the two localities. At
Parnell the deposit shows plenty of Maitai slate, contains
no larger fragments and extremely few fossils ; whereas at
Cheltenham Beach the grit is coarser in character, in places
merging into conglomerate, is distinguished by numerous
blocks of andesite, and is fossiliferous throughout.

From Cheltenham Beach north the strata consist of the
ordinary sandstones and shales, these being overlaid at Taka-
puna Beach by a stream of basaltic lava from the old crater
which is now occupied by Lake Takapuna. About a mile
north of this crater-lake the ash-beds again appear in the sea-
cliffs, lying, as before, conformably between other beds of the

Mulgan. — The Waitemata Series.

423

Waitemata series. At this point, however, they present the
curious appearance indicated hy the accompanying section
(fig. 5). Portions of the volcanic grit outcrop in irregular
patches and detached bands on the weathered surface of the
cliff in such a way as to suggest at first sight a number of
different layers. After a careful investigation of the locality,
I am of opinion that only one bed is to be seen, and that
the appearance of different bands has resulted from portions
of the grit being squeezed in between the softer sandstones
and shales. The appearance has been produced subsequent to
deposit. This belief is further strengthened by the fact that
in places the shales between the grit are arranged in lenticular
masses, thinning out and disappearing in the course of 50 or
60 vards or even less.

Fig. 5.

30'
ro
4'0

I SHMfS

s o Tvj?A r fine /wo

4 0" "'■'•lUCO/lftit CfilTS
V ,6" IS36S COW/Kjr GRIT.

.5 0 ) fine c/fiT

SHALfS
COARSE CHIT
J>/INDSTON£S

Appearance of cliff : a. Layers of grit apparently separated by sandstones
and shales, b. Grit continuous. Sandstones and shales thinning
out. c. Grit appearing in detached masses through softer strata.

The grit here presents much the same appearance as chat
at Parnell and Point Erin, except that in places there are
coarser layers with fragments up to f in. in diameter. Scat-
tered through the ash-beds are angular and subangular
volcanic fragments, some of them being upwards of 12 in. in
diameter. These consist of a vesicular lava of augire-andesite
showing large augite crystals and numerous amygdules of
calcite and the zeolite chabazite. A section made from one
of these blocks showed under the microscope a microcrystal-
line ground- mass similar to that seen in the Cheltenham
Beach section, except that a good deal of it was composed of
an altered product— probably chlorite. As in the case of the
other section, the porphyritic constituent consisted of large
crystals of andesine, ohgoclase, and augite, and a small
amount of altered olivine. The feldspars showed broad as
well as fine lamellae, and contained numerous inclusions of
augite and magnetite. In some of the crystals the curious
phenomenon appeared of the direction of extinction being
different in different parts of the crystal. The edges and
central portions extinguished at different angles, owing to the
outer zone being less basic in character. Large and small
augite crystals were numerous, and many of the former
showed well-marked crystalline form. Specific gravity, 2-7.

424 Transactions. — Geology.

The rock, it will be seen, is similar in all essentials to that
found at Takapuna. (See rock section A, Plate XXII.)

Note. — The large crystal shown in the section was the
only undoubted olivine crystal present. Without this ex-
planation the section would seem to belong to a rock rich in
olivine. This is not the case.

The only description of the included fragments of rock in
these deposits is that given by Mr. Park, who states that the
rock composing the included fragments could not be distin-
guished from Mount Eden basalt. It is important to distin-
guish at the outset between the megascopic characteristics of
the two rocks. The Mount Eden lava is a well-defined basalt,
rich in olivine, whereas the rock included in the deposit of
grit is an undoubted augite-andesite. In some of the frag-
ments from Takapuna ash-beds a very few olivine crystals do
occur, but they are much altered, and can only be identified
by the aid of the microscope.

The rocks in the neighbourhood of the grit are much
contorted and disturbed. Indeed, this disturbance seems to
characterize most of the sedimentary rocks in the immediate
vicinity of the volcanic grits.

The ash-beds here reach a thickness of from 10ft. to 14ft.,
and can be traced for about 100 yards north. They dip land-
wards, or towards the west, at an angle of 15°, and show just
before disappearing in the cliff an outcrop approximately hori-
zontal. Fine and coarse grits seem to be associated without
any obvious method of arrangement, shading into one another
without any distinct lines of demarcation. The particles vary
from the finest material up to angular or subangular frag-
ments 2 in. in diameter. The sandstones and shales here and
there thin out and disappear, and the grit shows the irregular
arrangement mentioned previously. This thinning-out of the
strata is probably another indication of the pressure to which
the beds have been subjected. Fossils are here relatively
abundant as compared to Cheltenham Beach.

Both Mr. McKay (I.e.) and Mr. Park (I.e.) assert that
these ash-beds are portions of the band seen at Chelten-
ham Beach. But no stratigraphical proofs in support
of this contention are attempted ; in point of fact, none are
available. The Waitemata beds are obviously shallow-water
deposits. None of the strata as a rule persist for any great
distance. Hence the difficulty of establishing any strati-
graphical connection between outcrops separated from each
other by a distance of from three to four miles. The proba-
bility is, however, that such a connection does exist.

About a mile further along the beach, at a place called
Bed Bluff— the headland being stained by red and brown oxide
of iron, suggestive of its volcanic origin — the volcanic grits

Mulgan. — The Waitemata Series.

425

again appear in a band about 12 ft. in thickness, and can be
traced northwards for a few hundred yards. Between the
exposures of grit just described and those at the Eed Bluff the
sedimentary strata are considerably disturbed and faulted,
so much so that it is almost impossible to establish any satis-
factory connection between them. It is a noteworthy fact,
however, that nowhere do these volcanic ash-beds show more
than one. outcrop — i.e., nowhere do they outcrop as a number
of bands distinctly separated by sedimentary strata.

At the Eed Bluff the grits become coarser, in some places
passing into conglomerates, with fragments, slightly water-
worn, 2 in. to 4 in. in diameter. The coarser texture of the
beds in this neighbourhood would seem to indicate greater
proximity to the old seat of activity. Scattered through the
beds are large volcanic blocks corresponding in size, texture,
and composition to those previously described ; and, as in the
case of similar exposures elsewhere, these ash-beds lie con-
formably between the Waitemata sandstones and shales.
Here, however, the direction of dip is north-east, and the
angle at which the beds are inclined approximately 30°.

Fig. 6.

fin 'id'.iA i, ', '/, i kin, <j-iJm> n. *. p

Section through AB.

Plan and section showing connection between outcrops of volcanic grit at
the Red Bluff : 1. Bands of volcanic grit. 2. Sandstones and shales.
C, D, E, F. Four outcrops of grit.

Sketch showing four outcrops of grit at C, D, E, and F, as actually seen
on the ground.

426 Transactions. — Geology.

The two outcrops at the Eed Bluff, C and D, are caused
by a fault which has parted the band and displaced one
portion horizontally (see section). Beyond outcrop D the
band disappears in a little bay, but reappears again a short
distance further on at E, where it has been bent into a
syncline showing as a fourth outcrop at F. These are the
only exposures of the grit in this locality. As in the case of
the Takapuna ash-beds, they are fossiliferous throughout.

That these ash-beds were laid down in water is abund-
antly proved by the included fossils (Bryozoa) they contain.
The angular character of the whole of the material, both large
and small, would point to its being deposited at no great
distance from where it originally fell ; whilst the fact that
the bands lie conformably between the other members of
the Waitemata series tends to indicate that these grits were
laid dovvn horizontally and subsequently tilted by the same
forces which caused the inclination of the other sedimentary
beds.

As already mentioned, these grits in several places are
fossiliferous. Indeed, the fossils are abundant and can be
readily seen standing out from the weathered surface. In the
softer strata above and below they hardly occur at all, the
gritty floor having been evidently more favourable for their
growth, and the calcareous nature of the grit having aided in
their preservation. Mr. S. H. Cox says that these deposits
of grit represent the commencement of the volcanic outbursts
which culminated in the formation of the volcanic breccia at
the north Manukau Head, and further adds that this vol-
canic activity may account for the great absence of life during
the latter part of this period. This explanation, however,
does not seem satisfactory, since it is in the volcanic beds
that fossils are most numerous ; whilst, moreover, many of
the Polyzoa and Bryozoa occur in the positions they occu-
pied whilst living.

This brings us to a consideration of how the material
reached its present position. It is hardly conceivable that it
was ejected into the air and fell as the product of a single
shower, for in that case one would expect to find the fossils
either at the top or bottom of the beds — possibly in both
places — whereas some, at any rate, of the exposures are
fossiliferous throughout their entire thickness. The more
probable explanation is that the material was furnished
gradually, and carried along the bottom by currents working
out from the sources of supply. In this way a large amount
of volcanic material could be spread over the bottom with
sufficient slowness to admit of the growth of marine organ-
isms, yet rapidly enough to mark off the deposit from other
members of the series.

Mulgan. — The Waitemata Series. 427

Section VI.— Geit-beds of the Whangaparaoa Peninsula.

The next important outcrops of these volcanic grits are on
the Whangaparaoa Peninsula, where they occur in consider-
able numbers and exhibit; great variety of texture. As else-
where, they lie here conformably between the other members
of the series, which have been much disturbed in their
vicinity.

Starting from the northern side and travelling east, the
ash-beds are first met with in a place called Coal-mine Bay.
Here the grit occurs as a well-marked band dipping north at
an angle of 8°. In composition and appearance this bed corre-
sponds with those described previously, being perhaps, on the
whole, a little coarser in texture. It varies from fine to
coarse, the coarser material being below, shading into a fine
conglomerate. The exposure at this place is not large, but
about half a mile further on the same band outcrops again
and forms a reef running for some distance into the sea. The
included blocks, which are numerous, consist of a hard, com-
pact, fresh-looking andesite, with large porphyritic crystals of
augite and a triclinic feldspar. Examined microscopically a
section from one of these blocks showed a ground-mass and
porphyritic constituents almost identical with those already
described. The feldspars comprise the varieties andesine and
oligoclase, and, as in the other sections, show numerous in-
clusions of augite and magnetite. The augite crystals are per-
haps larger than those in the other rocks described, whilst the
olivine, although showmg crystalline form, is much altered,
and is not present in sufficient quantities to form an essential
constituent. Chlorite, evidently an alteration product, occurs
in several places in abundance. (Specific gravity, 2-8.)

From Coal-mine Bay east the grits and fine conglomerates
are numerous, cropping out at intervals all along the coast.
They are similar in appearance to the one just described, ex-
cept that they become distinctly coarser towards the point to
the east The beds here have been so disturbed and the ex-
posures in places are so small that it is impossible to establish
any stratigraphical connection between individual outcrops.
In both grits and conglomerates fossils occur from top to
bottom. The included fragments here reach a diameter of
from 1 ft. Gin. to 2ft., and occur in greater abundance than
in the grits nearer Auckland.

Towards the end of the point great blocks of andesite ap-
pear, measuring in one case at least 18 ft. across. This huge
mass must have fallen on the bottom and been covered up
with sediment. The force with which the mass fell may have
displaced the strata, causing the appearance presented in the
figure in the margin. It may, moreover, have fallen in water.

428

Transactions. — Geology.

Fig. 7

Included block of andesite, 18 ft.
across, imbedded in sandstone
and shale at Whangaparaoa.

But the strata round and about the block are considerably
weathered, one bed shading into another without any clear

line of division, hence the
difficulty of explaining
satisfactorily what has
actually taken place.

In the case of other
included masses the beds
do not seem to be in any
way displaced, and in no
case has any alteration in
the sedimentary strata
been brought about at
their junction with these
masses. This phenome-
non is not easily ex-
plained. The rocks are
not in the least dyke-like
in character. They have
effected no alteration in the surrounding beds. They cannot,
therefore, be explained as being the remains of "intrusive
masses. They must have reached their present position
when cool, and cannot have fallen with much violence on
the soft yielding sandstones and shales, which otherwise
would show more signs of being displaced. Moreover, such
huge masses cannot have been hurled for any great dis-
tance through the air, and the fact that they are not water-
worn forbids the assumption that they have been transported
far by the action of
water ; and yet there
is no indication of any
volcanic vent in their
neighbourhood further
than that furnished by
the presence of the
blocks themselves. It
may have been that
they were deposited
quietly on a relatively
hard firm bottom and
subsequently covered
with sediment.

At the extreme
eastern point of the
peninsula is a series
of volcanic deposits
some 16 ft. in thick-
ness, with horizontal

Fig.

8.

Sana's tones
£r shp/es

F/negr/t

shading into
coarse gr/t
^M0M^t?) and coarse
t.^^^i^MM^ conglomerate
Shore //ne

Section at end of point, Whangaparaoa.

Mulgan. — The Waitemata Series. 429

outcrop, as shown in accompanying sketch. Below is a coarse
conglomerate, merging into breccia, containing subangular
fragments up to 3 ft. in diameter, none of the blocks being
much waterworn. Above, the conglomerate gradually be-
comes finer, passing into coarse and then into fine grit, the
whole being capped by sandstones and shales. Throughout
the grit angular volcanic fragments up to 1 ft. in diameter are
scattered, and the whole, as elsewhere, is fossiliferous.

The rock of which these blocks are composed is hard and
compact, with very large augite crystals and crystals of
feldspar showing plainly. Under the microscope the rock
appeared to be identical with that found at Coal-mine Bay,
except, perhaps, that the ground-mass was almost holocrys-
talline and the olivine more difficult to identify.

From the presence of such large masses of volcanic rock
it would appear that the vent from which they were dis-
charged was somewhere in the immediate neighbourhood,
though I could find nothing to show in what direction it was
likely to be discovered. Possibly its site may be further
north or east beneath the waters of the Hauraki Gulf.

On the southern shores of Whangaparaoa similar bands of
grit occur at intervals, but the outcrops are not so well
marked as those on the northern side, and the material of
which they consist is finer than that met with on the
opposite shore. There is little doubt that these outcrops are
merely the southern extension of those found on the northern
side of the peninsula.

Section VII. — Grit-beds of the Manukau Harbour.

Along the northern shores of the Manukau Harbour there
occur numerous outcrops of volcanic grit, both fine and coarse
deposits being abundant. In several places connection can be
traced between the outcrops, but more frequently this is not
possible. There is, however, with one exception, to be men-
tioned presently, absolutely no evidence to show that the
bands are distinct.

The same formation prevails here as that found along the
shores of the Auckland Harbour, and in every case the grit
lies conformably between the sandstones and shales of the
Waitemata series. In many places the strata show evidence
of having been subjected to much disturbance, and faulting is
common all along the coast-line.

The first outcrop of grit appears on the beach about a
quarter of a mile from the Village of Onehunga. It consists
of angular fragments ranging from very fine particles to those
the size of a pea, but in this place the outcrop is so weathered
that it is difficult to determine its composition. It here dis-
appears underneath the shore-line.

430 Transactions.— Geology .

A few hundred yards further ou a similar band outcrops,
having at its base a layer of fine conglomerate (the particles
being about 2 in. in diameter) some 3 ft. in thickness.

A quarter of a mile west of this spot another exposure
occurs, distinctly coarser than that first met with. The whole
band, about 10 ft. thick, is composed of fragments of scoriae
and volcanic ash up to fin. in diameter, and contains a great
deal of wood in minute pieces converted into lignite. This
bed can be traced for some distance, but finally dis-
appears in the cliff. It reappears, however, half a mile
further on, maintaining the same thickness and texture.
Scattered through the band at this spot are a considerable
number of angular volcanic fragments, many of them being
1 ft. or more in diameter. They are imbedded in the grit,
and seem to have been thrown out when that material was
deposited. The rock is a hard fresh-looking andesite, with
minute steam-cavities, showing microscopic crystals of augite
and feldspar. (Rock section C, Plate XXIV.)

Examined microscopically an average section showed a
microcrystalline ground-mass similar to that appearing in
the other sections described, though containing perhaps a
little more feldspar. The porphyritic constituents were iden-
tical with those in the other sections, except for the absence
of olivine, no traces of which were to be found. In some of
the feldspars appeared the same peculiarity as that seen in
the section from the Takapuna ash-beds, successive zones of
the material of the crystals extinguishing at different angles.
Augite and magnetite were very plentiful, the former appear-
ing in both large and small crystals, and showing well-marked
crystalline form. (Specific gravity, 2-7.)

From this on westwards for a couple of miles there are
frequent outcrops of these ash-beds. In several places they
contain large angular included fragments similar to those
just described. Here and there they pass into conglomerates
whose particles are in some cases considerably waterworn.
The conglomerates for the most part, when traced upwards,
pass into finer grits. The coarser portions do not contain
fossils. In some of these conglomerate beds I found pebbles
of Maitai slate. These, about 1 in. in length, were flattened
and much more waterworn than the volcanic material. None
of this slate has yet been found nearer than Motutapu, an
island in the Hauraki Gulf about five miles north-east of
Auckland. The inference is that these pebbles have either
been derived from beds of slate in the immediate neighbour-
hood underlying the Waitemata series, or they have been
brought into their present position by the agency of rivers
or currents, which have carried them from more distant locali-
ties.

Mulgan. — The Waitemata Series.

431

After passing this spot, about a mile beyond a headland
called " The Horn," the outcrops of grit disappear, and are
not met with until about five miles further on, when they
again become plentiful. They are similar in every respect to
those already described. One exposure, however, deserves
special mention. It

i Shag

Fig.

9.

Cong/ornerafe

Sha/e

F/ne grit
Sha/e

F/ne grit — 12 ft :

Shore fine

3ft.

4ft.
2ft.

2ft.

Sketch at Shag Point, showing distinct
bands of conglomerate and grit.

Point.
As shown in sketch
(fig. 9), this consists
of a band of con-
glomerate composed of
fragments of a close-
grained andesite, 6 in.
to 8 in. in diameter,
much waterworn and
rounded. This bed, 3 ft.
in thickness, rests on
beds of shale some 4ft.
thick ; and this, again,
is underlaid by a layer
of grit 2 ft. in thick-
ness. A small layer
of shale separates this
from another band of
grit 12 ft. thick, which
extends to and passes
under the shore-line.
The strata here dip

into the hill and disappear. To the west the coast-line
curves round to form a bay, whilst to the east the cliffs give
place to a low gently sloping bank covered with vegetation ;
hence this is the only section available. x\bove, the vegeta-
tion extends down to the conglomerate and the rocks are com-
pletely decomposed, so that it is impossible to say what may
overlie the band — most probably the ordinary Waitemata
sandstones and shales. It would appear from the section that
there are at least two, and possibly three, distinct bands, one
of conglomerate and two of grit, separated by layers of shale.
This conjecture is rendered all the more probable from the
fact that the conglomerate overlies the grit. Here, however,
we are approaching a country where in early Tertiary times
there was great volcanic activity ; hence it is not surprising
to find an increase in the amount of volcanic material inter-
stratified with the ordinary sedimentary deposits.

The country from Puponga Point northwards consists of
coarse volcanic conglomerate intersected by dykes and lava-
streams of andesite and beds of volcanic tuff. Masses of
Waitemata beds occur in places mingled with the conglomer-

432 Transactions. — Geology.

ate, as though the volcanic explosions of former times burst
through and ruptured the sedimentary strata, fragments of
which were eventually enclosed with the conglomerate.

The lava-streams of this district are, on the whole, very
much alike. They consist of a hard compact rock slightly vesi-
cular, showing abundant augite and feldspar crystals. The
augite is plentiful, but none of it is very large. I have ex-
amined a considerable number of rock sections from these
lava-flows, and have found the rocks similar — indeed, almost
identical — with those already described from the fragments
in the volcanic grits. They differ from these only in the
absence of olivine ; but, as this mineral is not an essential
constituent, its presence or absence is a matter of but small
importance.

Section VIII. — Summary and Conclusion.

It will be seen from the foregoing that these volcanic grits
are spread over a considerable area on both sides of the Auck-
land isthmus, and that they invariably lie conformably be-
tween the sandstones and shales comprising the Waitemata
series. It is clear, moreover, that the material, although
arranged by water, has not been brought from any great dis-
tance ; at least, the larger fragments could not have been car-
ried far. A careful comparison of the sections described — and
these, it must be remembered, were taken from exposures
separated by considerable distances — shows that the rocks
differ only in the presence or absence of olivine, and that this
difference is one not between separate exposures on the same
side of the isthmus, but between those on opposite sides.
Moreover, this difference is so slight that it hardly deserves to
be considered at all, the rocks being identical in all essential
mineral contents and in specific gravity.

Stratigraphically there is no evidence to show that all the
outcrops belong to one and the same band ; but the close cor-
respondence between the fragments of rock included in them,
their similarity in texture, in bedding, in arrangement, and in
fossil contents, and, further, the fact that in no case, except
at Shag Point, is there any exposure showing more than one
band, whereas in several cases a connection can be traced
between separate outcrops, all furnish evidence which points
towards the probability of the various exposures being con-
nected together. There seems little doubt that this is the
case with the exposures on the southern side of the Auckland
Harbour. Between the ash-beds at Cheltenham Beach,
Takapuna, and Eed Bluff the connection has not been esta-
blished ; but the great similarity presented by these ex-
posures, and the fact that the several outcrops showing at
Cheltenham Beach can be correlated, as can also those ap

Mttlgan. — The Waitemata Series. 433

pearing at Eed Bluff, adds considerably to the likelihood of
a single band being accountable for the whole of the exposures
along the northern shores of the harbour, perhaps — though
this is not so certain — as far as Whangaparaoa Peninsula.
If this be the case, and there seems to be much evidence in
support of the contention — that is, if a band of grit maintain-
ing an average thickuess of 10 ft. or 12 ft. persists for upwards
of six miles in a northerly direction — the inference does not
seem an extravagant one that the same band, which, it is to
be borne in mind, shows no signs anywhere of thinning out.
should extend two or three miles towards the south. This
distance would bring it across the water as far as Judge's
Bay, and so connect the exposures on the opposite sides of
the harbour. This, however, is only a conjecture, though by
no means an unreasonable one.

In a previous portion of the paper I referred to Mr. Park's
statement that the strike of the grit at Judge's Bay would
carry it to Cheltenham Beach, a statement which in itself is
perfectly correct, but which does not meet the difficulty of
correlating the two exposures. Though there is much in
favour of the contention, and though it is possible to imagine
conditions under which the existing outcrops could be con-
nected, yet the presence of large masses of lava in one set
of beds and their entire absence in the other is not easily
accounted for. The whole matter, in short, is one whose
solution is beset with considerable difficulty. It was this I
wished to bring out in referring to Mr. Park's statement.

From the evidence adduced it would appear, so far as the
northern side of the isthmus is concerned, that we may
conclude the exposures on the southern side of the harbour
to be connected ; that a very strong probability exists of the
Cheltenham Beach, Takapuna, and Red Bluff outcrops being
connected ; and that there is much to be said in favour of
the theory that the Cheltenham Beach and Parnell exposures
belong to the same band.

Along the shores of the Manukau Harbour the beds may
not correspond to those met with on the opposite side. There
are no exposures on the land between the two seas, and the
distance as the crow flies from the Parnell ash-beds to those
nearest to Onehunga is about six miles, hence the impossibility
of connecting the two stratigraphically. But, whether con-
nected or not, these beds are identical with those found on the
opposite side, and, like them, have every appearance of belong-
ing to the same band. The outcrop at Shag Point, near
Puponga, showing the separate beds, is certainly an exception ;
but it must be remembered the exposure was not large, and
no very definite conclusions need be based on it. It may be
that the lower layer of grit is a western extension of that
28

431 Transactions. — Geology.

found nearer Onehunga, and the interbedded shales merely
lenticular masses between which the grit has been squeezed,
the thinning-out being obscured by the formation of the
ground and the vegetation covering it. In this case the con-
glomerate at the top would represent a later deposit. But
the presence of conglomerate on the outskirts of a con-
glomerate country is not surprising.

From the similarity between the fragments included in the
grits and the composition of the grits themselves it is not un-
reasonable to conclude that they were ejected by vents which
had some connection with each other. Moreover, that there
were several vents there is not the slightest doubt. It is
quite inconceivable that fragments of rock such as those
found at Whangaparaoa, Takapuna, Cheltenham Beach, and
in the ash-beds along the northern shores of the Manukau
Harbour, could have been hurled for any great distance
through the air ; and the fact that they are not much water-
worn shows that they have not been transported far by the
agency of water. Hence we may conclude that there were
several centres of eruption and several showers of ashes,
some coarser than others, as in several places, notably at
Takapuna (see Section V., above), the coarser ash overlies the
fine. Moreover, the eruptions which caused the ash must
have occurred about the same time, and the showers them-
selves must have taken place at relatively short intervals.

All traces of the localities of these old centres of activity
have long since disappeared ; but the evidence furnished by
the material composing the grit enables within certain limits
the loci of some of them to be established. One volcanic
centre undoubtedly existed at or near Whangaparaoa. Such
huge fragments as those found there must certainly have
been derived from a vent in the immediate vicinity of their
present position. Another centre evidently lay not far from
the Takapuna ash-beds, the fragments in the grits there being
too large to have been derived from Whangaparaoa, a distance
of about ten miles. Another vent probably had its site at or
near Cheltenham Beach. But in the case of the two latter it
is not possible to do more than conjecture. It may have
been that a single vent situated somewhere between them
furnished the .material for the deposits in both places, as well
as that for those on the southern shores of the harbour. That
it probably existed nearer to Takapuna and Cheltenham Beach
than to the southern side of the harbour is shown by the differ-
ence in texture of the material in these places, that found
in the beds of the former being much coarser than the other.
There is, however, nothing to indicate either the precise
locality or the number of these vents. It is quite conceivable
that much of the material was derived from vents in the

Park. — On some Thames Andesites. 435

country now occupied by the andesitic ranges of Waitakerei.
The Parnell grit may well have had its origin there, and have
been brought down by rivers and currents operating at a
time when the physical features of the district were altogether
different. But the whole question, either of locating precisely
these old vents or of estimating with certainty their probable
number, is one which offers but a feeble chance of ever being
satisfactorily solved.

Note. — The Waitemata series can be traced further north
than Whangaparaoa, good sections showing along the cliffs
at Waiwera and round the Mahurangi Harbour, where the
volcanic grits again appear. North of this the sedimentary
rocks change considerably in character, the numerous layers
which distinguish the sandstones on the Auckland isthmus
giving place to thicker bands of a more highly indurated
sedimentary rock darker in colour and closer in texture.
The grits at Waiwera and Mahurangi are very similar both
in appearance and texture to those already described, and, like
these, contain numerous angular and subangular fragments
of augite-andesite, some of which reach upwards of 1 ft. in
diameter. Their mode of occurrence, however, does not
throw any additional light on the questions raised in this
paper.

Art. XL. — Notes on some Andesites from Thames Goldfield.

By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director, Otago Univer-
sity School of Mines.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 12th November, 1901.]

HoRNBLENDE-ANDESITE.

From the Mata Stream southward the deeply eroded
surface of the crumbling Palaeozoic slaty shales, which form
the basement rocks of the Hauraki Peninsula, are covered
with a great pile of andesite lavas, tuffs, and breccias. From
the Mata northward the coast-line is occupied by the slaty
shales for a distance of eight or nine miles without interrup-
tion. Between the Mata and Waikawau Streams the slaty
shales are intruded by seven massive dykes of igneous rock
which are well exposed in the deep road- cuttings winding
around the indentations of the rocky shore-line. The general
trend of the dykes is east and west, but, so far as I could
discover, they do not appear to reach the valley of the
Waikawau, which runs parallel with the coast-line for some

436 Transactions. — Geology.

two miles, at a distance varying from half a mile to a little
over a mile ; nor do they crop out on the ridge separating the
Waikawau Valley from the sea. These circumstances would
tend to show that the portions of the dyke-like masses now
exposed in the sea-cliffs and road-cuttings are the original
summits of igneous intrusions uncovered by comparatively
recent marine erosion. The contact-line between the slaty
shales and dykes is clearly exposed in a number of places,
but in all cases the degree of alteration of the clastic rock is
singularly little. In the immediate vicinity of each dyke the
slaty rocks are generally bent and shattered and the joints
much slickensided, as if the intrusions of the igneous mass
had exerted sufficient pressure to cause local thrust accom-
panied by shearing and displacement, more especially along
the planes of bedding. At the actual line of contact the
shales are merely hardened, or sometimes brecciated for a
depth of an inch or two. On many surfaces no alteration is
perceptible.

In my memoir on the " Geology and Veins of the Hauraki
Goldfields "* I described these rocks as hypersthene-augite-
andesite, from the penological description and name supplied
by the late Professor Ulrich.f A subsequent visit to the
locality convinced me that an error had arisen, probably
through a misplacement or exchange of a label, and in January
of this year I made a further examination of these dykes, at
the same time collecting examples of each for more detailed
investigation. As a result of microscopic examination in thin
sections I find that these intrusive masses are composed of
hornblende-andesite. There is no evidence obtainable in the
field to fix the date of their eruption even approximately; but,
judging from the fact that they occur as dykes penetrating the
basement rock, and that no hornblende-andesite, so far as
ascertained at present, is known to occur associated with the
gold-bearing andesitic volcanic rocks which everywhere overlie
the slaty shales, it is perhaps only reasonable to infer that
they are at least older than the gold-bearing andesites. All
the dykes are much decomposed, making it difficult to obtain
good examples for microscopic study.

Dyke No. 1. — This forms the first rocky bluff, some
30 chains south of the mouth of Waikawau River. It shows
an apparent width of about 240 yards. It is a dark-grey
compact rock ; feels somewhat rough to the touch. Hand
samples show conspicuous crystals of feldspar and hornblende,
the former up to 05 cm. and the latter 1 cm. long. In
polarised light the base is clear and crowded with feldspar

* Trans. N.Z. Inst. Mining ngineers, 1897, vol. i., p. 81.
t I.e., p. 26.

Pake. — On some Thames Amlesites. 437

microlites and thinly dusted with magnetite, which also
occurs in occasional large irregular aggregates. The feld-
spars are plagioclase, translucent, often much clouded with
glass inclusions ; not often well developed ; larger pheno-
crysts zoned with inclusions and not much twinned ; extinc-
tion angles large, indicating a basic variety, probably labra-
dorite. Some large plates show no twinning, but exhibit a
zoned structure due apparently to a succession of isomorphous
layers of growth. A little sanidine is present. The horn-
blende is generally altered ; often shows black resorption
border ; interior changed to serpentinous matter showing
bright polarisation colours ; strongly pleochroic, changing from
pale yellowish-brown to greenish-brown. Calcite abundant.
With dilute hydrochloric acid brisk effervescence takes place
around feldspars and hornblendes.

Dyke No. 2. — This occurs about a quarter of a mile further
south. It runs east and west, and shows a width of about
300 ft. It is a compact dark greenish-grey rock. Shows
crystals of feldspar and hornblende plainly to unaided eye,
but not conspicuously. Under the microscope the ground-
mass, or base, is very abundant, clear, and finely dusted with
magnetite. The feldspars are zoned with glass inclusions ; in
other parts clear and fresh. The inclusions are arranged
round the periphery of the crystals, following the crystallo-
graphic planes, and also as irregular aggregates along cracks.
A little sanidine is present. The hornblendes are mostly
altered to serpentinous matter, but do not show resorption
borders. Prismatic forms common. Pleochroism ; a = light-
brown ; fi and y = dark bluish-green.

Dyke No. 3. — This occurs about eight chains further south.
Its greatest extension appears to be parallel with the coast.
It throws out many ramifying branches through the slaty
shales ; extends along the beach for nearly 350 yards. This is
a dark greenish-grey rock, closely resembling No. 2 in hand
samples. Ground-mass clear; not abundant; crowded with
feldspar and other mineral microlites. Feldspars mostly clear,
well -twinned, showing brilliant polarisation colours; inclu-
sions numerous. A few large idiomorphic plates present in
each section. A little sanidine present. Hornblendes are all
much altered ; outlined with black borders ; centre clear or
crowded with decomposition products. Calcite and a little
secondary quartz present. A section cut from a sample
of this dyke, obtained near southern point of contact with
slaty rocks, contains nothing very marked to distinguish it
from the section described above, except the condition of the
hornblendes, which is less altered, being often quite fresh.

Dyke No. 4. — This occurs about 45 yards further south.
It extends along the beach for some 170 yards. A dark

438 Transactions. — Geology.

greenish-grey rock crowded with crystals of feldspar and
hornblende just discernible to the unaided eye, and imparting
a rough impression to the touch. Base clear ; not abundant,
but, like No. 3 dyke, crowded with microlites and crystals of
feldspar and hornblende. Feldspars fresh, but often clouded
with inclusions ; zonally arranged. Not much twinned.
Hornblendes generally altered. Calcite and secondary quartz
present. Iron not abundant, except as fine dust in base and
around hornblendes.

Dyke No. 5. — This begins about 400 yards further south.
It trends east and west, and shows a width of about 125 ft.
This rock is much altered. Colour on surface pale bluish-
grey sj)eckled with chlorite, imparting porphyritic appear-
ance. Ground-mass clear. In polarised light presents a
finely granular appearance, due to presence of grey microlites
of fairly uniform size.

Feldspar phenocrysts not numerous ; mostly fresh, and
not much twinned. Slides contain isolated crowded aggre-
gates of small plagioclase crystals, not much twinned, but
fresh, and showing bright polarisation colours. The horn-
blendes are mostly altered to chlorite or replaced by mag-
netite. All are bordered with magnetite.

Dyke No. 6. — This occurs 330 yards south of No. 5. It
has an exposure about 400 yards long. A very dense black-
ish-green rock, with conspicuous crystals of feldspar. When
wet almost dense black. Ground-mass abundant, dark
bluish-grey, in places almost black, from presence of clouds
of iron-dust. Feldspars plagioclase, not abundant ; occur
only as large idiomorphic plates, not much twinned; fairly
fresh and clear. The hornblendes are completely altered to
serpentinous matter. Their original crystalline forms are
sharply outlined by narrow, but very even, distinct black
borders of magnetite. Parts of interior often occupied by
clear matter. A little calcite and haematite are present.

Dyke No. 7. — This begins about 300 yards further south,
and thence extends to Mata Stream. It is a greenish-grey
rock, much decomposed near the surface; feels rough to
touch ; shows crystals of feldspar and hornblende, imparting
a granular appearance to rock. Base clear, but not abund-
ant ; crowded with microlites and plates of feldspar and
hornblende. Feldspars fresh, but not very clear, from pre-
sence of inclusions ; mostly well-twinned plagioclase. Extinc-
tion angles indicate basic variety. A little sanidine present.

Hornblende occurs both fresh and changed to chlorite
and serpentinous matter ; some plates show black resorption
borders. Apatite present ; iron fairly abundant.

In a paper read before the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science Captain Hutton, F.B.S., describes a

Park. — On some Thames Andesites. 439

similar hornblende-andesite from a dyke on the shore a little
north of the mouth of Tapu Creek, which evidently refers to
the dvke at the mouth of the Mata Stream.'*

AUGITE-ANDESITE.

A very dense compact blackish-green, almost black, rock
cropping out on coast between McCormick's farm and Puru
Flat, about four miles and a half north of Thames. Base
abundant ; grey-coloured, with microlites of uniform size.
Feldspars fresh, plagioclase. not much twinned. Augite
fairly abundant ; fresh, with brilliant polarisation colours ;
often twinned ; one plate shows marked hour-glass structure.

Hypersthene-andesite.

This is a compact dark greenish-grey rock cut 125 ft.
north of Queen of Beauty shaft at the Thames, in the north
crosscut from No. 11 level, 748 ft. deep. Ground-mass very
clear, dusted with magnetite. Feldspars plagioclose ; fresh,
but clouded with inclusions ; not much twinned. Hypers-
thene often outlined or replaced with black dust ; generally
affected with decomposition. No augite detected.

This rock forms the Exchange bar, one of the best-known
bars or undecomposed cores of andesite which traverse the
Thames Goldtield, running jDarallel wTith and separating the
main lode systems of the field. At the 748 ft. level it was
found to be 60 ft. wide ; in the Exchange shallow level, due
north-west, about 90 ft. thick ; and in the 452 ft. level of the
May Queen Mine, at a point about 450 ft. north of the Queen
of Beauty shaft, 300 ft. thick. Like many of these hard blue
bars, it shows a marked tendency to thin out in depth.

Hypersthene-augite-andesite.

A compact dark greenish-grey rock, cut last January a
few feet from the foot-wall of the Golden Age lode in the
Moanataiari Mine, at the 100 ft. level, Point Eussell section.
Ground-mass clear, but not abundant. Feldspars plagio-
clase ; fresh, often clouded with microlites and glass inclu-
sions ; not much twinned ; mostly basic. Hypersthene more
abundant than augite ; contains enclosures of glass ; often
altered to serpentinous products, and much dusted with
magnetite.

AUGITE-ANDESITE, TAIRUA.

This is a dense fine-grained rock with a vitreous or glassy
lustre and conchoidal fracture. It occurs as isolated frag-
ments and large masses weighing many hundredweights on
the hills around and south of Tairua Broken Hills Mine,

* Hutton, Proc. Aust. A*soc. Ad. Sc, 1888, p. 7.

440 Transactions. — Geology.

being evidently derived from the Tairua andesitic tuffs. The
masses generally present a corroded and often ropy appear-
ance, with a pitted surface. Under the microscope it is seen
to consist of a very pale-yellow glassy ground-mass, with
scattered feldspars and augite, the former occurring as narrow
laths and phenocrysts, apparently representing two crops of
generation. The feldspar laths are arranged with their
principal axes parallel to the fluxion plane. Some binary
twins do not exhibit straight extinction, and cannot be
sanidine. The majority of the feldspar microliths and plates
appear to be plagioclase. Augite is fairly abundant, often
well formed and generally twinned. Occurs both as plates
and narrow laths, which lie with their long axes parallel with
the fluxion plane. Polarisation colours very brilliant. One
phenocryst,'showing multiple twinning, encloses two crystals
of feldspar. Magnetite not very abundant.

Andesitic Glass, Omahu Hild.
This is a black semi-vitreous rock speckled with white
feldspars. Lustre vitreous ; feels rough. It occurs as irregu-
lar masses in the grey tuffs on the Omahu Bridle-track, about
a quarter of a mile on the Thames Valley side of Odlam's
gold-mining claim. Under the microscope it is seen to con-
sist of a grey glass exhibiting wavy fluxion lines, and sur-
rounding a few large and badly developed phenocrysts of
plagioclase. Some patches of the base are partially devitri-
fied and crowded with microliths of feldspar and augite.
Augite is fairly abundant. A little magnetite is dusted
throughout the base.

Art. XLI. — On the Secular Movements of the New Zealand

Coast-line.

By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director, Otago University

School of Mines.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 12th November, 1901.]

The solid ground is popularly considered the symbol of
stability, but exact observations in the older-peopled countries
of Europe have shown that, on the contrary, the crust
of the earth is in a state of constant oscillation. The
upheaval or depression of the land from this secular move-
ment is so slow and gradual as to produce no appreciable
difference in the physical aspect of the ground affected from
year to year, and it is only after the lapse of generations, and

Park — Changes of Const-level. 441

by means of careful measurements, that it can be proved to
exist. It is only along the coast-line, where sea-level affords
an unvarying base of verification, that these tranquil move-
ments can be detected and measured.

As early as 1730 Celsius, the Swedish astronomer, had
noted the gradual rise of the Scandinavian Peninsula. In
1731, in company with Linnaeus, he placed a stone mark at
the base of a cliff in the Island of Loeffgrund, not far from
Jefle, and thirteen years afterwards was able personally to
verify that the Baltic Sea had retreated 7 in., or at the rate of
4 ft. 5 in. for a century.*

That the rate of movement is not always uniform over
wide regions, but differential, is shown in the case of the
Baltic shores of Scandinavia. For example, at the northern
extremity of the Gulf of Bothnia, at the mouth of the Tornea,
the continent is emerging from the sea at the rate of 5 ft. 3 in.
in a century, but by the side of the Aland Isles the rise,
according to Eeclus, is only at the rate of 3 ft. 3 in. in the
same time. South of the isles the rate of upheaval is even
slower, and further south the ground moves so slowly as to
appear quite stable even in a century. This region, indeed,
seems to be the pivot of the oscillation, for further south, at
Scania, the most southerly part of Sweden, the land is sinking
gradually, as proved by the submergence of forests and older
streets of the towns of Trelleborg, Ystad, and Malmoe. It
was at Scania that Linnaeus, in 1749, exactly determined the
position of a stone, which was found after a lapse of eighty-
seven yeai-s to be 100 ft. nearer the water's edge. According
to Erdmann the subsidence at Scania has now ceased, or has
been exchanged for an upward movement, but it will require
observations extending over another half-century to verify this
conclusion.!

Celsius and his contemporaries were impressed with the
view that the emergence of the land was due to the recession
of the sea, the changes in the relative level of sea and land
being ascribed to variations in the form of the oceanic
envelope. Most of the evidence available is adverse to this
conclusion, and modern geologists and physicists alike are in
favour of regarding the relative changes of land and sea as due
to movements of the solid land only. The mean level of the
sea is now generally regarded as a constant datum, not neces-
sarily unvarying, but varying within such infinitesimal limits
as to be practically constant as a verification datum.

The principal evidences of an elevation of the land are
raised beaches, sea- worn caves at present beyond the reach of

* " The Eartb," Reclus, p. 621.

f Geol. For. Stockholm Forhandl., i., p. 93.

442 Transactions. — Geology.

the sea, elevated sea-ledges and terraces, human records and
traditions. A subsidence of the land is more difficult to trace,
as each successive sea-margin is washed away or covered over
as the submergence continues. The existence of a submerged
forest, of fringing coral islands, or of fiords, may be regarded
as perfectly reliable evidence of subsidence. In studying the
oscillations of the earth it is necessary to guard against the
numerous causes of error that mav arise from the unceasing
struggle being waged between the land and sea. Neither
the encroachment of the sea on the shore-line, which may be
due to progressive erosion, nor the recession of the sea, which
may be due to local accumulations of alluvial detritus, are to
be accepted as evidence of subsidence without due considera-
tion. And, since secular elevation or depression of the land is
always taking place, it is obvious that an encroachment or
recession of the sea, due to denudation or reclamation, may
coincide with a geologic upheaval or depression. Therefore
in searching for proofs of such movements the student must
be on his guard against being deceived by any apparent
advance or recession of the sea.

The great and varied assemblage of marine formations in
New Zealand, including representatives of nearly all ages,
affords ample proof that this country has been subject to
many alternating upheavals and subsidences in past geological
times.

In the absence of human records it is impossible to
definitely or even approximately determine the direction of
the present secular movements on our shores. There is
abundant evidence that oscillations have taken place in com-
paratively recent times, but there are no data at our dis-
posal to enable us to ascertain whether the movements which
produced this evidence are still progressing in the same di-
rection. An upward motion may be succeeded by a period
of subsidence, and in the absence of a means of accurate
measurement it would not be safe to generalise on the evi-
dence of what has taken place in some past time, however
recent.

The buried and submerged pine forests in the Thames
Valley and Bay of Plenty prove that the movement in those
regions has been downward up till a very recent date. The
extent of this area of subsidence cannot be defined, but the
geological evidence clearly indicates that it extended as far
west as the shores of Auckland Harbour. Whether this
secular subsidence of the Hauraki Gulf is still in progress
cannot be determined at present.

A submerged forest on the sea-shore near Waitotara, with
the trunks of the trees still standing erect in the sea, points
to a very recent subsidence of the land in that region. The

Park. — Changes of Const-level. 443

well-known raised beach around Wellington Harbour was
upheaved suddenly during an earthquake about forty years
ago, and must not be confused with the evidences of slow
secular movement.

The raised terraces on the coast-line of Canterbury and
Otago, and the recent excavation of the narrow rocky gorges of
the Clutha, Taieri, and other rivers draining the east side of
the " great divide," point to a slow but continuous elevation
of the land which may still be in progress. On the other
hand, there can be little doubt that the fiords or sounds of
south-west Otago were narrow mountain-glens excavated by
subaerial agencies at a time when the land stood at a higher
level than at present. The subsidence which has been in pro-
gress in that region since post-Tertiary times has allowed the
sea to run up and fill the submerged glens. Thus each fiord
will mark the site of a submerged valley.

New Zealand, from its insular position, its division by the
sea into islands, its numerous harbours and extensive coast-
line, is destined to become an important maritime nation. It
will always be dependent on the sea for its communications
and commerce, both internal and foreign, and this will neces-
sitate the erection and maintenance of harbours, docks, and
coast-protection works of a costly and permanent character,
specially adapted to accommodate the trading-vessels of the
future. It is quite certain that, in the design and erection of
these works, the direction of the secular movements of the
land will be factors demanding serious consideration. Hence it
is now our duty — a duty we owe to posterity — to erect around
our shores permanent marks or stones, the positions of which
have been accurately determined, for the guidance of the engi-
neers of the future. For example, an accurately determined
progressive and uniform upheaval of the floor of a harbour at
the rate of, say, 6 ft. in a century would necessitate the intro-
duction of important modifications in the design of dock-
accommodation intended to be of a permanent character.
Further, it is well known that subsidence in an area allows
the accumulation of silts, sand, and gravels in the estuaries,
harbours, or rivers in that area ; while, conversely, the rising
of an area permits the sweeping-away and scouring-out of
old accumulations of alluvial detritus in harbours and similar
situations. Since the engineer is called upon to combat, or at
least direct, the forces of nature, he should be provided with a
full knowledge of the direction of these forces, otherwise his
best-devised schemes may soon become useless, if not actually
destructive.

Stone marks have long since been erected on their shores
by most of the civilised maritime states of Europe and
America, and the time has arrived when this should be done

444 Transactions. — Geology.

here; and not only in New Zealand, but on the shores of
the Commonwealth of Australia. It has been shown that the
secular movements are so quiet and slow as to produce no
appreciable alteration from day to day or ye&v to year. They
often require a lapse of several generations to be capable of
proof by careful measurement ; hence the sooner the marks
are erected the earlier will the data be available in the future.
The proofs of upheaval and subsidence are sometimes ob-
tainable over wide continental areas, but generally are marked
by a local and variable character ; hence, marks should be
erected on the shores of all our harbours, on the headlands
and outlying projections of land. The work has a high scien-
tific and economic importance, and would naturally fall to the
State Department of Lands and Surveys. It could, perhaps,
be most conveniently carried on simultaneously with the
magnetic survey of the colony now in progress. The marking
of the coasts of Australia should be undertaken by the Federal
Government, so as to obtain uniformity in the method of
determining a mean sea-level datum. Up till now no serious
attempt has yet been made to determine the relation of sea-
level to tbe land in New Zealand on a scientific basis, and for
this reason the marking of the coast-line with stones, whose
position has been accurately determined with respect to sea-
level, would further supply a much-needed datum of verifica-
tion for the officers of the Lands and Survey Department for
their more exact geodetic and hydrographical surveys.

Art. XLII. — Notes on some Glacier Moraines in the Leith

Valley, Dunedin.

By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director, Otago University

School of Mines.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 12th November, 1901.]

Plates XXVII .-XXVIII.

The glaciers of New Zealand are reputed to be the largest in
existence outside the polar regions, with perhaps the excep-
tion of some in the higher Himalayas. They are found
clinging to both flanks of the " main divide " of the South
Island, their greatest development being within the Province
of Canterbury. On the West Coast they descend to within
750 ft. of sea-level, into the midst of the evergreen forest.
On the east side, where the slope is more gradual and the

Pakk. — Leith Valley Moraines. 445

annual precipitation less, the terminal face of the glacier ice
is seldom found below 2,500 ft.

An examination of the present physical features of the
country affords abundant evidence that the present glaciers
are but mere remnants of ice-masses that once covered
hundreds of square miles, in many places reaching even to the
sea.

In Nelson we have the great tumbled moraines blocking
the lower ends of Lakes Kotoroa and Eotoiti ; in Canterbury,
the marvellous ice-cut terraces on the mountains north of
Lake Ohau, and the well-preserved terminal moraines on the
plains south of the same lake ; and, in Otago, the strikingly
beautiful rounded or billowy ice-worn foot-hills of the Matuki-
tuki, in the Upper Wanaka, the gigantic moraine blocking
the old outlet of Lake Wakatipu at Kingston, and the great
ice-shorn plateau of Central Otago, through which the Taieri
has cut its narrow tortuous course.

Naturally enough, the most abundant and most obvious
evidences of former glaciation are to be found in the vicinity
of the present-day glaciers, on the ground the glaciers have
passed over twice, once in advancing and once in retreating.

On the other hand, there is nothing to show that New
Zealand ever experienced a glacial period corresponding to
the Ice Age of the Northern Hemisphere. The evidences of
glacier action just mentioned show clearly enough that ice-
masses of huge size must have occupied a very large portion
of southern Otago and Southland in Pliocene or Pleistocene
times ; and it seems equally clear that an extension of the
present glaciers seaward would explain the origin and source
of these ice-masses.

Up to the present time no traces of glaciation have been
found in the North Island. The continuous and widespread
series of older and newer Pliocene strata in the Wanganui,
Wellington, and Hawke's Bay districts, with their ,rich
assemblage of marine forms, proves the existence of long-
continued sedimentation in shallow seas, teeming with life,
at a period when the great ice-plough was scooping out the
valleys of Otago. The circumstance that probably 98 per-
cent, of this varied fauna is represented by living forms
shows that the climate in Pliocene times was neither
warmer nor colder than at present.

I do not propose to minutely discuss the causes which led
to the refrigeration necessary to permit the great extension of
the glaciers of Otago in Pliocene times. This subject has
already been exhaustively dealt with by Sir James Hector,
Captain Hutton, and others. It will be sufficient to state
that the former believed, as the result of his explorations
among the West Coast Sounds of Otago in 1863, that an

446 Transactions. — Geology.

elevation of 2,000ft., together with the greater extent of
land then existing, but since removed by ice erosion, would
be sufficient to extend the glaciers to their former limits.

I will now proceed to describe some morainic mounds
which I discovered last June in the Leith Valley, near the
foot of Waikari. These moraines are situated near the top of
the ridge separating the Leith Valley and Boss's Creek, which
flows into the city reservoir. They extend from the saddle
between the Leith Valley and Eoss's Creek southward, run-
ning parallel with the Leith Valley and terminating in Mr.
Henry Skey's farm, Section No. 74, at a point nearly due
north of the upper reservoir. Although near the top of the
ridge, they lie on the fall into the Leith. There are two
lines of mounds parallel to each other. The upper mound,
about 500 ft. above the sea, begins inside Mr. Skey's bound-
ary, crosses the road, and runs in a west-north-west to east-
south-east direction for about 5 chains, gradually increas-
ing in height towards the saddle until it suddenly ends in a
pile of andesitic rocks. At a point about half its length it
is 8 ft. high, presenting a steep face to the south and a long
gentle slope to the Leith Valley. Numerous tree- stumps and
clumps of native forest around the saddle indicate that the
whole ridge was at one time covered with forest. At the
present time a rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum), 4 ft. in circum-
ference and 50 ft. high, is growing in the depression of the
lower mound. The lower mound resembles a line of massive
earthwork constructed for defensive purposes. It is cut
through by a road, and is seen to be composed, at that point,
of fragments of rotten rock now forming compact yellow clays.
The composition of this mound is also seen in a recent
cutting, 10 ft. long and 4 ft. deep, near its western end and on
its lower slope, which exposes a confused mass of andesitic
rocks and clay. The rocks are mostly angular, tabular in
form, and often of enormous size. The pile of tumbled rocks
at the western end of the upper morainic mound was evidently
exposed by the removal of the associated clays by recent
denudation.

The high-level terraces in the valley of the Leith and the
alluvia west of the saddle would tend to show that the Leith,
before the excavation of the present rocky gorge, flowed across
Eoss's Saddle to the back of Maori Hill, and thence westward
in the direction of the present Kaikorai Valley. The present
deep narrow valley of the Leith, with its precipitous rocky
sides, was obviously excavated in comparatively recent times.

Hamilton. — The Moeraki Boulders. -14-7

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXVII.-XXVIII.

Plate XXVII.
View of southern end of lower moraine looking north-west.

Plate XXVI II.

View taken in depression between the upper and lower mounds,
looking along the depression in a west-north-west direction.

Art. XLIII. — On the Sectarian Boulders of Moeraki, Otago.

By A. Hamilton.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 12th November, 1901.]

Plates XXIX.-XXXV.

In the year 1848 Mr. Walter Mantell, as Government Com-
missioner for the Settlement of Native Land Claims in the
South Island, travelled on foot from Kaiapoi to the southern
settlements of Otago. An interesting summary of his notes
by the way was published by his father, Gideon Algernon
Mantell, in the " Proceedings of the Geological Society" for
the year 1850 (vol. vi., p. 319) .* On page 320 in that pub-
lication is a sketch-map of the geology of the coast-line so far
as could be gathered from his daily observations and from
information obtained from the natives, who at that time were
fairly numerous. Names of rivers and coastal features are
given from Kaiapoi to the Alolyneux Eiver. On reaching
what he calls Onekakara Bay he gives a sketch taken a little
south of Hampden, looking to the north, including the coastal
features as far as the " White Bluff," and in the foreground
is " a group of septarian boulders, called by the whalers
' The Ninepins.' "

Mr. Mantell says, " Midway between the bluff and
Moeraki the cjay contains layers of septaria varying from
1 ft. to 5 ft. and more in diameter. Hundreds of these
nodules, which had been washed out of the undermined clay
cliffs by the encroachment of the sea, were scattered along the
beach. Some were subglobular, others spherical, many were
entire, whilst others were broken and glittered with yellow

* " Notice of the Remains of the Dinomis and other Birds, and of
Forest and Rock Specimens recently collected by Mr. Walter Mantell
in the Middle Island of New Zealand, with Additional Notes on the
Northern Island, by Gideon Algernon Mantell, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., G.S.,
&c. With Note on Fossiliferous Deposits in the Middle Island of New
Zealand, by Professor E. Forbes, F.R.S., &c."

448 Transactions. — Geology.

and brown crystals of calcareous spar, with which all the
hollows of the septaria were lined or filled. Some of these
masses were hollowed out by the action of the waves into
regular basins, which at lowtide stand up from the sands full
of water, and are 3 ft. or 4 ft. deep."

He then notices the zones or belt of cone-in-cone clav
with which they were encircled, and gives diagrams and sec-
tions. The diagram is interesting as showing a fragment
of bone, not in the centre, as a nucleus, but close to
the outer edge. The septarium is a small one in this
instance, being 2 ft. in diameter, and the piece of bone
enclosed ran straight into the mass. The fragment of bone
w7as flattened, li in. in longest diameter; "its cancellated
structure appears to resemble that of the moa." A note ap-
pended by Dr. Mantell (see below) states that slices prepared
for examination under the microscope showed the bone to
be avian. It would be of great interest to have the frag-
ment re-examined, as neither Dr. Mantell, Mr. Tomes, nor
Mr. Bowerbank do more than state that the microscopical
characters show that the bone belonged to a bird. Dr.
Mantell was not aware at that time of the occurrence of
reptilian bones in nodules and boulders at Katiki, the
Amuri Bluff, and in similar beds in other places. The
probabilities are, I think, more in favour of its being rep-
tilian than moa, more especially as no moa-bone has since
been found in beds of equal age. The fragment is, I believe,
still in the British Museum.

Since their discovery the remarkable character of these
septaria has attracted successive generations of visitors,
and nearly all the smaller specimens have been removed to
adorn (?) the corners of paths and the grottoes of the subur-
ban villas of the ingenious. Many years ago an attempt was
made by the late Mr. J. T. Thomson to manufacture cement
from them, a proceeding probably suggested by the analysis
given by Dr. Mantell, and made at the Museum of Practical
Geology in London, showing 66-7 per cent, of carbonate of
lime. Dr. Mantell also compared them with the septaria
extracted from the London clay on the coast of Sussex,
which are made into first-class Boman cement. They occur
in abundance in the Isle of Sheppey, and are dredged for off
Harwich and in Chichester Harbour.

Judging from the sketch given by Mr. Mantell, the septaria
were at the time of his visit well exposed. At the present
time the sand appears to shift very frequently, and at times
nearly covers the boulders. My photographs (see plates)
were taken at lowtide, and show that at present about
half of each stone is visible. There is one well down
between tide-marks which is much broken on the landward

Hamilton. — The Moeraki Boulders. 4i9

side, and has in its hollow a most charming natural aquarium,
the sides and bottom of which are thickly lined with Sabellids,
sponges, and beautiful sea- anemones (see Plate XXX1L).
Mr. Mantell, with the feelings of a weary, footsore, pedes-
trian explorer, exclaims, " "What an excellent footbath ! " — a
suggestion practical if not poetical. There is one very large
specimen still imbedded in the clay cliffs about 50 ft. above
tide-mark, but I could not see any of the smaller sizes. The
majority of those between tide-marks are encircled with a
thick coating of the small blue-black Mytihis, and the bare
portion is partly covered with a vivid-green Alga, which
contrasts with the mussels. Those above tide -limits are
weathered to a greyish-brown, and in some cases the hard
calcite filling the septae, or cracks, stands out in relief, being
less easily acted upon by the weather. Four or five large
specimens have fallen to pieces and show the interior to be a
hard blue clay or limestone, and numerous exterior layers,
which show more and more the cone-in-cone structure as
they approach the surface.

The Maori has localised the tradition of the loss of the
celebrated canoe " Arai-te-Uru " in the neighbourhood by
pointing out the long reef just south of Port Moeraki as the
canoe, and the cargo may still be seen strewn on the beaches,
a huge elongated concretion being the hinaki, or eel- basket, of
Hape-ki-taurake and the slave Puketapu." The globular sep-
tarian boulders are the calabashes which held the supply of
water for those in the canoe, and a number of strangely
shaped ferruginous concretions which occur to the south of
the headland at Katiki are the kumaras washed ashore from
the wreck. Mr. Mantell speaks of these " kumaras " as " no-
dules containing a far larger amount of iron and less lime
than those before mentioned. The spot is known to the
whalers as ' Vulcan's Foundry.' "

These Katiki Beach boulders are also much in request
for garden ornamentation. The natural red-brown colour is
often improved(?/) by a coat of white paint or white-wash.

Mr. bhortland visited this part of the coast in the early
days and notices the story of the canoe and the kumaras, but
does not seem to have seen the larger groups of septaiia to
the north.f

From the geological or stratigraphical point of view the
boulders have been frequently referred to in the Eeports of the
Geological Survey. In 1862 Sir James Hector indicated the
position of the Moeraki septaria beds in a paper on the

* Cation Stack: "Traditional History cf the Southern Maoris"
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., x., 61).

f ShortlaDd : " Southern Districts cf New Zealand," p. 190.
29

450 Transactions. — Geology.

geology of the Manuherikia Valley, and also in 1864, when he
determined the succession of the beds in the Shag Point
district. Sir Julius von Haast reported on the Shag Point
coalfield in the Geological Eeports for 1873-74, page 25, and
Captain Hutton, describing the Waipara formation in the
geology of Otago, refers to the septaria of Moeraki. Another
colonial geologist, Mr. Cox, in his report of 1877, refers to
their stratigraphical position in connection with the Shag
Point series of beds. Still later Mr. McKay examined the
geology of the coast-line from Moeraki Peninsula to Kakauui,*
and states that " overlying the lower greensands are some
dark muds or carbonaceous clays more than 100 ft. thick,
which in these lower beds contain the celebrated Moeraki
boulders, which, whether spheroidal or flattened, are usually
enveloped in a coating of cone-in-cone limestone."

Flattened boulders covered with cone-in-cone limestone
are seen in the bed of the Little Kini Creek, opposite Hamp-
den Eail way-station. The beds containing boulders reach the
beach at the mouth of the creek ; but there they are mostly
flattened, and it is only when seen further south within tide-
marks that they take the perfectly spheroidal form. There
are also spherical and elliptical ferruginous concretions on the
Katiki Beach, on which a few saurian remains have been
found.

In the report for 1890-91, page 47, Mr. McKay has a
humorous and lucid description of the difference between the
grey and the brown " boulders."

Sir James Hector also refers to them in his appendix to
the same report (page 173). Captain Hutton, in his " Sketch
of the Geology of New Zealand,"! includes the beds in his
Pareora system.

Analysis of Moeraki Boulder.

Carbonate of lime
Silica ...
Alumina
Peroxide of iron
Organic matter .. .

10000
Contained when received 2 per cent, of water.

66-7

16-2

104

4-7

2-0

Note on the Fragment of Bone referred to above.
The external form of this fragment conveys no idea of its
nature ; but slices carefully prepared for the microscope

* Rep. of Geol. Survey, 1886-87, p. 223.
t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, May, 1885.

J. T. Stewart. — On an Artesian Well. 451

present, under a moderately magnifying power, a structure
which shows that the bone belonged to a bird. There is,
however, no proof that it can be referred to the Dinornis. Mr.
Tomes and Mr. Bowerbank, who have obliged me by examining
the specimen, concur in this opinion. Insignificant as this
fact may appear, still, in these early pages of the palagonto-
logical history of our antipodean colonies, it is worthy of
remark that the first-discovered fossil relic of the terrestrial
Vertebrata in the Tertiary strata of New Zealand should belong
to that class which, in later periods, constituted the principal
types of the warm-blooded animals of the fauna of that
country, to the almost entire exclusion of the Mammalia
— G. A. M.

DESCRIPTION OP PLATES XXIX.-XXXV.

Plate XXIX. Moeraki Beach, with septaria.

Plate XXX.

Plate XXXI.

Plate XXX 1 1. „ „ weathered.

Pute XXXIII. „ „ decomposed.

Plate XXXIV. Cone-in-cone limestone.

Plate XXXV.

Art. XLIV. — Note on an Artesian Well at Aramoho.

By J. T. Stewart, C.E.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 6th August, 1901]

About three miles above Wanganui, on the Wanganui Eiver
bank, a 4 in. bore has been made by Mr. John Walker, jun.,
in search of water. There is, of course, much speculation as
to where the water comes from. It is struck under a layer of
papa (280 ft. thick), and water was struck at bottom of this
layer, at 540 ft. below the surface, in a layer of sand inter-
mixed with pumice sand. The surface here may be 30 ft. to
40 ft. above the sea. Perhaps the water gets under the main
papa stratum where it has been pierced by the volcanic
heights about Buapehu and Tongariro and follows down
under the papa formation to where found. I found the
temperature of the water coming out of the pipe at the sur-
face to be 70^° Fahr., while the adjoining river'water was 42°
at 6 ft. under the surface. The temperature in the shade at
the time was 45°.

A fewT years ago a 2 in. bore was put down at the same

452 Transactions. — Geoloyy.

place and water was got at the same depth, and this has con-
tinued to supply houses in the neighbourhood successfully.

The new bore is 11 ft. off the old bore, and does not seem
to affect it. This bore is about 1 chain off the river-bank on
the right bank of the river.

Before this a trial bore, 14 chains down the river and
4 chains off the bank, was put down by Mr. Walker to 610 ft.,
but no successful water-supply was got, and no solid papa
stratum was reported there.

The following notes were given to me by Mr. Walker : —

From surface to 60 ft., sand and pumice.

60 ft. to 66 ft., sand.

66 ft. to 105 ft., clay.
105 ft. to 117 ft., sand (wood at 110ft.).
117 ft. to 127 ft., shingle.
127 ft. to 130 ft., sand.
130 ft. to 138 ft., shingle.
138 ft. to 144 ft., coarse grit.
144 ft. to 183ft., sand.
183 ft. to 183^- ft., hard seam (taking five hours

to bore) .
1831 ft. to 185 ft., fine sand.
185 ft. to 239 ft., papa.
239 ft. to 260 ft., sand.
260 ft. to 540 ft , papa.

At 540 ft. water came up strongly, after boring through a
hard seam. The water was got in sand intermixed with fine
pumice, into which the rods were put down to 553 ft. The
bore is piped with 313J ft. of 4 in. pipe, the top of last length
being 15 in. below the surface (the rest of the bore has no
pipe). A strong volume of water was got, with a good pres-
sure.

Art. XLV. — The Volcanic Beds of the Waitemata Series.

By C. E. Fox.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 34th February, 1903.]

Plates XXXVIII.-XL.

1. Introduction.
The Waitemata series is a group of strata developed round
the shores of the Waitemata Harbour, from which it derives
its name. The upper limit of the series is well defined, since
a complete unconformability exists between its shales and

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 453

sandstones and the overlying tuffs and lava-streams, which are
of Pliocene or later age. The lower limit is not so certain.
In this paper it is taken to be the Papakura limestone, which
crops out along the Palaeozoic ranges to the east of the Waite-
mata Harbour, lying unconformably on the upturned and de-
nuded edges of ancient slates and phyllites. This limestone
is considered by Captain Hutton to be Oligocene in age, while
the beds in the vicinity of Auckland are classed as Lower
Miocene. If this classification be accepted the volcanic beds
with which this paper deals are Lower Miocene, some of them
Oligocene perhaps.

Above the limestone lies a thick group of greensands.
These are succeeded by sandstones and shales, evidently
deposited in somewhat shallow water, for ripple-marks and
current bedding may frequently be observed in them. There
is some doubt as to whether an unconformability exists
between the greensands and the overlying beds, Captain
Hutton and Mr. S. H. Cox, F.G.S., both holding that
there is one," while Mr. James Park, F.G.S., believes the
evidence to point to a regular succession. i At least the un-
conformability cannot be very great if we judge by fossil
evidence.

About the time when the limestone was being formed
to the east of the Waitemata there rose through the Oligo-
cene sea to the westward a long line of volcanic vents, now
denuded and overgrown with dense forest, and known as the
Waitakerei Eange. There is no means of ascertaining its
exact extent or the nature and position of the vents. These
Waitakerei outbursts gave rise to a thick bed of coarse vol-
canic fragments. As the bed occurs typically at Cheltenham,
it may be called the Cheltenham breccia. This is the oldest
of the volcanic beds of the series.

Twenty or thirty miles to the eastward another line of
vents became active at nearly the same time, on Coromandel
Peninsula. The Coromandel eruptions, however, would seem
to have commenced rather earlier than those at the Waitakerei,
and to have continued for some time after the western vents
had become quiescent. The debris from the Coromandel vol-
canoes was spread over the floor of the sea, and possibly it was
these eruptions which supplied the material for the Parnell
grit, the youngest volcanic bed of the series.

Between these two main beds, the Cheltenham breccia and
the Parnell grit, there are other but less important beds of
volcanic origin which seem to have been all derived from the
Waitakerei outbursts. Each of these seems to be less coarse

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1884.
f Trans. N.Z. lust., 1889.

454 Transactions. — Geology.

than the preceding one ; and they mark, I believe, the gradual
dying-out of volcanic activity along the Waitakerei Eange.

The general evidence for the age of the beds is of a three-
fold character. In the first place, there are the fossils con-
tained in the beds themselves — the palseontological evidence.
This alone would show that the Cheltenham breccia cannot
be Pliocene, as the Geological Survey contends. In the
second place, there is the composition of the contained lava.
In New Zealand, as in other places, there seems to be fre-
quently a regular succession. The earlier eruptions are
sometimes basic. These, however, are succeeded by acid
lavas, and these again by more basic, the lava of a " petro-
graphical province " growing more and more basic till the
cycle is completed. The lavas of Pliocene age in Auck-
land are olivine basalts. The lavas of the volcanic beds of
the Waitemata series are pyroxene-andesites ; and, since the
Eocene lavas are generally rhyolites, the evidence seems at
least favourable to a Miocene or Oligocene age for the Waite-
mata lavas. The exceptions to this rule make it impossible,
however, to rely on the lithological evidence alone — or, indeed,
to lay much stress upon it. The last line of evidence is the
position of the beds — the stratigraphical evidence. At Orakei
Bay there is a very fossiliferous greensand of whose Miocene
age there can be little doubt. It will be shown that the vol-
canic beds are all below the greensand, with the exception of
the Parnell grit, which is above it.

Generally the beds of the Waitemata series are either
horizontal or dipping in long gentle anticlines and syn-
clines ; but in places they are distorted and dislocated, and
may even be thrust over each other. It has been generally
supposed that these strains and the numerous faults are due
to the volcanic forces which produced the basalt puys,
scattered in scores round the Waitemata. Sometimes, per-
haps generally, the distortions occur in proximity to a puy.
At other times no such apparent connection is visible, and
the strata may be disturbed far from any basalt cone, or may
lie horizontally quite close to one. It may be that the small
puvs are no true measure of the magnitude of the volcanic
forces that formed them, and that, as in Scotland, when
denudation lays bare the underlying rocks great sills will be
found whose contents never reached the surface.*

In working out the stratigraphy of the Waitemata series
the volcanic beds are invaluable. They are widespread, and
their lithological characteristics are much more distinct than
those of the sandstones and shales. Moreover, some of the

* Sir A. Geikie : "Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain," vol. i.,
p. 458.

Fox. — The Wai tenia fa Series. 455

tuffs are comparatively rich in fossils, whereas the sandstones
and shales are generally lacking in organic remains.

2. Previous Observers.

Hochstetter was the first to describe the Waitemata series,
in a lecture delivered to the Auckland Institute in 1859 :
" The horizontal beds of sandstone and marl which form the
cliffs of the Waitemata and extend in a northerly direction to
Kawau belong to a newer Tertiary formation, and, instead of
coal, contain only layers of lignite. A characteristic feature
of this Auckland Tertiary formation is the existence of beds of
volcanic ashes, which are here and there interstratified with
the ordinary Tertiary layers."*

Captain Hutton showed in 1870 that the beds could be
followed in an easterly direction to the Hunua and Wairoa
Ranges, composed of Palaeozoic slates. He thought that the
estuarine sandstones forming the upper part of the series were
separated by an unconformability from the greensands and
limestone to the east.t

Mr. S. H. Cox, of the Geological Survey, traced the beds
to the north some ten years later. At Komiti Peninsula he
found Lower Miocene fossils associated with the forms found
in the Orakei Bay greensand. He therefore concluded that
the Waitemata series was Lower Miocene.]:

Sir James Hector. Director of the Geological Survey,
thought that the series should be divided at the Parnell
grit ; the beds below this he classed as Cretaceo-tertiary,
those above it as Lower Miocene. This seems to have been
the first occasion when the importance of the Parnell grit as
a stratigraphical guide was realised.]

Mr. McKay, of the Geological Survey, examined the
district in 1883. He agreed with Sir James Hector in the
division of the series; considered the "Port Britomart "
shales the equivalent of the Orakei Bay greensand, and showed
the Parnell grit lying unconformably on the former ; and
identified the Cheltenham breccia with the Parnell grit on
stratigraphical grounds. §

Captain Hutton, in 1884, showed that there was no evi-
dence of an unconformability between the Orakei Bay green-
sand and the Parnell grit ; that there was no evidence that
the latter was younger than the former ; and that the Orakei
Bay bed was of Miocene age. ||

Mr. James Park, of the Geological Survey, made an

* " Reise der ' Novara ' : Geology," i., p. 34.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xvii , p. 307.
I Geological Reports, 1879-80.
§ Geological Reports, 1883-84.
I Trans. N.Z. Inst.

456 Transactions. — Geology.

examination of the district in 1885. He collected a great
deal of new evidence as to the stratigraphical position of the
Parnell grit, which he was inclined to think inferior to the
Orakei greensand ; identified the Parnell grit with the Chelten-
ham breccia on palasontological grounds ; traced the whole
series eastward to the Papakura limestone ; and concluded
that the Waitemata series was unconformable to the Cretaceo-
tertiary beds. His final classification was as follows : —

Upper Miocene.

1. " Fort Britomart " shales.

2. Parnell grit and Waitakerei breccias.

Lower Miocene.

3. Turanga greensands.
Orakei Bay greensand.

4. Papakura limestone.
Cape Rodney grits. *

Sir James Hector still thought the series should be
divided at the Parnell grit. He dissented from Mr. Park's
view that the Cheltenham breccia was the northerly exten-
sion of the Parnell grit, considering the Cheltenham breccia
and the other volcanic beds to the north of the harbour of
Pliocene age, and quite unconformable to the Waitemata
series.!

Mr. Park, in 1889, upheld his views as given above.]:
Since 1889 nothing of importance has been published on
the volcanic beds of the Waitemata series. The view adopted
in the present paper has been already indicated in the intro-
duction.

3. The Volcanic Beds of the Series.

As the volcanic beds at Cheltenham and Parnell are the
thickest, most fossiliferous, characteristic, and widely spread
beds of the series, and their stratigraphical position and age
have been a subject of much dispute, most of the paper will
be devoted to a consideration of them. The evidence tends to
show that they are distinct beds, though Mr. McKay and Mr.
Park consider them identical, and Mr. Park writes that he
has " conclusively proved " their identity. Sir James Hector
considers the Cheltenham breccia to be Pliocene, so that it
will be necessary to give in some detail reasons for suppos-
ing it to be Lower Miocene, or even Oligocene. With regard
to its source, I will give evidence tending to show that it
probably came from the Waitakerei vents. The chief point

* Geological Reports, 1885.
-( Geological Reports, 18S5-S6.
I Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889.

Fox.- — The Waitemata iSeries. 457

of interest with regard to the Parnell grit is whether it is
above or below the Orakei Bay greensand, because the latter
is a fossihferous bed which is allowed to be Miocene. Mr.
Park felt inclined to place it below, although admitting the
evidence inconclusive, and he has since classed it as Eocene. :;:
But a large amount of new stratigraphical evidence will be
given which leads me to think that it is really above the
Orakei greensand, and therefore Miocene. Its source is an
open question ; it may have come from the Waitakerei, but
there is evidence in favour of its having come from the Coro-
mandel vents. There are at least two other volcanic beds.
One of these really consists of a group of tufls separated by
thin layers of shale. They are well developed at Wairau
Creek, and so I have called them the " Wairau tuffs." The
other bed is a feldspathic tuff, developed best at Ponsonby,
and called throughout the " Ponsonby tuff." These can be
dealt with more shortly.

I consider that the thick volcanic breccias on the west
of the Waitakerei Eange should really be included in the
Waitemata series, but I have not been able to examine
them sufficiently to include a discussion of them in this
paper.

4. Are the Cheltenham Breccia and the Parnell Grit

distinct Beds ?

The study of the volcanic outcrops at these places has led
me to the conclusion that these beds are distinct. The evi-
dence is considerable, consisting of a number of facts which
are cumulative. Before giving them it will be advisable to
give the evidence in favour of the identity of the beds.

Mr. Park, in 1885, came to the conclusion that the outcrop
at Cheltenham, on the north side of the harbour, was simply
a northerly extension of the outcrop at Parnell, on the south
side. Sir James Hector dissented from this, and wrote :
" The Parnell grit, which has been much relied on in dis-
cussions concerning the Waitemata formation, has in many
cases been confounded with the volcanic grits and con-
glomerates in other parts of the district "t — i.e., with the
Cheltenham breccia. Mr. McKay, too, who had been the
first to suppose the beds identical, wrote : " As a consequence
of my admission that the Parnell grit does or should pass
under the Fort Britomart and Calliope Dock beds, and of
the observed fact that the breccias north of Cheltenham
Beach overlie them, I am forced to agree with Sir James
Hector that the Parnell grit and Cheltenham breccia do not

* u i

Thames Goldfields " : Park and Kutley, 1897.
f Geological Reports, 1885-86.

458 Transactions. — Geology.

occupy the same horizon, and that the Parnell grit is the
older."*

This led Mr. Park to defend his views.! To Mr. McKay
he replied that the Cheltenham breccia might quite possibly
underlie the Calliope Dock beds, because a basalt cone of
more recent date lay between the two and obscured their
stratigraphical relations. This was, so to speak, negative
evidence ; but he added that at Parnell, in the lower 2 ft. of
the grit, he was fortunate enough to find some fossils (a
Pecten, a Cerithium, a Teredo, and several small corals), and
he wrote : " The Cerithium, Pecten, and corals are the same
as those found in the breccia at Cheltenham, thus proving
conclusively that the Parnell grit is the southern extension
of that stratum, deposited at the same time and under the
same geological conditions." Mr. Park made good use of
his fossils. As he does not give even the generic names of
the corals they need not be considered. Surely it is possible
for two beds of nearly the same age to have Pecten polymor-
phoides and an unknown Cerithium associated together,,
especially as Pecten polymorphoides has a wide vertical
range and is a common Miocene fossil.

As far as I know this is all the evidence in favour of the
beds being identical. Since, however, the beds are both
volcanic breccias and similar, and there is a stretch of water
two miles in width between the two, it is reasonable to sup-
pose them identical unless there is good reason for thinking
them distinct. The evidence for the latter view is as fol-
lows : — ■

(1.) The beds are not entirely similar in lithological
characters. In the case of the Cheltenham breccia the bed
consists almost entirely of volcanic fragments, some of them
(though this is rare) Sin. in diameter. In the Parnell grit
most of the fragments are greensand, slate, &c, while onlv
in the lower layers do we find volcanic fragments of any size,
and these are rounded, well-worn scoria, generally oxidized,
and never more than 1 in. in diameter. There" are other
minor differences, but the difference in texture is the point
which I wish to emphasize : in the one bed numerous lumps
the size of an orange, hard, black, and angular; in the other,
red, rounded, scoria fragments not larger than marbles. This
difference is brought prominently before one when trying to
obtain a suitable fragment at Parnell from which to make a
microscopic section. It must be remembered that the Parnell
outcrop is not more than two miles and a half from the
Cheltenham outcrop. It is in that distance that the texture

* Geological Reports, 18S8-89.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889.

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 459

alters so remarkably. This line of argument is immensely
strengthened by some outcrops hitherto unrecorded. The
most interesting of these are some reefs in the harbour which
are uncovered at lowtide and may then be examined. I
cannot do better than represent these various outcrops
diagramatically. The positions are shown by an X and Y
respectively, the Y standing for the bed with coarse texture
and the X for the bed with fine : — ■

Birkenhead.

Ch«

jltenham.

X

Y

/aitakerei.

X

X

Shelly Beach.

1st reef.

X

Y

Judge's Bay.

2nd reef.

T

St.

X

John's College.

Now, it can be shown that very probably the coarse bed
is derived from the Waitakerei vents, and it is difficult to
see how such a distribution as that shown above could be
effected. How is it that none of the large blocks reached
the spots marked with an X, while great numbers reached
those marked with a Y ? Supposing this due to currents,
those currents must have been somewhat peculiar ones.
But this argument from variation of texture does not stand
alone ; it is supported by much stronger ones.

(2.) The fossil contents of tlie beds are different. I have
examined more than half a dozen outcrops of the coarse bed
at widely separated localities, and more than a dozen out-
crops of the finer bed at spots equally far apart. In every
one of the former fossils are plentiful, especially Bryozoa
and Pectens, the total number of fossils in the coarse out-
crops amounting to more than forty species. In more than
twice as many outcrops of the latter I found scarcely any
fossils, a species of Bryozoa (Fasciculipora ramosa) being
the only usual one. Moreover, the fossils of the coarse bed*
show a blending of Miocene and Oligocene forms just as we
find in the Papakura limestone, while the fine bed can be
shown on independent evidence to be decidedly Miocene.

(3.) The stratigraphy gives direct evidence in favour of the
beds being distinct. I cannot mention all the minor facts
which receive an explanation on this hypothesis and become
difficulties on any other. I shall merely mention the two
clearest indications that the beds are distinct.

* List on page 468.

460 Transactions. — Geology.

(a.) At Lake Takapuna (Wairau Creek), about 30 ft.
above the outcrop there of the coarse bed, are the black-
banded Wairau tuffs. At St. John's College black-banded
tuffs, apparently the same, occur some 70 ft. below the fine
bed. Neither section is completely exposed, but I could see
no sign of a break.

(b.) At the Manukau Harbour, where the occurrence of
these beds does not seem to have been hitherto observed,
two outcrops occur, a quarter of a mile apart. One is a
coarse bed with fossils, ten species of the Bryozoa being also
found at Cheltenham, as well as Pecten burnetti and Bhyn-
chonella nigricans. The other is a fine-grained bed, in every
way resembling the bed at Parnell, except that its fragments
are slightly smaller and its thickness rather less. The
coarse-grained bed has larger fragments than at Cheltenham,
which is natural enough if the Waitakerei vents were the
source ; so that the difference in texture between the two beds
is accentuated (Plate XXXYIIL, fig. 1).

The section cannot be seen in a direct line since two
small bays occur at x and y ; but there is no break possible
except at one point, the head of the inlet at y, where there
has been a fall of debris, so that no section can be seen.
This slip may mark a line of fault, but as the beds have the
same dip on both sides of it and are similar, and there is no
sign of distortion of the strata, there seems no reason to
suppose one. The coarse bed is here about 30 ft. thick, the
other perhaps 12 ft.

I wrote that the evidence was cumulative — i.e., the strati-
graphy and the palaeontology both point to two beds. In
fact, it seems to me improbable that .so many fossils should
be preserved invariably in the coarse bed and never in the
fine ; that the texture should vary so rapidly ; and that the
stratigraphical relations given above, sometimes fairly clear,
sometimes obscure, but always indicated, should be always
misleading.

Accepting, then, the conclusion that the beds are two
distinct formations of different date, it will be well to con-
sider them separately ; and, first, the Cheltenham breccia,
because it is the older.

5. The Cheltenham Breccia.

The Cheltenham breccia presents usually a bedded ap-
pearance, due to the arrangement of fragments of approxi-
mately the same size in roughly parallel bands. The
coarsest band is usually about a third of the way from
the bottom, and the angular fragments scattered through
this band are as large as apples. These fragments are im-
bedded in a matrix of smaller debris, which forms the rest

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 461

of the bed. Next to this main band the lowest layers are
the coarsest, those above shading off very gradually into a
tufaceous sandstone. From these facts it seems probable
that the main outburst took place some little while after
the vents had become active, and was succeeded by out-
bursts less and less powerful. The thickness of the bed
varies, of course, with its distance from the source : the
thickness' seems to average about 25 ft. at ten or twelve
miles from the Waitakerei Range. When we consider the
thickness (3 ft.) of the ash which the violent outburst of
Tarawera produced in 1886,* we cannot but be impressed
with the magnitude of the eruptions necessary to lay down
this coarse and thick breccia. The fossils contained in the
bed are generally found either at the top or bottom.

The bed weathers to a black or brown colour when
exposed to the air, but in the finer parts is bluish-grey on
a fresh fracture. The surface is very irregular, owing to
the fact that the lava fragments weather out of the matrix.
Near vegetation — along the top of a cliff, for instance — all
the colour is generally leached out, the result being a
creamy loam ; or, if there has been much oxidation, a
bright-red stratum forms a band along the summit of the
cliff. Zeolite veins running through and through the bed
are not uncommon. These veins are not more than j^in. in
width, but extend for yards, and when the rock is weathered
they sometimes stand out on the face of the cliff like a net-
work of miniature dykes.

The material of which the bed is composed consists
almost entirely of rounded fragments of lava set in a matrix
of hner volcanic debris. Sometimes the fragments are rough
and angular. Occasionally blocks of sandstone or shale are
included, and these are sometimes several feet in diameter.
Some small fragments of porcellanite also occur.

Besides these constituents there are very numerous crystals
of feldspar and augite, sometimes broken, but often retain-
ing very perfect crystalline shape. These, no doubt, were
separated from the lava in which they were contained at the
time of the explosions. The feldspars are bright glassy forms
in little oblong crystals, showing good cleavage. The augite
crystals are of two sizes. The smaller and less perfectly
formed resemble those in the lava ; but occasionally much
larger forms may be found up to 1 in. in length, distinguished
from the former both by their larger size and more perfect
crystalline form. Large crystals, and especially large augite
crystals, appear to be frequently observed in tuffs deposited
at no great distance from a vent. Their origin is obscure, and

* " Eruption of Tarawera," Professor A. P. W. Thomas.

462 Transactions. — Geology.

Sir A. Geikie remarks*: "The conditions under which such
well-shaped idiomorphic crystals were formed were probably
different from those that governed the cooling and consolida-
tion of ordinary lavas." These crystals, however, were found
at a greater distance from the vents than is usual, since they
must be at least ten miles in a direct line from the Waitakerei
Range.

The typical lava of the Cheltenham breccia is an andesite,
usually an augite-andesite, but hypersthene-andesite is also
present, as is the case at the Coromandel, a parallel line of
activity of much the same age. There is occasionally a
tendency to ophitic structure, but it is never pronounced,
and the ground-mass is typically hyalopilitic. The specific
gravity varies from 2-5 to 2-8, but in the majority of cases
does not exceed 2-7. This is the more remarkable since a
few of the rocks are basalts (but without olivine). This some-
what low specific gravity may be accounted for, however, by
several considerations. In the first place, there is frequently
a fair amount of dark-brown glass in the ground-mass. Teall
gives the specific gravity of andesites as ranging from 2-54 in
a glassy to 2-79 in a crystalline state. t In the second place,
some of the specimens are highly amygdaloidal, the amygdules
forming a large percentage of the rock. They generally con-
sist of chabasite, which has a specific gravity ranging from
2-06 to 217, so that the specific gravity of the whole rock
fragment would be much lowered. On the whole, then, they
may be taken as typical andesites, while a small percentage
are basalts without olivine. Except in one doubtful case I
have seen no olivine ; but a highly basic serpentine, containing
0-47 per cent, of nickel, has been described as occurring at
Manukau North Head, so that olivine-basalts may yet be
found in the lavas if not in the ejected fragments.

Besides the more basic fragments there are others pre-
senting the appearance of true trachytes, pale-grey in colour,
with a specific gravity of 2'54. Occasionally fragments of
acid pumice are also present. It is possible that this did not
come from the Waitakerei vents. At the Tamaki Gulf, a few
miles from Auckland, there are pumice beds, which I con-
sider to be of Pliocene age. They lie unconformably on the
Waitemata series, and are due, I believe, to the fact that the
Waikato River then flowed into the Auckland sea. J Before
this, however, it flowed into the sea near Tauranga, in the
Bay of Plenty, and it cannot be supposed that it was flowing
into the Auckland sea so long ago as Miocene times. Except

*" Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain," vol. i., p. 62.
f " British Petrography."
J Trans. N.Z. Inst.

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 463

the Waikato, I see no source from which pumice is likely to
have been derived by transport, and it does not occur in the
beds below or above the breccia. If the pumice is really part
of the ejected matter, we have a large range of lava from
basalts to rhyolites, indicating probably a long period of
volcanic activity. In the present state of our knowledge, or
lack of knowledge, of the Waitakerei lavas it is scarcely safe
to generalise, but it is interesting to note that no rhyolites
have yet been found in situ at the range, though andesites are
abundant and andesitic basalts still more common. It is
possible that the acid lavas rose in the vents but never flowed
out as lava. Dykes and necks are frequently more acid than
the lava-flows, and this seems here to be the case."

I have drawn some sections of the lava as seen under
the microscope, but the drawings are merely diagram-
matic (Plates XXXIX. and XL.). The shaded portion
represents the ground-mass (which js usually opaque, but
sometimes consists of a brown glass). Owing to this fact the
phenocrysts appear in the diagrams to stand out from the
ground-mass more than they do m the rock. The shading,
moreover, is not quite true to nature, especially in fig. 1,
where the difference in shade between the two generations of
augite is accentuated. The mosaic of granules in fig. 2 is
only seen, of course, under polarised light.

Fig. 1: St. Helier's Bay. — The ground-mass consists
largely of brown glass partly devitrified, and containing
numerous laths of feldspar and magnetite. The phenocrysts
are chiefly augite, in two generations. The smaller crystals
present irregular rounded outlines, and are yellowish-brown
in colour; the larger crystals present more regular six-sided
outlines, are dark-green, and contain inclusions, especially of
magnetite. The phenocrysts of feldspar frequently consist of
an outer shell, enclosing brown glass. Others show perfect
zonal structure. Striping is absent. There are a few
amvgdules.

Fig. 2 : Deep Creek. — This is a highly amygdaloidal rock,
the secondary mineral, which in this case is chalcedony, not
only filling the vesicles but also replacing the phenocrysts,
none of which appear under the microscope. With polarised
light the pale amygdules break up into a mosaic of granules,
greys and yellows of the first order being the colours. Each
amygdule is bordered by a row of minute granules very regu-
larly arranged, the centre consisting of granules of a larger
size. Sometimes streams of small granules connect separate
amygdules. Feldspar laths are not numerous in the opaque

* Sir A. Geikie : " Andent Volcanoes of Great Britain," vol. i
pp. 61, 62.

464 Transactions. — Geology.

ground -mass. A large fibrous mass of yellowish-brown
pleochroic bastite appears in the centre of the section. It
gives straight extinction along the planes of schillerisation.
Under a high power it is seen to be a very pale-yellow mass,
with deep-brown prisms arranged in parallel lines, and giving
the fibrous appearance. Sometimes little prisms are arranged
crosswise, giving a scalariform appearance.

Fig. 3: Cheltenham. — This is ahypersthene-andesite. The
ground-mass is hyalopilitic, but the feldspar laths are not very
numerous. Grains of magnetite are thickly distributed. The
phenocrysts consist chiefly of large striped feldspars, whose
extinction angle shows them to be labradorite. Augite also
occurs, associated with a rhombic pyroxene, which is probably
hypersthene. The colour is paler, however, than in the
drawing.

Fig. 4: Onchunga. — This is a very amygdaloidal rock. In
the hand specimen it is, black, spotted with white amygdules
of chabasite, which show under the microscope beautiful
fibrous forms. The ground-mass is augitic, with feldspar
laths and a little magnetite. The phenocrysts are numerous,
especially large striped crystals of labradorite or andesine.
Augite is the usual pyroxene, forming very large green six-
sided prisms; but pleochroic brownish crystals of hypersthene
are also present.

Fig. 5 : Wairau Greek. — The ground-mass is typically
hyalopilitic, with numerous elongated laths of feldspar, show-
ing flow-structure. Augite is also present in the ground-
mass in abundant pale-yellowish grains. Magnetite grains
are numerous. The rest of the ground-mass consists of a
deep-brown glass, perfectly isotropic.

The phenocrysts consist of plagioclase, but, though binary
twinning is common, multiple twinning is very rare, and some
of the feldspars are untwinned. Zonal structure is very
general. Augite phenocrysts are not very numerous, occur-
ring as pale-green six-sided prisms. The augite and the
feldspar contain numerous inclusions of glass and magnetite
grains. Magnetite also occurs as large three-sided crystals.

The rock closely resembles an " andesitic basalt," from
the Waitakerei Eange, which is in the collection of the Uni-
versity College laboratory, the only difference being that
multiple twinning is more common in that rock. It also
somewhat resembles an "andesitic basalt" from Eskdale-
muir, described by Sir A. Geikie.*

Sir James Hector has always distinguished between the
Parnell grit and the Cheltenham breccia, but he placed the
latter above the former on the strength of a supposed uncon-

*Proc. Roy. Phy. Soo. Edin., vol. v., 1880.

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 4(55

formability. He wrote : " Great potholes, similar to that
now occupied by the North Shore Lake [Lake Takapuna] ,
were formed, and these were filled by Pliocene beds composed
chiefly of volcanic agglomerates"* — i.e., by the different out-
crops of the Cheltenham breccia, each outcrop marking, I
suppose, the site of a former lake. Sir James Hector also
gave a section at the Wairau Creek to show that the breccia
lay unconformably on the Waitemata sandstones. I have
repeatedly examined this spot and can find no section closely
resembling the one given, so that I think some other locality
was probably intended. The breccia does, indeed, occur at the
"Wairau Creek, but it appears unconformable to the sand-
stones from which the fine specimen of Pentacrinvs now in
the Auckland Museum was obtained. This appearance of
unconformability is, I believe, deceptive, partly due to the
effects of current- bedding at the base of the breccia, partly to
a series of small faults which obscure the section, and partly
to distortion of beds of unequal hardness, which is the reason
given by Mr. Park. Mr. Lamplugh has shown how a " crush
breccia" may be formed where the strata shade off into one
another. Here, however, we have beds of quite distinct hard-
ness, and in that case an appearance of unconformability is
generally the result of crushing.

In reply to Sir James Hector Mr. Park wrote: "It
should, however, be pointed out that wherever the strata
occupy a horizontal or undulating position the breccia is
seen to be interbedded with and quite conformable to the
adjacent beds, and at its base is frequently more or less false
bedded with the underlying clays and sandstones. On the
other hand, at points of severe local disturbance where the
breccia is present the softer and more yielding clays and soft
sandstones have in many instances been crushed and con-
torted and often turned over the more compact, heavy, and
unyielding ash-bed, thus giving rise to apparent unconformity."

Mr. Park's section shows how an inverted-trough fault
may produce an appearance of unconformability in beds of
markedly unequal hardness. On the weathered face of the
cliff the faults and fault breccia are by no means as prominent
as they are in his drawing. C is the bed from which Penta-
crinus was obtained. In a spot where the underlying sand-
stones were exposed an inverted-trough fault might still more
easily cause a deceptive outline.

It is also quite true, as Mr. Park observes, that the un-
conformable appearance generally coincides with an area of
distortion ; but this is not universally the case, as at the
Manukau Harbour.

* Geological Reports, 18$5, p. xxxviii., woodcut.
30

466 Transactions.- — Geology.

I believe that the real reason for this deceptive appearance
is to be found in current-bedding. The ancient sea which
washed the flanks of the Waitakerei hills was probably
studded with islands, of which few now remain. The prox-
imity to the surface, however, of the Palaeozoic quartzites and
silky slates, some of which the Cheltenham breccia did not
cover, is evidence of their former existence. This may have
produced violent and conflicting currents which deposited the
breccia on the earlier sands and mud-flats in a somewhat
irregular way. The Waitakerei hills wTere not very far distant,
and the isthmus of Auckland was then a narrow strait.

The argument for a Pliocene age rests entirely on the
supposed unconformability. The argument for a Miocene age
rests on overwhelming fossil evidence and also on stratigraphy.
The unconformability might not, in any case, be serious, and
the appearance may be otherwise explained ; but Oligocene
fossils, unless derivative, could not be found in a Pliocene bed.

The stratigraphy points to an Oligocene age for the Chel-
tenham breccia. It may be shown that the breccia is strati-
graphically below the Parnell grit ; that there is no volcanic
bed between the Parnell grit and the Orakei greensand ; and
that the Cheltenham breccia is consequently inferior to the
Orakei greensand — a Lower Miocene bed. It may further be
shown that the Orakei greensand is the equivalent in position
and fossil contents of the upper parts of the Turanga green-
sands which overlie the Papakura limestone ; and it follows
that the Cheltenham breccia is either the equivalent of the
lower greensands at Turanga (and therefore at the bottom of
the Lower Miocene) or of the limestone at Papakura (and
therefore at the top of the Oligocene). The evidence for each
of these propositions is given below.

(a.) The breccia is below the Parnell grit. This has been
incidentally shown in discussing the question of their identity ;
but it will now be necessary to give the evidence which leads
me to consider the coarse beds at Wairau Creek, Cheltenham
Beach, and the White Bluff to be all outcrops of one bed. In
lithological contents the beds are very similar, differing
almost wholly in the varying size of the lava fragments of
which they are mainly composed. The arrangement, too, is
similar, the coarsest fragments being about a third of the
way from the bottom. The agreement in fossil contents is
shown in three parallel columns on pages 468-9.

At the White Bluff I had not more than ten minutes to
collect, but was fortunate enough to come upon a very fossil-
iferous patch of Bryozoa. With a more careful search I think
it very probable that other Pectens at least would be found ;
but, at all events, the fossil contents are very similar. The
identifications were made chiefly by a comparison with the

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 467

plates and descriptions in Zittel and Stolickza's " Orakei Bay
Fossils, ": Waters's papers on " Australian JBryozoa,"! and
Tenison- Woods's " New Zealand Corals and Bryozoa."} No
attempt was made to identify numerous indistinct remains.

(b.) There is no volcanic bed between the Parnell grit and
the Orakei greensand. The evidence for this will be given
when the Parnell grit is described, j It may also be noted
that if the Cheltenham breccia were between the two it must
have been erupted at Orakei since the greensand was, or else
it must appear in section between the two, but nearer the
Parnell grit, at the Orakei Stream. || It does neither. The
breccia therefore underlies the Orakei greensand.

(c.) The Orakei greensand is the stratigraphical equivalent
of the upper greensands of Turanga. The evidence for this
is given better later, and it will be sufficient here to say that
the Parnell grit slightly overlies both. Mr. Park found
numerous fossils in both, which he compares.^

I have slightly rearranged Mr. Park's list. A difficulty,
however, confronts us in supposing the Cheltenham breccia
and Papakura limestone equivalent beds. How is it that the
Parnell grit, a thinner bed, extends to the Turanga greensands
and the limestone, while the Cheltenham breccia, a thicker
bed, does not ? If it were certain that the former came from
Coromandel and the latter from Waitakerei a sufficient reason
is given in that their origins lay in opposite directions. But
this is not certain, and I am inclined to offer a different ex-
planation. It will be noticed that round the Waitemata, in
early Oligocene times, sandstones and volcanic beds were laid
down, while round Papakura limestones and greensands were
deposited ; so that the two areas have different types of sedi-
mentation, and must have been laid down under different
conditions. When, however, we come to Lower Miocene
times the same type prevails over both areas, and when a
volcanic bed is deposited, as in the case of the Parnell grit, it
is deposited over limestones and sandstones alike. In other
words, the conditions of deposit had become the same in both
areas. This points apparently to a separation, in the earlier
period, of the two areas, probably by a land mass; and there
is some independent evidence for this. At Mount Wellington,
a basalt puy, the Kev. Percy Smallfield found fragments of
Maitai slate which had been erupted by the puy ; so that
the slates are probably at no great depth in this locality.

* " Voyage of ' Novara,' " vol. ii.

t Q.J.G.S., 1885, &c.

I Part iv. of the " Palaeontology of New Zealand."

§ See page 485.

|| See page 482.

^1 Geological Eeports.

468

Transactions. — Geology.

At Tamaki West Head, in the tuff (or volcanic neck ?)
of another basalt puy, large angular blocks of Maitai
slates, quartzites, and phyllites occur. Lumps of Parnell
grit have also been ejected. Some of the Maitai blocks
are several feet in diameter, and the rocks must be quite
close in situ. Farther east Motutapu is an island con-
sisting mainly of Maitai slates. Much to the west, near the
south head of the Manukau Harbour, Maitai slates have also
been found. These points may be connected by an almost
straight line, and, bearing in mind the lithological evidence
and the fact that the Cheltenham breccia seems never to have
passed this line, it seems reasonable to infer that in Oligocene
times there existed a Palaeozoic ridge or chain of islands,
whose sunken summits are still traceable, which acted as a
barrier to the western deposits. In Lower Miocene times it
had sunk beneath the sea, and the Parnell grit spread over
the whole area.

The fossil evidence for an Oligocene age is strong. The
forms appear to me to represent a position somewhat inter-
mediate between the Orakei green sand and the Papakura
limestone ; but, as the conditions were somewhat different,
the Cheltenham breccia and Papakura limestone may really
be contemporaneous. Below I give a list of the fossils
so far obtained from the beds. Those marked with an " x "
have not hitherto been named as occurring in them. I have
not given in full the list of Foraminifera from Orakei, because
the Cheltenham forms were not distinct enough to warrant
identification. The Barnea from the Cheltenham bed I could
not identify, nor was the Orakei Barnea identified by Mr.
Park.

Name of Fossil.

Papakura.

Cheltenham.

Orakei.

Ostrea nelsoniana

X

Osirea wallerstorfi

X

Terebratella cruenta

X

. .

Waldbeimia gravida

X

X

Terebratella doraata

X

X

Rhynchoneila nigricans ..

X

X

Ciuaris sp. (corals)

X

X

Rntepora beaniana

X

X

X

Pecten hochstetteri

X

. .

Pecten burnetti. .

X

X

Pecten fischeri

X

X

X

Pecten polyraorphoides

X

X

Pecten zittelli

X

X

Pecten convexus

X

X

Idmonea giebeliana

X

X

Idtnonea radians

X

X

Idmonea serialis

X

X

Idmonea inconstans

X

X

Fox. — The Waitemata Series.

4(59

Name of Fossil.

Papakura. Cheltenham. Orakei.

Hornera pacifica

X X

Hornera lunularis

X X

Spiropira verticillata

X X

Spiroporina itnmersa

X

Heteropora grayana

X X

Fasciculipora mamrnillata

X X

Fasciculipora ramosa

X

Fasciculipora intermedia

X

Cell poraria gambierensis

X X

Cellrporaria globularis ..

X X

Escharifora lawd- riana ..

X X

Filiflustrella pacifica

X X

Escl ara aucklaudica

X X

Semieschanpora porosa . .

X X

Biflustra papillata

X X

Ponna dieffenbachiana . .

X X

Salicornana margiutata . .

X X

Salicornaria ovicellosa . .

X X

Fnispara orakiensis

X X

Entotophora nodosa

X

Cellaria punctata

X

Crisinta sp. (Foraminifera)

X X

Barnea sp. (Cerithium) . .

X X

Hornera striata . .

X

]M< seoteripora rerehauensis

X

Bidiasiopora toetoeana . .

X

Entolophora haas'iana ..

X

Snarsiporina vertebralis ..

X

Crisma hochstetteriana ..

X

Cellepora inermis

X

Escbara monilifera

X

Flustrella deoticulata

X

Flustrella clavata

X

Vincularia maorica

X

Melicerita augustiloba

X

Stegei epora atlautica

X

Vagmtlla

X

Turbo ..

X

Rissoa

X

Nucula

X

Leda

X

Cardita

X

Carduum

X

Dosinia

X

Turruella

X

Ostrea . .

X

Ruynchonella

X

I have endeavoured to group them as far as possible so as
to show the blending of the faunas of the first and third beds
in the second. It will be seen that the Papakura limestone
and the breccia have five forms in common, but the former
bed probably contains more Bryozoa than Retepora beaniana,
which may add considerably to the list. Twenty species of

470 Transactions. — Geology.

Bryozoa are common to the greensand and the breccia.
Pecten fischeri and Betepora beaniana are common to all three
beds.

The stratigraphical and palseontological evidence are thus
both in favour of an Oligocene age. There is evidence also in
favour of the supposition that the breccia bad its source in
the Waitakerei vents ; and, since those vents are considered
Oligocene, such an origin for the breccia strengthens the
above arguments.

My reasons for believing that the source of the Cheltenham
breccia was the Waitakerei line of vents are briefly as fol-
lows : Firstly, the bed is Oligocene and the vents are Oligo-
cene ; undoubted Waitakerei breccias contain a fauna similar
to that in the Cheltenham breccia ; and the lava in the range
is very similar to the lava in the breccia. Secondly, the
Waitakerei vents are the only Oligocene vents not far from
the breccia, which can be shown to have had a not distant
source ; and the bed grows coarser in this direction, but does
not extend to the east. Thirdly, this supposition explains
some anomalies in the distribution of the bed.

I have already given my reasons for considering the
breccia Oligocene. With regard to the range I must rely on
the observations of others, since I was not able, in the
absence of roads and especially in the winter, to explore its
forest-clad slopes for myself. The most important observa-
tions on the age of the Waitakerei vents are those of Mr.
James Park.';:

Mr. Park wrote that his work in 1886 tended to show that
the Manukau (= Waitakerei) breccias "originated during sub-
marine volcanic outbursts of an intense character, some time
during the deposition of the Orakei Bay beds, most probably
at the horizon of the Parnell grit and Takapuna [= Chelten-
ham] ash-bed. At Komiti Peninsula, and further north, on
the Wairoa, marine beds, containing characteristic fossils of
the Orakei Bay horizon, are interbedded with heavy deposits
of volcanic breccias, tufas, and agglomerates, and occasionally
sheets of solid lava, consisting of dolerites rich in olivine,
hornblende, and augite-andesites. These can be traced south-
ward to the Hoteo and Kaukapakapa, and an examination
of the bush country south of the latter will probably show
that they are connected with the breccias of the Waitakerei
Range. "

The classing of the Orakei greensand, the Parnell grit, and
the Cheltenham breccia as " Orakei Bay beds " is somewhat
confusing, and I am ignorant as to what " the characteristic
fossils" were to which Mr. Park refers; but, since the out-

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889.

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 471

bursts were " most probably at the horizon of (the Parnell
grit and) the Takapuna ash-bed," 1 infer that they were those
species which are common to the Orakei greensand and the
Cheltenham breccia — very probably Pectens and Bryozoa. I
have not had an opportunity of examining the Waitakerei
breccias, but I am informed that immense numbers of Bryozoa
are found in them ; and this is the most striking and charac-
teristic feature of the Cheltenham breccia.

A description has already been given of the Cheltenham
lava. Besides examining the slides of the Waitakerei lava in
the Auckland University College laboratory, I made several
mvself from lava in situ, and found the lava very similar to
that contained in the breccia. Naturally, all the outcrops of
the bed are not likely to owe their origin to the same vents,
since several vents along the chain were, no doubt, active
simultaneously. Where, however, we can ascertain approxi-
mately the position of the vent from which the materials of
the bed at any one outcrop were derived the lava in situ
shows a striking resemblance to the lava in the bed, which is
all we can expect. Till the Waitakerei eruptions have been
studied, more than a general similarity need not be looked
for. I may, however, give one case of more certainty, and
therefore more interest.

The outcrop of the breccia at the White Bluff is not many
miles from the range, and is, moreover, at the southern end
of the chain, so that the southern vents may be considered as
its source. In the bed there are several varieties of lava, but
the commonest are — (1) A purple earthy rock with abundant
phenocrysts of kaolin ; (2) a black amygdaloidal rock with
bright unaltered feldspar phenocrysts ; (3) a dark-brown or
chocolate rock of a somewhat holocry.stalhne appearance
since the phenocrysts of feldspar are very numerous, and
large black phenocrysts of pyroxene also occur. These three
kinds of lava are found to be plentiful in situ in various
localities between Big and Little Muddy Creeks, about six
miles to the westward.

The Waitakerei Range is, moreover, the only chain of
Oligocene vents near at hand, and the breccia cannot have
come from a distance. The size of the included fragments,
varying from 1ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, is, it seems to me,
conclusive. I have also found numbers of elliptical or round
volcanic bombs, which are not likely to have come a great
distance. The bed cannot often be seen in successive out-
crops, each nearer than the last to the Waitakerei Range, but
where this can be observed the nearer outcrops are always
the coarser. St. Helier's Bay, for instance, is about twice as
far from the vents as the White Bluff, and the coarseness at
the latter is much more marked than at the former spot.

472 Transactions. — Geology.

Lastly, such a source as I suppose explains anomalies of
distribution which I shall now describe. Mr. Park wrote
that the ash-bed had a linear extension from Parnell to
Whangaparaoa Peninsula, thirty miles from Auckland, and
I shall assume that the volcanic breccias of that peninsula
are really extensions of the Cheltenham bed. In that case
the coarsest outcrop of the breccia is at the White Bluff,
but at Wairau the breccia is coarser than at Cheltenham,
which lies midway between White Bluff and Wairau. Again,
it is coarser at Deep Creek than at Wairau or Okura, yet
Deep Creek lies midway between Wairau and Okura. Or
let us consider the variations in thickness. At White Bluff
it is 30 ft., at Cheltenham 25 ft., at Wairau 30 ft., at Deep
Creek 40 ft., at Okura 4 ft., at Whangaparaoa 20 ft., each
of these places being farther north than the preceding one.

It seems to me that these wide variations in both thick-
ness and coarseness must be due to a variety of sources, in a
chain of vents. Until we have far fuller fossil evidence than we
at present possess it seems impossible, or at least inadvisable,
to attempt to separate these beds, which we may judge from
their coarseness to have ail come from the Waitakerei vents,
the fossils in the beds, from White Bluff to Onehunga, con-
firming this. To attempt the separation it would be neces-
sary to know the position of the vents, of which we are quite
ignorant. In the meanwhile we may group the beds together
as the " Cheltenham breccia," regarding this really as a num-
ber of breccias formed at much the same time under much
the same conditions, but derived each from its own vent or
group of vents ; for we know that the Waitakerei Eange ex-
tends northward at least as far as Whangaparaoa, and that
there are other andesitic volcanoes beyond that which may
be of the same age. If we accept this origin for the breccia
our difficulties vanish. The volcanoes of the Waitakerei
chain were not equally active, equally powerful, or exactly
synchronous. Some outcrops of the resulting breccias would
be thick and coarse, others thinner and finer, while here and
there breccias of different origin would be mingled together.
Nor would the vents be quite in a line ; some might be to
the east of it, some to the west. Some would throw out
mainly scoria ; others, with greater explosive energy, would
eject large blocks. The thickness would probably vary more
than the coarseness, since no outcrops are far from the main
line, and this we find is actually the case. I believe the
Okura breccia may pretty safely be separated from the Chel-
tenham, but beyond that it is impossible to go; and perhaps
it is better, on the whole, to use the term " Cheltenham
breccia " for the present in the wide sense I have given
to it.

Fox. — The WaUenuita Series. 473

The outcrops of the breccia at White Bluff and Wairau
have already been described in sufficient detail. The other
outcrops now to be described are as follows : (1) St. Helier's
Bav ; (2) Cheltenham and Narrow Neck ; (3) Deep Creek ;
(4) Okura; (5) Whangaparaoa.

The outcrop at St. Helier's Bay is a reef, covered at high-
tide, about 20 yards from low-water mark. It is a coarse
bed, with large rounded and angular fragments, and contains
Pecten zittelh, Pecten bumetti(?), and Bryozoa too much
weathered for identification.

Cheltenham Beach is the first outcrop north of the har-
bour, and is the typical one (Plate XXXVIII. , fig. 2.) The
bed has an easterly dip, and comes down along the face
of the cliff, which extends at right angles to the above
section. The breccia is thus exposed for several hundred
yards. The cliff then again turns east and west, and at
the head of the bay the dip has increased from 30° to 70°.
Bound the headland there is violent dislocation and a fault.
Beyond this the sandstones show a beautiful example of a
dome, the centre of which is at the middle line of the beach.
A few hundred yards beyond, the north-westerly dip brings
down a volcanic bed. This is much thinner than the bed at
Cheltenham — only about a quarter of a mile distant in a direct
line. It is, however, equally coarse, and I see no reason to
suppose it to be a separate bed. The only fossils obtained were
some weathered Bryozoa. This outcrop is very remarkable,
owing to the fact that in the breccia as seen in the face of the
low cliff there is evidence of very complete decomposition,
while where it is exposed to the waves it is quite fresh and
hard. At the former place it has weathered to a creamy
white and is clayey to the touch ; the lava is pale-grey,
scarcely distinguishable from the matrix, and quite soft and
rotten, so that the bed might be mistaken for a mudstone.
As one follows it towards the water's edge it hardens and
darkens, till at low-water mark it exactly resembles the out-
crop at Cheltenham, the lava here being dark-grey or black,
and giving a ringing sound when struck with the hammer,
though at the cliff one may pull it to pieces with one's
fingers.

Crossing the bay, along the shore of which there is nothing
more than a bank a few feet high, the dip continues regular,
till at the north headland the breccia is again met with in a
long reef separated from the cliffs by a fault. It runs out into
the sea for several hundred yards. I found no fossils except
Bri/ozoa. It seems quite possible that the reef may be an
extension of the fault. The outcrop at Wairau Creek has
been mentioned in discussing the age of the bed. It is the
next outcrop.

474 Transactions. — Geology.

About seven miles from Wairau Creek there is another
outcrop of the breccia. The strata near Deep Creek have a
southerly dip, which brings up the volcanic bed at the south
head of the bay. At the north head it forms the mass of the
cliff, and also a small island 50 yards from the shore, which is
completely composed of it. The actual thickness is nowhere
seen, as a fault occurs beyond the bay, but the bed must be
more than 30 ft. thick. It is rather coarser than at Chelten-
ham, and contains numerous Bryozoa. The weathering of the
ucper parts is very noticeable. The upper 8 ft. weathers to a
rich red earth with concentric markings (Plate XXXVIII. ,
fig. 3).

On the north bank of the Okura River there is an outcrop
of a coarse volcanic breccia interbedded with shale and sand--
stone. In texture it resembles the Deep Creek bed, but it is
not more than 4 ft. in thickness. The dip takes it up above
the cliff-line. The Okura Eiver forms a kind of V with the
Wade Eiver, the apex being directed seawards. On crossing
the Wade Eiver one is at the foot of Whangaparaoa
Peninsula.

Whangaparaoa Peninsula, thirty miles from Auckland, is
about thirty miles round. This journey had to be done in
a day along a rugged coast, where it was sometimes difficult
to get along the rocks, so that I had little time for observa-
tions. Unfortunately, too, being pressed for time, I omitted
the end of the peninsula from the journey, and this apparently
was the locality from which Hochstetter's section was taken.
The cliffs on the south are composed of hard sandstones with
layers of shale, and at intervals a volcanic breccia resembling
in all respects the Okura breccia is interbedded with these.
It is perhaps slightly coarser than at Okura, but the thickness
is very regular — about 4 ft. The first point at which I ob-
served it was in the cliff opposite Kohanui Island. Large
blocks have fallen from the breccia, which lies on a shale bed
about 30 ft. from the foot of the cliff. No doubt the shale has
become slippery, allowing large blocks of the hard breccia
to slide away and form an admirable protection at the foot
of the cliff. The fragments of lava contained in it are a
compact grey rock with feldspar phenocrysts. It is ap-
parently an augite-andesite, and resembles fragments from
Cheltenham breccia. At Korimai Bay there is a very similar
outcrop of the same bed, and there are occasional outcrops
of the bed on the northern shore, but part of this coast I
examined in twilight. Along the beach I noticed occasional
fragments, well water-worn, of augite-andesites.

Mr. E. Wilson informs me that at Mahurangi Heads,
about ten miles to the north of the peninsula, there is an
outcrop of a very similar bed ; but it is coarser, lumps of lava

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 475

" from the size of an orange downwards " occurring in a
"clayey matrix." Some of the fragments were forwarded to
me. Most of these are augite-andesites, but one specimen
appears to be a dolerite. The augite-andesites closely re-
semble the andesites in the peninsula breccia. I am in-
formed that this coarse breccia is conformably overlain by
sandstones, and may be traced seven or eight miles farther
north, cropping out at Omaha and Matakana.

In addition to these coarse beds, I observed in the cliffs
of the peninsula ash-beds of a much finer grain, not unlike
the Wairau tuffs.

In conclusion, I add Hochstetter's remarks on this
locality: "The peninsula of Whangaparaoa, which I visited
from Auckland, consists principally of the same Tertiary
strata which constitute the isthmus of Auckland. The steep
cliffs in the hills show the horizontal strata clearly exposed :
at the bottom generally fine-grained sandstone in layers 6 ft.
to 8 ft. thick, and over these a thin stratum of clay marl.
Very frequently there are intermediate strata of volcanic tuff,
which is partly developed as a fine-grained sandstone, and
partly coarse grained as a breccia, consisting of fragments of
trachyte, dolerite, and basalt. At the places where coarse-
grained breccias and conglomerates appear very striking local
disturbances of the strata are noticeable. A very instructive
section is afforded by the north (north-east?) shore of the pen-
insula.* a is a tuff mass showing in places a very coarse-
grained conglomerate of fragments of volcanic rocks, and con-
taining much augite in little shining crystals, and, besides
augite, little twin crystals of glassy triclinic felspars. This
mass appears as an eruptive formation which has penetrated
between the sandstones c and clay-marl d, torn them asunder,
broken them by lateral pressure to the westward, and forced
them out of their original horizontal position. At b the tuff is
fine-grained, and in places full of Foraminifera and Bryozoa.
A smooth Terebratella (Waldheimia lenticularis) was also
found here enclosed in the tuff, so that there can be no
doubt we have in these volcanic tuffs the products of sub-
marine eruptions, with which the volcanic outbursts com-
menced in the Tertiary period."

I have quoted this passage at length, because it gives
so admirable an illustration of the manner in which these
Tertiary breccias may be distorted. An equally good example
will be given when the Parnell grit is described. Hochstetter
does not attempt to explain how the volcanic breccia was
injected, and I am at a loss to explain it.

From the description of this bed, and its contained fossils,

* " Reise der ' Novara,' " quoted iu Geol. Surv. Repts., 1885, p. xxxvi.

476 Transactions. — Geology.

and my own examination of the peninsula breccias, I cannot
but think that, though these are doubtless outcrops of a vol-
canic bed which owed its origin to Waitakerei Oligocene
vents, those vents wrere not identical with that which pro-
duced the Cheltenham breccia. Probably it was equally near
(for the lava fragments are quite as coarse), but from the
thinness of the bed one is led to infer that the vents which
formed it were smaller, or that they continued active for a
comparatively short period.

The Parnell Grit.

The Parnell grit, like the Cheltenham breccia, presents a
somewhat bedded appearance, due to the linear arrangement
of fragments of similar size. In this case, however, the bands
are much more regular, and the coarsest fragments — the size,
perhaps, of marbles — are all at the bottom, from which point
the bed grows gradually finer till it shades off into a sand-
stone. The outcrops of the Parnell grit everywhere present
the most beautiful examples of the shading-off of one rock
into another. The red rounded lapilli of the lowest layers
are gradually replaced by smaller ones, and these by yet
smaller, till at length they can no longer be observed with the
naked eye, and on a fresh fracture the rock has all the appear-
ance of a blue sandstone ; nor is it possible to say where the
sandstone begins and the breccia ends. The lapilli are very
uniform in size in each layer, which seems to indicate a
distant origin. The average thickness of the bed is about
18 ft. Fossils do not seem to be as abundant as in the older
beds.

The weathering is extremelv characteristic and useful. In
the coarser parts it is similar to that of the Cheltenham
breccia, but in the upper parts concretionary or spheroidal
structure is usually developed. Round the shells of brown
iron-oxide the dark colour which the bed usually presents is
absent, so that the concentric layers are plainly visible. This
type of weathering seems to be almost confined to this bed,
none of the Waitemata sandstones exhibiting it ; and it is
invaluable as a means of detecting the presence of the bed in
inland outcrops, where the colour has generally all been
leached out and the bed is left an (apparently) white crumbly
sandstone. Under sea-water neither this bed nor the Chel-
tenham breccia weathers more than a few inches, and the
feldspars remain comparatively fresh.

As at Cheltenham, a very common feature of the bed is the
occurrence of zeolite " dykes," dividing the surface of the grit
into irregular polygonal plates. These dykes, when split, fre-
quently show beautiful dendritic manganese markings. The
markings closely resemble those formed by moist emery-

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 477

powder when, after grinding a section, one slowly withdraws
the slide at right angles to the iron plate, the markings occur-
ring both on the plate and on the slide. Possibly the dendritic
markings on the zeolites were formed in an analogous
manner.

The lava fragments are so small and so oxidized that I was
not successful in making any microscopic sections. My sec-
tions of the grit were scarcely more successful, the rock
crumbling away before it was thin enough to be of much
service. In one or two instances fragments of lava could be
recognised in the sections, containing feldspar and six-sided
augite phenocrysts and probably an augite-andesite.

Among the crystals in the tuff corroded quartz grains
occur, which may be due to the mingling of sandy sediment,
or, since Sir James Hector says that the grit contains frag-
ments of trachytes, may be derived from them or from more
acid rocks. By far the most numerous crystals are small
oblong feldspars sometimes altered and milky, at other times
fresh and bright, with good cleavage. These are very plentiful
throughout the bed. A few broken fragments of augite crystals
are also present, but the large perfect augites described as
occurring in the Cheltenham breccia are conspicuous by their
absence. The grit is largely composed of fragments of greenish
sandstones and slates which may be Palaeozoic rocks. Large
blocks of sandstone are absent, and current-bedding is unusual.
Iron-pyrites is plentifully disseminated in bright-yellow flecks.
The black matrix is often studded with scarlet scoria and
white feldspars, and forms a handsome rock. From the plenti-
ful occurrence of feldspar and augite the grit may be best
described as an augite-andesite tuff.

I do not consider the source of the Parnell grit by any
means as certain as that of the Cheltenham breccia, but, on
the whole, the evidence is perhaps in favour of a source near
Cape Colville. Before giving what evidence there is in support
of this I must freely admit that the grit may have come from
the Waitakerei vents, like the other volcanic beds of the
series. But in the first place it is a good deal younger than
the Cheltenham bed, as is shown by the fact that it crosses
the Maitai ridge, which apparently was above water when
the former bed was deposited ; and so it is quite possible that
the Waitakerei vents may have become quiescent. In the
second place, it is a bed with a very wide distribution, extend-
ing from Ponsonby to Turanga Creek, from Manukau to St.
Helier's. Yet it is not a coarse breccia. Such a widespread
bed must have been, one would think, the result of very
violent eruptions, and if the eruptions at Waitakerei were
very violent the bed at the Manukau ought to contain some

478 Transactions. — Geology.

coarse lumps. But, if it came from Coromandel, a great out-
burst might result in just such a bed at so considerable a
distance. In the third place, it grows coarser, on the whole,
in an easterly direction. At the Manukau the bed at the
White Bluff, though evidently the same, is yet rather finer
than at St. John's, to the east. I cannot say that I have
observed any increase of coarseness between Ponsonby and
Parnell, but between Parnell and St. John's College there is a
distinct increase. At Tamaki Head the bed is coarser than at
St. John's, while the outcrop in the reef is, on the whole, inter-
mediate between the two. It is very noteworthy that Mr. Park
was so struck by the increase of coarseness at Howick that
he described the bed there as " much coarser " than at Par-
nell. Had he seen the outcrops at St. John's, St. Helier's,
and Tamaki Head he would hardly have noticed the increase,
so gradual is it ; but it becomes noticeable when we com-
pare places far apart. Ponsonby is eight or nine miles from
Howick. At a spot between Little Muddy Creek and Avon-
dale I found what appeared to me an outcrop of the Parnell
grit. The bed weathered in concretions, and was, as usual
near vegetation, leached of its colour, and crumbly. It was
much finer than near Auckland, and only 10 ft. thick, and the
sandstones with which it was interbedded seemed to be lying
on Waitakerei lavas, but this I could not decide. It is so like
the usual outcrops of the Parnell grit that I see no stroug
reason for doubting its identity. If this be accepted, the
Parnell grit evidently did not come from the Waitakerei vents ;
and I think the evidence from coarseness is entirely in favour
of its having come from the east, not the west. Lastly, we
have the opinion of so excellent a geologist as Sir James
Hector, already quoted : " The Parnell grit, as far as I have
seen, contains no fragments of the volcanic rocks of the dis-
trict, but is green sand, with well-rolled pebbles of chert v
slate, quartzite, and other Palaeozoic rocks, and occasional
fragments of old trachyte and basic rocks of Cape Colville."
I might add that the volcanic inclusions are invariably in the
form of lapilli, full of steam-vesicles, such as one would ex-
pect to have come from a considerable distance.

The age of the Coromandel volcanic gold-bearing series is
a matter of dispute; but Mr. Park, who has studied them, is
evidently convinced that they are about the same age as the
Parnell grit. He had in 1889 placed the grit in the Upper
Miocene, but for some reason he changed his mind, and wrote
in 1897: "Judging from the fossiliferous Parnell bed in the
Upper Eocene Waitemata marine series, on the shores of the
Waitemata, with its contained fragments of andesite and coarse
ash, the author is of opinion that the eruptions which origi-
nated these gold-bearing rocks began in the Upper Eocene

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 479

and continued down to the Lower Miocene period." In my
opinion, Mr. Park is here confusing two beds; but, be that as
it may, he seems to consider that the Coromandel Peninsula
eruptions began at the horizon of the Cheltenham breccia, but
lasted for a long while, and this is all that is required in the
supposition that the Parnell grit came from Coromandel.

Its Age.

The most interesting question relating to the Parnell grit
is its stratigraphical position. Most observers have supposed
that the grit overlies the Orakei greensand, but apparently on
no very good evidence. Captain Hutton contributed a paper
in 1884 to the New Zealand Institute in which he concluded
that the relative position of the beds was uncertain, and he
even wrote : " To the east of Parnell, between Resolution
Point and Hobson's Point, there is a break across Hobson's
Bay in which nothing definite can be seen. It is therefore
quite impossible to say from stratigraphical evidence whether
the beds at Hobson's Point are above or below the Parnell
grit.* It is not really at all impossible, and it seems to me
that Captain Hutton implied as much when he assumed that
the Hobson's Point fossiliferous greensand is an extension of
the Orakei bed. No one doubts this ; but it is evident that if
the greensand may be traced from Orakei to Hobson's Point
it may be traced farther, and thus new evidence may be
supplied. The Parnell grit may also be found cropping out
farther east. As a matter of fact, both the greensand and the
grit do occur at many localities eastward.

Before giving this new evidence it will be well to review
Mr. Park's opinion, which was the reverse of that here
adopted. Considerable support is given to Mr. Park's opinion
by the sections which he published, but I am unable to
agree with Mr. Park's interpretation of the stratigraphy. The
dips are, in my opinion, sometimes the reverse of those given
by Mr. Park, who wrote in 18891 : " As bearing on the rela-
tion of the Parnell grit to the Orakei Bay bed, I may men-
tion that during my last visit to St. George's Bay I found a
number of Orakei fossils in the flat irregular calcareous gritty
cornstones at the foot of the cliff on the west side of the bay.
These cornstones are only exposed at low water, and occupy a
position some 15 ft. or 20 ft. above the Parnell grit. The
fossils collected at D were Pecten fischeri, Vaginella, Orbito-
lites, and a number of small corals. The occurrence of Orakei
Bay fossils in this position would tend to show that the
Parnell grit is inferior to the Orakei Bay beds; but, if the

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1S84.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., p. 399.

480 Transactions. — Geology.

evidence is not sufficient to prove this, it shows that these
two horizons are at least not far separated from the Orakei
greensand."

Now, in the first place, Pecten fischeri might occur at any
horizon from the Ohgocene limestone at Papakura to the
Miocene greensand at Orakei, if it has not a greater vertical
range. But, be that as it may, I cannot agree with Mr. Park
that the Parnell grit underlies the cornstones, as shown in his
section.

Mr. Park was of opinion that the bed could be seen dipping
under the Mechanics Bay beds ; but, although the grit may
certainly be seen in the floor of the bay, I think that a fault
separates it from the beds at Mechanics Point. This fault
dips, I believe, as Mr. Park's section shows it (only the plan
can actually be seen), but I would make it a normal fault,
Mr. Park a reversed one ; and, in my opinion, the grit is
superior to the Mechanics Bay beds.

But the most important point in which I differ from
Mr. Park is the amount and direction of the dip at B in his
section. A photograph was taken for me, which shows that
the dip is a low westerly not a high easterly one.

Mr. Park shows another section of less importance at
Hobson's Bay, where, again, I must differ from him, not as
regards the amount of dip so much as the direction, which
here, again, I consider to be the reverse of that given in his
section.

At Hobson's Bay, however, there is no fossil evidence, and
the dip which Mr. Park gives to the grit is suggestive of a
position inferior to the Orakei greensand at C of his section,
but only suggestive ; and Mr. Park did not seek to establish
that position from this section.

My observations do not prove that the Parnell grit lies
above the Orakei greensand, for there is a mile of mud-flat
(covered at hightide) between Morrin's Point and Eesolution
Point. If this were all the evidence a superior position for
the Parnell grit would be only suggested ; the fuller evidence
lies to the east, where both the grit and the greensand may be
followed for several miles.

Mr. Park found a bed "resembling" the Parnell grit at
Howick, but apparently doubted the identity. He says it
is coarser ; so that the grit seemed to him to get coarser in
two opposite directions — Cheltenham and Howick. Besides,
he found "lumps of limestone" at the base of the bed, and
thought it Kaipara limestone. Kaipara is to the north-west,
very much nearer the grit at Parnell and Cheltenham than at
Howick, so that it was difficult to see why the limestone lumps
were not at the former places, although found at Howick.

Except for this notice the Parnell grit has not hitherto

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 481

been described to tbe east of Point Kesolution. I have been
successful in finding seven new outcrops in this direction, and
they supply a good deal of new stratigraphical information.
Some hitherto unrecorded outcrops to the west are also full of
interest.

Bound Point Eesolution the cliffs grow low, and are
covered with scrub. Here and there, however, an outcrop
of the strata may be seen along the cliffs to Newmarket.
The beds all have a westerly dip. Not far from Newmarket
the Parnell grit can be seen, so that it is apparently well
above Morrin's Point beds here, and rising in that direction.

Leaving this doubtful locality, we come to outcrops where
the evidence for a superior position is more important. There
is, near St. John's College, a very fine exposure of the Parnell
grit. The College itself stands on a hi°h ridge 300 ft. above
the sea. Numerous small streams have cut their way down
in a north-westerly direction to the old crater-lake of Orakei.
The chief stream rises at the College, and, cutting down
through shales and yellow sandstones, which are dipping as
the bed of the stream, but at a lesser angle, reaches the
Parnell grit. Here there is a considerable waterfall : the
underlying shales have been eaten away much more rapidly
than the hard volcanic bed. It is at this waterfall that the
grit is so well exposed. It is from 15 ft. to 20 ft. thick, and
rather coarser, in the lower parts especially, than at Parnell.
There is a large amount of iron-pyrites in it, and very
numerous laths of feldspar. I could not find any fossils. The
grit is overlain by the yellow-and-white sandstones, and over-
lies conformably, with no sign of current- bedding, a layer of
shale. Beneath this is a calcareous grey sandstone, very
hard and full of fantastically shaped concretions. In the
concretions of a very similar sandstone at Kohimarama I
obtained some well-preserved lamellibranch shells, about the
size of Venus, which I have not been able to identify. These
sandstones are at about the same horizon.

Plate XXXVIII. , fig. 4, shows the position of these beds.
At 4 in the section occurs the waterfall ; the stream has
cut right through the grit here, just before the latter rises
north-west. The outcrop between A and B is not easy to find.
It may be seen in a well close to the Presbyterian Church.
There is one break in the section, at 5, where a modern tuff
volcano has covered the beds and distorted them close to
the point of eruption. I do not think, however, that this
eruption disturbed the general dip of the beds. The Orakei
greensand should come in between beds 2 and 4. Everything
there is covered with very dense gorse. The "Wairau tuffs are
seen in the bed of the creek when the tide is out and a freshet
has scoured away some of the mud.

31

482 Transactions. — Geology.

I examined the Orakei tuff to see whether it would throw
any light on the question. It is chiefly composed of fragments
of basalt (Mr. Park mentions trachyte ; I could only find hard
black scoriaceous lava, with olivine), but here and there are
fragments of grey sandstones and shales, and occasionally of
the Wairau tuffs. There are no fragments, as far as I could
see, of the Parnell grit. If this thick bed had been below the
Orakei greensand, fragments would in all probability have been
thrown out. A beautiful illustration of such an event oceurs
in the case of a similar outburst at Tamaki Gulf, where a
modern volcano has broken through the Parnell grit and con-
tains large fragments of it scattered everywhere through the
tuff. The Parnell grit is an easy rock to recognise, and as it
is hard it would not be blown to dust if the Wairau tuffs
escaped. But fragments of these tuffs are included. Now,
these are below the grit, so that the grit was, no doubt, all
denuded away before the outburst — at least, that portion of it
above 5. In that case it must have been at a good eleva-
tion, and therefore probably above the Orakei greensand. It
was at C that Hochstetter collected from the greensand.

The outcrop of the Parnell grit, forming a reef in the
harbour near the Bean Eock Lighthouse, throws no light on
the stratigraphy.

The next outcrop is at the west head of the Tamaki.
Before referring to this it will be advisable to trace the Orakei
greensand in the same direction. At the bridge which crosses
the outlet of the sunken Orakei crater to the sea the rocks
exposed in the low cliffs are the Orakei tuff beds. These are
seen a little further on to be quite unconformable to the
Waitemata sandstones. Interbedded with these is the Orakei
greensand. Here it is a greenish sandy bed which thins out
completely in both directions — a lenticular mass ; but it
appears again at a little distance on both sides. This patch
is the most fossihferous outcrop, yielding more than forty
species of fossils in a few yards, though the bed is only a
couple of feet thick. Proceeding round the cliffs towards
St. Helier's Bay the bed is next seen, beyond a fault, as a
reef separated from the shore by 30 yards of deep mud
and covered at hightide — here, again, richly fossihferous.
A little beyond the west head of Okahu Bay the
strata have a westerly dip, which brings up the green-
sand in a gentle slope across the face of the cliff. Pecten
zittelli, Pecten fischeri, Gastropods, and Bryozoa are the com-
monest forms contained in it. A fault exists in the middle
of Okahu Bay, or the dip changes, for on the east side of
the bay the bed is seen dipping easterly, and is again seen
at the Bastion, where it has an easterly dip and passes down
below the water. From this point to Tamaki West Head I

Fox. — The Wait cm of a Series. 4S3

have not observed any outcrop, so that I cannot say with
certainty that the beds are identical. I think, however, we
lr.ay fairly assume that they are. The lithological characters
are the same, and peculiar to these beds ; both are somewhat
gritty greensands with small red patches of volcanic frag-
ments. The fossils at the Tamaki Head bed are Pecten zittelli,
Pecten fischeri, and most of the Orakei Bryozoa named by
Hochstetter in the " Voyage of the ' Novara.' ' The bed can
be seen at intervals along the cliffs of the Tamaki Gulf, till
towards Panmure we reach pumice sands unconformable to
the Waitemata series. In these outcrops I have only found
Bryozoa, but they are much more numerous than at Orakei
even, though the same species.

I have given a somewhat full description of this bed — First,
because it is, so to speak, a central line in the Waitemata
beds from which other horizons may be worked out ; and,
secondly, because, though it is undoubtedly best described as
a sandstone, it yet contains volcanic fragments, and is there-
fore connected with the volcanic beds of the Waitemata series.

At Tamaki West Head occurs one of the most interesting
sections in the vicinity of Auckland. It is interesting from
several points of view. In the first place, it supplies a sec-
tion in which the Parnell grit and the Orakei greensand both
occur, and is the only section I know of in which they do. It
is also the spot whence Major Heaphy's section was taken,
a section which has since appeared in most text-books on
volcanoes. Moreover, it is in this locality that the volcanic
neck(?) occurs, with large blocks of Maitai slates and quartzites.

Mr. Park has given a section of this most interesting
locality.* Here, again, however, I am not able to agree
with him regarding the dip of the beds at the west head.
A photograph kindly taken for me by Mr. W. Satenby will
exemplify my views. Mr. Park, moreover, omits from this
part of his section the most prominent bed, the Parnell grit,
and also the Orakei greensand. On the western part of his
section, he omits the high sandstone cliffs, and therefore, of
course, the Parnell grit. He also writes that the beds are
•'undulating gently"; but, in my opinion, this is one of the
most contorted spots on the whole isthmus.

In Plate XXXVI1L, fig. 5, A on the section is the Tamak
West Head, B a bluff not far from St. Helier's Bay. At C there
is distortion and small anticlines, not shown in the section
because they are on a small scale though very perfect. 1 is
the Parnell grit, 2 the Orakei greensand, 3 sandstones and
shales (but the beds are more numerous in the actual section),
and 4 a recent tuff crater. This section is an extremely

* Geological Eeports, already cited.

48-4 Transactions. — Geology.

interesting one. It is said to be the one drawn by Major
Heaphy* to show the strata through which a vent is forced,
dipping down towards the vent. If it is the same, denudation
must have been very active, since the crater is gone and the
levels altered. I know, however, of no similar section in the
Auckland cliffs, and the blocks shown in Judd's " Volcanoes "
present much the appearance of the great blocks of Maitai
and Parnell grit and sandstone which have been emptied at 4,
or perhaps are the relics of the agglomerate in the old vol-
canic neck. 4 is the tuff. Numerous landslips have occurred
here, obscuring the relations between the more recent tuff and
the Waitemata beds. A plan of this tuff cone is given by
Hochstetter.f It forms a beautifully stratified cone, each
layer composed of basalt fragments in a clayey matrix ; and,
as already mentioned, the agglomerate of the old neck(?) con-
sists largely of green Maitai slates and phyllites often siliceous,
and Parnell grit. There can be no doubt that the basalt vent
burst through the grit. This forms a reef parallel to the
shore opposite the cone, and at A the reef has curved round
to the shore and dips up towards the cone. The chief interest
in the section, however, lies in the fact that here at last we
have the grit and the greensand together. But, unfortunately,
even here their relation is obscured.

Near B the grit is quite white and crumbly, but weathers
in characteristic spheroidal fashion, so that it can easily be
recognised from below. Near A I am at a loss to account for
the appearance of the beds. Just below the grit is a sand-
stone, and the grit seems to lie unconformably on this sand-
stone, which is several feet thick at the first fault, and thins
quite out at the second. Stranger still, though the greensand
is lost at the fault, and, so far as I have seen, does not appear
below the grit towards B, at A the grit passes right over the
fault without any dislocation, and, rapidly increasing in dip to
over 50°, passes down to the sea round the head. The only
explanation I can give is that the eruption has driven the
harder bed over the softer ones for some distance. The ob-
jection to this supposition is that, although the appearance
in the section seems to fit in with it, just round A the grit
seems quite conformable to the underlying sandstone, which
in turn is only a few feet about the greensand. But I think
such a position for the grit impossible, for then at Orakei we
should see it above the greensand, while at Parnell we might
expect to see the greensand below the grit. As we do neither
there must be a considerable thickness of beds between them
— at least 50 ft., I should say — and the appearance beyond A

* Judd : " Volcanoes," p. 1G5.

f " Voyage of the ' Novara,' " vol. i., Geology.

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 485

must be deceptive. However we explain matters, it seems
certain, at any rate, that the grit is above the greensand. It
is, perhaps, possible that this bit of the sea-floor was above
water for a short time in the Miocene period, and that the
grit is really unconformable ; but I am inclined to think the
explanation lies in the proximity of the basalt vent.

The grit forms the face of the cliff round the point, and
this is probably one of the best places near Auckland for see-
ing its structure. The zeolite veins are well developed in
particular. The fault is only inferred from the horizontal
position of the sandstone at B, as landslips have covered the
face of the cliff.

There is one other spot at which light is thrown on the
relative positions of the grit and greensand — Maungamaunga-
roa Bridge. Mr. Park concluded from the fossils found here
that these greensands were the equivalent of the Orakei
greensand. I do not know at what spot exactly Mr. Park
found these fossils, but interbedded with yellow sandstones
and shales, and above the greensands, occurs an outcrop of
the Parnell grit, very much weathered and easy to miss, con-
taining Fascicutipora ramosa.

It may, then, be considered as highly probable that the
Parnell grit is above the Orakei greensand, and even probable
that it is considerably above. This fixes the age of the grit,
since by a consensus of opinion the Orakei greensand is
classed as Miocene, the Geological Survey alone considering it
earlier.

Professor Bupert Jones, who examined the Foraminifera,
thought them to indicate a " late Tertiary age " for the bed.

Herr Karrer, in the palseontological section of the "Voy-
age of the ' Novara,' " made the bed the equivalent of the
Vienna basin — i.e., Miocene.

Professor Martin Duncan identified them with the Mount
Gambier series in Australia — Miocene.

Professor Hutton, the first of New Zealand palaeontolo-
gists, examined the evidence generally, and came to the con-
clusion " that the evidence, both stratigraphical and palseon-
tological, is altogether in favour of the Orakei Bay beds be-
longing to the Pareora system."

Since these beds are almost universally classed as Mio-
cene, and from the Papakura limestone to the highest Waite-
mata sandstones the series apparently has no break, the
greensand may fairly, I believe, be put at about the middle of
that series. In that case the Parnell grit is Upper or Middle
Miocene.

In dealing with the source and age of the grit I have
already had occasion to describe some of the outcrops.

486 Transactions. — Geology.

These I shall not again refer to. The following is a list
of the outcrops : (1) Shelly Beach, (2) St. George's Bay,
(3) Judge's Bav, (4) Newmarket, (5) St. John's College,
(6) St. Helier's Bay, (7) Tamaki West Head, (8) Howick,
(9) Maungamaungaroa Bridge, (10) White Bluff, (11) Cape
Horn, (12) Little Muddy Creek, (13) Point England.
(14) Blockhouse Bay(?).

At Shelly Beach the grit forms a synclinal. It has been
described by Mr. Park, and I have nothing to add except with
regard to the fault on the east of the section. I do not feel at
all sure that this fault dips easterly, but I could not see the
line of fault, owing to landslips and the fact that the bank is
not high at Shelly Beach Road.

At Acheron Point, half a mile to the east, occurs the
Ponsonby tuff. To that bed the dip is regularly west, so that
there is at least 100 ft. of strata above the Ponsonby tuff at
Shelly Beach. Now, the stratigraphical relations of the
Ponsonby tuff are very puzzling, but it will be shown later
that it is probably a little above the Cheltenham breccia, and
therefore much below the Parnell grit. But here, if the
Parneli grit is above it, it must be at least 100 ft. above. I see
no objection to this, and am therefore inclined to think the
Parnell grit is above the horizontal strata which form the
Auckland hills, near the wharves, at Freeman's Bav. Hobson
Street, Port Britomart, and Mechanics Bay. Mr. Park
strengthened this supposition by finding a few fossils, also
found at Orakei Bay, in the Mechanics Bay bed. Both Pro-
fessor Hutton and Mr. Park, however, believe that the grit
overlies these beds.

Round St. George's Bay the grit dips under the sea. On
the west of the following bay (Judge's Bay) the beds are
much contorted. A section is given by Hochstetter. On the
east of the bay the Parnell grit is beautifully exposed. This
is the best locality for seeing the gradual shading-otf of the
coarser grit into a blue compact sandstone. Blocks have
fallen from all parts of the bed, and every variety of texture
may be observed. There are numerous zeolite veins running
across the bed.

The next point at which the grit occurs (omitting places
already described) is a reef not far from the Bean Rock
Lighthouse. At the lighthouse itself the rocks are scoria-
ceous Auckland basalt. This cannot, I think, be derived
from the North Shore puys or Rangitoto Island (a basalt
volcano), since there is a deep channel between in each
case, so that it probably marks the site of an ancient
puy, perhaps a submarine one ; but more likely its present
position is due to the submergence of the old Waitemata
River, which has led to the formation of the Waitemata

Fox.— The Waitemata Series. 487

Harbour. This puy stood, perhaps, on the bank of the river
near its mouth.

About a quarter of a mile to the east and nearer the shore
a long low reef is exposed, which I visited in a boat, with the
object of seeing whether the outcrop of the Cheltenham grit
was here. The reef proved, however, to be the Parnell grit,
lacking, as usual, coarse fragments, and unfossihferous except
for a few Bryozoa, which my friend Mr. E. K. Mules dis-
covered, but which were too weathered for identification.
There is a second smaller reef parallel to the first and only a
few yards distant. The second reef is probably only another
part of the grit. This outcrop of the grit is about as coarse
as that at St John's College.

The next easterly outcrop is at Howick. The Tamaki
Gulf is crossed by a bridge at Panmure, about three miles
from the mouth. Crossing this bridge, and making for a
point near the mouth, it is easy to miss a long headland
of cliffs which forms the east head of the gulf. Viewing
this headland from the terminus of the road, it seems a small
one, and the strata appear horizontal, so that Mr. Park,
observing it doubtless from this point, wrote that the strata
•' are horizontal to the Tamaki, and consist of sandstones."
I fell into precisely the same error, and it was not until
several weeks later that I had an opportunity of seeing the
real extent and position of the beds from the harbour. Un-
fortunately, I was too far distant to make exact observations,
and I was not able to revisit the spot, but it was evident that
not only are the beds much disturbed, but that at intervals
there occurs a bed much resembling the Parnell grit.

Beyond the bay to the east of these cliffs occurs an
undoubted outcrop of the grit. Mr. Park, who examined
the same bed rather farther along, savs that it is coarser
than the Parnell beds, and " contains lumps of limestone
in its lower parts." It certainly is coarser than the grit at
Parnell, but very little coarser than the grit at the other side
of the Tamaki, which Mr. Park did not observe. It is about
20 ft. thick, and traversed by veins of calcite. These in
places have thickened into lumpy masses, and have fallen
frequently in this form to the foot of the cliff, and
are possibly what are described as " lumps of Kaipara
limestone." In some places the veins are beautitully
crystalline, containing large crystals of calcite in dog-tooth
spar form. At other times the calcite crystals are small
(requiring a lens to distinguish their outline) but very
numerous, and forming a white sparkling surface to the
black grit.

The grit lies in all places conformably on the underlying
sandstones, and is also overlain by sandstones in a per-

488 Transactions. — Geology.

fectly conformable manner. The first outcrop, however,
occurring at the end of the bay, is a most peculiar one.
The grit thins out abruptly. This appearance is due, I
believe, to currents, which have produced " contemporaneous
erosion," and is not an example of " current-bedding."

The thickness is about 15 ft., but apparently the bed thins
out abruptly. This strange resemblance to an injected lava
(there is, however, no alteration, of course, of the surrounding
beds) is frequently found in outcrops of the Cheltenham
breccia, but not so frequently in those of the Parnell grit.

Sir A. Geikie, who gives a similar section, writes: "It
shows a deposit of shale which, during the course of its
formation, was eroded by a channel into which sand was
carried, after which the deposit of fine mud recommenced.
. It is evident that erosion took place, in a general
sense, during the same period with the accumulation of the
strata. . . . We may reasonably infer that erosion was
due to the irregular and more violent action of the very cur-
rents by which the sediment of the successive strata was
supplied."

There is an example of "injection" in the Ponsonby tuff
which cannot be explained by current-bedding, as will be seen
later ; but current-bedding is sufficient explanation of many of
these unconformable appearances.

From Howick to Turanga Creek there is no outcrop of the
grit along the cliffs. At Turanga Creek the greensands were
found by me resting unconformably on Maitai slates, without
any Papakura limestone between the two.

Along the cliffy of the Manukau Harbour the beds, as a
rule, are almost Horizontal. In places, however, they have
been inclined at high angles, and here and there much dis-
turbed. It is generally at these spots of distortion that the
volcanic beds crop out.

There is a wharf about a mile or a mile and a half from
Onehunga. At low water more of the grit can be seen, as it
forms the base of the cliffs between the fault and the White
Bluff. Bound the White Bluff the Parnell grit rises some-
what steeply ; but that section has already been drawn and
described in dealing with the question of the identity of the
two breccias. The Parnell grit is here about 12 ft. -15 ft. thick,
and it is not as coarse as in the eastern outcrops.

About two miles beyond the bluff the Parnell grit is again
met with, and may be followed for some distance along the
base of the cliffs round Cape Horn, where its hardness has
been of great service in protecting the cliffs from the
effects of marine denudation (Plate XXXVIII., fig. 6). The
•section shown in fig. 7 is taken about three miles from
Little Muddy Creek, where the last section of the grit to the

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 489

west was observed. The dip of the sandstones near 2 is
not actually seen. The grit here is about 8 ft. thick.
Lapilli, however, are rare in it, and in some respects its
general appearance does not resemble that of the grit. This
may be due simply to the fact that it is a very westerly
outcrop. On the other hand, it is possible that the bed seen
here is a distinct one, possibly an outcrop of the Ponsonby
tuff, to be presently described.

7. The other Volcanic Beds.

Having dealt at length with the Cheltenham breccia and
the Parnell grit, something must be said of the other volcanic
beds. I have already said that I do not consider the coarse
breccias containing Bryozoa as all identical beds, but find
it impossible at present to distinguish between them. The
finer tuffs of the same, or nearly the same, age may, however,
be separated. Two of them are here described as the Wairau
tuffs and the Ponsonby tuff. I should also mention that
other beds contain occasional volcanic fragments, but not
enough to constitute them tuffs. The Orakei greensand is a
very good instance, for in that bed patches of scoriaceous
lava the size of a pin's head may be detected with a lens.
On the shores of the Tamaki, near Panmure, there are also
pumice sands, but I believe these are Pliocene or later beds,
unconformable to the Waitemata series, and derived from the
pumice plateau in the centre of the North Island.

The Waitakerei breccias and conglomerates on the west
coast and therefore on the other side of the vents, I have
not visited ; but they must, I believe, be classed with the
Waitemata series.

It is interesting to compare the Wairau tuffs with that
formed at the eruption of Tarawera. Except that the former
were submarine, the resemblance is considerable ; but, judg-
ing from their thickness and distance from the vent, the
eruptions which produced them were larger. It is interesting
to note that there are three or four tuffs separated in each
case by a few inches of shale, so that the eruptions succeeded
each other at only short intervals. These eruptions took
place some time after those which produced the Cheltenham
breccia, and were not, apparently, so violent.

Wairau Tuffs.

I have given this name to volcanic beds which are best
developed at the Wairau Creek, near Lake Takapuna. There
are really several beds, each separated from the next by a
thin layer of shale. The distinction between a tufaceous
sandstone and a sandy tuff is not very easy to draw, and some
of these beds are decidedly sandy. The lowest, however, is

490 Transactions. — Geology.

distinctly volcanic, with, occasionally, fragments of scoria as
large as a pea.

The position of the Wairau tuffs appears to be above the
Cheltenham breccia and below the Orakei greensand. I am
uncertain whether they are above or below the Ponsonby tuff,
since they seem everywhere to be above it ; but at Ponsonby,
where the section is clear, either they are not above it or thev
must be more than 100 ft. above it, a most unusual position. '

The group of tuffs is more sandy than the Parnell grit, but
the scoria can easily be seen with a lens. At the Wairau
Creek I discovered a fragmentary Gastropod shell near the
base of the second bed. It is very minute, not as large as a
pea, and several whorls are evidently missing ; but I believe it
is a species of Littoriua. Elsewhere I have not been able to
detect any fossils.

Since there are no fossils, it will be advisable to give the
reasons for identifying volcanic beds at Howick, St. John's
College, the Tamaki, and Manukau Harbour, with this bed at
the Wairau. In the first place, the beds do not resemble
the ordinary Waitemata sandstones, which are blue or grey,
while these tuffs are brown or black, with a tendency some-
times to spheroidal weathering. In the second place, al-
though there is a little scoria present occasionally in other
beds, it is never so abundant. In these beds, too, occur veins
of calcite, with large crystals sometimes -Jin. long (dog-tooth
spar) ; and there are also veins of zeolites. And, moreover,
these beds always occur as a well-defined group of black
bands in the cliff, the lower being the more tufaceous.

At the north head of Castor-oil Bay the tuffs are separated
by bands of sandstone, as at St. John's College. Generally
they are separated by thinner layers of shale.

In the first section I observed the bed was about 8 ft.
thick. Across Castor-oil Bay no section can be seen, the
ground being low. In the floor of the bay nothing can be
seen, owing to the covering of yellow sand. If there is no
break — and there is no reason to suppose one — the Wairau
tuff's are here about 30 ft. above the Cheltenham breccia.

To the north of the Wairau (Castor-oil Bay) I saw nothing
of the tuffs, but some of the finer tuffs at' Whangaparaoa
resemble them.

On the southern side of the harbour there is no outcrop of
the tuffs until St. John's College is reached, the reason being
that younger beds occur along the cliffs. At St. John's Col-
lege they are seen in the floor of the stream when the tide is
out and a freshet has scoured away the mud. The bed of the
stream is obscured farther up by a raupo swamp, and the hill-
sides are thickly covered with gorse. Wherever the strata
can be seen they are, however, sandstones, so that it seems

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 491

fairly certain that the Wairau tuffs are here about 70 ft. below
the Parnell grit, which coincides with the supposed general
position of the beds. The tuffs are more sandy and thinner
than at Wairau.

The Wairau tuffs occur at the Tamaki, near the west head.
Apparently they are above the Orakei greensand, but faults
make it impossible to say with certainty.

At Howick the Wairau tuffs again crop out, this time in
numerous thick bands separated by several layers of shale,
and shading off into sandstones. Here they are traversed by
numerous zeolite veins. They occur not far from the last
outcrop along Howick cliffs of the Parnell grit, but the rela-
tion between the two is obscured by several faults.

At Maungamaungaroa Creek there is another outcrop, and,
judging from the dip, these beds should be nearly at the lowest
horizon of the Turanga greensands, the Parnell grit occurring
a little above the greensands.

As seen in a section, close to Onehunga, on the Manukau
Harbour, the tuffs resemble the outcrop at Howick.

With regard to the Wairau tuffs, I am inclined to think
that, just as in the case of the Cheltenham breccia, it is a
group on the whole synchronous (and probably marking a
gradual quiescence of the Waitakerei chain), but derived from
different vents along the chain, just as in the former case.

Tamaki Tuff.

At the Tamaki and at Maungamaungaroa Stream there
occurs a thin tuff (2 ft. thick), with numerous small lapilli,
traversed by veins of large calcite crystals. Its position is
30 ft. below the Orakei greensand, as seen at the Tamaki
Gulf, some distance from the west head. I have not seen it
elsewhere.

The Ponsonby Tuff.

The Ponsonby tuff is a most interesting bed. In the first
place, it is quite a thin bed, and yet has a wider distribution
than any bed in the Waitemata series. In the second place,
it shows some peculiar results of distortion. It is nowhere
more than 2 ft. thick, yet it occurs at the Tamaki, at St.
Helier's Bay, at the Manukau, at Ponsonby, at Cheltenham,
at Narrow Neck, at Wairau Creek, and at Deep Creek.
When unearthed it is a blue soft bed, rather sandy to the
touch, speckled with white flakes of kaohnised feldspar.
These flakes are thickly crowded together, sometimes as
many as 500 in a square inch. Occasionally a small red
patch of scoria is seen. The rock weathers to a pale-yellow
in which the white feldspars are still visible.

On the whole, the bed grows thicker and coarser in a
north-westerly or westerly direction, and I believe it came

492 Transactions. — Geology.

from some explosive outburst of a Waitakerei volcano. At
the Tamaki it occurs as a thin bed 1 ft. thick not far from the
west head. There is a bay and two faults at least between
it and the Parnell grit. At St. Helier's Bay it occurs at
Watson's Point, the westerly head of the bay, among very
much contorted strata. It is not very far from the reef of
the Cheltenham breccia. At the Manukau it occurs near the
Wairau tuffs. Here it has been drawn out in a most curious
fashion. The spot is near an area of distortion. All the
lumps are elongated in the direction of the dip of the beds.

At Cheltenham it occurs near the breccia, much crushed.
At Wairau Creek it occurs on the bank of the creek in the
most distorted part of the cliff, and has been crushed out com-
pletely, occurring as a lenticular mass.

In all of these localities it seems to be a little above the
breccia.

Across the neck on the North Shore no section can be seen,
but the dip continues regular. The tuff would therefore seem
to be more above the breccia than is usually the case, and
some fault may be present.

In the section at Acheron Point the relative positions of
the beds are quite clear, but it is not so certain that there is
present an extension of the Cheltenham breccia seven or eight
miles away. The question of its position at Acheron Point
has already been dealt with in describing the Parnell grit.

8. Conclusion.

I have now described all the volcanic beds of the Waite-
mata series, and (to recapitulate) have come to the following
general conclusions : That in late Oligocene times, in the
shallow sea near Auckland, there rose a long line of vents,
which were at first very powerful and gave rise to several
coarse breccias, laid down amid conflicting currents on the
fossihferous sea-floor. But, as usual, after these first violent
eruptions, from which were derived the Cheltenham breccia
and the Whangaparaoa breccia, and no doubt several others,
besides the massive breccias found on the west coast, there
were other manifestations of volcanic activity, on the whole
more feeble, but some explosive eruptions on a large scale ;
and it is to these we must look for the source of the Wairau
tuffs and the Ponsonby tuff. Meanwhile the whole area
gradually sank, till, towards the close of the Miocene period,
the Palaeozoic islands and ridges were mostly covered by the
waves of the advancing sea, which laid down in regular suc-
cession shales and sandstones, even on the older lava-streams
of the Waitakerei vents. But at the same time, and pro-
bably earlier too, volcanic outbursts were taking place on the
Coromandel Peninsula, some of them of sufficient magnitude

Fox. — The Waitemata Series. 493

to scatter their debris over the floor of the Auckland sea ; and
it is to these we owe the Parnell grit. At a later period the
volcanic forces became quiescent, the Miocene strata were
raised and extensively denuded, and between the two former
lines of volcanic activity arose scores of puys, which covered
the older strata with tuffs and basic lavas, and distorted the
beds, raising them sometimes, perhaps, from the sea ; though
I believe the majority of these puy cones arose on the land.
One conclusion of interest is that these areas of volcanic
disturbance were areas of subsidence, not elevation.*

It is possible that the Waitakerei outbursts were at first
submarine, and the opening phase may have been one of
elevation. But while the vents discharged their contents
the sea-floor gradually sank. It was only when volcanic
energy had completely died away that the consolidated sand-
stones, shales, and tuffs were thrown into long gentle anti-
clines and synclines, to be denuded by the atmospheric forces,
until, after another phase of volcanic history of quite a
different type, they again began to sink beneath the waves.

* See Sir A. Geikie : " Ancient Volcanoes of Great Bricain," vol. ii.,
p. 470.

V.— CHEMISTEY AND PHYSICS.

Art. XLVI. — Studies on the Chemistry of the Neiv Zealand

Flora.

By T. H. Easterpield, Professor of Chemistry, Victoria
College, and B. C. Aston, Chemist to the Agricultural
Department.

[Read before the Wellington I'liilosophical Society, 5th November, 1901.]

PART II.— THE KABAKA-NUT.
(Preliminary Note.)

The karaka-tree (Corynocarpus Icevigata) is endemic to New
Zealand and the surrounding islands. It is plentiful in the
North Island, but its distribution in the South Island is very
limited. It is the largest and commonest of all the trees in
the Chatham Islands, where it attains a height of over 50 ft.

The kernel of the karaka-berry is known to be very poison-
ous in its raw state, but if suitably prepared by cooking and
subsequent soaking the kernel forms a staple article of
xMaori food. A detailed account of the process as carried out
by the Maoris is given in a paper by Skey.* Owing to the
kindness of Mr. H. B. Kirk, Inspector of Native Schools, we
have been informed that the process employed by the
Morioris in the Chatham Islands is practically identical with
that used by the Maoris.

The karaka-kernels have been investigated by Skey. The
results of his examination showed — (1) That the kernels con-
tain oil, sugary matter, gum, and amorphous proteids ; (2) that
the nuts lose their bitter taste when heated to 100° C. for four
hours ; (3) that animal charcoal removes from the acidified
aqueous extract of the kernel a bitter crystalline substance.
This compound was named "karakin," but was not obtained
in sufficient quantity for a satisfactory examination.

The authors have re-examined the karaka-nut. They find
— (1.) That the aqueous extract of the nut yields much
prussic acid on distillation. (2.) That air-dried kernels contain
14-15 per cent, of non-drying oil, which yields solid acids on
saponification. (3.) That the sugars present are mannose and
dextrose. (4.) That the aqueous extract, upon evaporation,
even at 35°, in shallow pans, loses the greater part of its
bitter taste. The concentrated extract contains no karakin

* Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. iv., p. 318.

496 Transactions. —Chemistry and Physics.

(see below), but a nitrogenous glucoside, corynocarpin,
together with a highly soluble, non-nitrogenous, crystalline
compound. These substances have not been detected in the
fresh extract. (5.) That a compound agreeing in nearly all
respects with Skey's karakin can be readily obtained from
fresh kernels by extracting with cold alcohol, and subse-
quently distilling off the spirit in a partial vacuum. By
repeated crystallization from hot alcohol the karakin is ob-
tained in radiating acicular crystals. (6.) The quantity of
karakin diminishes rapidly with the age of the nut. The
yield from fresh nuts gathered in February, 1901, was
0-3 per cent. ; nuts three months old only yielded 0-1 per
cent. ; after twelve months the nuts were still bitter, but
only a small quantity of karakin was obtained from them.

Karakin.

Since this compound is the only substance in the fresh
nut of any considerable interest, the method of preparation
and properties of it shall alone be given in detail. The fresh
kernels are first put through a sausage-machine, and then
through the wooden rollers of a wringing-machine, and the
mash well stirred with one and a half times its weight of
methylated spirit and allowed to stand for thirty-six hours,
with repeated stirrings. The spirit is removed by a filter-press
and the press-cake again extracted with alcohol. The united
filtrates are distilled in a partial vacuum, at a temperature not
exceeding 35°, until the greater part of the alcohol is removed.
The turbid liquid gradually deposits crystals of karakin,
together with a gummy bitter substance which can be re-
moved by recrystallization from boiling alcohol. The pure
karakin melts at 122°, dissolves easily in acetone, methyl
alcohol, glacial acetic acid, acetic ether, and phenol ; with
difficulty in cold ethyl alcohol (O 4 gram in 100 cc.) and water.
It is very sparingly soluble in ether and benzene. Deposited
from hot concentrated solutions in water or alcohol, it sepa-
rates as an oil, which subsequently becomes crystalline. The
compound reduces Fehling's solution readily. After hydro-
lysis with dilute hydrochloric acid it gives a yellow precipitate
when warmed with sodium-acetate and phenyl-hydrazine
solution (glucoside reaction). It is highly nitrogenous.
Analysis agrees with the formula (C5H8N05)3.

Calculated. Found.

C = 370 372

H = 4-9 4-8

N = 8-6 8-6

O (by difference) = 49-5 49-4

1000 1000

Easterfield arid Bee — Molecular Weight. 497

Molecular weight in phenol solution : Calculated
(C5H8N05)3 = 486 ; found = 450.

The characters given by Skey for the karakin prepared by
the animal-charcoal method differ in two important respects
from those above described. The melting-point according to
Skey is 1008, and the substance contains no nitrogen. At
first sight it would therefore seem that the two substances
are not identical. From Skey's paper, however, it would
appear that the karakin was not recrystallized, and this would
account for the difference in the melting-points. The failure,
on the other hand, to detect nitrogen in organic substances has
occurred so often in the history of chemical research, more
particularly before the application of the metallic-sodium test
had become general, that the authors do not attach much
importance to this apparent discrepancy. They would add
that they have prepared karakin by Skey's method and found
it to contain nitrogen, and to have the same melting-point
as the compound already described.

The expenses in connection with this investigation have
been defrayed by a grant from the Royal Society of London.

Akt. XLVII. — Raotdt's Method for Molecular Weight Deter-
mination.

By Professor Easteefield and James Bee, M.A.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 5th November, 1901.]

The teaching of practical chemistry at the present day differs
greatly from the teaching in vogue twenty-five years ago. At
that time qualitative analysis only was, as a rule, taught to the
elementary student, and experimental proof of chemical theory
was either ignored or only practised in the lecture-room.
Nowadays, however, the teaching of qualitative analysis is
usually prefaced by a series of simple quantitative experi-
ments, performed by the students themselves, and designed to
illustrate modern chemical principles. Such an introduction
greatly facilitates the understanding of the science.

So far as we are aware, no attempt has been made to teach
the practice of molecular-weight determination by Raoult's
method to the elementary student, it being generally supposed
that expensive apparatus is necessary for such determina-
tions. As a matter of fact, the experiment may be success-
fully carried out with the simplest of school apparatus, and
with a very small expenditure of time and material.
32

498

Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

Raoult's law states that the depression in the freezing-
point of a given solvent is directly proportional to the concen-
tration of the solution and inversely to the molecular weight
of the dissolved substance — i.e.,

D cc

IV

WM'

ft

where D = depression in freezing-point, W = weight of the
solvent, w = weight of the dissolved substance, and M = mole-
cular weight of the dissolved substance. So that, if K repre-
sent the depression which the molecular weight of any sub-
stance (in grams) will cause in 100 grams of the solvent,

-. w x 100 T^
M = WD K«

This method of determining molecular weights is in every-day
practice amongst research chemists, giving good results even
for substances with very high molecular weights. With such
substances the observed depression is so small that an exceed-
ingly sensitive, and therefore expensive, thermometer is re-
quired. For class purposes, however, we must make the
depression large enough to be easily registered on a common
thermometer. This is easily done by choosing a solvent
whose depression constant (K) is large, and dissolving in it
some substance whose molecular weight is small.

Now, of all common substances water has
the lowest molecular weight, whilst phenol has
the highest depression constant (72) ; indeed,
1 per cent, of water depresses the melting-point
of phenol about 4° C.

The apparatus needed is illustrated in the
figure. As it consists onlv of a test tube, com-
mon centigrade thermometer, cork, and brass-
wire stirrer, no explanation is necessary.

To perform the experiment about 10 grams of
good carbolic acid is weighed into the test tube,
thoroughly melted by immersing for a few
moments in hot water, and the freezing-point
determined by thoroughly stirring until the
superfused liquid begins to crystallize and the
temperature indicated by the thermometer be-
comes steady. This operation should, of course,
be repeated. About 01 gram of water is now
added to the carbolic acid in the tube, and the
freezing-point again determined. The water is
conveniently added from a dropping-pipette, the
number of drops being carefully counted, and the number of
drops which make up a cubic centimeter being determined in
a separate experiment.

;

EASTEBFIELD and Kobehtson. — Vapour Densities. 499

The numbers obtained by the members of a large class of
elementary students varied from 17 to 21 for the molecular
weight of water. Still better results were obtained for the
molecular weight of methyl alcohol. It is instructive to allow
the students to perform a series of experiments at different
concentrations. In the case of water in phenol the observed
molecular weight increases very rapidly with the concentra-
tion (molecular association). Scarcely any such effect is
noticed with methyl alcohol in phenol.

Art. XLVIII. — The Vapour Densities of the Fatty Acids.

By Professor Easterfield and P. W. Kobertson.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th February, 1902.]

It is well known that a large number of substances have
vapour densities at their boiling-points which are a little
above those calculated from their molecular weights. This
may in many cases be explained by the fact that the gaseous
laws which are used in the calculations are not rigorously
true at the point of liquefaction. In other cases, however,
the abnormality is undoubtedly due to the fact that asso-
ciation of the molecules takes place at temperatures in the
neighbourhood of the boiling-point.

The first substance to attract the attention of chemists
was acetic acid. That the abnormality in this case is reallv
due to the formation of molecular complexes is shown, first,
by the fact that the normal vapour density is not reached
till 110° above the boiling-point. Secondly, the value for the
expression MW/T' (where M is the molecular weight, W the
latent heat of vaporization) is 15, while for liquids of normal
molecular weight a constant value of about 21 is obtained.
This low value can only be explained on the assumption that
the molecules are associated in the gaseous state.

Similarly, it was found that normal butyric and isovaleric
acids were associated, although to a less extent. In general
it may be said that this is true of all the lower fatty acids and
their derivatives, which do not decompose on heating. This
is quite analogous to their behaviour in solution. In benzene
and naphthalene most hydroxyl compounds, and especially
acids, associate.* This is also true for the solvents bromo-
form, nitrobenzene, and parabromtoluene. Even in phenol,

* Auwers, Zeit. Phys. Chem., 1893, &c.

500

Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

which owes its wide application in cryoscopy to its slight
tendency to cause bodies to associate, the experiments of the
authors have shown that, while the alcohols and other ali-
phatic compounds remain fairly normal, the fatty acids asso-
ciate strongly with rising concentration. This, however, will
be discussed in a future communication.

1. Acetic acid has already been examined in detail. The
following are a few of the numbers : — *

Temperature.

(Boiling-
point, 119° C).
125°

130°
140°
160°

190°
219°
230°
250°

Density.
(Normal Molecular
Weight, 2 08).
320

312
2-90
2-48
2-30
2-17
209
2-08

On plotting these results as a curve it is found that the
rate of dissociation of these molecular complexes is a direct
function of the temperature for 50° above the boiling-point.
Then the rate is gradually decreased till 230° C, when the
vapour density becomes constant.

2. We can find no record of any determinations made with
propionic acid, the next member of the fatty acids. Accord-
ingly we performed several experiments by the ordinary
method of Dumas.

(a.) At 146° C. and at 760 mm. the vapour density was
found to be 51. The normal value is 37 ; consequently at 5°
above the boiling-point the vapour is associated 38 per cent.

(b.) At 192° C. and at 755 mm. the vapour density was
found to be 45, indicating 22 per cent, association.

3. Normal butyric has already had its vapour density
determined at different temperatures. f A normal value is
reached at a temperature of about 100° above the boiling-point
of the compound. By continuing the curve for butyric acid it
is found that the vapour density 5° above its boiling-point
would be 38 — i.e., at that temperature it is associated 25 per
cent. Thus for the three acids at 5° above their boiling-
points —

Vapour associated.
Acetic acid ... ... .. 54 per cent.

Propionic acid ... ... 38 „

Butyric acid ... ... 25 „

* Cahours, " Comptes Rendus," xx., 51.
t Cahours, loc. cit.

Robertson. — Latent Heats of Fusion. 501

Thus it is noticed that the amount of association decreases
with rising molecular weight, which fact is of universal
occurrence for homologous bodies in the liquid state (Ramsay
and Shields ; Traube) as well as for substances in solution
(Biltz).

In this case, however, it happens that the amount of
association is inversely as the square of the molecular
weight : —

Per Cent. Amount of Nfu^bers Proportional

Association. t°^v,er8e1° f ^u"ef

of Molecular Weight.

Acetic acid ... 54 52

Propionic acid ... 38 36

Butyric acid ... 25 26

Further experiments are in progress with the object of
ascertaining whether the same law holds for the higher mem-
bers of the series.

Art. XLIX. — The Latent Heats of Fusion of the Elements

and Compounds.

By P. W. Robertson, Junior Scholar in the University of

New Zealand.

Communicated by Professor Easterfield.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th February, 1902.]

Abstract.
Crompton states that ^ = K, where A is atomic weight, w latent heat

of fusion, T melting point on absolute scale, and v the valency of the
element. Now, the valency of an element is known to vary, and as the
results were not very concordant the author, from theoretical grounds,

replaced this by the relation — 5— where d is density and V ^_

d

tents the space between the atoms. Just as the atomic heat of the
elements is only constant f r elem-nts with atomic weights over about
40, s.) in this relation only true under the same conditions. In the case
of ttie fourteen elements with atomic weighos over 40 the value varies
between 1 and 13, witn the exception of the three, gallium, lead, and
bismuth. But applying this rule to the compounds, and ohanging the
atomic weight into molecular weight, still more concordant results are
obtained. Out of thirteen inorganic compounds, with the exception of
t^o the re-tults vary from 19 to 2 3, being mostly near the mean 2-1.
There is al-o good agreement among the organic bodies examined, the
mean being ab >ut 2-4. The author intends to calculate more results,
and to present fuller tables to the Society.

Various attempts have been made to arrive at a definite

repre-

502 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics

law connecting the latent heats of fusion with the atomic
weights and other physical constants. Berthelot (1895),
after proving, that in the case of the latent heads of vapor-
ization MW/T' = constant (where M is the molecular weight,
W the latent heat of vaporization, and T" the hoiling-point
on the absolute scale), supposed a similar law to be true in
the case of the latent heats of fusion.

Holland Crompton, in a paper entitled "Latent Heat of
Fusion,"* endeavoured to show that the equation AicjTv = a
constant for the elements, A being the atomic weight, w the
latent heat of fusion, and v the valency. The difficulty first
encountered in this relation is due to the fact that the
valency of an element varies with its mode of combination
and with different physical conditions.

Shortly afterwards Deerrf concluded that the relationship
Atv/T is constant only for certain groups of "similar"
elements.

In 1897 Crompton published another paper,! in which he
attempted to disprove the hypothesis of electrolytic dissocia-
tion. He arrives at the result dw/T = constant for mono-
molecular liquids, where d is the density of the liquid. In
the same paper the results are given for the elements, the
densities in many cases being taken in the solid state. As
shown below, the numbers are exceedingly divergent.

De Forcrand§ showed that M(W+w)/T' is approximately
constant : M is the molecular w eight of the substance in the
state of a gas at its boiling-point T', and W and w are the
latent heats of vaporization and fusion respectively. But W
is generally about ten times as great as w ; and, as MW/T' =
a constant is true (Trouton's law), the value of w wiil make
little difference in the result. Further, if the equation
M(W+w)/T be divided by the constant MW/T', it follows
that W/w = a constant. Using Traube's numbers for the
latent heats of vaporization of the following elements, which
gave very satisfactory numbers for Trouton's constant, the
values of W/w are — Mercury, 26; zinc, 14; cadmium, 15;
bromine, 3 ; iodine, 32 ; bismuth, 17- Since these num-
bers should be equal if De Forcrand's relationship is a
physical law, his generalisation may be dismissed without
further consideration.

Now, let it be assumed for the present that Xiv/T = 8-8
(this value is only empirical, but its magnitude will not affect
the following argument). On dividing the values of A thus
obtained by the real atomic weights, the result is a series

* Journ. Cbem. Soc, 1895, 67 315.

f Proc. C-»pm. Soc, 1895, n.nd Cbem. Newe, 1897.

+ Journ. Cbem. Soc, 70, 925.

§ "Compces Rendus," 1901, 132, 878.

Robkrtson. — Latent Keats of Fusion. 503

of numbers which appear to be periodic functions of the

Table I.

atomic weights : —

Cu.

Zn.

Ga.

Ge.

As.

Se.

Br.

3-8

31

1-7

••

••

••

2-4

Ag.

Cd.

In.

Sn.

Sb.

Te.

I.

37

34

••

26

••

■•

23

Au.

Hg.

Tl.

Pb.

Bi.

3-8

3-6

36

4-4

1-9

It will be noticed that the values tend to increase from
top to bottom and from right to left — e.g., zinc to mercury
and iodine to silver. It would seem, therefore, that some
periodic quantity must take the place of the v in Crompton's
formula to make the relation true for all the elements.

It can be proved that TS/w = a constant, where S is the
specific heat of the element, by using the relation TC = a
constant, C being the coefficient of expansion. But Pictet

proves TC V- = K, the expression V ^ representing the mean
distance between the atoms if d is the density. Applying
this, it follows that —

TS V±

w

= constant.

But AS = constant (Dulong and Petit);

Aw

— =n=. = constant.
• T v'a

d

In Table II. are given the values thus calculated for the
elements with atomic weights above 40 whose latent heats
are known. As in the case of Dulong and Petit's law, the
relationship does not hold for the elements with low atomic
weights. The values of d are taken at ordinary temperatures
for the substances in the solid state, except in the case of
bromine, the specific gravity of which in the solid state is
unknown. Most of the constants required have been obtained
from the papers of Crompton and Deerr, while the values for
silver and copper are due to Hey cock and Neville.*

Trans. Roy a! Soc, 1897, 189, 25.

504

Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

Table II. — Elements.

r

Aw

Element.

Aw.

T.

d

d

Mercury

565

234

2-41

1-00

Zinc

1839

688

2 12

1-28

Cadmium

1531

593

2-35

1-10

Bismuth

2602

540

2-77

1-75

Gallium

1336

286

2-28

2 05

Palladium

3873

1773

2-09

105

Guld ..

3227

1335

215

1-12

Tin

1573

503

255

1-22

Lead

1212

600

2-61

076

Thallium*

1183

562

2 62

0-82

Bromine

1295

266

2 97 (?)

1-63 (?)

Iodine

1485

387

2 96

1-28

Copper

3140

1355

1-91

122

Silver ..

2920

1230

2-16

1-10

Platinum

5295

2052

210

1-23

The greatest discrepancies are observed in the cases of
bismuth and gallium, the only two metals which are known
to expand on freezing.

By using the results of Heycock and Neville for the freez-
ing-points of alloys the value for lead becomes about 1. Their
experiments confirm the values of zinc, cadmium, tin, and bis-
muth, the first three of which give concordant results for the
constant. Using this value for lead, and excluding bismuth
and gallium, the results vary from 1 to 1-3 for twelve ele-
ments with melting-points ranging from —40° to -f 1,800° C.
The mean value is 1-16. In the table below the results are
compared with those of Crompton : —

Table

III.

Element.

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

Me'cury

100

-14

1-21

- 8

1-65

Zinc

1-28

+ 10

1-34

+ 3

265

Cadmium

1-10

- 5

129

- 1

1 84

Palladium

1 05

-10

109

-16

2-83

Piatinum

1-23

+ 4

1-29

- 1

233

Tin

1-22

+ 5

1-56

+ 21

1-86

Silver ..

1-10

- 5

2 37

+ 80

2-08

Gold

113

- 3

0 80

-40

2-36

Co| per . .

1-22

+ 5

116

-10

3 26

Iodine

1-28

+ 10

1-27

- 2

1-48

L^ad

1-00

-14

097

-25

1 00

Thallium

1 02

-12

2 62

+ 100

1-52

* Since the paper was communicated to t»'e Society the latent heat of
fusion of thallmra has been directly determ ned by the author. The
value thus found (mean of ten observations) gives a value of 1-02 for the
final expression. Thallium thus conforms to the general law.

Kobkrtson. — Latent Heats of Fusion.

505

A represents Aw/Tv ^ .

B represents percentage difference from mean.
C represents Crompton's 1895 relation, Aw/Tu.
D represents percentage difference from mean.
E represents Crompton's 1897 relation, 10xtt^/T.

Thus the relationship Aw/TV^ is much the most satis-
factory, the mean deviation being +8 per cent., a deviation
of the same order as observed in the law of Dulong and Petit.
But it must be borne in mind that the latent heat of fusion is
one of the most difficult physical constants to determine, and
that if the densities were taken at some corresponding tempera-
tures, such as at the melting-points, the results would perhaps
bf even closer. There is a large number of wide deviations
in Crompton's first relation, while in the case of bromine and
iodine it was assumed that the valencies were 3, which
assumption is decidedly open to criticism.

In the case of compounds, if A is replaced by M (mole-
cular weight) the values for Mw/TvM are also found to be

constant. The following are the data for those substances
whose densitv in the solid state I have been able to find.
The values for lead-bromide and silver-chloride are from the
results of Weber, who deduced them from electrical experi-
ments. The latent heats of antimony chloride and bromide
and the bromides of tin and arsenic have been calculated
from their depression constants. The remaining numbers are
taken from Crompton's paper.

Table IV.
A. Inorganic Compounds.

Mw

Compound.

Mi*.

T.

d

d

10 x diu

T

Lead-chloride

5810

758

364

2-10

1 60

Lead-bromide

5100

763

3-80

176

1-23

Lead-io lide

5300

648

4-17

198

1-10

Silver chloride . .

4400

730

307

1-96

2-35

Autim >ny-ciiloride

2920

345

419

201

1-24

Tin broiuiae

2910

303

5 11

1-90

0-73

Antimony-bromide

3490

369

442

2-15

1 10

Ar.senic-broniiae

2740

295

4-39

211

114

Wa'er ..

1439

273

2 70

1-96

2-93

Iodine-chloride . .

2297

289

3-70

214

1-52

Potass-ium-nitrate

4949

606

3-65

2 24

1-69

Sodium nitrate ..

5520

578

3-40

2 81

246

506

Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

With the exception of lead-bromide and sodium-nitrate, the
numbers varv from 1-9 to 2-2, with the value 2-07 as mean.

B. Organic Compounds.

!

Mw

Compound.

Mtw.

T.

d

WE

d

10 x dw
T

Acetic acid

2661

277

384

2 50

1-61

Phemlacetic acid

4293

348

4-80

2-56

1-00

Az >henzene

5187

342

531

2-85

087

Benzoic acid

4607

396

456

2-55

1-08

Orthonitrophenol

3725

316

460

2-56

110

P. dichloronenzene

4395

325

4-90

2-76

1-15

P. dibromobenzene

4862

358

5-04

2-70

106

Dipbenyl

4391

343

5-36

2-39

0-83

Naphthalene

4559

353

4-81

267

099

Resorcmol

4906

383

441

2-90

1-37

Paratoluidine

4177

312

4-67

2-87

121

Parabromphenol

3961

337

4 62

2 55

109

Paraehlotanihne

4742

342

4-73

2-74

130

Phenanthrene ..

4450

369

550

219

0 71

Thjmol

4130

321

5-36

2 41

0-81

Nitropapbthalene

4383

329

5-06

2 64

0-97

Amthoil

4070

294

530

2-61

094

Nitrobenzene

2743

264

4 45

235

1-02

Aeetophenone

35 0

293

4-86

2 53

1-02

Benz>phenone*

4320

321

5-38

2-50

090

Chloracetic acid*

3850

334

4-04

2 90

1-71

Acetoxime*

3022

333

422

2 15

1-12

With the exceptions of acetoxime and phenanthrene, the
numbers vary from 2-35 to 29. The mean value 2-57 is
distinctly greater than the value obtained for the inorganic
compounds. Whether this difference is due to the large
number of atoms in the compounds of carbon or whether it is
one of those peculiar properties of this element remains to be
seen. The value of the constant is about twice as great as
that obtained for the elements themselves.

I have neglected to compare Crompton's 1895 relation
Mw/TEV with the others, because until chemists can agree
as to what is really meant by the sum of the valencies (EV)
in a compound the results thus obtained will be of no value.
In the last column of Table IV. is placed his second relation-
ship, 10 x wd/T. Regarding this, he says that when the
result is about unity the liquids are non-associated, and when
greater the liquid is proportionately associated. It may be
remarked that about 25 per cent, of the values are consider-
ably " below " unity.

* Specific gravity in the tolid state determined by the author.

Williams. — On the Fourth Dimension. 507

By combining the equation Mw/TV'— with the well-known
law of Van t'Hoff, D = -02T7w, the result is D = KMTv/M)

d

where D is the molecular depression of the solvent and K a
constant. Hence the molecular depression of any body can
now be calculated without a knowledge of the latent heat of
fusion.

Trouton's law states that —

MW/T1 = K1.

But Mfr/Tv'M = K ;

io/W = c Tv^/T1.

That is, the latent heat of fusion is to the latent heat of
vaporization as the freezing-point multiplied by the cube root
of the specific volume is to the boiling-point. This, of course,
is only true when Trouton's law is true — that is, when the
molecular condition of the body is unchanged in passing from
the liquid to the gaseous state.

Art. L. — Some Observations on the Fourth Dimension.
By the Rev. Herbert W. Williams, M.A.

[Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 9th September,

1901.]

Helmholtz was the earliest writer to attempt to present the
conception of transcendental space in a form inviting popular
investigation, and his efforts have been ably seconded in
recent times by the author of " Flatland,"* in the first place,
and by Mr. C. H. Hinton,f in the second place. The former
has produced a work which has attractions beyond the mere
consideration of the fairyland of mathematics ; while the
latter, beginning with pamphlets of a distinctly popular
nature, has in his latest work laid down, still without ab-
struse mathematics, a scheme of mental training the avowed
object of which is to enable the student to form a perfect
mental image of a figure in four dimensions.

*"Flatland, A Romance in Two Dimensions, by a Square." Seeley
and Co.

f Author of "Scientific Romances" and "A New Era of Thought."
Swann, Sonnenechem, and Co.

508

Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

The method of treatment does not admit of much origi-
nality. A straight line bounded by two points will, if moved
in a direction perpendicular to itself, trace out a square,
bounded by four lines and four points. By moving this
square in an independent direction at right angles to the
two original directions we shall obtain a cube, bounded
by six squares, twelve lines, and eight points. If the cube
be now moved in an independent direction compounded of
none of the three original directions, but at right angles
to them all, it will trace out a four - dimensional figure
(called by Mr. Hinton a " tessaract ") which will be bounded
by eight cubes, twenty-four squares, thirty-two lines, and
sixteen points.

A very small amount of consideration will show how these
latter figures are arrived at. The bounding cubes consist of
the cube in its original position, the cube in its final position,
and the six cubes traced out by the motion of the six squares
which bounded the cube. Of the squares we had six in the
initial and six in the final position, while each of the twelve
lines of the cube traced a square, making twenty-four in all.
So too with the lines : twelve in the initial and twelve in the
final position, with eight traced by the eight points, bring up
the total to thirty-two. We may tabulate these results as
follows : —

Dimen-
sions.

Points.

Lines.

Squares

Cubes.

Line...

1

2

Square
Cube

2
3

4

8

4

12

6

...

Tessaract

4

16

32

24

8

We might, of course, carry on the enumeration for figures
in five, six, or " n " dimensions.

Mr. Hinton remarks that, if we take two equal cubes and
place them with their sides parallel and connect the corre-
sponding corners by lines, we shall form the figure of a tessar-
act. But it seems to the present writer that this suggestion
ignores the limitation of our three-dimensional space. It is
just these limitations which prevent our placing the cubes in
a satisfactory position. The suggestion contains the assump-
tion that, as we may project a cube on to a plane, so we may
project a tessaract on to a three-dimensional system. In
point of fact, such a projection might be made by a being in
four dimensions, but we three-dimensional beings must be
content with projecting our tessaract upon a plane.

Williams — On the. Fourth Dimension.

509

E,

B

\.

K

//

H

•^

D

Use has accustomed us to the fact that we may represent

by projection the figure traced by the square ABCD when

moved in a direction (parallel

to AE) perpendicular to all

the lines contained in itself.

And in a projection there is

nothing to hinder us from

moving the cube AG, thus

obtained, in a direction re-
presented by AK, which shall

be at right angles to AE, AB,

and AD. In fact, we might,

had we been so disposed,

have moved our square AC

in that direction, and traced,

instead of AG, the cube AM, without doing any violence

to our notions of the propriety
of our dealings with the projec-
tion. By moving, then, either
the cube AG in a direction AK
perpendicular to each of its
sides, or the cube AM in a
direction AE perpendicular to
each of its sides, we shall ob-
tain a projection of the tessaract
AQ which will be found to have
all the defining elements which
are contained in the table above.
There are the eight cubes, AM,
EQ, AR, BQ, KF, NG, AG, KQ :
the twenty -four squares, AC,

EG, KM, OQ; AL, EP, DM, HQ ; AN, ER, BM, EQ ; AH,

KR, BG, LQ; AO, BP,

DR, CQ; AF, KP, DG, f

NQ: the thirty-two lines,

AE, KO, DH, NR, BF,

LP, CG, MQ, AB, KL,

EF, OP, HG, RQ, DC,

NM, AK, EO, DN, HR,

BL, FP, CM, GQ, AD,

KN, EH, OR, BO, LM,

FG, PQ : and the sixteen

points, A, B, C, D, E, F,

G, H, K, L, M, N, 0, P,

Q, R-

As has been indicated
above, any one of the
eight cubes here enume-

D

\

K

\

C

\

N

M

510

Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

rated might have been considered the generating-cube, which
in turn gives us the option of starting from any one of the
twenty-four squares or the thirty-two lines.

In two dimensions revolution takes place about a point,
while figures are bounded by lines. In three-dimensional
space revolution takes place about a line, and figures are
bounded by surfaces. In four dimensions revolution takes
place about a plane, and figures are bounded by solids.

To a two-dimensional being the figures ABC, DEF are
essentially different, no amount of revolution about a point
effecting coincidence. To us, however, it is obvious that
one can be made to coincide with the other by per-
forming half a revolution about a line. Similarly, to us the
cubes figured below are essentially different, and no revolution

8

I

about a line can make them coincide. To effect this one must
be taken into four-dimensional space and revolved about a
plane. Another aspect of the same fact is that, as we appre-
ciate the identity of the twTo triangles by concentrating our
attention upon one face or the other of either triangle, so a
four-dimensional being appreciates the identity of the two
cubes by virtue of the fact that either side is equally acces-
sible to him. As the faces of
8 the cube are no greater hind-
rance to him than are the edges
of a triangle or square to us,
he can apprehend the cube with
the angle (6) forward or with
£, the angle (3) forward at will ;
the latter being the cube B,
the former being the cube A,

[6

!_ :7

1

above.

Williams. — On the Fourth Dimension. 511

The realisation of the possibility of the existence of fourth-
dimensional space leads naturally to two questions, which, of
course, may suggest others : (1.) Seeing that we may con-
ceive of our space system as being made up of innumerable
two-dimensional systems, each possibly inhabited by beings
quite without cognisance of the companion systems, may not
four-dimensional space be compounded of innumerable three-
dimensional systems, similar to our own, but lying completely
outside our cognisance ? (2.) Seeing that figures in a two-
dimensional system might be regarded as sections of solids,
might not our so-called solids be in reality sections in three
dimensions of four-dimensional figures ?

With regard to the first question, it does not appear that
any reason can be adduced why it should not be answered in
the affirmative. This leads to the curious consideration that,
in spite of preconceived notions, two bodies may, apparently,
occupy the same space. If one plane be superimposed upon
another, a figure moved out of the latter an infinitely small
distance passes into the other. Two beings might in this way
be separated by the smallest possible distance, and yet for
till practical purposes be at an infinite distance from one
another. In the same way, if we conceive of a cube, say of
1 ft. side, moved one millionth part of an inch in the direction
of the fourth axis, it will pass immediately out of our system,
and presumably its place may be occupied by another cube
similar to itself. The centres of gravity of the two would be
separated by an infinitesimal distance, and yet each in its own
space system might be a solid, the two cubes to all intents and
purposes occupying the same space. In this connection it
may be mentioned that it has been suggested that, as we may
imagine a plane to be bent over so as to re-enter itself, with
or without a twist in the process, so we may suppose it
possible for our space system to have been similarly treated.
This would make it possible to arrive at one's starting-point
by travelling along an apparently straight line for a consider-
able distance. But though the notion of limited space thus
introduced had attractions for so great a thinker as W. K.
Clifford, it seems that such a process would involve an exten-
sion of our present three-dimensional limitations.

With regard to the second question, while solids may
mathematically be such sections, the answer must, when we
come to the case of animate beings, assuredly be a negative
one, for it is scarcely conceivable that a section could con-
tain the consciousness of the whole. If what we imagine to
be independent figures proper to our own space system are
but sections of four-dimensional figures, it would seem to be
necessary that the innumerable sections of these solids are
also playing their parts in an infinite number of two-dimen-

512 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

sional space systems. The author of " Flatland " makes a
sphere pass in and out of two-dimensional space, and thereby
conveys the suggestion that higher space beings might simi-
larly visit our space and similarly disappear. In fact, the
idea has been seized upon as explaining many of the so-
called phenomena of Spiritism. But writers on this point
have not reckoned with the difficulty of insuring that the
higher space being should always offer the same three-dimen-
sional section on entering our space system. Even so simple
a figure as a cube might appear in a two-dimensional universe
as a point, a line, a triangle, quadrilateral, or five-, or six-
sided figures. In fact, under each of the four last headings
an infinite variety of forms might be offered. And the pos-
sible sections of a four-dimensional figure in space of three
axes offers, of course, a far greater variety of forms. It is not
conceivable that a being moving freely in space of four di-
mensions could present itself repeatedly to us in sections even
suggesting identity of form.

There is one further objection which must be dealt with
in reference to both the above questions. The assumption is
usually made by writers on this subject, and has been tacitly
accepted in this paper, that a figure might be removed from a
plane and afterwards replaced in that plane ; and, by analogy,
that one of our solids might conceivably be lifted into four-
dimensional space and afterwards replaced in our system.
Now, either of these processes endues the body dealt with for
the time being with an existence in a system higher by one
dimension than that in which it was assumed to exist. Two-
dimensional beings, if such there be, are by the nature of
their limitations placed absolutely without the scope of our
cognisance, and we, of course, without the scope of theirs.
So too we, as long as we continue to be three-dimen-
sional beings, are absolutely cut off from such four-di-
mensional beings as there may be. The method of treatment
adopted by writers in endeavouring to place the conception of
the fourth dimension within reach of their readers consists in
developing figures from one space system to another. But
it is a fallacy to suppose that the matter occupying a figure
can be similarly dealt with. In fact, we have no knowledge
or conception of fourth-dimensional matter, any more than
of two-dimensional matter. It is this fallacy which vitiates
the application of the fourth dimension to reported spiritist
wonders, and the recognition of it restores confidence in
the old theory that two bodies cannot occupy the same
space. J. B. Stallo remarks* that " the analytical argument
in favour of the existence or possibility of transcendental

* " The Concepts and Theories of Modern Physics," p. 269

D. Hector. — The Earth's Motion. 513

space is another flagrant instance of the reification of con-
cepts." It would appear, however, that his strictures apply
not to the arguments for the possibility of transcendental
space, but to the arguments that we can have, under our
present limitations, any practical acquaintance with such
space.

Art. LI. — The Equatorial Component of the Earth's Motion

in Space.

By Douglas Hector.

[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th February, 1902.]

Attempts have been made from time to time to find the
velocity of the earth — or, rather, the solar system — in space
by observing the proper motions of stars. Methods have also
been suggested that depend on the relative motions of the
earth ana ether. The following method, however, I have not
seen described anywhere, although it seems extremely simple.
If a rotating body moves along a path in the plane of its
equator, it is evident that a point on its surface moves faster
relatively to space on one side of its path than on the other ;
but an acceleration is proportional to the rate of change of
velocity, so that the point should undergo an alternating
acceleration.

u =

Let V = tangential velocity of the point P in space,
velocity of earth's centre in space, and v = rotational velocity
of P. Then, resolving along the tangent, we get V = v — u
sin. 6. If /is the acceleration of P along the tangent,
, dV d0

7 — ~dt = ~ udi cos- & = —uw cos. 0.
33

514 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

The motion of the sun, as deduced from the proper motion of
the stars, is, according to Proctor (" The Sun "), 150,000,000
miles per year— that is, 25,154-38 ft. per second, the line of
motion being inclined to the earth's orbit at about 53° in
longitude 285°. This is about 60° to the earth's axis. Resolv-
ing along the equatorial plane, this gives —
u = 21.784ft. per second;
and, as<D = 0000073 rad. per second,

we get / = —1-584 = — ^ (about) when 0=0.

Similarly, this would be the acceleration along the radius at

0 = 90° ; so that the weight of a body at the equator should

vary by 10 per cent, every twelve hours. The motion of the

earth in space, therefore, cannot be as great as deduced from

the proper motions of stars.

If A be the angle through which a plumb-bob is deflected

by this spacial acceleration, we have —

— uu cos. 6
tan. A = Uu sin e cos> x + g

Perhaps this in some part reconciles the seismological tides
found by Milne with Lord Kelvin's value of the rigidity of the
earth.

From an experimental point of view the method is very
accommodating. Being a harmonic quantity, it does not
matter when we set our instruments, which may, for the same
reason, measure variations in pressures. Being an accelera-
tion, it may be magnified to any extent by using large masses.
With sufficiently delicate apparatus, and observations extend-
ing over a long period, it might be possible to deduce the rela-
tive motion and distance of a star for which the earth's orbit
failed to show any parallax.

Abt. LII. — Mathematical Treatment of the Problem of Pro-
duction, Bent, Interest, and Wages.

By Douglas Hector.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th February,

1902.]

The following attempt at a mathematical treatment of some
of the problems of political economy was not origiually in-
tended for publication, but I have been persuaded to submit
it as a paper to the Wellington Philosophical Society. I have
not solved all the interesting points in the subject, but merely

D. Hector. — Political Economy. 515

a few of the more simple ones. Several attempts have been
made to treat political economy mathematically, but they
have chiefly resulted in failure, for the reason that the mathe-
matics has taken quite a subordinate part, being used to
express the result of elaborate reasoning by words. It is
like the man who keeps a watchdog and does the barking
himself.

The most successful attempt so far seems to have been
made by Professor Jevons,* but he states in his preface that,
although many of the problems might have been solved more
directly, he preferred to limit himself to the simplest possible
mathematics, thus the book hides rather than shows the
value of applying mathematics to the subject. Another
writer on the subject is Professor J. D. Everett. \ A long
list of other writers is given at the end of Professor Jevons's
book, but the two mentioned are the only mathematical ones
to which I have been able to refer ; and, from a remark on
the customary method of treatment in Professor Everett's
paper, I believe that the proofs in the following paper are
new, though the results have in many cases been previously
obtained by a patient application of logic.

The fundamental principle which is assumed in the follow-
ing is that in the serious affairs of life a person always
endeavours to obtain the maximum return on an investment.
This one might almost call an axiom, and as such it is used.
With regard to the definitions, I have defined the quantities
as I intend to use them, and as long as a definition and its use
are consistent no more is required of it.

Many people think that the application of mathematics to
political economy is an almost impossible proceeding. The
science, they say, is too vague and conditional for it to be
possible. The same might have been said of other sciences in
their beginnings, but which have since had mathematics suc-
cessfully applied to them. For instance, what is more capri-
cious than evolution ? yet Professor Pearson is successfully
applying mathematics to this subject. The problems of poli-
tical economy in many cases resemble problems in dynamics,
and it is quite a possibility that its elements might be ex-
pressed in terms of energy which would thus bring it more
into line with other branches of applied mathematics. In
fact, so apparent are the advantages of the mathematical
treatment of the subject to many that a well-known professor
jokingly said, in a lecture on the representation of facts by
curves, that before long we should probably see our legislators,

* " Theory of Political Economy."

t " On Geometrical Illustrations of the Theory of Rent " (Jour. R.S S.,
Ixii , 703).

516 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

instead of preparing lengthy speeches, framing the laws of the
country by means of squared paper and curves.

Some may demur to the latter part of the definition of
interest as requiring proof, but it is rather a historical point
than otherwise, and, in any case, does not affect results ob-
tained.

Definitions.

1. " Production " is the changing of form, constitution,
place, or time of a natural product of nature in order to render
it efficient for human needs.

2. " Land" is the whole of the material universe that has
not undergone production.

3. " Labour" is human force applied to production.

4. "Production" (P), when used in a quantitative sense,
refers to the value (referred to some convenient standard) of
the products after they have undergone the process of produc-
tion.

5. " Pent " (R) is that portion of production which is
given up to landowners in return for benefits derived from
land in their possession.

6. " Marginal production " (p) is the production which
would be obtained if all the land were equal in productivity to
the most productive land available without the payment of
rent.

7. " "Wages " (W) is that portion of production returned to
labour in return for ito co-operation in production.

8. " Capital " (C) is the surplus of production which is
used to assist labour in further production, by means of costly
appliances, &c.

9. "Interest" (I) is that portion of production which is
delivered to capital as equal in value to the mean increase of
raw products due to the vitality of nature.

10. " Rate of interest " is the fraction obtained by divid-
ing interest by capital.

11. "Proportional profit" is the profit derived from a
certain investment divided by the amount invested.

I.

If u be the proportional profit at one point and u' that at
another where u is less than it' , then motion will take place
from u to u' , because every one tries to make the greatest
profit he can. Further, the greater the difference between u
and u' the greater the velocity of adjustment. Therefore, if
there be n proportional profits at n different points, there will
be a tendency to motion which will cease when all the profits
are equal. Therefore, if V, V, V", V", V"", &c, be the
amounts invested at different points, the condition that there
should be equilibrium is that — .

1

dG

r = o-

dt

1 dV 1

dG

ut V * d* — 0 '

"dt

V = V0ert,

and C = C„ert.

D. Hectob. — Political Economy. 517

1 dV J_ dT _ J_ dV^' _

From this we may deduce a relation between property-values
and rate of interest (r).

Let V = property-value.

Integrating, we get —

This assumes that r is constant, and that all the rent is
devoted to buying more land and the interest to increasing
capital. Neither of these assumptions is true, for evidently
a man who is both a landowner and a capitalist may be most
erratic in his investments; but it seems evident that, since the
area of land in use is limited, more rent will find its way to
capital than interest to land, so that capital will increase more
quickly than given above and lanl-values more slowly. We
may, however, deduce a formula free from both these objec-
tions by replacing dY/dt by R ; then V, R, and r are simul-
taneous values at any time, and therefore true for all time.

R

y = r.

Since R is always greater than 0, we see that when r = 0
V = oo, and vice versa. There is one case in which R = 0 :
that is at and below the margin of cultivation ; the formula
then gives V = 0. True, but of no importance.

II.

Rent is equal to production minus the marginal production.

Let productiveness mean the production from unit-area of
ground, and let it be represented by y, and the marginal pro-
ductiveness by g. Further, let dR/dx = z. Then we may
write y = g + z -f- f(x), so that the profit after the rent has
been paid is gr -f- f(x) ; but at the margin no rent has to be
paid, so that the profit there is g. Now, if equal areas of land
be taken at the margin and at any other point, we have —

1 dG 1 dG'

~G ' ~di " G7 ' ~at

— here I use C and C to include not only capital, but also
labour —

g + fix) _g •
G " C '

or (C-G')g=f{x)C.

518 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

If the distribution of C be uniform, f{x) = 0, so that —

y = g + z-

Integrating between suitable limits, —

P=jo + R,
or E = P - p.

This is the ordinary theory of rent, which seems always to be
deduced by placing the distribution of capital under a restric-
tion ; but this is more apparent than real, for C and C con-
tain both capital and labour, and to put them equal only
means that their joint effects are the same at all points,
though the distribution of capital may be extremely variable.
This agrees with observation. The less capital a man has to
work his land the harder he has to work to keep afloat.

III. — Wages.

P=R+I+ W,
= R+P,
.-. "W=p-I=p-Gr.

This shows that if the capital increases whilst p remains
constant the wages will fall, and that in new countries, where
p is large and C small, the wages should be large.

"We have seen in I. that when r is constant C = C0ert.
Now, suppose I to have reached a constant value, then
C = C0 + It. The corresponding land-value will be —

it

V = V0ec '
The Malthusian theory states that population is kept down
by its pressure against production — that is, if n is the popula-
tion and w the demand of each.

P = nw,
:. I = p - P = - R,
since nw = W.

Similarly, if the law were p = nd we should get 1=0, which
is equally untrue and absurd.

Let the coefficient of labour-saving devices (s) be mea-
sured by the production which can be done by unit labour
when using a labour-saving device. Then P = sN, where
N is the number of men required to do this production
with this coefficient. If we put R -f I = toP, where m is
some proper fraction, we have —

P = viF + W = mP + nw ;

or P = ,

l-m

where n is the number of men available ; so that —

N P

w = ~(l — m)s = - (1 — m)

Brown. — Phenomena of Variation. 519

Since E = P — p, the effect of increasing P is to increase E
without increasing the wages, as the latter are included in^-
Therefore to increase to we must increase (1 — m) — that is,
decrease m. Or we may put it that since P is directly pro-
portional to s we must increase the ratio of N/n, which may
be done by either increasing N or decreasing n. Let us
examine these ways more in detail.

The diminishing of n has in the past been the most com-
mon way of increasing wages, but it has been far from suc-
cessful, having been brought about by wars, pestilences, &c,
which tend to diminish P at the same time ; also, the destruc-
tion of property and ruin of the country generally is so great
that the increase of wages is negligible.

The increasing of N has been tried — relief-works, for
example — but is expensive, wasteful, and not lasting, for as
soon as the artificial stimulant is removed the wages must
revert to their former state.

The decreasing of m is what the single-taxers aim at doing,
and what the rating on unimproved values aims at effecting.
We have seen in II. that rent is the natural outcome of
variable productivity and cannot be done away with, but it
might be collected by the Government and distributed in the
form of efficacious and lasting public works.

Art. LIII. — On the Phenomena of Variation and their
Symbolic Expression.

By E. G. Brown.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th March, 1902.]

Plates XXXVI., XXXVII.

" A person who uses an imperfect theory with the confidence due
only to a pet feet one will naturally fall into abundance of mistakes ; his
predictions will be crossed by disturbing circunn-tanneH of which his
theory is not able to take account, and his credit will be lowered by the
failure. And inwsmuch as more theories are imperfect than are perfect,
and of those who attend to anything the number who acquire very sound
habits of judging is small compared with that of those who do not get so
far, it must have happet e i, as it has happened, that a great quantity of
mistake has been made by those who do not understand the true use of
an imperfect theory. Hence much discredit has been brought upon
theory iu g< neral, and the schism of theoretical and practical men has
arisen." — (De Morgan, "Penny Cyclopaedia," Art. "Tneory.")

Introduction.
The present writer proceeds upon the assumption that the
means of comparing those theories which are used to predict

520 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

the quantities of physical phenomena with experiment upon
those phenomena are in some cases not quite so effective as
the theory of probability enables them to be made, and that
the latter theory has even had a detrimental effect upon the
comparison by reason of it having been frequently assumed
to have provided a universally satisfactory method — that of
least squares — by which we can determine those constants
which arise from the unestablished properties of matter, and
at the same time more or less tacitly institute a comparison
between the theory and the results of experiment in the case
of a phenomenon of variation where quantity is both measur-
able and supposed determinable by theory, given the proper-
ties of matter. The results of the theory of probability will
be accepted with regard to the probable value of a single
quantity directly measured and its probable error.

In the present paper the writer proposes to examine the
representation of physical phenomena of variation by means
of formulae, whether empirical or founded more or less com-
pletely upon reason.

1. The phenomena which will be examined are those
where a quantity (Y) varies with a variable (X)— that is to
say, takes up magnitudes which, ceteris paribus, depend in
some fixed way upon the magnitude of X. If we observe, by
experiment, how the variation occurs we obtain knowledge
which can be expressed by a graph. We may make the axis
of Y the ordinate, that of X the abscissa. We shall consider
only such cases where Y has, m fact, although it may not
have been observed, one value, and only one, for each value
of X, which in general extends from pins to minus infinity.*

2. The first fact we notice is that in such case we observe
values within a limited range. This we may call the " experi-
mental range of X." Beyond that range we know nothing,
whereas most mathematical expressions will yield values
from minus to j^us infinity. The definite integral is in form
a striking exception to this, and from one's experience of text-
book formulae it is to be wished that some simple means of
indicating experimental range could be brought into general
use. This idea of dealing with the experimental range only
will be found of fundamental importance in later parts of this
paper.

3. Now, the graph may be of two distinct kinds — (A) that
of a curve or curves, or (B) that of a series of datum points.
The first kind, that of a curve, contains the same complete
statement of values of Y as does the analogous kind of mathe-
matical formula, which is defined as holding between limits of
range of X. The second kind, that of datum points, contains

* But see Appendix, III.

Brown. — Phenomena of Variation. 521

information which may be given also by a table. * This refers
to the information which is directly derived from experiment ;
but, this usually being insufficient for the practical applica-
tions, we have to perform interpolation in order to get what
we want. This may be done graphically or by application of
the calculus, but in either case the result is a guess. It will
be here asserted that, a priori, we have nothing to show that
the judgment of an engineer or physicist will lead to error
more readily than will the corresponding assumptions of a
computer. We shall refer to the judgment as the arbiter in
this indeterminate question of interpolation.

■i. So far we have accepted the results of experiment, but
it is evident that such knowledge must (in continuous varia-
tion) be inaccurate to some extent ; data we get by measuring-
must be subject to fortuitous error, and may be subject to
svstematic error due to the system of measurement — instru-
ments may be wrongly calibrated, and so on. Fortuitous
error may be made definite by the application of the theory
of probability, provided, of course, that the necessary work
is done in the experiments ; and we may take from this
application the information that the true values (but still
affected by systematic causes) of the quantities lie within
limits of probable error— more probably so than not — the
probability of a value being the true one decreasing
very rapidly outside these limits, as indicated by the well-
known frequency curve. It is much to be regretted that in
many researches, even of the classical kind, no attempt is
made to assign limits of probable error. In an example
which has come under the writer's notice this was not done,
although repeated measurements at each datum point were
made, with the result that a very laborious research is ren-
dered very much less valuable than it would have otherwise
been. The effects of this lack of system are usually not very
apparent at the time trie research is made ; it is only when
the matter comes to be looked at from a new standpoint,
or examined for residual phenomena, that the absurdity of
giving such figures as accurate without a statement of pro-
bable error becomes apparent. This, of course, applies to
those measurements which form the connecting-link between
theory and the things that happen ; many practical experi-
ments are made under a well-understood convention as to
negligible error.

5. In a graph such information as to probable error could
be conveyed by giving a band (twice the probable error in
vertical width) instead of a line for a curve, or a row of ver-
tical lines instead of a series of dots for datum values (that

* See sections 10 to 15.

522 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

is, supposing all the error attributable to the values of Y —
i.e., where values of X may be taken as accurate for the pur-
poses of reasoning, as we always suppose).

6. It is obvious, however, that systematic, or what we
may call instrumental, error must be eliminated or it will
infallibly render any reasoning wrong which is based on the
results, provided, of course, that the error be sensible in
amount.

7. While the graph forms a very complete representation
of the observed facts, and indicates interpolation in the case
of datum observations, and in the hands of a person of clear
insight may often be the means of reasoning which may not
be practicable or even possible by the more formal means of
algebraic symbols, yet it is clearly necessary to find, if pos-
sible, some formula or function of X which will stand for the
graph as well as may be. There are many reasons for this,
the chief theoretic one being the enormous developing-power
of the algebraic calculus.

8. In the preceding we have considered the graph as the
most natural mode of recording phenomena of variation, but
we may have occasionally inferential reasons for believing
that the phenomenon should follow some particular function
of X more or less completely, and it is necessary to examine
the rationale of the functions in various cases.

(a.) A function may be logically applicable to a pheno-
menon. For instance, formulae which state the results of
definition, or those which state such inferences as that the
angles in a plane triangle are 180°, may be regarded as truly
applicable. Even this class may be subject to systematic
instrumental error.

(b.) Functions in which there are strong inferential
grounds for the belief that they express the substantial truth.
For instance, formulae deduced from Newton's laws of mo-
tion may be expected to apply closely to the motion of the
major objects of the solar system ; but experiments of an
accuracy greater than those upon which such laws were
founded may always be apt to demonstrate that the functions
are not strictly applicable to any given phenomenon, and that
there are systematic residual causes which should be taken
into account.

(c.) Functions which have some inferential foundation,
but the substantial applicability of which it is worth while to
question and examine.

(cZ.) Functions whose foundation is largely hypothetical.
This class we may term " empirical."

(c.) Functions which have no foundation except, perhaps,
certain notions of continuity in rates of change, and so on.
This class we may term " arbitrary."

Brown. — Phenomena of Variation. 523

9. It is intended to confine our attention chiefly to the
example, of the last or last but one class, which is called
the " power-expansion " or " Taylor's series formula."* It is,
however, intended that the objections to the use of an arbi-
trarily systematic mode of computation should apply to all
classes with respect to systematic instrumental error, and to
all but the first with respect to the effect of systematic re-
sidual causes which are not allowed for in the function, or
of any mistake or incompleteness in the inferring of the
function.

10. Besides the curve and the datum -point graphs, we
need to mention an intermediate class— namely, that of
experiments which are arranged to give data for many points
of X without any attempt to obtain repeated measures at any
one point.

11. We might venture to define the characteristic virtues
of the two main types of graph by saying that the curve
yields a clear idea of the continuity of a phenomenon with-
out allowing any great accuracy to be obtained in the measures
of Y, while the datum point allows great accuracy to be
attained in the measures of Y, and also permits definiteness to
be attained in probable error, but leaves the interpolation to
be judged. It maybe put also thus : the curve gives a notion
of dY/dX, the datum of Y. It is sometimes possible to form
a graph of both kinds of measures— to measure accurately
datum points and also to get the slope of the curve near
these points. This procedure is analogous to that of con-
structing mathematical tables where datum points are often
computed exactly and intermediate points found by Taylor's
theorem. By such means very full information would be
given of the actual phenomena.

12. A graph of the above-mentioned intermediate class,
while it combines the virtues of both main forms, combines
also their defects. In contemplating such a graph one
would feel more content if a likely value for probable
error at a few points of X were provided by the experi-
menter. The difficulty with this form of measurement is
the very large number of ineasures necessary — theoretically
a double infinity.

13. It is perhaps desirable to point out that in datum
measurements we usually cannot get either X or Y exactly
the same for each measure, accordingly we have to inter-
polate the values of Y to one common or mean value of

* It is to be observed that, in the case of functions the Taylor's series
expansion of which are suffi< iently convergent when applied to the
exp* rimpntai range, the result of the application of such a formula is
practically identical with the result of the application of an unexpanded
function of any class.

524 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

X (which we are going to take as absolutely accurate,
theoretically). It is common to take the mean of both quan-
tities, a process that often leads to the use of a few more
decimal places. A more satisfactory process is to either mea-
sure dY/dX or else estimate it from antecedent knowledge of
the likely curve, and then make a graph of the measures of
each datum point and analyse it by means of the curve of
dY/dX, which will be usually a straight line. From this we
can get the probable (fortuitous) error, and also make a note
of discordances, which is not always possible when the mean
merely is taken.

li. A further advantage lies in the fact that we can avoid
taking the mean value for X, and take instead a convenient
adjacent value which has few integers, the last few significant
figures being made noughts. This affords a vast saving in
tabulation and in computation.

15. It may be thought by some that such matters as are
being advanced are refinements for which time is too short ;
but the writer would appeal to those who may have honestly
tried to get a reliable value for any physical constant which is
not absolutely simple or else fundamental — even a there or
thereabouts value — whether an enormous amount of labour
has not been absolutely wasted by the neglect of such prin-
ciples.

Least Squares.

16. An assertion will now be given which it is believed
can be substantiated by reference to some recent text-books —
that if a formula be applied to the results of observation so
that the sum of the squares of the residual quantities or
deviations of observed quantities from those calculated is a
minimum with regard to the constants of the formula, then
this formula may be referred to as the best, or even the most
probable, and, in fine, that such application is a strictly
scientific process. It must not be supposed for a moment
that it is intended to convey that this view is held by accurate
thinkers, but simply that it is observable that others have
been led by the beauty of the method, and the very evident
desirability of possessing a method of computation which
should be free from personal bias, into an unwarrantable and
indiscriminate promulgation of the formal procedure of the
method.

17. There are two distinct objections to the mode of com-
putation which has been described, and which it is hoped may
be described as " least squares" without misunderstanding —
namely : (1) That least squares observably tends to eliminate
the application of the judgment to the indications of a graph,
and, further, that it tends to make systematic deviations

Brown. — Phenomena of Variation. 525

look as much like true errors as possible ; and (2) that the
computations of least squares are often prohibitively laborious,
thus practically preventing the analytical application of all
sorts of formulae which it may be easily possible to apply by
other means.

18. The first objection will be illustrated by a coupie of
examples. Suppose we had a graph which consisted of the
curve of a phenomenon following exactly (although the com-
puter is not aware of this) a power-expansion formula of four
terms, or cubic ; and for certain reasons — say, the labour of
least squares — are unable to use a formula of more than three
terms, or parabolic. Then it can easily be seen, or proved,
that least squares (which becomes a problem in integration
in the case of a continuous curve) leads to a symmetrical
arrangement of the deviations the proportions of which are
shown in Graph A. It is pretty clear that for the observed
range this arrangement of deviations strikes a good average ;
but conceive extrapolation to be necessary, or even a terminal
value to be an important physical constant, would it not be
preferable to accept the notions which one gathers from the
shape of tbe curve and to extrapolate by means of some
such freehand curve as is drawn dotted ? The answer
seems obvious enough when put in this way, and yet an
almost precisely analogous condition of things has been the
cause of considerable error in a certain oft-quoted classical
research which the writer is recomputing by the graphic
process.

19. A still more conclusive example is contained in the
very common case of a few datum points representing the only
observed facts. Here a physicist will often feel justified in
drawing a curve for interpolation, and will have a very strong
conviction of the unlikelihood of certain other curves which
are much different from one he might draw. If least squares
is followed up it is obvious that it leads to an exact represen-
tation of n datum points in a formula of n constants. In the
case of the power-expansion formula the solution is identical
with that of simultaneous equations. Graph B shows the
least-square curve passing through six points — at X = 0, 0-2,
04, 0-6, 0'8, and 1, Y being zero at all points except 06.
The indeterminate question to be here answered is whether
there are any particular virtues about the least-square curve
as compared, for instance, with the clotted curve (which was
made by a flexible spring passing over rollers at the points).
Is not the interpolation here very questionable, and the ex-
trapolation doubtful in the utmost? It maybe here remarked
that the extrapolation of such formula? of high degree is al-
ways very doubtful, except when there is a strong conver-
gency.

526 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

20. We have here got two clear examples of what least
squares leads to. In the first case, that of the curve, as we
shall afterwards see, the shape of the curve of deviations is
most strongly indicative of the need for the application of a
formula of four terms, if not more. We have drawn the
deviations according to least squares, which may be proved
to arrange the deviations (given simply the direction of the
axis of X) from a cubic phenomenon to which a parabola is
applied, and where the observations are at nearly equal in-
tervals of X, with a symmetry similar to that of the graph.
The deviations, it will be observed, run + ( — , 0, + , 0, — , 0, + ) •
By the graphic process we should arrange the parabola so
that they run +(0, +,0, — , 0) — so that, in fact, they bear a
close resemblance to the standard cubic of Graph II. It is
asserted that there is less likelihood of systematic deviations
so arranged being mistaken for fortuitous errors than is the
case with the least-squares arrangement. It may be again
mentioned that this example is not, in its general features, a
mere hypothetical case.

21. In the second case, that of six data, we have got a
curve from our least squares which we have asserted to be
quite unjustifiable, and not to be compared with the result?
that one would get from a common-sense judgment of the
graph — not to be compared, that is, in avoiding rash assump-
tions as to the truth of the matter.

22. Following our definition of least squares, we have
neglected to take any account of fortuitous probable error in
these examples, but its vital necessity in such cases will be
sufficiently obvious from what has been said in previous sec-
tions. The effect of probable error in the graph is to obscure
the true points or line of the true curve of the phenomenon.
When this occurs to such an extent as to hide any system
there may be in the deviations, then, provided we are quite
sure that our formula is substantially accurate compared with
the scale of the probable errors, we might reasonably employ
least squares to systematize our computations. This is a
matter which is dependent upon circumstances, and more on
judgment, and we believe that the employment of the latter
will be found to be very largely dependent upon whether the
treatment of empirical formulae is taken as a mere extension
of the beautiful applications of the theory of probability to
astronomy and surveying or as a most important branch of
the graphical calculus. This part of the subject is too com-
plicated to treat of here except by suggestion, but we may
refer to the example in Dr. F. Kohlrausch's work (see sec-
tion 38), where a case of this complicated kind is given as if
it were a simple and logical application of least squares ; and
where, moreover, the data are deliberately subjected to extra-

Brown. — Phenomena of Variation. 527

polation to the extent of half the observed range. It will
be observed that we do not say that in this example anything
better than is done by least squares could be done with such
data, but we do say that it is absolutely misleading as an
example of experimentation and of computation.

23. It is now necessary to draw attention to some
theorems in the graphical calculus in which the combination
of such curves as correspond to functions of the algebraic
calculus is treated. X is the variable, A, B, &c, the (variable)
constants. Suppose we have a curve whose function is —

F(X) =/x(X) +/a(X) + (other similar terms),

then we may build up the curve of F(X) by drawing the
curves /(X) all to the same scale, and then adding their
ordinates at corresponding points of X. This is the theorem
of sliding, for we conceive the ordinates of each of the com-
ponent curves (of /(X)) to be capable of being slid over one
another parallel to themselves, or to the axis of Y, and we
so slide them that they are placed end to end, when we have
the ordinates of the curve of the additive function F(X) ;
then always, if we have found enough ordinates, we can com-
plete the curve by freehand drawing, or even by eye with-
out drawing.

24. Next we have the theorem of one-way stretch of
ordinates, by which we can introduce variation in the con-
stants of additive functions which are linear in the said
constants. Thus, considering one term of the additive func-
tion F(X), and writing it with its constants displayed, its
expression is A./(X). The theorem is that if we draw the
curve of this function, making A take a convenient standard
value — say, unity — we can find the ordinates corresponding
to any given value of A by the use of some such device as
proportional compasses applied to the curve we have drawn.
So also with other similar terms. There is a curious point
with these constants which had better be pointed out to pre-
vent confusion — namely, that it is immaterial whether any
algebraic relationships (independent of X variation) exist
between them or not, provided that each is not fixed by
any combination of the others, but is capable of taking up
independent values. Such relationships should be studied,
however, with a view to facilitating the graphical work.
Thus, if two terms are/i(X,A) and/2(X,A,B),then we may have
reason to prefer to take them as /^X.A) and /2(X,C), or as
/a(X,A) and/4(X,B), in the latter case breaking up the second
function. Considerations such as these may be traced in the
process for Taylor's series formulae.

25. This is all we shall need for the Taylor's series
analysis, but we may refer to text-books on least squares

528 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

for the application of Taylor's theorem to the approximative
treatment of non-linear functions, and mention two other
theorems of the graphical calculus which are of occasional
use. In cases where X (or Y) is invariably associated with
a constant by addition or by multiplication we get possible
graphical operations, for, if the expression is /(X + A)r
we may draw a curve to /(X) and then introduce the effect
of any value of A by shifting the curve bodily along its X axis;
and so also with regard to Y. In the case of multiplication
we get a stretch of a drawn standard curve in either one way
or in two ways. For, to take the latter case, when /X(A x Y)
= /2(B x X), having drawn a standard curve to convenient
values of A and B, we get the effect of any values of either
constant by uniformly stretching the curve in directions
parallel to both axes. This can be effected by means of
throwing shadows, and appears of value in our subject, since
the frequency curve is of this form (with an immaterial rela-
tionship between the constants).

26. Reverting to the question of appealing to the judgment
to detect systematic deviation from a formula, we see that we
expect the deviation to become evident as a recognisable
additive curve — i.e., as if it were representable by a term/(X).
Clearly, this is frequently the case even where the deviations
may be logically functions of Y, as, indeed, we supposed all
errors to be in section 5 ; for, in a graph, if a function of X be
represented, the corresponding function of Y is also auto-
matically represented by the curve. By such means we can
sometimes form an estimate of causes of error or deviation,
and sometimes also — as we shall see in the case of the Missis-
sippi Problem — be able to form an idea whether it is any use
or not to go on complicating the particular formula which we
are employing. When our resources are practically exhausted
we shall give our formula, together with a statement of its
range and the relation between probable (fortuitous) error and
observed deviation, exhibiting the latter quantities in a graph
of deviations, and leave it for others to judge what degree of
likelihood attaches to our formula. Circumstances may lead
us to employ least squares, but the value of our experiments
cannot be adequately indicated unless we provide at least the
equivalent of the details mentioned.

A Graphic Process for applying Power-expansion or
Taylor's Series Formula.

27. A process will now be described by which it is very
easy to graphically apply to date formulae of four or even five
terms in ascending powers of the variable.

28. It follows from Taylor's theorem that, if we use a

Brown. — Phenomena of Variation. 529

formula of n terms to approximate to a given curve, we obtain
exactly the same choice of approximations whatever the scale
of the variable may be or wherever its origin may be. We
may therefore elect to make the experimental range unity in
a new variable, and make the beginning of the range the
origin. Thus, if the experimental variable X ranges from p to

p + q, we take as a temporary variable x = : — — . It may

be noted that in the case of a continuous function the corre-
sponding Taylor's series becomes —

* = * + [*(£),]••+[£(£■),]■*+*

29. If this expression were very convergent our analysis
would lead us to the values of the bracketed quantities.
Since, however, curves in general cannot be said to be repre-
sentable by continuous functions, and particularly convergent
ones, we cannot expect to make this conception of curves
being built up of the effects of initial rates of change our
basis of operations. We may with great convenience utilise
the average rates of change for the whole range. Something
of the sort is done in using an interpolation-table method,
such as that given in " Thomson and Tait " (1890, i.,
p. 454).

30. The graphic process consists in taking for the first
term the initial value of Y as given by the graph ; for the
second the average rate of change for the whole experi-
mental range ; for the third the average curvature for the
whole scale expressed in terms of a parabola ; for the fourth
the difference in curvature of the first and second halves of
the range expressed as a cubic standard formula ; and so
on. Up to the fourth term at least there is no difficulty
whatever in keeping the effect of each of these three opera-
tions in the mind, and in forming one's conclusions whether
a certain formula is as good as can be possibly got. The
standard formulae which the writer has used for this pur-
pose are for the parabola (x — x*), and for the cubic
(x — Sx2 + 2x3). This is as far as we shall go for the pre-
sent, but a table is given of some standard functions which
might be used up to x8 (or formulae of nine terms) if one were
clever enough to perform the work with all of them at
once, or under special circumstances. These formulae will
be reverted to again.

31. The practical work is now very simple. We draw the
graph of the experiments in terms of the temporary variable
(which we should have mentioned is better not arranged to
have its scale exactly equal to that of the experimental
variable, but as nearly as is practicable, keeping p and q

34

530 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

simple numbers for convenience in con version),* and then,
provided with a scale to measure the constant term, a
straight-edge to produce linear terms and drawn curves of the
standard parabolic and cubic, and with a protractor or pro-
portional compasses, we proceed to build up a curve the
ordinates of which are added proportions of each of these
four constituents, till we get a curve that is as nearly like
the given one as possible. It will be quite obvious when
this is done that we have a most clear idea of the prospective
advantages of any other cubic formula whatever, and that we
can arrange the deviations in any desired way — for instance,
to arrange them for the application of a quartic formula, if
it appears that such a course is advisable. We shall also
develope a decided opinion on the subject of the application of
common-sense to the resultant curve of deviations, both for
interpolation and for extrapolation, and for residual causes or
for error in the theory of the formula. In cases where the
accuracy of the figures is great it may be necessary, after
a rough analysis, to replot the deviations to a larger scale,
so as to get over the limited accuracy practicable in a
graph.

32. Many details will become obvious if a trial is made,
and we need not pause over them ; but it may be mentioned
that the process is obviously applicable to all such formulae
as are made up of sums of terms each of which is linear in
and contains only one constant. So the process might be
arranged for harmonic analysis, or for the solution of simul-
taneous equations, and so on. The process is approximative,
so that it is of indefinite accuracy, and is limited solely by
the power of the judgment to indicate what alterations are
desirable. The vast difference between this procedure and
that of least squares will be apparent from the fact that
we may be led to apply formulae which have more terms
or constants than there are datum points. This is due to
the part we are allowing the judgment to play in controlling
the interpolation.

33. The process is evidently susceptible of mechanical
treatment, and the writer hopes to be enabled to construct
a machine for this purpose.

34. With respect to the higher-power formula, there is a
point which seems of theoretic interest in simplifying mathe-
matical formulae which are to be applied for a definite range
(the converse of our experimental range), for, as is noted in

* It is to be noticed that in these formula the adjustment of the
scale by introducing q is a perfectly simple matter of arithmetic; but
to alter the zero poinc (p) is more troublesome, and should be avoided
when possible. Trie Z functions of the Appendix afford an alternative
range of - 1 to + 1, using the same curves.

Brown. — Phenomena of Variation. 531

the " Notes on the Graphs," the numerical values of these
functions (even better formulae may be obtained for this par-
ticular purpose) become very small, within the range, in com-
parison with the numerical value of the coefficient of xn (that
is, the highest power of x in the standard formula). This
means that in the expansion as given in section 32. and when
it is converging, we may for values of x from 0 to 1, by throw-
ing the series into standard form, eliminate one or more of the
higher-power terms, and so obtain an expression which is
practically as accurate as the simple Taylor series, and is less
in degree. The extent to which this may be expected to go is
to be seen in the decreasing numerical or percentage values
of the ordinates as the degree becomes large — with the octic
it is already 1*3 parts in 10,000. Of course, in doing this
we sacrifice all pretence to accuracy outside our defined
range.

35. To sum up, we may emphasize the importance of the
idea of the experimental range, as we have seen this leads to
a great accession of power in the case of what we have ven-
tured (not without precedent, of course, but, still, with some
misgiving) to call "Taylor's series formulae." An analogous
idea is familiar enough in the " period " of the " Fourier series
formulae." Secondly, we venture to think that too much
stress cannot be laid on the necessity for the statement of
probable error in the individual data. This matter is strongly
stated in the extract from Sir G. B. Airy's works given in
section 38. Even the warnings of so great an authority as
the late Astronomer Boyal seem to have been greatly disre-
garded.

36. Thirdly, however plausible or apparently authoritative
the theory of a physical phenomenon of variation may be,
the experimental data upon it should be so prepared that the
precise support given to the theory by the observations should
be made evident, as can often be done by a graph either of
the observations themselves or of the deviations from the
aforesaid plausible theory, the graph exhibiting probable error
in the way mentioned in section 5.

37. Finally, the writer wishes to disclaim any novelty in
the foregoing, with one exception, and to apologize for lack
of references, which are, indeed, very incomplete in Welling-
ton. His object has been to collect a number of what he
believes to be true although, no doubt, trite remarks, with
the object of collecting an argument which he has been un-
able to find in any of the works to which he has access, and
which is necessary for the development of another paper, to
which reference has been made. The portion for which it is
thought some novelty may be claimed is that of the treat-
ment of the Taylor's series formulae and similar linear

532 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

additive functions.* It is thought that the statement in
Thomson and Tait's " Natural Philosophy " (ed. 1890, p. 454)
of an interpolation method, and the reference to " a patient,
application of what is known as the method of least squares "
in Professor Perry's "Calculus for Engineers" of 1897
(p. 18), form a sufficient ground for this conclusion.

Conclusion.

38. Those who may be inclined to question the necessity
of such remarks as have been made upon an admittedly
insufficient definition of least squares are recommended to
examine, in the light of the considerations that have been
advanced, the example of least squares put forth in Dr. F.
Kohlrausch's work, English translation (called " Physical
Measurements "), of 1894, from the German of 1892 (7th ed.,
chap. 3), and also Professor Merriman's " Theory of Least
Squares" (1900 edition), with reference to Clairault's formula
(about page 126), and from page 130 to the end of the
Mississippi Problem. If, also, it is desired to observe how
even legitimate least squares may lead to error, an examina-
tion may be made of the warnings of Sir G. B. Airy in the
conclusion of his work on the " Theorv of Errors of Observa-
tion, &c." (pp. 112, 113). t The 1874 "edition of this work is
available in the Public Library. A paper by F. Galton,
F.E.S., in the "Proceedings of the Royal Society" of 1879,
page 365, also contains a significant warning that the funda-
mental principle of the arithmetic mean is not always reliable.
This should be considered in relation to the use of a curve
of dY/dX. in treating measures where X cannot conveniently
be adjusted to the desired datum point for every observa-
tion.

39. We may also venture on the suggestion that, while
many writers have been quite wrong in calling the constants
of an empirical formula the "most probable ones," those
who have called them "the best" merely may have been
quite justified in making use of such an expression where it
has not been shown that analytical resources of greater power
are available, as has been the case with the Fourier series,
and it is hoped will be now seen to be the case with the
Taylor series and other linear additive formulae. Further,
the habit of referring to empirical formulas as "laws" may
have helped to give such formulae an importance which, com-
pared with the graph, they assuredly do not possess.

* It should be mentioned, however, that Professor Callendar (Phil.
Trans., 1887, p. 161) uses the formula of the standard parabola in con-
nection with the reduction of platinum thermometry.

f In this connection see section 4.

Brown. — Phenomena of Variation. 533

APPENDIX.

I.

The " Mississippi Problem " is of some celebrity, and may
with advantage be discussed. It refers to the velocity of the
water at different depths in the Mississippi at Carrollton and
Baton Bouge. The experiments were made in 1851, and were
reduced by the experimenters by means of a parabolic approxi-
mation, which they applied according to common-sense
principles similar to those of the present writer, except that
they apparently did not perceive the bearing of the facts that
are fundamental theorems in the graphical calculus (sec-
tion 23). Consequently they failed to get such a good approxi-
mation to the experiments as is possible, although many
engineers may think their approximation quite sufficient.
Then in 1877* Professor Merriman, after referring somewhat
caustically to " tedious approximative methods," proceeds to
give a reduction by what he calls the " strictly scientific "
method of least squares. This application is one to which
our definition of least squares is strictly applicable. The
calculations are given also in Professor Merriman's " Theory
of Least Squares," 1900.

Again, in 1884, Mr. T. W. Wright, " Adjustment of Observa-
tions," page 413, reverts to the phenomena, applying both a
parabolic and a cubic formula by least squares ; and he remarks
that, since the latter formula yields a smaller " sum of the
square of the residual errors " — the italics are the present
writer's — "the observations are better represented by the
formula last obtained." From the graph of deviations ob-
tained by the present writer he has no hesitation in saying that
the indications are for the application of a discontinuous for-
mula, the first section holding from depth 0 to 0*5 or 0"6, and
the other from that to 09, the formulae differing chiefly in the
constant term. This reduces the deviations to g^oo' about, at
most (judging from the graph), against about ^^ with the
least-square parabolic. The value of the probable (fortuitous)
errors is not given or discussed in either reference, so that it
is quite a matter of speculation whether this indication of
discontinuity is genuine or whether it is a mere matter of
luck. At any rate, we should not attempt to improve such a
graph by means of a cubic formula; it evidently would require
a formula of a large number of terms to reduce the deviations
to as small limits as those of the discontinuous parabolic. It
is to be noted that all these considerations are obvious upon a
mere inspection of a graph of the deviations which are given
by Professor Merriman, and also that it is not suggested that

* Journ. Prank. Inst., C. iv., p. 233.

531 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

the motion of the water was discontinuous ; more likely there
are systematic instrumental errors. (See Graph C.)

II.

A few remarks may be made with respect to the arrange-
ment of deviations in least-square form, the graphic process
in the case of the power-expansion formula especially
giving very convenient first approximations to the least-
square values of the constants. If we take the expression
" the mean" to signify that the algebraic sum of the deviations
concerned is zero, and " the weighted mean " the same with
respect to the deviations multiplied by datum values of certain
weighting functions, then we may define least squai-es as the
process which makes the weighted mean zero for all the
weighting functions which can be obtained by differentiating
the formula with regard to each of the constants separately
and introducing the datum values of X. By writing down the
equations which are needed to bring this about we obtain the
normal equations of least squares, and we notice a valuable
check on the correctness of a least-square reduction,* for in
the power-expansion formula we see that the mean must
hold, and also the weighted mean of the deviations, each
multiplied by the datum values of x, of x2, and so on to the
last degree ; or for x'1 we may substitute the standard para-
bolic, and so on. If, considering the formula to be in
the standard terms, we examine a graph of deviations we
can easily see that to approximate to least-square form we
must take out all the amounts of standard components that
will diminish the general magnitude of the deviations, but
without allowing our judgment to come into play with regard
to the run of any systematic deviation.

A little practice will often enable us to get such a close
approximation to least-square form that the solution of the
normal equations becomes much simplified. The normal
equations, again, may be found more easily solved if made
up in standard terms, for in examples similar to that of
section 18 some of the coefficients in the normal equations
tend to become zero, with formulae of larger degree than the
second — that is, using the formulae of the " Notes on the
Graphs."

III.

It is perhaps profitable to remark that, for the proper
appreciation of a graph, we must get rid of the confusion that
sometimes arises from the algebraical usage of making the
symbols — and -+- stand for the operations of addition and sub-
traction and also as signs to designate whether a magnitude

* Given in Mr. T. W. Wright's book, page 144.

Brown. — Phenomena of Variation. 535

is positive or negative. The usage being as it is, we often in
physical problems need to go back to the old arithmetical
notion of negative quantities being impossible or imaginary,
and consider the graph accordingly. For instance, take
Taylor's theorem. It is usually expressed in one formula
for the introduction of positive or negative increments ; but
Taylor himself (De Morgan, P. Cyc, p. 126) gave two
formulae, one for increments (or additions to x) and another
for decrements (or subtractions from x). If now we take
Maclaurin's form, we readily see that the second formula is
impossible if we cannot reduce the magnitude or quantity to
less than nothing.

Thus, to take a typical case, the magnetisation, or B-H,
curve of iron, we cannot properly regard B and H as positive
and negative quantities, but as direct and reverse positive
magnitudes. A Taylor's series increment curve may then,
perhaps, hold for magnitudes in either direction. If, how-
ever, we adhere to the algebraic usage, we shall be unable
to express both of the symmetrical halves of the curve unless
we employ only odd-power terms in our formula. This is
obviously a very great disadvantage from a graphical point of
view. As an indication of the contrary advantage it may
be mentioned that a complete half of the sine curve can be
built up of added proportions of the standard parabolic and
quartic curves, with an extreme error of about 1 in 1,000
units, 7r radians forming the unit range of x.

Further, unless we adhere to the arithmetical notions, we
are led to alternative values and imaginary quantities when,
as in the example of the B-H curve may be desirable, we em-
ploy formulae of fractional powers. Here the only alternative
is to drop the fractions which have even denominators, which
we can easily foresee may make formulae of this class imprac-
ticable for arbitrary approximation to a curve.

To make clear what is meant, consider the expression ,/-l.
Arithmetically — 1 directs 1 to be subtracted from something
which appears in the context. To take the square root of
that which directs 1 to be subtracted from something else is
evidently meaningless arithmetically. So also with ( — l)2,
and so on. Algebraically we here take the symbol — to in-
dicate that the number to which it is attached is negative in
quality or impossible arithmetically. This quality is also in-
dicated by using a different symbol, ^2n, instead of + and — ,
where i is an imaginary unit powers of which when com-
bined with arithmetical symbols make quantities impossible
in arithmetic. It is conventions as to the effect of powers
of i upon the directions to add or subtract which enable us
to perform calculations upon arithmetical quantities by alge-
braical methods with only occasional ambiguities.

536 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

Enough has now been said to guard against misleading use
of the symbols + and — in graphical work.

Notes on the Gkaphs. (Plates XXXVI., XXXVII.)

Graph A gives the characteristic curve of deviations of
a cubic-formula curve to which a parabolic approximation
is applied (section 20) ; Graph B is that of section 21 ;
Graph C that of the " Mississippi Problem," Appendix, I.
Graph I. shows the curve of the standard parabolic and
Graph II. that of the cubic. Graph III. shows two
symmetrical quartics — (A), zero at x — 0, 1/3, 2/3, and 1,
and having the formula —

(A) = 1x - lite2 + 18a;3 - 9x\

and (B), zero at x = 0, 1/4, 3/4, and 1, with formula —

(B) = 3x - 19a;2 + 32a;3 - 16a;4.

The maxima reach Oil and 025 respectively, or 1-2 and
1-6 per cent, of the numerical value of the coefficient of xi.
Graph IV. is a symmetrical quintic, zero at x = 0, 1/4, 1/2,
3/4, and 1, with formula —

(C) = Sx - 25a;2 + 70a;3 - 80a;4 + 32a;5.

Its maxima reach 0-11, which, the coefficient of xh being 32,
represents 0-34 per cent, of the value of the latter. Graphs
V., VI., and VII. are specimen standards of the hexic, heptic,
and octic degree respectively. Their formulas are given in the
accompanying table. They are all made zero at the sarnie
points as the previous quintic. The curves all being sym-
metrical, about x = 0*5, are, as has been before noted, both
simpler in form and more easy to compute values from if the
origin of the abscissa is taken at x = -J and the scale of the
variable halved. The formulae are accordingly given in terms
of z = 2x — 1, as well as in x — which is the most straight-
forward variable for common cases of a few terms.

It will be remarked that, so far as these standard formulae
have been developed, it has been arranged to keep the formula
simple. In constructing formulae for actual practice, how-
ever, it may be better to sacrifice the mathematical simplicity
altogether in order to obtain curves that are convenient for
the visual processes of analysis (see Postcnpt).

The percentage values of the maximum ordinates in these
curves compared with the value of the coefficient of the
highest power of x are as follows : Hexic, 039 per cent. ;
heptic, 0 03, 5 per cent. ; octic, 001, 3 per cent. Thus, if we
throw a formula into the standard form we can see what the
effect will be if we throw away the highest term. It is evi-
dent that we shall often be able thus to reduce a formula of

Brown. — Phenomena of Variation.

537

a high degree to a simpler expression with very little error,
but only for the range between the limits of the variable
(original or transformed) 0 and 1.

Some Symmetrical Standard Functions.
(Abscissa, x, or z = — (1 — 2x).)

Ter

ii.

Formula in z or x.

Constant

(*) ••

Unaltered.

Linear

(*) ••

+ !(! + •)■

u

(x) ..

X.

Parabolic

w ••

+ j(l-«9).

„

(X) ..

(sc - a;2).

Cubic

<*) ••

-i(^-23)= -^(1-^).

w

(X) ..

+ x - 3x2 + 2a;3.

Quartic

(*) ••

- \ (1 - 22) (1 - 432) = - \ (1 - 5z2 + 4*4).

*

(X) ..

+ 3x - 19x2 + 32a;3 - 16x*.

Quintic

(*) ..

+ ^ (1 _ 22) (1 _ 422) = + ^ (1 _ 522 + 4^4),

i/

(X) ..

+ 3x - 25a;2 + 70a;3 - 80a;4 + 32a;5.

Hexic

(•) ..

- i (1 - z2) (1 - z*) (1 - 4s2) = - 1 (1 - 6z* + 9s*
- 4s6).

ti

(X) ..

+ 3x2 - 22x3 + 51a;* - 48a:5 + 16x6.

Heptic

(z) ..

+ J (1 - z2) 2 (1 - 4s2) = + i (1 - 6s2 + 9z4 - 4*6).

„

(X) ..

+ 3a;2 - 28a;3 + 95x4 - 150a;5 + 112a;6 - 32a*.

Octic

(z) ..

- J (1 - s2) 2 (1 - 4s2) = - ~ (1 - 6s8 + 9s* - 4s6).

•

(X) ..

+ 3a;2 - 34x3 + 151a;4 - 340a;5 + 412a;6 - 256x7 + 64x8.

Postscript. — Since writing the above I have had occasion
to employ formulae of more than four terms, and certain
practical points have come to light. Suppose the graph con-
sists of a " smooth curve," or, if it is of the datum-point
variety, a smooth curve can be satisfactorily drawn through
the data, then the analysis may proceed as follows : The con-
stant, linear, and parabolic (standard) terms are obtained as
before, and we draw in the base-line corresponding to this
formula of three terms. Thus we have reduced the deviations
to zero at x = 0, \, and 1. We then scale off the devia-
tions from this formula at x = \ and f, and then, using the
standard cubic and a quartic the formula of which may be
x(l — x)(l — 2x)'2, and which is obviously zero at the same
three points as the cubic, we compute the amounts of these
functions required to reduce the deviations to zero at the
quarter points of x.

538 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

If further approximation be desired, the next systematic
step would be to reduce the deviations at the odd-eighth
points of x by means of quintic, hexic (somewhat different
from the tabulated sample, obviously), heptic, and octic func-
tions ; and so on.

The same operations might possibly be considered easier if
performed by simple algebra, but we should then lose the
analytical power of judgment which is the vital advantage of
the " standard " method.

With reference to the computation of values of Y from
formulas, the values of the standard functions up to the
quartic degree may be computed by writing down the datum
values of x ; (1 — x) ; and (1 — x) — x, or (1 — 2x), and form-
ing the proper products. Up to the octic degree we should
need also (1 - 4x) and (3 - Ax), or 2(1 - 2a;) + 1. It is clear
that if computation is to proceed by means of an arithmo-
meter the labour of computation will not materially differ
from that in which simple powers are used. With logarithms
it will be necessary to enter the table once extra for each
factor required.

I.— MISCELLANEOUS— continued.

Art. LlV. — List, of Papers on New Zealand Fishes and Fishing.

By A. Hamilton.

[Laid before the Otago Institute, 12th November, 1901.]

[Note. — In the following list "Trans." means the "Transactions of the
New Zealand Institute."]

Author.

Title.

Name of Publication.

Arthur, W.

On the Brown Trout introduced
into Otago

Trans, xi. 271.

Notes on some Specimens of

„ xiii. 175.

Migratory Salmonidce

On the History of Fish-culture

xiv. 180.

in New Zealand

On Diseased Trout in Lake

xv. 198.

Wakatipu

Notes on the New Zealand

xv. 203.

Sprat

Notes on the Picton Herring . .

xv. 208.

On the Brown Trout introduced

Trans, xvi. 467; also N.Z.

into Oiago

Jrnl. Sci. iii. 36.

Notes on New Zealand Fishes

Trans, xvii. 160.

Notes on the New Zealand

N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. iii. 157.

Frost-fish

Beattie, J. M. ..

On the Anatomy of the Red-cod
(Lotella bacchtis)

Trans, xxiii. 71.

Benham, W. B.

On the New Zealand Lancelet
(Heteropleuron)

xxxiii. 120.

Bleeker, Pieter . .

Over eenige Visschen van Van
Diement-land

Amsterdam, 1855.

Campbell, W. D.

On a New Fish (Discus, gen.
nov.)

Trans, xi. 297.

Canavan, E. O'H.

On Eels

„ xxv. 191.

Chapman, F. R. . .

Handbook of Laws relating to
Acclimatisation, Fish, Fish-
eries, and the Protection of
Anima's and B rds

Dunedin, 1892.

Cheeseman, T. F.

Notes on the Sword-fish

Trans, viii. 219.

Clarke, F. E.

On Two New Fisbes ..

„ x. 243.

On some New Fishes. .

xi. 291.

On a New Fish found at Hoki-

xi. 295.

tika

Description of a New Species of

xiii. 195.

Trachypteriis

540

Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Author.

Title.

Name of Publication.

Clarke, P. E.

Colenso, W.

Drew, S. H.

Duigan, James . .
Douglas-Ogilby, J.

Ferguson, Alex. . .

Forbes, H. 0.

Forster, Johann
Reinhold

Gill, Theodore

Gillies, T. B.
Gunther, A.

On Two New Globe-fish

On the Occurrence of a Species
of Lophotes

On the Occurrence of Regalecus
argenteus

On the New Zealand species
of Galaxias, more especially
those of the Western Slopes

On Exoccetus ilnia, a New Spe-
cies of Flying-fish

Notes on Parore (the Mangrove
Fish)

Notes on the Genus Callorhyn-
chus, with a Description of
an Undescribed New Zealand
Species

Notes on Regalecus sp.

On a Sun-fish (Orihagoriscus
viola)

Is Access to the Sea a Necessity
to Eels?

Description of a New Pelagic
Fish (Centroloplms) from New
Zealand

On the Causes of the Disappear-
ance of Young Trout from our
Streams

On a New Genus of Fishes of the
Family Percidce from New
Zealand (Plagiogeneion rubi-
ginosus, Hutton)

On a Species of Regalecus

On the Great Oar-fish

In Bloch's " Svstema Ichthy-
ologiae "

Descrip. Animalium quae in
itinere ad maris Australis
terras observavit. Cur. Lich-
tenstein

A Comparison of Antipodal
Faunas

On the Genera Labrichthys and

Pseudolabrus
On the Introduction of Trout to

New Zealand
Notes on Prototroctes, a Fish

from the Fresh Waters of the

Australian Region
Remarks on New Zealand Fishes

In " British Museum Catalogue
of Fishes "

Trans, xxix. 243.
„ xxix. 251.

xxx. 254.

xxxi. 78.

„ xxxi. 92.
„ xxxi. 96.
xi. 298.

xxx. 253.
„ xxix. 286.

viii. 221.

Rec. Aust. Mus. ii. 62.

Trans, xxi. 235.

xxii. 273.

xxiv. 192.
N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. n.s. i. 154
Berlin, 1801.

Berlin, 1884.

Nat. Acad, of Sci. vi. ; and
Mem. Acad. Washing-
ton, vi. 91.

Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xiv.
No. 861.

Trans, v. 456.

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.
1870.

Trans, ix. 469.

Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

(3rd ser.) vii. 85.
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

(4th ser.) xvii. 389.
1859-90 and 2nd ed. 1899.

Hamilton. — List of Papers on New Zealand Fishes. 041

Author.

Title.

Name of Publication.

Guntker, A.

Gray and Richard-
son
George, Seymour T

Garman, S.

Haast, Sir J. von

Hamilton, A.

Hanson, A.

Heath, Neil
Hector, Sir James

Report on the Shore Fishes
procured, Voyage H.M.S.
"Challenger"

Report on the Deep-sea Pishes
procured, Voyage H.M.S.
" Challenger "

In " Dieffenbach's New Zea-
land"

Notice of the Capture of a Large
Stingaree (Trygon thalassia)

Myxine australis, Jen. (rede-
scribed and figured)

Notes on some Undescribed
Fishes of New Zealand

On Clieimarrichthys forsteri . .

On the Occurrence of Lamna
comubica in New Zealand

On the Occurrence of Lepto-
cephahts longirostris, Kaup.,
on the Coast of New Zealand

Notes on Regalectts pacificus . .

Notes on a Large Sun - fish
(Orthagoriscus mola) recently
captured at Napier

Rare Fishes (Torpedo)

Notes on some Napier Fishes . .

Notice of a Giant Sun - fish
(Orthagoriscus mola) cast
ashore at Cape Campbell

On the Effect of Cold on Fishes

On the Mud-fish (Neochanna
apoda), from Hokitika

On a Species of Ophisurus, from
the Coast of New Zealand

On a New Species of Fish,
Coryplicenoidesnovce-zealandice

On the Salmonidce of New Zea-
land

Notes on the Edible Fishes of
New Zealand (in the Cata-
logue of the Fishes of New
Zealand, by Captain Hutton)

Introduction of English Trout
into Wellington, and Mention
of New Fishes

Notice of Motella novce-zea-
landics

Notes on New Zealand Ichthy-
ology

Regalecus gladius, and other Ad-
ditions to the Colonial Mu-
seum

Descriptions of Five New Spe-
cies of Fishes obtained in the
New Zealand Seas by H.M.S.
" Challenger " Expedition

Chall. Rep. i. 27.

„ xxii.

ii. 206.

Trans, xiii. 426.

Mem. Mus. Harvard, xxiv.

345.
Trans, v. 272

vi. 103
vii. 237.

vii. 238.

//

IX.

646, x.

246.

//

xviii. 135.

N.Z.

Jrnl

Sci. i.

465.

„

ii

. 127

Trans, xx

447.

XV

. 275.

n

ii.

402

//

ii.

34.

//

iii.

136

//

iii

133.

1872.

Trans.

iv.

379.

«

vi

107.

tt

vii

.239.

»/

X.

533.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
(4th ser.) xv. 78.

542

Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Author.

Title.

Name of Publication.

Hector, Sir James

Notes on New Zealand Ichthy-
ology

Trans, ix. 465.

Notes on New Zealand Ichthy-

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3rd

ology

ser.) xix. 339.

Notice of a New Fish

Trans, xiii. 194 and 436.

Notice of a New Fish

xiii. 195.

On the Occurrence of Salmon-

xiv. 211.

trout in Nelson Harbour

Reported Capture of a Califor-

xiv. 545.

nia:! Salmon at Riverton

Notes on New Zealand Ichthy-

xvi. 322.

ology

On a Small-siz<>d Specimen of

„ xx. 446.

the Hapuka, Hectoria (Oligo-

rus) gigas, Castelnnu, caugnt

in Wellington Haibour

On Acclimatised Salmon and

„ xxv. 539.

Trout

On a New Species of Luminous

xxviii. 743.

Fish (Polyipnus kirkii)

Mullet Protection

Ape Jour. H. of R. Sess.
II. 1897. H.-17.

Further Papers relative to the

App. Jour. H. of R. 1869.

Fisheries of the C .lony

D.-15.

Remarks on a Supposed Speci-

Trans, xxxiii. 562.

men of Salmo salar

Henry, Richard . .

On Dusky S mnd (fishes, &c.) ..

xxviii. 50.

Notes on Fish

Apn. Jour. H. of R. Sess.
II. 1897. C.-l, 128.

Hombron and Jac-

Vovage au Pole Sud par Dumont

1853-54.

quinot

D'Urville (Poissons)

Hutcon, F. W. ..

On the Occurrence of the Sprat
and Anchovy at the Thames

Trans, v. 449.

Fishes of New Zealand : Cata-

1872.

logue, with Diagnoses of the

Species, with Notes on the

Edible Fishes by James Hec-

tor

Contributions to the Ichthy-

Trans, v. 259.

ology of New Zealand (Sup-

p'ernent to the " Fishes of

New Zealand")

Notes on some New Zealand

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4th

Fishes

ser.) xii. 400.

The Geographical Relations of

Ann. Ma?. Nat. Hist. (4th

the New Zealand Fauna

ser.) xiii. 95

Note on a Sea Trout caught in

Trans, vi. 447.

Otago Harbour

Contributions to the Ichthyology

„ vi. 104.

of New Zealand

Description of a New Species of

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4th

New Zealand Fish

ser.) xvi. 313.

Contributions to the Ichthy-

Trans, viii. 209.

ology of New Zealand Fishes

Contributions to the Ichthyology

ix. 353.

i

of New Zealand

Hamilton. — List of Papers on New Zealand Fishes. 54,3

Author.

Title.

Name of Publication.

Hutton. P. W.

Jenyns . .
Jouan . .

Kingsley, R. I.

Kirk, T. W.
Kner
Kuox, P. J.

Lesson . .

Lendenfeld, R. von

Mair, Captain

McCoy

Parker, T. Jeffery

Notes on a Collection from the
Auckland Island and Campbell
Islands (fishes)

Description of a New Pish
(Labrichthys roseipunctata)

List of the New Zealand Pishes

Notes on some New Zealand
Fishes, with Description of a
New Species; and a Synopsis
of the New Zealand Species of
Oalaxias

Voyage of the " Beagle "
(Zoology)

Essai sur la Faune de la N.Z.

On a Specimen of the Great

Ribbon fish (Regalecus argen-

teus) taken in Nelson Har-

bjur
Additions to the List of New

Zealand Pishes
Reise der O^ sterreichischen Fre-

gatte "Novara" (Fische)
On the New Zealand Sword-fish
Anat miical Observations on

Ophisurus sp.
Note on Ctenolabrus knoxi
On Coridodax ptdlus
On the Anatomy of the Kanae

(Mugil sp.)
Observation on an Albino Eel
Voyage de " la Coquille "

On Lepidopus caudatus (New
Zealand Frost-fish)

Notes on Pishes in the Upper
Wanganui River

In Trans. Royal Soc. Vict.

In Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

On the Venous Svstem of the
Skate (Raja nasuta)

On a New Method of preserving
Carti!aginous Skeletons

On the Gravid Uterus of Mus-
telus antarcticus

Notes on the Anatomy and Em-
bryology of Scymnus lichia

On the Connection of the Air-
bladder and the Auditory
Organ in the Red-cod (Lotella
bacchus)

On the Occurrence of the
Spinous Shark (Echinorhinus
spinosus) in New Zealand
Waters

Trans, xi. 339.

xii. 455.

xxii. 275.
xxviii. 314.

1842.

Mem. de la Soc. des Sci.

Nat. de Cherbourg, xiv.

295.
Trans, xxii. 333.

„ xii. 308.

1869.

Trans, ii. 13.

„ ii. 34.
v. 308.
„ iii. 130.
„ iv. 189.

. iv. 378.
1826, 1830.

N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. iii

Trans, xii. 315.

1864.
1865.
Trans, xiii. 413.

„ xiv. 258.

„ xv. 219.

xv. 234.

xv. 234.

xvi. 280.

108.

544

Transactions. — Miscellaneous .

Author.

Title.

Name of Publication.

Parker, T. Jeffrey

Powell, L.

Quoy and Gaimard
Roberts, W. C. . .

Robson, C. H.

Rutland, Joshua. .

Richardson, John,
and Gray, J. E.

On a Torpedo (T. fusca ?), n. sp.,
recently caught near Dunedin

On a Specimen of the Great
Ribbon-fish (Regalecus argen-
teus), n. sp., recently obtained
at Moeraki, Otago

Skeleton of porbeagle shark
preserved by glycerine me-
thod exhibited

On a Specimen of Regalecus
recently stranded in Otago
Harbour

Note on the Foetal Membranes
of Mustelus antarcticus, with
an Analysis of the Pseud-
amniotic Fluid by Professor
Liversidge

Preliminary Note on the Vesi-
culse seminales and the
Spermatophores of Callo-
rhynchus antarcticus

On the Occurrence of Lophotes
in New Zealand Waters

Note on a Specimen of Ortlia-
goriscus mola

Remarks on Regalecus argcnteus

On Haplodactylus meandratus
and Lepidothynmts Jiuttoni

Abstract of a Memoir on Regale-
cus argenteus

Notes on Carcharoclon rondeletii

Studies in New Zealand Ichthy-
ology : I., On the Skeleton of
Regalecus argenteus

On Four Fishes commonly found
in the River Avon ; with a
Consideration of the Question,
What is Whitebait?

Notes on the Anatomy of Re
galecus pacificus

Voyage of the " Astrolabe "

On the Mud-fish {Ncochanna
apoda), being Extracts from
Letters written by G. G. Fitz-
Gerald and S. E. Vollams

Notes on the Habits of the
Frost-fish (Lepidopus)

Habits of the Torpedo Ray

On the Habits of the New Zea-
land Grayling

List of Fish hitherto detected
on the Coast of New Zealand,
with a Description of the New
Species brought Home by Dr.
Dieffenbach

Trans, xvi. 281.
„ xvi. 284.

xvi. 565.
„ xx. 20.
„ xxii. 331.

Proc. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci.
(Hobart), 1892.

Trans, xxvi. 223.

„ xxix. 627.

xxx. 574.
„ xxx. 575.

Proc. Zool. Soc.207, 1884.

27, 1887.
Trans. Zool, Soc. Lond.
xii. 5.

Trans, ii. 84, 417.

xi. 269.

1834.

Trans, v. 456.

Trans, viii.218; alsoN.Z.

Jrnl. Sci. ii. 289.
N.Z. Jrnl. Sci.iii. 27,123.
Trans, x. 250.

Dieffenbach : Travels in
New Zealand, ii. 206.

Hamilton. — List of Papers on New Zealand Fishes. 545

Author.

Title.

Name of Publication.

Richardson, John

Report on the Present State of

Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Soi.

the Ichthyology of New Zea-

1843, p. 12.

land

Description of Australian Fishes,

Trans. Zool. Soc. iii. 69,

Parts I. and II.

133.

Description of Fishes

Voyage " Erebus " and
" Terror," Zool. pt. ii.

1845-48.

n • •

Voyage of the " Sama-
rang" (Zool.) 1848.

Sandager, F. S.

List of Fishes found round the
Mokohinau Islands, their
Spawning - time, and Ob-
servations regarding some of
the Species

Trans, xx. 127.

Note on some Sea-trout

„ xxv. 254.

Scott, J. H.

Cancer in Fish

„ xxiv. 201.

Stenhouse, Andrew

On the Anatomy of the Pig-fish
[Agriopiis leucopcecilus)

„ xxvi. 111.

Sherrin, R. A. A.. .

Handbook of the Fishes of New
Zealand

Auckland, 1886.

Spackman, H.

Trout in New Zealand, and
when to catch them

Government publication.

Thomson, G. M. ..

The Dunedin Fish-supply

Trans, x. 324.

Our Fish-supply

„ xi. 880.

Parliamentary Paper, p. 21,

H.-17, Sess. II., 1897.

Our New Zealand Fisheries,

xxviii. 758.

and the Desirability of intro-

ducing New Speoies of Fish

The Prr posed Biological Station

Aust. Ass. Adv. of Sci.

and Fish-hatchery near Dun-

1898.

edin (Letter to Captain

F. W. Hutton)

Notes on the Occurrence,

Trans, xxiv. 202.

Habits, Weights, &c, of vari-

ous Marine Fishes in New

Zealand

Travers, W. T. L.

On the Absence of the Eel from
the Upper Waters of the Wai-
au-ua and its Tributaries

„ iii. 120.

Notice of a Parrot-fish (Odax

„ v. 439.

vittatus)

On New Zealand Fishes

Nelson Examiner, 26/10/
1860.

Waite, E. R.

Lampris luna, Gml. : Its Oc-

Records of the Aust. Mus.

currence in New Zealand

166.

Waters

Webb, J. S.

On a Fish of the Genus Bovich-
thys

Trans, v. 480.

Williams, W. L. . .

On a Sun-fish captured at
Poverty Bay

xxv. 110.

35

546 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

See also a bibliography of papers relating to " Die Fische
Neu-Hollande, der Sud See, &c," in "Die v. Miiller'sche
Sammlung Australiscber Fische in Stuttgart," von Dr. C. B.
Klunzinger, in lxxx. bande der Sitzb. der K. Akad. derWis-
sensch. i. Abth., nov. heft., 1879; a bibliography in the
" Catalogue of New Zealand Fishes," by Captain F. W.
Hutton, 1872 ; reports of the Acclimatisation Societies of
Auckland, Canterbury, Hawke's Bay, Nelson, &c. ; Parlia-
mentary papers relative to the Fisheries of the colony, 1868
and 1869 ; and paper relative to the introduction of salmon
into the colony (App. to Journ. H. of B., D.-2, 1869), which
contains a few observations of the temperature of sea and
rivers.

Parliamentary Papers relating to Fish and Fisheries.

Acclimatisation Societies, Suggestions by a Conference of,
at Dunedin. L.C. No. 2, 1883.

Bonuses paid for Fish exported. H.-45a, 1890.

Fish-breeding Establishment, Maintenance of a. H.-30,

1880.

Fish-culture, Beport of Colonial Industries Commission on.
H.-22, 1880, p. 86.

Oyster-cultivation, Beport by W. H Pearson on. H.-13,

1877.

Oyster-fisheries Act, Bringing into Force the. H.-31,

1875.

Beports of Commissions on Fisheries. D.-15, 1869 ; D.-9,

1870.

Beport of Industries Commission. H.-2, 1880.

Beports on Fisheries. D.-15, 1869 ; H.-15, 1S85.

Salmon and Trout Fry, Distribution of, by Southland
Acclimatisation Society. H.-7, 1876.

Salmon and Trout in Southland. L.C. No. 2, 1875.

Salmon, Trout, Herring, and other Fish, Introduction of.
H.-7 and H.-7a, 1886; H.-3, Sess. II., 1887.

Salmon-trout, Introduction of. I. -4, 1873, p. 28.

Salmon, Introduction of. D.-2, 1869 ; G.-26 and G.-26a,
1872; H.-12, 1873; H.-8 and H.-8a, 1874; H.-14, 1877,
H.-ll and H.-IIa, 1878; H.-14a, Sess. II., 1879; H.-17,
1885; H.-7 and H.-7a, 1886; H.-3, Sess. II., 1887; H.-4,
1889.

Salmon, Whitefish, and Catfish, Beport of Californian
Commission on. H.-ll, 1878, p. 14.

Scottish Fisheries Improvement Association, Extract from
Beport of the. L.C. No. 16, 1885.

Stewart Island Fisheries. D.-l, 1872, p. 25.

Temperature of Bivers and Sea in and about New Zealand.
D.-2, 1869, p. 23.

Hamilton. — List of Papers on New Zealand Fishes. 547

Whitefish, Introduction of. H.-ll, 1878; H.-14 and
H.-14A, Sess. II., 1879; H.-31, 1880; H.-3, Sess. II., 1887.

Kaikoura Fisheries. D.-9, 1870, p. 5.

Fish and Oysters exported, April, 1891, to March, 1895.
H.-21, 1895.

Flounders : Limit of Size to be taken. H.-10, Sess. II.,
1891 ; H.-6, 1893.

Seal Fisheries, Eeport on. A.-l, 1893, p. 2.

Seals and Seal Eookeries in Auckland and other Islands.
H.-25, 1894.

Sea-fisheries Act, Inspectors appointed and Craft re-
gistered under. H.-13, 1895.

Marine Department, Eeports of. H.-30, Sess. II., 1891 ;
H.-29, 1892; H.-31, 1893; H.-18, 1894; H.-29, 1895;
H.-15, 1896.

Wairarapa Lakes and Adjacent Lands, Eeport by A.
Mackay on Maori Claims to. G.-4, Sess. II., 1891.

Acclimatisation and Fisheries, Eeport on, by L. F.
Ayson. H.-27, 1899.

Fisheries : Dunbar Marine Hatchery, Eeport on. H.-27,
1899.

Mullet, Protection of. H.-17, Sess. II., 1897.

Notes on Fish, by E. Henry. C.-l, Sess. II., 1897,
p. 128.

Paper by G. M. Thomson. H.-17, Sess. II., 1897, p. 21.

" Fisheries Conservation Act, 1884," Eegulations under.
Order in Council, 7th March, 1885, and 2nd June, 1885.

Public General Acts affecting Fish and Fisheries.

Eegulating fisheries, and for encouraging the establish-
ment thereof. 1877, No. 45 (a) ; 1884, No. 48 (a).

For the conservation of fisheries. 1884, No. 48 ; 1887,
No. 27. Gazette, 1885, pp. 380, 720 ; 1886, p. 529.

For the establishment of fishing towns, and promoting the
export of canned or cured fish. 1885, No. 16 ; 1900, No. 31 ;
Gazette, 1885, p. 1306 ; 1886, p. 1521.

Consolidating and amending the law relating to sea-
fisheries. 1894, No. 56 (b) ; 1895, No. 39 ; 1896, No. 29.
Eegulations, Gazette, 1897, pp. 18, 885, 2113 ; 1898, pp. 367,
500, 1778; 1899, pp. 1051, 1592, 1867 ; 1900, p. 1737.

Oysters : Providing for the protection of oyster-fisheries,
and a duty on the export of oysters. 1894, No. 56, ss. 7-10.

Prohibiting the use of dynamite or other explosives for the
purpose of catching or destroying fish in public fisheries.
1878, No. 42, s. 3 ; 1884, No. 48 ; 1894, No. 56, s. 49.

(a) Repealed as to sea-fisheries. (b) Part ss. 3, 21, 47 repealed.

548 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Salmon and Trout : Making provision for the preserva-
tion and propagation thereof in the colony. 1867, No. 34 ;
1884, No. 47.

Fresh fish may be sold by auction, without license, at any
hour and in any manner customary in the trade. 1886,
No. 10; 1891, No. 24, s. 30.

Fish-stealing. 1867, No. 3, ss. 24-26.

Fish-poisoning. 1867, No. 6, sec. 32.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

, Thirty-third Annual Eeport.

Meetings of the Board were held on the 19th and 26th
November, 1900, and 6th September, 1901.

Messrs. Tregear, Young, and Sir J. Hector retired from the
Board in compliance with the Act, and were all renominated
by His Excellency the Governor. The following gentlemen
were elected by the incorporated societies as Governors of
the New Zealand Institute for the current year — namely,
Mr. S. Percy Smith, Mr. Martin Chapman, and the Hon. C.C.
Bo wen.

The members now on the roll are — Honorary mem-
bers, 26; Auckland Institute, 156; Hawke's Bay Philosophi-
cal Institute, 61 ; Wellington Philosophical Society, 154 ;
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 72 ; Otago Institute,
106 ; Nelson Philosophical Society, 12 ; Westland Institute,
51 : making a total of 638.

The volumes of Transactions now on hand are — Vol. I.
(second edition), 225; Vol. V., 6; Vol. VI., 10; Vol. VII.
95 ; Vol. IX., 93 ; Vol. X., 123 ; Vol. XL, 23 ; Vol. XII., 25
Vol. XIII., 26; Vol. XIV., 48; Vol. XV., 160 ; Vol. XVI.
160; Vol. XVII., 162; Vol. XVIII., 128; Vol. XIX., 153
Vol. XX., 154; Vol. XXL, 85; Vol. XXII., 87; Vol. XXIII.
163; Vol. XXIV.. 167 ; Vol. XXV., 162 ; Vol. XXVL, 172
Vol. XXVIL, 168; Vol. XXVIIL, 173 ; Vol. XXIX., 300
Vol. XXX., 350; Vol. XXXI. , 400; Vol. XXXIL, 400
Vol. XXXIII. , not yet fully distributed.

The volume just published (XXXIII.) contains sixty-three
articles, and also addresses and abstracts which appear in the
Proceedings ; it consists of 628 pages and twenty-three plates.
The following is a comparison of the contents of the present
volume and that for last year : —

552

New Zealand Institute.

1901.

1900.

Pages.

Pages

Miscellaneous...

... 156

162

Zoology

... 264

62

Botany

... 70

102

Geology

... 10

63

Chemistry and Physics . . .

... 38

16

Proceedings

... 44

38

Appendix

... 46

46

628

494

The cost of printing Vol. XXXII. was £338 lis. 6d. for
494 pages, and that for the present volume (XXXIII.)
£384 14s. for 628 pages. This includes the preparation and
printing of the plates.

From the honorary treasurer's statement of accounts it ap-
pears that the amount received for the year was £961 lis. 8d.,
including the balance carried forward, and the expenditure
£422 15s. 4d., leaving a balance in hand of £538 16s. 4d.

Owing to the unfortunate destruction by fire of Part V. of
"Maori Art," considerable delay has been caused in issuing
the complete work. The publication was again taken in hand,
and Part V. will be delivered in the course of a week or so.

Museum.

There have been 120 entries in the books as additions to
the Museum since last report, a list of which will be published
in due course. The whole of the cases in the Museum have
been cleaned and revarnished, and several important changes
were made in the exhibits prior to the arrival of the Eoyal
visitors, who inspected the collection. These changes afforded
more space for the display of the specimens, and the large
leading tickets were all renewed.

Library. — The books in the library have been classified
and arranged so that they can be referred to without difficulty
with the assistance of the new catalogue published last year.

Meteorological.

The returns of the principal stations for 1900 have been
supplied as usual to the Registrar- General to be included in
his annual statistics, and the monthly rainfall returns from
176 stations have been regularly published in the Gazette.
The monthly return for vital statistics has been supplied, and
the weather exchange, by telegraph, is continued between this
colony and Australia.

New Zealand Institute.

553

Colonial Time-ball Observatory.

Mr. Thomas King, the officer in charge, reports as follows :
The transit work in connection with the daily-time service
has proceeded as usual. Details of the observations are ap-
pended hereto, together with particulars of the rates of the
standard clocks. The clocks have gone well throughout the
year. The transit instrument has, of course, been frequently
tested for adjustment.

As in past years, hourly galvanometer signals have been
sent from the Observatory to the Colonial Museum, and to
the Telegraph-office, Wellington ; and time has been distri-
buted throughout the colony each morning at 9 o'clock. On
chronometer-rating days special signals have, as heretofore,
been telegraphed to the chief ports of the colony for the con-
venience of navigators. The time-ball at Wellington has been
dropped each day at noon (Sundays excepted).

James Hector, Manager.

Approved. — Thomas Mason, Chairman. — 6th September,
1901.

New Zealand Institute Accounts for 1900-1901.

Receipts.

£

s.

d.

Balance

432

5

11

Vote for 1900-1901 . .

500

0

0

Contribution from Wel-

lington Philosophical
Society-
Sale of "Maori Art" ..

11

17

11

14

0
9

£961

11

8

s. a.

Expenditure.

Printing Vol. XXXIII.

(including plates) . . 384 14 0

Expenses of library . . 20 0 0
Postages of volumes to

foreign addresses . . 2 17 4

Miscellaneous items . . 15 4 0

Balance in hand . . 538 16 4

£961 11 8

Examined and found correct. — Wm. Thos. Locke Travers.
-5th September, 1901.

N MEMORIAM.

William. Skey, the late New Zealand Government Analyst, was bom
in London on the 8th April, 1835, and showed an early taste for chemistry,
especially in its bearing on agricultural pursuits. On his leaving school
he was put to learn practical farming, and, with his employer's son,
built a laboratory in his spare time, for the purpose chiefly of trying the
business of distilling spirits of wine from beet-root. A laige quantity of
the roots was contracted for, but, unfortunately, they were grown on
peaty soil, and consequently only contained a small percentage of sugar,
so that very little spirit was produced. This and other circumstances
led to the abandonment of the enterprise, and in 1860 Skey, along with
bis brother Henry (now in the Survey Office at Dunedin), emigrated to
New Zealand, where they spent some time on the Otago goldfields, which
were discovered at that time.

Early in 1863 he was appointed Laboratory Assistant to the Geological
Survey of Otago under Dr. Hector, in place of Mr. Charles Searles Wood,
Associate of the Royal School of Mines, who received an appointment on
the Geological Survey of Victoria. Mr. Skey continued Analyst to the
Geological Survey Department of the colony for twenty-seven years,
until 1894, when he was nominally transferred to the Mines Department,
continuing, however, to work in the same old laboratory until within
six weeks of bis death, which occurred on the 4th October, 1900.

For thirty-eight years Mr. Skey served the Government, and with
indefatigable industry applied his great talent for chemical research.
The Laboratory register when he left off work showed entries which
cover 12.416 separate analyses, more than ten thousand of which were
performed by Skey. Outside his laborious official duties he made many
original contributions to chemical science, such as improvements in
laboratory appliances ; the electrical properties of metallic sulphides ;
the discovery of the ferro-nickel alloy " awaruite " in the ultra-basic
rocks of West Otago, which is highly interesting as being the first recog-
nition of a meteoiic-like iron as native to our planet; the discovery
that hydrocarbon in oil-shales is chemically and not merely mechani-
cally combined ; the discovery of a remarkable colour-test for the pre-
sence of magnesia ; and the isolation of the poisons of many native shrubs.
His suggestions for purifying water-tanks in India, for the use of the
hot-air blow-pipe in the laboratory, and for the application of cyanogen
salts to gold-saving, were some of his early achievements, which are now
in piactical use all over the world. His discovery that fatty oils treated
with anilines form alkaloids hints at an important new departure in
organic chemistry.

These and many other practical applications of Skey's chemical
talent are distinguished services to science, of which New Zealand
should be proud. Without much training Skey, possessing a natural
bent, developed by diligent labcur and hard study, attained to such a
position as to be recognised as one of the world's famous authorities in
certain branches of chemical science.

In William Skey the colony has lost a good servant and an able

scientific man. He used to say that chemistry, farming, and poetry

were the three things he tock most interest in, and would sit up all

night in the Laboratory composing and printing his poetical fragments

with a hand type-press.

Official List of Analyses reported by William Skey.

.

789

. . .

1,480

3,764

2,764

657

s Depart-

2,962

Coals and mineral oils
Metallic ores

Special for gold and silver ores
Rocks and minerals
Waters (mineral, &c.)

Miscellaneous (soils, manures, adulterations, Customs Depart
ment, Fiscal Department)

12,416

Of these analyses more than ten thousand were performed by Skey.

The Report on the Mineral Exhibits in the New Zealand Exhibition,
1865 (Hector and Skey, Appendix, pp. 371-452) also contains a large
amount of chemical work of great value to the colony which was per-
formed by Skey.

Papers contributed to the New Zealand Institute by William

Skey.

Absorption of Alkaloids by Silicates, V., 375.

of Cor per, IV., 332.
Alkalinity of Carbonate of Lime, II., 150 ; IV., 323.

of Salts and Minerals, IV., 325.
Alkalies, Solubility of, in Ether, VIII.. 338.
Allotropic Form of Zinc and Cobalt Sahs, XIII., 387.
Analogy of Cyanogen to Oxygen. VII., 379.
Anthraconite, or Stinkstone, XXV., 379.

Approximate Composition of Winslow's Soothing-syrup, IX., 637.
Arseuic ai d Antimony, Absorption of, VIII. . 337.
Argentic Su'phide, Electric Deportment of, VIII., 345.
Auriferous Alloys by Wet Processes, V., 370.
Awaruite — New Mineral, XVIII., 401.

Bismuth in Gold at the Owen River, XIX., 459 ; XX., 453.

Cause of the Deposition of Camphor cowards Light, XII., 411.
Chromes, Artificial Preparation of, XXL, 359.
Crystalline Phosphates and Arseniates, II.. 146.
Coprosma Bark tested for Alkaloids, II., 152.

Decomposition r f Argentic Oxide by Mercury, XII., 414.

Desilvering Argentiferous Gold, I., 103 ; n.e. I., 47.

Dimo'phism of Magnes a, XIII. , 389.

Dr. Dudgeon's Experiments regarding the Temperature of the Breath,

XIII., 437.
Electric Conductivity, New Forms of, XXIX., 581.
Electro capillary Theory, Fallacy of, XXI., 363.
Electro-motive Power of Metallic Sulphides, III., 232.

and Electrolytic Phenomena, IV., 313.

Order of Metals, VII I., 334.
Examination of Manganese-ores for Cobalt, X., 448.
Existence of Hydro-carbons in Fats and Oils, XI., 527.

556 Neio Zealand Institute.

Flax Fibres (Phormium), IV., 370.

Geyser Waters of New Zealand, IX., 637.

Gold, Detection of, by Iodine and Bromine, II., 156.

„ Absorption of Sulphur by, III., 216.

„ Cyanide Process, I., 31; XXVIII., 708; XXIX., 574 (further re-
sults, 576).
Nuclear Aation of, V., 372.

„ Nuggets in Drifts, Formation of, V., 377.

„ Oxidation of, VIII., 339; XXV., 381.
Hot-blast Biow-pipe, II., 148.

Hydration of Clay-slate, and Evolution of Heat, VII., 384.
Iodine, Manufacture of, V., 376.
Karaka-nut, Poison of, IV., 316.

Lead, Native, with Gold, at Collingwooi, XXI., 367.
Liquids, Separation of, I., 30.

Mercury, Oxidation of, in Water, XXIX., 582.
Metallic Sulphides and Oxides, Conductive Power of, IV., 311.
Metals, Reduction of, by Metallic Sulphides, III., 225.
Mineral Oils, VI., 252.

„ Waters of New Zealand, X., 423.
Mode in which Oil acts as a Nucleus in Super-saturated Saline Solutions,

with Notes on the M >de of Action of Solid Nuclei, XII., 407.
Modification of the Mercuro-iodide Test for the Detection of Alkaloid or

Albuminous Matter, IX., 553.
Monohydrate of Chloride of Barium, III., 220.
Movements of Camphor upon the Surface of Water, XI., 473 ; XII., 403.

Nature and Cause of Tomlinson's Cohesion Figures, XL, 490.

Nature of the Precipitate formed by certain Mercuric Salts in Presence of

Essential Oil*, XII., 412.
Negative Pole of Bittery formed by Sulphides, III., 222.
New Tueory of the Mode by whioh Photographic Effects are produced with

Silver Salts, XIV., 403.

Osomose as the Cause of the Persistent Suspension of Clay in Water, XL,

485.
Oxygenized Graphite and Platinum, VIII., 347.

Periodide and Iodo-carbonate of Lead, XIII., 388.

Phenomena of Burning Camphor in Water, XVI., 550.

Platinum, Fusibility of, II., 155.

„ Absorptive Property of, III., 221.

Presence of one or more Hydro-carbons of the Benzol Series in Petro-
leums, XL, 469.

Production of one or more Alkaloids from Fixed Oils by the Aniline Pro-
cess, XL, 471.

Production of Platino-iodides of the Alkaloids, XL, 523.

Property possessed by Essential Oils of whitening the Precipitate pro-
duced by mixing a Solution of Mercuro-iodide with one of Mercuric
Chloride, XL, 470.

Results obtained upon some Argentiferous Salts which are affected by
Light, XII., 401.

Search for the Poisonous Principle of Brachyglottis repanda and B.

rangiora, XIV., 400.
Silica, Absorption by, II., 151.
Silver and Platinum, Oxidation of, VIII. , 332.
Silver-ore of Richmond Hill, IX., 556.
Simplest Continuous Manifoldness of Two Dimensions and of Finite

Extent: Note upon Mr. Frankland's Paper, XIII., 100.

New Zealand Institute. 557

Solubility of Calcio Carbonate in Solutions of Alkaline Chlorides, X., 449.

„ of certain Eartby Carbonates in Pure Water, X., 452.

Sulphuretted Hydrogen, IV., 321.
Sei>mograph, IV., 330.
Sulpho-cyanide of Potassium, IV., 330.
Sulphur, Evolution of, from Carbon, VII., 380.
Supposed Paraffine Deposit at Waiapu, XIV., 397.
Tin-ore and Associated Rare Minerals in Stewart Island, XXII., 415.
Torbanite, VII., 387.
Tutu, Poisonous Principle of, II., 153.
Useful Modification of Modern Writing ink, IX., 557.

List of Chemical Papers contributed to other Publications by

William Skey.

Report on New Zealand Flax. See Report on Phormium tenax (Hector),

1889, p. 47.
On the Absorption of Organic Matter from Solutions by Carbonaceous

Substances, and the Formation thereby of Coal-seams. Proceedings

of Royal Society, Edinburgh, 1866.

The following were printed in the London Chemical Nexus : —

Formation of a Substance from Coal resembling Artificial Tannin.

On the Removal of Nitric Acid from Sulphuric Acid by Charcoal.

On some New Reactions of the Oxide of Tungsten.

Preliminary Notice of the Formation of certain New Ammonia Salts of
the Metals, &c.

On a New Maroon Pigment.

On the Action of Alkalies upon Ferro- and Ferri-cyanides of Iron.

On a New Test for Cobalt in Solution.

Solubility of Cellulose in Ammoniated Copper.

Nature of the Gas escaping from Recently Prepared Charcoal on its
Immersion in Water.

Volatility of the Compound of Sulpho-oynagen with Iron.

On the Production of some New Metallic Sulpho-cyanides. (Continua-
tion of last paper.)

On the Property of Tungstic and Silicic Acids to combine with Phos-
phoric Acid, and the Presence of Phosphoric Acid in Opal and Flinty
Quartz.

Solubility of Anhydrous Silica in Ammonia.

On the Coagulation and Precipitation of Clay by Neutral Salts generally.

On the Artificial Production of certain Crystalline Phosphates and
Arsenates.

On the Formation of a Series of Double Sulpho-cyanides of certain of the
Metals with the Alkaloids generally.

On the Effects of the Application of Hot Air to Blow-pipe Purposes, &c.

On the Alkalinity of Carbonate of Lime.

On the Absorptive Properties of Silica and its Direct Hydration by Water.

On the Examination of the Bark of the Coprosma grandifolia for Alka-
loids.

On the Extraction of the Poisonous Principle of the Tutu Plant (Cori-
aria ruscifolia).

On the Fusibility of Platinum in tbe Blow-pipe Flame.

On the Application of Iodine and Bromine for the Detection of Gold in

Small Quantities.
On tbe Absorption of Sulphur by Gold, and its Effects in retarding

Amalgamation.
On the Production of a Mono-hydrate of Chloride of Barium (with Notes

on its Crystallization, by E. H. Davis, F.G.S., F.C.S.).
Researches on the Absorptive Properties of Platinum.

558 Neiu Zealand Institute.

On the Capability of certain Sulphides to form the Negative Pole of a

Galvanic Circle.
On the Reduction of certain Metals from their Solutions by Metallic

Sulphides, and the Relation of this to the Occurrence of Gold in the

Native State.
On the Electro-motive Power of Metallic Sulphides.
On the Conducting-power of various Metallic Sulphides for Electricity.
On the Electro-motive and Electrolytic Phenomena developed by Gold

and Platina in Sdution of Alkaline Sulphides, &c.
On the Poisonous Principle of the Karaka.

Further Researches on the Precipitation of Clay from Clay Water.
On the Presence in certain Vegetable Fibres of a Substance susceptible

of Well-marked Colouration by Chemical Treatment, and the Dis-
crimination of such Fibres thereby.
On a New and Easy Process for generating Sulphuretted Hydrogen.
On the Absorption of Ammonia by Cellulose in Presence of P.jtash, and

its Proposed Application to the Removal of it by this Method from

certain Organic S dutions.
On a New Method for the Preparation of Sulpho-cyanide of Potassium for

the Laboratory.

PROCEEDINGS

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

First Meeting: 25th June, 1901.

Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair.

New Members. — Mr. Ben Keys, of Wellington ; Eev. H. J.
Fletcher, of Taupo ; and Mr. D. Matheson, of Wellington.

Inaugural address by the President, G. V. Hudson, F.E.S.,
" On the Senses of Insects." {Transactions, p. 18.)

Sir James Hector spoke in high terms of the President's valuable
and suggestive address. It took the thoughts of members out of the
beaten track, arid led them to the consideration of some of the pro-
foundest and most suggestive problems of natural science. Regarding
the external ears of the weta, he was reminded of somewhat similar
organs found on the cephalic section of the Japanese crayfish — large and
conspicuous auditory apparatus arranged like a Venetian-blind. Strange
to say, the New Zealand species was quite destitute of these organs. He
propo-ed a vote of thanks to the President for his instructive paper.

Mr. R. C. Harding seconded the motion. He said that bees were
not, so far as he knew, supposed to be conspicuous for the homing
instinct, a very small change in surroundings causing them to lose their
way. He could not see that Lord Avebury's experiments justified the
conclusion that 1 ght and colour appeared otherwise than as light and
colour to all creatures with eyes, though it seemed to be proved thai
other creatures were sensitive to vast ranges of vibratory movements
whioh made no impression on any of our senses. That colour pro-
duced similar effects on the nerves of vision of other creatures might
be inferred, he thought, from the effects of the red rays. Lord
Avebury had found them cause intense discomfort to insects ; the
irritating effect of red on birds and mammals was notorious in the
instances of the turkey and the bull ; and red in mass had an
irritating effect on the human nervous system. If the weta was
deaf to musical notes, such was not the case with all stridulating
insects. He had on many occasions in warm weather noticed a
cicada on the wall in church perfectly quiet and silent till the organ
voluntary began, when the insect would keep up his characteristic note
till the music had ceased, remaining quiet till the hymns were sung,
and then joining in again. Others had doubtless observed the same in
regard to this little insect.

Paper.— "On the Comet of 1901," by G. V. Hudson.
[Transactions, p. 31.)

Some interesting exhibits of birds were shown by Sir
James Hector, amongst which were two Eosella Parrots.
36

562 Proceedings.

This gaily coloured bird is a native of Australia, but a few, escaped
from captivity, have multiplied in the North Island. In New Zealand
the bird is apparently taking to a ground life, with the result, that a
native variety far less adapted for flight than its Australian progenitor
is already being developed.

Another curiosity was a sparrow with a deformed beak,
the upper mandible being of extraordinary length and curved
downwards, giving the head of the bird the appearance of that
of a miniature female huia.

Second Meeting : 6th August, 1901.

Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair.

Paper. — " On Caves in the Martinborough District, and
Moa-bones found therein," by H. N. McLeod,

Abstract.
The paper set forth minutely the details of the route to the caves, which
are situated on the Makara Stream (not to be confounded, of course, with
the better-known Makara near Karori), as well as careful measurements
of the caves and fissures and fossil bones found therein. The locality is
about sixteen miles from Martinborough, and the caves are found in
what is known as the "Cliff Paddock," a hill some 1,300 ft. bigh, with
precipitous sides, rising from the stream. The stream itself appears to
mark the route of a subterranean river. A stream issues from one of the
caves, while in another place a creek plunges into a shaft and is lost to
view. Moreover, after descending one of these pits, about 16 ft. dt ep,
and winding along a narrow tunnel for some distance, the rear of an
underground torrent was distinctly heard, but no access to the dark river
was discovered. When the land was first occupied, some twenty years
ago, the existence of the caves was unsuspected. The locality was covered
by a forest so dense that, as the station-manager said, " a hawk could not
have penetrated the undergrowth," yet from the various caverns since
exposed quite a cartload of moa-bones, some of large size, have been
removed, and are now mostly distributed among settlers in the neighbour-
hood. The author gave precise and minute descriptions of eight separate
caves, also of the fo.-sil remains, stalagmites, stalactites, and other
ordinary contents of such receptacles. In the vertical shafts the bones
of sheep and cattle were found, as well as those of extinct birds. The
moa-bones had not only been found in the form of skeletons, but lying
piled at the angles and in the narrow portions of the caves, where they
had been carried by water. Investigations of a gallery, which they
had some hope would open into a larger chamber, has been checked
by stalactite pillars 12 in. to 18 in. in circumference. Water was still
oozing from the roofs of the caverns, and the solid lime was still being
slowly deposited. One passage, about 3 ft. wide, the sides coated with
much siliceous deposit, somewhat damaging to clothing and knuckles,
was followed up for quite 100ft., when it became too narrow to permit of
further progress.

Sir James Hector exhibited a map of New Zealand,
especially prepared to show the distribution of moa remains,
in which some hundreds of limestone caves in both Islands
were indicated.

Wellington Philosophical Society. 563

He said he remembered his own surprise in the early sixties, when
first exploring such caves, at finding, as Mr. McLeod had done, bones of
sheep and cattle mixed with fossils of a period generally supposed to be
remote. The animals had fallen into the cave, and flowing water had
carried the bones into strange company. The caves at Martinborough
were geologically recent ; others, notably at Takaka, in Nelson, were
of far more ancient date. Hundreds of these caves had never been
properly examined, and they were full of valuable material for the scien-
tific investigator. He was glad that one of our members had devoted
serious attention to the subject. Some of the secret caves of the
Maoris in the North Island in particular would hereafter be mines of
treasure for the archfeologist. For ages the natives had be^n in the
habit not only of depositing therein the bones of their great chiefs,
priests, and warriors, but their most treasured heirlooms, in the way of
greenstone ornaments, &c, which were practically imperishable, and
were the sole remaining relics of native art of prehistoric times.

Sir James Hector exhibited the skeleton of a young female
whale of a rare species — Mesoplodon hectori, Van Beneden
— which, with its mother, was captured last March at Titahi
Bay.

Only four specimens of this species had, he said, been met with. 'The
first two were fragments only. The adult specimen on this occasion the
Museum, unfortunately, had not been able to secure, and this was, there-
fore, the only perfect skeleton available. Strangely enough, the two
other specimens had been found in tbe same little bay. Tne Mesoplodon
might be regarded as a miniature species of the family of which tbe great
sperm whale was the type. A northern species was known, differing in
several points from the New Zealand species.

Sir James Hector directed the attention of the meeting
to a collection of some forty or fifty out of a large collection
of water-colour drawings of our native fishes by the late Mr.
F. E. Clarke, a member of the Society.

He said Mr. Clarke's knowledge of fish was minute and accurate, and
it would be difficult to exaggerate the beauty and scientific fidelity of his
drawings. A special value attached to these drawings inasmuch as some
represented rare and others absolutely unique specimens which had come
under Mr. Clarke's observation — one of these, notably, a large shark of a
kind which Sir James had never seeu, and which was undescribed save
by Mr. Clarke, while it differed remarkably from any other known species.
At some distant day, perhaps, these valuable drawings might be repro-
duced and issued in book form — that was, if they could be secured for the
Museum ; as it was, they were in danger of being lost or dispersed. Mrs.
Clarke was willing to dispose of them, and he hoped the collection would
be purchased in its complete form by the colony.

The meeting expressed its concurrence.

Sir James, in continuing his remarks, said that something more than
accurate delineation of our fishes was needed. We had sull much to
learn of their habits and life-history, though we knew far more about
them than might be supposed from occasional reports published at
public expense, in which, it was not too much to say, a great deal of non-
sense might be found. One fact we could not escape — tnat New Zealand
was an island, and that the surrounding hun Ired-fathom limit within
which fishing operations could be conducted was a narrow one. It was
impossible, in the absence of breeding-grouids such as the North Sea or
the banks off Newfoundland, that New Zealand could ever establish
a great fishing industry. He then called attention to some curious facts

564 Proceedings.

about fishes, which, though no doubt familiar enough to naturalists, were
not commonly known. The herring and the pilchard, he said, were
so closely allied that the external resemblance might deceive an expert,
yet they differed widely in their habits. The herring glued her ova to
stone and seaweed at the bottom, where it batched; but the pilchard
discharged hers in the open water, to fl^at to the surface and Vie batched
by the sun. The fishes themselves were so much alike that the usual
test was to balance doubtful fish by the dorsal fin. If the head went up
it was a pilchard, if the tail went up it was a herring. Pilchards were
abundant off our coasts, but New Zealand had no herring. The flat
fishes, he explained, started in life symmetrical and swimming upright,
like other fishes. While still young they took to deeper waters, sunk,
ard lay at the bottom, turning to one side or the other. Deformation
gradually set in, the upper side darkened, the eye underneath, being use-
less in its place, forced itself through the skull and came out on the
upper side. A distinction be ween the sole and flounder tribe was
that the sole lay with the left side and the flounder with the right
side uppermost. A curious distinction between the English and New
Zealand mackerel was that the southern fish was provided with a swim-
bladder, which was absent in the English species. But the distinction
was not a matter altogether of northern and southern distribution, for
the only other mackerel besides that of New Zealand possessing the
swim-bladder was found in the Black Sea.

A letter was received from Mr. J. T. Stewart calling atten-
tion to the fact that in boring in the Wanganm district for
artesian water the water was obtained from below the papa
rock. (Transactions, p. 451.)

Sir James Hector remarked that if thh was the case it was a most
important thing for the whole district.

Sir James Hector exhibited a preparation of the head and
beak of a great octopus.

This was taken from a specimen captured at Island Bay, being the
second specimen of the species found in that locality. The biggest of
these could sweep into his ravenous maw any living creature within a
cirole a chain in diameter.

Specimens of some large Fiji chestnuts, about which very
little is known, were exhibited.

Thikd Meeting : 5th November, 1901.
Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair.
New Member.— Mx. T. L. Buick.

Mr. Martin Chapman was renominated to represent the
Society on the Board of the New Zealand Institute.

A letter was read from the Secretary of the Canterbury
Institute inviting members of the Wellington Philosophical
Society to attend a garden party now being arranged to wel-
come the members of the British Antarctic expedition on their
arrival in Lyttelton.

Wellington Philosophical Society. 565

Mr. Hogben said that the expedition was expected about the last
week of N >vember.

The Chairman regretted that the Society would not have the oppor-
tunity of welcoming the party in Wellington also.

Volume XXXIII. of the Transactions was laid on the
table.

Papers. — 1. "Notes on Coleoptera," by Mr. J. H. Lewis.
(Transactions, p. 201.)

Tne author explained that, with the exception of moths and butter-
flies, none of the orders of insects occurring in New Zealand could be
considered to be catalogued in even a moderately satisfactory manner.
The most extensive order, that of Coleoptera, was in almost as bad a
state as any, for although much had ueen done and a long list of
species published, yet tne number of coleopterous insects occurring
here was so great and the stuiencs so few that it would be many
generations before all the forms were described. Description, though
a dry and tedious process, was a needful preliminary to the elucidation
of the problems connected with distribution and variation, which were
the most attractive portions of the study of natural hist iry. As in
other orders so among beetles, the male insect" was often different
in form from the female. Not sufficient cognizance had been taken
of this fact, except where the descrioer of a species had himself been
able to study the injects in their homes, or where he had attached
some weight to the observations of the field naturalist who had collected
for him. Some results of this were evident in Captain Broun's list Tne
frequent description of identical species in New Z aland and England
would not cause so much troubie, as in most instances the identity was
obvious. It was not for him to attempt to criticize the work of the able
naturalist who had for a quarter of a ceoturv studied this order, but the
reflection suggested itself that the larger genera might very well be
tabulated by the only one who was at pre-ent in a position to do so.
Was it too hazardous to say that when a ta'de could not be prepared,
then the species were not distinct? He had tabulated some families with
much advantage to himself, but he was not anxious to publish his work
whil- Captain Broun was able to do the same thing in a more acourate
manner.

The President said that Mr. Lewis, who for the past ten years had
been doing valuable work in his special department of entomology, was
too m< dest in his claims, and he hoped that the results of his tabulations,
so far as they had gone, would be publishe i. There was a vast amount of
this work to be done, and no naturalist could claim any prescriptive
rights in the field of scientific research.

Professor Easterfield exhibited some branches of the whau
(Entelea arborescens) .

He said he had gathered these specimens from the bush on
Sunday, in the only locality where the plant was known to exist be-
tween Wellington and New Plymouth, though it was found in localities
on the East Coast, and was abundant north of Auckland. The specimen
showed clusters of small pretty white flowers, also the seeds, rough and
spiny, like large burrs of the p ripiri. Mr. Mantell had a flowering tree
now growing in his garden, and at this moment was searching for
a specimen. [As he spoke the specimen was brought in, displaying
the b Id green leaves and the flowers to great advantage.] He exnibited
it because he thought it was little known, and was one of the m >st hand-
some of our many handsome shrubs, though the general form of the tree
was not always graceful. In the bush it grew to a height of 30 ft. He
understood that it was readily raised from seed. It was sometimes

566 Proceedings.

known as " corkwood," on account of the exceptional lightness of the
wood, which, because of this quality, was used by the natives for floats.

2. " Studies on the Chemistry of the New Zealand Flora :
Part II., the Karaka-nut," by Professor Easterfield and Mr.
B. C. Aston. [Transactions, p. 495.)

Twenty years ago, said Professor Easterfield, the late Mr. W. Skey,
in the intervals of his official duties, pursued some investigations into
this subject, and succeeded in isolating a white bitter substance, in-
tensely pois< nous, to which he gave the name " karakin." The quantity
obtained was too minute to allow of thorough investigation, and Mr.
Skey's results could therefore be accepted only as provisional. The
melting-point of the substance was below, 212°Fahr.,or the heat of boiling
water, and it was described as containing no nitrogen. He had begun
the investigation de novo, and, though Mr. Skey had done excellent
pioneer woik, further investigation did not bear out all his conclusions.
The karaka {Corynocarpus) was a tree well known throughout New Zea-
land. It was also found in some of the other islands of the Pacific,
notably at the Chatbams, where it was abundant, and on account of the
absence of timber was an important tree — so much so that it was cus-
tomary to inscribe symbols of ownership on the bark. A trunk in the
Museum now had a mark of this kind, supposed to he a " portrait " of
the former proprietor. The wood, however, was of little use as timber.
One point he had been unable to ascertain, and he hi ped that inquiries,
if necessary, would be made and definite information obtained while a
remnant of the Moriori people of the Chatbams still survived — did they,
like ih< Maoti, pre par* the kernel and use it as an article of food ? The
fruit of the karaka was a b< rry, the pulp of which some people esteemed.
To him its taste was objectionable— suggestive of decayed dates. Within
was a thin shell, encb s ng a kernel possessing the qualities of a nut, and
from which could be obtained a thick oil. [The oil. which was shown,
was of a very dark-brown colour, and so thick as to appear almost solid,
scarceh moving though the hottle was inverted.] This oil contained
oleine and yielded oleic acid. The thickness of the oil was due to its asso-
ciation witli vtgeiable wax. [The wax, pure white, was shown separately.]
Th poison did not leside in the oil, wiiich was innocuous, bad no bitter
taste, and was just such as mipht be found in any of the sweet nuts. To
pre pate the kernels for food the Maoris first cooked the berries, whioh
would have the effect of loosening the textures of the kernel and render-
ing it more accessible to the wattr in which it was afterwards soaked for
aptn d varying from a few days to some weeks, when the po sonous
constituents had disapj eared. Mr. Skey, finding that the extract from
the berries heaied to boiling-point lost its bitter taste, inferred that the
co< king was sufficient, without the subsequent pn cess, to render the
ktrnel non-poisonous. But he (the professi r) found that if the nut was
boiled in water prussio acid was given off. Now, only two other similar
cases were known, and the only known substance yielding prussicacid by
decomposition in this way was amjgdaline, found in bitter almonds,
peach and cherry kirnels, &o. ft seemed reasonable to infer that the
karnka contained amygdaiine or seme analogous substance which by
decomposition jieldid { russic acid and a specific poison, while there
was the alternative pi ssibility that the poisonous effect of the kernel
was due only to the prussic acid. There was another point of re-
semblai ce to the almond. From the original solution in water ether
removed piactically nothing, but if the solution was boiled and the
prussic acid drivm off thm ether became effective as a solvent.
Amygdaiine isolatid was not poisonous. It was found associated in
the almond with a sudstance known as "emulsin," a kind of fer-
ment olosely allied to diastase, and to certain digestive ferments pro-

Wellington Philosophical Society. 567

duced in the glands of animals. If a kernel containing these two sub-
stances was crushed in water, the aotion of the emulsin upon the amyg-
daline produced an immediate decomposition, prussic acid being formed.
The natural ferment in the saliva produced a similar result on amygda-
line, though in less degree. By numerous solutions and crystallizations
he had isolated a white, bitter, poisonous substance, for which he had
retained Mr. Skey's name of "karakin," though he could not absolutely
say it wa-j identical with Mr. Skey's product. For one thing, it contained
a considerable proportion of nitrogen, and its melting-point was as high
as 250° Fahr. If Mr. Skey's karakin was impure the lower melting-
point w uild be accounted for, and there were two classes of substances
that would resist Mr. Skey's test for nitrogen, this being one of them.
In Mr. Sk>y's test he looked for the nitrogen to come off in the form of
ammonia, whereas another reaction would take place and cyanide of
sodium be formed. In addition to the karakin he had isolated another
white crvsta'line substance, very similar iu appearance, which he called
" connocarpin " [exhibited] , with a higher melting-point than karakin.
In addition to the wax he had found also matmite, a substance closely
allied to sugar. Karakin he described as a glucoside — formula probably
Ci5H21N3013. It was interestit g as the third example known in the
vegetable kingdom of a Fubstai ce which in its breaking-down yielded
prussic acid, the first being the amygdaline of the almond and the
second the Lotus arabica. Much still remained to be done in investi-
gating tie properties of karakin, as well as of the specific poison of the
tutu. In the present case the amount of the sought-for glucosde
amounted to 0 1 per cent, of the material tested, and there were fifteen
crystallizations before a perfectly pure product could be obtained. The
pre ce>s was slow, laborious, and costly, and he was glad to say that the
Royal Society nad granted £50 towards the expense of the work on which
he and tns colleague were engaged.

3. " Kaoult's Method for Molecular-weight Determina-
tion," by Professor Easterfield and James Bee. {Transactions,
p. 497.)

The-e methods, the professor said, were practised in the laboratory
of the Vic oria College, and were easily witnin the reach of first-year
studer.t-i. T"ey g^ve accurate results, and were performed in turn in
the course of instruction by each member of the class. One of these
methods, which was devised by himself, was to determine readily the
densities of vapours at the actual boiling point, a very difficult process
by the usual methods — so difficult that densities were usually taken at
a much higher temperature, leaving the density at the moment of
vap nzttion uncertain. Already valuable results had been obtained
with many substances, but so far his process had not been successful
with mercurv, in dealing with which special apparatus would be neces-
sary. He thought, from his researches so far, that it might yet ba
demonstrated ihat the mercury atom consisted of two molecules.

The second part of the address was illustrated by an experiment
in measuring and calculating molecular density by Mr. James Bee,
of W-llington College, illustrating the simplicity and brevity of the
me. hod.

Two very large trout from Spring Creek, near Blenheim,
belonging to Mr. T. E. Donne, and mounted by Mr. A. Yuill,
taxidermist to the Museum, were on exhibition.

568 Proceedings.

Fourth Meeting: 11th February, 1902.

Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair.

New Members. — Dr. Archer Hosking, of Masterton ;
Messrs. A. B. Chalmers, Gerald Fitzgerald, A. E. Pearce ;
and William Gray, of Palmerston North.

Papers. — 1. " Embryology of New Zealand LepidojJtera,"
by Ambrose Quail, F.E.S. (Transactions, p. 226.)

2. " On a Marine Galaxias from the Auckland Islands,"
by Captain Hutton, F.E.S. (Transactions, p. 198.)

3. " On the Latent Heat of Fusion of the Elements 'and
Compounds," by P. W. Eobertson ; communicated by Pro-
fessor Easterfield. (Transactions, p. 501.)

Sir James Hector and Professor Easterfield spoke in high terms of
the accuracy of Mr. Robertson's work, and of the great importance of his
discovery. It would he known, the professor thought, as " Robertson's
Law."

4. " On the Phenomena of Variation and their Symbolic

Expression," by E. G. Brown. (Transactions, p. 520.)

Sir James Hect>r said that Mr. Brown was doing substantial and
valuable work in one of the obscure corners of scientific research.

5. " On the Horizontal Component of the Earth's Motion
in Space," by D. Hector ; communicated by Sir J. Hector.
(Transactions, p. 513.)

6. " Mathematical Treatment of the Problem of Production,
Bent, Interest, and Wages," by D. Hector ; communicated by
Sir J. Hector. (T i ans action s , p. 514.)

7. Notes on New Zealand Fishes," by Sir J. Hector.
(Transactions, p. 239.)

8. " The Vapour Densities of the Fatty Acids," by P. W.
Eobertson ; communicated by Professor Easterfield. (Trans-
actions, p. 499.)*

Annual Meeting : 12th March, 1902.
Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair.

Abstract op Annual Report.

During the past year five meetings were held, at which twenty papers
were read.

Nine new members have been added to the roll during the year,
making a total of 147 members.

* For discussion, see p. 570.

Wellington Philosophical Society. 569

The balance-sheet shows the receipts for the year to be £156 10s 5d.,
and the expenditure £76 14s. 3d., leaving a balance in hand of £79 16s. 2d.

The Research Fund, a fixed deposit in the bank, now amounts to
£36 10s. 10d., which increases the credit balance to £116 7s.

Election of Officers for 1902. — President — W. T. L.
Travers, F.L.S. ; Vice-presidents — Sir J. Hector, F.E.S., and

B. L. Mestaver; Council — Messrs. H. N. McLeod, E. Tregear,
F.G.S., M. "Chapman, G. Hogben, M.A., E. C. Harding,
G. V. Hudson, and Professor Easterfield ; Secretary and
Treasurer — E. B. Gore ; Auditor — T. King.

Papers. — 1. " The Theory of the Polar Planimeter," by

C. E. Adams, B.Sc.

Sir James Hector said that a most ingeuious form of a planimeter
had been devised by Mr. Bevtrley, an inventive gentleman of Dunedin,
still among us, and was shown at the New Zealand Exhibition nearly
fony years ago. The following was an abstract of the aocount of Mr.
Beverley's instrument which was given in the Report on the New Zealand
Exhibition, 1865, page 188. This was now a very rare book. " Two Plato-
meters (not named ' Planimeters '), invented and made by A. Biverley,
Dunedin, are interesting and valuable instruments. An instrument to
effect the same purpose was first exhibited by the famous inventor and
mathematician Mr. E. Sang, of Kirkcaldv, in Scotland, at the exhibition
of 1851. Other similar instruments have been invented, especially by
Professor Clerk Maxwell, to overcome the mechanical difficulties by the
introduction of contact spheres. This is a beautiful idea, but mechani-
cally impossible. Mr. Beverley's platometer, which rejects sliding motion,
and is very simple and inexpensive, should come into general use in all
survey offices." At the same time he showed a clock which had been gi ing
ever since it was made without the aid of weights or springs — which, in
fact, as far as motive-power was concerned, had been untouched since its
construction. A glass oylinder filled with air resting on a surface of
cantor-oil suppl.ed the power, every change in temperature affectiug the
pressure. The force thus generated was taken up by an ingenious
mechanical contrivance and conveyed to the woiks. For forty years the
timepiece had kept time without stopping, and it bade fair to go as 1 >ng
as the works held together and the day and night temperatures continued
to vary.

A member who objected that the pinions would clog and wear out
was reminded that the problem of perpetual motion was apart from wear-
aud-tear nf mechanism.

Mr. Martin Gliaoman remarked that he had known the clock, which
was still going, for many yeats past.

2. " Notes on the Sydney Chain Standard," by C. E.

Adams, B.Sc.

Mr. Martin Chapman said that in order to be able to tell whether
a thing was done properly its actual working had to be gone into.
He once happened by accident to be concerned in a matter which
enabled him to see how the testing of weights was work d practically.
As members of the societv probably knew, there were Inspectors of
Weights and Measures all over the colony. Tnese Inspectors were
generally policemen. Sometimes they were retired policemen. An In-
spector had a set of standard weights with which he had to compare
weights submitted to him to be tested, or weights which were suspected to
be untrue and which be had secured in order to test them. An lm 'Ortant
question, therefore, was how nearly the standard weights in the possession

570 Proceedings.

of the Inspector agreed with the proper standard weights in the hands of
the Government. Some time ago a circular was sent to certain persons in
Wellington asking them to state the prioe at which they would furnish
the Government with iron ingots. The respective weights required were
specified, and it was also stated that the ingots had to have handles
by which they could be lifted. One tender, sent in by a person of
thoroughly good character, gave a price which amounted to a few
pence per pound. His tender was at once accepted, with a condition,
"Please let them be accurate." He replied that that was not
exactly what he tendered for — that in the iron trade an inaccuracy
of 4 or 5 per cent, in the weight of ingots was not thought to be
worth considering, and that the ingots might be from a frac-
tion of an ounce to several ounces out, according to their s'ze.
The conditions of contract were amended so as to require that the ingots
should be accurate in weight, and a few pence per pound was added to
the amount of the tender. The ingots were cast at a foundry, and they
were weighed on the machine on which all metal arriving at the factory
was we ghed. They were passed by the gentleman who was appointed
to pass them. The Government, however, then wrote to say that the
"stanrard weights" which had been sent in had been found to be in-
accurate. Previously they had used the word "ingots " These "stan-
dard weights " were accordingly adjusted, some by being planed down
and others by being plastered up. And that was how the standard
weights used by Inspectors were made. So it would be seen that an Act
of Parliament might be perfect, and the standard weight? obtained from
England might be perfect, but if the manner in which the Act was worked
was not perfect there would be inaccuracies as to weights ai d measures.
Mr. R. C. Harding said the weights in use in the post-offices ap-
parently needed to be brought into uniformity, as he had known several
cases where parcels which had been weighed and passed as correct in the
office where they were posted had been surcharged and fined at the office
of delivery.

3. " On the Vapour Densities of the Fatty Acids," by Pro-
fessor Easterfield and P. W. Robertson. {Transactions,
p. 499.) This paper, read at a previous meeting, was dis-
cussed.

Sir James Hector said the discovery was of great importance, and
showed how pdmirably the professor was leading his students in original
research. He depk red the lack of proper apparatus and appliances in
the University for the prosecution of valuable work of this kind.

Mr. 1 regear spoke of the hopeful prospects of the Philosophical
Society. For years, as the pioneers fell out of the ranks, they had de-
plored the lack of younger men to fill the gaps. Now all this was
changed. Young men of the greatest promise

A Member : And young women too.

Mr. Tregear said, Yes, young women too — were taking a prominent
place in the scientific field. He congiatulated the professor and students
on the energetic work — work of permanent value— they bad already ac-
complished. We need have no ft ars as to the future of the Society.

4. " Natural-history Notes from Dusky Sound," by
Richard Henry.

Abstract.

1. Pilchards. — In reading back numbers of the Transactions I
notice an account of the Picton herring which says that they remain in
Queen Charlotte Sound all the year round, which implies that they
must get their food there ; and when they have no teeth their food
must be small and soft ; and when they flourish it implies that some

Wellington Philosophical Society. 571

combination of circumstances relieves them from any very de-
structive enemies. I have seen pilchards in many places, and always
wondered at their immense numbers and where they came from,
for wherever I have seen them they seem to have thousands of
enemies who could easily catch them. I dipped a baker's basket in
the sea off Queenscliffe and got it half-full of pilchards, while the air
was alive with birds and the water thick with porpoises and all
sorts of fish following them. Surely they must have some peaceful
places to breed in or they could not spare such losses without
extinction. Cook Strait may be one of those. They represent the
Home herring, and the herring is an old acquaintance of the
salmon ; therefore if the salmon have not been tried in Queen Char-
lotte Sound it might be a good plan to try some when you have the
salmon, for they might, meet with some favourable conditions that we do
not undtrstand. I have not seen pilchards on this southern coast, where
we put most of the salmon, but Mr. Sutherland says that they come into
Milford. It might also be a good plan to try a few salmon on this west
coast if they never have been tried there, for there is great variety of
conditii ns bttween such rivers as the Hollyford and tho-e coming into
the heads of the sounds. The temperature may be of great importance
to give the young ones a start ; and though there is a warm current
coning down the coast the heads of the sounds are often frozen in
winter. I think that owing to the quantity of food that sometimes
comes in it is far the best coast for fish ; but the rain brings a colouring
matter out of the bush that darkens the water, and I think the fish do
not like it, because it is only when the water clears that the shoals of
migratory fish come in. However, this dark water is always much colder
than the clear s a water, and that may be why the fish cislike it.

2. Vegetable Caterpillar. — I exhibit an aweto or vegetable caterpillar
in a tube. Sometimes live ones are plentiful here in the spring about
the roots of the Veronica hedges, but they do Dot appear to grow fungi
every year, for lately 1 cannot find one m that state, thougu the first
years we were here they were plentiful, yet we saw no live ones.
The one I exhibit is a fine big one, and was very lively when I got it, so I
put it in the tube. I exhibit it now to show how fond it must be of grow-
ing fungi when it will grow it in a spirit-jar. When the fungus stats to
grow in ihe ground it seems as if the caterpillar had laid itself out for it,
for it often forms a cavity around its head as if to accommodate the
fungus, and I would not wonder if they are friendly relations instead of
enemies. If they ever do turn into moths it is curious that I have not
seen any of them wnen I can see all the others so readily. I do not
know what caterpillar the moth breeds from. I have tried to nurse the
live caterpillars into moths, but they take so long that I have never
succeeded. Thev have grown fungus several times, until I began to
think that that was the destiny of all of them, but I cannot see how the
fungus could lay caterpillars' eggs.

Sir James Hector remarked that the " Picton In rring " spawned
from twenty to thirty miles off the co-ist of New South Whiles. Io was a
true pilchard ; it was not a herring. There was no herring in these
waters. It would be a valuable achievement if the herring could be
introduced.

Mr. H. N. McL o 1 said he saw the fish in ques'ion at Picton a week
ago. Tiny were in such numbers that they ma le the water phosphores-
cent as fa.r as the eye could reach.

Sir James Hector said the fish had put in an early appea>ance.
There were no fish in these seas which deposited their eggs, as the
herring did, at the t>ott m of the Sf a. The reason, he thought, was the
absence of such natural banks as ex ended from Englaud to Denmark,
and the acclimatisation of the herun^, desirable as it was, would ptobably
on this account be a matter of great difficulty.

572 Proceedings.

5. " Notes on the Entomology of New Zealand," by

Captain J. J. Walker, of H.M S. " Ringarooina."

The President, in introducing Captain Walker, said that probably he
had collected in more countries than any other entomologist.

Abstract.

In the course of an interesting address Cantain Walker commented
on the way in which the indigenous flor-i had disappeared from the older
settlements in New Zealand. It was astoiishmg, however, what a
number of the original insects seemed to hold their own where a little
native bush was left. When he was at Westport recently he was kept to
his hotel for three days and a half by continuous rain. All that time,
however, the Buller River was working for him by bringing beetles down
from a hundred miles up-couutry. On going to the be ich when the rain
ceased he collected specimens of n > fewer than 105 species of beetles.
There was a prevalent idea in England that New Zealand was a very
poor country for beetles. He considered, however, that it was on the
average quite as rich in them as any country in corresp ■ riding latitudes,
north or south, though possibly not so rich as Australia or Tasmania.
There were fully as many species of Coleoptera in New Zealand as
there were in the British Isles. The South Island was far better from a
collector's point of view than the North. At first sight the statement
that New Zealand was a poor country for beetles seemed to be quite true.
Save for members of certain species, a person mignt go all day an! see
only a few beetles. Most of the beetles had to be rooted and worried out.
If patient and persistent, a collector oou'd be sure of getting his bottle
full. The beach collecting in New Zealand was very interesting, and
Lyall Bay, near Wellington, was a good ground. He had been only five
months in New Zealand, and he had secured specimens of all the import-
ant coast beetles save one, and that he hoped to get every time he went
to Lyall Bay. The fauna of New Zealand was most interesting, not
only on account of what was represented in it, but because of what was
not represented. It embraced the most curious and most beautiful col-
lection of weevils in the world. The weevils of New Zealand ran into
most bizarre aud striking forms.

Mr. R. C. Harding and Sir James Hector spoke of the intimate
knowledge of his subject which Captain Walker had displayed in his
impromptu talk.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

First Meeting: 3rd June, 1901.
Mr. James Stewart, C.E., President, in the chair.

Neio Members. — J. Burns, M. Casey, Dr. H. H. Cheese-
man, M. A. Clark, Dr. W. H. Goldie, J. Howden, H. W.
Hudson, Mrs. E. A. Mackechnie, E. K. Mulgan, 0. K.
Nicholson, C. Macculloch, D. B. McDonald, W. J. Parker,
W. J. Speigt, H. C. Tewsley, A. A. Wrigg.

The President delivered the anniversary address. (Trans-
actions, p. 1.)

Second Meeting: 24th June, 1901.

Mr. James Stewart, C.E., President, in the chair.

Mr. F. G. Ewington delivered a popular lecture entitled
" Brain versus Muscle in the Production of Wealth."

Third Meeting : 22nd July, 1901.

Mr. James Stewart, C.E., President, in the chair.

Professor F. D. Brown gave a popular lecture, illustrated
by numerous experiments, on " The Measurement of Time."

Fourth Meeting : 5th August, 1901.
Mr. James Stewart, C.E., President, in the chair.

New Members. — J. J. Craig, W. Crosher, F. Mander,
M. McLean.

The President said he had pleasure in announcing that
the Institute had purchased for the Auckland Museum the
celebrated Maori carved house formerly standing at Taheke,
on the north side of Lake Eotoiti.

After Rome general remarks, he said that the history of the house, as
far as particulars had been obtained, was as follows : In 1867, at which
time several notable bouses were bfing erected in the East Coast
districts, it was suggested by Captain G. Mair and Mr. H. T. Clarke that
one should be built at Taheke, near which a considerable number of

574 Proceedings.

Maoris were then living. The proposal was taken up by the Maoris with
very great enthusiasm. The carving was und rtaken by Wero, Anaha
te Rahui, and others of the Ngatitarawhai Tnoe, with several well-
known carvers of the Ngatipikiao Tribe. A large sum of money was
collected from the neighbouring Maoris, many who were then employed
by the Government as militia contributing a fixed proportion of their
regular pay. The carving occupied between three and four years, and
many of the side slabs were carved from the sides of famous old war-
oanoes which had been in the possession of the Maoris for generations,
and which had been used against the Tohourangi at Te Anki, and which
had been dragged overland into Tarawera Lake. The house was com-
pleted about 1871. The principal owner was Te Waata Taranui, elder
brother of the late Pokiha Taranui (Major Fox). It was named Rangitihi,
after the well-known hero of that name, who, next to Tama-te-Kapua,
was the most renowned ancestor of the Arawas. The house was nearly
GO ft. long by 25 ft. wide, and had a height of about 18 ft. to the crown of
the roof. In 1882 Te Waata died, and was buried within the veranda,
or porch, of the house. An elaborately carved tomb, in true Maori style,
was put up over the grave. This was subsequently acquired by Sir
Walter Bnller, and, after being exhibited at the Indian and Colonial
Exhibition, was finally presented to the Trocadero, at Paris. During the
eruption of Tarawera the roof of the house was broken in by the vast
quantity of mud lodged upon it. The house was consequently taken
down and removed to Maketu, with the intention of re-erecting it there,
a project which, for want of funds, was never carried out.

Papers. — 1. "Descriptions of New Native Plants," by
D. Petrie. (Transactions, p. 390.)

2. " On the Volcanic Ash-beds of tbe Auckland Isthmus,"
by E. K. Mulgan. (Transactions, p. 414.)

Fifth Meeting: 19th August, 1901.

Mr. James Stewart, C.E., President, in the chair.

Professor H. A. Talbot-Tubbs gave a popular lecture,
illustrated with numerous limelight illustrations, on " Greek
Painted Vases : their Importance, Form, and Design."

Sixth Meeting: 2nd September, 1901.
Mr. James Stewart, C.B., President, in the chair.

New Member.— A. D. Austin, F.R.A.S.

Papers. — 1. " On the Recent Statistics of Insanity, Cancer,
and Phthisis," by Professor H. A. Segar. (Transactions,
p. 115.)

2. " On the Flora of the District between the Manukau
and Waikato," by H. Carse. (Transactions, p. 362.)

3. "Exhibition of Astronomical Photographs," by A. D.
Austin, F.R.A.S.

Auckland Institute. 575

Seventh Meeting: 23rd September, 1901.

Mr; James Stewart, C.E., President, in the chair.

Mr. E. V. Miller delivered a popular lecture entitled
*' Buskin's Influence on Economic Science."

Eighth Meeting: 7th October, 1901.
Mr. James Stewart, C.E., President, in the chair.

Neiv Members. — A. S. Bankart, S. Gray.

Papers. — 1. " On Maori Games, " by Elsdon Best.
(Transactions, p. 34.)

2. " On Maori Magic," by Elsdon Best. (Transactions,
p. 69.)

3. " On the Growth of Indigenous Trees," by H. D. M.
Haszard. (Transactions, p. 386.)

I. " Bemarks on Indigenous Trees planted at Parawai,
Thames, in 1873 and subsequently," by J. W. Hall. (Trans-
actions, p. 388.)

5. " On the Occurrence of Panax arboreum as an Epi-
phyte on the Stems of Tree Ferns in the Mauku District," by
H. Carse. (Transactions, p. 359.)

6. "On the Mollusca of Little Barrier Island," by H.
Suter. (Transactions, p. 204.)

7. "List of the Species described in F. W. Hutton's
Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca, with the Corresponding
Names used at the Present Time," by H. Suter. (Trans-
actions, p. 207.)

Ninth Meeting: 28th October, 1901.

Mr. James Stewart, C.E., President, in the chair.

Professor A. P. W. Thomas gave a popular lecture, illus-
trated with numerous limelight illustrations, entitled " Across
the Mountains."

Annual Meeting : 24th February, 1902.

Mr. James Stewart, C.E., President, in the chair.

New Members. — J. H. Howell, A. M. Myers, A. Water-
worth.

576 Proceedings.

Abstract op Annual Eeport.

The Council submits the thirty-fourth annual report, dealing with
the financial and general condition of the Institute and the progress it
has made during the past year.

Twenty four new members have been elected during the year, a
numb-.r considerably above the average. On the other hand, seventeen
names have been withdrawn from the roll — five from death, six from
resignation, and six from non-payment of subscription for more than
two consecutive years. The netc gain is thus seven, the number on the
roll at the present time being 162. The members removed by death are
Mr. W. Aitken, Captain Colbeck, Mr. E. T. Dufaur, Mr. S. Eastham,
and Mr. W. Hill, all of whom have been associated with the Institute for
many years.

The balance-sheets accompanying the report give full particulars of
the financial position of the Institute, so that a brief synopsis is all that
netd be given here. Omitting the donations reoeived for the purchase of
the Mair collection, which will be referred to in a special paragraph,
and also excluding the balance of £136 Is. 6d. in hand at the commence-
ment of the year, the total revenue of the working account has been
£759 8s. 10d., as against £897 7s. 4d. for the previous year. The interest
yielded by the invested funds of the Costlpy Bequest has been £365
8s. 2d., the amount for 1900-1901 being £436 5s. The Museum Endow-
ment has contributed in rents and interest £309 10s., the sum for the
previous year being £333 lis. 7d. The members' subscriptions have
amounted to £126, showing a substantial increase on the sum collected
during the last year. The total expenditure, omitting the amount paid
for the Mair collection and the Maori house, has been £869 3s. 10d.,
leaving a credit balance of £76 6s. 6d. in the Bank of New Zealand.
The Council are glad to report that the invested funds of the Institute
are in a satisfactory state. The total amount at the present time is
£13,877 8s. 9d., showing an increase of £287 18s. 9d. during the year.
With the exception of a few hundred pounds lodged in the Bank of New
Zealand, the whole of this is invested in mortgage on freehold properties
or in Government debentures.

The C.own Lands Board have sold two small blocks of country
lands during the year, and the proceeds, amounting to £413 12s., have
been paid over to the Institute for the purpose of investment. With this
exception, there is little to report under this head. The interest on the
capital sum invested has been regularly received, and the Crown Lands
Board has from time to time handed over the rents derived from those
endowments which are leased. The Council regrets chat there are several
endowments situated in country townships which are apparently unsale-
able at present, and from which no revenue is being obtained.

Nine meetings have been held during the year, at which eighteen
papers were read.

The most noteworthy occurrence in connection with the Museum is
undoubtedly the purchase of the Mair Maori collection. This, whioh
was deposited in the Museum by Captain Gilbert Mair in 1890, has long
been admitted to be the best private collection of the kind in existence,
and its removal would have done irreparable harm to the Museum.
Wtien Captain Mair intimated in September last that he intended to
dispose of the collection, and that offers had already been made for it by
several European museums, the Council at once recognised that an
eff rt, must be made to retain it in Auckland. The price asked was
£1,000, which was to cover not only the articles in the Museum, but a
considerable number of others which had been retained b)r Captain Mair
in his own possession, the total number of specimens being about four
hundred. The Council need hardly say that the Institute itself was
unable to make the purchase. For many years the whole of the revenue

Auckland Institute. 577

has been absorbed by the growing needs of the Museum, and to have
drawn so large a sum as £1,000 from the invested capital, upon which the
income of the society depends, would have been rash and injudicious
in the extreme. Under such circumstances, it was decided to issue a
circular to the citizens of Auckland, explaining the position and inviting
donations for the purchase of the collestion as the only means of retain-
ing it in Auckland. The response to this invitation has been most
generous, and has amply proved that the people of Auckland are ready
and willing to support any object of undoubted public utility. The
amount contributed up to the present time has been £962 7s. 7d.,
and there can be little doubt that the full sum of £1,000 will be
obtained before the subscription-lists are finally closed. In the mean-
time the collection has been secured, and the whole of it is now displayed
in the Museum. The Council has great pleasure in recording their
most grateful thanks for the liberal and sympathetic assistance which
has been so freely rendered. A full list of all donors will be found
appended to the report.

The Council has also to report the purohase of the well-known Maori
carved house Te Rangitihi, formerly standing at Taheke, on the northern
shore of Lake Rotoiti. This house, which is about 60 ft. in length by
25 ft. in width, with a height of 18 ft., is beautifully carved throughout,
and is considered to be one of the best and most complete runanga houses
in existence, and will doubtless form a most attractive addition to the
Museum. It is hoped to erect it as an annexe to the eastern side of the
Maori hall, but the estimated cost is so large that it is doubtful whether
it is within the means of the Institute. The matter is now in the hands
of a sub-committee, which will report to the Council. The thanks of the
Institute are due to Captain G. Mair for his assistance in negotiating the
purchase.

The Institute still retains the management of Little Barrier Island
as a reserve for the preservation of the avifauna of New Zealand. The
curator, Mr. Shakespear, has resided on the island during the year, and
reports that no unauthorised persons have landed thereon, and that no
attempt has been made to interfere with the birds. So far as can be
ascertained, the birds show no signs of decreasing in numbers ; in fact,
the curator is of opinion that several species have shown a decided
increase during the last two or three years. There can be little doubt
that if a resident guardian is maintained on the island it will for many
years remain a secure home for a large part of the avifauna of New
Zealand.

Election of Officers for 1902. — President — E. Eo-
berton, M.D. ; Vice-presidents — J. Stewart, M.I.C.E., and
Professor H. W. Segar; Council — Professor F. D. Brown,

C. Cooper, H. Haines, E.E.C.S., E. V. Miller, T. Peacock,

D. Petrie, J. A. Pond, H. Swale, M.D., Professor H. A.
Talbot-Tubbs, Professor A. P. W. Tbomas, F.L.S., and
J. H. Upton; Secretary and Curator — T. F. Cbeesenian,
F.L.S., F.Z.S.

Paper. — "On the Volcanic Belts of the Auckland
Isthmus," by C. E. Fox. {Transactions, p. 452.)

37

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF
CANTEEBUEY.

First Meeting : 1st May, 1901.

Captain F. W. Hutton, President, in the chair.

Neiv Member. — Miss N. A. Greensill.

Address. — Professor Dendy delivered an address on " Some
Conditions of Progress."

Second Meeting: 5th June, 1901.
Captain F. W. Hutton, President, in the chair.

New Members.— Eev. E. T. Mathews, Miss M. F. Olliver,
M.A.

Address. — Mr. L. Cockayne delivered an address on " The

Chatham Islands."

The address was illustrated by a large series of lantern-slides from
photographs taken by the lecturer to illustrate the characteristics of the
vegetation of the islands, and by specimens of Moriori carving and other
exhibits.

Third Meeting: 3rd July, 1901.
Captain F. W. Hutton, President, in the chair.

New Members. — Eev. J. Campbell, Mr. A. T. Pycroft.

Papers. — 1. "On the Occurrence of Alepisaurus ferox
on the Coast of New Zealand," by Captain F. W. Hutton.
{Transactions, p. 197.)

2. "On a Small Collection of Diptera from the Southern
Islands of New Zealand," by Captain F. W. Hutton. {Trans-
actions, p. 169.)

Dr. Chilton explained the action taken by the Council to
promote the publication of an " Index Faunae Novae-Zea-
landias " — i.e., a list of all species of animals recorded from
New Zealand, with at least one reference for each species.

A petition prepared, asking the Governors of the New Zealand Insti-
tute to undertake the publication of the index, was laid on the table for
signature.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 579

Captain F. W. Hutton exhibited specimens of graptolites
from Preservation Inlet.

Dr. Chilton exhibited specimens of a fresh-water shrimp,
Xiphocaris compressa, de Haan, from Norfolk Island.

Fourth Meeting : 7th August, 1901.

Captain F. W. Hutton, President, in the chair.

Address. — Professor Dendy delivered an address on " The
Sense of Sight," illustrated by numerous diagrams.

Dr. Chilton exhibited specimens of Schizopod Crustaceans
(Euphansia and Nyctiphanes spp.) found at Sumner by Dr.
Dendy, and made remarks upon their luminiferous organs.

Fifth Meeting : 5th September, 1901.

Mr. J. B. Mayne, Vice-president, in the chair.

Address. — Professor Arnold Wall, M.A., delivered an
address on " Evolution in Literary Types," and a discussion
followed in which several of those present took part.

Sixth Meeting: 2nd October, 1901.

Captain F. W. Hutton, President, in the chair.

Address. — Dr. Charles Chilton delivered an address on
" Learned Societies of Europe."

Paper. — " Eelics of the Moriori Eace," by Professor Arthur
Dendy. (Transactions, p. 123.)

Seventh Meeting: 6th November, 1901.

Captain F. W. Hutton, President, in the chair.

Professor Dendy exhibited and made remarks upon a new
type of pelagic hydroid recently obtained at Sumner.

Papers. — 1. " The Beetles of the Auckland Islands," by
Captain F. W. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 175.)

2. " Additions to the Diptera Fauna of New Zealand," by
Captain F. W. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 179.)

580 Proceedings.

3. " On a New Fossil Pecten from the Chatham Islands,"
by Captain F. W. Hutton. {Transactions, p. 196.)

4. " Eevised List of New Zealand Seaweeds, Part II.," by
R. M. Laing, M.A. (Transactions, p. 327.)

5. "A Short Account of the Plant-covering of Chatham
Island," by L. Cockayne. (Transactions, p. 243.)

6. " Notes on the New Zealand Lamprey," by Professor
Dendy and Miss M. F. Olliver, M.A. (Transactions, p. 147.)

7. "Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Tuatara," by
James Ashley ; communicated by Professor Dendy.

Abstbact.

From some old notes I have recently come on I see I got a pair
of tuataras on the 10th November, 1892. I kept them in a large
cage, and noted that the female laid the following eggs : One on the
21st December, 1892, six on the 22nd, one on the 23rd, one on the
25tb, and one on the 29th ; total, ten. Not knowing anything of their
habits, I took the eggs, which were about the size of pigeons' eggs, and
with soft shells, and placed them in cotton wool in a window of my little
workshop facing the sun. Some days afterwards I missed one, and later
on another, so, thinking the children were taking them, I locked the
place up, yet they went till I had none left. By this time, or at least
whilst any were left, I noticed they had shrivelled up considerably. I
then examined the nest and found unmistakable evidence of how they
were going — viz., mice. I was sorry I could not hatch them, but pro-
bably I could not have done so in any case.

8. " Mites attacking Beetles and Moths," by W. W.
Smith. (Transactions, p. 199.)

9. " On a New Zealand Isotachis new to Science," by
E. S. Salmon ; communicated by Robert Brown. (Trans-
actions, p. 325.)

Annual Meeting : 2nd April, 1902.
Dr. W. P. Evans, Vice-president, in the chair.
New Member. — Miss Low.

Abstract op Annual Repokt.

Since the last annual meeting seven ordinary meetings have been
held, at which twelve papers have been read. These papers may be
classified as follows : Zoology, 7 ; botany, 3 ; geology, 1 ; anthropology, 1.

At several of the meetings addresses of more popular interest were
delivered — viz., "Some Conditions of Progress," by Professor Arthur
Dendy; "The Chatham Islands," by Mr. L. Cockayne; "The Sense of
Sight," by Professor Dendy; "Evolution in Literary Types," by Pro-
fessor Arnold Wall; "Learned Societies of Europe," by Dr. Charles
Chilton.

The attendance at the ordinary meetings has averaged 26.

The Council of the Institute has met eight times since the last
annual meeting. During the year the Council drew up a petition urging
upon the Governors of the New Zealand Institute the desirability of

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 581

publishing an " Index Faunae Novae-Zealandite," containing a list of all
species of animals recorded from New Zealand, with at least one reference
for each species, and suggesting that the index should be edited by
Captain F. W. Hutton, who has already published numerous catalogues
of the different zoological groups, and has a large amount of manuscripts,
suitable for the index, already prepared. Copies of the petition were sent
to the other Affiliated Societies, and were returned, numerously signed,
by the Otago Institute and the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute.
These, together with the petition from this Institute, were forwarded to
the Governors of the New Zealand Institute. In due time a reply was
received stating that the Governors had given the matter careful con-
sideration, but, whilst appreciating the value and praotical importance
of such a work when complete, they " considered that its production at
the present time would be premature, more particularly as the classifica-
tion and nomenclature of the indigenous faunse of New Zealand is at
present undergoing active critical discussion by experts in Europe and
America."

During the year many books and periodicals have been bound. Be-
sides the books added by purchase and by exchanges, a valuable donation,
consisting of a set of the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society,
nearly complete, was received from the widow of the late Mr. H. R. Webb.
A rearrangement has been made by which the various periodicals are now
received direct from Messrs. Dulan and Co., of London.

Before the arrival of the Antarctic Exploration Expedition the
Council urged upon the local authorities the desirability of welcoming
and entertaining the members of the expedition. On their arrival in
Lyttelton the members of the expedition were met and welcomed by the
President and members of the Council, and during their stay they were
entertained at a public dinner given conjointly by the Institute and the
citizens of Christchurch.

The Hon. C. C. Bowen continues to represent the Institute on the
Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, and the Council wishes
to express the indebtedness of the Institute to him for his services.
Thanks are also due to Mr. George Way, F.I.A.N.Z., for his valuable
services as honorary auditor.

The total number of members of the Institute is now sixty-nine.

The balance-sheet shows that the subscriptions received amount to
£66 13s. ; £21 3a. 4d. has been spent on books and £16 18s. 3d. on print-
ing and binding, and a new book-case has been added to the library at a
cost of £10 5s. The balance in the bank to the credit of the Institute on
the 31st December, 1901, was £29 15s. 8d., and the invested funds arising
from life-members' subscriptions now amount to £79 10s. 6d.

Election of Officers foe 1902. — President — J. B.
Mayne, B.A. ; Vice-presidents — C. C. Fair and A. E.
Flower ; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer — Dr. Charles Chilton ;
Council— Captain F. W. Hutton, Dr. W. P. Evans, E. M.
Laing, L. Cockayne, E. Nairn, and Miss Olliver ; Hon.
Auditor — George Way, F.I.A.N.Z.

The address by the retiring President (Captain F. W. Hut-
ton), on "Penguins and Petrels," was postponed till next
meeting.

OTAGO INSTITUTE.

First Meeting: 14th May, 1901.

Mr. G. M. Thomson, F.L.S., President, in the chair.

Amended rules consistent with the practice of the In-
stitute were submitted to the meeting and adopted without
discussion, and, on the motion of Mr. F. R. Chapman, it was
resolved, " That the Institute proceed to incorporate under
the Unclassified Societies Act."

New Members. — Professor Park, Dr. Marshall, and Messrs.
D. B. Waters, D. E. Theomm, E. R. Smith, and W. H.
Smith.

The Chairman reported the progress that had been made
in the direction of the establishment of a fish-batchery.

The Government department had, he said, met them very fairly in
the way of facilitating progress. A site had been selected opposite Porto-
bello, and steps had been taken towards acquiring the necessary land.
When this was done he presumed the Government would take steps to
incorporate a small working body to carry on the station.

Mr. F. R. Chapman exhibited a very valuable collection of
stone implements from different parts of the world, including,
for the sake of comparison, some New Zealand examples.

The most notable of the exhibits were three from Sweden belonging
to the Neolithic age. There were also some recent ones from New
Guinea, one of which was remarkably symmetrical and was finished with
the greatest care. Amongst other things, comparison was made between
a jade implement from New Guinea and some polished stone implements
of different size but similar make from Italy. The explanatory remarks
proved most interesting, and were applauded. One of the specimens
from Italy, Mr. Chapman remarked, was most probably fully ten thousand
years old, and yet it was as well preserved as if it had been made within
the last twenty year?.

Dr. Colquhoun delivered an address, giving an account of
recent researches in " The Relations of Mosquitoes to Malarial
Fever."

Abstract.

The subject was a technical one, but it was dealt with in a manner
which made it clear and interesting to all, the history and results of
the researches made by men of science in Italy, France, India, and
England being mentioned. The subject of malaria, the speaker said,
was, fortunately for the people of New Zealand, merely of academical
interest, though throughout the British Empire malarial fever was
second only to tuberculosis in its ravages. It was very prevalent and
largely fatal in India, and it was quite impossible to state the number
who were attacked by and died of this fever in Africa. In Italy whole

Otago Institute. 583

districts had been depopulated by it, and the same thing had oocurred in
America. The subject was one of immense importance to the world, and
particularly to our Empire. Some of the guesses in the past regarding
the cause of this disease had been singularly near the truth, and modern
scientific research had proved up to the hilt that the mosquito grew the
germ in its own tissues, carried it to human beings, and infected them
with the disease. It was not every kind of mosquito that did this, but
only Anopheles. Investigations showed clearly that this was actually the
case, and it had been thought possible to stop the disease by destroying
the mosquitoes. Some good had been done in this way by draining
swamps and otherwise destroying the insects, but it was found that they
were not easily dealt with. The speaker explained his subject by means
of some very fine diagrams, and also exhibited a number of books and
periodicals containing accounts of scientific research into this subject.

A short discussion took place, and a hearty vote of thanks was
passed to Dr. Colquhoun for the clear and highly interesting manner in
which he had dealt with the subject.

Second Meeting : 11th June, 1901.
Mr. G. M. Thomson, President, in the chair.

The President communicated to the Institute a letter
from Mr. Morton, local secretary at Hobart for the Austral-
asian Association for the Advancement of Science, giving some
account of the programme of the meeting to be held in
January, 1902.

The President laid before the Institute a scheme for
compiling a faunal census for New Zealand in collaboration
with the other Affiliated Societies.

Papers. — 1. " An Account of the External Anatomy of a
Baby Eorqual (Balanoptera rostrata)," by W. Blaxland
Benliam, D.Sc, M.A., F.Z.S. (Transactions, p. 151.)

2. " Note on an Entire Egg of a Moa now in the Museum
of the University of Otago," by W. B. Benham, D.Sc,
M.A., F.Z.S. (Transactions, p. 149.)

3. " On Charity Organization," by Miss K. Browning.

This paper gave an account of the aims and methods of the Charity
Organization Society from her own experiences as'a volunteer helper.
The paper was followed by some discussion.

Third Meeting: 9th July, 1901.
Mr. G. M. Thomson, President, in the chair.

New Members. — Eev. Canon Mayne, Miss Bees, and Miss
Lena Stewart.

A letter was received from the Philosophical Institute of
Canterbury enclosing a petition for presentation to the Board

584 Proceedings.

of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, requesting the
New Zealand Institute to undertake the publication of an
"Index Faunae Novae-Zealandiae," a catalogue, with refer-
ences, of all the. species of animals hitherto described from
the New Zealand area.

In order to secure uniformity, it was proposed that Captain Hutton,
F.R.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum, be requested to act as editor.

The Chairman expressed the hope that all the members present
would sign the petition. He said that the preparation of the work pre-
sented no difficulty, provided that the Government, through the New
Zealand Institute, would undertake its publication.

Paper. — "The Beginnings of Literature in New Zealand:
Part II., the English Section — Newspapers," by Dr. T. M.
Hocken, F.L.S. {Transactions, p. 99.)

Prior to delivering his lecture he called attention to a number of
interesting exhibits of early New Zealand newspapers, including copies
of the Netu Zealand Gazette (Wellington), the first newspaper ever
printed in the colony, dated April, 1840 ; the curious old newspaper
printed on blotting-paper ; the ancient and famous Auckland paper
printed on a mangle ; and the early Bay of Islands papers, which were
wretchedly printed. Dr. Hocken adverted to the fact that last year he
had placed a paper before the Institute dealing with the Maori section
of literature, but he would now deal with the purely English section of
his subject as it struggled into life. Starting with the publication of the
first newspaper, Dr. Hocken traced in an intensely interesting fashion the
rise and fall of the multifarious newspaper ventures characteristic of
pioneer times, the recital of which was enlivened with many personal
reminiscences of men and things, and humorous incidents of the
struggles and difficulties of this early day journalism. Taking the several
newspapers, and dealing with them according to locality rather than
date, the lecturer described the beginnings and endings of the first Wel-
lington papers, which, after all sorts of vicissitudes, were incorporated
with the present New Zealand Times. The Bay of Islands prints were
then briefly alluded to, four of them having an average life of ten months
each. The Auckland journals came next in order, and the historic news-
papers that formed the connecting-link between ancient and modern
journalism, finally culminating in the Auckland Herald, made matter
for amusing and instructive description. The Nelson Examiner and New
Zealand Chronicle were the last under review.

The Chairman said that he trusted that Dr. Hocken's health would
be so far renewed by his proposed trip that he would be enabled to com-
plete the valuable work of which that evening's lecture was only one
chapter. It would prove of untold value as'a contribution to the history
of the colony, and he knew of no one better fitted to undertake and
carry through the task than Dr. Hocken. The amount of research
involved was no inconsiderable item. In listening to the lecture he had
been impressed with the surprising vitality and exuberance displayed by
the writers in these early journalistic ventures, in whioh respect history
certainly was repeating itself.

Mr. F. R. Chapman, in congratulating Dr. Hocken upon his paper,
said that they were drawing near to the end of the time when it would
be possible to obtain accurate information concerning the early history
of the colony and of its provinces.

Otago Institute. 585

Fourth Meeting : 13th August, 1901.
Mr. G. M. Thomson, President, in the chair.

Neiv Member. — Dr. Young, of Invercargill.

Dr. Benham, curator of the Museum, took the opportunity
to bring under the notice of members a few specimens re-
cently added to the Museum.

The first was a specimen of the squid, occasionally cast ashore in
the harbour. Another was the New Zealand cockchafer (Prionoplus
reticularis), mounted to show its life-history from its early stages till
it becomes the full-grown beetle. Specimens of Phalangium chelifer-
oides, Mantis, and weta, mounted in alcohol, were exhibited, and then
two specimens of the leaf insect. One of these was from Fiji, and the
other had been sent to the Museum by Mr. Goyen, who got it from a
man in the Catlin's district. Dr. Benham said it was not a native of
these islands. After exhibiting two scorpions from India, he then showed
a couple of lizards, one of a common variety found on the Peninsula,
and another which appeared to be new to science. It was found at Fort-
rose by a man who thought it was a tuatara. Seeing an advertisement
in a paper offering £1 for a tuatara, he brought it up to Dunedin. It
was a beautifully coloured lizard, having brown, red, and green markings.
He had not had time to work ic out thoroughly, but as far as he could
judge it was an entirely new variety. A couple of living specimens of
Paryphanta hochstetteri from Pelorus Sound were also on view.

Dr. Colquhoun read a paper entitled " Tennyson and
Science."

Fifth Meeting : 10th September, 1901.

Mr. G. M. Thomson, President, in the chair.

An advance volume of the " Transactions of the New
Zealand Institute " was laid on the table.

Mr. T. D. Pearce, M.A., read a paper on " Erasmus."

There were exhibited by Mr. C. Brown some fossil leaves
from the Kaikorai Valley, and a fossil fish from the same
beds, collected by Mr. S. Thomson.

Dr. P. Marshall made some remarks on the leaves, and Professor
Benham identified the fish as a species of Hemirhamplms.

Sixth Meeting: 8th October, 1901.

Mr. G. M. Thomson, President, in the chair.

Dr. P. Marshall delivered a highly interesting address on
" Leaf -beds in the Kaikorai Valley," and laid on the table
a paper which he had prepared on the subject.

The existence of leaf-beds in the neighbourhood of Dunedin, he said,
had long been known, but their exact position seemed of late years to
have been forgotten. After describing the geological formation of the

586 Proceedings.

locality, which he placed in the Oligocene period, Dr. Marshall said that
from a preliminary cursory examination he had been led to believe that
all the leaves whose impressions are to be found in the bed would prove
to belong to a speoies of plants still quite common in New Zealand, but
a closer inspection showed that in nearly every case they were utterly
different from the plants at present growing in New Zealand soil. For
the most part, the leaves belonged apparently to a species of oak, elm,
birch, or beech. There were several kinds of beech-trees here, but the
fossil leaves differed more from those of the present New Zealand beech-
trees than they did from the beech-trees of England, and they indicated
a very close alliance with the flora of England. There were leaves also
which represented the remains of Magnolia. The Magnolia was a plant
which had entirely disappeared from the flora of Australia and New
Zealand, and was now characteristic of North America and Asia. Two
leaves certainly represented a species of rata very closely allied to the
large rata of the North Island. It would be kuown, the speaker con-
tinued, by those who paid any attention to the classification of fossil
flora that Baron Von Ettingshausen considered that in all parts of the
globe the Eocene and early Tertiary flora contained an assemblage of
species indicating a generalised flora. Towards the close of the Tertiary
age he supposed that one section of the flora — the principal element —
became dominant, while the other forms sunk to co-elements. He con-
sidered that climatic variations and changes must be held to account for
the dominance of the principal element in any country. An exact
determination of the flora in such a deposit as that of the Kaikorai
Valley would enable one to judge of the nature of the climatic changes
that in New Zealand had induced the dominance of such a peculiar " prin-
cipal element " as now characterized our flora. So far as the present
leaf-bed can be used in this connection, it appeared that, although the
climate during the deposition of these leaf- beds was, on the whole, pro-
bably a little milder than the present climate, a subsequent increase in
temperature took place, securing the preservation of such forms as Piper
and Metrosideros, while the oaks, elms, beeches, &c, became extinct. It
was to be hoped that a fuller description of the flora would be afterwards
given, with, if it were deemed advisable, the greater definiteness that was
gained from specific identifications and specific descriptions. At present
it was interesting to note the presence of Magnolia and Metrosideros and
Piper in our Tertiary flora.

Mr. Malcolm Thomson, M.A., read an account of a new-
species of Annelid (Polijnoe comma) from New Zealand waters.
(Transactions, p. 241.)

It lives as a commensal in the tube of a Terebellid.

Professor Benham read a paper on the " Osteology and
other Parts of Gogia breviceps " (Trans ictions, p. 155), and ex-
hibited a number of ethnological specimens from Malekula,
New Hebrides, recently acquired by the Museum.

Annual Meeting : 12th November, 1901.
Mr. G. M. Thomson, President, in the chair.
New Member. — Mr. George Howes, F.E.S.
On the motion of the Chairman, the following resolution
was affirmed: "That the Otago Institute become registered
under ' The Unclassified Societies Act, 1895.' "

Otagu Institute. 587

Papers. — 1. " Notes on some Glacier Moraines in the Leith
Valley, Dunedin," by Professor Park. {Transactions, p. 444.)

2. " Notes on the Secular Movements of the New Zealand
Coast-line," by Professor Park. {Transactions, p. 440.)

3. " Notes on the Thames Goldfields," by Professor Park.
{Transactions, p. 435.)

4. " Reference List to the Literature of New Zealand
Fishes," by Mr. A. Hamilton. {Transactions, p. 539.)

5. " Notice of an Electric Ray new to the Fauna of New
Zealand, belonging to the Genus Astrape," by Mr. A. Hamil-
ton. {Transactions, p. 224.)

6. "On the Method of Feeding by the Rorqual," by
R. Henry.

A fine specimeu of Histopterus, or boar-fish, caught off
Napier in 1900, was exhibited.

A specimen of the brilliantly coloured fish " Opha " {Lam-
pris lima) was recently caught off Timaru and exhibited in
Dunedin, but was acquired for an Australian museum.

Abstract of Annual Report.

The Council have held seven meetings for the transaction of the
business of the Institute. During the session the Counoil have been
deprived of the services of two of their number — viz., Mr. Melland, who
went to England in July, and Dr. Hocken, who left Dunedin in August
for a trip to Europe. Your Council did not deem it necessary to make
use of their powers to fill these vacancies.

The usual number of meetings of the members has been held, and
the plan adopted last year of arranging a definite programme of lectures
has been again followed ; yet the Council still have reason to regret the
relatively small number of members that have been attracted by these
lectures, which have covered a wide range of subjects. In addition to
these lectures, eleven original contributions have been laid before the
Institute for publication in the Transactions. A few years ago it was
suggested that natural-history notes — records of observations scarcely
worthy of being termed "papers" — might be made by members and
handed to the secretary from time to time, but hitherto no response has
been made. To the naturalist every careful and accurate observation,
however slight and apparently unimportant, has its value, and the Coun-
cil would welcome the notes, whether made by the wayside, or the sea-
side, or in the bush. Our native fauna and flora are rapidly disappearing,
so that every opportunity should be taken of putting on record any obser-
vation of habits, of occurrence, of species, &c.

The number of new members elected during the session is eleven,
and the Council hope that this is a promise of further increase, and that
some of these new members will, by their efforts, contribute towards
rendering the meetings interesting and varied.

During the last few years, owing to insufficiency of funds, it has
been impossible to carry out the binding of the periodicals, but during
the present session an attempt has been made to overtake the arrears ;
and, with the exception of some less important works, the periodicals up
to date have been bound — namely, fifty-one octavo and twelve quarto
volumes. The honorary librarian begs to point out to members the neces-
sity of entering in the book provided for the purpose any volume borrowed

588 Proceedings.

from the library, for during the present session one or two books have
been taken away without this notification and have not been returned.
It is in this way that books are liable to be lost. In view of the continued
additions to the number of volumes, your Council have increased the sum
for which the library is insured to the amount of £1,000. The yearly
volume of the Transactions arrived on the 24th October, and was dis-
tributed to members as soon as possible.

At the beginning of the session a committee of your Council was
appointed to revise the rules and constitution of the Institute, in order to
bring them into agreement with the various changes effected by resolu-
tions passed by the members from time to time since 1876, when the
rules were last printed. The revised edition was issued to members in
April of this year. A resolution was adopted that the Institute should
be incorporated under " The Unclassified Societies Act, 1895." This
matter will be carried out forthwith.

The fish-hatchery has received a good deal of attention since the last
annual meeting. During the recess a deputation of your Council waited
on the Minister of Marine, who was passing through Dunedin, in order
to urge upon him the importance of proceeding with the matter at the
earliest opportunity, and the desirability of appointing a board of man-
agement at once. The Minister stated that he considered the matter
as practically settled, and your Council indulged in the hope that they
might see the building commenced ere the year was out. The lease of
the necessary land was drawn up, plans and estimates of the buildings
were made, and the Inspector of Fisheries, together with representatives
of the Acclimatisation Society and of your Council, visited the proposed
site, marked out the position of the tanks, laboratory, house, &c, the
Government surveyor received instructions to make a detailed survey
and plans, and all looked most promising. But since that date nothing
further has been heard of the matter, nor has any board of management
been appointed, without which it will be impossible to proceed.

The Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, conjointly with this and
other institutes, is engaged in compiling an " Index Faunse Novse-Zea-
landise," of which they hope to persuade the Governors of the New Zea-
land Institute to undertake the cost of publication.

Your Council desire to express their sympathy with Mr. Hamilton
and with the publishers of " Maori Art " on the unfortunate accident that
has delayed the issue of the final part. Not only were nearly all the
copies of Part V. when just completed and ready for issue destroyed by
fire, but the blocks used for the illustrations of that part and the embos-
sing of the binding-covers suffered the same fate. It is satisfactory to
learn that the loss was covered by insurance, and that the reproduction
has now been prepared and will be shortly issued.

The balance-sheet showed the receipts from all sources during the
year to be £535 18s. (including £400 on deposit and a balance of
£16 0s. 6d. brought forward from last year). The balance on the year's
expenditure amounted to £29 lis.

Election of Officers for 1902. — President — Professor
Benham ; Vice-presidents — F. R. Chapman and C. W.
Chamberlain ; Hon. Secretary — G. M. Thomson ; lion.
Treasurer — W. Fels ; Council — Professor Park, Dr. Hocken,
Dr. Colquhoun, Dr. Marshall, A. Hamilton, T. D. Pearce,
and A. Bathgate ; Auditor — D. Brent.

The President then gave an interesting address on the sur-
roundings of the City of Dunedin. On its conclusion he
vacated the chair in favour of Dr. Benham.

WESTLAND INSTITUTE.

Annual Meeting: 11th December, 1901.
Mr. Mahan, President, in the chair.

Abstract of Annual Report.

The report disclosed a very encouraging interest in the Institute
during the past year, and it urged members to still farther exertions to
enlarge the Institute's sphere of usefulness. The membership roll is now
fifty- four, and the library had been made much use of by subscribers.
During the year over a hundred new works had been added, and a new
catalogue was in the hands of the printers, which would shortly be avail-
able. The reading-room was well supplied with high-class current
periodicals and papers.

The balance-sheet showed a very satisfactory financial position,
there being a credit balance of £24.

The trustees desired to thank the Government for their subsidy, the
Borough Council for their liberal support, also the Harbour Board for a
handsome donation. They also thanked local and other newspapers for
free copies.

The Museum had been put on a new basis, and had already been
much improved by Dr. Macandrew, who had recently accepted the
position of honorary curator.

Election of Officers for 1902. — President — Dr. Tei-
chelmarm ; Vice-president — J. B. Lewis ; Hon. Treasurer —
E. McNaughton ; Trustees — Messrs. Beare, Clarke, Heinz,
Michel, Hickson, Morton, Park, Perry, Macfarlane, Mahan,
Dawes, and Dr. Macandrew.

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL
INSTITUTE.

Fikst Meeting: 13th May, 1901.

The President (Mr. W. Dinwiddie) delivered the inaugural
address, the subject being " Some Aspects of Technical
Education."

Second Meeting: 10th June, 1901.

Papers. — 1. " The Natural History of the Napier-Green-
meadows Eoad," by F. Hutchinson, jun. (Transactions,
p. 409.)

2. " Comets, with Special Reference to the Recent Comet,"
by T. Tanner.

Third Meeting: 8th July, 1901.

Lecture. — " Pond Life, or Dick's Dive in a Duck-pond,"
by Dr. Kennedy, M.A. ; illustrated by a large number of
phot o- micrographs .

Fourth Meeting: 18th August, 1901.

Lecture. — " The Wonders of Creation as revealed by
the Telescope," by T. Tanner ; illustrated by numerous
lantern-slides.

Fifth Meeting : 9th September, 1901.

Lecture. — " Some Observations on the Fourth Dimension,"
by the Rev. H. W. Williams ; illustrated by a number of
diagrams. {Transactions, p. 507.)

Sixth Meeting: 21st September, 1901.

Papers. — 1. " Food-adulteration," by Dr. Leahy.

2. "The Vegetable Caterpillar," by H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.
(Transactions, p. 396.)

Haicke's Bay Philosophical Institute. 591

3. "A Philological Study in Natural History," by Taylor
White. (Transactions, p. 135.)

Annual Meeting : 7th February, 1902.

Abstract of Annual Report.
During the past year seven meetings of the Institute were held,
including the annual business meeting. At the six ordinary meetings
seven papers were read and two popular lectures delivered, the attend-
ance of members and the general public being particularly good at the
lectures. The Council held seven meetings, at which a considerable
amount of general business was transacted.

Early in the session the Borough Council wrote asking upon what
terms the Institute would convey the library to the Corporation for use as
a reference library. Your Council intimated their willingness to deposit
the Institute's books and Museum collections with the Corporation, the
books to form part of a reference library, under certain conditions safe-
guarding members' rights. Nothing further, however, has been done in
the matter.

The Institute is again greatly indebted to Misses Spencer and
A. Large for a handsome donation— £10 — to be spent in the purchase
of -books for the library. Some of the books have arrived, and, including
these, eighteen volumes have been added to the library. It was also
decided to subscribe to the Popular Science Monthly for a year. A
number of parts are to hand, and are available for the use of members.

Mr. C. E. Fox was appointed curator of the Museum, and, with the
help of several members of the High School Field Club, was able to over-
haul and rearrange a number of the deposits. The Council regret that,
owing to Mr. Fox's departure from Napier, his services will not be
available for the completion of the work.

Six new members were elected during the year, and there were three
resignations, leaving the membership at sixty-four.

The balance sheet showed the total receipts for the year (inclusive
of a balance of £24 lis. 4d. from the preceding year) to have been
£88 2s. 4d., while the expenditure was £51 9s. Id., leaving in hand
£36 13s. 3d. Of the Colenso Bequest a balance of £82 12s. remained in
hand.

Election of Officers for 1902. — President — J. P. D.
Leahy, M.B., M.S., B.A., D.P.H. ; Vice-president — T. G.
Moore, M.D. ; Council— W. Dinwiddie, T. Hall, H. Hill,
B.A., F.G.S., F. Hutchinson, jun., J. S. Large, T. Tanner;
Hon. Secretary — James Hislop, District School ; Hon.
Treasurer — J. W. Craig; Hon. Auditor — G. White.

NELSON INSTITUTE.

Abstract of Annual Report.

The receipts for the year ended 31st December, 1901, from all
souroes (including balance, £65 lis. 4d., brought forward) amounted to
£292 lis. lid., an increase of £56 4s. over the receipts for the previous
year. The expenditure amounted to £273 4s. lid., leaving a credit
balance of £19 7s.

The free reading-room, which was opened for the use of the public
shortly before our last annual meeting, has undoubtedly met a want
much felt by the reading public, and it is evident from the large number
of readers frequenting the room that the action of the committee in this
direction is fully appreciated.

The sum of £39 8s. lOd. has been spent on books, about a hundred
and eighty volumes having been purchased during the year.

The administration of the Institute endowments is in a satisfactory
condition.

During the past year the amalgamation of the Philosophical Society
with the Institute has taken place, and this Society has taken over the
charge of the Museum, and the Nelson Philosophical Library is now
merged in the library of the Nelson Institute.

After the amalgamation of the societies had been effected this
Society applied to the New Zealand Institute for affiliation, and the
request has been granted. A scientific branch of the Institute has been
formed, with an additional subscription of 5s. per annum, which will
confer the privilege of receiving the " Transactions of the New Zealand
Institute." Many members have availed themselves of this arrange-
ment.

The committee desire to record their thanks to those members who
have presented newspapers and periodicals, and to those who have
generously presented books, and again express their appreciation of the
efficient and zealous manner in which the duties of librarian have been
performed by Miss Reeves.

Election of Officers for 1902. — President — H. W.
Eobinson ; Vice-president — D. Grant ; Hon. Secretary and
Treasurer — A. J. Eedgrave ; Acting -Curator of Museum —
W. F. Morley ; Librarian — B. Reeves.

APPENDIX

38

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596 Appendix.

EEMAEKS ON THE WEATHER, 1901.

January. — Fine weather with light rain in the extreme
North ; warm N.E. breezes with good rains over the centre
and South.

February. — Showery in the centre throughout the month ;
fine in North and South. W. and S.W. winds prevailed in
the South Island.

March. — S. and S.W. winds were general all over the
colony, with fine weather in the South Island.

April. — Heavy gales from N.W. ; thunder on 18th over
the South Island; prevailing S.W. winds in South.

May. — Gales from the S.W. in the North, with light rain
showers ; good rains in south of North Island, with prevailing
N.W. wind. N.W. gales with heavy rain on West Coast;
in the South S.W. gales.

June. — In the North N.E. and S. winds prevailed ; heavy
rains in south of North Island and West Coast ; light rains
on East Coast ; thunder and gales in South Island.

July. — In the early part of the month cold S.W. winds
were general all over the colony ; heavy snow fell in the
South. The end of the month was fine in the North, while
there were heavy rains in the South.

August. — S.W. wind in the North was again strong early
in the month ; the rainfall was under the average over the
centre ; on West Coast E. and S.W. winds with heavy rains.

September. — In the North N.E. and S.W. winds; fine
weather and good rains in south of North Island; S.W.
winds all over South Island ; heavy rain on West Coast.

October. — Weather fine in the South, with small rainfall ;
prevailing wind from west. Heavy N.W. and S.W. gales with
heavy rains over West Coast ; in the North fine weather, with
prevailing N.W. wind.

November. — S.W. winds with moderate rainfall all over
North Island; heavy gales from S.W. all over South Island ;
heavy rains West Coast.

December. — Local N. and N.E. winds in extreme South,
but over rest of the colony S.W. wind prevailed; moderate
rainfall everywhere except West Coast.

i h quakes.

597

Earthquakes repoi

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IS

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1901.

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5

Note. — The figures denote the clay of the month on which one or more shocks
were felt. Those with the asterisk affixed were described as smart. The
remainder were only slight tremors, and no doubt escaped record at most
stations, there being no instrumental means employed for their detection.
These tables are therefore not reliable as far as indicating the geographical
distribution of the shocks within New Zealand. The records of the Milne
seismographs recently established at Wellington and Christchurch will be
found on pp. 598-607.

598

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Latitude, 43° 31' 50" S. ; longitude, 172° 38' 09" E. Time employed : 11 h. 30 m. east of Greenwich.

Numbers 1,2, . . . from November, 1901. Time : N.Z.S.T., as stated above. P.T., preliminary tremors less than 2 mm.
complete amplitude; A.T., after-tremors less than 2 mm. complete amplitude; B., E., beginning and end of vibrations not less
than 2 mm. ; Amp., full amplitude in millimetres ; B.P., boom period ; midnight, 0 h. or 24 h.

Records were commenced on this instrument on the 19th November, 1901. The instrnment is erected on a brick pilla.
standing on a concrete foundation sunk to a depth of about 4 ft. 6 in. The concrete is of the form of a truncated pyramid of
square section, the length of whose side at the bottom is 4ft. 6in. and on the top 1 ft. Gin. from which rises the square-
sectioned briok pillar referred to. The geological formation is an alluvial plain of considerable thickness, in which are several
water-bearing strata. From these the people of Christchurch derive their artesian water.

5 r r C. Coleridge Farr, Observer.

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iH — 1

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

HONORARY MEMBERS.
1870.

Finsch, Otto, Ph.D., of Bremen.

Hooker, Sir J. D., G. C.S.I. , C.B.,
M.D., F.R.S.

1873
Cambridge, The Rev. O. Pickard,
M.A., C.M.Z.S.

Gunther, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D.,
F.R.S.

1874.
McLachlan, Robert, F.L.S. | Newton, Alfred, F.R.S.

1875.
Sclater, Philip Lutley, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.

1876.
Etheridge, Prof. Robert, F.R.S. | Berggren, Dr. S.

1877.
Sharp, Dr. D.

1883.

Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.S.

1885.

Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A.,
F.L.S.

Wallace, A. R., F.L.S.

1890.

Nordstedt, Professor Otto, Ph.D. I Liversidge, Professor A., M.A.,

F.R.S.

1891.

Goodale, Professor G. L., M.D.,
LL.D.

Davis, J. W., F.G.S., F.L.S.

1894.

Dyer, Sir W. T. Thiselton ,
K.C.M.G., CLE., LL.D., M.A.,
F.R.S.

Codrington, Rev. R. H., D.D.

1895.

Mitten, William, F.L.S.

1896.

Lydekker, Richard, B.A., F.R.S. I Langley, S. P.

1900.

Agardh, Dr. J. G. I Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.il.S.

Avkbury, Lord, P.O., F.R.S.

Eve, H. W., M.A.

Howes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S.

1901.

I Goebel, Dr. Carl.

Boll of Members.

(509

ORDINAKY MEMBERS.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
[* Life-members.]

Adams, C. E.

Adams, C. W., Blenheim

Adams, Dr.

Allen, F.

Aston, B. C.

Atkinson, A. R.

Barker, G. H.

Barnes, R. J.

Barraud, W. F.

Barton, W.

Beetham, G.

Beetham, W. H.

Bell, E. D.

Bell, H. D.

Best, E., Hadfield

Blair, J. R.

Bothamley, A. T.

Brandon, A. de B.

Brown, E. G.. A.I.C.E.

Buick, T. L., Palmerston N.

Buller, Sir W. L., K.C.M.G.,

D.Sc., F.R.S.
Caldwell, R.
Campbell, J. P.
Chalmers, W. M.
Chapman, Martin
Chappie, Dr.
Chudleigh, E. R.
Cohen, W. P.
Connal, E.

Davy, Dr. T. G., Kumara
Dawson, B.
Denton, George
Easterfield, Prof., M.A., Ph.D
Elliot, Major E. H. J.
Evans, W. P., M.A., Ph.D.
Ewen, C. A.
Farquhar, H.
Ferard, B. A., Napier
Ferguson, W., C.E.
Field, H. C, Wanganui
Fitzgerald, G.
39

Fletcher, Rev. H. J., Taupo

Fraser, Hon. F. H.

Freeman, H. J.

Fyffe, Dr. K.

Gifford, A. C.

Gilruth, J. A.

Gordon, H., F.G.S.

Gore, R. B.

Grace, Hon. M. S., C.M.G.,

M.D.
Grav, W.. Palmerston N.
Hadfield, E. F.
Hanify, H. P.
Harcourt, J. B.
Harding, R. Coupland
Hastie, Miss J. A.*
Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G.,

M.D., F.R.S.
Herbert, W. H.
Hislop, Hon. T.
Hogben, G., M.A.
Holmes, R. L., F.R. Met. Soc,

Fiji*
Holmes, R. T., Masterton
Hosking, Dr. A., Masterton
Hudson, G. V., F.E.S.
Hustwick, T. H.
Inwood, D., Canterbury
Jenkins, Digby A.
Johnson, G. Randall*
Joynt, J. W., M.A.
Keys, B.
King, T.

Kirk, H. B., M.A.
Kirk, T. W., F.L.S.
Krull, F. A., Wangaaui
Lambert, T. S.
Lee, H. M.
Lewis, J. H., Otago
Liifiton, E-. N., Wanganui
Litchfield, A. J., Blenheim
Lomax, H. A., Wanganui

610

Appendix.

Longton, Mrs. 0. V.

Mackenzie, F. Wallace, M.B.

Maclaurin, Prof. E. C, M.A.

Mason, Thomas, Hutt

Matheson, D.

Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E.

McDougall, A.

McKay, Alexander, F.G.S.

McLeod, H. N.

Mc William, Eev. J., Otaki

Mestayer, E. L., M.Inst.C.E.

Moore, G.

Moorehouse, W. H. S.

Morisoa, C. B.

Murdoch, E., Wanganui

Nairn, C. J., Hawke's Bay

Newman, Alfred K.. M.B.,

M.E.C.P.
Orr, Eobert
Park, E. G.*
Pearce, A. E.
Petherick, E. W.
Pharazyn, G, Wairarapa
Phillips. Coleman
Pierard, C. II.
Pollen, Hugh
Powles, C. P.
Poynton, J. W.
Prendergast, Sir J.
Pringle, T.
Purdy, Dr. J. S.
Quail, A.. Pahnerston N.
Eeid, W. S.
Eichardson, C. T.
Eichardson, Hon. G. F.

Eowse, Eev. W., Grey town

Eoy, E. B., New Plymouth-

Eutherfurd, A. J.

Eutherfurd, W. G.

Eutland, Joshua, Marlborough

Samuel, E.

Schaw, Major-General, C.B.,

E.E.
Simcox, W. H., Otaki
Sinclair, J.
Singer, I., F.C.S.
Skerman, Dr. Sydney, Marton
Smith, Charles, Wanganui
Smith. M. C.

Smith, S. Percy, F.E.G.S.
Stewart, J. T., Wanganui
Stowell, H. M.
Tait, P. W.
Talbot, Dr. A. G.
Tanner, Cyril
Travers, H.

Travers, W. T. L., F.L.S.
Tregear, E.
Turnbull, A. H.
Turnbull, E. T.
Turnbull, Thomas
Waley, A. S., London
Wallace, James
Waterhouse, G. M., F.E.G.S.
Welch, W., Palmerston N.
Wevergang, C. H., Taranaki
Wilton, G. W.
Woodhouse, Alfred James,

London
Young, J.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
["Honorary and life members.]

Adams, J., B.A., Thames
Aickin, G., Auckland
Aubin, E. D., M.D., Thames
Austin, A. D., F.E.A.S., Auck-
land
Bagnall, L. J., Thames
Bakewell.E. H., M.D., Auck-
land

Ball, W. T., Auckland
Bankart. A. S., Auckland
Bartley, E., Devonport
Bates, T. L., Newcastle,

N.S.W.
Batger, J., Auckland
Beere, D. M., C.E., Auckland
Berry, W., Auckland

Boll of Members.

611

Best, Elsdon, Te Whaiti
Brain, W. B., Auckland
Brett, H.
Broun, Captain T., F.E.S.,

Drury
Brown," Prof. F. D., Auckland
Brown, J., Epsom
Buchanan, J., Auckland
Buckland, A., Auckland-
Burgess, E. W., Devonport
Burns, J., Auckland
Burton, Colonel, Lake Taka-

puna
Busck, A., Auckland
Cameron, E., Auckland
Campbell, H.

Campbell, J. L., M.D., Auck-
land"
Carnie, A. E., Auckland
Carr, E. A. „

Casey, M.

Chambers, J., Parnell
Cheal, P. E., Auckland
Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S.,

Auckland
Cheeseman, H.H.,M.D.,Coro-

man del
Ching, T.. Eemuera
Clark, M. A., Auckland
Cochrane, W. S., Auckland
Combes, F. H.. Auckland
Cooper, C, Auckland
Cooper, T.
Cowie, Eight Eev. W. G.,

D.D., Bishop of Auckland
Cozens, G.. Auckland
Craig, E. „

Craig, J.J.
Crosher, W.
Cussen, L., Hamilton
Dannefaerd, 8.. Auckland
Darby, P.
Duthie, D. W.
Edson, J., Devonport
Egerton, Professor C. W.,

Auckland
Ewington, F. G., Auckland
Farmer, J., London

Fowlds, G., Auckland
Fox, C. H., St. John's College
Girdler, Dr., Auckland
Goldie, D. „

Goldie, W. H., M.D., Auck-
land
Gorrie, W., Auckland
Gray, S. „

Haines, C. H., M.D.,F.E.G.S.

Auckland
Haines, H., F.E.C.S., Auck-
land
Hardie, J., Auckland
Harding, S., C.E., Auckland
Haszard, H. D. M., Thames
Henton, J. S., Auckland
Herbert, T., Parnell
Howden, J., Auckland
Hudson, H. W., Birkenhead
Hume, J., Eemuera
Hunter, A. J., Parnell
Johnson, H. D., Te Aroha
Kenclercline, J., Auckland
Kidd, A.

Kirker, J. „

Kitt, T. W., London-
Lennox, J. M., Auckland
Lennox, N. G., Sydney*
Leys, T. W., Auckland
Mackechnie, Mrs. E. A., Auck-
land.
Mackellar, E. D., M.D., Auck-
land
McMillan, C. C, Auckland
Mahoney, T., Auckland
Mair, Captain G., Thames
Mair, S. A. E., Eangitikei
Mair, Major W. G., Auckland
Major, Eev. H. D. A., Hamil-
ton
Mander, F., Whangarei
Marsack, A. E., M.D., Parnell
Martin, J., F.G.S., Auckland
Masefield, T. T.
McArthur, A., LL.D., Auck-
land
MacCulloch, C, Auckland
McDonald, D. B.

612

Appendix.

McLean, M., Auckland

McDowell, W. C, M.D., Auck-
land

McLachlan, J. M., Auckland

Millar, A., Auckland

Miller, E. V., Chelsea

Moody, T. P., Hikurangi

Morton, H. B., Auckland

Morrin, T.

Montgomery, A.

Mueller, G.

Mulgan, A. K.

Munro, G. C, Sandwich
Islands

Murdoch, D. L., Auckland

Myers, A. M.

Nathan, L. D.

Nicholson, 0. E.

Pabst, Dr.

Parker, W. F.

Patterson, G. W. S., Auckland

Peacock, T., Auckland

Petrie, D., F.L.S., Auckland

Philcox, W., Devonport

Pinfold, Eev. J. T., F.G.S.,
Parnell

Pond, J. A., Auckland

Potter, A. T., Whangarei

Purchas, Eev. A. G., M.E.C.S.
Auckland

Purdie, E. C, Auckland

Eeid, J., Auckland

Eoberton, E., M.D., Auckland

Eussell, T., C.M.G., London*

Seegner, C, Auckland

Segar, Professor H. W., Auck-
land

Shakespear, E. H., Little
Barrier

Shaw, H., Auckland

Sinclair, A., Auckland

Smith, C. E.,

Smith, H. G. S., Auckland

Smith, S. P., F.E.G.S., Wel-
lington

Smith, T. H., Auckland

Speight, W. J.

Stewart, J., C.E., Auckland

Streeter, S. C. „

Suter, H. „

Swale, H., M.D., Eemuera

Talbot-Tubbs, Professor H.A.,
Auckland

Tewsley, H. C, Auckland

Thomas, Professor A. P. W.,
F.L.S., Auckland

Tibbs, J. W., Auckland

Tinne, H., London*

Tucker, W. T., Ellerslie

Upton, J. H., Auckland

Urquhart, A. T., Karaka

Vaile, E. E., Auckland

Walsh, Eev. Canon P., Wai-
mate

Ward, P., Auckland

Webster, J., Hokianga

Webster, Eev. W., Waiuku

Weetman, S., F.E.G.S., Christ-
church*

Will, W., Auckland

Williams, T. O., M.D., Auck-
land

Williams, Eight Eev. W. L.,
Bishop of Waiapu, Napier

Wilson, A. P., Auckland

Wilson, W. S.

Withy, E., Opotiki*

Wrigg, A. A., C.E., Auckland

Yates, E., Auckland

Roll of Members.

613

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.
[Life-members marked thus *.]

Adams, T. W.

Anderson, Gilbert

Baines, A. C.

Bealey, S.

Beckett, T. Wv Naylor, F.L.S.

Bishop, F. C. B.

Bishop, A. C.

Booth, G. T.

Bourne, C. F., M.A.

Bowen, Hon. C. C.

Bridges, G. G.

Brown, B.

Campbell, Dr. Graham

Campbell, Rev. J.

Carlisle, W. J.

Chilton, C, M.A., D.Sc*

Cockavne, L.

Cook, Prof. C. H. H., M.A.

Deans, J.*

Denniston, Mr. Justice

Dendy, Prof. A.. D.Sc.

Enys, J. D.

Evans, Dr. W. P.

Farr, C. C.

Flower, A. E.

Garsia, Captain

Gray, G., F.C.S.

Gray, A.

Greensill, Miss N. A. E., B.A

Hall, Sir John, K.C.M.G.

Hading, C.

Hilgendorf, F. W.

Hutton, Capt. F. W., F.E.S.*

Kitson, W.

Kitchingman, Miss E.

Laing, E. M., M.A.
Lee, H. M.
Mavne, J..B., B.A.
McLaren, D. B.
Matthews, Eev. E. T.
Mollett, T. A.*
Murray- Aynsley, H. P.
Nairn, E.

Olhver, Miss M. F. L., M.A.
Page, S.
Palmer, J.
Pairman, Dr. T. W.
Purnell, C.

Prideaux, E. B. E., M.A.
Pycroft, A. T.
Eeece, W.
Ehodes, E. Heaton
Eoper, E. W.
Scott, Prof. E. J.
Scott, W. L.

Seager, S. Hurst, A. E.I. B.A.
Sims, A.
Smith, W. W.
Sparkes, W.
Speight, E., M.A.
Stevenson, Miss E., M.A.
Symes, Dr. W. H.*
Taylor, A. L.
Thomas, E. D.
Thomas, T. T.
Thomas, Dr. W.-
Wakefield, C. M., F.L.S

Tjl Tjl C

Wall, Prof. A., M.A.
Waymouth, F.

614

Append I.* .

OTAGO INSTITUTE.

[* Life-
Adams, G. W., G.B., Marl-
borough

Allan, Dr. W. H., Mosgiel

Allen, James, M.H.E.

Armstrong, F.

Barnett, L.S., M.B., F.E.C.S.

Barningham, S.

Batchelor, F. C M.D.,
M.E.G.S.

Bathgate, Alexander

Beal, L. O., C.E.

Bell, A. D., Shag Valley

Benham. Professor W. B..
D.Sc, M.A.. F.Z.S.

Beverly, Arthur

Bews, D. J.

Black, Alexander-

Black, Professor J. G., D.Sc.

Blair, John

Brent, Daniel, M.A.-
Brown, Dr. W.

Brown, William

Browning, Miss K.

Buchanan, N. L., Taitapu '::

Campbell, Robert

Carew, W. S.

Chamberlain, C. W.

Chapman, F. R.

Clarke, David, Waipahi

Collins, T. J.

Colquhoun,D.,M,D.,M.R.C.S.

De Lautour, Dr.

Don, J. R.. D.Sc, Waitaki

Duncan, Peter

Dunn, J. D.

Durrand, A.

Fels, W.

Fenwick, George

Ferguson, H. Lin do, M.D.,
F.R.C.S.I.

Fitzgerald, W. S.

Fulton, S. W., Melbourne *

Fulton, Dr. R.

Gibbons, Professor F.B.de M.,
M.A.

members.]

Goyen, P.

Hamilton, A.

Hay, P. S., Wellington

Hav. Dr. Frank, Waikari

Hav, Robert. M.I. C.E.

Hocken,T.M..M.R.C,S.,F.L.S.

Hoskiug, J. H.

Howes, George W.

Hunter, T. A.

Jackson, Howard, Blue Spur

Joachim, George *

King, Dr. P. Truby, Seacliff

Langmuir, James

Lillie, C. O., M.A.

Logan, John

Lusk, T. W.

McKerrow, James, F.R.A.S.,

Wellington
McLean, John*
McLeod, J. G.
McNicol, David A.
Marchant. Miss E. Allman,

M.A.
Marshall, P., D.Sc.
Matthews, J. H.
Mayne, Rev. Canon
Meggett, A.
Melland, E.*

Milne, W. D.. M.A.. LL.B.
Moore, W. W.
Morris, Colonel
Neville, Right Rev. S. T.,

D.D.. Bishop of Dunedin
Ogston, Frank. M.D.
Park, Professor J.
Pearce, T. D., M.A.
Petrie, Donald, M.A., F.L.S.,

Auckland ¥
Powell, W.
Rattray, James
Rees, Miss Lily, B.A.
Reid, Donald, jun.
Reid, George

Richardson, C. R. D., B.A.
Ritchie, J. M.

Boll of Members.

615

Eoberts, W. S., M.R.C.S.
Roberts, John, C.M.G.
Russell. George Gray
Sale, Professor G. S., M.A.
Scott, Professor J. H., Al.D.
Shacklock, John B.
Shand, Professor John, M.A.,

LL.D.
Shennan, Watson, Pomahaka
Sidey, John, LL.B., M.H.R.
Sim, William A.
Sise, G. L.
Skey, Henry
Smith, W. A.
Smith, Colonel E. R.
Smith, J. Crosby, Invercargill
Smith. Dr. W. M.

Stephenson, Dr. R. S.
Stewart, Alexander
Stewart, Miss Lena
Stout, Sir Robert, K.C.M.G.,

Wellington
Theomin, D.
Thomson, G. M., F.L.S.;
Thomson, J. C.
Wales, N. Y. A.
Waters, D. B.

Whetter, Richard Gill, M.A.
White, David R., M.A.
Wilson, Alexander, M.A.
Williams, Mr. Justice, AT. A.,

LL.AT. *
Woodhouse, J. F.
Young. Dr. James, Invercargill

WESTLAND
Agnew, Aliss
Banks, Airs.
Beare, T. W.
Bignell, Captain
Blakeley, R.
Brown, Airs.
Burgess, G. A.
Cahill, T.
Clarke, J. J.
Corner, A. F.
Dawes, J. S.
Day, V. G.

Douglas, Rev. William
Douglas, H.
Duncan, W.
Fowler, Airs.
Gale, T. H.
Gill, T. H.
Heinz, W.
Hickson, J. N.
Hughes, H. E.
Hyams, Aliss
Inwood, Aliss
Jamieson, Captain
Keller, A.
Lewis, J. B.
Little, A.
Lloyd, C.
Lynch, J. D.

INSTITUTE.
Alacandrew, Dr.
Alacfarlane, D.
Alacfarlane, J. C.
AlacNaughton, J. R.
Alahan, A.
Alalfrov, J.
Mandle, J.
Alar shall, D.
Martin, Rev. Canon
Alaunders, J.
Alichel, H. L.
Moore, J. R.
Alorton, A. J.
Murphy, AI.
Park, J.
Perry, G.
Renton, W.
Roberts, G. J.
Solomon, J.
Stark, H. P.
Stevenson, A.
Stevenson, W. J.
Teichelmann, Dr.
Wake, H. G.
Ward, Aliss
Wild, R.
Williams, W.
Wilson, W.

616

Appendix.

NELSON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Atkins, A. S.
Bartell, J. G.
Catley, J. T.
Chatterton, Eev. J. H.
Cox, Captain
Cresswell, E. S.
Curtis, W. S.
Duncan, H.
Fleming, E.
Gibbs, F. G.
Grant, D.
Harris, J. P.
Hill, Mrs.

Hornsby, G. P.
Hudson, Dr.
Kempthorne, Eev. J. P.
Kmgsley, E. I.
Lukins, E.
Mackie, Dr. W. G.
Martin, W.
Mules, Bishop
Noble, Mrs.
Eedgrave, A. J.
Eobinson, H. W.
Worlev, W. F.

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.

Anderson, E. N.
Antill, H. W.
Asher, Eev. J. A.
Bernau, Dr. H. F.
Bull, H., Gisborne
Burnett, H., Woodville
Chambers, J. B., Te Mata
Chambers, J., Mokopeka
Chambers, W. K., Waerenga-

ahiki, Poverty Bay
Coleman, J. H.
Craig, J. W.
De Lisle, Dr. F. I.
Dinwiddie, P.
Dinwiddie, W.
Donnelly, G. P., Crissoge
Duncan, Eussell
Finch, Dr.
Goggan, Eev. Father
Gold- Smith, Eric C.
Gray, W., B.A.
Guthrie- Smith, H., Tutira
Hamilton, A., Dunedin*
Hall, T.

Hallett, Thomas, Puketitiri
Harding, J. W., Mount Vernon
Hill, H., B.A., F.G.S.
Hislop, J.

Holder, H. P., Woodville
Hutchinson,F., jun., Eissington

[* Life-members.]

Jarvis, Dr. J. E. H.

Kennedy, Dr., Meeanee

Large, J. S.*

Large, Miss

Large, H.

Leahy, Dr.

Lowry, T. H., Okawa

Luff, A., Wellington

McLean, E. D. D.

McLernon, S.

Moore, Dr. T. C.

Ormond, G., Mahia

Ormond, Hon. J. D., M.L.C.

O'Eyan, W., Waipiro

Eonald, Dr. A.

Smith, J. H., Olrig*

Spencer, Miss

Tanner, T.

Tiffen, F. G.,

Gisborne
Tregelles, F. A., C.E.
Town ley, J., Gisborne
White, T., Wimbledon
White, G.
Williams, A. J.
Williams, F. W.
Williams, J. N.

Hastings
Williams, Eev. H.

Puhatikotiko,

Frimley,

List of Free Copies. 617

LIST OF INSTITUTIONS AND PERSONS

TO WHOM

THIS VOLUME IS PRESENTED BY THE GOVERNORS OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

His Excellency the Governor, President of the Institute.

Governors of the Institute (eleven).

Honorary Members (thirty).

The Prime Minister.

The Colonial Secretary.

The Colonial Treasurer.

The Minister of Lands.

The Minister for Public Works.

The Postmaster-General.

The Attorney-General.

The Minister of Education.

The Under Colonial Secretary.

The Under-Secretary for Lands.

The Legislative Council.

The House of Representatives.

The Colonial Office, London.

The Agent-General, London.

The Imperial Institute, London.

Messrs. Kegan, Paul. Trench, Trubner, and Co. (Agents),
Paternoster House, Charing Cross Road, London.

British Museum Library, London.

British Museum, Natural History Department, South Ken-
sington, London, S.W.

Linnean Society, London.

Royal Society, London.

Royal Geographical Society, London.

Royal Asiatic Society, London.

Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom.

Royal Colonial Institute, London.
•Royal Statistical Society, London.

Geological Society, London.

Zoological Society, London.

Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,
London.

Entomological Society, London.

Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London.

Editor of Nature, London.

Geological Magazine, London.

Geological Record, London.

618 Appendix.

Zoological Record, London.

Victoria Institute, London.

Institution of Civil Engineers, London.

Library of Patent Office, London.

Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.

Philosophical Society of Leeds, England.

Leeds Geological Association, Meanwood, Leeds.

Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool, England.

Biological Society, Liverpool.

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist Society, Norwich, England.

University Library, Oxford, England.

University Library, Cambridge, England.

School Library Committee, Eton, England.

School Library Committee, Harrow, England.

School Library Committee, Eugby, England.

Natural History Society, Marlborough College, England.

Clifton College, England.

North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical

Engineers, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Eoyal Society, Edinburgh.
Eoyal Botanic Garden Library, Edinburgh.
Geological Society, Edinburgh.
University Library, Edinburgh.
Eoyal Physical Society, Edinburgh.
Eoyal College of Physicians, Edinburgh.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Natural History Society, Glasgow.
Eoyal Irish Academy, Dublin.
Eoyal Society, Dublin.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Bombay Natural History Society.
Eoyal Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
Lmnean Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
Public Library, Sydney.
Library of Australian Museum, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney.
University Library, Sydney.
Agricultural Department, Sydney.
Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Australasian Association for Advancement of Science,

Sydney.
Eoyal Geographical Society of Australasia, Sydney.
Eoyal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.
Public Library, Melbourne.
University Library, Melbourne.
Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne.

List of Free Copies. 619

Field Naturalists' Club, Melbourne.

Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne.

Gordon Technical College, Geelong, Victoria.

Legislative Library, Adelaide.

Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide.

University Library, Adelaide.

Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart.

Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart.

Royal Society of Queensland.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

Botanic Garden Library, Brisbane.

Queensland Branch, Geographical Society of Australasia,

Brisbane.
Free Public Library, Capetown.
Canadian Institute, Toronto.
Hamilton Association, Canada.
Geological Survey of Canada, Montreal.
Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, Canada Fast.
Nova-Scotian Institute of Natural Science, Halifax.
Natural History Society of New Brunswick, St. John's.
Institute of Jamaica, Kingston.

Science College, Imperial University of Japan. Tokyo.
Literature College, Imperial University of Japan. Tokyo.
National Librae, Honolulu.
The Colony of Tahiti.

His Excellency the Governor, Pakeite, Tahiti.
Society of Natural Sciences, Batavia.
Boston Society of Natural History, U.S.A.
Connecticut Academy, New Haven, U.S.A.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Academy of Science, Wisconsin, U.S.A.
Natural History Society, New Brunswick.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
American Geographical Society, New York.
American Museum of Natural History, New York.
Natural History Museum, Central Park, New York.
New York Academy of Sciences.
Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.
American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Philadelphia.
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.
Academy of Natural Sciences Library, Philadelphia.
Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York.
Academy of Natural Sciences, San Francisco.
Stanford University, California.

620 Appendix.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Davenport, Iowa.

Harvard College, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Director of Library of Missouri Botanical Gardens, St.

Louis, Mo.
Natural History Society of Frankfurt a 0.
Eoyal Society of Literature and Arts of Belgium, Brussels.
Boyal Imperial Institute for Meteorology and Earth-Mag-
netism, Hohe-Warte, Vienna.
Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-koniglichen Geologischen Eeichs-

anstalt, "Vienna.
Ornithological Society, Vienna.

Botanical Society of the Province of Brandenburg, Berlin.
Dr. Bastian, Berlin.
Eoyal Library, Berlin.
Geographical Society, Berlin.
Societas regia Scientiarum Bohemica, Prague.
Imperial German Academy of Naturalists, Dresden.
Physico-economic Society of Konigsberg, E. Prussia.
Eoyal Zoological, Anthropological, and Ethnographical

Museum, Dresden.
Verein fur vaterlaudische Naturkunde in Wiirtemberg,

Stuttgart.
Society of Geography, Leipzig.
Naturhistorischer Verein in Bonn.
Natural History Museum of Hamburg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen.
Eedaktion des Biologischen Centralblatts, Erlangen.
Biblioteca e dell' Archivio Tecnico del Ministero Cordoba

dei Lavori Pubblici, Eoma.
E. Accademia dei Lincei, Eome.
Imperial Museum of Florence.
Eoyal Geographical Society of Italy, Florence.
Orto e Museo Botanico (E. Instituto di Studi Superiori) in

Firenze.
Tuscan Natural Science Society, Pisa.
Museum of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy of the Eoyal

University of Turin.
Editor of Cosmos, Turin.
Academy of Science, Modena.
Societa Africana d'ltalia, Naples.
Statzione Zoological, Naples.
National Library, Paris.
Societe de Geographie, Paris.
Entomological Society of France, Paris.
Museum of Natural History of France, Paris.
Societe Zoologique de France, Pans.
Natural History Museum, Bordeaux.
Natural History Society, Angers.

List of Free Copies. 621

Museum of Natural History, Geneva.

Die Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Bern.

Imperial Society of Naturalists, Moscow.

Societe des Naturalistes, Kieff, Russia.

Societe des Sciences de Finlande, Helsingfors.

Royal Academy of Science, Stockholm.

Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm.

University of Christiania, Norway.

Bergen Museum, Norway.

Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Literature of

Copenhagen.
Natural History Society of Copenhagen.
Dr. Lutkin, Copenhagen.
M. Teyler, Haarlem.

Academia Nacional de Ciencias de la Republica Argentina.
School of Mines, Rio de Janeiro.
Society of Engineers, Rio de Janeiro.
Zoological Society of Brazil, Rocha.
Musen Pauhsta, San Paulo, Brazil.
Zoological Society, Brazil.

Libraries and Societies in New Zealand.

General Assembly Library.

Executive Library.

Library, New Zealand Institute.

Library, Auckland Institute.

Library, Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute.

Library, Wellington Philosophical Society.

Library, Nelson Institute.

Library, Westland Institute.

Library, Philosophical Institute of Canterbury.

Library, Otago Institute.

Library, University College, Auckland.

Library, University College, Christchurch.

Library, University College, Dunedin.

Library, Auckland Museum.

Library, Wanganui Museum.

Library, Canterbury Museum.

Library, Otago Museum.

Library, Otago School of Mines.

Library, Thames School of Mines.

Library, Reefton School of Mines.

Librarv, Free Public. Auckland.

Library, Free Public, Wellington.

Library, Free Public, Christchurch.

Library, Free Public, Dunedin.

622

Appendix.

Publishing Branch.

Editor.

Assistant Editor.
Draughtsman.

Lithographer.
Government Printer.
Photo-lithographer.

INDEX.

AUTHORS.

A.

Adams, C. E., 569
Ashley, J., 580
Aston, B. C, 495
Austin, A. D., 574

B.
Bee, J., 497
Benham, Professor, 149, 151, 155,

585, 586
Best, Elsdon, 34, 69
Broun, Captain T., 175
Brown, E. G., 519
Brown, Professor F. D., 573
Browning, Miss K., 583

Carse, H., 359, 362
Chapman, P. R., 582
Chilton, Dr., 579
Cockayne, L., 243, 578
Colquhoun, Dr., 582

D.

Dendy, Professor, 123, 147, 578, 579
Dinwiddie, W., 590

E.

Easterfield, Professor, 495, 497, 499,

565, 566, 567
Ewington, F. G., 573

H.

Hall, J. W., 388
Hamilton. A., 224, 447, 539
Haszard, H. D. M., 386
Hector, D., 513, 514
Hector, Sir J., 239, 563, 564, 569
Henry, R., 570, 587
Hill, H., 396
Hocken, Dr., 99, 584
Hudson, G. V., 18, 31
Hutchinson, F., jun., 409
Hutton, Captain F. W., 169, 175,
179, 196, 197, 198, 579

K.

Fox, C. E., 452

Kennedy, Dr., 590

L.

Laing, R. M., 327
Leahy, Dr., 590
Lewis, J. H., 201, 565

M

Marshall, Dr. P., 585
Miller, E. V., 575
Mulgan, E. K., 414

O.
Olliver, Margaret F., 147

Park, Professor, 435, 440, 444
Petrie, D., 390

624

Index.

Quail, A., 226

Q.

R.

Robertson, P. W., 499, 501

Talbot-Tubbs, Professor, 574
Tanner, T., 590
Thomas, Professor, 402, 575
Thomson, G. M., 588
Thomson, W. M., 241

S.

Salmon, E. S., 325
Segar, Professor, 115
Smith, W. W., 199
Stewart, J., 1, 573
Stewart, J. T., 451
Suter, H., 204, 207

W.

Walker, Captain J. J., R.N., 572
Wall, Professor, 579
White, Tavlor, 135
Williams, Rev. H. W., 507

SUBJECTS.

Acids, Vapour Densities of the

Fatty, 499
Adulteration of Food, 590
Alepisaurus ferox, Occurrence of,

197
Andesites from the Thames, On

some, 435
Antipodes Island, Diptera of, 169
Artesian Well at Aramoho, 451
Astrape aysoni, n.s., 224
Astronomical Photographs exhi-
bited, 574
Auchenopte rus aysoni, n.s., 240
Auckland Institute —

Date of Incorporation, xvi.

Election of Officers, 577

Members of, 610

Officers and Rules, xvi.

Presidential Address to, 1

Proceedings of, 573

Report, 576
Auckland Islands, Beetles of, 175
Auckland Islands, Diptera of, 169
Auckland Islands, On a Marine

Galaxias from the, 198

B.

Balcznoptera rostrata, Anatomy of

Young, 151
Barrier, Little, Land Mollusca of,

204
Barrier, Little, Reserve for Birds

on, 577
Beetles attacked by Mites, 199
Beetles of the Auckland Islands,

175
Birds, Reservation for Native, 577
Boar-fish, Occurrence of a, 587

Botanical Papers, 243
iJrain versus Muscle in the Produc-
tion of Wealth, 573

C.
Campbell Island, Diptera of, 169
Cancer— see Insanity
Canterbury Philosophical Insti-
tute—
Date of Incorporation, xvi.
Election of Officers, 581
Members of, 613
Officers and Rules, xvii.
Proceedings of, 578
Report, 580
Caterpillar, The Vegetable, 396, 571
Cnain Standard, Notes on the
Sydney, 569

Charity Organization, On, 583

Chatham Islands, A New Fossil
Pecten from, 196

Chatham Island Natives, Customs
and Relics of, 123

Chatham Island, The Plant-cover-
ing of, 243, 578

Chemistry, Papers on, 495

Clarke, the late F. E., Drawings of
Fishes by, 563

Coast-line, On the Secular Move-
ments of the New Zealand, 440

Cogia breviceps, Notes on, 155

Coleoptera, Notes on, 201, 565

Comet of 1901, 31

Comets, with Special Reference to
the Recent One, 590

Cordiceps robertsii, On, 396, 571

Corynocarpus Icevigata, Chemical
Properties of, 495

Creation as revealed by the Tele-
scope, The Wonders of, 590

index.

625

Crustaceans, Note on Sohizopod,
579

D.

Diptera of New Zealand, Additions

to the, 179
Diptera of the Southern Islands,

169
Dunedin, On the Surroundings of,

588
Dusky Sound, Natural - history

Notes from, 570

E.

Earthquakes reported in New Zea-
land in 1901, 597, 598

Earth's Motion in Space, The
Equatorial Component of the, 513

Economic Science, Ruskin's Influ-
ence on, 575

Education, Some Aspects of Tech-
nical, 590

Elements and Compounds, Latent
Heats of Fusion of the, 501

Embryology of New Zealand Lepi-
doptera, 226

Entelea arborescens, Remarks on,
565

Entomology of New Zealand, Notes
on the, 572

Europe, On the Learned Societies
of, 579

Evolution in Literary Types, 579

F.

Fauna of New Zealand, Proposition
for an Index of the, 578, 580, 583,
588

Ferns, Epiphytes of Tree-, 359

Fever as affected by Mosquitoes, 582

Fishes and Fishing, List of Papers
on New Zealand, 539

Fishes, Drawings of, by the late
F. E. Clarke, 563

Fish, Fossil, from Kaikorai, 585

Fish-hatchery, Progress of the Pro-
posed, 582, 588

Fishes, Notes on New Zealand, 224,
239, 563, 564, 570, 587

Flora, Chemistry of the New Zea-
land, 495

Flora of the Mauku District, 362

Food-adnlteration, 590

Fourth Dimension, Observations on
the, 507

Fusion of the Elements and Com-
pounds, Latent Heats of, 501
40

G.

Galaxias, On a Marine, from the
Auckland Islands, 198

Geological Papers, 409

Glacier Moraines in the Leith Val-
ley, Notes on, 444

Graptolites from Preservation Inlet,
579

Greek Painted Vases: their Im-
portance, Form, and Design, 574

Growth of Trees in New Zealand,
386, 388

H.

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Insti-
tute—

Date of Incorporation, xvi.

Eleotion of Officers, 591

Members of, 616

Officers and Rules, xviii.

Proceedings of, 590

Report, 591
Health Statistics, Remarks on Re-
cent, 115
Hemirhamphus, On a Fossil, 585
Herring, Notes on the Picton, 570
Histopterus, Occurrence of, 587
Hydroid, On a New Type of, 579

Index of the Fauna of New Zealand,

Proposition for an, 578, 580, 583,

588
Insanity, Cancer, and Phthisis in

New Zealand, On the Recent

Statistics of, 115
Insects, Senses of, 18, 561
Islands, Diptera of the Southern,

169
Isotachis, On a New, 325

K.

Kaikorai, Fossil Leaves and Fish

from, 585
Kaikorai Valley, On Leaf-beds in,

585
Karaka-nut, Chemical Properties

of the, 495, 566

Lamprey, The New Zealand, 147
Lampris lima, Occurrence of, 587
Land Mollusca of Little Barrier, 204
Latent Heats of Fusion of the Ele-
ments and Compounds, 501
Learned Societies of Europe, On
the, 579

626

Index.

Leith Valley Moraines, On some,

444
Lcpido-ptera, Embryology of New

Zealand, 226
Literary Types, Evolution in, 579
Literature in New Zealand, Early,

99, 584
Little Barrier Island, Land Mol-

lusca of, 204
Little Barrier Island Reserve for

Birds, 577
Lizard, On a New, from Fortrose,

585

M.

Mair Maori Collection, Purchase of

the, 576
Maori Carved House from Taheke,

Account of the, 573, 577
Maori Games, 34
Maori Magic, 69
Martinborough District, Note on

Caves in, 562
Mathematical Treatment of the
Problem of Production, Rent, In-
terest, and Wages, 514
Mauku District, Flora of the, 362
Mesoplodon hectori, Note on a

Young, 563
Meteorology of New Zealand, 595,

598
Miscellaneous Papers, 1, 539
Mites attacking Beetles and Moths,

On, 199
Moa, On an Entire Egg of a, 149
Moa Remains, Distribution of, 562
Moeraki, On the Septarian Boulders

of, 447
Molecular Weight Determination,

Raoult's Method for, 497, 567
Mollusca, Land, of Little Barrier,

204
Mollusca, List of New Zealand, 207
Moriori Race, On Relics of the, 123
Mosquitoes : their Relation to Ma-
larial Fever, 582
Moths attacked by Mites, 199
Mountains, Across the, 575

N.

Napier-Greenmeadows Road, Notes

on the, 409
Native Plants, New, 390
Natural-history Notes from Dusky

S >und, 570
Nelson Institute —

Date of Incorporation, xvi.

Election of Officers, 592

Members of, 616

Nelson Institute — continued.

Officers and Rules, xix.

Proceedings of, 592
New Zealand Coast-level, Changes

of, 440
New Zealand, Early Literature in,

99, 584
New Zealand Fishes and Fishing,

List of Papers on, 539
New Zealand Institute —

Accounts, 553

Honorary Members of, 608

Incorporated Societies of, xvi.

Nomination of Governors, 564

Officers of, xiii.

Ordinary Members of, 609

Presentation List, 617

Proceedings of, 559

Report, 551

Rules of, xiii.
Norfolk Island, On a Shrimp from,

579

O.

Octopus, Note on an, 564
Opha, Occurrence of, 587
Otago Institute —

Date of Incorporation, xvi.

Election of Officers, 588

Members of, 614

Officers and Rules, xvii.

Proceedings of, 582

Report, 587

Panax arboreum epiphytic on Tree-
ferns, 359

Parawai, Thames, On Tree-growing
at, 386, 388

Pecten dendyi, n.s., from Chatham
Islands, 196

Philological Study in Natural His-
tory, A, 135

Phthisis — see Insanity

PhyUoglossum, On the Prothallium
of, 402

Physics, Papers on, 495

Picton Herring, Notes on the, 570

Planimetpr, The Theory of the
Polar, 569

Plant-covering of Chatham Island,
243, 578

Plants, Chemical Properties of, 495,
566

Plants, New Native, 390

Political Economy mathematically
treated, 514

Polynoid, On a New, 241

Index.

627

Pond Life, or Dick's Dive in a

Duck-pond, 590
Preservation Inlet, Graptolites from,

579
Proceedings, 559
Production, Rent, Interest, and

Wages, Mathematical Treatment

of the Problem of, 514
Progress, On some Conditions of,

578
Prothallium of Phylloglosstim, The,

402

R.

Raoult's Method for Molecular

Weight Determination, 497, 567
Ray. On a New Electric, 224
Reservations for Native Birds, 577
Rorqual, External Anatomy of a

Young, 151
Rorqual, On the Method of Feeding

by the, 587
Rosella Parrots in New Zealand,

Note on, 561
Ruskin's Influence on Economic

Science, 575

Schizopod Crustaceans, Note on,

579
Seaweeds, List of New Zealand, 327
Seismographs, Records of Milne,

598
Septarian Boulders at Moeraki, 447
Shrimp from Norfolk Island, On a,

579
Sight, On the Sense of, 579
Skey, William, In Memoriam, 554
Snares, Diptera of the, 169
Southern Islands, Diptera of the,

169
Southland Institute —

Date of Incorporation, xvi.

Officers of, xix.
Sparrow, Note on a Deformed, 562
Sperm Whale, Note on the Lesser,

155
Sphenodon punctatum, Breeding

Habits of, 580
Statistics, Remarks on Recent

Health, 115
Stone Implements, On a Collection

of, 582
Sydney Chain Standard, Notes on

the, 569

T.

Technical Education, Some Aspects

of, 590
Thames Goldfield, On some Ande-

sites from the, 435
Time, The Measurement of, 573
Trees, Growth of, in New Zealand,

386, 388
Tuatara, On the Breeding Habits

of the, 580

Vapour Densities of the Patty

Acids, 499
Variation, Phenomena of, and their

Symbolic Expression, 519
Vegetable Caterpillar, On the, 396,

571
Volcanic Beds of the Waitemata

Series, 414, 452

W.

Waitemata Series, On the Volcanic

Beds in the, 414, 452
Wanganui, Artesian Well at, 451
Wealth, Brain versus Muscle in the

Production of, 573
Wellington Philosophical Society —

Date of Incorporation, xvi.

Election of Officers, 569

Members of, 609

Officers and Rules, xvi.

Proceedings of, 561

Report, 568
Westland Institute —

Date of Incorporation, xvi.

Election of Officers, 589

Members of, 615

Officers and Rules, xviii.

Proceedings of, 589

Report, 589
Whales, Notes on, 151, 155, 563,

587
Whau, Remarks on the, 565

X.

Xiphocharis compressa from Norfolk
Island, 579

Z.
Zoological Papers, 147

JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, WELLINGTON.— 1902.

Trans N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. I.

Fig.].

Fig. 2
COMET OF 1901. Hudson.

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Pl. IIL

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Age-periods. HEALTH STATISTICS.— SEGAR.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl.V.

MORIORI CARVINGS.— Dendy.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV

Pl. VI.

MORIORI RELICS— Dendy.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. VII.

MOA'S EGG.— Benham.

(Reduced.)

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. VIII.

Left Valve.

Right Valve.

PECTEN DENDYI. n.s.— Hutton.

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Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. X

ASTRAPE AYSONI, n.s.— Hamilton.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. XI.

4" ■
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ASTRAPE AYSONI, n.s.— Hamilton.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. XII.

ASTRAPE AYSONI.n.s.— Hamilton.

Trans. N.Z. Inst, Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. XIII.

EMBRYO N.Z. LEPIDOPTERA.— A. Quail.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. XIV.

A. — Callorhynchus antarcticus, female. B. — Male.
C. — Chimeera colliei (=C. monstrosa var. australis?) female. D. — Male.

NOTES ON N.Z. FISHES.— Hector.

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Pl.XIXa

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Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. XX.

E. S. Salmon del.

ISOTACHIS STEPHANII

Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XXXIV

Pl. XXI.

Fig. 1.

■:,.

Fig. 2.

CORDICEPS.— Hill.

Trans. N.Z. Inst. Vol. XXXIV. Pl. XXIII.

B.

Fragment in Conglomerate from Point
East op Whangapabaoa.

Magnified 50 Diameters.

Altered olivine crystals (two shown) I
Augite crystals ... ... 1 1

Feldspar crystals ... ... 1

Magnetite specks

Chlorite lining inside of cavities

ROCK SECTIONS.— Mulgan.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. XXIV.

C.
Fragment in Grit from the Horn, Manueau Harbour.

Magnified 50 Diameters.

Augite crystals

Feldspar crystals

Magnetite specks

Cavity partly filled with chlorite ...

ROCK SECTIONS.— Mulgan.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pc.XXV

D.

Fragment in Grit at Cheltenham Beach,

Magnified 50 Diameters.

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Feldspar crystals
Magnetite specks
Chlorite

Some of the larger green crystals may be altered olivine ,
the rest is probably due to the alteration of some pyroxene.

ROCK SECTIONS.— Mulgan.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pi.. XXVI.

E.
Mount Eden Basalt.

Magnified 50 Diameters.

Ground-mass vitreous, consisting of small triclinic needle-
shaped feldspar crystals and microliths, minute augite
crystals and specks of magnetite imbedded in a glassy
magma.

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Feldspar crystals

Magnetite specks

The olivine is abundant; the smaller crystals can only be
recognised under crossed nicols.

ROCK SECTIONS.— Mulgan.

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Pl. XXXIV

CONE IN CONE-LIMESTONE.— Hamilton.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. XXXV.

CONE IN CONE-LIMESTONE.— Hamilton.

Trans. N.Z. Inst. Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. XXXVI.

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Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV

Pl. XXXVII.

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PHENOMENA OF VARIATION P.P.— Brown

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXIV.

Pl. XXXVIII

Fig. 1

A. White Bluff.
1. Parnell grit ?

2. Sandstones.

3. Cheltenham breccia ?

x and y, small bays.

Fig. 2

1. Sandstones. 2. Cheltenham breccia.

Fig. 3.

A. Pt. where bryozoa occur.

B. Deep Creek.

1. Breccia.

2. Sandstones and shale.

NW 6 5 2

A. St. John's College. 1. Parnell grit.

B. Tamaki Gulf (Pt. England). 2. Wairau tuffs.

C. Orakei. 3. Yellow sandstones.

Fig. 5

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TRANSACTIONS

AND

PROCEEDINGS

or THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

1901

VOL. XXXIV.

(Seventeenth of New Series)

EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDEK THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD Off
GOVERNORS OP THE INSTITUTE

BY

SIS JAMES HECTOR, K.G.M.G., M.D., F.R.S.

DlKEOTOK

Issued July, 1902

WELLINGTON

JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

&EGAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER, & CO., PATERNOSTER HOUSE
CHARING CROSS ROAD, LONDON

■ma*! — m iiln^i

MB1. WHOI LIBRARY

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