TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXY WILLIAM THOMAS LOCKE TRAVERS. See p. xviii, TRANSACTIONS AND / PROCEEDINGS OP THE :•> NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1902 VOL. XXXV (Eighteenth of New Series) EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OK THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE BY SIE JAMES HECTOE, K.C.M.G., M.D., E.E.S. Director Issued July. 1903 WELLINGTON JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE KEGAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER, & CO., PATERNOSTER HOUSE, CHARTNG CROSS ROAD, LONDON CORRIGENDUM. Page 92, line 14. For the dishes read tin dishes. luji.LI CONTENTS TEANSACTIONS. I. — Miscellaneous. pages Art. I. The Bird as the Labourer of Man. By W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. .. .. .. ..1-11 II. The Cultivation and Treatment of the Kumara by the Primitive Maoris. By Archdeacon Walsh .. 12-24 III. Foot tracks of Captain Cook. By H. D. M. Haszard 24- 32 IV. Following the Tracks of Captain Cook. By Russell Duncan .. .. .. .. .. 32- 45 V. Food Products of Tuhoeland: being Notes on the Food- supplies of Non-agricultural Tribes of the Natives of New Zealand ; together with some Account of various Customs, Supsrstitions, &c, pertaining to Foods. By Elsdon Best . . . . 45-111 VI. Notes on a Bone Pendant in the Form of a Lizard (?), found on the Sandhills at Wainui ; and on some other Bone Objects. By A. Hamilton .. .. 111-113 VII. On a Stone Relic found at Orepuki, Southland. By A. Hamilton.. .. .. .. .. 113-116 VIII. Remarks on the Trade and Public Debt of New Zea- land. By H. W. Segar, M.A., Professor of Mathe- matics, University College, Auckland . . . . 117-122 IX. The Flood of Gold. By Professor H. W. Segar . . 122-139 X. Nature's Efforts at Sanitation. By R. H. Makgill, M.D., D.P.H. .. .. .. .. 139-152 XI. Technical and Scientific Training. By H. Hill, B. A., F.G.S. .. .. .. .. .. 153-168 XII. The Maoris To-day and To-morrow. By H. Hill . . 169-186 XIII. An Account of the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony, or Vilavilairevo, with a Probable Explanation of the Mystery. By Robert Fulton, M.B., CM., Edin. 187-201 XIV. The Adjustment of Triangularis by Least Squares. By C. E. Adams, B.Sc. (Honours), A. I. A., late Engineering Entrance Scholar and Engineering Exhibitioner, Canterbury College ; late Senior Scholar in Physical Science, New Zealand Uni- versity . . . . . . . . . . 201-208 XV. The Travelled Goat: a Great Lexicographer, a Cele- brated Painter, and a Distinguished Botanist. By Taylor White .. .. .. .. 209-210 XVI. The Horse : a Study in Philology. By Taylor White 211-219 XVII. The Fight against Tuberculosis in the Australian Colonies and New Zealand. By John P. D. Leahy, M.B., D.P.H... .. .. ..220-225 XVIII. Malaria and Mosquitos. By Ernest Roberton, M.D. 225-239 XIX. Chips from an Ancient Maori Workshop. By Captain G. Mair, N.Z.C. .. .. .. ..240-242 32397 vi Contents. II.— Zoology. pages Art. XX. On some New Species of Macro-lepidoptera. By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. .. .. ..243-245 XXI. On some New Species of Lepidoptera (Moons) from Southland. By Alfred Philpott . . . . 246-249 XXII. On Charagia virescens, Dbld. By Ambrose Quail, F.E.S. .. •• •■ ■• •• 249-255 XXIII. A Fly and a Spider (Fompilidce, Salius monachus, Sm. ; and Porrhothele antipodiana) . By Ambrose Quail .. .. .. •■ •• 256-258 XXIV. On the Anatomy of Paryphanta busbyi, Gray. By R. Murdoch . . . . . . . . . . 258-262 XXV. On the Occurrence of Paludicella in New Zealand. By A. Hamilton . . . . . . . . 262-264 XXVI. Short Notes on various Insects. By F. W. Hilgen- dorf, M.A., B.Sc. .. .. .. .. 264-267 XXVll. The Rotifera of New Zealand: a Revised and Ex- panded List. By F. W. Hilgendorf . . . . 267-271 XXVIII. On a New Species of "Odontria. By J. H.Lewis, F.E.S. 272 XXIX. On a New Species of Earthworm from Norfolk Island. By W. Blaxland Benham, Professor of Biology, University of Otago . . . . . . . . 273-274 XXX. On an Earthworm from the Auckland Islands — Notio- drilus atichlandicus. By W. Blaxland Benham . . 275-277 XXXI. On the Old and some New Species of Earthworms belonging to tbe Genus Plagiochceta. By W. Blaxland Benham . . . . . . . . 277-290 XXXII. A List of the Hymenoptera of New Zealand. By P. Cameron. Communicated by Captain Hutton 290-299 XXXIII. On the Marine Mollusca of Totaranui Bay, Nelson. By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Otago Univer- sity School of Mines . . . . . . . . 299-304 XXXIV. On a New Species of Psyllidce. By George R. Mar- riner, Assistant, Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College .. .. -. •• •• 305-309 XXXV. Notes on the Whitebait of New Zealand. By A. J. MacKenzie, Curator, Kanieri Lake Fish-hatchery, Westland. Communicated by Sir J. Hector . . 309-310 XXXVI. Notes on tbe New Zealand Whitebait. By E. Gibson. Communicated by Sir J. Hector . . . . 311 XXXVU. Notes on the New Zealand Whitebait. By Sir J. Hector .. .. ■• •■ 312-319 XXXVIII. Notes on Fish found in the Piako River. By Captain G. Mair, N.Z.C. .. .- .. .. 319-320 III. — Botany. XXXIX. On the Pollination of Rhabdothamnus solandri, A. Cunn. By D. Petrie, M.A. .. .. •• 321-323 XL. On the Musci of the Calcareous Districts of New Zealand, with Descriptions of New Species. By Robert Brown .. .. •• •• 323-342 XLI. Structure of Leaf of certain Species of Coprosma. By Miss N. A. R. Greensill, M.A. . . . . 342-355 XLII. On some Recent Changes in the Nomenclature of tbe New Zealand Myrsinacece. By L. Cockayne . . 355-359 XL11I. The Stem-structure of some Leafless Plants of New Zealand, with Especial Reference to their Assimi- latory Tissue. By Miss A. C. Finlayson, M.A. Communicated by Dr. Chilton .. .. 360-372 Contents. vii PAGES Art. XLIV. Note on Hybrid Ferns. By H. C. Field .. ..372-373 XLV. An Account of the Plants growing at " The Gums," Taitfl, in Addition to List published in 1896. By T. Mason . . . . . . ... 374-377 XLVI. On New Species of Grasses from New Zealand. By Professor E. Hackel. Communicated by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. .. .. .. ..377-385 IV. — Geology. XLVII. The Kingston Moraine. By Dr. P. Marshall . . 388-391 XLVIII. On the Geology of the Rock-phosphate Deposits of Clarendon, Otago. By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director, Otago University School of Mines . . . . . . . . . . 391-402 XL1X. Notes on the Occurrence of Native Lead at Parapara, Collingwood. By Professor James Park .. 403-404 V. — Chemistry and Physics. L. Notes on the Aurora in the Southern Hemisphere. By Henry Skey . . . . . . 405-408 LI. On the Construction of a Table of Natural Sines by Means of a New Relation between the Leading Differences. By C. E. Adams, B.Sc. (Honours), A. I. A., late Engineering Entrance Scholar and Engineering Exhibitioner, Canterbury College ; late Senior Scholar in Physical Science, New Zealand University ; Lecturer on Applied Mathe- matics ami Surveying, Lincoln College, and Ge- - logy, Victoria College.. .. .. .. 408-413 LII. Two Spherical Harmonic Relations. By C. Coleridge Farr, D.Sc. .. .. .. .. .. 414-415 LIU. On the Interpretation of Milne Earthquake Diagram. By C. Coleridge Farr . . . . . . . . 415-419 L1V. On the Use of the Standard Functions in Interpola- tion. By E. G. Brown . . . . . . 420-427 LV. On New Zealand Mean Time, and on the Longitude of the Colonial Observatory, Wellington ; with a Note on the Universal Time Question. By Thomas King, Transit Observer, Colonial Ob- servatory . . . . . . . . . . 428-451 LVI. The Molecular Complexity of the Fatty Acids and their Derivatives in Phenol Solution. By P. W. Robertson, Sir George Grey Scholar, Victoria College .. .. .. .. .. 452-465 LVII. The Exhibition of a Maximum or Minimum in the Properties of certain Series of Organic Compounds. By P. W. Robertson . . . . . . . . 465-476 LVIII. A Contribution to the Chemistry of Colophony. By T. H. Easterfield and G. Bagley . . . . 476-482 I. — Miscellaneous — continued. LIX. On a Supposed Magnetic Sense of Direction in Bees. By F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., B.Sc . . . . 483-489 LX. List of Papers on the Geology of New Zealand. By A.Hamilton.. .. .. .. .. 489-546 %'iii Contents. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. PAGES Thirty-fourth Annual Report .. .. .. .. 549-551 Accounts for 1901-2 . . . . . . . . . . 551 PROCEEDINGS. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Note on Somateria mollissima. By Sir W. Buller, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. .. .. '.. .. .. .. 555 Remarks on Opossums. By Sir J. Hector . . . . . . 555-556 Note on the Carunculated Shag . . . . . . . . 556 Remarks on Wairaki Clay. By W. T. L. Travers, P.L.S. . . 556 Remarks on Infusorial Earth. By T. Hustwick . . . . 557 Abstract of Annual Report .. .. .. .. .. 557 Election of Officers for 1903.. .. .. .. .. 557 Address by the President (W. T. L. Travers, P.L.S.) . . 558 AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. A Visit to Tahiti and tbe Society Islands. Bv Josiah Martin . . 559 Japanese Medisevalism. By the Rev. W. G. Dixon . . . . 560 Tennyson. By Professor Egerton .. .. .. .. 560 Universal Equal Suffrage. By E. E. Vaile .. .. .. 560 Abstract of Annual Report . . . . . . . . . . 560-561 Eleotion of Officers for 1903.. .. .. .. .. 561 PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Penguins and Petrels. By Captain P. W. Hutton, F.R.S. . . 56-2 The Production of Colour by Absorption. By Dr. W. P. Evans 562 The Present State of our Knowledge of the Electrical Conditions of the Atmosphere. By C. Coleridge Farr, D.Sc. .. .. 563 The Provencal Troubadours. By Professor T. G. R. Blunt . . 564 The Strength and Elasticity of some Australian and New Zea- land Timbers. By Professor R. J. Scott . . . . . . 564 Note on a Fresh-water Isopod (Phreatoicus). By H. B. Kirk . . 564 Abstract of Annual Report . . . . . . . . . . 565 Election of Officers for 1903.. .. .. .. .. 565 OTAGO INSTITUTE. Resolution regarding the Mount Cook Reserve . . . . 566 Impressions of Florence. By Miss M. E. Marchant .. .. 566 Report on the Marine Fish-hatchery at Portobello . . . . 567 Remarks on Fossil Cetacean Teeth. By A. Hamilton. . . . 567 Protection and Reclamation of Sea-coasts by planting. By Dr. Trubv King .. .. .. .. . . 567 On Tcznia echinococcus and Hydatid Disease. By Dr. Barnett 568 On the Wanganui Gravels. By Dr. P. Marshall . . . . 568 Exhibits by Professor Benham . . . . . . . . 569 Abstract of Annual Report .. .. .. .. .. 569-571 Eleotion of Officers for 1903.. .. .. .. .. 571 WESTLAND INSTITUTE. Abstract of Annual Report . . . . . . . . . . 572 Election of Officers for 1903.. .. .. .. .. 572 Coyitents. IX HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. The Birth and Development of Architecture. By R. N. Anderson The Honey-bee as seen through the Microscope. By Dr. Ken- nedy, M.A. Wagner. By H. Large Abstract of Annual Report .. Election of Officers for 1903. . PAGES 573 573 573 574 574 NELSON INSTITUTE. Abstract oi Annual Report . . Election of Officers for 1903. 575 575 APPENDIX. Meteorology of New Zealand — Comparative Abstract for 1902 and Previous Years Average Temperature of Seasons compared with those of the Previous Year Remarks on the Weather during 1902 Earthquakes reported during 1902 Records of Milne Seismograph No. 20 at Wellington, 1902 . . Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 at Cbristchurch, 1902 New Zealand Institute, Honorary Members New Zealand Institute, Ordinary Members List of Institutions and Persons to whom this Volume is pre- sented by the Governors of the New Zealand Institute Index 579 579 580 581 582-592 593-597 598-599 599-607 608-613 615-619 Corrigendum . . . . . . . . . . Back of title. Contents .. .. .. .. .. .. .. v.-ix. List of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . ix.-x. Board of Governors and Officers of the New Zealand Institute . . xi. Abstracts of Rules and Statutes of the New Zealand Institute . . xi.-xiii. Roll of Incorporated Societies . . . . . . . . xiv. Officers of Incorporated Societies, and Extracts from the Rules xiv.-xvii. In Memoriam — William Thomas Locke Travers . . xviii.-xix. In Memoriam — Thomas Mason . . . . . . . . xx. LIST OP PLATES. Portrait of the late William Thomas Locke Travers Portrait of the late Tuomas Mason Frontispiece. Plate 1. II. III. IV. V. [The following are placed at the eud of the volume.] Haszabd. — Site of Captain Cook's Transit Ob eervatory, Mercury Bav Ditto „ Map of Mercury Bay Duncan. — Ship Cove, Queen Charlotte Sound Cook's First Landing-place . . To illustrate Article III. III. III. IV. IV. Contents. Plate VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIIT. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLT. XLII. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVII. XLVIII. XLIX. L. LT. LIT. LIII. LIV. LIST OF PLATES— continued. Duncan. — Grass Cove, Queen Charlotte Sound Cook 'a Cove, Tolago Bay Hamilton. — Bone Relics of the Maori . . Stone Relic Segar. — Diagram of Trade of New Zealand Diagram of Public Debt of New Zealand Supply of Gold, 1850-1900 Fulton. — To illustrate Fijian Fire-walking Cere mony Ditto To illustratc- Article IV. IV. VI. VI. VII. V1D. VIII. VIII. VIII. IX. Benham. — Earthworms XIII. XIII. XIII. XIII. XIII. XIII. XXIX.-XXXI. XXIX.-XXXI. XXIX.-XXXI. XXIX.-XXXI. XXIX.-XXXI. Murdoch. — Anatomy of Paryphanta busbyi Quail. — Charagia virescens Porrhothele antipodiana and Salius mona cluis Hudson. — New Species of Macro-lepidoptera Lewis. — Odontria epomeas, n.s. Philpott. — New Species of Lepidoptera . . Marriner. — Trioza alexina, n.s. R. Browtn. — New Zealand Mosses XXIV. XXII. XXIII. XX. XXVIII. XXI. XXXIV. XXXIV XL. XL. XL. XL. XL. XL. XL I. XLT. XLI. XLT. XLIII. XLTIT. XLIIT. LVI. LVI. LIII. XIX. XIX. Hogben. — Records of Milne Seismograpb No. 20 See p. 582 „ p. 582 Greensill. — Leaf-structure of Coprosma sp. Finlayson. — Stem-structure of Leafless Plants Robertson. — Molecular Complexity of Fatty Acids Farr.— Artificial Seismoerams .. Mair. — Ancient Maori Ornaments and Implements NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OP THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND INTITULED "THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867." Board of Governors. (EX OFFICIO.) His Excellency the Governor. The Hon. the Colonial Secretary. (NOMINATED ) W. T. L. Travers,F.L.S. ; Sir James Hector, K.G.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. ; Thomas Mason ; E. Tregear, F.E.G.S. ; John Young; J. W. Joynt, M.A. (elected.) 1902.— Martin Chapman ; S. Percy Smith, F.E.G.S. ; Hon. C. C. Bowen. Manager : Sir James Hector. Honorary Treasurer: J. W. Joynt, M.A. Assistant Editor: A. T. Bothamley. Secretary: A. H. Gore. ABSTEACTS OF RULES AND STATUTES. Gazetted in the "New Zealand Gazette," 9th March, 1868. Section I. Incorporation of Societies. 1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the provisions of "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867," unless such so ciety shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than fiftv pounds sterling annually for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for xii Neiv Zealand Institute. which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satis- faction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the Chairman for the time being of the society. 2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incor- porated with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less than £50. 3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one third of the annual revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and main- tenance of the Museum and Library of the New Zealand Institute. 4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid, which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue affixed in manner provided by Rule 3 aforesaid, shall from thenceforth cease to be incorporated with the Institute. 5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated with the Institute shall be deemed to be communications to the Insti- tute, and may then be published as Proceedings or Transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Insti- tute regarding publications : — ■ Regulations regarding Publications. (a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of a current abstract of the proceedings of the societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled " Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute," and of transactions, comprising papers read before the incorporated societies (subject, however, to selection as hereinafter mentioned), to be intituled " Trans- actions of the New Zealand Institute." (b.) The Institute shall have power to reject any papers read before any of the incorporated societies. (c.) Papers so rejected will be returned to the society in which they were read. (d.) A proportional contribution may be required from each society towards the cost of publishing the Proceedings and Transac- tions of the Institute. (e.) Each incorporated society will be entitled to receive a propor- tional number of copies of the Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute, to be from time to time fixed by the Board of Governors. (/.) Extra copies will be issued to any of the members of incorporated societies at the cost-price of publication. 6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from incor- porated societies, and placed in charge of the Institute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the property of the Institute. 7. Subject to "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867," and to the foregoing rules, all societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the by-laws for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs. 8. Upon application signed by the Chairman and countersigned by the Secretary of any society, accompanied by the certificate required under Rule No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under the seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the foregoing rules of the Institute are complied with by the society. Abstract of Rules and Statutes. xiii Section II. For the Management of the Property of the Institute. 9. All donations by societies, public departments, or private indi- viduals to tbe Museum of the Institute sball be acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and sball be duly entered in tbe books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct. 10. Deposits of articles for the Museum may be accepted by the Institute, subject to a fortnight's notice of removal, to be given either by the owner of the articles or by the Manager of the Institute, and such deposits shall be duly entered in a separate catalogue. 11. Books relating to natural science may be deposited in the Library of the Institute, subject to the following conditions : — (a.) Such books are not to be withdrawn by the owner under six months' notice, if such notice shall be required by the Board of Governors. (b.) Any funds especially expended on binding and preserving such deposited books at the request of the depositor shall be charged against the books, and must be refunded to the Institute before their withdrawal, always subject to special arrangements made with the Board of Governors at the time of deposit. (c.) No books deposited in the Library of the Institute shall be removed for temporary use except on the written authority or receipt of the owner, and then only for a period not exceed- ing seven days at any one time. 12. All books in the Library of the Institute shall be duly entered in a catalogue, which shall be accessible to the public. 13. The public shall be admitted to the use of the Museum and Library, subject to by-laws to be framed by the Board. Section III. The laboratory shall for the time being be and remain under the exclusive management of the Manager of the Institute. Section IV. (Op Date 23rd September, 1870.) Honorary Members. Whereas the rules of the societies incorporated under the New Zealand Institute Act provide for the election of honorary members of such societies, but inasmuch as such honorary members would not thereby become members of the New Zealand Institute, and whereas it is expedient to make provision for the election of honorary members of the New Zealand Institute, it is hereby declared, — 1. Each incorporated society may, in the month of November next, nominate for election, as honorary members of the New Zea- land Institute, three persons, and in the month of November in each succeeding year one person, not residing in the colony. 2. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with the grounds on which their election as honorary members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the Manager of the New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting. 3. From the persons so nominated the Governors may select in the first year not more than nine, and in each succeeding year not more than three, who shall from thenceforth be honorary members of the New Zealand Institute, provided that the total number of honorary members shall not exceed thirty. xiv New Zealand Institute. ROLL OF INCORPORATED SOCIETIES. NAME OP SOCIETY. DATE OF INCORPORATION. Wellington Philosophical Society - 10th June, 1868. Auckland Institute - 10th June, 1868. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury 22nd Oct., 1868. Otago Institute - - - 18th Oct., 1869. Westland Institute - - 21st Dec, 1874. Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute - 31st Mar., 1875. Southland Institute - - 21st July, 1880. Nelson Institute - - 20th Dec, 1883. OFFICERS OF'lNCORPORATED SOCIETIES, AND EXTRACTS FROM THE RULES. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Office-bearers for 1903. — President — Professor Easter- field ; Vice-presidents — Sir J. Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., and G. Hogben, M.A. ; Council— H. N. McLeod, E. Tregear, F.R.G.S., Martin Chapman, R. C. Harding, G. V. Hudson, C. E. Adams, B.Sc, and Professor Kirk; Secretary and Treasurer — A. H. Gore ; Auditor — Thomas King. Extracts from the Rules of the Wellington Philosophical Society. 5. Every member shall contribute annually to the funds of the Society the sum of one guinea. 6. The annual contribution shall be due on the first day of January in each year. 7. The sum of ten pounds may be paid at any time as a composition for life of the ordinary annual payment. 14. The time and place of the general meetings of members of the Society shall be fixed by the Council, and duly announced by the Secretary. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. Office-bearers for 1903. — President — Professor A. P. W. Thomas, F.L.S. ; Vice-presidents — E. Roberton, M.D., .1. Stewart, M.I.C.E. ; Council — Professor F. D. Brown, C. Cooper, H. Haines, F.R.C.S., E. V. Miller, T. Peacock, D. Petrie, J. A. Pond, J. Reid, Professor H. W. Segar, Professor H. A. Talbot-Tubbs, J. H. Upton; Secretary and Curator— T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Incorporated Societies. xv Extracts from the Rules of the Auckland Institute. 5. Any person desiring to become a member of the Institute shall be proposed and seconded by two members of the Institute, and shall be balloted for at the next meeting of the Council. 6. The annual subscription shall be one guinea. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten guineas in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 9. The annual subscription shall become due on the first day of April for the year then commencing. The first year's subscription of a new member shall become due on the day of his election. 30. An annual general meeting of the Institute, convened by ad- vertisement or circular, shall be held in the month of February in each year. 32. Ordinary meetings for the reading of papers, and for transacting the general business of the Institute, shall be called at such times as the Council shall decide. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Office-beakers for 1903. — President — Professor Charles Chilton, D.Sc. ; Vice-presidents — J. B. Mayne, B.A., A. E. Flower, M.A. B.Sc. ; Hon. Secretary — C. Coleridge Farr, D.Sc. ; Hon. Treasurer — Professor Charles Chilton, D.Sc. ; Council — Miss M. F. Olliver, M.A., Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., Professor W. P. Evans, Ph.D., Dr. W. H. Symes, L. Cockayne, R. Speight, M.A., B.Sc. Extracts from the' Rules of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 8. Every member of the Institute other than honorary shall pay one guinea annually as a subscription to the funds of the Institute. The subscription shall be due on the 1st January in each year. 9. Members may compound for all annual subscriptions of the current and future years by paying ten guineas. 15. The ordinary meetings of the Institute shall be held monthly during the months from May to November, both inclusive, on such day as the Council may determine. OTAGO INSTITUTE. Office-bearers for 1903. — President — A. Hamilton Vice-presidents — Professor Benham and George M. Thomson Eon. Secretary — Dr. P. Marshall; Hon. Treasurer — Willi Fels; Council— A. Bathgate, C. W. Chamberlain, F. R. Chap- man, J. S. S. Cooper, James C. Thomson, D. Waters, and Dr. Hocken ; Hon. Auditor — D. Brent. Extracts from the ConstiUUion and Rules of the Otago Institute. 2. Any person desiring to join the society may be elected by ballot, on being proposed in writing at any meeting of the Council or society by- two members, and on the payment of the annual subscription of one guinea for the year then current. xvi Neiv Zealand Institute. 5. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds and ten shillings in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 8. An annual general meeting of the members of the society shall be held in January in each year, at which meeting not less than ten mem- bers must be present, otherwise the meeting shall be adjourned by the members present from time to time until the requisite number of mem- bers is present. (5.) The session of the Otago Institute shall be during the winter months, from May to October, both inclusive. WESTLAND INSTITUTE. Office-bearers for 1903. — President — J. B. Lewis; Vice-president — T. W. Beare ; Hon. Treasurer — E. McNaugh- ton ; Trustees — Messrs. Clarke, Heinz, Michel, Morton, Park, Perry, Macfarlane, Mahan, Dunne, Solomon, Dr. Macandrew, and Dr. Teichelmann. Extracts from the Rules of the Westland Institute. 3. The Institute shall consist (1) of life-members — i.e., persons who have at any one time made a donation to the Institute of ten pounds ten shillings or upwards, or persons who, in reward of special services ren- dered to the Institute, have been unanimously elected as such by the committee or at a general half-yearly meeting ; (2) of members who pay two pounds two shillings each year ; (3) of members payiEg smaller sums, not less than ten shillings. 5. The Institute shall hold a half-yearly meeting on the third Mon- day in the months of December and June. HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. Office-bearers for 1903. — President — J. P. D. Leahy, M.B., M.S., B.A., D.P.H. ; Vice-president— T. C. Moore, M.D.; Council— W. Dinwiddie, H. W. Antill, H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S., F. Hutchinson, jun., J. S. Large, T. Tanner; Hon. Secretary — James Hislop, District School ; Hon. Treasurer — J. W. Craig ; Hon. Auditor — G. White ; Curator — E. W. Andrews. Extracts from the Rules of the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute. 4. The annual subscription for each member shall be one guinea, payable in advance on the first day of February in each year. 6. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds ten shillings in lieu of future annual subscriptions. (5.) The session of the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute shall be during the winter months from May to October, both inclusive ; and ordinary meetings shall be held on the second Monday in each of those six months, at 7.30 p.m. Incorporated Societies. xvir SOUTHLAND INSTITUTE. Office-beakers. — Tritstees — Ven. Archdeacon Stocker, Eev. John Ferguson, Dr. James Galbraith. NELSON INSTITUTE. Office-bearers for 1903.— President — H. W. Robinson ; Vice-president — D. Grant ; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer — A. J. Redgrave ; Librarian — B. Reeves. Extracts from the Rules of the Nelson Institute. 4. Members shall be elected by ballot. 6. The annual subscription shall be one guinea. 7. The sum of ten guineas may be paid in composition of the annual subscription. 16. Meetings shall be held on the second Monday in every month. 23. The papers read before the Soeiety shall be immediately delivered to the Secretary. ii— Tr. N MEMORI AM. William Thomas Locke Travers, F.L.S. (1819-1903), was bom at Castleview, near Newcastle, in County Limerick, on the 9th January, 1819, and was educated at St. Servan College in France. When seven- teen years old he joined the Spanish Legion during the Carlist war, and served with distinction in the 2nd Eegiment of Lancers till 1839. During part of the time he was aide-de-camp to the general of his division, and for his services was decorated with the Grand Cross of the Order of Cambodia. In 1844 he was called to the bar in London, and in 1849 emigrated to Nelson, and became District Court Judge there. Having resigned that office, he was, in 1854, elected member of the House of Kepresentatives for Nelson in the first Parliament of New Zealand, and for a time held office as Attorney-General. In 1856 he was elected to represent Waimea. In 1860 he moved to Christchurch, where he practised his profession, and was elected M.H.R. for that city. He was also a member of the Canterbury Provincial Council and of the Provincial Executive. In 1869 he settled in Wellington, and represented that city in Parliament for several years. He was one of the chief promoters of the New Zealand Institute in 1867, was a member of the Board of Governors from that time, and for many years was honorary treasurer. The formation of the Colonial Botanic Garden at Wellington was largely due to his skill and enthusiasm ; and he took a leading part in the promotion of acclimatisation societies, and of many other useful institutions. He was a member of the Council of the Wellington Philo- sophical Society for thirty-two years, was five times elected president, and was the retiring president when he met with the accident which caused his death on the 26th April, 1903. List of the principal papers communicated to the Wellington Philo- sophical Society by W. T. L. Travers : — Address, Wellington, IV., 356; X., 519, 539; XXIX., 111. Birds, Habits of, IV., 206. Botany, Comparisons in, between Canterbury, Nelson, and Marlborough, I., Pt. 3, 17; 2nd ed., 174. Cassinia leptophyLla, VI., 248. Cause of the Warmer Climate which existed in High Northern Latitudes during Former Geological Periods, X., 459, 470. Civilisation, Effects of, on New Country, II., 299; III., 326. Chatham Islands, IV., 63. Chatham Islands, Avifauna and Flora, V., 212. Distribution of the Organic Productions of New Zealand, XVI., 461. Distribution, within the New Zealand Zoological Sub-region, of the Birds of the Orders Accipitres, Passeres, Scansores, Columbae, Gallinae, Struthiones, and Grallse, XV., 178. Earthquakes and Volcanoes, Notes in reference to the Primary Causes of the Phenomena of, XIX., 331. Obituary. xix Eels, III., 120. Flesh Fly, III., 116. F'ood-plants used by Civilised Man as compared with those used in Pre- historic Times, Notes on the Difference in, XYIII., 30. Glaciers, Extinct, VI., 297. Glaciation, Pleistocene, VII., 409. Great Flood of February, 1868, XIV., 76. Hybridization, I., 89 ; 2nd ed., 31. Insectivorous Birds as the Friends of the Agriculturist : Presidential Address in 1902, XXXV., 1 Lake Districts of the Province of Auckland, IX., 1. Maori Traditions, IV., 51. '• Marshlights," Supplement to Mr. R. C. Harding's Paper on, XXX., 92. Microbes, Remarks on Pathogenic, and the Means of preventing Diseases originating in their Introduction into the System, XXII. , 55. Moa, Extinction of the, VIII., 58. Moriori Canoes, IV., 354. Moriori Traditions, Manners, and Customs, IX., 15. Mr. J. T. Thomson's System of Survey, from a Legal Point of View, IX., 280. Paryphanta in New Zealand, Notes on the Larger Species of ; with some Remarks on the Distribution and Dispersal of Land Shells, XXVII., 224. Patellidce, Notes on, with reference to Species found on Rocks at Island and Lyall Bays, XXX., 309. Phormium tenax, I., 168; 2nd ed., 114. Photography, IV., 160. Podiceps cristatus, III., 113. Polygonum aviculare, V., 310. Sand-dunes on the West Coast of the Provincial District of Wellington, XIV., 89. Sand-worn Stones, II., 247. Scientific and Material Progress in New Zealand during the Victorian Era, XXX., 1. Te Rauparaha, Life and Times of, V., 19. Tidal Wave of 11th May, 1877, X., 522. IN M EMORI AM. Thomas Mason (1818-1903), a native of England, arrived in Wellington in 1841, and settled at Taita, in the Hutt Valley. He had been Chairman of the Hutt County Council, and was at one time a member of the House of Representatives for the Hutt District. As a horticulturist he had a wide reputation, having the finest private botanical collection in the colony. He was for over twenty years a member of the Board of Governors of the Institute, and was Chairman of the Board at the time of his death. He has contributed papers on horticultural subjects which have been published in the Transactions, and the current volume contains his last contribution. Trans. Nf.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. ■ • ^mtm*^/t THOMAS MASON. See p. xx. Circular. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Secretaries of societies are requested to see that each paper read is indorsed with — (1.) The date of reading ; (2.) The name of author; (3.) The postal address of author. The mail arrangements of the colony are now so complete that, in cases where it is thought desirable, proofs can be generally sent to authors for revision, provided the author's postal address is indorsed on the manuscript. Any author whose address is not indorsed on his paper must not expect to receive proofs for revision. Corrected proofs must be promptly returned by the author, otherwise the editor cannot be responsible for authors' cor- rections being applied. Material alterations should not be inserted, but in important cases, where the rights of others are not specially affected, addenda may be made. Illustrations should be prepared so that they can be repro- duced by photo-lithography or by process blocks. The size should be 7 in. by 4 in., or a multiple thereof, that being the size of the plates as published. If the originals, either draw- ings or photographs, have not such proportions, great extra expense is incurred, and the result is often not satisfactory. The name of the author should always be written on the back of the original drawing or photograph, together with the subject. The full description for letterpress should be written on a separate sheet, and not on the illustration itself ; and the illustrations (if more than one) and descriptions should be similarly numbered. James Hector, Manager. TRANSACTIONS TEANS ACTIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, 190Q. I. — MISCELLANEOUS. Art. I. — The Bird as the Labourer of Man. By W. T. L. Teavees, F.L.S. [Presidential Address to the Wellington Philosophical Society, 5th August, 1902.] .\ftee you had done me the honour of electing me to the position of President of this Society for the current year I resolved to deal, in my opening address, with the structure and action of the geysers which form so attractive a feature of the country stretching from Tokaanu to White Island, in- cluding the Eotorua district, and incidentally with some of the remarkable features which have characterized the recent volcanic outbursts in Martinique and St. Vincent, and to again call your attention to the prinie causes of all such phenomena. It may be recollected by some of you that I brought this subject before our Society in papers read during the sessions of 1877 and 1878 ; but the views which I then ventured to submit were not favourably received by such of our members as claimed to possess any large degree of geo- logical knowledge, chiefly on the ground that Sir Charles Lyell had always treated such questions as not being pro- perly within the range of geological inquiry. It was, there- fore, with no little gratification that I read the address delivered by Professor Sollas to the geological section of the British Association in 1900, in which he propounded precisely similar views, and pointed out that, at the present day, geologists are no longer justified in asserting that cos- mogony is alien to geology. But a question the proper solution of which is certainly of far greater importance to this colony has recently arisen, and 1 2 Transactions . — Miscellaneous. has induced me to deal with a different and more useful, practical subject — namely, whether the attempt now being made to obtain legislative authority to exterminate our small birds is justifiable or not? The title which I have given to this address is taken from a work on ornithology written bv Michelet, the great French historian, who added to the dis- tinction which he attained in that character, that of an eminent practical writer on natural history. Those who have had the advantage of reading his work will have seen that it was specially intended to demonstrate the enormous advantages which man derives, both directly and indirectly, from the labours of the bird, and to impress upon 'him the fact that the wanton destruction of these beautiful and useful creatures is not only grossly cruel, but is surely followed by disaster to the destroyer ; and it is my object in this address to show that, if the proposed legislation be adopted and effectively carried out, it will certainly inflict disaster not only upon those through whose ignorance and prejudices it is being promoted, but practically upon the whole population of the colony, and I cannot but think that if such a result be even possible it was incumbent upon those who are promoting it to have made careful inquiries into the grounds of objection raised against the birds before proceeding to the length now contemplated. In order, however, to deal fairly with the questions at issue it was necessary that I should first ascertain whether the proposed legislation is directed against small birds generally or against some special bird or birds ; and, if the latter, then to inquire into the nature of the offences of which i\\o,}T or it are accused. I have taken some pains to obtain a reply to these ques- tions, and the common answer to the first by those who support the proposed legislation is, " the sparrow." When asked what are the special offences for which the sparrow deserves the condign punishment intended for him, the reply is, " We are told by the farmer and the fruit-grower that he does the most serious injury to their crops without affording any compensation whatsoever for so doing"; and they add that " not only in New Zealand but in other countries he is looked upon by the farmer and the fruit-grower as an im- pudent thief, without a redeeming feature in his character." Certain other birds, and especially the blackbird and green- linnet, are also looked upon as injurious, but for downrignt wickedness not one of them is a patch upon the sparrow. Now, assuming that the extermination of the sparrow is really the principal object aimed at by the intended legis- lation, I propose to point out generally, first, the nature and extent of the injuries done to our animal and vegetable pro- ductions by insects ; and, second the uses of insectivorous Teaveks. — The Bird as the Labourer of Man. 3 birds, and particularly the sparrow, in mitigating such in- juries in this country. This subject is not new to me. Many years ago, whilst I was a member of the House of Repre- sentatives, similar charges were made against the sparrow, and my reply was as follows : " War is to be waged against the sparrows under the authority of Parliament. The follow- ing utterances show the wisdom brought to bear in discussing the question : The Hon. Mr. Chamberlain says that the hawk is the natural enemy of the sparrow, a deduction, no doubt, from the name ' sparrow-hawk,' applied to one species of hawk in this country; but no New Zealand hawk that I know of ever pursues a sparrow. Mr. Oliver tells us that it was a mistake to introduce the sparrow, and so does Mr. Gray. Mr. Miller says that none but the agriculturist was fit to discuss the question, and drew a comparison between the sparrow and the starling, which was about as appropriate as if he had attempted to compare the sparrow wTith the elephant. Mr. Acland said the sparrow did not destroy in- sects. Mr. Holmes read some extracts in support of his opinions against the sparrow, and I could supply him with any quantity more oi the same kind, emanating from equal ignorance of the subject. It would be well if honourable gentlemen, in dealing with this question, would take the trouble to read the evidence given before a Committee of the House of Lords on the subject of sparrow clubs in England, and if they should still entertain any respect for the intelli- gence of that august body, they would probably be disposed to change the opinions above expressed. Not many years ago the agriculturists of Hungary succeeded in getting the sparrow proscribed by law, and he disappeared from the land. Within five years from that time the Government was compelled to spend 230,000 rix dollars in reintroducing him from other countries. In the North Island and in the northern parts of the South Island the cultivation of valuable deciduous trees was practically impossible until the large Cicada had been greatly reduced in numbers, and if Mr. Acland had seen, as I and many others have, the sparrow actively engaged in destroying these creatures and devouring them he might probably change his opinion. The nestling sparrow cannot eat hard food, and careful observation has shown that a pair of parent sparrows will bring upwards of three thousand insects to the nest in the course of a single day to feed its brood." I notice that the same nonsense is stiil uttered upon the subject, whilst not a tittle of evidence is adduced in support of it. Now, in order that we may fully understand the assistance which the bird can afford to man in the prosecution of the incessant war in which he is undoubtedly engaged against 4 Tr ansae tions . — Miscellaneous . injurious insects, it is necessary that we should know and appreciate the strength and resources of the enemy he has to meet. To this end I purpose to call attention to the number and nature of the hosts which are always threatening the produce of our cultivations. As you are aware, all true insects are comparatively small animals belonging to the articulate sub-kingdom having the body divided into three portions, from which fact the title "insecta " has been applied to them. They are, in general, covered with a coriaceous or horny integument, serving as an external skeleton. They are capable for the most part of flight, having either two or four wings, and they usually undergo three transforma- tions from egg to maturity. These characters may not always be evident, yet in no instance are they decidedly and truly absent. Departures in degree from a given type and modifi- cations in the detail of structure are met with in every class of animal life, but the essentials upon which the claim of species is in any case founded remain — subject to the law of evolution — practically inviolate. As in the case of the bat, with its structure for flight, and of the whale, with its oceanic habits, these apparently abnormal habits do not remove them from among the Mammalia. It has been said by a great entomologist that insects are Nature's favourite productions, in which, in order to manifest her skill and power, she has combined all that is either beautiful and graceful, interesting and alluring, or curious and singular in every other class of her children. To these, her valued miniatures, she has given the most delicate touch and highest finish of her pencil. Nor has she been lavish only in ornamenting these privileged tribes. In other re- spects she has been equally unsparing of her favours. To some she has given horns nearly the counterparts of those of various quadrupeds ; some are covered with bristles, others with spines ; some are of the richest hues, sparkling like the ruby, the topaz, the sapphire, and the amethyst in the rays of the sun ; some gleam in polished armour — Like some stern warrior formidably bright, Their steely sides reflect a gleaming light ; others are dull of colour and of strange form and aspect; some resemble withered leaves or bits of stick, and find security in the resemblance. To leap, to run, to bore into the ground or drive galleries through timber, to fly through the air, to gambol in the water and dive and swim are among the endowments of insects. Some build structures more wonderful than the pyramids ; some gleam with phosphorescent radiance, and many are armed with poisonous weapons. They furnish us with silk, Travers. — The Bird as the Labourer of Man. 5 wax, honey, lac, cochineal, and the gall-nut. Some hold an important place in the Pharmacopoeia, some are eaten by various tribes of men, and multitudes furnish food to the beasts of the earth and to the birds of the air, to the reptile tribes, to the fishes, and to the moi*e powerful of their own class. For the purposes of this paper, however, it is only neces- sary to divide the whole class into those which are and those which are not injurious to man. Unfortunately, the greater number falls under the first of these distinctions, and accord- ingly we find that Kirby and Spence, in their charming "In- troduction to Entomology," devote no less than five entire epistles to the injuries we sustain from insects, whilst two only are sufficient to describe the benefits they yield. The former contain an appalling array; the injuries done to us in our field crops, in our gardens, in our orchards, in our woods and forests, not to mention those which attack our live-stock •or our persons, are indeed well calculated to impress us with the truth of the Oriental proverb that " the smallest enemy is not to be despised." In relation to the numbers of insects alike in tropical and sub-arctic areas, I venture to make the following quotations : Michelet, speaking of tropical insects, says, " Ln these cli- mates the insect is the greatest curse. Insects everywhere and in everything; they possess an infinity of means for attacking us ; they walk, swim, glide, fly; they are in the air, and you breathe them. Invisible, they make known their presence by the most painful wounds. The hardiest of men, the buccaneers and filibusters of old, who carried on their nefarious doings chiefly within tropical areas, declared that of all dangers and of all pains they dreaded most the wounds of insects. Frequently intangible, and even invisible, they are destruction under an unavoidable form. How shall we oppose them when they make war upon us in legions ? Their means of offence, too, are varied and terrible. No chimrgical im- plement invented by modern art can be compared with the monstrous armour of tropical insects ; their pincers, their nippers, their teeth, their saws, their horns, their augurs, all the tools of combat and dissection with which they come armed to the battle, and with which they labour, pierce, cut, rend, and finely partition with skill and dexterity, are only equalled by their furious ravenousness. In those lands of fire where the rapidity of decomposition renders every corpse dangerous, where death threatens life, these terrible accelera- tors of the disappearance of animal bodies multiply ad infi- nitum. A corpse scarcely touches the earth before it is seized, attacked, disorganized, dissected. Only the bones are left. They are active hunters and insatiable gluttons. Compared 6 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. with them, the tiger, the lion, and the vulture are mild, sober, moderate creatures ; for what is any of these in the presence of an insect which, in four-and-twenty hours, con- sumes thrice its own weight?" In temperate regions, too, the war of the insect against man is equally desperate and continuous. Not many years ago the public papers in Europe were occupied with articles expressing the most gloomy fears for the noble oak and pine forests of Germany. It was stated that millions of trees had already fallen under the insidious attacks of a minute beetle which laid its eggs in the bark, whence the larvae penetrated between the bark and the wood, destroying the vital connec- tion between those parts, interrupting the course of the sap and inducing rapid decay and speedy death. In the North of France the public promenades were almost everywhere shaded by avenues of noble elms. In very many cases these trees were fast disappearing before the assaults of a similar foe ; and the grand old elms of the London parks were becoming so thinned that great alarm was felt, and the resources of science employed for checking the mischief. Fifty thousand trees, chiefly oaks, were similarly destroyed in the Bois de Vincennes, near Paris. In all these cases the minute but mighty agent was some species or other of beetle of the genus Scolytus. In Servia and the Banat a minute fly occurs from whose destructive assaults on cattle the inhabitants pe- riodically suffer immense loss. A traveller arriving at Golubacs, on the Danube, thus speaks of it : " Near this place we found a range of caverns famous for producing the poisonous fly too well known in Servia and Hungary under the name of the Golubascer fly. These singular and venomous insects, some- what resembling mosquitos. generally make their appearance during the first great heat of the summer in such numbers as to appear like vast volumes of smoke. Their attacks are always directed against every description of quadruped, and so potent is the poison they communicate that even an ox is unable to withstand its influence, for he always expires in less than two hours. This results not so much from the virulence of the poison as that every vulnerable part is simultaneously covered with these most destructive insects, when the wretched animals, frenzied with pain, rush wildly through the fields till death puts a period to their sufferings, or they accelerate dissolution by plunging headlong into a river." Perhaps worse, however, than these, or any of them, are mosquitos, which, regardless alike of tropical heat and arctic cold, swarm in countless millions under both conditions ; not that their virulence or fatality equals that of the tsetse of South Africa or the zimb of Abyssinia, but because they are most universally distributed. Those, terrible as they are, are limited Tbavees. — The Bird as ihe Labourer of Man. 7 to certain districts, but the mosquito is ubiquitous, and is everywhere a pest and torment. One needs to spend a night among mosquitos to understand what a true plague of flies is. Hundreds of travellers might be cited on the subject, and if I adduce the following testimony it is not because it is the strongest I could find, but because it is one of the most recent, and therefore least known : Mr. Atkinson, who has laid open to us the most magnificent scenery of the world, and the most inaccessible, to whom neither fearful chasms and precipices, nor boiling torrents, nor swift rivers, nor earthquakes and furious storms, nor eternal frost and snow, nor burning waterless steppes, nor robbers, nor wild beasts presented any impediment, fairly confesses his conqueror in the mosquito. The gnat alone, of all creatures, elicits from him a word of dread : he could not brave the mosquitos. Over and over he tells us in his accounts of his mountain scrambles that the mosquitos were there "in mil- lions," that they were " taking a most savage revenge on him for having sent his horses out of their reach," that they were '•devouring him," that he " neither dared to sleep nor to look out," that "the humming sound of the millions was some- thing awful," that he found himself " in the very regions of torment, which it was utterly impossible to endure," that •' the poor horses stood with their heads in the smoke as a protection against the pests," and that " to have remained on the spot would have subjected them to a degree of torment neither man nor beast could endure, so that they were obliged to retreat." " I wish I could say," he feelingly adds, " that we left the enemy in possession of the field. Not so ; they pursued us with bloodthirsty pertinacity until we reached some open meadows, when they were driven into their fenny region by a breeze, I hope to prey on each other." Leaving these generalities, I will now deal shortly with the subject in its application to our own Islands. I arrived here in 1849, and first settled in Nelson. The area of land then under cultivation was small, but even at that early date most of the grains and vegetables and many of the fruits common in England and France were successfully cultivated. All, however, were subject to the attacks of injurious insects of various species, some imported and some indigenous. The large native locust, of which it is difficult at present to obtain a specimen, was then very common and very injurious, whilst grasshoppers existed in countless numbers. But the chief injury was done by various forms of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, both foreign and indigenous. Wheat always escaped better than oats or barley,* the latter especially yielding only a very * The Hessian fly had not tbeu appeared 8 Tr ansae tions . — Miscellaneous . casual crop. The fruit-trees, vines, currant, raspberry, and gooseberry bushes bore well, and apples of many kinds, plums, peaches, and apricots were particularly abundant and well flavoured. Hops, which have always been a specialty in Nelson, also yielded large and well-flavoured crops, and were not molested by the fly ; but in the ten years during which I remained there an appreciable increase took place in the injuries caused by insects, and, although the generally dry character of the climate, especially during the summer season, was unfavourable to the development of many injurious forms, the number both of species and individuals had increased very greatly. In 1S60 I went to reside in Canterbury, which had then been settled for between eight and nine years. Its progress had been more rapid than that of either Wellington or Nelson, because its settlers had been able to obtain from both of these every form of vegetable and fruit which was suitable for cultivation within its borders. To the northward of Christchurch, around Kaiapoi and Eangiora, in the Lincoln district, and in the immediate surroundings of Christchurch, large areas had been brought under cultivation, and yielded excellent returns ; but I well remember the extraordinary clouds of moths of all kinds which rose from the ground as one walked either through the tussock-covered areas or through fields of cultivated grass. In the Eangiora district trenches were often dug to intercept millions of caterpillars when marching towards growing crops, and the ravages they com- mitted where no means of protection existed were very serious. I left Canterbury in 1867, and have ever since resided in Wel- lington. By that time the numbers of destructive insects in Canterbury had been greatly diminished by the constant burn- ing of the tussock-grasses, besides which the sparrow had been introduced and had been doing his work, and I noticed that the yield of all grain-crops had increased in proportion to the increase and spread of this most valuable ally of man. As regards Wellington, my observations have been prac- tically restricted to the district of the Hutt. When I first went to the district the beautiful Cicada circinata existed there in immense numbers. This insect is especially destruc- tive to fruit and other trees. It deposits its eggs in lines cut somewhat deeply upon the principal branches, and the wound thus made is never healed. Two or three years after the wound has thus been made the wounded branch is sure to break at the wounded part, and the symmetry of the tree thereby seriously affected and its growth checked. This insect is still procurable, but it found a determined and con- stant enemy in the sparrow, which has already made it scarce. The telegraph-poles were much frequented by them, and Tkavers. — The Bird as the Labourer of Man. 9 the noise they made when in great numbers was actually deafening. As regards our ordinary cultivated plants, the agricul- turist, the fruit-grower, and the gardener are at one in their complaints of the ravages committed by various forms of "insect pests," and the language used by Mr. French in his " Handbook of the Destructive Insects of Victoria " is equally applicable to those found in this colony. There, as here, one of "the principal troubles which persons engaged in the culti- vation of the soil have to contend against is the existence of innumerable pests, and he points out that the time has ar- rived when, if the people of that colony are to fight success- fully against them, united action and constant vigilance would have to be exercised, and he especially urges that knowledge must be gained by regular and unprejudiced observation and by carefully conducted experiments. As a principal means of insuring the desired balance of nature he emphasizes the necessity for preserving insect-destroying birds. He points out that to all who are engaged in either farming or fruit- growing the preservation of their useful friends, the insect-de- stroying birds, is of the very greatest importance. " Nature " he says, " maintains a balance between the numbers of the birds, beasts, insects, plants, &c, in any district. If by arti- ficial means we destroy this balance, immediately intolerable numbers of some kind remain with us, and we have to expend much money and labour to rid ourselves of the swarms which Nature was ready to dispose of for us without charge." Quot- ing from Mr. Tyron's valuable work on the fungus and insect pests of Queensland, where, as you know, the cattle-tick often does enormous mischief, he adds "that if the arrangements of Nature were left undisturbed the result would be a whole- some equilibrium of destruction. The birds would kill so many insects that the insects could not kill too many plants. One class is a match for the other. A certain insect was found to lay 2,000 eggs, but a single ' tom-tit ' was found to devour 200,000 eggs in a year. A swallow devours 543 in- sects in a day, eggs and all. This is the whole case in a nut- shell : the birds will do yeoman service and ask for no wages." He then adds, " How and by what means is the wholesale destruction of the insectivorous birds of Victoria to be checked ? This would seem to be a somewhat difficult ques- tion to answer, for have we not already game laws ; but are they carried out ? To secure active co-operation in the direc- tion of the preservation of insectivorous birds we must be able to show those interested the difference between the noxious and the beneficial ; to point out to those who are engaged in our great rural industries that their interest lies in_ uniting to maintain the balance which Nature has given 10 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. us, and more especially to endeavour to impress upon the young people the necessity for preserving certain birds from destruction. Those unaccustomed to dissecting birds can have but a faint idea of the enormous quantity of insects which many even of the smaller birds devour, and a better acquaintance with both birds and insects would, I am sure, tend to prevent the wholesale slaughter of creatures so use- ful." Let us now inquire what available force we have in this colony upon which reliance can be placed for resisting the ever-increasing army of insect enemies which threaten our field and garden crops, our orchards and fruit plantations, and our flower-beds. Apart from insect-destroying insects, such as the ichneumons, the dragon-flies, and others of the like proclivities, we have only a few insecting-eating birds, of which some are indigenous and others are imported. The indigenous birds are rarely found outside the native bush, and are now very few in number. In my garden there are two or three pairs of fantails, which are always diligent in the pursuit of food. The seagulls do much to lessen the number of destructive larvae by following the plough in the extensive cultivations along the seaboard of the South Island. Of the imported birds, the white-eyed Zosterops, the blackbird, and the thrush feed upon animal food throughout the winter, but will certainly, unless pre- vented, take any opportunity presented to them of attack- ing fruit in its season. The thrushes have kept my garden free from the snail, which does mischief to the young forms of certain classes of plants ; but both these birds confine themselves to the neighbourhood of plantations. The star- ling ranges the pastures, but does not, so far as my ob- servation has gone, take any part in clearing the crops of grain, corn, and pulse of the insects which attack them. We are reduced, then, to the sparrow, including the re- cently introduced hedge-sparrow, a most valuable bird, which alone are left to protect us from the horde of in- sects that attack everything we grow. I keep a brigade of them, to which I give a, certain amount of daily food, not sufficient, however, to diminish their diligence in the search for insects. I see the work they do in this respect. I see them during the breeding-season each day carrying hundreds of insects to their young, which could not live on any other form of food. I see my garden crops kept fairly free from injurious insects by their means and tneirs only, and I do not grudge them the modicum of fruit which they take in its season. I see how difficult it is to raise fruit in this country owing to the absence of the ordinary natural checks upon the increase of the insects which prey upon it. Nature, Travees. — The Bird as the Labourer of Man. 11 we know, delights in preserving a due balance between the various forms of life, whether animal or vegetable ; but man, in his ignorance and wilfulness, is constantly interfering with natural operations, often falsely attributing the evil which results to anything but his own shortsightedness and folly. Hence the proposed legislation. I will now conclude this address by quoting a passage from Michelet's work, which will show you that ignorance and selfishness are not new characteristics of the fanner. "The miserly agriculturist," he says, "is the accurate and forcible expression of Virgil. Miserly and blind in truth, for he proscribes the birds which destroy insects and protects his crops. Not a grain will he spare to the bird which during the winter hunts up the future insect, seeking out the nest of the larvas and daily destroying myriads of future depredators, but sacks of corn to the adult insect and whole fields to the grasshoppers, which the bird would have combated ! With his eyes fixed on the furrow, on the present moment, with- out foresight, deaf to the grand harmony which no one ever interrupts with impunity, he has everywhere solicited or approved of laws for suppressing the much-needed assist- ance of his labour, the insect-destroying bird. And the insects have avenged the bird, as we have seen it become necessary in many cases to recall in all haste the banished. In the Island of Bourbon, for example, a price was set on each martin's head. They disappeared, and the grasshoppers took possession of the island, devouring, extinguishing, burn- ing up with harsh acridity all that they did not devour. The same thing occurred in North America with the starling, the protector of the maize. The sparrow even, which attacks the grain, but also defends it — the thieving, pilfering sparrow, loaded with so many insults and stricken with so many male- dictions— it has been seen that without his aid Hungary would have perished, that he alone could wage the mighty war against the cockchafers and the myriad-winged foes which reigned in the low-lying lands. His banishment was revoked and this courageous militia hastily recalled, which, though not strictly disciplined, became none the less the salvation of the country." 12 Transactions. — Miscellaneous . Art. II. — The Cultivation and Treatment of tlie Kumara by the Primitive Maoris. By Archdeacon Walsh. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 4th August, 1902.] Previous to the introduction and general distribution of Euro- pean food plants — that is to say, up to the early part of the last century — the only vegetables cultivated by the Maoris were those which they had brought from their original homes in the Pacific islands — namely, the kumara (Ipomoza chrysor- rhiza), the taro (Caladium esculentum), the hue {Lagcnaria vulgaris), and the ti pore:;: (Gordyline tcrminalis). Of these the first-named was by far the most valuable and important. The taro would only flourish in particular spots, and even under the most favourable conditions took a long time to come to maturity, and gave but a small return for a good deal of troublesome labour. The hue was tasteless and unsustaining ; and the ti pore, in reality a tropical plant, never became properly acclimatised, and the limited quantity grown was used more as an occasional delicacy than an article of every-day food. But the kumara freely responded to care and attention in the most varied situations, and yielded a large crop of an article at once palatable, wholesome, and nutritious. With the primitive Maoris, in fact, the kumara stood in a class by itself, above and apart from everything else. As the main- stay of life it was regarded with the greatest respect and veneration. It was celebrated in song, and story, and proverb. Its cultivation and treatment called forth the utmost care and ingenuity, and were accompanied by the strictest and most elaborate religious observances. The old customs have long passed away, and very soon all personal recollection of them will be lost. I have there- fore in the present paper endeavoured to rescue a few of the most interesting facts connected with the subject from oblivion. In doing so I have been greatly helped by Mr. James Bedggood, of Kerikeri, who has not only given me the result of his own observation during a, long lifetime spent in intimate relation with the Maoris, but also the information he has gleaned from some of his old native neighbours whose recollection reaches back to the primitive times. I have also gathered some facts from a very interesting paper bv the late Rev. W. Colenso, P.E.S., F.L.S., &c.,| as well as from Mr. A. Hamilton's " Maori Art," and from scattered notices in * For an account of the ti pore, see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii., art. xxxi. f Trans. N.Z. Inst., xiii., art. i. Walsh. — On the Cultivation and Treatment of the Kumar a. 13 some of the earlier books on New Zealand. I do not pretend to have by any means exhausted the subject, and shall be verv glad if my paper is supplemented by those who are able to give additional information. Varieties of the Kumara. A very general tradition states that, not finding the kumara on their first arrival in the country, the Maoris made an expedition back to their old home among the Pacific islands to secure a supply for cultivation. That they brought back a large and well-assorted stock is evidenced by the number of varieties they possessed. Mr. Colenso states that not less than thirty of these had come under his notice, while several of the old sorts were already known to be lost. All these varieties were well marked and permanent, and must have been produced before their introduction here, as, al- though occasionally flowering, the plant has never been known to seed in this country. They had each their separate name,* and were distinguished by different peculiarities in size, shape, and colour, some being valued for their superior flavour and others as giving a more abundant crop, while probably certain of them were specially adapted to local con- ditions of soil and situation. As the European food plants — especially the potato —came into use the relative importance of the kumara somewhat declined, and many of the smaller varieties became gradually extinct, the cultivation being chiefly confined to a few of the larger sorts, including the " merikana " (American), so called from the American whalers, who brought it from the Pacific islands. This was a long white twisted tuber, and was the first addition to the old native varieties. Of late years the number has been still further reduced, and at the present time the " waina " (vine), a later introduction — so called from being occasionally propagated by cuttings from the vines or runners —is almost the only sort used for a general crop. This, being a very heavy yielder of robust habit, has quite taken the place of the old smaller varieties, a few of which, however, are still grown in some of the more primitive districts as a special delicacy. Soil and Situation. Though, of course, some are more suitable than others, roughly speakiug, almost any soil will do for the kumara so long as the situation is dry and the plants are not ex- posed to the cold southerly winds or to the spring and autumn frosts. The heaviest crops are obtained on the sand and shingle terraces above high- water mark on the * For a list of the names, see Colenso, loc. cit., Appendix A. 14 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. sea-coast and on the low river-flats ; but as the former are limited in extent and the latter are more exposed to frosts — besides taking a good while to dry up after the winter rains — advantage was taken of well-drained shel- tered spots on higher ground for the early plantings, though the work of cultivation was attended by much harder la- bour. The volcanic lands scattered throughout the north- ern peninsula, where not too stony, offered every advantage ; and the extent to which the cultivation on these was car- ried on may be judged from the large areas on which the blocks of scoria have been gathered and piled into heaps to make room for the crop. Speaking generally, a light porous soil was preferred, but where this was not available the land was improved by a layer of sand from the river-bed or from wherever it could be got. In Waikato the clay land was often treated in this manner with sand from the pumice plains, where the pits from which the supply was procured are still to be seen. In choosing a site for the plantation other beside agricul- tural conditions had to be considered, especially in the case of a small or weak community. The crops being almost the only available personal property of the Maoris in the growing season, it was necessary to secure them as far as possible from the sudden raid of a taua, or war party, which might happen at any moment. This was generally done by scattering a number of small plots over a wide area, and placing them as far as possible in unlikely situations. In the case of a power- ful tribe occupying a strong pa (fortified village) such precau- tions were unnecessary, and the cultivations were generally quite open and frequently of large extent.* Cultivation. In preparing a piece of land for cultivation much had to be done long before it was ready for planting, and, considering the nature of the tools available, the labour must have been almost incredible. The whole surface of the country was covered either with bush, fern, or tea-tree scrub, except, per- haps, on some of the river-flats, and even these had to be cleared of a rank growth of rushes, toetoe, flax-bushes, and other plants found in such places. The work was always done in the late autumn, when the weather was dry and breezy and the soil in a -suitable condition for working. At this season also the fern-root (aruhe), an important article of food, was at its best. Fire was the principal agency for preliminary operations. For a bush-clearing (waerenga) a place was generally chosen at the edge of the forest, * Cf. Colenso, loc. cit. Walsh. — On the Cultivation and Treatment of the Kumara. 15 over which the fire had run some time before and had killed the standing trees. The branches and small stuff were broken down and piled around the larger trunks, and, where neces- sary, dry material was collected and carried in to assist the combustion. The small roots were dug up and thrown on the fires, and, where possible, the large stumps were undermined and prised out with a kind of gigantic spade worked as a lever by the united strength of several men.* This may seem rather a tedious way of clearing land, but a number of hands intelli- gently employed made light work, and on a dry, windy day the business proceeded merrily ; and if some of the heavier masses of timber still proved refractory they were left to be dealt with at a future season, and so by degrees all obstacles to cultivation were removed. In the case of clay lands, especially those on the river-flats, drainage was necessary, and, where possible, surface channels were made before the winter rains set in, as the prolonged exposure to water not only retarded the spring operations, but had the effect of " souring " the soil and making the work of cultivation more difficult. On the old cultivations the clean- ing-out of these drains was the first thing to be attended to as tiie planGing-time approached. In breaking up new land the principal implement used was the ko, a kind of long-handled spade consisting of a pole of hard wood sharpened to a wedge-shaped point and furnished with a foot -rest or tread (hamaruru) lashed to one side with flax sinnets from about l!^ in. to 18 in. from the bottom, according to the depth the land was to be dug. Both the foot-rest and the handle on the top of the shaft were often elaborately carved, as may be seen in the case of some ex- cellent specimens in the Auckland Museum. Armed with this implement, a numoer of men formed in line a few feet apart across the plot that was to be operated on, and, keeping time to a song by their leader invoking a blessing on their labour, drove the ko into the ground so as to make a continu- ous cut about 1ft. or 18 in. back from the face, according to the nature of the soil. This done, they used the implement as a lever and hove the whole sod over together, with a loud shout of Huaia I when they started afresh on another piece. Meanwhile the women and children followed up, breaking the clods with small wooden instruments of various patterns and clawing out the fern-root and rubbish with their fingers. The best of the fern-root was reserved for food and stacked up to dry, while the refuse, together with other useless fibrous matter, was thrown on to one of the heaps of burning timber. It is not to be supposed that these processes were com- * See Hamilton's " Maori Art," pt. iii. 16 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. pleted in regular sequence — i.e., that the entire patch was cleared before the digging commenced, as would have to be done in preparing a piece of land for the plough. As a matter of fact, the several processes would often be going on simul- taneously on different parts of the field, the smaller stumps and roots being taken out in the action of digging, while special gangs were dealing with the larger pieces, and the general crowd keeping the fires going all over the place. Allowing for the difference in the implements, practically the same system is pursued on a Maori waerenga at the present time. The only object for the deep digging was to get rid of the roots and clear the land from the fern, which would otherwise shoot up and injure the growing crop. On a patch that had been previously cultivated it was sufficient to clean oft the weeds and stir the surface for a couple of inches. In fact, it was an advantage to have a hard bottom, as where the tillage was too loose the roots of the kumara were inclined to run and the tubers to be small and of poor quality. "When the soil was worked up fine and made perfectly clean it was formed up into little round hills, called " tiipuke," about 9 in. high and 20in. to 24 in. in diameter, set quite close together. The party who undertook this operation commenced in one corner and worked back dia- gonally across the patch, each man having a row to himself ; and as every hill was made to touch the two hills in the next row the whole plantation presented a fairly accurate quincunx pattern. Mr. Colenso, apparently, though per- haps unconsciously, quoting from Captain Cook's Journal, states that a line or cord was used to insure regularity.* No one, however, seems to have actually seen the line employed, and any old Maoris I have consulted are positive that it was never the custom to do so. The appearance of regularity arose from the uniformity of the size and shape of the hillocks and from the orderly manner in which the work was carried on, as well as from the neatness and finish which characterized it. This neat appearance is borne witness to by many old writers. Mr. J. L. Nicholas, who visited the country in 1814, describing a plantation in the Bay of Islands, says, " The nice precision that was observed in setting the plants and the careful exactness in clearing out the weeds, the neatness of the fences, with the convenience of the stiles and pathways, might all have done credit to the most careful cultivator in England."! No manure, in the sense in which we understand the term, * Trans. N.Z. Inst., xiii., art. i. t " Voyage to New Zealand," vol. i., p. 252. Walsh. — On the Cultivation and Treatment of the Kumara. 17 was ever used for the kumara. The very idea of such a thing would have been repulsive according to Maori ideas," the only fertiliser employed being the sand already mentioned. This was carried up from the pits or river-beds in closely woven flax baskets, one basketful being placed on each hill. Men, women, and children joined in this laborious business, the slave and the rangatira working together. Planting. The planting usually commenced about October and ex- tended more or less up to Christmas, according to the variation of the season, the state of the weather, the locality, and the condition of the soil. Various natural signs and portents assisted in determining the proper time for the work. Thus, when the kumarahou (Pomaderris elliptica), a small shrub with a sage-like leaf and yellow tufted blossom, which had been in bud all the winter, suddenly shot out into flower it was known that the season was approaching ; and when a " mackerel sky "f showed an exact picture of a kumara-plot extending across the heavens the Maoris knew that the atua were busy at their planting above, and that they themselves ought to be doing the same below. As a matter of fact, the celestial phenomenon, portending as it does, according to the English farmer's proverb, a state of weather which is "neither wet nor dry," indicates an atmospheric condition exactly suited for starting the young plants. Up to the time when the planting commenced everything was noa, or " common," but once the seed began to be handled until the crop was harvested the whole thing became tapu, or consecrated, including the ground, the plants, and even the workers so long as they were engaged in the cultivation. The tapu was invoked by the tohunga (priest) or the kaumatua (head chief), the two offices being often combined in the one person, by the performance of a karakia or religious service consisting of certain symbolical actions, accompanied by the chanting of an address to the atua (ancestral deity), its object being to ward off evil influences in the shape of injurious weather, insect pests, decay, &c, to protect the cultivation from intrusion, and generally to secure the blessing of heaven on the growing crop. Any breach of the tapu was a crime against the atua, and was punishable with death ; and until it was removed by a second karakia by the tohunga it was un- lawful for any "common" person to enter the plantation or even approach too closely to it under any circumstance what- ever. * Cf. Coleuso, loc. cit. f Eangi kotinc/otingo, literally " spotted sky." 18 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. While agreeing in essentials, there appears to have been great variety in the details of these karakias, especially in the invocations, every tohunga of standing having his own par- ticular form of words, some of which were handed down from immemorial antiquity. Many of the ceremonies were very expressive, among which was one that used to be performed on the Island of Mokoia, in Lake Eotorua. It was described to me by Miss M. Bedggood, of Waimate North, who heard of it from some of the old natives living on the spot. On the day before the planting, when the seed kumaras were to be consecrated, the tohunga brought a small quantity in a basket made of dry raupo, shaped like a canoe, and presented it to the matua atua (ancestral god), of whom a little stone image ■stood in a wooden shrine on the island. Then, after the ivaiata (song) had been chanted, the vessel was set adrift on the lake, and was supposed to find its way to Haivaiki, whence the image was said to have been brought, and which was still the abode of the god.:|: By being thus made a sharer in the plantation it was believed that the atua would be reminded of the wants of his children and take the crop under his protection. A somewhat similar ceremony is related by Dr. Shortland in his " Maori Mythology " (p. 56). It was considered absolutely essential that the planting of the entire plot, however large, should be completed in a single day, and in order to accomplish this a plan was often adopted similar to that of the Canadian " working-bee." In a large hapu, or division of a tribe living together, every prin- cipal man would have one or more plots of his own, and when one of these was to be planted his neighbours would come to assist at the work. The business commenced with the consecration of the seed, which was done on the day previous to the planting, the seed consisting of the tubers which were too small to be eaten. If these were not sufficient, they were supplemented by the heads — the end containing the eyes — of the larger ones broken off for the purpose. Early in the morning the workers, men and women, as- sembled. They were all of the rangatira class, no slave of either sex being allowed on the ground. After partaking of a plentiful meal provided by the owner they were made tapu, and henceforth they could eat no food until the work was completed, when the tapu was taken off. This, of course, had the effect of stimulating their exertions. * Possibly this image may be identical with the matua tonga in the Grey collection, Auckland, which is stated to have come to New Zealand in the canoe " Arawa," and of which the later history does not appear to be known. Walsh. — On the Cultivation and Treatment of the Kumara. 19 When all was ready several of the leading women of the hapu, taking each a basket of the seed, threw it right and left over the ground as they walked up and down chanting a waiata, the actual planting being done by the rest of the party. The sets were placed one in each bill, about 2 in. or 3 in. below the surface, with the head slightly raised and pointing towards the nortb, the approximate meridian being marked by conspicuous hilltops or other natural objects. It was believed that the sun, rising in summer in the south-east and passing round by the north to the south-west, had the effect of producing tubers on both sides of the plant. As the business drewT near completion the kaumatua, or head chief, chanted a long piece, partly as a stimulus to the workers and partly as a signal to the slaves to get ready the evening meal ; and when the party left the field they were relieved of the tapu by a further ceremony conducted by the tohunga. The tapu, however, remained on the plantation during the whole period of growth, during which, as before stated, it was unlawful for any one not under tapu to enter it, while even a tapu person was obliged to use the greatest circumspection. It was unlawful to enter the cultivation either from the south, the east, or the west. The south was the worst of all, as a person coming from that quarter might bring in the cold cutting wind that was so injurious to the kumara, while on the east or west the xvairua (shadow) cast by the sun might spoil the crop. From the north, however, a person, if properly tapu, might enter, as it was thence that the warm breezes came that gave health and vigour to the plants. Care of the Crop. The work of cleaning the growing crop was a comparatively light one in the old days, as the host of troublesome weeds that have accompanied European cultivation had not then made their appearance. One weeding was considered suffi- cient, and it was done in the dry summer weather by a party made tapu for the occasion, and armed with small wooden spades shaped something like a short paddle. Care, however, had to be taken to prevent the vines from rooting on the surface, as this was found to reduce the strength of the plant. The laborious work of fencing against cattle and pigs was unnecessary before these animals were introduced by the early navigators. Captain Cook, however, noticed that the planta- tions were " fenced in, generally with reeds, which were placed so closely together that there was scarcely room for even a mouse to creep between." This was done to shelter the crop from the strong winds which blew in the early summer ; and in exposed situations additional breakwinds, formed of fern 20 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. or tea-tree fronds stuck in the ground, were set up in lines across the plantation.* This system may be seen at the pre- sent day in the settlements along the Taranaki coast. With the exception of the hotete, a caterpillar about 2^ in. to 3 in. long, the larva of a large moth, the kumara does not seem to have had many enemies amongst the in- sect world. Though rarely seen of late years, probably owing to the introduction of the pheasant, the starling, &c, in old times it was often very abundant, appearing suddenly in countless numbers and making complete havoc of the crop by stripping the leaves. Mr. Colenso states that the creature " was quite abhorred by the Maoris, who believed that it was rained down from heaven " ; and he adds that the job of gathering the insects was greatly disliked. The work, however, had to be done ; and they were carefully collected and burnt, t The old native rat was a comparatively harmless little animal, but once its European congener was introduced its- ravages soon taxed the utmost ingenuity of the Maori. The plantations had to be watched night and day, and all sorts of devices were employed to circumvent the marauders. Mr. Colenso describes two old men who had a network of flax-lines extending over the garden, at the ends of which bunches of mussel - shells were suspended, and, the whole being connected with a rope leading into the hut where they lived, a noise could be made from time to time suffi- cient to frighten away the thieves from gnawing the roots. t Harvesting and Stoking. Long before the general crop was ready for lifting the plants were regularly laid under contribution. As this work demanded skill and experience rather than physical strength, it was usually left in the hands of the huias (old women). With a small wooden spade they would gently loosen the earth and feel underground for the largest root. This was called whakatau hi tc ara (" meeting [the crop] on the road "). The general crop was taken up about March or April, a dry sunshiny day being always chosen so as to avoid the danger of mouldiness. Should frost or prolonged heavy rains come on, however, the roots had to be dug at once to save them from rotting or second growth. The general harvest, or hauhakenga, as it was called, was the most important event of the year, all other operations being suspended until it was completed. It was naturally made * Compare "Excursion to New Zealand in 1841" (Tasmanian Journal of Science, vol. ii., p. 217). t Trans N.Z. Inst., xiii., art. i. Walsh. — On the Cultivation and Treatment of the Knmara. 21 the occasion of a hakari, or harvest festival, accompanied by religious rites ; but of these I have been unable to learn any details. The storing of the crop required the greatest care and judgment, as, in spite of every precaution, it was barely pos- sible to preserve the stock until the next planting - tune. Besides being a delicate article to handle, the kumara is susceptible to every change of weather. A single bruised or chafed tuber will soon rot and communicate the decay to those in contact with it, while a very short exposure to damp, or even to cold air, will quickly spoil the whole lot. In constructing their storing-places the Maoris followed no uniform fixed pattern. As was usual with them, the idea they had in their minds was worked out subject to local conditions, and, as these varied more or less in every locality, it is not surprising to find a corresponding variety in their appliances. The chief question being the exclusion of damp and the maintenance of a moderate and even temperature, the object was very simply attained in a dry porous soil by the rua. This was a circular pit sunk in the ground 5 ft. or 6 ft. deep and about the same in diameter, narrowing in at the top and closed by a trap-door made of a wooden slab. The kumara were handed down to a person standing in the middle, and were piled radially round the sides on a bed of soft fern or Lycopodium (waewaekoukou), a layer of the same material being placed between them and the wall. If sufficient accom- modation were available only one pile was made, as they kept better if not packed in too large a mass. The enormous number of these ruas on the volcanic plains of Taranaki and elsewhere shows the extent of former plantations. They are called " Maori-holes " by the settlers ; and before the country was thoroughly reclaimed they caused the loss of a good many horses and cattle, as, being frequently covered over with tangled fern, they were not generally discovered until a beast had fallen through. In situations where the soil was not sufficiently porous to allow the rua to be self-drained it was built partly above ground, generally on the slope of a hill. The pit was dug 2 ft. or 3 ft. deep, and of an area proportionate to the quantity of kumara to be stored. An outfall drain was made from the bottom, and a surface channel round the top carried off the storm-water. A roof was made over the pit, the rafters being set in the ground at an angle of about 30 degrees, and covered with sticks and fern, on which was piled a thick layer of earth, and the whole was coated with fronds of nikau to preserve the earth from the wash of the rain. The entrance was made in the outfall drain, and was closed with a moveable wooden slab or sliding door. 22 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Very frequently, however, the storing-place was entirely above ground. A small house was built with the walls about 4 ft. or 5 ft. high. These were framed of dressed slabs set vertically in the ground, with battens lashed on horizontally at intervals of a few inches, and covered over with two or three thicknesses of raupo so as to be completely airtight. Mangemange, a kind of climbing fern, or sheets of totara- bark protected the lower part of the walls, and against this the earth was thrown up from a ditch sunk below the floor- level, which acted as a drain for the building. The roof was framed in a similar manner to the walls, and also covered with raupo — sometimes with an inner sheeting of totara-bark — while an upper layer of toetoe-grass, secured by ropes of mangemange or wooden battens, preserved the raupo from the wet. A door was generally placed at each end, so that in order to prevent the wind from blowing in the house could always be entered to leeward; and the opening was made just large enough to allow a person to creep in on all-fours. This class of storehouse was always a conspicuous and picturesque object. They were often ornamented with elaborate carvings, inlaid with pawa-shell (Haliotis), and finished off with a teko- teko (grotesque wooden figure) set up at the apex of the roof. Sometimes the storehouse was set up on legs 3 ft. or 4 ft. high, when it was called a pataka, and as the imported rat found its way into the settlements precaution had to be taken against its incursions by socketing the tops of the legs into heavy cross-pieces of timber hollowed out like sections of an inverted canoe. A very fine specimen of the pataka is to be seen in the Auckland Museum. When only a small quantity of kumara had to be dealt with a very simple device, called the " ivhakatoke," was sometimes adopted. A shallow circular depression made in the ground was covered with a layer of long stalks of the common fern (Ptens aquilaia), with the roots meeting at the centre and the heads radiating outwards. On this were piled about half a dozen kits (flax baskets) of kumara. The heads of the fern were then bent upwards and inwards so as to enclose the lot, and were tied together over the top. The whole was then covered with toetoe-grass, and a layer of earth was thrown up from a trench round the outside. There were other modes of storing which were variations or adaptations of those mentioned, in all of which the Maoris were guided by local circumstances. Sometimes the pit was made inside a large shed, and sometimes it was driven hori- zontally into the face of a steep bank. Occasionally the tubers were placed on a raised platform (ivhata) and covered with mats and fronds of nikau, while in some rare instances the storehouse was built in the forked branches of a tree.* * For illustrations of several forms of the kumara store, see Hamilton's " Maori Art," part ii. Walsh. — On the Cultivation and Treatment of the Kumara. 23 " All these storehouses," remarks Mr. Colenso in the paper already frequently quoted, "were rigidly tabooed, as were also the few persons who were allowed to visit them for any pur- pose, all visits being formal and necessary." And he goes on to say that " the labour bestowed on them in those early times before the use of iron was immense, and that they were mostly renewed as to the reed- work every year." Cooking. Before the advent of Europeans the Maoris, being unac- quainted with the use of metals, had no means of boiling in the ordinary sense. The act. however, was accomplished by means of the haangi, a contrivance common to the whole of the Polynesian race. It is still often used among the Maoris when a large quantity of food has to be cooked, and is gene- rally known among European settlers as the " native oven,'' though the term " steaming-pit " would be a more exact de- scription. To make a haangi a hole about 1ft. or 18 in. deep is scooped in the ground, and of a diameter proportionate to the quantity of food to be treated. The hole is filled with short billets of wood set up on end, with cross-pieces above, on which are placed a number of stones about the size of a man's fist. The wood being kindled, the stones soon become red-hot, and fall to the bottom as the fuel is consumed. The embers are then removed and the stones spread out level. A little water poured from a height raises a jet of steam, which blows away the ashes, and the oven is ready. The kumara, after being carefully scraped and washed, together with any food that is to be cooked with them, as birds, fish, or other kinaki i relish), are piled on the stones and covered with soft fern. Water is now poured in and the oven is quickly spread over with several thicknesses of flax matting, after which a quantity of earth is shovelled over the top and sides and beaten hard with a spade until the steam no longer escapes. In about half an hour the cooking is completed, and the coverings are removed, great care being taken to prevent the earth getting on to the food, which is usually served up in little square baskets of green flax called paaro, a fresh lot being plaited for every meal. This was the mode invariably adopted when the kumara was required for every-day consumption, a more elaborate plan being used when they were to be converted into a sweetmeat called kao. For this some of the small varieties were chosen. After being scraped and washed as before, they were dried in the sun for two or three days. They were then wrapped in the leaves of certain aromatic plants and packed in small kits before being laid on the stones. For the kao an extra hot oven was used, and no water was poured in, the only moisture 24 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. allowed being supplied from a layer of fern which had been previously wetted placed under and over the kumara, just sufficient to keep them from being scorched. They were allowed to cook for about twenty-four hours, and when taken out had a dry black appearance, with a sweet aromatic flavour. The kao would keep for any length of rime if not exposed to damp, and was highly esteemed as a delicacy at a time when such delicacies were rare. Such was the kumara in the old primitive times. It has long fallen from its high estate. As the Maoris became gradually possessed of the potato, maize, pumpkins, and marrows, and were able to obtain a supply of flour and beef and mutton, the relative importance of the kumara declined; and as the old beliefs gave way to the new ideas the karakias were no longer practised and the ta/,u vanished from the land. The neatly tended hand cultivation is practically a thing of the past, and the elaborate storehouses have fallen to ruin. The kumara is now generally put in with the plough, and if for want of proper attention the crop should turn out a failure " Kei ahatia" (what matter)? There is always the kai-pakeha (European food) to fall back upon. Art. III. — Foot-tracks of Captain Cook. By H. D. M. Haszard. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 6th October, 1902.] Plates I.-III. I read with very great interest the paper printed in vol. xxxiii. of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," entitled " On the Tracks of Captain Cook," by the late Professor E. E. Morris; and, having noticed his invitation for some one with local knowledge to fill in the gap caused through his not being able to visit Mercury Bay, I will endeavour to put together a few notes in regard to that place, though it is with some diffidence I follow after such an able writer ; but now, alas ! there is no chance of the subject being completed by him. Some four years ago, whilst revising the trigonometrical survey of a portion of the Coromandel Peninsula, I was camped for several weeks about Mercury Bay, and in February of this year I was again in the same locality, so that I may claim a fair knowledge of the district. After Cook's arrival at Poverty Bay, on the 9th October, 1769, he sailed as far south as Cape Turnagain, which he reached on the 16th October. He thence retraced his steps, Haszard. — Foot-tracks of Captain Cook. 25 ■or rather his courses, northwards, calling in at several places along the coast ; and on the 4th November was opposite the opening of a large bay, to which he subsequently gave the name of " Mercury." He states, " My reasons for putting in here were the hopes of discovering a good harbour and the desire I had of being in some convenient place to observe the transit of Mercury, which happens on the 9th instant, and will be wholly visible here if the day is clear."* At the tune of the " Endeavour's " visit there seems to have been a fairly large native population in and about the bay, but these people were nearly all exterminated some thirty years later in intertribal warfare, as will be related further on. The vessel remained eleven days in the bay, and, as a whole, the crew got on well with the natives, who showed Cook through some of their fortified pas, of which he has left very minute descriptions. During the stay some minor pilfering went on, and one native was shot by Lieutenant Gore. Cap- tain Cook apparently, a la Gilbert and Sullivan, believed in "fitting the punishment to the crime," as his comment on this incident will show : " When they [natives in canoes] first came alongside they began to sell to our people some of their arms, and one man offered for sale a haahou — that is, a square piece of cloth such as they wear. Lieutenant Gore, who at this time was commanding officer, sent into the canoe a piece of cloth, which the man agreed to take in exchange for his ; but as soon as he had got Mr. Gore's cloth in his possession he would not part with his own, but put off the canoe from alongside, and the natives then shook their paddles at the people in the ship. Upon this Mr. Gore fir'd a musquet at them, and, from what I can learn, kill'd the man who took the cloth ; after this they soon went away. I have here inserted the account of this affair just as I had it from Mr. Gore, but I must own it did not meet with my approbation, because I thought the punishment a little too severe for the crime, and we had now been long enough acquainted with these people to know how to chastise trifling faults like this without taking away their lives."! One of the most interesting events in connection with Cook's visit to the bay is his transit of Mercury observations, and I have been trying to locate the exact spot from which they were taken. Unfortunately, Cook has not described the position with his usual minuteness, and recent testimony is rather conflicting. The best description of the event which I have seen is in Admiral Wharton's edition of Cook's Journal, page 150, which reads as follows : — * Wharton's edition Captain Cook's Journal, p. 148. f hoc. cit., p. 151. 12° 8' 58" 12° 9' 55" 12° 8' 45" 12° 9' 43" afternoon. 26 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. " Wednesday, 8th, p.m. : Fresh breeze at N.N.W., and hazy, rainy weather ; the remainder a gentle breeze at W.S. W. and clear weather. ... At noon I observed the sun's meridian, zenith distance, by the astronomical quadrant, which gave the latitude 36° 47' 43" S. ; this was in the river before mentioned, that lies within the south entrance of the bay. " Thursday, 9th : Variable light breezes and clear weather. At 8 Mr. Green and I went on shore with our instruments to observe the transit of Mercury, which came on at 7h. 20' 58" apparent time, and was observed by Mr. Green only. I at this time was taking the sun's altitude, in order to ascertain the time. The egress was observed as follows :— -r, ,, r, ( Internal contact at By Mr. Greenj ^x^ -d -.o J Internal „ y ^ { External „ Latitude observed at noon, 36° 48' 28". The mean of this and yesterday's observation gives 36° 48' 5h" S. the lat. of the place of observation, and the variation of the compass was at this time found to be 11° 9' E." Locally the place pointed out as the site of the observatory is on the promontory immediately above Shakespeare Cliff. Captain Gilbert Mair informs me that when he was there about 1862 an old Maori showed him a bare spot on this hill as the place where Captain Cook had his instruments. I have examined this spot, and I find that the surface soil has been removed for a few square yards, leaving the solid rock ex- posed ; but whether this has been done by the hand of man or has been denuded by the wind and rain at this lapse of time it is impossible to say. Against this testimony Mr. Percy Smith, late Surveyor-General, to whom I wrote to see if he could throw any light on the subject, says that he was at Mercury Bay in the early " sixties," and the Maoris working on his party pointed out a position on the sandy flat near the mouth of Oyster Eiver (Purangi) as the place where the observations were taken. However, owing to the dispersion of the original inhabitants, I think it very doubtful if any reliance can be placed on native testimony given ninety years after the event, as it would be at that date, and about a mat- ter that would hardly be likely to impress itself upon the aboriginal mind in comparison with the many other incidents in connection with the " Endeavour's " visit. So that we are at last brought back to the log, and have to try what can be got from it and the surrounding circumstances. We have a minor trig, station, marked " 0," on the point above Shakespeare Cliff, a few yards to the west of the Haszaed. — Foot-tracks of Captain Cook. 27 alleged site of Cook's observatory, and I have computed its latitude and longitude from the meridian and perpendicular distances derived through the series of triangles from the stone pillar on Mount Eden, Auckland. The position of the latter was very accurately determined in connection with the Ame- rican Transit of Venus Expedition of 1882, and the longitude tested by time-signals with Sydney. I make Station 0 = lat. 36° 49' 37" S., long. 175° 44' 49" E. New, the mean of Cap- tain Cook's observations is 36° 48' 5|" S., 175° 56' E., and, applying them to the chart, it would place his position about a mile and three-quarters to the north and considerably to the east of Station 0 ; whereas if we accept the position at the mouth of Oyster Eiver it would show a still greater discrepancy in the latitude. In regard to the longitude, it could not be expected that, with the appliances then used, it would be de- termined very accurately ; in fact, it is a wonder that he got it to come in as close as he did. From these considerations I am inclined to think the site above Shakespeare Cliff must have been the scene of his operations ; and, indeed, from the position of his anchorage, it seems to me to be the most natural place an observer would select for such a purpose. It is situated on a little rounded knoll on the end of a plateau about 250 ft. above sea-level, with a clear view of the horizon, and is easily reached by a track leading up a gully from a small sandy bay immediately to the south of the cliff. Enclosed are a couple of photographs of this place, but, as the only plates I could get were of a brand I had never tried before, the exposure has not been too successful. I also enclose a map of the locality for reference to the places mentioned. (Plates I. -III.) The following data, kindly supplied by Dr. C. Coleridge Farr, of the New Zealand Magnetic Observatory, of his re- cently determined variation of the compass at Mercury Bay,, are of considerable interest, as showing the large increase of variation in the past hundred and thirty years — that is, if Captain Cook's reading of 11° 9' E. can be accepted as reliable ; but Cook himself mentions about ironsand being plentiful on the beach, and it is possible his observation may have been vitiated from that cause. The mean of several readings in various parts of the district with the little needle attached to my theodolite, and after allowing for con- vergence, is about 13° 45' ; but I would not put it forth as of any weight compared with the sensitive instruments used by Dr. Farr. 28 Trautactiovs. — Miscellaneous. Magnetic Obsekvations at the Township of Whiti- anga, Mercury Bay, March, 1901, by Dr. C. Coleridge Farr. Station A. — In a paddock just south of the township, in lat. 36° 50' 15" S. and long. 175° 44' 13" E. (9th March, 1901.) Magnetic declination, 14° 22' 19" east at 10.02 a.m. 14° 24' 15" „ 11.08 a.m. 14° 26' 28" „ 12.15 p.m. 14° 28' 23" „ 1.55 p.m. 14° 25' 27" „ 4.49 p.m. Horizontal magnetic force, 0-26737 c. g. s. units at 11 a.m. Magnetic dip— Needle No. 1 = 61° 21' 03" at 2 p.m. 2 = 61° 19' 57" at 3 p.m. Mean dip =,61° 20' 30". Station B.- — Just south of the Whitianga Cemetery, close to the ferrv landing and about 3 chains from high-water mark; in lat. 36° 49' 47" S. and long. 175° 43' 47" E. (11th March, 1901.) Magnetic declination, 15° 1' 42" east at 10.10 a.m. 15° 4' 17" „ 11.15 a.m. 15° 6' 50" „ 12.18 p.m. 15° 8' 49" „ 2.0 p.m. 15° 6' 35" „ 4.30 p.m. Horizontal magnetic force, 0.26917 c. g. s. units at 11 a.m. Magnetic dip— Needle No. 1 = 61° 16' 26" at 3 p.m. 2 = 61° 15' 1" at 3 p.m. Mean dip = 61° 15' 44". Dr. Farr, in his letter to me, remarks, " The declination undisturbed should be about 14° 35' E. There must there- fore be magnetic rocks in the district affecting us, and, if so, it will be difficult to compare Cook's result with ours unless one knew the exact spot of the work and reoccupied it." That Cook bad a keen eye for the quality of the soil in the places he visited will be acknowledged by any one who has read his account of and seen the country to the south of the Whitianga River. It has a thin sandy soil overlying rhyolitic rocks, with patches h^re and there swept bare by the wind. The vegetation for the greater part consists of stunted fern aud tea-tree, and altogether this part of the district has a most desolate appearance. Cook's trip up the Whitianga, which he named " Man- grove Eiver," is thus described: "The next day (Tuesday, the 10th) I went with two boats, accompanied with Mr. Banks and other gentlemen, to examine a large river that empties itself into the head of the bay. We rowed four or Haszard. — Foot-tracks of Captain Cook. 29 five miles up, and could have gone much further if the weather had been favourable. It was here wider than at the mouth, and divided into many streams by small flat islands, which are covered with mangroves and overflowed at high water. From these trees exudes a viscous substance which very much resembles resin ; we found it first in small lumps on the sea- beach, and now saw it sticking to the trees, by which we knew whence it came. We landed on the east side of the river, where we saw a tree upon which several shags had built their nests, and here, therefore, we determined to dine. Twenty of the shags were soon killed, and, being broiled upon the spot, afforded us an excellent meal."* This incident throws a strong side light on what must have been their ordinary fare when they could describe birds of that class as making " an excellent meal." The two following extracts have even a stronger bearing on the same subject. During Cook's second voyage, on returning from the Antarctic seas he was very ill for some weeks, and he says, "When I began to recover, a favourite dog belonging to Mr. Forster fell a sacrifice to my tender stomach. We had no other fresh meat whatever on board, and I could eat of this flesh, as well as broth made of it, when I could taste nothing else."! This is somewhat similar : " 4th March, 1770. — This day the weather was more moderate than it had been for manv days, and, being one of the inferior officers' birthday, it was celebrated by a peculiar kind of festival : a dog was killed that had been bred on board ; the hindquarters were roasted and a pye was made of the forequarters, into the crust of which they put the fat, and of the viscera they made a haggis."| In these days of quick passages and fresh provisions it is hard to realise with what iron tenacity of purpose Cook and his men must have been endowed to battle along for month after month and year after year facing all the perils of un- known seas, thousands of miles away from any base, and living on such provisions as they must have had to put up with. # When I was at Whitianga the shags were still nesting in trees in the locality where Cook describes that his crew had such an excellent meal. The "viscous substance" men- tioned was, of course, kauri-gum. There are extensive kauri forests on nearly all the branch streams which flow into the Whitianga, and the gum had, no doubt, been washed down * Hawkesworth edition, vol. ii., "First Voyage," p. 338. f Hawkesworth edition, vol. i., " Second Voyage," p. 275. \ Parkinson's Journal, 1st ed., 1773, p. 122. 30 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. and stuck in the roots of the mangroves, though it seems strange that a botanist of Banks's eminence should have fallen into error about its source. Oysters were very plentiful at the time of Cook's visit, so much so that they got them by the boatload from the Purangi, and it was named " Oyster River" for that reason ; but from some cause or other the oysters have almost completely disappeared. This seems the more strange as there is no large population at Mercury Bay to destroy them. Some of the settlers to whom I spoke on the matter attributed it to the sawdust thrown in the water from the kauri mills ; but if that is so it could only apply to the Whitianga, as there are no mills on the Purangi. In 1897 I rowed through the archway in Te Putaoparetau- hinu, the small island on the north side of Mercury Bay, which is described by Cook ; but at that time I did not know its history, and when last in the district had no opportunity to go over and take any photographs. There are, however, good pictures of it in both Hawkesworth and in Parkinson's Journal, though in the latter it is located in Queen Charlotte Sound. I expect this error has arisen owing to the confused state of the papers which Parkinson's editor had to work upon. The large fort to the west of the island archway, which was also visited, is called Wharekaho. Cook gives a long description of this place, going into details of measurements of the ditches, palisading, fighting-stages, &c, and states, " The people seemed to be prepared against a siege, having laid up in store an immense quantity of fern-roots and a good many dried fish ; but we did not see that they had any fresh water nearer than a brook which runs close under the foot of the hill, from which, I suppose, they can at times get water, tho' besieged, and keep it m gourds until they use it."* These precautions did not avail the defenders, or perhaps they got more careless later on, as the following narrative, for which I am indebted to Captain Gilbert Mair, will show : " The numerous people spoken of by Captain Cook as in- habiting Mercury Bay district at the time of his visit were Ngatihei, the descendants of Hei, one of the chiefs who came in the ' Arawa ' canoe. About the end of the eighteenth century, or commencement of the nineteenth, the most pro- minent warrior in these parts was Tuterangianini, who had led successful forays right down to Hawke's Bay. Being at enmity with Ngaiterangi, the Tauranga natives, one of their priests resorted to sorcery to bring about his death. He performed a ceremony called ' ahitapoa ' (fire to make boils) * Wharton's edition, p. 154. Haszard. — Foot-tracks of Captain Cook. 31 •on an altar, with the result that Tuterangianini was stricken with boils, from which he never recovered. His tribe, Ngati- tamatera, sent a war-party to attack Ngaiterangi, but finding the latter too powerful they returned without effecting any- thing. On reaching their own district they were taunted by the women, so they set off to Mercury Bay and attacked their own relatives, the unoffending Ngatihei, besieging them in the great pa Wharekaho, on the north-west end of Buffalo Beach. Being unable to take the place by assault, they cut off the water-supply and sat down before the fortress, intending to starve out the garrison. After several weeks (or months) had passed, and the Ngatihei were famine-stricken, the fort was caken by assault, and it is said a thousand of the unhappy captives were taken to the little beach below Peneamine's house and there slaughtered. A few escaped to the small fort on Te Putaoparetauhinu (Cook's archway), from which they could not be dislodged ; but this numerous people was practically destroyed. Bahera and Erana Tanui, two women of rank living at Whitianga, are representatives of Ngatihei. Tuterangianini Te Rohu (no issue). Wharerangi Haora Tupaea. Haora Tupaea is a chief of Ngatitamatera, now living at Paeroa. He is about sixty-seven or seventy. The bodies of the slain Ngatihei were not eaten by the victors on account of their near relationship. Even at the present time the remains of hundreds of skeletons may be seen at Wharekaho, where the massacre occurred. " Te Bohu was also a famous warrior, for he led the Thames tribes in an attack upon Ngaiterangi in 1828, taking Te Papa Pa and killing Koraurau, the principal chief, with three hundred of his people. " The late Mr. Gilbert Mair, while in charge of the mission schooner ' Herald,' visited Te Papa and spent the night there two days before it was attacked." Before leaving the bay Cook had the ship's name and the date cut on one of the trees near the watering-place, and, after displaying English colours, took formal possession of the land for His Majesty King George III. I think this spot must have been at one of the little rivulets which flow into the east side of the Purangi near its mouth, but the marked tree must long since have disappeared. Mercury Bay is an ideal place for any one who is fond of boating and sketching to spend a summer holiday. It can be reached twice a week from Auckland by steamer, and there is 32 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. also a fair riding-road from Coromandel. The coast-line i& broken up into innumerable picturesque headlands and is- lands, with many little bays of glistening white sand ensconced between, upon which the long ocean swell gently rises and falls. On the north side, especially when the pohutukawa is- in bloom, the blaze of crimson fringing the beach makes a picture long to be remembered by any that have seen it. Other points of interest are the hot springs which come up in the sand, below high-water mark, a few miles from the south head of the bay. The wreck of H.M.S. "Buffalo" lies just to the north of the entrance of the Whitianga Eiver. The vessel was wrecked in 1836, and in 1897 the ribs wTere just awash at dead low water, spring tides. From Mercury Bay the "Endeavour" proceeded round Cape Colville, and, after sailing up the Hauraki Gulf, came to anchor a few miles from the present Thames Township. I had intended dealing shortly with Captain Cook's trip up the Thames Eiver, but Mr. E. G. Moss, of Paeroa, who is also an enthusiastic admirer of our hero, tells me that he has been collecting data and photographs for some time with a view of writing a paper on that subject, so that I feel that I would be " jumping his claim if I followed the foot-tracks of the great navigator any further. Art. IV. — Folloiving the Tracks of Captain Cook. By Eussell Duncan. [Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 1st December 1902.] Plates IV.-VII. Being greatly interested in the voyages of Captain Cook to New Zealand, and having visited some of the places on our shores touched at by him, I propose to tell you my im- pressions of these places, and to show on the screen photo- graphs which I have taken. The localities which I have made it my pleasure to visit have been some of the actual landing-places of the great navigator, and my object in so doing was to see for myself how these scenes compare now with the descriptions given of them by Cook and his scientific companions. You are no doubt well aware that Cook made three voyages from England to the Pacific Ocean. During these three voyages he visited New Zealand no less than five times, and landed at nine different places. It was on his first voyage, however, ranking as lieutenant in command of Duncan. — Following the Tracks of Captain Cook. 33 the " Endeavour," that he paid most attention to New Zea- land. He circumnavigated both Islands, and the chare of New Zealand which he then prepared was not added to by the Admiralty for nearly eighty years. On this first voyage Lieutenant Cook landed at eight different places, and in the following order : Poverty Bay, Anaura Bay (called by him "Tegadoo"), Tolaga Bay, Mercury Bay, Thames Estuary, the Bay of Islands, Queen Charlotte Sound, and finally, before leaving, took his sea stock of water from the east side of D'Urville Island, at the entrance to Admiralty Bay. On the second voyage Captain Cook, in command of the " Besolution," was ac- companied by the " Adventure," Captain Furneaux, but on the voyage out the two ships were separated by bad weather near the ice-pack, south of the Cape of Good Hope, where they were exploring. Cook, in the " Besolution," on coming up from the frozen south, made for the south part of New Zealand, and put into Dusky Bay, on the west coast of the South Island, which makes the ninth place visited. After recruiting there he proceeded to the rendezvous in Queen Charlotte Sound, and found the "Adventure" at anchor in Ship Cove, where she had been for six weeks. During the prosecution of his researches in the South Pacific Cook twice again visited Ship Cove, thus making three visits on this the second voyage. On his third and last voyage Cook, still in command of the " Besolution," with the " Discovery " as consort, visited the familiar Ship Cove once only. We will now return to the first voyage. After discovering the east coast of New Zealand, Cook anchored in Poverty Bay on Sunday, the 8th October, 1769, and nowadays the intercolonial steamers, when anchored there, pretty nearly occupy his old berth. He landed the same afternoon on the east side of the Turanganui River. The ship's log says, " We landed abreast of the ship, and on the east side of the river." A low reef of rocks runs out here and renders landing easier. Afterwards the "Endeavour's" boats entered the river; but, as Cook says in his Journal, this was not always practicable, owing to the breakers on the bar. The appear- ance of the low land on the east side of the river has, of course, much altered, as the Gisborne breakwater has destroyed the old features, but what I suppose was the place of landing, some 200 yards to the eastward of the breakwater, under shelter of the reef, remains much the same as in October, 1769. The Ven. Archdeacon Williams (the present Bishop of Waiapu) has recorded a most interesting paper on the landing of Cook at this spot and what happened there, and it is pub- lished in vol. xxi. of the "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute." His earlv knowledge of Povertv Bav enables him 3 34 Tr ansae tions . — Miscellaneous . to describe the appearance of the place before the breakwater and freezin o -works were buiit. Cook, after remaining at anchor in Poverty Bay for three days, during which time he had several conflicts with the natives, and not obtaining supplies required, sailed south. He passed and named Table Cape and Portland Island, and entered Hawke's Bay. One night was spent at anchor in Hawke's Bay, between Portland Island and Long Point, within the Mahia Peninsula, but nobody landed. Sailing further into Hawke's Bay, he saw the large indentation of the land at Mahia, and then coasted round the bay, passing Wairoa, Mohaka, and Tangoio at a distance of two or three miles, until he arrived off a white bluff head, which is our Ahuriri Bluff. According to the bearings given, the position of the ship when off this white bluff head was about three- quarters of a mile north-west of where the Pania buoy is now moored. On Cook's chart a channel is shown from the Inner Har- bour to the sea near to Petane. The channel was less than one mile on the Napier side of the smail Petane bridge, near which the manure-works are. All of you acquainted with the road to Petane will remember that here the beach is very low. The course of the old channel seen by Cook can be traced, as the north bank is well defined. While off the white bluff head two boats from the " Endeavour " were manned ready to look for fresh water, but a number of canoes coming out to the ships, and the natives behaving in a hostile manner, Cook proceeded south. This was on the 15th October, 1769. After passing and naming Cape Kidnappers, Bare Island, and Blackhead, he got as far south as abreast of Cape Turn- again. As the appearance of the country did not lead him to suppose he would come on any harbour he decided there to turn round and proceed north again in search of a watering- place. At length he reached Anaura Bay, which he called "Tegadoo," and the ship's boats were sent ashore for water. A heavy swell was running, and little water was taken off. The natives at Anaura explained that water could be easily got at the next bay south, which Cook afterwards called " Tolaga." The romantic cove now known as " Cook's Cove " was the first spot in New Zealand where the voyagers had any luck at all. Fresh water and firewood were badly wanted. At Poverty Bay the water in the river was brackish and undrinkable, and, the natives being hostile, no wood was obtained. At Anaura, as I have just mentioned, the surf beat so high on the beach that little water was taken off, and impressions there were not of the best. At Tolaga a smooth landing was found in the Duncan. — Folloioing the Tracks of Captain Cook. 35 cove, and the necessities required were procurable. The natives were friendly, and the civilian scientists of the expe- dition were enabled to carry out their researches in this new pasture without molestation. Timing my visit to coincide with the month of the year it was visited by Cook, I was able to see the place much in the same garb as he did. I was also able to see the stream where the water was obtained in the same season of the year, and thereby to judge what diffi- culties there might have been. In addition to the Journal of Cook, the writings of Sir Joseph Banks and the sketches and descriptions of Mr. Sydney Parkinson, available to us, help to make this spot the more interesting. I spent two days at Cook's Cove and on Sporing Island adjoining, and had with me manuscript copies of all the writings that I knew of relating to these places, so that I should not miss anything. The " Endeavour " was not anchored in the cove, but in the roadstead of Tolaga Bay. The ship's log gives her position thus : " Anchored in 11 fathoms ; fine sandy bottom ; the N. point of the bay N. by B. and the S. point S.E., and the watering-place, which was in a small cove a little within the S. point of the bay, distant 1 mile." The flat land at the head of the cove is now all very much overgrown with dense clumps of manuka and toetoe, and there is not a soul living there. At the time of Cook's visit the place was occupied by a good number of natives, and was under cultivation, for Cook speaks of the " little plantations of the natives lying dispersed up and down the country." Sir Joseph Banks, in his Journal, says, " Their plantations were now hardly finished, but so well was the ground tilled that I have seldom seen land better broken up. In them were planted sweet potatoes, cocos, and a plant of the cucumber kind, as we judged from the seed-leaves which just appeared above ground. The first of these were planted in small hills, some in rows, others in quincunx, all laid most regularly in line. The cocos were planted on flat land, and had not yet appeared above ground. The cucumbers were set in small hollows or ditches, much as in England. These plantations varied in size from 1 to 10 acres each. Each distinct patch was fenced in, generally with reeds placed close one by another so that a mouse could scarcely creep through." The plants seen by Banks would no doubt be the kumara, taro, and the gourd or calabash. The main creek of water runs out on to the beach at the extreme head of the cove, and is a very small stream in October. As mentioned, I examined this place on the identi- cal anniversary of Cook's visit, and found that the water was brackish for fully 50 yards from the beach. At low water the 36 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. greater part of the cove is dry, except where the stream runs over the white sand. At the present day, at low water, ships' boats coiald not get further up the cove tnan about a chain inside the low spit on the north point. The " Endeavour's " water-casks would need, therefore, to have been rolled up from the boats to the creek some 200 or 300 yards, and when filled rolled back to the boats — that is, of course, if the place be not changed. Old residents of Tolaga and natives who were born there told me that they have not noticed any alteration in the shores of the cove since they could remember. Cook says that "the water was good and the place pretty con- venient," but he was not the kind of man to mention such small troubles as rolling barrels over some hundreds of yards of mud or boulders. The firewood was, no doubt, cut just within the cove on the north point, as it is recorded in the log-book that there was "plenty of wood close to high-water mark." This north point is a more convenient place for boats to load at than the south. At the present day there is not a shrub growing on the south point, whereas bush is growing to within a few steps of high-water mark on the north. Nowadays dry drift- wood could be picked up above high-water mark in great quantity, and would be more useful for firing than green stuff. Cook, however, says, " The tree which we cut for firing was something like maple, and yielded a whitish gum." This remark leads us to conclude that green wood was cut. A peculiarity of this part of the coast of New Zealand is the number of caves, caverns, and water- worn archways that exist, and these striking features were duly noted by our navigators. Most noticeable is the Isle of Arches, a long high rock washed' through in a number of places with lofty and fanciful perforations. Standing seaward of this is a solitary rock, aptly named by Cook the " Cornstack." Re- ferring to the log again we read: " x\t the entrance into the bay are two high rocks : one is high and round like a corn- stack, but the other is long, with holes through it like the arches of a bridge. Within these rocks is the cove where we cut wood and filled our water." What is locally known as the " Hole in the Wall " is without doubt the most interesting sight in Cook's Cove. It is an archway leading from a valley in the cove through a hill to the sea-beach beyond. Sir Joseph Banks and other scientists from the " Endeavour," during their explorations, were very surprised on finding this wonderful freak of nature. Banks, in his Journal, says, "We saw also an extraordinary natural curiosity. In pursuing a valley bounded on each side by steep hills we suddenly saw a most noble arch or cavern through the face of a rock leading directly to the sea, so that Duncan. — FoUoiomg the Tracks of Cajitain Cook. 37 through it we had not only a view of the bay and hills on the other side, but an opportunity of imagining a ship or any other grand object opposite to it. It certainly was the most magnificent surprise I have ever met with ; so much is pure nature superior to art in these cases. I have seen such places made by art, where from an inland view you were led through an arch 6 ft. wide and 7 ft. high to a prospect of the sea, but here was an arch 25 yards in length, 9 in breadth, and at least 15 in height." I roughly measured the archway, and found that the length and breadth as given by Banks is practically correct. I had no means of measuring the height, but think that Banks overestimates it. It is about 30 ft. high, or less. Sydney Parkinson, artist on the " Endeavour," in his Journal, gives a picture of this arch on page 99, of which I show a copy on the screen. In Parkinson's picture the place seems all clear of scrub. At the present day the bush and undergrowth is very thick, and it was impossible to obtain a position with the camera to include all of the open- ing. The creek running through the arch is not as Parkinson shows, but is full of large rocks and uneven boulders. Unfor- tunately, Parkinson did not live to return to England, but died of fever on the voyage Home after the " Endeavour " had sailed from Batavia. His diary and sketches were published by his brother, and it is likely that the picture was only half finished. A good deal has been written in the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute" about a place known as "Cook's Well," and I will now explain my views about it. There is a Maori tradition extant that Cook, or Tupaea, the Tahitian who accompanied him, cut a small hole in a rock near a spring of water in Cook's Cove, Tolaga Bay — I suppose for the purpose of making a basin to get a drink from. No record of this cutting is left by the commander or any of his people, as, of course, it would be an act of little moment to them. The Maori tradition, however, exists, and I am able to explain that the place shown by the natives for many years past, and known to Europeans as " Cook's Well," is not the place shown to Mr. J. S. Polack by the chief of the district in 1835. Every one who visits Cook's Cove is anxious to see Cook's Well, and the place shown is a small round hole in a steep rock face over which runs a trickle of spring water. This so called well is some 30 yards up a steep hillside facing the north-west corner of the cove. A number of names and initials have been cut in the rock hereabout Some one, too, has cut in deeply the name "COOK," and the figures "1778." I baled out the water from the hole and found that a more enter- prising visitor had actually cut letters at the bottom. The 38 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. hole is round, and about 6 in. in diameter at the top and narrowing to the bottom, and the depth is about 12 in. Down the hillside, some 4 or 5 yards from the well, is a small cave over which the water trickles and drops down in front. The whole place is covered in by light scrub. This well is in an unlikely and out-of-the-way place, and its position does not agree with the description of the spot shown bv the natives in 1835. The first recorded account of a European visiting Cook's Cove for the sake of its historical associations is that of J. S. Polack, in 1835, and sixty-six years after our great navi- gator. Polack was conducted over the pathways of Cook by Kani-o-takirau, the chief of the district, who took pleasure in showing the place and telling the traditions. I will now ex- plain about the place shown to Polack. Near the north point of the cove, and not many yards up the side of the hill, is a large cavern, not deep, but high and long. Over this cavern from the hill above a small spring drops down immediately in front into a watercourse which is shaded in by shrubbery. This is undoubtedly the cavern shown to Polack by the native chief, and in front of it is where Polack saw the cutting in the rock, which Kani told him was made by the order of Cook. Polack, in his book, " Travels and Adventures in New Zealand," vol. ii., page 130, tells us about this cavern and rock-cutting: " Kani requested me to accompany him next day to Opou- tama, near the south entrance of the bay, where we should walk over the same ground and native paths that existed in the time of Cook, and which had been traversed by him. The following morning, at the beginning of the ebb, we wTent in the whaleboat, the chief, and the arch-priest (tohunga-nui) , who was his brother-in-law, accompanying us." Polack goes on to describe the cove, and the plants and trees he saw there. Then he says, " The friendly Kani preceded me, and led the way through the devious native paths, which are never to be found in a straight line, even when the road over a plain best admits of it. The chief now wound his way up the side of the hill, followed by myself and the friends who accom- panied us. We were arrested in our progress halfway by a cavern, which stopped our further progress. Its arch was remarkably high, but of little depth ; it was similarly argilla- ceous to the caves we had seen below in the bay. Kani in- quired if I felt gratified, adding, 'This, friend, is Tupia's cavern.' I learnt that in this cave the favourite interpreter of Cook slept with the natives. ' He was often in the habit of doing so during the heat of the day with his native friends, as is the wont of the New-Zealanders,' said my conductor. A few yards in front of the cave is a small hole that was dug in Duncan. — Following the Tracks of Captain Cook. 39 the granite rock by order of Cook for receiving from a small spring the fluid that unceasingly flows into it." You will notice that Polack refers to a small hole dug in the granite rock in front of a large cavern, not above a small cave as shown nowadays. To continue Polack's narrative : " The marks of the pick- axe are as visible at the present day as at the period it was excavated under Cook's eye. The water that overflowed this useful little memorial of our illustrious countryman was pellucid and very cold. The sun had not penetrated this sequestered spot for many years from the umbrageous kahika- toa and other trees that surround it. Around the surface of the cavern are many native delineations, executed with char- coal, of ships, canoes sailing, men and women, dogs and pigs, &c, drawn with tolerable accuracy. Above our reach, and evidently faded by time, was the representation of a ship and some boats, which were unanimously pointed out to me by all present as the productions of the faithful Tahitian follower of Cook (Tupia). This also had evidently been done by similar materials." The back wall and roof of this cavern is of whitish silica, and favourable for making charcoal drawings upon as de- scribed by Polack. I noticed a drawing of two whales very well done. The delineation was well out of reach, and evi- dently done with a long charcoal-stick. This is further evidence that the cavern shown on the screen is the cavern of Tupaea, as the cave would not offer any advantages to a charcoal artist, being not 4 ft. high and dark inside. I am of opinion that since 1835 the natives have somehow lost the locality of the place to which their tradition refers, and that the chief Kani-o-takirau, who showed the place to Polack, was more likely to be correct than the natives of more recent years. After searching in the watercourse immediately in front of this cavern and clearing away rubbish I found a square de- pression over which the water ran. This cavern would give shelter from the sun on an October afternoon to a large number of people, and if my opinion were asked I would say that the natives and probably Tupaea and the liberty men from the " Endeavour" occupied it as a sort of dress circle, from which to watch the work of wooding and watering going on below, and that the hole was cut in the rock to collect water for a clean drink. The depression in the rock is some 3 yards in front of the cavern, but I should not like to say that it was artificial, although after clearing the scum from off the bottom three small triangular holes were visible, as if made by a pick. Sporing Island, the native name of which is Pourewa, runs 40 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. along parallel with the mainland, and its north point is a bluff head just without Cook's Cove. It has an area of about '80 acres, and is unoccupied. The island is named after Mr. Herman Sporing, one of Sir Joseph Banks's retinue on board the " Endeavour." The channel between the island and the mainland is narrow, and shallow at low water. Our voyagers visited this island, and Banks saw here the largest war-canoe he met with on his voyage to New Zealand. The dimensions of the canoe were : Length, 68-J-ft. ; breadth, 5 ft. ; and depth, 3 ft. 6 in. He also saw here a large uncompleted building, with side posts carved, as he says, "in a masterly style, with spirals and distorted human faces." Tnere is a most extraordinary subterranean cavern here, leading from the sea on the east side of the island to near its centre, where it opens out to daylight in a large crater-like abyss some 50 ft. deep. At low tide the natives say that it is possible to walk and crawl out to the coast from the bottom of this crater. At high tide the water rushes in. Cook's people could not have seen this place, as, being so remarkable, they would surely have mentioned it if they had. Polack records that he did not visit Sporing Island, but was told about the subterranean passage by the natives. Cook sailed from Tolaga Bay on the 29th October, 1769, having been at anchor there for six days, during which time 70 tons of water was shipped and sufficient firewood obtained. He never revisited it, but Captain Furneaux, in the " Adven- ture," spent seven days there — from the 9th to the 16th November, 1773 — getting wood and water. The cove can never be of use as a harbour as it is too shallow, and is ex- posed to the north-east and east winds. Before concluding about Cook's Cove, Tolaga Bay, I must say that I think the Government should be prevailed upon to acquire the title to the cove and let the place remain in its natural state, as has been done at Ship Cove. Queen Charlotte Sound. I do not mean to infer that the Govern- ment should set aside all places in New Zealand visited by Cook ; but this cove above all others has so many natural as well as historical attractions that I am sure the people of this colony and visitors in days to come would be pleased to see it kept in its natural state. After leaving Tolaga the "Endeavour" called at Mercurjr Bay, Thames Estuary, and Bay of Islands, and, rounding the North Cape, sailed down the west coast of the North Island and anchored in Ship Cove, Queen Charlotte Sound, which is a,t the north end of the South Island. At the time of my visit to Queen Charlotte Sound last Easter 1 was unaware of Cook's chart of this place which is to be found in Hawkesworth's edition of the Voyages, but had Duncan. — Following the Tracks of Captain Cook. 41 ■with me the modern one as surveyed by Captain Stokes and Commander Drury of the "Acheron" and "Pandora" in 1849 and 1850, and in present use. Some names of places given by Cook, and appearing on the old chart which he com- piled on his first voyage, have been altered. Thus, Long Point has been renamed Clarke Point, West Bay has been changed to Endeavour Inlet, and Shag Cove to Eesolution Bay. The following titles also appear on the modern chart : Mount Fur- neaux, Edgecumbe Point, Pickersgill Island, and Fannin Bay. These are all named after Cook's officers, but whether this was done by Captain Stokes I do not know. In his second and third voyages, as far as I can investigate, Cook has left no record of having so named these places. On arrival at Picton I hired a handy little oil-launch in preference to a sailing-boat, as I had only three days to spare. After proceeding about sixteen miles down the Sound we were on the look-out for a sheltered bay in which to pitch camp. We sighted some tents in a picturesque cove, where Mr. James Batcliffe is settling and building a house. He very kindly offered to accommodate our party in his tents, and very com- fortable he made us. Sir Joseph Banks speaks of the " melodious wild music of the birds" in the early mornings at Queen Charlotte Sound. He says that their notes resembled small bells, but with the most tunable silver sound imaginable. It is generally sup- posed that the korimako, or bell-bird, is pretty well extinct. However, during the early morning at this camp I was agree- ably surprised at hearing plenty of them. In the morning we were under way betimes, steering straight across the Sound for Ship Cove. I believe that almost every English boy has read Cook's Voyages, and must have formed a picture in his mind of the haven in Queen Charlotte Sound that Cook so often, and I may say so lovingly, visited. A kind of intuition must have prompted this wonder- ful seaman in the first instance to find such a perfect harbour. Ship Cove, I should fancy, has almost the same appearance at the present day as when the " Endeavour " dropped anchor there on the 16th January, 1770, as the whole place is bush- clad down to the water's edge. During Cook's later visits the natives in great numbers were attracted by the presence of the ships. We read that they cleared the flat land to make room for their habitations until all the available space was taken up by them. Several small streams percolate through the beach to the sea, but the main stream which runs into the sea at the head of the cove is a splendid rill of water. The filling of water- casks here would be an easy matter in comparison with Tolaga. It is rather hard to judge how much flat land there 42 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. really is in this cove. I explored inland for some distance, but, finding that fighting one's way through the thick under- growth was not conducive to reflections about Captain Cook, I soon returned to the beach. A few English fruit-trees and some willow-trees are growing wild, commingled with the native scrub, no doubt planted in days gone by by some whaler who had appropriated the cove for a time. In addition to having anchors down, Cook held his ship in position by hawsers fastened to the trees on shore, and during westerly gales we read that occasionally these hawsers parted. The ocean swell does not reach this cove, and the breaking of a few ropes is easily understood when one realises how hard it sometimes blows here. Westerly winds would be off shore. It is worthy of cote that the " Tory," the first ship of the New Zealand Company, bringing from England surveyors and pioneers, knowing of no other harbour in this part of New Zealand, made for Ship Cove, anchoring there in August, 1839. From here the "Tory" sailed into the channel named after her, and, getting a whaler as pilot, proceeded to look for a site for a settlement. Where the City of Wellington now stands was the place chosen. Captain Cook, during his three voyages, occupied Ship Cove for exactly a hundred days. On the two occasions when Captain Furneaux, in the "Adventure," was separated from Cook he occupied it alone altogether sixty-five days. Cannibal Cove is the next bay to the north of Ship Cove, and is where Cook and his boat's crew realised the grim fact that the New-Zealanders were cannibals. The place is occu- pied by a settler now, and is under cultivation, and the native bush has been made to give place to grass. The most historic Motuara Island lies abreast of Ship Cove, and about two miles from it. On the highest part of the island is the spot where Lieutenant Cook erected a post and took possession of New Zealand in the name and for the use of His Majesty King George III. This ceremony took place on the 31st January, 1770. A bottle of wine was drunk, and the inlet dignified with the name of Queen Charlotte Sound. A native chief who had accompanied Cook to the top of the island was very pleased to receive the empty bottle as a present. From the shape of the surface of the ground at this spot, I could see that a considerable amount of digging has taken place, but whether it is as Cook left it I cannot say. Somebody may have been digging since, looking for relics. It is hardly necessary to say that the post has rotted away long ago. Beyond the south-west end of Motuara Island, and only separated from it by a few feet, stands an isolated rocky Duncan. — Folloiving the Tracks of Captain Cook 43 ridge, and this was where Cook found a strongly fortified pa on his visit in the "Endeavour." On the second voyage it was found that the natives had abandoned it. Captain Furneaux, of the "Adventure," who arrived here on that voyage six weeks before Cook in the " Resolution," used it upon which to set up his astronomical observatory. We read that the people from the "Adventure" stationed here were much troubled by fleas from the deserted habitations of the natives. Rats were also here in immense numbers, and the sailors sought to minimise the nuisance by putting large jars in the ground, into which the rats fell during the night. I found the top of this ridge entirely overgrown with thick scrub and very uneven, and during a short exploration was unable to notice any signs of ancient fortifications. Night coming on, we boarded the launch and made the best of our way to camp. I had planned that my third day in the Sound should be spent searching for Grass Cove, the scene of the massacre of a boat's crew belonging to the "Adventure," as from what I had read in the Transactions there seemed a doubt as to where it was. At a period in Cook's second voyage the "Adventure," Captain Furneaux, had become separated from the "Reso- lution," and was at anchor in Ship Cove alone. On the 17th December, 1773, Captain Furneaux sent two officers — Mr. Rowe and Mr. Woodhouse — and eight of the crew in a boat across the Sound to gather wild greens for the ship's company. As they failed to return to the ship at night the captain became very anxious, and in the morning des- patched Mr. Burney, the second lieutenant, in search. Mr. Burney was a very precise officer, and has left a fairly detailed account of his day's search, which resulted in the finding of some mangled remains of his shipmates at Grass Cove. Mr. Burney's report is in the form of a letter to his commander, and is copied in the ship's log-book. I had with me a copy of this report. I had made inquiries at Picton as to the whereabouts of Grass Cove, but nobody knew the name. One old gentle- man told me it was understood that the massacre happened at Cabbage Bay. Last Christmas Mr. A. H. Turnbull, of Wellington, an enthusiastic searcher into early New Zea- land history, had made a cruise to the Sounds in his yacht. He was possessed of Hawkesworth's edition of " Cook's Voyages," in which was the chart of the Sound, and on which Grass Cove is marked. I had with me photographs which he had taken in the Sounds, and which he had kindly sent me, and Grass Cove was one of them ; but I had not asked him where it was, thinking that I would have no diffi- 44 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. culty in getting information at Pieton. Round the cainp- fire on our first night we tried to fix it. Mr. Ratcliffe, after reading Lieutenant Burney's report, affirmed that the place described could not be very far from where we were, and, on opening the packet of photographs, our surprise was great to find that we were actually at Grass Cove, and sit- ting but a few yards from where the unfortunate men were killed. The feeling was rather awesome, notwithstanding the 128 years that had elapsed, the occurrence and details being vividly before our minds. There was no doubt about it, for the place tallied with what Lieutenant Burney de- scribed. Now that Grass Cove had been so easily found, I thought that our third day could not be better spent than in trying to go over the course taken by Burney in his search for his miss- ing shipmates. Therefore the following morning we were up soon after the bell-birds and under way, armed with the modern chart and the lieutenant's old report. The instruc- tions given to Mr. Burney by Captain Furneaux were to '■look well into East Bay, and if no sign of the boat there then to proceed to Grass Cove." Burney's com-se across the Sound we knew, for he mentions passing Long Island and rounding Long Point. We rightly concluded that the Clarke Point on the modern chart was the Long Point of Cook. Mr. Burney was in charge of a boat heavily laden with a good number of men, with their muskets and ammunition and three days' pro- visions, and his pace through the water would not be as fast a,s our modern oil-launch. Some rough calculation was there- fore necessary to fit our time and distances in with his. We found that Mr. Burney explored into wdrat is now called Gilbert Bay and along the north shore of East Bay, and, not finding any traces of the missing boat there, crossed over the bay to the east shore. We got on his tracks on the east side, where he says there was a native settlement. Although no natives live there now, and the place is all overgrown, Mr. Ratcliffe, who was with us, knew the spot to be where a pa had once been. On a small beach adjoining to Grass Cove Burney found the first evidence that a massacre had taken place, for some baskets had just been brought there by a canoe. In these baskets were cooked human flesh and fern-root, also the hand of a white man with " TH " tattooed upon it. From the site of the old pa to this small beach took us twenty-two minutes. Burnev records that his time was within an hour. Mr. Burney's report says, " I launched the canoe with intent to destroy her, but, seeing a great smoke ascending over the nearest hill, I got all the people into the boat and made what haste I could to be with them before sunset. On opening the Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 45 next bay, which was Grass Cove, we saw four canoes, one single and three double ones, and a great many people on the beach, who on our approach retreated to a small hill within a ship's length of the water-side, where they stood talking to us." The small bill alluded to by Mr. Burney rises up from the beach about the middle of the cove. Captam Cook visited this place three years afterwards, on his third voyage, and tells what he could find out about the cause of the calamity. He also says, " Pedro and his companions, besides relating the history of the massacre, made us acquainted with the very spot that was the scene of it. It is at the corner of the cove on the right hand." This means, I feel sure, the right- hand corner of the cove looking towards it from seawards. Grass Cove is known to the people of the Sound as Nott's Bay. Its Maori name is Otanerua. Professor Morris, in vol. xxxiii. of the Transactions, page 501, falls into an error about the locality of this massacre, and records that it happened at a place which he calls Adven- ture Bay. There is no Adventure Bay on either Cook's chart or the modern one. The bay alluded to, of which Professor Morris says the two headlands are Edgecumbe Point and Marine Point, is called on the modern chart Endeavour Inlet and on Cook's old chart West Bay. Art. V. — Food Products of Tuhoeland : being Notes on the Food-supplies of a Non-agricultural Tribe of the Natives of New Zealand; together with some Account of various Customs, Superstitions, die., pertaininy to Foods. By Elsdon Best. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 6th October, 1902.] It will probably surprise many to learn that a non-agricultural tribe of Maoris obtained in the North Island of New Zealand to within comparatively late times. It was in this wise : Before their conquest of the Buatoki and Waimana districts the Tuhoe or Urewera Tribe possessed no lands on which the kumara, taro, or hue might be cultivated, their country con- sisting of remarkably rugged and high-lying ranges, with narrow gullies between them, and with nothing in the way of flat land or alluvial soil. The three cultivated food plants enumerated above, possessed by the Maori in pre-European days, will not thrive in this region, and hence the denizens of Tuhoeland, the Children of the Mist, were compelled to subsist upon the products of forest and stream. Of course, when the potato was acquired from the early European voyagers to these shores, then it was found that the new 46 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. tuber flourished exceeding well in Tuhoeland, and this new food product must have been an immense boon to these bush- men. Until the introduction of the potato tbere were practically no clearings in the great forest which covers this rugged dis- trict. As the people had nothing to cultivate, and, moreover, as all their food-supplies were obtained from the forest, it behoved them to interfere with that forest as little as possible. The natives lived in small, scattered settlements, each con- sisting of a few huts situated in a small clearing. Also in those days but little fern-root was obtainable within the bound- aries of the Tuhoe Tribe, and it was not until they occupied the Euatoki. Waimaua, Te Whaiti, and Waikare-moana dis- tricts that they came into the possession of lands producing the aruhe, or edible fern-root. According to Maori belief, the Earth Mother it is who pro- vides her descendants with food, which she does out of affec- tion for her offspring, who were scattered afar across the world in the days of the gods. One division of the Tuhoe people — viz., Ngai-Tama. of Te Waimana — carried their re- spect for the Earth Mother so far as never to bury their dead in the ground, but always placed the bodies up in trees. It was not right, according to their ideas, to put the bodies underground, as it is the earth which produces food for man. Food ever occupies a very important position in the native mind. Their thoughts, conversation, proverbial sayings, and stories deal frequently with this subject. This probably springs from the fact that food was difficult to procure in the old days, and called for almost continuous effort in one way or another, hence such work occupied their minds almost as much as their time. Each month, as it came round, in all seasons, had its task for the bushmeu, birds or rats to be caught or certain berries to be gathered and preserved. It is not my intention in this paper to describe the innumerable methods of taking birds and rats (kiore), with the rites, superstitions, &c, pertaining thereto, which obtained here in former times. The task is too lengthy for the time at my disposal now ; and, moreover, I hope to include such in a paper on " Forest Lore and Woodcraft," to be prepared and forwarded in the future. As observed, the procuring of food occupied much of the time, skill, and thoughts of the Maori. The man who was diligent in procuring food was thought much of, while other accomplishments would often appear to have taken second place. I chanced to remark one day that Piki, of Tuhoe, must have been a great composer, so many songs being attributed to him. An old native observed, "Yes; he com- Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 47 posed a great many songs, but I think that means that he was a very lazy man." Times of scarcity of food were by no means rare. These would usually occur before the bird- taking season in the interior of the island, and often on the coast when the sea was too rough to permit of fishing-canoes going forth. At such a time natives would exert themselves as little as possible, and would spend most of their time in lying down. They would rise late, take an enormous drink of water, and then lie down again. Some time after they would partake of the one scanty meal of the day, after which they would again lie down. They drank great quantities of water at such times. Usually the old-time Maori would have two meals a day. They would rise early and proceed to the work of the day, in the cultivations or elsewhere. Having worked several hours, they would partake of the first meal, prepared by the women, at nine or ten o'clock. They would then recommence work and proceed until quitting-time, which was usually early. After this the second meal was eaten. In returning to the protecting fort for the night the women would bear on therr backs great bundles of firewood or of food. When the Eev. Mr. Colenso visited Waikare-moana in De- cember, 1841, he found the natives of that place had scarcely any food at the time, and were living upon roots and herbs and a few potatoes which they had left from the previous year. The Maori is ever closely in touch with nature, owing not only to their ever searching for the products of forest, plain, and waters, but also to the fact of their genius for personifica- tion and the belief that the human race, animals, fish, birds, trees, &c, are all sprung from a common source, are all de- scendants of the Sky Father and the Earth Mother. We shall note some singular results of this belief in the present and also in future papers. The Maori larder was sadly deficient in flesh foods, and this may possibly have had something to do with their can- nibalism, for they were undoubtedly fond of human flesh as a food, with the exception of those who were koto — i.e., who had a feeling of repugnance towards that unnatural diet. The domestic dog (kuri) was not numerous enough to form an important item in the native bill-of-fare, but its flesh was highly esteemed. This dish, however, only ap- peared on important occasions, as at a feast, or when pre- pared for a distinguished visitor. The hindquarters of the kuri are said to have been the best eating. Its flesh was sometimes used as an o matenga, or food for the death journey, on account of its delicacy from a Maori point of 48 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. view. When a person was near unto death a special food would be prepared as a last meal for the dying person. Earthworms (Joke) were a favourite article for this purpose, and it is said that the sweet flavour (tawara) of that prized food would be detected on the palate of the eater for two days after the meal. Apparently the Jcuri, or at least one breed thereof, that known as ruarangi, was possessed by the first Maori in- habitants of this land. Judging from the way in which this animal is spoken of in the local traditions, it appears pro- bable that there were two breeds or varieties of the domes- ticated dog here in former times. The flesh of the kiore, or native rat, was highly prized by the Maori, and formed one of the principal food-supplies of Tuhoeland. This little creature was very numerous in this district formerly, more especially on the high-lying ranges, where it fed on the beech mast, and was trapped in great numbers. It disappeared about the early " fifties." The expression " tau niho roa" was applied to a season when the kiore were particularly numerous, and hence bold in stealing from the food-stores of the natives. The flesh of the rat was preserved for future use in the same manner that birds were — viz., by taking out the bones and placing the flesh in a vessel, which was then filled up with melted fat, which preserved the contents. Eats and birds preserved in this manner are termed huahua. Old natives say that the bones of the rat were pulled out quite easily, that the flesh did not appear to adhere to them. When cooked for immediate consiimption the rat was wrapped in leaves of the fern termed petipeti and placed in the hapi, or steam-oven. Such a wrapper or en- velope for birds or fish is termed kopaki or poutaka. The rat was cooked without being skinned. They were caught in traps and pits, which we will describe later on. It is said that two kinds of rats obtained here, the matapo, a black variety, and the tokoroa, a grey one. An old myth of the Bay of Plenty tribes tells us that Pani was the (mythical) mother of the kumara, and that one Hine- mataiti, a younger sister of Pani, was the origin of the rat. Regarding the cannibalism of the Maori, human flesh was not only eaten after a battle, but also it was preserved for future use as huahua, in the manner described above. When rations fell short or some special food was required for a feast or to place before a guest a slave would be very likely knocked on the head, and his body consigned to the oven. Again, special raids were often made for the purpose of procuring human flesh or to capture a person to be slain, cooked, and eaten, in order to give prestige to certain rites of old, such as the opening of a new house, the tattooing of a chief's Best. — Food Products of Tulioeland. 49 daughter, or the performance of the tua rite over a new- born child. The diet of the Tuhoe Tribe was ever largely vegetable, and we will commence with those plants or trees of which the roots or subterranean parts were eaten. Aeuhe (Fern-root). This is the root of Ptcns aquilina var. esculenta, the plant being known as rarauhe, and the young shoots or fronds thereof as mokehu. It is the common fern seen almost every- where in unimproved open country. Among various peoples, more especially those living in the more primitive culture stages, a feeling akin to reverence is evinced for staple foods. Mahomet said to the Arabs, "Honour the date palm, for it is your mother." In like manner the Maori should honour the fern -root, for it has ever been a most important article of food m these isles, more especially among those tribes who had no access to the coast, and with whom the kumara and taro did not nourish or thrive without much labour and care. However, the Maori has honoured the aruhe by assign- ing to it a celestial origin, thus placing it on a level with man : for the origin, personification, or parent of the aruhe is Haumia, one of the offspring of Rangi and Papa, the Sky Parent and the Earth Mother, and brother to Kongo, the origin of the kumara, or sweet potato. For Maori myth- ology teems with such allegories or personifications, and with many singular metaphorical terms. Hence fern-root is often termed the peka o Haumia, and was often spoken of as the salvation of man, it being a great and ever-obtainable stand-by when other food-supplies ran short. x\n old native once said to me, " Let me ex- plain to you. The ancestor who ever provides for his de- scendants is Haumia. The food he provides for man is seen on hill and plain and in the valleys between. That is the good work of Haumia, the supplying of his descend- ants with food. For Haumia is the origin of the mokehu (fern), and the children of the mokehu are the ivaeroa (mos- quitos), who, with their companions the namu (sandfly), ever wage war against man. And haumia-roa (a term for fern-root) was the principal food of the ancient people of this land before the kumnra and taro were brought hither from Hawaiki." This Haumia must not be confused with his descendant Haumia-nui, who was a female, and who married Tiwaka- waka, the earliest human resident in Aotearoa (New Zea- land) of whom tradition tells us. We give below the de- scent of Haumia from Rangi and Papa : — 4 50 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Rangi = Papa I Tane = Hine-rauamoa T3 ; were in bloom. If the burning was left until the blooming of the rata and the korukoru,\ then the fern-root would become brownish (maivera) in appearance, and be unfit to eat. Fern- root was dug when the mokehu, or young growth of fern, had attained its full height — that is to say, in the early summer. But in times of scarcity it would be dug at any time. The fern-root when dug was thrown into heaps (kopuhi), and afterwards carried to the village and stacked on a sort of stage termed a titara aruhe, where it was left exposed to wind and rain until "cured," or dried, when it was packed * Whahou : The flower of the tawari tree is so termed in Tuhoeland. t Korukoru : Name of the pirinoa, a parasitical plant, when in flower. It usually grows on tawai trees. 52 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. into baskets (kete) in layers, this latter process being known- as whakamdtd. These baskets are then stored in the cook- ing-huts or food-stores. When the cooked article is required the fern-root is roasted at a fire and the outside part scraped off, and the root is then beaten and pounded with a short club 10 in. or 11 in. in length." When pounded the black stringy fibres are taken out and the root again pounded, after which the mealy portion is eaten. Or the meal is cleaned and pressed into cakes termed komeke, which are round and about 8 in. in length. These were again roasted at a fire, which prevented them from crumbling and formed them into a compact mass. These cakes or rolls were sometimes steeped in the juice of the berries of the tutu shrub, of which more anon. This latter was quite a treat to the neolithic gourmands. Komeke aruhe was the chief food carried by war parties when on the trail of Tu. It is said to be a very sustaining food. When fern-root was required to be kept for some time it was placed under water in some convenient pool, where it would be kept for possibly a year. Fern-root grounds were jealously guarded in former times, and woe betide the outsider who attempted to dig roots there. Tapuha, of Ngati-Apa, was slain by Te Arawa at Pekepeke, on the Kaingaroa Plains, for the above offence ; while Ngati- Hape slew Te Eakau, of Ngati-Apa, for taking fern-root and eels on the Kuha-waea Block, at Galatea. Serious inter- tribal wars were often caused by these acts of trespass. " Te manawa nui o Whete" (the sustaining -power of Whete) is a local saying applied to the fern-root. Whete was a valorous ancestor who, prior to going into battle, would consume a large quantity of fern-root cakes, and then perform prodigies of valour. " Kaua e pata i te aruhe i te po. He upoko tangata, he tohu aitua." Do not pound fern-root at night-time. A human head, an evil omen. If you do so, then your head will soon be pounded by the weapon of an enemy. " Ka ora karikari aruhe, ka mate takiri kaka." The fern- root digger will survive when the parrot-snarer is assailed by hunger. You can obtain fern-root at any season, but parrots are only taken during the winter. Boi — aruhe = fern-root. A generic term. Botari. [ A term applied to young fern-root not yet fit for Kotau. ) digging. Aupatu aruhe. A bundle of dried fern-root. * This club, termed by Tuhoe a vatu aruhe, but by some tribes a paoi, is here made of the hard wood of the maire tree, but among some tribes stone ones were used. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 53 Mata kai aivatea. A term applied to fern-root. The first word is probably matcl (see above), while the last two words refer to the prejudice against pounding fern-root at night. Te aka o tuwhenua is another expression used for fern- root. The creeper of the solid earth, in allusion to the far- reaching roots of the rarauhe. He Tau (a Song). He aha te kai e ora ai te taugata He pipi, he aruhe, Ko te aka o tuwhenua Ko te kai e ora ai te tangata Matoetoe ana te arero i te mitikanga Me he arero kuri Au! The Perei. " The perei is an orchid, scientifically known as Gastrodia cunning hamii. It is not at all a common plant." * When camped at Ruatoki last summer our camp cook drew my attention to several plants of perei growing near the creek, where they were sheltered by a growth of scrub, and so protected from stock. The stalks were from 2 ft. to 3 ft. in height. At the foot of each was a mass of small tubers or roots from -l-in. to f in. in thickness. Some singular notions prevail among the natives in regard to the perei. It did not, according to the Maori, originate in or from the earth, but was formed by the gods. Again, when engaged in digging for the roots the word perei must not be mentioned or no roots will be found. At such a time it is termed maukuuku. For a similar superstition in Tahiti, see Tregear's Dictionary under Kapara ; also a singular note concerning the mandrake-root in Lang's "Custom and Myth." Similar beliefs also exist among the Maori in regard to birds. The perei was dug in the winter season, and dried by exposure, as fern-root is. It was either roasted at a fire or cooked in the steam-oven. It was not found in any quantity, but would be dug up when seen. Ti (Cordyline, the Cabbage-tree of the European Settlers). The ti is known on the East Coast as kouka, and in some other districts as tvhanake. The various species of Cordyline as recognised by the Tuhoe Tribe are as follows : — 1. Ti kouka (Cordyline atistralis), the common "cabbage- tree." 2. Ti kapu (Cordyline banksii). 3. Toi (Cordyline indivisa). * From Mr. T. F. Cheeseman. 54 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. 4. Ti ngahere. 5. Ti para. The ti taxohiti does not appear to have been known here, unless it is identical with the ti para, above. All of the above species provided food for the Maori. The young leaves were sometimes eaten. The roots of the above varieties of Gordyline, except that of the toi, were all eaten. The top or head of the tree was cut off in the fourth month of the Maori year — i.e., the month Mahuru, which is the spring month (August-September)— in order that the sap might not rise, or, as the Maori puts it, that the sap might return to the tap-root. Then, when the planting season (koanga) arrived the root of the tree was dug up, usually in the fifth month of the Maori year, and placed in a steam-oven, where it was cooked for two days. It was then taken out and allowed to become cold before being eaten, the fibrous matter being, of course, rejected. It is said to be remarkably sweet. Hence, doubtless, the reason why it was prized by the natives, whose saying for the food, " He kouka ki te aivatea, he ai ki te vo," shows the estimation in which it was held. The ti para was the most highly prized of the Gordyline, as it furnished the best food material, and both trunk and tap- root (more) were cooked and eaten. The trunk was about 2 ft. to 3 ft. in height in this district. This variety was cultivated for food, and does not appear to have grown wild here. It is now extinct in the district. This variety is said to have been eaten by the chiefs only. The head (kouru) of the toi was cooked in a steam-oven and eaten — i.e., the top of the trunk, which is the soft part, the young unexpanded leaves of the tree. This section of the trunk was split into two or more pieces before being placed in the oven. Tradition states that one Eoau brought seeds or plants of the ti, taro, and karaka (a tree, Gorynocarpxis laevigata) to New Zealand in the " Nukutere " vessel. The two former are known in this district as Te huri a Boau (the seed of Eoau). The ti brought by him is said to have been planted at Pokere- kere, and its name was Whakaruru-ma-tangi. The " Nuku- tere " canoe made the land at Waiaua, near Opotiki. Eaupo (Typha angustifolia, Bulrush). The soft, mealy roots of this swamp plant were eaten, the larger ones being selected for food. These roots are termed karito. The outer part was peeled off, leaving the soft in- terior, the iho, which was eaten both raw and cooked in a steam -oven (hapi). A peculiar kind of food was made from the pollen (tahuna Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 55 among the Matatua Tribes, but termed tahune elsewhere) of this plant. The tahuna is described in Williams's Dictionary as the -'pappus of seed of raujio." The raupo is only found on the outskirts of Tuhoeland, hence it did not form an im- portant part of the Tuhoean food-supply. A good description of the making of a sort of bread from the tahuna may be found in the Eev. Taylor's " Te Ika a Maui." My own notes on the subject are meagre. We will now see what berries or fruits were included in the food-supplies of the Tuhoe people, this being an important source of food of these forest-dwelling people, for the three principal items in such supplies were the berries of the hinau and tatva trees and birds. The berries of the hinau (Elceocarpus dentatus) were largely used in former times, and even now to a small extent. The kernel of the berry is covered with a mealy substance, which is the edible part. This meal is made into a sort of cake and so cooked. The berries are collected from the ground under the trees into baskets and put into a house until dry, probably for a couple of days. They are then poured into a wooden trough (kumete), and pounded with a short club or pestle of hard maire wood or stone. This process is termed tnhi, and is to free the meal from the stones of the berries. The pounded berries are then put in a basket, which serves as a sifter, and is made of strips of ti leaf, with small openings left between the strips. This basket is called a tatari or ketc puputu. The meal is sifted over a closely woven mat, and the meal escapes from the basket and falls upon the mat, the stones of the fruit being retained by the basket. This meal is then put into another basket with smaller spaces and again sifted, in order that any stones (karihi, or iwi, or iho) that may have escaped the coarser sieve will be retained. The refuse — i.e., the stones — still have a certain amount of meal (termed renga) adher- ing to them. They are therefore cast into a wooden trough or bowl, water is poured over them, and the mass is stirred about with the hands until the adhering meal is washed off. Then the stones are scooped up with the hands and cast away. The meal-and-water mixture (termed loai haro) is then stone-boiled (himhua) by means of throwing hot stones into it, and is then drunk. It is a sort of gruel. The meal which has been sifted is collected from the mat and placed in a bowl, where water is poured on it, and it is mixed (poipioi and pokepoke) into a mass and then placed in shallow baskets termed rourou. These baskets are made from the leaves of the mauri or of the kokaha (probably both Astelia), and are lined with leaves of the paraharaha 56 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. (a fern). The meal in the basket is also covered with the same kind of leaves, the covering process being known as raupi. By this time the steam-ovens are ready, and the baskets of meal are put into the ovens and covered up. They are cooked for two hours or more, and are then taken out and placed in the food-stores, where these cakes, or rather steamed puddings, will keep good for a long time. In late times the meal has been mixed with honey in place of water. In appearance this food when cooked" is dark in colour, and looks both solid and heavy. It somewhat resembles a dried linseed poultice. I have eaten it, but may say that I prefer my bread and beefsteak. This, how- ever, may be mere racial prejudice on my part. The following saying is applied to the above food : " Kia whakaara koe i taku vwe, ko te tvhatit turei a Rua " (When you awaken me from my sleep let it be for the purpose of eating the tvhatu turei a Btia — hinau meal). Tawa. The kernel of the fruit of the tawa tree (Ncsodaphne tawa) furnished a large proportion of the food of these bushmen in former times, and, moreover, it was an article that could be kept as a stand-by for years. Hence during seasons when this fruit was plentiful large quantities of the kernels were dried and put away in the food storehouses. The kernel only of this fruit is preserved. The pulpy out- side matter is only eaten by childrsn. This food is still in use here. The fruit is collected from beneath the trees wiiere it has fallen and spread out to dry, after which it is placed upon a flax mat and beaten, in order to free the kernels from the skins and puip. In cooking the tawa berries natives are most careful in preparing the steam-oven for same. After the fire is raked out and the oven arranged a layer of karamuramu leaves is used to line the oven with, then a layer of fronds of the heruheru fern is put in, then a layer of manono (syn., raurekau) leaves, then a layer of hanehane leaves, then one of leaves of the rau-taiuhiri, and finally a layer of fronds of the paraharaha fern. The kernels of the tawa are then poured in loose and covered with the same covering (rautao, generic term) and the oven closed. The paraharaha leaves are said to have the effect of destroying the natural odour or flavour of the tawa kernels and of imparting to them its own. These particular leaves are used because they are said to impart a brown appearance to the tawa, which colouring is considered desirable. They are allowed to remain in the steam-oven for forty-eight hours before being taken out. This long process of cooking is termed tdwhdkamoe, or taopaka. After the long steaming they are spread out on mats until thoroughly dry, Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 57 •when they are put away in the stores. When it was required that a meal of the tawa should be prepared, the kernels were placed in a wooden trough with water and stone-boiled until soft, when they were pounded or mashed and so eaten. The Arawa people use their boiling springs instead of the steam- oven for the above purpose. Latterly it has been the custom to mix honey with the mashed kernels, and, of course, stone- boiling is a thing of the past. The ovens used for such pur- poses as the above were long ones, and not the small round kind generally used. Tutu. A peculiar article of food was made from the berries of the tutu or puhou shrub (Coriaria ruscifolia), also known as titpa- kilii. The berries of this shrub grow in clusters, and ripen in the seventh and eighth months of the Maori year (Hakihea and Kohitatea). The clusters are plucked from the branches and squeezed or crushed in a bowl (kumete), and the stalks thrown away. A small bag or basket is made of split strips of ti leaves, and some plmnes of the toetoe (Arundo conspicua) placed inside it as a lining. This bag is termed a pu tutu. The liquid mass of crushed berries is poured into thepu, which is suspended over a bowl, which receives the liquid as it drips from the pu, but the huarua, or seeds, of the tutu berries are retained by the lining of the bag.* The juice is usually kept in gourds, where it soon becomes tetepe — i.e., " set "—and resembles jelly, but is more liquid below than on top. Pre- pared fern-root was sometimes mixed with this jelly. Thus prepared the berries are quite harmless, but if eaten before being strained, and so freed from the poisonous huarua, then the result is disastrous. Many natives died from eating these berries in former times, principally children. Persons so affected were placed bodily into cold water, and, it is said, would sometimes recover when treated so. Since the advent of Europeans salt has been used as an antidote for tutu poi- son ; presumably it was used as an emetic. Te Eauna, of the harassed Poho-kotia Tribe, when so poisoned, took about half a bottle of painkiller as a cure. He survived both poison and cure. Fern-root was usually eaten with the tutu in this district. In an account of his sojourn in the Ngati-Porou country, on the East Coast, the Rev. Mr. Colenso says, " In the houses of the natives a quantity of thick succulent fucus was hung up to dry, which they used as an article of food, mixing it with the expressed juice of the tupakihi to give it consistency. This fucus they called rimurapa,." Groves of the tutu shrub were often preserved to the right- * The bag is squeezed in order to force the juice out. 58 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. ful owners by means of the rahui, of which more anon. Such a grove, called Ure-takohekohe, grew at Obae, on the Whai- tiripapa Block, at Euatoki. Any person coming to take fruit from that grove in defiance of the rahui would be slain. "Me te whala raparapa tuna e iri mai ana te tutu" (the tutu berries hang as thick and black as eels on a drying-stage) is a saying applied to the tutu when covered with the ripe fruit. Te pu tutu e pehi mai nei Kaore ka kite koe Te taru kino nei A te pukupuku nei A te ruriruri na Tena na, tena na E hoki to kete Waiho ano tatari ana Kia whakawaia te kaki rourou — e. Many kinds of small berries or fruits were eaten by the natives ; for instance, those of the rimu, kahikatea, matai, and totara trees. In gathering these berries the person would climb far up into the head of the tree, and, gathering the same, would put them into a basket, which, when full, he would lower to the ground by means of a long cord attached to it. These baskets would be taken to a stream and the contents washed to free the same of leaves and rubbish, after which it would be eaten, without cooking. The berries of the tapia, a parasite which grows on the puahou* tree (syn., houhou and tauparapara) , are also eaten without cooking, as also are those of the kotukutukui and poporo,\ the fruit of the former being termed hona and that of the latter kahoho. The karaka does not grow in this district. The small berries of the mako tree (Aristotelia racemosa) were eaten. The flower-bracts (tdwhara) and fruit of the kiekie (Frey- cinetia banksii) were eaten, but this climbing plant does not obtain in these highlands, although it is found, together with the nikau and mamaku, in the lower part of the Whakatane Valley. We now come to the plants, &c, of which the leaves were used as food, including several of which the undeveloped leaves were eaten. Mamaku (Gyathea mcdullaris) . This is the black fern-tree of the settlers. The part eaten is that termed the koata — i.e., the soft inner part of the upper * Panax arboreum. f Fuchsia excorticata. I Solanum aviculare. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 59 portion of the trunk. The main part of the trunk and the curled undeveloped fronds were not eaten. Koata is a term applied to the upper part of acrogenous plants, and from which the leaves or fronds grow. This section is cut off and then the hard outer part is chipped off, a stone axe being formerly used for these purposes. The soft interior part is then cooked in a steam-oven for forty-eight hours, but the food is always eaten cold. The koata of the nikau was also eaten, the circular butts of the leaves being stripped off (Jcoere) until the soft, white, edible inner part is reached. " Mehemea ka koeretia te rati o te nikau, ka rard te waha " (when a leaf of the 'nikau is torn off its voice shrieks), said my informant, alluding to the peculiar sound caused by tearing off these leaf-bases. We have already seen that the koata of the Cordylinc are used in a similar manner. I am informed that a species of harakeke (Phormium tenax) formerly grew, or was cultivated, here at Eua-tahuna of which the bases of the leaves were cooked and eaten. It must surely be very different to any harakeke I wot of. The leaves were dark-coloured (pango), with brownish (ivhero) edges. We will now give a list of small plants of which the leaves were eaten as we use greens, and which therefore come under the generic term of pmvha with these people, and of various other plants of which the berries, &c, were eaten. Baupeti, a Solan urn : Leaves eaten as greens. Poniu : Leaves eaten. Pohue : A climbing plant, a convolvulus. The leaves are eaten here, but among some tribes the roots are eaten. There appear to be two kinds here. One, bearing a white flower, is found growing among fern and scrub ; the other, which has a pink flower, is seen in swamps. Pikopiko : This name is applied to the young, curled, un- developed fronds of Asplenium bulbifcrum. A favourite kinaki for potatoes. Bereft : A fern ; the young fronds eaten. Paraharaha : A fern ; the young fronds eaten. Pbrbrua : The leaves were used to wrap round kiore and kokopu when being cooked. The wrapper (kopaki) was then eaten with the food it enclosed. All the above were cooked in steam-oven and eaten as greens. Pukatea ( Gnaphalium (?) luteo-album) : The young leaves were chewed by children. Panakenake : A kind of chickweed. Cooked as greens. Kohukohu : A kind of chickweed. Cooked as greens. Tohetaka (the introduced dandelion) : Leaves eaten. 60 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Maikaika : An orchid (Microtis porrijolia). A small plant. The roots produce a small tuber or bulb. Eaten by children. Sometimes tubers are roasted. Pakauroharoha (Poly podium (?) semigenim) : A fern. Young fronds eaten. Pa totara (Leucopogon frazeri) : Berries eaten by children. Kukuraho : A swamp plant. Roots or base of plant eaten. Eoots are covered with peculiar black knobs — ko aua mea pango nei, ko nga raho ena o Tuna (the eel-god). Para taro. — This is unknown to me. Ic is no longer found here, though said to be still found growing in the wild country up the Waioeka River. It was formerly eaten. It is said to have leaves something like those of the nikau, but small. Pororua, rau-roroa, and puha-tiotio are three kinds of sow- thistle, all eaten as greens. Ongaonga : The tree-nettle (Urtica ferox). The name puruhi is also applied to it, and sometimes it is called houhi. It is the inner bark which is eaten, a thin film resembling the inner layers under the bark of the houhi (Hoheria populnea). It is not cooked in any way, and has a sweet taste. The ongaonga is said to begin life as a number of small plants, which spread (papa uku) over the ground, and are afterwards replaced by a single large stem. The Rev. Mr. Colenso states, in his pamphlet before quoted, " The natives [of Rotorua district] masticate continually a kind of resinous gum, insoluble in water. This they obtained from the yukapuka (a shrub)." I cannot ascertain that this gum was so used here, but a gum which exudes from the manuka was eaten. Harore. Under this generic term the Maori places many kinds of small plants, all of which are termed " toadstools " by us bushmen. Many of them were used as food formerly, and are still used to a less extent. Those coming under the generic term of harore grow up in the winter-time or as winter comes on, and are then collected, cooked, and eaten. They comprise the following kinds : — Haioax : This is often eaten without cooking. Grows on dead stumps and trees in summer-time, Wairuru : Grows in winter, from ground ; generally found among pctipcti plants and at base of tawa trees. Tiki-tehetehe : Grows among manuka and not in bush. Grows all the year. Maiheru : Grows from ground in open country all the year round. Tipitaha : The mushroom. Ipurangi. Waeiuae-atua. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoelaud. 61 All the above kinds are eaten. One kind of harore, known as the puapua- a- autahi, is poisonous. It is sometimes called mckemeke, on account of its rough surface {humckemeke = xvhekewhekc, terms applied to a rough surface, as of bark, &c). Should a person eat the puapua- a- autahi raw, or without being properly cooked, he will be seriously affected thereby, and stagger about, unable to control himself. To cook this article it was wrapped in many layers of leaves of the rangi- ora shrub, then tied round, and baked among hot ashes and embers. When cooking-pots were acquired then it was boiled. The puapua grows in spring, from the ground, and is usually found growing among puahou, rautawhiri, and koko- muka trees. If harore grows plentifully it is said to be a sign of a lean season (tail hiroki) ; other foods, birds, &c, will be scarce. Harore is cooked by what is known as the tupuku method — i.e., it is put into a basket and that basket is placed bodily in the steam-oven. The species termed keka and hakeka (syn., hakeke) is not here styled a harore. It grows on dead trees and on decayed logs of taiva and mahoe. It grows all the year round. Some puwha, or greens, and in late times potatoes, are cooked with the keka as a totohiro. This latter term is applied to any food cooked and eaten with an inferior food in order to render it palatable, a practice which formerly obtained in seasons of scarcity. Hence the greens or potatoes are eaten with the hakeka, which is, I believe, the fungus of commerce (Himeola polytricha). Another variety of such food is the taioaka, a species of Agaricus. This plant grows in the summer, and upon dead trees or logs of tawa, houhi, and mahoe, hence it is not termed a harore, which spring up in the winter. The tawaka grows to a great size ; I have seen them a foot across grow- ing upon dead tawa stumps. These were eaten, and were cooked either in the steam-oven or stone-boiled in a wooden vessel. In the latter case " ka mumura katoa te ivai i tunua ai taua tatvaka" — the water in which the tatvaka was cooked becomes red (or perhaps brown). A curious superstition is connected with this plant : " If a person has eaten of the tatvaka he is not allowed to go into the hue (gourd-plant) cultivations, for if he did so all the fruit of the gourd-vines would decay prematurely. Or were that person to go a netting the kokopu (Galaxias fasciatus, a fresh-water fish) he would not catch any, not a single one." The Hue, or Goukd. Although not properly belonging to this paper, I propose to insert the few notes that I have collected locally anent 62 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. the gourd. This plant does not nourish in this cold high- lying country, although it may possibly have been grown formerly in the lower Whakatane Valley — that is to say, below Karioi pa. When, however, Tuhoe acquired the alluvial flats of Euatoki and Te Waimana they were then enabled to cultivate the hue, kumara, and taro. A few hue used to be grown at Omakoi, but they did not do well. The hue was the only cultivated food plant possessed by the autochthones of New Zealand, and that was a poor one. The origin of the hue is said to have been one Pu-tee-hue, one of the offspring of Tane (see genealogy). A learned native friend and tutor of mine said, " The name of the ancient hue is Pu-te-hue. It was not brought hither from Hawaiki;* it was grown by Toi and his people, and came from his own ancestor, Pu-te-hue. At the proper season the seed was planted. It was planted when the nights Turu and Kakaunui of the moon arrived [these are the seventeenth and eighteenth nights of the moon] . The following is the karakia (charm) used : — Pu-te-hue Kia tuputupu nunui koe Ka porotaka i uga ringaringa Kia ahuahu nunui koe. Putehue said, ' The seeds which are within me shall be [vessels] for containing water for my descendants. Some of those seeds are male seeds, and they will not produce off- spring.' " In Maoriland seeds were planted at the full of the moon, in order to render them prolific and insure a good crop. Seeds of the hue (and of the pumpkin in late times) are subjected to a process known as whakarau before being planted. They are first soaked in water and then placed in a small basket (kono) which contains a mixture of earth and decayed wood (popopo rakau). The seeds are imbedded in this mixture. The mould is then covered over with grass or leaves, and the basket is buried in the ground near a fire until the seeds sprout, when they are planted. When the putaihinu leaves of the gourd-plant are put forth, then the care of the cultivator commences, and he pro- ceeds to loosen the earth round the plants. The above term is applied to the second pair of leaves put forth by the seed- ling. When the head of the embryo runner falls, that is the hika stage of growth ; after that it starts to run (toro), and ashes are placed round the roots and under the runners to " feed " the plant. Earth, is heaped round the roots and pressed down during the hika stage of growth. * i.e., not brought by the last migration of Maori. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 63 The product of the gourd-plant is only eaten while young and soft, before the rind becomes hard. In this stage it is termed kotawa. When grown they are used to contain water ; these were the water-pails of the Maori. They were sometimes cut in half in order to form bowls (oko), which were formerly much used. The very large ones were used to contain preserved foods, birds, rats, tutu berries, &c. These are called taha. The following names are those of different varieties of hue as recognised by the Maori : — Kokako-ware. Whare-hinu. Ikaroa. We will now speak of some of the " small deer " that the Children of the Mist were in the habit of eating formerly, such as grubs, beetles, earthworms, &c, for all was fish that came to the Tuhoean net. A grub called mokoroa, which is found in the houhi and kai-iueta trees, was eaten. The small green beetle which is found on the manuka bushes when in flower in summer-time was an article of food. It is called kekerewai or tutaeruru.* It is also known as the Manu a Behua, presumably a sort of emblematical term. They were collected in quantities and pounded up, then mixed with the tahtma of the rawpo plant, already mentioned, cooked in a steam-oven by the process termed tapora — i.e., packed in a small basket — and eaten. The moka is a caterpillar which settles itself on the leaves of several plants, including the potato, and draws the edges of the leaves in to form a shelter for itself, and then closes the apertures with some whitish substance. There it remains until its wings grow. It also was eaten formerly, before plenty, in the form of the potato, arrived in the land. The anuhe is also eaten while it is in its mokoroa, or grub, stage of growth. In this state it bores holes in logs and ensconces itself therein, covering the mouth of the hole with a sort of lid. To take them this lid is lifted and water poured into the hole, when the grub climbs out and is deposited in the stomach of the Potiki a Tamatea. The tuatara lizard was formerly eaten, but has now dis- appeared from this district. Wai-o-hau and Tawhiu-au were places famed for these creatures, as also was Putauaki, or Mount Edgecumbe. The natives say that should a woman eat of the tuatara she would be doomed, because all the tua- tara would collect and attack her. * The latter while in its young state. 64 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. The wood-boring grub found in logs or dead trees of Hiatal, rimu, and kahikatea, and known as hnhu, is eaten, either raw or roasted, in its first two stages of growth. The following are its names in the four stages : — 1. Tunga rakau or tunga haere : The ordinary grub state, actively engaged in eating wood. 2. Tataka : The grub ceases to bore, remains in a cell, and casts its skin. 3. Pepe : The wings and legs develope. Colour still white. 4. Tunga rere : Emerges from cell and flies abroad, a brown cockchafer. Toke or Noke (Earthworms). Here follows a list of the native names of the earth- worms found in this district. Some species grow to a great length : — ■ Kuharu : A large, long, white earthworm. It is eaten. Noru : A short white kind, found in stony places. Also eaten. Wham : A large worm, larger than the wluti, found in loamy soil. This kind and others which contain earth are stripped with the fingers before being prepared for eating. This forces the earth out of them. Tarao. Pokotea : A short white worm. Kurekure : A short red or brown worm about 6 in. in length. Found in stony places. Whiti : Usually found where a land-slip has taken place. These two last are famed for their sweetness of flavour. Tai, or noke tai : A small light-coloured worm. To cook these worms some water is placed in a bowl and rendered warm (not hot) by means of hot stones. The worms are then cast into the water and allowed to remain there for some hours. Before long (before the sun sets) the worms will have become dissolved, or partially so, but were the water too hot they would not melt. Some cooked puivha (greens) is added to the mess and a prized dish is ready ; the gods who live for ever would smile at the sight of it. The two most prized kinds, mentioned above, were re- served as food for the chiefs. The sweet flavour (taivara) of those kinds is said to remain in the mouth for two days. I cannot speak from experience. Worms were preserved in gourds for some time. The best kinds were favourite o matenga of former days : the last food taken by a dying person is so termed. The flesh of the kiore was another favourite o matenga. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 65 In the way of fish the denizens of Tuhoeland are probably worse off than any other tribe. In the first place, having no seaboard, they could do no sea-fishing, although doubtless they would occasionally obtain sea-fish from the coast peoples formerly in the way of presents. Again, the streams of this district have ever been poorly supplied with fish, the Jcokojm being the most numerous. Eels have always been scarce here on the headwaters of the Whakatane, Tauranga, and Whirinaki Eivers. The natives also state that there are no eels in Waikare-moana. Other smaller fish were also scarce. The origin of the eel, according to the mythology of the Maori, is, like that of other fish, the great Tangaroa, who presides as a sort of tutelary deity over the denizens of ocean, stream, and lake. One Tuna, or Puhi, is often mentioned in legend as the eel-god, a sort of supernatural creature, who is credited with the performance of some singular deeds. This Puhi, alias Tuna, appears to have flourished far back in the night of time, when heroes and demigods obtained. Maui, of immortal fame, discovered that Hine-nui-te-Po, the goddess of Hades, was carrying on something more than a flirtation with Tuna, the eel-god. Maui, being attentive to the morals of other persons, proposed to put a stop to the above state of things. He did so by destroying Tuna. This was one of Maui's acts which eventually caused his death, for Hine was not taking interference quietly, and so, by dread arts of magic, caused the death of Maui. In White's " Ancient History of the Maori," vol. ii., page 69, we read that Maui married Hine, a daughter of Tuna and Eepo, and that he slew Tuna for interfering with Hine. When slain the head of Tuna fled to the fresh water, and that is the origin of fresh-water eels ; while the tail of Tuna fled to the ocean and became the conger-eel. At page 76 of the same volume a Ngati-Hau legend states that Hine was a sister of Irawaru, and Tuna a son of Manga- wai-roa. Also that Tuna concealed himself in a pool named Muriwai-o-Hata (? Muriwai o Ata), where he was slain by Maui. " Then from the body of Tuna sprang Puku-tuoro, which is the monster (taniiuha) of Aotea-roa." And it is the blood of Tuna which renders red the totara, rimu, and some other timbers. The tuoro, according to the Tuhoe legends, is a huge monster which lives underground and burrows great tunnels as it moves on its subterranean way, uprooting trees and changing the face of the earth, for the valley of the Waikare Stream at Maunga-pohatu was so formed. There is a place at Te Whaiti called Te Ana Tuoro (the Tuoro Cave), albeit the cave has long disappeared. One authority here states that Maui married Pani, and it 5 66 Transactions. — Miscellaneotis . was Pani who was interfered with by Tuna, who lived in the water. Ngati-Awa say that Pani, she who gave birth to the kumara, was the wife of Eongo-maui. Another legend gives Pani as being another name for Taranga, the mother of the Maui brethren. This Puhi has been extremely useful to the Maori, how- ever. Persons of sufficient priestly power could obtain his assistance when in trouble upon the waters, and Puhi would convey them to land. The following is a list of names of varieties of eels as known to Tuhoe : — Papa-whenua. Whakaau. Kokopu. Paewai. Brno. Matamoe. Mohu. Horeivai. Bewhareivha. Kaiherehere. Tata. Ngaeroero : A name applied to small eels. Three different methods of taking eels were usually fol- lowed— viz., spearing, taking in eel-pots, and bobbing. The eel-spear (maiurau) is an implement about 3ft. in length, and consists of a straight shaft (tdtd) with several tines or points of hardwood ingeniously lashed on to the end. These points are usually of mapara, the remarkably hard resinous inner part of the kahikatea tree, which is left sound and hard after the rest of the tree has decayed. The two small cross-pieces of wood lashed across the tines (ynata) of the spear are termed kauaerua. The lashing underneath is tui ihu. The bob used is a small ball of dressed fibre of the native flax, the fibre of which is called whitau, but the green plant is harakeke. The bait (mounu), consisting of earthworms, is tied on to the bob, which again is attached to a fishing-rod by a short cord. The bob is used for taking eels and kokopu. The rod used is called matire, a name which, in Nukuoro, is applied to the bamboo. The use of the rohc, or fish-bag, while bobbing, is explained under " Kokopu." Eel-fishing in the day-time wTas formerly done with the spear, but since the advent of Europeans a steel fish-hook, fastened firmly to the end of a stick, and with which the eels are hooked, not fished for, has come into use. Anyhow, the fisher trudges off, sans clothing, and prowls along in the Best. — Food Products of Ttihoeland. 67 stream, feeling under the banks with his hand for the wily tuna (eel, generic term), and groping under stones in the river- bed with his feet. Should he feel the water somewhat warm to his foot he knows that there is an eel near the spot, and proceeds to spear or hook it. In eel-catching by torchlight (rama tuna) the fishers start when the koko birds have ceased singing in the evening (kia viutu te ko a te koko i te ahiahi), not the short song given b that bird towards midnight. The spear was generally use^ formerly, though some fishers used hand-nets, like those use , for taking kokopu, but larger. The eels are seen lying on th bottom in pools and calm reaches, and can be approached ie the fisher is careful not to disturb the water, or "shake it," as the natives put it. If moths are seen to be numerous round fire, that is a sign of a good night for eel-fishing. In rainy weather also is a good time — that is, the maraugai, which is an " eel rain " — and the Maori proceeds to set his eel-pots. When day dawns then Tangaroa will perish. A cloudy night (jpo tuahuru) is good for eel -fishers. Tuna-kapakapa is a small tributary of the Whirinaki Eiver, near Te Whaiti. In olden days the natives cut a ditch from some distance up this stream to the Whirinaki River, and used to turn the creek into it. When eels were travelling the water would be turned off into the old bed, which left the eels writhing in a dry channel, and thus easily secured. Hence the name of the stream — Tuna-kapakapa (writhing eels). When a young man went eel-fishing for the first time he had to be most careful in regard to his catch. On returning to the village a fire was kindled and the eels cooked. This fire is termed an ahi parapara. On no account might women be allowed to partake of this catch ; only males might do so. This is in order to insure good luck for the fisher in the future, that he may be a successful eel-fisher. Afterwards his catch may be distributed among the people. As the Maori of old put it, "When Tangaroa perishes in the hinaki (eel-pot) then the ahi parapara is kindled." This rite comes under the generic term of ivhakaepa (conciliation), concerning which there are many customs and invocations, all for the purpose of procuring good fortune for the invokers. Eels are sometimes cooked by the tapora process — i.e., put in a small basket woven of mauri or kohaha leaves (ivha), and then covered over with puwha or mauku leaves, and so cooked in the steam-oven, the said leaves being eaten as greens. If these greens be not obtainable, then leaves of the pa- raharaha and rereti ferns are used. Or they are sometimes cooked by the kopaki process — i.e., wrapped up in the leaves 68 Tr ansae tions. — Miscellaneous . of the rangiora and so cooked, the leaves being plucked two on a stalk for the wrapping or binding (kopekope) process, which is cleverly done, no tying being necessary. In this style of cooking the eel is cleaned, and the entrails cooked in a small separate kopaki. In the tapora they are not cleaned. To cook in a liangi food wrapped up in leaves is denoted by the generic term konao. Eels are preserved for future use by means of drying over a fire termed an ahi rcird tuna. They are split open, cleaned, skinned, the backbone taken out, and the head and end of tail cut off, and then laid on a staging of green sticks over a fire, which dries and half cooks them. They are then packed in baskets in layers (this packing process is termed whakamatd) , or sometimes simply hung up in a shed. These dried eels are cooked in a hangi when required . Natives state that eels when in pain, as in being speared t make a peculiar sound (ka keke te waha). One Hine-i-wharona is said by the Ngati-Manawa Tribe to be a sort of patron taniwha (demon, monster) of eels. This demon dwells in a lagoon at Te Puta-kotare, near Galatea, or used to do so. The eels which bear the tannvha's mark,, a stripe or band, when caught, must be cooked in a separate oven and eaten by one person only, otherwise luck in eel- fishing will desert the tribe. A huge eel which lived in a deep hole of the Whakatane River, at Ruatoki, used to come and help itself from the natives' nets when they were catching upokororo. Another famed great eel was Karitake, at Hana-mahihi ; it was even- tually caught with a large iron hook. Wondrous stories are told of some of these monster eels. When in days of yore Tu-tamure and his daughter were crossing a range near Te Wera they fell athirst, whereupon Tu plucked a hair from his leg, and, casting it upon the ground, repeated so potent an invocation that a spring of water at once gushed forth from the spot. This legend is doubtless true, because my informant tells me that the spring still flows, and in it dwells an eel with eight tails. This spring is called Tangiwai andEoto-nui-a-wai. Another version says that it was Tamatea-nukuroa, a Nukutere migrant, who performed the above act, to assuage the thirst of his daughter Rangiwaka. A curious custom obtained in regard to eels moving up stream. In order to prevent them from going up beyond the boundaries of the tribal lands a certain rite of the black art was performed, and a material token of the spell or ban was set up at the edge of or in the river, such as a pole. Such a one used to be at Puke-toatoa, on the lower Rangitaiki River. Another was a moving totara log, named Tangi-auraki, a Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 69 sawyer, at Nga-huinga, above Galatea. When the Native ■Contingent were stationed at Fort Galatea they are said to have tried to destroy the mana of this log, bat without avail. Pio, of Ngati-Awa, discourses on the benefits derived from the gods : " The ancestors who dwell in the heavens are tne persons who assist and succour their descendants of this world. Those ancestors are Pueaea, Whaitiri-papa, Ku, Whaitiri-pakapaka [the foregoing are personifications of thunder and thunderstorms] , and Marangai - areare [per- sonification of rain] . The benefits we derive from them are fine weather and rain. When they send down the rain of ttie heavens then the people within the waters move abroad and perish within the hinaki of the Maori. That tribe is [that of] Tangaroa. Their names are paewai. rino," &c. It was customary in olden times to have a sort of talisman termed a mauri, which was really a material token or repre- sentation of certain rites and invocations performed and recited in order to preserve birds or fish. It prevented such being driven away from tribal lands and waters by the power of makutu, or witchcraft. It was often the case that a tribe would have several such talismans, one in the forest to retain the birds, another to protect eels in the rivers, and another by the coast for salt-water fish, not to speak of the mauri of the tribal home, which protected the people thereof from such harm as might be inflicted by means of the black art. A mauri was sometimes located at an eel-weir. Tixemauri of the Rangitaiki River, in the Ngati-Manawa district, is a stone by the side of the river above Murupara. O-tangiroa is the name of an eel mauri in the Whakatane River, near Ruatoki. It is a log in the bed of the river, and eel-fishers used to repeat an invocation at that place when going a-fishing. " Kopaki tuhera, tu ana Tama-ika " (When an oven of baked eels is opened Tama-ika is sure to be there). This saying is applied to those who make it their business to be where food is about ready for eating. Tama-ika was an ancestor who had a great liking for eels, and used to appear when any were cooked. A fishing-ground is usually termed a tauranga, as tau- ranga paewai, a place frequented by the paewai eel, and hence where it is fished. " He ua ki te po, he paeivai ki te ao" (Rain at night, the paewai eel in the morning). Eels travel during a rainy night, and many will be found in the pots next morning. Pdrua : A hole about a foot deep dug in the earth by the side of an eel-fisher, and into which he puts his catch, unless he is using a rohe. 70 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Kaui : A cord on which anything is strung or suspended r as kaui tuna, kaui kokopu, and kaui tiki. Eel- weirs {pa tuna and pa tauremu) . On this subject I have practically no information to give, inasmuch as eels were, and are, very few in these parts, and hence weirs were not used inland, although they wrere so at and below Eua-toki. Eel-weirs are made by erecting a sort of brush fence in the bed of the river, and constructed often in the form of a capital W with openings at the two lower acute angles — 1\3/^3/1- Sometimes only one open space is thus left. To these out- lets are fixed nets, knowm as rohe and purangi, in which eels and other fish are caught. The two lines of fence marked 1 above are termed paihau (wings). The middle part of the weir, marked 2, is called the tuki. The spaces marked 3 are occupied by the whakareinga (or whakatakapau) , which are a sort of hurdle made by wattling fern or manuka brush, and which are staked down on the bed of the stream between the tuki and each paihau, extending as far as the open space. These are to prevent the water scouring out a hole in the bed of the stream. The fences are made bv driving into the river-bed rows of stakes, termed matia, and wattling or tying fern or manuka brush to them in such a manner as to make a close fence ; hence fish must pass through the spaces left open in going up or down stream. The hinaki, or eel-basket, is still used by the natives in many parts, in rivers and also lakes and lagoons. The shape of this eel-pot is well known to most of us. The funnel- shaped entrance is termed the akura, and to the inner end of it is fastened a small piece of netting, called a rohe, which prevents any fish from passing out through the entrance. Eel-pots are made of small tough roots or twigs, such as- slender manuka twigs, placed parallel and fastened together with fibrous rootlets, &c. The tough twigs of the kai, or young matai tree, are also used, as are the tough creepers known as tonakenake. The different outlets of an eel- weir often had special names assigned to them. The large posts of the weir were some- times carved in the most elaborate manner, and the weir generally was quite a permanent affair, although the fences would occasionally need repairing or renewing. The taumaha, or first-fruits ceremony, performed over the first-caught eels of the season, was the same as that for birds, save that the name of Tangaroa was used instead of that of Tane, the former presiding over fish and the latter over forests and birds. The following is a charm repeated to cause eels to come and be caught at an eel- weir : — Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 71 Te ika i Heretaunga, te ika i Ngaru-roro Te ika i Tukituki, te ika i Porangahau Te ika i Te Whakaki Te takina mai ki te turuturu Ki tenei tapa ngutu Ki tenei tauremu I whiwhia mai a Tangaroa Tangaroa whiwhi E tuku, e heke ki to moenga Ki tenei kupenga, ki tenei tauremu Ana oti kai a koe Whiwhia, rawea. Whereas the following charm is repeated by a person who is fishing for eels with a bob : — To poa, to poa, To poa fcahuri ke To poa ka rapa ke Tikina mai Kumekumea ! Tikina mai Takatakahia ! Tikina mai Haparangitia ! Tangaroa kia u Tangaroa kia ngoto mai Oi whiwhia, oi rawea To poa, Tahuri mai. Here is another version : — E Raro ! E Raro ! TePo Te Po tahuri ke Te Po tahuri mai Tau mounu tikina mai Kumekumea ! Tikina mai Takatakahitia ! Tikina mai Haparangitia ! Kia u Kia ngoto. The Earo here mentioned seems to be a sort of mystical term for the earth, or the underworld. A very ancient legend mentions that Puanga, Takurua, and Matariki (all star names) ascended from their mother Raro to the heavens ; also that the kumara of Earo is the kumara-hou (a tree). The expression " kopua kana/panapa "* is applied to the Kawerau Valley on account of eels and other foods being plentiful at that place. The following song refers to it : — He aha taku tamaiti i waiho ai I kakara ke (?) hei kai ra Te whakahokia ai Ki te kopua kanapanapa * Also kopua kaniwhanhvha, applied to a deep dark hole in a river, &c. 72 Transactions. — Miscellaneous . E tuhera tonu nei. He aha te kai o roto ? He rino, he kete taromo potiki He katokato no potiki He kete uhi no potiki Katahi nei au ka kai I te kumara nei Te katokato. Kokopu (Galaxias fasciatus). This small fresh-water fish is well known to those who dwell in the lone places of the land. It is fair eating, but the bones are troublesome. It is best cooked in the native manner, in a steam-oven. The kokopu was, and still is, the most numerous fish of this district. Natives recognise three varieties of kokopu, viz. : — 1. Rau-mahche (known as maeJie at Waikare-moana). 2. Reretaiva, smaller than rau-mahehe, found in shoals (pahihi) ; is the soundest sleeper. 3. Para : The largest. Koaivheawhe : The young of the para are so termed. Porohe, koeaea (or kacaea), and uruao are terms applied to the young of the inanga, kokopu, and tipokopoko fish. The first two of the list have not so many bones as the para, which requires much care on the eater's part. The reddish colour of some kokopu is said to have been caused by the blood of Murirangawhenua, when Maui washed the jaw- bone of that ancestor before using it as a fish-hook. As observed, the kokopu is sometimes taken with a bob, but the usual method is by use of a hand-net, of which there are two kinds. The first kind of these nets (kupcnga) is that used by women, who do most of the fishing for kokopu. To construct this net a piece of green supplejack (pirita) is pro- cured, bent into an oval form, and the ends then fastened together. A piece of cord, called the tautata, has one end secured to one side of the oval hoop in the centre, and the other end is passed round the opposite side. Then by pulling the cord the two sides are brought to within 8 in. of each other, thus flattening the oval. The cord is so secured, and keeps the net-hoop from spreading. Another piece of pirita is bent in two places so as to form three sides, having two right-angles, the two upright ends being about 18 in. in height and the length of the bottom piece is 2 ft. The ends of this titoko, as it is called, are fastened to the above hoop, which is termed tutu, and the framework of the net is completed. The fastening of the titoko to the tutu is effected by doubling the ends of the former over the latter and so lashing them. A net is then made to fit this frame. It is made by knotting or netting (ta kupenga) narrow dried strips of undressed flax (harakeke), the mesh (mata) being fin. in length. This net- Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 73 ting is done over a small flat stick, termed a papa kupenga. It is 6 in. to Sin. in length and about fin. in width for the Jcokopu nets. It is used in order to insure regularity in the size of the mesh. This papa is slipped along as the work progresses. Nets with a belly (ngake) to them, as the large nets for sea-fish, are commenced in the middle. Two sticks are placed upright in the ground ; to these a cross piece on the top is attached, and to this piece the net being made is attached. The first row netted — i.e., the Juki, or rib — is called the ara luhakamata. The net for the above-described frame is made to fit the same, so that it fits tightly over it, and, when fastened to the tutu, that and the titoko keep the net taut and in position. The cord round the top of the net is bound to the tutu by a lashing (aho zvhakamau), except a short space left free on one side to enable the fisher to grasp the tutu in his hand when using the net. This style of hand-net is termed a kupenga titoko. A speci- men may be seen in the Auckland Museum. In netting a bellied net the desired shape is attained by the mata whiti* (skipped mesh) process. This has the same effect on the shape of the net as the tihoi process has in weaving a cloak, as described in a former paper. Another style of net used for taking the kokopu is that known as a kape, which is used by men. It differs from the kupenga titoko in form, and it is made of dressed flax- fibre. It does not narrow to the bottom like a woman's net, nor is the tutu rounded in any way, two of the angles being obtuse and two acute ; hence one end of the frame, and necessarily also of the net, is wider than the other. This net is fastened to the end of a short pole, the free end of which is gripped by the fisher. The narrow end of the net is towards the user, and to this narrow end is attached the mouth of the ngake, a small net which serves the purpose of a fish-bag, for when a fish is scooped up in the main net the fisher raises the same and causes the fish to slip down into the ngake, where it remains until the fisher quits work or the ngake becomes full. Probably the above descrip- tion is not very clear, but I hope to be able to secure one of these nets for the Museum ere long. These nets are used at night, it being useless to try to catch the wily kokopu with them in daylight. The first thing done is to provide torches of the resinous mapara wood, strips of this being tied together for the purpose of making a torch, which is termed a rama,\ hence the terms for taking kokopu * Also termed mata whahapalieke . f The verb is tirama, to look for with a torch, &c. This is a good «xample of ti as a causative prefix. 74 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. or eels at night — rama kokopu and rama tuna. The Tuhoean ladies march forth, bare-limbed and with fish-basket (putvai or tauremu) strapped round the waist, torch held in the left hand and net in the right. They wade up stream, keeping a keen look-out for the hapless kokopu. Now, this fish during the day-time is either concealed or moving about, but at night they come out into the middle of the stream, in the current (ia), and there lie and sleep, with their heads up stream and tails gently waving to prevent them from drifting with the current. The fisher, on sighting a fish, moves carefully until close by, and then quietly lowers her net (held in the right hand) and moves it up close to the fish. She then advances her left foot and gently touches the fish on the near side. The startled fish invariably darts off in the opposite direction, and hence enters the net, which is raised out of the water, the fish secured and thrust into the puwai, or fish- basket. Or, if a kape net is being used, the fish is allowed to slip into the ngake. The act of poking the fish with the foot is described by the verb kape, hence the name of the kape net. The best time of the lunar month wherein to net kokopu is the Tangaroa stage of the moon — i.e., on the hinapouri, or dark nights. The fish sleep more soundly then than at any other time. They do not sleep soundly on moonlight nights. There is one particular night of the first moon of the nga- huru (autumn) which is the best of all nights for taking kokopu, for they then sleep sounder than on any other night, and are even found sleeping in shoal places, half out of water, but jump away when touched. Kokopu are taken in summer and autumn. They are said not to be good eating after the first frosts appear, for they then have a sickly apppearance and change colour, becoming lighter or grey-looking. It is said that they are affected by the frost. Also they do not sleep out in the stream during the winter, but conceal themselves. In the autumn the kokopu go to the rapids to spawn, and at that time are not found in the calm reaches (wahi tomarino) of the stream. They lie concealed among the stones during the day-time, and at night come out into the current. Below are given the nights of the moon, as supplied by Tuhoe, together with remarks concerning kokoptc fishing: — Whiro (kua kohiti te marama) : A good night for fishing. Tirea {kua alio) : A good night for fishing. Hoata (kua kitea) : A good night for fishing. Oue : A good night for fisbing. Okoro : Fish do not sleep sound ; a poor night for fishing. Tamatea-tu-tahi : Not a very good fishing-night. Tamatea-anana : Not a very good fishing-night. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 75 Tamatea-aio : A bad night ; fishers do not go out. Tamatea-kai-ariki-whakapa : A bad night ; fishers do not go out. Ari-matanui : A bad night (ka oho te rama, ka rere te ika, ka torohihi haere — fish frightened by the torches). Huna : A bad night; the fish are concealed (huna), hence the name of this night. Mawharu : Not a good fishing-night. Maure : Not a good fishing-night. Ohua : \ Atua : Hotu: Turu : Eakau-nui : j-Moon too bright for fishing. Bakau-matohi : Takirau : Oika : Korekore-whakatehe :/ Korekore-piri-ki-te-tangaroa : Fishing begins after mid- night (kia kaukau ki te ao). Tangaroa-amua :\ Tangaroa-a-roto Tangaroa-kiokio : I r, 1 ■ , , £ r. ■, . m to -Good nights lor fishing. Otane : & ° Orongo-nui Mauri : Mutuwhenua : A very good night. The following is a charm or invocation repeated by fishers who are about to go a-fishing : — Taumaha kai te motumotu Kai te kapekape, kai te rorerore I aua kia mate, i aua kia irohia Ka nia Tupii, ka ma Rakaihika Ka ma te kapititanga ki tamoe Tena hoki taumaha ka eke kai ou ringa Maire mai ki taumaha, Popoko mai ki taumaha. The following is a charm repeated in order to beguile the kokopu into taking the bait (mounu) of the bob-line : — E kai, E te kokopu, i tana kai Ki te uru ti, ki te uru ta Ki taku wahine kotungatunga, koratarata. Hai konei, E Kopu E ! , Kopu nui, kopu roa E hi ana, e rawe ana Tongia ! Tongia mai runga, tongia mai raro Tongia mai nga taita E hi ana, e rau ana Tonqia ! 76 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. The rohe is a kind of bag-net used by fishers of eels and kokopu. It is not termed a kupenga, presumably for the rea- son that it is not used for catching fish, but merely for holding them when caught. It is funnel-shaped, and the big end is fastened to a circular hoop of pirita (supplejack). It is made by netting (ta) strips of flax. The rohe is placed just before the fisher, and the lower end of it is in the water, while the upper part is above water. It is kept in position by means of two cords attached to the hoop and to sticks or branches by the stream-side. When a fish is secured it is swung up and dropped into the rohe, which really acts as a fish-basket. The term hi denotes fishing with a line (and hook or bob), but must be followed by ika (fish), or the name of the particular fish — as hi tuna, &c. — inasmuch as the original meaning of hi seems to have been " to draw up." Hooks were not used for taking fresh- water fish. Kokopti are cooked in a tapora, a sort of small basket (though not called a kete) made of woven leaves of the mauri or kokaha plants. This is lined with fronds of the rereti fern and leaves of the mauku (Asplenium bulbiferum) which have been stripped from the stalk (tuaka) or midrjb. The fish are placed in this without any cleaning, and covered over with puwha, or any leaves used as greens. The package is then tied and placed in the steam-oven for cooking. The puwha, rereti, and mauku are all eaten with the fish. When a party start out on a night-fishing expedition they light their torches as they go forth. If a member of the party stops by the wayside that is a r>uhore (ara ka noho ki te mimi), or sign of non-success, and that person will not catch any fish. Should a person run his or her head into a spider's web on the track that also is an omen of non-success. Such persons will not attempt then to catch fish, but will carry the torches for the rest. If the first fish seen is not caught, but escapes, that is a puhore for the whole party, who will return without going any further. But if the first-seen fish is caught, then the person who caught it will at once throw it aside, not back into the stream, for that would be another puhore. His object in throwing it away is that he may be lucky in his fishing, and to insure the puhore afflicting only those who encountered the ill omens (kia man te puhore ki ona hoa i tu tohu anake). There are innumerable customs and superstitions pertaining to fishing and fowling, but they must be reserved for a future paper. In torchlight netting of kokopu the fishers usually proceed up stream in a straggling manner, but when returning they come down stream all abreast ; because though most of those fish not secured by the fishers have concealed themselves, yet it is said that the para is attracted by the disturbance of the Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 77 water caused by the passage of the fishers and works up stream, following the muddied water, possibly finding food therein. Anyhow, they are so met by the returning fishers, who manage to secure some of them, although the fish are by no means asleep. To preserve kokopu for keeping they are placed on a plat- form of sticks over a fire, but are not cleaned for this process as eels were. This fire is known as an ahi rard ika; it dries and preserves the fish. When required as food they are cooked in a hangi. At Lake Eotoiti a practice obtains of tying a cord to a bundle of fern (rarauhe) and lowering it to the bed of the lake. This bundle is termed a tdruke. It is said that hour a (cray- fish) and kokopu enter these bundles and lie there, attracted by the neJm (? pollen) of the fern. The bundles are hauled up and the fish secured. The taruke would appear also to have been used for taking salt-water crayfish, for which see a passage in "White's " Ancient History of the Maori," vol. ii., page 63. But a net, known as a pacyae, is generally used for taking koura in lakes. It is dragged along the bottom of the lake. The vgehe is a soft- shelled koura, found at Botorua and other lakes. It is not eaten. It is soft and flabby (konohcnohe) . Koura are not found in the Buatahuna district, but are found in lagoons at Te Houhi, in the Bangitaiki Valley. They are best eating in the summer season. Inanga. This small fresh-water fish is taken in great numbers in the lower parts of the rivers of this district, although not found in the headwaters of the Whakatane. They are taken in summer-time, in close- woven nets termed pouraka, and in former times used to be taken in great quantities at the eel- weirs at the time they were migrating to the sea. " You have seen Behua. It is a star which stands above, on the breast of his ancestor, Bangi. Behua is a bird, and is an ancestor of the Maori people. He has one sound wing and one broken one, as you can see for yourself. Below the sound wing of that bird the Waka-o-Tama-rereti moves across the heavens. Whanui (Vega) swings up on the seaward side. The descendants of Behua are the inanga, pahore, koputea, kai-herehere, and the koko bird.* On the nights Turu and Bakau-nui, of the ninth month [of the Maori year] , they begin to migrate to their ancestress, Wainui. The reason is this : that they hasten to their female ancestor in order that they may give birth to their young. For his inanga descendants asked * The first three are small fish, the kai-herehere is a kind of eel. The koko is the tui (bird). 78 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Eehua, ' What are we to do ? ' And Behua replied, ' When you see a gleaming redness in the sky, that is a call to you to go to your ancestor, Wainui, and produce your young. When they have grown they will return themselves.' There are three migrations of the inanga, and then the young are born and left with their ancestor, Wainui. These young are called kaeaea. This is the song for those young : — Te kaeaea i tuku mai rara I hara mai koe I te tai honuhonu o Merernere Ki maturu tara (?) koia. So the young are left behind and the old return [to fresh water] . People see them returning, and observe that they are thin and light ; and the Maori people note the red sign in the heavens, and the cry is heard, ' 0, friends ! the inanga are migrating.' Then the nets and pots are set at the weirs and great numbers are taken. Another great migration takes place during the Kohl o Autahi-ma-Bchua (autumn), and again many are taken. The third migration is when Takero [a star] is seen, and the migration is known by that name. The pahore, tuna, koputea, and porohe join in it. In the months Matahi and Maruaroa the old fish return, but not yet the young. Many are caught as they return." So much for Maori myth and observation. The natives assert that when the Kohl o Autaln comes then all fresh- water fish migrate to the sea. Autahi is a star, otherwise known as Atutahi-ina-Behua. The expression Kohl o Autahi means the cold of autumn settling down on land and water. Wainui, mentioned above, is the origin and personification of waters of the ocean, rivers, and lakes. The inanga produce their young in salt-water, and leave them there to be dashed about by the waves. Then the hiwi (their parent fish) return to fresh water, but the young ones do not come up the rivers until the fourth month (of the Maori year). There is some confusion in regard to the various names allotted to these fish. Some assert that the inanga and pahore are different fish, but they are probably the same at different stages of growth. So far as I can make out, the terms kaeaea (or ko-aea), and tuarenga, and porohe are applied to the young fish.* They are termed inanga about De- cember and marearea about February. The old thin fish are styled karaha and pahore (nga pahore o Behua). These latter are the old fish which have spawned, and it is said that the skin comes off them, hence the term pahore. The * An old native tells me that the terms porohe, koeaea, and uruao .are applied to the young of kokopu, inanga, and tipokopoko. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeiand. 79 term inanga probably is applied here to the half-grown fish. Marearea is here the common name for the fish. The name koputea is applied to some of these fish which have white bellies. Inanga are cooked fresh in the steam-oven, and were formerly dried in large quantities for future use. They would be packed in covered bundles or baskets or placed in bowls for preservation. They were dried by means of spreading on a shingly river-bed, and when dried (paka) by the sun were packed in baskets. The term whakahunga is almost equivalent to whakamdtd, before mentioned. It is applied to the above packing process, and also to the baskets of packed fish (e rua nga kete whakahunga i a niaua). The korokoro, or lamprey, is only found in the Waikare- taheke Eiver in this district. It is taken in a large kind of kape net. "When Matariki (the Pleiades) is seen by the eye of man, then the korokoro comes forth and strolls round the waters, and man is on hand to catch them. The small fresh- water patiki is found in the lower part of the rivers, but not on the headwaters. The papanoko, a small fresh-water fish, is eaten. Both it and the kokopu have decreased in numbers of late years. The papanoko appears to be termed papane in the north. It was often caught by hand. The titarakura, also known as tipokoyoko, maruru, and toitoi (the latter is the Arawa name), another little fish of these rivers, was formerly eaten until some few generations ago, when it became tapu, owing to the spirit of a still-born child entering it. It was taken by net. There is a small fresh- water shrimp in the lower Whaka- tane River ; and the puene, a little creature having sis legs, is eaten by children. The tcpokororo* formerly plentiful in the lower parts of these rivers, but not found on the headwaters, has entirely disappeared since the war. The roe of this fish is known as the row o Tangaroa (the brains of Tangaroa, the god of fish). It was taken with a net or at the weirs, which were built in numbers in the rivers near the coast in former days. Another way of taking them was by means of a koumu. A place is selected where a bend is in the river and low flat land or a shingle-bed in the bight. A ditch is cut from the lower river- side into the tongue of land, so that the water will enter it, but is not cut right through the tongue of land. The fish are then driven up stream, while persons stand in the river to prevent them going up past the mouth of the koumu, and * " The upokororo go to the sea to spawn, but we do not know whether the eel and kokopu do so or not." 80 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. force them to enter the latter, when the entrance is blocked up and the fish taken. Sometimes, instead of the ditch, a wall of stones is built in shoal water. Fish-hooks do not enter into this article, inasmuch as they were not used here. They were made of tough woodsr as manuka and tanehaha, and also of bone. They were used for sea-fishing. Puioai, tauremu, and papaivai are names applied to the fish-basket used here. It was tied at the side of the fisher by means of a cord round the waist. The fresh- water mussel, or kakahi (Unio menziesii, Gray), was formerly an article of food here, but is not sought for now. A smaller variety, and lighter coloured, the tairaki, is found in Waikare-moana, and the natives inform me that extremely large kakahi are found in the old lake-bed at Te Pa-puni. The natives grope in the mud of lagoons with their feet and pick up the mussels with their toes. But in suitable places, such as Eoto-iti, an instrument termed a heki is used. It is a kind of rake and net combined, with stones fastened to it to make it sink into the mud. The following is a song connected with the mussel : — Tane rou kakahi — e Aitia te ure Tane moe i te whare Kurua te takataka Ara ra e ! ki Rotorua ra Kia kinaki ai ki te kumara Ara ra ! ka reka ra Ki te umu tahanga nui. The above haka was sung as a heriheri kai/-~ during the meeting of the Kotahitanga at Eotorua. A somewhat different version of the above appears in Grey's " Maori Proverbs,' * page 82. Fishing-nets. Besides the various kinds of nets already mentioned, the following were used in lake and river fishing : — Kaharoa : A very large net, also known as riritai. As much as 14 maaro in length (kumi maioha teroa). The maaro is the fathom of the Maori. This net required four men (kai whakakau) to manipulate it. Much used in tidal rivers. The word whdkau describes the stretching of a net across a river — ka whakautia te kaharoa. Korohe : A large net used for many kinds of fish. Purangi : A net about 4 fathoms in length. It was set across a river and allowed to remain some time in position before being drawn. The expression " Te kawau moe roa" is applied to eel-pots, and such nets as are left in the water, * A song while food is being carried to visitors. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 81 like the purangi, and not merely dragged. It is also applied to set bird-snares, because net, pot, and snare "sleep" day and night, but they secure food just the same. Hence the saying, " On main, E tc hawau moe roa ! " The pouraka net was used for taking the marcarea fish. In these degenerate times a piece of scrim is used for a net for taking that fish. Truly some strange things were eaten by the Maori of old ; and one notes how they were keen for anything sweet to eat. Hence they ate the sweet gum which exudes from the trunk and branches of the manuka, and shook out the honey from the flowers of the native flax into vessels, which was some- times kept for future use. Another article eaten for its sweet taste was the mimi koekoea, as the natives here term it, but which is probably the excrement of that bird (the large cuckoo). It is found on the leaves of trees, often dropped by the bird when startled, and is licked off by the natives. The pororua, rau-roroa, and pulia-tiotio , three plants of which the leaves are eaten as greens, also furnished in former times a chewing-gum, of which the women and young people were extremely fond. This gum was the sap of those plants hardened and toughened by exposure. To procure it the leaves were plucked from the plants, and the white, milky sap, exuding from the wounded surfaces, gathered and stiffened on the stalks, when it would be collected and placed in a leaf. When a sufficiency was thus obtained it was pressed into a ball for use. The bitter taste soon disappeared on the pia being chewed, but it always retained a taste of its own. This chewing-gum was much used formerly. Such a ball would be handed down from mother to daughter. My informant pos- sessed one which had been used by her family for three gene- rations, until it was lost in the fight at O-rangikawa. In times of scarcity a certain kind of clay (tikit) was eaten. When the Kura-renga pa (fort), near Te Mahia, was being besieged by the Taupo, Tuhoe, and northern tribes, the gar- rison was reduced to the necessity of eating clay. The natives of Eoto-mahana also ate a kind of clay found at that place. Birds constituted the most important food-supply of these mountain dwellers. Apart from eating them while in season, they were preserved in great numbers for future use. Kiwi, weka, kaka, koko (tui), kcikdpo, kereru, and also smaller birds, were preserved in the following manner : — The birds are first plucked and cleaned, and then the bones are all taken out in the most ingenious manner, the process being known as makiri, after which they are placed in rough baskets termed poutaka. These baskets, with their contents, are then placed in cold water until the birds are 6 82 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. thoroughly cold and set. This tends to prevent them going bad (koi kino i te pumahana, koi pirau). On being taken from the water the birds are ready for the ahi matiti. This is the name of the fire at which the birds are both dried and cooked. Before a strong, clear fire are set up several stakes in a line. These stakes have a series of notches cut in them on the side next to the fire, the notches being cut in level lines on the posts, so that a straight pole may be laid in them. Another series of such notches is cut a little higher up the stakes, and so on. The birds are spitted on long sticks (Jiuki) or poles, and when the pole is full of birds it is laid in the bottom row of notches (kanivlia) in the stakes {pou). Another series of birds are spitted on another pole, and the pole inserted in the next series of notches, a little higher up the stake. The series of notches are close enough to each other to allow the layers of spitted birds to overlap to a certain extent. This process is repeated until the matiti is full. Beneath the bottom row of birds runs a wooden trough — a wooden slab hollowed out (kowaka) — one end of which is raised somewhat higher than the other. Beneath the lower end of this trough a wooden bowl, or kumete, is sunk into the ground. The heat of the fire melts the fat of the birds, which fat drips into the trough (tvaka) and runs down into the kumete. When done the birds are placed in vessels, usually large gourds (taha), the calabash, or sometimes vessels of bark. Red-hot stones are now put into the bowl of fat until it boils (this process is termed huahua), and then the fat is poured into the calabashes which contain the birds until the birds are covered. These vessels of preserved birds {taha huahua) are then set away in the storehouses for use in the future. Rats (kiore) were pre- served in a similar manner. Food so preserved is spoken of as huahua. The expression matiti seems to imply numbers —"Matiti ana te haere a te koko ki rung a ki te kahika" — of a large number of koko (tui) birds alighting on a white- pine tree. The modern expression would be, " Korc e rika- rika te mahi a te koko." Te Matiti is a place-name at Te Whaiti. i When these calabashes of preserved birds or kiore were brought to adorn a feast, or be placed before a distinguished guest, they were adorned in a manner truly Maori. They were the centre-pieces of the banquet. The calabash was covered with a piece of fine woven matting and three or four carved wooden legs were lashed on, from the top of which were suspended bunches of feathers, from which the quills (tuaka) had been stripped, in order to render them less rigid. A carved wooden mouthpiece (tuki) was placed on the top of the calabash, and this was sometimes covered with a carved Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 83 wooden lid (kopani), and sometimes merely with leaves of the rangiora shrub. The hand is thrust through the narrow opening on the top of the calabash in order to procure the food within. The term ngutu iti is often applied to these vessels on account of the small opening. Water was, of course, the universal drink of the Maori, and he has quite a fine taste therein. In olden times, when a bowd of drinking-water was fetched from the creek, and before handing it to the drinker, a few green fern-fronds were plucked and laid on the surface of the water, thus, to the Maori mind, rendering the wrater much more attractive. As my informant put it, "Even were the person not thirsty, yet he would drink of the water so prepared, the appearance of the leaves being so attractive" — He momona nona ki te wai pena, ko aua otaota i tukuna ki roto i te toai hai whakainu atu. Before proceeding to speak of divers customs, &c, per- taining to food and the cooking thereof we have a few modern items to place on record, albeit they do not rightly belong to this paper, which is supposed to treat of the food-supplies of a non-agricultural people in -pre-pakeha days. However, the word is " Kohia nga maramara o Matatua"- — while yet the daylight is with us ; and the shades of night are swiftly ap- proaching. When the potato and maize were introduced into New Zealand by the early navigators those food products made a great change in Maori life and domestic economy. More especially was this effect caused by the potato, which can be easily grown in all districts, and produces much food with a minimum of labour ; and more especially did those tribes benefit from its introduction who are located in high- lying districts. Hence it became possible for the denizens of Tuhoeland to cultivate food, and swiftly they took ad- vantage of it. For the first time the realm of Tane was invaded by the stone axe and fire, for by these agencies were the clearings made at Euatahuna. Potatoes were ac- quired before intertribal warfare ceased, and it is astonish- ing to see the remote places in the wild back country where are the signs of former cultivations. Potatoes are now the main food of these people, and for some months of each year they have little else to eat, being too indolent to culti- vate any variety of foods. In fact, when they speak of kai (food) they mean potatoes ; to any other article of food the distinctive name is applied. In like manner the term puihi (bush) stands for wild pigs only. When a native says that he is going to hunt puihi he means that he is going pig- hunting. The Tuhoe people first acquired potatoes in the time of Tangata-iti, of whom we give a genealogy : — 84 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Ta-whakamoe I Kahu-wi = Moenga Tama-riwai Karetehe II. I Te Motukura I. Monika I Puihi (living 1902, an old man) I Te Amo-haere I Maata (a child of four years, 1898). Te Rehe I Hine-hau I Te Uru-whiua (died 1900) I Taua (living) I Wairini (living, twenty years, 1902). Tangata-iti I Te Ahitahu i i Numia (living) I Hine (About twenty years, 1900). This genealogy will serve as an illustration of several remarks concerning the potato. It is probable that Tuhoe acquired their first potatoes from Ngati-Awa, the latter being a coast tribe, from whom these bushmen obtained their first European implements, &c, by means of barter. Moni, of Ngati-Awa, went north to the Ngapuhi country and brought back the first potatoes, guns, and steel axes to the Whakatane district. Now, many old natives assert that they possessed several kinds of potatoes, and cultivated them, long prior to the advent of Europeans. It is probable that they did so before they encountered any Europeans, having acquired the article from the far north, or other distant places, by means of the seed being passed from tribe to tribe. The evidence against the statement is this : that the generic terms for the potato (riwai and taeiva) do not appear in song or story of ancient times as foods of the people, yet how often the kumara, taro, &c, are thus mentioned. Tamarau, of Ruatoki, mentions as evidence in favour of the pre-European theory that Moenga, mother of Tama-riwai (see genealogy), was living when the riwai was being cultivated ; that, despairing of having a child, she dressed up a potato {riwai) as a sort of sooterkin, and nursed it as she would a child. Afterwards she gave birth to a son, and named him Tama-riwai, in memory of the potato incident. Quite so ; but it is only three generations from Moenga to Numia, a middle-aged man now living, although the line is longer through Tama-riwai and Karetehe. The statement made by Puihi that the potato was acquired in the time of Tangata-iti may be but little removed from the truth. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 85 Tamarau states that there were two kinds of potatoes in pre-European days — the taeiva and the riwai Maori ; that the latter had a smooth surface, without indentations. Its name was waiararo, the flesh being white and the skin whero (brown or reddish). The taeiva had white flesh and skin. The pecu- liarity of the riicai was that it very soon became cold (maeke) after being taken from the oven. It died out during the late war. Puihi says that the rohoroko and araro were two ancient varieties of potato cultivated at Euatoki, but that they are no longer seen. Pio, an old man of Ngati-Awa, told me that he had heard white men say that the natives had a potato in very early days ; also that the aka raupo, a white potato, and the tatairongo, a dark mealy one, were formerly cultivated, but are now lost. Altogether, the case for the pre-European potato is not proven. The following are names of varieties of potatoes as recog- nised by these natives : — Piakaroa : A dark-coloured potato — i.e., inside. Tatairongo : Now lost. Maori : Now lost. Tapapa : White flesh. Also known as karu-parera. Parareka : Dark flesh. No longer seen here. Pokerekahu : Dark flesh. No longer seen here. Pungapunga : One of first kinds acquired from Europeans. White flesh. Not seen here now. Utvhi : Not seen here now. Kapa or parihi : White flesh and white skin. Tekepo : White flesh and white skin. Kaparapara. Aka raupo : No longer grown. White flesh and wdiite skin. Baparuru or ivairuru : White flesh. Maitaha : White flesh. Also called rokeroke. Para-kokako : A dark-fleshed potato. No longer grown here. Para-kotukutuku : A white flesh. Kimokimo : A white flesh. No longer grown here. Wini-harete : A long curved variety. Manerau : White-fleshed. Hua-karoro : A long white variety. No longer grown here. Marikena (? American) : No longer grown here. Kamutana. Kara kaone ('? gown pattern). Baramu. Kotipo : No longer grown here. 86 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Wharekauri. Hope taone (Hobart Town). Parakaraka : No longer grown here. Kotuku-tahiti. Hua mango. The fruit of the potato (potato apples) are termed takuru. Potatoes growing from these seeds are termed monemone, on account of their smoothness, the indentations being small. The takuru of the Maori variety only were considered fit to eat. The potato-crop is taken up in the month Pou-tu-te-rangi (about March). If left too late they deteriorate, in which state they are termed tauhere or kopura* New potatoes are termed tamahou, and old ones of last season are styled pukeko. Self- sown potatoes are termed patohe, but are sometimes styled piicai, from a word which describes rooting up an old cultiva- tion with a tvauivau in search of self-grown potatoes. The ivamvau is a wooden implement used for rooting up fern-root, &c, and for loosening earth in fort-building. Some varieties of potatoes reproduce themselves for ma,ny years. When camped at Nga-putahi some time back I used to obtain my supplies of potatoes by turning up the soil in an old potato- ground all grown up in bush and scrub. It had been a culti- vation of one Koura, and has been abandoned for many years. Observe : — Koura Mohi Te Mauniko (living, an elderly woman) Ripeka I Nuku. This was the famous Koura, whose hand lay heavy upon the Pu Taewa and the Tiaki Tutu, or descendants of Tionga. These people had a novel method of cleaning potatoes before the pipi shell came into use for that purpose. This was the korua hukari kai. A hole was dug in the ground and lined with bark. The potatoes were poured into this hole, and upon them was thrown a kind of sand termed tenga kakariki (from its resemblance to the inside of the crop of a parroquet). Then the ladies passed into the hole and trampled the potatoes with their bare feet ; the friction caused by the trampling, helped by the action of the sand, rubbed the skin off the pota- toes, which were then washed and cooked. * Eumara left in ground too long before being dug are termed hou- hunga. They will not keep, but are eaten at once. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 87 The use of tobacco was soon acquired by the natives, and they used to obtain it from traders on the coast in barter. In fact, in the early colonial days these natives used to drive pigs from Euatahuna all the way to Auckland in order to ob- tain European goods. Their names for the brands of tobacco so obtained are purupuru, pongi, and parehe, not to mention nikalicre (negrohead). However, they obtained seed and have since grown their own tobacco, their names for the kinds grown here being arero-kuri, porakaraka, taretare, and mohoao, also a variety named Witimoa, after Major-General Sir George Whitmore, from whom they obtained the seed. What is known as " Maori cabbage " is here termed paea. The natives say that it is named after a very early European voyager, from whom the seed was obtained. Now, Captain Cook was known as Paea amongst the natives of Poverty Bay, he being so named from the circumstance of calling out "Fire ! " when he ordered his men to fire on the natives. The rearea, a kind of pohata, or turnip, presumably intro- duced by early voyagers, was grown in cultivations and the leaves used as greens. It has very dark leaves. The root was dried and converted into kao in the following manner : The plant was grown in the enclosures used for growing potatoes, and when intended for kao the leaves were not allowed to be plucked for greens. When the root was matured the whole plant was pulled up and stacked away to dry in a pataka (food-store) or on a stage built in a hollow tree. When dry the roots were cut in pieces and cooked in a liangi, the rautao, or covering in the oven, being leaves of the hanehane, manono, rau-taivhiri, and tuttimako, also fronds of the paraharaha fern. The roots became impregnated with the flavour of these leaves, which appears to have been considered desirable. The cook- ing lasted twenty-four hours, and the chopped roots were then taken out, placed in the food-stores to become dry and hard, after which they were placed in baskets, which were hung up in the cooking-sheds for a few days and then put away in the food-stores until wanted. When eaten this kao was placed in a bowl, water poured over them, and then pounded until mashed up ; this porridge-like mixture was then ready to be scooped up with a wooden spoon (koko) and eaten. The term kora is here used as a sort of generic name for such things as are used as greens. The leaves of the raorao, poniu, and raupeti plants were used as greens, as also were those of the rerewai, a water-plant. When the natives first obtained soap here they took it to be pork fat, and essayed to eat it. Flour was thought to be ashes, and was sometimes thrown away as such. Molasses was thought to be the sap of the rimu tree. ■88 Transactions. — Miscellaneous . Cooking of Food. Possibly you might like to know the origin of the cooking of food. It is this : When Kongo-maui returned from the heavens (from the star Whanui) he brought back with him the kumara (sweet potato) and gave it to Pani-tinaku, saying "This food must be carefully prepared in ovens known as kohukohu. kirihau, potaka, and tvaharoa." " Hence the art of cooking became known to our ancestors. Had it not been for Bongo-maui men would have lived like birds, insects, animals, and other tribes of people, who eat their food raw." One Auahi-tu-roa was the personified origin of fire by which food is cooked. Auahi-tu-roa was a descendant of the sun, and married Mahuika : thus the fire-children were pro- duced. Cooking is done sometimes in the open, but usually in sheds constructed for that purpose. In the earth floor of these sheds the steam-ovens are often constructed. These cooking-sheds are termed kauta, or whare-kaunga, or here-imu, or muri (also kamuri in Williams's Dictionary). The principal method of cooking formerly used was that of the steam-oven, termed hapi, or umu, or imu, or hangi, or tonihinihi, &c. This process of cooking is termed tao. Boast- ing was also practised, and is called tuna. Stone-boiling (huahua) obtained to a certain extent, as we have seen, but, it would appear, merely to heat food, &c, not to actually cook anything tbat required long immersion in boiling water. This latter was reserved for those people living near boiling springs. Stone- boiling (huahua) was done in gourd bowls (ipu) and wooden bowls (kumete). The term kohua. applied to metal cooking-vessels obtained from Europeans, is said by these natives to have been applied in pre-European times to vessels, such as the above, that were used for stone-boiling, as the latter part of the word would imply." We have already seen how the various foods of old were cooked by these bushmen of Tuhoeland. In these degenerate times cooking is mostly done in iron pots and " billies." and the potatoes and other foods so cooked are much inferior to those cooked in the steam-oven. In boiling maize some ashes of burned rimu or kahikatea bark are cast into the pot. This has the effect of causing the skin of the maize to peel off. The ashes of these barks are used because they do not grit between the teeth when the maize is being eaten. The steam-oven is prepared in the following manner : A circular hole of the required size is made in the ground about 15 in. in depth for a small hangi, and in tnis a fire is kindled * Note the word iqjoko-kohua, certainly an ancient term. Kohua as derived from " go ashore " is not permissible. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 89 and dry wood piled on. Stones are placed on the top of the wood, so that when the fire has burned down to a mass of embers these stones are extremely hot. The stones are then thrust aside with a stick, and the embers are raked out of the hole. The hot stones are then arranged in the bottom of the oven, and some water is sprinkled upon them until all ashes have been washed off the stones ; or, if water be not used, some fern- leaves are placed on the stones. Then the koronae (or koropae), a woven band of mazer i, or kokaha, or flax leaves, is placed so as to line the sides of the oven, thus leaving a circular space into which dirt cannot drop from the sides. The food is now placed on the stones within the koronae — potatoes, greens, and fish, or meat, or birds, or whatever the kinaki (relish) may be — and then water is plentifully sprinkled over the food, finding its way to the hot stones beneath. Then the food is covered with the rautao, a piece of matting woven of flax-leaves. Over that is placed the tdkei, another piece of matting, leaves of the ti kapu being the best material for this. This last mat is also known as ritaka. The whole is then covered with earth until no steam is seen escaping. When, finally, the steam is seen to burst forth, that is a sign that the food is cooked, and the oven is uncovered (hukea) and the food taken out and put in baskets. The stones used for the ovens were carefully selected, a hard stone not liable to be fractured by heat being sought for. The stone termed turua is much esteemed for this purpose. Suitable stones were often brought great distances. In cook- ing while hunting or travelling any stones are used, and leaves used for covering food in an oven. When opening an oven, the earth is taken off, and then the covering-mats carefully lifted, shaken, and put aside for future use. The umu tahanga nui is a term applied to permanent ovens constantly in use, as those of a permanent home. The umu konao is an oven in which no fire is kindled. The stones are heated at a separate fire and then conveyed to the oven. This style of cooking is said to be superior to the above, and was introduced from the north. Ovens figured largely in sacred rites of the Maori, food being cooked for various ceremonies, such as lifting the tapic from persons, houses, land, &c. These ovens seem invariablv to be termed either umu or imu in this district, and never hangi, hapi, kopa* &c. Certain persons were employed or appointed in former times as kindlers and tenders of these sacred ovens (umu tapu). Such persons were termed takuahi, and they were thought to be taunga atua — i.e., they were * Eopa = a steam-oven (syn., hangi, hapi, &c). Probably the Euro- pean term " copper Maori " comes from this name. 90 Tr ansae tions . — Miscellaneous . mediums, to a certain extent, of the gods whom they served. Theirs was a position much sought after, inasmuch as their peculiar duties afforded them opportunities to acquire the invocations and other knowledge of the priests. So largely did these sacred ovens enter into the life of the people that the term umu (with its variant form imu) seems to have been used as equivalent to "rite" or "incantation," as umu hiki, umu pongipongi, imu kirihau, umu pararahi, &c. The expressions tdivhanarua and tamahana mean to cook a second time — i.e., if when an oven is opened the food is- found not to be quite done and so is recooked. In the cook- ing of birds, however, this was not allowable. If an oven of birds on being opened was found to be underdone the birds would be eaten in that state. To cook them a second time would have the effect of depopulating the tribal forests — the birds would forsake them. You must be careful how you treat the offspring of Tane. Eegarding the Maori oven, as described above, compare a passage in Ossian : " It was on Cromla's shaggy side that Douglas had placed the deer. ... A hundred youths col- lect the heath, ten warriors wake the fire, three hundred choose the polish' d stones." A foot-note by the translator states, " The ancient manner of preparing feasts after hunt- ing is handed down by tradition. A pit lined with smooth stones was made, and near it stood a heap of smooth, flat stones of the flint kind. The stones, as well as the pit, were properly heated with heath. Then they laid some venison in the bottom and a stratum of the stones above it, and thus they did alternately till the pit was full. The whole was covered over with heath to confine the steam. Whether this is probable I cannot say, but some pits are shown which the vulgar say were used in that manner." (From " The Battle " scene.) The terms tamoe and tawhakamoe mean long in the process, of cooking in a hapi, as in the cooking of tawa berries (p>okere) and the roots of Gordyline (see above). A rite known as umu tamoe was performed for the purpose of weakening, unnerving an enemy to render him harmless. The term tupuku is applied to food, such as potatoes, being cooked in baskets, and not placed loose in the oven. The expression niho-wera is applied to a woman who keeps cooking and eating small pieces of food while she works. Kapekape is a stick used to rake out embers or food from a fire. Borerore is a stick used as a poker to stir a fire with. Pinohi, a bent stick, used as tongs in order to carry hot stones, as in stone-boiling. Tdngutu is applied to a big fire or large pieces of firewood — " Tikina atu he tangutu mo to tatou ahi." Pepeke is also applied to large pieces of firewood. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 91 A much-used saying here is, " Mahia he wahie mo taku- rua, mahia he kai mo tau" — i.e., "Prepare firewood for the winter, but prepare food for the whole year." On the coast about Whakatane in former times pipi shells and pumice-stone were used as fuel — i.e., placed on a fire of manuka to supplement or assist the scanty supply of fire- wood. In olden days firewood was broken into the required lengths, hence the expressions tata wahie and tohatiichati wahie. Even now some of the old people still use these terms, albeit the steel axe is in use everywhere. A stack of firewood (ivahie) is termed an apaap>a toahie. Dry wood was stored in the sleeping-houses as fuel. Slings of aka, a tough forest creeper, were secured to the wall of the back end (tuarongo) of the house, being some feet above the floor. In these slings the firewood was stacked and so kept suspended. Dried firewood is usually stacked in the cooking-sheds for use there ; in fact, the walls are sometimes composed of stacks of fuel. Having no knowledge of the ceramic art, the Maori utilised wood, gourds, and seaweed from which to fashion vessels to contain liquids. In this district wooden bowls and gourds were used, as we have seen. Also, vessels termed papa and patua were made of totara bark, the former to contain huahua foods, the latter to contain water, and also used for stone-boil- ing. Small £><7^a* were also made for temporary use (to contain water) of bark of the pualiou and mako trees. These, however, soon shrunk and became useless. Oko were bowls made by cutting a gourd in half. Ipu, or calabash water- vessels, were sometimes ornamented by carving them, the designs being similar to the tuhituhi patterns of house-rafters. The poha was a vessel made of seaweed, and in which the titi, or mutton-birds, were preserved ; but these were only occasionally seen here, being obtained from coast-dwelling people. Rifa was another name for the oko, or bowd made from a gourd. When food was taken from the oven it was placed in small baskets woven from leaves (ivha) of flax, mauri, or kokaha. These baskets were termed honae, tonae, rourou,. tipoti, &c. The two latter were sometimes used to cook food in. These rough baskets were simply used once, as plates, and then thrown away. The custom was for several persons to have a basket of food between them, round which they sat and helped themselves with their hands, the kinaki, or relish, of birds or fish, &c, being placed on the top of the vegetable * Patua is, in Williams's Dictionary, marked with short accent over first " a," but the first syllable is long — at least, in this district. 92 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. food, kumara, or taro, or greens, or potatoes. Persons of importance would often have a basket to themselves, and persons under tapu would take their food apart from others. When a person was under a special amount of tapu, such as a tohunga taua, or chief priest, after he has been engaged in cutting the hair of the sacred mdtdmua, or first-born of a high family, or a priest who is attending a lying-in woman, then it required several persons to feed that priest, who could not touch cooked food with his hands. One person would pre- pare the food in a special oven and hand it to another, who bore it to another person, who took it to the person who was appointed to feed the priest (as if the latter were a helpless child). Only this last person would approach the priest ; the others kept afar off. At the present time the dishes are used here in which to place the food, and one often sees the dogs joining in the repast. The water in which greens have been boiled is poured into the dish among the food, and each per- son will lift the dish in his hands and drink of this delightful beverage. Spits on which food, such as birds, &c, was stuck in order to be roasted are of two kinds. One, termed huki, is simply a pointed stick. The other, called a korapa, has two points, made by splitting the end of a stick and opening the divided halves out. Food-stores were formerly an important item in the Maori domestic economy, and the pataka, or raised storehouses for keeping food in, are too well known to need any description here. Stages or platforms, termed whata, were also much used for the same purpose. The elaborately carved storehouses of old were generally used for containing the more prized articles of food, such as huahua. Pataka pu kiore is an expression applied to storehouses built so that the rat cannot enter them, by placing a broad slab on the top of the posts supporting the floor of the store. The ivhata-a-rangi is a stage or platform erected in a tree, and is used for storing foods on. The tvliata poto is a stage built on high posts, and used for stacking food-supplies on. It has no house on it, or permanent roof, merely a thatched roof to protect the stores from the rain. The ivhata pu kiore is a stage built on two, four, or six posts, and on which a wooden building of neat and close construction is built. These stores were reached by means of rude ladders (ara- ivhata), usually a log with a series of notches cut therein for steps. The Maori does not use any implements in eating saving the time-honoured " Tokorima a Maui" — i.e., his five fingers. In the case of a person under tapu, and hence unable to touch •cooked food with his hands, he would either get some person Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 93 to feed him or use a pointed stick as a fork to convey the food to his mouth. Such a fork is termed tirou or purou. Failing these, the food would be placed on the ground before him, and he would gnaw it as a dog would — a very lame dog at that. We will now proceed to note various customs, rites, say- ings, and superstitions as pertaining to food-supplies : — Kai parapara : When Mahia, of Tuhoe, was slain by Te Whakatohea at Te Pa-puni the food products of the place were placed under tapu on account of blue blood having been spilt there. Some of the people disregarded the tapu and ate of those foods. That was a kai parapara. It was disastrous for the sacrilegious persons, who were slain by Tuhoe, who marched from Te Whaiti, where they had been taming the Pu Taewa, and desolated the Land of the Lost Lake. The first fruits of birds and fish were offered or fed (wha- ng a ia) to the gods — i.e., to Tu-nui-a-te-ika, to Maru, and others of the numerous gods of the Tuhoean pantheon. The first fruits of potatoes or other cultivated foods are collected, a few from each home, in the spring, and are taken to the principal village of the district, where the pure rite is performed. This lifts the tapu from the young crops ; and the collecting of the first fruits is termed the amoamohanga. The taptcis placed on the crop in midwinter by a rite known among these Hauhaus as the huamata, but which was formerly termed the maara tautane. It must ever be borne in mind that cooked food is the very essence of pollution in the eyes of the Maori, and was much more so in the days gone by. Hence meals were eaten in the open or in the row of the houses — i.e., in the deep porch. A chief, or any tapu person, not only could not eat his meals in a cooking-shed, but he could not even enter one, nor yet go near it or the ovens where food was prepared. Hence cooked food is always utilised in order to whakanoa or lift the tapu from persons, things, or places, to make them common. The expression "cooked head" is equivalent to the most degrad- ing and virulent curse, an epithet that has caused much bloodshed in these isles. Another such is hoa o te kai, which, though not so virulent an epithet as the foregoing, is yet very insulting, inasmuch as it implies that the person so addressed is the companion or equal of food. The meaning assigned to this expression in Sir G. Grey's " Maori Pro- verbs," page 85, is not the one generally accepted. The word tdmaoa is often heard here. Maoa = cooked ; ta is a causative prefix. But in this sense maoa or tamaoatia means " polluted." In the bird-taking season, should cooked food be taken into the forest, then kua tamaoatia te nga- herehere (the forest is polluted) — i.e., the hau or sacred 94 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. prestige or vital essence of the forest is destroyed, and the result will be disastrous for fowlers, for the birds will desert that forest. It is an offence against Tane, the god of forests and of birds. No Maori of position could carry cooked food on his back ; if he carried it at all it would be in his left hand. The first- born male and female of a family of rank were sometimes kept very tapu — allowed neither to carry food nor yet to work. If it was desired to lift the tapu (or partially lift it) from such a person, he (or she) would probably carry some of the food to be used in the necessary rite, known as a pure?iga. That act in itself would break down the tapu ; after which the various sacred ovens of the pure rite would be partaken of, the officiating priest repeating the invocation termed taumaha. The following is a taumaha : — Taumaha ki runga, Taumaha ki raro Taumaha kai te whatu iria, Kai te whatu rawea Kai te whatu i nga koromatua, I nga ruahine. Ka kai ki tua Ka kai ki waho Ka kai ki te rangi nui e tu nei Ka kai ki te Papa e takoto nei He ora ki uta, he ora ki tai He ora ki nga koromatua. Enough ! The rite of ivhakanoa, or rendering common, is completed. The whakau is an invocation repeated over very sacred foods, such as those carried by first-born notables, as de- scribed above, or food connected with the dead, or priests, or any sacred place. The whakau renders such food noa, or common, so that the people who eat of it may not be slain by the sacredness thereof. The borrowed and mis- leading expression whakawhetai is now generally used by these natives to denote the whakau and taumaha. The priest officiating at the whakau rite takes a piece of the food and feeds (offers) it to the gods, repeating — To kai ihi, to kai ihi To kai Rangi, to kai Papa To kai awe, to kai karu To kai ure pahore Whakataha ra e te anewa o te rangi E tu nei He tawhito to tapu E homai nei kei taku ure Na te tapu ihi, na te tapu mana Hina (hinga) ki mua Takoto ki raro Ki to kauwhau ariki. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 95 The priest then lifts the piece of food to his mouth and repeats : — E kai tatau ! E kai ! E kai ! Kai atu tatau ki nga ihi i te rangi Ki nga rnana i te rangi Ki nga tapu i te rangi Kauaka e turoua. Kai atu koe ki te ihi Kai atu koe ki te rnana Ki nga rua tupapaku Ki nga rua koiwi Kauaka e turoua Mate rourou tiritiria makarnaka Kia kai mai te ati tipua Kia kai mai te ati tawhito E kai ! E kai ! Kia kai nuku tatau (for tatou) Kia kai rangi tatau Kia kai matamua tatau E horo, E horo o tatau kaki Takoto ki raro Ki to kauwhau ariki. The ivhangai is another kind of whakau, and is also con- nected with food. When persons were about to start on a journey, and were fearful of being bewitched by the people of the lands they were going to travel through, they would cook some food and eat of it. The remains of such food they would place in their belts and so carry with them. That food would ward off any magic spells, &c, which might be directed against the travellers. When a present of food was received from another tribe or place the superstition and caution of the Maori were in evi- dence ; hence the following ceremony, with its invocations, was performed in order to make common {pure) the food, to remove from it the rnana (power, prestige) of the givers, and to prevent or avert any spells or rites of witchcraft that might have been performed over it. The food arrives. The priest arises and performs the takiwhenua — that is to say, the pure. Because the food has come to us on (under the influence of) the rnana of other peoples. Now, lest disaster assail us. There may be evil influences at work in regard to that food. The priest arises and repeats the takiwhenua. He takiwhenua tenei, he pure (this is a takiwhenua, a making common) : — Ka waere Ka waere makere ti Ka waere ki runga o rnakere ta Ka waere ki waho o makere ta Kia haramai makere ti Kaikai kutu makere ti Kaikai riha makere ti Te roua atu, te kapea mai 96 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Roua ki Whiti, roua ki Tonga E tu te rouroua E taka te kape Kapekapea Ka eke i to ihi Ka eke i to mana Te ihi nei, nga tapu nei Ko tai koki Ko tai takoto atu ki raro Nga peruperu mawkawka Haere ake ra te ihi o nga toa Tee whatu Tatea a nuku, tatea a rangi Huri ana te po, huri ana te ao Tena te whatu ka re re Ko te whatu a te pukena (pukenga) Tau koroki Ko te whatu a te wananga Tau koroki Koa ki runga Tau koroki Koa ki waho Tau koroki Tena te rakau Ko tu te rangi Haruru nga toro Ko te rakau a kai hika Te rakau a kai ure Waerea te maru tuna Waerea te main wehi Haere tarekoreko atu ki tahaki — e-e. The priest then takes the ahua (semblance, likeness, per- sonality, representation) of the food and roasts it at the fire, aud then eats it. He then repeats the taumaha : — Taumaha te ihi o te kai Te mana o te kai Te maru tuna o te kai Te maru wehi o te kai He kai ! He kai ! He kai ma kutikuti He kai ma kapekape Ka kape i to ihi Ka kape i to mana Ka kape i to maru tuna Ka kape i to maru wehi Ka kape i to maru korero Ka kape i to maru wananga Ka mama nga pukena (pukenga) Ka niama nga wananga Ka mama hoki ahau, tenei tauira. Enough ! The people may now eat of the food. When we hear that travellers are approaching our village we set to work and prepare food for them. When they arrive some one will say to them, " So-aud-so is pre- paring food for you " (kai te taitai kai a mea ma koutou). Now, if they do not stop and partake of that food it is an evil. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 97 omen for them ; they have disregarded Tahu (kua takahi i a Tahu). But if those people are in a hurry to proceed on their way it is sufficient if one of them takes a portion of the food, however small, cooked or raw, and eats it. That will avert the evil omen. Here the food is personified in Tahu (see above), who must not be disregarded or trouble will surely follow. The remains of food left after a tapu person, such as men- tioned above, has partaken of a meal are extremely dangerous, and if eaten by any rash or unwary person he will become weak, listless, and good for nothing until he is cured either by the priest or the person whose food he ate. Should this act be committed in war-time, then the offender will be afflicted by tu-mata-relmrehu — i.e., he will become faint-hearted and apprehensive, and of no account on the field of battle. A good way to slay a person by witchcraft (makutu or whaiwhaia) is to obtain one of the cooking-stones from his oven and take it to a competent wizard, asking him to repeat a spell over it. Have this stone returned to the oven of your enemy and await results. Any one eating of food cooked in that oven will know death. Another method of bewitching a person through the agency of food is known as mdtdkai. It has been fully explained in a former paper. The following is a charm repeated over a person who is choking. The person is slapped on the back while the words are being said : — Kaitoa ano koe kia raoa Nau ka ngau mai, ngau mai Nau ka ngau atu, ngau atu Te horo a te kawau Horo mania, horo panuku Puwhaina mai ki waho. Here is another charm for choking. It comes under the generic term of whai : — Te whai Whiti raoa, tapa raoa Kaitoa koe kia raoa Na to kai tu, na to kai rere Na to kai haere Na to kai tama wahine E hia ou kai? E rua ou kai I horomia e koe Ko nini, ko nana Ko te patari o Wahieroa Tama wahine, whakaruakina Raoa ki waho Hokaikai ana ou ringaringa Hokaikai ana ou waewae Hotu nuku, hotu rangi Hotu pakia Whakaruakina ! Nau mai ki waho. 98 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. It is said that food products could be destroyed — i.e., lands rendered unfertile — by means of magic rites in former days. A charm or incantation termed pa/pa-haro or tc tipi a Houmea was used for the above purpose. When going to visit another village it is bad form to go empty-handed (kaore e pai kia haere ko te rae anake) ; better take some article of food for the people you are about to visit. It disarms the critical and prevents sarcastic remarks being made. Such an offering is termed a jmayua or koparepare. Visitors to my 8 ft. by 10 ft. mansion often apologize for not bringing a puapua. Omens, Superstitions, &c, pertaining to Food. — It is an evil omen (aitud) to omit a person in the apportionment of food at feasts, &c. You must be very careful never to let a wizard become possessed of a portion of your food, for if he does he holds your life in the hollow of his hand, and can destroy you by his magic arts, using the food as a medium for his charms, for that food contains, or is imbued with, a certain amount of your personality. Hence the danger. When a marching war party halt to cook food they must be careful to divide and scatter the koronae, or leaves used to line the oven, ere they lift the trail again. Neglect this and trouble lies before them. To find a lizard (moko tapiri or the moko kakariki) in an oven or in a dish of food is an evil omen. Certain nights of the moon are reckoned unlucky for eel-fishing or planting crops. The following list of the nights of the moon shows the unlucky nights marked with a cross. This list was sent to me by Mr. G. H. Davies, and was col- lected from Wi Tana Papahia, of Hokianga : — x Whiro (new moon). x Rakau-matohi. x Tireo. Takorau. Hoahoata. x Korekore. Ono. Korekore-tutua. x Tama teangaua. Korekore - whakapiri (quar- x Tamatea. ter). Tamateaio (quarter). Tangaroa a mua. Tama te Whakapau. Tangaroa a roto. x Te Huna. Tangaroa-kiekie. x Te Ari. x Tangaroa- whakapau. Te Hotu. x Otane. Te Mawharu. Orongonui. x Atua. x Maure. Ohua. Mutuwhenua. Oturu (full moon). Hui-te-rangi-ora. Eakaunui. Sayings and proverbs regarding food are innumerable. We give a few specimens of them : — Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 99 " Kotahi ou kai, kotahi ou tangata" (One food, one person — you have only provided food for yourself and none for your companion). " Kaua e huirangitia te kai, engari e tau ki raro" (Do not eat standing; sit down to your meal). It is an evil omen for a war party on the march to eat standing. " Te kai a te wacivae e kimi' (When in travelling we chance upon food our legs found it for us). " Nga uri o Mahanga whakarere kai, whakarere ivaka " (The offspring of Mahanga, who abandoned food and canoe). Mahanga was having a canoe made at Raorao-totara, near Mount Edgecumbe, and the canoe was shattered by an accident, which so disgusted Mahanga that he left his canoe and his meal and at once migrated north, nor did he ever return. " Waiho i kona nga tama a te ngahuru haere ai " (Let the offspring of the autumn alone to stroll about as he likes). The sons of Koira of old used to absent themselves from home when work was toward in the planting season, but when the crops were gathered they returned to where food was plentiful. Some one asked Koira why his sons did not assist him in his labours, and he made the above reply. " E ivhai i muri i a Behua, kia kai ai koe i te kai ' (Follow after Eehua that you may obtain plenty of food. When travelling always join a chief's party and you will fare well). " Haere i raro % te kaahu korako " (Travel under the wing of the white hawk) . A similar saying to the foregoing one. To a person who turns up his nose at the food before him we say, " E kore te kino kai e what ki te pai tangata; ko te pai tangata e tvhai ki te kino kai." " Ehara ta te tangata kai, he kai titongi kaki ; e kore e rite ki tana akc, tino kai, tino makona " (The eating of other people's food merely tickles the palate, but that gained by our own exertion is best and most satisfying). " Kai hoki i Waiaua ra" (There is food also at Wai-aua. I won't stay to eat with you, but push on to my destina- tion before I eat). " Tu ana rae roa, noho ana rae poto " (When visitors arrive the meal will be over). " He ivaru ki rung a, he rare ki raro " (Summer above, in- dolence below). " Kai kino ana a Te Arahe." Te Arahe was a person who used to store up dainties and eat them in secret that she might not have to share them. Hence when any one acts in that manner we say, " Te Ara-he is eating in secret." "He oneoyxe to puku?" (Is your stomach like the earth 100 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. that it cannot be filled with food). Said to one who complains, of the long time taken in preparing food. " It will be here in good time. Food has no legs wherewith to run away." " He taua ano to tc kai " (Food can conquer man, as well as an armed foe can). Said to those who want food quickly and in plenty. When much is placed before them they cannot eat it all. " E tama E I Mo a muri, mo a nehe " (0, son ! The days that lie before will avenge this). Said to a person who refuses one food. Some day he may be in want of food. " Kaianamai koe he atua, noho ana ahauhc tangata " (You are eating there like a god ; I am sitting here as an ordinary man). Said to a person who does not offer to share his meal with another. " You appear to despise me, but I may slay you by magic as you eat." "He hurt, lie tangata haere, kaorc ona tikanga, ona aha" (A traveller is like a dog, of no account whatever. Any food is welcome to a traveller ; do not trouble to prepare choice foods). " Na tetahi a Maui ka ware ore, ka tata hoki." Said when people get tired of waiting for coming guests and so eat the food ; then the visitors arrive when the food is consumed. It was a thoughtless act when the guests were so near. " He toki kai runga, he toki kai raw" (Two sets of sharp teeth to eat the food with. Never mind if it be underdone). "Kai te xvaro o te rehunga" (It has gone down the red lane — of food that has been consumed. It has disappeared down the gullet). This saying is also applied to land. " Ko Putauaki te kainga, he ngarara tona kai'1 (Lizards are the food at Putauaki). Food-supplies were not numerous at Mount Edgecumbe. "He aha ra a uta i ova ai" (How can inland tribes fare well ? They have no fish or products of the ocean for a change of diet). "Hohonu kaki, yapaku uatia," or " Hohonu korokoro, papaku uaua" (Deep throat, shallow muscle). Applied to a person who is a good trencherman, but is absent when work is toward. " Whakaha kati ana a Whakarau" (Whakarau gets only the savour of the food. When he arrived the food had been consumed). Used under similar circumstances. " Ka pou te kai, ka noho te rae tangata" (When visitors arrive the choice foods have been consumed). The coming visitors banished those foods. This is a singular belief — the mana of approaching visitors banishes food — i.e., birds, &c, will not be obtainable ; they will not enter the snare, &c. " Ka hoki te rae tangata, ka hira te rae kai." Food has been prepared for a certain expected guest, but another visitor I Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 101 arrives before him. We cannot give the choice foods to the latter because they were prepared for another. Hence the above remark. " Tu pupil, tu ngaro ; tu kete, tu ea." Some food is taken, as a present, to a village and handed over to the principal person thereof. He distributes part of it among the people. Who knows that any return present will be made by those people for what they have received ? But the chief is sure to make a return present for the portion retained by him. "He tutanga te unuhia." Applied to those who are in- dustrious and energetic iu digging fern - root, and other labours. " He tutae koinokoino (koingoingo)." Applied to bird- snarers and fowlers generally. Those who depend solely upon birds as a relish for their food are liable to go short at times. Birds are scarce during some seasons. "He toa taua, he toa e ivaia ; he toa ahuwhenua, he toa tutitru " (The cultivator of the soil is a greater man than the warrior). " Te whatu o Poutini" is an expression applied to berries of the hinau. However, we will discontinue these sayings. They are so numerous that it will be better to compile a separate paper on the proverbial sayings and apophthegms of the Maori in the days that lie before. We insert a few expressions, as applying to food and food- supplies, some of which are not commonly heard : — Hahore — "He ivhcnua hahore" : A sterile land, not pro- ductive in food-supplies. Hunua : Same meaning as above Applied to high ranges where birds are scarce on account of the lack of toromiro, maire, and kakikatea trees. Kumanga-iti — "He tangata kumanga-iti" : A sparing eater. Koto : Having a dislike to certain food. " He koto a mea tangata ki te kai nei ! " Ihu oneone : Dirty nose. Applied to a person industrious at cultivating food. The terms ihupuku and puku-mahi de- note industry, as also does ringa mahana. Tangata marae : This term implies a generous person of a hospitable disposition. Uruora : Applied to forests in the valleys and lower ranges, where birds are plentiful on account of there being plenty of berry-bearing trees, as the toromiro. Whcnua pua : Land where there are plenty of berries for birds. Many of the tuaiata Maori, 6r native songs, have reference to food. A few examples are given : — 102 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. He Waiata. — Na Hara, Mono, i korerotia ki te matapiko ki te kai (a Song, by Hara, who was accused of Iuhospitality). E whae E ! Kaore e kitea e au te mata mau Kati ano ki ahau ko te korero Ko te waba tarera ka rua Takiri rnai koia ko te ata Na runga mai o uga puke ra He aha te kai mau ra tia e au He uhi, he taro, Ka taka te piko o te whakairo Ko te kai ouarnata he hinu ra, He mimiha, he pakake ra Ko te kai a te tipua, he wai ravia He nanua pounamu kai te moaua ra. To be accused of meanness as to food is quite a serious affair to the Maori. The above song was composed in the early part of last century, when Europeans were termed tipua, or demons, and rum was supposed to be an important part of their food-supply. The following song was composed by one Parepare, who was accused of secretly eating the stored foods of the vil- lage :— He aha kai taku ihu He whiti taniaki uei au pea — e Mauria atu ano Engari kia ata pakia atu Ko Herapeka ko te ki mai Ki te kaia, ki te turnatarau Te kai hunahuna Te kai whai ki to ringa Kaore mai mua i nga pakeke Katahi nei ka pakia e koe Ki muri nei Ma te hauauru, mana e hari atu Ka whakarangona atu Erueti i waho ra Ki aku rongo kai kino Tenei kai ahau hai paki ware Ma Ngati-Tahu — e-i-e Kauaka hai tupou kia haramai ki runga ra. The Maori mind was ever richly stored with ideas of a metaphysical nature ; it teemed with personifications and metaphor. His language abounded in emblematical expres- sions and quaint Old-World conceits. Hence we always see in the primitive myths of the Maori a desire to locate the causality of things, to explain the origin of matter. In regard to food, we have seen that the origins of the gourd and fern-root have been personified, as the kumara, or sweet potato, is represented by Kongo and Pani. In like manner these natives have a generic personification for food in Tahu, who is said to be the parent or origin of food. By some tribes Tahu is said to have been a brother of Kongo. Tahu emblem- ises good. A common saying among Tuhoe is, " Kaua e takahi Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 103 i a Tahu" — i.e., Do not disregard Tahu. This remark is made when a person refuses proffered food. In Sir G. Grey's " Maori Proverbs," page 85, we find the expression, " Te inati o TaJm" as applied to woman, whereas men were the sons of Tu, the war-god. Hakari (Feasts). In former times these hakari, or feasts, were important features of the domestic life of the Maori, and formed one of their most striking social customs. At these functions the different tribal divisions met together and topics affecting the welfare of the tribe were discussed, thus helping, to a certain extent, to bind together the various family groups of these jealous communities. Outside tribes were also invited some- times to these feasts, and probably the only bad effect of these meetings was the scarcity of food which usually followed them. A feast was held when the kumara (sweet potato) crop was taken up and stored, and among the mountaineers of Tuhoeland a like function was observed when certain rites were performed over the first fruits of the season — i.e., of birds and fresh- water fish. Feasts were also held on the occasion of the marriage of important people, and on many other occasions. Names were given to feasts of importance, such as Hiwanawana, a feast held at Otairi, near Te Whaiti, where the Ngati-Eongo and Tuhoe Tribes were guests of the Patu-heuheu people. When arrangements had been made for giving a feast messengers were despatched to invite the guests. These mes- sengers were called whakareka, and consisted of a ti ngahuru, or party of ten persons, or some such number. Meanwhile the givers of the feast have been busily engaged in preparing food and accommodation for the coming visitors. Huge stages were constructed on a scaffolding of poles, and sometimes having several floors or stages. On these food was piled and hung. Also long rows of food in baskets were stacked on the ground, and at intervals poles were set up in these rows. I have seen such poles bedecked with one-pound and even five-pound notes, all of which, together with the stacks of food, were handed over to the guests. That was at Turanga, about the middle " seventies." The stages for stacking food on were termed ivhata, and were sometimes of great size. Kumara, taro, berries, birds, fish, and other foods would be provided in abundance. Calabashes full of birds and rats, preserved as already ex- plained, occupied an important position. They were the centre-pieces of the feast, and were ornamented after the manner of the Maori. Mounted on carved wooden legs, and covered with a piece of woven matting adorned with bunches 104 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. of feathers, and topped with a hollow top or mouthpiece of carved wood, they presented quite a brave show. To the top part of the netting covering the calabash were attached six or eight loops of cord, which were drawn up over the lid and secured. But the invited guests have lifted the trail of Tahu, and we must prepare for them. When the party is within a day's march of the village a party meets them, bearing a present of food. They will meet the visitors at their last camping-place before arriving at the place where the feast is to be. This is termed a tu-mahana or pongaihu. When the party arrives at the village they do not at once come right up to the ground where the liakari is to be held, but halt some little distance away. One person then ad- vances from among them, and, walking up to the first pole, set up at the head of the row of food, he stamps his foot at the base of the pole and repeats to himself the following in- cantation, but not so as to be beard :— Ka takahi ki runga, Ka takahi ki raro Ka takahi ki uta Ka takahi ki tai Ka takahi ki raro Ki te po wherikoriko Ngaro ki uta Ngaro ki tai Ngaro ki tupua Ngaro ki tawhito Mau ka oti atu, Oti atu. This singular act is termed a ivhakarori (ka takahi i te ujjoko o te kai, hai whakarori i te kai kia rori ; ara, he wliakanoa) ; it lifts the tapu from the food, and, were it ne- glected, the omission would be a kopare (an evil omen) — that is to say, if the visiting party did not halt to perform this act, but marched right on to the reception-ground. The saying " Ko Tahu kia roria" is applied to the above ceremony, for Tahu is, as we have seen, the personification of food. The above incantation is directed against the food sup- plied for the feast, and the food products generally of the place (hai tvhakareica i te kai). The priest of the village community will then proceed to recite the following charm or invocation, termed a lohakararau, and which is intended to paralyse the effects of the first spell and retain the food products of the place, their vitality, &c. : — Puritia Puritia a uta Puritia a tai Koia puritia, koia tawhia Tawhia ki tarnoremore nui no Papa He aio tua raharaha. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 105 As a party of visitors inarch slowly on to the reception- ground they are welcomed with loud cries and the waving of garments, the old women being the principal performers. Were it an uhunga, or mourning party, a doleful tangi, or wailing, would be indulged in. The leading chiefs of the village stand forth, one after another, and greet and wel- come the guests, and whakatau, or " settle," them. Then a kind of master of ceremonies appears, with a rod in hand, and proceeds to apportion the divisions of the rows of heaped-up food among the various sub-tribes or family groups of the visiting peoples, calling out in a loud voice, " This is for such a clan," and indicating with his wand the portion for them. The long heaps of food are termed taliuaroa. After the above ceremony a procession of food-bearers appears, bringing baskets of cooked food for the first meal of the visitors. They march slowly on to the ground, generally two abreast, bearing the baskets of food in their hands before them, and often waving them to and fro in time to a song chaunted by the bearers. These songs are known as ivaiata heriheri kai or ivaiata makamaka kaihaukai. When this food is placed on the ground before the guests, then is seen the custom known as whakatomo or kokomo. Any person who has a relative or close friend among the visitors may have pre- pared for him some special and choice food, which same he now places before him for his own private use. After the meal is over speech-making on various topics is indulged in by the leading men of both parties, after which each tribal division of the guests retires to the quarters assigned to it, the people bearing with them the tahua, or heap of food, which has been given to them. When the divisions of food {tahua) are apportioned to the visitors it may strike the latter that some precautionary mea- sure may be advisable, inasmuch as some evilly disposed person of the place may have bewitched the food in order to destroy the visiting people. So a leading man of the latter will take a small portion of food from each tahua and eat the same, in order to avert any spells of magic. Or, if you like not that plan, here is another way : The head of a row of food at these feasts is termed the kauru or upoko — i.e., the right- hand end of the row as placed before and seen by the visitors. The left-hand end of the row is termed the take. When the food has been presented, but before any of it is touched, a priest or elder rises from among the visitors and, taking the basket of food which is at the extreme end of the kauru, he carries it to the take and there deposits it, taking also the basket from that end and depositing it at the head of the row. This act is a whiti ora, and it will avert all troubles, 106 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. evil omens, and other danger to which the superstitious Maori was ever exposed, or believed himself so to be. I have heard of another local custom in which the first rourou, or basket of cooked food, brought by the food-bearers is placed before the priest of the local people, who places himself at the upoko, or head of the feast — at the head of the table, in fact — albeit the table is, and was ever, the broad bosom of Mother Earth. We will now give a few of the songs as sung by the food- bearers above mentioned : — He Pulia Heriheri Kai (a Food-carrying Chaunt). He kumara kai hamuhamu Ko te ehu o te kupu uei na Kia hoki kau atu ina Te tina ki taia mai Ka mate taia mai Kakorehore ! Kahorekore ! Ka mate te puke e tu iko nei Kakorekore ! Kakorekore ! He kotaki te kete I kirnikia ki te kore Kore rawa aku iwi ki te maki kai — e. This song contains a good example of the difficulties which are encountered by those who attempt to translate Maori songs, incantations, &c. The word ehu, in the second line, might well puzzle a pundit ; but it is used for ahua on ac- count of its being more euphonious to the Maori ear in that place. If ahua was used it would spoil the euphony (ara, kua huatau). Here is another of the songs : — Wkakatutu kau au i taku kete Pakao kau au i taku kete Te mareretanga o te tui Kokopu ki te wai Pao(poku) poteke Poteke te kai ki raro Ki te wkenua Poteke ! He Waiata Makamaka Kaihaukai (Na Ruru, he karakia kia kore e kaha tana hoa makamaka kaihaukai, kia hinga i a ia. Com- posed and sung by Ruru. An Incantation to destroy tke- Powers, Agility, &c, of kis Companion in bearing Food). Korokoro wkiti ! Korokoro wkiti ! Tu ana te manu i runga i nga puke ra Tenei koki te kame ka wkakairi Te kame ka wkakarere Te kame i pokaia noatia I runga i a Tu-ka-riri I a Tu kaniwka, I a Tu-ka-ritarita E kaere ana a Rita He tangata kamenga kore Ka pau te ki kanga maka Best. — Food, Products of Tulioeland. He nui kame maoa e tu ana I o atua roa He tini te kame, he mano te kame He tutae taua Ka kame tiko iho ki waenga He aha aku kai tee pau noa ai Naku te tohtnga ki te whitu, ki te waru Ki te roa o te tau. Waiho nei matau hai timokomoko kai Ma te ngahuru Tangi ana te whakatopatopa o kame, 0 kame maunu He toroa ! he taiko ! — e. Whiti Tuarua (Second Part). Ara e hau mate kino o te whakaangiangi Nohoanga roa i te taha o te kame Na ka pa tahau, he iti mai ano na Mouhanga Koia ra ia e tohea ake nei ko te takahanga Kia ata kitea iho e roa te tau Naku i whakanui, naku i whakakake Kia kake mai ki runga ra Kakekake mai i o manu Ki tetahi taha o te wairangi Tu te rupe, rau te kawa Ko te kawa i herea Ko te kawa i a matua nei Koukou ruru — e mata taitaia Ka tukia te papa i raro nei Ko ou tahi taua o mua iho ra hoki Houhanga rongo, maunga rongo noa ki konei Houhia kautia ki te kakaritanga 0 te uri o Tiki. He aha te kame ma kuku, ma kaka Ma koroiriawa Ma kau hoehoe mai tarawahi awa Nana te toki i kotia ai te pane o nga poaka Ehara i te peka i whawhe mai ano Tauwhitu kia matau nei Tirohia atu he takahanga ma tai rau E tikoki ana, e mau ana kiki war* Ka mahue pinara 1 whakangongotu ai papa oku ki tc mate Tohu tonu o matau mate Na Tiki, na Ponga, koi homai Ripaia mai ra o tekateka ki konei I hea i raru ai au na— i. Such were the feasts given, sometimes on account of war, or of a peacemaking, or in order to discuss some other import- ant matter. The people to whom the feast was given will endeavour to give a return feast, and will work hard to grow or provide food for the same. The term paremata was ap- plied either to this return feast or to a present, as food, taken by guests and given to the givers of the feast. In the modern Hauhau religion of these natives the term paremata is applied to the money subscription collected for feasts at the performing of the huamata and other rites. 108 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. When the people were gathered at these meetings the brighter side of the social life of the Maori was seen, and many games and amusements were indulged in, the wharc tapcre was largely patronised ; but such amusements have already been described in a former paper. Here is another account of the arrival of guests and the performance of the ue : "A house is built for a kaihaukai (feast). The invited guests arrive and enter the house. The people of the village are collected outside, and are seated watching the visitors. The priest of the visiting party clambers up on to the roof of the house and recites the ue incantation. When he repeats the final words, Hid e ! taiki c ! his party, who are seated against the walls inside the house, all join in this chorus, and, seizing the uprights of the house, endeavour by united effort to shake the build- ing. If any part of the house gives way that is an evil omen for the hosts ; they will take no further interest in the meeting or feast — kua hiki o ratou mahara — their minds are unsettled by the occurrence." The following account of the ue was given to me by a mem- ber of the Ngati-Awa Tribe. It does not agree with the Tuhoe account, but does so with a description given in " Te Ika a Maui," page 343, 2nd ed. A hakari messenger to the people. As he approaches the village (of those he has come to invite to the feast), and before he has entered it, he chaunts the ue : — Uea! Uea i te poupou o te whare Uea i te pou tuarongo o te whare Kia tutangatanga Nau mai ! E waha i taku tua Ka haere taua He karere hakari He karere kaihaukai. As he finishes his chaunting of the above the people of the village reply with the following, which is, in the first place, an invocation to protect themselves and their food products from possible magic arts ; and, in the second place, a declining of the invitation : — Whenua a uta Kai a puritia Whenua a tai Kai a puritia Puritia ki tamoremore nui no Papa He aio E kore au e tae atu. The inviting messenger then chaunts : — Tuia ko te kawe runga Ko te kawe o te haere. Best. — Food Products of Tuhoeland. 109 To which the villagers reply : — Kaore au e tae atu Kaore aku paremata E haere atu ai au. Turanga hapa : When people are busy preparing food for visitors, should any person or persons absent themselves from the task that is termed a turanga hapa. " Au mahi a te turanga hapa I" is a belittling expression applied to such people. Inati and tichanga : Terms applied to small lots of food, as the portion for a single person. The expressions tahua and tahuaroa are applied only to large lots, as the long heaps at a hakari. The plumes of the kotuku (white crane) were highly prized by the natives. These birds used formerly to breed, it is said, at a lagoon or pond at Manuoha. The plumes were tapu, however, and if a man wearing the same be eating no woman may join in the meal unless the wearer of the plumes takes them off and lays them aside. Were a woman to per- sist in joining in the meal her hair would all come out and leave her hairless. Matariki (the Pleiades) was depended upon by the Maori for the signs of the coming season as to whether food-supplies would be plentiful or not. If the stars of Matariki appear wide apart, then a warm, plentiful season follows ; if they appear close together, a cold, foodless season follows. Rehua (? Antares) has two wives. One is Euuhi, also known as Peke-hawani (? Spica, in Virgo), the star which marks the eighth month of the Maori year When Rehua goes to live with Ruuhi the latter places her feet upon the earth, the left foot first, and then the fruits of earth are formed. When Rehua marries his other wife, termed Whakaonge-kai (a star), then summer is upon us. This latter female is a destroyer of food; food becomes scarce (among a forest-dwelling people), whereas Ruuhi provides food for man. When man becomes listless, enervated, it is said that he is assailed by Rehua — that is to say, by Whakaonge-kai— and the heat of the sun. Heoi ! The list of the foods of the bushmen of Tuhoeland is now completed, or so far as my notes extend. Albeit thev may not be complete, yet has it cost much time to collect them — much time and a great patience, long evenings in conversation with the older generation of natives, many tramps through the realm of Tane, long talks by ruddy camp- fires ; and primitive man marvels greatly, and says, "What does this white man want to know these things for ? What is he going to do ? Is he mad ? " It may seem that I have given many trivial details in this paper, but 1 have been led to do so by a strong desire on my 110 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. part to place on record all that is possible about the Maori, and, above all, to illustrate as far as possible rny favourite study — viz., the inner workings of the mind of primitive man. SUPPLBMENTAEY NOTES. Cannibalism. — Probably one of the final acts of cannibal- ism in this district was at the fall of Te Tumu pa in 1836. Taurua, Te Kowhai, Te Eua-o-kahukura II., and others of Tuhoe, took part in the storming of Te Tumu. Hikairo, of Te Arawa, came here to ask for assistance, and a party was raised. Taurua brought back to Maungapohatu a calabash containing the flesh of Hikareia. Another, containing the flesh of Te Rua-taha-pari, was brought to Rua-tahuna. Harakeke. — The variety of flax of which the bases of the leaves were eaten resembled the atuanga variety in appear- ance. Hue. — Upoko-taupo, Whakahau-mdtua* and Manuka-roa\ are names of varieties. The first two leaves put forth by the plant are termed ran kakauo (seed leaves). The term rautara is applied to the third leaf, and putaihinu to the fourth. When the young runner appears the expression ama is used. For some reason the four stars known as Pi-a-wai are called a hue. Kekerewai and Tutaeruru. — These are quite distinct. The latter flies about in the evening, making a booming sound. The term manu a Behua, however, applies to both, and they were both eaten. Some kinds of purerehua (moths) were also eaten. Para taro. — The correct name is taro para. It grows in the bush, and the edible tubers(?) form a clump. They are like taro in appearance, and were cooked for a long time in a steam- oven. Tdl. — The tap-root of the toi (Cordyline indivisa) was eaten formerly, as also the young undeveloped leaves. The trunk, or the upper portion of it, was likewise used as food, the 'outside part being first chipped with stone adzes. All species of Cordyline provided food. The young leaves of the ti kouka contain a bitter sap, which is absent in the toi. The ti para was the best eating, and did not require the outside chipped off. The tap-root (more), young leaves (rito), and upper part of trunk were all eaten. It is not the same as the ti tatvhiti. Of the ti kapu the rito alone was eaten. Ongaonga. — This is worrying me, and is not yet clear. The plant known as ongaonga (? Urtica fcrox) is a plant of the * Used for taha liuahua. f Used for oko bowls. Hamilton. — On some Bone Belies. Ill nettle kind, which I have seen about 8 ft. in height. It loses its leaves in the winter. The natives believe that this grows into the large tree known as houhi ongaonga, of which the inner bark was eaten in times of scarcity ; also that it loses its spines when in the tree stage. Now, I know the tree; it is the houhi with short rounded leaves and thick bark, not the one having long narrow leaves. I have no faith in the Maori theory. The ongaonga (nettle shrub) has no leaves now (August). Its branchlets are extremely tough. The tree, houhi ongaonga, has a few leaves remaining at this time of the year, but most of them have fallen. But the houhi with narrow leaves flourishes the year round covered with leaves. Puruhi. — An old native informs me that this term is applied to leaves eaten by birds. The pigeon eats the leaves of the koivhai, akaaka, and houhi (both kinds), and its flesh is poor eating at such times. Hence the term puruhi is applied to all these leaves — " He kereru kai puruhi, kaore c momona, a, ka hannga hoki nga kiko " (Puruhi-e&tmg pigeons are poor iu condition and their flesh is offensive). A kind of worm termed ngaio is sometimes found in the kokopu fish, and also in the entrails of the kaka bird. These birds are thin when afflicted by this parasite. Abt. VI. — Notes on a Bone Pendant in the Form of a Lizard(?), found on the Sandhills at Wainui ; and on some other Bone Objects. By A. Hamilton. [Read before the Otago Institute, 11th November, 1902.] Plates VIII. -IX. The sand-dunes w7hich form the littoral of a large part of the coast of New Zealand have been very prolific in relics of the ancient life of the Maori, as in all suitable places there were settlements from which the fishers went forth to reap the harvest of the sea and to contribute towards the support of the tribe. For miles and miles, especially in the North Island of New Zealand, the winds disclose among the sand- hills the middens of old kaingas, and as the wanderings of cattle and the traffic over the sandhills increased, the binding grasses and sedges were destroyed, so that sandhills which have stood for centuries move on and perhaps disclose the remains of habitations of which the names and history have been utterly lost. Many of the relics thus uncovered are soon destroyed by the action of either the sun or the frost, or they may be again covered by the shifting sands. The more common things to be found in the neighbourhood of 112 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. old settlements are bone mat-pins, bone barbs of fish-books, bone barbs for bird or fish spears, and stone implements ; but occasionally a rare jewel is found, lost perhaps in the loose sand by its sorrowing owner who shall say how many years ago. The subject of the present note is a bone pendant or ornament in the form of a lizard. At least, that is what I consider it to be, notwithstanding that the shape of the tail is unlike that of any kind of lizard known to me. It does not even represent a lizard that has lost its tail, as in that case it would be more truncate and not carefully finished off. Judging by the beautifully worked arrangement for suspension, it was made to hang head downwards. It is cut from a fairly dense fragment of a whale's bone. The extreme length is 111mm. (about 4^ in.), and the greatest diameter of the body is 32 mm. (about 1^-in.). The character of the workmanship is shown in the accompanying plate. Prom the snout to the end of the tail, along the central line of the back, is a row of small notches. It is perfect in all its parts, and is, so far as I know, unique. The use of a lizard-form as a personal ornament amongst a Maori people must have been rare, as in most cases all kinds of ngarara were regarded with horror and aversion. The subject of the use of the lizard in ornamentations and on ethnographical objects by the Malays and Polynesians has been the subject of inquiry by many ethnologists.* Shortland mentions that the small green lizard was held in great awe, because atuas were believed to enter very frequently into their bodies when visiting the earth for the purpose of communicating their advice to mortals.! Assuming this to be so, one specimen might have been the god-medium of some old priest, in the same way as the god-sticks were used on the west coast of the North Island. To the average Maori it was sufficient to show him a lizard in a bottle to put to flight the most doughty warrior, as Angas relates in an amusing passage. In Melanesia and Micronesia the lizard is usually regarded as the incarnation of a god or spirit. Lizards are sometimes found carved on the slabs of a Maori house, but not often. They appear more frequently in the old cave paintings in the South Island. Bone Needles. I have received from Mr. Bendall, of the Mahia, at the northern end of Hawke's Bay, some fragments of a bone needle beautifully carved, which was picked up on the middens * See D'Estrey, " Etude Ethnographique sur le lezard chez les peuples Malais et Polynesiens," in L'Anthrop., 1892, torn, iii., No. 6; and Giglioli, " La Lacertola," Arch, per l'Antropolog. e la Etnol., 1889. f Shortland, Trad, and Superstitions of the N.Z., p. 58. Hamilton. — On a Stone Belie. 113 which line the shores of the sandy neck of land which joins the Mahia Peninsula to the mainland and separates Poverty Bay from Hawke's Bay. The material used is human bone, probably a portion of the femur. It has been rubbed down to form a needle originally about 10 in. long, nearly fin. wide, and about J in. thick. As usual in these needles, only one surface is carved, but the carving is deep, the cuts true and sharp-edged Fortunately, I happen to have a photograph of a perfect specimen which is in the collection of Major-General Bobley in England, and the pattern is so similar that they might have been made by the same artist. They are usually designated " thatching-needles," but I think it more probable that these highly ornamented ones were for ceremonial use, such as stringing the first fruits of a fishing season, to be laid as an offering at the shrine of Tangaroa. Whatever their use, the workmanship is a fresh proof of the artistic capabili- ties of the Maori race in the days of old. The length of Major Bobley's specimen is 12Jin. It will be noticed that there are two holes through which the cord is attached. This is characteristic of this kind of bone needle. Even the plain ones actually in use for passing the cords that tie on the bundles of reeds or grass to the roof-timbers of a house have these two holes. The specimen on the left of the plate is less elaborate, and has three openings at the top for the attachment of the cord. The number of holes not only affords a more secure fastening for the short cord which was permanently attached to the needle, but, by distributing the strain, lessens the chance of fracture. The binding-cord was attached to the cord on the needle by a temporary hitch, and was cast loose when drawn through. Aet. VII. — On a Stone Belie found at Orepuki, Southland. By A. Hamilton. [Read before the Otago Institute, 11th November, 1902.] Plate X. A very remarkable stone relic has been found at Orepuki, a small township on the shores of Foveaux Strait, in the ex- treme south of New Zealand. In this neighbourhood there are at the present time a few of the surviving Maori people of the South Island, living at Colac Bay and other small settlements. Just opposite, in the western entrance to the strait, is the 8 114 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Island of Earotoki, or Earotonga, which tradition states was named after a Earotonga of the olden time far away in the Pacific. It has always been regarded as a sacred island, and from time to time numbers of curious specimens have been found on the sandhills and the sites of old dwellings. The European name of the island is Centre Island. The specimen which, by the kindness of Mr. Dunlop, the manager of the Orepuki Shale-oil Works, I am permitted to describe was ploughed up by a farmer a few years ago. It is made of a dark-coloured slaty stone, and has been carefully worked into the shape of the handle and guard of a dagger or small sword, and then covered with elaborate carvings in low relief. Unfortunately, it has been much damaged, a large frag- ment being split off from each side. Fortunately, however, the portions destroyed are recoverable by comparing the opposite sides, as the design is repeated as nearly as possible on each side, so that the whole of the design intended to be repre- sented can be recovered. It measures about 92 mm. in length and 66 mm. in width. It is thus too small to be used as a dagger or weapon of offence, though the shape at once sug- gests such a purpose. The cross hilt is recurved with a fine bold sweep, and the general outline is well proportioned and elegant. There is also a large hole drilled near the butt, which has been bored from each side by a Polynesian drill somewhat unsteady in its action. Beyond the butt or handle and the cross-piece where the blade of a sword or dagger would come is the fragment of a shaft, circular in section, 20 mm. in dia- meter. It is, of course, impossible to say what length this part was originally- — certainly not more than 6 in., probably less. It is also uncertain whether it preserved the same diameter or whether it tapered. There is no indication of tapering on the fragment remaining. The form of the cross-piece has been attained by drilling out a hole on each side of the haft. Curious as the shape is, the ornamentation with which the stone is covered is still more interesting. The design is formed by cutting out portions of the surface, leaving the lines of the design in low relief. The chief figure is best seen by placing the hole, which is evidently made for the purpose of suspending the object, uppermost. It will then be noticed that the edge of the hole is bordered by a line which projects vertically at the top and which is joined at the bottom to another line forming part of the margin of a lozenge- or kite- shaped face. The line of the face is continued parallel with the first to the top of the hole and stops against the vertical line ; above this second line is a third which only comes half- way down and then merges into the ornamentation of the sides. The inner line is carefully notched at short intervals. I take these three lines to represent the frame of a feather Hamilton. — On a Stone Belie. 115 head-dress, such as is common in the Pacific. The line bounding the face is not complete on either side, but, judg- ing by the small perfect maskoid on one of the sides, it came to a sharp point, but no mouth was indicated. The eyes are indicated by lines forming concentric circles, two lines on one side of the face and three on the other. The difference is apparently accidental, and depending on the area to be occupied. Below the face the lines are some- what difficult to follow, but on the one side it appears to be plain that the upper line on each side is intended for the arms, as there is a distinct indication of an elbow. I take the two lower lines to be legs, turned up in a way not unknown in Maori carving. The edge of the curve on the inner side is closely ornamented with notches, and also the somewhat triangular space between the top of the maskoids and the shaft. The arms and legs have a tri- angular space beneath, which I take to represent the body of the figure. The arms and legs terminate at kite-shaped maskoids, which have double concentric circles for eyes, no mouths ; but they are angled on the central line, and this angle is notched from top to bottom. The notching is con- tinued to the point of the curved portion. The other side is practically the same. In relation to these two figures the maskoids are upside- down, for, although there is no mouth, the part intended for the lower part of the face is easily recognised ; but when we examine the ornamentation of the side we find a small full-length figure so placed that the small masks on the curved part become the heads of these figures by super- position As will be seen from the plate, one figure repre- sents a male drawn in a very peculiar and archaic style. On the other side is a female figure, even more peculiar in contour. The extreme end of the butt has been orna- mented, but the small fragment that remains does not give sufficient indications to justify a restoration. I think, how- ever, that there were two small figures with their heads towards the central line. The expanded triangular area at the base of the shaft is ornamented on each- side with concentric circles in addition to the notches already mentioned. The whole represents great labour, and was doubtless a sacred or highly valued possession. The small size precludes the idea that it was part of a weapon, and I have looked in vain for any similar object in Edge Partington's Albums and other works. The only pos- sible resemblance that I can find is to the fan-handles made of wood or whale -tooth ivory, one of which is figured at pi. xxv. and pi. xlvii., No. 6, of Edge Partington's "Album 116 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. of the Pacific " as corning from the Marquesas. Here we have the same general idea, the central shaft, the human figures at the sides, and the curved anchor -like arms, with heads at the middle of the arms, only the reverse way to those on our specimen. A replica of the head-dress with the projecting spike for a feather plume is seen on the head of a figure on a dancing-stick from New Britain (pi. ccxlv., fig. 2, Edge Partington's Album). I may. call attention to the notched characters of the or- namentation, which corresponds to the markings on the specimens figured in "Maori Art" at pi. lvi., figs. 4, 5, and 6, and which I there state to have a special character of their own. The specimen figured on pi. xlviii., fig. 5, of "Maori Art" came from the same locality as the specimen under discussion, and has a similar type of face. The small object on pi. xlviii., fig. 3, is slightly notched along the ridge, and may have represented a small mask. It is, of course, open to any one to suggest that this specimen is not Maori, and has arrived in New Zealand through the agency of whalers or others, seeing that it is so different from any known Maori ornament or implement. Granting this for the sake of argument, the question still remains, Where did it come from ? It is generally a fairly easy matter for an expert to place a specimen by its charac- ter or workmanship, out, although I have had the pleasure of showing this to several gentlemen of great experience, they do not recognise its native country or use. I trust that by publishing the photographs I may some day hear from some one that they have ascertained its origin and use. I myself think that it is possibly one of the older relics of the Maori race; and, although the use of fans is not known to the Maori of to-day, may it not have been a fan-handle used in sacred rites in the distant past, perchance in the Tihi Manono of some remote Hawaiki ? Segak. — On the Trade and Public Debt of N.Z. 117 Art. VIII. — Remarks on the Trade and Public Debt of Neio Zealand. By H. W. Segar, M.A., Professor of Mathematics, Uni- versity College, Auckland. [Read before the Auckland Institute, ISth August, 1902.] Plates XI.-X1V. In tables of the trade, revenue and expenditure, public debt, &c, for any country, it is usual to present the value in terms of some monetary unit — e.g., the sovereign or pound sterling. Now, the sovereign represents a fixed amount of gold, but not a fixed exchange value. The extent to which the sovereign, or any given number of sovereigns, will purchase commodities in general varies considerably from time to time. Conse- quently a man with a fixed income — that is, with an income of a fixed number of pounds — may be really much better or much worse off at one time than at another because of the variations in the purchasing-power of his income. The trade of a country may be progressing well and soundly during a period for which bare statistics of values may appear to indi- cate a sickly and declining condition of trade, and trade may be really languishing when these statistics indicate continued progress. Before we can properly compare monetary statis- tics of one period with those of another we must take into account the valuations in the purchasing-power of money, remembering that the value of any sum of money is the amount of commodities which it will purchase at the time. Index Numbers. This we are enabled to do roughly by means of index numbers. We need not enter on a general description and discussion of these in this place ; let it suffice to say that their purpose is to represent the average prices of commodities at different periods, the average prices being directly proportional to the index numbers, and the purchasing-power of money consequently inversely proportional to them. The following table represents Sauerbeck's index numbers for the years 1880-1900 :— 118 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Index No. Index No 1880 . ..88 1891 . . 72 1881 . ..85 1892 . . 68 1882 . ..84 1893 . . 68 1883 . ..82 1894 . . 63 1884 . ..76 1895 . . 62 1885 . ..72 1896 . . 61 1886 . ..69 1897 . . 62 1887 . 68 1898 . . 64 1888 . ..70 1899 . . 68 1889 . ..72 1900 . . 75 1890 . ..72 q 1 1 1 n ctvo t.ari rrvo v\V\ i r*o 1 ^7 in T^lo+c YT It will be noticed that from 1880 to 1896 prices, as measured by these numbers, steadily declined, with the ex- ception of an interruption which culminated about 1890. The decline for the whole period, as represented by the first and last of the index numbers — viz., 88 and 61 — is one of nearly 31 per cent., and this is equivalent to an increase in the purchasing-power of money in the ratio of 61 to 88. or some 44 per cent. In 1896, however, there set in a rapid rise in prices and consequent fall in the purchasing-power of money, which continued to 1900. Index numbers are calculated by different authors in various ways and from different data with different results, and no one set of index numbers can be regarded as being exact. Indeed, they are intended to represent the average prices of commodities, the very idea of which is more or less indefinite. But, though differing somewhat in the magnitudes of the changes in prices and purchasing-power of money which they indicate, it is remarkable how concordant are the index numbers of different statisticians in indicating always the same tendency to rise or fall. These remarks should be carefully borne in mind in the following application of Sauerbeck's index numbers. Application of Index Numbers. We propose to take the exports, imports, and public debt of New Zealand for the vears 1880-1900, and to calculate their values in terms of the pound of the year 1880 — i.e., to find how many pounds would have been required in the year 1880 to have the same purchasing-power as the various sums concerned in the several years. The values thus calculated we shall call the " general exchange values expressed in the pound of 1880 " — (1880)£. By comparing these values we shall be able, notwithstanding the roughness of the method, to form a better idea of the course of trade and of the burden of debt than we could from the ordinary statistics, as the general exchange values thus calculated will represent the Segar. — On the Trade and Public Debt of N.Z. 119 general purchasing-power instead of merely the amount of gold equivalent at the time. Exports. The following table indicates the application of the method to the exports of New Zealand : — Nominal Values. 1880 ... 1881 ... 1882 ... 1883 ... 1884 ... 1885 ... 1886 ... 1887 ... 1888 ... 1889 ... 1890 ... 1891 ... 1892 ... 1893 ... 1891 ... 1895 ... 1896 ... 1897 ... 1898 ... 1899 ... 1900 ... This table is illustr £ 6,102,300 5,762,250 6,253,350 6,855,214 6,942,486 6,591,911 6,386,682 6,551.081 7,255,128 9,042,008 9,428,761 9,400,094 9.355,868 8,557,443 9,085,148 8,390,153 9,177,336 9,596,267 10,324,988 11,799.740 General Exchange Values. (1880)£ 6,102,300 5,965,623 6,551.128 7,356,847 8,038,668 8,056,780 8,145,334 8,477,870 9,120,720 10,051,304 11,524,040 11,489.016 12,120.504 11,074,360 12,690,392 11,908,600 13,239,424 13,620,552 14,196,864 15,270,288 15,318,160 13,055,249 rated graphically in Plate XII. It would appear that, though the nominal value of the exports fell off after 1884 and did not recover until 1888, the general exchange value actually increased from year to year throughout this period, though not at as rapid a rate as in the few previous years. Again, after 1890 there was another falling-off in the nominal values of the exports, and the value for 1890 was not exceeded until 1897 ; but during these same years there was on the average a considerable rise in the general exchange values of the exports, though this rise was not steady. In two years only — 1893 and 1895 — wTere the general exchange values substantially less than in the pre- ceding years, and in each case the succeeding year showed a greater value than any previous year. Generally the table of general exchange values represents a far more steady pro- gress in the values of exports than does that of the nominal values, indicating that the great unsteadiness in the latter is due chiefly to the varying exchange value of gold. The 120 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. progress of our export trade, then, has not really been nearly so chequered as the ordinary statistics would generally suggest. It will further be noticed that the increase in the general exchange values of the exports during the last few years has been less rapid than that of the nominal values, which in- dicates that part of the increase in our exports is only ap- parent ; increased prices and the fall in the purchasing-power of gold would diminish the amount of commodities purchas- able by the exports or the credit assigned for the same. Imports. The following table indicates the application of the method to the imports of New Zealand : — 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 Nominal Values. £ 6,162,011 6 7,457,045 7 8,609,270 9 7,974,038 8 7,663,888 8 7,479,921 9 6,759,013 8 6,245,515 8 5,941,900 7 6,308,863 7 6,260,525 7 6,503,849 7 6,943,056 8 6,911,515 8 6,788,020 9 6,400,129 9 7,137,320 10 8,055,223 11 8,230,600 11 8,739,633 11 10,646,096 12 Gentral Exchange Valiif-s. (1880)£ 162,011 720, 019 557 874 142 620 082 469 710 651 949 985 944 481 084 296 433 317 310 491 240 208 120 008 144 216 448 792 824 776 128 152 320 648 064 440 224 064 112 424 This table is illustrated graphically in Plate XIII. The nominal values of the imports show a considerable depression for many years after 1882. The value for that year was not exceeded until as late as 1899, while the value for 1888 was less than that for 1882 by 31 per cent. The general exchange values of the imports, however, show a much greater approach to regularity, though not one as marked as in the case of the exports. There is a slight depression- in the general exchange values between 1882 and Segae. — On the Trade and Public Debt of N.Z. 121 1885 (the value being the greater in the latter year), but a continuous fall did not set in until 1886, and practically the recovery was complete by 1892. Since that year the increase has been considerable in both values, but proportionally greater in the nominal value than in the general exchange value. To this difference the same remark may be made as in the case of the exports. Public Debt. The following table indicates the application of the method to the public debt of New Zealand : — 1880 • • ■ 1881 • > • 1882 < • • 1883 • > • 1881 • • • 1885 1886 1887 . . • 1888 • • ■ 1889 • • ■ 1890 1891 .. 1892 1893 > • ■ 1894 .. 1895 1896 1897 .. 1898 1899 1900 Nominal Value. £ 28,185,711 28,179,111 29,445,011 31,071,582 32,195,422 33,880,722 35,741,653 36,758,437 38,375,050 38,667,950 38,830,350 38,713,068 39,257,840 39,826,415 40,386,964 43,050,780 44,366,618 44,963,424 46,938,006 47,874,452 General Exchange, Value. (1880)£ 28,185,711 29,484,224 30,847,150 33,345,092 37,278,912 41,409,771 45,583,560 47,569,742 48,242,920 47,260,829 47,459,313 47,315,972 50,804,270 51,540,060 56,413,544 61,104,340 64,004,336 63,819,052 64,539,761 61,955,168 58,187,096 49,591,245 This table is illustrated graphically in Plate XIV. A comparison of the two sets of values shows that until quite recently the general exchange value of the amount of the public debt, and therefore practically the burden of the debt, has been increasing far more rapidly than the nominal value. From 1880 to 1896 the debt increased in nominal value from £28,185,711 to £44,366,618, this being an increase of over 57 per cent, in sixteen years ; but owing to the in- creased value of the sovereign, according to Sauerbeck's index numbers, the amounts of commodities in general to which these sums were equivalent were in the ratio of 28,185,711 to 64,004,336, which is equivalent to an increase of no less than 127 per cent. 122 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Since 1896, however, a change has taken place through the depreciation of gold that then set in, though from the unbroken succession of annual additions the nominal value of the debt has necessarily been continually increasing. The general exchange value fell in 1897, and, though it rose again in 1898, it has fallen rapidly since that year. Thus, apart from the distribution of the burden of the debt over a greater population, the total burden of the debt has actually diminished since 1896 in spite of further borrowings. Further remarks on these topics will be made in a paper on "The Flood of Gold."* Aet. IX.— The Flood of Gold. By H. W. Segak, Professor of Mathematics, University College, Auckland. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 18th August, 1902.'] Plate XV. At different times different influences affecting matters of public concern become of more than usual importance. At the present time the extraordinary increase in the annual output of gold that has taken place in recent years forms a most conspicuous feature in the economic conditions of the time. It follows that a knowledge of the economic bearing of the gold-production of the world is more than usually essen- tial to the proper understanding of economic changes. To give some account of this is the main object of the following paper, which simply describes some well-known principles of that branch of economic science which deals with the theory of value and currency. As there is not time to reason out the theory in this, one of the more advanced departments of political economy, I shall largely depend on authorities, and shall frequently quote passages from standard writers, accepting their dictum in lieu of more extensive argument. Variations in General Prices. We are all aware that prices fluctuate ; but it is astonish- ing how many have an idea that, excepting comparatively slight fluctuations due to the state of the market, the price of an article is almost on a par with its fundament properties of colour, texture, density, &c. Now, a very few references to prices at different periods should easily dispel this illusion. * See next article. Segar.— The Flood of Gold. 123 Listen, with equanimity if vou can, any housekeepers that may be present, to this price-list of provisions for the two years 1449-1450 :— s. a. 4 1 per hundredweight. Wheat Mutton . . . • . . 4 6' Pork 5 0 Geese 0 4 each. Fowls ... 0 1£ „ Pigeons ... ... 0 4 „ Candles ... 0 1 per pound. Cheese ... 3 lb. for Id. Butter Jd. per pound. Eggs 5fd. for 120. This list indicates, on the average, prices less than one-twelfth of those now ruling. When Henry VI. was held a prisoner by Edward IV. in 1470 it was only thought necessary to allow him, for the subsistence of himself and his suite of ten persons, the ap- parently meagre sum of £3 10s. per week. Many other such incidents must have astonished us in our early reading of history, the biblical penny in particular appearing to have a somewhat miraculous purchasing-power. Evidently, then, the value, or purchasing-power, of money is nothing innate in the metals or coins which constitute the currency, but may vary considerably, and, as we shall see presently, sometimes rapidly. Some of these variations in modern times have been carefully estimated. Between 1570 and 1640 there was a remarkably sudden and extensive de- cline in the purchasing-power of money ; this will be con- sidered again later on. Coming to more recent times, the value of gold, according to the estimate of Professor Jevons, fell 46 per cent, between the years 1789 and 1809 ; and from 1809 to 1849 it rose again no less than 145 per cent., while between 1849 and 1874 it fell again at least 20 per cent. Prices, then, may not only fluctuate from day to day, week to week, and year to year through changes in the conditions of business, fluctuations with which we are all familiar, but may in the course of years reach altogether different levels. And this is true not only of the prices of any one commoditv, but of the prices of commodities in general, or the average level of prices. For instance, it may be noticed that in tne list of provisions given above the relative differences in prices of the various articles as compared with those of the present day are very small compared with the differences in the prices of any one article then and now It would appear, then, that the extraordinarily small prices in the list were due not to a 124 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. great supply of and small demand for these articles, but to some other and more general cause, which must be capable of explaining how commodities in general should at one time have prices so greatly different from those at another. Influence of Money- supply on Pkices. Now, it is quite certain that, other things being the same, a change in the quantity of money in circulation affects prices. " That commodities would rise or fall in price in proportion to the increase or diminution of money I assume as a fact which is incontrovertible," wrote Ricardo, supposing implicitly, of course, that other conditions remained the same. Mill, his disciple, followed in similar strain: "The value of money, other things being the same, varies inversely as its quantity, every increase of quantity lowering the value, and every dimi- nution raising it in a ratio exactly equivalent." And, again, " Let us suppose that to every pound, or shilling, or penny in the possession of any one another pound, shilling, or penny were suddenly added. There would be an increased money demand, and, consequently, an increased money value or price for things of all sorts. This increased value would do no good to any one — would make no difference, except that of having to reckon pounds, shillings, and pence in higher num- bers. It would be an increase of values only as estimated in money, a thing only wanted to buy other things with, aud would not enable any one to buy more of them than before. Prices would have risen in a certain ratio, and the value of money would have fallen in the same ratio. It is to be remarked that this ratio would be precisely that in which the quantity of money had been increased. If the whole money in circulation was doubled prices would be doubled ; if it was only increased one-fourth prices would rise one- fourth — there would be one-fourth more money, all of which would be used to purchase goods of some description. When there had been time for the increased supply of money to reach all markets, or (according to the conventional meta- phor) to permeate all the channels of circulation, all prices would have risen one-fourth. But the general rise of price is independent of this diffusing and equalising process. Even if some prices were raised more and others less the average rise would be one-fourth. This is a necessary of the fact that a fourth more money would have been given for only the same quantity of goods. General prices, therefore, would in any case be a fourth higher." And, once again, " That an increase of the quantity of money raises prices and a diminu- tion lowers them is the most elementary proposition in the theory of currency, and without it we should have no key to -any of the others." Segar.— The Flood of Gold. 125 Sidgwick also writes, " An increased supply of gold not accompanied by a corresponding increase in the work that coin has to do (or a rise in the demand for gold otherwise caused) tends ultimately to lower the purchasing-power of money relatively to commodities generally." But the change in the purchasing-power of money is only inversely proportional to the quantity when other things re- main the same. If odier things do not remain the same, the actual change in the purchasing-power may exceed or fall short of this amount ; the increase in the quantity of money would still tend to produce the depreciation in the purchasing- power stated in the quantity theory as enunciated in the above extracts, but the actual effect would be modified by the coincident effects of the other influences. To be able to form some idea of the probable course of prices it is necessary to consider what these influences are, and what is the nature of their action. Other Factors influencing Prices. What, then, are the other factors which affect general prices ? They are mainly — (1) The amount of exchange trans- actions to be performed — i.e., the quantity of commodities to be exchanged ; (2) the proportion of credit to cash transac- tions ; and (3) the rapidity of circulation of money. Prices depend on all these three factors combined with the quantity of money in use, and each of these has its effect independ- ently of the others, and the actual change in prices is the resultant of the effects of the whole four. Let us consider, however, the probable magnitudes of these effects. How rapidly does the amount of exchange transac- tions to be performed increase ? It tends to increase with the population and the development of commerce and general business. This leads to a demand for additional coin which is at times substantial, but which at any time is difficult to estimate with any proper degree of accuracy. For our pur- poses, however, this is hardly necessary. Let it suffice to notice that if the other influences were constant the steady increase of population and general commercial development would lead to a continual fall in prices, through the spreading of the money in use over a greater number of transactions. Coming now to the proportion of credit to cash trans- actions, it must be noticed that this is comparatively a very variable quantity. In good times, when business is brisk, we observe generally a rise in prices. This is because the ex- pansion in credit which accompanies commercial prosperity more than counteracts the direct tendency of the increase of business to diminish prices. In bad times these influences are reversed. There is a shrinkage in credit which produces 126 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. low prices. These changes take place in comparatively short intervals. The change may be sudden and of the nature of a panic, or may extend and operate gradually over a period of, say, five or six years. But, in addition to these short-period fluctuations, we have a general tendency as the commercial status of nations improves for the proportion of credit to cash transactions to increase. In those nations which are com- mercially most advanced we find to-day the proportion greatest, so that in some of the wealthiest nations we find a smaller amount of coin per head in use than in some of the poorer nations. We may take it that the general tendency is to economize the use of money and substitute credit, and this, so far as it operates, tends to increase prices. The rapidity of circulation of money — i.e., the average frequency with which each coin is used to pay for some purchase — must depend largely on the character and customs of the people. But the modern tendency is to keep coin in hand to as small an extent and for as little a time as pos- sible. This, again, tends to increase prices, since it practically diminishes the demand for money. Thus of these three influences we have seen that one is tending to diminish prices and the other two to increase them. Thus to some extent they counteract one another ; and, besides, apart from short-period fluctuations, the extent of their influence varies comparatively slowly, and may be almost neglected, compared with that of any great increase in the gold-supply. Some Instances of Variation in the Purchasing-power of Money, and their Causes. It will now be well, perhaps, to consider some instances of variations in the purchasing-power of money that have actually occurred, and their causes. Beginning with the fall of the Boman Empire, we may remark that during that event the production of the precious metals received a shock from which the industry did not recover for a thousand years. Even when a revival came, in the eighth century, the pro- duction was only sufficient to replace waste and to keep the volume in circulation about the same up to the time of the discovery of America. During all this period the precious metals were steadily advancing in value and average prices were falling, at first through the reduction of the stock by wear-and-tear, but also at a later period through reviving trade and production making a larger and larger demand for money. It was to the later portion of this period that the list of prices of produce quoted above applied, and this sufficiently exhibits the lowness of prices at that time. Segar.— The Flood of Gold. 127 America was discovered in 1492, but it was not until the invasion of Mexico by Cortes in 1519 that the yield of precious metals in America became greatly increased. Hum- boldt estimates the annual production from 1521 to 1515 at £630,000, and Mr. Jacob estimated that for the following fifty-four years, 1546-99, at an average of £2,100,000, whilst simultaneously the production of the mines of Europe was greatly increased. Economic effects were not transmitted as rapidly from country to country in those days as now, and it was not until the latter portion of the sixteenth and the earlier portion of the seventeenth centuries that the effects of the greatly increased supply of the metals appear to have been realised in the prices of commodities in Europe. But when the effects were once noticeable they became very marked — e.g., corn rose from about 2 oz. of silver the quarter to 6 oz. or 8 oz., and generally money in Europe sank to about one-fifth of its former value, prices rising to about five times their former level. Take, again, the recent period, 1850-70. Through the dis- covery of the Caiifornian and Australian goldfields the supply of gold throughout this period was largely in excess of all known previous epochs, and was largest in the decade 1851-60. A study of the general prices of commodities by means of index numbers establishes for the period 1850-70 a consider- able rise. Comparing the depressed year 1850 with the de- pressed year 1869 we get, by means of Mr. Sauerbeck's figures, a rise in prices of about 27 per cent., whilst other estimates (those of Dr. Giffen, Professor Soetbeer, Mr. Palgrave, and the Economist) give very similar results, though the exact proportion is differently estimated, and this in a period when improvements in methods of production and transport and the exploitation of new countries might have been expected to cause a general fall in prices. Further, a general rise in money wages between 1850 and 1870 has been clearly esta- blished. Thus, the fact of a fall in the standard of value between 1850 and 1870 seems proved, and 20 per cent, is the most moderate estimate that is accepted. Between 1870 and 1893, on the other hand, although the production of gold was. still very great, it was less than in the previous twenty years. Great new demands on the stock of gold for currency were made by Germany, the United States, Italy, and Austria- Hungary. The consump- tion of gold for the arts increased, and has been very roughly estimated by Professor Soetbeer at £11,500,000 sterling, nearly one-half of the total annual production. The hoards of gold for war treasure by the great Con- tinental nations grew. The demand for gold in India (a new demand, specially important in the decade 1860-70) con- 128 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. tinued, and absorbed in the years 1870-93 nearly £70,000,000 The bulk of trade over the whole world increased steadily, and a larger proportion of it was conducted on a gold basis. Consequently the general prices of commodities, which had previously risen, showed during this period a con- siderable net fall, bringing them lower than they had been in 1850. The general level of wages was probably lower in 1893 than in 1870, though the fact of the fall, and especially its amount, is not as certain as the fall in commodities. We come now to the consideration of the prices of the last decade and the probable course of prices in the near future ; but it is advisable first to consider the recent supply of gold and the probable supplies of the next few years. The Gold-supply of Eecent Years. Now, the gold-supply from 1841 to 1900 is given in the following table, with that of some earlier periods also stated for the sake of comparison : — Annual Average Annual Average in Millions. £ 0-74 in Millions." £ 1888 .. .. 20-50 1493-1520 . 1601-20 106 1889 22-23 1701-20 1-60 1890 24-26 1801-10 2-20 1S91 23-47 1841-50 . . 6-83 1892 29-90 1851-55 . . 24-64 1893 . 32-60 1856-60 .. 25-71 1894 . 36-77 1861-65 .. 23-10 1895 41-00 1866-70 . . 23-95 1896 45-00 1871-75 . . 21-29 1897 51-71 1876-80 .. 21-51 1898 59-86 1881-85 .. 19-33 1899 64-65 1886 . . 19-56 1900 53-11 1887 .. 19-18 The part of this table applying to the period 1850-1900 is illustrated graphically in Plate XV. It will be noticed that for the thirty years from 1861 to 1890 the annual output of gold did not vary greatly in either direction from £20,000,000. After the latter date it rose, however, with leaps and bounds, until in the year 1899 it reached 64-65 millions. The increase was continuous as well as rapid. The output for 1898 was £11,000,000 greater than that for the previous year, while in the following year — 1899 — the output was again greater by £5,000,000, although this was the year in which the war in the Transvaal began, and mining in that country was brought practically to a stand- still. When it is remembered that the Transvaal was putting out gold at the rate of £20,000,000 a year when the war began to disturb mining operations, it will be understood that but Segab.— The Flood of Gold. 129 for the war the increase of the world's stock of gold for 1899 would have exceeded that for 1898 by a still greater amount. For 1900 the output of gold fell to 53T1 millions, or there was a falling-off of £11,500,000 compared with the previous year. But for this year the contribution of the Transvaal sank to the comparatively insignificant sum of a quarter of a million, so that if the Transvaal had been putting out gold even only at the same rate as at just before the war there would again have been an increase on the previous year measured by many millions. In 1901 again there was an increase of several millions on 1900, although the contribution of the Transvaal was even more insignificant than before. The Gold-supply of the Future. Thus as soon as gold-mining in the Transvaal has been generally resumed we may expect the annual output to be some £80,000,000. But the annual yield may be expected to increase more and more. It must be remembered that gold is now chiefly obtained by quartz-mining. The placer claim is no longer the chief source of the gold-supply, and conse- quently the supply is no longer subject to the vicissitudes in- variably connected with alluvial-gold mining. Gold-mining is now more akin to general mining ; great capital is sunk in working great reefs, and many of the most profitable mines have every prospect of keeping up their supply for genera- tions. Thus extensions in gold-mining are generally of far more permanent character than formerly, while these exten- sions are evidently being made on a large scale. The great annual increases sufficiently prove this ; and the fact that when allowance is made for the temporary collapse in the supply from the Transvaal these increases still remain enor- mous, makes it appear that general extension in gold-mining is still the order of the day. New fields are continually coming to the fore. In West Africa an extensive field has been dis- covered exactly corresponding in formation to that of the Transvaal, and numerous companies have been formed to ex- ploit it, though it is too early to foretell with what success. The goldfield of the north-west territories of Canada is 500 miles long by 100 miles in its greatest width. Bhodesia furnishes one of the youngest fields, but the rapid increase of the output seems to promise great things, the output in the years 1899, 1900, 1901 being respectively 65,000 oz., 91,000 oz., and 140,000 oz., although in the two latter years operations were greatly impeded by the war and a consequent scarcity of labour. The output of gold from India increased fourfold during the period 1890 to 1901. And so on all over the world new fields are being dis- covered, and old fields are booming again through the im- 9 130 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. provements in and cheapening of the process of gold-extrac- tion. Thus we have every reason to anticipate a still further greatly increased yield, and that the increase will be more permanent than it was in the middle of the last century be- cause of the difference in the character of the mining. Increased Prices to be expected. But, taking the annual output of the immediate future at £80,000,000, what effect ought this to have on prices ? Let us consider what can become of this £80,000,000 a year. It will partly be (1) used in industry and the arts ; and (2) hoarded. The rest must be used as money, either as coin or bullion. Now, the amount of gold used in industry and the arts can scarcely be estimated with accuracy ; but very careful estimates have been made, and Dr. Soetbeer estimated 11-20 millions for the year 1885. Since the amount of gold used in this way is not likely to increase with great rapidity, we may take £15,000,000 as being a fairly liberal estimate for the present time. Let us also deal liberally with hoarding, and allow another £5,000,000 for this source of consumption ; we should then still have £60,000,000 per annum to be added to the currency of the world. This is at least 4 per cent, of the stock of gold in the world, and would of itself tend to increase average prices at the rate of about 4 per cent, per annum. Now, a comparison with what happened in the last cen- tury may be made. The output then rose to as much as £28,000,000 a year, while £3,500,000 only was used annually in industry and arts ; so that, allowing liberally again for hoarding, at least £20,000,000 per annum must have gone for a time to the increase of the currency, and this represents about 5 per cent, on the amount of coin then in existence. But we know that the increase in prices that took place was not proportional to this, amounting perhaps only to about 20 per cent, altogether before prices began to fall again. Jevons, after a very careful investigation, foretold a rise in prices of about double this, while others ventured to predict that prices might ultimately rise to as much as threefold ; but all these estimates were falsified. Evidently, then, there must be some great difference in the circumstances then and now if we are to venture on any similar prediction. I am of opinion these necessary differences do exist. To begin with, the annual gold output did not continue to increase, or even to maintain itself, as was expected. This was due to the nature of the fields and the mining, and we have already seen that now much greater permanence is to be expected. Segar.— The Flood of Gold. 131 Again, average prices depend not only on the supply of gold, but also, amongst other things, on the demand for gold. Now, simultaneously with the increased output of gold of fifty years ago there took place a great extension of rail- ways and improvement in transit facilities, with a rapid development of new countries, that caused generally an ex- traordinary expansion of industry — -e.g., the exports of Eng- land increased from £60,000,000 in 1818 to £165,000,000 in 1860 ; and the increased trade and prosperity required an increased coinage even to keep prices at the same level. No correspondingly great development of trade, &c, can be expected in the near future. Further, the existence of an effective bimetallic area of considerable extent tends to minimise the effects of an increase in the total gold currency. For, if gold tends to depreciate, the bimetallic countries will import and coin gold to replace the silver, which they will export. And so we find France in 1850-65 taking gold and exporting silver, and during the years 1853-60 actually coining £155,000,000 sterling in gold, or some six years' product of the mines. But at the present time, in all the principal countries and commercial centres of the civilised world, gold is the sole standard of value. The demand for gold and silver is no longer alternative as currency. As an international measure of value gold has been be- coming more and more isolated, while silver is now more of a mere commodity ; any increase of supply of gold, or any diminution of supply, acts with full force upon the standard of value There is no longer a question of the proportion of any new demand or supply to the total stock of gold and silver, but of its proportion to the total stock of gold alone. I see, then, no reasonable escape from the conclusion that in the near future prices must rise, and rise con- siderably. Prices have already risen. Mr. Sauerbeck's index numbers representing the average prices of forty-five commodities, compared with the prices of the same articles in 1867-77, are as follows : — No. 72 72 68 68 63 62 61 62 64 68 75 1867-77 = 100 No. 1879 . 83 1890 1880 , . . 88 1891 1881 , . . 85 1892 1882 . . 84 1893 1883 . . . 82 1894 1884 , . . 76 1895 1885 . 72 1896 1886 1887 . 69 . 68 1897 1898 1888 1889 • . 70 . 72 1899 1900 132 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. This table is illustrated graphically in Plate XI. of Art. VIII. It gives an increase in prices from 1896 to 1900 in the ratio of 61 to 75, or an increase of nearly 23 per cent. Index numbers are compiled by different investigators in different ways and from different data, but they agree to a very considerable extent. The most numerous set of observa- tions is that which Dr. Falkner has compiled in the inquiry on wholesale prices from 1890 to 1899, recently published in the "Bulletin of the Department of Labour," U.S.A. In these observations the index number for all articles shows a decline from about 102 in 1890 to about 81-5 in 1897, but then, again, a rise to about 92 in the first two months of 1899. A similar conclusion is reached by Dr. Conrad, who com- bines Soetbeer's observations of Hamburg prices, and various other independent indications concur in placing the turn of the tide in prices beyond doubt. This increase of prices has been generally recognised, but in the Press and by popular opinion the war seems to have been the favourite attributed cause, and almost all conceivable hypotheses but the true one have been brought forward ; and this cause is likely to be of comparative permanence and have an increasing force. It is true that a fall in prices again set in towards the end of 1900, but a rise in prices due even to a permanent increase in the gold- supply can scarcely be expected to be continuous. One year may see an enormous output of gold, and the next year may see prices smaller than those previously ruling. A collapse in credit may temporarily counteract or more than counteract the influence of the expanding currency. And this may happen frequently, and perhaps the more frequently because the general tendency of prices to rise gives an impulse to business and encourages speculation. But the low prices when credit is small and the higher prices when credit is good will fluctuate about a mean which is continually rising, just as in the case of the ocean the depth at a given point may vary according to whether we have there the crest of a wave or the bottom of the trough between the waves, although the tide may be rising at the time and the average depth continu- ally increasing. And two observers on the sea-beach may form very different estimates of how far the tide has risen while watching the ebb and flow of the breakers, though they may agree, and there may be no doubt, that the tide has risen. An instance of this irregularity in the rise of prices is thus described by Professor Marshall : " An expansion of credit coincided with the influx of precious metals consequent on the discovery of the Californian and Australian mines, and increased the upward tendency of prices. But in 1857 there Segak.— The Flood of Gold. 133 was a crisis — i.e., many trading firms were unable to pay their debts, credit was violently contracted, and prices fell, although the store of precious metals in the country was growing as rapidly as ever. x\fter a time credit began to expand again, and prices rose till 1866, when there was another crisis, and prices fell. Again credit expanded, and prices rose till 1873, when, though there was no crisis, a gradual contraction of credit set in which has continued till 1879." But " the lowest point which prices reached be- tween 1857 and 1866 was much higher than the level of 1850 ; and the lowest point between 1866 and 1873 was higher still." And just as it matters little that the rise in prices has not been continuous, so it will not do to object that all prices have not risen — that, e.g., wool was lower in price recently than for many years past. If prices on the average remained the same, we should still have some rising and some falling according to the circumstances of the demand and supply of each particular article. And when prices on the average are rising or falling through an increase or diminution in the currency, the price of any particular article will also be affected by these same circumstances, which may aid or hinder the influence of the currency, and may completely counteract it in the case of some particular commodity or commodities. On this point Professor Flux writes, " A fre- quent objection made to the statement of the dependence of the average level of prices on the quantity of money in circu- lation is that the variations of different prices are by no means of equal amount, and that some prices have not fallen at all during the last quarter of a century when on the average wholesale prices have fallen 35 to 40 per cent. As well allege that the rise and fall of the tide on our coasts is not due to the tidal waves which are produced by the attractions of the moon and of the sun. Neighbouring places have tides of vastly different heights, but all would vanish were their ori- ginal cause destroyed. We have spring tides and neap tides according to the relative position of the crests of the lunar and solar tidal waves, and clearly due to these influences, though in some places the variation is less, in others enor- mously more, than in the centre of the ocean. The formation of coast-lines and the location of land-masses modify infinitely the observable results of one common cause, while the wind may, again, interfere to reduce or increase the actual move- ment at a given place. So also with prices : they show in- definite variety of variation, due to the common influence — changes in the amount of the monetary circulation — but that they do respond to that influence can be as well denied as that the tide at London Bridge is a result of the same funda- 134 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. mental tide-producing causes as those which affect the tides at Tenerift'e." The rise in prices cannot, of course, go on indefinitely. Actual gold-mining must pay if it is to be continued ; but if prices continue to rise, then, except for the influence of dis- coveries and improvements in working, the exploiting of ore of a given grade must become more and more costly, while the yield for work done remains the same. Thus the mines con- taining ore of very low grade must be abandoned, then others with ore of a still better grade, and so on. Thus the poorer fields are likely shortly to suffer. In the case of the Auckland goldfields expenses have been kept down by the failure of the recent appeal of the miners to the Arbitration Court, but with prices rising and wages rising in every other trade the wages of the miner must sooner or later partake of the general advance. This must mean a severe check to the gold industry of the province. Effects of Depeeciation of Gold. The economic effects upon trade, industry, and society of a rapid depreciation in the value of gold are of the highest importance, but so numerous that we cannot attempt to con- sider them all ; nor can we spend much time in the considera- tion of any one. Many of my remarks must be somewhat of mere suggestions. Many classes of individuals must suffer. Those that suffer most are those with incomes derived from investments in funds, annuities, mortgages, &c. These include men retired from business and those who by age, sex, or infirmity are dependent on provision which has been made by others. The value of such provision is diminished, and in the case of insurance the money assured is, when received, of much less value than the same sum would have been at the time when most of the premiums were paid. Such as earn incomes made of fixed charges established by law or custom, as in the case of lawyers and physicians, likewise suffer; but they obtain some compensation, for, the fees remaining nominally the same, there is virtually a reduction of charge and a consequent increase of business. Companies and individuals contracting to perform fixed services at fixed prices also belong to this class, perhaps the greatest instance being that of tramway companies, which exist all over the world, and are bound by the municipalities to charge no more than certain maximum fares. These companies must find their expenses continually increasing. Increased traffic, due to increase of population and the virtual reduction of fare, may compensate for this more or less, but the success of such ventures must in general be smaller than if gold did not depreciate. The earners of Segak.— The Flood of Gold. 135 salaries, as the civil servant or professional man en- gaged at fixed salary, form another class to whom the depreciation of gold is injurious. For such salaries are slow to move, and as the cost of living increases the salary will purchase less and less. The loss which fell long since on the civil servants of India through the depre- ciation of silver seems now about to involve their brethren throughout the world. The earners of wages also may suffer a little ; but at the present time, and in this colony, when the increase of wages does not actually precede the increase in the cost of living it very soon follows, so that there need be no anxiety for the position of the labourer and artisan as directly affected by the depreciation of gold. Arbitration Courts are not indispensable to insure wages keeping pace with prices, as witness the general rise in wages that has taken place of recent years beyond New Zealand as well as within it. The creditor, as such, also loses ; as each year passes by the interest he receives is of less value to him than before, and when ultimately his principal is returned to him, though nominally of the same amount as when lent, it is of less use to him than it would then have been in the purchase of commodities. So greatly did these influences operate after the discovery of America that Professor Walker describes the consequences of the metallic inflation that followed in the following words : " So rapid was the fall, so great the disturbance of trade and industry that followed, so wholesale the reduction in the value of fixed incomes and permanent charges, that widespread dis- tress and much permanent pauperism resulted. . . . Mr. Jacob attributes to the overwhelming changes in the pur- chasing-power of money at this period that sudden increase of pauperism which gave occasion for the establishment of the English poor-laws, and those financial embarrassments of Charles I. which led to the great rebellion. Instead of a slow and gradual diminution of the weight of indebtedness (that mortgage which the representatives of past produc- tion hold upon the produce of present labour), debts were in many cases almost confiscated by the rapid depreciation of the money in which they were to be paid. The creditor class was very generally impoverished, if not hopelessly ruined." And, again, "Of those who had possessed barely enough for the support of old age or helpless infancy, great num- bers were impoverished and brought into dire distress. The traces of the deep disturbances of that time long remained upon the face of English society. But it was not alone upon the upper classes that misfortune fell. Serving- men and domestics were discharged by reduced gentle- men faster than the existing industries or new enterprises 136 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. could take them up. Moreover, the wages of labour never, as we have seen, rise as soon as prices of commodi- ties. In an advance of prices as rapid and furious as that we are speaking of wages fell far behind, and the labouring - classes found themselves continually poorer, in spite of the large amount of silver which was paid them weekly. Those heaviest loaded in the race — the men of large families, and such as had the misfortune to be sick or tempo- rarily disabled — were compelled to resort to charity. Such was the condition of things under which vagabondage and mendicancy rose to gigantic proportions, and in which originated the pauper system of England. Mr. Jacob and Professor Cairnes are agreed in attributing the poor-law of Elizabeth to the wholesale destruction of accumulated for- tunes and the rapid overmastering changes of productive enterprise which followed the flood of new metal from the Spanish- American mines." Eeturning to the remark that creditors, as such, lose, this suggests that when gold is depreciating it is a bad investment to lend out money at interest, since a real loss in principal should be made good, and this would require an increased interest. If lenders knew when this influence was at work and generally acted on it interest would rise ; the virtual loss of capital would thus be made good by the addition of a suitable sinking fund, and the lending of money would continue to compare favourably with other invest- ments. But, as Walker remarks, the operations involved in mental discount are amongst the most difficult which ordi- nary men are called upon to perform, and in these most persons fail entirely ; consequently we find that when gold is depreciating interest falls, owing to the greater fund which the increase of money provides for new enterprises and the extension of existing branches of production. This in- fluence has its full effect, whilst the other, which should more than counteract it, is almost inoperative. Conse- quently it would appear that money had better be invested in real estate, or some equivalent form, which, while returning a fair annual remuneration, would also increase in money value in proportion at least to the general increase of prices. This, of course, would only be a general rule ; in any particular locality the removal of the sources of prosperity may take away a great portion of the value in the real estate of the neighbourhood. But as the creditor loses the debtor gains. The annual charge becomes virtually smaller and smaller, as does the principal to be paid. Now, the producing class are generally debtors, and as such feel the relief that this affords. But the producer is also Segar.— The Flood of Gold. 137 benefited in other ways. The cheaper money and greater credit which usually accompany an inflation of the currency enable him to obtain a greater profit, and perhaps to extend his business ; and the profit is still further swollen in the case of the manufacturer of those commodities which are chieflv in demand by the fact that he gets prices for his products in- creased in a greater ratio than the wages he has to pay. This encourages enterprise and gives a fillip to general trade and industry. Thus, as David Hume wrote, "In every kingdom into which money begins to flow in greater abundance than formerly everything takes on a new face; labour and industry gain life, the merchant becomes more enterprising, the manu- facturer more diligent and skilful, and even the farmer follows his plough with greater alacrity and attention." It is true goods have to be exported to pay for the imported gold, or part of the national supply of labour has to be diverted to gold- mining ; but this economic loss is more than made good by the encouragement given by the rising prices to general industry. According to Professor Walker the increase of the money- supply after the discovery of America, in spite of the distress produced mainly by the extraordinary rapidity of the increase, contributed greatly to the rise and growth of the maritime power of Great Britain ; and, in the language of an economist so careful as Professor Cairnes, it supplied and rendered pos- sible the remarkable expansion of oriental trade which forms the most striking commercial fact of the age that followed. " Among the more strictly political results of this great move- ment can be traced, in clear lines, the hastening decay of the feudal power, the increasing dependence of the sovereign upon his people for the supplies which his hereditary domains no longer furnished in sufficiency, and the rising spirit of self-asser- tion on the part of the commercial and mechanical classes." At the present time the increase of money might con- ceivably be so rapid as to bewilder the trader and producer and exalt the ordinary courage and enterprise of business to rashness, and in such a case the effects would be mostly pre- judicial ; but it is scarcely likely that we are on the eve of such a momentous discovery as would be required to effect this. It is more likely, though it is scarcely safe to prophesy, that the increase in prices, while necessarily injuring certain classes, will proceed at such a pace as will produce the better effects which a depreciation in the currency can cause, and promote the prosperity of the community as a whole. It remains only to consider how the depreciation of gold will affect the Government, and the citizen in his relation to the same. Will the taxation of the average citizen increase? As most of our taxes are of the nature of ad valorem, and are determined by our expenditure, the majority of taxes will not 138 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. increase in proportion to expenditure. Of course, those who obtain large money incomes as a consequence of the deprecia- tion of gold, and indulge in a correspondingly large expendi- ture, will pay taxes in proportion. The income and land taxes are, however, exceptional because of the exemptions ; these exemptions will become virtually smaller and smaller, and more incomes and smaller holdings of land will become subject to direct taxation. In the case of the revenue, Customs duties will increase with prices ; land-tax and income-tax should increase rapidly ; while railways, postal, and telegraph receipts, though made up of fixed nominal charges and so liable to virtual loss, may pos- sibly show expansion due to the depreciation of gold and the consequent virtual reduction in the charges. On the whole, and on the average, expanding revenues are to be expected, though there may be at any time a temporary relapse, as there may be a check to the upward tendency of prices. Expenditure, on the other hand, will not tend to increase nearly so rapidly, for the expenditure of the Government is to a very large degree made up of fixed charges, and salaries, which, though not fixed, respond but slowly to the general upward tendency. An era of big surpluses has already set in, and for the above reasons may be expected to continue, except in so far as temporary depression may interrupt them. One item in the Government expenditure deserves further remark — that of interest and sinking fund. This amounted in 1901 to £1,745,616 out of a total expenditure of £6,514,049, or more than one-fourth of the total. However gold may depreciate, this charge will nominally be unaffected by such depreciation — i.e., there will be a virtual reduction in the charges. If the value of gold, e.g., were to depreciate by one- half, the burden of the present debt and the debt itself would be virtually reduced to one-half, and generally the virtual reduction in the present debt and in the charges it necessitates will be in proportion to the reduction in the value of gold. For nearly a generation the colonies, as debtor nations, have been hampered and their progress retarded by the apprecia- tion of gold and the consequent virtual increase of debts. A change has set in and must continue for no little time ; the colonies will feel the burden of old debts less and less, and this is already, and will be to a greater extent in the future, one of the most powerful influences towards pro- sperity. Creditor nations, on the other hand, must suffer ; the interest they receive will represent a smaller and smaller portion of the world's goods. Most that has been said with respect to the Government will also obviously apply to municipalities and other local bodies. Makgill. — Nature's Efforts at Sanitation. 139 In conclusion, it may be remarked that the beginning of a period of depreciation in the currency is pre-eminently a time favourable to borrowing. I would not suggest borrowing for any and all purposes ; what is not wanted may be dear at any price. But if there are certain improvements that are recog- nised as necessary to be effected in the near future the sooner they are effected the better ; it may be advisable to wait a little to tide over a temporary scarcity in the money-market and a temporarily unfavourable condition of the labour-mar- ket, but the first favourable opportunity should be seized — the burden incurred will grow lighter and lighter. In fact, just as an era of depreciating currency promotes enterprise and business in the case of the individual, so it should generate in Governments, central and local, an increased eagerness to initiate schemes for the welfare of their people. Art. X. — Nature's Efforts at Sanitation. By E. H. Makgill, M.D., D.P.H. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 20th October, 1902.~] For those whose duty it is to frame laws and construct works for the safety of the public health nothing can be more profit- able than the study of the methods adopted by Nature. What could be more perfect than the way she deals with what we are accustomed to regard as waste matter? Her system, as I shall attempt to explain, is at once effectual and economical, since everything is utilised as well as rendered innocuous. Nature has framed certain sanitarv laws more reaching than any by-laws the most exemplary local body ever conceived, for we cannot evade their working, however we may attempt to ignore them. Eliminating the Unfit. If a community elects to live in narrow dismal streets where the air cannot circulate, and allows the sun to be ex- cluded by smoke and high walls, and fails to give Nature's scavengers opportunity to dispose of the waste material, the penalty will assuredly follow. Natural law says such people must be kept in check, consequently their children grow up pale, weakly, and abnormal, an easy prey to Nature's most drastic remedy, epidemics of infectious disease. Overcrowd- ing is dealt with by the law of the survival only of the fittest ; the weakly ones increase only to be weeded out that the balance may be restored. Where the most primitive condi- 140 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. tions of filth and overpopulation prevail — as in Chinese cities —the penalty takes the form of such epidemics as typhus, plague, and cholera. In more civilised communities, where at least the grosser part of the filth is removed, there is still the punishment to meet the crime in the shape of tuberculosis and pneumonia. Even where science does its best to counter- act the law, and we have the best artificial sanitary efforts — good drainage, well-ventilated houses, and inoculation against disease — the law still asserts itself, and unnatural methods of life lead to nervous disorders, digestive troubles, and so forth. It has often been said that the London " cockney " does not survive beyond the third generation, and doubtless there is some truth in this. The best text-book in which to study the working of these laws is the Registrar-General's annual report. Compare the death-rate for town and country and we find a progressive rise as the population grows denser. In 1895 the returns for Great Britain showed a death-rate of 12-7 per thousand of population, where there were 138 persons to the square mile ; but it rose to 33 per thousand where the density was 19,000 per square mile. New Zealand had, in 1901, but 7-4 persons per square mile, yet the death-rate was 9-8 per thousand— not so much behind the English rural death-rate, and with only one-twentieth of the density. Here is evidence of the working of the law against overcrowding in spite of all our efforts. Why in a new country like this, with the lessons learnt in older communities to benefit by, and with ample room at our disposal, our legislators should have seen fit to take the standard of overcrowded London and fix a scanty 150 square feet as the minimum space to be allowed per dwelling it is hard to say. Surely we could avoid the evils of overcrowding at this early stage in our history. Dr. G. V. Poore, a most eminent sanitarian, in dealing with overcrowding, remarks, " We have long been accustomed to hear that our chief sanitary necessity is pure water. This would be quite true if we were fish. But it is obvious that the air we breathe is of greater importance than the water we drink, seeing w7e take a draught of air about twenty times a minute, while many of us do not take a draught of raw water from week's end to week's end." Sunlight and fresh air are our greatest sanitary assets, and we should not despise them. The consideration of Nature's methods leads us to such endless fields for study that I do not propose to-night to do more than discuss two important branches of the subject : Eirst, the disposal of organic waste in Nature ; secondly, the laws by which our bodies are protected against the inroads of infectious organisms. Makgill. — Nature's Efforts at Sanitation. 141 Organic Waste. There is a well-known saying that there is no waste in nature, and the truth of this is most strikingly observable in the constant circulation of organic matter. The relationship be- tween animal and vegetable life is a simple illustration, the animal building up its body by means of the grass it eats, which building process is accompanied by a breaking-down or combustion, shown by the exhalations of carbonic acid and water in the breath, waste products of the vital process. The green leaves of plants absorb the carbonic acid, using the carbon and giving off the oxygen to aid in the further com- bustion, while the water is deposited as dew, to be absorbed by the rootlets. The plant utilises the waste products of animal life, and, building them up, furnishes a fresh supply of food. The most interesting point is the circulation of nitrogen — the most important element in organic matter — for by follow- ing this up we learn about Nature's scavenging process, by which organic waste material is not only disposed of but re-utilised. Organic matter is a complex body, built up by vital processes of the elements, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur. These elements are too valuable to waste, and therefore when a plant or animal is dead the mass of organic matter becomes a potentiality for further life. But Nature does not seize on the dead body and hustle it down a sewer, to be deposited on the sea-beach, nor does she bury it in a hole so deep that it is not available for any purpose. Instead, the body lies on the surface of the ground, and an army of sanitary officials at once set to work to make use of the stored material. And things are so balanced that each, while unconsciously working out the general scheme for dis- posal and utilisation, is at the same time making his own livelihood in the process. The first of the scavenging party to appear is familiar and objectionable — the blow-fly and house- fly. They come to feed and lay their eggs, so that the young, when hatched, will be assured of a plentiful supply of food. It may be objected that the fly is a weak point in Nature's scheme, as it is certain it can carry infection from diseased matter. But in that scheme it is not intended that decaying matter be smeared round our dwellings, so giving the fly a chance to spread disease. Our sense of smell may be regarded as a sanitary precaution, warning us to avoid the close proximity of offensive things, just as it doubtless serves to guide the fly to his special form of food. As decomposi- tion advances another set of scavengers appear — namely, varieties of beetles, who live on the fatty matters. The well- known burying beetle is a specially energetic member of this 142 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. group of workers. Later another variety of fly appears, which also feeds on the fatty matters ; these are the small flies which we find in cheese. The next contingent are very minute insects — the mites— whose work tends to dry up and mummify the now highly decomposed body. This prepares it for a further set of mechanics, whose food is found in the dried skin and ligaments ; these are certain moths and beetles. Finally a variety of beetle sets to work to utilise all the debris left by the other squad of scavengers, working it into the soil and tidying it all up. These insects appear in regular routine, and do the grosser part of the clearing process. The Microbe. But the principal force making for the reduction of the complex mass of material is the microbe. The process of putrefaction by which organic matter — animal or vegetable — is broken down and dissolved is produced by bacterial life. And we are entirely dependent on the bacteria for the condi- tions necessarv for existence, for if thev were absent organic matter would not decay, plants could not live, and food- supply would cease. These micro-organisms require for their life, moisture, certain salts, and nitrogen and carbon in some form, varying with the variety of the bacteria. One group derive their nitrogen and carbon from the breaking-down of already organized material, and others do so from the simplest elements, building them up into the complex materials of which their own bodies are composed. Thus it would not be supposed that distilled water contained the elements of life even for bacteria. Yet one variety will grow in it, deriving its nitrogen and carbon from impurities in the air, such as carbonic acid and ammonia. But it is the first or breaking- down group which causes decomposition. An important feature of this process is that the bacteria which cause disease and death do not themselves long survive the decay which then sets in. The putrefactive organisms are antagonistic to them, and in course of time they disappear. Doubtless some survive in a modified form when conditions are favourable, and lie dormant awaiting an opportunity to again assert them- selves ; but thorough exposure to air and light, combined with the antagonism of the putrefactive organisms, and those uni- versally present in earth and water, serve to kill out most disease-producing germs. Inquiring now as to the agency by which these bacteria produce their solvent effect, we find that the growth of bacteria is accompanied by the production of heat — as in a mass of wet hay — and of certain ferments, which are the active chemical agents. If we filter a fluid in which these germs are growing through porcelain we can separate the Makgill. — Nature's Efforts at Sanitation. 143 ferments which pass through the filter, giving us a solution containing their active principles, but free from the germs themselves. These ferments are the solvent agents breaking up organic matter. A simple illustration of this solvent pro- cess is seen in the liquefaction of gelatine by many varieties of bacteria, while the breaking-up of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid is a familiar example of the reducing process. The action of these ferments on animal matter is to break it up, and results in the formation of much simpler bodies, such as ammoniacal salts and what are known as putrefactive alkaloids or ptomaines, with which we are all too familiar. These are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with or without oxygen, and are far less complex than the animal tissues. Most are poisonous to man, some extremely so, and are frequently the cause of illness — from eating sausages, pies, and other forms of albuminous food in which putre- factive changes have been allowed to commence ; and it is worth noting that they are not destroyed by heat, so that cooking, while it may kill the bacteria which produce the change, does not render decomposed meat harmless. These ptomaines must not be confounded with toxins — the poisons formed in the living body by disease-producing bacteria, such as those of cholera and diphtheria. I shall refer to toxins again in connection with protection against disease. Putrefaction may be compared to a process of digestion of organic matter by the bacteria which feed on it. It is first liquefied and. converted into ptomaines and ammoniacal bodies. These in turn are split up into simple salts and also gaseous bodies, many of which have unpleasant smells, such as sul- phuretted hydrogen and other less well-known unpleasant com- pounds. Finally, still simpler gases are evolved, such as hydro- gen, carbonic acid, and marsh gas. It is only when reduced to these simple bodies that plants can utilise the organic matter. The gases, such as carbonic acid, can be directly absorbed by the leaves. But the ammoniacal bodies have to be carried yet a step further. This is known as the process of nitrifica- tion, and the work is done by bacteria in the soil. The soluble putrefactive products are now soaked up by the soil or worked into it by earthworms and insects. The putrefactive organisms diminish, being crowded out by the nitrifying ones, before the whole of the organic matter is converted into the elemental gases. There are two sets of these nitrifiers, the first acting on the ammoniacal salts, reducing them to nitrites. The second are oxidizers, and convert the nitrites into nitrates, the form in which the plant-roots can absorb them for its nourishment. The whole of the organic matter is now gone ; the plant-roots have taken up the salts and the leaves many of the gases. Other gases have escaped back to the 144 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. atmosphere, and the infective organisms and the putrefactive ones have been displaced by the normal earth dwellers, the nitrifiers. I should mention here two varieties of bacteria which also live in the earth, and have their influence on the nitrogen for plant-food. One of these carries the reducing process too far, as it breaks up the nitrites into the simple elements and allows the nitrogen to escape back into the atmosphere, so that plants lose it. But there is the other variety, which reverses the process, taking up free nitrogen from the air and building it up into organic bodies. This form is found in the nodules which grow 'on the roots of leguminous plants, the nodules being formed by the germs in their growth. By thus utilising the atmospheric nitrogen these bacteria enable the legume to live in a poor soil, and the value of cropping with these plants is apparent, as by ploughing them in the soil is greatly enriched. This particular nitrogen-collecting bac- terium can now be bought as a substance called "nitragen," and sown on the land. Disinfecting the Soil. The last of the organized material to disappear is, of course, the bones in animals and the woody fibre in plants ; but they, too, ultimately decay, and are dissolved and utilised by the soil. In the process of " humification " — as this action of the surface earth has been called — many earth insects and worms play the part of tillers by turning over the upper layers, passing it through their bodies, exposing fresh layers to the action of air and light, just as the farmer does with his plough, leaving it pulverised, oxidized, and enriched. When we realise how the rich upper layers of the soil teem with this useful insect and bacterial life we understand why it has been spoken of as the " living humus," and we realise the import- ance of moisture and air, and how flooding with water may stop its vital processes — drowning it, as it were. In a de- serted stockyard, tramped down and consolidated by the feet of cattle in wet weather and baked hard by the sun in dry, the air cannot penetrate the earth, and grass will not grow in spite of the presence of abundant manure. But in course of time the earth cracks by frost or drought, the worms begin to turn it over again, air enters, and the humifaction of the manure starts afresh. Under Water. In streams and ponds the same process of reduction of complex organic waste takes place. Other forms of bacterial life are at work dissolving it, and water-plants, such as cress, duckweed, seaweed, and so on, are ready to absorb the Makgill. — Nature's Efforts at Sanitation. 145 products, while water-animals act as scavengers. So that we find an organically polluted water will in course of time get purified — unless the pollution be excessive. The putrefac- tion and disease-producing organisms die out under the an- tagonism of the normal water-living organisms, just as happens in the earth. The danger is lest we use the water for domestic purposes before the elimination process is complete. Typhoid germs die out of ordinary water standing in flasks in from three days to a fortnight. Much depends en the other organ- isms present. Light, also, is an agent of power in Nature's disinfecting process. It has been shown that the numbers of organisms in a stream or lake diminish in the upper layers of water, where light penetrates freely. But the earth is the only re- liable purifier for our water. It acts like the most perfect filter; but it is not a mechanical filtration. The mere strain- ing of impure water through a gravel subsoil does not purify it to any practical extent. It is only in the upper layers — perhaps to a depth of 6 in. to 8 in. — that the work is done by the agency of the bacteria in the humus. Below a depth of 5 ft. to 6 ft. the earth is practically sterile, being devoid of these valuable nitrifying organisms. It has been repeatedly shown that outbreaks of typhoid and cholera have been due to sewage percolating through subsoil to sometimes great dis- tances without purification. Some years ago at Worthing, in England, wells 80 ft. deep were polluted by leakage from a cesspit travelling a great distance in a fissure in the subsoil. This resulted in an outbreak of typhoid. This constitutes the danger iu leaking sewers, deep cesspits, and so on. The filth is not subjected to the beneficial action of the humus filter on the surface. The manurial value of decaying organic matter is not to be judged by chemical analysis only. Certain arti- ficial manures may be richer in nitrates than are decaying leaves ; but the latter contain the nitrification agents which enable plants to use the chemical matters present, and, further, there are present certain fungoid growths which live among the roots of green-leaved plants to their mutual advantage, since these fungi can take up chemical matters and oxygen and give off carbonic acid, which the green pigment in the leaves of the larger plants absorb. To sum up now, we see that Nature disposes of refuse in a manner both economical and efficient. The highly organized products of animal and vegetable life when dead lie on the surface of the ground, where they are attacked by forces making for disintegration — (1) Animal life, insects, &c, feed- ing on them ; (2) bacteria, which dissolve them and decom- pose them into simpler bodies, and in the process kill out the disease - producing germs ; (3) the humus, acting by means 10 146 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. of worms and insects, which work the substances into the earth ; and, lastly, the nitrifying organisms, which form the simple salts and gases which the plants can take up to build once more the complicated organic tissue, so completing the cycle. We should imitate Natuke. I have given but a brief outline of the process, which, if followed out in its entirety, would occupy a great deal of time. Many important questions remain undecided. But at least we know sufficient of the general plan Nature follows to be able, if we are alive to our duties, to copy it in our own sanitary arrangements. We cannot, I fear, do this on the same economic lines, for, however, much in theory we can deplore the massing of our population in towns and cities, it is the inevitable result of civilisation, and we must face the problem of dealing with accumulations of filth which Nature never intended should exist. Dr. Poore, whom I have already quoted, is rather an idealist in his advocacy of trusting entirely to the humus, placing all our waste on the land. He rightly considers that drainage schemes favour overcrowding, which is at the root of most sanitary sins. He has for many years at his country house in England demonstrated what may be done in a care- fully tilled garden in the way of refuse disposal. In the centre of the garden is a shallow surface well, in which, owing to its carefully constructed cement walls and cover- ing, pure water is obtained, in spite of the quantities of filth dug into the soil round about it. This is all very well when some one is in charge who can take a scientific interest in doing the work as it should be done ; but I fear the result of intrusting it to the care of the population at large would be disastrous. Moreover, in few towns do even the larger houses possess sufficient land for the purpose. We must remember that, however perfect the earth may be as a filter, it will not stand overwork any more than any other form of apparatus. If we heap 2 ft. of manure on a soil having only 2 in. of humus we must not be surprised if the result is offensive. The ground will deal with a certain amount of organic matter, but it must be given a fair time in which to act. Overtax it and there will remain an amount of undecayed organic matter which will be carried by the rain either down through the subsoil to our well or washed over the surface to our streams, causing pollu- tion. We have, therefore, to look to drainage schemes and systematic removal of filth to preserve the balance of health. The worst thing we can do with such substances is, as pointed out by Dr. Poore, to carry it past our humus Makgill.— Nature's Efforts at Sanitation. 14? purifier by means of drain-pipes and leave it unchanged on our sea-beaches or in our streams to putrefy and pollute the neighbourhood. How Towns should be dealt with. In towns the pipes have to be used, however, and it is at the outfall of the sewers that we should provide systems of treatment which, in a measure, follow Nature's methods, and utilise, or at least render innocuous, the accumulated filth. There is a necessity in all such systems for keep- ing separate the sewage proper — that is, the waste from domestic and trade processes — from the storm-waters and natural streams. If we let them mix we have too large a volume of fluid to deal with, while at the same time the sewage is not sufficiently diluted to prevent its becoming dangerous and offensive. Unpolluted storm-water can be readily disposed of, while the sewage proper, being moderate in amount, can be submitted to any of the treatment pro- cesses which now form an essential part of all modern drain- age schemes. Chief among such processes are the sewage farm, the chemical treatment, and the septic tank, or biological system. It must be admitted with regret, as the Royal Commission on River Pollution long ago pointed out, that the sewage of towns must be treated as a nuisance to be got rid of in the cheapest and most efficient wray, but must not be regarded as a source of profit. We cannot copy Nature's perfect economy when we break her rules to the extent of huddling together in large communities. The sewage farm, to be a success, requires a large area of ground and a soil specially adapted as regards its porosity, and so on, and, though it is closely allied to natural principles, we have a difficulty in preventing our humus from being drowned unless a very large area of land be available. Thus it has been calculated that London's sewage would require a farm of 100 square miles. The chemical process is costly, and at best does not produce a very good effluent, while a difficulty re- mains in the disposal of the sludge, the precipitated organic matters. In the septic tank, however, every advantage is taken of the forces of Nature, the principle being to utilise the two great bacterial actions — first, the solution of organic matters, which we have seen in the decomposing body ; and, second, the nitrification of the dissolved products, which we know takes place in the earth. The result is an effluent of clear fluid without smell or offence, a mere solution of nitrates and other simple salts. Many forms of apparatus have been constructed which work on this principle, all nearly equal in efficiency. Advan- 148 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. tage is taken in this system of the fact that certain very power- ful liquefying organisms only exist and act in the absence of air. For this reason the tank is closed hermetically, and the inflow and outflow pipes dip under the fluid-level and prevent ingress of air. All organic solids are liquefied in this chamber. The nitrifying organisms soon grow in the filter-beds, which are freely exposed, and the solution of ammoniacal and re- duced organic products is nitrified and oxidized in the passage through the coke. When possible the effluent can be applied with advantage to the land, as it is rich in nitrates and other useful manurial salts. But if land is not available it can flow into the sea or stream without fear of offence. Here, then, we use Nature's own processes, chained up, as it were, and w7orking for us at our bidding, and as a result we have in this system the nearest approach to perfection yet attained in sewage treatment. ■ s - Protection. I must now briefly mention another law by which Nature protects the public health, a law which is of interest from the fact that it is at work in our own bodies, enabling us to fight against the inroads of disease germs. There is a natural resistance of the living body against organisms which attack it. The living animal cell and the disease germ or pathogenic bacterium are engaged in a continual warfare. Probably the general health of the body has much influence on the question of which way the warfare will end, since we know that influ- ences tending to depress the general health also tend to lay the body open to attack by such infective organisms. We know, for instance, that persons living in unwholesome sur- roundings are more liable to attacks of typhoid fever than those whose environment is sanitary, and this has been demonstrated experimentally with guinea-pigs. Anything tending to depress the vitality of the living cell favours the infective germ by lessening the resistance. But Nature has another beautiful law of compensation, a law by which she makes the very life of the germ prove antagonistic to itself. It is the law which confers on us immunity from second attacks of an infectious disease. We all know that second attacks of scarlet fever, typhoid, small- pox, and so on, are rare. If it were not so, if there were no such thing as acquired immunity from such diseases, and we were to catch them as frequently as we catch cold, life would be a pretty serious matter. The secret of how Nature works this law has been an object of speculation with scientists for a long time, and we are now beginning to have some glimmer- ing of light on the subject. Makgill. — Natures Efforts at Sanitation. 149 Infection occurs if the germs of disease can — (1) Live and increase in the body ; (2) produce their injurious substances. It is these injurious substances, called " toxins," which pro- duce the symptoms of disease. This we know, because we can grow in the laboratory a culture of a disease germ — say, typhoid — in broth. Then by filtering through porcelain we rid it of the actual bacteria, and yet the symptoms of the disease can be produced if we inject the germ-free broth. But if we make our culture in the living body, as it were, by infecting an animal, we can also demonstrate the formation in the blood of substances which act antagonistically to the germs and their poisons. Natural Immunity. Immunity, or the power to combat disease, can be divided into two lines of resistance — (1) Natural immunity ; (2) ac- quired. Natural immunity, the first line of resistance, is shown in certain animals which do not take special diseases. Thus cattle cannot be infected with glanders, a disease of the horse. Man does not take rinderpest, and so on. The reason for this immunity is probably merely an extension of the natural resistance all living bodies have against infection. The white corpuscles of the blood are called "phagocytes," because they eat up germs, as we can demonstrate under the microscope. Probably they secrete a sort of poison to germs, killing them first. Guinea-pigs do not naturally suffer from typhoid, yet, as I mentioned before, by keeping them artificially in depressing conditions we can lessen their resistance until they can be infected. Certain individuals possess naturally in their blood a strong resistant power to diphtheria, so that their blood will kill such germs when we mix them together, a power not possessed, unfortunately, by all of us. This is an instance of an unusual development of the first line of resistance. Natural immunity is a subject about which we know as yet very little. Acquieed Immunity. Acquired immunity is the second line, and this is attained — (1) As an after-result of the ordinary course of infectious disease, so that we do not suffer repeated attacks ; (2) by artificially inoculating into the body cultures of the true or allied organisms, which in some way are rendered less viru- lent than normal, as in vaccination ; or, again, by injecting the poisonous products of such organisms in such small doses that they do not injure us. Yet they cause a reaction in the body, leading to immunity from the disease they themselves cause. 150 Tra?isactions. — Miscellaneous. The secret of the reaction has been followed by hundreds of scientists for many years. Briefly, we know the following facts : In the blood of man or animal which has acquired immunity we can demonstrate the existence of either one of two powers ; sometimes they both exist together. These are — (1) Bactericidal power — that is, the blood can destroy the living germ in a way normal blood does not ; (2) an anti- toxic power — that is, a power of neutralising the separated toxin or poison of the germ. These powers are shown against the special germ of the disease we are dealing with, but not against others, unless they are very closely allied. The bactericidal power is found in the blood of a typhoid patient, and it is also shown to exist in even stronger amount in the spleen and glands, where it probably originates. The blood of cholera and plague patients also possesses this power, and in animals it can be developed by inoculating them with these diseases. Its existence can be readily demonstrated, and this is now done daily in the laboratory as means of diagnosing the disease. A living culture of typhoid germs examined under the microscope shows a wonderful activity. If we mix a minute quantity of blood from a typhoid patient, diluted with, say, fifty times its bulk of water, with a little of the living culture of the typhoid, and examine again under the microscope, we soon see, instead of the germs moving actively as they normally do, a slowness of their movements, till finally they become motionless, and go into clumps. If this mixture is placed in the living body of an animal we find that not only do the germs get motionless, but they are in perhaps half an hour destroyed altogether. Had the blood been that of an ordinary person the bacteria would go on living, and if the mixture were placed in the body of the animal the animal would soon develope symptoms of poisoning. Here we have the elements of immunisation against typhoid. The blood of the person who has suffered from the disease possesses a power of protecting him against further inroads, and also can be used to protect other animals. This has not yet been per- fected in practice, but we know that in Africa the troops inoculated in this way showed for a time at least a partial immunity from the disease. The anti-toxic power — that is, the existence of an antidote to the poisons which the germs secrete during their growth — is well shown in the case of diphtheria. The anti-toxin acts not on the germ, but on its products. This anti-toxin can be manufactured by inoculating living animals (the horse is generally used) with small doses of the toxins which form in artificial cultures of living germs. If we give too big a close the animal will die, but if we begin with a small dose and gradually increase it the animal acquires an immunity until Makgild. — Nature s Efforts at Sanitation. 151 it will stand immense amounts of the poison. Then its blood possesses the power of acting as an antidote to either the germ itself or its poison. This has, as we all know, been most successfully done, and we possess in this anti-toxin a most powerful curative agent for this disease. This antidotal power can easily be demonstrated. It is as apparent as the neutralising power of acids and alkalis. Mix a certain amount of the toxin with anti-toxin in a test-tube, inject the mixture into a guinea-pig, and no effect will follow. If the toxin alone were introduced the guinea-pig would very soon die. So, too, in the living body we can show it, by injecting two animals with the living germ of diphtheria and subse- quently injecting into one of them a suitable dose of the serum of the horse previously treated with toxin. In a day or two the animal which received the germ alone will be dead; the other, which also got the anti-toxin, will live. This has been done so repeatedly for many years that there is now no question about it. The same result always follows. Wherein lies this anti-toxin power is a subject of much speculation. It is as though the cells of the living body could be trained by gradually exercising their normally existing powers to produce an excess of the material which is antagonistic to the germs and their products. This is the theory of a German scientist named Ehrlich. The fact remains, however, that we can educate the body of the animal artificially to increase its resistance, and utilise the blood of this educated animal to assist others in the fight against disease, herein following Nature's lead, where she provides that any living body, if it survive the first attack of a disease germ, possesses an in- creased power of resistance against further incursions of that germ. We merely exaggerate the process in one animal and use the resulting products to aid others. It is possible that Nature too has a system of inoculation without actually producing the disease. We know at least that persons living in a country in which some disease is pre- valent will acquire a certain degree of immunity without actually suffering from that disease — at least, in any recog- nisable degree. This is the case with malaria, yellow fever, and typhoid. Persons coming newly to a country where these diseases prevail are more liable to infection than those born and brought up there. Perhaps there has been a series of slight inoculations, as it were, with small or weakened doses of the disease, not sufficient to produce more than a passing indisposition, but sufficient to help in educating the tissues. Be this as it may, we have Nature's own methods to guide us and encourage us to further efforts in the direction of artificially gaining immunity. The best proved example is in vaccination against smallpox, where we use an allied disease .6 152 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. of mild type to educate the body to resist the more serious one. In diphtheria and erysipelas the curative agents are now within our grasp. In typhoid, plague, and cholera the object will, in all probability, shortly be attained, and so on. If, how- ever, we fail to follow Nature's guidance ; if we do not benefit by her lessons as to removing the causes tending to disease ; if we allow our populations to grow up in conditions depress- ing to the system and lessening the power of resistance ; and, finally, if we fail to accept her gifts in the matter of the agents which will increase that resistance, then we must be prepared to suffer the inevitable consequences. Wasteful methods of disposing of our cast-off products may be unavoid- able in modern civilisation ; but we can at least waste them in a clean way, and avoid fouling our sea-beaches and rivers, and polluting our air and our water supplies. We can bring up the young with clean food and pure air, and teach them to keep their bodies in health, and we can finally supplement their natural resistance to disease by such means as Nature has put within our grasp. What we ought to do. This is a new country, and we have here Nature at her best, working for our benefit in the matter of sunlight and open spaces, and we have the experience of past generations to guide us. Is it not a pity that we should begin at the beginning again, and pass through all the weary process of instruction which older countries have undergone in the matter of epidemics of disease ? We place our sanitary work in the hands of administrators often careless or ignorant, and listen to the idle fears and prejudices of faddists, who do not take the trouble to follow the history or principles of inocula- tion against disease and are wilfully blind to its results. We are now, as regards sanitation in all its branches, where England stood fifty years ago, and it will follow that our lesson will be forced on us only after suffering the full penalties for ignoring Nature's law. Hill. — Technical and Scientific Training. 153 Art. XI.— Technical and Scientific Training. By H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. [Read before the Hawke's Bay PhilosopJdcal Institute in August, 1902.^\ In continuation of my paper on " University and Science Work in New Zealand, ": which found a place in the Transactions of last year, I desire to review with more brevity the present state of science in this country. We have been so attracted by events in the world outside our own country that for some time past science and many other things have been overlooked. However, necessity will soon bring things back into their proper course, and the time is not far distant when it will be found needful to consider what this country must do in order to place the coming gene- ration on such a footing that in the race for place and power among the nations of civilised men we shall be able to hold our own so far as concerns ourselves and our interests. And here it is of importance to remind those who occupy them- selves in the consideration of matters affecting the common weal that, whether we will or no, environment is an important factor in the consideration of questions bearing upon thought and action. Hitherto the country has been mainly under the direction of men of no practical training and scientific ex- perience. Literary qualifications have been considered suf- ficient, and our public scheme of education is merely the outcome of literary ideals as distinguished from practical or technical skill. The people in this country are amenable to conditions which they are in a large measure unable to modify, and which Nature herself compels us to watch and to study if we would participate in all that is of the best and purest among the gifts offered to us. The successful man is he who adapts himself to his environment. Each country has an environment that is specially its own. Conditions operate in such a way that thought, aspirations, and tastes vary among different peoples, and everywhere are to be seen adaptations to environment such as time has brought and is bringing about. When we come to realise how wide are the differences in the social, the industrial, and even in the moral and religious aspects of people who dwell in lands apart from one another, the ques- tion at once forces itself upon us whether the same kind of training should be adopted in the right upbringing of the children. A country's needs are various, and in a large * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii., pp. 395-406. 154 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. measure they are specialised. The people of England have slowly changed their habits and their ways of living because the economic conditions of the country have so altered that what was a necessity at one period of the country's history has now been replaced by some other compelling needs. A hundred influences external to the people of every civilised country are now operating and compelling lines of action and modifications of thought different from what was possible and even necessary. England, for example, do what she will, is being so influenced by external conditions that she is com- pelled to specialise her industries, so that a worker is merely a finisher of some portion or part of a manufactured article. The growth of the industrial arts and the intercourse between nations are bringing about this new aspect of specialisation. The workshops of the world proceed from the general to the special, and the highest differentiations in the industrial world constitute to-day the greatest specialisation of scien- tific training. A brief consideration of the conditions existing in countries like England and France will show that where there are aggregations of people there are of necessity great differentia- tions in their industrial pursuits, and specialisation exists as a consequence of the differentiations. A new country like our own, in its social and industrial needs, does not call for the complex conditions in the production of wealth such as are called for in the countries named. In a new country wealth is made up mainly of what are known as " raw products" — the direct gifts of the earth. The industrial warfare in a complex system of society is only possible where there is- an assured supply of food pro- ducts from lands where population is small ; and the closer the connection between the two the greater can become the specialisation in production and knowledge. In New Zealand the staple productions are wool, wheat, meat, butter, and cheese. Manufactures form but an insignificant portion of the actual products of the country. The occupancy of the land for sustenance and for production of raw products was the first thought of the early settlers, and it has been so always. The new and the old, whether lands or peoples, act and react upon each other by means of intercourse Isolation acts upon a people as powerfully as intercourse, but in a different way. Intercourse tends to modify the direct effects of environment ; but, no matter how free the intercourse, the thoughts and aspirations of a people will always be directly modified by their immediate surroundings. Thus the aims and aspirations of the English people differ from those of the people on the European Continent just as they differ from those of the colonies. It cannot be otherwise. The mind in Hill. — Technical and Scientific Training. 155 a large measure is a reflex of early precepts, and although nationality is something, intercourse is something, latitude is something, the fact remains that " we are what we are " as the outcome of our early associations, whether viewed phy- sically, mentally, or morally. Circumstance has no master, and these conditions that operate in self - preservation, whether as a (State) community or an individual, naturally tend to control all our subsequent activities, no matter in what direction our energies may be directed. Thus the modern system of commercial intercourse is making the world more and more interdependent — the parts upon the whole and the whole upon the parts — but in what? Formerly a nation was self-contained and self-sustaining. Every country was occupied by its own people, who produced what was needed for their own sustenance and support. The power of self-reliance was a powerful factor in developing aspects of national character that proved of inestimable value so soon as the desire for intercourse and discovery began to manifest itself. The convenience of position has determined the growth of the commercial cities of the world ; and, as the growth of new centres of industry proceeds, so will the present lines of influence become modified. Every city, primarily, is dependent in its growth and general well-being upon its position in relation to means of sustenance and prosperity ; and it follows that towns in the colonies will grow according to the capacity of a district to sustain their growth by the products of the soil, either in their utilisation or in the fostering of industries. A new country may possess advantages in the way of producing certain articles, and still the best interests of that country may be served by fostering for a time the generalisation rather than the specialisation of production. It is certain that the tea-plant will flourish to perfection in this North Island of ours, and so also will the mulberry, the particular food of the silkworm ; but no one that I am aware has ventured to suggest the cultivation of the tea-plant for economic purposes, and certainly it would be a difficult matter to expect the success of the silk industry as against countries like Japan, and China, and even France. From what is here stated it will be apparent that the ques- tion as to what industry should be fostered and what disre- garded is of supreme importance to the future of our country. And what is of importance to us in the consideration of ques- tions bearing upon production is of equal importance to others when viewed from their particular standpoint. Adaptation is an attribute of success in any undertaking, either of the indi- vidual or the State ; nor should we be led astray by the success that one country achieves in a certain direction and think that what one country has achieved can be equally well achieved 1 56 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. by every other country. If we go to nature for our lessons there will be found differentiations and adaptations everywhere, and they are ever in process and active, because whether it be in vertical or horizontal space life is dependent as much upon external as upon internal and local conditions. The conditions of life in the British Isles and on the Euro- pean Continent are such that every energy must be brought to bear on the progressive tendencies of the people. Differen- tiations are various and complex, and the utilisation of waste products and the specialisation of production are carried on in a way that would be deemed absurd, or even impossible, in newer and less populous lauds. But competition is a hard taskmaster, and if interchange is needful in the case of our- selves, for example, it must be an interchange of food — of sustaining-power — for those things that art and science have been able to devise by the utilisation of some of nature's bounties in lands where greater differentiations have taken place. It would be hard to say how many devices have been adopted in the preparation of the young to fight their way in the world of industry such as is being made possible by means of science and art. And the means that have been and are being taken in England, and in countries where the problems of living are a hundredfold more complex than they are in this country, have already had an effect upon the thoughts and actions of many persons interested in the fur- therance of education. The claim has been put forward that because science is being fostered in England and on the European Continent therefore we in our public scheme of education should adopt a similar scheme for the benefit of the children. From what has been already stated it must be evident that the needs of the people of this country, both for to- day and to-morrow, cannot be the same as the needs of the people in other lands, where population, climate, com- petition, social and political life are so unlike our own. None would venture to urge that the children of any civil- ised land should receive no preparation for life in face of the fierce competition and struggle through which they will all have to pass. A stepping-stone is a necessity, and the duty of a State is to anticipate the manhood and woman- hood of its future citizens and provide accordingly. But what are to be the characteristics of our citizenship as compared with the characteristics of those in other lands? Governments differ, laws differ, necessities differ, and citi- zenship differs. In New Zealand the products of the soil are largely in excess of the actual wants of the people. Nothing shows clearer than our productions how largely the individual, by means of machinery — or, in other words, Hill. — Technical and Scientific Training. 157 by the help of scientific methods — produces in excess of his own requirements. He is able to do this by utilising the instruments of production in the way that experience directs. The successful farmer in Manitoba might lose his all in New Zealand if he came to farm land in the same way that wins him prosperity and comfort in a country possessing a climate of much wider contrasts, such as British North America pre- sents. And generally the same remark applies. All know- ledge has a general and a special value, and in order to insure success the generalisations of science must be under- stood and applied, subject to varying local conditions and influences — in other words, to environment. But there are two separate classes of science. The one, known as "pure science," pursues the study of natural phenomena by and through the exercise of the senses. But observation brings in its train the questions, What '? and How ? and Why ? for a mere acquaintance with an observed fact does not suffice in the pursuit of scientific inquiry. The understanding seeks to be enlightened, and the classification of facts enables inferences to be drawn, and thus provides a basis, as it were, for new lines of thought. Applied science, on the other hand, has reference to the utilisation of scientific facts for economic purposes. The science of to-day, whether natural or applied, is merely the accumulated results of the observations, discoveries, and applications made during the yesterdays of the past. The growth of production in this country from the time when it came to be known as a land suitable for colonisation shows what is possible without the direct application of scientific methods. The accumulation of facts gained by experience — that is, the elementary application of scientific knowledge — sufficed to direct settlers to certain forms of pro- duction, and when partial success had been attained it soon became apparent that production was in excess of the require- ments of the country. Intercommunication between Aus- tralia and New Zealand begau, and as production increased communication was widened. Even without the aid of science in the school system of the country production in- creased at a rapid rate, but it arose from causes that were in a large measure external to the country itself. The accu- mulated wealth of England was ready to furnish capital for the production of commodities that would supply yet greater wealth to the English people, and so forms of production were fostered in New Zealand by means of which raw products were furnished to supply the manufacturing indus- tries in England. If we go back to the state of things in this country just twenty years ago, it will be evident to those who study 158 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. economic questions that great changes have taken place in the industrial conditions of the people since then. At that time the staple industries were in a depressed state. Nothing appeared more unpromising than the rearing of sheep. Prices were low, the wool barely sufficed to pay expenses of farming, and there was little or no demand for sheep, whilst vast num- bers were annually boiled down merely for their fat. But it was at this time that applied science came to the rescue. The preservation of foods of a perishable nature was receiving the attention of scientists, and the discovery of the " chilling process " in the conveyance of fresh meat between America and England very soon led to the adoption of the " freezing- chamber " for the conveyance of frozen mutton between New Zealand and England. The application of elementary physics in the production of cold air enabled those who knew that putrefaction was stayed and all microbes destroyed at a temperature below freezing-point to realise the great benefits that must accrue by the introduction of machinery for the preservation and conveyance of perishable products. It was soon realised what an important bearing the preservation and conveyance of perishable foods like meat would have upon the markets of the world where meat was dear and was largely consumed by the people. The discovery showed how it would be possible for the industrial world in manufacturing centres to benefit by this simple application of a scientific fact to the conveyance of perishable products. But the discovery illus- trated how nearly the producers of raw and of manufactured products are dependent on one another if the highest benefits are to be obtained by the application of science to production. The preservation of perishable foods and their carriage from country to country introduced a new factor in commerce, and made possible a differentiation of production such as could not have been continued under modern colonial con- ditions but for the discovery that enables a balance to be kept between the producers and consumers of perishable products. A country like our own need have no excess of perishable goods such as are indispensable to the maintenance and sup- port of a high standard of civilised living. In the year 1882 the talk was of some means of disposing of the excess of sheep, which at the time numbered about thirteen millions. A new factor comes in and so modifies the conditions that the social, the material, and the industrial state of the country is affected, and at the same time the " new factor " influences large communities separated from us by thousands of miles of intervening ocean. We have a glimpse here of the possibilities of the future when science shall regulate production and constitute the foundation of training in the upbringing of every child. Hill. — Technical and Scientific Training. 159 That valuable issue of the Registrar-General, the " Official Year-book," contains statistics that are worth putting on re- cord here as showing what has been clone and is being done in the country as the outcome of scientific discovery in rela- tion to the carriage of foods of a perishable nature. Just twenty years ago the first shipment of frozen meat to Eng- land was made, and 15,244 cwt. of mutton, valued at £19,339, were sent away from New Zealand. Since then the export business of frozen meats has grown by leaps and bounds ; but butter and cheese have been added to the list of exports, and it would be difficult to suggest what new products will be added to the list of articles that it will be possible to send away during the coming twenty years. Science is. in fact, becoming the handmaid of all production, and it will come to be realised as education advances that all forms of industrial progress are based upon the science of observation. Curiously, it began in the discovery of means for the more rapid utilisa- tion of raw products ; but so great has become the power of utilisation that science has now come to the help of producers by showing them along what lines they must go, and suggest- ing to them how their more perishable goods may be pre- served and conveyed from place to place and from country to country without loss or injury. Last year the exports of frozen meats from this country, including mutton, lamb, kid- neys, beef, pork, veal, rabbits, hares, poultry, and fish, reached 1,868,100 cwt., or 396,037,2001b. avoirdupois, and valued at £2,264,120; whilst the butter and cheese sent away under similar conditions reached 305,885 cwt., or 64,847,6201b., and valued at £1,121,091, or nearly half the value of the total meat export. Here, then, we have facts of great importance to this country in relation to its industrial, social, and com- mercial conditions. In twenty years, by the direct aid of science, new exports have become possible amounting to a total of £3,385,211 a year, or to more than 26|- per cent, of our total exports. If this result is not sufficient to show Parlia- ment and those who are engaged in industrial or commercial pursuits the vast possibilities that science opens out in the way of assisting the material well-being of the people, it will be difficult to suggest a course that is likely to impress them more. But is the country alive to the importance of scientific instruction as an instrument of production ? for I take it that every scientific discovery that leads to the utilisation of the products of the land is an instrument of production from which common benefits spring. Let us see. The Farmers' Union, representing, I believe, the farming interests of the colony, have lately been in conference, and the results of their deliberations as they appear in yesterday's telegrams (8th 160 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. July) are set forth in " seven planks," and members of the union are advised to vote only for those candidates who agree to the platform of the union. Not one of the planks has even a reference to education, or to the necessity of scientific train- ing in the preparation of future farmers along lines that are suggested by the discoveries made in agricultural science and the application of physical laws to the production and pre- servation of the products of the soil ! With all the direct advantages tbat farmers reap as the outcome of scientific dis- covery, and in full view of the facts such as are quoted above, is it not surprising that the only thing the representatives of the farmers of New Zealand could think of as being necessary as affecting the present system of public instruction is a modification of the syllabus " that sewing may be taught to girls in all schools"? What a thing to set forth as represent- ing the deliberations of a conference that embodies the in- terests of over a hundred thousand producers, and whose prospects have been so materially improved by the direct application of science to the preservation and carriage of their products to distant markets. It will perhaps be urged that the country has adopted a scheme of science instruction for the schools and the people generally. In the year 1882 the great producers of wealth in this countrv were at their wits' end to find markets for their produce other than wool. Science stepped in and showed them that the preservation of perishable foods was possible. Since then the adoption of scientific methods has so enhanced the value of what were in a large measure waste products that the export of butter, cheese, and frozen meats falls little short in value of the great staple of the country, and has brought in something like £30,000,000 during the twenty years that have gone by since the frozen- meat industry began. With these facts before us, is it possible to suppose that the farmers do not yet realise the vast possibilities awaiting them if they will adapt themselves and their offspring to the newer conditions that have arisen by the mere introduction of scientific processes in the preservation and transport of perish- able foodstuffs ? If they are indifferent as to the benefits science is conferring upon them, then let me quote for their edification the words of Locke that he addressed to a certain class of people "that want proofs not because they are out of their reach, but because they will not use them. Nor," says this philosopher, " shall I take notice what a shame and confusion it is to the greatest contemners of know- ledge to be found ignorant in things they are concerned to know. But this, at least, is worth the consideration of those who call themselves ' gentlemen ' : that, however they may think credit, respect, power, and authority the concomitants Hill. — Technical and Scientific Training. 161 of their birth and fortune, yet they will find all these still carried away from them by men of lower condition who sur- pass them in knowledge. They who are blind will always be led by those who see, or else fall into the ditch ; and he is certainly the most subjected, the most enslaved, who is so in his understanding." It has been pointed out that there are two separate and distinct branches of science — viz., natural and applied. Herbert Spencer, in his " First Principles," when treating of the law of evolution, remarks that at one time science was in union with art, the handmaid of religion, then passing through the era in which the sciences were so few and rudi- mentary as to be simultaneously cultivated by the same philosophers, and ending with the era in which the genera and species are so numerous that few can enumerate them, and no one can adequately grasp even one genus. Here, then, we are brought face to face with the inquiry that if the genera and species of the sciences are so numerous, how can a scheme of public education deal with a subject so vast and so various in its aspects and ramifications ? The Manual and Technical Instruction Act that was passed in October, 1900, is made to form a "part of, and be read together with, ' The Education Act, 1877.' ' On paper it would seem that New Zealand has a scheme of public education that provides for the primary and the manual and technical instruction and training of the children in the public schools. Admirable in themselves as these forms of instruction appear, they represent what we have been accustomed to so long — the product of inexperience and immature thought. To read the regulations issued under the Manual and Technical Act one would imagine New Zealand to be an old-settled country with an immense urban popula- tion engaged in a hard struggle to live, where necessity has driven the authorities to introduce into the primary- school course and into every aspect of school life as many genera and species of science as are recognised in England by the Science and Art Department. We are far from being an industrial community, and of the bread-winners the pro- fessional class numbers 23,509 ; domestic, 34,394 ; commer- cial, 39,937; transport and communication, 21,750; agri- cultural and pastoral, 111,921 ; whilst the industrial numbers 101,184. Of the professional class 6,026 are returned as ministering to education, but how many of them are capable of giving instruction in science except such as is obtainable from books ? The fact is that our legislation on education is fashionable, and presents to the world outside a semblance of progress that facts do not warrant. Under section 84 of "The Education Act, 1877," eleven 11 162 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. subjects are enumerated in the standard work for boys and twelve for girls. To these is added military drill for boys and "physical training" for girls. Under "The Manual and Technical Act, 1900," " school classes " may take in addition, under Eegulatiou 19, a variety of subjects for children below Standard III. ; under Eegulation 21 Standards III. to IV. may take subjects including "bricklaying" (including the necessary drawing) ; whilst in the two highest standards sub- jects may be taken (of so various a character that it would be a difficult matter to say what) including agriculture, chemistry, physics, botany, geology, and physiography, and the wonder is under what conditions the subjects are to be taught. There is a minimum of twenty hours in a school week, and our modern and model scheme of public education deems it possible to teach some of the subjects enumerated in the Manual and Technical Act in addition to the dozen com- pulsory subjects enumerated in section 81 of the Education Act. In order to foster the introduction of this "special in- struction" there has been added to our "free system" of education a capitation system of payment, by which I sup- pose it is thought that the " special classes " under the Act of 1900 will make headway somehow in the school course. I do not think any one will be found to suggest that I am not anxious to see everything done for the benefit of our children, so as to prepare them for the time when they will be called upon to play their parts in this world of action, of competition, and enterprise. My anxiety is that the best efforts of parents, of teachers, and of educationists generally should be directed to the proper upbringing of the children for the fulfilment of duty, whether it be as a citizen, as a merchant, a manufacturer, a workman, or even as a poli- tician. Now, the question is, Does the Manual and Technical Act, in combination with the Education Act of 1877, aim to do this ? In the year 1889 a Technical Instruction Act was passed in England. Section 8 of that Act defines " technical in- struction" to be "instruction in the principles of science and ark applicable to industries, and in the application of special branches of science and art to specific industries or employ- ments," and the expression " mauual instruction" is defined as " instruction in the use of tools, processes of agriculture, and modelling in clay, wood, or other material." The defini- tions used in our Manual and Technical Instruction Act are evidently taken from the English Act, except that in the interpretation of the term " manual instruction " the words " such exercises as shall train the hand in conjunction with the eye and brain" have been added, much to the weakness of the definition, for it would be difficult to conceive the hand Hill. — Technical and Scientific Training. 163 being trained without the aid of the brain acting through one of the senses. A Commission appointed by the legislature of Pennsyl- vania to inquire into the subject of scientific education, has defined " technical instruction " to be " the teaching of science with specific reference to its industrial application, and, as a term, is almost universally applied to the higher ranges of such instruction " ; and manual training is thus dealt with : " 'Manual training'" in the strict sense of the term would mean simply the training of the hand, but as currently used with reference to education the words indicate such employment of the hand as will at the same time train the eye(?) to accuracy and the mind to attention. The scientific element, or the teaching of science pure and simple, is not necessarily involved in the expression. As, however, pure science can scarcely be taught without looking some- what towards its applications, so manual training cannot be made an effective educational process except by constant reference to the broad foundations in the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences upon which it rests." I might easily add to these definitions to show how really uncertain we are even now as educationists as to what we mean by the terms "technical instruction" and "manual training." I confess that my definition of either form of instruction would not agree with what is accepted in England. But the fact is we are in the hands of the Philistines. It has become fashionable to change and add ornaments (?) to our system of education, and, without considering what is really necessary to place our system on a foundation of its own, adapted and adaptable to modifying conditions of environment, we have taken our cue from the Mother- land, where conditions are very unlike our own. Let any one take up the English blue-book, such as is issued by the Board of Education in London, and there will be no doubt as to what is intended by the syllabuses of instruction that may be taken and taught in the night schools, the con- tinuation schools, and the upper or secondary schools of that country. England is supremely an industrial country. She is sustained by her manufacturing superiority ; but competition is so keen, internal and external alike, that every circumstance that adds to the utilisation at an earlier period of the youthful material as it comes from the schools, and everything that can be done to help motherhood in nursing her offspring so that she may toil in the factory, and in assisting young men and women to become more skilful in their industrial work, is done by the State. To England industrial skill, manipulative and scientific, is everything. It means work, bread, comfort, success, power, 164 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. and influence. It means the supremacy of England in di- recting the trade, and in a large measure the government, of the world. And observe what effect this trending of education to competitive necessity is having on the upbringing of young children : " Half-time scholars should not be subjected to any system of exercise or drill which, if practised in the morning, might render them unfit for their afternoon's labour, or, if practised in the afternoon, might press heavily upon a tired boy or girl." These words are quoted from the "Revised Instructions" of the English code of 1899, page 659, with reference to physical exercises, and they suffice to show what so-called primary education is becoming in England as interpreted in the public-school system of that country. The schools are already little less than preparatory workshops to meet the stress of industrial competition, and an " instruction " such as is here quoted shows the tendency of the so-called technical and manual form of instruction in countries where competition is a case of life and death. But are we in this country called upon to adopt a similar scheme of training for the children of our public schools ? It has already been explained that environment is an important factor in the education of the people, and that our needs and our ways of living, and even our national aspirations, differ from the ways and needs and aspirations of people who live in other lands. It may be that the course of instruction adopted in the public schools of England and Germany is best suited for the present needs of those countries, but is it to be said that what is good for England and Germany is therefore good for us ? The case of the boys and the frogs as told by iEsop should give us the answer. What, then, are we in this country to do if we may not accept the schemes of education such as other Governments have adopted for the benefit of their people '? The answer is an easy one. We must provide a scheme adaptive and adapt- able to our own ever-varying conditions, where the law of evolution will operate and education will be modified to meet environment as presented in the unlike conditions that now exist in the colony. We must foster a know- ledge of natural science among the teachers so far as relates to local and even colonial environment, and we must have teachers prepared as teachers in anticipa- tion of the profession they are to follow. Our country sadly lacks teaching experience and skill, and the two training institutions in the South Island are certainly running along on unscientific lines. There is an abundant supply of book- men who teach the book, the whole book, and nothing but the book, but who are ignorant of the great book of nature, Hill. — Technical and Scientific Training. 165 of which we need so much to encourage the study among children. Mere book knowledge makes a good show to the outside world, which only reads of examination results; but teachers who know nature even as far as their surroundings, and who can interest children not alone in the dead past but in the more important living present, are badly wanted by this country, and they must be obtained if our education is to be anything better than the mere varnish of knowledge. The industries, the scientific progress, the material, and even the social and political status of the country are in the hands of the six thousand or so teachers who are occupied in the noble work of education. Provision must be made for the training of teachers in technical skill apart from mere academic instruction ; and this must not be on the antiquated lines of "normal schools," such as were established in England and elsewhere when provision was first made to prepare teachers suitable for the elementary instruction then deemed sufficient. Our schools are " national " in the fullest meaning of the word. Thev are established and maintained bv the countrv, and it is assumed that all the children of the State pass through them. It is essential, therefore, that the best skill obtainable should be found in the public schools, so that the best influences can be brought to bear upon the right upbring- ing of the coming democracy. The duty of the country is clear upon this point, and the sooner properly equipped technical schools for the training of teachers are established the sooner are we likely to have men and women working in the schools who are able to utilise all the surroundings of the children in the acquisition of knowledge and the utilisation of books. At present our scheme of public instruction lacks co- ordination and simplification. It has even now become intri- cate, and the passing of the Manual and Technical Act of 1900, with its recent amendments, has intensified the diffi- culties. But how complex already are our ways of providing elementary education for less than a hundred and fifty thousand children and adults in this colony. There is a central Department of Education in Wellington, with many clerks ; there are fourteen Education Boards, with secretaries, clerks, architects, and inspectors of schools ; there are school committees, truant officers, &c, and all this is for the regu- lation and training of about a hundred and twenty thousand children ! Then, for the secondary schools there are Boards of Governors, with large endowments of lands subject to their con- trol ; there are School Commissioners, who manage primary- education reserves and secondary reserves that have not yet been made over to Boards of Governors having charge of high 166 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. schools. Then, there are governors of university colleges, technical and art schools ; and, finally, there is the University, administered by a Senate — but all, from start to finish, being maintained out of public endowments of land or by means of special grants out of the Consolidated Fund. It would be an interesting inquiry as to the cost of providing the machinery for the education of a mere handful of children ; and yet how much could be saved by effective organization and a better grasp of the principles that should regulate the adminis- trative work of this great and vital question of public edu- cation. Much could be said in favour of the independence of control which is such a characteristic of the secondary and higher education of the country ; but to be consistent the plan should be widened so as to embrace the primary schools. Then it would be possible to lay the founda- tion of an adaptive scheme of public education in the colony. At present adaptation is impossible. It cannot even be encouraged, for the standards of education that operate in the primary schools make it a matter of impossibility for the children to take up work outside the regulations, and every pupil must pass through the same " eye of the needle," known as the Sixth Standard course. Were such a change made there would still be a regulating central authority ; but this authority, whilst it supervised and fostered all forms of education from the cradle to the university, should allow free play along lines adapted to the industrial, the commercial, and the agricultural necessities of districts. The same right of taking the initiative should belong to every district, subject always to the supervising control of the central authority, whose inspectors should be men not merely of school-book attainments, but capable of determining the quality of educa- tion in its bearing upon the training of pupils in all those qualities that make for morality, manliness, refinement, and national prosperity. Under a scheme such as is here outlined there would be no need for standards of instruction like those now in opera- tion. Beyond the study of arithmetic, drawing, and English, including reading, writing, and composition, each school dis- trict would have the right to recommend for approval a course of instruction that in the opinion of the people would best meet the wants of the people. Special and school classes would disappear, for the work selected would be the best suited to the requirements of a district. As for science, pure or applied, the latter would be left, as it ought to be left, to the time when pupils quit the lower schools ; but natural science would form, as it ought to form, the groundwork of all early training and education. The study of natural phenomena, Hill. — Technical and Scientific Training. 167 the quickening of observation, the collecting of facts, and the constant reference to the "why" in the cultivation of the faculties of the children, ought to form the very groundwork of all the earlier training in the schools. Minds led along the paths such as nature designed for them will pursue the study of natural science as a pleasing recreation if only teachers them- selves lead the way. The clouds in the sky, the phenomena of rain, hail, snow, wind, thunder, lightning, heat, cold, and a hundred similar things, provide a field of training such as no books can supply. Air, earth, water, animal and vegetable life provide facts that are available for all forms of science and all departments of discovery and invention ; yet these, though so full of sermons to young minds, are passed by for the purpose of acquainting children with statements made in books, which in too many cases teachers and pupils have no means of proving or disproving. The training in natural science such as is suggested here gives power to children. They are early led to see and to think for themselves, and if teachers paid more attention in the schools to this aspect of learning, school life would be rid of half its difficulties, and progress would be more real because more permanent and capable of producing means of instruc- tion and enjoyment. Professor Huxley once said, "I would not turn my hand over to have biology taught in every school in the land if the subject is to be taught through books only " ; and it appears to me that no one should be placed in charge of a public school who is unable to train children by the direct exercise of their perceptive faculties. Observation represents experience. It deals with realities, trains the judg- ment, encourages work, and provides a means of daily plea- sure to children by placing in their hands the means to dis- cover new facts. Thus natural science becomes the stepping- stone to the utilities in experimental science in all that pertains to industrial and economic conditions. It will be noticed from these observations that science begins, or should begin, in the infant schools, and it should be continued in an ever-widening circle throughout the primary or lower school course. A degree of specialisation could then be introduced ; but under no circumstances should science as applied to the arts and industries be made to form a part of the instruction to be given in a public school. Intelligent children, trained to observe and to express their thoughts, are capable of pursuing an advanced course of instruction such as will fit them to pursue with success such forms of industrial life as are found in this country. New Zealand, as remarked above, is not a manufacturing country, and it is manifestly improper for children to undergo a preparation for a form of industry not carried 168 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. on in the country. Manufactures are few and the indus- trial interests small when compared with the agricultural and pastoral, so that, whatever specialisation may be found necessary, it should be in the direction of improving those interests that are of the greatest moment to the countrv. Hence the study of natural science should be fostered even beyond the public-school course, and this can readily be done by the introduction of botany, geology, agri- cultural chemistry, and other cognate subjects into the ad- vanced or secondary course. The maintenance by the Government of technical schools and schools of science and agriculture would give prestige to such institutions, and these, with the university colleges, should supply all the academic, scientific, and technical training that is wanted for the professions and the pursuit of every specialised form of industrial work. Our country has the making of a perfect scheme of train- ing, but the need at present is to distinguish clearly between the mere academic preparation and the technical training of a specialised character. Thus, the young doctor may attend the university college classes for academic requirements ; but it is necessary to have a practical acquaintance with physical ailments of humankind — hence the necessity of hospital train- ing and practice. It is the same in the case of teachers, lawyers, electric engineers, and, in fact, all the professions. The country, however, has not yet come to see how well the university colleges, under proper direction, can easily supply all the academic preparation, and may supply the scientific ; but they cannot supply the technical, and it is the technical aspect of training that this country stands so much in need of to-day. Efficiency is the outcome of technical training adapted to meet the special needs of a country, and it must be confessed that little has yet been done in this direction to prepare our young people for the professions as distin- guished from trades. The training for citizenship should be based on scientific lines. From the general to the special, from natural phenomena to natural science, and from natural science and research to special and applied science, such is the order of preparation if the country is to derive the best results from its public schemes of education. A good deal remains to be done for the children and the teachers before it can be said that the education of the people is on a scientific and therefore an efficient basis. I have briefly indicated the direction along which a new departure is needed in the work of the primary, secondary, and uni- versity institutions of this country. Hill. — The Maoris To-day and To-morroio. 169 Akt. XII. — The Maoris To-day and To-vwrroto. (No. 2.) By H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. [Read before the Haivke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 13th October, 1902.] There is something fascinating in the Maori race. As a people they win the sympathy of every lover of humankind. Brave, generous, thriftless, courteous, and unstable, such are their characteristics when left to themselves, but under the higher influences of civilisation they are progressive, in- telligent, appreciative, and ambitious. Few peoples have had so much written of them during the comparatively few years they have been in contact with the higher civilisation of the world. Americans, Frenchmen, Austrians, Germans, Eng- lishmen, and colonists alike have written of them, praising and blaming according to circumstances of time and place. As one who has studied their characteristics for many years, and coming in contact as I do with them along the whole of the East Coast as far as Cape Eunaway, I have little but praise to bestow upon this fading hut noble race of people. A mere handful amidst the conflicting influences of a new social and political environment, there is little wonder that they should have misunderstood and have been misunder- stood by colonists. The conflicts that have taken place since the incoming of Europeans into their land have only tended to bring out more prominently their leading characteristics. Until the latter quarter of the nineteenth century they were a factor to be considered by colonists, but of late their advancing civilisation(?) and their diminution have tended to lessen anxiety, until at the present time no one thinks that any danger is likely to result from disaffection among isolated hapus to be found among the Ureweras or other of the native tribes. The interest in the native race to-day is mamly centred in the question of their probable continuance as a people and a nation. Contact with a higher civilisation has not always been of benefit to a conquered people, and the question has more than once been discussed as to whether the Maori race is doomed to disappear before the advancing strides of civi- lised Saxondom. In discussing the probabilities surrounding this interesting subject it may be well to inquire into matters 170 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. of native life and ways that throw us back to the days when few dwelt in New Zealand other than natives and missionaries, and we shall see how far changes have been made in the Maori forms of social life such as are likely to benefit the race and be counted as factors in estimating the possibilities of their continuance as a living force among the colonists. The returns of the census that was taken in the month of February, 1901, have now been published, and it would appear from a memorandum, to the Hon. the Native Minister, appended to Maori census returns by Mr. Under-Secretary Wal- degrave, that there has actually been an increase in the Maori population since 1896, when the previous census was taken, of over 8 per cent. ; in other words, the native population is stated as having risen from 39,851 in 1896 to 43,101 in 1901. This result, it must be confessed, is most satisfactory as far as figures are concerned, and when at the same time the returns of the population show a marked diminution in the number of half-castes there is reason to hope that the influences work- ing for the betterment of the native race may yet have the effect of staying their decadence and early disap- pearance, such as has already come about in the case of the Tasmanian natives. But although the census returns have evidently been arranged and carried out with much care by the official enumerators in the several districts, and possibly few errors have been made, it is still very doubtful whether the returns that have been made and published at former periods when the census has been taken were more than mere approximations. In 1867 the estimated population of the native race was returned at 38,540, and in 1871 at 37,520. When the first census attempted by the Colonial Government was made in 1874 the returns gave 45,470 as the native population, and in 1891 the numbers had fallen to 41,993. Then in 1896, as already explained, the statistics of population gave only 39,854 ; but since then a change has taken place of so marked a character that it would appear as if some cause had been operating to stay the constant diminution of population such as previous censuses from 1874 had shown to be going on. No one who is acquainted with the homes of the natives can doubt for a moment that wherever there has been contact with the Euro- peans improvements in many ways have taken place ; but habit is a difficult thing to overcome, and men and women who have lived under certain conditions for half a lifetime are not likely to change suddenly their mode of living by merely listening to what their children tell them of hygiene and the way to maintain good health. The Eev. William Yate, in 1835, wrote in his book Hill. — The Maoris To-day and To-morrow. 171 on New Zealand : " There are comparatively but few old people in New Zealand — scarcely any who have much exceeded fifty years of age. War, accidents, diseases have made sad havoc among them " ; but just as the tohunga is to-day looked upon with favour and trustfulness by the older natives, even beyond the powers of the medical practitioner of the colonists, so in the matter of living the natives who at present dwell in isolated and remote districts look upon their ancestors as their ideals and type, and they prefer to follow their ways and customs rather than hearken to what the children have to say who are taught by the pakeha, and who do not know the ways of the great ancestors of their race. Yet it is the new influence that is the more active. The schools modify thought, and the old legends and tales of the pa are neglected or forgotten for the tales and stories told in the reading-books. Intercourse with the Europeans, the power to use the English language, and the formation of early habits of thought in English are all tending to the assimilation of the Maori. He reads Hans Andersen's fairy stories, but is not made aware of the stirring episodes in the history of his own people, and of the beautiful stories and legends that adorn the history of his own race. Surely the assimilative process is active in the school life of the children. But has the Maori race ever increased in the land so much as to make it probable that as a people they may yet be able to maintain a position in the country in face of the new forces that are operating under the controlling influence of Saxondom ? The answer is one of doubt. Every year the relative position of the Maori and the colonist is changing. Even when there is an increase of the native population it cannot compare with the proportionate increase among the colonists, and although there is a process of assimilation going on it is more apparent than real. We are not in possession of sufficient evidence to guide us as to the population of Morioris who once lived in New Zea- land, but who now are limited to the Chatham Islands, and number, according to the census, thirteen of pure blood and eighteen half-caste Moriori and Maori. Nor are we sure as to the time when they were overcome by the Maoris, who drove them southward ; but when the Europeans first came into contact with the New-Zealanders the northern and eastern coasts of the North Island were the most populous, although settlement had taken place towards the interior and within the precincts of the volcanic area. The settlements in the Eotorua, Taupo, and Tokaanu districts imply, it seems to me, a much longer dwelling in the land than is generally supposed. The natives are naturally subject to peculiar fears. The darkness to them typifies the unseen, the un- 172 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. known, dauger, vengeance, death. They dread the influence of the atua, for every bad event, whether of fear, or pain, or disease, was the outcome of anger on the part of an active avenger, who to them only manifested himself to show dis- pleasure, resentment, or vengeance. Taupo was in truth a place of darkness; but at the time of the incoming of the colonists all its terrors to the natives had passed away, and the unknown and dreaded forces which manifest themselves within the volcanic zone from time to time had little or no dread for the thousands of natives who resided within the limits of devastating influences of the active volcanoes of Tongariro, Ngauruhoe, Ruapehu, and Edgecumbe. And, as showing the long residence of the natives in the country, the legends concerning the extinct volcanoes of Pihanga, near Tokaanu, of Egmont, in Taranaki, and of Tongariro and Ngauruhoe, imply settlement in the vicinity of the volcanoes at the time of great activity, such as must have modified very largely the topographical aspects of the country. One legend runs to the effect that Egmont at one time stood on the spot now known as Lake Roto-aira, that Tongariro was in love with Pihanga, and that Egmont, having made improper advances to Pihanga, was struck by Tongariro and forced to flee to where he now stands. Of the volcano Ngauruhoe the story runs " that when Nga- tororirangi, the chief priest, or tohunga, who piloted the ' Arawa ' canoe from Hawaiki, with Tia, another great chief, took possession of the country extending from the Bay of Islands to Ruapehu for his people, he ascended Ngauruhoe (which at that time was not a volcano) to perform his needful incantations. In accordance with Maori rites he set up a tuahu, or altar, so as to insure to his people the possession of the country and a happy and fruitful future. When in the midst of his karakias, or incantations, the cold was so intense that it seemed as if he must die. It then occurred to him to send for the sacred fire, which was kept during his absence in the custody of his sisters, Hoata and Pupu. Seeing them at that moment on Whakaari, or White Island [120 miles] , he urged them to bring the fire if they would save him from perishing. In response one of his sisters dived into the sea in the direction of Tongariro, and reached her starving brother in time to save him from a cruel death. In her passage underground she set fire to the world below, hence the hot springs, puias, fumeroles, &c, in the line of route. In commemoration of the event Ngatororirangi left the sacred fire burning in the mountain." Then, again, the word " Ruapehu " implies a shattering or a breaking to pieces, and it may have been that the name was given in response to the explosions and the ejection of stones of many varie- Hill. — The Maoris To-day and To-morrow. 173 ties such as have no doubt been cast from the mountain at different times and of which the Eangipo Desert bears full testimony. These legends concerning the volcanic area, which might easily be increased, imply a long residence in the country, for clearly great changes must have taken place in the surface features of the entire district extending from the Bay of Plenty to Euapehu, and even to Taranaki, and yet everything is embraced in the period since the arrival of the tohunga who led the " Arawa " canoe to the shores of New Zealand. But, notwithstanding the long residence of the Maoris, they do not appear to have ever reached in population the numbers to be found in a third- or fourth-rate town in England. The Eev. Mr. Yate, in " An Account of New Zealand," published in 1835, says (page 164), "The popula- tion of the whole northern island may, perhaps, be taken at one hundred and sixty thousand, though possibly there may be more. Twenty-eight thousand would, perhaps, be the utmost extent of numbers from the Bay [of Islands] , taking in all tribes connected with it, down to the North Cape. . We know the total number of fighting-men in the northern island to be about forty thousand, and the number in the neighbourhood of the Bay and northward to be about seven thousand. What number there may be in the southern island we have hitherto had no means of ascer- taining." As far as I can trace, the first estimate of the native population based upon a division of the Island into districts was made by the Eev. James Hamlin in the year 1812. His purpose was to show the actual number of fighting- men in the North Island, and he bases his estimate upon the number of births that had come under his immediate notice as a missionary and the number of those who sur- vived in a certain hapu with which he was intimately acquainted. Knowing all the men and women of the hapu, he took careful count of the number of births and deaths during a given period, and then made an estimate of the fighting- men that would be available from the hapu, and then, dividing the whole of the Island into twenty-one dis- tricts, he gave an estimate of the population and of the pro- bable number of fighting-men in the country. The informa- tion supplied by Mr. Hamlin appears to me as being of much public interest in connection with the Maori race ; and, as the information is not easily available, I shall quote the facts here for the benefit of future students with a turn for statistics bearing upon the natives. "Perhaps," says Mr. Hamlin, " the number of families I have written down, 174 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. with the number of children born and those who are now alive, will give us an idea of the number born and of the proportionate number of deaths : — Born. Killed. Died. Now alive. Eight families grown up Nine families young Nine families young 63 28 26 2 0 1 38 17 12 23 11 13 These families have not been selected, but have been taken in little parties as they sat together. ... It has been observed that two-thirds of the deaths in New Zealand take place under twenty years of age. If this is the case, I think half of them occur in infancy. Within a fortnight of our Sophia's birth, either before or after, there were five native children born of natives living near us, only one of whom is now alive. These died within six months of their birth. The one who is now alive was medicined and fed by us when he was ill. Some of the New-Zealanders have a great many children born — some as many as fourteen, others fifteen, and a few have had twenty ; nor are these occurrences rare, and yet if five or six of these arrive at middle age it is considered a large family. When something of the kind was mentioned some time ago I was unwilling to admit the fact, but from my own observation I find it is the case. From 1835 to 1838 it was considered that the population decreased, but from 1838 to 1841 it has increased. If a reason be asked why so many of the New-Zealanders die in infancy, I should answer, first, from the idleness, negligence, and thoughtlessness of the mothers ; and, secondly, from want of proper food and clothing. Some persons may perhaps think it difficult to reconcile the first of these with the hypothesis that generally prevails that the New-Zealanders in general are fond of their children. While this is the case, it is also true that they are very careless, inconsistent, and, I should in justice to them say, ignorant mothers. . . . With regard to the fighting- men, I think the natives are very correct in general in giving the number in each tribe. I subjoin a calculation of the number of inhabitants in each district and throughout the Island : — Hill. — The Maoris To-day and To-morrow. 175 District, Station, and Location. ants. 1. Church Missionary station, East and West Coasts, Northern district ; tribe, Raraua 2. West Coast, Wesleyan Missionary station, Hokianga district ; Ngapuhi or Hokianga 3. East Coast, Church Missionary station, Bay of Islands, two districts, Taramai and Waimate ; tribe, Ngapuhi 4. West Coast, Wesleyan Missionary station ; Kaipara and Wairoa 5. West Coast, Church Missionary station, Waikato and Manukau ; tribe, Waikato 6. East Coast, Church Missionary station, Thames district ; tribe, Ngatirnaru 7. East Coast, Church Missionary station, Tauranga district, Bay of Plenty ; tribe, Ngatiawa 8. East Coast (inland), Church Missionary station, Rotorua district ; tribe, Ngatiwakawe 9. Middle of Island, Church Missionary station, Taupo district ; tribe, Ngatituwaretoa 10. East Coast, Bay of Plenty, Whakatane district, Church Missionary Society ; tribe, Ngatiawa 11. East Coast, Bay of Plenty, Opotiki district, Church Missionary Society ; tribe, Wakatohea 12. East Coast (inland from Whakatane), Church Mis- sionary Society ; tribe, Urewera 13. East Coast, near Cape Runaway, Church Mis- sionary Society, Torere district ; tribe, Ngati- awa 14. West Coast, Wesleyan Missionary Society, Tara- naki district ; tribe, Ngatiawa 15. West Coast, Wesleyan Missionary Society, about Egmont ; tribe, Taranaki 16. West Coast, Wesleyan Missionary Society, south of Egmont ; tribe, Ngatiruanui 17. West Coast, Church Missionary Society, Wanga- nui district ; tribe, Wanganui 18. West Coast, Church Missionary Society, Kapiti and adjacent district ; tribe, Ngatitoa 19. South (Port Nicholson) and towards East Coast, Wesleyan Missionary Society; tribe, Ngatiawa 20. East Coast, Church Missionary Society, Mahia and Nukutaurua district 21. East Coast, Church Missionary Society, Waiapu district ; tribe, Ngapaeruru Tate Apuree(?) Haikeke (between Port Nicholson and East Cape?) Supposed to be inland, and imperfectly known to Europeans Grand totals 1,500 1,200 2,400 400 6,000 1,300 700 4,500 600 1,460 800 1,000 1,200 60 1,000 1,200 1,800 j 1,000 | 1,000 | 4,040 6,000 200 640 40,000 4,500 3,600 7,200 1,200 18,000 3,900 2,100 13,500 1,800 4,380 2,400 3,000 3,600 180 3,000 3,600 5,400 3,000 3,000 12,120 18,000 600 1,920 120,000 It will be noticed that Mr. Yate's estimate in 1835 exceeds that of Mr. Hamlin's in 1812 by 10,000, whilst the 176 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. number of fighting-men in each case is the same. Between 1835 and 1842 the country was very much disturbed, and fighting was frequent and fierce. But Mr. Hamlin had many opportunities of gaining information, and his figures may be accepted as approximately correct. Sir George Grey, when Governor of the colony in 1851, accepted the estimate in his letters to the Home Government, and he had the best means of obtaining information at that time. (See despatch No. 121, Legislative, 1851.) It is somewhat difficult to arrange the Maori census returns for 1901 in the same way as they are given in the above tabulation. The results on page 21 of the " Census of Maori Population for 1901 " are arranged by counties, and it is hardly possible to compare the districts at the two periods. However, by putting together a whole district like that to the north of Auckland, for the purpose of comparing the present population with the estimate made in 1842, it will be found that marked changes have taken place. Adding together the first four districts named in Mr. Hamlin's table, the estimated population in 1842 was 16,500 Maoris, whilst the census returns for 1901 for the whole of the peninsula to the north of the Eden County gave a population of 9,651. The Waikato and Manukau districts were estimated at 18,000 natives in 1842, but the entire district from Eden County to the Piako County contains to-day less than 6,000 ! The East Coast dis- trict, extending from Cape Bunaway to Ahuriri (Napier), was undoubtedly the most populous portion of the North Island. The late Bishop of Waiapu, who first visited it in company with the late Bev. W. Colenso, F.B.S., expressed surprise at the large population to be found at Hicks' Bay, Waiapu, Poverty Bay, and Te Mahia, and Mr. Colenso, in a separate account that he gave of a second visit along the coast, said that Wikawitira, in the valley of the Waiapu, " is one of the largest native towns in New Zealand, containing, when all are assembled, from 3,000 to 4,000 souls." When he visited the place in 1838, with the late Bishop Williams, he says, " the inhabitants were living in the grossest darkness of heathen- ism. None knew how to read. Now nearly seven hundred persons assembled for service in the chapel of this village, a building which they had themselves built, measuring nearly 80 ft. by 40 ft., while in the school I had — First-class readers in the New Testament, 77 ; second - class readers who re- quired prompting, 92 ; third class, 128 ; fourth class, rehearsers of catechisms, 240 ; and infants, 98 : making a total at school, when numbers were in their plantations, of 635 persons, of whom more than 100 could read well." Mr. Hamlin sets down the population of the whole East Coast (Nos. 19-20) at 30,120 ; and the census for last year Hill. — The Maoris To-day and To-morrow. Ill for the whole district from Cape Buna way to the Hutt, and including the Bangitikei, only amounts to 10,005, or to just one-third of what it was in 1842.' These results suffice to show that the native population has markedly diminished since New Zealand became a British colony ; and the diminu- tion, such as is shown to have taken place in the most populous part of the Island, approximates closely to the average " falling- off" between Mr. Hamlin's estimate of 120,000 in 1842 and 43,101 in 1901. But the reports of the census enumerators who were responsible for the native returns last year are in some respects reassuring. Judged alone by a comparison between the results of 1896 and 1901 the increase is certainly more than 8 per cent., whilst during the same period the increase of the colonists was 9 86 per cent. It is necessary to be careful, however, in accepting the facts of the native in- crease, although most capable men were appointed to collect the information. But it is for this very reason that extra caution is required. Thus, Mr. Gilbert Mair, chief enumerator for the Waikato and nine other coun- ties, states, " The total population of the ten counties is shown to be 7,731, including 358 half-castes, whilst the number for the same counties in 1896 was only 6,661, an apparent increase of 1,070; but I very much doubt if there has been a real augmentation of numbers, and I attri- bute the increase more to the fact that my sub-enumerator visited every settlement and dwelling-place, which I am as- sured by the natives themselves was never before attempted." This statement exactly explains the position as to why such a marked apparent increase in population has taken place. The natives are now far more amenable to European regula- tions than they were a few years ago, and most of them do not object to give information which in previous years they were afraid to give, thinking that some bad result would be sure to follow. Thus, the enumerator for Taranaki and Patea points out that objections were raised by the native adher- ents of Tohu and Te Whiti, and " observations of querulous irritability were frequently made." Some wished to know whether the Government wanted to ascertain their numbers with a view to sending them against the Boers or otherwise deporting them. Many said, " Go thou to Tohu ; if he signs we will sign." Inquiries as to the number of stock provoked bitter resentment. Here we have examples of the difficulties experienced by sub-enumerators when taking the census ; and no doubt the difficulties were much greater in former years, hence it may be that the seeming increase in the native population is merely the outcome of more efficient means being employed by the sub-enumerators. 12 178 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Mr. Hutchison, S.M., chief enumerator for Kaipara, Wha- ngarei, &c, is convinced that the natives are rapidly dimin- ishing in the north, for he says, " In some of the counties enumerated there appears to be an increase, in others of them a decrease, in the native population. But the increase in one does not set off the decrease in another, and upon the whole there is a positive fallmg-off in the numbers. Some- thing of this result may perhaps have to be discounted, be- cause many of the natives who employ themselves in gum- digging are of a migratory disposition, . . . but these cannot affect the conclusion that the native population, in these counties at all events, is a diminishing, and a rapidly diminishing, quantity." The Rev. Mr. Bennett, native minister at Waitara, Tara- naki, informed me that, in his opinion, the natives are not on the increase, and my own experience for more than twenty years along the East Coast leads me to the same conclusion. No doubt there has been of late years an awakening in certain quarters of Maoridom. The young men from Te Aute College, the girls from the native schools at Huka- rere, &c, are becoming in a measure alive to the dangers that threaten their race, and friends of the natives are not wanting to help on the " new growth " along European lines. The task is one of great difficulty owing to the opposing interests that exist ; but to the credit of the General Govern- ment be it said that generous efforts have been made during the past few years, and since my former paper on the Maoris was written, to give to the natives the best advice in matters dealing with health and sanitation. Nor have the efforts been thrown away, if we may take the reports of the census enumerators as a guide. For example, Mr. E. C. Blomfield, S.M., in his admirable report on the northern district, tells us that he trusts the " tohungas are falling into disrepute with the Maoris"; that " drunkenness is undoubtedly decreasing"; that " no benefit was ever derived from the gumfields " by the natives; that "farming will undoubtedly be the future of the Maori " ; that the Government should largely direct its atten- tion to this aspect of training, and that " the social condition of the Maori requires more attention. Unfortunately, the women, not being trained to a satisfactory condition of domestic economy, gradually tire of the restraint of keeping a home clean, neat, and in pakeha style, and eventually find it so irksome as to warrant falling back into the free-and-easy style of living pursued by their forefathers"; and he closes with the statement that " more care and attention is required in the domestic education of the women." On this latter point the enumerator of the Wairarapa dis- trict remarks, " If some native women or half-castes were Hill. — The Maoris To-day and To-morrow. 179 taught in the first principles of nursing they could soon in- struct the others, and it would aid materially in the saving of life." The enumerator for the Waikato urges that " the in- ordinate use of tobacco, and, worse still, vile cigarettes and crude tobacco-leaf (torori), is really becoming a frightful curse, and must be checked if the race is to continue. It is not unusual to see mothers give infants their pipes to quieten them, and so strong a hold has smoking obtained that it is a deadly privation to keep a Maori from smoking for half an hour at a stretch." " I believe it would prove a great boon," continues the enumerator, " if a small pamphlet containing simple rules of sanitation were printed and widely circulated warning the natives of the dangers of inordinate use of tobacco, sleeping on the ground, and drinking Maori tea," &c. Other quotations might be given to show how diverse are the conditions existing at present among the Maoris. There is, however, a consensus of opinion that crime, drunkenness, and even poverty are diminishing among them, and that they are coming to look upon European ways of living favourably, although, unfortunately, they do not always practise what they know to be best for their own well-being. It is often urged by those who know but little of the ways of living among the Maoris that many of them are lazy, but this is a mistake. They are, indeed, industrious, but at pre- sent ambitionless, and as a rule they only toil to produce sufficient food for the year. Their surplus, whatever it may be other than sheep or cattle, is wasted ; but this is the result of neglect, of ignorance, and of imperfect business knowledge. That considerable progress is being made by them is amply shown by the extent of their cultivations. In 1901 the acre- age under crop owned by the natives was : Potatoes, 7,369 ; wheat, 3,724; maize, 4,943; other crops, 8,780; sown grasses, 78,628. Their sheep numbered 317,436 ; cattle, 36,943; and pigs, 57,642. The total number of sheep in the colony was 19,355,195 ; cattle, 1,256,680 ; and pigs, 250,975 : in other words, the natives possess one in five of the pigs, one in thirty-four of the cattle, and one in sixty of the sheep ; and in addition 1,793,880 acres of native land was held under lease by Europeans. With such possessions it would be absurd to suppose the natives are a poverty-stricken people, for the income from the produce of their crops, &c, would amply suffice to sustain all of them in comfort ; but there is a contra side to this apparent wealth. I do not know whether a return has ever been made of the indebtedness of the Maoris to storekeepers, hotelkeepers, general dealers, and others, but such a return would, no doubt, possess many interesting features. The thriftlessness of the Maoris is well known. " Sufficient unto 180 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. the day " is his motto, and, although many years have passed by since the natives first came in contact with the higher influences of civilisation such as were first represented by the missionaries, it is seldom one meets with members of the native race who display foresight like what is found among the colonists. There are those among them who fully realise the necessity of exercising foresight ; but opposing interests, and the absence of emulation and of local government, all combine to produce an indifference even among the better educated and more ambitious young men, whilst the young women have no possible chance of improving under present social conditions. The passing of the Maori Councils Act of 1900 is re- ferred to by two of the enumerators, and possibly the grant- ing of executive power to elective bodies may tend to improve the social status of the natives, and at the same time cause the disappearance of some of the weaknesses which beset the race and are carrying them down to certain ruin. The home of the Maori in the " Land of the Great White Cloud" may, perhaps, be long continued, but it depends on the creation of activities, ambitions, and responsibilities, and the providing of ways for these qualities and attendants of progressive government to have full sway, as pointed out by me in a former paper. Let the improvements that have as yet taken place be balanced beside the losses and what do they show ? The modern natives have acquired the habit of dressing in the fashions of the colonists, of eating similar food, and of living in similar houses. Many think that these are in themselves proofs of advancing civilisation. But the tinsel and the show and the thriftlessness, with the total ab- sence of regard as to domestic responsibilities, are the bars to progressive growth, and unless internal government is intro- duced through which these aspects of social, and as a con- sequence political, progress can be guaranteed the Maori as an entity cannot continue in the land. The Maori is the product of his special environment. The conditions that have operated through missionaries and whalers and colonists have undoubtedly produced a change in his ideals ; but, unfortunately, he does not see along what lines he must go in order to bring about the realisation of his desires. Even the older natives are well aware that their children and grandchildren ought to be trained in the ways of the pakeha if they are to play their parts with any hope of success, and this desire manifests itself again and again wherever natives and colonists dwell near one another. The Maori Council is a step forward in the direction of pro- gress, but the natives are scattered over a wide extent of country, and supervision can never become effective without Hill. — The Maoris To-day and To-morrow. 181 the recognised head man with some executive authority- drawn from the Maori Council. As the question of organization is the most pressing matter in the regeneration of the Maori race. I shall give here a summary of the proposals recommended by me six years ago.:;: These proposals were : (1.) The establishment of a system of internal local government. (2.) The opening of cottage hospitals for nursing the sick in various centres, where native gilds conld be trained in the art of nursing and healing, and, it should be added, cooking. (3.) An improved scheme of native education, so arranged that pupil-teachers and assistants might be selected from the native race for native schools. (4.) A system of scholarships for the speciali- sation of native studies adapted to native wants. The first recommendation included all those measures that tend to the physical, social, and moral advancement of the people, such as (a) the regulation of buddings, (b) sanita- tion, (c) executive powers in case of epidemics or local forms of sickness, (d) regulation of stores, and (e) regulation of accommodation-houses and places of amusement. Attempts have lately been made to carry out the regeneration of the Maori by following along several of the lines indicated above ; but there has also been introduced the plan of establishing a " special settlement " and starting technical schools. No one is more desirous than I am to see success crown the efforts of friends who would rescue a noble and intelligent race like the Maori, but technical schools on lines such as those shown in the Annual Eeport on the Native Schools are doomed to failure, for the simple reason that they fail in the initial step. Here are commenced among a people just emerging from barbarism, and from conditions alto- gether different from the twentieth-century civilisation, the system and the training such as are found in the most ad- vanced kindergarten schools of commercial peoples to-day. In other words, a high type of modern utilitarian education is presented to a people whose minds have been moulded for generations along planes of objective training with nature as the great teacher, and who view things in a different way from what they are viewed by colonists and by the people at Home. Native children are imitative. They are copyists, and will imitate whatever is put before them, either m paper, plasticine, or paint ; but is imitation to be the end of training? I take it that training is directive and suggestive. It aims to bring out characteristics of the individual. The bent of mind, the creative faculty, the ap- plication of one set of life phases to the regulation of conduct * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxix., art. x., p. 150, et seq. 182 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. and action should all be brought to operate in the case of native children ; and, whilst the effect of contact with a higher civilisation should be felt, it should only be manifested in the higher producing capacity of the natives along their own creative lines and concepts. As for the "special settlements" for natives, the plan is simply the old "flour and sugar and blanket" system of the earlier history of the colonists. The natives have been spoilt by the insensible and ignorant method of destroying their self- reliance and independence. As a people they are powerful in government, but the loss of their recognised leaders and the hurry of reformers to make the " Maori a pakeha " has brought retrogression rather than progression among them. The Maori wants responsibility, and the moment he feels responsibility upon him there will be hope for his continuance as a living and progressive factor in the community. The Maori Council may be a means of doing good, but it has already been pointed out by many intelligent natives who are interested in land that the difficulties surrounding their in- terests are increased because they understood the plan of the Government, but now the "Councils " do as they please, and owners of "interests" are worse off than before, owing to their ignorance of the newer conditions. But the difficulties that appear at the outset of a scheme need not cause anxiety. The functions of the Maori Council are important, and if rightly carried out will certainly tend to create a great interest in the internal affairs of native life and growth ; but an im- portant aspect yet remains neglected, and perhaps it is this that will affect, for better or for worse, the whole success of Maori regeneration. I refer to the home life as represented by the women. Suggestion has been made by me for the establish- ment of " cottage hospitals " in Maori districts. At small cost there could be provided in centres like Nuhaka, Tolago Bay, Tokomaru, Waipiro Matakawa, Waiapu, and other native centres " cottage hospitals," under the control of trained hos- pital nurses, assisted by the native girls drawn from a high- class native girls' school like Hukarere, in Napier. These hospitals might be made the very centre of a civilising influ- ence such as cannot be introduced by any other means. Sympathy, kindness, home training, the healing of the sick, training in cleanliness and in cooking, could all be shown and illustrated, and the introduction of a humanising form of training such as could be carried out in the wav suggested would bring the native women under the active influences of that form of living that is so much lacking among them to- day. There is hardly a more pitiful sight than the Maori woman, ambitionless, homeless though not houseless, in- Hill. — The Maoris To-day and To-morrow. 183 different to opinion, to responsibility, to home. To gossip, to smoke, and while away the time in frivolous conversation, are common wherever native pas are to be found. When not on the cultivation, which she tends from sheer necessity, she is usually to be found smoking her pipe on the "village green," indifferent to home, and apparently without the ambition to have her surroundings improved. She has no home such as the colonist deems a necessity. A place to sleep, a place to cook, and a place to grow food or to gather shellfish, and you have the social environment of the Maori womanhood of the country, with a few rare excep- tions. Contrast this with the training of the native girls at such a school as the Hukarere boarding-school for natives in the Town of Napier. There the girls are brought up under the higher influences of home life. They are trained to be clean and tidy and methodical. They have good beds to sleep in, healthy rooms to live in, and are provided with nourishing food at regular intervals. Neatness in dress, cleanliness in body and surroundings, and healthy living con- ditions are all brought to bear upon their training ; but what do thev find at home ? How wide are the contrasts, and what little wonder it is that so many girls fall back into the old ways when they leave school to enter into life. Their home, they find, is as it was when they left it at the first. There are no sanitary arrangements, no water-supply, no regular meals, no privacy, nothing for their improvement, nothing to cheer, to attract, or to create hope and emulation. Nor is it possible for girls who know better and would be better to improve matters very much. A few days or weeks from school suffice to bring about the reaction. Hope is replaced by despair and indifference, for, after all, we are the creatures of our environment. And yet the natives are fond of tasty food ; many of the women can cook to perfection in the kopa Maori, or native oven, but few of them know the value of milk, and eggs, and poultry, in providing suitable and nourishing food for the sick. A short time since, when visiting up the East Coast, I went into a native village and found two young men suffering from pneumonia. Both of them were very sick. Each was lying on the ground with a small piece of takapau under him, and in a whare that was far from being waterproof. Their pale haggard faces betokened pain, and the hollow cough showed how rapidly their ailment was moving deathward. In reply to inquiries it appeared that the only food given to the patients was kumara and strong tea without milk, while hundreds of ducks, geese, and turkeys were running about in the pa, and eggs and milk were available in plenty. The common-sense and the experience of the nurse, however, were 184 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. wanting. This is only one illustration of scores that might be cited to show that it is the social, the domestic side of native life that should receive more attention if the race is to be preserved. Questions of land and of title, of technical schools, and of special native settlements, are insignificant compared with the social life of the natives, and those who would help in the regeneration of the Maori will need to begin at the home and with the womenkmd, whose lot is so nearly associated with the perpetuation of the race. Homes have to be made and responsibilities realised, and these can be done by presenting, as in the case of the working-men's homes of the Old Land, higher ideals of domestic life, greater comfort, and more attractions. The women should know how to cook, to bake, to nurse the sick, and how to deal with child-life, and those things can be best done by the help of women who interest themselves in the uplifting of their kind to a higher and better plane of living. The missionaries have had their day, and so have the land-seeking pakehas, and the result cannot be deemed as wholly satisfactory. As means to an end it is the women of New Zealand who can influence the social life of the Maori, and I would suggest to the Women's Council of New Zealand that the line of least resistance and of greatest promise in the uplifting of the people is among the native women. To establish a mission for the social regeneration of the women would prepare the native for conditions which the school life has made him ready to accept; but which he is unable to carry out himself. To bring the native women under the home influence, as represented by a school for plain cooking, nursing, and house management, should be the aim of those who have to do with the Native Councils, whose work must fail unless action is at once taken to influence the women in all that makes for healthy and happy homes, along lines such as the girls have learnt when drawn to such schools as those established at Hukarere and elsewhere. x\s for the young men, I would again urge their claims to become the teachers, the ministers, doctors, and lawyers of their own people. There is no reason why a young and intel- ligent native should not receive an appointment as a pupil- teacher, an assistant, and finally as principal teacher in a native school. The natives are apt teachers. They caneXplain matters in a simple and interesting way, and should a training- school for the technical training of teachers be established in the North Island a proportionate number of young Te Aute students who are desirous of becoming teachers should be drafted into the school as a preparatory step. In conclusion, I would point out what appear to me as serious omissions with respect to the Maori census. "We give Hill. — The Maoris To-day and To-morroto. 185 the population — natives, haif-castes, and so on— and each census shows a sudden change ; sometimes there are a large number of half-castes, at other times there is a notable de- crease. Yet no efforts, as far as I can gather, have ever been made to keep a record of births and deaths among the natives. This is now comparatively an easy matter, for the native schools and the half-educated native are to be met everywhere, and there would be no difficulty in keeping fairly correct records, just as is done in the case of the colonists. In the early days, when the missionaries dwelt in the land, the returns of births, marriages, baptisms, and deaths were carefully kept, and now that the breath of colonial advance- ment bas been felt, even in the inmost recesses of the Urewera country, efforts should be made by the Government, acting through the Native Councils, to keep a record of all births, marriages, and deaths. When this takes place it will be seen that the period of childhood is a sad one among the Maoris. Thoughtlessness, want of proper food, and ignorance, are the three factors operating to-day among the Maori women, just as they operated in the early days of settlement ; and, notwithstanding all the pretended sympathy that has been shown to them, no effort has ever been made to organize them and to bring them under regulations such as they must have if they are to continue as a people among us. Organization is the only hope for continuance among an advancing community, and to destroy the organization of a people is to ensure their certain disappearance. This has been done in the case of the natives. Their methods of government have gone, for the chief is only so in name ; and, although nominally there has been an increase in the native population, it undoubtedly arises from causes set forth in this paper. Unless means are adopted to help in the better- ment of the women there can be no doubt as to the fate of the native race ; but just as the Saxon women at the Con- quest saved the language of their country and their identity as a people, so will the Maori women save their people if means are taken to train them in all those aspects of domestic and social life of which they are so sadly ignorant and without which progress is impossible. Addendum. A summary of this paper was published by the Hawke's Bay Herald after it had been read, and Mr. Hindmarsh, sheep-farmer, of Tokomaru Bay, East Coast, forwarded to me a return of thirty married native couples whom he had known 186 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. The following tabulation shows the results in since residing in that district. I give the return here as of much interest in its relation to the facts quoted by me from Mr. Hamlin's paper bearing upon the number of children born among the Maoris. The thirty married couples had a total of 113 children, of whom thirty-eight died and seventy- five are still alive. In one instance thirteen children were born, in two instances nine children, and in seven cases there was no issue, each case : — Children born. 6 13 9 1 6 5 6 2 5 2 6 7 0 8 1 4 0 0 2 2 9 7 0 3 2 2 0 0 0 Alive. Dead. 4 2 4 9 7 2 1 0 5 1 5 0 4 2 1 1 3 2 1 1 4 2 0 7 0 0 5 3 1 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 8 1 7 0 0 0 3 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 113 7o 38 Fulton. — On the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony. 187 Art. XIII. — An Account of the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony, or Vilavilairevo, with a Probable Explanation of the Mystery. By Robert Fulton., M.B., CM., Edin. [Read before the Otago Institute, 23rd September, 1902.] Plates XVI. -XX I. During the Coronation excursion to the Fiji Islands I had the rare opportunity of witnessing the ceremony of vilavilairevo, or fire-walking. To begin with, the term " fire-walking " is to my mind a misnomer, there not being any appearance in Fiji of walking upon fire. It would be more accurate to call it " heat-walking." In the Christchurch Weekly Press of the 16th July, 1902, there appeared from the pen of Mr. W. Burke, Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society, an excellent account of the pre- paration of the oven and of the various stages of the heating of it, and with this account were some beautiful pictures of the fire-walkers from photographs taken on the spot by Mr. Burke (ft). Some excellent photographs also appeared in the Neio Zealand Graphic(b) and in the Auckland Weekly Ncivs(c). Mr. Bourne, the artist who represented the last- named journal, very courteously sent me some fine copies, which I show herewith. On the 30th June, 1902, we steamed down from Suva to Mbenga (Bega) in the Union Company's " Kia Ora," and when at some distance from the island descried smoke rising from a cocoanut grove, where we were told the "walking" would take place. On landing we could easily hear the crackling of the fire, and "all hands" at once proceeded to a spot where the natives could be seen collecting. When we ap- proached the place the fire was glowing fiercely, and I could not without discomfort get to within 10 ft. of it, and even then had to step back at once. We were told that it had been burning for forty-eight hours, and that we had still about two hours to wait before the stones would be hot enough. We spent the time gathering ferns and inspecting huts, and on returning to the oven, or lovo, as it is called, found that the natives were preparing to open it up. This they did in the manner so graphically described by Mr. Burke, and also by Dr. Hocken in his paper (Trans. N.Z. Inst.) (ft1). We were fortunate in being able to view the whole proceedings from as little a distance as 20 ft. This was owing to the small 188 Transac tions . — Miscellane o us . number of spectators, the day's outing having been arranged by the Union Steamship Company, through their courteous agent Mr. Duncan, for the " Waikare " passengers alone. The ship's company thus had the great advantage of standing round the fire at the above-mentioned distance, each person having, so to speak, a " front seat." Mr. Burke thus describes the scene : " Now we make our way to the place prepared for the ceremony. A space about a chain in width had been cleared in a cocoanut grove. In the centre of this was an enormous fire made in a circular pit about 20 ft. across and 2 ft. in depth, the earth from the centre being piled up round the edges. When the hole is dug poles are placed radiating from the centre to the edges. Dry palm-fronds are placed under and upon these, then fire- wood of various sizes is stacked above. Finally the large stones are heaped on the top till the whole pile is several feet in height. The fire is lighted about forty-eight hours before the ceremony is timed to take place, and is kept fed with fresh supplies of wood. Eventually the whole mass glows with a white heat, and it is not comfortable to stand within a few feet of it ; also, it is dangerous, as large splinters of stone fly far and wide. As the hour for the exhibition approaches groups of natives collect, some laden with green saplings about 20 ft. in length, others with supplejack-like vines. The fire is now sinking, and occasionally a large stone drops through. There is little smoke, and the stones fairly glow. Now the workers close in. The smaller vines are fastened in loops at the ends of the long poles or saplings. A loop is dropped over the end of a log not yet burnt out, several men man the sapling, and, with loud cries, the log is hauled away. This is repeated over and over again till no logs are left. The ends of the green saplings continually burst into flame, showing the intense heat in the oven. At last there seems to be nothing left in the pit but stones, some of which are shivered to pieces by the great heat ; but the men are not yet satisfied. A large hawser-hke vine now comes into use. This is thrown across the pit to one side, and round the ends of the saplings, which are forced into the glowing stones. Now willing hands pull on the vine, and the sticks are forced through the stones, turning them over and over and levelling them. Again and again this is done till the stones present a fairly even surface ; but critical men, still unsatisfied, probe amongst the stones with the saplings and turn the smoothest side uppermost "(a). There was no mistake about the heat. The stones were at first white hot. The logs and smoking chips were with- drawn in the clever manner so ably described above, the stones were levelled, and, what was not generally noticed, Fulton. — On the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony. 189 owing to the distraction of attention by the " staging effects," had undoubtedly cooled. They had changed from white to red, and then to grey, and finally to black. This stirring-up process, yelling, heaving, hauling, &c, took over an hour, possibly nearer two, and was continued till every little piece of smoking wood was removed. Before the levelling I had rushed forward to within oft. of the fire, and again after the levelling I tried the heat and found it diminishing ; however, at the centre of the oven it must still have been very great. At last, everything being ready, we were requested to keep perfect silence, as the fire-walkers were coming. There was no chanting or singing, or anything to suggest that it was in any way a religious ceremony. One of the performers first appeared alone, and, coming into the circle, Dr. Smith, of Dunedin, and myself were given an opportunity of making a scientific examination of him before the actual " walk " took place. He was a fine big fellow, about 5 ft. 9 in. in height, and was quite willing to be examined and overhauled. His pulse was a little over 90, his hands were cool, and his feet cold, most perceptibly colder than the rest of the body. There was no preparation to be detected on the feet, and they were perfectly clean and odourless. I did not test them by the sense of taste as I had the assurance of Dr. Hocken that there was nothing to be noticed in that somewhat heroic method of examination. The soles of the feet were yellowish- white, and perfectly smooth and pliable, like soft kid. The man wore a sulu of dry Hibiscus bark and Ganna leaves, and small anklets of dry bracken, exactly the same as our Pterts aquilina. There were innumerable little black hairs on the legs, and these we closely examined. Having notified the director of ceremonies, Mr. Duncan, that we had finished our examination, he made a sign and the " walker " dis- appeared. Breathless with excitement, and in expectation of we knew not what, we awaited the arrival of the descendants of Tui Ngalita (Tui Qalita). Now in dead silence on our part, but amid exclamations of astonishment from the onlooking natives, the mystic band of about a dozen men appeared from the depths of the cocoa- nut grove, and, passing through a little gap in our circle, walked deliberately across and twice around the heated stones Looking back on it now it seems like a strange dream. Above and around us are the beautiful feathery fronds of the cocoanut and palm trees meeting overhead and almost shutting out the blue sky. Here a huge ivi-tree, with its lovely dark-green leaves and curiously buttressed stem, serves as a vantage from which half a score of black faces and frizzled heads peer down. From a tree on this side a great spider, with its 2 in. long tortoise-shell-coloured legs 190 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. and pure white marble-like body, sways in an almost imper- ceptible breeze ; on the other side a kinematograph, busily- clicking out its films, lays by a store of pictures for reproduc- tion in far-distant lands ; there on the heated stones that band of fantastically dressed magicians move across the kaleidoscope and are gone. Quicker than I can write it the men had completed their "walk" and had passed into the gloom of the forest once more. To me they appeared to walk around the pit — that is, near the periphery ; but I was assured by others that they really crossed the centre. However, there were so many things to watch that one was bound to miss something. Each man, as he walked, kept his eyes fixed upon the stones. One of the fire-walkers, as he came off the stones, was de- tained by Mr. Duncan, in order that we should again try and find out what we could in the interests of science. To begin with, the statement made by Dr. Hocken (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxi.) as to the " scorching of the handkerchief," which, however, he had got second-hand, and did not himself con- firm, must be taken " with a grain of salt." It is possible that the earlier "fire-walkers " had different methods of procedure, but it is difficult to understand the "handkerchief story" of Lady Thurston (/i) in the face of the following : The man came off the heated stones ; there is no doubt of that. That he was the man we first examined we could not swear ; they were all exactly alike to us, and came on and off so quickly that it would be perfectly easy for one man to be substituted for another, dressed as they were in the same kind of necklaces, sulus, anklets, &c. Now, whatever power the native may have to prevent his feet from scorching, there is nothing that I know of which will abolish the inflammability of dry bracken or dry fine wisps of ribbon- wood bark ; nor can one conceive of any reason why the short, black, crisp hairs on the legs should not show the least sign of scorching or burning if subjected to great heat, or to heat sufficient to scorch a handkerchief on the shoulder. The man we examined after the " walk " had a pulse of 120 ; but this observation is not worth much, for the reason that we could not be sure that he was the man we had pre- viously examined. I noticed the anxious, almost frightened, appearance on the countenances of some of the " walkers " — this fact was mentioned by Dr. Colquhoun, of Dunedin, on the occasion of Dr. Hocken's visit. If this was a second examination of the same man, the rise in pulse rate may be accounted for by the mental excitement and the intense sur- rounding heat. There was a distinct smell of cocoanut-oil on the bodies, but not on the hands, feet, or legs of the men. On feeling the soles of the feet of the man who came off they Fulton. — On the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony. 191 seemed cool, if not cold, and on running the hand up the leg it was like putting it upon a person in high fever. The difference in temperature between sole and calf of leg was most marked, and must have been several degrees. Unfortu- nately, my thermometers were lost on the voyage from Dun- ediu to Auckland, and I could not make any accurate obser- vation. Immediately after the " walk " was over great bundles of loose Draccena leaves were thrown on to the hot stones, and the performers, coming back, sat upon them for a few seconds in what was practically a fine steam-bath. The performance being finished, I went at once to the edge of the stones. The heat was not now unbearable, even on the outer rim of the oven. Here I moved some of the stones with my foot, and stood for a few seconds on one or two, which I found did not brown my boots, but which I had felt were too hot to handle. I asked one of the natives — or, rather, made signs to him — to get me a piece, and to my astonishment he coolly walked to the edge of the heap and started to move some of the hot stones with his bare feet for me. He was one of several men who had come down in the steamer from Suva with us, and was not one of the dressed-up " walkers " at all. This rather shook my faith in the "one tribe" theory, and made me form an idea, not yet removed from my mind, that any of the natives, on this or any other of the islands, can perform the feat if they choose ; but they prefer, from a "theatrical point of view," that it remain the monopoly of the Nga Qalita Tribe. I got a fine large piece of stone, about 10 in. by 5 in. by 2 in., raked out of the fire by this native. He had to drop it several times, as it was too hot to hold in the hand ; but by means of sticks and cocoanut-leaf mid-rib he succeeded, and, wrapping it in a palm-leaf, I carried it to the sea-shore. Here it fizzled and steamed in the water for several minutes, and even then was too hot to carry in the naked hand. This specimen had been taken from near the centre of the oven, had been at the time of removal very hot, had been partially cooled by myself, and I was anxious to bring it back with me, but after carrying it all the way to the steamer " Wai- kare," many miles distant, I lost it going up the gangway ladder. I found it wTas slipping out of its palm-leaf basket, and, trying to catch it, felt it still unpleasantly hot, and had to drop it, unfortunately overboard. Now as to an explanation of this so-called "mystery" : It seems a pity in any way to detract from the interest of the Fiji excursions, or to do anything to lessen the popularity and enterprise of those responsible for these splendid exhi- bitions, but it is only right to dispel the idea that science can 192 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. offer no explanation of these " feats of magic." First, you will observe that the arrangement for the heating of the stones is peculiar. They are piled up on top of a heap of wood, and in this position subjected to an enormous heat poured into them from below and all around. If what is required be merely a surface of red-hot stones for walking upon, a much easier method would be to lay flat stones on the floor of the pit and then to light and maintain a huge fire on the top of them. That this is not what is wanted is most significant, and will be better understood later on. That the stones are still piled high on the burning logs and only " an occasional stone drops through " after forty-eight hours' burning, points to a possibility of some of the lower logs being absolutely green, otherwise it is hard to understand why the said logs have not been burnt up and the heap of stones collapsed long before forty-eight hours have passed. As to the period of time occupied by the " ivalk," a great many observers — nearly sixty out of our two hundred spec- tators— had cameras, kinematographs, or kodaks, &c, and these people are quite accustomed to minute measurements of time, such as seconds and fractions of seconds. From several of the most expert of these I received the assurance that the time occupied by the "walk" was from fourteen to sixteen seconds, some said even less. In that space of time the per- formers took from twenty-five to thirty steps, consequently the sole of the foot was at no time in contact with hot stone for more than half a second. The idea that the " walk " is made possible from long- continued use of the bare native foot to ground contact may be put on one side, as it was reported by Colonel Gudgeon that he on his own " bare and sensitive feet " walked over the hot stones and felt no burning, but only a sort of electric prick- ing^). To this may be added the observations of Dr. Smith, Dr. Hocken, and myself, that the feet were soft and pliable, and not at all leathery or horny, though very possibly less sensitive than those of Europeans. That it is in the stones that we should look for an explanation is suggested by the fact that my boots were not browned by contact with them, although I stood on several for above a second each. Another point not previously observed was the coolness of the sole of the foot. This was very well marked both before and after the "walk," and may have been due to the placing of the feet in cold water for a short time before the perform- ance. It is possible that in the interior of the island very cold water may be obtainable. The islands all through the group are known to contain large caves, some of them with water at a comparatively low temperature (e). I mention this as it is difficult to account for the temperature of the feet, Fulton. — On the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony. 193 which was particularly noticed by Dr. Smith and myself independently of one another, and then remarked upon, and confirmed by several trials with the hands on feet and legs. It is a well-known fact that one can, with cold feet, bear for a long time — up to a minute in some instances — heat from a fire which for five seconds at ordinary foot-tempera- ture would be insupportable. Provided that the heat is not enough to scorch the skin, there is every reason why in such a ceremony as the vilavilairevo a cold foot should have a great advantage over a foot at ordinary body-tem- perature. Cold seems to me the most likely adjuvant to the slow-conducting and slow-radiating nature of the stone, which is the main factor in this "jugglery." Of any local applica- tion like cocaine or alum there is no evidence whatever, and from Dr. Hocken's observations such seems impossible. Next, as to the stones which are heated and walked upo?i when hot. They appear to be of a dense black basalt, many of them round in shape, and before heating have somewhat of the look of Moeraki boulders. During the heating process they explode, probably from water expansion, and small fragments fly about. " All rocks that have once been in a fluid or semi - pasty condition contain water within their component crystals. This is not water that has been sub- sequently introduced, but is contained in minute cells. In the solid crystals of lava, which were erupted recently or in early geological periods, the presence of water in minute cavities may be readily detected. It is a fact that all rocks contain ' interstitial ' water, which is not combined with their mineral constituents, but merely retained in their pores "(m). We were cold that the natives would not allow us to "get a hold" of the real stone at all, but would "palm off "on us another sort altogether. This statement was in- correct. We were allowed to take any or as many of the stones as we liked, and there was no attempt on the part of the "walkers" or the "supernumeraries" to prevent our making the most minute investigation into all points likely to throw light on the subject. There did not seem to be any of the stones lying about ; in fact, I made careful search for the same kind of stone on the shore and beach at Mbenga (Bega), and, finding none, concluded that they had been brought from inland, probably from near some extinct volcanic crater. This seems likely, as many ob- servers consider the stone of the nature of basalt, some term it "volcanic," some "hard conglomerate." Not being able to give any opinion on this point myself, I submitted a small fragment I had to Dr. Marshall, of the Otago School of Mines, and received the following report : — 13 194 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. University of Otago, School of Mines, 14th August, 1902. Rock for Determination. Dr. Marshall has examined this rock microscopically, and finds it is an augite andesite of the ordinary type, compact and splintery in fracture. It consists of an aggregate of plagioclase augite and a little hornblende set in a fine-grained groundmass of feldspar microlites. Augite andesite is a common rock in the Auckland Goldfields and in the ct-ntral volcanic region of the North Island, while many kinds of andesite are found around Dunedin. James Park, Director. It is acknowledged that the stones are of one particular kind, and that the Mbenga (Bega) performers carry them from island to island, and will not walk on any other kind. That is a fact, and points away from the idea held by most people that the mystery is in the " walkers" and not in the " walked upon." I have no doubt that near some of the old craters of Viti Levu, or the other islands of the group, the same stone can be found in abundance. What struck me at once on handling the stone, or rather trying to do so, was its extraordinary tenacity of heat, or, in other words, the extremely slow throwing-off of its heat by cooling or radiation. Even after frequent, and often con- tinuous, dippings in cold sea-water, and water from a fresh stream that ran out at that spot, the stone seemed little or no cooler. That stones were carried for more than two hours after these dippings and still remained uncomfortably warm gives one a clue to the mystery. This stone takes two days to get to its proper condition, for the natives keep the furnace going and refuse to walk unless that time has elapsed ; and when the ceremony is over it takes a corresponding time to cool, for yams, taro, &c, wrapped in leaves take, they say, two days' cooking before being in a fit state for eating. Now, Darwin describes the Tahitian method of cooking as follows : " They made a small fire of sticks and placed a score of stones of about the size of cricket-balls on the burning wood. In about ten minutes the sticks were consumed and the stones hot. They had previously folded up in small parcels of leaves pieces of beef, fish, ripe and unripe bananas, and the tops of the wild arum. These green parcels were laid in a layer between two layers of the hot stones, and the whole then covered up with earth so that no smoke or steam could escape. In about a quarter ^ of an hour the whole was most deliciously cooked "(Z). The articles of food which we saw placed in the lovo after the " fire-walk " were almost precisely the same as those here mentioned, yet owing to the slow giving-off of heat from this particular stone the cooking was greatly prolonged. That vegetables which can be cooked in an ordinary house-oven in three or four hours should remain in the lovo for forty-eight and not be burnt to cinders or steamed Fulton. — On the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony. 195 to pulp again points to but one conclusion. It seems to me evident that such a stone does not throw off or radiate its heat to anything like the extent that an ordinary stone does, and that, given a foot in contact with it for one second, the heat penetrating into that foot is not more than a frac- tion of what would come from a stone of different compo- sition in the same space of time. I draw the conclusion that this volcanic stone does not burn matter coming mo- mentarily in contact with it to the extent that many other heated bodies would. Further, it is a remarkable fact, which seems to have hitherto escaped notice, that fresh stones are used for each performance. Fresh boulders in heap3 certainly appear in all pictures of preparation for "fire-walking," and the description of the heating is in all cases almost identi- cal. So far as I could gather that is so, the natives never using split or already burnt stones, but having fresh ones for each " walk." Now, it was noticed by Mr. Burke and others Q), includ- ing myself, that the assistants, or " supers," as one may call them, were most particular in turning and re-turning the stones until in most cases the smooth side — that is to say, the flattened side — was uppermost. To me the significance of that arrangement was evident. The stones, originally rounded, were split by the action of the heat into segments, in many cases preserving on one side a convex surface, which I think received more of the heat, being part of the original outside of the stone ; the flattened or fractured surface, on the other hand, being from the inside, received, owing to poor conduction, a less amount of heat. It would be pos- sible for the "walkers" to avoid any stone which did not show a flattened or fractured surface, and that choice, I think, would lessen the amount of heat absorbed into the foot. This seems to me a point for future observers to look into. Fresh round stones are used every time, and the " walk- ing " does not take place till all or nearly all of them are split up. The fire is then removed, and much time and trouble is spent in getting the flattish surface of the stone upwards. It must be borne in mind that while the stones are lying in the oven the upper surface of each is practically the onlv part that is cooling, and that to a very slight extent, as the lower and greatly heated surfaces are then all in con- tact with one another. This it is that makes the "mean" heat of the stone seem so great on removal from the fire, and the comparative coolness of one surface is unsuspected. So long as the stone remains in the highly heated lovo radiation is infinitesimal, first from the peculiar character of the stone, of which you shall presently hear, but also from the fact that 196 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. the general atmosphere in and around the pit is so high in temperature. The moment the stone is removed from the oven to a cooler surrounding atmosphere radiation begins to take place more rapidly — -that is, the stone burns more easily a hand or foot in contact with it. It is a well-known fact that all these volcanic rocks are bad conductors of heat, and numerous observers have commented upon this. Those who have visited volcanic regions tell us "that the hardened crust of a lava-stream is a bad conductor of heat, consequently when the surface of the mass has become cool enough to be walked upon the red-hot mass may be observed through the rents to lie only a few inches below. Many years, therefore, may elapse before the temperature of the whole mass has fallen to that of the surrounding soil. Eleven months after the eruption of Etna, Spallanzani could see that the lava was red hot at the bottom of the fissures, and a stick thrust into one of them instantly took fire. The Vesuvian lava of 1785 was found by Breislak, seven years afterwards, to be still hot and steaming internally, though lichens had already taken root on its surface. The ropy lava erupted by Vesuvius in 1858, and spread over the surround- ing country, was observed in 1870 to be still so hot even near its termination that steam issued abundantly from its rents, many of which were too hot to allow the hand to be held in them. Hoffmann records that the lava that flowed from Etna in 1787 was still steaming in 1830. But still more remarkable is the case of Jorullo, in Mexico, which poured out its lava in 1759. Twenty-one years later a cigar could still be lighted at its fissures ; after forty-four years it was still visibly steaming; and even in 1846 — that is, after eighty- seven years of cooling — two vapour columns were still rising from it "(n). These stones, therefore, being of igneous origin, are almost certainly very slow in conductivity and also in radiation or cooling, but for actual proof of this one must go further. In order to prove, if possible, my theory that this stone does not throw out as much heat, or, in other words, does not burn so severely, as an ordinary stone of different com- position, I have had some experiments conducted at the Otago School of Mines by the Director, Professor Park. I asked him to compare in some way the heat-throwing-off property of this stone with that of others of very different composition, by subjecting them for the same space of time to the same amount of heat and then measuring the respec- tive amounts of heat radiated. I suggested various rough experiments, such as heating the stones from below and having on the upper surface evaporating glasses of water or highly inflammable liquids, &c, in order to prove which Fulton. — On the Fiji Fire-walkimj Ceremony. 197 stone takes the greatest length of time to conduct from the under to the upper surface enough heat to cause evaporation or ignition, &c. Professor Park says, — I have made a series of experiments to determine conductivity and rate of radiation, as requested by you, and the results are appended here- with. To make comparative tests with skin or feathers would be diffi- cult. Augite Andesite for Determination of Conductivity and Rate of Radia- tion of Heat. Conductivity. — To determine the relative thermal conductivity of the andesite a pencil of it was tested simultaneously with pencils of copper, slate, and rhyolite, each pencil being 8 cm. long and 0-5 cm. in diameter. Taking the thermal conductivity of copper as equal to 1,000, the relative conductivity of the others was found to be as follows : Slate, 7-63 ; andesite, 6-67 ; rhyolite, 2*35. From these figures it will be seen that the highly acidic rhyolite is practically a non-conductor of heat, while the conductivity of the others is very feeble. Radiation of Heat. — A series of experiments was made to determine the relative rate of radiation of marble, rhyolite, andesite, basalt, and cast iron. For this purpose a portion of each weighing 10 gm. (150 gr.) was heated in a muffle furnace to a temperature of about 850° C. (about 1,562° F.) and then plunged for one second of time into a glass beaker con- taining 100 c.c. of water. The portions of material were shaped so as to give approximately an equal surface of radiation in each. The number of degrees of temperature through which the water was raised was carefully noted. In most cases the experiments were repeated three times, and in all cases twice. The "means" of the different readings were taken, and, expressing the radiation of iron as 100, it was found that the relative rate of radiation of the others was as follows : Marble, 52 ; rhyolite, 50 ; andesite, 48 ; basalt, 45. The experiments took many hours and the making of apparatus for the tests. They seem to bear out your contention re feeble radiation of the andesite — that is, the temperature might be very high, but, the rate of radiation being so low, the heat given off in one second of time would not be sufficient to burn the feet. From what I have said, and from Professor Park's experi- ments, the results of which I have given, with his remarks thereon, it seems to me that the fractured or inside surface of this stone does not, owing to slow conductivity, receive nearly the amount of heat one would expect. Secondly, owing to the slow radiation of heat, also proved by these experiments, the foot is not burnt when coming into contact with the stone for a second or less. It would be interesting to have some of the unsplit stones brought from Mbenga (Bega) to Otago and heated to a temperature tbat would cause splitting and then have the radiation from the two surfaces tested in some way. This testing is hardly possible of application on the site of the performance at Fiji, but would have to be carried out in a properly equipped laboratory, as at the Otago School of Mines. My thanks are due to Dr. Marshall for his report on the character of the stone, and I am much indebted to Professor Park for the interest and trouble he took in the matter, and for his kindness in devising and performing the tests, which 198 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. have brought out the points I emphasized, and of which I required scientific proof. It is another instance of the ad- vantage of having in our midst an institution such as the Otago School of Mines, where one can have scientific investi- gations accurately carried out at a few hours' notice. Since writing the above I have read an article in Nature on the Tahiti "Fire-walk," by Professor S. P. Langley, of the Smithsoniau Institution, Washington. In his account the shape of the lovo is more oblong than circular, and makes it possible for a straight march from the one end to the other and back again. Professor Langley states that before the ceremony he had been told that he could, with- out fear of burning, "walk" in leather boots or shoes, and he was a witness of this performance, one of his companions walking, and even standing still, on the hot stones for eight or ten seconds " before he felt the heat through his thin shoes." Many others also walked over the stones in their boots without any sign of scorching(/). In the Tahitian account the fire only took four hours to prepare, whereas we were assured that it always takes two days in Fiji. There was in our case none of the flame darting up during the " walking," as described by Professor Langley, and there was practically no smoke. The flames and white- hot stones, the burning poles, the yelling and shouting while the stones were being levelled, were all part of the "staging of the piece," and were strung out to draw away the atten- tion from the fact that time was passing and the stones slowly cooling. Professor Langley went to great pains to form a scientific estimate of the actual heat of the stone, and, though he had many difficulties in the way, made it clear that the mean heat of a large piece which he had seen walked upon, and which he had himself cooled, was at the " time of removal from the fire about 1,200° F., but that the walked - upon surface was almost certainly indefinitely lower." In Professor Park's letter to me enclosing the report he says. "The radiation tests show that marble parts with its heat more rapidly than either andesite or basalt, hence would burn when andesite would not." This is very interesting, as Professor Langley reported that the head performer who took part on that occasion had failed when he tried on a neigh- bouring island with " stones of a marble-like quality." He was also asked to put his foot between the hot stones into the flames below, or on to the lower red-hot stones, but he very cleverly declined in a most dignified manner with the words, " My fathers did not tell me to do it that way." He also promised to hold a piece of the hot stone iu his hand, but, as Professor Langley says, " he did not do so." Fulton. — On the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony. 199 A portion of the stone was examined at Washington, and was described by Professor Langley as follows : " It was a volcanic stone, and on minute examination proved to be a vesicular basait, the most distinctive feature of which was its extreme porosity and non-conductibility, for it was subsequently found that it could have been heated red hot at one end while remaining comparatively cool at the top. Its conductibility was so extremely small that one end of a fragment could be held in the hand while the other end was heated indefinitely in the flame of a blow-pipe." Mr. R. M. Laing, M.A., B.Sc, in an article in the Christ- church Weekly Press of the 16th July, gives a brief account of the "fire-walk" as witnessed by various persons in dif- ferent countries, and criticizes Professor Langley's report adversely. He describes the Professor's experiment to deter- mine the heat of the stone, and then goes on to draw con- clusions, which Professor Langley was most particular to refrain from doing. All that Professor Langley said was that the mean heat of the stone which he had seen walked upon was, "at the time of removal from the oven, about 1,200° F., but that the walked-upon surface was almost certainly in- definitely lower." He stated that the stone was a very poor conductor of heat, and gave its specific heat and its specific gravity. He advanced no theory, but confined him- self to facts as seen in the laboratory. He made no en- deavour to show how one surface might be colder than another in the lovo. Mr. Laing, however, proceeds thus : "Professor Langley's argument is this: It is quite true that the under-surface of the stone was at a very high tempera- ture, but, being a piece of vesicular basalt, it was a very bad conductor of heat, and consequently its upper surface must have been indefinitely lower in temperature, and therefore low enough to enable the native sole to rest momentarily in contact with it and not be burnt. Now, there is a specious appearance of scientific exactitude about this ' argument ' very apt to mislead the unwary. . . . It at once enables the reader to point out the defects of his ' argument.' It depends entirely upon the assumption that the upper surface of the stone is comparatively cold, and that the contact with it is only instantaneous." Mr. Laing then says, " It is quite true that in this case, as in so many others, appearances may be deceptive, and that the upper surface of the stones may not always be at a red heat, and may, indeed, in some cases be comparatively cooV{k). That is exactly what Professor Langley did his best to find out, and what in this paper I have endeavoured to prove, and Mr. Laing's use of that paragraph destroys, to my mind, the whole of his criticism. Professor Langley made use of no such terms as " upper 200 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. surface " and " under- surface," but used the words " walked - upon surface," and mentioned no part of the stone as having been specially heated in the oven. He merely referred to the physical characters of the stone, and left any conclusions to be drawn by others. Mr. Laing says that Professor Langley's argument "will not explain the case in which men walk on burning embers, and not on red-hot stoues," such as the performance in Mauritius, where Hindu coolies walk on red-hot coals. From a description of the "fire-walk " in Tahiti, where Pro- fessor Langley made a careful examination of the main factor, a heated stone, to argue that he did not show how in Mau- ritius, 8,000 miles away, men can walk upon red-hot embers, seems to me peculiar. Professor Langley reported on the Tahiti " walk " on heated stones, which he had himself wit- nessed ; not on the Mauritius " walk " on red-hot coals, which he had never seen. Until one of the performances in Mau- ritius, Japan, or elsewhere, has been witnessed and reported upon in a strictly judicial manner by a scientist of authority, one cannot accept the statement that the men walk upon red- hot coals. The performance, as seen in Fiji, is so different from the conception previously formed from newspaper ac- counts, that it is more than likely that much exaggeration will be found in the descriptions of the "walking" in other parts of the world. The thanks of the scientific world are certainly due to Professor Langley for calling attention to the peculiar cha- racter of the Tahiti stone, and for estimating the mean heat of a piece which he had seen walked upon ; but he did not show in what way the poor conductivity might be utilised, nor did he allude to the more important fact of slow radia- tion. In conclusion, I repeat that the main factors in this strange apparent immunity from burning at Mbenga (Bega) are as follows :— (1.) The slow radiation of heat from these basaltic stones. (2.) The stones are gradually heated until split by the expansion of the water therein, the fire is then put out, and the stones are carefully arranged fractured surface upwards. (3.) Owing to poor conduction, the inside of the stone, or fractured surface, is not nearly so hot as the spectators imagine. (4.) The general heat of the lovo is so great that radiation from each individual piece of stone is infinitesimal, and much less than it is when the stone is removed from the oven to a cooler surrounding atmosphere. (5.) The foot is only momentarily in contact with the heated stone. I Adams. — On Triangulation by Least Squares. 201 (6.) The foot is naturally cold or artificially cooled. These are, I think, the reasons for the facility with which the magicians perform their " fire-walk," and I must say that it is a smart piece of jugglery or "savage magic," and not by any means an inexplicable mystery. Eeferences. (a.) Chnstchurch Press, 16th July, 1902. (b.) New Zealand Graphic, 10th July, 1902. (c.) Auckland Weekly News, 17th July, 1902. (d.) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxi., p. 667. (e.) " Camping among Cannibals," by Alfred St. Hill Johnston. Macmillans ; 1886. (/.) Nature, 22nd August, 1901. (g.) New Zealand Graphic, 10th July, 1902, p. 106. (h.) "Journal of the Polynesian Society," vols. ii. and iii. (t.) " Journal of the Polynesian Society," vol. ii. (;.) Christchurch Press, 16th July, 1902, p. 6. (k.) Ibid., p. 55. (I.) "Naturalists' Vovage round the World," Darwin, p. 491. (m.) Encycl. Britt., vol. x., pp. 260 and 262. (n.) Ibid., p. 248. Art. XIV.— The Adjustment of Triangulation by Least Squares. By C. E. Adams, B.Sc. (Honours), A. I. A., late Engineering Entrance Scholar and Engineering Exhibitioner, Canter- bury College ; late Senior Scholar in Physical Science, N.Z. University. (Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th November, 1902.] It is proposed in the following paper to select examples of the ordinary methods of adjusting triangulation as practised in New Zealand and to apply to them the least-square adjust- ment, so as to compare the relative results obtained, and to show by actual examples that this method of adjustment alters the observed angles less than any other method. It will also be shown that the least-square adjustment can be simply and readily applied to most cases that occur in practice. It is hoped that this treatment of the subject will be of use to the practical computer, and that it will enable him to see the advantages of the least-square adjustment by comparing its results with those usually obtained. To make the treatment as simple as possible it will be assumed that all the angles are equally well observed. 202 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Example No. 1. — The Adjustment of Four Plane Tri- angles. For the purposes of comparison with the usual method of adjusting triangulation (in which one-third of the triangular error is applied to each angle of the triangle) an easy example is selected embracing the adjustment of four plane triangles. The side P4 P in the figure is a side of the existing triangu- lation, and is to be adopted as correct both in bearing and length. From this side it is desired to extend the triangula- tion so as to include the points P! P3 and P2. The angles are all observed, and are shown in column No. 2 of the schedule. No observation was possible between Pj and P3. I. Adjustment as Four Separate Triangles. The angles in each triangle are adjusted by applying to each angle one-third of the triangular error of the triangle. The adjustment is shown in the schedule in columns 1 to 4. In column 1 the names of the angles are entered as follows (see figure) : — A, = P Px P4 A2 = P P2 Px Bx = Px P4 P Ba = P2 Pt P C, = P4 P Pt C2 = P, P P2 A3 = P Ps P2 A4 = P P4 P8 Bg = P3 P2 P B4 = P4 P3 P C3 = P2 P P3 C4 = P8 P P4 Column No. 2 contains the observed angles. In column No. 3 one-third of the triangular error of each triangle is applied to each angle. Adams. — On Triangulatiou by Least Squares. 203 Column No. 4 gives the sums of the angles (seconds only) of columns Nos. 2 and 3. With these angles (from column 4) the triangles are calculated, and the following results are obtained : — First Pair of Triangles- -Pi P* P and P2 Px P. Side. Bearing. Distance. Links. Remarks P P4 53° 03' 07" 27833-3 Adopted as 1 P< Pi 20° 13' 46-3" 29069-9 Pi P 130° 51' 38-7" 16120-5 P, P0 67° 42' 42-7" 34843-4 P. P 220° 09' 19-7" 31089-0 Second Pair of Triangles— P3 P2 P and P, Ps P. Side. Bearing. Distance. Links. Remarks. P P4 53° 03' 07" 27833-3 Adopted as 1 P* Ps 30° 49' 18-7" 40207-6 P3 P 174° 43' 37-3" 17874-2 Ps P2 74° 37' 29-0" 22499-4 P2 P 220° 09' 24-7" 31093-3 Comparing the bearing and length of the side P.3 P as obtained from the two sets of triangles, we have — 220° 09' 19-7" 310890 links ; and 220° 09' 24-7" 31093-3 „ giving differences of 5" and 4-3 links. The application of the ordinary adjustment, resulting as it does in these differences, is therefore very unsatisfactory, and the question arises as to whether it is desirable in this and in similar cases to adopt some further adjustment to the observed angles so as to eliminate the discrepancies shown above. Before discussing the further adjustment it may be as well to remark that the ordinary procedure would be to adopt the mean values of the bearing and distance of P P2. None of the other sides, however, would receive any correction ; con- sequently if the calculation is repeated, using the mean value of P P2 as base, an entirely different set of values will be obtained for all the other sides of the triangles. As the need for further adjustment is obvious, the method of applying it will now be indicated. II. The Least-square Adjustment. The problem to be solved is : Given the observed angles of the four triangles, corrected as shown in I., by applying one-third of the error of each triangle to each angle, what further corrections must be made to these angles so as to eliminate the discrepancies found above ? 204 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. It is evidently desirable that the corrections should be as small as possible so that no undue alterations are made to the angles : this condition is satisfied when the sum of the squares of the corrections is a minimum. The application of this condition is shown on the schedule, and is briefly as follows : — In column No. 5 the natural sines of the angles in column No. 4 are given. If the sines in No. 5 were correct we should have — Sin Ai sin A2 sin A3 sin A4 -. Sin Bj sin B2 sin B3 sin B4 ~~ This equation shows that the length of P P2 calculated from P P4 by the first pair of triangles should be the same as the length calculated by the second pair of triangles. This is not usually the case, so put Sin Ax sin A2 sin A3 sin A4 = 1 + €. Sin Bi sin B2 sin B3 sin B4 where the sines are taken from column No 5 and c is n radians. To convert e into seconds multiply the value in radians by 206265 (= number of seconds in 1 radian). The calculation is shown on the schedule, giving, in this particular example, e = + 28"01. (Note. — Attention must be paid to the sign of e.) The other necessary condition is that the sum of the angles Cj and C2 should equal the sum of the angles of C3 and C4, or— Cx + 02 = C3 + d. This is not usually the case, so put Ci + C2 = C3 + C4 + €0, where the angles are taken from column No. 4 and e0 is in seconds. This gives e0 = — 5" in this example (see schedule). (Note. — Attention must be paid to the sign of e0.) In column No. 6 the natural cotangents of the angles are inserted. In column No. 7 twice the cotangents are entered. Let ax = cot Aj „ ft = cot Bx and similarly for the other angles. Let ax = 2d! + ft „ 6, = - ax - 2ft » C\ = — <*i + ft and similarly for a3, b3, c3 : at, bit c4. In column No. 8 the values of alt blt cx, &c, are given, and a check is obtained by noting that at + bx + cx = o. Square all the values in column No. 8 and add them. This Oo = cot A2 ft = cot B2 (N HO->* 00 t- «5 t-l 00 iH CO CO O CD CO O ^HCOi-H OOCMOl 5 ociin o>t-cb 0060 tx 106S CM CO HU3-* •* •* •* CM O r-i T 2§ • ca a co co o a H(OW 00O3O3 t— CO »C CO CO 03 OOO 00 -# CO lOrnOO OJ-^rH O t-CO COCOO tHCOtH lOOi^H ' sho cbtHcN Ooioq cocoo 1 + + 1 + + 1 + 1 1 + ! II II II II II II II II II II II II H jH H CN CM 3» (j $)« o 73 go- 000 000 000 000 CD CO CM CO CO -H lOOi-H 1QIO--H lOlOH "ooAi 60H 66h 66h 11+ 11+ ++ 1 ++ 1 — X T HttllO 00O3O3 t- CO W COCOi-H OCOCO WOH tH CO CO 0000O ..looit- ooaiai t- t- o ocot- H«6 (NHO OHH tHCCO 1 + 1 1 ++ 1 + 1 1 + + CD ci e CM CO -* OOOOO O^tfrft CO 00 lO O t- t- CO (MH OCOCO COCO t- CO -* tH COOi"* i-H C- CO (Mi-HO cVlcbrt ■* — 1 Ol ■* t-T-H. 00O. COC3. COt- . 6 CO ' COtH- OCT ' ■* CM * + + ++ 1 + + + to SJ ■M o o O COO COCO COCO OH t~uo >-io t-10 ■** t- COO OliO rH 'tf ■>* CO 6tH HO OH CM tH + + : ++ ■ 1 + '■ ++ • II II II II II II II II HH CNd CO CO ■*•■* eco_ s *«l t-CDt- OOO CO -* CO COCO-* COCOCO OOO COCOCO COCOCO S t-OH CO CO H CO -* t- COHO CMCO CN10-*! ■* -*Tt(CO eo ?> a 2<] r1 o h o'SHo t-COt- OOO t-COt- t- t- CO COCOCO OOO COCOCO COCOcD -666 thihth 4t)-*-* C1C-5CN +++ III III III 2. •a . co co S-l f— < CD Q£ 2 H - t- 0 1-1 CN CO CM 03 CO CM tJ( ^( „ CT5 Ol t- 0 CD CO t- 00 10 m b- rH -# t- CM CM iO ■* COCON CO 1-1 t~ co ai CM CO 00 CO 0 0 00 1— t CO Ci CM r-H JO CO CO lO CM CM on'* -* 1-1 O 0 00 1—1 i-H -X CO O tH CO CO 0 0 H ■* CN CO CM co ol 0 1 00 1 "1 rH S3[3av .). This I regard as the posterior termination of the penis, which passes into the vas deferens without any perceptible change, except a slight diminution of the tube. To follow the course * Godwin-Austen, Proc. Malac. Soc. London, vol. i., pp. 5-9, pi. i. (by an evident slip of the pen this plate is made to appear as illustrating the anatomy of P. busbyi) ; Collinge, Ann. Mag. N.H., ser. 7, vol. vii., pp. 68-70, pi. ii., figs. 17-21 ; Beutler, Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. f. Morph.), 1901, bd. 14, pp. 369-416, t. 26-29. t Collinge, ibid., pp. 70-71, pi. ii., figs 22-25. J A note on the anatomy of this species has been forwarded to the Malac. Soc. London, but the publication has not yet reached me. § Hedley, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (series 2), vol. vii., pp. 387-392, pis. ix.-x. ; Collinge, ibid., pp. 71-72, pi. ii., figs. 26-30. Murdoch. — On Paryphanta busbyi. 261 of these organs sectional investigation is necessary, and fig. 5 has in part been constructed from the data thus obtained. The anterior portion of the vagina {ant. vg.) forms a wide chamber, closed posteriorly by a valve-like papillar structure (vg. p.) ; the interior walls are slightly darkish in colour, and weakly longitudinally plicated. The papilla is continuously united with the vaginal wall, and the perforation through its centre is the only communication with the oviduct. Its an- terior third projects freely into the anterior vaginal chamber. Its walls are comparatively thick ; internally they are lightly longitudinally plicated, and have a whitish epitheloid lining. The penis (p.) opens into the posterior portion of the papillar structure in the form of a small tube ; it proceeds through the thick vaginal wall in an oblique anterior direction, and becomes slightly enlarged or bulbous towards its termina- tion. The vas deferens (v. d.), as previously stated, is free to a very limited extent, and is imbedded in the vaginal wall. Its posterior prostatic course through the prominent folds or plications of the oviduct is tubular to a little above the position of section b, thence open, but for a short distance enfolded on all sides by the above-mentioned plications as figured in section c. From this point to the albumen gland it is a well-marked area of a rusty brownish tint, and some- what separated from the uteral portion by the longitudinal folds. The uterus (ut.) is thrown into numerous sacculations, and its interior walls are richly convolutely plicated. There is no indication of a receptaculum seminis. The albumen gland (alb. g.) is very large, a usual feature in this group of animals ; in outline it is roughly boot-shaped. The her- maphrodite duct (h. d.) enters near the base of the albumen gland ; it is a simple straight tube, with several short lesser tubes branching from it and uniting with the several masses which form the hermaphrodite gland. The latter (h. g.) are closely convoluted structures and imbedded in the liver. When compared with Schizoglossa novoseelandica it is found that the vas deferens in the latter species is free to a greater extent, that no portion of its internal prostatic course appears to be tubular, and there does not appear to be any vaginal papilla. During copulation the atrium is everted ; the penis pore is thus brought forward and may be detected on the everted wall. In P. busbyi what I have termed the anterior vaginal chamber doubtless undergoes complete ever- sion, and the vaginal papilla will be thrust outwards to a con- siderable degree — probably to a much greater extent than the appearance of the organ in its present condition suggests. The generative organs of the three previously mentioned species differ from each other in a rather marked degree, and the type of the genus further accentuates the divergence. 262 Transactions. — Zoology. There yet remain two rare species which are anatomically unknown — viz., P. gilliesi, Smith, and P. lignaria, Hutton. A knowledge of the anatomy of these species is much to he desired, and I trust the collector who may have the good fortune to secure them will not neglect to preserve the animals. In the allied genus Bhytida the teeth of the majority of the species have been described and figured, but, with the exception of two species, B. greenivoodi, Gray,* and B. meesoni, Suter,f nothing is known of their general anatomy. EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXVII. Paryphanta busbyi, Gray. Fig. 1. Buccal mass, salivary glands, and portion of the alimentary canal. Fig-2"l Teeth Fig. 3. ) leetn- Fig. 4. Generative organs. Fig. 5. Sectional view of portion of the generative organs, with transverse sections a, b, c, d. Abbreviations. alb. g. Albumen gland. ovd. Oviduct. ant. r. m. Anterior retractor p. Penis. muscles. pr. Prostate. ant. vg. Anterior vaginal chamber. r. m. Retractor muscle. b. m. Buccal mass. h. d. Hermaphrodite duct. h. g. Hermaphrodite gland. ms. Muscular tissue connect- ut. Uterus. ing the oviduct with v.d. Vas deferens, body-wall. vg. Vagina. ces. GSsophagus. vg. p. Vaginal papilla. s. g. Salivary gland. s. d. Salivary duct. st. Stomach. Akt. XXV. — On the Occurrence of Paludicella in New Zealand. By A. Hamilton. [Read before the Otago Institute, 11th November, 1902.] In volume xii. of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute "J I noted the finding of a species of Plumatella in one of the rivers of Hawke's Bay. I have since found the same species [Plumatella repens) occurring plentifully in the Water of Leith and other streams near Dunedin. Within the last few months, however, another fresh-water Polyzoon has * Collinge, I.e., pp. 66-68, pi. i., figs. 1-16; Murdoch, Proc. Malac. Soc. London (part 4), vol. iv., pp. 166-168, pi. xvii., figs. 5, 6. f Murdoch, Proc. Malac. Soc. London (part iv.), vol. iv., p. 168, pi. xvii., fig. 7. t p. 301. Hamilton. — Occurrence of Paludicella in N.Z. 263 been noticed by me in the waters drawn from the Eoss Creek Keservoir, which supplies the greater number of the houses at the north end of Dunedin. On examination the Polyzoon proves to be Paludicella ehrenbergi, Van Beneden, a species beautifully figured and well described in Allman's "Mono- graph on the Fresh- water Polyzoa."* I now desire by this note to add the genus and species to the fauna of New Zealand. It is one of those widely distributed genera which seem to be found wherever the conditions are favourable, irrespective of geographical locality, and I have no doubt that it will hereafter be found in many parts of the colony when the fauna of our lakes and rivers is better known. The English species is sometimes found in favourable situations with branches 2 in. long, partly free and partly adherent to stones or stems of aquatic plants. It was originally figured by Van Benedenf and afterwards by other observers, but by far the most beautiful figure is that in the Ray Society's monograph. Generic description : Paludicella is one of the best marked of all the genera of fresh- water Polyzoa. The zooecia are club-shaped, each of which gives rise to two zooecia near their upper end, sharply separated from each other by complete septa. Lophophores perfectly orbicular. These, together with its internal anatomical details, remove it by a well-marked interval from the other genera. The present locality — Ross Creek Reservoir—is the most southerly of any of those hitherto recorded in the Old or the New World. On the first occasion on which I noticed specimens they had come through the ordinary town water- supply tap, about a mile and a half from the reservoir, and were floating in a white earthenware basin. They at once attracted attention in consequence of their very black colour. This appears to be the normal winter con- dition, and the black membrane is said to act as a covering for the undeveloped buds, ready to be put forth when warmer weather comes round. This has been worked out in the elaborate monograph by MM. Dumortier and Van Beneden, " On the Natural History of the Fresh-water Polyzoa. "J Allman says, with regard to this condition, "These hy- bernaculae are gemmae which under the influence of a favour- able temperature would have grown into the ordinary lateral branches of the Polyzoon, but which towards winter acquire a * G. J. Allrnan, Monog. Fresh-water Polyzoa. London, 1856. Bay Soc. f Bull. Acad. Brux., torn, vi., 2nd part, p. 278, fig. 1. See also the woodcut in the Cambridge Nat. Hist., p. 502, fig. 250. I Mem. de l'Acad. Boy. des Sciences et Belles Lettres de Brux., 1848. 264 Transactions. — Zoology. conical form, and then become for a while arrested in their development. In this state, surrounded by a firm membrane of a blackish-grey colour, they continue until the following spring, when the investing membrane splits to allow of the elongation of the branch." In November the water was again crowded with fragments of Paludicella, and also Plumatella, small fresh-water crus- taceans, and beautiful water -mites. No doubt the larger water-mains contain masses of these Polyzoa, amongst which large numbers of fresh-water animals find a habitation. Both Paludicella and Plumatella were found choking the water-pipes of the City of Hamburg, and were considered as having an unfavourable influence on the water-supply, as pro- viding a nidus for undesirable germs. Allman found that this species was " eminently a lover of obscurity," being only found under arches or places where direct sunlight does not penetrate. Art. XXVI. — Short Notes on some Insects. By F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., B.Sc. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 26th November, 1902.] Poliaspis media. I found this Coccid in dense white masses near the base of the leaves of Phormium tenax, at Lincoln. Maskell, in his notes on Coccids, records this insect only on Veronica, Leuco- pogon, Gyathodes, and ferns. Rhizobius graminis. Under the roots of cultivated grasses are commonly observed masses of a white mouldy-looking substance. On examining these I found each to contain an immature form of the above Aphidian. Its appearance and size are some- thing like those of the underground form of Phylloxera vasta- trix. The adult form, of which I found a single specimen, was covered with white waxy threads, as Schizoneura lanigera is, and it is doubtless by the shedding of these threads that the common tufts of white substance are formed. The adult, when cleaned of its covering, was dirty-white in colour, with bright-red eyes and a very long and strong proboscis, by means of which it feeds on the roots of grasses. Anabarhynchus luridus. I found the larva of this fly about 2 in. under the surface of ground sown in wheat, which at the time was about 3 in. Hilgendoef. — Notes on Insects. 265 high. The larva was about lin. long, very thin com- paratively, and of a light-brown colour. I found it on the 1st October, and the adult fly emerged on the 7th November. Odontria zealandica. The night of the 16th November, 1900, was dark, calm, and warm. As daylight failed the grass-paddocks became literally alive with brown beetles. The rustling of their climbing out of the grass was like a strong breeze in an oat- crop, and their droning while on the wing was like the hum of many threshing-mills. In their wheeling flight they struck the head at every moment, and tangled themselves in the hair and beard of observers. This lasted for twenty minutes at the outside — from 7.25 to 7.45 — then absolute stillness again. When I looked for the beetles they were dis- covered in countless numbers in the orchard, eating the younger leaves of pears, apples, and plums. They took no Dotice of the light of a strong acetylene-lamp, except occa- sionally to fall off the tree and lie as if dead. I often counted four beetles on a single leaf, and I believe there was a beetle on every leaf. When the tree was shaken they fell to the ground like hail. At 9 p.m. they were still feeding, and there was no change at 10.30 or 12 p.m. or at 2 a.m. At 3.30 a.m. a white streak of light had appeared in the east ; many of the beetles were still feeding, but a few were flying homeward. By 4 a.m. they were nearly all gone; but there was only a silent and gradual stealing away, very unlike the great bustle of their approach to their feeding-ground. I have not observed so great a flight since, though there have been several of less magnitude. The 16th was very calm and dull, and at nightfall there was a light breeze from the north-west, which changed at 2 a.m. to a slight air from the south-west, with a feeling of dampness. The minimum temperature for the night was 50° Fahr. By morning on the 17th the wind was again north-east, but by noon there was a howling gale from the south-west, with 1-635 in. of rain, next to the heaviest twenty-four hours' fall during the year. The three succeeding days were also days of south- west wind and slight rainfall. Another note on the brown beetle may perhaps be of interest. On the night of the 9th November, 1901, I was sleeping on the ground on the slopes of Mount Torlesse. I was suddenly awakened, and soon realised that a beetle had crawled into my ear, and, in the natural efforts of a ground- beetle to get to the bottom of a hole, was clawing against the tympanum, producing intense pain. It continued this scratching while I was striking a wet match, finding a knife, and sharpening a lead pencil, by means of which my com- 266 Transactions. — Zoology. panion shortly succeeded in withdrawing piecemeal a speci- men of Odontria. T^j Caccecia excessana. This common and very variable moth has taken on a new habit of great importance to the general public, and especially to fruit-growers. Meyrick described the insect as probably polyphagous, and Mr. Fereday has recorded, and Mr. Hudson observed, the caterpillar's habit of spinning down a leaf on to a nearly ripe apple or pear and eating away the fruit under the leaf. But the habit that I am about to record is, I believe, new, and certainly very destructive. The moth lays her eggs on the leaves of the apricot, on which the larva feeds till the fruit is nearly ripe. Then it bores its way into the fruit in the groove near the stem. It eats its way under the stem, which thus looses its hold, and the fruit falls to the ground when it is just starting to ripen. An apricot-tree near Lincoln College was loaded with well-formed fruit beginning to take on the colour of ripeness. Within a fort- night the whole of the fruit had fallen off without ripening. Heliostibes atychioid.es. Meyrick notices tl}is moth as frequenting Leptospermum. I found its larva in great numbers on the ornamental shrub Juniperus communis. The caterpillar is about -§-in. in length and Jg in. broad. It is of a light-brown colour, with the head and thorax dark-brown or black. Some hundreds were feed- ing on a single branch, and had quite destroyed the tough prickly foliage. When pupating they spin a cocoon binding several of the leaves together, and the general effect was to entirely destroy the branch on which they had been feed- ing. Plutella cruciferarum. The caterpillar of this moth abounds in, and often ruins, the turnip-crops of this district. I found many specimens that had been killed by the entomophagous fungus Ento- moyhthora radicans, with which I was able to infect healthy larvae, though not with that degree of certainty that one could have wished for. Porina cervinata. I found very numerous specimens of the larva of this moth under the roots of long-established grass at Lincoln College. The caterpillar is in all respects like that of P. signata, as figured by Mr. Hudson in his "New Zealand Moths." I iso- lated several specimens on the 23rd September, and some of them hatched out on the 15th October. Hilgendorf. — A Lint of N.Z. Rotifera. 267 Bombyx. We have here imported three bumble bees, B. virginalis, B. hortorum, and B. hortorum var. harrisellus. While making some investigations into the harm or good that these bees do to the bean-crop I made the following observations that I think worth recording : Of sixteen specimens of B. virginalis that I watched, the whole sixteen bit through the base of the flower to get at the nectar. Of thirteen specimens of B. hor- torum and of seventeen of B. hortorum var. harrisellus, the whole number climbed in through the mouth of the flower and got at the nectar by the legitimate means. It thus appears — and, indeed, it would appear from the structure of their probosces — that, as far as the bean goes, B. virginalis is useless or harmful, while the other two are useful. Art. XXVII. — The Rotifera of New Zealand : a Revised and Expanded List. By F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., B.Sc. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 26th November, 1902.] The object of this paper is to make numerous corrections in the " Contribution to the Study of the Eotifera of New Zea- land," which appeared in the " Transactions of the New Zea- land Institute," vol. xxxi., p. 107, and at the same time to add to the list the names of some species that I have found since writing my last paper. The corrections referred to have been made largely at the suggestion of Mr. C. F. Rousselet, Curator of the Royal Microscopical Society, and partly as the result of my own further observations. Order RHIZOTA. Family Floscularid^:. Genus Floscularia. F. coronetta (Hudson and Gosse, " Rotifera," p. 49) : Found by Archdeacon Stock at the Hutt. Recorded, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxv., p. 193. F. ornata (H. and G., p. 50) : Found among water-lilies, Lin- coln College. F. ambigua (H. and G., p. 53) : Found in lily pond at Mount Eden, Auckland. 268 Transactions. — Zoology. Family Melicertid^e. Genus Melicerta. M. ring ens (H. and G., p. 70) : Found by Mr. A. Hamilton near Napier. Eecorded in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xii., p. 301. Order BDELLOIDA. Family Philodinad^. Genus Philodina. P. erythrophthalma (H. and G., p. 99) : From Lincoln College pond. P. roseola (H. and G., p. 99) : From roofing-gutters and a cemented pond at Lincoln College. Very numerous at all times of the year. P. megalotrocha (H. and G., p. 101) : From Mount Eden, Auckland. I found also at Lincoln College a Philodinian resembling probably a variety of this species. I named it provisionally P. cloacata. Its chief characteristics are as follows : Size equal to P. megalotrocha. Body plump, quickly contracting to the foot, which is slender and 4-jointed. Just anterior to the foot is a large dome-like projection showing like a knot in the outstretched foot. Under this the cloaca lies. The toes are particularly long. Corona ample. Jaws at right angles to length of body, usually greatly obscured. Teeth 2. Cloaca very large. No brain observed. Dorsal antenna multisetate, 3-jointed. Eyes oblong-oblique. P. microps (H. and G., Supplement, p. 8) : Lincoln College ; common. Teeth 3, or 3 and 2. Genus Rotifer. B. vulgaris (H. and G., p. 104) : Lincoln College. B. macrurus (H. and G., p. 107) : Taieri Beach. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxi., p. 111. Genus Callidina. C. bibamata (H. and G., p. Ill) : From Lincoln College. C . quadridens (mihi) : Taieri Beaph. Trans. N.Z. Inst., loc. cit. C. venusta : A species with very long antennae, a variety of which I found at Lincoln College. The name is given by Mr. D. Bryce, 37, Brooke Eoad, Stoke-Newington Common, London, but I have no note of where he has recorded the species. Hilgendorf. — A List of N.Z. Eotifera. 269 Order PLOIMA. Sub-order IL-LOEICATA. Family Hydatinad^e. Genus Notops. N. minor (Eousselet, " Quekett's Journal," January, 1892) = Postclausa circularis and Postclausa minuta(mihi). Trans. N.Z. Inst., loc. cit. The two forms I figured represent different stages in the growth of the same animal. Genus Hydatina. H. scuta (H. and G., ii., p. 9) = H. monops (mihi). Trans. N.Z. Inst. loc. cit. My former description was made from a single dead speci- men, from the front of whose brain the red jaws were pro- truding and were mistaken for the eye. I have since found other specimens at Lincoln College. Family Notommatid^i. Genus Notommata. N. pentophthalma (mihi). Trans. N.Z. Inst., loc. cit. N. tripus (H. and G., ii., p. 22) : From lily pond, Lincoln College. Proales decipiens (H. and G., ii., p. 36) : Near Lincoln. Biglena foxcipata (H. and G., ii., p. 50) : Near Lincoln. Planoventer varicolor : This is a genus I made for a specimen discovered some years ago. I have never found the animal since, and so leave the name in the meantime. Trans. N.Z. Inst., loc. at. Genus Eosophora. E. aurita (H. and G., ii., p. 47) : Taieri Ferry. Sub-order LOEICATA. Familv Eattulid.e. Genus Mastigocerca. M. lophoessa (H. and G., ii., p. 60) = If. rectocaudatus (mihi). Trans. N.Z. Inst., loc. cit. Genus Rattulus. B. tigris (H. and G., ii., p. 65) : From Lincoln College. My specimens were longer and slenderer in body, foot, and mastax than those shown in Gosse's drawings. B. cimolius (H. and G., ii., p. 66) : From Lincoln College. B. or Cozlopus weberi. 270 Transactions. — Zoology. This is a peculiar little Eotifer that I found a single specimen of. It has a carina along the back of its lorica, and projecting from the front of this a horn-like spine. I therefore called my specimen B. unicomuta ; but it had already been described by Dr. Weber in his " Faune Eatatarienne du Bassin du Leman " as Cozlopus porcellus. It was, however, clearly not this species, and it is likely that it will appear as B. or Calopus weberi in the mono- graph of the Battulidce, that is about to be published by Dr. Jennings, of America. Genus Coelopus. C. tenuior (H. and G., ii., p. 68) = Mastigocerca flcctocaudatus (mihi). Trans. N.Z. Inst., loc. cit. C. brachyurus, Gosse (H. and G., ii., p. 69). Family Dinocharid^j. Genus Dinocharis. D. inomata (mihi). Trans. N.Z. Inst., loc. cit. I have seen other specimens of this species, and find them, in outline at least, and in marking of the lorica, exactly like those from which I made my former drawings. Family Salpinid.2E. Genus Diaschiza. D. tenuior (H. and G., ii., p. 81), found at Taieri Beach and Lincoln College = D. taurocephalus (mihi). Trans. N.Z. Inst., loc. cit. The variety tenna of my species is not sufficiently different from tenuior to justify the new species. I have since found tauroccphalus, and it is at least a very distinct variety of tenuior. D. semiaperta (H. and G., ii., p. 80) : Taieri Beach ; Lincoln College. D. pacta (H. and G., ii., p. 79) : Waihola Lake. D ventripes (Dixon-Nuttall) ? Family Buchlanid^. Genus Buchlanis. E. dilataia (H. and G., ii., p. 90) : Lincoln College. Family Cathypnid^e. Genus Cathypna. C. hudsoni (Lord) : I cannot find where recorded. Very common ; in pool, Mount Eden, Auckland. Hilgendorf. — A List of N.Z. Eotifera. 271 Genus Monostyla. M. cornuta (H. and G., ii., p. 98) : Lincoln College. H. lunaris (H. and G., ii., p. 98) : Waihola Lake. Family Colurid.ej. Genus Colurus. C. amblytelus or caudatus (H. and G., ii., p. 104). I have found several specimens of one of these species at Lincoln College. All my specimens, however, showed two minute eyes, cervical or frontal, while the ventral opening of the lorica showed all gradations from the gradual opening figured by Gosse in caudatus to the sudden circular opening figured in amblytelus. Genus Metopidia. M. acuminata (H. and G., ii., p. 107) : Taieri Beach. M. solidus (H. and G., ii., p. 106). This is by far the commonest species over the whole of these Islands. My variety latusinus was again met with. The M. ovalis, of Anderson and Shephard (Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xiv., n.s., part i., p. 69, 1892), is evidently a variety between my two varieties, and to bring the matter into line either M. ovalis should be regarded as a variety or my latusinus as a species. With the exception of M. ovalis, I have found no connecting-links between solidus proper and latusinus. M. triptera (H. and G., ii., p. 108). This charming little animal is common in the neighbour- hood of Lincoln. Family Pterodinid^. Genus Pterodina. P. patina (H. and G., ii., p. 112). This species I found in water squeezed out of swamp moss near Lincoln, and in a small creek running into Lake Waihola it was found in very large numbers. Family Anur^id^i. Genus Anuraea. A. hypelasma (H. and G., ii., p. 103) : Auckland. Genus Notholca. N. jugosa (H. and G., Supplement, p. 56 ; Gosse, Journal R.M.S., 1887, p. 1) = N. regularis (mihi). Trans. N.Z. Inst., loc. cit. I have found at Lincoln many specimens of this species showing gradations between the two varieties regularis and jugosa. 272 Transactions. — Zoology. Art. XXVIII. — On a New Species of Odontria. By J. H. Lewis, F.E.S. Communicated by W. W. Smith, F.E.S. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd September, 1902.] Plate XXXI. Odontria epomeas, u. s. Opaca, pubescens, picea, thoracis marginibus humerisque elytrorum testaceosignatis, capite grosse subseriatim punctato. Long. 13 mm. ; lat. 6-7 mm. 2 . Suboblong, opaque, velvety, clothed above with short yellow hairs ; head, thorax, and epipleurae with long erect setas ; thorax pitchy-brown, with the sides and a central streak testaceous ; elytra pitchy-brown, with numerous small irregular yellow marks, the shoulders each with a short tes- taceous vitta. Trophi and limbs reddish-yellow. Head in front shining pitchy-brown, behind yellow. Clypeus coarsely and closely punctured, obtusely rounded, and with the margin regularly elevated. Head with coarse punctures arranged in irregular rows, with smooth interspaces. Thorax with front angles acute. Scutellum testaceous, punc- tate. Elytra with sculpture as in O. occipitalis. Abdomen with fine punctures and longitudinal scratch-like sculpture. Antennae with 5th joint simple, club short, 3-articulate. Eakaia Gorges. Coll., Miss Jones. This species is closely allied to Odontria occipitalis, Broun, from which it may be distinguished by the yellow central vitta of the thorax and the humeral streaks. The coloration of the head is different, and probably also the sculpture, the punctation in 0. epomeas extending back as far as in any species with which I am acquainted. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXI. Odontria epomeas, n.s. Fig. 1. Head; x 6. Fig. 2. Fore tibia ; x 10. Fig. 3. Antenna ; x 30. Benham. — On a Nctv Species of Earthworm. 273 Aet. XXIX. — On a Ncic Species of Earthiuorm from Norfolk Island. By W. Blaxland Benham, Professor of Biology, University of Otago. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1902.] Plates XXII.-XXVI. Owing to the kindness of Professor Dendy I have been enabled to examine a small collection of earthworms made by Mr. Laing on Norfolk Island. The specimens were in two lots. One lot turns out to consist of introduced Euro- pean worms — Allolobophora caliginosa — a species which seems especially hardy and capable of adapting itself to a great variety of conditions, as it is now extremely widely spread, being met with wherever commercial intercourse with Europe has been established. The second lot consists of a few frag- ments (but, fortunately, two of these were the anterior moieties) of a worm which belongs to the genus Megascolex, the headquarters of which is Australia, though several species occur in Ceylon, and a few elsewhere in the Oriental region. The species does not agree with any hitherto described worms, and I suggest the specific name " laingii " for it. Owing to the poorness of preseiwation several points were not fully followed up, so that certain gaps in our knowledge of its anatomy remain. Megascolex laingii, n. sp. Colotir, in alcohol, purplish-red, with a darker line round the middle of each segment ; pale below. Length of longest fragment 20 mm., by 2 mm. in diameter, containing 28 segments. Prostomium broad, its base extending nearly across the peristomium ; its length short ; imbedded about one-third into peristomium. No posterior groove — i.e., "epilobic." Chcetce, in mid-body, about 32 — i.e., 16 on each side — with a distinct dorsal and ventral gap, the latter rather the greater. The number gets smaller anteriorly, as does the ventral gap, thus : Total number on 6th segment, 24 ; 3rd seg- ment, 20 ; 2nd segment, 16. The more dorsal chaetae of each ring are further apart than the more ventral ones. The clitellum is most unfortunately not yet developed. The male pores are on small rounded papillae on the 18th segment, in line with chaeta b (i.e., the second from below) ; each papilla is continuous on its external margin, with a short longitudinal ridge extending across the 18th segment. On the 17th segment is a pair of transverse ridges, or oval papillae, 18 274 Transactions. — Zoology. meeting in the median ventral line so as to form a dumb-bell- shaped accessory copulatory structure. The spermathecal pores are between segments 7/8 and 8/9, close to the ventral line, in line with chaetal gap b/c. On seg- ments 10, 11, and 12, in line with these pores, is a series of pale areas, each with a slight pitting in its centre, indicating copulatory tubercles. I did not find the oviducal pores. Dorsal pores commence behind segment o. Internal Anatomy. The dorsal vessel is single. The last heart is in seg- ment 12. I did not note the total number of hearts. The gizzard is small, thin-walled, cylindrical, and occupies segment 5. The oesophagus is slightly dilated in segments 13 and 14, though no definite gland is formed. The intestine commences in the 16th segment. The worm is micronephric, and anteriorly is a large glandular body, which is probably a pepto-nephridium. The Reproductive System. — The testes, ovanes, funnels, and ducts are in the usual positions. Two pairs of botryoidal sperm-sacs lie in segments 9 and 12, while the intervening segments were occupied by loose sperms. The prostates, or spermiducal glands, are small, limited to the 18th segment. Each is flattened, lobulated, with a short muscular duct, near the origin of which there is a distinct separate lobule of glandular substance, so that the gland is unequally bilobed. I observed no penial chsetae. The spermathecae are two pairs, in the 8th and 9th seg- ments respectively. Each consists of a globular copulatory sac, with a single elongated diverticulum opening by its own duct into the short duct of the copulatory sac. Remarks. In some respects this worm agrees with M. minor, Spencer,* from Queensland — e.g., in its small size, number of chgetae, position of dorsal pore, absence of oesophageal glands, and number of spermathecae and of anterior copulatory glands. On the other hand, Spencer describes vascular swellings of the oesophagus in segments 8, 9, and 10, and a bilobed, equilobed, spermiducal gland. He makes no refer- ence to copulatory glands on the 17th segment, which are so conspicuous in the present species. For explanation of figures, see pp. 289, 290. * Baldwin Spencer, "Further Descriptions of Australian Earth- worms" (Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 1900, xiii. (n.s.), p. 49). Benham. — On a Neiv Species of Earthworm. 275 Art. XXX. — On an Earthworm from the Auckland Islands — Notiodrilus aucklandicus. By W. Blaxland Benham, Professor of Biology, University of Otago. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1903.] Plates XXII.-XXVI. The material which forms the subject of the present note was collected by Captain Hutton during his recent trip to the southern islands. He was good enough to send it to me early in 1901. The collection consisted of six specimens, all belonging to the same species, which is new to science. Notiodrilus aucklandicus, n. sp. Colour. — The worms are, in the preserved condition, grey- ish in colour, with grey-brown clitellum, and the preclitellar region sienna-brown. The grey tone is due to the trans- parency of the body-wall allowing the contents of the gut to be seen ; nevertheless, pigment dots are present in the body- wall. Dimensions. — The largest specimen measures 93 mm., the smallest 78 mm. ; two others are 82 mm. in length The diameter of the first is 2-5 mm. in middle of body, but of the smallest 3-5 mm. The worms are, unfortunately, very soft, and imperfectly preserved, so that in handling the dimen- sions vary. One of the medium-sized specimens consists of 107 segments. The prostomium is imbedded about one-third into the peristomium, and is epilobic. The eight chatce are separate : aa = dd, ab — h aa, be = ■cd > ab. The clitellum is not quite fully developed in any specimen, but in the most mature it extends from half 13 to half 17 (in two specimens covers only 13 to 16). The anterior region is complete ventrally, but the under-surface of the 16th segment is devoid of glandular tissue. Genital Pores, &c. — The porophores on 17 and 19 are in line with chasta b, which, with a, is absent on these seg- ments. Both these chstae are present on the 18th segment. A spermatic groove, convex outwards, passes over this seg- ment in the usual way. Accessory copulatory tubercles exist, though there is some variability in their distribution ; but from an examination of the five individuals which exhibit them their location is as follows : — 276 Transactions. — Zoology. A. In line with chaeta a : A pair of small tubercles on 17 and 19, near the anterior margin, and mediad of the poro- phores ; a pair of similar tubercles on the 18th, near the hinder margin. B. In line with chaeta b : A pair of larger tubercles on segment 20, around chaeta b (and, in one case, also on the 21st segment) ; a pair of similar tubercles on the 16th seg- ment ; and a pair on the 10th segment. The spermathecal pores in the usual position, in line with chaeta b. The nephridiopores in line with chaeta c. Dorsal pores are present, at any rate, behind the clitellunu Internal Anatomy. The dorsal vessel is single ; the last heart is in the 12th segment. Alimentary System. — There is no gizzard perceptible on dissection. The oesophagus bears two pairs of distinct glands, in segments 13 and 14 respectively. The intestine commences in the 16th segment, and is without a typhlosole. Reproductive System. — ■ The testes, sperm-ducts, ovaries, and oviducts occupy the usual positions. There are two pairs of botryoidal sperm-sacs, in the 11th and 12th seg- ments. The spermiducal glands are long, folded, and tubular, but apparently of rather looser texture than is usual in Acanthodrilids. Each is provided with a narrow and long muscular duct, which is distinctly swollen where it penetrates the body-wall. Each gland passes through four to six seg- ments, and even the duct passes backwards into the segment following the pore. Penial chaetae are present. Each sac contains a couple, a longer and shorter, of functional chaetae, together with their replacers. Both have the same general form. The tip is somewhat spoon-shaped, while the shaft is ornamented by numerous fine transverse and serrated ridges. The spermathecae are in the usual segments. Each is a globular sac, with distinct narrow duct about half as long as the sac itself. This duct receives, as it passes through the body-wall, two sausage-shaped diverticula, which thus seem to be independent of the sac. Remarks. This worm differs from N. macquariensis , F.E.B., in several respects, as a comparison with the account* published * "On some Earthworms from the Islands around New Zealand" (Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxiii , p. 132). In that article I stated that the penial chsetse are " hooked " at the tip. This I now find, from observation of several specimens, to have been an accidental bending of the soft tip. The hook exists in the preparation I then made, but I have not observed it in other cases. Benham. — On New Species of Earthioorms. 277 by me in 1900 will show. There is, however, a special in- terest attaching to both these species, since they agree more closely with the species of Notiodrilus found at the Cape of Good Hope and at South Georgia, Falkland Islands, and Tierra del Fuego, than they do with the species of the genus •occurring in New Zealand itself. For explanation of the figures, see pp. 289, 290. Art. XXXI. — On the Old and some Neiv Species of Earth- worms belonging to the Genus Plagiochgeta. By W. Blaxland Benham, Professor of Biology, University of Otago. [Read before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1902.] Plates XXII.-XXVI. During the four years in, which I have resided in New Zea- land I have been accumulating a considerable number of •earthworms collected in various parts of New Zealand. Amongst other friends and gentlemen who have been good enough to make collections for me, or to send me those worms already in their collections, I have to thank Captain Hutton, who placed his collection at my disposal ; Pro- fessor Dendy; Mr. H. B. Kirk; Mr. W. W. Smith, who on several occasions has, at my request, sent me particular species, and constantly sends me material as he meets with it ; Mr. H. Suter, and others whose names appear in the fol- lowing communications. I have as yet had time only to ex- amine critically a small proportion of this material, and I have devoted this article to the description of four new species of Plagiochceta, together with remarks on Captain Hutton's species. As in a previous article, I here deal only with cha- racters rendered evident by dissection. I reserve certain in- teresting and important details of microscopic structure for another paper. It will be seen that the new species of the genus differ in various characters from the original species, and it will pro- bably be necessary to subdivide the genus. But for the pre- sent I use the term " Plagiochceta " in a wide sense, to include endemic earthworms, which differ from typical Acanthodrilids {Notiodrilus, Maoridrilus) and from Octochcetus in possessing numerous chaetae on each segment in place of the more usual eight. But it seems desirable to await further research in greater detail before the genus is subdivided. This matter, however, I hope to deal with in a forthcoming article else- where. 278 Transactions. — Zoology. Plagiochseta sylvestris, Hutton, 1876 (= P. punctata? Benham, 1892). In the year 1876 Captain Hutton* gave a brief account of the external anatomy of several New Zealand earthworms, amongst which were two species which he placed in the genus Megascolex — viz., M. sylvestris and M. lineatus. In the year 1892 I gave a detailed account! of the anatomy of a worm collected on Maungatua, for which it was necessary to create a new genus, and I termed it Plagiochseta punctata. At that time I was ignorant of Captain Hutton' s article ; but in 1892 Mr. BeddardJ suggested that in all probability M. sylvestris belonged to this new genus. This supposition was confirmed by me when, in 1898, I had the opportunity of examining Hutton's types, § preserved in the Otago Uni- versity Museum, and in a note upon these types I pointed out that " it is difficult at present to determine whether M. sylvestris is or is not identical with P. punctata" ; and I recognised that M. lineatus belonged to the same genus. A renewed examination of the type, and of other specimens col- lected in the neighbourhood of Dunedin, where the type was collected, has enabled me to establish this identity, and,, further, to indicate the differences, external and internal, that exist between P. sylvestris and P. lineatus in a more detailed manner than was possible in my former note. Habits. — P. sylvestris occurs in rotten logs in the remains of the bush country that forms the Town Belt around Dun- edin, as well as on the slopes of Maungatua, and no doubt elsewhere. It is still pretty plentiful in our Town Belt, and I have found it especially in fallen Griselinia trees. The colour is chocolate, and closely resembles the vegetable mould — the digested wrood — amongst which it lives. It is marked, as I noted in 1892, with white spots, in which the chaetae are inserted, while the nephridiopores are also indi- cated by still more conspicuous white spots, readily visible to the naked eye. The species is extremely active, and moves in a straight line with great rapidity, using its mouth as an organ of adhesion. It contracts its bodv to about half its length, then thrusts its head forward and extends itself fully ; there is no wriggling or undulation of the body. When extended one specimen measured was 2 in. (50 mm.) ; * Hutton : "On New Zealand Earthworms in the Otago Museum " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., ix., p. 352). f Benham : "Notes on Two Acanthodriloid Earthworms from New Zealand " (Quart. Journ Micros. Sci., xxxiii., p. 294). | Beddard : " On some New Species of Earthworms from various Parts of the World " (Proc. Zool. Soc, 1892, p. 667). § Benham : "A Re-examination of Hutton's Types" (Trans. N.Z,. Inst., xxxi., p. 156 ; and Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), iii., p. 137). Benham. — On New Species of Earthworms. 279 when contracted, lf^ in. (25*5 mm.). It appears to move backwards' with almost the same ease with which it moves forwards. But what is most remarkable is its ability to climb up a vertical surface. I placed a specimen in a clean dry glass beaker 4 in. in height. It climbed up this in a straight line, and dropped over the edge on to the table. Here it remained without a wriggle for a few seconds, in the same position as it fell. I noted that it moved even more rapidly vertically up this smooth glass than along the horizontal surface of the table. On holding the beaker in various positions, it nearly always took a vertical direction. The worm, when slightly pinched with forceps, readily breaks into two pieces. It is not difficult to imagine the value of these habits in the struggle for existence. The negative geotaxis is, of course, of importance in gaining its normal habitat. Its ready autotomy probably protects it if perchance it is touched by a bird probing the log for grubs, &c. Anatomy. — The two species, P. sylvestris and P. lincatus, agree closely with one another in external form and in certain structural characters, and differ in some of these respects from certain other species to be described below. Each is about l^in. to 2 in. in length, and contains from seventy to ninety segments. The body is relatively broad in proportion to the length, and is broadest in the middle. The chcetce are about fifty in number, set in couples," of which there are twelve or thirteen on each side. A distinct dorsal and ventral gap exists, the width of which in rela- tion to the ordinary gap between couples is variable, being at least twice, or even thrice, the latter. In my note of 1898 I laid some stress on the differences in the widths of these median gaps, but further comparison leads me to consider such differences as individual or even segmental variations. The elitcllum always covers segments 14 to 17, though the number of fully mature individuals available does not enable me to be certain as to any constant differences be- tween the two species in this respect. The porophores on 17th and 19th segments are set in a slight depression, capable of being converted into a narrow furrow on contraction, so that the porophores meet their fellows. This depression involves the ventral surface of segments 16 to 20. The porophores are in line with the lowest couple of chaetae ; the male pore, on the 18th, is just outside this couple. There is no •spermatic groove, such as * As I have already stated (1898), Captain Hutton committed a lapsus calami in attributing to P. lincatus a "continuous circle" of chffitse. 280 Transactions. — Zoology. exists in Maoridrilus and other Acanthodrilids, but the de- pression is limited laterally by a slight ridge just lateral of the porophores. The spcrmathecal pores, between segments 7/8 and 8/9, are in line with the ventralmost couple of chaetas. The nephridiopores , large and conspicuous, alternate in the greater part of the body (as I showed in 1892), being usually in front of the 4th and the 10th couple of chaetae, counting from below. As will be seen below, the internal anatomy presents de- finite distinctive features in these two species. P. sylvestris, Hutton. The prostomium is " epilobic " — i.e., it is prolonged back- wards, or imbedded in the 1st segment for about two-thirds of its length (see Hutton's fig. E). The clitellum in some of the specimens does not extend beyond segments 14 to 17, but in the type itself, as well as in the specimen named "punctata," it intrudes upon the 18th segment ; and in another local specimen 1 note that it commences in the 13th. Possibly, therefore, when fully developed it covers the six segments — 13 to 18. Copulatory tubercles are present — at any rate, in some of my specimens — in the form of transverse oval glandular areas extending across the ventral surface of segments 11 and 12. Of internal organs the following appear to be of diagnostic value : — The dorsal vessel is double up to the loth segment ; the two vessels lie close together, and in my account of P. punc- tata I figured the vessel as single. It is, however, distinctly double in the intestinal regions. In the 14th segment the two canals still exist, but are bound together in one coat ; in the 13th the fusion is complete, and a single vessel runs forwards. There are three pairs of hearts, the last being in the 12th segment. There is no gizzard recognisable on dissection. The oesophagus bears a pair of large glands in the 14th seg- ment, and frequently these protrude into the 13th ; indeed, in one case this portion was constricted off so as to form a small and apparently independent gland. The intestine commences in the 16th segment. With regard to the reproductive system, there are four pairs of sperm-sacs even in the tj^pe, notwithstanding my statement (1898, p. 162) to the effect that there are only three pairs. My laboratory note, as well as a re-examina- tion of the type, gives four as the true condition, as I described in 1892 for punctata. Benham. — On New Species of Earthivorms. 281 The penial chcetce are especially diagnostic. Each is a long gently curved bristle practically smooth on its shaft, and terminated in a blunt point, which is not upturned. The sperniatheca is globular, with a short wide duct, into which opens a single tubular diverticulum, which invariably, as far as my observations on several individuals go, is prae- septal. P. lineatus, Hut ton. Hutton's original specimen was obtained at Queenstown, on Lake Wakatipu, in Otago. I have been able to examine other specimens, collected by Mr. Malcolm Thomson on Ben Lomond, a mountain 5,747 ft. in height overlooking the town. The differential characters are as follows :— The prostomium is tanylobic — i.e., its prolongation com- pletely cuts through the 1st segment, as Captain Hutton shows it in his fig. F (1876). The clitellum appears to be limited to segments 14 to 17, and I have observed no copulatory tubercles ; but in both of these characters I must for the present reserve judgment, owing to lack of sufficient material. The dorsal vessel is single ; and the hearts are in 10, 11, and 12. There is a small gizzard in segment 6, recognisable on dis- section. The oesophageal gland is in segment 14, projecting slightly into the 13th segment. There are only three pairs of sperm-sacs, in segments 9, 11, and 12. The penial chcetce are longer and more delicate than in P. syivestris, and the tip is bent upwards and slightly ex- cavated, so as to be spoon-shaped, though in side view the tip is pointed. But, further, the shaft is marked by numerous distinct but fine, interruptedly transverse, low ridges, finely serrated. The sperniatheca is ovoid, with a short and comparatively narrow duct, into which there open two short and somewhat globular diverticula, the lower of which is praeseptal. One of these diverticula — perhaps both — is lobed — i.e., its free extremity is notched by one or two furrows. In the type it is the lower which is thus notched ; in the Ben Lomond specimen it is the upper one. These two characters — the penial chsetae and the sperma- thecse — are very definite differential features of these closely similar species. 282 Transactions. — Zoology. Plagiochaeta lateralis, n. sp. Locality. — The shore of Lake Thompson, 1,100 ft. above sea-level, on the track from Lake Te Anau to George Sound. Collected by Mr. J. Mackenzie. Colour. — Pale-greyish, with dark-brown clitellum. Dimensions. — The longest of the dozen specimens mea- sures 55 mm., with a diameter of 5 mm. The body is rather depressed, with a slight groove along the median dorsal and ventral surfaces. The number of segments is 100. The prostomium is half epilobic, with a transverse furrow before the end of the longitudinal furrows. The chata are twenty-four (about) in each segment. They are not in couples, but are arranged in two groups on each side, an upper and a lower, separated by a distinct lateral gap, which peculiarity suggested the specific name. The lower group consists of five chaetae, the upper group of seven chaetae ; the latter are further apart than the former. The dorsal gap is greater than the ventral, and each is greater than the lateral. The arrangement may be represented by the following formula, in which the vertical lines represent chaetae and the numerals indicate the relative distances, as measured by an eye-piece micrometer on the flattened skin. V, L, and D are the ventral, lateral, and dorsal gaps re- spectively. 9 | 2i | 2 | 2i | 2i | 5* j 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 12. V a bed e L f g h i j k I D No doubt the actual distances vary, not only in different specimens, but in different parts of the body. The clitellum covers segments 14 to 17 inclusive ; it does not extend over the ventral surface, but ceases at about the level of the porophores. Genital Pores, dc. — The porophores are feebly developed on 17 and 19, and are in line with about chaeta e — i.e., almost laterally placed. There are four chaetae below each, and four chaetae below the male pore in 18th segment ; and sections show a 5th chaeta close to the pore in each of these segments. These chaetae are further apart on these segments than else- where. There is a distinct and curved spermatic groove^ convex outwards. In some of the specimens copulatory tubercles exist, but asymmetrically on the right or left of segments 18 or 20. In none are they fully developed, when,, no doubt, they will be paired. The oviducal pores are in line with the gap b/c, the spermathecal pores between 7/8, 8/9, in line with the chaetal gap e/f ; and in several of the individuals there is a pair of pitted tubercles on the 8th segment, just behind the chaetal ring, in line with the gap dje. Benham. — On New Species of Earthworms. 283 Dorsal pores are present, at any rate, behind theclitellum ; I see no uephridiopores on the skin, but in section I find them in the lateral gap. Internal Anatomy. There are four stout septa behind segments 9, 10, 11, and 12; those behind segments 6, 7, and 8 are thin and much pouched backwards. Vascular System. — The dorsal vessel is double, but united at the septa, as far forwards as the 12th segment. In the 11th the two vessels are bound together in a common envelope, though the canals are separate ; but in the 10th they have united, and the single vessel thus formed continues forwards. The last heart is in the 13th segment. Both this and the heart in the 12th are unconnected with the dorsal vessel ; they are therefore " enteric hearts." being connected probably (for 1 have not examined this point) with a supra-enteric vessel. But the two hearts in 10 and 11 are " lateral hearts," being connected with the dorsal vessel. Alimentary System. — The gizzard is large, and occupies segment 6, and pushes back the next three septa. The oeso- phagus remains very narrow, but thick- walled, as it passes backwards to the 19th segment ; there is no enlargement to form a gland. The gut becomes thin-walled in the 20th seg- ment, and dilates to its full size in the next, whence it becomes apparently spiral. Excretory System. — The worm is meganephric. Reproductive System. — The testes, funnels, ovaries, and oviducts occupy the usual position. There are only two pairs of sperm-sacs, in segments 9 and 12 respectively, the intervening segments being occupied by a mass of loose sperm. The spermiducal glands are thick, convoluted, and confined to their proper segments. The muscular duct is short and narrow. There are no penial chaetoe. In segment 18 there are a series of stout muscles, which start from each side of the nerve-cord and pass outwards and upwards to be inserted in the body-wall on the dorsal surface of each side. These " tranverse muscles," as they may be termed, are probably employed during the process of copulation. The effect of contraction, as seen in preserved specimens, is to cause a deep depression of the ventral surface of segments 17 to 19, and at the same time the porophores become more prominent. Such "transverse muscles" are known in other earthworms — e.g., Octochcetus — and their presence seems to be associated with the absence, or, at any rate, small size, of penial chaetae. There are two pairs of spermathecse, in the usual seg- ments. The chief part, or "copulatory sac," is relatively large, 284 Transactions. — Zoology. transversely ovate, and the duct is scarcely distinguishable on dissection, but receives right and left a small ovate diver- ticulum with a long narrow duct. Plagiochseta rossii, n. sp. Locality. — Five specimens were collected in the bush on the shore of Lake Te Anau in 1900. I name this species after the collector, Mr. Donald Boss. The colour, in formol, is purplish-brown, with a darker- brown median dorsal stripe. The preclitellar region is greyish-brown. Dimensions. — The mature individuals vary from 105 mm. to 165 mm. in the preserved condition. In a specimen measur- ing 158 mm. its greatest diameter is 7 mm. at segment 8, and also behind the clitellum. The preclitellar region is 20 mm. and the clitellum 11 mm. in length. This worm con- sists of 112 segments. The prostommm is epilobic (three-quarters), without a pos- terior groove. The chcetcz are about thirty-two to thirty-six in each seg- ment, not in couples. Each chaeta is implanted in a light spot. There is no perceptible diminution anteriorly, for I count thirty-two on the 7th segment and thirty-four on the 3rd segment. There are small ventral and dorsal gaps, but no lateral gap, the series of sixteen or eighteen chaetae on each side being practically equidistant. The clitellum extends from 13th to 17th segment, and in the largest individual the 18th segment differs in colour from the 19th, and looks as if it, too, would become part of the clitellum. The organ is continuous ventrally in its anterior region, but on segments 16 to 20 is a white transversely oval genital area, containing the genital pores. Genital Pores. — The porophores are prominent. There is no true spermatic groove, but a ridge passes from 17th to 19th segment on each side, having a rather peculiar arrangement. Starting from the 17th porophore, the ridge curves down the posterior face with an outward sweep and reaches the inter- segmental furrow, where it disappears. A similar ridge occurs on the anterior face of the porophore on the 19th segment. Then in the 18th is a curved ridge, convex outwards, con- necting the two other ridges. The ridge is a rounded pro- minent structure, forming the outer boundary of an indistinct furrow whose inner boundary is formed by the glandular tissue of the body. This ridge seems to contrast with the definite groove found in many Acanthodrilids, for in them the groove is the conspicuous structure ; here, in Plagiochceta, it is the external (and only) ridge that catches the eye. How far we may distinguish these two things is uncertain, but the Benham. — On New Species of Earthworms. 285 structure just described may, for convenience, be termed a "spermatic ridge," and we meet with it in other species of this genus. The oviducal pores are close together in front of the ventral gap, enclosed in a definite pale oval patch. The spermathecal pores are in line with chsetae c and d. On the ventral surface of each of the segments 9 and 10 is a pair of copulatory tubercles, and indications of another pair on the 11th segment. Dorsal pores are distinct from the clitellum backwards. Internal Anatomy. The six septa, behind segments 10 to 15, are especially stout, and the two in front of these less so. The dorsal vessel is double right up to the pharynx, being connected only at the septa. The hearts are in segments 10, 11, 12, and 13. Alimentary System. — The gizzard lies partly in the 6th but chiefly in the 7th segment, the septum, 6/7, being inserted on its walls. The oesophagus is dilated in segment 15 to form, apparently, a gland, though it is not well defined ex- ternally. The lining of the oesophagus as it passes through segments 12 to 15 is raised up into numerous closely set, laterally flattened vascular villi, but no distinct lamellae such as are usually associated with an oesophageal gland occur. In the 16th segment the gut becomes paler and diminishes in size, and does not become dilated to form the intestine till segment 20 is reached, after which it is deeply constricted as it passes through the septa. The worm is micronephric, the excretory organ being represented in each segment by a vertical series of small tufts of tubules passing upwards along the body-wall. Reproductive System. — The testes, ovaries, and their ducts have the usual position. There are four pairs of sperm-sacs, lying in segments 9, 10, 11, and 12. The spermiducal glands are confined to their proper segments. The glandular part, tubular as usual, is convoluted and coiled into a ball. The muscular duct is long, very narrow, and undulating. No penial chaetae appear on dissection. Transverse muscles are well developed in segment 18 and partly in the neighbouring segments. The ovaries are noticeably large, passing along the septum from near the ventral vessel upwards for nearly one-third the semi-circumference of the septum. The funnels of the oviducts are also unusually prominent. The spermatheccb are large ovoid sacs, with short ducts. The duct of each sac is beset with groups of small somewhat botryoidal diverticula, so that when viewed from above they appear as a fringe round its neck. 286 Transactions. — Zoology. Plagiochaeta ricardi, n. sp. Locality. — Four specimens of this fine worm were obtained by Mr. Eichard Henry on Eesolution Island, at the south- west corner of the South Island. In a note he writes, " A common worm, living Gin. down in peaty soil, mostly on the shady side of a hill. It is a favourite food of the roa (Apteryx haastii), which, when hunting for food, walks slowly, with gentle tread, and its head held as if listening. When the bird gets hold of a worm it breaks the latter up to get rid of the gut." Colour (in formalin) dark purplish-brown — in fact, almost purple dorsally. When transferred to alcohol the purple tint becomes sienna-brown. Dimensions. — This species is of considerable size and bulk in life. The four specimens are from 180 mm. to 290 mm. in length, with a diameter ranging from 10 mm. to 14mm. iu the middle of the body; but this is not the greatest diameter. Of these only two — measuring 260 mm. and 290 mm. — are mature. The former of these two contains 173 segments. The prostomium is epilobic (half), without a posterior groove. The chceke are not in couples, nor in paler spots. There are from fifty-two to sixty -four chaetae in the post-clitellar region, separated into a right and left series by a dorsal and a ventral gap of about thrice the width of an inter- chaetal gap. There is no sensible diminution in number of chastae anteriorly. In the clitellar region the more ventral chaetae, a-d, are further apart than elsewhere. The clitelluni occupies segments 14 to 20, and even the 21st is slightly glandular. The organ is incomplete ventrally, ceasing at the level of the porophores. Genital Pores. — The porophores and "spermatic ridge" are similar to those of P. rossii, but the latter is here less curved. The pores are in line with chaeta c, which is absent, though a and b are present on segments 17, 18, and 19. The oviducal pores are in line with the gap a/b. The sper- mathecal pores are indistinguishable externally. It appears that formol, though excellent as a temporary preservative of colour, causes earthworms to shrink a good deal, and the pores become closed. Internal Anatomy. The seven septa behind segments 8 to 14 are thick, but especially those of 9 to 13. The septum 14/15, as well as the two following septa, are pouched forwards, so that the cavity of the 17th segment is increased beyond its usual size. Benham. — On Neiv Species of Earthworms. 287 The dorsal vessel is distinctly double, right up to the pharyngeal region. The last heart is in segment 13. The Alimentary System. — The gizzard is elongated, but wholly confined to segment 6. There is a large oesophageal gland in segment 12, behind which the gut is noticeably reduced in size — not only in breadth but also in length- owing to the reduction of the segmental cavities already referred to. It does not commence to dilate till the 18th segment to form the intestine. The worm is micronephric, the tufts of tubules being concentrated near the nerve-cord. I have been unable to trace the nephridium to the surface, but there are well- developed funnels. Reproductive System. — The position of the gonads is alto- gether unique. Both testes and ovaries are situated not on the septa bounding the segments, but on the floor of ike body. Each testis is elongated in a direction parallel with the long axis of the body, and extends backwards to the posterior wall, terminating below the corresponding funnel. In the case of the ovary the same arrangement obtains ; but the cavity of the 13th segment is greatly reduced, except below the ventral vessel, where the septum 13/14 is pouched backwards to form a tunnel-like pocket, which reaches nearly as far as sep- tum 14/15. It is on the floor of this pocket that the two ovaries are placed ; and, as the funnel of the oviduct is carried forwards by the overarching septum, the ovary comes to lie underneath the lip of the funnel. Diagrammatic longitudinal section through segments 13 and 14. a, gut ; b, septum ; c, ventral blood-vessel ; d, body-wall ; e, oviduct ; /, ovary. There are four pairs of sperm-sacs in the usual segments. The spermiducal glands are somewhat flattened and undu- lating. There are no penial chaetae, but " transverse muscles " occupy segment 18. Each of the spermathecae (in segments 8 and 9) is a sub- conical sac, with short duct, and around the latter is a nearly 288 Transactions. — Zoology. complete circle of short, sessile, globular diverticula, hiding the duct when viewed in situ. Plagiochseta montana, n. sp. Locality. — In bush soil near Lake Thompson, 1,100 ft. above sea-level, on the track from Lake Te Anau to George Sound. They were collected by Mr. Mackenzie during the formation of this track. Dimensions. — The collection contains a considerable num- ber of individuals, ranging from 36 mm. by 5 mm. up to 190mm. by 12 mm. Of these only a few are mature, and the smallest possessing a clitellum is 140 mm. by 8 mm. A speci- men measuring 182 mm. contains 145 segments. The body is rather broader than high. Colour. — Brick-red, browner anteriorly, with a brown clitellum. The chastae are inserted in white rings girdling the segments. The prosiomium is epilobic, with a posterior groove half- way along the 1st segment. The chcetce are about thirty-six to forty per segment, not in couples, but form a right and left series on each side, sepa- rated by a dorsal and ventral gap of about three times the interchaetal gaps, which, as in other species, are by no means constant in their width. The number of chaetae diminishes somewhat, but not materially, anteriorly. I counted thirty- two on segment 4 and only twenty-lour on segment 11. As usual, the ventral chaetae on the hinder clitellar segments are rather more widely spaced than elsewhere. The clitellum covers segments 14 to 20, the limits of the organ being very distinct. It is incomplete ventrally, ceasing at about the level of the porophores. The large porophores are connected by a " spermatic ridge." The body here bulges out laterally and is depressed mesially, as in other species, possessing " transverse muscles " in the 18th segment. The male pore is on a slight papilla. The three pores are in line with the gap c/d. Chaetas a and d are present on these three segments, but b and c are absent. The oviducal pores lie in front of the gap a/b ; the sperma- thecal pores in front of the chaeta d, in the intersegmental furrows 7/8 and 8/9. Dorsal pores are evident behind the clitellum. Internal Anatomy. There are eight stout septa behind segments 9 to 16 those of 10th, 11th, and 12th segments are especially stout. All are much thicker than in P. rossii. The dorsal vessel is double up to the 4th segment ; the two are connected by short transverse vessels praeseptally. The Benham. — On New Species of Earthworms. 289 last heart is in segment 13 ; it and the heart in 12 are "enteric," while in 10 and 11 are " lateral hearts." The Alimentary System. — The gizzard is large, occupies segments 6 and 7, the septum 6/7 being attached round its middle. The oesophagus bears a dilatation in segment 15, which is not constricted from the main tube. The gut then narrows, but in the 18th commences to increase in diameter till it has reached its full diameter in the 23rd segment. The worm is micronephric. Reproductive System. — The testes and ovaries are situated on the hinder wall of their segments, in each case underneath the funnel of the duct, as in OctochcBtus multipores and other species. There are four sperm-sacs. The spermiducal glands are closely zig-zag, confined to their segments. There are no peuial chsetae, but transverse muscles are present in these segments. The spermathecae are provided with a single lobulated spherical diverticulum. EXPLANATION OP PLATES XXII.-XXVI. Plates XXII.-XXV. The illustrations of the anatomy of the earthworms described in this paper are purely diagrammatic, indicating only the segmental posi- tion of the various organs, the worm being supposed to be slit up along the dorsal line and the body-wall pinned aside. A group of three diagrams refer to each worm herein described. The left-hand diagram in each of the groups referring to a species represents the external features. The location of the various genital pores is repre- sented as round black dots (if on a papilla this is left white), the clitellum is obliquely shaded, the tubercula pubertatis are vertically shaded. In addition, the arrangement of the chaatse — labelled a, b, c, d — is in- dicated in two or more segments in each case, usually in the 5th and the 22nd ; they are omitted in the remaining segments for clearness' sake. The true relative spacing of the chsetae is shown, except where they are very numerous. The position of the nephridiopores is indicated by the small circles on one side of the figure. The middle figure represents the alimentary canal and so much of the vascular system as is diagnostic. The latter is black. The gizzard is indicated by vertical shading, the oesophageal glands by more or less horizontal lines. The intestine is not represented as being constricted, which is, however, the case in most worms. The right-hand figure shows the reproductive system. The gonads are in black. The sperm-sacs are dotted. The sac with penial chsetae when present is indicated, and the muscular duct of the spermiducal gland is transversely striped. The transverse muscles in the 18th segment are shown. No attempt is made to give the relative sizes of the worms or of the various organs. Nor has it been considered necessary to label the various organs, since to any one who is familiar with the anatomy of any earth- worm the structures here indicated will be sufficiently intelligible. 19 290 Transactions. — Zoology. Plate XXVI. The Spermathecce of the Earthioorms described. Fig. 1. Spermatheca of Megascolex laingii. Fig. 2. „ Notiodrilus aucklandicus. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. N. macquariensis. Plagiochceta sylvestris. P. lincatus (of type example). P. lateralis. P. rossii. P. ricardi. P. montana. Fig. 10. Penial chseta of Notiodrilus aucklandicus. N. macquariensis. Plagiochceta sylvestris (type). P. lineatus (type). Art. XXXII. — A List of the Hymenoptera of Neio Zealand. By P. Cameron. Communicated by Captain Hutton. [Read before the Philosovl ileal Institute of Canterbury, 3rd September, 190:4.-] Family SIRICIM!. Xiphydria. Xiphydria, Latr., Gen. Ins. et Crust., iii., 304. X. decepta, Smith. Derecyrta deceptus, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, p. 471, pi. iv., fig. 6. Xiphydria fiavopicta, Smith, I.e., 1878, p. 1. Brachyixiphus deceptus, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1881, p. 49. Family CYNIPIBvE. Anacharis, Dal. Anacharis, Dalman, Ann. Entomol., 1823, 95. A. zealakdica, Ashmead, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 1900, 329. Family TENTHREDINIM1. Eriocampa, Hartig. Eriocamya, Hartig, Die Fam. der Blattwespen und Holz- wespen, 279. Eriocampa adumbrata, Klug. Tenthredo adumbrata, Klug, Berl. Mag., viii., 64, 36. Monostigia antipoda, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1881, p. 50. A European introduction. Cameron. — List of N.Z. Hymenoptera. 291 Family ICHNEUMONID^. Sab-family Ichneumonin.e. Ichneumon, L. s. str. I. pykastis, Cameron, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1900, 115. I. frederici, Cameron, I.e., 116. I. eiccardi, Cameron, l.c , 117. I. wellingtoni, Cameron, I.e., 117. I. actista, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 8. I. helmsi, Cameron, I.e., 9. I. atarxidia, Cameron, I.e., 13. I. ixia, Cameron, I.e., 13. I. colensii, Cameron, I.e., 15. I. Ursula, Cameron, I.e., 16. I. brounii, Cameron, I.e., 17. I. levdacus, Cameron, I.e., 19. I. falsus, Cameron, I.e., 18. I. machimia, Cameron, I.e., 20. I. utetes, Cameron, I.e., 21. I. thyellma, Cameron, I.e., 22. I. nova-zealandicus, Cameron, I.e., 23. I. decoratorius, Fabricius, Syst. Ent., 333. I. insidiator, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, 476. I. deceptus, Smith, I.e., 477. I. exhilaratus, Smith, I.e., 477. I. consanguineus, Smith, I.e., 476. I. placidus, Smith, I.e., 476. I. conspiratus, Smith, I.e., 476. I. perfidiosus, Smith, I.e., 475, pi. iv., f. 5. I. huttonii, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1881, 44. These species require generic revision. I. hersilia, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 7. Probolus, Wesmael. Probolus, Wesmael, Mem. Acad. Brux., xviii., 1844, 150. Probolus lotatorius, Fab. Ichneumon Lotatorius, Fabricius, Syst. Ent., 330. Priocnemis pascoei, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1883, p. 200. Eristicus cinctus, Ashmead, Proc. U.S. National Museum, xii., p. 389. Probolus invectus, Smith. Ichneumon invectus, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc. Eristicus basilaris, Ashmead, Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, xii., p. 389. Probolus sollicitorius, Fab. Ichneumon sollicitorius, Fab., Syst. Ent., 332. Eristicus ayicalis, Ashmead, Proc. U.S. Museum, xii., p. 388. 292 Transactions. — Zoology. Amblyteles, Wesmael, 1844. A. zealandicus, Cameron, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1900, 108. A. hudsoni, Cameron, I.e., 109. Colotoacis, Cameron, 1900. C. fobticobnis, Cameron, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1900, 110. Degithina, Cameron, 1900. D. buchanani, Cameron, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1900, 112. D. caboli, Cameron, I.e., 113. D. davidi, Cameron, I.e., 114. D. hectobi, Cameron, I.e., 114. Zestocormus, Cameron, 1901. Z. melanopus, Cameron, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1900, 119. Dicoelotus, Wesmael, 1844. D. stbiatifrons, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 24. Sub-family Cbyptin^. Cryptus, Fabricius, 1804. C. penetbatoe, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, 2. Mesostenus, Gravenhorst. M. albopictus, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, 477, pi. iv., f. 1. Hemiteles, Gravenhorst. H. destbuctivus, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 26. Bathymetis, Forster. B. antipoda, Ashmead, Entomological News, 1900, 624. Sub-family Ophionin^. Opliion, Gravenhorst. O. inutilis, Smith. Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, 478. O. punctatus, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 34. O. febeugineus, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, 2. O. pebegbinus, Smith, I.e., 1876, 478. O. SKELLONi, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1881, 46. O. insulabis, Kirby, I.e., 46. ft Paniscus, Gravenhorst. P. pboductus, Brulle, Hist. Nat. des Ins., Hym., iv. P. ephippiatw, Smith, Trans Ent. Soc, 1876, 478. P. foveatus, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 36. Cameron. — List of N.Z. Hymenoptera. 293 Limnerium, Ashmead. Limneria, Auct. prasve. L. zealandicum, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 36. L. hudsoni, Cameron, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxiii., 105. Sub-family PiMPLiDiNiE. Rhyssa, Gravenhorst, 1829. E. fractinebvis, Vollenhoveu, Tijd. Ent. (2), viii., 67, pi. iv., f. 1, la. B. antijoodum, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, 479, pi. iv., f. 4. K. clavula, Colenso, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xvii., 158. Allotheronia, Ashmead, 1900. A. 12-guttata, Ashmead, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 351. Lissopimpla, Krieehbaumer, 1889. Xenopimpla, Cam. L. semipunctata, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1883, 202. Lissonota, Gravenhorst. L. flavopicta, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, 4. L. albopicta, Smith, I.e., 4. L. multicolor, Colenso, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xvii., 159. L. tinctipennis, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 28. L. rubriplagiata, Cameron, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxiii., 106. Buctenopus, Ashmead, 1900. E. nova-zealandica, Ashmead, Proc Linn. Soc N.S.W., 1900, 351. Sub-family Tryphonin^e. Tryphon, Fullen, 1813. T. obstructor, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, 4. Mesoleptus, Gravenhorst, 1829. M. mulleri, Butler, Voy. "Erebus" and " Terror," Ins., 27, 46. M. sybarita, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 32. M comparatus, Cameron, I.e., 33. Chorinacus, Holmgren, 1855. C. forticeps, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 29. C. nigripes, Cameron, I.e., 33. Bassus, Fabricms. B. lactatorius," Fabricius, Fab. Syst., Ins., i., 424. B. generosus, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 31. Scolo- bates varipes, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, 3. * Introduced. 294 Transa -tions. — Zoo'ogi/. [Scolobates intrudens, Srn., Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, 3. Species doubtful ; may belong to tbe Ichneumonidcs or to the Braconidce.] Family BBACONIMJ. Sub-family Ehogadin^;. Doryctomorpha, Ashmead, 1900. D. antipoda, Ashmead, "Entomological News," 1900, 630. Chatham Islands. Rhogas, Nees, 1818. R. penetrator, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, 5. Sub-family Meteorin/E. Meteorus, Hal., 1835. M. nova-zealandicus, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 38. Fhogra, Cameron, 1891. F. rubromaculata, Cameron, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxiii., 105. Sub-family Chelonin^. Ascogaster, Wesm., 1835. A. crenulatus, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 37. Sub-family Heliconin-s;. Schauinslandia, ;: Ashmead, 1900. S. femorata, Ashmead, "Entomological News," 1900, 627. S. alfkenii, Ashmead, I.e., 628. S. pallidipes, Ashmead, I.e., 628. Sub-family Opiinje. Diachasma, Forster, 1862. D. CARPOCAPS33, Ashmead, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1900, 357. Sub-family Alysiin^. Alysia, Latreille. A. stramineipes, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1898, 37. Asobara, Forster, 1862. A. antipoda, Ashmead, "Entomological News," 1900, 625. Ex Chatham Islands. Sub-family Dacnusin^i. Dacnusa, Haliday, 1839. D. sonchivorus, Cameron. Ex dipterous insect mines on Sonchiis oleraceus. * Ex Chatham Islands. Cameron. — List of N.Z. Hymenoptera. 295 Family EVANIIM1. Gasteruption, Latreille, Prec Caract., 1796, 113. Fosmcs, Fab. Syst. Piez., 141. G. pedunculatum, Schl. Fusnus unguiculatus , Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1869, p. 480, pi. iv., f. 8. Gasteruption pedun- culatum (? Westwood), Schletterer, Ann. k. k. natur. h. of Mus. Wien, 1890, p. 467. Family CHALCIDIM}. Sub-family Tokymin^. Torymus, Dalman, 1820. T. (Callimone) antipoda, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1883, 202. Sub-family Eurytomin^e. Eurytoma (llliger), Eossi. E. oleari^}, Maskell, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxi., 255. Aphobetus, Howard, 1896. A. maskelli, Howard, Canadian Ent., xxviii., 166. Sub-family Aphelinin^:. Pteroptrix, Westw. P. maskelli, Ashmead, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1900, 346. Sub-family Eupelmin^. Eupelmus, Dal. E. messene, Walker, Mon. Chal., ii., 95; Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1881, 48. Pteromalus, Swed. P. eelbx,* Walker, Mon. Chal., ii., 95; Kirby, I.e., 48. P. iambe,* Walker, I.e. ; Kirby, I.e., 49. Sub-family Eulophin^. Eulophus, Geoffroy. E. albitarsis, Ashmead, " Entomological News," 1900, 623. Chatham Island. Is found also in Europe and North Family PBOCTOTKUPIM]. Sub-family Proctotrupin^. Proctotrupes, Latreille, Prec Car., 108. P. maculipennis, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1888, p. 175. P. intrudens, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, p. 5. *Genus doubtful. 296 Transactions. — Zoology. Sub-family Betylusle. Betyla, Cam. Betyla, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1889, 13. Tanyzonus, Marshall, E.M.M., 1892. B. fulva, Cameron, I.e. ; Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxv., 164. Tanyzcnus bolitophilce, Marshall, I.e. Sub-family Diaprin^;. Diapria, Latr. D. coccophaga, Maskell, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xi., 228. Spilomicrus, West. S. quadriceps, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, 6. Sub-family Mymarin^i. Mymar, Curt. M. crinisacri, Quail, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxiii., 153. Sub-family Bethylin^e. Sierola, Cam., 1881. S. antipoda, Ashmead, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1900, 328; cf. Fauna Hawaiiensis, Hymen., 286. Family SPHEGIMI. Rhopalum, Steph. Rhopahim (Kirby), Stephens, Syst. Cat., 1829. E. carbonarium, Smith. Crabro carbonarius, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins., iv.. p. 424. B. perforatum, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, p. 483. B. albipes, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, p. 7. B. cora, Cam. Crabro cora, Cameron, Manchr. Mem., 1888, p. 181. Gorytes, Latreille. Gorytes, Latreille, Hist. Nat., xiii., 308. G. carbonarius, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins., iv., p. 366. G. trichio- so'iua, Cameron, Manchr. Memoirs, 1888, p. 180. Tachytes, Pz. Tachytes, Panzer, Krit. Bevis., ii., 129. T. nigerrimus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. B.M., iv., p. 302. Astaia nigerrima, White, Voy. "Erebus" and "Terror," Ins., pi. vii., f. 14. T. sericops, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. B.M., iv., p. 302. T. depressus, Saussure, Beise d. " Novara," Hym., p. 69. T. helmsi, Cameron, Manchr. Memoirs, 1888, p. 182. Cameron. — List of N.Z. Hymenoptera. 297 Pison, Spinola. Pison, Spinola, 1808. Taranga, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1883, p. 201. P. pruinosus, Cameron, Manchr. Memoirs, 1898, p. 44. P. mokosus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. B.M., iv., p. 317. P. tuberculatus, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1869, p. 296. P. dubius, Kirby. Taranga dubia, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1883, p. 201. Family POMPILIDvE. Pseudagenia, Kohl, Verb. z.-b. Ges., Wien, 1884, p. 42. P. huttoni, Cam. Manchr. Memoirs, 1898, p. 49. Salius, Fab., 1804. S. monachus, Smith. Povqyilus moiiachus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins., hi., p. 164. S. carbonarius, Sm. Pompilus carbonarius, Smith, I.e., p. 162. S. nitidiventris. Priocnemis nitidiventris, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, p. 6. S. marginatus, Smith. Priocnemis marginatus, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, p. 483, pi. iv., f. 2. S. conformis, Sm. Priocnemis conformis, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, p. 482. S. triangularis, Cam. Manchr. Memoirs, 1898, p. 45. S. diligens, Smith. Priocnemis diligens, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, p. 483, pi. iv., fig. 3. S. wakefieldi, Kirby. Priocnemis wakefielcli, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1881, p. 39. S. fugax, Fab. Sphex fugax, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 350. Priocnemis macutipennis, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, p. 482. S. huttoni, Kirby. Priocnemis huttoni, Kirby, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1883, p. 199. S. xenos, Kirby. Priocnemis xenos, Kirby, I.e., 200. S. brouni, Grib. Agenia brouni, Bull., Ent. Ital., xvi., 280. Family THYNNID.E. Bhagigaster,;;: Guerin, 1838. E. novar-E, Saussure, Hym. "Novara" Beise, 112. Family FOBMICIM]. Lasius, Fabricius, 1804. L. advena,! Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1862, 53. L. zealandica,t Smith, I.e., 1878, 6. * Kequires confirmation as native, t Genus doubtful. 298 Transactions. — Zoology. Prenolepis. P. longicornis,* Latr., Hist. Fourm., 113. Sub-family Ponerinjs. Ponera, Latreille, 1804. P. castanea, Mayr.,Hym. '-Novara" Eeise. Ectatomma, Smith, 1858. E. brounii, Forel, Mite. Schw. Ent. Ges., 1892, 330. Discothyrea, Eogers, 1863. D. Antarctica, Emery, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxvii., 635. Amblypone, Erichson. A. cephalotes, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, 490. A. saundersi, Forel, Mitt. Schw. Ent. Ges., 1892, 336. Sub-family Myrmicinjs. Orectognathus, Smith, 1854. O. antennatus, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc. (2), ii., 228, pi. xxi., fig. 9. 0. perplexus, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, 491. Strumigenys, Smith, 1861. S. Antarctica, Forel, Mitt. Schw. Ent. Ges., 1892, 338. Huberia, Forel, 1890. H. striata, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc., 1876, 481; Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., iv., 304. Monomorium, Mayr., 1855. M. fulvum, Mayr., Keise d. " Novara," Form., 93, pi. hi., f. 25. M. nitidum, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, 480. M. suteri, Forel, Mitt. Schw. Ent. Ges., 1892, 340. M. smithii, Forel, I.e. 342. Aphsenogaster, Mayr., 1852. A. antarcticus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins., vi., 167. Family ANTHOPHILA. Prosopis, Fabricius, Syst. Piez, 293 (1804). P. agilis, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, p. 484. P. relegatus, Smith, I.e., p. 485. P. capitosus, Smith, I.e., p. 485. P. l^vigatus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. B.M., ii., p. 420. * Introduced. Park. — On Marine Mollusca of Nelson. 299 P. sudcifrons, Cameron, Manchr. Memoirs, 1895, p. 51. P. innocens, Cameron, I.e., p. 52. P. vicina, Sichel, Eeise d. " Novara," Hym., p. 143. Halictus, Latr. Halictus, Latreille, Hist. Nat., xiii., 364. H. sordidus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins., i., 56. H. familiaris, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, 486. H. huttoni, Cameron, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxii., 17. Dasycolletes. Dasycolletes, Cat. Hym. Ins. D. hirtipes, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1878, p. 7. D. vestitus, Smith, I.e., 1876, p. 485. D. purpureus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. B.M., i., p. 15. D. metallicus, Smith, I.e.,]). 15. Andrena trichopus, White, Voy. "Erebus" and " Terror," Ins., pi. vii., fig. 12. Leioproctus. Leioproctus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. B.M., i., p. 9. L. imitatus, Smith, I.e., -p. 9. Lamprocolletes. Lamprocolletes, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. B.M., i. L. fulvescens, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1876, p. 486. L. obscurus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. B.M., i., p. 11. Art. XXXIII. — On the Marine Mollusca of Totaranui Bay, Nelson. By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director, Otago Univer- sity School of Mines. [Read before the Otago Institute, 13th May, 1902.] Totaranui is situated on the shores of Tasman Gulf, some forty miles north-west of Nelson, and about midway between that place and Collingwood. A crescent-shaped beach of golden sand nearly a mile long and terminating at the ends against bold headlands of granite crowned with dark ever- green forest, a low terrace and shallow lagoon behind the beach, undulating fern-clad foot-hills beyond the flat, and a background of high forest- covered ranges, form, with a perfect climate, one of the most charming and picturesque spots in a region famed for the beauty of its summer retreats. 300 Transactions. — Zoology. The beach is steep, except at the north end, and composed of very coarse quartz sand and broken shells. lb is sheltered from all winds except from the north-east, east, and south- east. Excluding the recent alluvia forming the flat around the lagoon, only one rock-formation is represented in this dis- trict— namely, a crumbling grey-coloured granite, which is generally extremely coarse in texture. The feldspars of this granite exist mostly in large tabular crystals commonly from iin. to lin. long, but often reaching a length of 3 in. or more. The quartz is the predominant constituent. It occurs in large grains and irregular aggregates, which become pro- minent on all weathered and water-worn surfaces, thereby imparting a rough and rugged appearance to all the rocky headlands facing the sea. In such a coarse-grained rock the mica occupies a very subordinate place, and in most parts is hardly perceptible to the eye. On the coast- line between Totaranui and Anapai going north, and between Totaranui and Awaroa going south, the granite is traversed with veins of grey-coloured crypto-crystal- line quartz, varying from a mere thread to 3 in. or 4 in. in thickness. A mile before the Awaroa Eiver is reached the grey granite is displaced by a wide belt of pink or reddish- coloured granite of intense hardness, and admirably adapted for a building-stone. This belt of pink granite is more than 100 yards wide, and in the direction of Awaroa is followed by the grey granite, which thence stretches southward for many miles without interruption. This granite is a rock of great antiquity. At Takaka and Biwaka it is seen to be associated with crystalline limestones and quartzites of Lower Silurian age, and the geological con- siderations detailed in my report on the geology of Colling- wood County" afford good reason for the belief that the rocks in this and the surrounding region are the most ancient in New Zealand. During a three-months residence at this beautiful place in the summer of 1901-1902 the writer collected 149 different species of Mollusca, including only those whose soft parts are protected with a shell or hard covering. This comparative poverty in molluscous life is doubtless due in part to the extremely coarse and ever-shifting sands, the absence of beach muds and fine sediments, and the exposed position of the enclosing rocky headlands. On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that Totaranui is but a small nook in the great gulf contained between Cape Farewell Spit and D'Urville Island, and it is certain that a * Geol. Rept. and Explorations, 1888-89. Park. — On Marine Mollusca of Nelson. 301 search of the adjoining bays, which in many instances present a great variety of conditions, would discover a much larger as- semblage of marine shells than that enumerated in this paper. In this collection the Brachiopoda are represented by three species — namely, Terebratella rubicunda (rare), Magas evansi (rare), and Bhynchonella nigricans (very rare). Of the latter only one example was found. Among the fifty-two Conchifers the most common genera are Mytilus, Chione, Venus, Tapes, Vola, Mactra, Mesodesma, and Pecten. The Polyplacophora are singularly scarce, cnly two species being found — namely, Chiton quoyi and Omithochiton un- dulatus — and examples of these are by no means common. The most prominent genera of Gasteropoda are Patella, Haliotis, Turbo, Diloma, Ancillaria, Natica, Trophon, Murex, Struthiolaria, Turritella, and Amphibola. The Cephalopoda have only one representative — namely, Spirida pironii. It may be noted in passing that the Echinodermata were observed to be represented by four species — namely, Eve- chinus chloroticus, Arachnoides placenta, Echinocardium zea- landicum, and Echmobrissus recens. On a few occasions, after heavy south-east weather, the latter was thrown on the shore in thousands, but, being so fragile, perfect speci- mens were not often found. Beachiopoda. Terebratella rubicunda, Sowerby. Magas evansi, Davidson. Bhynchonella nigricans, Soiverby. Lamellibkanchiata. Ostrea purpura, Hanley. „ discoidea, Gould . Anomia alectus. Gray. Pecten zealanclicus, Gray. „ gemmulatus, Reeve. Vola laticostatus, Gray. Lima angulata, Soiverby. Mytilus latus, Chemnitz. „ magellanicus, Lamarck. Modiola areolata, Gould. Crenella mipacta, Hermann. Pinna zealandica, Gray. Pectunculus laticostatus, Quoy and Gaimard. „ striatularis, Lamarck. Barbatia decussata, Sowerby. Tapes intermedia, Quoy. 302 Transactions. — Zoology. Chione stuchburyi, Gray. „ yatei, Gray. „ costata, Q. and G. „ mesodesma, Quoy. Venus oblonga, Hanley. Lucina divaricata, Linne. Pythina stowei, Hutton. Artemis subrosea, Gray. „ australis, Gray. Cardium striatulum, Soiverby. Cardita zealandica, Potiez and Michaud. „ australis, Q. and G. Leda concinna, Adams. Nucula nitidula, Adams. „ strangei, Lamarck. Diplodonfca globularis, Lamarck. „ zealandica, Gray. Barnea similis, Gray. Psammobia lineolata. Gray. „ strangei, Gray. Venerupis reflexa, Gray. Tellina deltoidalis, Lamarck. „ alba, Q. and G. „ sublenticularis, Sowerby. Mesodesma novae-zealandiae, Chemnitz. „ lata, Deshayes. „ ventricosa, Gray. „ spissa, Reeve. Mactra discors, Gray. „ aequilateralis, Deshayes. Vanganella taylorii, Gray. Corbula zealandica, Q. and G. Crassatella obesa, Adams. Zenatia acinaces, Q. and G. Myodora striata, Q. and G. Solenella australis, Q. and G. POL-XPLACOPHORA. Cbiton quoyi, Deshayes. Ornitbochiton undulatus, Q. and G. Gasteropoda. Bulla quoyi, Go-ay. Haminea zealandica, Gray. Siphonaria sipho, Sow. „ australis, Quoy. Ianthina iricolor, Reeve. Park. — On Marine Mollusca of Nelson. 303 Trophon stangeri, Gray. „ ambiguus, H. and J. „ dubius, Hutton. „ incisus, Gould. „ paivae, Crosse. Murex zealandicum, Q. and G. „ occoganus, Q. and G. Cassis pyrum, Lam. Scalaria zelebori, Fraucnfeld. Voluta gracilis, Swainson. „ pacifica, Lam. „ pacitica var. nodosa. Struthiolaria australis, Gmclin. „ papulosa, Martyn. Ancillaria australis, Sow. „ pyramidalis, Reeve. Natica zealandica, Q. and G. Drillia novae-zealandiae, Reeve. „ cheesemani, Hutton. „ buchanani, Hutton. Lunatia australis, Hutton. Daphnella cancellata, Hutton. Polytropa striata, Martyn. „ textiliosa, Lam,. „ scobina, Q. and, G. Couiinella lurida, Philtppi. „ maculata, Martyn. „ funerea, Gould. „ testudinea, Chem. Tritonium spengleri, Chem. Neptunea zealandica, Q. and G. „ dilatata, Q. and G. „ nodosa, Martyn. „ caudata, Q. and G. Mitra rubiginosa, Hutton. Euthria lineata, Chem. Purpura baustrum, Martyn. Acus kirki, Hutton. Nerita atrata, Lam. Melanopsis strangei, Reeve. Chemnitzia zealandica, Hutton. Trichotropis inornata, Hutton. Cerithidea nigra, H. and J. „ bicarinata, Gray. Hipponyx auscralis, Q. and G. Haliotis iris, Myrtyn. „ rugoso-plicata, Chem. „ gibba, Philippi. 304 Transactions. — Zoology Patella argyropsis, Lesson. „ inconspicua, Gray. „ rnagelianica, Martyn. „ reevei, Hutton. „ radians, Gmelin. „ denticulata, Martyn. „ pholidota, Lesson. „ stellifera, Ghem. „ rubiginosa, Hutton. „ stellularia, Quoy. Parmophorus unguis, Lmne. Euchelus bellus, Hutton. Trochita scutum, Lesson. „ novae-zealandiae, Lesson Crypta costata, Q. and G. „ unguiformis, Sow. Cantharidus pallidus, H. and J. „ purpuratus, Martyn „ zealandicus, Adams „ iris, Gmelin. " huttonii, Smith. Littorina cffirulescens, Lam. Monilea egena, Gould. Cladopoda zealaudica, Q. and G. Emarginula striatula, Q. and G. Tugali pamiopboidea, Q. and G. Turritella rosea, Q. and G. Eotella zealandica, H. and J. Antbora tuberculata, Gray. Trochocochlea subrostrata, Gray Calcar imperialis, Ghem. Gibbula sanguinea, Gray. Turbo smaragdus, Martyn. Zizyphinus punctulatus, Martyn. granaturn, Ghem. Diloma setbiops, Gmelin. „ nigerrima, Ghem. „ gaimardi, Philippi. Amphibola a^ellana, Gmelin. Cephalopoda. Spirula pironii, Lamarck. Marriner. — On a New Species of Psyllidse. 305 Art. XXXIV. — On a New Species of Psyllidae. By George E. Marriner, Assistant, Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 26th November, 1902.] Plates XXXIII. and XXXIV. i The Psyilido? are a family of insects belonging to the order Homoptera, and are more closely allied to the Aphidida than to the Coccidce. The only species that have been re- ported from New Zealand are, as far as I can ascertain, several described by the late Mr. W. M. Maskell in 1889.* Several entomologists of Europe and America have studied this group — namely, Dr. F. Low, of Germany; Mr. J. Scott, of England ; M. V. Slingerlaud, of the United States of America; and E. Witlaczil, of Austria. About the beginning of 1902 a branch of the so-called matipo (Pittosporum tenuifolium) covered with numerous scale- insects was sent to me. On examining them I found them to be a species of Psyllidce, which appears to be intermediate between two species described by Mr. Maskell. The follow- ing is the specific description : — Trioza alexina, sp. nov. Plates XXXIII. and XXXIV. Imago. — Eyes not very prominent, but large ; the inner edges form an obtuse angle. The ocelli (Plate XXXIII. , fig. 4), consisting of a lens and a quantity of brown pigment, are three in number, one at the angle of each eye and one in the front of the head (Plate XXXIII. , fig. 3). The fore wing (Plate XXXIII. , fig. 1) is more like that of Trioza panaris in venation but that of Trioza pellucida in shape, but resembles the typical wing of the genus more closely than either of them. The primary stalk of the veins (Plate XXXIII. , fig. 1, AB) divides directly into three main branches at the point B — viz., (1.) An upper main branch, the stalk of the subcosta (BF), which again divides into two about halfway (F) to the margin. A shorter branch (FG) runs on to the margin, and a longer vein, the radius (FH), runs towards the apex of * Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889. 20 306 Transactions. — Zoology. the wing, and reaches the costal vein about seven-eighths of the length of the wings. (2 and 3.) The lower main branches form the upper and lower main branches of the cubitus, which branches directly from the primary stalk at B. The upper main branch of the cubitus divides again at C, but neither branch is a continuation of the main branch. The lower main branch of the cubitus divides at N, a longer and convex branch reaches the margin at K, and a shorter branch reaches the margin at L. Running from the primary stalk to the lower margin of the wing is an indistinct vein (AM) called the " clavus." In the areas between the branches of the cubitus — namely, DE, EK, KL — are three small triangular markings, com- posed of very small dots ; on the veins of the wing are some very short fine hairs. The hind wing (Plate XXXIII. , fig. 2) is larger in com- parison with the fore wing than in either Trioza panacis or Trioza pellucida. The veins are only marked by rows of large dots, and the whole wing is covered with very small dots. The rostrum is pointed and blackened at the tip, ending in the male with three setae (Plate XXXIII., fig. 9), which are entirely absent in the female. Length, about 2-25 mm. Pupa. — Head generally depressed behind. Eyes large, and of a very dark brown colour. Ocelli three, situated as in the adult. The fringe is very strongly developed, but the indivi- dual rods are longer and closer together than in T. panacis or T. pellucida, and the cups are more or less simply thicken- ings of the lower portions (Plate XXXIV., fig. 2). The anal ring is ventral, and closely resembles that of Trioza panacis. Length, about L75 mm. Hab. I have found it on Pittospornm tenuifolium, where the pupae lie in little pits both on the ventral and dorsal surfaces of the leaf. Its presence is indicated by the presence of large quantities of a white semi - transparent excretion termed " manna," which fills up the hollows of the leaves, and in windy weather falls to the ground, giving the appearance of a light fall of snow. Adult Female. — Generally of a light-yellow colour, with a slight green tint which becomes darker during life, probably due to the green food showing through the semi-transparent skin. Head and thorax not so green as the abdomen. Genitalia are of a dark-brown colour, especially at the tips. The length, including genitalia, about 2-25 mm., and expanse of wings 7 mm. At the posterior and ventral surface of the thorax is a short blunt projection (Plate XXXIII., fig. 7, G), found also in the male, but its function seems to be unknown. Marriner. — On a New Species of Psyllidae. 307 The head is broader than long, concave in front and depressed behind. The lower and front portion is prolonged into two conicai projections, with numerous hairs. The rostrum is situated on the ventral surface of the thorax, and has a black pointed tip. The female has no setae on the rostrum. Wings are large and membranous, and arch over and extend beyond the abdomen. Antennae of ten joints (Plate XXXIII., fig. 8), the third joint being no thicker than the fourth. The first two joints are short, round, and scaly; third joint is longest ; last joint is dilated and of a dark colour, with two unequal spines on its extremity. Legs are slender; tibia has numerous small spines on distal end, but in the third pair of legs these are partly replaced by four black conical projec- tions. Tarsus is double-jointed, the second joint having two hooks or spines and a sucker on its distal end. Abdomen has a conspicuous yellow mass (Plate XXXIII. , figs. 6, 7). probably corresponding to the pseudovitellus':: of the pupa. The anus is situated on the dorsal surface some distance in front of the genital organs. The genitalia are larger in comparison with the abdomen than in Psylla pyricola, and are of a dark-brown colour, especially at the tips. Genitalia consist of tnree plates (Plate XXXIII., fig. 6) — the upper genital plate (A), the lower genital plate (D), and, close to the upper genital plate, a third plate (Plate XXXIII. , fig. 6, B) called by Witlaczil the " main rod." Between this and the lower genital plate is a very transparent roundish lobe called the egg-sheath (C).f Viewed sideways the upper genital plate is longer than the lower ; all except the egg-sheath are sharply pointed, with numerous hairs scattered about. Adult Male. — This is very similar to the female, but the rostrum has three setae, which are entirely absent in the fe- male. The anus (Plate XXXIII. , fig. 7, H) is situated on top of the upper genital plate instead of on the abdomen itself, as in the female. Genitalia (Plate XXXIII. , fig. 7) : The lower genital plate (B) is large and round, and forms the end of the body. It is prolonged upwards to form a pair of claspers (C). The upper genital plate is about as broad as it is long, and, like the remainder of genital organs, stands up almost at right angles from- the body. Penis (E) is long and doubled back on itself at D, and provided with a hook at the end. Punning through the penis is a duct (K). Having mounted two speci- mens during copulation, I find the arrangements of the organs are as follows : The claspers of the male grasp the lower plate of the female ; the upper plate of the male clasps the upper * Witlaczil. | I am a little doubtful about the homologies of the two portions last mentioned. 308 Transactions. — Zoology. plate of the female ; the penis, which is at other times doubled back on itself, is extended to its full length, and passes in between the " main rod " and the lower plate. The pupa is about T75 mm. in length and 1-25 mm. in breadth, not counting the fringe. The head and thorax are more or less fused together; abdomen well marked and round. The pupa is almost stationary, but sometimes moves about slowly, especially when food is scarce. General colour is a light-yellow. Eyes large, facetted, but not prominent (Plate XXXIV., fig. 1). Ocelli, three. Legs are thick and broad, the distal end provided with a sucker, two hooks, and a spine. Eostrum (Plate XXXIV., fig. 5) is rounded at base and conical at the top, which is of a dark colour. A long seta runs from the tip backwards, and divides into two ; this runs forwards and forms a complicated system of setae, which appear to vary very much in different specimens. The anal ring is on the ventral surface ; and, as I have seen in several of my specimens a small anal ring forming inside the old one, it seems as if new ones are formed as the animal increases in size. The greater part of the white excretion found with the insects is excreted by the pupa through the anal ring, but small masses are also excreted by the imago. It appears to be a semi-transparent bag full of a transparent fluid which hardens when exposed to the air. The whole body of the pupa is covered with a transparent shield, in appearance very much like a very small tortoise- shell. On the outer edge is a thick fringe of fine, long, trans- parent threads, very much like fine glass tubing. The fringe appears to stick to the leaf, and so hold the pupa in its place. The whole animal, with its fringe, can be hardly seen with a naked eye when on the leaf, but under the microscope it pre- sents a very beautiful appearance. Under the shield the wings can be seen forming, and when ready the imago ruptures the shield and emerges as the adult insect, except that the wings are still folded. Some entomo- logists state that the pupa changes its shape as it grows. With the exception of the wings forming and the general size increasing, I have seen no changes, though I had several batches of live insects and pupae under a glass bell jar. I have been unable to find either the eggs or the larvae. MacKenzie. — On New Zealand Whitebait. 309 EXPLANATION OP PLATES XXXIII. AND XXXIV. Trioza alexi?ia, sp. nov. Plate XXXIII. Fig. 1. Fore wing of adult insect — AB. Primary stalk. BF. Stalk of subcosta. FH. Kadius. BC. Main upper stalk of cu- bitus. BN. Main lower stalk of cu- bitus. CD, CE. Secondary branches of BC. NK, NL. Secondary branches of BN. HM. Clavus. Fig. 2. Hind wing of adult insect. Fig. 3. Head of adult insect — O. Ocelli. A. Anterior projections. Fig. 4. Ocellus of adult insect — A. Lens. B. Pigment. Fig. 5. Hind leg of adult insect — A. Conical projection. B. Hooks and sucker. Fig. 6. Abdomen of female-- A. Upper genital plate. D. Lower genital plate. C. Egg-sheath. B. " Main rod." E. Anus. Fig. 7. Abdomen of male insect — A. Upper genital plate. B. Lower genital plate. C. Claspers of B. E. Penis. D. Hinge of penis. K. Duct running through penis. H. Anus on upper genital plate. G. Spur. Fig. 8. Antenna of adult insect. Fig. 9. Rostrum of adult male. Fig. 1. Pupa— A. Fringe. B. Wing-covers. C. Budimentary wings. D. Pseudovitellus glands. O. Ocelli. Plate XXXIV Fig. 2 Fringe (much enlarged) — A. Cups. Fig. 3. Leg of pupa. Fig. 4. Anal ring of pupa. Fig. 5. Rostrum of pupa, showing one of the many arrange- ments of the setae. All drawings greatly enlarged. Art. XXXV. — Notes on the Whitebait of Nexv Zealand. By A. J. MacKenzie, Curator, Kanieri Lake Fish-hatchery, Westland. [Read before Cornniunicated the Wellington by Sir J. Hector. Society, 18th November, Philosophical 1902.1 I have seen a notice in the Otago Witness of a paper read at a meeting in Wellington about New Zealand whitebait, the writer contending that whitebait were the young (or fry) of Galaxias attenuatns . This is a question I have been taking a considerable interest in for some time, and as I have been experimenting with whitebait at the hatchery the following may prove of interest , and assist to solve the question of what 310 Transactions. — Zoology. they really are. My opinion is that they are a distinct species, and not the fry (or young) of another fish. Of course, the whitebait should not be confused with the young smelt, a native fish that much resembles whitebait, but grows con- siderably larger, some of them growing to 8 in. or 10 in. in length. During the last whitebait season Mr. James King, secre- tary of the Westland Acclimatisation Society, obtained a quantity of whitebait from the Hokitika Eiver and forwarded them to me at the hatchery. I received them on the 21st November, 1901, and have had them in the rearing-boxes till the present time. They had the same treatment as the trout-fry, and throve very well, hardly any of them dying. I occasionally put a handful of salt in their water. They increased a little in size — a shade longer and filled out more. About the 10th March, 1902, 1 thought they were showing signs of developing ova, and on examination I found such, to be the case ; and on the 24th March they were nearly all carrying ova or milt. About the end of March and the first week in April a few of them died and burst open, and on examining them I found them crammed with ova. I con- cluded they died through inability to spawn in the box, the conditions not suiting them. I stripped (or spawned) a few of them, but they are too delicate to handle with success. I am trying to get them to spawn naturally in a box I have prepared for them, and to artificially fertilise the ova and hatch it ; but I am doubtful if I can make a success of it with the appliances I have. During the season whitebait run up the rivers of Westland in countless numbers, and gradually work their way up the streams, creeks, and small runs of water until they are pretty well dispersed, and it becomes very difficult to find them in the streams. 1 think they run up the streams and develope their ova in the fresh water, and after spawning return to the sea again. A few months after their appearance running up streams they may be noticed drifting down stream again in small numbers, perhaps three or four together, or sometimes as manv as a dozen. I am sending a few specimens of the whitebait, both male and female, and also some ova, preserved in formalin. The ova can be seen in the females quite distinctly through the skin of the belly. I would like to have them examined by some of the members and to hear their views on the subject, and any ideas they may have as to carrying out the experi- ment of hatching the ova. If practicable, I would be pleased to trv them and let vou know the result. Gibson. — On New Zealand Whitebait. 311 Art. XXXVI. — Notes on the Neiv Zealand Whitebait. By E. Gibson. Communicated by Sir J. Hector. [Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th November, 1902.] Hearing that the curator of the Westland Acclimatisation Society had forwarded specimens of whitebait and ova for discussion at the institute, I am also forwarding specimens to see how they tally with other experience. I have heard conflicting stories as to what whitebait really is. Some say they have kept them till they have grown into mullet, and as I was curious to see how many different kinds of fishes could be got out of the whitebait I thought to try for myself, so I got some and put them into a wooden box, but they died off. That was in 1890. The next year I tried another lot, and this time I put them in glass jars and kept them until the middle of January, when on a hot day I forgot to shade them, and on coming home at night I found them all dead. I then made a concrete tank to have ready for next year, and when the season came round I got another supply and put them in the tank, and kept them well supplied with creek-water from a swamp. They got on fine until about August of the next year, when they died. I noticed that they were bad with a fungus, so I gave it up. Next year, as the tank was there, I tried again ; but this time the idea struck me that, as the whitebait comes out of the salt water, the old fish must go into the sea again to spawn, so when the season came round I gradually changed the water till in August and September they were in all sea- water. Then I changed the water again till October, and they were back agam into fresh water. In this manner they throve well, and I kept them, and next season changed the water to salt again, and then back to fresh the third year, but they still remained the same. They are what we call " cowfish " or " inanga." I send three samples. The second- sized one in the spirits is after it came through the first sea-bath, and getting on for two years old. The largest one is after the next year's salt bath. The smallest one was put in spirits the following season. You will observe that they have have all come out brindled when immersed in spirits. I hope this will be of some interest to the Wellington Philosophical Society. Note. — Some time ago I forwarded to you some whitebait which you thought differed from those forwarded by Mr. A. J. MacKenzie. There is a little fish that comes up at the end of the whitebait season. They come for two or three days, and that finishes the season. They came up last season in millions, and are about fin. long and Fs^in. deep. 312 Transactions. — Zoology. Art. XXXVII. — Notes on the New Zealand Whitebait. By Sir J. Hector. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th November, 1902.'] The question of the true nature of the so-called " New Zealand whitebait " has been so fully worked out and pub- lished that it is hardly necessary to say more about it. It belongs to the genus Galaxias, and is closely allied to the pike family (Esocidce), and has no relation to the herrings of which the English whitebait is either the young fry or perhaps a separate species belonging to the genus Clupea ; nor does it belong to the Salmonidce, which in New Zealand is repre- sented by (1) Betropinna, or "inanga" of the Maoris, and "smelt" of the settlers; and (2) by the "grayling" of the settlers, or " upokororo " of the Maoris (Prototroctes oxy- rhynchus). All these fish ascend rivers, but they descend perhaps for breeding purposes to the tidal waters. Their history in this stage is still very obscure. We thus have in our rivers: (1.) Grayling, or upokororo (Prototroctes oxyrhynchus), which is a game fish, taking fly- hooks, and growing to 14 in. in length, and ascending high up in the rivers at certain seasons in large schools. (2.) Smelt : This delicate fish is common only in estuarian water. Length from 5 in. to 12 in. There are probably two species (Retro- pinna richardsoni and Osmerus eperlanus). (3.) Galaxias* so-called minnow of New Zealand, but, as above stated, allied to the pike of England (Esox hicius). Of this minnow there are probably several species. The following are my notes on these fishes, published in 1870, but now out of print : — The fresh waters of New Zealand are inhabited by only a few kinds of fish as compared with most other countries, and they are mostly of small size. Nevertheless, from their abundance at certain seasons, some species are of con- siderable importance as sources of food, and in a few cases possess more interest for the angler than is usually conceded to them. The two first species I have to mention deserve the attention of observers from their close affinity to the salmon and trout, of which the latter are now being rapidly accli- matised in the streams throughout the colony. * Hector, vol. ii., 402; Hutton, vol. xxviii., 314; Powell, vol. 84, 417 ; Clarke, vol. xxxi., 78. Hbctob. — On Netv Zealand Whitebait 313 Upokcroro. This is the native name of the grayling (Prototroctes oxy- rhynchus), a fish that has been long familiar to the settlers in certain districts, but which does not appear to have been obtained by any of the earlier collectors of the fishes of New Zealand, and remained undescribed till last year (1869), when specimens were forwarded by the Westland Naturalists' So- ciety to Mr. Frank Buckland, who eventually requested Dr. Giinther's opinion about them. He recognised it to be a closely allied species to a fish from the fresh waters of Aus- tralia, discovered in 186'2, and which he had placed in the same family with a salmonoid fish (Haplochiton) that in- habits the cold fresh waters of Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and the southern parts of the American Continent. Kespecting the relationship of these genera to each other, Dr. Gunther states that the Australian and New Zealand fish stand in the same relation to those in South America as the genus Coregomis (of which the whitefish of the American lakes and the vendace of Scotland are examples) does to the true salmon, and that, " however the southern Haplochitonidce may differ from the Salmonidce in the structure of the jaws and intestines, it is a most remarkable fact that the fresh waters of the Southern Hemisphere are inhabited by two genera with adipose fins so extremely similar in outward -appearance to the northern Salmonoids."* In ignorance of Dr. Giinther's researches, I had pre- viously f described the upokororo from specimens obtained in the Hutt River in January, 1870, and made the mistake of placing it in the only genus of salmonoid fishes then known to occur in New Zealand, and which is not found elsewhere (Betropinna) . With reference to the Australian congener of the upoko- roro, Professor McCoy remarks, " The Yarra Yarra and some other of the rivers near the southern coast contain in great abundance a beautiful and active fish, excellent for the table, and affording capital sport to the angler. By ichthyologists following the classification of Cuvier it would be referred to the Salmonidce, the adipose second dorsal fin being well marked, and so much does it resemble the grayling in the cucumber smell when caught, in general appearance, habits, mode of rising to fly, and playing, as well as in flavour, that anglers are now in the habit of calling it ' the Austra- lian grayling.' Its close resemblance in food and habits to the true Salmonidce helped the acclimatisation society to argue that certain of our rivers would serve for the experiment * " Proceedings Zoological Society," London, 10th March, 1870. t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. iii., p. 136 ; Ann. Nat. Hist. 1867 (Neochanna). 314 Transactions. — Zoology. of acclimatising the European salmon and trout, and, as ex- perience has since shown, successfully. It is vulgarly also called the ' Yarra herring,' and is the Prototroctes murana." This description applies to the New Zealand upokororo, except that it does not possess the " cucumber smell," which, however, is as strongly marked in our other and proper native Salmonoid (Retropinna) as it is in the English smelt (Osmerus eperlanus). The upokororo appears to inhabit clear running streams in all parts of the colony, and I believe that the large fish locally called " trout," which were sometimes cast up on the beaches of the great inland lakes of Otago in the early days before trout were introduced, also belong to this species. From all accounts they probably reached 6 lb. or 8 lb. in weight, but the usual size of this fish is under 1 lb. weight, and from 10 in. to 12 in. in length ; and I have seen no speci- mens less than 7 in., and certainly none in the semi-larval stage of whitebait. At certain seasons they assemble in the streams in im- mense shoals, and the fact of their being often seen near the mouths of rivers has given rise to the idea that the upokororo is a sea-going fish that enters the fresh water for the purpose of spawning. In my former account of this fish I adopted this view, and quoted a statement to the same effect by Mr. W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. ; but further inquiry leads me to think that these fish are constantly resident in the fresh water, and that' their annual migration does not extend beyond the commencement of the brackish water. The fishermen on the rivers of the West Coast who supply the large townships with fish obtained chiefly in the salt and brackish water within the river bars appear to be very confident that the "grayling," as they term it, does not enter the salt water ; and on the same subject I have the following note from Mr. C. Hursthouse, of Taranaki : "The upokororo, which you describe as a sea- visiting fish, is not such here. I made its esteemed acquaintance years ago in our little belle riviere Waiwaikaiho. Natives, however, told us that it is solely an inhabitant of fresh water, that it spawns high up in the streams, and that, though always present in the pools along their courses, they come down in- great numbers during floods. The only one ever found here in salt water was a dead one picked up at the mouth of the Henui after a heavy spate. Our most skilful brother of the rod, Mr. J. H. Smith, who, as shown by his diary, caught last year 1,152 of these fish in fifty-eight fishing-days, taking in one day ninety-three, thinks that upokororo would no more voluntarily get into salt water than into hot water. Here, with our rude tackle, they do not rise at the artificial fly, but Hector. — On New Zealand Whitebait. 315 greedily bite at the small red worm, which is only found under dry stock droppings ; the common garden worm has never tempted one." As it is very probable that by many observers the large- sized smelt (Betropinna) , which we shall find is a fish common to both fresh and salt water, is frequently mistaken for the upokororo (perhaps in Australia as well as this colony), the question is one that still requires further investigation ; and it will be a most interesting fact, if it can be established, that this fish, which is so universally distributed in New Zealand, and has close allies in South America and Australia, cannot survive in sea-water. Mr. Travers observed this fish in the Maitai Eiver in the early part of October, and I have speci- mens from the Hutt Eiver, full of spawn, obtained in the month of January ; while on the West Coast they are said to be caught several months later in the season, and even in winter. The upokororo is readily distinguished from the smelt (which is the only other fish in our streams with a fleshy second dorsal lobe) by its small tumid mouth, shorter lower jaws, and minute teeth closely placed together like a comb round the jaws. They vary very much in richness of colour, from a general silvery hue and brownish on the back, while others are dark speckled brown on back, and rich yellow, almost golden in tint, on the belly. The Smelt. This delicate little fish, which belongs to the true Salmonida, was first described by Sir John Richardson from specimens which were obtained at the Bay of Islands with a net, and therefore, I infer, in the salt water; but it is, at certain seasons, one of the most common of our fresh- water fishes. In my former paper on the New Zealand Sal- monoids* I distinguished two species of the smelt, the inanga and the proper smelt, which have been again united by Captain Hutton under the original species, Betropinna richardsoni. I am still, however, inclined to maintain that B. osmeioides should be recognised as a distinct form until more definite proof can be adduced that it is merely a different stage in the growth of the first-described species. My first acquaintance with these fish was in 1863, at the mouth of the Kotuku River, on the west coast of Otago, where, in the month of September, both kinds were obtained, the larger variety (B. osmeroides) following the flood tide in numerous shoals into all the little streams to which the brackish water penetrated, leaping out of the water in a very * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. iii., p. 133, pi. xviii., xix. 316 Transactions. — Zoology. lively fashion — the Maoris catching them as the tide fell by closing weirs made of flax net across the small creeks. Their length was from 4 in. to 7 in., and they took bait voraciously. The smaller fish (B. richardsoni), averaging 3 in. to 4 in. in length, on the other hand, chiefly appeared round the sides of the vessel in swarms at ebb tide, when the water was quite fresh, and were caught with bag nets. Later in the season, during the month of November, the same fish was found in quantities in the Kakapo Lake, where the water is always quite fresh ; but along with the smaller ones were many of larger size, averaging 4 in. in length, and having the appearance of adult fish, without showing any of their characters. In the Blackwater, which is a tributary of the Buller River, twenty miles from the sea, a fish which answers to B. osmeroidcs is abundant from February till June, and is caught in large quantities with a net at nightfall ; but the smaller fish, which was described by me as the whitebait, with a silver line on the sides, arrives in October in closely packed shoals, that advance steadily up stream against the rapids. Captain Hutton states that in the Waikato these fish go down to the sea to spawn in April, and that the young fish return again in October ; but among the specimens he col- lected both forms can be distinguished, although some speci- mens of each are of equal size. In a collection of fishes obtained from Taupo Lake I also find a small-sized form of the smelt, which, though differing in some respects from those found in the Waikato, has de- cidedly the character of B. osmeroides . Specimens caught sixteen miles up the Wanganui Eiver in the month of November also have the character of B. osme- roides. They are 5 in. in length, and full of roe. In the collections exhibited, which comprise all the speci- mens in the Museum, it is always easy to distinguish the fish which answers to Richardson's very minute description. They are of all sizes up to 4 in., at which size I consider they are adult, having a rather deep-shaped body, yellow colour with a silver streak on the side, a short conical snout, and very large eye. In the largest specimens the length of the body is less than four times that of the head, and less than five times the height of the body. The cleft of the mouth is small, and the teeth are very minute. The form of the stomach corresponds with Richardson's description, being like a fleshy tube, with a bend dividing it into an oesophageal and pyloric branch. On the other hand, the specimens of B. osmeroides have the external appearance of a true English smelt, the body being Hector. — On New Zealand Whitebait. 317 more elongated than the former species, especially in the case of the specimens from Taupo Lake. The colour (in spirits) of the Taupo specimens is also different from the others, being a brown-grey, with the silver band on the side very indistinct, whilst the other specimens are yellow. In other respects they have the same distinguishing characters from the type of B. richardsoni, which are an elongated snout, deeply cleft mouth, powerful jaws, and strong teeth. The stomach is also different in form, being a blind sac with the oesophageal and pyloric orifices close together. As these differences are of considerable importance, I think it will be of advantage for observers, in recording the habits of these fish, in the meantime to distinguish between the two forms, even if they should ultimately prove to be the same species. Both the large and the small smelts form delicious food, the smallest size, when about 2 in. in length, being one of several young fish that are called "whitebait " ; the large specimens, 7 in. in length, were called " aua " by the natives, which is also one name for the small sea-mullet. Kokopu (Genus Galaxias). This is the general Maori name for several very common fishes in the New Zealand streams and lakes, belonging to a family concerning which Dr. Giinther makes the following very interesting remarks : " The family of Gaiaxidce was formed by the late Johannes Muller for a single genus, Galaxias — scaleless freshwater fishes from the temperate zone of the Southern Hemisphere, which, with regard to the development and position of their fins, remind us of the pikes of the Northern Hemisphere, but in other respects resemble the Salmonoids, to which they have been compared by Muller. Also, the settlers in at least some parts of New Zealand have dignified the larger kinds with the name of 'trout,' or 'rock-trout.' However, they cannot be regarded as the southern representatives of the Salmonoids, inasmuch as recent researches have shown that this latter family is represented in the Southern Hemisphere by other much more closely allied genera (Haplochiton and Prototmctes). If we look for the representatives of the Gaiaxidce in other zones, perhaps the African Mormyridce and the arctic Esocidce are those which may be mentioned with the greatest propriety. Up to the present time only twelve species of Galaxias are known. Their geographical distribution is a point to which the greatest interest attaches. We find the genus most developed in New Zealand, where five species occur, and these are the largest of the whole group. Westward it ex- tends to New South Wales with three and to Tasmania with 31b Transactions. — Zoology. two species. Another is said to be an inhabitant of the creeks of Queensland ; but this is doubtful. Eastwards the same genus is met with again in the southernmost parts of America (Falkland Islands, Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego), whence three species are known ; and finally a minute form is said to occur in Chile. The occurrence of the same natural genus of fresh- water fishes in Australia, New Zealand, and South America would appear to be significant enough, and must be the more so when we find that even one and the same species (Galaxias attenuatus) inhabits the fresh waters of countries separated at present by the South Pacific Ocean." Two species of this fish have been figured, as they are most frequently met writh, and illustrate the greatest variety of external form which the genus presents in New Zealand. The kokopu proper is a fat, sluggish fish found lurking under stones and rotten logs in all the streams in the coiony, how- ever small, where not running over a clear or stony bottom. They afford very tame sport, but are fair eating, resembling the eel in flavour. The other species (G. attenuatus), which is the adult form of the true whitebait of New Zealand, it is proposed to distin- guish as the New Zealand minnow. It is a little fish con- stantly seen in most clear running streams, with very much the same habits as the English minnow. At certain seasons the young fry swarm in incredible numbers, and form the whitebait of New Zealand, but are a very poor substitute for the little herring that is so well known at Greenwich by that name. At Taupo Lake and other places in the interior small fish, which the Maoris collectively term ••inanga." but which are chiefly of the species now referred to, form the food of the natives for many months in the year, and are obtained in such abundance as to yield an ample supply both for daily use and to preserve for other seasons. These small fish are caught, where streams enter the lake, with fine-meshed nets woven of green flax. Several bushels of them are frequently caught at one time, and are immediately piled on hot stones, and covered with mats and earth for half an hour or so, in the usual manner of Maori cookery, but without the addition of any water. Thus prepared, if not for immediate use, they are firmly packed in tightly plaited baskets, and in this state will keep for months, at least sufficiently well to suit the Maori taste, which is not fastidious. The young of any of the following freshwater fishes may be taken as whitebait, but probably at different seasons and in varying localities, viz. : — 1. Salmonoids. — (a.) Grayling (Prototroctes). (b.) Smelt {Retropmna) . Mair. — Notes on Fish, in the Piako. 319 2. Gala.vias. — The New Zealand minnow, often wrongly named ''smelt." There are probably several species, but the young fry of G. attenuatus is undoubtedly the most common kind of whitebait in the market. It is the little fish that is scooped up with fine-meshed nets on the turn of the tide in the Grey, Hokitika, Buller, and most of the larger rivers in New Zealand. Art. XXXVIII. — Notes on Fish found in the Piako River. By Captain G. Mair, N.Z.C. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 4th August, 1902.} While visiting Pokatunawhenua, a native settlement about three miles up the Piako Biver, in March last, I found a party of natives catching large quantities of different kinds of fish in what they call a taraiva. Some stout manuka poles are put up in the channel where the current takes a straight run. The two sets of poles are from 20 ft. to 25 ft. apart, and as soon as the tide commences to ebb a funnel-shaped net is fastened in the opening, the lower edge being pinned down to the bottom by long poles with forks on them, and the top edge of the net is fastened to a bar tied from one set of stakes to the other. If the tide be favourable, it is necessarv to take the fish out every quarter of an hour, and this is done by lifting the long tapering end of the net and emptying the contents into a canoe. As soon as the ebb has ceased and the flood tide comes up the net is simply turned inside out, and so the process goes on till sufficient fish are caught to occupy all hands in cleaning and drying, then the net is lifted for several days. Assisted by a native lad, I twice lifted the net in about three-quarters of an hour, with the following result : 581 eels, from 1 ft. to 4 ft. in length, the largest the size of one's arm ; eight dozen flounders, of various sizes ; large numbers of aua or kataha (Agonostoma forsteri) ; about 601b. or 701b. weight of pilchard or mohimohi (Clupea sagax), two varieties ; a few snapper, mullet, and kahawai ; and hundreds of young red-cod, rarii {Lotella Bacchus), and what I believe are the young rock-cod, or kokopu or rawaru (Percis colias). The red-cod were from 3 in. to 4 in. in length, and the rawaru, or, as the natives here call them, " toitoi " or " panepane," from 2 in. to 6 in. long. Very large quantities of a kind of white- bait were also caught at the same time. 320 Transactions. — Zoology. The Piako Eiver is here about 60 yards wide, and one can form some idea of the quantity of fish going up and down when such a number and variety can be taken out of a bit of water only 5 yards wide. At high tide the water is almost salt, but only slightly brackish when low. I have never heard of either the young of the rock or red cod coming from fresh water before. There is absolute cer- tainty about the specimens caught being the young of the red- cod (named "rarii" by the natives). In the one I am sending you will notice the two feelers hanging from the throat. I also send some of what I suppose are pilchard ; one is very much deeper in the body. What I take to be rock-cod were all too large to be put in the bottle. III. — BOTANY Art. XXXIX. — On the Pollination of Rhabdothamrms solan - dri, A. Gunn. By D. Petrie, M.A. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 7th July, 1902.] Rhabdothamnus, a genus of the GesneriacecB, is the only New Zealand representative of this extensive order of tropical and subtropical plants, and B. solandri, A. Cunn., is its only species. The Maori name is " kaikaiatua." The plant is known to range throughout the North Island, and is fairly plentiful on the edges of the more open forests of this district. It is a slender much-branched shrub, of com- pact habit, and 6 ft. to 8 ft. in height. In the vicinity of Warkworth and of Whangarei it is plentiful, in both of which districts I had opportunities of studying it last November. The flowers grow singly or in pairs in the axils of the leaves, and are produced in considerable numbers, appearing in a constant succession throughout the summer. They are bome on short slender pedunclts, and stand out from the twigs sometimes in a horizontal but usually in a slightly drooping position. The corolla, which is pale-orange with red stripes, and from -|in. to fin. in length, is distinctly con- spicuous. It is irregular in form, being two-lipped, the upper lip shortly two-lobed and the lower more deeply three-lobed. The external surface is more or less pubescent-pilose, but the inside of the cup is perfectly smooth The stamens, four in number, are inserted near the bottom of the corolla-tube. A fifth imperfect filament is sometimes present. The two upper filaments are nearly straight, and lie directly along the upper part of the corolla-tube, while the two lower sweep downwards and outwards in a bow-like curve along the lower interior surface of the tube, bending sharply at their ends so as to nearly meet the apices of the upper pair. The anthers cohere, even in the unopened flower, into a cruciform or somewhat horse-shoe-shaped disc. When the flower opens the anther disc lies at the mouth of the corolla, almost touching the upper border of its tube, and is so placed that the front of the pollen-sacs faces the axis of the flower. The back of the disc, formed from the confluent connectives, is smooth and polished. As soon as the flower 21 322 Transactions. — Botany. opens the pollen-sacs dehisce, and the fine pollen-grains, which are very numerous, are freely exposed. At thjs stage in the development of the flower the slender style is hardly half the length of the corolla, and ends in a blunt point. In the course of a few days the filaments lose their rigidity and gradually shrivel. As the shrivelling proceeds the anther disc is moved across the centre of the flower, and finally rests against the middle lobe of the lower lip of the corolla. Here it remains, more or less closely appressed to the tube and retaining the spare pollen between the disc and the inner wall of the corolla. While this movement of the anther disc is in progress the style elongates, keeping close to the uppermost part of the corolla-tube. The top then bends sharply towards the axis of the flower, and expands into a rather broad rounded finely papillose stigmatic surface. When ready for pollination the style is as long as the ccrolla- tube, and the stigma stands a little above the centre of the flower. By this time the anther disc is appressed to the lower lip. While these changes are in progress the bottom of the corolla-tube is provided with a store of nectar that is secreted copiously and almost continuously. Such being the structure of the flower and the order of development of its various parts, it is evident that under normal conditions it cannot be self-fertilised. The pollen is ripe and exposed long before the stigma begins to form, and the downward movement of the anther disc before the stigma is mature effectually removes the remaining pollen-grains from the neighbourhood of the ripe stigma. The process of pollination thus combines proterandry with an additional safe- guard against self-fertilisation in the form of a movement withdrawing the anther disc from the neighbourhood of the spot which the mature stigma will occupy. I am not ac- quainted with such a combination as this in the pollination of any other native plant. The means by which pollination is effected is at present uncertain. Though on two occasions I spent several hours of bright weather in watching for insect visitors to the flowers, I did not see an insect visit a single flower. It may be that they are visited by moths in the dusk and arf thus fertilised, but the absence of scent makes this unlikely. The fact that many of the older flowers have their corollas ruptured towards the base of the tube points rather to small birds as the agents in effecting pollination. The corolla, which is as wide as a thimble, would readily admit the beak and part of the head of a small bird. The colouring of the flower, too, is in keeping with this view, for flowers fertilised by birds are said to be usually orange and often striped with red. R. Brown.— On N.Z. Musci. 323 I am not aware that we have in New Zealand moths large enough to rupture a corolla so large as that of Bhabdothamnus , for the flower is torn for fully two-thirds of its length, and not simply pricked or bitten through. From what has been said we can easily suppose how this nicely adjusted mechanism works. Bird visitors to the newly opened flowers will have the forehead dusted with pollen from the ripe anther disc. On visiting flowers that have been open several days this pollen will come in contact with the large papillose stigma, which now occupies the position the anther disc occupied before, and thus pollination is effected. It is likely that pollen from the same plant will be applied to a ripe stigma as often as that from another plant, for on the same shrub flowers in all stages of development may generally be found. The shrubs, however, are usually gregarious, so that true cross-pollination must often ensue. Whether pollen from a different plant is prepotent over that from other flowers on the same plant is a point that can be settled only by a series of experiments. One or two further details are of interest. The covering of stiffish pubescent hairs that overspreads the outer surface of the corolla- tube doubtless serves to ward off small insects, such as ants, that might steal the nectar without in any way contributing to pollination. The position of the flowers is such as would best suit the -approach of small birds hovering on the wing while extracting the nectar. The twigs are so fine that they would hardly afford foothold for even the smallest native birds, or even sup- port their weight. The rupturing of the flowers is no doubt an accidental phenomenon, caused by the bird's body falling below the level of the axis of the flower. It is certain that many flowers set seed that are never ruptured. Art. Xli. — On the Musci of the Calcareous Districts of New Zealand, with Descriptions of New Species. By Robert Brown. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st August, 1902.'] Plates XXXV.-XL. The following contribution towards a better knowledge of the bryology of New Zealand consists of descriptions of species collected in various places in. New Zealand since the genera to which the species belong were treated of by me in papers previously read before this Institute. The greater number of the species described in this paper were collected from cal- 324 Transactions. — Botany. careous rocks, or on the debris of these — e.g., Castle Hill,. Weka Pass, Kaikoura, and at Weston, near Oamaru. These districts, like calcareous districts in other countries, possess a special flora of their own which is strictly confined to these rocks, and thus far has not been found growing in any other habitats. Grimmia ( Schistidium) argentca* described in a former paper read before this Institute, has only been found on the rockc at Castle Hill, and is very rare in that habitat. Seligeria cardotu,\ also described in a former paper, was first found at Castle Hill, and since then it has been col- lected at the Weka Pass and near Oamaru. Bryum oamaruense,l from the last-named district, is another rare moss, being confined to one piece of rock from 3 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, and although 1 botanised all over the district for eight days I found it in no other habitat. In the interests of botany 1 left specimens of it sufficient to replenish the rock on which it grows. Gymnostomum brotherusii, described in this paper, is another of these rare plants, being confined to a small abandoned quarry on Mr. Allen's property, about 20 yards wide, from which stone had been taken to form the road which passes near it. There are also several new species from the Oamaru district, which are rare, described in this paper. Gymnostomum gibsomi, also described in this paper, has only been collected in the Kaikoura district ; it is plentiful, and grows in strips along the bases of precipitous rocks in the South Bay, and, although common, is seldom found in fruit owing to the dryness of the habitats. There are also several other rare species from this neighbourhood described in this paper which have not been found thus far in any other locality. From a geological point of view the rocks on which these plants grow are extremely interesting from the large number of fossils which they contain, but from a botanical one they present an arid uninteresting appearance, which has hither- to prevented a thorough examination of them being made to ascertain the number and positions of the plants that exist there. Only the larger ones have hitherto been collected, although in the crevices and out-of-the-way nooks and places there are to be found some of the smallest and rarest species of Musci in New Zealand. They are of much interest, some of them for their rarity, others for their extreme smallness, and all of them for the arid and adverse conditions under which they continue to exist. * R. B., in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1894, vol. xxvii., p. 412. t R. B., in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1894, vol. xxvii., p. 423. J R. B., in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1898, vol. xxxi., p. 447. R. Brown.— On N.Z. Musci. 325 In November, 1889, while botanising at Castle Hill, my attention was attracted by a small round white object about ^in. in size. It was attached to a dry perpendicular rock ex- posed to the full glare of the sun. Thinking it was the nest of some small insect, I examined it with a pocket-lens, and was surprised to find it was a very small moss, with the leaves curled over an immersed capsule. This was the manner in which G. argentea was discovered. The whole plant was only ^in., with an unbranched stem and an immersed capsule. Grimmia dimimitum is also from the above-named rocks, being only -^ in. One capsule of this moss is all that has been discovered. This district is a large one, and has not yet been fully examined, so that what exists in it has not been ascertained. At Weston, near Oamaru, the calcareous rocks are most •extensive, extending for miles in irregular masses, with high precipitous cliffs fronting in a south-western direction. From the base of these cliffs descends a steep bank, in several places some hundreds of feet high, as at Cormack's Siding, on the railway. Near this point the well-known non-calcareous diatomaceous ooze has been exposed in the railway-cutting; its depth is not known. Above this stratum and about half- way below the cliffs there is another stratum of diatomace- ous ooze which is calcareous, and extends all along the dis- trict at about the same level. In several places the adjoining fields are nearly on a level with this stratum, and the plough has gone over it ; but the line of the deposit was clearly seen all along these fields by the darker colour of the earth and pieces of it which had not mouldered into fine dust. On the steep portions of the bank, although generally covered with grass, it could be easily traced, being damp, slippery, and in places as plastic as clay. This bed had been opened in several places and a quantity of it taken away, and at these places it was dry. This stratum is from 20 ft. to 30 ft. in thickness, and it was near, or on the line of, this deposit that most of the mosses collected in this district were found. They were either on calcareous rocks which had fallen from the cliffs above, or on debits near them. To those who take an interest in this subject the above imperfect description will enable them to find the most interesting of the habitats in this dis- trict. In the beginning of January, 1898, having arrived at Kaikoura on a botanical exploring expedition, and being anxious to collect on the high hill adjoining Mount Fyie (on the summit of which snow still remained), and as I was unable in Kaikoura to obtain any information regarding the name of the hill or how to get on to it, I rose one morn- ing early, and, after reconnoitring it at a distance, walked 326 Transactions. — Botany. straight towards an opening between Mount Fyfe and the hill I wished to get on. Through this opening the River Hapuka emerges from the hills, the distance from Kai- koura being between seven and eight miles. Having arrived at this point early in the day, I was in hopes of being able to botanise on the hill for several hours, and also to reach the summit ; but after travelling up the rough bed of the river for about a mile the banks approached close to the water's edge, and further progress up the stream was barred by high perpendicular rocks on both sides and a foaming tor- rent in front. Subsequently I tried to reach the hill by going up the creeks tributary to the Hapuka, but without success, as I found that none of them led anywhere near it. After having made the above attempt I was informed that the north branch of the Hapuka led to one of the northern spurs of the hill. The spur appeared a great distance away, and I did not attempt to reach it, but confined my operations to examining the vegetation on the river -banks until I arrived above a narrow gorge in the limestone rocks abraded by the water of the river. My reason for not attempting to get to the hill by this way was because I had on the previous day discovered a route about 200 yards below the torrent above mentioned. By climbing up the steep bank of the river the bush was reached, which led up to the open hill above the bush-line. When the limit of the bush was reached a thunder-storm came on, accompanied by heavy rain, which put an end to further research in that direction. All the mosses recorded by me from the neighbourhood of Kaikoura in this and previous papers, with the exception of two, were collected in the district drained by the River Hapuka and its tributaries. On several days during the time I remained in Kaikoura I botanised on the coast -line, an agreeable change from travelling on boulders in the river-beds. The line of coast from the south of the Mokonui River to within a few miles of the mouth of the Clarence River was examined, and in the sandy bed of the Mokonui, growing in the mud, was found the moss recorded in this paper as Trichos- tomum mokonui ense. It was rather scarce, and this so far is its only known habitat. The country from this river to near Kaikoura is flat and uninteresting, and at the season of the year I visited it was completely dried up. Near Kaikoura are numerous precipitous cliffs, and along their bases grows the moss named Gymnostomiim qibsonii. It is very common, but is rarely found in fruit. These two mosses were the only new ones collected on a line of up- wards of twenty miles. R. Brown.— On N.Z. Musci. 327 Genus Gymnostomum. 1. G. salmonii, sp. nov. Plate XXXV., fig. 1. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in gregarious patches. Stems y^-in., branching from the base. Leaves few and small, erecto-patent, ligulate, rounded at the apex, obtuse or acute ; margins entire ; nerve ending below the apex. Areola small. Perichcetial leaves longer than the stem ones and broader at the base, clasping the fruitstalk; nerve ending below the apex. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk slender, yellow, inclined, £■ in. long. Capsule yellowish, ovate, very small, with a reddish ring round the mouth. Operculum nearly as long as the capsule, conico-rostrate, oblique, stoutish. Peristome none. Galyptra small, cucullate. Hab. On damp limestone rocks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by R. Brown, November, 1897. This moss is very rare and local, and so small that the rock had to be cut with a knife to obtain the plants entire. So far this is the only habitat known. Named after Ernest S. Salmon, Kew House, Kew. 2. G. brotherusn, sp. nov. Plate XXXV., fig. 2. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in large dense tufts as much as 7 in. diameter, reddish-brown. Stem l^in. long, matted with radicles, branches fastigiate. Leaves imbricating, small, erecto-patent, ligulate, obtuse or rounded at the apex; margins entire; nerve ending below the apex. Areola: Upper small, roundish ; lower oblong ; nearly erect when dry. Perichcetial leaves smaller than the stem ones, inner- most smallest, clasping the fruitstalk ; nerve ending below the apex. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk red, inclined, about ^ in. long. Capsule inclined, ovate. Operculum stout, oblique, conico-rostrate, two-thirds the length of the capsule. Peristome none. Galyptra cucullate. Hab. On wet rocks in a small abandoned quarry at Weston, near Oamaru. Collected by Robert Brown, Novem- ber, 1897. Plants rare, being confined to the above-named habitat. Named after Dr. Brotherus, of Helsingfors. 3. G. gibsonii, sp. nov. Plate XXXV., fig. 3. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in dense patches about lin. high, bright-green above, brown below. Branches dense, fastigiate. Leaves small, closely imbricating, erecto- patent or slightly recurving, linear-lanceolate, acute or acuminate ; margins entire ; nerve ending slightly below the apex. Areola: Upper small, roundish ; lower larger, oblong ; leaves erect when dry. Perichcetial leaves very similar to 328 Transactions.— Botany. the stern ones; nerve ending below the apex. Fruit acro- carpous. Fruitstalk inclined, slender, pale, T5g in. long. Capsule short, ovate-oblong, narrowing towards the base. Peristome none. Operculum and calyptra not found. Hab. At the base of calcareous cliffs, South Bay, Kaikoura. Common in this situation, but rarely fruiting; only known habitat. Collected by Robert Brown, January, 1898. Named after Walter Gibson, Esq., Kaikoura. 4. G. parisii, sp. nov. Plate XXXV., fig. 4. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in dense patches, green, \ in. high. Branches fastigiate. Leaves small, closely imbricating, ovate-subulate, tapering to an acute point or ob- tuse, and the nerve ending below the apex ; margins entire ; nerve disappearing in the acute leaves at the apex. Areola : Upper small, roundish ; lower oblong ; leaves erect when dry. Perichcetial leaves erect, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate ; nerve ending below the apex. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk in- clined, reddish, T3ein. long. Capsule small, ovate-oblong or ovate. Operculum conico-rostrate, about one-half the length of the capsule. Peristome none. Calupira cucullate. Hab. On limestone debris at the head of one of the tribu- taries of the River Hapuka, north of Kaikoura. Collected by Robert Brown, January, 1898. Named after General Paris, editor of the Revue Bryolo- gique. 5. G. westlandicum, sp. nov. Plate XXXV., fig. 5. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in small patches* dark-green, ^ in. high. Stem ^ in. Branches dense, -Jin., fastigiate. Leaves closely imbricating, erecto-patent, linear or linear - lanceolate, acuminate, slightly recurving; margins entire ; nerve continued to the apex. Areola : Upper small, dense ; lower quadrilateral ; leaves crisp when dry. Peri- chcetial leaves erect, shorter than the stem ones and narrower, sheathing the fruitstalk, inner smallest. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk inclined, ^in. long, pale. Capsule cylindric. Operculum conico-rostrate. half the length of the capsule. Peristome none. Calyptra not found. Hab. On damp banks, west coast of the South Island. Collected by Robert Brown, January, 1902. Genus Weissia. 6. W. kaikouraensis, sp. nov. Plate XXXV., fig. 6. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in small patches about Jin. high. Branches very short, fastigiate. Leaves closely imbricating, erecto-patent, subulate, base slightly broader, convolute in the upper half ; margins minutely E. Brown.— On N.Z. Musci 329 papillose ; nerve disappearing below the apex. Areola : Upper small, dense; lower quadrilateral. Perichatial leaves slightly smaller than the stem ones, otherwise similar. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruits talk inclined, ^ in. long. Capsule ovate or shortly ovate-oblong. Operculum oblique, conico-rostrate, as long as the capsule. Peristome single ; teeth 16, in pairs. Calyptra not found. Bab. North branch of the Hapuka. Collected by E. Brown. 7. W. (?) scarellii, sp. nov. Plate XXXVI., fig. 7. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in very dense patches, reddish-brown above, congested below, with radicles about 1 in. high. Branches | in. long, fastigiate. Leaves small, imbricating, erecto- patent, linear or linear- lanceo- late, rounded at the apex ; margins entire, keeled ; nerve ending below or at the apex. Areola : Upper small, oval ; lower small, quadrilateral ; leaves erect when dry. Peri- chatial leaves erect, shorter than the stem ones, other- wise similar. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk \ in. long, red, twisted slightly when dry. Capsule small, ovate-oblong. Peristome single, red, incomplete. Operculum and calyptra not found. Hab. On rocks, Jollie's Pass. Collected by Trist Searell. Genus Pottia. 8. P. lohittonii, sp. nov. Plate XXXVI. , fig. 8. Plants monoecious, annual, growing in small patches, gre- garious, i^in. high, dark-green. Leases imbricating, spreading or erecto-patent, small, oblong-apiculate, apex slightly in- curved ; margins entire ; nerve excurrent. Areola : Upper large, roundish ; lower quadrilateral ; leaves twisted when dry. Penchcetial leaves slightly smaller than the stem ones, but otherwise similar. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk pale, i in. long, inclined. Capsule small, ovate. Operculum conico-rostrate, slightly oblique, about half the length of the capsule. Calyptra not found. Hab. On damp banks near Weston, close to Oamaru, November, 1897. Collected by E. Brown. Genus Dicranum. 9. D. cardotii, sp. nov. Plate XXXVI. , fig. 9. Plants dioecious, perennial, growing in small patches, yellowish-green, fin. high. Branches subfastigiate. Leaves imbricating, small, erecto-patent or spreading, flexuous, subu- late from a quadrate sheathing-base ; nerve faint, disappearing in the subulate point ; margins minutely papillose. Areola : Upper dense ; lower oblong, without large alar cells. Pericha- 330 Transact lous. — Botany. tial leaves longer, erect, otherwise similar to the stem ones Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk ahout ^in. long, slender, inclined, pale-red. Capsule small, narrowly ovate-oblong. Operculum long, oblique, conico-rostrate ; beak long, slender, about a third longer than the capsule. Calyptra cucullate. Male inflorescence gemmiform on separate plants. Hab. On damp banks, tributary of the River Hapuka, near Kaikoura. Collected by Robert Brown. 10. D. waimakaririense, sp. nov. Plate XXXVI., fig. 10. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in loose patches, pale yellowish-green, \ in. —J- in. high. Branches few. Leaves imbricating, erecto-patent or spreading, secund, ovate-subulate, lower half erect, sheathing the stem ; margins entire ; nerve disappearing in the subulate apex. Areola : Lower quadrilateral. Perichatial leaves smaller, otherwise similar to the stem ones. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk inclined slightly, flexuous, red. Caysule inclined, ovate. Operculum stout, oblique, conico- rostrate, nearly as long as the capsule. Peristome single ; teeth 16, lanceolate, bifid to near the middle, red. Calyptra small, cucullate. Hab. On wet mud on the bed of the River Waimakariri. Collected by Robei't Brown, August, 1899. 11. D. koivaiense, sp. nov. Plate XXXVI., fig. 11. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in dense dark-green patches iin.— J- in. high. Branches short, fastigiate, ^in. Leaves imbricating, erecto-patent or recurving from the middle to the apex, linear, rounded or obtuse ; margins entire ; nerve ending below the apex. Areola: Upper small, round; lower quadrilateral. Perichatial leaves slightly smaller, in- nermost smallest, linear, obtuse. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruit- stalk i in. long. Capsule small, ovate-oblong. Operculum oblique, conico-rostrate, about half the length of the capsule. Peristome single, irregular; teeth 16, bifid or perforated on the middle line. Calyptra cucullate. Hab. On wet precipitous rocks in the gorge of the River Waimakariri, growing in company with D. tasmanicum, which it approaches in all its characters except size. Collected by Robert Brown, January, 1900. Genus Trichostomum. 12. T. stanilandsii, sp. nov. Plate XXXVI. , fig. 12. Plants monoecious, gregarious, yellowish-green, ^ in.— £ in. high, nearly simple. Leaves imbricating, secund, falcate, lower half ovate-lanceolate, upper half subulate, subcucullate at the apex ; margins entire ; nerve disappearing towards the apex. Areola : Upper small, dense; lower quadrilateral; R. Brown.— 0/t N.Z. Musci. 331 leaves erect when dry. Perichcetial leaves slightly longer; lower half erect, sheathing, oblong ; upper subulate, secund, falcate. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk inclined, slender, red, fin. long. Capsule cylindric, curved. Operculum conic, one-fifth the length of the capsule. Peristome single, fragile ; teeth 16, linear. Calyptra cucullate. Hab. On damp banks near Lake Kanieri, and on banks by the roadside near Hokitika. Collected by Robert Brown, January, 1902. 13. T. kanieriense, sp. nov. Plate XXXVII., fig. 13. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in small gregarious tufts about -Jin. high, pale yellowish-green. Branches few, short. Leaves imbricating, erecto-patent, ridged when moist, erect and incurved at the apex when dry, ovate or oblong- lanceolate, tapering to an obtuse point ; margins entire ; nerve continued to apex. Areola: Upper subrotund ; lower linear-oblong. Perichcetial leaves longer than the stem ones, convolute, sheathing, the fruitstalk tapering to an obtuse point. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk inclined, fin. long, brown. Capsule long, cylindric, curved slightly. Operculum eonico-subulate, one-seventh the length of the capsule. Peri- stome single ; only a few broken teeth wTere found. Hab. On damp banks near Lake Kanieri, West Coast. Collected by R. Brown, January, 1902. 14. T. whittonii, sp. nov. Plate XXXVII. , fig. 14. Plants perennial, growing in small patches about 4; in. high, glaucous -green. Branches fastigiate. Leaves erecto-patent, slightly spreading, flexuous or recurving, linear - subulate, subconvolute, minutely toothed at the apex ; nerve disappear- ing in the upper portion of the leaf. Areola : Upper small, quadrate ; lower quadrilateral ; leaves scarcely altered when dry. Perichcetial leaves similar to the stem ones. Fruit acro- carpous. Fruitstalk slender, red, \ in. long. Capsule cylindric. Peristome imperfect. Operculum and calyptra not found. Hab. On damp banks, Staircase Gully, Mount Torlesse. Collected by R. Brown, January, 1900. 15. T. theriotii, sp. nov. Plate XXXVII. , fig. 15. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in tufts, yellowish- green, -I in.-^ in. high, branched from near the base, fastigiate. Leaves erecto-patent or slightly spreading, imbricating, very small, upper ones oblong or ovate -lanceolate, obtuse or rounded at the apex ; margins entire ; nerve ending below the apex. Areola : Upper subrotund : lower small, quadrilateral. Perichcetial leaves smaller than the upper ones, ligulate, 332 Transactions. — Botany. innermost smallest ; nerveless. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruit- stalk slender, ^ in. long, inclined, pale. Capsule very small, cylindrie. Being overmatured, neither the operculum, peri- stome, nor calyptra were seen, but the moss is undoubtedly a Trichostomum. It had fruited freely, but insects had destroyed nearly all the capsules. Hab. Seams of rocks near Kaikoura. It appears to be rare, as only a small portion was obtained. Collected by E. Brown, January, 1896. Named after M. J. Theriot, Directeur de L'Ecole Primaire Superieure du Havre. 16. T. mokonuiensc, sp. nov. Plate XXXVII., fig. 16. Plants monoecious, small, gregarious, yellowish - green, ■J in. -J in. high. Branches fastigiate. Leaves small, erecto- patent, lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, subacute, semi-con- volute, slightly incurving at the apex ; margins entire ; nerve slender, continued to the apex. Areola : Upper small, sub- rotund ; lower quadrilateral ; leaves incurved at the apex when dry. Perichcetial leaves erect, smaller than the upper stem ones, lanceolate, acute ; margins entire ; nerve continued to the apex. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk slender, J in. long, reddish. Capsule small, cylindrie. Operculum narrow, conico- rostrate, two-thirds the length of the capsule. Peristome single ; teeth 16, linear. Calyptra cucullate. Hab. On damp mud in the bed of the Eiver Mokonui, near its junction with the sea. Collected by Eobert Brown, Janu- ary, 1898. Genus Orthotrichum. 17. 0. oamaruense, sp. nov. Plate XXXVII. , fig. 17. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in small dense tufts ^in.—|in. high, dark-green above, black below. Stem short, subdichotomously branched. Branches fastigiate. Leaves imbricating, erecto-patent, oblong-lanceolate, acute ; margins recurved, occasionally plain, entne ; nerve slender, keeled, disappearing at the apex. Areola : Upper small, dense ; lower quadrilateral. Perichcetial leaves slightly smaller than the stem ones, erect. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruit- stalk extremely short. Gapswe narrow, elliptic, immersed in the perichsetial leaves. Operculum stout, one-quarter the length of the capsule. Peristome single ; teeth 8, slightly perforated near the apex. Calyptra small, mitriform, pilose. Hab. On limestone rocks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by E. Brown, November, 1897. 18. 0. oamaruanum, sp. nov. Plate XXXVII. , fig. 18. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in small dense tufts, browu above, dark-brown below, fin.— £ in. high, dichoto- E. Brown.— On N.Z. Musci. 333 mously branched, subfastigiate. Leaves imbricating, erecto- patent, ovate-lanceolate, acute or obtuse ; margins recurved below the apex ; nerve keeled, disappearing below the apex. Areola: Upper small, dense; lower small, quadrilateral; leaves erect and adpressed when dry. Perichcetial leaves similar to the stem ones, but rather more subulate at the apex. Fruit acrocarpous. Capsule small, subsessile, turbi- nate, narrowed at the mouth. Operculum straight, conico- rostrate, about one-third the length of the capsule. Peristome single ; teeth 8, scarcely cohering on the middle line, bifid to near the base, membranous. Calyp tra .niitriform, slightly pilose near the apex. Hab. On limestone rocks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by E. Brown, November, 1897. 19. 0. beckettii, sp. nov. Plate XXXVIII., fig. 19. Plants perennial, monoecious, gi'owing in tufts, light-green above, brown below, 1^ in. -2 in. high, subdichotomously branched. Branches fastigiate. Leaves imbricating, erecto- patent or spreading, ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate from an erect sheathing-base ; margins minutely papillose towards the apex ; nerve ending at or below the apex ; nearly erect when dry. Areola: Upper small, oval; lower linear near the base. Perichcetial leaves smaller than the upper ones, erect, linear-lanceolate, acute. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruits talk about Jg in. long, erect. Capsules oval, from 1 to 6 together, most commonly 3 ; paraphyses numerous. Operculum not found. Peristome double ; outer teeth 8, dense ; inner 8, alternate with the outer ones, free to the base, composed of two rows of round cells. Calyptra small, mitriform, pilose. Hab. On bark of trees, Otira Gorge. Collected by E. Brown, January, 1902. 20. 0. otiraensc, sp. nov. Plate XXXVIII. , fig. 20. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in tufts J- in. high, yellowish-green, dichotomously branched. Branches fasti- giate. Leaves imbricating, erecto-patent, slightly flexuous, narrowly ovate - lanceolate, acute, concave; margins entire; nerve ending at the apex ; leaves crisp when dry. Areola : Upper small, round; lower small, quadrate. Perichcetial leaves nearly erect, narrowly ovate-lanceolate, acute. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruits talk T3g in. long, flexuous. Capsule ex- serted, ovate. Operculum not found. Peristome single, tight, imperfect. Calyptra small, mitriform, very pilose. Hab. On bark of trees, Otira Gorge. Collected by E. Brown, January, 1902. 334 Transactions. — Botany. Genus Br yum. 21. B.foresterii, sp. now Plate XXXVIII., fig. 21. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in dense patches dark-green, brown below, ^in. high. Branches ^e in., fastigiate. Leaves small, densely imbricating, erecto-patent, tapering from a broad base to an acuminate point or a narrow triangular acuminate outline ; margins entire ; nerve stout, keeled, ending at the apex or disappearing near it. Areola : Upper obliquely quadrilateral, becoming larger below ; leaves erec.t when dry. Perichatial leaves about half smaller than the stem ones, nearly erect, deltoid, acuminate. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk inclined, about Jin. long, curved at the apex, dark-red. Capsule pendular or hori- zontal, narrow, pyriform. Operculum mammillate. Peri- stome and calyptra not seen. Hab. On calcareous rocks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by E. Brown, 18th November, 1897. Named after Mr. Forester, Harbourmaster, Oamaru. 22. B. whittonii, sp. nov. Plate XXXVIII., fig. 22. Plants small, perennial, gregarious, J in. high, yellowish- green. Stem nearly simple, fastigiate. Leaves imbricating, subsecund, flexuous or spreading, falcate, linear-subulate, acuminate ; margins entire ; nerve disappearing below the apex. Areola : Upper obliquely quadrilateral ; lower larger ; leaves scarcely altered when dry. Pcrichcetial leaves smaller than the upper ones, innermost smallest. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk |dn. long, curved at the apex, slender, pale-red. Capsule horizontal, ovate, narrowing into the fruitstalk. Operculum conic, about one-sixth the length of the capsule. Peristome double ; outer teeth 16, linear-lanceolate ; inner, 16 cilia, alternating with the outer ones, membranous, united near the base. Calyptra not found. Hab. On damp banks near Kaikoura ; appears to be rare. ■Collected by R. Brown, January, 1898. 23. B. barm, sp. nov. Plate XXXVIII., fig. 23. Plants perennial, growing in dense patches, dark-green, ^ in.— | in. high, slender, irregularly branched. Branches slender. Leaves small, imbricating, erecto-patent or flexuous, narrow, ovate-subulate, acute ; margins entire ; nerve disap- pearing below the apex Areola: Upper narrow, obliquely quadrilateral ; lower larger ; leaves erect when dry. Pcrichce- tial leaves linear- subulate ; nerve ending below the apex. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk slender, pale-red, curved at the apex, ^ in. long. Capsule horizontal or pendular, shortly R. Brown.— Oh N.Z. Musci. 335 ■ovate-oblong. Operculum conic, one-fifth the length of the capsule. Peristome double ; outer teeth 16, linear-lanceolate ; inner membranous, 16 cilia, alternating with the outer ones, •united below. Hab. On damp banks on the west coast of the South Island. Collected by R. Brown, January, 1902. 24. B. theriotii, sp. uov. Plate XXXVIII., fig. 24. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in small tufts about f in. high. Branches short, fastigiate, darkish-green. Leaves imbricating, erecto-patent, small, short, ovate, acute or acu- minate ; margins entire ; nerve excurrent. Areola : Upper narrow, obliquely quadrilateral ; lower ones larger. Peri- chatial leaves smaller than the upper ones, triangular ; nerved to the apex. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk inclined, -Jdn. high, curved at the apex. Capsule large, oval. Operculum short, convex. Peristome double ; outer teeth 16, lanceolate ; inner 16, membranous, alternating with the outer, united below the base. Hob. On damp rocks, head of Governor's Bay, Port Lyttelton. Collected by R. Brown, January, 1899. Genus Blindia, Wils. 25. B. theriotii, sp. nov. Plate XXXIX., fig. 25. Plants perennial, dioecious, growing in patches^ in. high, yellow-green above, pale-brown below. Branches fastigiate. Leaves closely imbricating, secund, recurving or erecto- patent, subulate from a short broad erect sheathing-base ; nerve disappearing in the subulate portion ; scarcely altered when dry. Areola : Upper linear; lower quadrilateral, with large quadrate alar cells at the basal angles. Perichatial leaves smaller, erect, with an oblong sheathing-base, and the upper half subulate. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk curved, about fin. long. Capsule small, rotund; mouth narrow. ■Operculum conico-rostrate ; beak subulate, straight, two-thirds the length of the capsule, which is immersed among the leaves when moist, erect when dry. Peristome single ; teeth 16, lanceolate, sometimes perforated, upper two - thirds mem- branous. Calyptra cucullate. Hab. On wet rocks or banks, Staircase Gully and Cascade Creek, Mount Torlesse. Collected by R. Brown, January, 1900. 26. B. (?) torlessensis, sp. nov. Plate XXXIX., fig. 26. Plants perennial, growing in small dense tufts about fin. high, yellowish-brown, branching irregularly, subfastigiate. Leaves loosely imbricating, erecto-patent, subulate from a short 336 Transactions. — Botany. ovate erect sheathing-base, subulate portion twice the length of the base ; margins entire ; nerve disappearing in the subulate point. Areola: Upper quadrate ; lower quadrilateral ; leaves erect when dry. Perichcetial leaves slightly longer than upper ones, but otherwise similar to them. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk inclined, ^ in. long, red. Capsule subturbinate ; mouth wide. Peristome single ; teeth 16, red, bifid for one- third of their length. Operculum stout, oblique, conico-rostrate about half the length of the capsule. Galyptra not found. Hab. Damp banks, Mount Torlesse. Collected by R. Brown, December, 1896. Genus Grimmia. 27. G. (Schisticlium) oamaruense, sp. nov. Plate XXXIX., fig. 27. Plants monoecious, perennial, growing in small patches Y&in. high, brownish, branched from the base. Branches fastigiate. Leaves closely imbricating, erecto-patent, oblong- lanceolate, acute, with a minute hyaline tip ; margins recurved or plain ; nerve continued to the apex, keeled ; leaves .erect when dry. Areola small, roundish to the base. Perichcetial leaves smaller than the upper ones, innermost smallest, oblong -lanceolate, acute. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk extremely short. Capsule turbinate, small, immersed in the perichaBtial leaves. Operculum mammillate or convex-apicu- late. Peristome 16, lanceolate, tapering to a slender point, red, entire or perforated. Hab. On damp calcareous rocks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by R. Brown, November, 1897. 28. G. turneni, sp. nov. Plate XXXIX., fig. 28. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in tufts, dark-green above, nearly black below, -J in. -fin. high, dichotomously branched, fastigiate. Leaves closely imbricating, erecto-patent or recurving, linear-lanceolate, obtuse, concave, slightly cucul- late at the apex; margins entire; nerve keeled, ending close to the apex. Areola: Upper small, dense; lower quadrilateral ; leaves crisp when dry. Perichcetial leaves semi-convolute, about the size of the upper ones. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruit- stalk erect or inclined, -|in. long. Capsule ovate. Operculum conico-rostrate ; beak slender, straight, about two-thirds the length of the capsule. Peristome single ; teeth 16, irregular, bi- or tri-fid, perforated. Calyptra mitriform, as long as the capsule, furred. Hab. On rock on the north side of Mount Torlesse. Col- lected by R. Brown, January, 1900. This is the only known habitat. Named after T. Turner, Esq., seed-merchant, Christchurch. E. Beown.— On N.Z. Musci. 337 29. G. barrii, sp. nov. Plate XXXIX., fig. 29. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in small green tufts about Jin. high. Stem -|in. Branches arising below the pericha3tial leaves, -^in., fastigiate. Leaves closely imbricat- ing, lower half of leaves oblong-lanceolate, upper half tapering into a subulate point, incurving in the upper part, subconvo- lute, acute; margins entire; nerve ending at the apex. Areola: Upper dense ; lower quadrilateral ; leaves crisp when dry. Perichcetial leaves : Lower half erect, sheathing ; upper half incurved. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruits talk erect or inclined, 3^- in. long. Capstde narrow-turbinate, annulate. Operculum couvex-rostrate, two-thirds the length of the capsule ; beak long, slender. Peristome single; teeth 16, regular, entire, lan- ceolate. Calyptra mitriform. Hab. On calcareous rocks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by B. Brown, November, 1897. Named after Peter Barr, V.M.H., F.E.H.S., M.E.A.S. 30. G. hutchinsonii, sp. nov. Plate XXXIX., fig. 30. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in small dense tufts Jin. high, yellowish-green. Branches or in., fastigiate. Leaves small, erecto-patent, imbricating, oblong-lanceolate, tapering into a hyaline hair-point ; margins entire ; nerve keeled, ending at the hair-point ; erect when dry. Areola : Upper small, dense ; lower quadrilateral. Perichcetial leaves erect, larger than the stem leaves, hair-points longer. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk j^in. long, hygrometric, curved when moist, erect when dry. Capsule small, oval, annulate. Operculum conic. Peristome single ; teeth 16, dark - red, shortly bifid at the apex. Calyptra small, mitriform. Named after Mrs. Hutchinson, of Kirn, Scotland. Hab. On calcareous rocks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by E. Brown, November, 1897. 31. G. kaikcniraensis, sp. nov. Plate XL., fig. 31. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in small dense tufts -^ in. high. Branches short, fastigiate. Leaves closely im- bricating, erecto-patent, recurved close to the apex, elliptic- lanceolate, acuminate, tapering into the hyaline hair-point ; margins entire ; nerve slender, ending at the hair-point ; erect when dry. Areola : Upper small, dense ; lower quadrilateral. Perichcetial leaves shorter and narrower than the stem ones, erect, sheathing the base of the fruitstalk, linear-acuminate, with a short hair-point. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk ^in. long, hygrometric at the middle. Capsule obovate or tur- binate. Operculum conic or submammillate, one-third the length of the capsule. Peristome single ; teeth 16, irregular, Calyptra small, cucullate. 22 338 Transactions. — Botany. Hab. On damp rocks near Kaikoura. Collected by E. Brown. Genus Tortula. 32. T. oamaruensis, sp. nov. Plate XL., fig. 32. Plants perennial, monoecious, gregarious, ^ in. high, dark- green. Branches few, fastigiate. Leaves small, erecto-patent, slightly recurved, oblong, rounded at the apex, acute ; margins recurved ; nerve excurrent as an apiculus. Areola : Upper small, roundish ; lower quadrilateral. Perichcetial leaves erect, very small, broadly ovate, acuminate. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk -|in. long. Capsule small, ovate. Operculum conic, apiculate. Trace of the tube of a peristome was all that was found. Calyptra unknown. Hab. On damp banks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by R. Brown, November, 1897. This plant was imperfect ; it appears to be rare, but from its small size is easily overlooked. 33. T. arida, sp. nov. Plate XL., fig. 33. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in dense tufts, dark- brown, £ in. high. Branches arising from near the base, fasti- giate. Leaves erecto-patent, closely imbricating, ovate-lanceo- late, acute, slightly contracted in the middle with a minute hyaline point at the apex ; margins entire ; nerve stout, continued to the apex ; crisp when dry. Areola : Upper small, dense ; lower quadrilateral. Perichcetial leaves erect, shorter and narrower than the upper ones. Fruit acrocar- pous. Fruitstalk red, |- in. long. Capsule cylindric, gibbous. Operculum nearly as long as the capsule, conico-rostrate ; beak long. Peristome single, twisted ; teeth one-third longer than the tube. Calyptra large, cucullate. Hab. In small holes on calcareous rocks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by R. Brown, November, 1897. 34. T. oamaruana, sp. nov. Plate XL., fig. 34. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in small dense tufts Jin. high, almost black. Branches fastigiate. Leaves closely imbricating, erecto-patent, lanceolate, acuminate, erect at the base ; margins entire ; nerve stout, continued to the apex, keeled ; crisp when dry. Areola : Upper small, dense; lower large, quadrilateral. Perichcetial leaves erect, nearly as large as upper stem ones, oblong-lanceolate, acumi- nate. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk ^ in. long, stout. Capsule oblong, slightly curved, narrowed at the mouth. Operculum stout, conico-rostrate, slightly oblique, about half the length of the capsule. Peristome twisted, tube very short. Calyptra large, cucullate. J E. Brown.— On N.Z. Musci. 339 Hab. In small holes on calcareous rocks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by K. Brown, November, 1897. This plant differs from the preceding one in tbe acuminate leaves, the smaller capsule, shorter operculum, and the larger perichaetial leaves. 35. T. hutchinsonii, sp. nov. Plate XL., fig. 35. Plants perennial, monoecious, growing in dense tufts or small patches, dark-green, |in. high. Branches fastigiate. Leaves closely imbricating, erecto-patent, oblong, round at the apex or ligulate ; margins entire or recurved ; nerve stout, excurrent, has a long hyaline hair-point ; crisp when dry. Areola : Upper small, dense ; lower quadrilateral. Peri- chaetial leaves about one-half shorter and narrower than the upper ones. Fruit acrocarpous. Fruitstalk J in. long, red. Capsule cylindric, slightly curved, annulate, persistent. Operculum stout, conico-rostrate, slightly oblique, one-third the length of the capsule. Peristjme twisted, tube very short. Galyptra cucullate. Hab. In small holes on calcareous rocks near Weston, close to Oamaru. Collected by K. Brown, November, 1897. EXPLANATION OP PLATES XXXV.-XL. Plate XXXV. Fig. 1. Gymnostomum salmonii, sp. nov. 1. Plant. ; 4. Upper leaves. 2. Perichsetial leaves. 5. Lower. 3. First leaf outside perichsetial. Fig. 2. G. brotherusii, sp. nov. 1. Magnified one-half as much as capsule and leaves. 2. Capsule. 3. Calyptra. 4. Inner and outer perichaetial leaves. 5. First leaf outside perichaetial. 6. Upper leaves. 7. Middle leaf. Fig. 3. G. gibsonii, sp. nov. 1. Capsule. 2. Inner and outer perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial. 4. Upper leaf. 5. Middle leaf. 6. Lower leaf. Fig. 4. G. parisii, sp. nov. 1. Capsule. | 2. Perichaetial leaves. Fig. 5. G. westlandicum, sp. nov. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaf. Fig. 6. Weissia kaikouraensis, sp. nov. 1. Plant. 2. Mature capsule. 3. Perichaetial leaves. 4. First leaf outside perichaetial. 5. Upper leaf. 6. Middle leaf. 340 Tr ansae tions . — Botany. Fig. 7. Plate XXXVI. Weissia (?) searellii, sp. nov. 1. '2. 3. Capsule. Perichaetial leaves. First leaf outside perichaetial. 4. Upper leaf. 5. Middle leaf. Fig. 8. Pottia whittonii, sp. nov. 1. 2. Plant. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial 4. Upper leaf. Fig. 9. Dicranum cardotii, sp. nov. 1. 2. 3. ■1. Capsule. Peristome. Perichaetial leaves. First leaf outside perichaetial. 5. Upper leaves. 6. Middle leaf. 7. Lower leaf. Fig. 10. D. ivaimakaririense , sp. nov. 1. 2. 3. 4. Capsule. Calyptra. Perichaetial leaves. First leaf outside perichaetial. 5. Upper leaves. 6. Middle leaf. 7. Lower leaf. Fig. 11. D. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial kowaiense, sp. nov. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaf. 6. Lower leaves. 12. Fig 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial Tricliostormim stanilandsii, sp. 4. Upper leaves. nov. 5. Middle leaves. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial Plate XXXVII. Fig. 13. T. kanieriense, sp. nov. 4. Upper leaf. Middle leaf. Lower leaf. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial Fig. 14. T. wliittonii, sp. nov. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaf. Fig. 15. T. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial. theriotii, sp. nov. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaf. 6. Lower leaf. Fig. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside pericruetial 16. T. mokonuiense, sp. nov. 4. Upper stem leaves. 5. Peristome. 6. Middle stem leaf. Fig. 17. 1. Capsule. 2. Calyptra. 3. Perichaetial leaves. Orthotrichum oamaruense, sp. nov. 4. First leaf outside perichaetial. 5. Upper leaf. 6. Midd'e leaf. R. Brown.— Oh N.Z. Musci. 341 1. Capsule. 2. Calyptra. 3. Peristome. Fig. 18. 0. oamaraanum, sp. nov. ! 4. Perichfetial leaves. 5. First leaf outside perichaetial. 6. Upper leaf. Fig. 19. 1. Capsule. 2. Calyptra. 3. Perichaetial leaves. Plate XXXVIII. Orthotrichum beckettii, sp. nov. 4. First leaf outside perichsetial. 5. Upper leaf. 1. Capsule. 2. Calyptra. 3. Perichaetial leaves. Fig. 20. 0. otiraense, sp. nov. 4. First leaf outside perichaetial. 5. Upper leaves. 6. Middle leaves. Fig. 21. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial Bryum foresterii, sp. nov. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaf. 6. Lower leaf. Fig. 22. B. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial. nov. whittonii, sp. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaf. 6. Lower leaf. Capsule. Perichaetial leaves. First leaf outside perichaetial. Fig. 23. B. barrii. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaves. Fig. 24 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial. B. theriotii, sp. nov. 4. Upper leaf. 5. Middle leaf. Fig. 1. Capsule. 2. Calyptra. 3. Perichaetial leaves. Plate XXXIX. 25. Blindia theriotii, sp. nov. 4. First leaf outside perichaetial. 5. Upper leaves. 6. Middle leaves. Fig. 26. B. (?) torlessensis, sp. nov. 1. Immature and matured capsule. | Fig. 27. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial. Grimmia ( Schistidium) oamaruense, sp. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaf. nov. 1. Capsule. 2. Calyptra. 3. Peristome. Fig. 28. Q. tumerii, sp. nov. 4. Perichaetial leaves. 5. First leaf outside perichaetial. 6. Upper leaves. Fig. 29 G. nov. 1. Capsule. 2. Calyptra. 3. Peristome. 4. Perichaetial leaves. barrii, sp. 5. First leaf outside perichaetial. 6. Upper leaf. 7. Middle leaf. 342 Transactions. — Botany. Fig. 30. G. hutchinsonii, sp. now 1. Capsule. 2. Calyptra. 3. Perichsetial leaves. 4. First leaf outside perichsetial. 5. Upper leaf. 6. Middle leaf. Plate XL. Fig. 31. Grimmia kaikowaensis, sp. nov. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaf. Fig. 32. Tortilla (?) oamaruensis , sp. nov. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial. 4. Upper leaf. 5. Middle leaf. Fig. 33. T. arida, sp. nov. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichsetial. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaf. Fig. 34. T. oamaruana, sp. nov. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichsetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichsetial. 4. Upper leaves. 5. Middle leaf. Fig. 35. T. hutchinsonii, sp. nov. 1. Capsule. 2. Perichaetial leaves. 3. First leaf outside perichaetial. 4. Upper leaves. Art. XLI. — Structure of Leaf of certain Species of Co- prosma. By Miss N. A. E. Greensill, M.A. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd September, 1902.) Plates XLI.-XLIV. The Cojirosmas are interesting subjects for examination, for all, except some of the small-leaved species, are distinguished by the presence on their leaves of little pits opening on the under-surface of the leaf, and marked on the upper by a pro- tuberance. Coprosma baueri. Endlicher, Iconog., Gen. PL, t. iii. The leaf, the underside of which is represented in fig. 4, has reticulate venation. In the axils of the midrib (m.) and primary veins (p. v.) appear the pits (p.), which are thus arranged with considerable regularity (see also fig. 3). In one or two leaves I saw one, or sometimes two or three, pits in the axils of the secondary veins, but this was of unusual Gbeensill. — Leaf-structure of Coprosma. 343 occurrence. On the upper side of the leaf the presence of the pits is denoted by well-marked protuberances. The structure of the leaf and tissues round the pit (fig. 1) is as follows : In transverse section on the upper surface of the leaf there is first a cuticle (cu.) with an irregular outline ; beneath this a layer of small epidermal cells (ep.) ; next a hypodermal layer of colourless, roundish cells, elongated in a transverse direc- tion, and functioning as a storage layer for water (st. I.) ; beneath this again a layer of cells (ho.) approximating to the storage layer, but containing in parts a few chlorophyll granules, though in other parts they are quite empty. This layer is longer than broad, thus approaching in shape the palisade cells (p. p.) of the next few rows. These palisade cells, which are typically elongated in a longitudinal direc- tion, contain a great number of chlorophyll corpuscles (chl.), crowded rather closely together towards the centre. They also contain, in almost all the species examined, drops (a.) of what appeared to be oil. Beneath the cells of the palisade parenchyma are those of the spongy paren- chyma (sp.) of irregularly shaped cells, with numerous air- spaces between. They also contain numerous chlorophyll corpuscles (chl.), though not so many nor so closely crowded as those of the palisade parenchyma. In the spongy paren- chyma, too, in all the species I examined I found numerous bundles of crystals or raphides (r.). Beneath the spongy tissue, which occupied the greater part of the leaf-area, is the epidermis of the lower surface (/. ep.), in which are numerous stomata (st.). On the lower surface there is also a cuticle (cu.) with the same irregular outline as that of the upper surface. The stomata are enclosed by two guard-cells (g.), in trans- verse section smaller and different in shape from the ordinary epidermal cells. The epidermal cells next to the guard- cells are modified to form subsidiary cells (s.), into which the guard-cells fit, and which overhang the guard-cells. The pit is circular in outline, with projecting rims. Its epider- mis (p. ep.) is continuous with that of the lower surface, and similar to it. Above the pit epidermis are two layers of roundish cells (c. I.), slightly elongated in a transverse direc- tion, and colourless in contrast with the spongy tissue im- mediately surrounding the innermost layer. A few of the epidermal cells are occasionally prolonged into papillose pro- jections or hairs (h.), which are usually unicellular, though I saw one such hair consisting of two cells. These hairlike projections are not very numerous, and many pits appeared to be without them. Dr. A. N. Lundstrom regards these pits as hairless. There are no stomata in the pits either of this species or any of the other species I examined. The vascular bundle (v. b.) of the midrib is seen beside the pit, with xylem 344 Transactions. — Botany. above and phloem beneath. It has the usual structure, and is accompanied by parenchymatous cells {"par.) and the leaf- sheath (I. s.). Above the xylem are a few round chlorophyll- containing cells (ch.), with few chlorophyll corpuscles (cfil.). They are inserted between the xylem and the parenchyma cells of the upper part of the leaf. In sections that have been stained it is seen that the hairs and epidermis of the pit and the colourless layers inside the epidermis have all living protoplasmic contents. This was the case in every species examined, in which all or any of these cells were present. Fig. 3 is a surface section of the pit showing the stomata in surface view, and the position of the pit between the mid- rib (m.) and the primary veins. The epidermis of the pit (p. ep.) is seen, the hairs (h.), and the colourless layers (c. I.) inside the epidermis. The characters already mentioned are thus repeated in this section, though the shape of the cells differs in correspondence to the different direction in which the section was cut. Coprosma lucida. Forster, Char. Gen., 138. The pits (p.) are situated in the axils of the midrib (m.) and primary veins, and occur with great regularity. I saw none in the axils of the secondary veins. The two leaves figured (figs. 5 and 11) are both varieties of this species. The struc- ture of the tissues as seen in transverse section (fig. 6) is as follows : On the upper surface of the leaf a thick cuticle (cu.) with a wavy outline ; an epidermal layer (ep.) of narrow cells elongated in a transverse direction ; then a hypodermal layer of roundish cells (st. I.), also elongated in a transverse direc- tion, and serving as a storage layer for water; then two or three layers of typical palisade cells (p.p.), with chlorophyll corpuscles (chl.) and drops of oil (d.). The chlorophyll cor- puscles in this case are less crowded, though still numerous. Next comes typical spongy parenchyma (sp.) of irregularly shaped cells, with chlorophyll corpuscles scattered in them. This, as usual in all the species, occupied the greatest thick- ness of the leaf. Below this is the epidermis of the lower surface (I. ep.), the cells of which are smaller and broader than those of the upper ; then a cuticle, thinner, but with the wavy outline of that on the upper surface. In the lower epidermis are numerous stomata (st.) with small guard- cells (g.), and subsidiary cells (s.), not so unlike ordinary epidermal cells. The cuticle forms a projection (p.) at the entrance of the stoma, thus narrowing it and diminishing the rate of transpiration. The epidermis (p. ep.) and cuticle (cu.) of the pit are continuous with and similar to those of the lower surface. There are numerous multicellular hairs (h.) in the pit or at its mouth. The individual cells of these Greensill. — Leaf- structure of Coprosma. 345 hairs are almost as broad as long ; their number varies. Fig. 9 shows one of these hairs stained with eosine. The nuclei (n.) and protoplasmic contents are then clearly seen. In the young pit the hairs are unicellular, as in fig. 10. Next to the epidermis are two layers of colourless round cells (c. /.), next to which again is the ordinary spongy parenchyma of the leaf. The chlorophyll cells that are present in the projecting rims of the pit have fewer corpuscles, and are sometimes almost colourless. This was the case in all the species I examined. All the pits, too, had the same projecting rims and circular outline. Coprosma propinqua. A. Cunningham, Precurs., n. 472. Fig. 22 shows the under-surface of a leaf of this species, which, however, is rather broader-leaved than usual. The pits are few in number ; sometimes one, sometimes two, and occasionally none are present. The pits (p.) are in the axils of the midrib (m.) and primary veins. The veins also are few in number, as visible to the naked eve. The structure of the leaf in transverse section (fig. 8) is as follows : On the upper surface a rather thick cuticle (cu.) with minute irregular projections ; an epidermis (ep.) of very large cells, almost square in shape, which themselves can function as a storage layer for water ; then two or three layers of palisade cells with the usual contents, the chlorophyll corpuscles being irregu- larly scattered. Then comes the spongy tissue of the leaf, of the usual typical form, with slightly less numerous cor- puscles than the palisade cells ; below that the epidermis of the lower surface (I. ep.), of much smaller cells than that of the upper, and with a thinner cuticle (cu.), which, however, has the same irregular outline. In the lower epidermis are numerous stomata (st.), which have much the same form as those of Coprosma lucida, only the cuticle does not project so much in front of the opening. The guard-cells (g.) are pear- shaped, and the epidermal cells (s.) next to them are slightly modified to fit into them. The epidermis of the pit (p. ep.) is like that of the lower surface, though, of course, there are no stomata ; the cuticle (cu.) has a very irregular outline. In the pit are hairs (h.) of two, three, or sometimes more cells. The individual cells of the hairs in this case are long and narrow. Coprosma linearifolia. Hook, f., Handbk., 118. The upper and lower surfaces of the leaf are seen in fig. 23. The upper surface shows no venation to the naked eye ; the lower surface only the midrib and one or two primary veins. The pit (p.) on the under-surface has a tiny opening; on the upper a marked protuberance (pro.). The pits ap- 346 Transactions. — Botany. peared mostly near the end of the leaf, in the axil of the midrib, and veins not visible to the naked eye. They are usually two in number, placed opposite to one another ; but sometimes there are no pits at all present. The structure of the leaf in transverse section is seen in fig. 14. The leaf is very similar to that of Coprosma propingua. On the upper surface a cuticle with a surface slightly irregular ; an epi- dermis of large cells, almost square in shape, that may func- tion as a storage layer (ep.) ; two or three layers of typical palisade parenchyma (p. p.), with the usual contents, the chlorophyll corpuscles (chl.) being irregularly scattered ; then typical spongy parenchyma (sp.), with less numerous though still many corpuscles, also irregularly scattered ; then the epidermis of the lower surface (I. ep.) of much smaller cells ; a cuticle (cu.) with a wavy outline ; and numerous stomata (st.)y with pear-shaped guard-cells (g.), and slightly modified subsidiary cells (s.). There are, however, no hairs present in the pit. Next to the epidermis of the pit (p. ep.), which is similar to that of the lower surface, and. has a cuticle (cu.) with the same wavy outline, is a single layer of roundish colourless cells (c. I.) ; next to that a layer (x.) of cells approxi- mating to these in shape, but containing a few chlorophyll corpuscles. These cells are intermediate between the colour- less layer and the spongy parenchyma which surrounds them. Coprosma fcetidissima. Forst., Char. Gen., 138. The upper and lower surfaces of the leaf are shown m fig. 24. The pits are few in number, and are situated in- the axils of the midrib (to.) and primary veins. On the lower surface no veins are visible to the naked eye, and the opening of the pit (p.) appears to be very small. On the upper surface a slight protuberance (pro.) is seen, as well as the primary veins (p. v.). The structure of the leaf in transverse section is as follows (fig. 15) : On the upper surface a cuticle (cu.) with a wavy outline ; an epidermis (ep.) of cells slightly elongated in a transverse direction ; beneath that a layer of cells (ho.) intermediate between a hypodermal storage layer and the palisade cells. They are like the palisade cells in shape, but contain very few chlorophyll corpuscles. Beneath them are two or three layers of palisade cells (p.p.), with numerous chlorophyll corpuscles (chl.) massed together in the middle of the cells as almost globular aggregates. These cells are broader than are those of the species hitherto described. Below them comes typical spongy parenchyma, with less numerous chlorophyll corpuscles irregularly scattered; and on the lower surface is an epidermis (I. ep.) of small cells, with a thin cuticle (cu.) and numerous stomata (st.). The Greensill. — Leaf-structure of Coprosma. 347 guard-cells (g.) are small and pear-shaped ; the subsidiary cells (s.) are slightly modified to fit into them. The cuticle does not show the wavy outline of the upper surface. The pit has numerous unicellular hairs (h.) inside and at the opening ; they are outgrowths of epidermal cells. Next to the pit epidermis are two layers of roundish cells (c. I.), slightly elongated in a transverse direction, and colourless. Next to these is a layer (x.) of cells, intermediate in shape between the colourless layers and the cells of the spongy parenchyma, and containing very few chlorophyll corpuscles. Above this again is the spongy tissue of the leaf. Coprosma chathamica. Cockayne, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxiv., p. 317. The under- surface of the leaf is shown in fig. 13. The pits (p.) occur regularly in the axils of the midrib and primary veins. The venation is reticulate. The upper sur- face of the leaf has only a slight protuberance marking the presence of the pits. The structure of the leaf in transverse section (fig. 16) is as follows : On the upper surface a rather thick cuticle (cu.) with slightly wavy outline ; an epidermal layer (ep.) of cells elongated in a transverse direction ; a storage layer (st. I.) of roundish cells, also elongated in a transverse direction ; two or three layers of typical palisade tissue (p. p.), with chlorophyll corpuscles arranged regularly around the walls of the cells. Beneath the palisade tissue is typical spongy parenchyma (sp.), the cells of which are less irregular in shape than are those of all the species already described. They contain chlorophyll corpuscles, also arranged, though with less regularity, along the walls of the cells. On the lower surface is an epidermis (I. ep.) of smaller cells, with a thinner cuticle. The epidermis of both the upper and lower surfaces has numerous outgrowths or hairs (h.), usually unicellular. There are numerous stomata (st.) on the lower surface, which do not differ from those already described. The epidermis of the pit (p. ep.), which is similar to the epidermis of the lower surface, is a single layer of colourless cells (c. I.), round in shape; next to that is a layer (x.) intermediate in shape between the colourless layer and the cells of the spongy parenchyma, and contain- ing very few chlorophyll corpuscles. The hairs (h.) of the pit are long and multicellular ; the individual cells of the hairs are narrow and elongated. 'ol Coprosma petiolata (Chatham Island variety). Hook, f., in Journ. Linn. Soc, Bot., i. (1857), 128. The under-surface of the leaf is seen in fig. 12. The pits (p.) are arranged with considerable regularity in the axils of 348 Transactions. — Botany. the midrib (in.) and primary veins. The venation is reticu- late, the leaf thin and hairy, and the pits (p.), with tufts of hairs projecting from the opening, easily visible to the naked eye. The structure of the leaf in transverse section is very similar to that of Goprosma chathamica. It is seen in fig. 17. On tbe upper surface a cuticle (cu.) with slightly irregular outline ; an epidermis (ep.) of cells elongated in a transverse direction ; two or three layers of typical palisade cells (p. p.), with chlorophyll corpuscles (chl.) arranged regularly along the walls of the cells ; below that spongy tissue, the cells of which are rounded, and scarcely irregular at all in shape. They contain chlorophyll corpuscles arranged along the walls of the cells. On the lower surface is an epidermis (l. ep.) of smaller cells, with a thin cuticle. The layer of cells next to the epidermis contains very few chlorophyll corpuscles. On the lower surface are numerous stomata (st.) with pear-shaped guard-cells (g.), and slightly modified subsidiary cells (s.). There are many hairs (h.) at the mouth of the pit, which pro- ject in tufts. They are multicellular, and some are very long ; the individual cells of the hairs are elongated and narrow. The epidermis (p. ep.) and cuticle are similar to those of the lower surface. Next to the pit epidermis are two layers of colourless cells (c. I.), roundish in shape, and slightly elongated in a transverse direction. In this case the layer (x.) of Goprosma chathamica has been fully modified to form a second colourless layer. Around these colourless cells is the spongy tissue of the leaf. There are hairs (h.) also within the pit, but they are not so numerous nor so long as those at the opening. On the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf also there are numerous hairs, mostly two-celled, though they may consist of more cells, or be unicellular. They are especially numerous proceeding from the epidermis next to the parenchymatous cells (par.) surrounding a vascular bundle. Both of these Chatham Island species have less projecting rims to their pits. Coprosma robusta. Eaoul., in Ann. Sc. Nat., ii. (1844), 121. The under-surface of the leaf is shown in fig. 19. The venation is reticulate. The pits (p.) are regularly arranged in the axils of the midrib (m.) and primary veins. On the upper surface their presence is indicated by a well-marked protuberance. The structure in transverse section (fig. 18) is as follows : On the upper surface a rather thick cuticle (cu.) with slightly irregular outline ; an epidermis (ep.) of roundish cells, large and elongated in a transverse direction, and pro- bably serving to store up water in addition to their other functions. Beneath the epidermis are two or three layers of typical palisade cells with the usual contents, the chloro- Greensill. — Leaf-structure of Coprosma. 349 phyll corpuscles (chl.) being rather closely crowded, espe- cially towards the centre ; beneath the palisade parenchyma is typical spongy parenchyma (sp.), with numerous chloro- phyll corpuscles (eld.) scattered irregularly. On the lower surface is an epidermis of small roundish cells (I. ep.), with a thinner cuticle than that of the upper, and numerous stomata. The guard-cells (g.) project slightly, are small and pear- shaped ; the subsidiary cells (s.) are slightly modified epidermal cells. The epidermis of the pit (p. ep.) is similar to that of the lower surface, and has a cuticle (cu.). There are numerous projecting hairs (h.) consisting of two or three narrow elongated cells. Next to the epidermis are two layers of round colourless cells (c. I.), and around these is the spongy tissue of the leaf. Coprosma cunninghamii. Hook, f., Handbk., 113. The under-surface of the leaf is seen in fig. 20. The pits (p.) are arranged regularly in the axils of the midrib (in.) and primary veins. The structure of the leaf in transverse section (fig. 25) is as follows : On the upper surface a cuticle (cu.) with slightly irregular outline ; next an epidermis (ep.) of rather large cells elongated in a transverse direction ; beneath these two or three layers of typical palisade cells with the usual concents, and the chlorophyll corpuscles (chl.) rather closely crowded ; beneath this, again, typical spongy parenchyma (sp.), with less crowded though still numerous chlorophyll corpuscles; then the epidermis of the lower surface (I. ep.), consisting of small cells, and with a cuticle (cu.) and numerous stomata (st.). The guard-cells (g.) are pear-shaped as usual, the subsidiary cells (s.) slightly modified to fit into them. There are numerous hairs (h.) at the opening of the pit, as well as inside. They are multicellular, the individual cells of each being narrow and elongated. The epidermis of the pit (p. ep.) is similar to that of the lower surface. In immediate contact with it is the spongy tissue of the leaf, no colourless layers being present inside the epidermis. Coprosma rotundifolia. A. Cunn., Precurs., n. 472. The under-surface of the leaf is seen in fig. 21. The pits are few in number, arranged in the axils of the midrib (in.) and primary veins. The leaf is thin. The structure in trans- verse section (fig. 26) is as follows : On the upper surface of the leaf is a thin cuticle (cu.) and numerous hairs composed of two or three narrow elongated cells ; an epidermal layer (ep.) of large cells, elongated in a transverse direction, and probably able to function .as a storage layer for water. Be- neath this there are two or three layers of palisade cells (p.p.), broader than usual, and with their numerous chlorophyll 350 Transactions. — Botany. corpuscles (chl.) closely crowded in the centre. The last layer of the palisade tissue contains fewer though still many corpuscles, and is intermediate in shape between the cells of the palisade and spongy parenchyma. Next to the layer is the typical spongy tissue (sp.) of the leaf, with fewer chloro- phyll corpuscles (chl.) irregularly arranged in the cells. On the lower surface there is an epidermis (I. ep.) with hairs (h.) and numerous stomata (st.). The cells of the epidermis are smaller than are those of the upper surface, and are protected by a thin cuticle (cu). The hairs consist of several cells, elongated and narrow, and are similar to the hairs of the pit. The epidermis of the pit (p. ep.) is like that of the lower sur- • face, but the cells are slightly larger. Above and around it is the spongy parenchyma of the leaf, with no intervening layer of colourless cells. The stomata of the lower surface have rather small guard-cells (g.), and slightly modified subsidiary cells ($.). The structure of the leaf and tissues surrounding the pits is seen to be essentially the same in all these species. In all cases the leaves have a typical dorsiventral structure, with palisade and spongy parenchyma, showing only slight modifi- cations in the shape of their cells and the number and ar- rangement of the chlorophyll corpuscles they contain. The cuticle varies in outline and thickness ; the stomata in the shape of the guard-cells, the subsidiary cells, and the size of the stomatal opening. The absence of a hypodermal storage layer is usually compensated for by an enlarged epidermis ; when present this layer is seen, on staining, to have living protoplasmic contents. Some species have cells which appear to be in course of differentiation into this layer, as the layer (ho.) of figs. 1 and 15. Others, again, seem to have a colourless layer in course of differentiation from the spongy tissue around the pit, as layer (x.) of figs. 14, 15, and 16. There may be one or two of these colourless layers already present. Finally, the hairs of the pits differ in the num- ber and shape of their cells. They are in all cases out- growths of epidermal cells, covered with a thin layer of cuticle. But the essential features are the same in all cases. Development of the Pits. I examined very young leaves only in the case of Co- yrosma baueri and Goprosma hicida. Fig. 2 shows a trans- verse section of a young pit of the former, fig. 7 of the latter. The pit begins as a shallow indentation, which gradually grows deeper, and finally becomes partially roofed in by the extension of the surrounding tissue of the leaf. Fig. 2 (stained with eosine) : The upper (ep.) and lower epidermis (I. ep.) consist of small tightly packed cells, with Gkeensill. — Leaf-structure of Coprosma. 351 no cuticle and with thin walls. The differentiation into palisade and spongy parenchyma at this stage is scarcely more than indicated in the chlorophyll tissue (ch.) by those cells which will become palisade parenchyma being more tightly packed and less rounded off. The layer beneath the upper epidermis has no chlorophyll corpuscles, thus marking the differentiation into a hypodermal layer. The two or three layers surrounding the pit consist of smaller cells very tightly packed. The cells lining the pit (p. ep.) are longer in shape than those of the epidermis of both surfaces. Some are almost papillose, though there are no hairs to be seen at this stage. The mesophyll of the leaf contains very few chlorophyll corpuscles, and there are numerous bundles of crystals (?'.) contained in the individual cells. In this section the nuclei (n.) of all the cells are shown. Close beside the pit is seen the vascular bundle (v. b) of the midrib, with paren- chymatous cells {par.) above and below. These parenchy- matous cells also contain numerous raphides (r.). Fig. 7 : The main features are similar to those seen in fig. 2. This section, however, is unstained. There is an upper (ep.) and a lower (I. ep.) epidermis of tightly packed cells, somewhat larger than those of Coprosma baueri, but with no cuticle. The differentiation into palisade and spongy parenchyma is indicated by those cells which ultimately form the palisade tissue (p. p.) being narrower and less rounded in form. There are few chlorophyll corpuscles present in the mesophyll of the leaf, and they are much smaller than in the mature leaf. Crystals (r.) are present here also. The dif- ferentiation into a hypodermal layer is shown also in this case by the absence of chlorophyll. The epidermis of the pit is very similar to that of the lower surface. There is a tuft of unicellular hairs (h.) in the pit. The two or three layers around the pit are here also closely packed, and smaller than the remaining cells of the leaf. They contain few or no chlorophyll corpuscles, as was also the case in Coprosma baueri ; and in the mature leaf will be the colourless layers inside the pit epidermis. Nature of the Pits. Dr. A. N. Lundstrom examined these structures in many different species of plants, and was the first who made thorough investigations into their nature. A summary of his report was published in the "Journal of the Royal Micro- scopical Society" (1888). A paper was also written on the subject of " domatia " by Mr. Alex. G. Hamilton, which was published in a number of the "Proceedings of the Linnsean Society of New South Wales " (1896). In the species he de- scribed was included Coprosma lucida. Dr. Lundstrom re- 352 Transactions. — Botany. garded these pits as coming under the head of " domatia," and discussed four interpretations that might be put upon them : (1) They may be pathological ; (2) they may have only an indirect connection with their tenants ; (3) they may be for catching insects ; (4) they may be of use to the plant as the dwellings of commensals. He adopts this last interpretation regarding the pits as being the result of a symbiosis between the plant and minute Acarids, which are supposed to make them their homes. He appears to have always found Acarids in possession of these cavities. Mr. Hamilton says that as often as not he found no mites there, and in two instances in which he found large numbers of them the pits were damaged by their presence. In these damaged pits he found "brownish patches here and there, and also in places a number of the cells were of a bright-crimson colour." I have avoided calling these pits "domatia," for they do not seem to me to come within the definition of such as given by Dr. Lundstrom — i.e., " those formations or transformations in plants adapted to the habitation of guests, whether animal or vegetable, which are of service to the plant." In all the species of Coprosma I examined I found not a single trace of an Acarid in the pits. As some of these species were obtained from the Christchurch Botanical Gardens, or from private gardens, I thought that this might be accounted for by the fact of their not growing naturally in the bush ; but in specimens obtained from the bush at Dunedin I found the same state of affairs. In several of the species the tissues round the pits were in an unhealthy condition, with brownish patches here and there, and some cells of a bright-crimson colour, just as described by Mr. Hamilton. There were, how- ever, no Acarids present in such pits. I invariably found in these cases what appeared to be the hyphae of some fungus growing between the cells of the leaf-tissue. The crimson cells were round in outline, and looked very much like spores, and some seemed to be in the act of germinating. In the cavity of the pits I frequently found quantities of dust or other foreign matter collected, as did also Dr. Lundstrom. The unhealthy state of the pits seemed to me to be due to the attacks of some fungal parasite. The cells of the leaf between which the hyphae grew were not at all swollen or distorted. The unhealthy condition, too, was by no means confined to the tissue around the pits, but occurred in all parts of the leaf, so that it could scarcely have been due to the presence of Acarids in the pits, though, of course, the injurious effect of such presence would tend to overthrow Dr. Lundstrom 's theory as to their utility to the plant. As these mites appear to take refuge in any suitable cavity (Mr. Hamilton found them in l'olled leaves of Eicino- Greensill. — Leaf-structure of Coprosma. 353 carptts, in the stornatal crypts of Banksia, and other cracks and cavities suitable for shelter), their occasional presence in the pits may be accounted for by the fact of these pits present- ing a suitable place for shelter. Therefore I incline to think that there is no connection between the formation of the pits and the visits of the insects. Mr. Hamilton also in his paper discusses and dismisses the probability of the pits being pathological in nature ; being glands ; being cavities for sheltering stomata ; or being extra growths caused by the superabundance of sap. As these sup- positions have been sufficiently discussed, I will merely notice in passing the following facts in reference to them : There was no sign of any diseased condition of the leaf-tissues, except in the case already mentioned ; there was no sign of any secre- tion from the hairs or epidermal cells of the pits ; there were no stomata in any of the pits. Mr. Hamilton mentions, finally, the possibility of these pits being organs for the absorption of water or vapour, and dismisses this theory also owing to his inability to fill the pits with water. I tried first to fill the pits with an alcoholic stain, as did Mr. Hamilton, and succeeded without any difficulty. The epidermal cells and hairs of the pit in a few minutes showed a faint tinge of the colour of the staining material in their cells. But, lest the alcohol should affect the absorbing-capacity of the living cells in any way, I tried covering the surface of the leaf with water in which was mixed finely powdered carmine. After leaving it for a short time on the surface of the leaf I washed off all traces of the carmine, so that in the action of cutting I might not introduce any of it into the pits. I then cut sections through the pits, and found that there were numerous grains of carmine adhering to the cells of the epidermis and hairs of the pit. The hairs may serve especially to suck up water, though the epidermis probably aids in the process, for in Goprosma linear if olia there are no hairs in the pits, and in some other species they are not numerous enough to be of themselves of great importance. The presence of a cuticle outside the epidermal cells and hairs need be no hindrance to the theory of the pits as absorbing organs, for it is not often thick. A cuticle, unless very thick, is not impermeable to water ; and even when very thick it is not so much its thick- ness that prevents the absorption of water through it, but the presence of and amount of wax in the cuticle, and the contents of the cells it covers. As to the contents of the cells, I can say nothing for certain. I could see in the hairs, in the cells of the colourless layers, and the epidermis of the pit, minute or larger round bodies, some of which may have been drops. They were clear and transparent look- ing. I could also see these in the cells of the hypo- 23 I 354 Tr ansae tions. — Bo tany . dermal layers of the upper surface, which serve to store up water. The colourless layers around the pits, when present, would serve to store up the water absorbed by the epidermal cells and hairs. These epidermal cells and hairs could not absorb water if empty of living contents ; but this is not the case, as they contain protoplasm and nuclei. This is the case also with the colourless layers. The tufts of hairs at the opening of the pits of Coprosma petiolata may serve to suck up water without it actually entering the pit. Again, the position of the pits, between the midrib and veins of the leaf, is well adapted to the taking-up of water by the vascular bundles of the leaves, and its transference in this way to the different parts of the leaf. The position of the pits, of course, opening on the under-surface of the leaf, is not favour- able to the absorption of water ; but the absorption cavities of other plants which are similarly situated can absorb water without any difficulty in spite of the position — e.g., the leaf of the cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idcea) . The presence of dust and other foreign matters in the pit cavities, too, seems to in- dicate that it was washed there by the rain. Lettering used in Figures. CM. Cuticle. h. Hair. ep. Epidermis of upper surface. p. ep. Epidermis of the pit. St. 1. Storage layer. c. 1. Colourless layer inside pit ho. Layer approximating to stor- epidermis. age layer. X. Layer approximating to col- chl. Chlorophyll corpuscle. ourless layer. d. Oildrop. pn. Projection of cuticle. p.p. Palisade parenchyma. par. Parenchyma. r. Raphides. v. b. Vascular bundle. cli. Chlorophyll-containing tissue. 1. s. Leaf-sheath. sp. Spongy parenchyma. p. v. Primary vein. 1. ep. Epidermis of lower surface. m. Midrib. St. Stoma. P- Pit. 9- Guard-cell. pro. Protuberance. s. Subsidiary cell. n. Nucleus. Fig. 1. Pig- 2. Pig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Pig- 6. Fig. 7. Fig- 8. Pig- 9. EXPLANATION OF PLATES XLI.-XLIV. Plate XLI. Transverse section, leaf and pit of C. baueri. Transverse section, young leal and pit of C. baueri. Surface section, leaf and pit of C. baueri. Under-surface leaf of C. baueri : life size. Under-surface leaf of C. lucida : life size. Plate XLII. Transverse section, leaf and pit of C. lucida. Transverse section, young leaf and pit of C. lucida. Transverse section, leaf and pit of C. propinqua. Longitudinal section through hair from pit of C. lucida (stained). Cockayne. — Nomenclature of Myrsinaceae. 355 Fig. 10. Longitudinal section from young pit of C. lucida (unstained). Fig. 11 Under-surface leaf of C. lucida: life size. Fig. 12. Under-surfaca leaf of C. petiolata : life size. Fig. 13. Under-surface leaf of C. chathamica : life size. Plate XLIII. Fig. 14. Transverse section, leaf and pit of C. hnearifolia. Fig. 15. Transverse section, leaf and pit of C. fcetidissima. Fig. 16. Transverse section, leaf and pit of C. chathamica. Fig. 17. Transverse section, leaf and pit of C. petiolata. Plate XLIV. Fig. 18. Transverse section, leaf and pit of C robusta. Fig. 19. Under-surface leaf of C. robusta : life size. Fig. 20. Under-surface leaf of C. cunningliamii : life size. Fig. 21. Under-surface leaf of C. rotundifolia : lif-) size. Fig. 22. Under-surface leaf of C. propinqua : life size. Fig. 23. (a.) Under-surface leaf of C. Hnearifolia : life size, (b.) Upper surface same. Fig. 24. (a.) Upper-surface leaf of C. fcetidissima : life size, (b.) Under- surface same. Fig. 25. Transverse section, leaf and pit of C. cunniiighamii. Fig. 26. Transverse section, leaf and pit of C. rotundifolia. Art. XLII. — On some Recent Changes in the Nomenclature oj the Neiv Zealand Myrsinaceae. By L. Cockayne. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 26th November, 1902.] The ninth part of Engler's " Pflanzenreich,"* containing the Myrsinacece by Dr. Carl Mez, Professor of Botany in the Uni- versity of Halle, has recently appeared. The object of this, paper is to publish for the benefit of such New Zealand bo- tanical students as have not access to the above-mentioned most important work an account of certain changes in nomen- clature which affect the New Zealand species, since ''Das Pflanzenreich" will, in all probability, be the authority on plant-nomenclature for many years to come. The natural order Myrsinacece, according to Mez, contains thirty-two genera, including 933 species, of which 348 are described for the first time. Of these genera, two occur in New Zealand— viz., Suttonia and Bapanea. Mez divides Suttonia into two subgenera, Eusuttonia and Bapaneopsis. Eusuttonia contains six species, if the species now known as Myrsine coxii be added, which are all confined to the New * Engler, A., Das Pflanzenreich. Kegni vegetabilis conspectus 9. Heft (iv. 236). Myrsinaceae mit 470 einzelbildern in 61 figuren. Carl Mez. Leipzig, 1902. 356 Transactions. — Botany. Zealand biological region, if S. tenuifolia, a doubtful species from Norfolk Island, be excluded ; while Bapaneopsis, con- taining eight species, is found only in the Sandwich Islands. As for Myrsine, the genus to which all the New Zealand Myrsinacece are referred in the " Handbook of the New Zea- land Flora," it contains, according to Mez, only four species, which are Asiatic or African. Bapanea, the genus to which the remainder of the New Zealand Myrsinacece are referred by Mez, contains 136 species, for the most part previously referred to Myrsine, and found in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, chiefly in the tropics. The follow- ing are the diagnoses of the genera Myrsine, Suttonia, and Bapanea, together with their synonyms, copied verbatim from " Das Pflanzenreich," and afterwards is given a list of the New Zealand species of the Myrsinacece and their synonyms. Myrsine, L. Myrsine, L., Gen. (1737) 54 et Spec. pi. ed. 1 (1753) 196 ; Willd. Spec. pi. 1 (1797) 1121; Gaertn. Fruct. 1, 281; E. Br. Prodr. 1 (1810) 533 et post eum omnes sequentes pro minima parte ; Endl. Gen. (1836-40) n. 4221 p. 736 ; Benth. and Hook. f. Gen. ii. (1876) 642; Pax in Engl, et Prantl. Pflzfam. iv. 1 (1889) 92. Flores reductione sexus alterius dioici, 4-vel 5-meri. Sepala libera vel basi brevissime coalita, imbricata vel per anthesin saltern saepius aperta, margine ciliata vel rarissime nuda, punctato-picta. Petala basi brevissime vel breviter vel rarissime medium usque coalita, imbricata, margine saepius ciliata, punctata. Stamina petalis longiora vel breviora ; fila- mentis permanifestis, longe nunc longuiscule liberis, petalis prope basin insertis sueto annulo glanduloso insidentibus ; antheris paullo super basin dorsifixis, liberis, rimis binis tota longitudine introrsum dehiscentibus, apice fere constanter apiculatis. Ovarium glabrum, ovoideum vel ellipsoideum ; stylo constanter manifesto nonnunquam perlongo petala superante ; stigmate maximo, disciformi vel margine foliaceo- inciso. Placenta uniseriatim perpauciovulata. Fructus glo- bosus, 1-spermus, baccatus ; endocarpio crustaceo. Semen globosum, placentae reliquiis indutum ; albumine corneo, crasse ochraceo-ruminato ; embryone cylindrico, transverse Frutices nani vel altiores vel arbores foliis sparsis, sae- pissime serratis vel crenatis. Inflorescentiae laterales, axillares vel e ligno bienni provenientes, in ramulorum brevissimorum verruciformium saepius subnullorum apice umbellatae, pauciflorae. Flores parvi, pedicellati. Genus hie depuratum et ad species reductum a Bapanea, cui erat confusum, toto coelo differt et Embeliae imprimis } Micreinbeliae proprius accedit. Cockayne. — Nomeiiclature of Myrsinaceae. 357 Suttonia, Hook. f. Suttonia, Hook. f. (non ! A. Rich.), Bot. of the Antarc. Voy. i. (1845) 49 et Fl. Nov. Zelancl. i. (1853-55) 172 ; Pax in Engl, and Prantl. Pflzfam. iv. 1 (1889) 91. Flores herrnaphroditi vel reductione sexus alterius dioici, 4-vel 5-ineri. Sepala basi breviter nunc brevissime coalita vel libera, imbricata vel aperta, margine ciliolata. Petala plane libera, valvata vel perobscure imbricata, haud unguiculata, late vel rarius angustius elliptica vel rarisshne obovata, apice rotundata, ad marginem papillulosa vel ciliata, saepius puncta- tim vel lineatim picta. Antherae optime sessiles petalisque paullo minores his per anthesin recurvis vel patentibus porrectae, binmose tota longitudine introrsum dehiscentes, apice sueto acumiaulo obtusiusculo papilloso auctae, dor- sifixae et saepius + alte petalis connatae rarius liberae. Ovarium ovoideum, glabrum ; stylo nullo vel brevissimo raro manifesto ; stigmate capitato saepius morchelliformi. Pla- centa uniseriatim perpauci(2-4)-ovulata. Fructus (uon nisi specierum sandivicensium cognitus) globosus, 1-spermus, apice mucronulatus ; endocarpio crustaceo. Semen globosum, pla- centae rudimentis indutum, basi intrusum ; albumine corneo, laevi ; embryone cylindraceo, transverso. Fruticuli nunc nani habitu myrtillaceo nunc alti vel arbores foliio sparsis, integer- rimis. Inflorescentiae laterales, e foliorum delapsorum vel vigentium axillis provenientes, umbellatae, saepius perpauci- floraB, e ramulis brevissimis verruciformibus vel abbreviate cylindricis squamuligeris formatse. Flores parvi, pedicellati. Genus Rapaneas includit dialypetalas. Conspectus Subgenerum. A. Flores 4-meri ; folia nervo marginah omnino destituta. Species novo-zelandicae. Subgenus I. Eusuttonia, Mez. B. Flores 5-meri ; folia nervo marginale nunc permani- festo nunc obscuro praedita. Omnes insularum Sandwich incolae. Subgenus II. Rapaneopsis, Mez. Rapanea, Aubl. Rapanea, Aubl. Hist. pi. Guiane franc i. (1775) 121, t. 46 ; Juss. Gen. (1789) 288; Mez in Urb. Symb. antill. ii. (1901) 427. Duhamelia, Dotnb. (non Pers.) ap. Lam. Enc. i. (1783) 245. Manglilla, Juss. Gen. (1789) 151 ; Rcem et Schult. Syst. iv. (1819) p. xlvi. et 504. Cabal- leria, Ruiz et Pav. Prodr. (1794) 41 ; Willd. Spec. pi. iv. (1805) 1118. Rcemeria, Thunb. (non alior.) Nov. gen. ix. (1798) 130 et in Romer Arch. ii. 5 et Prodr. pi. capens. ii. (1800) 184 et Fl. capens. ii. 67 (e. p.). Athrophyllum, 358 Transactions. — Botany. Lour. Fl. chochinch. i. (1790) 120 et ed. Willd. 148. Scleroxylum, Willd. in Berl. Magaz. iii. (1809) 57 et Enum. pi. hort. berol. (1809) 249. Merista, Banks and Sol. ex A. DC. Prodr. viii. (1844) 95. Suttonia, A. Eich. (non Hook, f.) Vov. Astrol. Bot. (1832) 349 ; Lindl. Veg. Kingd. (1847) 648. (?) Plotia, Adans. Farn. ii. (1763) 226. Myrsine, E. Br. Prodr. i. (1810) 533 et sequentiuin om- nium pro maxima parte, nempe ; H. B. K. Nov. gen. et Spec. iii. (1818) 248 ; A. DC. in Trans. Linn. Soc. xvii. (1834) 104 et in Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 ser. ii. (1834) 292 et xvi. (1841) 78 et in DC. Prodr. viii. (1844) 92; Lindl. Veg. Kingd. (1847) 648; Miq. in Fl. brasil. x. (1856) 306 et Fl. Ind. bat. ii. (1856) 1014 ; Scheff. Comm. Myrs. Archip. Ind. (1867) 46 ; Hook. f. in Benth. and Hook. f. Gen. ii. (1876) 642 : Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India iii. (1882) 511 ; Pax in Engl, and Prantl. Pflzfam. iv. 1 (1889) 92 ; Baill. Hist. pi. xi. (1892) 333. Flores hermaphroditi vel saepissirne reductione sexus alterius dioici, 4-vel 5- (raro numeris auctis 6-7-) meri. Sepala parva, nunc fere libera nunc basi +. a^te se^ rarissime ultra -i- longit. connata, imbricata valvatave, ovata vel triangularia semper symmetrica, margine sueto ciliolata, saepissime punctis vel lineis glandulosis picta. Petala varie connata nunc infime brevissime coalita, nunc saepius usque ad ■§- connata nunc raro a medio libera, in speciebus perpaucis usque at i longit. coalita, lobis ovatis vel ellipticis per anthesin patentibus vel recurvis vel rarissime erectis, sueto lineatis vel punctatis, margine saltern saepissime papillosis. Stamina corollas fauci inserta filameutis omnino nullis, an- theris ipsis saepissime dorso cum petalis aliquid connatis, introrsum tota longitudine birimose debiscentibus, apice sueto acuminulatis et bic saepius papillulosis, ovatis vel ellip- ticis brevibus. Ovarium globosum vel ellipsoideum stylo in floribus 2 constanter nullo ; stigmate sessile florum $ varie irregulariter formato, florum J secundum areas geograpbicas (vix tamen subgenerice efferendas) regulariter formato : asiaticis omnibus elongato farcimmiformi stylum mentiente ; africanis scutato margine (saepius loboso) derlexo fungiforme ; australiensibus polynesiacisque plurimis capitato indiviso ; americanis conico sueto morcbelliformi vel regulariter in lobos erectos diviso. Placenta uniseriatim pauciovulata. Fructus pisiformis, siccus vel carnosus, 1-spermus, endo- carpio crustaceo vel coriaceo vel liguoso. Semen globosum, laeve, basi intrusum ; albumine corneo haud vel raro paullo ruminato. Embryo elongatus, transversus, saepius curvatus. Arbores vel frutices glabri vel pubescentes foliis saepius j-_ manifeste lepidotulis. Folia integerrima vel rarissime (tunc saepius spinose) dentata. Flores parvi, e ramulis quam Cockayne. — Nomenclature of Myrsinacese. 359 inaxirne abbreviates nunc deciduis minutissimis saepius vix reperiendis nunc perennantibus crasse cylindricis vel verru- cosis umbellatim (vel in speciebus perpaucis perabbreviate racemose) provenientes, bracteolati. New Zealand Species of Myrsinace^. 1. Suttonia chathamica (F. Muell.), Mez. Myrsinc chat- hamica, F. Muell ! Veg. Chatham Isl. (1864) 38. 2. Suttonia novo - zelandensis (Colenso), Mez. Myrsine neo-zelandensis , Colenso ! in Trans. New Zealand Inst. xxii. (1890) 479. 3. Suttonia Montana, Hook f. ! Fl. Nov. Zeland. ii. (1855) 334. Myrsinc montana, Hook. f. ! Handb. New Zealand Fl. (1867) 184. 4. Suttonia divaricata (A. Cunn.), Hook. f. ! Fl. Antarct. (1844-47) 51, t. 34, et Fl. Nov. Zeland. ii. (1853-55) 4. Myrsinc divaricata, A. Cunn. ! in Ann. Nat. Hist. 1, ser. ii. (1839) 47 ; Hook. f. ! Handb. New Zealand Fl. (1867) 184. Myrsine pendula, Colenso ! in Trans. New Zealand Inst. xxi. (1889) 94. 5. Suttonia numhularia, Hook. f. ! Fl. Nov. Zeland. (1853- 55) 173. Myrsine nummularia, Hook. f. ! Handb. New Zealand Fl. (1867) 184. 6. Suttonia coxii, Cockavne.* Myrsine coxii, Cockayne in Trans. New Zealand Inst, xxxiv. (1902) 318. 7. Eapanea salicina (Heward), Mez. Myrsine salicina, Heward ! in Hook. London Journ. Bot. i. (1842) 283 in nota; Hook. f. Handb. New Zealand Fl. (1867) 184. Suttonia salicina, Hook. f. ! Fl. Antarc. (1844-47) 52 et Fl. Nov. Zeland. ii. (1855) 172. Suttonia saligna, Walp. Eep. vi. (1847) 450 (Sphalm.). 8. Eapanea kermadecensis (Cheeseman), Mez. Myrsine ker- madecensis, Cheeseman ! in Trans. New Zealand Inst, xxiv. (1892) 410. 9. Eapanea urvillei (A. DC), Mez. Myrsine urvillei, A. DC. ! in Trans. Linn. Soc. xvii. (1834) 105 et in DC. Prodr. viii. (1814) 95; A. Cunn. in Ann. Nat. Hist. (1839) 47 ; Hook, f . Handb. New Zeal. Fl. (1867) 184. Merista Icevigata, Banks et Sol. ! ap. A. Cunn. I.e. (sed specimen alterum hoc nomine in Herb. Banks ! signatum ad Eubi- aceas translocandum !). Stcttonia australis, A. Eich ! Ess. Fl. Nouv. Zel. (1832) 349, t. 38. Myrsine richardi- ana, Endl. in Ann. Wien Mus. i. (1838) 171. Myrsine undulata, A. Cunn. in Ann. Nat. Hist. 1, ser. ii. (1839) 47. * It will be seen that I have made use of this opportunity to place the Chatham Island species, originally referred by me to Myrsine, in the genus Suttonia, in accordance with the views of Mez. 360 Transactions. — Botany. Art. XL1II. — The Stem-structure of some Leafless Plants of New Zealand, with Especial Beference to their Assimi- latory Tissue. By Miss A. C. Finlayson, M.A. Communicated by Dr. Chilton. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd September, 1902.'] Plates XLV.-XLVII. The plants whose stems were selected for investigation were Discaria toumatou, Clematis afoliata, and three species of Garmichaelia (C. flagclliformis, C. monroi, and G. nana). All are natives of New Zealand. They form a descending series with regard to their leaf -formation. Discaria toumatou has small leaves in spring, which are not, however, adequate for the work of assimilation ; in Clematis afoliata the leaves are represented only by the long petioles ; while in Carmichaelia flagclliformis there are practically no available leaves, only a few very minute leaves being developed at the same time as the inflorescences in spring ; in C. nana and C. monroi there are no leaves at all in the adult plant. They are all included by Diel's in his book, " Vegetations - Biologie von Neu- Seeland " (arbeit aus dem Konigl. botan. Museum zu Berlin, Leipszig, 1896), as pasture-land plants, found only in the east and south-east. Clematis and Carmichaelia are derivatives of the forest flora (p. 246). All except Clematis afoliata, which is herbaceous and can climb by means of its petioles, are shrubs (which may reach even the height of trees in the case of Discaria toumatou in favourable localities). Carmichaelia flag ellif or mis is a rather straggling shrub, which partly lies on the ground and partly grows erect, and is much branched ; C. monroi and C. nana are very dwarfy rigid shrubs, growing close to the ground. Of the two, G. nana is much the smaller. Discaria toumatou in exposed situations only reaches the height of a bush, with a very prickly and straggling appearance. All are characterized by their xero- phytic structure. To quote Diels (p. 246): "Their xerophytic structure is of striking intensity and difficult to understand in comparison with other floras, if we recollect that even the driest areas of New Zealand suffer under a less excessive climate and less frequent droughts than middle Europe. Yet the diminution of transpiration is not less in these bushes than in the plants of dry steppes ; and habitually the many species, so widely separated, systematically converge in an extraordinary manner and agree in physiognomy with desert vegetation." Finlayson. — Stem-structure of Leafless Plants. 36^, Discaria toumatou, Eaoul. This plant belongs to the order Bhamnacece. According to Hooker, :;: its habitat is " east coast and interior of the southern part of the North and throughout the South Island" (p. 44). He describes it as "a thorny bush in dry places, becoming a small tree in damper localities, with spreading branches, and branchlets reduced to spines 1 in. -2 in. long. The leaves are small, being fin. -fin. in length, fascicled in the axils of the spines, and absent in old plants." This plant can hardly be described as leafless ; it forms a connecting- link between the plants with abundant leaves and those which are quite leafless. The spines borne on the smaller branches are really modi- fied shoots ; they arise decussately in the axils of minute scales ; the length of the branch between each pair of spines is about 1 in. (fig. 1). They occur with great regularity as a rule, but in favourable situations they may be almost entirely suppressed, and are then represented only by aborted bud- shoots appearing as little warts on surface of the stem. In spring, below each spine arise three or four leaves, together with three or four small sessile flowers ; these arise not from the spine, but from the stem immediately below the spine. No bud of leaves covers the branch-termination. Both spines and younger stems are green. Leaf -structure. The leaf is of the ordinary dorsiventral type (figs, lb, lc). In the centre is the midrib with lateral veins. On the upper surface is an uninterrupted layer of large epidermal cells, appearing squarish in transverse section, with a very thin cuticular layer on the outside wall. Underneath are about three layers of small -celled closely packed palisade cells, which pass over into the more spongy tissue of the lower surface. A single epidermal layer, whose cells are rather smaller than those of the epidermis of the upper surface, with numerous stomata (figs. 2a, 2b, 2c) whose opening is best seen in a longitudinal section of the leaf (fig. 2c), bounds the under-surface of the leaf. Its outer walls are also slightly cuticularised. In the centre of the leaf is the midrib, with xylem above and phloem below. Between the phloem and the lower epi- dermis are transparent protoplasmic rounded cells, which probably contain water. There are no hairs present on upper or lower surface. * " Handbook of the New Zealand Flora," by J. D. Hooker. Lon- don: Reeve and Co., Covent Garden, 1867. 362 Transactions. — Botany. Stem and Spine Structure. The spine closely resembles the stem in internal structure, the only difference being that in the former the pith-cells be- come disorganized, thus leaving a hollow up the centre of the spine, while in the stem they persist as large polygonal cells. The spine ends in a sharp point. Both spine and stem are quite glabrous. In transverse section (fig. 3a) the stem is not circular, but rather elliptical. On the outside is the epidermis, with a thick external cuticle interrupted at intervals by the slightly depressed stomata, which are best seen in a longitudinal sec- tion, as the opening of their guard-cells is at right angles to the longitudinal organic axis (figs. 3b, 3c). The ceils of the epidermis are longish in transverse section. Underneath is a single layer of rather large polygonal cells, slightly elongated transversely. These are thin- walled and contain very granu- lar protoplasm, and are interrupted only underneath the stomata (st. cells). The epidermis may be considered as 2-layered, this layer being the lower one. Probably its function is to store water. Beneath it lies the chlorenchyma (p. t.), composed of three or four layers of closely packed palisade cells containing chlorophyll granules. These cells are small, polygonal, and elongated in the radial direction of the stem. Just below the palisade tissue are two or three layers of granular, large, poly- gonal cells, similar to those of the subepidermal layer. This tissue together with the chlorenchyma and epidermis occupy one-third of the thickness of the radius of the stem ; the vas- cular tissue, which is immediately interior, occupies almost one-half, and the central pith fills up the remainder. Vascular Tissue. In the stem of Discaria toumatou no special stereom tissue is present which might serve to keep the stem rigid ; hence this function has to be performed by the vascular tissue, especially by bast fibres and xylem cells. The vascular bundles form a compact ring round the pith ; the medullary rays consist each of a single row of small pro- toplasm-containing cells, elongated in direction of radius of stem and polygonal. On the outside of the vascular bundles are groups of very thick-walled prosenchymatous cells without protoplasm. These are the bast fibres ; they are not arranged very re- gularly ; in longitudinal section they are spindle-shaped, tapering at both ends and fitting into each other. In trans- verse section they are ovoid, with a very small opening in the centre (figs. 3b, 3c, b.f.). The rest of the phloem Finlayson. — Stem-structure of Leafless Plants. 363 tissue is composed of granular phloem parenchyma (fig. 3c, p. par.), whose cells appear roundish in transverse section, and a few sieve-tubes with transverse plates (fig. 3c, s. t.). There is a well-developed cambium of 4-5 layers of small, squarish, transversely elongated cells containing conspicuous nuclei. The xylem forms more than half the thickness of the entire vascular bundle. There are but few true vessels, one or two spiral and one or two pitted, in each bundle ; the greater part of the xylem tissue is composed of libriform cells. In transverse section these appear as polygonal cells with very thick walls, and fitting closely into each other. In a longitudinal radial section (fig. 3c) they are seen to con- sist of greatly elongated cells, with oblique end walls which dovetail into each other. The thickened cell-walls have thin spots both on longitudinal and transverse walls by which they can communicate with each other. The true vessels occur in the inner part of the vascular xylem. The pith-cells, which occupy the centre of the stem, are smaller on the outside (next to the xylem) and larger in the centre of the stem. They are polygonal, thin-walled, about as long as they are broad ; those next to the xylem contain a great many starch-grains (in winter), while those in the centre have only a few starch-grains. The older stems and spines become dry and scaly ; only the younger can assimilate. The most remarkable features about the structure of the stem are the double epidermis, the great development of chiorenchyma and of woody cells, and at the same time the small number of true vessels in the wood. The two former are evidently intimately concerned with the work of assimilation, and the latter with the ques- tion of rigidity. The abundant palisade chiorenchyma facili- tates assimilation, while the libriform cells give the stem the rigidity and at the same time the elasticity so necessary to a plant which is often exposed to wind. Clematis afoliata, Buchanan. Hooker does not mention this species in the "Handbook of New Zealand Flora," but T. Kirk, in the " Students' Flora of New Zealand," mentions it on p. 3. He says its habitat is " Middle Island : Nelson, Marlborough, Canterbury, and Otago ; but local." It belongs to the order Banunculacece. In other species of the same genus the leaves have a long petiole ; in this species only the petiole is present — at least, in the adult plant. The petioles arise in pairs from a node, each pair being at right angles to the pair above it; the internodes are very long (about 7 in. in older shoots). The young shoot arises in the axil of the petiole, with the inflorescence at its 364 Transactions. — Botany. base. The length of a fully grown petiole is about 4 in. (fig-4)- The stem is fairly slender, finely striated longitudinally ; when young it is very soft and flexible ; later it becomes firmer, but retains its suppleness. The petioles may act as tendrils as well as assimilatory organs. Internal Structure of the Stem. This stem bears a stronger resemblance to the ordinary dicotyledonous type of stem than does Discaria toumatou. In the centre is the pith of large thin-walled cells, surrounded by a ring of vascular bundles with medullary rays between them. The fundamental tissue shows most deviation ; it is differentiated into chlorenchyma and mechanical supporting tissue, which alternate round the stem. The outline of the stem (in transverse section) is wavy, with alternating ridges and depressions ; the ridges occur above the stereom bands, the chlorenchyma occurring just underneath the depressions (hence the longitudinally striated appearance of the stem). There is a similar arrangement of the tissues seen also in the petiole, hence only the stem-structure is described. Stem. On the outside of the stem is a 2-layered epidermis (figs. 5a, 5b, 5c). The cells of the outer layer are larger than those of the inner layer, which also differ in being slightly elongated in a direction at right angles to the radial direction. The cells of the outer layer are slightly elongated in the radial direction ; on their outer walls is a firm but not very thick cuticle. Stomata only occur in the depressions of the stem (figs. 5a, 5b). The chlorenchyma cells are large, with air-spaces between them. They have their longitudinal axis parallel to stem- radius. They are irregular in shape, with chlorophyll granules arranged chiefly on their side walls. Immediately under a chlorophyll strand, in a radial direc- tion towards centre of stem, comes a medullary ray. The cells of the medullary ray are slightly elongated, and contain starch. In transverse section they appear polygonal from mutual pressure (fig. 5b, m. r.). There is no formation of interfascicular cambium. The pith is very well developed in this stem, occupying about one-third of the stem-radius. It is composed of thin- walled cells, larger towards the centre of the stem ; rounded in transverse section, slightly elongated in longitudinal section (fig. 5c). The mechanical supporting tissue in the young stem is composed of thin-walled living-cells tightly packed together, Finlayson. — Stem- structure of Leafless Plants. 365 and polygonal in transverse section. Its cells are smaller than those of the chlorophyll-containing tissue which lies on either side of it. As the stem grows older its cell-walls become much thickened, and the protoplasmic contents dis- appear. If a transverse section of the stem (mounted in water) be treated with chior- zinc-iodine, the walls of the mechanical tissue, as well as those of the cuticularised outer epidermal wall, are stained yellow, those of the wood-tissue being stained a deeper brown. So it is probable that the thickening of the cells of the mechanical tissue is of a similar nature to cutin. The cells of this tissue are elongated, with oblique transverse walls (fig. 5d, m. st.). Immediately below each strand of mechanical tissue is a vascular bundle. Between the thickened elongated cells of the mechanical strand and the phloem of the vascular bundle are a few parenchyma cells (figs. 5b, par. c. ; 5d, par. c). The vascular bundle is open, consisting of phloem, cambium, and xylem. It forms but a small proportion of the total stem-radius, and is not modified specially to per- form a mechanical function as in the stem of Discaria toumatou. The phloem consists of phloem parenchyma, sieve-tubes, (fig. 5d, s. t.), with a few bast fibres consisting of long, narrow, thick-walled cells (fig. 5d, b. /.) occurring on outside of the phloem tissue. The xylem elements include a few spiral vessels (fig. 5d, sp. v.). I also saw an annular vessel (fig. 5d, a. v.) on the inside, a few pitted vessels (fig. 5d, p. v.) towards outside of the xylem, and a few woody cells, elongated, with oblique transverse walls ; thickened parts alternate with thin spaces on both longitudinal and transverse walls (fig. 5d, w. I.). Between the xylem and phloem are a few cambium cells, with the ordinary conspicuous nuclei and thin cell-walls. The stem of Clematis afoliata, like that of Discaria toumatou, is entirely wanting in hairs. A certain amount of protection against excessive transpiration is afforded by the cuticle of the epidermis, and by the fact that the stomata occur only in the depressions of the stem ; at the same time the air-spaces of the chlorenchyma allow abundant aeration, so that the chlorenchyma can carry out the work of assimila- tion satisfactorily. The mechanical tissue is able to keep the stem sufficiently stiff, so that no special development of the vascular tissue is necessary. Cabmichaelia. Three species of Carmickaelia (C. flagelliformisj G. monroi, and C. nana) remain to be considered. 366 Transactions. — Botany. This genus belongs to the order Leguminosce. Hooker" says, " This genus is confined to New Zealand, and is com- posed of shrubs or small trees, usually quite leafless, or leafy in the young state only. The branches are flattened and green." Dielsf says concerning this genus, " Carmichaelia exsul, with many tender leaves, grows in the underwood of the palm forests of Lord Howe Island ; and even Carmichaelia australis, the only representative of its stock in the north- west of New Zealand, still parades in a rich foliage. In their growth they certainly all bear pinnate leaves, like the phyllode-bearing Acacias of New Zealand. These leaves, in the neighbourhood of the soil protected by the shade of higher growths and by a hairy covering from drying up, possess anthocyanin in their interior and insunk stomata. From the beginning stem and leaf-stalk are provided with chlorenchyma and stereom, so that when they have attained a height of 5 cm. the little plants already stop leaf-formation and transfer the function of the leaves to flat shoots which now serve for nourishment for several years." I had no opportunity of examining young plants. All . three species agree in the flattened arrangement of their shoots, but differ somewhat in habit. Carmichaelia flagelliformis, Colenso.J This is a shrub about 2 ft. -4 ft. in height, much branched with rather slender branchlets (fig. 6a) ; often it straggles on the ground. A few very small leaves appear on the young branches (not on the older ones), with the inflorescences ; these are only yb~m- in length (October), and hence are not of much practical use as assimilatory organs (fig. 6b). The leaves are of the ordinary dorsiventral type ; they have a few hairs on their upper and lower surfaces, the stomata are borne on the lower surface, and there is a violet colouration (anthocyanin) in some of the subepidermal cells of the lower surface. The shoots arise at an acute angle from the branch which bears them, and their flattened surfaces are not horizontal, but vertical ; so the sun's rays do not strike them directly, evapo- ration being lessened by this means. A similar growth of shoot-axes is seen also in Carmichaelia monroi (fig. 8) and C. nana (not represented). The flattened shoot of G. flagelliformis is about y^in. broad; in C. monroi it is about ^in. broad, and is slightly stouter; in C. nana it is very slender, the flattened surface being about ^in. broad. * " Handbook of New Zealand Flora." t " Vegetations-Biologie." I Hab. North and South Islands : East Coast, Milford Sound, Nelson, Otago, Akaroa. Finlatson. — Stem-structure of Leafless Plants. 367 Stem-structure. — On the outside is a double-layered epi- dermis, with slightly insunk stomata. There is a thick cuticle outside. The cells of the outer epidermal layer are larger than those of the inner layer, and are somewhat different in shape, those of the outer layer being squarish, while those of the inner layer are somewhat elongated in a direction at right angles to the radial one (fig. 7a). The lower epidermal layer is wanting immediately under the stomata. Immediately below the epidermis is a ring of chloren- chyma tissue extending right round the stem. This ring is not complete, but is interrupted by the strands of mechanical tissue, which occur in large numbers immediately below the epidermis. So the chlorenchyma and stereom alternate round the stem. Each of the stereom groups is small, and does not extend inwards as far as the vascular bundles. The cells are small, thick- walled, elongated, polygonal in transverse section (fig. la, m. st.). Each group is surrounded (except on the side which is adjacent to the epidermis) by a layer of thin-walled colourless polygonal cells which separate the mechanical tissue from the chlorenchyma. Small groups of stereom cells, surrounded by a layer of thin-walled cells, also occur in the chlorenchyma ; these groups alternate with the subepidermal ones. There are also a few stereom cells on the outside and inside of each vascular bundle, but in this case there is no layer of thin-walled cells accompanying them. The chlorenchyma cells are larger than those of the stereom tissue. They extend inwards as far as the ring of vascular bundles. The stomata occur only above the chlorophyll tissue in the epidermis. The outer chlorophyll - containing cells are elongated in the radial direction, and have the form of palisade tissue ; further inwards they are more ir- regular in shape, with fewer granules and air-spaces between them. The vascular bundles are arranged in an oblong ring round the central pith, with medullary rays between them. They are composed of phloem, cambium, and xylem. As the stem grows older, thickening takes place ; the originally flat organ is rounded off, so the assimilatory tissue is not interfered with. A great part of the xylem thickening consists of libri- form cells (fig. 7c, I. t.) ; these are able to support the stem, so the stereom tissue becomes less necessary. The cells of the pith are large and polygonal ; those of the medullary rays are elongated radially to a slight extent. Anthocyanin is developed in the epidermal tissue of the edges of the shoot, but not of the flattened sides ; probably this may be explained by the fact that owing to the habit of the plant only the edges receive the sun's rays directly. 368 Transactions. — Botany. C. monroi, Hooker,* and C. nana, Colenso.t Both of these differ in habit from C. flagelliformis. Their growth resembles that of alpine plants. G. nana is a "very dwarfy, glabrous, rigid shrub, 2 in. -4 in. high, with much- compressed minutely striated branchlets Jg- in. -i in. in diameter" (Hooker). G. monroi grows higher, reaching about 1 ft. in height, but much more closely, forming a very firm cushion of circular form, in which, however, the individual branches and branchlets are easily separated and dis- tinguished. In neither is there any sign of leaves in the adult form, and they flower later than Garmicliaclia flagel- liformis. The tips of the shoots in G. monroi are coloured brownish-red. Stem- structure.- — In general stem-structure they resemble G. flagelliformis, but the chlorophyll tissue is developed in greater abundance in proportion to the stereom tissue than in the latter. There is the same double-layered epidermis with thick external cuticle ; in G. monroi there are slight ridges above the stereom strands, while the stomata occur in the depressions, underneath which is the chlorophyll tissue. Underneath each stoma is an air-cavity. The chlorenchyma tissue extends inwards as far as the vascular bundles, and is of palisade type in both G. monroi and G. nana, without any air-spaces even in the inner layers. (Compare G. flagelli- formis, where air-spaces are present.) In C. monroi the stereom tissue may or may not extend inwards as far as the vascular bundle (fig. 9) ; when it does not there are occasional small isolated groups alternating with the peripheral groups, and occurring in the chlorophyll tissue. Both these groups have a layer of polygonal thin-walled cells around them. Where the stereom tissue does not extend as far as the vascular bundle there is a crescent-shaped group of stereom cells on the outside of the phloem, with a half-circle of thin-walled cells round the outside ; there are also a few similar thick-walled cells on the inside of the xylem, but with no special thin- walled cells round them. The pith is com- posed of large polygonal cells fitting together, without inter- cellular spaces. The medullary-ray cells are similar in shape, but somewhat smaller ; they pass over gradually into the chlorenchyma cells. The stereom cells are polygonal, tightly packed together ; when the shoot is quite young, as also in G. flagelliformis, the cell-walls are quite thin, and the stem is then very soft ; but it soon loses its softness and becomes firm owing to the thickening of the cell-walls. * Hab. South Island. f Hab. North Island : Dry mountainous country at base of Mount Tongariro. South Island: Southern Alps ; Otago, Waitaki River. Finlayson. — Stem-structure of Leafless Plants. 369 In G. nana the stem is much thinner. There are not so many vascular bundles as in the stem of C. monroi, nor are they opposite each other. The stereom strands reach to the vascular bundle, surrounded on outside by the thin-walled polygonal layer of cells seen also in G. monroi and C. flagelli- formis. The cuticle is not quite so thick as in G. monroi ; the stomata occur in a similar place (above chlorenchyma in the epidermis). The chlorenchyma is palisade, but there are occasional air-cavities (fig. 10b). A few isolated groups of thick-walled cells, with a surrounding ring of thin-walled cells, occur in the chlorenchyma tissue, but these are of minor im- portance owing to their small size. On the inside of the xylem occurs a group of stereom cells ; there may be only a few (as in vascular bundle on right hand of fig. 106), or more (as in vascular bundle on left-hand side of the same figure). The pith-cells are large and polygonal. Since the tissues composing the stems of the three species are similar, a longitudinal section of the stem of G. nana only is given (fig. 106). The stereom cells are seen to be somewhat elon- gated with oblique transverse walls, all the walls being much thickened. (The thin-walled layer of cells is not represented.) The phloem elements include sieve-tubes and phloem paren- chyma (fig. 106, s. t., p. par.), with cambium (cm.) on inside. Xylem elements include spiral vessels (sp. v.), pitted vessels (p. v.), with elongated woody cells between. Inside of the xylem is the stereom tissue, followed by the pith, and on the other side chlorenchyma with epidermis. The opening of the stoma is seen best in longitudinal section. The stomata of all three species are fairly numerous, not very large, with no peculiar structure, and only verv little insunk (figs. 106 and 76). At the apex of the shoot of C. monroi a violet-coloured fluid (anthocyanin) is present in the inner epidermal cells ; lower down in the stem it is absent ; it is also absent in C. nana. The stems of all three species are glabrous. In the five species which have been considered, evidently the chief danger to be guarded against is excessive transpira- tion. The total absence of hairs (except in the minute leaf of G. flagelliformis) so commonly occurring in alpine plants shows that it is not a question of loss of heat, but rather of avoidance of excessive heat. This is effected in the case of the Garmichaelias by the vertical position of the shoot-axis, and probably in C. monroi by the development of antho- cyanin in the shoot-apices (the lower parts being protected by the cushion-like form of the plant). Transpiration is checked chiefly by the thick cuticle found in all of them, and 24 370 Transactions. — Botany. is also aided by the occurrence of the stornata in slight de- pressions, and by the rigidity of the shoot-axes, which are therefore less easily shaken by the wind, and at the same time are possessed of sufficient elasticity to be able to avoid danger of breaking in a high wind. The conditions to which they are exposed on the open plains of the south and south- east of New Zealand are considerable heat, a considerable degree of dryness (especially in summer, when the dry, hot nor' -westers are blowing), and strong winds. The conditions of climate prevailing at the present day do not seem to be sufficient to account for their extreme xero- phytic structure. Clematis afoliata and Carmichaelia are derivatives of the forest flora. Probably they acquired their characteristic structure in the days of " Great New Zea- land," when the Southern Alps were higher, and therefore the eastern plains were drier and subject to more exces- sive heat. " The forest flora which could not adapt itself to the climate perished or retreated to more rainy parts" (Diels). In C. afoliata and the Carmichaelias the necessary rigidity is attained by means of development of stereom tissue in the cortex ; in Discaria toumatou by means of the abundant development of the woody cells of the xylem, and also to a less extent by the bast fibres. In all there is a double epidermis layer ; perhaps the inner layer may be of use to a slight extent as water-storing tissue. Stornata are only developed above the chloreuchyma, where they are of use. The thin-walled cells round the stereom groups are probably also of use in this respect — i.e., for water-storage. The development of mechanical tissue must not interfere with the assimilatory chlorenchyma. In the words of Diels (I.e., p. 248) : " Everywhere is typical palisade tissue effec- tive for assimilation, which is indeed very comprehensible from the physical environment, and the great demands which the total absence of foliage makes from the tissue which represents it. In its centrifugal tendency the chlorenchyma tissue comes into conflict with the not less important sup- porting tissue. The various solutions of this problem de- termine the histological structure of the stem." Palisade chlorenchyma occurs in all the species which have been considered. In Discaria toumatou it extends in an uninter- rupted ring round the stem, so that it is able easily to per- form the work of assimilation. In the other plants it extends inwards as far as the vascular bundles, and hence the pro- ducts of assimilation can be transferred to the sieve-tubes, and the ascending sap is also able to reach the chlorophyll tissue. Finlayson. — Stem-structure of Leafless Plants. 371 EXPLANATION OF PLATES XLV.-XLVII. Fig. 1. (a.) One of younger shoots of Discaria toumatou, with leaves below thorns. (b.), (c.) Leaves of same. All three life size. Fig. 2. (a.) Transverse section of leaf of Discaria toumatou ; enlarged. ep. Epidermis. I xy. Xylem. p. t. Palisade tissue. I ph. Phloem. (b.) Surface section of under epidermis of leaf showing stomata ; enlarged. (c.) Opening of a stoma with two guard-cells ; enlarged. Fig. 3. (a.) Transverse section of half of stem of D. toumatou ; enlarged. st. Stoma. cut. Cuticle. e. Epidermis. i. e. Inner epidermis. b. f. Bast fibres s. t. Sieve-tube p. t. Palisade chlorenchyma. g. p. Ground parenchyma. cm. Cambium. w. c. Libriform cells! , p. v. Pitted vessel J ' p. par. Phloem paren- [" ^ " in. r. Medullary ray. chyma In centre pith with st. gr. (starch-grains). (b.) Surface section of stem of D. toumatou with stomata ; enlarged, (c.) Longitudinal section (half of stem) of D. toumatou,; enlarged. Same lettering as in (a). Medullary rays may be seen in xylem. Fig. 4. Part of stem of Clematis afoliata, with petioles of leaves (p.) and new shoots arising in their axils ; life size. Fig. 5. (a.) Surface section of stem of C. afoliata, showing epidermis with alternating strips, one devoid of and one bearing stomata. (b.) Transverse section of part (quarter) of stem of C. afoliata. st. Stoma. xy. Xylem. cut. Cuticle. m. st. Mechanical stereom. e. Epidermis. chl. Chlorenchyma. i. e. Inner epidermis. par. Parenchyma. ph. Phloem. m. r. Medullary-ray pith. cm. Cambium. (c.) Longitudinal radial section through chlorenchyma pith. Does not pass through the vascular bundle. (d.) Longitudinal radial section through stereom vascular bundle and pith. Same lettering as (6) ; also, — b. f. Bast fibres | pjjjoem s. t. Sieve-tube } " p. v. Pitted vessel iv. c. Woody cells sp. v. Spiral vessel a. v. Annular vessel •xylem. Fig. 6. (a.) Young shoot of Carmichaelia flagelliformis, with inflorescences (inf.). (b.) Leaf of C. flagelliformis. Both life size. thin w. c. Thin-walled cells. to. st. Mech. stereom. 372 Transactions. — Botany. Pig. 7. (a.) Tranverse section of half of stem of C. flagelliformis. All the cells are filled in, in order to show more clearly the arrangement of the tissues. ep. Epidermis. chl. Chlorenchyma. (6.) Surface section of epidermis of stem, with alternating strips con- taining stomata, and devoid of them. (c.) Transverse section of part of stem of C. flagelliformis, including one vascular bundle. To show thickening by formation of libriform tissue (I. t.). Pig. 8. Shoot of C. monroi ; life size. Transverse scars are scales. Fig. 9. Lettering same as in 7 (a). In upper half of the section the vacant spaces represent mechanical stereom which has not been filled in, in order to show more clearly the structure. In lower half of the section the chlorophyll granules have been omitted for the same reason. Fig. 10. (a.) Transverse section of stem of C. nana. Same lettering as in 7 (a) ; air c. = air-cavity. (b.) Longitudinal section as through dotted line 1 to 2 in 10 (a). Same lettering as in 7 (a) ; also, — s. t. Sieve-tube \ cm. Cambium p. v. Pitted vessel |- Vase, bundle. w. c. Woody cell sp. v. Spiral vessel ' Note. — The sections of different stems are not drawn to a strictly proportional scale of size. Aet. XLIV. — Note on Hybrid Ferns. By H. C. Field. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th November, 1902.] About three weeks ago Miss E. Creswell, of Te Horo, sent me a specimen of a fern which she could not class, and which she wished me to name for her. It was like Hymenophyllum demissum, but she said it had stellated tomentum on the stipes, rachis, and costae. Except that it had those parts less glossy than usual, and was of a darker colour than ordinary (probably from having been grown in deep shade), I could see Field.— On Hybrid Ferns. 373 nothing to distinguish it from H. demissum, even with a powerful magnifying-glass, and wrote to her to that effect. She has since sent me better specimens, and with them some which she had rightly classed as H. demissum, but which had evidently grown pendulous on a tree-trunk, and were of a paler green and more transparent texture than usual. As some members of our Society are no doubt aware, I was blind with cataract for about three years ; and though by an opera- tion the sight of one eye is so far restored that I can read and write, yet telescopes and microscopes are useless to me, not being capable of being adjusted to suit my altered vision. Thus, though the second specimens were less glossy than the first, I could not detect distinct tomentum. My son, how- ever, happened to come to see me, and I showed him the specimens, which he said had the framework of the ferns dis- tinctly furry ; and thus I have come to the conclusion that the fern is a hybrid, though not sufficiently distinct from H. demissum to justify being separately classed. It is not the first time that I have had ferns of a similar character sent to me by collectors for the purpose of being named ; and I have also met with such examples myself. In particular, in a little bush at Otaihanga I found what was clearly Nephridium glabcllum, yet which had developed slightly creeping roots like N. deconipositum ; and near to Nelson there is a small form of Asplenium umbrosum which creeps slightly instead of merely forming a crown of fronds. The late Eev. W. Colenso also evidently met with similar cases, and classed them as new ferns — e.g., his Lomaria aggregata is merely L. lanc'eolata, which had developed lateral crowns ; and, curiously enough, just at the time when his paper on it was published in the Transactions, I noticed that a plant of this fern in one of my cases had similarly divided into several crowns. It seems to me pretty evident that when two prothalli grow so close together that when their edges meet they are forced upwards, their sexual organs must come close together ; and if they are of closely allied species hybridisation is likely to occur. Thus I think the fern of which Miss Creswell sent me specimens is a cross between H. demissum and H. scabrum ; and that the recognition of the possibility of hybridisation, if made known, may assist col- lectors in naming these, as it were, transitional forms. 374 Transactions. — Botany. Art. XLV.— 4 List of Plants growing at " The Gums," Taita. By T. Mason. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th March, 1903.] In November, 1896, I submitted to the Society an account and list of the plants then growing in my garden at Taita, Lower Hutt.* I now present a list of the additions which have been made to my collection of growing plants since that date, which I hope may prove of some slight assistance to those who may wish to plant for themselves or futurity. List of Plants. Abelia heudersoni. Abies macrocarpa. eichleri. numidica. Abutilon vitifolium. Acacia pycantha. Acer circinnatus. campestre. tartarica. Albuca canaliculata. Andromeda arborea. ligustrina. calyculata nana. angustifolia. ovalifolia. Anemone japonica (whirlwind) , A.noiganthus breviflorus. luteus. Arundinana falcata. Asclepias tuberosa. Aster tartaricus. turbinellus. Baptisia leucanthe Bellevallia spicata. Berberis sanguineus. dulcis. Bletia hyacinthus. Boronia elatior. sp. Brodiasa howelli. Bulbocodium vernum. Callistemon viridiflorum. Calochortus amaenus. Camassia frazeri. leichtlinii. Caryoptera mastacantha. Cassinea rosmarinifolia. Celastrus articulatus. Cerasus ilicifolius. japonicus. Cercis occidentalis. Cereocarpus betulifolius. Chamestes granclirlorus. Chamerops gracilis. Clematis viticella. velutina (grata). Clianthus puniceus albus. Coburgia incarnata. trichoma. Colchicum montanum. steveni. Convolvolus cneorum. * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxix., p. 393. Mason. — List of Plants in a Ne%v Zealand Garden. 375 Cornus nuttallii. Galaxia Coronilla emodi. graminea. Corylus atropurpureus. ovata. Crinum Gillenia trifoliata. yernense. Haemanthus catherinae longifoliuin. Helianthus capense. latifolius semi-pl. Cupressus 1 a m b e r t i a n u s mamelliana. aureus. Hemerocallis Cyanella lutea. aurantius major. Cyclamen neapolitanum. middendorfii. Cyrtanthus Hesperanthus falcata. angustifolius. Hovensis dulcis. intermedius. Hyacinthus tnacowani. suaveolens. sanguineus. nigrescens. Cytisus elongata. moschatus luteus. Daphne gingkwa. Hydrangea Echinocea purpurea. petiolaris. Edgworthia papyrifera. involucrata. Eleagnus longipes. plena. Embothrium coccineum. Idesia polycarpa. Enkianthus japonicus. Incarvillia delavaya. Epimedium grandiflorum. Iris Erigeron mucronata. pumila (various). Erytbrina acanthifolia. orientale. Erythronium grandiflorum gatesii. citrmum. Escallonia exoniensis. Eucalyptus ficifolius roseus. Euonymus europasus. fimbriata marginata. Euscapus staphylloides. Ferraria undulata. Forsytbia suspensa. Fraxinus calil'ornicus. Frittillaria persica. recurva. coccinea. imp. lutea. slagiourgand. rubra. sulphurina. imperialis. aurea. sessilis (var. californica). sindgarensis. cristata. Kalmia angustifolia. rubra. Lathyrus grandiflorus. Leptospermum chapmanii. Lespedeza bicolor. Leucocrinium montanum. Leucojum roseum. Lilium croceum. wallachianum. washingtonianum pur- pureum. (white Turk's cap). hansoni. davuricuin. Lycoris squamigera alba. purpurea. 376 Tr ansae tions. — Bo tany . 1 ae v i g a t u m Lythrum coccineum. Magnolia compressa. Melanoschium decipiens. Melia japonica. Montbrezia crocosmaeflora pi. Morea flexuosa. Morina longifolia. Muscari botryoides caudidum. commutatum. azureum. Myosotidium nobile alburn. Nerine angustifolius. amabilis. humilis splendens. novelty. undulatum. japonica alba. Neviusia alabamensis. Nierembergia frutescens. Ornithogalum escapum, ft Osteospei'mum revolutum. Pardanthus sinensis. Pentlandia rniniata. Phalangea elegans. Pbiladelphus microphylla. lemoinei erecta. grandiflora speciosum pi. Pbotinia glabra. Phyllirea angustifolia. Phyllostachys mitios. quilloi. Pittosporum tobira. Polygonum filifolium. Prumnopytis elegans. Puschkinia libanotica compacta. scillioides. Quercus acuta. dentata. pbylleoides. trickers. cuspidata. Quercus laevigata. boskinsoniana. pbellos. agrifolius. austriaca. lucombei. (cut leaf). lacera. sericia. Eanunculus ficaria. rnonspellensis. Ebododendron assamicum. suave. daviesii. arboreum glaucum. Salix tenuifolius. Sanguinaria canadensis. Saxifraga granulata. Scilla campanulata sibirica. major. byacinthoides. rosea. patula rubra, grandiflora. pubina. ciliaris. bifolia rosea, grandiflora. natalensis. maritima. Solidago canadensis. Sopbora pendula. Spartagussus mubigenus. Spircea bumaldi. Ant. Waterer. Staphylea bumaldi. Sutherlandia frutescens. Syringa siberica. Mattbew Dombazle. Madame Lamoine. Taxus elegautissimus. Hackel. — On New Species of Grasses. 377 Taxus fastigatus. variegated. Troll ius japonicus. Tulipa gesneriana major. kaufmanniana. persica. dammani. praecox. Ulmus campestre. vanhouttei. Viburnum dilatatum. canadense. Vitis elvira. odoratum. WatsoDia marginata. Weigelia lamoinei. Widdringtonia whytei. Xanthoceras sorbifolia. picta. Zauschneria californica. Art. XLVI. — On Neiv Species of Grasses from New Zealand. By Professor E. Hackel. Communicated by T. F. Cheeseinan, F.L.S. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 23rd February, 1903.] [The grasses of New Zealand have long been in need of care- ful study and examination by some competent authority in Europe, whose position would give him access to the large European herbaria where the types of the published species are mainly deposited, and where it is alone possible to work out many questions relating to the geographical distribution of the species, and their relationship to the grasses of the world. No attempt to deal with the grasses of New Zealand with re- gard to these points has been made since the publication of Hooker's " Handbook of the New Zealand Flora " in 1864. Buchanan's beautifully illustrated work, which has appeared in the interim, though valuable in very many respects, is wholly confined to the illustration and description of the species, with notes on their economic value. During the forty years that has elapsed since the preparation of the " Hand- book " the classification has been to a great extent revolution- ised. Different views are now held as to the position and characters of many of the genera and species ; and an im- mense amount of information has been obtained bearing on the geographical distribution of the species. Among the workers who have contributed to this advance no one is better known than Professor Eduard Hackel, of St. Polten, Austria. To say nothing of his monographs of the Andropogonecs and Euro- pean Festucea, his account of the whole order published in 378 Transactions. — Botany. Engler and Prantl's " Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien " would alone place him in the first rank of European agrostologists. During the preparation of the work on the " Flora of New Zealand," on which I am at present engaged, the necessity for a thorough investigation of the New Zealand grasses by- some one possessing a special knowledge of the order became still more apparent. It was therefore with much satisfac- tion that I received an intimation from Professor Hackel that he was willing to undertake this, provided that he was sup- plied with a sufficient amount of fresh material from all parts of the colony. This, with the kind assistance of Mr. Petrie and Mr. Cockayne, who have contributed very large suites of specimens to the collection which I could withdraw from my own herbarium, I have been able to do. Professor Hackel's report on this collection and on the New Zealand grasses generally contains a large amount of valuable information, especially regarding the difficult genera Agrostis, Deyeuxia, Danthonia, Poa, &c, and will prove of the utmost service in the elaboration of the order for the forthcoming "Flora," for which I have his permission to use it. He has also furnished diagnoses in Latin of certain new species contained in the collection, which at his request I now submit to the Institute for publication in the Transactions. — T. F. Cheeseman.] 1. Imperata cheesemani, Hack. Perennis, innovationibus extravaginalibus. Culmi subro- busti, erecti, ad 40 cm. alti, teretiusculi, glaberrimi, 3-nodes, simplices, farcti. Vaginae foliorum laxae, internodia super- antes, teretiusculse, ore barbatae, ceterum glaberrimae, summa paniculae basin amplectens, infiinae squamiformes. Ligulae breves, truncatae, menibranaceae, glabrae v. ciholataa. Laminae e basi valde angustata (in foliis basilaribus fere petioliformi) lineari-lanceolatae, acutae, inferiores ad 30 cm. longae, 1-3 cm. latae, superiores abbreviates, summa minuta, planae, erectae, rigidae, glaberrimae, costa media inferne crassa, nervisque lateralibus crassiusculis non prominentibus percursae. Pani- cula spiciformis, anguste lanceolata a ^ mferiore sensim angustata, acutissima, ad 20 cm. longa, 2 cm. lata, densa, canescenti-villosa, non nitens, rhachi glabra, ramis creberrimis sibi valde approximatis solitariis vel oppositis, erecto-patulis, flexuosis, glaberrimis vel pilis raris adspersis (inferioribus circ. 3 cm. longis), simplicibus v. inferne ramulis brevissimis auctis, fere a basi spiculiferis. Eacemi (" spicae ") inferiores circ. 3 cm. longi, rhachi crassiuscula, glabra, internodhs circ. 12, quam pedicelli spicularum vix brevioribus, pedicellis crassius- culis, valde clavatis, glaberrimis, primariis circ. 2 mm., secundariis 1 mm. longis. Spiculae lineari-oblongae, 3-5 mm. longae, villis e callo ortis spicula sesquilongioribus canescen- Hackel. — On Neiv Species of Grasses. 379 tibus haud ita densis cinctae, flavescentes. Gluma I. spicu- lam aequans, lanceolata, acutiuscula, membranacea, obscure 5-nervis, toto dorso laxe pilosa, apice ciliolata ; II. I-ae simillirna nisi obtusa, 3-nervis, apice dense ciliolata ; III. quam I. -J- brevior, late ovata, obtusa, dentata, dentibus cilio- latis, hyalina, enervis, vacua ; IV. quam II. ^ brevior, ovata, acuminata, tridentata, dentibus lateralibus quam intermedius multo brevioribus, glabra, hyalina ; palea quam gl. II. duplo brevior, latissima, truncata, multidentata, fimbriato-ciliata. Stamen 1, anthera fere 3 mm. Ionga. Styli stigmataque elongata. Caryopsis oblonga, teretiuscula, l'5mm. Ionga, flavescens, scutello § caryopsidis aequante. Kermadec Islands, leg. Cbeeseman (Nro. 1001). Affinis T. exaltatce, Brogn., qua3 differt a nostra culmo multo altiore, paniculae ramis tenuissimis, ramulos secun- darios crebros agentibus, racemorum rhachi capillari, pedi- cellis spicularum vix clavatis, spiculis linearibus, minoribus, glumis I. et II. acuminatis, manifeste 3-nerviis, III. glabra, IV. integra, palea gluma II. 4-plo breviore, integra. 2. Agrostis petriei, Hack. Perennis, caespitosa. Innovationes extravaginales, basi squamis aphyllis quoad longitudinem sensim majoribus vestitae. Culmi erecti, graciles, ad 25 cm. alti, glaberrimi, 3-5-nodes, nodo summo fere in medio culmo sito, simplices. Vaginae teretes, glaberrimae, internodiis parum longioribus. Ligulae oblongae, ad 5 mm. longae, obtusae, denticulate. Laminae lineares, sensim acutatae, plana3 vel siccitate con- volutae, glaucae, ad 12 cm. longae, 1-5 mm. latae, utrinque scabrae, margine scaberrimae, tenuinerves. Panicula oblonga, patula, laxiflora, ad 12 cm. Ionga, rhachi laevi, ramis 3-5-nis, capillaribus, scaberulis, a ^ inferiore (iivisis, primario circ. ^ paniculae asquante, secundariis mferioribus paucispiculatis, tertianis plerumque unispiculatis, spiculis in apice ramorum subcontiguis, pedicellos subterminales apice vix incrassatos aequantibus. Spiculae lineari - lanceolatae, 3 mm. longae, pallide virides ; glumae steriles aequales, lanceolatae, acutae, 1-nerves, laeves ; fertilis sterilibus J brevior, tenui-mem- branacea, obtusa, minute denticulata, 4-nervis (infra medium 5-nervis), e medio dorso aristam exserens rectam, glumae aequilongam raro mutica, callo pilis circ. 05 mm. longis obsita. Palea 0. Antberae circ. 1-8 mm. longae. Nevis Valley, Otago, leg. Petrie (10044 hb. Petrie, 1092 hb. Cheesem.) Var. viutica, arista nulla. Cromwell, Central Otago, Petrie (10045 hb. Petrie, 1085 hb. Cheesem.). Affinis A. canines L., quae differt a nostra foliis laete viri- dibus laevibus, panicula magis composita (ramulis tertianis 380 Transactions. — Botany. etiarn plurispiculatis) densiore, spiculis minoribus (2-2-5 mm. longis), glumarum sterilium carina scabra, antheris vix 1 mm. longis. Agrostis dyeri, Petrie, differt a nostra (et ab A. canina) jam innovationibus intravaginalibus basi non squa- matis. A canina, L., vera in Nova Zelandia nondum observata est ; A. canina, Hook, f., Buchanan Manual t. xix. est A. dyeri, Petrie. 3. Calamagrostis petriei, Hack. (Sect. Deyeuxia). Perennis. Culmi erecti, teretes, circ. 50 cm. alti, glaberrimi, trinodes, nodo summo prope medium culmi sito. Vaginae teretes, arctae, internodiis breviores longioresve, scaberulae. Ligulae inferiores obtusae, vix 1mm. longae, superiores oblongae v. obtusiusculae, 2 mm. lg. Laminae lineares, acutae, inferiores ad 20 cm. longae, 2-5 mm. latae, planae v. laxe in- volutes, subtus glaberrimae, supra marginibusque scaberulae, rigidulae, nervis valde prominentibus percursae. Panicula linearis, contracta, ad 12 cm. longa, densiuscula, rhachi ramisque glaberrimis, his binis ternisve, brevibus (ad 2 cm. longis) rigidulis, post anthesin erectis, primariis basi breviter nudis 5-7-spiculatis, secundariis a basi spiculiferis 3-4-spi- culatis, spiculis aequaliter dispositis quarn pedicelli subter- minales glaberrimi multoties longioribus. Spieulae lineari- lanceolatae, 6-6-5mni. longae, pallide virides. Glumae steriles subaequales, anguste lanceolatae, acutae, rigide membranaceae, uninerves, carina scaberulae ; gluma fertilis sterilibus ^ brevior (5 mm. lg.), lanceolata, acutiuscula, apice indistincte minuteque denticulata (nee bifida), membranacea, 5-nervis, dorso scabro- punctata, callo pilis -J glumae aequantibus densiuscule barbata, arista in media gluma inserta, recta, glumam sequante v. vix superante. Palea glumam subaequans, lineari-lanceolata, acutiuscula, bidentula, carina scabra. Rhachillae processus gluma 3-plo brevior, pilis 3 mm. longis dense barbatus. Swampy Hill, Dunedin, Otago, leg. Petrie (10092 hb. Petrie, 1190 hb. Cheesem.). CI. Petrie hanc speciem mihi nomine Deyeuxice scabra, Benth., communicavic. Haec, i.e. Agrostis scabra, E. Br., Calamagrostis rudis, Steud., a nostra valde distincta, differt spiculis parvis (3-3'5mm. longis), pedicellis ramisque pani- culae scabris, gluma fertili steriles aequante v. subaequante, chartacea v. subcoriacea, obtusa, callo pilis paucis brevibus obsita, arista brevissima (06 mm. longa) multo supra medium dorsi inserta, rhachillae processu quam gluma 4-plo breviore, brevissime et parcissime piloso (pilis 0'5 mm. longis). Propior est affinitas C. petriei cum 0. stricta, Beauv. ; quae differt praesertim spiculis minoribus, gluma fertili callo longius barbata, arista infra medium dorsi inserta, rhachillae processu brevissimo v. nullo. Hackel. — On New Species of Grasses. 381 4. Trisetum cheesemani, Hack. Perenne. Culmi erecti, circ. 20 cm. alti, teretes, superne lougiuscule nudi, ibique puberuli, binodes, nodo superiore in J inferiore culmi sito, simplices. Folia in culmi basi aggre- gata : vaginae subcornpressae, laxae, iuternodiis longiores, glaberrirnae, emortuae demum subfibrosae. Ligulae circ. 2 mm. longae, truncatae, denticulatae. Laminae e basi aequilata lineares, breviter acuminatae, apice subcucullatae, planse, ad 5 cm. longae, 4 mm. latae, firmae, erectae, glabrae, supra laeves, subtus scaberulae, margine scabrae, glaucescentes, nervis supra prominentibus, crassis percursae. Panicula spiciformis, linearis, densissima, 5-6 cm. longa, 1*5 cm. lata, rhachi ramisque minute puberulis, bis binis ternisve brevibus fere a basi spiculiferis dense imbricatis, glomeratis, subter- minalibus brevissime pedicellatis. Spiculae lanceolato-ellip- ticae, biflores, 6'5mm. longae, flavo-viridulae, nitidae, rhacbilla altero latere breviter pilosa, ultra florem superiorem elongata. Glumae steriles 5 et 6 mm. longae, lanceolatae, acutae, I. uninervis, II. 3-nervis, quam fertilis superposita parum brevior, totae scabrae, carina scaberrimae. Glumae fertiles lanceolatae, circ. 5-5mm. longae, acutae, apice brevissime acuteque bidentatae, inter vel parum infra dentes mucrone 05-1 mm. longo recto instructae, tenuissime 5-nerves, scabrae, carina superne scaberrimae, callo brevissime laxeque pilosae. Palea gluma \ brevior, oblonga, obtuse trilobulata, secus carinas scabras late implicata. Antherae 1 mm. longae. Ovarium glabrum. Hooker Glacier, Mount Cook district, altit. 1200 m., leg. Cbeeseman (Nro. 1221 sub nomine T. subsjncati). Species distinctissima, babitu, paniculae spicularumque ' indole quidem Triseto subspicato similis, tamen propter glumas fertiles brevissime bidentatas et inter vel paullo infra dentes brevissime mucronatas (neque supra medium dorsi aristatas) non solum a T. subspicato, sed etiam ab omnibus genuinis Trisetis ita diversa, ut potius Kcelerice generi adjungi possit. Be vera inter hoc et Trisetum limites certi non inveniuntur, qua re inductus jam cl. Desvaux in Gay, Fl. chil. vi., p. 352, Kceleriam ad Triseti sectionem reduxit. 5. Poa novse-zelandiae, Hack. Syn. P. foliosa var. B. Hook, f., Handb. N.Z. Fl. i., 338; Buchan., Man. tab. 43a. Perennis, caespitosa, innovationibus intravagiualibus v. mixtis. Culmi erecti, 2-3 dm. alti, graciles, teretes, glaber- rimi, superne breviter nudi, 3-nodes, nodo summo circ. in medio culmi sito. Folia glaberrima : vaginae plus minusve laxae, internodiis plerumque breviores, innovationum com- pressae, emortuae stramineae, diu persistentes, demum sub- fibrosae ; ligulae ovales, acuminatae, 4-5 mm. longae, saepe 382 Transactions. — Botany. dentatae ; laminae e basi aequilata lineares, subito acuminatae, erectae, rigidulae, 10-20 cm. longas, culmeae planae ad 8 mm. latae, innovationum complicatae (expansae 2-4 mm. latae), virides, nervis haud promineDtibus tenuibus percursae. Pani- cula ovata v. ovato-oblonga, ad 10 cm. longa, densa, sub- nutans, subcontracta, rbachi ramisque laevibus, his binis ternisve capillaribus, in ^— -J- inferiore indivisis, dein ramulos secundarios 2-6-spiculatos tertianosque 1-2-spiculatos sub- appressos agentibus, spiculis versus apicem ramorum con- gestis, imbricatis, subterminalibus brevissime pedicellatis. Spiculae elliptico-oblongae, 5-6-flores circ. 8-10 mm. lg., valde compressse, virides v. pallidas ; glumae steriles 3 mm. et 4 mm. longae, acutissimae, glaberrimae, I. subulato-lanceolata, 1 -ner- vis, II. lanceolata, 3-nervis, paullo ultra mediam IV-am per- tinens ; glumae fertiles auguste lanceolatae, acutissimae, 5 mm. longae, callo villis crispulis glumam dimidiam aequantibus v. superantibus vestita, ceterurn glaberrima, nervis lateralibus extremis parum, intermediis minime prominentibus, ssepe omniuo obsoletis. Palea gluma ^ brevior, lineari-oblonga, acute bidentata, carinis scabro-puberulis. Antherae 3, 1*2 mm. longae. In regione subalpina et alpina montium late divul- gata et satis variabilis. Vidi specimina formae typicae e locis sequentibus : Canterbury Alps ad Arthur's Pass, altit. 1000 m. (Cheesem. nr. 1338, 1339) et Hooker Glacier (Cheesem. 1341), Nelson mountains ad Mount Arthur Plateau (Cheesem. 1340), Humboldt Mountains (Cockayne, 1347 in hb. Cheesem.). Forma laxmscula, culmo elatiore, panicula laxiuscula valde nutante, viridi. — Bealey Gorge, Canterbury Alps, alt. 1000 m. (Kirk, nr. 1373 hb. Cheesem.). Forma humilior, culmo 6-8 cm. alto, foliis circ. 3 cm. longis, 1-5-3 mm. latis, panicula 3-4 cm., minus composita, spiculis subcoloratis 7 mm. longis, glumis sterilibus § f er- tilium aequantibus, lanceolatis. — Mount Hikurangi, East Cape, alt. 1500 m. (Petrie 10198, hb. Cheesem. 1345) ; Otira Glacier, Westland, alt. 1160 m. (Cockayne 6557, in hb. Cheesem. 1348) ; Eaglan Eange, Wairau Valley, Nelson Alps, 1500 m. (Cheesem. 1342). Var. subvestita, glumis fertilibus 6 mm. longis in ^ in- feriore carinis villis crispulis vestita, nervis lateralibus exte- rioribus prominentibus, superne violaceo-tiuctis. — Central" Otago (Petrie 10197, in hb. Cheesem. 1344); Arthur's Pass, Canterbury mountains, cum forma typica (Cockayne 6566, in hb. Cheesem. 1346). Poa foliosa, Hook, f., vera differt a nostra culmo elato (50 cm. v. ultra), foliis elongatis (30 cm. v. plus) longe acumi- natis, supra scabris, nervis crassiusculis sed non prominenti- bus percursis, paniculae magnae (circ. 20 cm.) ramis fere a Hackel. — On Neto Species of Grasses. 383 basi spiculiferis, spiculis secus ranios aequaliter dispositis, glumis fertilibus distincte 5-nerviis, nervis non solum externis seel etiam intermediis prominentibus, carina ad -J usque atque nervis marginalibus in ^ inferiore crispato-villosulis ceterum undique scabris. Palea gluma -§■ brevior. Specirnina mea (Herekopere Island, 1. Kirk, Snares prope Stewart Island, 1. Petrie) staminibus valde hebetatis fcerninea. 6. Poa polyphylla, Hack. Caespitosa, innovationibus extravaginalibus. Culmi erecti v. arcuato-ascendentes ad 30 cm. alti, compressi, glaberrimi, polynoues, foliis 7-17 inferne valde approximatis disticbe patentibus vestiti, basi rainosi. Vaginas sese invicem arete in- volventes, internodiis saltern inferioribus multo longiores, glaberrimae. Ligulae brevissimae, truncatae, marginiformes. Laminae e basi aequilata anguste lineares, sensim valde acu- tatae, planae v. laxe complicates, ad 20 cm. lg., 2 mm. latae, patentes, glabrae, inferne laeves, superne (saltern infra apicem) marginibus carinaque scabrae, nervis crassiusculis sibi valde approximatis percursae. Panicula oblonga, contracta, densa v. densissima, ad 8cm. longa, l-5cm. lata, rhachi ramisque laevibus, his binis suberectis, a basi v. fere a basi plus minusve dense spiculiferis, ramo primario circ. 2-3 cm. longo ramuloso multispiculato, spiculis imbricatis, subterminalibus brevissime pedicellatis, pedicellis scabris. Spiculae oblongae, 4-5-flores, 5-6 mm. longae, floribus ad f longitudinis sese tegentibus, viri- dulae. Gluniae steriles 2'5 mm. et 3-5mm. longae, lineari- lanceolatas, acutaa, f fertilium tegentes, carina aculeolato- scaberrimae, 1-nerves. Glumaa fertiles lineari-lanceolatae, mucronulato-acuminatae, 4 mm. longae, 5-nerves, nervis pro- minulis, callo pubescentes, ceterum glabrae, undique (praeser- tim ad nervos) scabrae, carina aculeolato-scaberrimae. Palea glumam subaequans, lineari-oblonga, acute bidentata, carinis scabra. Kermadec Island, leg. Shakspear (in herb. Cheesem. 1441-16). Forma compacta : panicula densissima, spiculis dense imbricatis (1445). Affinis P. ancipiti, Spr., quae a nostra differ t foliis in sin- gulo culmo 3-4-nis, erectis, apice parum attenuatis, abruptius acuminatis, undique lasvibus, panicula laxiore, ramis primariis ad ^ usque nudis, glumis fertilibus basi brevius et parcius lanatis apice acutiusculis v. obtusiusculis, vix scaberulis. 7. Poa cheesemani, Hack. Perennis, haud caespitosa, rhizoma stolones basi squamis aphyllis 2-3 instructos et subterraneos et supraterraneos agens. Culmi erecti, ad 40 cm. alti, teretes, glaberrimi, 3-nodes, nodo summo in ^ culmi sito. Vaginae internodiis 384 Transactions. — Botany. breviores, subcompressae, superae carinatae, glaberrimae. Ligu- lse truncatae, 2 mm. longae, lineares, obtusiusculae, siccando plus minusve arete complicatae, statu complicato 1-1-5 mm. latae, ad 12 cm. (summa vix 2 cm.) longae, erectae, rigidulae, virides, glaberrimae, intus costis crassiusculis depressis sese fere tangentibus percursae. Panicula ovata, laxa, patens, circ. 8 cm. longa, rbachi laevi subflexuosa, ramis inferioribus ternis subcapillaribus in § inferiore indivisis et laevibus, saepe rubellis, superne ramulos paucos unispiculatos parce scabros agentibus, spiculis n apice ramorum laxiuscule aggregatis, subterminalibus pedicellos circiter aequantibus. Spiculae ellip- ticae, 5-6-florae ad 8 mm. longae, livide virides et subrufes- centes, densiflorae. Glumae steriles 3-5 mm. et 4-5 mm. longae, late lanceolatae, acutae, 3-nerves, carina laeves, | v. | glu- marum fertilium superpositarum tegentes ; fertiles late lanceo- latae, acutae, 5 mm. longae, prominule 5-nerves, cailo pilis por- rectis haud contortuplicatis neque protrabendis circ. dimidiam glumam asquantibus vestitae, carina nervisque submarginalibus in ^ v. J inferiore parce villosae, ceterum laeves ; palea glumam subaequans, oblonga, acute bidentula, carinis serrulato-scabris. Antberae 2 mm. longae. Nelson Alps, Lake Tennyson, altit. 1000 m., leg. Cheese- man (Nro. 1316). Iterum affinis est P. ancipiti, Spr., praesertim ejus varie- tati tenuiori, Hack., tamen certe differt rbizomate stolonifero. Nam in P. ancipite rhizoma caespitosum est, sine stolonibus. Spiculae P. ancipitis oblongo-ellrpticae sunt, glumae steriles re- spectu fertilium breviores, nam vix § earum tegunt. Habitu et innovationis modo species nostra ad P. pratensem, L., euro- paeam accedit, quae vero glumis fertilibus basi lana longa con- tortuplicata atque protrahenda vestitis aliisque notis satis differt. 8. Festuca ovina subspec. novae-zelandiae, Hack. Culmi circ. 30 cm. alti, trinodes, scabri ; foliorum vaginae fissae, glaberrimae, laminas emortuas diu retinentes ; ligulae manifeste biauritae, glabrae; laminae cylindricae, grosse setaceae v. subjunceae (diam. 0-7 mm.) acutissimae, rigidulae, sub epi- dermide inferiore stratis scierenchymaticis 2-3 continuis v. inter nervos subinterruptis instructae, circ. 25 cm. longae (culmum subaequantes), virides, extus punctis scabris v. aculeolis conspersae. Panicula oblonga, subcontracta, laxius- cula, ramis binis in | inferiore nudis, 3-6-spiculatis. Spiculae ellipticae, 5-7-flores, ad 10 mm. longae ; glumae steriles lineari- lanceolatae, II. ad f IV-ae pertinens, fertiles anguste lanceo- latae, mucronatae v. brevissime aristulatae, glabrae, scaberulae, 5*5-6 mm. longae. Palea glumam subsuperans, carinis scabra. Antberae 3 mm. longae. Hackel. — On New Species of Grasses. 385 Canterbury Alps, in declivibus montis Torlesse, altit. 1000 m., leg. Cheeseman (Nro. 1497 sub nomine F. durius- cidce, L.). Habitus F. ovincB var. duriusculce, quae vero differt a nostra foliis ipso apice obtusiusculis, laevibus, culmo laevi, panicula patente, spiculis minoribus. Inter subspecies F. ovince in Monographia Festucarum europaearum mea recen- sitas maxime accedit ad subsp. beckeri, quae praesertim differt foliis laevissimis, vaginis laminas emortuas mox dejicientibus, spiculis minoribus. 9. Festuca ovina subsp. matthewsii, Hack. Culmi erecti circ. 30 cm. alti, binodes, nodo superiore in medio culmi sito, glaberrimi. Innovationes oligophyllae, elongatae. Vaginae laxiusculae, fissae, glaberrimae, demum fuscae, laminas diu retinentes. Ligulae bilobae, lobis fere 1 mm. longis acutiusculis ciliolatis. Laminae anguste lineares, complicatae, imo apice acutiusculae, 20-25 cm. longae (cul- mum subaequantes), statu complicato 0-7-0-8 mm. diam. basi pulvinari calloso fusco instructae, extus glaberrimae, siccae costatae, intus puberulae, sectione transversa obtuse hexa- gon®, 5-nervo, sub singulis nervis singulis fasciculis scleren- chymaticis plerumque tenuibus instructae. Panicula ovato- oblonga, circ. 14 cm. longa, patula, laxa, subnutans, rhachi ramisque scabris, his binis, basi longe nudis, apice 1-3-spicu- latis. Spiculae ovato-lanceolatae, 5-7-flores, ad 16 mm. longae, subterminales breviter, reliquae longe pedicellatae, densiflorae. Glumae steriles inaequales, lanceolatae, acutae, laeves, II. ad medium IV-ae pertinens, fertiles, lineari-lanceolatae, acutae, 8 mm. longae, in aristam 2-3 mm. longam abeuntes. Palea glumam aequans v. subsuperans, lineari-lanceolatae, subulato- bidentata, carinis scaberula. Antherae 3 mm. longae. Ovarium glabrum . Mount Bonpland, Otago, leg. H. J. Matthews (hb. Cheesem. 1496). Subspecies peculiaris, fere species propria dicenda. Ab omnibus subspeciebus F. ovince differt spiculis maximis et corpore calloso pulviniformi in basi laminarum, cujus ope, ut videtur, lamina a vagina culmoque removitur. Inter Festucas europaeas ad F. amplam, Hack., accedit, inter asiaticas ad F. nubigenam, Jungh., quae ambae jam spiculis minoribus dis- tinguntur. 25 I V.— GE OLO G Y, Art. XL VI I. — -The Kingston Moraine. By Dr. P. Marshall. [Read before the Otago Institute, 8th July, 1902.~\ During a short stay at Kingston in March, 1902, an exami- nation was made of the moraine at the south-east end of Lake Wakatipu. The examination was made with the object of finding, if possible, the limits of the area from which the ice forming the large glacier that formerly filled the lake- basin was derived. The materials of the moraine were found to consist almost entirely of mica-schist, phyllite and aphanite breccia, which constitute the mass of the mountain-ranges by which the lake-basin is bounded. On the shore of the lake the materials of the moraine have been subjected to a sorting action by the breaking waves, and those stones consisting of the more resistant materials have become more concentrated. On this beach, about a mile from the hotel, were found twelve stones which, in consequence of their absence from the rock-masses near the lake, offered suitable material for study. These rocks may be classified as follows : — (B 102.) Granite. — Light-grey rock of even granular ap- pearance. Except for decomposed feldspar, the separate minerals cannot be distinguished. Section : Quartz in clear grains completely allotriomorphic. Feldspar completely de- composed, revealing nothing of its original nature. Decom- position products chiefly quartz and muscovite flakes with epidote. A few small grains of amphibole of a fibrous structure with strong pleochroism. Small grains of biotite with strong absorption occur here and there in groups with- out any relation to the neighbouring minerals. The actino- litic amphibole and biotite are evidently secondary in their origin. (B 101.) Granite. — Similar to B 102 in general appear- ance. Section : Similar to B 102, but the feldspar is much fresher, and is found to consist partly of orthoclase, partly of oligoclase, and perhaps albite. Plagioclase is more plentiful than orthoclase, and is twinned freely on the albite law and 388 Transactions. — Geology. occasionally on the pericline. The actinolitic hornblende mentioned in B 102 is not present here, but the groups of brown mica plates are rather more numerous. (B 103.) Gneiss. — A white rock consisting of an even- grained mixture of quartz and feldspar, with a few plates of biotite. In the hand specimen a gneissic structure can be seen. Section : Quartz completely allotriomorphic ; is very abundant. Feldspar generally twinned only on the Carlsbad law, but sometimes oligoclase on the albite law and frequently in smaller crystals, showing a further development of peri- cline twinning, giving an appearance almost similar to that of microcline. Slightly decomposed into grains that are for the most part muscovite plates. Biotite in fairly large grains is not infrequent ; it is evidently an original constituent. A few grains of zircon and magnetite, and a little apatite. (B 107.) Ajjlite. — Hard compact rock, light- green. Se- parate grains not distinct. Section : Quartz in irregular clear grains, allotriomorphic. Feldspar much decomposed. Decomposition products needles of a light-green colour, pro- bably epidote, and plates apparently of muscovite. Optical properties not entirely lost by decomposition, and much is evidently orthoclase. Other crystals show albite and occa- sionally pericline twinning. Extinction angle of lamellae small, showing the mineral to be oligoclase. The only ferro- maguesian constituents are very scarce ; biotite mica plates partly converted into chlorite. The green colour of the rock, which in hand specimens is conspicuous, is entirely due to the epidotic decomposition products of the feldspar. The specimen is penetrated by small microscopic quartz veins. The specimen has sandstone adhering to it, and is evidently a dyke rock. (A 188.) Syenite. — Very compact, showing dark crystals of hornblende of even size arranged in a white feldspathic material, which weathers on the surface into a light-green tint. Section : Feldspar almost opaque owing to complete decomposition. Products of decomposition tine colourless needles, with low refractive index and very weak bire- fringence, probably kaoliuite. No twinning can be detected in the small patches of feldspar remaining clear, so it is probably orthoclase. Hornblende much bleached, apparently originally brown. Absorption, a, light-straw colour, (3, green- ish-brown, y, brown, y > (3 > a. In the bleached portion of the crystals there is barely any noticeable absorption. Cleavage traces much bent and distorted in longitudinal section. (B 106.) Syenite. — Generally similar in section and hand specimen to A 188, but much finer-grained. It is evidently a portion of the same mass. Marshall. — The Kingston Moraine. 389 (B 104.) Diorite. — An even-grained light-green rock in which the hornblende and feldspar can be distinguished readily. Section : Feldspar twinned on albite and pericline laws. Extinction angle indicates a basic oligoclase or an de- sine. Very slight cloudiness indicates the commencement of decomposition. Hornblende light-green, showing the usual absorption. Quite fresh. Magnetite generally in irregular masses, but occasionally idiomorphic, is common. Apatite needles pierce through the hornblende. (B 105.) Diorite. — Light-green rock, with white feldspar crystals and light green hornblende. Not porphyritic in habit. Section : Feldspars all plagioclase and giving extinction angles characteristic of andesine. Albite and pericline twinning com- mon. Amphibole completely fibrous, with irregular termina- tions Light-green in colour and slightly pleochroic. Fibres differ slightly in optical properties, showing a striated appear- ance between crossed nicols. Probably all secondary, the amphibole being actinolite. Magnetite in small grains occurs throughout the section. (A 161, 193, 194.) Feldspar Porphyrite. — Dark-green base, with distinct light flesh-coloured phenocrysts of feldspar, of tabular habit. Sections : Feldspar phenocrysts twinned poly- synthetically on albite law and Carlsbad. Maximum extinc- tion angle on sections perpendicular to 010 32°, indicating a feldspar of a rather acid labradorite type. Thickly dusted with decomposition products, which from their high birefrin- gence and colourless nature appear to be muscovite scales. Groundmass consists of feldspar microlites, apparently labra- dorite much decomposed contained in a fine-grained mixture of green amphibole and brown mica. The amphibole shows no crystalline boundaries. It is highly pleochroic in shades of green. Maximum extinction 18° with the cleavage. Struc- ture fibrous. Mica in very small plates. No distinct out- line. From their arrangement it is almost certain that the last two minerals are secondary. (A 187.) Porphyrite. — A black rock with weathered sur- face, covered with rounded hard resistant knobs. Generally similar to the groundmass of A 161. Section : Feldspar fairly large grains, penetrated through and through with epidote needles. Optical properties can still be distinguished in some of the crystals, and prove them to be labradorite. Amphibole, where original, very light-green, with ordinary absorption and twinning ; where secondary, bright-green and actinolitic. Brown mica in small plates, probably secondary. Magnetite generally scattered through the rock. (A 156.) Forellcnstcin. — Light-grey rock, with undecom- posed feldspar showing bright cleavage planes. Not porphy- ritic. Section : Very fresh feldspar without idiomorphic 390 Transactions. — Geology. boundaries. Twinned repeatedly according to albite and pericline laws, as well as Carlsbad. Lamellae generally broad. Extinction angle in sections perpendicular to 010 bigb in a few instances, proving the mineral to be anorthite olivine with rounded boundaries. Irregular cracks penetrating it, bordered by magnetite, and occasionally serpentine. A few grains of hypersthene showing strong pleochroisrn associated with the olivine. A few scattered grains of magnetite. Of the rocks described above, syenites have been men- tioned in the Geological Survey reports as occurring in many distinct localities within the drainage-basin of the lake as in- trusive rocks. The diorites, granites, gneiss, and forellenstem are similar to some of the types classified together by the Survey as crystalline schists. These rocks are particularly characteristic of the Sounds region, though the distribution of the different types has not yet been ascertained in any of the districts where they occur. The porphyrite is a type that has not been recorded within this district by the officers of the Survey. From the descriptions given it will be seen, on reference to a geological map, that these rocks must have been derived from various sources. In the "Reports of the New Zealand Geological Survey, 1879-80," p. 129, a map is given illus- trating the results of an examination of the country to the north and w7est of Lake Wakatipu by Mr. A. McKay. In this map the nearest outcrop of crystalline schists to the lake is that in the Hollyford Valley. It is stated in this report that the depth of the Hollyford Valley is the cause of the appear- ance of these rocks. The report states that syenites occur as intrusive masses in many places between the Maitai and Te Anau series, and as several junctions of these two series are shown within the present drainage-basin of the lake their presence in the moraine was to be expected. The country further to the north and east was examined by Professor Park in 1886-87 (" Geological Survey Reports, 1886-87," p. 121). The map accompanying the report shows crystalline schists on the west side of the Humboldt Moun- tains, again outside the present drainage-basin. These are the only notices I can find of these rocks near the lake. A specimen of a rock quite similar to the porphyrite was brought me from the Kawarau gravels, and, as this rock is from its nature certain to be local in its occurrence, it must, in the absence of other evidence, be taken as probable that the two rocks come from the same locality. These results are of some interest, for the presence of the "crystalline schists" shows that, if the occurrence of these rocks is correctly mapped, the ice of the Wakatipu glacier must have been partly derived from an area now beyond the Park. — The Bock-phosphates of Otago. 391 watershed of the streams flowing into the lake, or the ice forming the glacier scooped them up from the bed of the lake. So far as our stratigraphical knowledge of the district goes, the latter explanation is possible, for the crystalline schists at the Hollyford underlie the Te Anau series. This latter series also borders the west side of the upper portion of the lake, and, as the lake has a depth of 1,200 ft., it is possible that tbe under- lying rocks may be exposed in the bed. of the lake. Several instances are on record of rocks having been raised by ice- action from low to high levels. The presence of the porphyrite strongly supports Captain Hutton's theory that a glacier from the Shotover acted as a tributary to the Lake Wakatipu glacier. Whether these rocks now occur in the drainage-basin of the lake or not, there is no doubt that the lake-bed must once have been the bed of a large glacier which existed long enough for rock-fragments to be borne some hundred miles on its surface. A record of their occurrence may therefore be of service hereafter, when sufficient facts have been collected to enable us to solve for ourselves the question on its own merits whether the rock-basin of Lake Wakatipu owes its origin to glacial erosion or earth-movements. Earth-movements in the mountains bordering the lake must almost certainly be re- corded by the tilting of the terraces formed round the lake- shores. No accurate measurements of the height of these terraces in different portions has yet been made, though Mr. McKay mentions such terraces at a height of 1,000 ft. near Queenstown, and at 300ft. further up the lake. He does not, however, say that his observations refer to different parts of the same terrace. Art. XLVIII. — On the Geology of the Bock-phosphate De- posits of Clarendon, Otago. By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director, Otago Univer- sity School of Mines. [Read before the Otago Institute, 11th November, 1902.] The discovery of rock-phosphate was made some two years ago by Mr. Ealph Ewing, of Whare Flat, Dunedin, who qualified himself for the work of prospecting by a personal study of the phosphate-deposits of the United States of America. Mr. Ewing, on his return from America, made a systematic search of the east coast districts of Canterbury and Otago, and finally located the present deposits on what 392 Transactions. — Geology. is now a portion of the Horseshoe Estate situated near Clarendon Eailway-station, a place thirty miles south of Dunedin. Subsequent search has shown that phosphatic rock occurs in many places on the estate and adjoining pro- perties, including, among other places of interest, the well- known lime-quarries at Millburn. In June of this year I was enabled through the courtesy of the owners to make an examination of the geological con- ditions under which the phosphate occurred. The result of my investigation was contained in an article contributed to the Otago Witness in July* of this year. After an interval of five months I again visited the locality, with the view of collecting any fresh facts disclosed by the extensive mining operations undertaken during that period. The result of my observations on both occasions is contained in the present paper. Physical Features. From the low-lying valley at the south end of Waihola Lake, along which the Dunedin-Invercargill Eailway runs to Milton, the land rises to the westward by a succession of low, gentle, undulating hills, from which, by a long easy slope, is reached the summit of the semicircular ridge whose contours probably suggested the present name of the estate. The point of the horseshoe is directed toward Milton, with the Millburn quarries on the outer rim and Horseshoe Bush on the inner. The summit of the ridge is fairly flat. The descent into the bend is long and easy, but on the Milton side it is generally abrupt, and in many places quite precipitous. The surface is open agricultural land, much of which is at present under cultivation. General Geological Structure. The general geological structure of the district is very well seen in the section running from Clarendon westward across the Horseshoe Estate, for a distance of perhaps a mile and a half from the railway-line. After leaving the flat the low hills first crossed are composed of mica-schist of probably Silurian age, lying nearly horizontal. Proceeding westward, the schist is overlain by Upper Eocene quartz grits and conglomerates which usually form the lowest member of the coal-measures in southern Otago. The grits are in turn followed conformably by glauconitic greensands, limestones, often glauconitic, and a soft brown sandstone. The latter is overlain by a flow of basalt which caps the horseshoe ridge referred to above. The series of beds associated with the limestone lies nearly horizontal in the Horseshoe Bend, * Otago Witness, 16th July, 1902. Park. — The Rock-phosphates of Otago. 393 but rises gently to the south-west, the inclination for the most part being so gradual as to be perceptible only by comparing the altitudes of the limestone outcrops over wide intervals. The phosphate rock, to be more particularly described hereafter, occurs in pockets in the limestone, and is covered in most places with an overburden of brown- coloured sands and clavs. A study of the topographical features of this area, when considered in connection with the disposition of the rock formations, shows that the present contours were determined by denudation long after the eruption of the basalt cap. Classification of Eock Formations. For purposes of description and correlation the rock for- mations present in this district may be classified according to their respective ages as follows, excluding the recent alluvia of the flats and swamps : — Post-Miocene .. ... Basalt flow. Oamaru series (Upper Eocene)... a. Brown sandstone. b. Limestone. c. Glauconitic sandstone. d. Quartz grits and conglo- merates. Silurian ... ... ... Mica-schist. Silurian. The mica-schist crops out behind Cemetery Hill, about 45 ft. above the surface of Waihola Lake. It forms the base- ment rock of this and surrounding districts, cropping out along the western boundary of the Horseshoe Estate, whence it extends westward and northward throughout Central Otago. Near the cemetery, and all around, the schist lies in a nearly horizontal position, but it would not be safe from this to conclude that it had occupied this position from the time of its formation until now. A rock of such antiquity must of necessity have been subjected to all the stresses and foldings which affected the younger formations in this region ; and it is only reasonable to conclude that the direction of the later secular movements has tended to flatten the Silurian strata, which prior to these later movements were probably highly inclined. Upper Eocene. (d.) Quartz Grits and Conglomerates. — These ride hard on the mica-schist, from which the contained quartz grains and pebbles were derived. Here, as elsewhere throughout 394 Transactions. — Geology. southern Otago, the cementing medium of the grits is brown peroxide of iron, and here also these beds possess their usual flaggy structure. Where the iron-peroxide occurs in large excess it presents a fine mammillary structure in- crusted on the flat surface of the grit-stone. These quartz grits, generally known as coal grits from their close association with the brown coals of Otago, in most places contain traces of gold originally derived from the schists from which they were formed. And, although the grits themselves have seldom or never been found sufficiently rich to be worked directly for their gold contents, it is, never- theless, of importance to mention that much of the alluvial gold of Otago has been derived from a rewash of the grits in which the gold has been collected in a more concentrated form. The area occupied by the grits is much obscured by surface earths and masses of basalt, which render it im- possible to measure the thickness of these beds, or ever determine whether the fireclays and brown coal which usually accompany them are present here or not. (c.) Glauconitic Sandstone. — This rock is well exposed at the phosphate-quarry workings at Kiln Point, opposite Clarendon, and at Millburn quarry. The section at the former place is obscured with slope deposits, and in conse- quence the thickness of the sandstone could not be deter- mined accurately, but it is probably not less than 40 ft. or 50 ft. At Millburn a thickness of 40 ft. is visible below the limestone, and there also the base of the section is not seen. The sandstone is generally coarse in texture, and, except where it is highly calcareous, never shows any planes of stratification. It contains a considerable proportion of glau- conite, the hydrous silicate of iron and alumina to which the rock owes its greenish colour. At Kiln Point this sandstone was found to contain a few species of marine Mollusca, mostly broken and fragmentary. Of these were collected a large smooth Pecten, probably Pecten hochstetteri ; a small Pecten with large distinct ribs, probably P. loilliamsoni ; and Serjnda. In addition to these Mr. R. Ewing found a very large shark's tooth. At Millburn quarry were found Pecten hochstetteri, a frag- ment of a large strongly ribbed Pecten or Lima, Seryula (two species), Balanus, and a species of small oyster. And at the Millburn Company's phosphate-workings, which are situated about a quarter of a mile east of the quarry, from the greensand where oxidized to a rusty-brown colour were col- lected a Turbo, Voluta, Leda, Tapes, Venus, Waldheimia, Dcntalium, Flabellum, and fish-teeth. These forms are all characteristic of shallow-water con- Park. — The Bock-phosj^hates of Otago. 395 ditions, and show that the sediments forming this sandstone accumulated near the shore-line of a shallow sea, with shoals of rock and stretches of clear sand. On the other hand, the mineral glauconite is known to he formed by filling or re- placing organic bodies, generally Foraminifera, by a process of slow replacement, molecule by molecule, under conditions which would require the absence of strong sea-currents and a coast-line free from the encroachment of fluviatile deposits. (b.) Limestone. — This rock has its greatest development at Millburn quarry, where there is a face exposed showing a thickness of about 65 ft. The total thickness from the highest pinnacle down to the upper surface of the glauconitic sand- stone is probably 80 ft. In the phosphate-quarry at Kiln Point only the lower hori- zon of the limestone is exposed ; while at Millburn both the lower and upper horizons are seen. The lower horizon, com- prising, perhaps, a thickness of 25 ft., is speckled with glau- conite, and, being sandy or arenaceous, forms an inferior limestone. The upper horizon is dull-grey in colour, almost free from glauconite, and of purer quality than the lower. It is often flaky and splintery, and, being fine-grained and earthy in some places, bears a strong superficial resemblance to the Amuri limestone of northern Canterbury, with which, how- ever, it has no connection. In the spoil-heap of the quarry at Millburn were found the jaw and teeth of a Zeucjlodont whale, Pecten hochstetteri, Meoma crawfordi, a Waldheimia. a branching net coral, and a solid coral. This rock is the horizontal or time-equivalent of the Oamaru stone, which is the closing member of the New Zea- land Lower Tertiary coal-bearing formation. It is the most characteristic and persistent member of that formation, and is seldom or never absent where coal is found. It occurs throughout both Islands, and is everywhere easily distin- guished. In places, through the scarcity of lime, it is little more than a calcareous sandstone or impure limestone ; while in other places it is very pure and highly crystalline in structure. In different districts it has received the name of the locality in which it is found. Thus, in Southland it is called the " Winton limestone"; in Bruce countrv, the "Milton or Millburn limestone " ; in North Otago, " Oamaru stone" ; in South Canterbury, the " Waihao limestone " ; in North Canterbury, " Weka Pass stone" ; at Mokau, " Mokau lime- stone" ; in the King-country, " Te Kuiti limestone"; at Raglan, "Raglan limestone"; in Waikato, " Taupiri lime- stone"; while at Whangarei, Hikurangi, Kawakawa, and Waipu it has received these names respectively ; and so also 396 Transactions. — Geology. in many other localities which need not be specified it has been designated by a local name. This limestone is very variable in physical character and composition. Even in the same horizontal plane it may be seen to pass gradually and insensibly from a compact lime- stone into a calcareous sandstone, often within a distance of half a mile or less. (a.) Brown Sandstone.- — From the upper surface of the limestone to the basalt cap there is an interval of 120 ft. to 150 ft. in vertical height, apparently occupied by a yellowish- brown sandstone, the character and disposition of which could not be ascertained on account of its outcrop being obscured by a heavy slope deposit of black earth mixed with sand. In the Oamaru and Weka Pass districts, where the sequence of Lower Tertiary strata is very complete and cha- racteristic, the Oamaru and Weka Pass calcareous sand- stones, which, as we have seen, are the time-equivalents of the Millburn limestone, are followed quite conformably by the Hutchison quarry, or Mount Brown beds, which consist of yellowish-brown calcareous sandstones containing a rich assemblage of marine forms. This overlying series is so closely associated with the Oamaru series that it cannot be regarded as a separate formation, but only as the closing horizon of the Oamaru series itself. Until something more definite is ascertained about the sandstone lving above the limestone on the Horseshoe Estate, it may be correlated with the Hutchison quarry horizon of the Oamaru formation. Basalt. This occurs as a true flow. It rests on the upper surface of the brown sandstone and caps all the higher hills. As its junction with the underlying rock is everywhere obscured by slope deposit, its thickness cannot be determined, but at the old cemetery quarry the depth of the flow is not less than 100 ft. This basalt is excessively fine in texture, at most places possessing a clean, splintery fracture. In the face of the cemetery quarry it exhibits a rudely columnar structure. Here, also, its weathered surfaces possess a deeply corroded appearance, and the usual splintery character is absent except in one narrow band near the centre of the higher part of the quarry-face. In polarised light thin slices of this rock show an abundant dull-grey or semi-opaque feldspathic base, with augite and olivine, the latter often serpentinised. Idiomorphs of feldspar are absent. The base, however, is crowded with acicular microlites, some of which appear to exhibit polysynthetic twinning. Magnetite is very abundant. Park. — The Rock-phosphates of Otago. 397 In the absence of rocks overlying the basalt it is impos- sible to fix the date of its eruption even approximately. In his work on the " Geology of Otago " (1875, p. 56), Captain Hutton, F.E.S., considers the basalt at the head of Waihola Lake, with which this basalt has probably some association, to be contemporary with his Oamaru formation of Lower Miocene age ; but the evidence on which this conclusion is based is not given. At Cemetery Hill the flow rests on mica-schist, near Kiln Point on the coal grits, and elsewhere in the Horseshoe Estate on the brown sandstone overlying the limestone. This shows that the Eocene strata were deposited, consolidated, elevated, and denuded prior to the eruption of the basalt, which may have taken place in Upper Miocene or Pliocene times. EOCK-PHOSPHATE . This was first found at Discovery Point, at the head of the bend, where it rests on the upper surface of the limestone. Here it forms a massive outcrop from 12 ft. to 18 ft. high and from 4 to 5 chains long. It consists of a very dense grey or yellowish-grey rock-phosphate, very rich in calcium phos- phates. In places it is nearly pure phosphorite, occurring in narrow-banded pale-yellow and grey concretionary masses, possessing a tendency to exfoliate in layers when struck with a hammer. Cavities in this rock were found to be incrusted with apatite possessing a mammillary structure. The extent of the deposit at this place has not yet been determined. Another outcrop of rock-phosphate crops out on the side of the valley opposite Discovery Point, and near it several large masses of this mineral occur in a small depression in the hill about 20 ft. above this outcrop. Eecent excavations show that the phosphate-deposit here is of considerable ex- tent. It has been exposed by open trenches for a distance of 4 chains along the side of the hill, and is found to rest on an eroded surface of the greensands. Loose masses of rock- phosphate, lying on the slopes to the north of this, point to the presence of another deposit in that direction. At Kiln Point a considerable amount of stripping and trenching has been effected, and here much interesting in- formation was obtained concerning the mode of occurrence of the rock-phosphate. At this place the outcrop has been stripped for a distance of nearly 2 chains, exposing a very clear vertical section of the phosphate - deposit and under- lying limestone. The phosphate varies from 3 ft. to 12 ft. in thickness, and rests in a series of pockets in a deeply eroded surface of the limestone. In the face behind the old lime-kiln there are three shallow pockets, the most southerly being 398 Transactions. — Geology. 45 ft. wide, the second 18 ft., and the third about 22 ft., vary- ing in depth from 2 ft. to 6 ft. The pockets are separated from each other by ridges of limestone averaging 3 ft. or 4 ft. wide, as shown in the following diagram : — Section I. Kiln Point : Face exposed behind old kiin. B. Limestone. A. Phosphate rock. The phosphate fills the pockets and rises above the level of the dividing-ridge of limestone to a height varying from 3 ft. to 10 ft., the greatest depth occurring at the north-east end of the section. The phosphate rock exposed in the face of the open cutting is much broken and crushed, and sometimes shows slickenside surfaces. It is yellowish-brown in colour, with irregular seams and patches of whitish-grey. The presence of sand renders it soft and friable, and of lower grade than that exposed at Discovery Point. At the most easterly point of the open cut masses of fairly pure phosphate rock contain inclusions of basalt, occur- ring in small angular or nodular fragments which are seldom over 4 in. in diameter. In a deep narrow trench above the open cutting the phosphate is mixed with glauconitic green- sands which are said to be highly phosphatic. Section II. ^^D, Kiln Point. A. Phosphatic greensands. 3. Phosphate rock. C. Lime- stone. D. Glauconitic greensands. The rock-phosphate has been exposed by a long trench some 12 chains north of Kiln Point, but no feature of special interest is disclosed in this direction. At Millburn lime-quarry the surface of the Eocene lime- Park. — The Bock-phosphates of Otago. 399 stone presents the most marked irregularity. Under the influence of both chemical and physical erosion it has been formed into wide basins and deep well-like holes, surmounted by overhanging knobs and spires of limestone. The basins are filled with yellowish-brown sands, as shown in Sec- tion III. below. Section III. Millburn Quarry, showing surface of limestone in present working-face. A. Brown sands. B. Limestone. On the right side of the present quarry-face the upper horizon of limestone has been eroded down to the lower more sandy and glauconitic horizon, on the irregular surface of which there rest two small patches of rock-phosphate, as shown in Section IV. Section IV. Millburn Quarry, showing two patches of phosphate rock resting on lower horizon of limestone. On the right bank of a small stream near Sutherland's limestone quarry there is a high face of rock-phosphate rest- ing in a basin in the lower horizon of limestone, and a few hundred yards south-west of Millburn quarry there is a similar but smaller outcrop, which also appears to lie on the higher part of the lower horizon. The surface contours and the presence of basalt fragments in the phosphates at Kiln Point tend to show that the formation of the deposits took place in comparatively recent times — probably in the Post-Pliocene period — and, obviously, since the present contours of the dis- trict were determined.. Hence it seems probable that the phosphate-deposits will be marginal, and follow the line of limestone outcrop, contouring around the slopes of the hills bounding the valleys and shallow basins. 400 Transactions. — Geology. Origin of Eock-phosphate. Bock-phosphate consists of tricalcium phosphate, which has the formula Ca3P205. It is often called " bone-phos- phate," because it is the substance of which bone is composed. The bones of all vertebrate animals contain about 60 per cent, of tricalcium phosphate, while the excrement of some is also rich in the same substance. Although invertebrates rarely contain phosphate of lime, there are some notable exceptions— namely, the Brachiopods Lingula and Orbicula, also Conularia, Serpulites, and some re- cent and fossil crustaceans Hence deposits rich in phos- phoric anhydride (P205) are found in rocks of all ages, from the Lauren tian up to nearly the Becent period. The formation of phosphate-deposits is generally believed to have been due to the leaching or lixiviation of phosphate- bearing rocks by waters containing carbonic and other organic acids, followed by the subsequent concentration of the phos- phate under favourable conditions. In some cases they de- posited their calcium phosphate in caverns formed in limestone or calcareous sandstone, and the subsequent removal by solu- tion of the walls of the caverns, either wholly or partially, left the phosphate in the remaining sands. It may be of some interest to note that the apatite beds and veins of Ottawa, in Canada, occur in rocks of Laurentian age. The brown rock-phosphate of Tennessee is believed to have been derived from the weathering of certain phosphatic layers in the Lower Silurian limestone which forms the basin of middle Tennessee. These layers do not occupy an unvarying stratigraphical position, but occur in various horizons in the Lower Silurian formation. * The phosphate-deposits in the South of England, in France, and Belgium occur associated with Cretaceous chalk. Those of Algeria and Tunis are of Eocene age, the phosphates oc- curring in nodules in marl or as phosphatic limestone. In Algeria, which has been estimated by M. Chateau, a French mining engineer, to contain from 150,000,000 to 300,000,000 tons of phosphate rock, it is considered risky to mine rock under 60 per cent, of the tricalcic phosphate.! The celebrated phosphate-deposits in Peninsular Florida occur in detached pockets in the uneven surfaces of an Eocene limestone, and in Western Florida on Miocene lime- stone, under geological conditions which seem almost the same as those existing on the Horseshoe Estate at Clarendon. * William Hayes, Annual Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1898-99, p. 633. t " Memoirs of the French Society of Civil Engineers," August, 1897. Park. — The Bock-phosphates of Otago. 401 The once-famous beds of South Carolina are considered to be of Post-Pliocene age.* The phosphate of lime formerly worked at Aruba and Sombrero, in the West Indies, was originally a coral lime- stone converted into a phosphate by the percolation of water containing phosphoric acid derived from the overlying deposits of bird-guano. The geological conditions which accompany and doubtless determine the presence of workable deposits of phosphate are the presence of a phosphate-bearing formation at the surface, lying in a favourable position for weathering and subsequent concentration of phosphate by replacement or secondary enrichment. To favour the formation of large deposits it is further necessary that the topographical conditions should be such as to favour the weathering of the phosphatic beds over con- siderable areas. Should the phosphate-bearing bed, for example, crop out on a steep slope, the width of exposed surface where the weathering can take place will be neces- sarily limited in extent, the greater part of the formation being protected by the superincumbent strata. Hence phos- phate-deposits left by leaching or produced by concentration on such steep slopes will be narrow, of small extent, and in a position easily removed by denudation. On the other hand, where the phosphate-bearing rock is exposed on long gentle slopes, or over an extent of nearly level country, well drained by streams, the conditions will be favourable for the leaching of the rock over correspondingly wide areas, and consequently favour the formation of large deposits. So far as known to the author, the discovery of workable deposits of phosphate of lime on the Horseshoe Estate at Clarendon is the first in Australasia, and, apart from its im- portance to the owners, is certain to prove of inestimable value to the agricultural interests of the colony. The evidence available from a surface examination shows that a large quantity of phosphate rock exists in this district, but until the deposits have been fully developed by trenching it would obviously be impossible to express the tonnage numerically. This discovery will doubtless be followed by other dis- coveries in different parts of the colony in districts where similar geological conditions exist, the most likely localities being in Southland, North and South Otago, North and South Canterbury, Marlborough, Eaglan, and North Auckland dis- * Penrose : U.S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin No. 46, 1898, p. 60. 26 402 Transactions. — Geology. trict. Phosphate-bearing rock is easily overlooked, as witness the deposits in Millburn quarry which lay exposed to the view of all passers for years. The purer phosphorite is often very compact, fine-grained, and hard, possessing also the banded, wavy, and chalcedonic structure characteristic of chert or flinty quartz deposited from thermal waters, for which it was long mistaken at Millburn. The calcareous sandstone or limestone overlying and form- ing the closing member of the brown-coal measures is found very widely in both the North and South Islands, as already indicated ; and whenever its surface is weathered and uneven the material filling the irregularities, whether it be hard rock or soft sandy marls, should be submitted to chemical examination for determination of phosphoric acid. To become of commercial value a phosphate-deposit should fulfil the following requirements : — (1.) Of such magnitude as to justify the erection of tram- ways and other surface plant necessary for development and winning of mineral. (2.) Of high grade, averaging not less than 50 per cent, of tricalcic phosphate before dressing. (3.) In a position easy of access to a railway or seaboard. (4.) Easy to win — that is, in a position in which it can be worked water-free by open cuts and quarrying. The over- burden must also be shallow and easily removed. When it exceeds 20 ft. the cost of stripping runs away with the profit. It is only in exceptional cases that it pays to mine phos- phate by underground workings. At Eoss Farm, in Pennsyl- vania, during the year 1899, 2,000 long tons were mined from a stratum 30 ft. thick, 4,000 ft. long, and inclined at an angle of 60° from the horizontal. The stratum was mined to a depth of 300 ft. below water-level, and averaged about 56 per cent, of phosphate. Here the matrix consists of a yellow marl, very easily and cheaply broken. The producers, how- ever, do not anticipate to be able to compete in distant markets with the higher grades of phosphate from South Carolina, Tennessee, and Florida, but look only for a remune- rative local market.* * 21st Annual Kept. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1899-1900, p. 494. Park. — Occurrence of Native Lead. 403 Art. XLIX. — Notes on the Occurrence of Native Lead at Parapara, Gollingwood. By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director, Otago Univer- sity School of Mines. [Read before the Otago Institute, 8th July, 1902.'] During a geological survey of Collin gwood County in 1887 I was informed by some miners of the occurrence of lead globules in the gold drifts in their claims, the quantity in some cases being said to be so great as to seriously inter- fere with the recovery of the gold on account of the ripples in the sluice-boxes becoming choked with the lead. The prevailing belief among the miners then, and now, was that the lead was ordinary shot, which had been used by sports- men in the chase after native game in bygone days. This explanation seemed to me insufficient to account for the large quantities of lead obtained at the periodical " wash- up " ; and in that year, at my request, Mr. H. P. Wash- bourn, of Parapara, forwarded a sample to the Geological Survey Department at Wellington for examination. The sample was submitted to the late Mr. William Skey, Govern- ment Analyst, who reported that it was native lead. In a paper read before the Wellington Philosophical So- ciety, Mr. Skey stated that the lead globules were coated with a thin incrustation of lead-carbonate, while some exhibited spangles of gold upon some surfaces. He added, "They have a great scientific interest, owing to the fact that the gold is in actual contact with the lead, often, indeed, ac- tually surrounding it." The sample submitted to Mr. Skev was unfortunately very small, but, so far as it could be tested, he stated that the lead appeared to be unalloyed with any metal whatsoever.* For some years past the Parapara Hydraulic and Sluicing Company (Limited), of London, has been carrying on opera- tions at Parapara, principally in the old Glengyle and Hit or Miss alluvial claims. Mr. William Beetham, the local managing director, in the course of a conversation with me last February in Nelson, mentioned the trouble and extra labour often occasioned at the periodical " clean-up " by the presence of round shot-like globules of lead which collected in the ripples with the gold. The lead, he said, occurred in considerable quantities, and as an approximate estimate he thought about 251b. was obtained for every 100 oz. of * Trans, and Proc. N.Z. Inst., 1888, vol. xxi., p. 368. 404 Transactions. — Geology. gold won by sluicing. Subsequently Mr. Beetbam kindlv banded me a sample for examination, weighing about 2 lb. The lead in this sample was very soft and malleable, and coated with a thin incrustation of lead-carbonate. It con- sisted principally of small irregular globules, varying from 0-1 cm. to 0-4 cm. in diameter, and flat thick plates varying from 0-25 cm. to 1-00 cm. long. Some of the latter weighed 10 gr., and of the former 5 gr. None of the globules of lead exhibited spangles of gold as reported by Mr. Skey, but several portions, weighing 200 gr. when cupelled, in every case showed the presence of both gold and silver, as under : — ■ Gold. Silver. Grains. Grains. Eound globules ... ... 0005 001 Flat pieces ... ... 0-007 002 Careful chemical tests showed the lead was perfectly pure and unalloyed with metal of any kind. Arsenic and antimony were specially looked for without success. The rocks in the neighbourhood of the Glengyle Claim are crystalline limestones, quartzites, mica-schist, and talc-schist of probably Lower Silurian age, associated with masses of gabbro, generally much altered. Glengyle Claim itself occupies a deep narrow gutter, which is believed by Sir James Hector, who made a detailed examination of the locality in 1890, to mark the course of a large fault or slide.* With such a variety of rocks it is impossible to determine which formed the original matrix of the lead. Metallic lead is very subject to oxidation, and for this rea- son is rarely found in its native state. The authentic recorded instances of its occurrence are very few, and in no case is it abundant. Geol. Eep. and Explo., p. xii. V.— CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. Akt. L. — Notes on the Aurora in the Southern Hemisphere. By Henky Skey. [Read before the Otacjo Institute, 8th July, 1902.} The advances which have been recently made by European observers in their endeavours to discover the " secret of the aurora" will, I trust, be considered as sufficient excuse for giving a special description of a peculiarity of appearance which the aurora sometimes exhibits in southern latitudes, more especially as this phenomenon in its completeness has not hitherto been described. The most brilliant display was witnessed on the 18th March, 1870, at Dunedin, New Zealand, at 8.30 p.m. From recorded observations at that time, arches of clear white light were first observed extending from east to west, and stretching like bands across the whole of the southern portion of the sky, the summit of the highest and largest arch being somewhat south of the zenith. This highest arch then appeared gradually to enlarge by moving in a lateral direction untii it crossed over the zenith, when by continuing this motion it formed a lower arch on the northern side of the zenith. These arches were then observed to gradually increase in number until they formed symmetrical bands of light across the whole sky, the eastern and western points of the horizon forming as it were pivotal centres. This display lasted fully two hours ; no coruscations were detected, the bands remaining perfectly steady with the ex- ception of the slow lateral movement alluded to. The moon, which had a small halo round it, was near full at the time, and not far from the eastern extremity of the bands, but higher and more to the northward. The sky was free from clouds, and the air calm. On this occasion the ordinary characteristics of auroral light were entirely absent, there being no polar illumination nor coruscations radiating there- from (but aurora was generally observed in New Zealand en the 12th, 18th, and 22nd, and in New South Wales on the 22nd). It was otherwise, however, with the fine display ot polar aurora which occurred on the 23rd November, 1870, when similar arches or bands of light were observed at the same 406 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. time over the whole sky, their terminations being in the same eastern and western portions of the horizon, and this simul- taneously with a brilliant auroral light in the southern quarter. The sky at the same time was free from clouds, and the air calm. It is worthy of note that though on five out of six times on which these bands have been observed the moon was above the horizon, on this occasion it was invisible, as it was new moon on the 23rd. This circumstance removes some of the complexity which might otherwise arise in accounting for this phenomenon, lunar halos of any descrip- tion being inadmissible. A third display in the same year took place on the 13th May, the arches extending* from east to west, a beautiful lunar halo occurring at the same time, the moon being not far from the northern quarter. The sky was slightly hazy, as only large stars were seen, and the air was calm. Another display (and the earliest observed at this station) took place on the 10th July, 1867, and in this case the bands, instead of extending from east to west, stretched from uorth to south, and it was compared at the time to the streamers of an aurora australis meeting the streamers of aurora borealis. An apt comparison, and one which would perhaps illustrate the phenomenon more forcibly than a description, might be made by supposing these bands as they appeared on this occasion to represent a number of imaginary meridians at some uniform distance above the globe. A very fine lunar halo was seen at the same time, the moon being somewhat west of the meridian ; the air was calm. Lunar halos were also seen at Sydney on the 8th, 9th, and 10th. A similar phenomenon occurred on the 29th March, 1869, in which the bands extended from north to south, accompanied by a lunar halo, the moon being near full and over the east. I shall instance another case by making the following extracts from recorded meteorological observations. " On the 1st May, 1871, symmetrical bands of light seen at 9.45 p.m. similar to those of 1870. They had their terminations east and west ; were very distinct ; stars could be seen through them. They radiated so regularly from the east and west (fanlike) that a luminary might have been supposed to have been under the hprizon at these points. On this occasion also the moon was near the meridian and surrounded by a large halo ; the air was calm." " A partial display occurred on the 25th September, 1871, in the eastern quarter, seen in broad daylight, about 5.45 p.m. The radiations were straight, and spread, fanlike, for about 35° upward from the horizon. The edges of these bands were well defined, and not gradually shaded off. They were unmistakably distinct from, and not to be confounded with, light cirrus clouds which were also Skey. — On the Aurora Australis. 407 observed covering part of the sky in streaks which roughly coincided with these bands." It may be interesting to give Captain Cook's remarks on what was evidently a partial display of these luminous streamers adorning the night sky of the south. In the course of his'second voyage he remarks that " on the 17th February, 1773, a beautiful phenomenon was observed in the heavens. It consisted of long colours of a clear white light shooting up from the horizon to the eastward almost to the zenith, and spreading gradually over the whole southern part of the sky. These columns sometimes bent sideways at their upper ex- tremity, and though in most respects similar to the northern lights, yet differed from them in being always of a whitish colour. The stars were sometimes hid by, and sometimes faintly to be seen through, the substance of these southern lights. The sky was generally clear, the air sharp and cold, the ship being in latitude 58° south." I shall instance another display occurring recently, on the evening of Sunday, the 28th of July, 1901, from my notes. " This evening the whole sky from 6.30 p.m to 9.30 p.m. was lit up with beautiful symmetrical bands of light, which appeared to radiate from the S.W. horizon, and after crossing the sky converged to the opposite or N.E. part of the horizon. The only motion observed was a slow lateral one of the whole bands towards the S.B. The moon (which was within three days off the full) was surrounded by a very distinct and per- fect halo of 30° diameter, of the same white colour as the bands across the sky. The apparent convergence of these bands at their ends as they approach the horizon is possibly only the result of perspective. The sky was clear and the wind N.E. " Observations as early as 1859 tended to connect solar energy with intense magnetic action. Moreover, brilliant auroral streamers were seen in both hemispheres on the night following the solar disturbance, proving that a rela- tion exists between the aurora, terrestrial magnetism, and the central luminary of our system." It is remarkable that auroras and haios often occur to- gether or near the same time, indicating a similarity of elec- trical and atmospheric conditions as necessary for their pro- duction. The year 1870 was characterized by the frequency of these phenomena, and m the summary of sun-spot observa- tions made at Kew the observers remark that " the year 1870 was characterized by an exuberance of solar energy which is without parallel since the beginning of observations in 1825." I am enabled to give another instance of a daylight exhibi- tion of these bands or arches, which occurred in the morning of the 11th October, 1901. On this occasion it was noticed 408 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. that a light and regular haze overspread the atmosphere, and the sun was observed lighting up the haze near the earth's surface through the rifts in the tree-tops, causing straight lines of light. This haze may be connected with the bright bands of light which later on, at 8.15 a.m., were observed radiating fanlike from the south part of the horizon and extending near to the zenith. The sun was east-north-east, shining right across the bands. The sky was generally clear excepting a few filmy cirrus clouds. The spaces between the bands were about the same breadth as the bands. It may be observed that nature is generally in her calm and serener moods when these phenomena occur. It is to be re- gretted that no means were at hand to make spectroscopic or magnetic examinations of these streams of light, but this com- munication is intended as giving observations only, and may indicate a line of future research. Art. LI. — On the Construction of a Tabic of Natural Sines by Means of a Neiv Relation between the Leading Differences. By C. E. Adams, B.Sc (Honours), A. I. A., late Engineering Entrance Scholar and Engineering Exhibitioner, Canter- bury College ; late Senior Scholar in Physical Science, New Zealand University. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th November, 1902.] Part I. The art of calculating tables of the numerical values of the trigonometrical ratios seems to have fallen into disuse for over a century, as the greater portion of this work was done in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and modern tables are in almost every instance but reprints of the earlier ones. It appears from the report of the British Association for Advancement of Science, 1873, on mathematical tables, that the most extensive table of natural sines is that given by Erancois Callet in his " Tables Portatives de Logarithmes," Paris, 1795 (Tirage, 1860). In this work the natural sines are given to fifteen places of decimals for every 0001 of the quadrant — that is, for every 5' 24". In the introduction the process of calculating the table is described, and from it the following summary and extracts are made. Adams. — On Natural Sines. 409 Expanding the cosine and sine by Maclaurin's theorem, we have the usual series, — cos z 2~1 !-*-,+ 4 ! sin z — z + ;n 61 + 81 — &C> 3 ! ' 5 ! where z is expressed in radians. These series are not in convenient form for numerical cos 2 = 1 i- • A + -t • B « ' C + -* and sin z = — • a — - n it ^ ~ 2 1 calculation, so put z = — ■ h , . w2 1 /ir\2 »t4 1 /tt\4 m6 1 /7r\« , . then cos* = l-^ • ^) + ^ • ri\j) -~6 ._^j+&c. and sin z = — . - _— - . — ( — 4. — . — ( — ) _ .w. n 2 n3 3!\2/^n5 5!\2/ For convenience these may be wi-itten D -- &c. (P) 6 + s- ■ c - - Sr ' ci + &c- (Q) where (Callet, pages 27 and 28) — (~J = 1-23370, 05501, 36169, 82735, 43 (j)* = 0-25366, 95079, 01048, 01363, 66 (-0b = 0-02086, 34807, 63352, 96087, 31 (y)8 = 0-00091, 92602, 74839, 42658, 02 (|-)W= 000002, 52020, 42373, 06060, 55 (y)U= 0-00000, 04710, 87477, 88181, 72 (y)" = 0-00000, 00063, 86603, 08379, 19 (^y*= 000000, 00000, 65659, 63114, 98 (~y8= 0-00000, 00000, 00529, 44002, 01 (~Y°= 0-00000, 00000, 00003, 43773, 92 (-|-)*= 0-00000, 00000, 00000, 01835, 99 (-024= 0-00000, 00000, 00000, 00008, 21 (-jY'3= 0-00000, 00000, 00000, 00000, 03 B = c = D = E = F = G = H = I = J = 1 Ti 1 6l 1 81 1 10T 1 12T 1 HI 1 16T 1 18~! 1 20~! TT -"■ — 22 ! L =241 M=26! &c, and c = ■=- 5 d =h i e = in •^ = m 410 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. a = \ = 1-57079, 63267, 94896, 61923, 13 b =~ . (y)8 = 064596, 40975, 06246, 25365, 58 ~ • (y)5 = 0-07969, 26262, 46167, 04512, 05 (y)7 = 0-00468, 17541,. 35318, 68810, 07 (-J)9 = 0-00016, 04411, 84787, 35982, 19 (y)U= 0-00000, 35988, 43235, 21208, 53 f|Vs= 0-00000, 00569, 21729, 21967, 93 ft = J_ . f^-V5= 0-00000, 00006, 68803, 51098, 11 15 ! \ 2 / j = 1_ . (y)"= 0-00000, 00000, 06066, 93573, 11 j = i_ . (-^y9= 0-00000, 00000, 00043, 77065, 47 k = 5TT ' (1)21= 000000' 00000> °0000' 25714> 23 Z = ^T • (y)23= 0-00000, 00000, 00000, 00125, 39 m = — • (y)*= 0-00000, 00000, 00000, 00000, 52, &c. By means of these formulae the sines and cosines of angles are readily obtained : and the calculation of the leading differ- ences for the formation of a table of natural sines is described by Callet thus : — " S'il est question de trouver les sinus d'une suite d'arcs en progression arithmetique ; on peut a l'aide du calcul des differences finies ; tirer des formules precedentes, d'autres formules qui donnent les differences premieres, secondes, troisiemes, &c, de ces quantites : pour cela, reprenons la formule Q . m 7r m ms m m7 sin — • -7T = — • a — -^ • 0 -\- —r ■ c — -ir ' a 4- &c. Substituons, dans cette equation Q, m + A m a m ; il viendra une equation Q1 de laquelle otant l'equation Q, nous aurons ■m ir a ■ Am A sin — ' -7T n 2 " n b • Am iia (3m2 + 3raA??i + Am2) + ■ s ' (pm* + l0mzAm + 10m2 Am2 + 5mAms n + Am') Adams. — On Natural Sines. 411 ^-4^ (7m6 + 21m5 Am + 35m4 Am2 + 35m3 Am3 n? +4o.) _l_ il^L (9m8 + 36m7 Am + 84m6 Am2 + &c.) - ^r- (llml° + 55m9Am + &c.) + t^L (13m12 + &c.) - &c. (AQ) " Nous trouverons de meine en faisant Am constant . . m ir b • Am2 A'- sin — • y = - — ^ — (6m + 6^m) + ^p- (20m3 + 60m2Am + 70mAm2 + 30Ams) _ d ■ Am' ^2m6 + 2l0m4A??i + 490m3 Am2 + " 630m2Am3 + 434m ■ Am4 + 126Am5) + 11^ (72m7 + 504m6 Am + 1764m8 Am2 w + 3780m4Am3 + &c.) _ Zi^!L2(iiOm9 + 990m8 Am + 4620m7 Am2 ■ Am -+- aozum iii + &C.) + 0_Jp! (156m11 + 1716m10 Am + &c.) h ■ Am2 nl ■(210??i13 + &c.) + &c. (A2Q) A3 sin- • - = - 6b ' AmS + ° ' AmS (60m2 + 180mAm + 150Am2) n 2 n3 ' nb x - d ' A.wt8 (210m4 + 1260m8Am + 3150m2Am2 + n 3780mAms + 1806 Am4) • + e ' A9w3 (504m6 + 4536m5Am + 18900m4 Am2 + n 45360m3Am3 + &c.) _ /-Am3 (gg0;;i8 + nQSOm^vi + 69300m6Am2 + nU Ac.) g ' *"* (1716m10 + 25740m9 Am + 193050 m8 Am2 + &C.) _ ^!!i3 (2730m12 + 49140muAm + &c.) + &c. (A8Q) A< sin -L » = i_^! (120m + 240Am) _ ^-^-* (840m3 + 5040m2Am + 10920mAm2 + 8400Am3) (3024??i5 + 30240m4 Am + 131040?re3Am2 + &c.) + e • Am4 IV3 412 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. - ^5? (7920m7 + 110880m6Am + &c.) + ll^L (17160m9 + 308880m8Am + &c.) _ 11-^ (32760m11 + &c.) + &c. (A4Q) . , • i» i 120c ■ Am5 d- Am5 /cie.nr. „ , inmA . A° sin — g- = -6 — — — (2520m2 -f 12600mAm + n l n " 16800AW8) + il^L (15120m4 + 151200m3Am + 604800m2Am2 + &c.) _ L-^. (55440m6 + 83 1600m5 Am + 5544000m4 Am2 + &c.) + 0_^15 (154440m8 + 3088800m7 Am + &c.) h ■ Am* a' (360360m10 + &c.) + &c. (A5Q) A,; sin ^y = - ^-^~ (5040m + 15120Am) + ^— ^ (60480m3 + 544320m2Am + 1723680mAm2 + 1905120Am3) _ frtefi ^gg2640m5 + 4989600m4Am + " 3 1600800m3 Am2 + &c.) + ? ' ^»6 (1235520m7 + 25945920m6Am + n ' &c.) _ h-*f (3603600m9 + &c.) + &c. (A6Q) Ainsi des autres. Nota. — Ces expressions Am2, Am8, &c, tiennent lieu de celles-ci (Am)2, (Am)3, &c." (Callet, pages 59 and 60.) Other expressions for the differences of sin x are, if Ax = 20, as shown below, — A4w sin x = 24?' sin {x + toiO) sin4,,0 A4?i+1 sin x = 24,i+1 cos (x + 4^T~1 9) sin4"*1* A4,i+2 sin x = - 24"+2 sin (x + 4^T2 0) sin4n+20 A sin x = — 2 cos (x + 4?i + 3 0) sin U (De Morgan, " Differential and Integral Calculus.") These four expressions may be combined into one expres- sion as follows (Boole, "Finite Differences") : — Am sin x = 2m sin \ x + m (^ -f 6 J sinw0 Now, Colenso ("Plane Trigonometry") shows that when the tabular interval is small it is possible to use the expression Adams. — On Natural Sines. 413 A2 sin x — — 22 sin (x + 26) sin2# with advantage in the cal- culation of a table of natural sines. It appeared that this relation between the sines and their second differences might be a general one, and upon investiga- tion this was found to be the case, the general relation Am sin x = - 22AW"2 sin (x + 28) • sin20 (A) being obtained. This will now be proved ; thus we have Am sin x = 2m sin [x + m (y + #)] sinm0 and similarly A>»-2 sin (£ + 20) = 2'»-2sin[a;+20+(m-2) fJL + $\ 1 8inm-2^ c\m— 2 qto— 2 sin [a + m (y + #) _ „.] sinm_20 sin[ar + m (~ + #)] sin"l~20 hence a"1 sin x = - 2 A™ sin (x + 25) . sin^ It will now be shown how it is possible by means of this relation to calculate readily the leading differences, and thus dispense with the cumbersome series for these differences given above by Callet. For convenience (A) is preferably written Am sin x = - 2 (1 - cos 26) A™-2 sin (x + 26) or A sin x = - 2 (1 — cos Aa?) A sin (x + Aa?) or Aw sin x = — k • Am sin (x + Ax) (Ax) where k = 2 (1 — cos Ax) and is a constant depending on the tabular interval only. ■»-r . TO • 7 f .111 — 2, - . . TO — 1 . ... Now, A sin x =. — « • I A sin a; + A sin an (A2) hence any difference is expressed in terms of the two preced- ing differences. The formation of the leading differences then reduces to the very simple operation shown in (A2) above. It will only be necessary to compare this with the series given above (AQ, A2Q, &c.) to see how much simpler the method here described is. In Part II. the application of this method to the calcula- tion of a table of natural sines will be given. 414 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. Art. LII. — Two Spherical Harmonic Relations. By C. Coleridge Farr, D.Sc. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd September, 1902.] The relations proved in this paper were given without distinct proof as following simply from the generalised form of four others which I discovered in working out the expressions* for the intensity of the magnetic force in the interior of coils of various lengths. They were, however, cut out by Professor Lamb, who very kindly communicated my paper to the Koyal Society, as he did not see how they were obtained. This of itself causes me to think they may be new, and, as the original four are, I believe, new ones, hope in this direction is strengthened. I have known them for some years now, but as they follow simply from the four already published I had not up till now thought them worth publication. I have, however, been recently rather strongly advised to print them. Using the notation of my previous paper, the original four are these : — d Po- Id Pcr+1 (1) (2) (3) (4) dx r _d_ dx di ~+^T (o--!)! ^ F(r + % (a) which is the first of the two relations. The second is established in a precisely similar manner. Thus d dl dl d dx dz1 "~ dz1 dx a By means of (4) the left-hand side becomes d di d o- ! Ax rfiT "' P" = < " !)' dx (^-1)7 r'_i V" ~ ' from (2). For the right-hand side we have, using (2), di d dl / d TT- r °" Per = (,— |p.-i) dz1 dx dz1 Hence rfar1 \ dO / (o--- *)! d<9 or, elevating one order, d^ ( d \ (o- - - 1) ! . d which is the second relation. ( d \ . (o- + 1) ! . d Art. LIU. — On the Interpretation of Milne Earthquake Diagram. By C. Coleridge Farr, D.Sc • Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 26th November, 1902.] Plate L. The question as to whether a horizontal pendulum seismo- graph acts as a clinograph, or whether its records must in part be ascribed to horizontal movement of the earth's surface, has received discussion by Milne,* Omori.f and others, whose * Nattire, vol. lxv., p. 202, and B.A. Reports. f Publications of the Earthquakes Investigation Committee, No. 5, Tokyo, 1900, p. 45 et seq. 416 Transactioiis. — Chemistry and Physics. arguments I have not been able to peruse. But Professor Milne and Dr. Omori conclude that the tilts represented by the maximum displacement of the boom are too large to be admissible as tilts ; and Omori discusses the accelerations of the earth-particles of four earthquakes which would result from the assumption that the maximum boom-movement was due to a series of waves of vertical displacement passing under the pillar of the instrument. The following considerations do not appear to me to have been sufficiently realised : — The differential equation representing the motion of a body capable of free vibration of frequency n, but acted upon by a periodic force E cos pt, as d2u Trdu „ _. dF + K<¥ + 7rw = Ecos^ where K is the constant of delay in the free vibration. The solution cf this is ~w u = V(^W+KVCOS {PI ~ C) pK \v here tan C = n 2 _ p* This equation applies to seismograph of the Milne type and bodies also, as well as to other vibrating bodies. The result shows (1) that the vibrating body, in this case the boom of a seismograph, no longer vibrates in its natural period — , but takes the frequency of the disturbing force p; (2) that if friction be small compared with the difference of the squares of the frequencies, the resulting vibration has an amplitude -2 _ 2 ; (3) the phenomenon of beats may occur between the forced vibration and the free period of the boom. Considering the second conclusion first, it is evident that the maximum amplitude of swing of the boom gives no in- formation whatever of the amplitude of the disturbing cause, without also a knowledge of the periods of the free and forced vibrations. It does not follow, as appears to be supposed, that the maximum amplitude of swing of the boom is associ- ated with the maximum amplitude of the disturbing cause. Of waves of equal amplitude but different wave-lengths those nearest in period to the free period will give the largest trace, and if p and n become equal the only thing which prevents the swinging of the boom from eventually becoming infinite is the term K'2p2, which in this case must be considered, though it is very often small enough to be neg- * Rayleigh's " Sound," p. 38, 1st ed. Fakr. — Milne Earthquake Diagram. 417 lected in other cases. It is thus quite an erroneous proceed- ing to take the most marked phase of an earthquake diagram and to assume that this corresponds to the waves of largest amplitude in the earth ; and it is also quite erroneous to derive the amplitude of the earth-wave by multiplying the amplitude of the trace by the conversion factor from milli- meters to seconds of arc. Eegard must be paid to the period of the earth- wave and of the free boom- vibration. In the tabulation of records of Milne seismographs no regard is at present paid to the period of the earth-wave, and hardly more to the period of free boom-vibration, and no information is supplied of the value of the constant K, which, though often negligible (i.e., when p and n are not very nearly equal), is occasionally of paramount importance. This constant can be deduced from the fact that the free vibration dies away according to an expression of the form u = Ae - i kt cos 0 Turning now to the result (1), that the forced vibration takes place in the period of the disturbing cause, this enables us to derive a value both of the periods and wave-lengths of the various sets of waves acting on the boom ; and the record is thus capable of supplying the information absolutely essen- tial for the correct valuation of the amplitude E of the dis- turbing cause, from which can be easily derived the total movements and accelerations of the earth-particles at any phase of the earthquake. But to do this the tape must be driven at a much higher rate than is at present the case. It is difficult to see the individual vibration, and it is impossible to estimate the time of vibration to within an accuracy of a second, as is certainly necessary for the correct determination of E, with the tape moving at the rate of only 1 mm. per minute. The phenomenon of interference I have many examples of in earthquakes I have recorded ; and what Professor Milne* describes as "earthquake echoes" may be explained in thid way, combined very often with increasing or decreasing amplitude of the disturbing cause. To give ocular demonstration of the truth of these theo- retical conclusions, I decided to attempt to imitate a series of waves acting on the pillar, and of known period. For this purpose I had two boxes attached, one to the east and the other to the west of the pillar, and in these I placed sawdust. Depending from the roof-ceiling of the room, by a rope pass- ing over two pulleys fixed vertically above the centres of the two boxes, were two chains. The length of the rope was such that the two chains just touched the two beds of sawdust together. By pulling these chains up and down at definite * B.A. Reports, 1899, p. 288. 27 418 Transactions. — CJoemistry and Physics. rates a periodic tilting of the pillar, due to the loading of one side or the other by its proper chain and by more or less of it, was obtained bearing some resemblance to a sine curve, and of known period. Owing to an error of cutting the chains they were not of equal weight, one being 17^ lb. and the other 211b.,* but as in any case the resemblance to a sine curve was only a rough one, and as also the lighter chain acted upon the pillar at a somewhat greater area than the other, it was not considered worth while to alter it. J T! ! r t~ - r On removing one chain from its box and placing the other in its proper box the total boom-movement was 1"6 mm. I then proceeded to imitate in succession waves of 12 sec, 13 sec, Usee, 15 sec, 16 sec, 17 sec, 18 sec, 19 sec, and 20 sec. period, whilst the boom period throughout remained as nearly as I could determine at 16-5 sec. Before doing so I had increased the speed of the tape to 82 mm. per hour, so that the time-scale might be sufficiently open to enable me to count the individual vibrations of the boom. The various artificial seismograms thus obtained are appended. (Plate L.) * I am indebted to the kindness of Messrs. E. Eeece and Sons, of Christchurch, not only for lending me the chains, but for very courteously cuttirjg lengths suitable for the purpose 1 had in view. Fare. — Milne Earthquake Diagram. 419 In every case conclusion 1 — viz., that the boom no longer vibrates in its natural free period, but adopts the period of the forcing cause — is exactly verified. The amplitude of the resulting swings is in every case larger than that of the static displacement of -^-mm., as with the period it theoretically should be, and as the synchronism becomes more perfect the boom- swing becomes larger; but I want to emphasize that, whatever has been the period of the forcing cause within the limits adopted, synchronism more or less complete is apparent. In no case, however, is the swing of the boom so great as it theoretically should be, supposing B to be 0-8 mm. This may be in part due to the imperfect imitation of a siDe curve which resulted from the arrangement adopted, and there is no reason to conclude that because the tilt of the pillar due to the static alteration of a given disposal of weight is E, the displacement of the pillar due to a periodic alteration of this disposal will also be B. Interference effects are seen in most of the artificial seismo- grams. Where they are absent the periods are so close that the free vibration has been damped down to comparative insignificance before opposition of place would occur. It appears to be probable, although the period of free vibration was determined as 16-5 sec, that its accurate value was more nearly 166 sec. It is difficult to determine the quantity accurately to 0*1 sec, and yet the result shows that it is important to do so. As a result of this examination it appears — (1) that strict at- tention should be paid to accurately recording the period of free vibration ; (2) that the tape should be driven at such a speed as will enable the period of forced vibration to be determined ; (3) that the value of the constant K should be recorded. We might then hope, by determining the amplitude of the earth-movement of any particular waves of given wave-length at different stations, to ascertain the law which governed the decrease of intensity with distance, and to determine how the velocity of the waves varied with their length. As I am unacquainted with the practical details of Dr. Omori's instrument I have refrained from discussing the acceleration of the earth-particles given by him for certain earthquakes ;::: but if the considerations above set forth apply to his instrument, and if also they have been omitted in arriving at the results he gives, then by taking them into account the values of the accelerations would be so much reduced that it is improbable we should have felt the earth- quakes he discusses. * Publication of the Earthquakes Investigation Committee, No. 5, Tokyo, 1901, p. 45 et seq. 420 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. Art. LIV. — On the Use of the Standard Functions in In- terpolation. By E. G. Brown. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 16th December, 1902.'] There is a parallel between the expression of functions by Taylor's Series expansion formulae, and of tables of numbers by interpolation formulae, depending on finite differences. In both cases there is usually a "remainder" which is neglected as being immaterial. This parallel is seen to be very close if closely examined ; but we need here only remark that, just as we have found it possible to reduce the degree of many Taylor's Series expansions by means of the standard functions,* so also it is possible to reduce the number of dif- ferences required to interpolate in a normal table of figures. This, again, is a matter into which we need not go ; defining the problem in hand as follows : Given a table of numbers, and having differenced them, what is the best formula — or, in other words, the formula of the least number of terms — that can be found to perform the interpolation by finite differences between two consecutive values of the numbers, the argu- ments being, of course, at equal intervals? There are a number of ways of deducing formulae of inter- polation, the chief of which result in what are called! New- ton's, Lagrange's, and Bessel's methods, the latter being generally employed when more than two differences are sig- nificant. Each of these methods gives rise to a series of functions analogous to the standard functions, and in cases identical with them. Thus, in all cases the first function is the linear (L), and the second the standard parabola, x(l— x). In Newton's and Lagrange's methods the other formulae are not the same, but diverge widely from the standard form — less widely in Lagrange's method than in Newton's. Bessel's method, however, brings in the standard cubic and then diverges from the standard form. * Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1901, p. 519 et seq. t This nomenclature is drawn frorn that of F. G. Gauss (5-fig. Log. and Trig. Tables, larger edition, 1900, p. 150), who gives Lagrange's and Newton's methods for unequal increments, and then says, " Bei gleichen Intervallen gehen diese Formeln in die Formeln (1) und (2) liber," i.e., into the methods referred to (Bessel's being, of course, a modification of Lagrange's method). E. G. Brown. — Standard Functions in Interpolation. 421 There is no doubt that Newton's method is in general inferior to either of the others. This arises from two facts : (1) the differences are so chosen as to depend on the values following the interval, instead of on those of both sides of it, and (2) the terms do not converge so rapidly as in the other forms. We shall therefore not develope Newton's method here, since in practical problems it is generally possible to give the values on each side of the interval. Lagrange's and Bessel's methods employ the same differ- ences— those indicated by the dotted line in the following table : — Y_3 A1 Y_, A2 A4 A1 A3 A5 Y A2 A4 A6 / -Lo ^ 0 uo -*o Interval I Ax0 A80 A50 ^Yx A2 A* Y2 Y, A1 Aa A2 A1 In Newton's method the top row of A is used, and for the top interval. Bessel, however, instead of the even differences takes the mean of the difference indicated and the one below it — that is to say, he adds in half of the next following value of odd differences. "What this comes to we shall presently see ; but, meanwhile, it is evident that the two methods are identical in result, so we need only take Lagrange's method. Lagrange deduced the following functions as expressing a result of finite differences (to the first difference add) : — A'2 - x C1 ~ x) JTg A3 - X (1 - x) (1 + x) 1-2-3 A4 + x (1 - x) (1 + x) (2 - x) —{ + x (1 - x) (1 + x) (2 - x) (2 + x) ~ - x (1 - x) (1 + x) (2 - x) (2 + x) (3 - x) ^ and so on. 422 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. Converting these functions into standard form, we get the the first difference VI. result given in the following tabl e (to 1 add) :- P. C. IV. V. ^x(-l *3x(-i + -1 ' 34 *4x(+34 0 — 1 3 9 32 *5x(+li 7 3 36 64 — 1 3 9 64 * 180 64 *6x(-A 0 + 3 5 20 256 0 900 256 (The fractions are given as products to facilitate computation.) Thus a value of the Lagrange A*, for instance, equal to n, gives rise in the interpolation formula to the terms — »(*(P)-*(IV.))- From this we see that, although it may be necessary to take the differences out to a high order, it does not follow that the formula necessary will be of high degree. From this table we can at once see the improvement that Bessel made in Lagrange's formula, for it is evident that, taking half of the odd differences out in the term depending on the preceding even difference results in the elimination of the fractions which occupy the spaces in lines A3, A5, &c, column P, lines A5, A7, &c., in column IV., and so on. Thus Bessel's third difference function is the standard cubic, and the fifth a sum of cubic and quintic, which is an obvious improvement upon Lagrange's method. It is not a complete improvement, for it does not alter to any appreciable extent Lagrange's even difference terms; and even with respect to the odd differences it includes a cubic term in the fifth difference function, instead of making it a pure standard quintic." If we compute by means of the table given above, it is clear that we are able to effect completely what the Bessel method effected partially, in giving the terms of the formula nearly the best possible form — that of the standard functions. A concrete example of a problem treated by Lagrange's and Bessel's methods and by that of the standard functions will serve to show the advantages of the latter method. Loomis's " Practical Astronomy," 1894, p. 207, gives a convenient example, that of getting the moon's E.A. from a twelve-hour table, for eight hours {i.e., x = §-). Two places of decimals are obviously enough, but we use three for the purposes of illustration. * We here assume that the standard functions are the best practic- able formulae for convergence, concerning which vide the paper quoted. E. G. Brown. — Standard Functions in Interpolation. 423 Omitting the constant and the first-difference terms, which are the same in all methods, the data are : — A- A3 A4 A5 + 25-68 s. - 2-19 s. - 4-08 s. - 006 s + 21-60 s. - 2-25 s. Mean +23-64 - 2-22 Lagrange's method gives : — A2 ... - 2-853,3 s. A3 ... +0-251,8 A4 ... -0045,7 A5 ... -0-000,7 - 2-647,2 s. The computation by Bessel's method gives : — A2 ... -1(23-64) - 2-626,7 s. A3 ... (-0-00617) (- 4-08) = +0-025,2 A4 ... (+0-02057) (- 2-22) = -0-045,7 A5 ... (+0-00069) (-0-06) 0-000,0 Sum ... - 2-647,2 s. The values of Bessel's coefficients can be got from tables. Now, for the standard method, filling in the tables, we V. get:— P. C. IV. (+ 25-68)A2 gives - 12-84 (- 4-08) A3 „ + 1-02 (- 2-19) A4 „ - 0-20,5 (- 0-06) A5 „ - 0-00,3 -0-34 0-0 + 0-00 + 0-02 + 0-00 -0-00 Sum - 12-028 (P) - 0-34 (C) + 0-02 (IV.) Taking the values of P, C, and IV. from tables, as in the case of Bessel coefficients, or computing thus — foraf=f; P = f-(f)2=+f; C = + f (1 - f) = - * ; (IV.) = -*(l-#) = +t we compute the terms : — (+ -I) (- 12-028) = - 2-672,9 s. (-^)(-0-34) = +0-025,2 (+>fi) (+0-02) = +0-000,5 Sum ... - 2-647,2 s. 424 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. It is to be noticed that all the terms except the parabola have maximum ordinates of about Ol, so that two places of decimals in their factors is ample. The quartic function, the term of which has here practically disappeared, has a maxi- mum of O0625, so that the quantities it represents are never larger than 0-0013 in this interpolation, a quantity which is negligible with respect to the second place of decimals. This is against 0-052,0 in Bessel's method. Comparing this with the Bessel's computation, we see that the fifth-degree term vanished in our table, while in the Bessel's its value was estimated, when it vanished; the fourth-degree term becomes negligible in our computation, while in Bessel's it is conspicuously large. The third-degree numbers are the same, 0-025,2. The Bessel's computation illustrates very clearly what was said about Bessel's method effecting an improvement oniy in the odd power terms. It is hardly necessary to remark to those who may ex- amine this method of using differences that there is no im- provement on Newton's or Lagrange's methods for second differences, nor on Bessel's for third ; but for fourth, and especially for higher differences still, the extra trouble of forming the table seems worth while, and certainly is worth while if a number of values have to be interpolated. The method of standard terms also possesses an obvious advantage where the problem is to find at what value of x, Y has a given value, since when fourth differences have to be used the approximation in three terms [Y = A + ~Bx + C(x — x2)] is more nearly accurate than the corresponding approximation of any of the other methods. Note. The standard functions referred to in this paper are : — Parabola . (P) = = x (1— x) Cubic (C) = = P (l-2x) Quartic . (iv.) = = C (l-2s) Quintic (V.) = = C(l-4a;)(3-4a0 Hexic . (VI.) = = V. (l-2a;) Heptic • (VII.) = = P(V.) Octic . (VIII.) = = P(VI.) and the list may be provisionally extended by P-multiplica- tion. This list shows how the values of the functions for any value of x can be easily computed, or they may be taken from a table of values similar to those of the binomial coefficients (Newton's method) or of Bessel's coefficients. Such tables, it is confidently believed, will soon be included in many mathematical tables. E. G. Brown. — Standard Functions in Interpolation. 425 POSTSCEIPT. A more extended table of the standard terms, which are equivalent to the Lagrange interpolation, has now been com- puted, and is given herewith. The form differs slightly from that of the shorter table in the paper, the common factors in each line being separated. These common factors are connected by the ratio VltI when n, the order of the factor J 2?i sought, is even, 2L_ or \ when n is odd. Thus the table can be extended. Hence the common ratio is about ■§■. The co- efficients of the standard functions are also best extended by a similar process, but it is too complicated, and, moreover, obvious, to be here given. It will be necessary to construct a similar table for the Newton differences if it is required to treat functions of which the values cannot be given on each side of any interval. It is to be noticed that the results of these operations are simply identical with the results of the orthodox methods, and where the latter fail for want of convergence these operations fail also. The advantage which the reductions possess is merely the shortening of the formulae. The practical use of this reduction lies, I think, in the power it gives in stating the values of functions in tabular form, where space forbids the use of more than a 2- or 3-figure argument. An example will now be given of the power of the standard method in this respect. First, we may notice the fact, which is evident from the table, that the Lagrange terms are, all of them, nearly pure stan- dard parabolse. That is to say, their maxima are nearly the same as the value when x = \. Consequently, the value or number represented by any of the Lagrange dif- ferences may amount to \ times the common factor for that difference. The example taken is that of the log. gamma function, which was tabulated by Legendre for the unit interval 1 . . 2 in a 3-figure argument, 12-figure table, the interpolation being indicated by third differences, which were tabulated thus (twelve decimals understood) : — T n A1 A2 A8 A4 Log. Gamma. (1) • 119 • 120 974 783 415 092 171 440 853 605 919 768 2 • 121 The last difference does not seem to have been given, and it is not necessary for Lagrange's method, and twelve places, but would have been needed for thirteen piaces, since it reaches the value 6 or -^ • £ = 0T4 units in the twelfth place. 426 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. De Morgan (Diff. Calc, p. 587) gives an abridgment of this table in a 2-figure argument, to use which it is neces- sary to reconstruct one decad of the original table before an interpolation can be made, which obviously is a tedious process. On differencing out the first portion of the 2-figure table, which appears to be the least convergent portion, I find that A5 has a maximum of 1050 units, and A6 of 50 units. Hence, on the Lagrange system, A5 represents -^ x 1 °/ ° , or 12 units, and A6 ¥|g x --£-, or 0-24 units. Now, reducing to the standard system, A6 will be re- presented by o-fg x g5o°o, or 0001 (VI.), with a maximum value of about 0000,1 units, and A5 by &• -\0-^0-, or 0-3 (V.), with a maximum of 003 units, or 0 3 units in the thirteenth place. Summing up, we need for a 12-figure table — 3-figure argu- ment, three differences ; 2-figure argument, five differences, or four standard terms : and for a 13-figure table — 3-figure argument, four differences ; 2-figure argument, six differences, or four standard terms. The following is a specimen line of a 2-figure table in terms of Lagrange differences and in standard terms : — x Log. Gamma. (1) • 11 Lagrange Differences. A1 A2 A8 A^ A5 Ae (-) (+) (-) ( + ) (-) ( + ) 12 974783415092 1687233927 60670390 761542 18304 605 34 13 ... . Standard Terms. A1 (-) 1687233927 P (-) 30143123 C (-) 63456 IV. (-) 190 x Log. Gamma. (1) • 11 ... . • 12 974783415092 • 13 ... . These are the actual numbers. If any one wishes to check them it should be noticed that; the differences in the original table are Newton's or leading differences, so that the interpolation must be made with the binomial coefficients, and not with Lagrange's or Bessel's functions. Finally, it may be noticed that if it is preferred not to use the standard functions their terms might be translated back into Lagrange or Bessel differences, so that existing tables may be used for interpolating without losing the advantage of the reduction. E. G. Brown. — Standard Functions in Interpolation. 427 o CO CO 1— 1 m h- 1 cs OS I— 1 + 00 X rH CD in o o o O h- 1 en + Ol + rrjl CI CI ci ICO CO 1-rM * o I-H CD 1 co c — > £! CS ^ o CO rH 00 as + - CO CD in C IO o o >< CO tH °1D 2lM IM 'T1 Ol °= o en o 1 fc- 'fc- + CI + CI in ' in X 1 CO ICO X X IO o t- o c CS CD rH TO cr t- rH CD CO xi rH + c-. cc <=> cl CO O O IrH CS H C5 r-n r. 1 CM ■** X :-. 1 co + CO IO iH + in = H r-l + in cs = t- p t- (D 03 CO 1 t~ 1 8^ rH " r-l r-l 1 Uo 1 Ico cS + 1° rn 2 CO cr, ° OS ryi C- O S3 § O g o m M IcO O cs OS CO rH O > 1 + 33 CO HE O I |B + X OS rH P-H r> |C3 iH O les 1 1° rH O los 1 CS o H + 3 - 00 00 in OS CD o o rH 00 ,00 t Im rH b- 0! I | Is St o fcr ts IS o S3 5 « 3" CO CI o. -rji 00 I I ICO CO + CI + cs 1 rH rH 1° ^h rH X r-l 00 r-l o CO CI OS CD 00 -H -1 1 ° 2 rH + X CO [rH i-H liO :- in -r« > + O Its 1 O CS + O in CD 1 O CO OS -o CD > r-l i-H IOS i-H IDS »IS «IS o|S 1-1 IrH si§ in OS H + O « rt i 00 CT3 O o rH m X O "rjl 1 1 + + 1 1 cs + t- CO rt 1 rH rH ICO ^ IcO rH IO " 12! 1 Cs _« O CO i-l loo OS CO O rl Ch a + ° 1 o + o o 5 + CO rH O i — i i — r t — i i — i i— i 1— ( i— 1 T— 1 rH t— 1 r— I r- 1 f^ 1 1 + + 1 1 + + 1 1 + + fl O s^" 1 CD | cq r-t ICQ rH I^Tl CO [ £g CO |S ICO in io Its Its in — Im its o cs CO TH lao in CO •*31 00 B2 ec IH CD CD o rC; » in Rrt IO h h 2 CO |00 CO 1 1- « CM hi, (a eft . CD o " IrH Ictt CO «4H CD O o ■-, C C1! W "«f »0 CO t- CO o O r-l CQ « f-l i-H rH rH Orde iffere < ai o HJ O ecj rCl " -r= ITS CJ ferfl a & ^rn - tJ r^ O "-=: rO Ch 2 Cl, b c3 pi — C Sr« CD -u ^ "o? H-= H Sh ce o 60 ^ eS J a CD rd 5o Cr2 o rC • to c c8 H HH fp N .s O . rJN j§^ -b r* CO C d O 3 c "o 3 c° ._; 'Cl, CD S > d & TO O CD fc~JPH 03 VK ■* j CD „0 t- 1; co .«D 03 L as CO „ &* d m CD CO CD ■ > 00 Bi o o ^-B M o -B c3 > -B b s a °° ° 3 ro - CD M "^ -B £h ft M ^ 72 rB a _, i— i o a co .-» 3 SCO 0 'd to" . -b a hvss CD CD * ft1-1 d bcS Bh _ H drt CO o co CO CM CO CO CD d o '-B d CD CD > O B2 c3 B CD ft cS b4 o O -B CQ d o o ee CD ■a CD CD CO O CO C3 CO CO CO H CD . ,, CO cog ^ d B^ o * c CO O -b d fl d d d o a CD rH s I « o td H ^5 co > CO ^ s ^^ CO b3 a?. ^ CO >iOO CD C5 CO CM OS CO CO o CO *B B O co ■ CD 9"S m°'b S as 2-S ° Sh CO rs (E-B a CD .CM !.b Sco 00 CM CO 00 CM »b CO 00 CM CO cn ib CO 02 CO CO fc- ib CO -B-O > CO 60 >> CD o3 fl*Stx ° a; a j O-a M CD B) t^ CD • CO -B CO • CD ■ CO B m CD ■ "o ■ •en M O CD C5 -B ■ CD ^^ • CO r^ fl O O W CO lO CD -b -S -B CD B tiD B d a GO ■>* d M i— H aog^g 1-1 'a 9 „ o r^ m t~^ O ^_^ ^ ,—l io ^ 5 ^ o -STm _g bC B 5 CD CD CD eg # o "* rW "O" CD g c3 •* O B ca = a B CD B -B CD O d o B b3 o CO CD o -B CO o -B -B o -B CO o t- -B on V rH ^.— ^ f« o drd cS ft (A pj B no Cl aj Tfi CD a -B SCO ^ CO cS oo o _OJ Q Ph d^ ' _ B CD CD 0 a-^.-d fi ft King. — On Neiv Zealand Mean Time. 443 In addition to these chronometric and telegraphic deter- minations, there have been three " absolute " determinations — that is, determinations by means of observations of moon culminations, &c. Before the present Observatory was built, Captain Carkeek, with the view of ascertaining the longitude of the old time-ball tower, conducted for many years a series of observations in the shape of lunars, eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, lunar eclipses, and moon culminations. Then, in 1869, 1870, and 1871, Chief Surveyors J. T. Thomson and Henry Jackson, at their respective private observatories at Eockyside (Caversham, Dunedin) and the Hutt, by observations of moon culminations determined the longitudes of those points. Having done so, they settled by means of the electric telegraph the difference between the longitudes of their two observatories, as a check upon their independent determinations. Mr. James McKerrow, after- wards Surveyor-General, assisted Mr. Thomson at Rockyside in this important branch of the work. By triangulation from the old time-ball site to the Wel- lington Observatory, and from Mr. Henry Jackson's private observatory to Wellington Observatory, values were thus ob- tained for the longitude of Wellington Observatory. Finally, in 1874-75, Major H. S. Palmer, B.B., chief of the English expedition to New Zealand for the observation of the 1874 transit of Venus, conducted a series of observa- tions at Burnham (his observing-station in Canterbury) for the determination of the longitude of that place. Professor C. H. F. Peters, chief of the United States Transit of Venus party, about the same time made similar observations for longitude at his station at Queenstown, Lake Wakatipu. Then these two points, with Mr. Heale's temporary observa- tory at Auckland, the Colonial Observatory at Wellington, and Mr. Thomson's observatory at Caversham, were con- nected by telegraph, with the object of ascertaining their respective differences of longitude. Major Palmer himself came to Wellington and conducted the work necessary for fix- ing the longitude of the Wellington Observatory on this basis. The results of these absolute determinations (or, to use Major Palmer's term, "approximate absolute determina- tions ") were as follows : — (1.) Captain Carkeek's approximate absolute,* 11 h. 39 m. 15-75 s. E. (2.) Messrs. Thomson and Jackson's approximate abso- lute,* 11 h. 39 m. 15-31 s. E. * For an account of Captain Carkeek's and Messrs. Thomson and Jackson's determinations see Messrs. Thomson and Jackson's report to Government, Appendix to Journals of House of Representatives, G.-No. 23, 1871. 444 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. (3.) Major Palmer's approximate absolute, * 11 h. 39 m. 4-81 s. E. Major Palmer's result, it will be seen, is identical to within a hundredth of a second of time with the value which has been obtained from Captain Stokes's chronometric work when the most recently accepted longitude for Sydney Observatory is used. On the other hand, the results deduced from Captain Carkeek's and Messrs. Thomson and Jackson's observations seem at first sight a good deal out of line with all the other determinations. They were consequently not taken into account in deciding upon the longitude to be used for the purposes of the time-service. But Major Palmer showed in his report some four years later that Messrs. Thomson and Jackson's determination was susceptible of treatment which placed it in a different light. Messrs. Thomson and Jackson, in reducing their observations, had not taken into account the errors of the moon's tabular place. Major Palmer pointed out that the average of these errors for the days on which the moon was observed at Eockyside and the Hutt was about 025 s., which would probably cause an error of between + 6 s. and -f 7 s. in the resulting longitude ; t therefore Messrs. Thomson and Jackson's corrected longitude of the Observatory might be taken approximately as 11 h. 39 m. 9 s. E. This differs from the ultimately accepted longitude by less than 4 s., very little more than the error (3'29 s.) which shortly before this had had to be recognised in the absolutely deter- mined longitude of Sydney Observatory. The problem of exactly ascertaining a longitude by observation is notoriously one of extreme practical difficulty ; and Messrs. Thomson and Jackson's result, when subjected to this revision by Major Palmer, showed that their long and patient series of observa- tions had been carried out with much skill and care, and was an honourable and worthy piece of work. The details of Captain Carkeek's calculations are not available, as they were accidentally destroyed many years ago by fire. To sum up, it will be seen that all the foregoing deter- minations may be arranged in two groups — one with a value of about 11 h. 39 m. 9 s., and the other with a value of about 11 h. 39 m. 5 s. The former of these approximate values was practically known as long ago as 1874 to be erroneous ; the latter by the same year was believed to be correct, and two years later was known to be correct, on the assumption that Sydney's longitude was reliable. Sydney's 1903 value differs by only about 1 s. from its 1874 value ; so that Dr. Hector * For details of Major Palmer's work see his report to Government, Appendix to Journals of House of Eepresentatives, H. No. 6, 1876. f See Loomis's " Practical Astromony," p. 316 (seventh edition). King. — On Netv Zealand Mean Time. 445 was a true prophet when in 1874 he expressed the belief that the "probable true longitude of Wellington Observatory" was 11 h. 39 m. 5-89 s.;;: Of course, it would be rash to say that no future revision may be necessary ; but we seem warranted in thinking that any correction which may be called for will be but trifling. But although the longitude was thus corrected so many years ago, the old value of 11 h. 39 ra. 9 s. has up to the present time continued to be used by the Admiralty as the basis of its charts of New Zealaud ; consequently all posi- tions in the colony as shown on these charts (with the exception of one sheet to be presently mentioned) are out in longitude to the extent of between 3^s. and 4 s. of time, or something under a mile. In view of the smallness of this error (which would not be a source of any danger to navi- gators), the Admiralty has no present intention of altering its charts. There are fifteen sectional charts of the coasts of the colony, besides many sheets of individual ports and of special anchorages ; and to amend the longitudes on all of these would entail much expense in erasing lines on the plates and in regraduating the charts. Seeing, then, that this old longitude has been retained on the charts, it has also heretofore been retained as the working longitude of the Observatory in computing time for general and navigation purposes,! as it has been judged highly convenient to have the time-service basis identical with the chart basis so long as there seemed any chance that the amended value of the longitude might be open to further revision. A Board of Longitude was appointed by the New Zea- land Government on the 8th July, 1869, to report upon the longitude of Wellington and of other parts of the colony in relation to the initial meridian of Wellington. The Board consisted of Dr. Hector (Chairman), the Bev. A. Stock, Mr. Henry Jackson, Chief Surveyor of the Province of Wellington, and Mr. G. A. Woods, Colonial Marine Sur- veyor. After going into the question thoroughly, and con- ferring with Mr. Ellery, Government Astronomer of Vic- toria, the Board reported \ in favour of adopting provision- ally the chart longitude, instead of keeping the question open longer for the sake of any small error which might ultimately be ascertained. A similar view was expressed by Major Palmer in his 1875 report, and that gentleman sug- * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vii., p. 504. f But of course the amended longitude has been used for scientific purposes which have called for nice accuracy— such as the observations of the transits of Venus in 1874 and 1882. J Appendix to Journals of House of Representatives, D.-No. 27, 1870. 446 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. gested that no change should be made until by means of the then projected submarine cable a telegraphic longitude-dif- ference should have been obtained between New Zealand and Sydney or Melbourne. The frequent corrections which have been found neces- sary in Sydney's assumed longitude since then have caused the change to be postponed longer than was originally con- templated. But circumstances now seem favourable for making it. The last alterations in the longitudes of Sydney and Melbourne were announced in the "Nautical Almanac" for 1898 (published in November, 1894) ; and as these were based on very careful telegraphic determinations by observers at Greenwich, Sydney, and Melbourne, they seem likely to be practically final. Moreover, the Admiralty has in one case used the latest longitude in compiling a chart. On the sheet to which I have referred as forming an exception to the others — viz., the large-scale chart of Port Nicholson (No. 1423)— the longitude is given as 174° 46' 20", equivalent to 11 h. 39 m. 5-3 s. The Hydrographer to the Admiralty, in a letter written by him to Sir James Hector on the 1st December, 1902, explains that this determination (which was the one given in the report of the Australian Telegraphic Determination of Longitudes, 1886) was adopted by the Admiralty in 1890, and that, although it has not been considered necessary in the interests of navigation to alter the existing coast charts, the value 11 h. 39 m. 53 s. will be the initial point of any rearrangement wThich may ultimately be made in the Admiralty charts. He agrees that, under the circumstances (the discrepancy being so small), the determina- tion of the Admiralty to retain the old longitude on the ma- jority of the charts need be no further bar to our "adopting the quantity which is at present considered to be the most correct." The value given on the large-scale chart (No. 1423) is that obtained from Mr. Eu'ssell's and Mr. Adams's tele- graphic work in 1883 ; and as this differs by only 0-2 s. from the value deduced from Mr. Eussell's and Archdeacon Stock's telegraphic interchange in 1876 the way is now clear for using 11 h. 39 m. 53 s. as the standard longitude for comput- ing New Zealand mean time from observations taken at the Observatory. A similar small error occurs in the longitudes given in the Survey Department's land maps of the colony. These longi- tudes are based on Mr. Thomson's determination of the longitude of Eockyside (as amended in the manner above explained) ; consequently the values are at present practi- cally identical with those shown in the charts. I understand, however, that the Surveyor-General purposes taking advan- tage of an intended reissue of the Department's maps to King. — On New Zealand Mean Time. 447 revise the longitudes on the basis of Mr. Eussell's and Mr. Adams's corrected determination.* A Note on the Universal Time Question. The references in the foregoing paper to universal or standard time seem to render it advisable to add some par- ticulars which may possibly be of interest to those members who have not already made themselves acquainted with the history of that scheme. For the substance of the following note I am indebted to articles which have appeared during the past few years in "The Observatory" and in "The Geo- graphical Journal," and also to an excellent little American book entitled " A Laboratory Manual in Astronomy," pub- lished in Boston recently by Miss Mary B. Byrd, Director of the Observatory of Smith College.! It seems to be uncertain who first suggested a universal time system. As I have mentioned already, the scheme was first heard of in America, where it was forced upon the atten- tion of the railway authorities by the inconvenience caused by a chaotic time-reckoning on the great railway-lines of the continent. In 1870 Professor C. Dowd published his pam- phlet advocating in effect the system which was afterwards adopted, except that he suggested Washington, not Green- wich, as the initial meridian. Professor Benjamin Pierce also claims to have originated the suggestion ; and possibly there may be other rivals of Professor Dowd's for pioneer honours in this matter. The movement soon took definite shape. It was favoured by various railway authorities and public societies — e.g., the American Meteorological Society and the Society of Civil Engineers — and in particular the Canadian Institute was energetic in agitating the question. The subject was discussed at the Geographical Congress at Venice in 1881 and at the Geodetic Conference in Borne in 1883. In the following year (1884) a representative body called the Prime Meridian Conference met at Washington. It consisted of delegates from twenty-seven nations, and after full discussion it passed several resolutions which were in- tended as suggestions to the civilised Governments of the world. These suggestions included "the adoption of a uni- versal day, which should not interfere with the use of local or other time ; that it should be a mean solar day beginning at mean midnight of the initial meridian, the hours to be counted from zero up to twenty-four, and that the initial meridian * Viz., 11 h. 39 m. 6*52 s. for Mount Cook Observatory, which was 1*21 s. east of Wellington Observatory, t Ginn and Co., Boston, 1899. 448 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. should be that of Greenwich"; also that "longitude should always be counted from this meridian in both directions up to 180°, east longitude being plus and west longitude minus " ; and finally, that " the astronomical day should begin at mean midnight." There were therefore three distinct proposals before the Conference — (1) " The change of the astronomical day [the astronomical day at present begins at midday, not at mid- night] ; (2) the use of a universal day ; (3) the reckoning of the hours from 0 to 24 instead of in two periods of twelve each."* The first of these proposals has not been adopted gene- rally, as it has been felt that it would involve too much trouble and expense in the rearrangement of astronomical ephemerides. The only work of the sort in which the sug- gestion has so far been acted on is the " Annuaire " of the Paris Bureau des Longitudes, which made the change in the ephemeris for 1900. f The second proposal (that for a universal day) has been found to be in advance of public opinion, and it has therefore been adopted merely in the modified form of standard times governed by hour meridians, J the minutes and seconds being everywhere the same as at Greenwich (except, as already explained, in the cases of those countries which have compro- mised by taking the odd half-hour). The proposal to accept Greenwich as the initial meridian did not at first find favour with some nations, and it was suggested that the meridian either of Jerusalem or of some obscure island or other not belonging to any great power should be chosen instead. Ultimately, however, it was recognised that the meridian of Greenwich was in every way the most suitable, and those nations which have taken up the reformed system have been content to set their clocks on the basis of the Greenwich reckoning. The third idea (that of having a twenty-four-hour dial) has been realised on part of the Canadian Pacific Eailway and on some other railways in America, and it has also been given effect to in Italy, in Switzerland ('?), in Belgium, and in Spain. Many people claim (and with apparent reason) that a great simplification of railway time-tables is effected when the letters " a.m." and " p.m." are got rid of. The following is a list of the countries which have adopted * " The Observatory " for February, 1901. t Ibid. J The basis of the system being that for 7£° of longitude on either side of a central meridian one time only shall be kept. King. — On Neio Zealand Mean Time. 449 the universal time system, with the hour meridian selected in each case : — * Greenwich Time — Date of Adoption. Great Britain. Belgium ... ... ... 1892. Holland ... 1892. Spain ... ... ... ... 1901. 1 h. fast on Greenwich — Germany ... ... ... 1893. Italy ... ... ... ... 1893. Denmark ... ... ... 1894. Switzerland ... ... ... 1894. Norway ... ... ... 1895. Austria (railways). 1-J h. fast on Greenwich — ' Cape Colony ... ... ... 1892. Orange Biver Colony ... ... 1892. Transvaal ... ... ... 1892. 2 h. fast on Greenwich — Natal ... ... ... ... 1895. Turkey (railways). Egypt ... ... ... ... 1900. 8 h. fast on Greenwich — West Australia ... ... ... 1895. 9 h. fast on Greenwich — Japan ... ... ... ... 1896. 9^h. fast on Greenwich — South Australia ... ... ... 1899. 10 h. fast on Greenwich — Victoria ... ... ... 1895. New South Wales ... ... 1895. Queensland ... ... ... 1895. 11 J? h. fast on Greenwich — "New Zealand ... ... ... 1868. 5 h., 6 h., 7 h., and 8 h. slow on Greenwich — United States and Canada ... 1883. The United States and Canada are divided approximately into four territories by the meridians 82^-°, 97^°, and 112^°, and the times kept within these territories are as above, the 5h. time being called " eastern time," the 6 h. time " central time," the 7h. time "mountain time," and the 8 h. time "Pacific time."f The boundary-lines between these terri- * From "The Observatory" for February, 1901, and July, 1901, and Miss Byrd's " Laboratory Manual in Astronomy." t There is also supposed to be a time territory 4h. fast on Green- wich, with central meridian 60°, but it is practically little used. The name given to it is " intercolonial time." 29 450 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. tories are not, of course, geometrically drawn meridian lines, but are lines which bend to suit the practical requirements of the districts concerned, much after the fashion in which boundaries between counties or States are drawn on ordinary maps (see the frontispiece to Miss Byrd's book). In a pamphlet published in 1888* Dr. Robert Schram, of Vienna, threw out the suggestion that when all the twenty- four-hourly standards shall be in actual use it will be im- portant to have a name for each which will be an easy guide to its position in the earth's circumference. The letters of the alphabet were to be used for this purpose ; but as people would not probably care to speak of G time, or L time, or Z time, Dr. Schram's idea was that each time section should be called by the name of "a geographical point, so chosen that it begins with the letter representing this section. The place of the letter in the alphabet would indicate the longitude of the section's mean meridian expressed in hours, and would at once give in hours the difference between " standard time and Greenwich time. He proposed the Latin alphabet in its older form, containing twenty-three letters (the letters J, U, and W of the modern alphabet being rejected). " The un- Latin letter U would be used for the zero value — i.e., Green- wich time — which would so retain its appropriate name, 'uni- versal time.'" There would thus be " ^dria time, ".Balkan time," and so on. Under this nomenclature the time section falling to New Zealand would be called " Loyal time," the assumption being that New Zealand would adopt the 11 h. meridian, which passes near the Loyalty Islands, to the east of New Caledonia. This ingenious, if slightly fanciful plan, however, does not seem so far to have been seriously entertained. The gain effected by the extensive adoption of the standard system has been very great, even though in some cases local or other time has continued to be used alongside of the new reckoning. In the "Geographical Journal" for February, 1899, Professor John Milne, the eminent seismologist, gave a long list, as complete as he had been able to compile it, of the times kept all over the world. The variety was bewildering, and an inspection of the list compelled one to recognise the need for something better adapted to modern requirements. There are still a good many parts of the world which remain to be converted to the international system, but the * See article "The Actual State of the Standard Time Question," by Dr. Robert Schrarn, in " The Observatory " for April, 1890, in which Dr. Schram gives an account of the nomenclature proposed in his previously published pamphlet. King. — On New Zealand Mean Time. 451 prospects for the future are good. Always with the re- servation that here and there a country or province may find it advisable to adopt the South African and New Zealand half-hour compromise, we may, in the enthusiastic words used by Dr. Schram over twelve years ago, but with a better hope of early realisation than was justifiable then, say that "very soon the system created by American energy will have conquered the globe, and the Greenwich minute and second will regulate the world's clocks." The following is a list of the parliamentary documents and of the papers in the "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute " consulted in the preparation of the above paper : — (A.) New Zealand Mean Time. "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," vol. i., p. 48 (1868), (second edition, p. 451): "On New Zealand Mean Time," by James Hector, M.D., F.E.S. Neiv Zealand Gazette, Saturday, 31st October, 1868 : Notification of Adoption of New Zealand Mean Time. (B.) Longitude of Observatory. Appendices to the Journals of the House of Eepre- sentatives : — Vol. iii., 1870, D.-No. 27 : Eeport of the Board of Longi- tude. Vol. iii., 1870, D.-No. 39: Correspondence relative to the Establishment of an Observatorv. Vol. ii., 1871, G.-No. 23: Eeport of Messrs. J. T. Thomson and Henry Jackson on the Telegraphic Measure- ment of the Difference of Longitude between Wellington and Otago. Vol. ii., 1876, H.-No. 6 : Eeport of Major H. S. Palmer, E.E., on various Telegraphic Differences of Longitude. Vol. ii., 1876, H.-No. 6a : Eeport on Mr. H. C. Eussell's and Archdeacon Stock's Determination of the Difference of Longitude between Sydney and Wellington. " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute " : — Vol. iii., p. 82 (1870) : " Abstract of Paper by Mr. Henry Jackson on the Longitude of the Hutt Observatory." Vol. vii., p. 502 (1874) : " Memorandum on the Longitude of Wellington Observatory," by Captain Nares, E.N., with covering letter by Dr. Hector. Vol. viii., p. 441 (1875): "On the Longitude of Welling- ton," by J. T. Thomson. Vol. ix., p. 217 (1876) : " On the Longitude of Wellington Observatory," by Ven. Archdeacon Stock, B.A. 452 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. Art. LVI. — The Molecular Complexity of the Fatty Acids and their Derivatives in Phenol Solution. By P. W. Bobertson, Sir George Grey Scholar, Victoria College. Communicated by Professor Easterfield. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th March, 1903.] Plates XLVIII. and XLIX. Phenol, in spite of certain drawbacks, is a popular solvent for the determination of the molecular weight of compounds by the well-known Baoult's method. Not only is it cheap and easy to obtain in a pure state, but it also has a con- venient melting-point (41°). Further, it has a large molecular depression, and the magnitude of this quantity increases the accuracy of the determinations. Indeed, Easterfield and Bee* have shown that results of the required accuracy can be obtained by the use of a common thermometer and a test- tube. At the proposal of Professor Easterfield I examined the association of water in phenol solution. From this I set about examining other compounds ; my experiments with the fatty acids I propose to describe in the following com- munication. First, however, I shall consider shortly the main points in the history of the cryoscopy of phenol. Baoult in his historical researches gave the value of the molecular depres- sion as 67"5. In 1890 Eykman altered the value to 72. With a view to clearing up this apparent discrepancy, Juil- lard and Curchodf investigated the question, and came to the conclusion that the compound has two distinct values, 76 and 68-o, for the so-called constant. The reason of this is not far to seek, for the value 68 was obtained for associating com- pounds— e.g., water, alcohols, and acids — while the higher number resulted when substances known to be normal were employed. The experiments below, however, show that even for one class of organic compounds the results for the value of the molecular in dilute solution (when the freezing-point is depressed 1°) vary from 82 to 64 — i.e., nearly 25 per cent. * Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1901, 497. t Bull. Soc. Chim. [3] 6, 237. Eobeetson. — Molecular Complexity of Fatty Acids. 453 on the mean. Van't Hoffs law, of course, only applies to infinitely dilute solutions, but even then the results appear to be little or no more in agreement. Thus, for a fall of 0-2° stearic and lauric acids give by a slight interpolation the num- bers 81 and 66, and these acids are both normal fatty acids. Calculating the results from Van't Hoff's equation, D = -02T2/w, where T is the melting-point on the absolute scale and w the latent heat of fusion, we arrive at the result 69. Using, on the other baud, the expression proposed by myself,^ D = -0087 MT/Vl (for mono-derivates of benzene), the value of D becomes 54, which is abnormally low.f The possibility here presents itself, however, that this irregularity may have some connection with the varying values obtained for the molecular depression. About 1897 a large number of interesting cryoscopical researches were carried on by the Italian school of chemists. Paterno examined, among other solvents, the behaviour of phenol for many compounds, his aim apparently being to examine substances of all types and not to confine himself to any one particular group. From his observations he con- cludes that phenol is different from most solvents in that there is a tendency for the molecular weights to decrease with the concentration, whilst in general the reverse is found to be the case. The apparatus used in these experiments is essentially that described by Easterfield and Bee, I only the stirrer is of glass and a side tube is added in order to introduce the sub- stance under investigation more conveniently. Of course, a more accurate thermometer is employed : the instruments used in the investigation could be accurately read to a hundredth of a degree. The mode of experimenting is as follows : 10 to 20 grams of phenol are weighed into the apparatus and two readings of its freezing-point taken. Enough of the foreign substance is now introduced either from a small weighing-tube if a solid or from a Sprengel pipette in the case of it being a liquid to cause a depression of about three-quarters of a degree. After * Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1901, 501. t Other phenolic compounds give concordant results with those obtained by actual experiment. Thus for the following substances the calculated values are given, the equation being for multi-substituted benzenes, D = -0078 MT/v"E Parabromphenol . . . . 99 (experimental 98) Orthonitrophenol . . . . 74 ( „ 74) Thymol . . . . . . 70 ( , 74) J Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1901, 497. 454 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. complete solution a double determination of the temperature of solidification is made, and this process is repeated six or seven times if the solubility permits it. When the dissolved substance is only slightly soluble it is introduced in smaller quantities, and consequently in such cases the accuracy cannot be so great. Besides the error of temperature-determination, which does not exceed 1 per cent., there are several others of more or less moment, Phenol is slightly hygroscopic ; but, as in all cases the conditions are practically the same, this source of error, which at the most is only slight, can hardly influence the results. Perhaps the most serious error is that caused by the non-homogeneity of the solution which is being experimented with. Thus, the solute, especially if a liquid, may stay on the thermometer in small quantities above the solution ; the solvent also has a tendency to climb up the stirrer and thermometer and sublime to the upper parts of the apparatus. The errors in weighing can be entirely neglected. But in a series of determinations these errors tend to disappear or neutralise one another, and for this reason the rate of asso- ciation is a more accurate result than the initial molecular depression. Moreover, traces of impurity will, of course, affect the latter, but seem to have little influence on the former. Nevertheless, every effort was made to obtain the material as pure as possible, and different samples were employed where conveniently possible. As an example of the accuracy ob- tainable in the work I may cite the ease of lauric acid. Three determinations gave the following numbers for the rate of association (depression 5°) : 58 per cent., 62 per cent., 60 per cent, (different sample of phenol). Most of the fatty acids employed in the investigation were from Merck ; acetic acid was frozen several times, and the lower members were fractionated before use. Normal valeric and methylethyl acetic acids were synthesised from ethyl malonate ; but, owing to the small quantities at my disposal, their purity cannot be so fully guaranteed. Lauric and stearic acids showed their purity by their melting-points. A number of the other acids were also from Merck. Professor Easterfield kindly placed his own private stock of prepara- tions at my disposal. Among others I prepared the following acids : brornacetic, cinnamic, ethylmalonic, brombutyric, oxy- diphenylacetic, nitrosovaleric, dibrommethylsuccinic, anilido- acetic, toluidoacetic, phenylanilidoacetic, amidoacetic, acet- amidoacetic, mesaconic, adipic., and phenoxyacetic, all of which were used in the investigation. In order to show clearly the method of calculating the results I will give one example in full ; in the other cases the final results alone are tabulated. Robektson. — Molecular Complexity of Fatty Acids. 455 Table I. Stearic Acid* (molecular weight, 284). 1. Weight of phenol = 106 grams. Fall in F.P. (d). Weight of Acid. Molecular Depression. •59° -2290 76-5° ■395° -1736 68-5° •56° -2906 58° i.e., association increases yVs-sV for a fall of 1'07° (~5o9~+-395 + -526-) .*. increases 147 per cent, for a fall of 5°. 2. Weight of phenol = 14-5 grams. Fall in F.P. (d). Weight of Acid. Molecular Depression. •40° -2168 76° ■31° -1888 67° •22° -1454 62° •53° -3594 60° i.e., association increases y1^— eT> f°r a ^1 °f "99° .\ increases 135 per cent, for a fall of 5°. Mean increase, 141 per cent. The molecular depression is calculated from the equation D = ^tt-^- — where W and m are the weights of the phenol and stearic acid respectively. The experimental results are given in detail in Table II. A number of these results are represented graphically, the molecular depression being plotted against the concentration (see Plates XLVIII. and XLIX.). The different acids will be considered under the following heads : — 1. The fatty acids. 2. The mono-, di-, and tri-substituted acetic acids where the substituents are phenyl, alkyls, and halogens. 3. The dicarboxylic acids. 4. Oxy and nitroso acids. 5. The substituted arnido acids. 6. Acids whose molecular depression increases with the concentration. 1. (a.) The Normal Fatty Acids (Nos. 1-8, Table II.).— The rate of association alternately increases and diminishes as the series is ascended, each of the even members associating more rapidly than either of the two contiguous odd acids. If alternate members are considered — e.g., the even — it is found that the rate slowly decreases, reaches a minimum probably at C6, and then increases extremely rapidly. From con- siderations in the next paper, where cases of this nature * Owing to its slight solubility a depression of only about 1£° could be reached. 456 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. are discussed, it appears probable that ,the acids with an odd number of carbon atoms will behave in the same way. This peculiar behaviour is shown by several of the properties of the fatty acids, including their melting-points and the differences of their boiling-points. Biltz found nothing of this nature when he determined the rates of association of the alcohols in benzene solution. It is noteworthy, however, that neither the melting-points nor the differences of the boiling-points of these compounds show a behaviour like that of the aliphatic acids. Table II. Class Percentage Rate oi Molecular Acid. considered Association for Depression under. Depression of 5°. for 1°. 1. Acetic (C2) 1 33 71 2. Propionic (C3) 1 18 70 3. Butyric (C4) 1 20 69 4. Valeric (C6) 1 16 67-5 5. Hexoic (C6) 1 18 67 6. Heptoic (C7) 1 13 66 7. Laurie (C12) 1 60 64 8. Stearic (C]8) 1 141 70-5 9. Isovaleric 1 25 72-5 10. Methylethylacetic ... 1 and 2 12 72 11. Chloracetic 2 20 71 12. Bromacetic 2 17 72 13. Brombutyric 2 11 77 14. Phenylacetic 2 20 69 15. a Chlorphenylacetic 2 4 71-5 16. Trichloracetic 2 2-5 68 17. Ethylmalonic 3 44 72 18. Methylsuccinic 3 67 66 19. Sebacic 3 23 70 20. Dibrommethylsuccinic 3 16 • • ■ 21. Lactic 4 23 • ■ > 22. Mandelic ... 4 32 70 23. Benzilic ... 4 7 69-5 24. Oxydiphenylacetic ... 4 55 73 25. Nitrosovaleric 4 50 63-5 26. Anilidoacetic 5 24 69-5 27. Hippuric ... 5 and 6 - 20 72-5 28. Levulinic ... 6 - 2 82 Bobektson. — Molecular Complexity of Fatty Acids. 457 The results obtained for the initial molecular depression, on the other hand, do not show this wavy character, but diminish regularly for some distance, apparently reaching a minimum value in the neighbourhood of lauric acid, and then increasing at about the same rate, or perhaps slightly faster. The rate of association was shown to increase much more, quickly than it diminished for the lower members. 1. (b.) The Isomeric Fatty Acids. — When the chain branches beyond the a carbon the rate of association in- creases : this is shown in the case of isovaleric acid thus — Butyric. Isovaleric. £gsX> CH • CH2 • C0.2H COoH • CH., • CH, • CH3 25 8- 20 Normal Valeric. CH3 ■ CHo ■ CH, • CH, • COoH 16 The numbers placed beneath the acids are their rates of association. The influence of such a grouping probably becomes less as it is further removed from the carboxyl. In the acids with one of the a hydrogens replaced by an alkyl group, such as methylethylacetic acid, the rate of asso- ciation is found to be less than that of the corresponding normal acid. That this behaviour is general is confirmed by the results obtained for other disubstituted acetic acids, which are discussed under 2. Scanty as this evidence is, there is presented a simple method for discriminating the isomers of higher members. Compared with chemical methods it possesses two great ad- vantages— namely, quickness of execution, and the small quan- tity of material required for the experiment. 2. (a.) Monosubstituted Acids. — In these acids the halo- gens, methyl, ethyl, and phenyl have practically the same influence, the numbers varyiog from 17 in the case of bromacetic to 20 for phenylacetic acid. Thus the negative groups behave like the positive ; if the substituents are of the same nature the heavier group appears to have the greater influence — e.g., in the case of chlor- and brom-acetic acids, the values of which are 20 and 17. On the other hand, methyl- acetic acid associates more slowly than ethylacetic. 2. (b.) Disubstituted Acids. — Dichloracetic acid unfor- tunately decomposes in the presence of phenol, giving a solution with a beautiful fluorescence, transmitting light of greenish hue and reflecting red. The only dialkyl acid ex- amined was methylethylacetic, which associates at the rate of 12 per cent. — i.e., slower than either of the acids from which it is derived. 458 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics Propionic CH3 • CHo • COoH 18 Butyric. CH8 • CH, • CH2 • CO,H 20 Methylethylaceti c . CH3 • CH • C02H CH3 . CH2 12 On replacing the methyl in this compound by bromine the rate of association remains practically the same : this was also found in the case of bromacetic acid. Propionic. Bromacetic. CH3 • CH, • C02H Br • CH, ■ C02H 18 17 Methylethvlacetic. Bromethylacetic. CH3 • CH2 • CH(CH3) • CO,H CH3 ■ CH2 • CHBr • C02H 12 11 Whereas the phenyl group has an effect approximately equal to an alkyl or a halogen in the monosubstituted acids, its influence is strongly normalising in the diacetic acids. It is interesting to compare the rates of association of the following acids : — Phenylacetic. Butyric. C6H5 ■ CH2 ■ C02H C,H5 ■ CH, * CO,H 20 20 Chlorphenylacetic. Chlorethylacetic. C6H5 • CHC1 • C02H C2H3 • CHC1 • C02H _ 4 (12) The number in brackets is calculated by analogy from the similarly constituted brombutyric acid. Diphenylacetic acid also probably associates very slowly, as its oxy-derivative shows the low value of 5'5. Thus we see that when one of the groups in a disubstituted acetic acid is a phenyl the acids associate much less rapidly than the com- pounds with alkyl or halogen groups. The explanation of this perhaps lies in the stereo-chemistry of the phenyl in the mole- cule. At any rate, it renders the a hydrogen which causes the association in these acids practically inactive. It is interesting to note that all the acids of this type have a high value for the initial molecular depression. 2. (c.) Trisubstituted Acids. — As would be expected, tri- chloracetic acid possesses a rate of association of only 2-5 per cent. The onlv other acid of this class in the list is benzilic acid, (C6H5), ■ COH ■ CO,H, whose association (7 per cent.) is no doubt increased owing to the action of the hydroxyl group (see under 4). 3. The Dicarboxylic Acids. — These acids, as well as the tricarboxylic acids, with their halogen and oxy derivatives, are Eobeetson. — Molecular Complexity of Fatty Acids. 459 characterized by their sparing solubility. On introducing an alkyl group, however, the compounds are rendered much more soluble, and can therefore in most cases be examined (see under " Solubilities," p. 463). Of the groups examined, carboxyl exerts, in general, the most influence, always increasing the rate of association of the monocarboxylic acid from which it is derived. The mag- nitude of the change is clearly seen in the case of the isomeric acids — ethylmalonic and methylsuccinic. / Ethylmalonic. CH8 . CH2 CHa Butyric. •CH2 CH0- 20 C09H CH(CO„H), 44 Methylsuccinic. CH, • CH • CO,H Isobutyric. CH3 ■ CH • C02H I CH., • C02H CH3 67 ) (10-14) In ethyl malonic the two carboxyls are attached to an isocarbon atom, but in methylsuccinic acid one is united to an iso and the other to a carbon united to two atoms of hydro- gen. As would be expected, the association is more rapid in the latter case. In sebacic acid the carboxyls are much fur- ther separated, and the mutual influence of the two groups is thus less noticeable. Nonylic. Sebacic. H(CHo), • COoH COoH • (CH2)8 ■ C02H (11) 23 If the a hydrogens are replaced, the mutual effect of the carboxyls is much diminished. This is seen in the case of dibrommethylsuccinic acid, which associates only at the rate of 16 per cent. Methylsuccinic. Dibrommethylsuccinic. OH. • C02H CBr2 ■ C02H CH, CH 67 CO.H CH, CH • C02H 16 Oxy and Nitroso Acids. — In phenol solution the molecular depressions of hydroxyl compounds tend to increase with rising concentration ; but a hydroxyl group increases the association of an acid. From this it seems probable that there is some mutual influence between the two groups, as a diminution of the rate of association is to be expected. This being so, there is reason to expect that the hydroxyl would have less and less effect the further it is removed from the carboxyl group. 460 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. Of the acids examined it is interesting to compare lactic and mandelic with the compounds from which they are de- rived. Propionic. Lactic. CH3 • CH2 • CO,H CH3 • CH(OH) • CO,H 18 23 Pheuylacetic. Mandelic. C6H5 • CH, • C02H C6H5 • CH(OH) • CO,H 20 32 The greater magnitude of the increase in the case of mandelic acid is especially noteworthy when we remember that all the disubstituted acetic acids containing a phenyl radicle are characterized by their extremely low rate of association. That the high value in the case of mandelic acid is due to the remaining a hydrogen is evident from the fact that benzilic acid, in which this hydrogen is replaced by phenyl, has the low value of 7 for its rate of association. Thus it seems that the oxy group protects the hydrogen from the normalising influence of the phenyl ; other groups, how- ever, have quite a different effect. Thus — Chlorpropionic. Chlorpkenylacetic. CH3 • CHC1 • CO,H C6H5 • CHC1 • COoH (13) 4 Lactic. Mandelic. CH3 • CH(OH) • C02H C6H5 ■ CH(OH) • COoH (23) 32 When the hydroxyl occurs in the benzene nucleus of a sub- stituted fatty acid its influence is only slight. This is shown for othooxydiphenylacetic, which associates at about the rate that we should expect in the case of diphenylacetic acid. Nitrosovaleric acid possesses the constitution CH3 • C • CH, • CH, • CO,H II NOH It associates very rapidly, but it differs from most of the acids with high association numbers in the fact that it possesses a very low value for the initial molecular depression. Again, it is the only acid of which the rate of association clearly diminishes with the concentration. (See Plate XLIX.) Hence it seems probable that the associating groups disappear in the process of association. This favours the possibility of the formation of complexes of the type CH3 • C • CH, • CH2 • C • OH 0 ;NOH HONx 0 1/ ! HO • C ■ CH, • CH, • C • CH3 Eobertson. — Molecular Complexity of Fatty Acids. 461 If, on the other hand, two molecules united through the nitroso groups a dibasic acid would be formed, and then the association should be expected to increase with the depression of freezing-point. 5. Substituted Amido Acids. — The a amido acids are characterized by extreme insolubility in phenol. First it was thought that this was due to the internal combination of the acid and basic parts of the molecule, the constitution of these acids then becoming I I X • CH • C • O • NH3 This, however, is rendered improbable for the following reasons : — (a.) In the case of amidosuccinic acid one carboxyl group should become neutralised, forming a monocarboxylic acid, which would then dissolve. This substance, however, is extremely insoluble. (b.) Anilidoacetic acid has a considerable rate of associa- tion, whereas if the carboxyl group were neutralised this would hardly be expected. Hippuric (i.e., benzoylamidoacetic) acid is characterized by its great rate of negative association. (It must be remem- bered, however, that the total depression is only a little above 1°.) The slight solubility cannot be the cause (for anilidoacetic-acid associates). It is well worth remarking, however, that the saturated solutions of these two acids have the same molecular depression, 71, which is about the mean value for the so-called constant. 6. Acids ivhose Molecular Depression increases with the Concentration. — Levulinic acid gives the abnormally high value 82 for the molecular depression. This, however, is probably correct. The acid obtained by fractionation under reduced pressure gave the value as 75. On solidifying this in a freezing mixture and separating the solid from the liquid the former gave the mean value 82. In 1887 Bredt* gave the constitution of levulinic acid as CH CH2 C (CHS) • OH CO— o Annalen," 236, 225. 462 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics, This alcoholic constitution is, I believe, at present not generally accepted, but it is probable that in phenol solution the molecules join up with themselves to give an alcohol, for (a) the alcohols have a molecular depression increasing with the concentration ; (b) the alcohols have a high initial mole- cular depression. Hippuric acid has already been discussed : it possesses a resemblance to levulinic acid only in that there exists a carboxyl group in the molecule. The Connection between the Rate of Association and other Properties of the Acids. Sudborough and Lloyd* have determined the rates of esterification of a number of substituted acetic acids in the presence of hydrochloric acid. The qualitative agreement between their results and those in Table II. is remarkable. The comparison is shown in the following table : — Table III. Acid. Esterification Rate of Constant. Association. Acetic 3-661 32 Propionic 3049 18 Chloracetic 2-432 20 Phenylacetic 2-068 20 Bromacetic 1-994 17 Diphenylacetic .. 0-0559 (4) Trichloracetic . . 0-0372 2-5 For the esterification constant the numbers are given in decreasing order. With the single exception of propionic acid the values for the rate of association are in exactly the same order. The reason of this is not far to seek. The most probable theory of esterification is due to Henry : his explanation is based on an additive hypothesis. This is what occurs with the acids in phenol solution ; but in this case like molecules are added together, while in the process of esterification an unstable addition product is formed with the alcohol, and this immediately decomposes into the ester. Looking somewhat ahead, it is to be expected that the ortho acids will associate less rapidly than their isomers, as these compounds are the most difficult to esterify. Further, the diortho substituted acids should scarcely associate at all, as, according to the well-known researches of V. Meyer and his pupils, these acids either do not form esters by this method or do so only with the greatest difficulty. Whether this sup- position is true or false I hope to ascertain in the near future. * Trans. Chem. Soc, 1899, 467. Eobertson. — Molecular Convexity of Fatty Acids. 463 Connection between the Molecular Depression and the Bate of Association. Among the normal fatty acids both constants tend to in- crease at the same time, though this is not absolute. The disubstituted acids tend to have a slightly higher value for the depression than the mono acids. Other regularities, if they do exist, remain hidden. Even if the acids associate at the same rate the molecular depressions may vary widely. Thus nitroso valeric acid (rate of association 50 per cent.) has a molecular depression of 64 ; ethylmalonic acid, on the other hand (association 44 per cent.), gives the value of the con- stant as 72. Again, chlorphenylacetic and trichloracetic acids associate at the rates of 4 and 25, but their depression con- stants are 71 -5 and 68. Of the seven acids whose association numbers vary between 18 and 24, all but one give molecular depressions between 69 and 71. In spite of these minor relationships, it is clear that the conditions that influence the molecular depression are in- distinct ; in all probability it depends to a large extent on the spatial arrangement of the molecule in solution. The Solubility op the Fatty Acids and their Deriv- atives in Phenol. The following generalisations may be drawn up : — (1.) The fatty acids are readily soluble, but the solubility becomes slight when stearic acid is reached. (2.) All the oxy, halogen, and phenyl derivatives are readily soluble. (3.) The poly car boxylic acids are characterized by their extreme insolubility : this applies also to their unsaturated compounds, the halogen and oxy derivatives. Their solu- bility, however, is much increased by the introduction of an alkyl group, the effect being smaller the greater the number of carboxyls. (4.) The oxy derivatives of the dibasic acids are less soluble than the original acids. (5.) Of the unsaturated dibasic acids the cis compounds are much more soluble than their isomers possessing the trans configuration. (6.) The a amido acids are extremely insoluble ; their substituted derivatives possess a slight solubility. In the following table the differences between the freezing- points of phenol and its saturated solution are given for a number of acids. This depression is roughly proportional to the number of dissolved molecules in a saturated solution of a constant weight : — 464 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. Table IV. Acid, F.P. Depression. of Saturated Solution. •15° •22 3 1 1. Malonic 2. Succinic 3. Adipic ... ... ... 1- 4. Sebacic ... ... ... 2- 5. Methylsuccinic ... ... > 3 6. Ethylmalonic ... ... ... > 3 7. Mesaconic ... ... ... -27 8. Citraconic ... ... ... >■ 5 9. Fumaric ... ... ... -09 10. Maleic ... ... .... 2-3 11. Bromsuccinic ... ... ... -45 12. Dioxysuccinic (tartaric)... ... -10 13. Tetraoxyadipic (mucic) ... ... -25 14. Amidoacetic ... ... ... -08 15. Phenvlamidoacetic ... ... 1-4 16. Benzoylamidoacetic ... ... 2-05 17. Amidophenylacetic ... ... -15 18. Phenylamidophenylacetic ... 1*7 19. Amidosuccinic... ... ... -29 20. Tricarballylic ... ... ... -20 21. Isopropyltricarballylic ... ... -38 Acids 1-4 are homologous dibasic acids : it is seen that the solubility rises with the molecular weight. Mesaconic and fumaric acids are trans acids ; they are much less soluble than their isomers, citraconic and maleic acids. It is interest- ing to note that with these acids the compounds that most readily form anhydrides are the most soluble. This was also observed in the case of succinic and methylsuccinic acids. The addition of a methyl group increases both the solubility and the ease of anhydride formation. Tartaric and mucic acids (12 and 13) are considerably less soluble than the acids from which they are derived (2 and 3). In the dibasic acids the introduction of an alkyl group causes an enormous increase in the solubility. In the case of the tribasic isopropyltricarballylic acid the increase is only comparatively slight (20 and 21). Among other insoluble di- or tri-basic acids may be men- tioned oxalic, meconic, camphoric, and aconitic acids. Summary and Conclusion. (1.) In freezing phenol the fatty acids and their derivatives associate more or less rapidly with rising concentration. (2.) The rates of association of the normal fatty acids alternately increase and decrease for each member. If the Eobertson. — On certain Maxima and Minima, 465 even compounds alone are considered the association de- creases, reaches a minimum, and then rapidly rises again. The initial molecular depression, however, steadily falls to a minimum, and then rises again after about the twelfth member. (3.) Disubstituted acetic acids associate less rapidly than mono-derivatives. The trisubstituted acids have the smallest rate of association. (4.) Dicarboxylic acids associate more strongly than the monocarboxylic acids. (5.) Hydroxyl and nitroso groups tend to increase the rate of association. (6.) The rate of association of the substituted acetic acids shows a qualitative relationship with their velocity of esteri- fication. (7.) The dicarboxylic and a amido acids are characterized by their sparing solubility. In conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to Professor Easterfield for the encouragement and advice which he has given me during the course of my work. Art. LVII. — The Exhibition of a Maximum or Minimum in the Properties of certain Series of Organic Compounds. By P. W. Eobertson, Sir George Grey Scholar, Victoria College. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th March, 1903.] The aim of the following paper is to collect the various data in which a maximum or minimum is exhibited in an homo- logous series, and to show that in many cases the cause is due to the influence of molecular association. For the sake of convenience two main subdivisions are made : A. When the maximum or minimum is clearly seen. B. When it is hidden. A. (1.) When the Compounds are in the Gaseous State. — The only example of this yet observed is described in the preceding paper. The molecular association of the fatty acids in phenol solution first increases as the series is ascended, and then, having reached a maximum, continues to decrease. Assuming for the present that the molecular weight of acetic acid is normal when the freezing-point of its solution is depressed 1°, and that the molecular depression is in- versely proportional to the amount of association, the fol- lowing values are obtained for the association factors : — 30 466 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. Acid. Acetic . . . Propionic Butyric ... Valeric ... Hexoic ... Heptoic . . . Laurie . . . Stearic ... Table I. No. of Carbon Atoms Association in Molecule. Factor. 2 100 3 1-01 4 1-03 5 105 6 106 7 1-07 12 1-11 18 1-01 On the other hand, the rate of association alternately in- creases and decreases ; thus in this case there is an intimate relationship between the attainment of maximum association and the wavy nature of a closely related property. Generally speaking, association decreases with rise in mole- cular weight. This was observed by Eamsay and Shields and by Traube in the case of liquids, and is also true for the association of the fatty acids in the gaseous state as measured by their vapour densities.* An increase of molecular com- plexity which extends to far up the series, as in the case of the aliphatic acids in phenol, has never been previously ob- served. (2.) When the Compounds are in the Liquid State. — Ex- amples of this are exceedingly numerous for the rotary power of optically active compounds. Guye showed that in many cases the explanation may be given from his hypothesis of the product of asymmetry. Frankland,f on the other hand, ex- plains the maximum or minimum in many cases as due to the association of the initial members of the series. A clear case of this is exhibited by the esters of active amyl alcohol (Guye and Chavanne). The association factor is calculated accord- ing to Traube 's formula : — Table II. Ester. Amyl formate acetate propionate butyrate valerate hexoate + + + + + + [a]. 201 2-53 2-77 2-69 2-52 2-40 Association Factor (15°). 108 1-02 100 0-94 0-92 0-90 Here it is seen that when there is no association the values of [a] regularly increase. * Easterfield and Robertson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1901, 499. t Trans. Chem. Soc, 1899, 347. Bobertson. — On certain Maxima and Minima. 467 (3.) When the Compounds are Solids. — (a.) The Melting- points of the Phenyl Fatty Acids : — Table III. Acid. Melting-point. Benzoic ... ... ... ... 121° Phenylacetic ... ... ... 77 Phenylpropionic ... ... ... 49 Phenylbutyric ... ... ... 47 Phenylvaleric ... ... ... 52 Now, molecular complexity raises the boiling-point ; and, in general, when the boiling-point of an isomer rises the melting- point is found to fall. Consequently, when the melting-point falls in an homologous series (a rise being expected) it may naturally be concluded that the association of the molecules becomes greater with the fall of melting-point. (b.) The Solubilities of the Calcium Salts of the Fatty Acids:* In the case of the normal acids the salts increase in solubility from formate to propionate, and then decrease quickly with the increase of the number of carbon atoms. In the following table the values of the solubilities are given for the temperatures 0° and 100° : — Table IV. Salt. Calcium formate „ acetate „ propionate „ butyrate „ valerate hexoate „ heptoate „ octoate nonoate Solubility (0°). Solubility (100°). . 16-15 (increase) 18-40 . 37-40 (decrease) 29-65 . 42-80 (increase) 48-44 . 20-31 (decrease) 15-85 9-82 (decrease) 8-78 2-23 (increase) 2-57 095 (increase) 1-26 0-33 (increase) 0-50 0-16 (increase) 0-26 Near the member where the maximum solubility occurs it is found that there is alternate increase and decrease of solu- bility between 0° and 100°. This is comparable with the association of the fatty acids (A (1) ) where the rate alternates, but the association reaches a maximum. Lumsden states that one of the causes that determines the solubility is osmotic pressure. Now, osmotic pressure is in- fluenced by association ; so we see in this case also that there is a possibility of the cause of the phenomenon being molecular association. B. (1.) When the Compounds are in the Gaseous State. — Again, the only example of this type is furnished by the fatty Lumsden, Journ. Chem. Soc, 1902, 350. 468 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. acids in phenol (see above, Article LVL), whose rates of association alternately increase and decrease. If the even members alone are considered it is found that the rate slowly falls to a minimum, and then rapidly increases. (2.) When the Compounds are Liquids. — (a.) The Boiling- points of the Fatty Acids and their Derivatives, the Ketones, Nitroparaffins, and Nitriles : If the boiling-points of the fatty acids are considered a continual increase is noticed. On taking successive differences, however, the numbers obtained are of a wavy nature. As is seen in the following table, the second set of differences decreases, reaching a minimum and then increasing again. The other series also decreases, but more slowly, perhaps reaching a minimum higher up the series. Table V. Acid. Acetic Boiling point. 118° Propionic Butyric Valeric ... 141 ... 163 ... 186 Hexoic ... 205 Heptoic Octoic ... 224 ... 236 Nonoic ... 254 Capric ... 269 Differences. 23 23 19 18 22 19 12 15 Differences. The same alternate rise and fall is shown if the boiling- points are taken at a pressure of 100 mm. In this case, however, the even to odd differences are smaller, and reach the minimum first, whilst at atmospheric pressure the reverse is the case. Table VI. Boiling- point. ... 185° ... 202 ... 213 ... 226 ... 236 ... 248 ... 257 ... 269 ... 277* ... 287 ... 298 Acid. c9 Ci0 C13 c15 C17 c y18 c 19 11 10 8 11 17 13 12 12 10 This behaviour of the fatty acids is probably due to the This boiling-point is interpolated. Eobeetson. — On certain Maxima and Minima. 469 association of the vapour at the boiling-point, for the follow- ing reasons (1.) It is less noticeable in the case of the esters, which are only slightly associated. (2.) The minimum is less marked when the boiling-points under reduced pressure are considered, and under reduced pressure the amount of association is reduced. (3.) It is not exhibited by series of compounds which are associated neither in the liquid nor gaseous state, nor, on the other hand, by the alcohols which form liquid (not gaseous) molecular complexes. Among the esters the successive differences are much more regular. In the following table the boiling-points of the methyl, ethyl, and propyl esters of the fatty acids are given : — Table VII. — Met y Differences. Ethyl. Differences. Propyl. Differences. Acetate Propionate . . Butyrate Valerate Hexoate Heptoate Ochoate Nonoate 57-5° 795 102-5 127-5 149-5 173 193 213 22 23 25 22 23-5 20 20 77° 100 120 145 167-5 187-5 207-5 227-5 23 20 25 22-5 20 20 20 101° 122-5 143 167-5 185-5 206-5 224-5 21-5 21-5 24-5 18 21 18 For each series the first set of differences shows a clear maximum between the esters derived from the C4 and C5 acids, the number being in all cases practically the same (25). The acids themselves show a maximum at the same place, al- though it is much less marked. In the other set of differences there is a general tendency for the numbers to decrease, but the characteristic minimum observed in the acids finds no parallel among their ethereal salts. In general the methyl esters bear a much closer resem- blance to the acids themselves than do the esters with larger alkyl radicals. This is seen, for instance, in their higher melting-point and the greater complexity of the liquid mole- cules. At the boiling-point such differences disappear. This is only another example showing that the boiling-point is a comparable temperature for physical data. Much more clearly than with the esters is a similar rela- tion exhibited by the acid chlorides. The following table is given by Henry,* who pointed out the large variations in successive differences of the boiling-points, but did not ap- Rec. Trav. Chim., 1899, 18, 247. 470 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. Differences. pear to show the regular formation of a maximum at the number 29 : — Table VIII. Boiling- point. 51-52° 78-80 100-101 127-128 145-146 174-175 194-195 220 26-5 27 29 26 21-5 18-5 20 Acetyl chloride Propionyl „ Butyryl „ Valeryl „ Hexoyl „ Heptoyl Octoyl „ Nonoyl „ This maximum occurs in the same series as the maximum shown by the esters and the acids themselves, but one place higher. The acid chlorides also differ from the esters and the acids themselves, by the fact that the average for the set of larger differences (27) is considerably greater than the corre- sponding number (22) for the acids and their ethereal salts. On the other hand, a resemblance is shown to the esters' slight differences between the numbers of the same set, while this is not the case among the acids. This, then, is the true test for the magnitude of the molecular complexity of the gaseous molecule at the boiling-point. Acids of the oxalic series tend to decompose when heated, consequently their boiling-points cannot be determined under the ordinary conditions. Krafft," however, has determined the boiling-points of some of the higher members under re- duced pressure. The results show the usual waviness, but the differences are smaller than for the corresponding fatty acids under the same conditions. Hence it is reasonable to conclude that the association of the dibasic acids in the state of vapour is less than that of the fatty acids from which they are derived.! Table IX. Acid. Number of CarbonAtoms in Molecule. Boiling- point (10 mm.). Differ- ences. Boiling- point (100 mm.). Differ- ences. Adipic Pimelic Suberic Azelaic Sebacic 6 7 8 9 10 205-5° 212 219-5 225-5 232 6-5 7-5 6-0 6-5 265° 272 279 286-5 294-5 7 7 7-5 8 *Ber., 22, 816. f In phenol solution, although sebacic acid associates more rapidly than the corresponding fatty acid, the initial association of the latter is greater. Robertson. — On certain Maxima and Minima. 471 From analogy with the fatty acids it is to be expected that the esters of these acids would exhibit similar relations. But the data are too scanty and inconsistent among themselves to draw any conclusions therefrom. The data for various aldehydes and. ketones are presented in the next table, as they show a similarity to the results already obtained. Table X. Number Boiling- Boiling- Boiling- of Carbons point of Differ- point of Differ- point of Differ- in Aldehydes ences. Ketones — ences. Ketones — ences. Radical R. — R. CHO. R. COCH8. R. COC2H5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 21° 49 74 103 128 153 28 25 29 25 25 56-5° 80-5 102 127 151-5 173 24 21-5 25 24-5 21-5 80-5° 102-5 123 146* 166 190 22 21 23 20 23 7 161 * This boiling-point is interpolated. The maximum in all cases occurs in the usual place — i.e., the second member of the first set of differences. The ketones of the type E. COCfL, show practically as much association as the aldehydes, thus differing from the other series of ketones, which is almost normal. The methyl esters, it will be remembered, differed largely from the acids whence they were derived ; but here the alkyl radical replaces a hydroxyl hydrogen, while in the case of the aldehydes the hydrogen is joined directly to a carbon atom. Seeing that when the gaseous molecule is associated at the boiling-point results of this nature are obtained, the nitriles and nitroparaffins ought to behave in a similar manner. That this is the case is seen from the following tables : — Differences. 15-5 Table XL Aceto nitrile Boiling-point ... 81-5° Propiono Butvro ... 97 ... 118-5 Valero a ... 141 Hexoo n ... 154-5 Heptoo Octoo ... 176 ... 197 Nonoo ... 215 22-5 22 18 21-5 13-5 21 Here, again, the maximum is observed in exactly the same place as among the acids and their esters, the aldehydes and ketones. Further, there is an exceedingly pronounced mini- mum in the other series ; this corresponds to a similar mini- 472 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. mum, though not so sudden, among the data for the acid chlorides, and to the characteristic minimum, which occurs in the next number of this series for the fatty acids. Table XII. Boiling-point. Differences. Nitromethane ... 101° ,q r Nitroethane ... ... 114'5 ir if. Nitropropane ... 131 nn.K Nitrobutane... ... 151'5 ,R „ Nitropentane ...(150-160)? a~ W Nitrohexane... ... 176 ^ ' ,q Nitroheptane ... 195 The numbers in brackets are rendered doubtful owing to the result obtained for the boiling-point of nitropentane. The higher limit is taken as the more probable, but this cannot affect the general conclusions. This series is exactly similar to the nitriles. The changes occur in the same positions, and are perhaps a little more marked, indicating a greater mole- cular complexity of the gaseous molecules.* ? The hydrocarbons, their halogen derivatives, the alcohols, amines, and ethers, exhibit no such behaviour. But in none of these series has any considerable association been noticed. In all the instances where the wavy character occurs there is either a carboxyl group > C = 0 in the molecule or a nitrogen atom. In the cases of the acids and ketones the molecular complexes are possibly of the types OH E' I I E- C • 0 E ■ C • 0 II II E • C • 0 E- C • 0 I I OH E' For monobasic acids a greater complexity has never been observed either in vapour-density determinations or in ben- * A measure of the association at the boiling-point may be obtained from Teouton's law, -— - = a constant, where W is the latent heat of vaporisation. For substances known to be normal in the liquid and gaseous states the value of the constant is in the neighbourhood of 21. For the esters and ketones a regular value of about 21 is obtained, but the acids and nitriles give exceedingly low values, indicating that the vapour at their boiling-points is strongly associated. The nitriles give fairly constant values, but still a little too low. Thus we find the order of complexity is nitroparafhn, fatty acid, nitrile, ketone, ester — the same order as indicated from the data for the boiling-points. The alcohols, on the other hand, give a high value, indicating association of the lighter molecules. Eobertson. — On certain Maxima and Minima. 473 zene or phenol solution. In the case of the esters, which have the general formula OB' I E • C = 0 the alkyl group E' appears to hinder the association. For the nitriles E ■ C— N there is the possibility of the formation of an immense number of complexes. Now, seeing that all the compounds which behave in the manner described possess a double or treble linkage, it is reasonable to suppose that the nitroparaffins also are of this type. The following formulae, out of the number that have been proposed for these compounds, show an ethylene linkage : — „ 0 (1.) E • CH2 • N OH % O (2.) E • C = NOH O (3.) E • CH =: N • OH The latter two, however, are the more probable, for several reasons. The hydroxyls explain the strong association in the liquid state (1-82 Traube) ; the association of the vapour and the phenomenon of the boiling-points of the series is due to the double linking. This structure also furnishes an ex- planation of the acid nature of these compounds ; (2) makes these compounds exactly similar to the fatty acids, except that the group =NOH replaces the group =0. (b.) The Boiling-points of the Alcohols : This series be- haves in quite a different manner. The necessary data are shown in Table XIII. Table XIII. Boiling point. Methyl alcohol 66° Ethyl . 78 Propyl . 97 Butyl 117 Amyl 137 Hexyl 157 Heptyl 176 Octyl 195-5 Nonyl 213-5 Decyl 231 Difference. 12 19 20 20 20 19 19-5 18 17-5 474 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. The differences of the boiling-points reach a maximum early in the series, and then very slowly decrease. When the boiling-points are taken at reduced pressure the rela- tive decrease is larger for the same alcohols. Now, at the lower temperature the liquid molecules are to a greater amount associated, and consequently this maximum is caused by the molecular complexity of the liquids. In all the cases mentioned above the results are different, but the explanation for those compounds is that the association of the vapour is the cause of the abnormal behaviour. (3.) When the Compounds are in the Solid State. — (a.) Melting-points : Among the normal acids of the oxalic series the melting-points rise and fall, each term of the even series melting at a higher temperature than either of its two homo- logues of the odd series. If, however, the odd and even members are considered separately, a minimum melting-point is observed among the compounds containing an odd number of carbon atoms. This was pointed out by Massol,* and is shown in the following table : — Table XIV. C3 Oxalic acid .. 212° C3 Malonic acid ... 132° C4 Succinic „ .. 180 C6 Glutaric „ ... 97 C6 Adipic „ .. 148 C7 Pimelic „ ... 103 C8 Suberic „ .. 140 C9 Azelaic „ ... 117-5 C10 Sebacic „ .. 127 From these data it seems probable that the numbers for the melting-points in the even series will also fall to a mini- mum in the neighbourhood of the Cu acid. The substituted malonic acids behave in a similar manner. Table XV. C4 Methyl ] nalonic acid . 130° C5 Ethyl tt . . . 111-5° C6 Propyl a . 93-5 C7 Butyl a . 98-5 C8 Valeryl a . 82 C10 Heptyl a • ■ . 97 Here the minimum is reached when the substituent chain contains five carbon atoms ; in the previous case the C5 and in the fatty acids themselves the C5 compound also shows the minimum melting-point. In the case of the amides of the fatty acids the results are not so regular. Nevertheless, it is interesting to compare them. * Bull. Soc. Chim., 1899, 578. Eobeetson. — On certain Maxima and Minima. 475 Table XVI. C2 Amide 82° C3 Amide ... 79° C4 „ • ■ 115 C5 „ ... 115 C6 „ .. ioo a „ ... 95 C8 „ .. 110 c9 „ ... 92 Cl0 it .. 98 Cu „ ... 81 Ul2 r, • ■ 112 C13 „ ... 98 Cl4 „ • ■ 102 Cl5 „ ... 108 Ci6 ,; .. 101 C18 .. 109 ^20 ii .. 99 The odd members behave regularly, showing a maximum at the C5 amide, and then the values fall to a minimum. This is the only example of two changes of this nature that I have been able to find. The melting-points of the amides with an even number of carbon atoms show a more or less irregular nature. The anilides also show a somewhat similar behaviour, but in this case it is the minimum which is reached in the G5 compound. (b.) Heats of Formation of the Oxalic Acids : The fol- lowing data are due to Stohmann, Kleber, and Langbeim : — * Acid. Oxalic Malonic Succinic Glutaric Adipic Pimelic Suberic Azelaic Sebacic The values for the heat of formation increase with the molecular weight just as the boiling-points do. But on taking differences and separating the values thus obtained alternately into two sections we find that both series reach a minimum in the neighbourhood of pimelic acid. This is the only instance in which the two minima occur in neighbouring members ; usually there is a wide difference. General Conclusions. As regards the position of the maximum or minimum in the series, we must first consider the results in division A. In only one case does the change occur well up the series ; Table XVII. Heat of Formation. Differences. ... 196-8° ... 212-7 ... 226-2 ... 228-8 ... 240-1 ... 242-4 ... 249-4 ... 256-7 ... 264-2 15-9 2-6 2-3 7-3 13-5 11-3 7-0 7-5 * J. pr. Chem., 40, 202. 476 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. this is for the fatty acids in phenol, the association of which compounds reaches a maximum at about the twelfth member. "When, as in B, the data are divided into two sets the point under consideration is reached early in the one series, and generally much later in the other. Almost always the position for the first of the changes occurs in the neighbour- hood of the compound with a chain containing five carbon atoms. This is in accordance with the stereo-chemical con- clusion that a chain of this length returns on itself. In all the examples enumerated under B, except that of the differences of the boiling-points of the alcohols, the data for the series alternately increase and decrease as the mole- cular weight increases. Further, in two out of the four examples in A a probable connection is shown. From this we arrive at the general result. " In all cases where we find a maximum or minimum in the physical properties of a series, either by taking each member in turn or by taking alternate members, the data for that series, either for the same or a closely related property , is found to rise and fall alternately." Again, whenever the series dealt with referred to the liquid or gaseous state evidence of molecular association has been forthcoming. Consequently we obtain the second conclusion : " A maximum or minimum in a series is due to the molecular complexity of one or more members of that series." Art. LVIII. — A Contribution to the Chemistry of Colophony. By T. H. Easterfield and G. Bagley. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th March, 1903.] Colophony, or common rosin, is one of the cheapest of all organic preparations. It is the residue which remains in the still when crude turpentine is being worked into oil or spirit. Colophony has been investigated by numerous chemists ; nevertheless, many points in the chemistry of the substance remain to be cleared up. It is, moreover, unfortunate that several investigators have published statements which have not been confirmed by subsequent workers, so that a mere perusal of the literature is not sufficient to separate the facts from the fiction. The following facts are in general accepted amongst chemists : — Easterfield and Bagley. — Chemistry of Colophony. 477 (1.) Colophony consists principally of organic acids, of which one, abietic acid, is in preponderating proportion. The use of rosin in soap-making depends upon its acidic nature. (2.) Kosin, when distilled at ordinary pressures, yields a very composite mixture of substances, consisting chiefly of hydrocarbons, the more volatile portions of which are known as " rosin-spirit," the less volatile as " rosin-oil." The oil is largely used in the preparation of lubricants for heavy machinery. Rosin-oil consists very largely, according to Deville, of a hydrocarbon the percentage composition of which approximates to that of turpentine, but the molecular weight of which is much greater. It is generally regarded as a diterpene. (3.) When distilled under diminished pressure, rosin is said to yield an anhydride of an acid isomeric with abietic or sylvic acid, together with a hydrocarbon, probably the " colophene " of Deville. This statement is due to Bischoff and Nastvogel. The authors greatly regret that their work has led them to conclusions of a totally different nature. Put shortly, the results of the present investigation may be thus stated : — (1.) When colophony is fractionally distilled under di- minished pressure a small quantity of turpentine and other hydrocarbons distil first. The greater part of the rosin then comes over in an unchanged state, between 260-285° C, at 15 mm. pressure. This is nearly pure abietic acid. Lastly, there is a small quantity of pitch, which has so far defied all attempts at investigation. The distillation of colo- phony under diminished pressure is an excellent method of obtaining crude abietic acid ; for the middle portion of the dis- tillate, when twice crystallized from alcohol, yields practically pure abietic acid melting at 163-165° C. (2.) If the distillation be conducted slowly, the early portion of the distillate increases in quantity, whilst the second portion diminishes. The pitch increases at the same time. Careful examination of these facts has shown the authors that this change in the yield, with the altered con- ditions, is due to the fact that the hydrocarbon is produced from abietic acid according to the equation — CigH^Oa = C18H28 + C02. This hydrocarbon, though evidently identical with that found by Deville in 1841 amongst the products of the distillation of colophony,* is not, as has hitherto been supposed, a diterpene, but appears to be a member of a special series. The name abietene is proposed for this compound. The authors have * See Liebig's " Annalen," 37, 193. 478 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. little doubt that the so-called diterpene obtained by Lieber- rnann* and by Hallerf by the action of hydriodic acid on abietic acid is dihydro-abietene. The results obtained by the vacuum distillation led to the belief that similar results would be obtained by the dis- tillation of colophony with superheated steam. A patent for the purification of colophony by this process was taken out by Hunt and Pochin in 1858 ; but no account has been published of the chemistry of the process, if, indeed, it has ever been the subject of investigation. Experiments on the steam distillation of rosin were there- fore carried out at Kaiwarra by the kind permission of the directors of the New Zealand Candle Company. The results were completely as anticipated, water-white rosin, heavy hydrocarbon, and a small quantity of pitch being practically the only substances produced by the process. Experimental. Preliminary Experiment. 105 grms. of rosin (N quality) was distilled under di- minished pressure (18 mm. approximately). The course of distillation was as follows : Up to 270° C, 23 grms. ; 270-285° C, 67 grms. ; pitch, 12 grms. ; loss, 3 grms. The portion distilling at 270-285° was refractionated. About 70 per cent, of it passed over between 262-268° C. as a light-yellow oil, which when rapidly cooled set to a hard transparent resin ; but which when cooled slowly became opaque, owing to the formation of crystals, which gradually increased in quantity until the whole mass was crystalline. This substance was analysed, and gave numbers agreeing closely for those required for abietic acid, but not for those required by the " isosylvic anhydride " of BischofT and Nast- vogel. m n , , , ■, c »u- l- Calculated for Isosjdvic Calculated for Abietic -p A A , •, ■.-, J , -j r* tt rs Found. Anhydride — Acid— Ci9H2802. p tt n C = 79-16 78-88 78-86 81-9 H = 9-72 9-77 9-80 9-9 Confirmatory Experiment. As it appeared possible that the difference between these results and those recorded by Bischoff and Nastvogel might be due to the fact that their distillations were carried out under higher pressure, and that their distillates were more fre- quently fractionated, a fresh set of experiments was made. * Berichte, 17, 18841. t Berichte, 18, 2165. 5th 6th Distillate. Distillate 78-8 78-9 9-8 9-7 Easterfield and Bagley. — Chemistry of Colophony. 479 (a.) Four hundred grams of colophony was distilled with a rod and disc fractionation column at a pressure of 31 mm. The portion distilling between 270-290 weighed 222 grms. This was redistilled five times, at pressures varying from 27-35 mm. The second, fourth, fifth, and sixth distillates were analysed, but the results only confirm the conclusion arrived at in the preliminary experiment. The numbers ob- tained were as follows : — Calcu- Calcu- Found lated for lated for 2nd 4th Isosylvic Anhyd. Abietic Acid. Distillate. Distillate. C = 81-9 C = 79-16 78-8 78-7 H= 9-9 H= 9-72 9-6 9-5 As the composition of the distillate had not changed during six distillations, it was evidently useless to continue the fractionation further. According to Bischoff and Nastvogel, the " anhydride " dissolves in alkali, and when reprecipitated by dilute acetic acid yields isosylvic acid melting at 61-63° C, and isomeric with sylvic or abietic acid. The sixth distillate was accord- ingly dissolved in potash, shaken out with ether to remove any oily impurities, and reprecipitated according to Bischoff 's and Nastvogel's directions. Two preparations melted respec- tively at 65-73 and 67-80. The latter was recrystallized from 80 per cent, alcohol, from which it separated in crystals, having the characteristic crystalline form and melting-point (160-165) of abietic acid. The evidence is thus complete for the non-existence of isosylvic acid and its anhydride. The low melting-point of the precipitated acid as com- pared with the crystalline acid is easily understood. The precipitated acid is amorphous, and has no definite melting- point. When once melted and kept a few degrees above its melting-point it crystallizes. The crystals must then be raised to a higher temperature before they melt. A number of analogous cases might be quoted. Abietene. In the series of fractionations above described a small quantity of low boiling-point material was invariably observed, even in the last distillation. This indicated that even under the most favourable circumstances a slow decomposition was taking place, a conclusion that was supported by the fact that even when the pressure was reduced to 11 mm. the liquid in the distilling-flask did not bump. The most evident reaction which might explain this phenomenon is that abietic acid is losing carbon-dioxide and yielding the corresponding hydro- carbon, the name of which should be "abietene," from analogy in the case of benzoic acid and benzene. 480 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. To test this conclusion 36 grms. of crystallized abietic acid was heated in a four-bulb Ladenburg flask at 30 mm. pressure, the temperature in the uppermost bulb being maintained at 210-220° C. Under these circumstances an almost colourless distillate was obtained, and this consisted of an oil which did not solidify on cooling. After five hours' heating the contents of the distilling -flask had become so pitchy that the heating was discontinued. The distillate amounted to 44 per cent, of the acid taken, and consisted of an almost colourless faintly florescent viscous oil, which still contained some abietic acid. The oil was dissolved in toluene, freed from acids by washing with caustic soda, and dried, first over calcium-chloride and afterwards by sodium. Finally, the toluene was removed by distillation, and the residue distilled at 19 mm. pressure. Practically the whole came over between 300-315° C. The product was redistilled over sodium at 82 mm. pressure, when the greater portion distilled at 247-250° C. This was analysed, with the following results : — Calculated for CigHas Found. C = 88-5 88-3 H = ll-5 11-7 The molecular weight was kindly determined by Mr. P. W. Eobertson in phenol solution. Found. Calculated for CigH^ 244 244 249 AVk taking 72 as the depression constant of phenol. (Eykman.) It is worthy of note that, though a second receiver was- attached and kept in a freezing mixture during the whole dis- tillation, no volatile products, except a few drops of water slightly discoloured by oil, could be detected. The same hydrocarbon is easily obtained by the slow distillation of common colophony. In order to prepare a quantity of the hydrocarbon, a kilo- gram of common rosin was distilled from a cast-iron retort, provided by means of a stuffing-box, with a rod and disc fractionating column. With a little care it was easy to main- tain the still-head at 215-230° C, the pressure being kept at 15-35 mm. 100 grms. of the oily distillate was dissolved in 300 c.c. of light petroleum, thoroughly agitated with 400 c.c. of 1 per cent, soda-solution, and sufficient alcohol to prevent the formation of a permanent emulsion. The soap-solution was shaken out with a second quantity of petroleum. The hydrocarbon was dried by calcium-chloride, the light petro- leum removed by distillation, and the heavy oil fractionated in vacuo. The following fractions were obtained : — Easterfield and Bagley. — Chemistry of Colophony. 483 Boiling-point. Pressure. Weight of Distillate. 241-250° 80-85 mm. 8-3 per cent. 250-253 81mm. 63 7 256-272 81mm. 6-9 Eesidue = 3-9 per cent. Acid recovered from washings = 14 per cent. Loss = 3-2 per cent. The fraction boiling at 250-253 was redistilled several times over sodium. When analysed different samples gave numbers agreeing with those already given for the compound prepared from crystallized abietic acid. Different specimens gave :— Calculated for -r -rj yTy CisH.jg. C = 88-5 88-3 88-2 88-5 88-7 H = ll-5 11-1 10-9 11-0 11-3 Further evidence of the identity of the two substances is shown by the similarity of their physical constants. TX , , , .,. ,. , ., Hvdrocarbon from Crude Hydrocarbon from Abietic Acid. ' Rosin Specific gravity 0-9728 at 19° C. 0-9727 at 18° G Eefractive index 1-537 „ 20° C. 1-538 „ 12° C. (199-200 „ 13 mm. Boiling-point 247-250 „ 82 mm. \ 253-255 „ 82-85 mm. (340-345 „ 760 mm. The hydrocarbon from crude rosin is optically active. It gave the value [a] d = 92-9. In 1884 Liebermann* obtained a hydrocarbon approxi- mating in composition to that of a terpene by heating abietic acid with hydriodic acid and phosphorus at a temperature of 240° C. It appeared of great interest to learn whether the formation of this hydrocarbon was due to the reducing-action of hydriodic acid, or, as it appeared more probable, to the sphtting-off of carbon-dioxide. Experiment showed that the latter hypothesis was the corrct one. Five grams of abietic acid was heated in a sealed tube with 20 c.c. of fuming hydriodic acid for six hours at a temperature of 210-230° C. The gas which collected in the tube consisted largely of carbon-dioxide, and the abietic acid was transformed into a hydrocarbon. This was purified in the usual Way. It was then found to boil for the most part at 245-255° C. at 84 mm. pressure. The quantity of material was insufficient for a complete purification ; but the analytical results and physical constants leave little doubt that the product of the action of hydriodic acid is identical with that formed by the distillation under diminished pressure. The analyses gave : — * Berichte, 17, 1885. 31 482 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics. Calculated for G\%EL^. Found. C = 88-5 88-2 H = 11-5 10-9 Specific gravity = 0962. Refractive index = 1-5317. Boiling-point = 245-255. Liebermann's hydrocarbon boiled at 330°-340° (at ordinary pressure), and contained 1 per cent, more hydrogen than the compound here described — it was probably dihydroabietene produced by the reducing-action of the hydriodic acid and phosphorus at the higher temperature. Distillation of Rosin with Superheated Steam. Preliminary Report. Sixteen hundred and fifty -five pounds weight of rosin (N quality) was placed in a 3-ton stearine still, melted, and superheated steam blown through the mass. When the tem- perature of the still-head had risen to 268° C. an oily distillate began to come over. The temperature gradually rose to 299° C. The distillate was almost colourless, and set upon cooling to an almost colourless resin. At 305° C. the distillate was wrater-white. At 310° C. it began to darken, and came over more slowly. The temperature was accordingly raised, until at 332° C. the distillation was stopped, and the pitch blown out by the pitch-pipe. During the whole distillation the third, fourth, and fifth coils of the still yielded a viscous distillate which did not set on cooling. The quantities obtained were as follows : — Lb. Per Cent. Hard distillate ... ... 1,052 63-6 Soft „ ... ... 424 25-6 Pitch and loss ... ... 179 10-8 The pitch being very hard a great portion of it refused to leave the still, a fact that made itself abundantly evident the next time the still was used. Hitherto only the light-coloured portion of the distillate has been analysed. It contained C = 79-7 ; H = 9-7 ; and thus consisted principally of abietic acid. The other portions of the distillate are under examination. In conclusion, the authors desire to express their indebted- ness to Messrs. Newton and Son and to the directors and secretary of the New Zealand Candle Company for the assist- ance they have given in the carrying-out of the above investigation. L— MISCELLANEOUS— continued. Art. LIX. — On a Supposed Magnetic Sense of Direction in Bees. By F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., B.Sc. [Read before the Philosopliical Institute of Canterbury, 26th Novem- ber, 190:i.] At the close of Captain Hutton's address on " Our Migratory Birds," delivered at the annual meeting of this society on the 3rd April, 1901, Dr. Farr suggested that birds might be possessed of a magnetic sense by which they were guided in their migrations, and he also suggested that it was by some such sense that bees found their way back to their hives. The suggestions passed from my memory until I read Mr. Hudson's presidential address on " The Senses of Insects," delivered before the Wellington Philosophical Society in the same year.* There Mr. Hudson detailed Eomanes's experi- ments on the sense of direction, and repeated the conclusion to which Eomanes and Lord Avebury independently came — viz., that ants and bees do not find their way home by any special sense of direction, but by a knowledge of the district in which they are working. During the same week I was working with my bees, and in the busy time of the day, when many of the bees were out foraging, I had occasion to move a hive 3 ft. to one side. In a few minutes a number of bees had alighted on the former site of the hive, and crawled about there, or rose and circled round the spot, without making any attempt to enter the hive standing only a foot or two away. All those that were out at work when the hive was moved came back to the old site, and stayed there until night fell, when they perished of cold ; and this experience is not exceptional, but is familiar to all bee- keepers. On the face of it, it does not seem that the bees find their way to their hive by sight, or they should see their hive and fly to it, instead of flying to a place where there is no hive to be seen. It would rather look as if they felt by some unknown sense the direction in which they set out, and * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiv., p. 18. 484 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. blindly came back to the same place. On the other hand, if during the night a hive is moved to a distance much greater than that I have mentioned — say, 50 yards — the bees in the morning will start work quite freely ; none will go back to the old site, but all will find their way back to their new position. This also looks as if these insects had a sense of direction, and came back to the point from which they set out on any particular journey. On another occasion I had reason to bring a hive into my laboratory to have them under close observation. There are four similar windows close together, but of these the bottom sash of only one opens. I opened that for the bees to come in and out by, left the other three closed, and put the hive with its door facing the open window. Many of the bees on leaving the hive struck the closed windows, stayed on the glass for a time, and I never saw one in such circum- stances leave the glass and drop down to the hive, 2 ft. away, or go round to the open window, 12 in. away. They all — to the number of hundreds — stayed on the glass till they fell dead or dying on to the sill. After the first day I blocked the other windows, and left them so for a fortnight, by the end of which time the bees were thoroughly used to their new quarters, and were working and breeding vigorously. It is fair to presume that by now practically all the bees in the hive were familiar with the open window, and the way in and out. I raised the blinds, and again all those that struck the glass stayed there and died, though they surely knew of the open window just beside them. In this case, too, it hardly seemed that the bees could see for any distance sufficient to warrant the supposition that they found their way about by sight, or they surely would have flown back to their hives. Such are the facts and considerations that induced me to undertake the experiments I am about to record. At the same time, I may state that I did not believe in a sense of direction. On one occasion I moved a hive 50 yards during the night, and shut it up till I was at liberty to deal with it in the morning. I then took oat fifty bees and marked them, carried them 200 yards across the garden and liberated them. They all went back to the place where the hive had been on the previous night. This in itself disproved the idea of a sense of direction, and proved that the bees found their way by sight ; and numerous other experiments, and chiefly those by Romanes, clearly prove the same facts. The apparent want of sight argued in my other experiences is easily explained by the consideration that the actions of bees are prompted not by reason, but by instinct, which I think in no other case is so well characterized by its true epithet of "blind instinct." Hilgendorf. — Sense of Direction in Bees. 485 However, notwithstanding my conviction that there was no sense of direction in bees, Dr. Farr's theory seemed well worth testing, and I tested it by the following experiments : — 1. I saw that in some cases it would be necessary to work with drones instead of with workers, owing to the difficulty of handling the latter. So I first proved that drones would come home rapidly and unfailingly from any distance that I was likely to experiment from. I took ten drones and rolled them in flour, and carried them away from the hive to the distance of one-third of a mile. All returned within five minutes. 2. I tried the same experiment with workers, but it failed entirely. The workers settled on the grass or a tree and cleaned themselves of the flour before they came home ; many also, since they were out, stayed out for their load of honey or pollen, and so by the time of their return were unrecognisable. After various other attempts to secure an easy way of watching the bees come home I was forced to adopt the arrangement that Romanes made in his experiments and have the experimental hive indoors. My first attempt to test the magnetic suggestion was to put the bees in a box of soft iron, of sufficient thickness of wall and of sufficiently con- tracted content to screen off all the earth's magnetism from the bees inside the box. This proved exceedingly incon- venient, and I then determined to use a powerful bar mag- net, which would so distort the lines of force due to the earth's magnetism as to render them inappreciable to the bees carried close to the magnet. (a.) I took twenty-seven bees from the hive and carried them 100 yards away round to the back of the building. Nine bees had returned within two minutes, twenty-four within fifteen minutes, twenty-six within forty-five minutes; and one did not return, and was probably injured during capture or transit. Those that came back between two and fifteen minutes from liberation were usually laden with pollen, having seized the opportunity for commencing work. (b.) I took twenty-six bees to the same place, carrying them on their outward journey in a test-tube lying on a bar magnet with the north pole held pointing south. Twenty- two bees had returned within fifteen minutes, and the twenty-six within thirty minutes. (c.) I took twenty-eight bees to the same place in the same manner, but this time the north pole, on which they were held, was rotated horizontally, so as to point to all points of the compass many times during the journey. Twenty- one bees had returned within three minutes, and the twenty- eight within fifteen minutes. 486 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. (d.) I took eighteen bees to the same place in the same manner, but held them between the north and south poles of a strong horse-shoe magnet, which I rotated horizontally and vertically during the journey. Four bees had returned within two minutes, thirteen within five minutes, and the eighteen within fifteen minutes. The bees were coming home rather better in the latter experiments : this was due probably to the increasing tempera- ture of the day. These experiments give a sufficiently clear proof of at least one thing: viz., that if the bees do find their way home by a magnetic sense they do not do so in the way that we should. They do not take their bearings in their outward journey and then reduce their traverse and set home along the resultant line. If all the lines of force due to the earth's magnetism are exactly the same, the experiments prove that the bees do not find their way home by magnetic sense at all. It is exactly as if a man lived in a uniform plain crossed by a great number of parallel and exactly similar tracks. When he left his home he would say, " I have crossed thirteen tracks to the north, thirty-two to the east," and so on, and then would be able to strike straight back home ; but if he were led away from home blindfolded, so that he could not count the tracks, and then given his sight, he would not be able to tell in which direction his home lay. If the tracks were similar, if he were led away blindfold, and if he found his way back, we could say he did not find his way home by sight. This is exactly what I did with the bees. I blind- folded their magnetic sense, and they found their way home ; so that I can say they did not do so by magnetic sense. But let us suppose all the tracks across the uniform plain were not similar. Suppose they increased in breadth in regular succession, one being 1 in. wide, the next 2 in., the next 3 in., &c, and the cross-tracks the same. Then a man would know " My house is at the intersection of the track 3 ft. wide and the track 9 in. wide." Now lead him away from home blindfold and then set him free : no matter where he is he will return to his home. Let us apply this case to the bees. Suppose the lines of force due to the earth's magnetism are not all exactly similar, but increase in strength in a particular direction. Then the bee, no matter where it was taken, would, when liberated, know what line of force it was on, would know in what direction lay the line of force on which its hive was, and would fly direct for that. In this sup- posititious case my former experiment was completely in- conclusive, because I blindfolded the magnetic sense of the bees and then gave them their sight in a locality with which they were perfectly acquainted. It was to meet Hilgendokf. — Sense of Direction in Bees. 487 this possible view of the case that I made the following experiments. 3. I here wished to disturb or annul the magnetic field in which the bees usually lived, both on their outward and homeward journey: to follow up my original illustration, to obliterate all the tracks across the plain, and make only one broad and distinct track, that would go wherever the man went, and disappear immediately behind him. To do this I at- tached a small powerfully magnetized needle to the back of the thorax of the bee, carried him 100 yards away from his hive, and liberated him. The attached magnet was sufficiently strong to hold a small suspended magnet at right angles to the lines of force of the earth's magnetism. The weight of the attached magnet and the adhesive used was 40 milli- grammes ; the average weight of the bees used was 120 milli- grammes ; so that the load was one-third of the bee's own weight. I used drone bees in this experiment, as they were stronger, to carry the magnet, and as workers would have injured themselves by using their stings during the fixing of the magnet. I fastened the magnets to the bees in all direc- tions— i.e., with the north pole pointing over their head, with the south pole pointing over their head, and with the poles pointing to left and right of the bees. About one-third of the bees were unable to carry their burden, and fell into the grass when liberated. These were not counted, only those that flew into the air from my hand being included in the following numbers : Bees liberated, 12 ; returned home, 8. Of the four that were lost two were evidently weak on starting, and the number that returned was large considering the disadvantages they were flying under. This experiment answers the objection I supposed, and makes it still more improbable that the bees find their way home by magnetic sense, for this sense was in effect blind- folded, both on their outward and return journeys, and still they came home. The only other objection I can conceive is this : Suppose the attached magnet were not strong enough to completely obliterate the lines of force of the earth's magnetic field, but only to distort them, then, since in the last experi- ment the lines were distorted consistently equally on the outward and homeward journey, the distortion might not count for anything. A little consideration of the two former experiments will prove that this objection is invalid, but with a view to refuting it experimentally I made my last test. 4. In this case I took the bees away from home in their natural magnetic field. At 100 yards away I fastened to them the magnet in all the three positions before mentioned, and then liberated them : Bees liberated, 5 ; returned home, 3. Thus in the third case also it appeared that the bees' power 488 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. of finding their way home was not impaired by the dis- turbing of their magnetic field. These experiments seem to me to prove clearly enough that bees do not find their way back to their homes by a magnetic sense of direction. As to how they do find their way home, I agree that they have an intimate sight ac- quaintance with the locality in which they are working, and that they fly from one large known object to another. I have never seen the muscular sense alluded to as a source of the information by which the bee finds its way home. Yet this sense appears to me very important as assisting the sense of sight ; or it might even be that it is of equal importance with sight, by which it is checked and corrected. When a bee alights on the spot from which its home has been moved, on missing its home it flies back to some large known object, from which it seems to take its bearings, and then again flies straight to the old position of the hive. I had a hive on the east side of an open window, and facing it, so that a bee had to fly west to get out of the window. I turned the hive round to the west side of the window, but still facing it. The bees leaving the hive still tried to fly westward, and struck themselves against the front of the hive, and lost the opening of the window, just as a man will habitually turn to the right or left when he leaves his house-door. As for the bees that were coming home from work, when they got to the window they were hopelessly lost, and hovered about the old position, although the new position of the lighting-board was not 18 in. from the old. In their circling flight they often struck the hive or rested on the lighting-board, but that was of no assistance to them, as they immediately flew off again to look or feel for their home. When the hive was returned to its original position they rushed in at the opening with a contented hum. These facts seem to indicate that the bees are not dependent on the sense of smell for finding the hive, and that their sense of sight is not sufficient to guide them in new situations, and that they largely depend on the muscular sense. To settle these points is, however, beyond my present pur- pose, which was merely to accurately compute the value of the suggestion that bees found their way home by a magnetic sense of direction. If any further proof were needed that the bees do find their way home by sight the following experiments would furnish it. I took a hive from my laboratory after having it closed all night, and put it 300 yards away in the garden. I opened it at 11 o'clock on a fine sunny day. The bees came out, and, apparently tempted by the fine weather, set off working without taking sufficient notice of their surround- Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neiv Zealand. 489 ings, for of the whole colony I estimate that one-twentieth came back to the laboratory — the old position of the hive. On the other hand, I moved a hive similarly but opened it after dark, and then next day no bees came back to the old position of the hive, because, I suppose, when the first few came out at daylight they did not fly off to work at once, but took short flights round the hive and so recognised their new location. Art. LX. — List of Papers on the Geology of Neio Zealand. By A. Hamilton. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th March, 1903.] In this list of papers on subjects relating to the geology of New Zealand I have endeavoured to bring together in a con- venient form for reference the titles of the various reports, papers, essays, and stray notes not only directly and purely geological, but those which contain information on subjects such as mining and mineralogy, petrography and palaeon- tology, which must of necessity be considered by a practical geologist. The chief store of information is, of course, the series of reports by Sir James Hector, Director of the Geological Sur- vey of New Zealand, from 1862 to date ; and it is hoped that, failing an elaborate and costly index to these reports, such as that published for the reports of the Geological Survey of Canada, the present list, arranged under the names of the various officers of the Survey and other writers, will have some value to those in search of information on any par- ticular district or subject. The other publications which have been searched are the "Transactions of the New Zea- land Institute," so far as published papers are concerned, extracts having been made from the Proceedings in only a few special cases, the " Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society" of London, the "Geologist," and sundry other publications in various parts of the world. In some subjects, such as earthquakes, gold and coal mining, ironsand-wrorking, many additions could be made to the fist by those specially interested. I am in hope, however, that some one with leisure will not only greatly extend this list, but will rearrange the entries under headings similar to those in the annual " Geological Eecord," thereby making reference more easv. 490 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. The numerous palaeontological papers treating of the extinct birds of New Zealand have been already given in a list published in vol. xxvi. of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," and vol. xxvii., p. 229, 1894. [Note. — In the following list "Trans." means the "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute."] Author. Title. Name of Publication. Andrews, E. W. . . Pebbles and Drifting Sand Trans, xxvi. 397 Allen, P. B. Minerals in the Gold-bearing N.Z. Mints Record, ii Reefs of the Thames Notes on the Valuation of Gold N.Z. Mines Record, iv. Specimens 147. Tellurium in the Ores of the Trans. Aust. Inst. of Min- Hauraki Goldfields ing Eng. 1901 ; N.Z. Mines Record, iv. 468. Baker, J. H. On Mount Cook Glacier Motion Aust. Assoc. Adv. 153. Sci. iii. Barff , Ed. Notes on the Recent Changes in the Apex of Mount Cook Trans, vi. 379. Beal, L. 0. On the Deposition of the Allu- vial Deposits in the Otago Goldfields iii. 270. The Alluvial Deposits of Otago xxi. 332. Beetham, G. Account of Two Journeys to the Summit of Ruapehu (abstract) vii. 423. Binns, G. J. Report on Haamatite at Para- Rep. N.Z. Geol.Surv. 59 para 1878-79. On a Striated Rock - surface Trans, xxi. 335. from Boatman's, near Reefton Blackett Report on the Buller and Grey Nelson Gazette, May 12, Coalfields xi. No. 14, 186E . Blair, W.N. Building Materials of Otago . . Dunedin, 1879. Blanchard, Emile Proofs of the Subsidence of a Southern Continent during Recent Geological Epochs. Republished (abstract) from " Comptes Rendus " N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. i. 251. Boehm, Georg Reisenotizen aus Neu-Seeland Abd. a.d. Zeitschr. d Deutsch. Geol Gesel- lenschaft, 1900. Bonney, T. G. Review of Harper, A. E., Pioneer Work in the Alps of New Zea- land. London, 1896 Nature, lv. 458. Review of Fitzgerald, E. A., Iv. Climbs in the New Zealand Alps. London, 1896 Review of Green, W. S., The xxix. 281 . High Alps of New Zealand, or a Trip to the Glaciers of the Antipodes. London, 1883 Bramhall, H. The Mineral Resources of New Trans. Liverpool Geol. Zealand Assoc. 1883. Buchanan, J. On the Wanganui Beds Trans, ii. 163. On the BelemniteBedsat Amuri Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bluff 1867. Hamilton. — Paper* on the Geology of New Zealand. 491 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Bunbury, C. Burnett . . Cadell, H. M. Campbell, W. D. Carpenter, W. Lant Carruthers, J. Chapman, H. S. Collie, W. Connelly, T. F. Cox, S. Herbert The Geysers of New Zealand . . Report on that Part of the Grey Coalfields situated at Moki- hinui ; also on Part of the \ Grey Coalfield North of the Buller River An Account of the Wangapeka and Batten Goldfields Trials of West Coast Coals Report of the Grey Coalfield North of the Buller River Gold-mining in Hauraki District, New Zealand Report on the Kanieri and Grey River Coal Districts On Crystalline Rocks Notes on a Pseudomorphous Form of Gold On the Hot Lake District and the Glacier Scenery and Fjords of New Zealand (abstract) On the Siliceous and other Hot Springs in the Volcanic Dis- trict of the North Island of New Zealand Volcanic Action regarded as due to the Retardation of the Earth's Rotation On the Formation of Detached Shingle Beaches Earthquakes in New Zealand . . Remarks on Volcanoes and Geysers in New Zealand Exploration of Tongariro Report on Antimony-mine, Queen Charlotte Sound Report on Coal at Wairarapa . . Report on Nelson District Report on Raglan and Waikato Districts Report on Survey of Buller Coalfield Report on the Geology of Re- solution Island, Dusky Sound Report on Argentiferous Lode at Collingwood (Richmond Hill Silver-mine) Report on the Westland Dis- trict Report on the Country between Poverty Bay and Napier Fraser's Mag. 761, 1879 ; Living Age, 812, 1879. Nelson Gazette, April 20, xi. No. 8, 1863. Nelson Gazette, June 8, xi. No. 16, 1863. Nelson Gazette, July 6, xiv. No. 16, 1866. Nelson Gazette, Nov. 3, x. No. 21, 1862. Trans. Fed. Inst. Mining Eng. 1, 1895. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 31, 1876-77. Trans, xiv. 450. xiv. 457. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 742, 1881. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 742, 1881 ; Nature, xxiv. Sept. 15. Trans, viii. 351. x. 475. Westminster Rev. li. 390. Trans, xii. 418. Nature, Feb. 28, Ixxviii. 346. Rep. N.Z. 3eol. Surv. 2, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z Geol. Surv. 7, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 9, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 17, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 30, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 59, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 63, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 96, 1874-76. 492 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title. Name of Publication. Cox, S. Herbert Report on Coal - measures at i Jackson's Bay Report of Survev of Buller Coal- field Notes on the Valley Systems on the Western Flanks of Mount Cook Report on the Geology of the Mount Somers District Report on Waikato District Report on the Geology of the Whangarei District Report on the Country between Opotiki and the East Cape Report on Richmond Hill Silver- mine Report on the Tuapeka Cements Report on the Wakatipu and Greenstone Districts Report on the D'Urville Island Copper-mine Report on certain Mines in the Nelson and Collingwoo;! Dis- tricts and the Geology oE the Riwaka Range Geology of the Rodney and Marsden Counties Auriferous Reefs in the Rimu- taka Ranges (Brandon's Reef) Notes on the Mineralogy of New Zealand Chrome-deposits of Nelson Supplementary Report Aniseed Valley Company's Cop- per-mine Supplementary Report District between the Aorere and Takaka Valleys, Collingwood Wallsend Colliery, Collingwood North Island District, including Thames, Coromandel, Island of Kawau, and Drury Coal- fields Richmond Hill Silver-mine On certain Points connected with the Geology of the Auck- land District Notes on the Mineralogy of New Zealand Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 94, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 106, 1874-76. Trans, ix. 577. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1876-77. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 11, 1876-77. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 95, L876-77. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 107, 1876-77. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 155, 1876-77. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 42, 1878-79. Ron. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 53, 1878-79. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 55, 1878-79. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. 1879-80. Trans, xiv Rep. N.Z. 1881. Rep. N.Z. 1881. Rep. N.Z. 1881. Rep. N.Z. 1881. Rep. N.Z. 1881. Rep N.Z. 1881. Rep. N.Z. 1881. Geol. Surv. 13, Geol. Surv. 11, 418-450. Geol. Surv. 3, Geol. Surv. 8, Geol. Surv. 10, Geol. Surv. 12, Geol. Surv. 42, Geol. Surv. 16, Geol. Surv. 17, Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 13, 1881. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 92, 1881. Trans, xv. 409. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neiv Zealand. 493 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Cox, S. Herbert . . On a New Mineral belonging to the Serpentine Group (Hec- torite) Trans, xv. 409. The District around Norsewood Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1882. Goldfields of Cape Colville Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 4, Peninsula 1882. On certain Alluvial Gold-work- Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 51, ings in Westland 1882. On Shag Valley Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 55, 1882. Brockley Coal-mine and Sur- Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 57, rounding District 1882. On the District between Colling- Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 62, wood and Big River 1882. On the History of the Aorere Trans, xvi. 548. River, Collingwood, since Mio- cene Times On the Occurrence of some xvi. 448. New Minerals in New Zea- land Quartz Reefs at Gollan's Valley Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 11, 1883-84. Maruia and Upper Buller Dis- Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, tricts 18S3-84. Coal Prospects at Whau Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 10, 1S83-84. Mount Somers and Malvern Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 22, Hills District 1883-84. Terawhiti, Duke of Wellington Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 66, Mine 1883-84. Terawhiti, Success Mining Claim Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 82, 1883-84. Motueka Water-supply Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 87, 1883-84. Aorere River Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 67, 1883-84. Springfield Colliery Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 19, 1883-84. Nelson Champion Copper-mine Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 84, 1883-84. Westland Sluicing Claims Rep. N.Z. Geol Surv. 88, 1883-84. Mount Somers Porphyries Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 107, 1S83-84. Springfield Coal-mine Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 25, 18S5. Crawford, J. C. Geological Reports Wellington Prov. Council Papers, pp. 17, 19, 30, 47-56. Essay on the Geology of the Dunedin, 1865, Trans, i. North Island pt. 3 ; i. n.e. 305. On Boulders and Travelled Trans, i. n.e. 19. Blocks in the Wellington Pro- vince 494 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title. Nanie of Publication. Crawford, J. C. On Indications of Change in the Level of the Coast-line of the Southern Part of the North Island Trans. i. 38. On Alluvial Gold in the Province ft ii. 160. of Wellington On the Geology of the Port Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xi. Nicholson District 530. On the Geology of the Province Trans. ii. 343. of Wellington (lecture) Notes on the Miramar Peninsula, // v. 396. Wellington Harbour Port Nicholson and an Ancient vi. 290. Fresh-water Lake Did the Great Cook Strait River // vii. 448. flow to the North-west or South-east ? On the Probability of finding viii. 379. Extensive Coal-deposits within the Province of Wellington On the Igneous Rocks of Wel- // viii. 375. lington On the Old Lake Systems of New ti viii. 369. Zealand, with some Observa- tions on the Formation of the Canterbury Plains On Probable Reasons why Few n ix. 561. Fossils are found in the Upper Palaeozoic and Possible Trias- sic Rocks of New Zealand An Attempt at an Explanation it ix. 560. of the Origin of Mineral Veins, particularly those of Gold and Silver On Gold in the Wellington Pro- ii x. 477. vincial District On Wind-formed Lakes n xii. 415. On Bidwill's Front Hills ii xii. 416. On Changes in the Hataitai ii xvii. 342. Valley On Water-worn Pebbles in the •i xvii. 341. Soil Cussen, L. Notes on the Physiography and Geology of the King Country ii xx. 316. Thermal Activity in the Rua- „ xix. 374. pehu Crater Notes on the Piakoand Waikato n xx vi. 398. River Basins Cutten, W. H. Origin and Progress of Gold- The Engineers' Mag. 1900 ; dredging in New Zealand NZ 352. . Mines Record, iii. Daintree, R. Notes on the Microscopical Structure of certain Igneous Rocks submitted by the Direc- tor of the Geological Survey of New Zealand Trans. vii. 458. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neio Zealand. 495 Author. Dana, James Darwin, Charles Davie, Cyrus Davis, E. H. Davis, J. VV. De Lautour, H. A. DennistoD, R. B. Tit'e. Name of Publication. Dieffenbach, Ernest Dobson, A. D. Don, J. R. Duncan, Professor M. Dumerque, T. P. . . Geology, chapter viii. Remarks on the Elevation. of the Land ; and as a Note : a Cata- logue of Rocks met with at Bay of Islands On the Earlier Earthquake Waves observed on the Coast of New Zealand On the Geology of the Nelson Province On a New Form of Iron-pyrites Notes on the Thames Goldfields On the Nomenclature of Rocks Notes on Crystallized Sulphur from White Island Note on a Species of Scymnus from the Upper Tertiaries of New Zealand, Napier Series. Esk River (S. anitus) On the Fossil Marine Diato- maceous Deposit near Oamaru Coal Exploration, Auckland Dis- trict Report on the Green Island Col- lieries Detailed Notes on the Buller Coalfield Travels in New Zealand, with Contributions to the Geo- graphy, Geology, Botany, and Natural History of that Coun- try On the Geology of New Zealand (abstract) On the Traces of Ancient Gla- ciers in Nelson Province On the Destruction of Land by Shingle - bearing Rivers, and Suggestions for Protection and Preservation On the Date of the Glacial Period: a Comparison of the Views represented in Papers published in the Transactions N.Z. Inst. v. and vi. Notes on the Glacial Period . . Description of a Remarkable Dyke on the Hills near Heathcote The Genesis of Ore-deposits On some Fossil Alcyonarians from the Tertiary Deposits of New Zealand Notes on the Eruption of Tara- wera as observed at Opotiki U.S. Exp. Exp. x. 437. Geol. Obs. on Volcanic Islands, 142, 1844. Trans, ii. 222. Rep. N.Z,. Geol. 103, 1870-71. Trans, iii. 287. Rep. N.Z. Geol. 56, 1870-71. Trans, iii. 285. iii. 285. Surv. Surv. Geol. Mag. 315, 1888. Trans, xxi. 293. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 114, 1876-77. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 143, 1876-77. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 121, 1874-76. 1843. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 50. 1845. Trans, iv. 336. iv. 153. vii. 440. vi. 294. xiii. 391. Trans. Au*t. Inst. Mining Eng. xxvii. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xxxi. 675. Trans, xix. 382. 496 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title. Name of Publication. Dunlop, Robert . . Etheridge, Eobert, jun. Ems, J. D. Ettingshausen, Constantin von Field, H. C. Filhol, H. Firth, J. C. Forbes, H. 0. Forbes, Charles Forster, J. R. Fox, C. E. Friedlander, B. Galvin, P. Geikie, A. Gillies, R. The New Zealand Coal and Oil Company's Works at Orepuki Note on the Volcanic Eruption in New Zealand On Sand- worn Stones from New Zealand Earthquake Disturbances in North Canterbury Contribution to the Knowledge of the Fossil Flora of New Zealand Ueber die Genetische Gliede- rung der Flora Neu Seelande, 1883 On the Fossil Flora of New Zealand A Fossil Egg Notes on the Recent Earth- quakes Geological and Zoological Ref- lations of Campbell Island with the Neighbouring South- ern Lands Report on the Geology of the Campbell, Auckland, and Stewart Islands Deep-sinking in the Lava-beds of Mount Eden On Avian Remains found under Lava-flow near Timaru, Can- terbury On a Recent Discovery of the Remains of Extinct Birds in New Zealand On Subfossil Bones of Extinct Birds of New Zealand and Chatham Islands Discovery of Cave Dwellings . . On the Geology of New Zealand, with Note on its Carboni- ferous Deposits Observations made on a Voyage round the World The Volcanic Beds of the Waite- mata Series Some Notes on the Volcanoes of the Taupo District Eruption of Te Mari Handbook of New Zealand Mines. (Preface by Hon. W. J. Larnach) Volcanic Eruptions in New Zea- land Account of a Visit to a Hot Spring called Te Puia, near Wa- ngape Lake, Central Waikato N.Z. Mines Record, iv. 219. Geol. Mag. 398, 1886. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xxxiv. 86. N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. i. 176. Trans, xxiii. 237 ; Den- ksch. liii. pt. 1. Wien Akad. Sitzb. 1884, abth. i. 1203 Geol. Mag. 363, 1887. N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. ii. 325. Trans, xxx. 447. Acad. Sci. Paris, Feb. 27, 1882. Rep. Transit of Venus Exp. 1878. Trans, vii. 460. xxiii. 366. Nature, xlv. 416. xlvi. 404. xli. 209. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xi. 521. Geol. of N.Z. 15-29, 1778. Trans, xxxiii. 452. xxxi. 498. Nature, lxii. 180. 1887. Contemp. Rev. i. 481 ; Living Age, liii. 408. Trans, ii. 169. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neiv Zealand. 497 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Gold-Smith, E. C. Goodall, John Gordon, H.F., and McKay, A. Gordon, H. A. Griffiths, G. S. Guppy, R. Lech- mere Haast, Sir J. von . . Description of Mayor Island, Bay of Plenty On the Formation of the Timaru Downs Exploration in the Urewera Country The Hysteromorphous Aurifer- ous Deposits of the Tertiary and Cretaceous Periods in New Zealand Outline History of the Coal, Gold, and other known Mine- ral Resources of New Zealand On the Source of Gold and other Metals A Glacial Epoch in the Southern Hemisphere Kitchen Middens of New Zea- land Report of a Geological Survey of Mount Pleasant Report of a Topographical and Geological Exploration of the Western Districts of the Nel- son Province Notes on the Geology of the Province of Canterbury Report of the Provincial Geolo- gist on the Coal-measures and Lignitiferous Beds of the River Kowhai Discovery of a Favourable Pass to the Sea above Lake Wa- naka On the Practicability of supply- ing Christchurch with Pure Water by means of Artesian Wells Report on the Malvern Hills Coalfield Report of the Geological Survey of the Province of Canter- bury Notes on the Mountains and Glaciers of Canterbury Report on the Building-stones of the Province of Canterbury (first series) Report on the Formation of the Canterbury Plains, with a Map and Five Sections Glacial Deposits in New Zea- land On Recent Discoveries in New Zealand Trans, xvii. 417. xix. 455. Mines Rep. C.-3, 1895. Trans. Aust. Inst. Mining Eng. xxv. 292. Mines Dept. Rep. 1886. N.Z. Inst. Mining Eng. 1S98; abst. in N.Z. Mines Record, ii. 16. Melb. Rev. Oct. 1885,403. I The Geologist, vi. 65. ' Dec. 19, 1860. Nelson, Jan. 1, 1861. Gov. Gaz. Prov. of Cant. ix.No. 18, Oct. 24, 1862. I Gov. Gaz. Prov. of Cant. x. No. 15, Sept. 3, 1863 ; xi. No. 8, Sept. 23. Cant, newspapers, April 1, 1863. Cant, newspapers, June 19, June 26, 1863. N.Z. Gaz. Sept. 23, 1863. Proc. Prov. Council Cant. Sess. xxii., Aug. 2, 1864. Geogr. Soc. Jrnl. xxxiv. 87, 1864. Christchurch papers, Feb. 4 and 5, 1864. Proc. Prov. Council of Cant. Sess. xxii. 1864. Nat. Hist. Rev. July, 1864. Nat. Hist. Rev. Jan. 1864. 32 498 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Autbor. Title. Name of Publication. Haast, Sir J. von. Report on the Geological Forma- tion of the Timaru District in reference to a Supplv of Water Reports on the Geological Ex- ploration of the West Coast : (a) Lake Sumner ; (b) Hoki- tika ; (c) Mouth of Terema- kau ; (clj Hokitika Report on the Geological Ex- ploration of the West Coast Report on the Head- waters of the River Waitaki Lecture on the West Coast of Canterbury delivered to Mem- bers of the Mechanics' In- stitute Table of Altitudes from Christ- church to Hokitika by Ar- thur's and Browning's Passes Notes on the Causes which have led to the Excavation of Deep Lake-basins in Hard Rocks in the South of New Zealand Notes on a Sketch-map of the Province of Canterbury show- ing the Glaciation during the Pleistocene and Recent Pe- riods as far as explored (1864) Notes on the Climate of the Pleistocene Epoch of New Zealand Report on the Head-waters of the River Rakaia, with Twenty Illustrations and Two Appen- dices Report on the Timaru Water- supply, No. 11 Altitude Sections of the Prin- cipal Routes between the East and West Coasts of the Pro- vince of Canterbury, New Zea- land, across the Southern Alps Notes on the Geology of the Province of Canterbury, New Zealand, principally in refer- ence to the Deposits of the Glacial Epoch at the Western Base of the Southern Alps Notes on the Kev. J. E. Tenison- Woods's Paper " On the Gla- cial Epoch in Australia " On Earthquakes on Land and Sea Christchurch, 1865. Proc. Prov. Council of Cant. Sess. xxiv. April 6, April 22, May 4, May 6. 1865. Proc. Prov. Council of Cant. Sess. xxiv. July 24, 1865. Prov. Council, Aug. 24, 1865. Christchurch, Sept. 25, 1865. Proc. Prov. Council of Cant. Sess. xxiv. Nov. 18, 1865. Quart. J ml. Geol. Soc. xxi. 130; Phil. Mag. xxix. 158. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xxi. 133 ; Phil. Mag. xxix. 159. Phil. Mag. xxix. 398. Christchurch, June 20, 1866. Jan. 2, 1866. Geogr. Soc. Jrnl. xxxvii. 328. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xxxiii. 342 ; Phil. Mag. xxxiv. 399. Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict, viii. 273. Christchurch newspapers, Oct. 23, 1868 ; Trans, i. 196, 147 n.e. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neiv Zealand. 499 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Haast, Sir J. von. , Notes on the Rock Specimens collected by H. H. Travers on Chatham Islands Beschreibung einer Reise von Chri-tchurch nach den Gold- feldern der W Kuste in 1865 Report of Dr. Haast, Provincial Geologist, on the Completion of the Topographical and Geo- logical Survey of the Province of Canterbury (final report) Saurian Remains from the Wai- para River, Canterbury, in the Possession of J Cockburn- Hood On the Geology of the Waipara District of Canterbury, with Geological Map and Sections Saurien in der Tertiarform. in New Zealand Notes on the Thermal Springs in the Ha' mer Plains, Pro- vince of Nelson Geologie aus Neu Seeland Notes on the Geology of the i Central Portion of the Southern Alps, including Mount Cook On the Geology of the Amuri | District in the Provinces of Nelson and Marlborough On the Geology of the Waipara District, Canterbury Preliminary Report on the Mal- vern Hills, Canterbury Report on the Geology of the Malvern Hills Report on the Coal-deposits of the Ashburton District, Can- terbury Reiiort on the Shag Point Coal- fields, Otago Preliminary Report and Memo- randum of Practical Sugges- tions concerning the Malvern Hills Coal mine, Canterbury Notes on the Geology of the Glentui, a Branch of the Ash- >ey River Notes on the Geology of the Clent Hills and Mount Somers District, 21st February, 1S73 Notes to accompany a Geological Map and Sections of the Shag Point District, Otago, 21st February, 1873 Trans, i. 180. Wien, Mittheil. Geog. Gesell.xi. 132,157, 189- 194, 1868. Proc. Prov. Council of Cant. Sess. xxx. 1868. Trans, ii. 186. Geol. Surv. Rep. No. 6, 1870-71. Wien.Verhandl. Geol. 350, 1869. Trans, iii. 293 ; Peter- man n Mittheil. xvii. 95, 1871. Wien, Verhandl. Geol. 246, 1870. Geol. Surv. Rep. No. 6, 19, 1870-1. Geol. Surv. Rep. No. 6, 25, 1870-71. Geol. Surv. Rep. 5, 1870- 71. Geol. Surv. Rep. No. 6, 135, 1870-71. Geol. Surv. Rep. No. 7, 1, 1871-72. Geol. Surv. Rep. No. 7, 141, 1871-72. Geol Surv. Rep. No. 7, 148, 1871-72. Prov. Govt, of Cant. July 5, 1871. Geol. Surv. Rep. No. 7, 85, 1871-72. Geol. Surv. Rep. No. 8, 1, 1872-73. Gt-ol. Surv. Rep. No. 8, 19, 1872-73. 500 Transactions. — Miscellan ous. Author. Title. Name of Publication. Haast, Sir J. von. Haeuster, R. Hamilton, A. Hamilton, W. S.. Hardcastle, J. Trans, vi. 419. Wien, Geol. Verhandl. 253, 1874. On the Geology of the Canter- bury Plains Vorkommen von Brachiopoden im den Kusten von Neu See- land Recent Cavern Researches in Nature, xiv. 576 New Zealand Geology of the Provinces of Canterbury and Westland New Zealand Prehistoric Skele- ton Erosion of River-banks, in Pre- sident's Address On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula On the Progress of Geology On the So-called Hart's Coal- field in the Malvern Hills Further Notes on the Thermal Springs in the Hammer Plains On the Geological Structure of the Southern Alps of New Zea- land in the Provinces of Can- terbury and Westland Notes on the Age and Subdivi- sion of the Sedimentary Rocks in the Canterbury Mountains, based upon the Palreontologi- cal Researches of Von Ettings- hausen The Mineral Resources of New Zealand On the Microscopical Structure of New Zealand Gold On the Foraminifera of the Ter- tiary Beds at Pctane, near Napier On the Septarian Boulders of Moeraki, Otago On the Formation of the Quartz Pebbles of the Southland Plains Notes on the Geology of the Bluff District On the Cause of Volcanic Action The Tarawera Eruption, 10th June, 1886 : a Criticism of Professor Hutton's (and Others') Explanations of the Cause of the Eruption Origin of the Loess Deposit of Timaru Plateau Christchurch, 1879 ; Geol. Mag., 1880, 41 (Review by J. M.). Nature, xiv. 90. Trans, x. 37. xi. 495. N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. i. 395. Geol. Surv. Rep. No. 16, 16, 1883-84. Trans, xiv. 414. „ xvii. 332. xix. 449. Aust. Times and Anglo- New-Zealander, Suppl. 1, Aug. 13, 1886. Trans, xxiii. 335. xiii. 393. xxxiii. 447. xv. 414. xix. 452. xix. 338. xx. 277. xxii. 406. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neiv Zealand. 501 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Hardcastle, J. Harris, G. F. Hayes, F. Hazard, H. D. M. Heaphy, C. Hector, Sir James On the Drift in South Canter- bury On the Timaru Loess as a Climate Register On Glacier Motion British Museum Catalogue : Ter- tiary Fossils, New Zealand Section Explosions in Coal-mines The Thermal Springs in Lake Waikare, Waikato On the Volcanic Country of Auckland On the Gold-bearing District of Coromandel Harbour, New Zealand On the Coromandel Gold-dig- gings, New Zealand Notes relative to the Geology of the Manuherikia Valley Report of Progress of Geological Survey of Otago since 15th April, 1862 Geological Expedition to the West Coast of Otago, New Zealand : Report, with Ap- pendix of Meteorological Ob- servations taken on the West Coast of Otago Departmental Report of the Geological Survey of Otago, 13th April, 1864. Report on Coals of Otago and other Parts of New Zealand On the Geology of the Province of Otago, New Zealand Expedition to the West Coast of Otago, New Zealand, with an Account of a Low Pass from Martin's Bay to Whakatipu Origin of Rock Basins in New Zealand First General Report on the Coal - deposits of New Zea- land, with List of Principal Special Reports on the Coal- deposits of New Zealand which have appeared in the Government Gazette Trans, xxiii. 311. „ xxiii. 324. xxiii. 332. 1897. N.Z. Mines Record, i. 205. Trans, xxiii. 527. Quart Jml. Geol. Soc. xvi. 242; Southern Mo. Mag. 1860. Quart. Jml. Geol. Soc. xi. 31. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. x. 324. Otago Prov. Govt. Gaz. 85, Sept. 3, 1862. Otago Prov. Govt. Gaz. 217, 1862. Otago Prov. Govt. Gaz. 435, Nov. 5, 1863. 1864. Geol. Mag. 233, 1864; Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xxi. 124 ; Phil. Mag. xxix. 157. Jrnl. Roy. Geogr. Soc. xxxiv. 96 ; Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. viii. 47, ix. 32. Geol. Mag. ii. 377. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1866. 502 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title. Name of Publication. Hector, Sir James *Abstract Reports of the Pro- Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. gress of the Geological Sur- 1868 to date. vey of New Zealand Notes on Rocks and Minerals Rep. N.Z.Geol. Surv. 39, mentioned in Captain Hut- 1869. ton's Repnrt on Thames Gold- field Memorandum to accompany Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 45, Geological Sketch-map of Ka- 1869. wau A Further Notice of the Earth- Trans, i. n.e. 4 quake Wave (1st February, 1868) ; also on those of 14th to 18th August On the Recent Earthquakes and „ i. n.e. 35, 47. Wave-phenomena observed in New Zealand Notes on the Geology of the it ii. 176. Outlying Islands of New Zea- land, vith Extracts from Offi- cial Report On Mining in New Zealand ii. 361. (Abstract of Lectures deli- vered at Colonial Museum, Wellington, 24th and 31st July; 21st and 28th August), (Maps and Plans) Preliminary Note on the Bones tl ii. 403. of a Fossil Penguin The Glacial Epoch in New Zea- Geol Mag. vii. 95. land Leading Features of the Geology Trans, iii. 16. of the Kaimanawa and Rua- hine Ranges Notes on the Geology of White „ iii. 278. Island Notes on the Thermal Springs // iii. 297. of the Hanmer Plain On the Geological Structure of Rep. N.Z.Geol. Surv. 46, the Malvern Hills District 1870-71. On the Geology of the Cape Col- Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 88, ville District 1870-71. Notes on the Geology of Hawke's Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bay District 159, 1870-71. On the Remains of a Gigantic Trans, iv. 341. Penguin (Pahpcudyptes an- tarcticus, Huxley) from the Tertiary Rocks on the Coast of Nelson * Abstracts of the work done by the officers of the Survey, and the bearing on the general geology of the country of the facts observed year by year, appear at the com- mencement of each report, and form very important documents. These should all appear under the name of Sir James Hector. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Netv Zealand. 503 Author. Tide. Name of Publication. Hector, Sir James On Recent Moa Remains in New Zealand Report on the Gold-mines in the Province of Marlborough Report on the Coal-mines in the Western District of the Province of Nelson Further Report on the Malvern Hills Coal, Canterbury Report on the Coal - seams at Whangaroa and Mongonui, Auckland Report on the Collingwood Mine, Nelson Report on the Clutha and Green Island Coalfields General Report on the Coals of New Zealand Further Notes on the Bones of a Fossil Penguin (Palce- eudyptes) Fossil Reptilia of New Zealand On the Geoloyyof New Zealand, with special reference to the Drift of that Countrv (abstract) Kaitangata Coal-mine : Memo- randum and Plan On a New Trilobite (Homalo- notus expansus) On the Belemnites found in New Zealand The Ototara Series, New Zealand On the Fossil Flora of New Zealand (abstract) On the Fossil Brachiopoda of New Zea and (abstract) On the Relative Ages of the Aus- tralian, Tasmanian, and New Zealand Coalfields (abstract) On a Deposit of Chalk recently discovered near Oxford, in Canterbury Handbook of New Zealand (Mel- bourne International Exhibi- tion) : Geology Catalogue of Collection of Fos- sils illustrating the Geology of New Zealand Report on Chrome-ores Index to Fossiliferous Localities in New Zealand Naseby Deep-sinking Nature, 184, July 6, 1871. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 119, 1871-72. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 129, 1871-72. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 146, 1871-72. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 153, 1871-72. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 158, 1871-72. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 165, 1871-72. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 172, 1871-72. Trans, v. 438. „ vi..333. Nature, 258, Jan. 27, 1876. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 140, 1876-77. Trans, ix. 602. x. 484. Geol. Mag. 135, 1877. Trans, xi. 536. „ xi. 537. Nature, 112, 1878. Trans, xii. 439. 2nd ed. 19-52, 1880. Appendix to Official Cata- logue, Sydny Exhibi- tion, 1879. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1881. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 118, 1881. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 44, 1883-84. 504 Transactions . — Miscellaneous . Author. Title. Name of Publication.- Hector, Sir James Hector, Sir J., and A. McKay Hill, H. On the Geological Structure of j Trans, xvii. 337 the Canterbury Mountains Coal Strata in Palrnerston South Outlines of New Zealand Geo- logy, with Map. Second Part of Special Catalogue of Geo- logical Exhibits sent to Indian and Colonial Exhibition. Also Appendix to General Index to Reports of Geological Survey On the Mokihinui Coalfield Index to Fossiliferous Localities in New Zealand On the Recent Volcanic Erup- tion at Tarawera Index to the Reports of the Geological Survey of New Zealand, from 1866 to 1885 inclusive Presidential Address at Austral- asian Association for the Ad- vancement of Science (Christ- church, New Zealand) Minerals of New Zealand Index to Fossiliferous Localities in New Zealand distinguished by Numbers Index to Fossiliferous Localities according to Counties New Zealand Geological Sketch- map, constructed from Official Surveys and the Explora- tions of Dr. F. von Hoch- stetter, Dr. J. von Haast, and Others Iron Ores and Sands of New Zea- land (from Handbook, New Zealand, 1886), and Further Notes on the Iron Ores of New Zealand, by A. McKay Geology of Scinde Island and the Relation of the Napier Limestone to Others in the Surrounding District Traces of Volcanic-dust Showers at Napier, Petane, and gene- rally throughout the East Coast Districts North of Cape Kidnapper Description of a Scaphites found near Cape Turnagain On the Artesian-well System of Hawke's Bay Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 182, 1885. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 37, 1886. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 156, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 255, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 240, 1886-87. 1887. Nature, 521, April 2, 1891. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 105, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 120, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 146, 1890-1. Wellington, 1873 ; pub- lished, 1874. N.Z. Mines Record, iii. 472. Trans, xix. 441. „ xix. 385. „ xix. 387. „ xx. 282. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of New Zealand. 505 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Hill, H. 1 Pumice : its Geological Distri- bution on the East Coast of the North Island of New Zea- land, extending from Tolaga Bay to Cape Turnagain Trans, xx. 293. The Oil Prospects of Poverty „ xxi. 320. Bay and the District Descriptive Geology of the Dis- „ xxii. 422. trict between Napier and Rua- pehu Mountain rid Kuripa- panga and Erewhon Artesian Wells (No. 2) „ xx. 429. On the Relations of the Kidnap- xxiii. 340. pers and Pohui Conglomerates to the Napier Limestones and Petane Marls Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe xxiv. 603. Geological Time xxiv. 717. Artesian- water Prospects at Wa- „ xxv. 343. nganui Artesian Wells, Wanganui, New xxv. 348. Zealand Discovery of Artesian Water- xxv. 350. supply at Ruataniwha Plains The Volcanic Outburst at Te „ xxvi. 388. Mari, Tongariro, in Novem- ber, 1892 Notes on the Geology of the „ xxvi. 392. - Country between Dannevirke and Waimii, Hawke's Bay On the Hawke's Bay Pleistocene xxvii. 451. Beds and the Glacial Epoch On the Occurrence of Moa Foot- xxvii. 476. prints in the Bed of the Mana- watu River near Palmerston North The Nuhaka Hot Springs (Mo- xxvii. 478. rere) Denudation as a Factor of Geo- xxviii. 66G. logical Time Ruapehu and the Volcanic Zone xxviii. 681. in 1895 (No. iv.) On Artesian-water Prospects in „ xxix. 567. Poverty Bay and Gisborne On a Volcanic-dust Shower in xxix. 571. Napier On the Geology of the District xxxii. 183. between Napier and Puke- titiri Tongariro, Ngauruhoe, and Rua- Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci. iii pehu as Volcanic Cones 162. Hochstetter, Ferd. Lecture on the Geology of the Nelson Gazette, Oct. 22, von Province of Nelson 1859. Bericht ueber Geologie unter Sitz. Akad. der Wissen suchungen in der Prov. Auck- schaft. zu Wien, xxxvii. land 123. 506 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title Xau:e of Publication. Hochstetter, Ferd. von Hochstetter, Ferd. von, and Mundv, D. L. Hochstetter, Ferd. von* and Peter- rnann, A. Holland, Philip . Hunter, Ashlev . Hut ton, Captain F.W. Report of a Geological Explora- tion of the Coalfields in the Hunua and Drury Districts, in the Province of Auckland The Pakawau Coalfields Ueber die Vulkane Neu Seeland, Dunit, Korniger Olivinfels von Dun Mountain bei Nelson Tabellarische Ueberschecbt der gemengten Massengesteine, Neu Seeland Ueber das Vorkommen und die Neu Seelandischen Nephrit (Punamu der Maoris) Der Franz-Joseph Gletscher in der Sudlichen Alpen Neu Seel and s New Zealand : its Physical Geo- graphy, Geology, and Natural History. (Translated by Sauter) Geologie von Neu - Seeland : Beitrage zur Geologie der Provinzen Auckland und Nel- son Ueber den Ban der Vulkane auf Neu Seeland Palajontologie von Neu Seeland. By Unger, Zittel, Suess, Karrer, Stoliczka, Stache, and Jaeger Rotomahana and the Boiling Springs of New Zealand : Six- teen Views and Descriptive Notes The Geology of New Zealand, in Explanation of the Geographi- cal and Topographical Atlas of New Zealand. (Translated by Dr. C. F. Fischer) Analysis of Hauraki Rhyolite . . Direct Evidence of a Change in the Elevation of the Waikato District. On the Lower Waikato District On the Thames Goldfields On the Geologv of the Island of Pakihi Notes on the Basin of Te Tarata, Rotomahana N.Z. Gazette, Nos. 9-12, 1859. Nelson Gazette, vii. No. 20, 97, 1859. Ausland, No. 46, 1859. Deutsch. Geol. Ge- sellsch. Zeitschr. xvi. 341, 1864. Neues Jahrb. Mineral. 697, 1864. Wien Akad. Sitz. xlix. 466, 480, 1864; Wien Anzeiger, i. 82, 1864. Ausland, 1867; Wien Mitt. Geog. Gesell. (abth.) 57, 1868. Stuttgart, 1867. •'Novara" Exp. Geolog. Theil, i. band, 1 abth.; Neues Jahrb. Miner- alog. 874, 1865. Ausland, 1865. Reise der " Novara," 2 abth. 1864. Review in Nature, Oct. •21, 532, 1875. Auckland, 1864. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. lv. 467. Trans, xvi. 459. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1867. Ditto. Trans, i. 113; i. n.e. 167. i. 162; i. n.e. 106. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of New Zealand. 507 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Hutton, F. W. Captain Remarks on the Earthquake Wave (August, 18G8) On the Geology of the North Head of Manukau Harbour Description of Nga Tutura, an Extinct Volcano in New Zea- land Report on Great Barrier Island Report on East Cape District . . Report on Okarito District Second Report on the Thames Goldfields On a Carbonaceous Mineral from Whangarei Harbour On the Relative Ages of the Waitemata Series and the Brown -coal Series of Drury and Waikato On the Artesian Wells near Napier On the Occurrence of Native Mercury near Pakaraka, Bay of Islands On a Coal - seam discovered near Maramarua Creek, Wai- kato On the Geology of Coromandel Report on the Caledonian Mine, Thames Goldfields Report on the Collingwood Com- pany's Coal mine Report on the Perseverance Company's Gold-mine, Col- lingwood On the Alluvial Deposits of the Lower Waikato and the For- mation of Islands by the River Reports on the Geology of South- land Report on the Northern Coal- fields Synopsis of the Younger Forma- tions of New Zealand On the Date of the Last Great Glacier Period in New Zea- land and the Formation of Lake Wakatipu On the Formation of Lake Wakatipu Lecture on the Formation of Mountains Trans, i. 100. ii. 161. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc xxv. 13; Phil. Mag. xxxviii. 73. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1869. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 7, 1869. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 8, 1869. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 15, 1869. Trans, iii. 250. iii. 244. iii. 251. iii. 251. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1870-71. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 2, 1870-71. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 146, 1870-71. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 157, 1870-71. Rep N.Z. Geol. Surv. 151, 1870-71. Trans, iv. 333. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 89, 1871-72. ReD. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 112, 1871-72. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 182, 1871-72. Trans, v. 384. v. 394. V. xxv. 508 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title. Name of Publication Hut ton, Captain F. W. On the Phenomena of the Eleva- tion and Subsidence of the Earth Report on the Geology of the North-east Portion of the South Island Synopsis of the Younger For- mations of New Zealand Catalogue of the Tertiary Mol- lusca and Echinodermata of New Zealand in the Collection of the Colonial Museum On the Formation of Mountains On the Geological Structure of the Thames Goldfields On the Formation of Mountains : a Reply to the Rev. O. Fisher Description of Three New Ter- tiary Shells in the Otago Museum (Cominella striata, Wanganui ; Zizyphinus hodgei, Wanganui ; Venus sulcata, Napier Limestone) On the Cause of the Former Great Extension of the Gla- ciers in New Zealand On the Relation between the Pareora and the Ahuriri For- mations On the Reptilian Beds of New Zealand Description of some New Ter- tiary Mollusca from Canter- bury What is an Earthquake ? Has the Deep Ocean ever been Dry Land ? Description of some New Ter- tiary Shells from Wanganui Note on the Silt-deposit at Lyttelton On the Lower Gorge of the Wai- makariri On the Orakei Bay Beds, near Auckland Description of New Tertiary Shell On the Geology of Scinde Island New Species of Tertiary Shells The Wanganui System Oxford Chalk Foraminifera Sketch of the Geology of New j Zealand General Geology of New Zea- land Phil. Mag. xliv. 401. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 27, 1872-73. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xxix. 372. 1873. Trans, vi. 264. vi. 272. vi. 284. vii. 458. viii. 383. ix. 590. ix. 581. ix. 593. N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. i. 3. i. 406. Trans, xv. 410. xv. 411. xvi. 449. xvii. 307. xvii. 313. xviii. 327. xviii. 333. xviii. 336. N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. ii. 565. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xli. 191. Nature, xxxi. 305. Hamilton. — Payers on the Geology of Keiu Zealand. 509 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Hutton F. W. Captain Sketch of the Geology of New Zealand (abstract of paper in Geological Society of London, 1885) On the Geological Position of the Weka Pass Stone Correlations of the Curiosity- shop Beds, Canterbury, New Zealand Source of Gold at the Thames . . On the Geology of the Trelissick or Broken River Basin, Selvvyn County On the So-called Gabbro of Dun Mountain On the Geology of the Country between Oamaru and Moeraki Note on the Geology of the Val- ley of the Waihao, in South Canterbury Report on the District traversed by the New Zealand Midland Railway, Cbristchurch On some Railway - cuttings in the Weka Pass On the Greensands of the Wai- hao Porks On some Fossils recently ob- tained from the Cobden Lime- stone at Greymouth On some Ancient Rhyolite from the Mataura District On a Hornblende-biotite Rock from Dusky Sound, New Zea- land Life on the Earth (abstract) . . Rocks of New On the Rocks of the Hauraki Goldfields The Eruptive Zealand The Earthquakes at the Amuri Notes on the Relative Ages of the New Zealand Coalfields Note on the Geology of the Country about Lyell Note on the Eruptive Rocks of the Bluff Peninsula, Southland On the Foliated Rocks of Otago Notes on the Boulders in the Port Hills, Nelson On a New Plesiosaur from the Waipara River On Conchothyra parasitica Corrections of the Names of some New Zealand Rocks N.Z. Jrnl.Sci. ii. 435,486. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xli. 266. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xli. 547. N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. iii. 146. Trans, xix. 392. xix. 412. xix. 415. xix. 430. Sep. pub. Christchurch. xx. 257. xx. 264. xx. 267. xx. 269. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xliv. 745. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci. vii 340. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci i 245. Jrnl. R.S. of N. S. W xxiii. 102. Trans, xxi. 269. xxii. 377. xxii. 387. xxiii. 353. xxiv. 359. xxiv. 365. xxvi. 347. xxvi. 358. xxxi. 483. 510 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title. Name of Publication. Hutton, Captain On a Supposed Rib of the Kumi Trans, xxxi. 485. F. W. On the Footprint of a Kiwi-like Bird from Manaroa xxxi. 486. The Geological History of New xxxii. 159. Zealand Hutton, Captain F. On a Ljucoph\re from the xx. 271. W., and Gray, G. Selwyn Gorge Hutton, Captain F. Description of Arid Island, Hau- i. 108 ; i. n.e. 163. W., and Kirk, T. W. Hutton, Captain F. raki Gulf Report on the Geology and Gold Nature, xiv. 146, 1875; W., and Ulrich, rields of Otago. Review by Geol. Mag. 178, 1880. G. H. F. J. M. Huxley, Professor On a Fossil Bird and a Fossil Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. T. H. Cetacean from New Zealand : Palceeudyptes anta>cticus, Ka- kanui Limestone ; Phoccenop- sis manfelli, Awamoa (Pare- xv. 671. Johnston- Lavis, or < ) The Volcanic Eruption of New Geol. Mag. 5-23, 1886. H. J. Zealand Jaquet, J. B. Gold-dredging in New Zealand Bulletin, Mines Dept N.S.W. 1898; N.Z. Mine- Record, ii. 60. Keddell, Jackson. . Report on Hartley and Riley's Otago Prov. Govt. Gaz. Diggings Sept. 3, 1862. Kirk, T. W. Description of New Tertiary Fossils Trans, xiv. 409. Knight, Charles . . On the Teeth of the Leiodon . . vi. 358. Kolenko, B. Eruptive Rocks from Banks Neues Jahrbr. fur Mine- * Peninsula ral, i. 1, 1885; N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. i. 548. Law, W. Report on the Comparative Rep. N. Z. Geol. Surv. Values of Coals (Auckland Dis- 139, 1876-77. trict) Laing, R. M. A Few Notes on the Thermal Springs at Lyttelton Trans, xvi. 447. Lendenfeld, R. von Der Tasman Gletscher Geology, 50, 1884. Leys, Thompson W. The Volcanic Eruption of Tara- wera Auckland, 1886. Lindop, A. B. Malvern District Coal-mines . . Hep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 15, 1885. Waihao Coalfield Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 21, 1885. Springfield Colliery Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 25, 1885. Acheron Coal-mine Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 13, 1885. Lind-ay, Dr. Lauder On Specimens illustrating the Geology and Mineralogy of New Zealand (exhibited at Royal Society, Edinburgh) The Geologist, vi. 143. Liversidge, Prof. A. On the Crystalline Structure of Gold Nuggets from Klondyke, Victoria, and New Zealand Nature, Ixv. 192. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neiv Zealand. 511 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Liversidge, Prof. A. M. D. .. Macfarlane, D. Maclaren, J. M. McLeod, H. N. Macleod, W. A. Mackay, Thomas Mackinnon, W. M. McKay, A. Analysis of Slate in Contact with Granite from Preserva- tion Inlet, New Zealand Analysis of a Rock Specimen showing the Junction between Granite and Slate Note on some New Zealand Minerals belonging to Otago Museum, Dunedin Dredging on the West Coast of New Zealand: Suggestions as to other Methods of winning the Gold Notes on the Geology of the Jackson and Cascade Valleys On Occurrences of Gold in the Coromandel District On the Geology of Te Mochau . . Castle Rock, Coromandel On Cave- in the Martinborough District, and Moa-bones found therein (ab-tract) Notes on a West Coast Dolerite Notes on a Hypersthene Ande- site from White Island Notes on a Hornblende Trachyte from Tawhetarangi Minerals occurring on the Coro- mandel Goldfield The Glacial Period of New Zea- land Gold-dredging in New Zealand Reports relative to Collection of Fossils in South-east District of Otago : Caversham to Cat- lin's River Reports relative to Collection of Fossils made on the West Coast of the South Dland Reports relative to Collection of Fossils made in East Cape District, North Island Reports on Coal-measures at Shakespeare Bay, Picton Report on Whangaroa North . . Report on Weka Pass and Bul- ler Districts Report on Country between Cape Kidnappers and Cape Turn- again Report on Tertiary Rocks at Makara Trans, xvii. 3-10. x. 505. x. 490. N.Z. Mines Record, iii. 470. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 27, i 876-77. Trans, xxxi. 492. xxxi. 494. xxxii. 213. xxxiv. 562. xxxi. 487. xxxi. 488. xxxi. 490. N.Z. Mines Record, iv. 172; Pari. Paper C.-9, 1900. Trans, vii. 447. Brit. Columb. Mining Rec. Dec. 1899; N.Z. Mines Record, iii. 340. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 59, 1S72-3. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 74, 1872-73. Rep. N.Z. Geol.. Surv. 116, 1872-73. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 32, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 35, 1874-76. j Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 36, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 43, 1874-76. Rep N.Z. Geol. Surv. 54, 1874-76. 512 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title. Name of Publication. McKay, A. Report on Kaikoura Peninsula and Amuri Bluff Report on Cape Campbell District On the Reptilian Beds of New Zealand Report on the Oam aru and Waitaki Districts Report on Country between Mas- terton and Napier On the Occurrence of Gold in the Mackenzie Country Report on the Occurrence of Moa-bones at Taradale, near Napier, Hawke's Bay Report on the Geology of the District between Waipukurau and Napier Report on the Southern Part of the East Wairarapa District Report on the District between Kaituna Valley and Queen Charlotte Sound Report on the District between the Wairau and Motueka Val- leys Reports on the Baton River and Wangapeka District and Mount Arthur Range Report on the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Wellington Mataura Plant-beds, Southland Discovery of Chalk near Oxford, Ashley County On the Trelissick Basin, Selwyn County Curiosity-shop, Rakaia River, Canterbury : Notes to accom- pany a Collection of Fossils from that Locality On the Older Sedimentary Rocks of Ashley and Amuri Counties On the Motunau District, Ashley County District West and North of Lake Wakatipu Coal-discoveries at Shakespeare Bay, near Picton On the Genus Rhynchonella . . Geology of the Waitaki Valley and Part of Vincent and Lake Counties On the Younger Deposits of the Wharekuri Basin and the Lower Waitaki Valley Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 172, 1874-76. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 185, 1874-76. Trans, ix. 581. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 41, 1876-77. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 67, 1876-77. Trans, x. 481. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 64, 1878-79. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 69, 1878-79. Rep. N.Z.'Geol. Surv. 75, 1878-79. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 86, 1878-79. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 97, 1878-79. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 121, 1878-79. Rep. ,N.Z. Geol. Surv. 131, 1S78-79. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 39, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 49, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 58, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 75, 1879-S0. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 83, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 108, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. US, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 147, 1879-80. Trans, xiii. 396. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 56, 1881. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 98, 1881. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Netv Zealand. 513 Author. Title. Name of Publication. McKay, A. Coal - bearing Deposits near Shakespeare Bay, Picton On the Caswell Sound Marble . . On a Deposit of Moa-bones near Motunau, North Canterbury On the Antimony Lodes of the Carrick Range, Vincent County, Otago On Antimony Lode and Quartz Reef at Langdon's Hill, Grey County On the Albion Gold-mining Com- pany, Hutt County On an Antimony Lode at Reef- ton, Inangahua County On the Geology of the Reefton District On the Origin of the Old .Lake- basins of Otago (abstract) On the Igneous Rocks of the East Coast of Otago (ab- stract) Otago North-east District Igneous Rocks of East Welling- ton Otago Lake-basins Otago : Clark's Quartz Drifts . . Kawakawa Coal-mine Serpentinous Dykes at Wade . . Auckland and Mahurangi Sec- tion Whangarei-Hokianga Coalfield Terawhiti Goldfield Kawhia District On the Age of the Napier Lime- stones Kaitangata Coalfield Copper-bearing Rocks in the Malvern Hills Iron-ore near Kawakawa Antimony Lodes at Endeavour Inlet Kaikoura Mountains . . R-p. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 106, 1881. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 115, 1881. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 74, 1882. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 80, 1882. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 83, 1882. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 85, 1882. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 88, 1882. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 91, 1882. Trans, xvi. 550 ; Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 76, 1883-84. Trans, xvi. 547. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 45, 1883-84. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 71, 1883-84. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 76, 1883-84. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 91, 1883-84. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 95, 1883-84. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 99, 1883-84. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 101, 1883-84. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 110, 1883-84. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 135, 1883-84. Rep. N.Z. Geo. Surv. 140, 1883-84. Trans, xviii. 367. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1885. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 5, 1885. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 9, 1885. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 10, 1885. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 27, 1885. 33— Tr. 514 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title. Name of Publication. McKav, A. Scinde Island and Hawke's Bay District Cabbage Bay, Cape Colville Peninsula The Waihao Greensands and their Relation to the Ototara Limestone On the Younger Secondary and Tertiary Formations of East- ern Otago, Moeraki, and Wai- kouaiti On the Grey Marl and Weka Pass Stone in Kaikoura Penin- sula and at Amuri Bluff On the Junction of the Amuri Limestone and Weka Pass Stone, Weka Pass, North Canterbury On the Identity and Geological Position of the Greensands of the Waihao Porks, Waihao Valley, South Canterbury On the Mokihinui Coalfield On the Geology of East Auck- land and the Northern Dis- trict of Hawke's Bay On the Geology of the Malvern Hills, Canterbury On the Geology of the Coast- line, Moeraki Peninsula to Kakanui and North-east Otago On Mineral Deposits in the Ta- rarua and Ruahine Mountains On the Coppe»--ore at Mahara- hara, near Woodville On the Coal Outcrops in the Wairoa Valley and Hunua Range, near Drury, Auckland On certain Calcareous Rocks occurring near Eketahuna, Wairarapa North On the Discovery of Metallifer- ous Rocks in the Patua Range, Taranaki On the Geology of the Northern District of Auckland On the Tauherenikau and Waio- hine Valleys, Tararua Ranges Preliminary Report on the Earthquake of September, 1888, in the Amuri and Marl- borough Districts of the South Island Mahakipawa Goldflelds Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 185, 1885. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 192, 1885. Trans, xix. 434. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 74, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 78, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 91, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 161, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 182, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 230, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 233, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 6, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 16, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 18, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 35, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 37, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 58, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1888-89 ; Bulletin of N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1888, No. 1. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 36, 1888-89. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neiv Zealand. 515 Author. Title. Name of Publication. MoKay, A. The Puponga and Pakawau Coalfields, Collingwood County Stewart Island Tin Marlborough and Amuri Dis- tricts On a Deposit of Diatomaceous Earth at Pakaraka, Bay of Islands On Marlborough and South-east Nelson (Faults) On the Maungahao Coal On the Waimea Coal Tera- On the Old Phoenix Mine whiti On the Limestone and Marble Deposits of Pikikiruna, Nelson On the Prospects of Coal near Otakia, Otago On Coal near Eowley's Farm, near Shag Point On the Quartz Reefs of Nen- thorn, Otago On Antimony on Barewood Run, Taieri River On the Puhipuhi Silver-field, Auckland On Prospects of Coal at Paka- raka, Bay of Islands On the Geology of the Lower Waikaka Valley and Auri- ferous Drift at Switzers On the District surrounding Whangaroa Harbour, Mongo- nui County On the Lignite of Cooper's Beach, Mongonui On the New Cardiff Coal Pro- perty, Mokihinui, between Buller and Mokihinui Rivers On the Mokihinui Coal Com- pany's Property, Coal Creek On the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass Districts On a Diatom Deposit near Paka- raka, Bay of Islands Geological Exploration of the ] Northern Part of Westland. Appendix : List of Rocks and Minerals Report on the Geology of the South-west Part of Nelson and the Northern Part of the Westland District N.Z. Mines Record, iv. 74, 186. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 74, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 85, 1888-89. Trans, xxiii. 375. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 28, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 35, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 38, 1890-91. Rep. NZ. Geol. Surv. 43, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 45, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 50, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 54, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 55, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 59, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 63, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 65, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 72, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 76, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 86, 1890-91. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 97, 1890-91. Trans, xxv. 375. Rep. Mines Dept. 0.-3, 132, 1893. Rep. Mines Dept. C -3, 161, 1895. 516 Tr ansae tions . — Miscellarieous . Author. Title. Name of Publication. McKay, A. Mair, Major W. G. Malfroy , Camille . Marmering, G. Mantell, W. G. A. Marchbanks, J. Marshall, P. Maxwell, J. P. Maxwell, C. F. McKerrow, James Mollet, T. A. Montgomery, A. . . Mueller, Gerhard Murdoch, R. On the Geology of the Cape Col- ville Peninsula Report on the Older Auriferous Drifts of Central Otago Report on the Auriferous Rocks of the Western Slopes of the Victoria Mountains Notes on the Auriferous Iron- sands of New Zealanl Report on the Geology of the Thames and the Southern Goldfields of the Cape Col- ville Peninsula The Gumt iwn Goldfield The Copper Lode in the Rua- hine Range, near Norsewood, Hawke's Bay Notes on the Eruption of Tara- wera Mountain and Rotoma- hana, 10th June, 1886, as seen from Taheke, Lake Rotoiti The Geyser Action of Rotorua. . On the Murchison Glacier Motion in re Skeleton found by Dr. Haast (see Trans. N.Z. Inst, vii.) On the Artesian Wells at Long- burn Tridymite Trachyte of Lyttel- ton On some of the Causes which operate in Shingle -bearing Rivers in the Determination of their Courses and in the Formation of Plains (abstract) On Alteration in the Coast -line of the North Island On the Physical Geography of the Lake District of Otago Description of an Artesian Well sunk at Avonside Some Fossil Plants, Pukerau . . Report on West Coast between Cascade Plateau and Jack- son's River on the North and Lake McKerrow and Holly- ford Valley on the South Description of some New Species of Pliocene Mollusca from the Wanganui District, with Notes on other Described Species Rep. Mines Dept. 1899; N.Z. Mines Record, i. 278. Republished, 1897. N.Z. Mines Record, i. 303. N.Z. Mines Record, i. 395, 446. N.Z. Mines Record, i. 527. N.Z. Mines Record, iii. 265. N.Z. Mines Record, iv. 115. Trans, xix 372. N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. iii. 203; Trans, xxiv. 579. Trans, xxiii. 355. Order Paper, Legislative Council, Oct. 19, 1875; Nature, Jan. 6, 196, 1876. Trans, xxxi. 551. xxvi. 368. xi. 524. „ xxix. 564. iii. 254. xiii. 410. N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. i. 141. Rep. N.Z. Survey Dept. 73, 1883-84. Trans, xxxii. 216. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of New Zealand. 517 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Mulgan, E. K. Park, James On the Volcanic Grits and Ash- beds in the Waitemata Series On the Geology of the Auckland Provincial District Ascent of Mount Franklin, Nel- son Kakahu District Older Fossiliferous Rocks in Nelson On the Geology of the Western Part of Wellington Provincial District and Part of Taranaki Kaipara and Wade Districts . . On the Upper Wanganui and King-country ]££2 On the Gold-discovery at Wai- marino On the Marton Gold-discovery On the Jurassic Rocks of the Hokanui Hills, Mataura, and Waikawa On the Age of the Waiareka Tufas, Quartz Grits, and Coal at Teaneraki and Ngapara, Oamaru On Auriferous Cements of Mount Arthur District On the District between the Dart and Big Bay On the Forest Hill Company's Coal The Ascent of Mount Franklin Narrative of the Ascent of Rua- pehu On Mineral Deposits, Dusky Sound On the Geology of the Waipara and Weka Pass Districts On the Probable Discovery of Oil and Coal in Wairarapa North County On the Wangapeka Silver-mine On the Exploration of the Moa- bone Deposit at Patangata Swamp, Te Aute On the Geology of the Owen and Wangapeka Goldfields The Geology of Bluff Peninsula On the Perseverance Gold-mine, Terawhiti Goldfield Trans, xxxiii. 414. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 136, 1885. Trans, xvii. 350. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 170, 1885. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 188, 1885. R. p. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 24, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 219, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 167, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 155, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 154, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 141, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 137, 1886-87. Trans, xiii. 429. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 121, 1886-87. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 120, 1886-87. Trans, xvii. 350. xix. 327. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 9, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 25, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 20, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 90, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 88, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 74, 1S87-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 72, 1887-88. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 69, 1886-87. 518 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title. Name of Publication. Park, James On the New Goldfield at Tera- whiti On the Extent and Duration of Workable Coal in New Zea- land White's Reef Gold Diggings, Otago Alexandra Gold Diggings, Otago Tinker's Gold Diggings, Otago . . German Hill Gold Diggings, Otago Gallaway Gold Diggings, Otago Ophir District of Otago Antimony Lode, Alexandra, Otago Portobello Reef, Otago Red Hill Mine, Nelson West Wanganui, Nelson Antimony-mine, Endeavour In- let Terawhiti Mine, Wellington . . Rangitikei, Wellington, Coal . . Blue Creek Silver mine, Wanga- peka, Nelson Baton Goldfield, Nelson Quartz Ranges, Nelson Fluor Spar, Baton River, Nel- son Collingwood County On the Conformable Relation of the Different Members of the Waitemata Series On the Prospects of finding Workable ComI on the Shores of the Waitemata On the Occurrence of Native Zinc at Hape Creek, Thames On the Occurrence of Native Silver at the Thames Gold- field On the Occurrence of Granite and Gneissic Rocks in the King-country Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 69, 1887-88. Trans, xxi. 325. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 32, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 30, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 27, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 24, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 22, 1888—89 Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 17, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 33, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 34, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 45, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 49, 1888-89 ; N.Z. Mines Record, iv. 78. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 60, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 63, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 64, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 71, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 69, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 67, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 73, 1888-89. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 191, 1888-89. Trans, xxii. 391. xxiv. 380. xxiv. 384. xxiv. 386. xxv. 353. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neiv Zealand. 519 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Park, James Owen, Sir Richard Peppercorne.Fr. S. Perkins, A. C. Petermann, A., and Hochstetter, P. von Pharazyn, R. Phillips, Coleman Piper, J. W. H. .. Polack, J. Samuel Pond, J. A. The Geology, Resources, and Future Prospects of the Thames Goldfield Notes on the Geology of the Kuaotunu Goldfields On the Occurrence of some Rare Minerals in New Zea- land Notes on the Rhyolites of the Hauraki Goldfields, New Zea- land Notes on some Andesites from Thames Goldfields On the Secular Movements of the New Zealand Coast-line Notes on some Glacier Moraines in the Leith Valley The Geology of Mines and Minerals The Geology and Veins of the Hauraki Goldfields, New Zea- land. Maps and Sections Notes on the Coalfields of New Zealand Cyaniding in New Zealand Notes on Geological Examina- tions of Hauraki Goldfields On Reptilian Fossils discovered by Mr. Cockburn - Hood in New Zealand On Plesiosaurus crassicostatus and P. hoodii Geological and Topographical Sketches of the Province of New Ulster, Auckland Notes on Gold-dredging in New Zealand The Geology of New Zealand . . Remarks on the Coast-line be- tween Kai Iwi and Waitotara, on the West Coast of the Pro- vince of Wellington The Volcanoes of the Pacific . . Notes on Gold-dredging in New Zealand and New South Wales New Zealand Note on a Salt Spring near Hokianga Rep. Mines Dept. C.-3, 29, 1891. Trans, xxvi. 360. Trans, xxvi. 365 ; Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci. iii. 150. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. 55, 1899. Trans, xxxiv. 435. „ xxxiv. 441. xxxiv. 444. Dunedin (sep. pub.), 1902 ; and in Otago Witness. N.Z. Inst. Mining Eng. 1897 ; Auckland ; also N.Z. Mines Record, i. 168. Proc. Inst. Mining and Metall. viii. 146 ; N.Z. Mines Record, iii. 350. Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Eng. xxix. 666; N.Z. Mines Record, iii. 275. N.Z. Mines Record, iii. 376. Trans. Brit. Assoc. 122, 1861. Geol. Mag. vii. 49. 1852. N.Z. Mines Record, iv. 153. Auckland, 1864. Trans, ii. 158. xxxi. 510. Trans, xxxii. 188; N.Z. Mines Record, iii. 429. Vol. i. chap. x. (Mine- ralogy and Geology). Trans, xi. 512. 520 Tr unsac tions. — Miscellaneous . Author. Title. Name of Publication. Pond, J. A. Pond, J. A., and Smith, S. Percy Purnell, C. W. Pyke, Vincent Rickard, T. A. Rocbfort Rowe, W. E. Russell J. C. Russell, J. N. Rutley, Frank Schiff, P Shrewsbury, Hugh S k e y , W . , and McKay, A. On the Occurrence of Plati- num in Quartz Lodes at the Thames Goldfields Observations on the Eruption of Mount Tarawera, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, 10th June, 1886 On the Wanganui Tertiaries . . Report on the Progress, Con- dition, and Prospects of the Goldfields of Otago On the Goldfields of Otago Alluvial Mining in Otago Report on the Coalfields of Nelson On the Antimony-mine at Hin- don, Taieri County On the Stony Creek Antimony- mine, Waipori, Tuapeka County On Waitahuna Copper Lode, near Waipori, Tuapeka County On the Mount Solitary Copper Lode, Dusky Sound, Fiord County Further Report on Mount Soli- tary Copper Lode, Dusky Sound, Fiord County, and Malcolm's Lode Notes on the Ancient Glaciers of New Zealand (reprinted from Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist. N.Y. 1876) Letters from J. N. Russell and Co., of Sydney, reporting the Results of Experiments with Kawakawa Coal Additional Notes on some Erup- tive Rocks from New Zea- land Les Mines D'Or de la Nouvelle- Zelande The Auckland Volcanoes On certain Rare Minerals as- sociated with the Tin-ore of Stewart Island, with Notes on their Mode of Occurrence On Gold : its Formation in our Reefs, and Notes of some Newly Discovered Reactions Note on the Processes in use in the Thames Mining District for the Extraction of Gold from the Matrix Trans, xv. 419. xix. 342. „ vii. 453. Otago Prov. Gov. 219. 1862. Gaz. Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Eng. xxi. 411, 442. ?v; Nelson Gazette, April 11, No. 21, 1863. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 153, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 155, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 156, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 150, 1879-80. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 159, 1879-80. Nature, xvi. 100. Auck. Prov. Council, Sess. xviii. 1865. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. 56, xxvii. Le Genie Civil, iii. 83, 1899; N.Z. Mines Re- cord (review). Trans xxiv. 366. „ xxii. 415. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci. i. 155. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 71, 1870-71. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of New Zealand. 521 Author. Title. Name of Publication. Smith, S. Percy . . On some Indications of Change in the Level of the Coast-line in the Northern Part of the North Island Trans, xiii. 398. Notes of a Traditional Change xi. 314. in the Coast-line at Manukau Heads Sketch of the Geology of the „ ix. 565. Northern Part of Hawke's Bay The Eruption of Tarawera : a 1886. Report to the Surveyor-Gene- ral Geological Notes on the Ker- Trans, xx. 333. madec Group Smith, E. M. Reports of Experts on Taranaki N.Z. Mines Record, iv. Ironsand 47. Speight, R. Notes on some Rocks from the Kermadec Islands Trans, xxviii. 625. On a Dolerite Dyke at Dyer's , xxvi. 408. Pass On an Olivine Andesite of Banks xxv. 367. Peninsula Stewart, J. T. Notes on an Artesian Well at Aramoho xxxiii. 451. Stewart, J. Description of Lava Caves at the Three Kings, near Auck- land ii. 162. Stewart, James . . The Rotorua Railway and Dis- trict xxiv. 591. Stuart, William . . On the Formation of Lake Wakatipu xiv. 407. Suess Palseontologie von Neu Seeland Reise der " Novara," 1864. Taylor, Rev. Rich. The Age of New Zealand Auckland, 1865. " Te Ika-a-Maui," chap. xxvi. . . 1855 and 1870. Teni son-Woods, Corals and Bryozoa of the Neo- Prtlteont. of N.Z. pt. iv. Rev. J. E. zoic Period in New Zealand Wellington, 1880. Thomas, A. P. W. Report on the Eruption of Tara- wera, with Maps 1888. Notes on the Rocks of the Ker- Trans, xx. 311. madec Islands Notes on the Volcanic Rocks of xx. 306. the Taupo District and King- country Notes on the Geology of Tonga- xxi. 338. riro and the Taupo District Thomson, J. T. On the Glacial Action and Ter- race Formations of South New Zealand vi. 309. Thomson, P. On the Sandhills or Dunes in lii. 263. \ the Neighbourhood of Dun- 2'~ edin Traill, Charles . . On the Tertiary Series of Oa- maru and Moeraki ii. 166. 522 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Author. Title. Name of Publication. Travers, W. T. L. Tregelles, Francis E. Tunny, J. M. Ulrich, G. H. P. . . Ulrich, G. H. F., andHutton,F.W Van Beneden, P. J. Washburne, H. P. Waters, Arthur William Wells, W. On the Sand-worn Stones of Evans Bay, Wellington On the Extinct Glaciers of the South Island of New Zealand Notes on Dr. Haast's supposed Pleistocene Glaciation of New Zealand Bemarks on the Cause of the Warmer Climate which ex- isted in High Northern Lati- tudes during Former Geologi- cal Periods Further Remarks Notes in reference to the Prime Causes of the Phenomena of Earthquakes and Volcanoes The Rivers of the Hawke's Bay Plains The Coals and Coalfields of the Province of Auckland Longwood and Merivale Gold- fields Notice of the Discovery of a Peculiar Alloy of Iron and Nickel in New Zealand Rocks On the Dykes of Bendigo Reefs, Australia On the Discovery, Mode of Occurrence, and Distribution of the Nickel-iron Alloy Awa- ruite on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand Note on some Mineral Occur- rences at Dusky Sound, West Coast of New Zealand On the Occurrence of Nepheline- bearing Rocks in New Zealand Mount Benger Mining District Report on Geology and Gold- fields of Otago On a New Fossil Bird — Anas finschi — from Earnscleugh Cave A Theory of the Formation of Gold in Specks and Nuggets Minerals at Nelson On Tertiary Cyclostomatous Bryozoa from New Zealand On Tertiary Chilostomatous Bryozoa from New Zealand Remarks on the Resemblance of the Country in the Neigh- bourhood of the Dun Moun- tain and Wairoa Gorge to the Mining Districts of Queens- land and Auckland Trans, ii. 247. „ vi. 297. „ vii. 409. „ x. 459. x. 470. xix. 331. Hawke's Bay Herald, Sept. 13, 1898. Trans, viii. 387. Pari. Paper C.-7, Sess. I. 1887. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xliii. 3. Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Eng. xxii. 756. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xlvi. 619 ; N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. iii. 60. N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. ii. 306. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci. iii. 127. Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. 12, 1883-84. Dunedin, 1875. Trans, ix. 599. „ xxii. 400. „ xx. 344. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xliii. 337. Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. xliii. 40. Trans, iii. 287. Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neio Zealand. 523 Author. Title Name of Publication. Wells, W. On the Drift-beds of Wakapuaka and Port Hills, with Remarks on the Boulder Bank Forma- tion Trans, xvii. 344. Williams, Archd. Phenomena connected with the „ xix. 380. W. L. Tarawera Eruption of 10th June, 1886, as observed at Gisborne Wilson, Henry . . On the Oxford Chalk -deposit, Canterbury „ xx. 274. Winklemann, C. P. Notes on the Hot Springs, Nos. 1 and 2, Great Barrier Island, with Sketches showing the Temperature of the Water „ xix. 388. Wilkinson, D. Scientific Metallurgy and Mining N.Z. Jrnl. Sci. iii. 111. Woodward, Henry On a New Fossil Crab from the Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc. Tertiary of New Zealand, with xxxii. 51. a Note by Sir James Hector [Harpactocarcimis tumid/us) Worley, W.F. .. On the Nelson Boulder Bank . . Trans, xxxii. 221. Geology of Nelson xxvi. 414. Wilson, George . . On some Differences that dis- N.Z. Inst. Mining Eng. tinguish the Goldfields of the 1897. Hauraki Mining District, New Zealand Index to Papers and Reports on Mining and Geology, printed in the Appendices to the Journals of the Legislative Council and the House op Representatives, from 1854 to 1900 : Ex- t> acted from the general indices compiled by H. Otter^ou, Clerk of the House of Representatives. Amalgamation of Gold, Temperature in, Paper on, p. 176, C.-3, 1898 American Quartz-mills, Diagrams showing, p. 80, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 Antimony-ore exported since 1853, p. 18, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 17, C.-2, 1898 ; p. 18, C.-2, 1899 Antimony Furnace, Plans of, p. 252, &c, C.-3, 1895 Aorere Valley, Nelson, Geological Map and Description of, p. 4, C.-ll, 1896 Barrier Gold Reefs, Report on, p. 160, C.-3, 1898 Beachcombers at Work, Charleston, Views showing, &c, p. 240, C.-3, JS99 Blasting, Paper on, p. 170, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Blue Spur Gold-mine, Maps showing, p. 112, C.-3, 1893 ; p. 130, C.-3, 1895 Blue Spur Hydraulic-elevating Plant, Diagrams showing, p. G4, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 Boatman's Creek, Inangahua, Geological Explorations at, p. 3, C.-9, 1898 Brunner Coal-mine Disaster, Report of Commission on, C.-6, 1896 Brunner Mines — Coal raised from between November, 1884, and December, 1891, C.-6, 1892 Maps showing p. 12, C.-8, 1893 ; 0.-6, 1896 (See also Grey Valley Coal-mines, and Mines, Coal-mines, Re- ports on) 524 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Buller Coalfields — Leases, Return of, C.-8, Sess. II., 1887 ; C.-10, 1892 Maps of the, p. 92, E.-3, p. 3, E.-9, 1875 ; p. 131, A.-3, p. 92, E.-l, 1876 ; p. 101, E.-l, 1877 ; p. 100, D.-2, 1883 ; p. 121, I.-6, 1889 Report on, and Survey, E.-9, 1875 Reports on, E.-10a, 1873 Cape Colville Peninsula, Geology of, pp. 11 and 13, C.-2, and C.-9, Sess. II., 1897; p. 8, C.-9, 1898 Cement, Millburn, Report on, D.-7, 1894 Chrome-ore exported since 1853, p. 18, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 17, C.-2, 1898; p. 18, C.-2, 1899 Cinnabar, p. 8, C.-9, 1898; p. 160, C.-3, 1899 Clutha River Mining Claims, Maps of, &c, p. 130, C.-3, 1898 Coal — Analyses of, p. 3, I.-10, 1892 Classes of, raised, p. 20, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 19, C.-2, 1898 ; p. 19, C.-2, 1899 Dust, Explosive Nature of, p. 101, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 ; p. 147, C.-3, 1892 (see also C.-6, 1896) Exported and imported during Five Years, p, 4, I. -10, 1892 Formation of, Theories as to, p. 173, C.-3, 1895 Import and Export of, p. 20, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897; p. 19, C.-2, 1898; p. 20, C.-2, 1899 Imported and raised in the Colony, 1890 to 1896, p. 27, B.-6, Sess. II., 1897 Imported, First Quarter, 1897, p. 19, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897; First Quarter, 1898, p. 18, C.-2, 1898; First Quarter, 1899, p. 19, C.-2, 1899 Output, 1872 to 1898, Diagram showing, &c, p. 166, C.-3, 1899 Output: 1895 and 1896, p. 19, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897; for 1896 and 1897, p. 18, C.-2, 1898 ; for 1897 and 1898, p. 19, C.-2, 1899 Output of (see Mines, Statements ; and Mines, Coal-mines, Reports on) Produced in and exported from the Colony during a Period of Years, pp. 18-20, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; pp. 17-19, C.-2, 1898 ; pp. 18-20, C.-2, 1899 Railway Rates on Carriage of, Evidence relative to, p. 32, I. -10, 1892 Rates of Carriage of, on Brunnerton-Greymouth Railway, D.-28, 1892 Spontaneous Ignition of, p. 140, C.-3, 1892 Traffic on Hurunui-Bluff Railway (see Tables to D.-2 of each year) Traffic on Railways (see Tables to D.-2 of each year) Used for Railways and Public Departments, D.-20, 1892 (See also Mines, Coal mines) Coal-deposits of New Zealand, Report on, by Dr. Hector, 1866 (separate publication ; see Catalogue, General Assembly Library) Coal exported, 1870 to 1875.H.-27, 1875 Coalfields — Arnott Range, Map showing Coal Formation, p. 96, C.-3, 1890 Between Waikato and Thames, Discovery of, D.-l, 1869 Brockley, Report on, H.-35, 1882 Buller Leases, Return of, C. 8, Sess. II., 1887 ; p. 94, 1.-6, 1889 Buller, Reports on, E.-IOa, 1873 ; E.-9, 1875 Coal Industry, p. 68, H.-22, 1880 (see also Mines) Collingwood Leases, p. 99, I. -6, 1889 Collingwood, Report of Committee on, and Returns, I. -6, 1889 Development of, D.-3, 1872 Grey County, Leases in, p. 98, I. -6, 1889 Maps of (see Maps) Mines worked with a Single Means of Egress, L.C., No. 12, Sess. II., 1879 Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neic Zealand. 525 Coaldfielris — continued. Mining Statistics, p. 206, C.-3, 1890 Mount Rochfort, p. 25, I.-4, 1873 Native Fuel Committee, Report of, I. -7, 1876 Pepepe, Waikato, C.-4 and C.-4a, 1876 Reports of Inspectors, C.-4, 1888 ; p. 149, C.-2, 1889 Reports on, E.-10 and E. -10a, 1873 ; E.-9, 1875 Royalty paid by Coal-mines during past Three Years, C.-2, Sess I., 1884 Wallsend Mine, Brunnerton, Lease of, C.-3, Sess. II., 1884 West Coast Collieries, Report on, C.-6, Sess II., 1887 Westland, Report of Committee on, and Returns relative to, I. -6, 1889 Westport Colliery — Commissioners' Report on, A. -3, 1876 Introduction of Miners for, D.-4, 1880 Report of Waste Lands Committee on Petitions relative to, I. -4a, 1881 ; I.-4D, 1882 (See also Mines, Control and Inspection of, and Mining Industry ; and Public Works, Statements of Ministers) Coal imported — 1870 to 1873, H.-32, 1873 1873 to 1875, H.-27A, 1875 1886, p. 28, C.-l, 1887 From New South Wales, H.-28, 1878 Coal. Ne v Zealand, Trial of, as Fuel for Locomotives, H.-38, 1877 Coal-miners' Relief Fund — Application for Relief under, C.-12a, 1893 Details of Administration of, C.-16, 1895 Operations of the, C.-12, 1893 Coal-miners' Relief Fund and Sick and Accident Fund, Returns relative to, C.-7, 1894 Coke exported since 1853, p. 18, 0.-2, Sess. II., 1897; p. 17 C.-2, 1898 ; p. 18, 0.-2, 1899 Coke-manufacture, p. 242, C.-3, 1893 Collingwood — Coal and Iron Deposits, Map showing, p. 69, H.-22, 1880 Coalfield — Connection of, with Deep Water, Report on, D.-10, 1885 Report of Committee on, and Returns, I. -6, 1889 Coal Formation, Maps showing, p. 2, I.-l, 1874 Coal-workings, Maps showing, p. 26, D.-3, 1872 ; p. 119, I.-6, 1889 Commissions, Royal, Reports of — Brunner Coal-mine Disaster, C.-6, 1886 Goldfields and Mines — Cyanide Process of Gold-extraction Bill, I. -4a, Sess. II., 1897 Mining Regulations, I. -4a, 1899 Miscellaneous, I. -4 of each year Grey Valley Coal-mines, 0.-3 and C.-3A, Sess. II., 1891 Kauri-gum Industry, H.-24, 1893 ; H.-ll, 1898 Westland Colliery Reserve, C.-5, 1893 Committees, Select, Reports of, on — Goldfields Act, F.-8, 1866 Goldfields— Agricultural Lease Regulations, I. -6, Sess. I., 1879 Chairman of the Committee, Payment of, I. -3b, Sess. II., 1884 General, H.-ll, 1871 ; H.-10, 1872 ; I.-l, 1877 ; I.-l, 1878 ; I.-6, Sess. I., 1879; I. -3, Sess. II., 1879; I.-3, 1880; I. -3 and I.-3a, 1881 ; I.-3 and I. -3a, 1882 ; I. -3, 1883 ; I.-3 and I.-3A, Sess. II., 1884; I.-3, 1885; I.-3, 1886; I.-3, Sess. I., 1887; I.-4, Sess. II., 1887; I.-4, 1888; I.-4, 1889; I.-4, 1890 526 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Committees, &c— continued. Goldfields — continued. Gold Duties Abolition Bill, I. -3a, 1882 Kumara Sludge-channel Papers, I. -4a, 1889 Mining Industry, I. -4a, 1888 Mining Matters generally, I.-3a, 1881 ; I. -3a, Sess. II., 1884 Moore, D. J., Petition of, H.-1a, 1878 Reeves, R. H. J., and Others, Petition of, I. -3a, 1879 School of Mines, Working of the, I. -4a, Sess. II., 1887 Goldfields and Mines — Hesson, James, Petition of, I. -4b, 1895 Kumara Miners' Association, Petition of, I. -4a, 1895 Mining Act Amendment Bill, and Petition of P. Moore and Others, I.-4a, 1896 Public Accounts — Otago Geological Survey, Expenditure on, F.-6, 1870 Public Petitions — Taranaki Ironsand, F.-10, 1866 Conference, Mining, held at Dunedin, Resolutions of, C.-7, 1890 Conference of Otago Mining Delegates, 0.-6, 1873 Cook's River District, Geological Map of, p. 96, C.-3, 1890 Copper-ore Deposits at D'Urville Island, Report on, H.-21, 1878 Crown Lands — Buller District — Coal-mining Leases, C.-8, Sess. II., 1887 Mineral Leases granted under " The Nelson Waste Lands Act, 1874," C.-10, Sess. II., 1879 Pepepe Coal-bearing Lands, Sale of, C.-4A, 1876 Thermal Springs, C.-l of each year Waikato : Coal-bearing Lands, Sale of, C.-4 and C.-4a, 1876 Cyanide Process — Chemistry of the, pp. 176-305, C.-3, and C.-ll, Sess. II., 1897; pp. 148-150, 0.-3, 1898 ; pp. 160 and 161, C.-3, 1899 Paper by Mr. W. Skey, p. 176, 0.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Patents taken out for, p. 19, I. -4a, Sess. II., 1897 Report of Committee on Bill, I. -4a, Sess. II., 1897 (See also C.-2 of each year) Cyanide Process Gold-extraction Act, Revenue and Expenditure under, C.-10, 1898; L.C., No. 12, 1899 Diamond Drills — For testing Mineral Lands, H.-20, Sess. II., 1879 Report of Goldfields and Mines Committee recommending, I. -3a, Sess. II., 1884 Dredges for Gold-mining, Plans of, &c, p. 16, C.-4, 1886 Dredging System, American, E.-6, 1877 D'Urville Island Copper-deposits, Report on, H.-21, 1878 Duty on Gold (see Gold Duty) East Coast, Wellington District, Geological Report on, p. 36, 0.-9, 1899 Elevator for Gold tailings, Plan of, &c, p. 32, 0.-4, 1886 Essays on the Settlement of the Gold-mining Population, D.-6, 1869 Eweburn Dam: Plans, &c, p. 2, 0.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Exports — Gold- Appendices to C.-3a of each year D.-ll, 1866; C.-l, Sess. II., 1887 (see also Goldfields, Reports) 1857 to 1898, Diagram showing, &c, p. 30, 0.-3, 1899 1890 to 1896, p. 26, B.-6, Sess. II., 1897 Since 1853, p. 15, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897; p. 14, 0.-2, 1898; p. 15, 0.-2, 1899 Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neiv Zealand. 527 Exports — continued. Gold — continued. Since 1857, pp. 16 and 17, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897; pp. 15 and 16, C.-2, 1898 ; pp. 16 and 17, C.-2, 1899 Gold and other Minerals, 1857 to 1890, C.-3a, 1890 Gold and Silver, 1897 and 1898, p. 19, A.-l, and p. 30,' A -2, 1899 Kauri-gum, 1853 and Succeeding Years, p. 18, C. 2, Sess. II., 1897; p. 17, C.-2, 1898 ; p. 18, C.-2, 1899 ; 1856 to 1897, p. 15, H.-12, 1898 1853 to 1898. Diagram showing, &c, p. 158, C.-3, 1899 1856 to 1897, p. 15, H.-12, 1898 Kauri-gum, from 1856 to 1892, p. 12, H.-24, 1893; 1853 to 1892, p. 3, B. -15, 1895 (see also Tables in C.-2 of each year) Minerals since 1853, p. 18, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 17, C.-2, 1898 ; p. 18, C.-2, 1899 Since Gold-discoveries in Otago, Value of, H.-20, Sess. II., 1884 Finance — Coal-mines, Royalty paid by, during Lasc Three Years, C.-2, Sess. I., 1884 Gold Duty- Collected, B.-9, 1870; 1870-71, B.-8, 1871; January to June, 1878, L.C., No. 2a, 1878 Otago : Collections for Three Years, B.-10, 1871 Petition from Otago Miners for Reduction of, I. -3, 1871 Report of Otago Mining Association on, H.-23, 1876 Resolutions of Otago Provincial Council relative to, A. -7, 1867 ; A. -8, 1872 (See also Goldfields, Reports) Goldfields— Allocation of Vote in Aid of, B.-17, 1883 Development, Expenditure on, pp. xii. and 32, D.-l, Sess. II., 1897; pp. x. and 62, D.-l, 1898; pp. ix. and 76, D.-l, 1899; p. 24, D.-l, 1895; p. 27, D.-l, 1896 Revenue, B.-9, 1870; B.-8, 1871 ; L.C., Nos. 2 and 2a, 1878 Revenue uncollected, K.-10, Sess. II., 1887 Water-supply, Expenditure on, E.-ll and E.-11a, 1873 Floods — Clutha River — Report of Commission on, E.-7, 1880 Report on Damage done by, E.-5, 1878 Taieri River, Report of Commission on, E.-6, 1880 Waimakariri River, Report on Damage done by, E.-4, Sess. I., 1879 Fox Glacier, Exploration of the, p. 118, C.-l, 1898 Franz Josef Glacier: Description, Plans, Views, &c, p. 75, &c, C.-l, 1894 Frosty Creek, Otago, Strata of, p. 80, 0.-3, 1892 Geological Explorations, p. 164, C.-3, 1899 Boatman's Creek, Inangahua Valley, p. 3, C.-9, 1898 Cape Colville Peninsula, pp. 11 and 13, C.-2, andC-9, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 8, C.-9, 1898 Clova Bay, Pelorus, p. 32, C.-9, 1899 During 1897-98, p. 10, C.-2, p. 153, C.-3, and C.-9, 1898 ; 1898-99, C.-9, 1899 East Coast, Wellington District, p. 36, C.-9, 1899 Great Barrier Island, p. 75, C.-9, Sess. II., 1897 Hinemaia Valley, Taupo, p. 11, C.-9, 1899 Horse-shoe Bush, Wade, Supposed Auriferous Rocks at, p. 30, C.-9, 1899 Ironsands, Auriferous, p. 16, C.-9, 1899 Kauaeranga Cinnabar-deposits, p. 8, C.-9, 1898 528 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Geological Explorations — continued. Kawakawa Coal, p. 5, C.-9, 1898 Lithographic Limestone, Mongonui, p. 14, C.-9, 1899 Omaunu Copper-deposits, Whangaroa, p. 4, C.-9, 1898 Petroleum at New Plymouth, p. 3, C -9, 1899 Pumice-deposits, p. 16, C.-9, 1899 Riverhead, Supposed Gum-bearing Formation at, p. 13, C.-9, 1899 Rhodochrosite, Deposit of, at Paraparaumu, p. 2, C.-9, 1899 Stratford and Tangarakau River, Country between, p 28, C.-9, 1899 Te Puke, Auriferous Cements at, p. 25, C.-9, 1899 Te Puke Goldfield, p. 6, C.-9, 1898 Trooper Range, Castle Point, p. 33, C.-9, 1899 Victoria Mountains, Nelson, p. 1, C.-9, 1898 Waihi, Coal near, p. 25, C.-9, 1899 (see also C.-2 of each year) Geological Map of New Zealand : Correspondence with Professor Owen, G.-46, 1872 Geological Maps of New Zealand (separate publications ; refer to Cata- logue, General Assembly Library ; see also Maps) Geological Reports, Lower Waikato District, D.-5, 1867 Geological Survey of New Zealand — Memorandum on, by Sir J. Hector, p. 19, C.-2, 1886 Progress Reports of, 1866 to 1890 (separate publications ; refer to Catalogue, General Assembly Library) Geological Survey of Otago, Report of Public Accounts Committee on Expenditure on, F.-6, 1870 Geology, General Report, and Reports of Special Examinations, C.-ll, 1896 Gisborne Oil-springs, Report on, by H. A. Gordon, H.-3, 1888 Goldfields— Administration oi Goldfields, Papers relative to Under-Secretary corresponding direct with Wardens, G.-23, 1872 Aerial Tramway, &c, Plans of, p. 40, C.-4. 1886 Agricultural Leases on Goldfields, p. 59, C.-3a, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 85, C.-3a, 1898 (see also Tables in C.-l of each year) Agricultural Leases on Nelson Goldfields, Regulations for, G.-4b, 1872 Alluvial Mining, pp. 124-136, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897; pp. 107-126, 0.-3, 1898 ; pp. 102-135, C.-3, 1899 (see also C.-3a of each year) Amalgamation, Temperature in, Paper on, p. 176, C.-3, 1898 Auckland, Reports on, A. -17, B.-15, and L.C., p. 39, 1869; D.-40, 1870 ; G.-4a, 1872 (see also Thames, infra) Auriferous Beaches on the West Coast, C.-5, Sess. II., 1887 Auriferous Ground South of Mataura River, Report on, C.-3, 1885 Auriferous Land, Alleged Sale of, to A. McDonald, at Switzers, C.-6, 1872 ; C.-3, 1873 Back Creek Rush, Plan of, p. 64, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 Barrier Reefs, Reports on, p. 160, C.-3, 1898 Battery-superintendents' Examinations, p. 210, C.-3, 1899 Beachcombers at Work, Charleston, Views showing, &c, p. 240, 0.-3, 1899 Big Bay and Red Hill Districts, Report of Prospectors in the, C.-10, 1886 Black, Professor, Lectures by, on Goldfields, C.-2a, C.-2b, C.-2c, and C.-2d, 1885 ; H.-38, 1886 Blasting, Notes on, p. 170, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Blue Spur — Hydraulic Elevating Plant, Diagrams showing, p. 64, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 Maps of, p. 112, C.-3, 1893 ; p. 130, 0.-3, 1895 Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neio Zealand. 529 Goldfields — continued. Boring-machines for searching for Mineral Deposits, H.-20, Sess. II. 1879 Business-license Holders on, L.C., No. 9, 1880 Californian Mines, Report on, by W. Baldwin, D.-19, 1870 Central Otago, Older Auriferous Drifts in, C.-4, 1894 Chairman of Goldfields and Mines Committee, Report of Goldfields Committee recommending Payment of, I. -3b, Sess. II., 1884 Chinese on Southland Diggings, Revenue from, L.C., No. 13, 1882 Clutha River Mining Claims, Maps of, &c, p. 130, C.-3, 1898 Colorado, Ore treatment in, p. 174, C.-3, 1898 Coromandel — Auriferous Lands : Application for Waiver of Right of Crown to Minerals, G.-24, 1S72 Proposed Water-supply, Plans of, &c , p. 4, C.-4, 1898 ; C.-9, Sess. II , 1897 (see also 0.-2, C.-3, and C.-3a of each year) Cyanide Process, pp. 176-205, C.-3, and C.-ll, Sess. II., 1897 ; pp. 148- 150, C.-3, 1898; pp. 160 and 161, 0.-3, 1899 Paper by Mr. W. Skey, pp. 176 and 177, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Patents taken out for, p. 19, I. -4a, Sess. II., 1897 Receipts and Expenditure unier Act, C.-10, 1898; L.C., No. 12, 1899 Report of Committee on Bill, I. -4a, Sess. II., 1897 (See also C.-2 of each year) Cyanide Process of Gold-saving (see C.-3 of each year) Deep-level Mining, Aids to, p. 153, C.-3, 1898 ; p. 164, 0.-3, 1899 (see also C.-2 of each year) Deep Quartz-mining in New Zealand, Report on, C.-6, 1894 Development of — Expenditure and Liabilities on, p. 24, D.-l, 1895 ; p. 27, D.-l, 1896 Expenditure on, pp. xii. and 32, D.-l, Sess. II., 1897; pp. x. and 62, D.-l, 1898 ; pp. x. and 76, D.-l, 1899 Diamond Drills, Use of, p. 153, C.-3, 1898 Dillmanstown, Water-races and Sluicing at, Views of, &c, p. 240, G.-3, 1899 Dismal Swamp Reservoir, Plan of, &c, p. 6, C.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Dividends paid by Companies, C.-2 of each year Dredges — Accidents on, p. 154, 0.-3, 1898 Dredging Plant, Plans of, &c, p. 134, 0.-3, 1898 Dredging, p. 7, 0.-2, pp. 136-141, 0.-3, and C.-3a, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 6, C.-2, pp. 115, 116, 126-134, 0.-3, 1898; pp. 135-152, 0.-3, 1899 (see also 0.-2 and C.-3a of each year) Dredge for Siberia, Plan of, &c, p. 150, C.-3, 1899 Electric No. 1 and Otago, Views of, &c, p. 126, C.-3, 1898 Otago, Views showing, &c, p. 240, 0.-3, 1899 Plans of, &c, p. 16, C.-4, 1886 Electricity and Mining, pp. 166 and 178-180, 0.-3, 1899 Electro-deposition of Gold, Paper on, p. 167, 0.-3, 1898 Engine-drivers, Certificated, Lists of (see Reports on Goldfields, &c, infra, Tables) Essays on the Settlement of the Gold-mining Population, D.-6, 1869 Eweburn Dam, Plan, &c, of, p. 2, C.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Export of Gold — During various Periods, Appendix to C.-3a ot each year 1857 to 1898, Diagrams showing, p. 30, 0.-3, 1899 1890 to 1896, p. 26, B.-6, Sess. II., 1897 Since 1853, p. 15, 0.-2, Sess. II., 1897; p. 14, 0.-2. 1898; p. 15, 0.-2, 1899 34— Tr. 530 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Goldfield" — continued. Export of Gold— continued. Since 1857, pp. 16 and 17, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; pp. 15 and 16, 0.-2, 1898; pp. 16 and 17, C.-2, 1899 (See also Appendix to C.-3a of each year) D.-ll, 1866 ; C.-l, Sess. II. ,1887 (see also Reports, Annual, infra) Export of Gold and Tailings, Plan of, &c, p. 32, C.-4, 1886 Gold and Silver Production in New Zealand : Despatches, p. 19, A.-l, and p. 30, A.-2, 1899 Gold Duty- Collected — 1870-71, B.-8, 1871 ; January to June, 1878, L.C., No. 2a, 1878 Otago for Three Years, B.-10, 1871 (See Reports on Goldfields, &c, infra, Tables) Paid to Local Bodies (see Reports on Goldfields, &c, infra, Tables) Gold Duty Returns, Appendix to C.-3a of each year Gold exported, p. 3, B.-15, 1895, and Reports on Goldfields, &c, infra, Tables Golden Run Claim, View of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Goldfields Acts — Regulations under, C.-4, 1864 Reports of Committees on, P.-8, 1866 ; H.-10, 1872 Revenue under, B.-9, 1870; B.-8, 1871 Goldfields— Accidents in Mines, pp. 99 and 100, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897; p. 154, 0.-3, 1898; p. 164, 0.-3, 1899 (see also 0.-2 and C.-3a of each year) Administration of Goldfields : Papers relative to Under-Secretary corresponding direct with Wardens, G.-23, 1872 Goldfields Development, Expenditure on, pp. xii. and 32, D.-l, Sess. II., 1897; pp. x. and 62, D.-l, 1898; pp. x. and 76, D.-l, 1899 Goldfields Matters generally, Reports of Goldfields and Mines Com- mittees on, I. -3a, 1881 ; I. -3a, Sess. II., 1884 Goldfields, Permanent Works on : Statement, p. x., B.-6, 1899 (see also C.-3 of each year) Goldfields Revenue, Appendix to C-3a of each year; L.C., Nos. 2 and 2a, 1878 Goldfields, Westland North, with Map and Views, p. 132, C.-3, 1893 Uold-mining Legislation, A. -8 and A. -8a, 1S74 Gold-miniug Population, Prize Essays on Settlement of the, D.-6, 1869 Gold Prices, Cost of Crushing, Water, &c. (see Reports on Goldfields, &c, infra, Tables) Gold-produce of the World, C.-l, Sess. II., 1887 Gold R-turns and Imports at the Thames, D.-7, 1869 Hauraki Company: Record of Operations, p. 144, C.-3, 1898 Hauraki Goldfields, Map of, p. 30, 0.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Hauraki Mine, Views of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Hauraki Peninsula, Treatment of Gold-ores on, p. 181, C.-3, 1899 (see also C.-2 and C-3a of each year) Hesson, James, Report of Committee on Petition of, I. -4b, 1895 Horse-shoe Bush, Wade, Supposed Auriferous Rocks at, p. 30, C.-9, 1899 Hydraulic Pipes, Tables respecting, p. 154, C.-3, 1892 Hydraulics, Paper on, p. 162, C.-3, 1897 Ironsands, Auriferous, p. 16, C.-9, 1899 Kanieri-Rimu Water-races: Maps, &c, p. 10, 0.-4, Sess. I., 1897 Kapanga Mine, View of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Hamilton. -Pavers on the Geology of New Zealand. 531 Goldfields— continued. Karangahake Proposed Water-supply, Plan of, &c, p. 4, C.-4, 1898 Kauri Freehold Estates, Report on, p. 157, C.-3, 1898 Kauri Timber Company — Conditions for Mining on Land held by the, p. 35, I. -4a, 1896 Surrender of Lands of, for Mining Purposes, C.-17, Sess. II., 1897 Kawarau River Mining Claims, Maps of, &c., p. 130, C.-3, 1898 Kuaotunu Goldfield, p. 35, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 ; p. 96, C.-3, 1893 Kumara Goldfield, Plan of, &c, p. 114, 0.-3, 1899 Kumara Miners' Association, Report of Committee on Petition of, I. -4a, 1895 Kumara Sludge-channel — Agreement for Construction of a New Channel, p. 5, I. -4a, 1889 Cost of, D.-3a, Sess. II., 1884 Petition relative to, and Report, D.-3b, Sess. II., 1884 Report of Committee on, Papers relative to, I. -4a, 1889 Report on Carrying-capacity of, D.-5, 1883 Kumara Sludge-channel and Water-race — Cost of, D.-3a, Sess. II., 1884 Miller, A., and Others, Petition of, and Report on, by H. A. Gordon, D.-3b, Sess. II., 1884 Receipts and Expenditure, 1884 to 1891, H.-42, Sess. II., 1891 Reports on, I). -3, Sess. II., 1884 ; p. 25, 0.-2, 1889 Kumara Water-race — Deed of Sale to the Government, L.C., No. 15, 1880 Dillmanstown, Views of, &c, p. 240, C. -3, 1899 Revenue and Expenditure of the, D -12, 1886 Leases and Agricultural Leases in force, p. 59, C.-3a, Sess. II., 1897; p. 85, C. 3a, 1898 (see also Tables in C.-l of each year) Leases and Licenses in force (see Reports on Goldfields, &c, infra, Tables) Leases for Gold-mining Purposes, 0.-2, 1866 Legislation affecting Gold-mining, A.-8 and A. -8a, 1874 Longwood and Merivale Fields, Report on, by Professor Ulrich, 0.-7, Sess. I , 1887 Maerewhenua River, Proclamation of, and Gold Returns, C. -9, 1892 Mahakipawa — Gold-discovery at, C.-14, 1888 Expenditure at, H.-54, 1890 Manuherikia and Mount Benger Settlers, Petition of, relative to Goldfields Act, G.-4, 1867 Maritoto Creek, Auckland, GoldfLld at, 0.-7, Sess. II., 1887 Mataura River, Report on Auriferous Ground South of, 0.-3, 1885 McDonald, Allen, Alleged Sale of Auriferous Land at Switzers to, C.-6 and H.-10, 1872 ; C.-3, 1873 Mikonui Water race — Map of, p. 10, D.-19, 1862 Survey of, E.-5, 1875 Miller, A., and Others, Petition of, relative to the Kumara Sludge- channel, with Report by H. A. Gordon, D.-3b, Sess. II., 1884 Miner's Right, The, as an Element of Title, A. -8, 1871 Mines Statements by the Minister of Mines, C.-2 of each year Mining Act Amendment Bill and Petition of F. Moore and Others, Report of Committee on, I. -4a, 1896 Mining Industry and Mining Laws, Suggestions relative to the, by Goldfields Members, H.-20, 1882 Mining Machinery in Victoria and New South Wales, Report on, byH. A. Gordon, H.-9, 1885 Molyneux River, Report of Committee on Silting-up of the, L.C No. 8, 1872 532 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Goldflelds— continued. Moore, D. J , Report of Goldflelds Committee on Petition of, I -1a, 1878 Nelson Creek Water-race, Maps showing, p. 104, E.-l,"1877 ; p. 11, D.-9, 1882 Nelson, Reduction of Number of Wardens on the, H.-28, 1874 Nelson South-west, Administration of Affairs of the, A. -5, 1872 New South Wales, Report of Commission on, G.-20, 1872 Ohinemuri— Miners' Rights Committee, Report of the, I. -3, 1875 Regulations for, H.-15, 1875 Otago— Central Mining Association, Letter from, on Goldflelds Settle- ment, Taxation, and Water-rights, with Reply by the Premier, H. 23, 1876 Control of, Petition of Residents relative to, G.-3, 1863 Correspondence, C.-l, D. 1, and D.-10, 1867 Gold-discoveries, Value of Exports since, H.-20, Sess. II., 1884 Gold Duty Repayment Ordinance, Disallowance of, A. -4b, 1874 Gold Duty, Resolutions of Provincial Council relative to, A. -7, 1867 ; A. -8, 1872 Goldflelds, Geology of, p. 48, C.-4, 1894 "Otago Goldflelds Act, 1866," Petition relative to, G.-4, 1867 Owen Reefs, Nelson, Report on, C.-6, 1886 Parapara Goldfield, p. 4, &c. C.-ll, 1896 Petition of Otago Miners for Remission of, I. -3, 1871 Preservation Inlet, p. 31, C.-ll, 1896 Private Lands, Gold-mining on : Report of Committee, I.-4a, 1896 Prospecting, p. 10, C.-2, and p. 2, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 10, C.-2, and pp. 2 and 142, C.-3, 1898; p. 11, C.-2, and p. 2, C.-3, 1899 Prospecting Purposes, Grants for, during Five Years, B.-10, Sess. II., 1884 Prospecting Subsidies, Amounts paid as, C. 6, 1898 Provisions and Live-stock, Average Prices of, on various Diggings, Appendix to C.-3A of each year Puhipuhi — Map of, p. 24, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 Reports on Petitions relative to, 1.-2b, 1890 Queen of Beauty Mine : Report by Warden Fraser on Petition of W. Thomas and Others, H.-34, 1875 Queen of Beauty Shaft, Thames, Plan of, &c, p. 54, C.-3, 1898 Quartz-crushing, Prices paid for, at various Mines, Appendix to C.-3a of each year Quartz-workings, pp. 29-124, C.-3, and C.-3a, Sess. II .,1897; pp. 29-107, C.-3, 1898; pp. 31-101, C.-3, 1899 (see also C.-3a of each year) Reefton Mining Companies, Statement of Affairs of, &c, C.-10, 1893 Reefton, Quartz mining at, Reports on, C.-3c, 1895 Reeves, R. H. J., and Others, Report of Goldflelds Committee on Peti- tion of, I. 3a, Sess. II., 1879 Refractory Ores, C.-3 of each year Regulations for Goldflelds, C.-4, 1864 ; H.-1a, 1877 (see also separate publications) Repayment Ordinance, Otago, Disallowance of, A. -4b, 1874 Report of — Commission on, G.-18, 1871 Committee on, H.-10, 1872 Committee on Bill for Abolition of, I. -3a, 1882 Otago Central Mining Association on, H.-23, 1876 Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Nero Zealand. 533 Goldfield s— continued. Reports, Annual, G.-31, 1871 ; G.-4 and G.-4a, 1872 ; H.-7, 1873 ; H.-9, 1874; H.-3, 1875; H.-3, 1876; H.-l, 1877; H.-4, 1878; H.-ll, Sess. II., 1879; H.-26, 1880; H.-17, 1881; H.-19, 1882; H. -5, 1883; H.-9, Sess. I., 1884; C.-2, 1885 Reports on — Goldfields, and on Water-races and other Works, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891; 0.-3 and C.-3a, 1892; C.-3, 1893; C.-3 and C.-3A, 1894 ; 0.-3, C.-3A, C.-3c, 1895 ; C.-3 and C.-3a, 1896 (see also D.-l of each year) Proposed, D.-9, 1882 Reserves in Midland Railway Company's Area, Maps showing, pp. 95 and 96, I. -7a, 1892 Revenue, Appendix to C.-3a of each vear Revenue under Goldfields Acts, B.-9," 1870 ; B.-8, 1871 ; L.C., Nos. 2 and 2a, 1878 (see also Gold Duty, supra ; and Reports, Annual, infra) Roads and Tracks, Expenditure on, p. 9, C.-2, and P. 11, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 9, 0.-2, and p. 1, 0.-3, 1898 ; p. 14, C.-2, and p. 1, G.-3, 1899 (see also D.-l of each year) Roads Construction, pp. xii. and 32, D.-l, Sess. II., 1897; p. x., D.-l, 1898; p. ix., D.-l, 1899 (see also C.-2 and C.-3 of each year) Roads on Goldfields, Expenditure on, D.-7b, Sess. II., 1884 Round Hill Mining Company: Views, &c, pp. 122 and 123, C.-3, 1898 Schaw, Warden, Case of, L.C., Nos. 6 and 7, 1872 Schools of Mines, pp. 3-21, 0.-3, Sess. II., 1897 ; pp. 2-22, C.-3, 1898 ; pp. 2-23 and 239, 0.-3, 1899 (see also C.-2 of each year) Seddon Creek Levels: Plans, &c, p. 10, 0.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Settlement of the Gold-mining Population, Essays on the, D.-6, 1869 Settlement, Taxation, and Water-rights on Goldfields : Letter from Ctago Central Mining Association, and Reply by the Premier, H.-23, 1876 Shotover and Skipper's District, Report on, by Professor Black, C.-8, Sess. I., 1887 Silver and Gold Mining, pp. 23-152, 0.-3, Sess. II., 1897 ; pp. 29- 155, C.-3, 1898 ; pp. 30-166, 0.-3, 1899 Skipper's Point Claim, View of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Sluicing, C.-3 and C.-3a of each year Sludge-channels — Pp. 165 and 166, 0.-3, 1899 Rivers proclaimed as, p. 154, C.-3, 1898 Statements by the Minister of Mines, C.-2 of each year Sunday Labour, pp. 161 and 162, 0.-3, 1899 Switzers, Alleged Sale of Auriferous Land at, C.-6 and H.-10, 1872 ; 0.-3, 1873 Talisman Mine, Karangahake, Plan of, &c, p. 66, 0.-3, 1898 Te Aroha Proposed Water-supply, Plans of, &c, p. 4, 0.-4, 1898 Te Puke- Auriferous Cements at, p. 26, C.-9, 1899 Geological Expl rations at, p. 6, 0.-9, 1898 Tellundes, Paper on, p. 175, 0.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Tributing, C.-3 of each year Thames — Boilers and Machinery at, Report of Commission on, H.-6, 1874 C.-9, Sess. II., 1897 (see also 0.-2, C.-3, arid C.-3a of each year) Geolosry of, p. 58, C.-3, 1894 Gold Returns, D.-7, 1869 534 Transactions. — Misct tlaneous. Goldfielris — continued. Thames — continued. Machinery on, Report of Commission, H.-6, 1874 Map of the, L.C., p. 42, 1869 Miners' Rights issued, B.-15, 1869 Petition of Natives relative to, with Evidence hy J. Mackay, p. 33, L.C., 1869 Plan showing Shafts at the, p. 66, C-3, 1896 Regulations for, 1876 (published separately) Report on, by Captain Hutton, 1867 (published separately) Reports on, A. -17, B.-15, and L.C., p. 39, 1869; D. 40, 1870; G.-4A, 1872 School of Mines, Report on, C.-9, Sess. I., 1887 Water-supply, p. 4, D.-8, and D.-8a, 1871 ; p. 18, D.-3, 1872 Thames and Waikato, Gold-discoveries at, D.-18, 1863 Thames County Low-level Water-supply, Plans of, &c, p. 4, C.-4, 1898 Thames, Maps, &c, showing Proposed, D.-8, 1871 ; p. 18, D.-3, 1872 Under-Secretary for, Question of Correspondence direct with Wardens by, G.-23, 1872 Victorian and New South Wales Mining Machinery, Report on, H.-9, 1885 Victoria, Gold and Silver annually produced in, H.-10, 1886 Vote in Aid of, Allocation of, B.-17, 1883 Wage* on Goldfields, Average, Appendix to C.-3a of each year Waiau and Mararoa Rivers, Report of Prospector on the, C.-10a, 1886 Waihi Company's Railway, View of, &c, p. 240, C-3, 1899 Waihi Proposed Water-supply, Plans of, &c, p. 4, C.-4, 1898 Waihi Mining Company's Dam, View of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Waimea and Kumara Water-races and Kumara Sludge-channel — Expenditure and Revenue of, C.-ll, 1899 Profit and Loss on, H.-42, 1885 Waimea and Kumara Water-race, Maps showing, pp. 102 and 103, E.-l, 1877 Waimea Water-race — Maps showing, p. 102, E.-l, 1877 Report on, E.-6, Sess. I., 1879 Waipuna Dam, Plan of, &c, p. 6, C.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Waitekauri Proposed Water-supply, Plan of, &c, p. 4, C.-4, 1898 Wakatipu Goldfield, Report on, D.-14, 1866 Wakatipu Residents, Petition of, relative to Control of Goldfields, G.-3, 1863 Wardens — Nelson South-west Goldfields, Reduction of Number of, H.-28, 1874 Position of, as regards Provincial and General Governments, G.-23, 1872 Removal of, Report on, I. -3a, Sess. II., 1884 Reports of, C.-4a, 1886; C.-6, Sess. I., 1887; C.-6, 1888 (see also Reports, Annual, supra) Wardens' and other Officers' Reports, C.-3a of each year Wardens, Inspectors of Mines, and Water-race, Managers, Reports of, p. 143, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891; C.-3a, 1892; Appendix to, C-3, 1893 ; C.-3a, 1894 ; C.-3a, 1895 ; C.-3A, 1896 Water-conservation, p. 10, C.-2, pp. 152-154 and 237, C.-3a, and 0.-4, Sess. II., 1897; p. 9, 0.-2, p. 152, C-3, and 0.-4 and C.-4A, 1898 ; pp. 163 and 238, C-3, 1899 Water, Prices paid for, Appendix to C-3a of each year Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neto Zealand. 535 Goldflelds — continued. Water-races, &c. — Number and Value of, Appendix to C.-3a of each year Pp. 21-28, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897; pp. 22-28, C.-3, 1898; pp. 23-30 Reports on, C.-4a, 1886; G.-6, Sess. I., 1887; C.-8, 1888; p. 14, C.-2, 1889 (see also Reports, Annual, supra) Subsidies applied for and granted during Year ended 31st March, 1896, C.-4, 1896 Water-supply, D.-8 and D.-8a, 1871 Auckland, Nelson, Westland, Otago, D.-4, D.-4a, D.-4b, D.-4c, and D.-4D, 1872 Buller Field, Report of Goldflelds Committee on Petition rela- tive to, I. -3a, Sess. II., 1879 Draft Regulations for, p. 14, H.-ll, 1871 Expenditure on, E.-ll and E.-11a, 1873 West Coast, Auriferous Beaches on the, C.-5, Sess. II., 1887 Westland, Reports on, D.-40, 1870 Witwatersrand, Losses of Gold at, p. 188, C.-3, 1899 Works constructed on Goldflelds, pp. 222-236, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 ; pp. 290-228, C.-3, 1898 ; pp. 216-237, C.-3, 1899 Hauraki Gold-mine, "Views of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Hauraki Mining Company, Record of Operations in, p. 145, C.-3, 1898 Hauraki Mining District, Maps, &c, of, p. 30, C.-3, and p. 3, C.-9, Sess. II., 1897 Hauraki Peninsula, Treatment of Ores on, p. 181, C.-3, 1899 Haematite — P. 14, C.-2, p. 159, C.-3, 1899 Export of, since 1853, p. 18, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 17, C.-2, 1898; p. 18, C.-2, 1899 Hende's Perry, Westland, Report on Hot Springs at, H.-12, 1893 Hokonui Railway and Coal Company, Contract between the Railway Commissioners and the, D.-2, Sess. I., 1891 Hot Springs- European, Report by Mr. C. Malfroy on, H.-6, Sess. II., 1891 Hanmer Plains Sanatorium, Report on, by Dr. Ginders, H.-61, Sess. II., 1891 Hende's Ferry, Westland, Report on, H.-10, 1893 Rotorua Sanatorium (see Hospitals and Charitable Institutions, Reports of) (See also Appendices to C.-l of each year) Hydraulic-elevating Plant, Blue Spur, Diagrams showing, p. 64, C.-4, Sess. 11., 1891 Hydraulic Pipes, Tables respecting, p. 154, C.-3, 1892 Industries — Iron imported, H.-33, 1873 Iron Industry, Report and Evidence on, I. -10, 1892 Iron-manufactures, p. 95, H.-22, 1880; p. 12, H.-15a, 1885 Iron-ore, Limestone, and Haematite from Collingwood, Reports on, C.-IOa, 1895 Iron-ores, Memorandum on, p. 20, I. -4, 1873 Iron-ores of New Zealand, Report by Messrs. Siemens and Others on, CIO, 1895 Iron, Pig, Manufacture of, H.-33, 1886 Ironsand — Report on Purser's Method of Treatment of, p. 1, I. -10, 1894 Report on Mr. E. M. Smith's Application for a Subsidy, p. 4, I. -10, 1894 Ironsand at Taranaki — Claims in connection with, D.-8, 1866 Report of Committee on Claims, F.-10, 1866 536 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Industries — continued. Iron, Suggested Bonus for Manufacture of, H.-45, 1890 Kauri-gum, Eeport of Commission on, H. 24, 1893 Limestone from Te Kuiti and Collingwood, Eeports on, C.-10a, 1895 Mining (see Mining) Oil-boring at New Plymouth, Eeport on, p. 96, C.-4, Sess II., 1891 Kauri-gum — Exported — 1853 to 1898, Diagram showing, p. 158, C.-3, 1899 1856 to 1892, p. 12, H.-24, 1893 ; 1853 to 1893, p. 3, B.-15, 1895 (see also Tables to C.-2 of each vear) 1856 to 1897, p. 15, H.-12, 1898 Since 1853, p. 18, G.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 17, 0.-2, 1898; p. 18, 0.-2, 1899 Industry, Eeport of Commission on, H.-24, 1893 ; H.-12, 1898 Mining, p. 9, 0.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 9, 0.-2, 1898 ; p. 13, C.-2, 1899 Eeserves, Auckland: Maps, &c, p. 2, C.-l, 1899 Kauri-gum Industry Act, Eeport on, p. iii., H.-ll, 1899 Kauri Timber Company — Agreement with, relative to Lands for Mining Purposes, p. 12, C.-2, and C. -17, Sess. II., 1897 Conditions for Mining on Land held by the, p. 35, L-4a, 1896 Kawakawa, Geological Exploration at, p. 5, C.-9, 1898 Kawakawa-Grahamstown Eailway, p. iii., D.-l, 1899 Kawarau Eiver Mining Claims, Maps of, &c, p. 130, C.-3, 1898 Kennedy Bay Goldfield, Map of, p. 36, A. -17, 1869 Kumara Goldfield, Plan of, &c, p 114, 0.-3, 1899 Kumara Miners' Association, Eeport of Committee on Petition of, I. -4a, 1895 Kumara Water-race, Dillmanstown, View of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Kumara Water-race and Sludge-channel : Eeceipts and Expenditure from 1884 to 1891, H.-42, Sess. II., 1891 Kuaotunu Goldfield, Maps of, p. 25, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891; p. 96, C.-3, 1893 Laboratory, Colonial — Analyses of Mineral Ores at, L.C., No. 7, 1876; L.C., No. 12, 1877 Wages on various Goldfields, Average, Appendix to C.-3a of each year Limestone from Te Kuiti and Collingwood, Eeports on, C.-10a, 1895 Lithographic Limestone in Mongonui County, Eeport on, H.-25, 1892 Maps, Plans, &c. — Antimony Furnace, &c, p. 252, C.-3, 1895 Aorere Valley, Nelson, showing Geology of, p. 8, C.-ll, 1896 Arnott Range : Map showing Coal Formation, p. 96, C.-3, 1890 Beachcombers, Charlestown, at Work, Views sliOAing, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Brunner Coal-mine, p. 12, C.-8, 1893 Brunner Coal-mines, p. 144, C.-6, 1896 Blue Spur, Otago— P. 112, &c, 0.-3, 1893; p. 130, &c, 0.-3, 1895 Hydraulic-elevating Plant, Diagrams showing, p. 64, 0.-4, Sess. II., 1891 Buller— Coalfields, p. 92, E.-3, and p. 3, E.-9, 1875: p. 31, A. -3, and p. 92, E.-l, 1876; p. 101, E.-l, 1877; p. 100, D.-2, 1883: p. 121, I.-6, 1889 District, Uppt-r, Geological Sketch of, p. 101, D.-2, 1883 River Mouth, E.-2a, 1873 Central Otago Dams, Plans of, pp. 2 and 6, C.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Clutha River Mining Claims, p. 130, C.-3, 1898 Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Nexv Zealand. 537 Maps, Plans, &c. — continued. Coal-output, 1872 to 1898, Diagrams showing, p. 166, C.-3, 1899 Collingwood, showing- Coal and Iron Deposits, p. 69, H.-22, 1880 Coal Formations, p. 2, I.-l, 1874 Coal-workings, p. 26, D.-3, 1872 ; p. 119, I. -6, 1889 Copland Country: Maps and Views, pp. 43 and 47, G.-l, 1893 Dredge for Siberia, Pian of, p. 150, C.-3, 1899 Dredges — Electric No. 1 and Otago, Views of, p. 126, C.-3, 1898 For Gold-mining, p. 16, C.-4, 1886 In Otago, Views showing, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Dredging Plant, Plans of, p. 134, C.-3, 1898 Dillmanstown, Water-races and Sluicing at,, Views of, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Dismal Swamp Reservoir, Plan of, p. 6, C.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Elevator for Gold-tailings, p. 32, C. 4, 1886 Eweburn Dam, Plan of, p. 2, C.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Eweburn, Strata found on boring at, p. 128, C.-3, 1893 Fox Glacier, pp: 106, 110, 112, G.-l, 1896 Franz Josef Glacier — Plans and Views, p. 75, &c, C -1, 1894 View of, p. 105, G.-l, 1895 (see also Mount Cook, infra) Frosty Creek, Otago, Prospecting- shaft at, showing Strata, p. 80, C.-3, 1892 Geological Maps of New Zealand, 1869 and 1873 (separate publica- tions ; see Catalogue, General Assembly Library) Godley Valley and Glaciers, p. 54, C.-5, 1890 Goldfields Water-supply, D.-8, 1871 ; D. 9, 1882 Gold exported, 1857 to 1898, Diagram showing, p. 30, C.-3, 1899 Grand Junction Mine. Waihi, Plan of, p. 66, C.-3, 1899 Great Barrier Island Silver-field, p. 76, 0.-9, Sess. II., 1897 Green Island Coalfield, p. 38, D.-3, 1872 Grey Coalfield, p. 120, I. -6, 1889 Grey Coal Reserves, p. 2, E.-10, 1873 Grey River, showing Coal-mines, Railway, &c, p. 10, D.-6B, 1871 Hauraki Mine, Views of, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Hauraki Mining District, p. 30, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Hinemaia Valley, Taupo, Geology of, Sectional Plan showing, p. 12, C.-9, 1899 Kanieri-Rimu Water-races, Proposed, p. 10, C.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Kapanga Mire, View of, p. 240, G.-3, 1899 Karamea Tunnel, View of, p. 86, G.-l, 1899 Kauri-gum exported, 1853 to 1898, Diagram showing, p. 158, C.-3, 1899 Kauri-gum Reserves, Auckland, p. 2, G.-l, 1899 Kawarau River Mining Claims, p. 130, C.-3, 1S98 Kennedy Bav Goldfield, Map of, p. 36, A. -17, 1869 Kuaotunu, Maps of, p. 25, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 ; p. 96, G.-3, 1893 Kumara Goldfield, p. 114, C.-3 1899 Kumara Water-race, Dillmanstown, View of , p. 240, 0.-3, 1899 Landsborough and Clarke Countrv, p. 110, C.-l, Sess. II., 1897 Macfarlane River, p. 42, C.-l, 1893 Maerewhenua Goldfield showing Proposed Water-races, p. 15, D.-9, 1882 Manuherikia River Mining Claims, p. 130, 0.-3, 1898 Maritoto Creek, Auckland, Goldfield at, 0.-7, Sess. II., 1887 Midland Railway, p. 20, I. -8, 1894 Midland Railway Company's Area, Mining Reserves on, pp. 95 and 96, I. -7a, 1892 538 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Maps, Plans, &c— continued. Mining Districts, p. 1, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Mining Machinery — Diagrams of (see Goldfields, Eeports on, &c.) Plans of, C.-3 of each year Mokihinui Coalfield, p. 4, C.-8, 1899 Mount Cook and Glaciers, Maps and Views of, p. 40, C.-1a, Sess. II., 1891 ; p. 44, C.-l, 1893 ; p. 72, &c, C.-l, 1894 ; p. 105, &c, 0.-1, 1895 ; pp. 106, 108, 110, 112, C.-l, 1896 Mount Cook — From Sealey Range, p. 134, C.-l, 1899 Glaciers, p. 32, C.-Ia, 1889 Hermitage, View of, p. 132, C.-l, 1899 Mount Rochfort Coalfield, p. 10, D.-3, 1872 Mueller Glacier, Diagram of, p. 40, C.-1a, Sess. II., 1891 (see also Mount Cook, supra) Nelson Creek Water-race, p. 104, E.-l, 1877 ; p. 11, D.-9, 1882 Nelson Goldfields, Part of, pp. 12, &c, G.-4, 1872 Nevis River Mining Claims, p. 130, C.-3, 1898 New Zealand, showing Coal-bearing Areas, p. 5, D.-3, 1872 Ngakawau Coalfield, p. 12, D.-3, 1872 ; p. 10, E.-10, 1873 Nuhaka Hot Springs, View of, p. 112, C.-l, 1898 Orakeikarako Geyser, Plans of, p. 68, C.-l, 1894 Otago Goldfields — C. 4a, 1865 Geology of, p. 48, C.-4, 1894 Otago, Western, Explorations in, p. 114, C.-l, 1896 Owen Reefs, Nelson, pp. 2 and 4, C.-6, 1886 Pakawau Coalfield, p 119, I. -6, 1889 Petroleum at New Plymouth, p. 8, 0.-9, 1899 Poverty Bay, showing Oil springs, &c, H.-3, 1888 Premier Mine, Macetown, Views of, p. 102, 0.-3, 1898 Progress Mine — Interior of Battery, View of, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 View of, p. 240, 0.-8, 1899 Puhipuhi Gold and Silver Field, p. 24, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 Pumice-deposits, North Island, Sectional Plans showing, pp. 20 and 24 C.-9 1899 Queen 'of Beauty Shaft, Plan of, p. 54, C. 3, 1898 Round Hill Mining Company : Views, pp. 122 and 133, 0.-3, 1898 Seddon Creek Levels, Plan showing, p. 10, 0.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Shag Point Coal-mine, p. 16, C.-5, Sess. I, 1884; p. 60, I.-4a Sess. II., 1884 Skipper's Point Claim, View of, p. 240, 0.-3, 1899 Spey Valley, View of, p. 120, C.-l, Sess. II., 1897 Southland, showing Coal-seams, p. 20, D.-3, 1872 Taipo Goldfield, p. 16, D -40, 1870 Takitimo Country, p. 18, A.-1a, 1886 Talisman Mine, Karangahake, Plan of, p. 66, C.-3, 1898 Tarawera Eruptions, H.-25 and H. 26, 1886 Tasman Glacier, Views of, p. 134, C.-l, 1899 Taupo Lake, p. 14, C.-1a, 1886 Te Anau Laks and West Coast Sounds, p. 136, C.-l, 1899 Thames Goldfield, p. 36, A. -17, and L.C., p. 42, 1869 Tongariro, Summit of : Plan, p. 114, C.-l, Sess. II., 1897 Waihi Mining Company — Dam, View of, p. 240, 0.-3, 1899 Railway, View of, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Waihi Proposed Water-supply, Plans of, p. 4, C.-4a, 1898 Waingaro Hot Springs, View of, p. 110, C.-l, 1898 Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Neiv Zealand. 539 Maps, Plans, &c. — continued. Waipuna Dam, Plan of, p. 6, C.-4, Sess. II., 1897 Waitekauri Proposed Water-supply, Plan of, p. 4, C.-4, 1898 Waitomo Oaves, H.-18, 1889 West Coast and Collingwood Coalfields, p. 118, I. -6, 1889 West Coast, South Island — Showing Water-supply, p. 16, D.-8, 1871 Showing Auriferous Beaches, p. 4, C.-5, Sess. II., 1887 Mines — Alford Forest, Eeport on Limestone and Coal at, p. 139, 0.-3, 1892 American Treatment of Ores, Report on, p. 68, 0.-3, 1889 Belgian Mines, Working of, p. 2, H.-43, 1899 Blasting, Notes on, p. 170, 0.-3, Sess. II , 1897 Boring-machines for testing Mineral Lands, H.-20, Sess. II., 1879 Brockley Coalfields, Report on, H.-35, 1882 Brunner Coal-mine Disaster, Report of Royal Commission on, C. 6, 1896 Brunner Mines — Coal raised from, between November, 1884, and December, 1891, 0.-6, 1892 Maps showing, p. 12, C.-8, 1893 ; C.-6, 1896 (See also Grey Valley Coal-mines, and Coal-mines, Reports on, infra) Buller Coalfields, Reports on, E.-10a, 1873; E.-9, 1875 Buller Coalfields Reserve Leases, C.-10, 1892 (see also Coal-mines, Reports on, infra) Buller Leases, Return of, C.-8, Sess. II., 1887 Cape Colville Peninsula, Report on Geology of, C.-9, Sess. II., 1897 Chamber of Mines, New Zealand, Resolutions passed by, C.-8, 1890 Cinnabar, p. 8, C.-9, 1898 ; p. 160, 0.-3, 1899 Goal-deposits of New Zealand, Report on, by Dr. Hector, 1866 (separate publication) Coalfield between the Thames and Waikato, Report by Captain Hutton on Discovery of a, D.-l, 1869 Coalmines — Accidents in, p. 26, C.-3b, Sess. II., 1897 (see also C.-3b of each year) Coal-dust, Explosive Nature of, p. 101, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 ; p. 147, 0.-3, 1892 (see also C.-6, 1896) Compression-ventilators in German, p. 193, C.-3, 1899 Explosions in, p. 147, C.-3, 1892 Explosives in, p. 190, 0.-3, 1899 In Operation, Particulars relative to, p. 20, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 19, C.-2, 1898 ; p. 20, 0.-2, 1899 Mokihinui, Map of, p. 4, C.-8, 1899 Output from (see G al) Reports on, p. 7, C.-2, and pp. 155-162, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897; p. 8, C.-2, and p. 156, 0.-3, 1898 ; p. 13, G.-2, and pp. 166- 178, 0.-3, 1899 ; and C.-3b of each year Statistics of Workings, C.-3b of each year Waihi, Upper Thames, Report on, p. 25, C.-9, 1899 (SSess. II., 1879 Mineral Production, Tables to C.-2 of each year Mineral Springs, Working of, in France, p. 1, H.-43, 1899 Mineral Water A Pink, Memorandum relative to, p. 172, 0.-3, 1898 New Zealand, Analyses of, H.-13, Sess. II., 1879 Miners employed in New Zealand, p. 29, C.-l, Sess. II., 1887 (see also Mining Industrv, infra) ; pp. 20 and 21, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; pp. 19 and 20, C. -2,' 1898 ; pp. 20 and 21, 0.-2, 1899 Miner's Guide, by H. A. Gordon (separate publication ; see Catalogue, General Assembly Library) Miners' Rights — As an Element of Title, A. -8, 1871 Ohinemuri Rights, Report of Committee on, I. -3, 1875 Revenue from, at the Thames, B.-15, 1869 Voters under, D.-43, 1870 Mines — Accidents in, Report on, by Her Majesty's Commissioners, C.-4, Sess. I., 1887 Handbook of, by H. A. Gordon (separate publication ; see Cata- logue, General Assembly Library) 542 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Mines — continued. Mining— Californian, Report on, by W. Baldwin, D.-19, 1870 Companies wound up, G.-43, 1872 Mining Act — Draft of a, p. 12, D.-19, 1870 Regulations under, C.-9, 1890 "Mining Act, 1886," with Regulations (separate publication) Mining Act Amendment Bill, 1896, Report of Committee on, I. -4a, 1896 Mining Acts, 1891 and 1892, Regulations under, C.-ll, 1893 Mining Acts, Regulations under (separate publication ; see Catalogue, General Assembly Library) Mining Bureau, p. 163, C.-3, 1899 Mining Companies, Statement of Affairs of (see Goldfields, Reports on, Tables to ; and Coal-mines, Reports on, supra), C.-3 of each year Mining Companies wound up, G.-43, 1872 Mining Conference at Dunedin, C.-7, 1890 Mining Districts Land Occupation Act, Occupation Leases under, p. 59, C.-3a, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 85, 0.-3*., 1898; and C.-l of each year Mining Industry- Annual Reports on, C.-2, 1888 ; C.-2, 1889 ; C.-3, 1890 Report of Goldfields Committee on, I. -4a, 1888 Reports on (separate publication ; see Catalogue, General Assembly Library) Mining Industries of New Zealand, Reports on, for several years (separate publication ; see Catalogue, General Assembly Library) Mining Machinery — Diagrams of, H.-9, 1885 ; C.-5, Sess. I., 1887 ; 0.-5, 1888 In Victoria and New South Wales, Report on, by H. A. Gordon, H.-9, 1885 Reduction of Ores, &c, in Australian Colonies, Reports on, C.-3, 1889 Mining Matters generally, Reports of Goldfields and Mines Commit- tee on, I. -3a, 1881 ; Sess. 11., 1884 Mining Regulations, Report of Committee on, I.-4a, 1899 Mining Reserves, Westland and Nelson, Report on, C.-9, 1896 Mokau Coal Company, Report of Committee on Petition of, I. -3b, 1888 Mokihinui Coal-mine, C.-8, 1899 Molybdenite, p. 143, 0.-3, 1898; p. 14, C.-2, 1899 Molyneux River, Report of Committee on Silting-up of the, L.C., No. 8, 1872 Mount Cook Glaciers — Maps and Views of, p. 40, C.-a, Sess. II., 1891 ; p. 44, C.-l, 1893 ; pp. 72, &c, C.-l, 1894; pp. 101, 105, &c, C.-l, 1895; pp. 108, 110, 112, C.-l, 1896 Reports on, C.-1a, Sess. II., 1891 ; and C.-l of 1893 and follow- ing years Mount Cook Hermitage — Exploration of New Routes to, p. 118, C.-l, Sess. II., 1897 Mount Rochfort Coal-mine, p. 25, I.-4, 1873 Natural Gas in Colorado, p. 186, C.-3, 1899 Near Nelson, Report on, pp. 27, 28, C.-ll, 1896 "New Zealand Mines Record," Publication of, pp. 13 and 153, C.-2, 1898 „ „ Opal-mining, p. 9, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 9, 0.-2, 1898 ; p. 15, 0.-2, and p. 159, C.-3, 1899 Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of Netv Zealand. 543 Mines — continued. Otago — Mining Commission, Report of, G.-18, 1871 Mining Conference, Report of, C.-6, 1873 ; A. -8, 1874 ; C.-7, 1890 Patent rights granted, pp. 177-205, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Petroleum — Boring for, p. 9, C.-2, and p. 155, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897; p. 9, C.-2, and C.-9a, 1898 ; p. 158, C.-3, 1899 Geological Report on, at New Plymouth, p. 3, C.-9, 1899 Report on boring for, at New Plymouth* C.-9a, 1898 ; p. 14, C.-2, p. 3, C.-9, 1899 Pepepe Coalfield, Waikato, C.-4 and C.-4a, 1876 Pneumatophor, Use of the, p. 198, C.-3, 1899 Precious Stones, p. 154, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Private Lands, Mining on, Report of Committee, I. -4a, 1896 Puhipuhi Gold and Silver Field, Map of, &c, p. 24, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 Puhipuhi Silver-ores, Letter from Mr. Albert Bruce relative to Treat- ment of, C.-4a, Sess. II., 1891 Quartz-mining (see Goldfields) Reef ton Mining Companies, Statement of Affairs of, &c, C.-10, 1893 Refractory Ores, C.-3 of each year Reports on, C-3b, 1892, and Appendix to 0.-3, 1893 ; C.-3b, 1894 : C.-3B, 1895 ; C.-3b, 1896 Rhodochrosite, Deposit of, at Paraparaumu, p. 2, C.-9, 1899 Rich and Williams, Report of Waste Lands Committee on Petition of, relative to the Shag Point Coal-mine, I. -4a, Sess. II., 1884 Riverhead, Geological Report on, p. 13, C.-9, 1899 Royalty — Paid by Coal-mines during Last Three Years, 0.-2, Sess. I , 1884 Received from Westport Coal Company, F.-19, 1883 Scheelite, p. 143, 0.-3, 1898 ; p. 14, 0.-2, and p. 159, C.-3, 1899 Schools of Mines — P. 12, C.-2, and pp 3-21, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897; p. 11, C.-2, and pp. 2-22, 0.-3, 1898 ; p. 10, C.-2, and pp. 2-23, C.-3, 1899 Proposed Establishment of, H.-Ie, 1878 Report of Committee on the Working of the, I. -4a, Sess. II., 1887 Reports on, C-4b, 1886; C.-9 and C.-10, Sess. I., 1887; p. 5, C.-2, 1888 ; p. 17, C.-2, 1889 Thames, Report on, C.-9, Sess. L, 1887 Shag Point Coal-mine: Report of Waste Lands Committee on Peti- tion of Rich and Williams, I. -4a, Sess. II., 1884 Silver, Export of, since 1853, p. 18, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 17, C.-2, 1898 ; p. 18, 0.-2, 1899 Silver-ores, Analyses of, L.C., No. 7, 1876 Special and General Rules for (separate publication ; see Catalogue, General Assembly Library) {See also Coal) (See also Goldtields) Statements by the Minister of Mines, C.-6, 1885; C.-2, 1886; C.-l, Sess. II., 1887 ; C.-2 of each year Suggestions relative to the Mining Industry and Mining Laws by Goldfields Members of the House of Representatives, H.-20 1882 Sulphur, pp. 143 and 155, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 159, C.-3, 1899 Sunday Labour : Permits issued, p. 150, C.-3, 1898 ; p. 161, C -3 1899 544 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Wines— continued. Taranaki Iron=and — P. 13, C.-2, and H.-45, 1899 Titanium in, p. 180, C.-3, 1899 Tellurides, Papers on, p. 175, C.-3, Sess II., 1897 Timber for Mining Purposes, Supply of, p. 47, C.-8, Sess. II., 1897 Timbering and Accidents in Mines, p. 183, C.-3, 1899 Thames School of Mines, Report on, by A. Montgomery, M.A., C.-9r Sess. I., 1887 Ventilation, p. 195, 0.-3, 1899 Victorian and New South Wales Mining Machinery, Report on, by H. A. Gordon, H.-9, 1885 Waikato Coalfields, C -4 and C.-4a, 1876 Waikato Coal-mines, Report on, by Inspector of Mines, C.-9, Sess. II., 1891 (see also Coal-mines, Reports on, supra) Wallsend Coal-mine, Brunnerton, Lease of the, C.-3, Sess. II., 1884 Water-supplies for, D.-8 and D.-8a, 1S71 ; H.-34, 1886 (see also Water-supply on Goldfields) West Coast Collieries, Report on, C.-6, Sess. II., 1887 (see also Con- trol and Inspection, supra) Westland and Nelson Coalfields Act Amendment Bill, Report of Com- mittee on, I. -5b, 1893 Westport Cardiff Coal Company, Report of Committee on Petition of, I.-9, 1894 Westport Coal Company — Royalty received from, B.-19, 1883 Miners introduced for, D.-4, 1880 Westport Coal Trade, Report of Committee on, 1.-6, 1882 Westport Colliery Reserve — Leases, C.-10, 1893 (see also Coal-mines, Reports on, supra) Report of Royal Commission on, C.-5, 1893 Westport Colliery Reserve Commission, Report of, A. -3, 1876 Westport : Introduction of Miners for Colliery, D.-4, 1880 Wolfram, p. 143, C.-3, 1898 Works constructed (see Goldfields) Nelson — South-west Part of, and Northern Westland — Geology of, C.-13, 1895 ; p. 28, C.-9, 1896 Mining Reserves in, Reports on, C.-9, 1896 Nevis River Mining Claims : Map, &c, p. 130, C.-3, 1898 New Plymouth Oil-boring, Reports on, p. 96, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 North Island Main Trunk Railway : Maps showing Geology, Land- tenure, &c, on Line, &c, p. 51, I. -9, 1892 Nuhaka Hot Springs, View of, &c, p. 112, C.-l, 1898 Oil-boring at New Plymouth, Reports on, p. 96, C.-4, Sess. II., 1891 Omaunu Copper-deposits, Reports on, p. 145, C.-3, and p. 4, C.-9, 1898 Opal-mining, p. 9, C.-2, Sess. II., 1897; p. 9, C.-2, 1898 ; p. 14, C.-2, and p. 159, 0.-3, 1899 Otago : Auriferous Drifts of Central Otago, Report on, 0.-4, 1894 Parapara Goldfield, p. 4, &c, C.-ll, 1896 Permanganate Process, Report on, p. 162, 0.-3, 1898 Petroleum, Boring for, p. 9, C. 2, and p. 155, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 ; p. 9, 0.-2, and C.-9a, 1898 ; p. 14, 0.-2, and p. 158, 0.-3, 1899 Petroleum at New Plymouth — Geological Report on, p. 3, C.-9, 1899 Report on boring for, C.-9a, 1898 ; p. 14, 0.-2, and p. 3, 0.-9, 1899 Pneumatophor, Use of the, in Mines, p. 198, C.-3, 1899 Precious Stones, Mining for, p. 154, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Premier Mine, Macetown, Views of, &c, p. 102, 0.-3 1898 Hamilton. — Papers on the Geology of New Zealand. 545 Progress Gold-mine — View of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 View of Interior of Battery, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Pumice-deposits, Geological Report on, p. 16, C.-9, 1899 Queen of Beauty Shaft, Thames, Plan, &c, of, p. 54, C.-3, 1898 Railway : Maps showing Geology, Land-tenure, &c, on Line, p. 51, I. -9, 1892 Refractory Ores, pp. 174 and 177-205, 0.-8, Sess. II., 1897 Rhodochrosite of Paraparaumu : Geological Report, p. 2, C.-9, 1899 Rotorua — Bath-rooms, View, &c, of, p. 110, C.-l, 1898 Springs, C.-l of each year Ruapehu, Mount — Crateral Lake on, p. 102, C.-l, 1895 Report on, and Views, p. 70, C.-l, 1894 Scheelite, p. 143, 0.-3, 1898 ; p. 14, C.-2, and p. 159, 0.-3, 1899 Seddon Creek Levels : Plan, &c, p. 10, C.-4, Sess. II. 1897 Shotover and Skipper's Goldfields, Report on, hy Professor Black, C.-8, Sess. I., 1887 Silver-ores — Analyses of, L.C., No. 7, 1876 Puhipuhi, Letter from Mr. A. Bruce relative to Treatment of, C.-4a, Sess. II., 1891 Skipper's Point Claim, View of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Steel Pipe, Wrought iron and, Relative Strength, Paper on, p. 172, C.-3, 1898 Sulphur-mining, pp 143 and 155, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897; p. 159, C.-3, 1899 Sunday Labour in Mines: Permits issued, p. 150, 0.-3, 1898 Talisman Mine, Karangahake, Plan, &c, of, p. 66, C.-3, 1898 Taranaki and Part of Wellington, Geological Map of, p. 51, I. -9, 1892 Taranaki Ironsand, p. 13, C.-2, 1899 Correspondence with the Esteve Iron Company, H.-45, 1899 Titanium in, p. 180, 0.-3, 1899 Tasman Glacier, View of, &c, p. 134, C.-l, 1899 Tellurides, Papers on, p. 175, C.-3, Sess. II., 1897 Te Puke- Auriferous Cements at : Report, p. 26, C.-9, 1899 Goldfield, Gtological Explorations at, p. C.-9, 1898 Thermal Establishments in Europe, Report by Mr. C. Malfroy on, H.-6, Sess. II., 1891 Thermal Springs — C.-l of each year Cape Colville Peninsula, p. 71, C.-9, Sess. II., 1897 Hanmer Plains Sanatorium, Report on, by Dr. Ginders, H.-61, Sess. II., 1891 Hende's Ferry, Westland, Report on, H.-12, 1893 Rotorua Sanatorium, Reports on (see Hospitals and Charitable Insti- tutions, Reports on) (See also Appendices to C -1 of each year) Tiraumea Estate, Geological Report and Map of, p. 49, C.-ll, 1896 Tongariro: Report and Plan, p. 115, C.-l, Sess II., 1897 Tongariro District, Report on and Map of, showing Volcano s, p. 36, C.-Ia, Sess. II., 1891 Tongariro Mountain, Plan of Summit of, p. 36, C.-1a, Sess. II., 1891 Trooper Range, Castlepoint, Geological Report on, p. 33, 0.-9, 1899 Urewera Country, Geology of, p. 157, 0.-3, 1895 Victoria Mountains, Nelson, Geological Explorations in the, p. 1, 0.-9, 1898 35— Tr. 546 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Waikato and Thames — Coal-discovery between, D.-l, 1869 Gold-discovery, D.-8, 1863 Water-races, Eeports on, C.-4a, 1886 ; C.-5, Sess. I., 1887 ; C.-5, 1888 ; p. 14, C -2, 1889 (see also Goldfields, Reports on) Water-supply on Goldfields, D.-8 and D. -8a, 1871 ; H.-34, 1886 Auckland, Nelson, Westland, and Otago, D.-4, D.-4a, D.-4b, D.-4c, and D.-4D, 1872 Buller, Report of Goldfields Committee on, I. -3a, Sess. II., 1879 Draft Regulations relative to Loans for, p. 14, H.-ll, 1871 Expenditure on, E.-ll and E. -11a, 1873 Maps showing (see Maps) New South Wales, G.-20, 1872 Report of Commission on, G.-18, 1871 Report of Committee on, H.-10, 1872 Reports on Proposed, D.-9, 1882 Water-supplies for Mining, Agriculture, and Towns, H.-34, 1886 Waihi, Coal near : Geological Report, p. 25, C.-9, 1899 Waihi Mining Company — Dam, View of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Railway, View of, &c, p. 240, C.-3, 1899 Waihi Proposed Water-supply, Plan of, &c, p. 4, C.-4a, 1898 Waiho Country, Westland Alps: Reporc, with Maps, &c, p. 72. &c, C.-l, 1894 Waikato Coal-mines, Report of Inspector of Mines on, C.-9, Sess. II., 1891 (see also Mines, Coal-mines, Reports on) Waipa Valley, Auckland, Geological Map of, p. 112, C.-3, 1892 Waingaro Hot Springs, View, &c, of, p. 110, C.-l, 1898 Waipuna Dam: Plan, &c, p. 6, C.-4, Sess. II.. 1897 Waitekauri Proposed Water-supply, Plan of, &c, p. 4, C.-4, 1898 Westland — Hot Springs at Hende's Ferry, H.-12, 1893 Northern Part of, and South-western Nelson — Geology of, C.-13, 1895 ; p. 28, 0.-9, 1896 Mining Reserves in, Report on, C.-9, 1896 Westland and Nelson Coalfields Act Amendment Bill, Report of Com- mittee on, I. -5b, 1893 Westland North Goldfields : Description, with Map and Views, p 132, 0.-3, 1893 Westport Cardiff Coal Company, Report of Committee on Petition of, I. -9, 1894 Westport Colliery Reserve — Leases, C.-10, 1893 Report of Royal Commission. 0.-5, 1893 (See also Mines, Coal-mines, Reports on) Wills Valley, Canterbury, Map and Views of, p. 40, C.-l, 1893 Witwatersrand Goldfields, Losses of Gold at, p. 188, 0.-3, 1899 Wolfram, p. 143, C.-3, 1898 NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Thirty-fourth Annual Report. Meetings of the Board were held on the 26th November, 1901 ; 17th January, 13th February, 16th May, and 15th August, 1902. Messrs. Travers, Joynt, and Young retired from the Board in compliance with the Act, and were renominated by His Excellency the Governor. The following gentlemen were elected by the Incorporated Societies as Governors of the New Zealand Institute: Hon. C. C. Bowen, Mr. S. Percy Smith, and Mr. Martin Chapman. The members now on the roll are — Honorary members, 29 ; Auckland Institute, 162 ; Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 64 ; Wellington Philosophical Society, 144 ; Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 69 ; Otago Institute, 117 ; Nelson Institute, 50 ; Wesland Institute, 54 : making a total of 689. The volumes of Transactions now on hand are— Vol. I. (second edition), 220 ; Vol. V., 6 ; Vol. VI., 10 ; Vol. VII., 95 ; Vol. IX., 93; Vol. X., 120; Vol. XL, 20; Vol. XII., 25; Vol. XIII., 25; Vol. XIV., 48; Vol. XV., 155; Vol. XVI., 160; Vol. XVII., 160; Vol. XVIII., 125; Vol. XIX., 150; Vol. XX., 154 ; Vol. XXL, 85 ; Vol. XXIL, 87 ; Vol. XXIII. , 160; Vol. XXIV., 165; Vol. XXV., 160; Vol. XXVL, 170 Vol. XXVIL, 168; Vol. XXVIIL, 173; Vol. XXIX., 295 Vol. XXX., 347; Vol. XXXL, 396; Vol. XXXIL, 396 Vol. XXXIIL, 400; Vol. XXXIV., not yet fully distributed. The volume just published (XXXIV.) contains fifty-four articles, and also addresses and abstracts which appear in the Proceedings ; it consists of 645 pages and forty-two plates. The following is a comparison of the contents of Vol. XXXIV. with those of Vol. XXXIIL :— 550 New Zealand Institute. 1901. 1900. Pages. Pages Miscellaneous ... . 156 156 Zoology . 96 264 Botany . 166 70 Geology . 86 10 Chemistry and Physics ... . 44 38 Proceedings ... . 43 44 Appendix . 54 44 645 626 The cost of printing Vol. XXXIII. was £384 14s. for 626 pages and twenty-three plates, and that for the present volume (XXXIV.) £452 2s. 6d. for 645 pages and forty-two plates. The present volume was entirely produced by the Government Printing Office. From the Honorary Treasurer's statement of accounts it appears that the amount received for the year was £1,214 4s., including the balance carried forward, and the expenditure £806 Is. Id., leaving a balance in hand of £408 2s. lid. The publication of " Maori Art" has been completed, and bound volumes may now be purchased at the price of £4 4s. Museum. There have been 140 entries as additions to the Museum since last report, a list of which will be published in due course. The collections have been thoroughly cleaned, and many changes have been made to improve their arrangement. Library. — This is being continually added to, and every endeavour has been made to keep it scientifically up to date. Meteorological. The returns of the principal stations for 1901 have been supplied as usual to the Eegistrar-General to be included in his annual statistics, and the monthly rainfall returns from 174 stations have been regularly supplied to the Gazette. The monthly return for vital statistics has been supplied, and the daily weather exchange, by telegraph, is continued be- tween this colony and Australia. Colonial Time-ball Observatory. Mr. Thomas King, the officer in charge, reports that the instruments in the Observatory are in complete order, and details the services which have been rendered in supplying true mean time to the antarctic exploring-ship " Discovery ' and H. M.S. "Penguin," the latter being engaged in survey- ing the N.E. coast of New Zealand. Full details of these exchanges of time will be published in due course. New Zealand Institute. 551 The balance-sheet, duly certified, is appended, and the schedules and correspondence will be published with the report in the usual pamphlet form. James Hector, Manager. Approved. — Thomas Mason, Chairman. — Wellington, 15th August, 1902. New Zealand Institute Accounts for 1901-2. Receipts. Balance from last year Vote for 1901-2 Contribution from Wel- lington Philosophical Society Sale of ''Maori Art" .. Expenditure. £ s. d. 538 16 4 Printing Vol. XXXIV. 500 0 0 Expenses of library Expenses, " Maori Art " Postage, foreign volumes 13 2 6 Miscellaneous items . . 162 5 2 Balance £1,214 4 0 £ s. d. 452 2 6 20 0 0 258 15 10 2 18 0 72 4 9 408 2 11 £1,214 4 0 Examined and found correct. Wm. Thos. Locke Travers, 15th August, 1902. Treasurer. PROCEEDINGS WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. First Meeting : 5th August, 1902. Mr. "W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., President, in the chair. Inaugural address by the President on " The Bird as the Labourer of Man." (Transactions, p. 1.) A discussion followed, in which Messrs. Hustwick, Harding, T. W. Kirk, Hogben, Tregear, Chapman, and Sir James Hector took part, the general opinion expressed being antagonistic to the provisions of the Small Birds Nuisance Bill now before Parliament. Sir James Hector exhibited a number of insectivorous birds, and described the different species and their habits of life ; also specimens of the male and female of the eider duck, with the following note :— The Colonial Museum has for some years possessed an eider duck (Somateria mollissima) in good plumage, and has recently received, through the kind efforts of Sir Walter Buller, a drake of the same bird, so that I am able to present a pair of this most interesting species. Sir Walter Buller writes as follows : "I have much pleasure in presenting to the Colonial Museum a very fine adult male specimen of the eider duck (or dunter goose, as it is called in Scotland), which I trust will be an acceptable addition to the collection of birds. The eider duck (Somateria mollissima) is very abundant in the arctic regions of both continents, also on the coasts of Norway, Sweden, and Labrador, where, as is well known, the down, self-plucked from its body for nesting purposes, is an important article of commerce. It is plentiful on the northern coasts of Scotland, and occurs, in diminished numbers, some degrees further southward, being not unfrequent in the Hebrides, Shetland, and Orkney Islands ; but here, although they have many nesting-places, they are not suffi- ciently numerous to be of any importance from an economica point of view. Occasionally individuals stray further south, and are in much request as rare visitants. The specimen sent was obtained at Brechen, Scotland, in March, 1902. I purchased it in the flesh, and had it care- fully skinned and prepared by Mr. Walter Burton, of Wardour Street." Opossums presented to the Colonial Museum by Mr. Smith, of Petone, were exhibited. In remarking on the acquisition, Sir James Hector stated that the real opossum was peculiar to the Continent of America, and was not known anywhere else. The proper name of the exhibits should be 556 Proceedings. "phalanger," and " opossum-rugs" should be called " phalanger-rugs." The phalanger was common all over Australia and Tasmania, and had been introduced and was becoming common in New Zealand. It was a most destructive animal to fruit-trees. Mr. J. J. Walker, of H.M.S. " Ringarooma " mentioned that at Kawau, "Sir George Grey's island," it was almost impossible to grow fruit owing to the number of phalangers. A fine specimen of carunculated shag caught on White Rock was also exhibited. Two more of the birds had been prepared for presentation by Lord Ranfurly to the British Museum. It was stated that there was on the island a little colony of about twenty pairs of the birds, and it was noted as strange that they should be pairing at the time the " Ringarooma" visited the spot (8th July). That was in the depth of winter. Papers. — 1. "Notes on Whitebait," by A. J. MacKenzie ; communicated by Sir J. Hector. {Transactions, p. 309.) 2. "Notes on Whitebait," by E. Gibson; communicated by Sir J. Hector. (Transactions, p. 311.) 3. " On Galaxias (Whitebait)," by Sir James Hector. (Transactions, p. 312.) Before concluding the meeting the President made a few remarks on the Wairaki clay which he had lately found. He stated that a quantity of it was handed over to Mr. P. Hutson, who manufactured from it a bottle and jar, which Mr. Travers described as "the equal of anything turned out by Doulton." The clay arose chiefly from a decomposition of pumice, and was nearly pure white and of remarkably good texture. Mr. Hutson stated that if he could get the clay at a reasonable price he would use it in preference to the kaolin clay which he had now to import from Europe. Second Meeting : 18th November, 1902. Mr. W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., President, in the chair. New Member. — Mr. D. A. S. Cowper, Wellington. Mr. Martin Chapman was again nominated to represent the Society on the Board of the New Zealand Institute. Papers.— 1. "On the Construction of a Table of Natural Sines," by C. E. Adams, B.Sc. (Transactions, p. 408.) 2. " On Gharagia virescens," by A. Quail, F.E.S. (Trans- actions, p. 249.) 3. " On Hvbrid Ferns," bv H. C. Field. (Transactions, p. 372.) Messrs. Travers and Hustwick entirely disagreed with the theory propounded in this paper, and were of opinion tbat hybridization of ferns was not possible, the specimens under notice being mere varieties. Wellington Philosophical Society. 557 4. " On some New Species of Lcpidoptera (Moths) from Southland," by A. Philpott. (Transactions, p. 246.) 5. " On some New Species of Macro-lepidoptera," hx G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. (Transactions, p. 243.) 6. "On Adjustment of Triangulation by Least Squares," by C. E. Adams, B.Sc. (Transactions, p. 201.) 7. "Notes on a New Method of Determination of Minerals by their Eefringence," by C. E. Adams, B.Sc. Mr. T. H. Hustwick informed the meeting that he had recently received for examination four samples of " infusorial earth " from different parts of the colony — from Dunedin. Auckland, Taranaki, and Oamaru. It was intended, he said, if practicable, to use the infusorial earth in connection with a patent for cheap and effective lighting. A chemical examination showed that the four samples were all pure infusorial earth, nearly as good as the kieselguhr, which was worked in Germany and else- where on the Continent for the manufacture of dynamite. The sample from Dunedin was very pure, and that from Auckland was fair, but the other two showed only a small proportion of siliceous remains. The two latter also contained a considerable quantity of carbonate of lime, on account of which it was considered unsuitable for the purposes of an absorptive. Mr. Hustwick assured the President thRt the earth could be obtained in quantity in New Zealand. Third Meeting : 16th December, 1902. Mr. W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., President, in the chair. Papers. — 1. " On the Anatomy of Paryphanta busbyi, Gray," by E. Murdoch. (Transactions, p. 258.) 2. " On the Use of the Standard Functions in Interpola- tion," by E. G. Brown. (Transactions, p. 420.) Annual Meeting: 18th March, 1903. Mr. W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., President, in the chair. Abstbact of Annual Eepobt. During the year three meetings were held, at which nineteen papers were read. The balance-sheet shows the receipts for the year to be £184 16s. 2d., and the expenditure £95 18s. 8d., leaving a balance in hand of £88 17s. 6d. The Research Fund, a fixed deposit in the bank, now amounts to t37 13s., wbich increases the credit balance to £126 10s. 6d. Election of Officers for 1903. — President— Professor Easterneld ; Vice-presidents — Sir J. Hector, F.E.S. , and G. Hogben, M.A. ; Council — E. Tregear, F.E.G.S., M. Chapman, E. C. Harding, G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., H. N. McLeod, H. B. Kirk, M.A., and C. E. Adams, B.Sc. ; Secretary and Treasurer — A. H. Gore ; Auditor — T. King. 558 Proceedings. Netv Member. — E. I. Kingaley, Nelson. Papers. — 1. " On New Zealand Mean Time and on the Longitude of the Colonial Observatory, Wellington ; with a Note on the Universal-time Question," by Thomas King. {Transactions, p. 428.) This paper elicited an interesting discussion, in which Messrs. Martin Chapman, Adams, Hustwick, and Sir James Hector took part. 2. " Notes on the Habits of a Spider (Porrhothele anti- podiana) and a Fly {Salius monachus) ," by A. Quail, F.E.S. [Trayisactions, p. 256.) 3. "A Contribution to the Chemistry of Colophony," by Professor Easterfield and G. Bagley. {Transactions, p. 476.) This paper, which was illustrated by a splendid series of exhibits, was listened to with great attention. 4. " On the Molecular Complexity of Fatty Acids and their Derivatives in Phenol Solution," by P. W. Robertson. (Transactions, p. 452.) 5. "The Exhibition of a Maximum or Minimum in the Properties of certain Series of Organic Compounds," by P. W. Robertson. {Transactions, p. 465.) 6. "A List of Plants growing at 'The Gums,' Taita," by T. Mason. {Transactions, p. 374.) 7. "List of Papers on the Geology of New Zealand," by A. Hamilton. {Transactions, p. 489.) The retiring President (Mr. W. T. L. Travers) gave a short address. He said that his term of office had been an exceedingly pleasant one, and he heartily congratulated the Society on their very wise selection of Professor Easterfield as President for the ensuing year. He also con- gratulated the members on the good work which had been done during the past year, and thanked them for the assistance given him in carrying out the duties of his office. He referred to ihe paper read by him when he assumed the presidency, relating to the mistaken crusade against small birds. He said that his contention had received the amplest con- firmation in the late bountiful harvest in the South Island. Never had the birds been more numerous or the complaints of the "pest" more bitter, yet the yield of grain was absolutely without precedent, and to the birds who had destroyed the natural enemies of the corn the credit was due. But the agriculturists had again justified Virgil's old complaint of the "greedy husbandman" who grudged his best friends the well-earned toll they exacted for their services. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. First Meeting : 9th June, 1902. Dr. E. Roberton, President, in the chair. New Members. — E. Clark, D. Jones. The President delivered the anniversary address, taking as his subject " Malaria and Mosquitos." {Transactions, p. 225.) Second Meeting : 7th July, 1902. Dr. E. Roberton, President, in the chair. Papers. — 1. " Notes on the Pollination of Bhabdo- thamnus," by D. Petrie. M.A. (Transactions, p. 321.) 2. "A Visit to Tahiti and the Society Islands," by Josiah Martin. This paper was illustrated by numerous lime-light transparencies prepared from photographs obtained by the author. Third Meeting : 4th August, 1902. Dr. E. Eoberton, President, in the chair. Papers. — 1. "On the Maori method of catching certain Fish in the Piako Eiver," by Captain Gilbert Mair, N.Z.C. (Transactions, p. 319.) 2. "Chips from an Ancient Maori Workshop," by Captain Gilbert Mair. (Transactions, p. 240.) 3. " On the Cultivation and Treatment of the Kumara by the Primitive Maori," by Archdeacon Walsh. (Trans- actions, p. 12.) Fourth Meeting : 18th August, 1902. Dr. E. Roberton, President, in the chair. Papers.— 1. "On the Flood of Gold," by Professor H. W. Segar. (Transactions, p. 122.) 2. "Remarks on the Trade and Public Debt of New Zea- land," by Professor H. W. Segar. {^Transactions, p. 117.) 560 Proceedings. Fifth Meeting : 1st September, 1902. Dr. E. Eoberton, President, in the chair. The Eev. W. Gray Dixon, M.A., gave a popular lecture on " Japanese Mediaevalism." Sixth Meeting : 15th September, 1902. Dr. E. Eoberton, President, in the chair. Professor C. W. Egerton gave a popular lecture on " Tennyson." Seventh Meeting : 6th October, 1902. Dr. E. Eoberton, President, in the chair. New Members.— C. Bagley, M. F. Carey, T. Gilbert, E. H. Makgill, M.D. Papers. — 1. "The Food - products of Tuhoe-land," by Elsdon Best. (Transactions, p. 45.) 2. "More Foot-tracks of Captain Cook," by H. D. M. Haszard. (Transactions, p. 24.) 3. " Universal Equal Suffrage," by E. E. Vaile. Eighth Meeting : 20th October, 1902. Dr. E. Eoberton, President, in the chair. Dr. E. H. Makgill gave a popular lecture on " Nature's- Efforts at Sanitation." (Transactions, p. 139.) Annual Meeting : 23rd February, 1903. Dr. E. Eoberton, President, in the chair. Abstract of Annual Report. The Council submits the thirty-fifth annual report, dealing with the financial and g> neral condition of the Institute and the progress it has made during the past year. Ten new members have been elected during the year. The names withdrawn from the roll have been eight — three from death and five from resignation. The total number on the roll at the present tim- is 163. The Council have received under the will of the late Mrs. Mackechnie a bequest of £2,500. Of this the sum of £2,000 is to be invested by the trustees, and the annual income regularly devoted to the purchase of scientific books for the library. The remaining amount of £500 is to be expended by the executor under the will in such additions to the Museum as he in his sole discretion shall consider advisable. Auckland Institute. 561 The balance-sheets show that the total revenue of the Working Ac- count, omitting the balance of £76 6s. 6d. in hand at the commencement of the year, has been £851 14s. 8d., a satisfactory increase on the ordinary income of the previous year, which was £809 8s. lOd. Examining the separate items, it will be seen that the receipts from the invested funds of the Costley Bequest have been £325 13s. 9d., the amount for 1901-2 having been £365 8s. 2d. The Museum endowment has yielded in rents and interest £375 15s. 7d., the sum for the previous year having been £309 10s. The members' subscriptions have amounted to £141 15s., being a gratifying advance on the amount collected during the previous year. The total expenditure has been £868 2s. 8d., leaving a balance of £59 18s. 6d. in the Bank of New Zealand. There is no change of im- portance with respect to the invested funds of the Institute, the total amount of which is £13,996 6s. 2d., showing an increase of £108 7s. 5d. during the year. Practically the whole of this sum is invested in mort- gage on freehold securities or in Government debentures. The Institute still retains the management of the Little Barrier Island as a reserve for the preservation of the avifauna of New Zealand. The Curator reports that no attempts have been made to interfere with the birds, and that no unauthorised persons have landed upon the island. The Council are satisfied that if a resident guardian is maintained the island will long remain a secure home for a considerable portion of the avifauna of New Zealand. Election of Officers for 1903. — President — Professor A. P. Thomas, F.L.S. ; Vice-presidents — E. Koberton, M.D., and J. Stewart, M.I.C.E. ; Council — Professor F. D. Brown, C. Cooper, H. Haines, F.E.C.S., E. V. Miller, T. Peacock, D. Petrie, J. A. Pond, J. Eeid, Professor H. W. Segar, Pro- fessor H. H. Talbot-Tubbs, J. H. Upton ; Secretary and Curator— T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Paper. — " New Species of New Zealand Grasses," by Pro- fessor E. Hackel; communicated by T. F. Cheeseman, F.Z.S (Transactions, p. 377.) 36— Tr. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTEKBUKY. Fiest Meeting: 7th May, 1902. Mr. J. B. Mayne, President, in the chair. New Members. — Professor T. G. K. Blunt, Messrs. Wil- liam Lowrie, A. E. Craddock, and James Drummond. Address. — Captain F. W. Hutton, the retiring President, delivered his address on " Penguins and Petrels," postponed from the annual meeting. The address was illustrated by a large number of lantern-slides, and a hearty vote of thanks to Captain Hutton was passed at its close. Second Meeting : 4th June, 1902. Mr. J. B. Mayne, President, in the chair. New Member. — Dr. J. P. Frengley, D.P.H. Address. — Dr. W. P. Evans delivered an address on " The Production of Colour by Absorption." The address was illustrated with numerous experiments and lantern- slides. Third Meeting : 2nd July, 1902. Mr. J. B. Mayne, President, in the chair. Owing to the very inclement weather an address and a paper prepared for the meeting were postponed. The Secretary laid on the table and made some remarks upon three papers recently published by Professor Dendy. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 563 Fourth Meeting : 6th August, 1902. Mr. J. B. Mayne, President, in the chair. Address. — Dr. C. C. Farr delivered an address on " The Present State of our Knowledge of the Electrical Conditions of the Atmosphere." The address was illustrated by numerous diagrams and experiments, and was followed by a discussion in which several members took part. The Secretary laid on the table the volume of the " Trans- actions of the New Zealand Institute" for 1901. and also copies of the " Prospectus of the Index Faunae Novae-Zea- Iandiae," and explained the action taken by the Institute with regard to the publication of the index. Fifth Meeting : 3rd September, 1902. Mr. J. B. Mayne, President, in the chair. New Member. — Mr. Henry Scott. The President welcomed Mr. G. M. Thomson, hon. secre- tary of the Otago Institute, who was present. § Address.— Mr. F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., B.Sc, delivered an address on " The Structure and Habits of the New Zea- land Botifera." The address was illustrated with diagrams and microscopical prepara- tions Papers. — 1. "Two Spherical Harmonic Relations," by C. Coleridge Farr, D.Sc. (Transactions, p. 414.) 2. " List of the New Zealand Hymenoptera," by P. Cameron ; communicated by Captain F. W. Hutton. (Trans- actions, p. 290.) 3. " Structure of the Leaf in certain Species of Coprosma," by Miss N. A. R. Greensill, M.A. (Transactions, p. 342.) 4. " The Structure of the Stem of some New Zealand Leafless Plants," by Miss A. C. Finlayson, M.A. ; communi- cated by Dr. Charles Chilton. (Transactions, p. 360.) 5. " A New Species of Odontria," by Mr. J. H. Lewis, F.E.S. ; communicated by Mr. W. W. Smith, F.E.S. (Trans- actions, p. 272.) Exhibit. — Mr. R. M. Laing exhibited and made remarkd upon portion of the trunk of a tree on which some initials has been cut about nine years ago, the initials showing in the interior of the wood as well as on the bark. 564 Proceedings. Sixth Meeting : 1st October, 1902. Mr. J. B. Mayne, President, in the chair. New Member. — Mr. W. B. Marriner. Address. — Professor T. G. E. Blunt delivered an address on " The Provencal Troubadours." Paper. — " Musci of the Calcareous Districts of New Zealand, with Descriptions of New Species," by E. Brown. {Transactions, p. 323.) Seventh Meeting : 5th November, 1902. Mr. J. B. Mayne, President, in the chair. Address. — Professor E. J. Scott delivered an address on " The Strength and Elasticity of some Australian and New Zealand Timbers." At the close of the address, which was illustrated by numerous ex- hibits and diagrams, the meeting adjourned to the Engineering Laboratory, where Professor Scott gave a demonstration of the method of testing the strength and elasticity of timber by the 50-ton testing-machine. Eighth Meeting : 26th November, 1902. Mr. J. B. Mayne, President, in the chair. Address. — Dr. C. Coleridge Farr gave an address on "The Interpretation of Earthquake Diagrams." {Transactions, p. 415.) The address was illustrated by various lantern-slides, and the matter was discussed by several of the members. Papers.- — 1. " On a Supposed Magnetic Sense of Direction in Bees," by F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., B.Sc. {Transactions, p. 483.) 2. " Short Notes on Various Insects," by F. W. Hilgen- dorf, M.A., B.Sc. {Transactions, p. 264.) 3. " Eevised and Expanded List of New Zealand Rotifera," by F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., B.Sc. {Transactions, p. 267.) 4. " A New Species of Psyllidce," by G. E. Marriner. {Transactions, p. 305.) 5. " Some Eecent Changes in the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Myrsinacece," by L. Cockayne. . {Transactions, p. 355.) Exhibit. — The Secretary exhibited a fresh-water Isopod recently found on Euapuke Island by Mr. H. B. Kirk. The Isopod belongs to the genus Phreatoicus, species of which are known from Australia and from the underground waters of New Zealand, but which had not been previously recorded from the surface waters of New Zealand. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury . 565 Annual Meeting : 1st April, 1903. Mr. J. B. Mayne, President, in the chair. New Members. — Miss Bing and Mr. J. H. Seager. Abstract of Annual Report. Since the last annual meeting eight ordinary meetings have been held, at which twelve papers have been read. These papers may be classified as follows : Zoology, 6 ; botany, 4 ; miscellaneous, 2. At several of the meetings addresses of more popular interest were delivered — viz., "Penguins and Petrels," by Captain P. W. Hutton, F.R.S. ; "The Production of Colour by Absorption," by Dr. W. P. Evans; " The Present State of our Knowledge of the Electrical Condi- tion of the Atmosphere," by Dr. C. C. Parr ; " The Structure and Habits of the New Zealand Botifera," by P. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., B.Sc. ; " Pro- vencal Troubadours," by Professor T. G. R. Blunt; "The Strength and Elasticity of some Australian and New Zealand Timbers," by Professor R. J. Scott. The attendance at the ordinary meetings has averaged twenty-nine. The Council has met eight times since the last annual meeting. At its request Dr. Dendy made enquiries when in London as to the probable cost of publishing the proposed " Index Paunse Novse-Zealandife." The result of his enquiries was very encouraging, and the Council, having re- ceived a very liberal offer from the editor, Captain P. W. Hutton, and being assured of the hearty co-operation of the Otago Institute, decided to proceed with the publication, and orders to that effect have been sent to Messrs. Dulau and Co., of London. The whole of the manuscript was forwarded to the printers before the end of 1902, and it is hoped that the work will appear during the coming session. During the year many books and periodicals have been bound and added to the library. The arrangement made in 1901, by which periodi- cals are now obtained direct from Messrs. Dulau and Co., of London, is working satisfactorily. The Hon. C. C. Bowen continues to represent the Institute on the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, and the Council wishes to express the indebtedness of the Institute to him for his services. The thanks of the Institute are also due to Mr. G. E. Way, P. I. A.N. Z., the honorary auditor of the Institute. The total number of members for 1902 was sixty-nine. The balance-sheet shows that £67 14s. has been received for mem- bers' subscriptions, £40 8s. 8d. has been spent on books and periodicals, and £17 17s. 3d. on printing and binding ; the credit balance in the bank on the 31st December, 1902, was £26 7s. 3d. The amount of invested funds arising from life members' subscriptions is now £82 6s. 2d. Election op Officers fok 1903. — President — Professor Charles Chilton, D.Sc. ; Vice-presidents — Mr. J. B. Mayne, B.A., Mr. A. B. Flower, M.A., B.Sc; Hon. Secretary— C. Coleridge Parr, D.Sc. ; Hon. Treasurer — Professor Charles Chilton, D.Sc. ; Council— Miss M. F. Olliver, M.A., Captain F. W. Hutton, F.B.S., Professor W. P. Evans, Ph.D., Dr. W. H. Symes, Messrs. L. Cockayne and B. Speight, M.A., B.Sc. The retiring President's address on "Bacteria and Fer- mentation " was postponed till the next meeting. OTAGO INSTITUTE. First Meeting: 13th May, 1902. Professor Benham, President, in the chair. New Members. — Messrs. Alexander Michie, Percy E. Sar- good, F. Z. Moore, Tompson Lamb, and Dr. Stevens. Paper. — " The Marine Mollusca of Totaranui Bay, Nel- son," by Professor Park. (Transactions, p. 299.) Exhibits. — Mr. A. Hamilton showed a distorted stump of an elder-tree that had grown up between the University wall and the water-channel, and had burst up the latter. The President exhibited a supposed hybrid between the common fowl and the weka, and showed that neither the external features nor the skeleton presented any approxima- tion to the weka, but were entirely and absolutely galline. Second Meeting : 10th June, 1902. Professor Benham, President, in the chair. Mr. A. Bathgate moved the following resolution : — That this Institute, having learned with regret that sheep are allowed to run upon the reserve at Mount Cook, and that the interesting native flora of that locality is consequently threatened with extinction, strongly urge on the Government the necessity for the immediate adop- tion of adequate measures to protect the reserve referred to from the depredations of stock and from injury by fire, and that the Government be asked to make and protect further reserves in that locality, including the country between the Tasman and Hooker Glaciers; and that a copy of this resolution be sent to the Hon. tbe Minister of Lands. Mr. P. R. Chapman seconded and strongly supported the resolution, which was carried unanimously. Miss M. E. A. Marchant, M.A , delivered an interesting address on " Impressions of Florence," formed during her recent visit to Europe. After the address a fine series of lime-light views of the city and its chief architectural and historical places of interest was thrown on the screen. Otago Institute. 567 Third Meeting: 8th July, 1902. Professor Benham, President, in the chair. The Hon. Secretary brought up the following report re- garding the marine fish-hatchery at Portobello : — On 12th June an advisory board consisting of Mr. David Barron, Chief Surveyor of Otago ; Mr. C. W. S. Chamberlain, Collector of Cus- toms, Dunedin ; Mr. Robert Chisholm, representing the Otago Acclimati- sation Society ; Captain C. E. W. Fleming, Superintendent of Mercantile Marine; and Mr. George M. Thomson, representing the Otago Institute, was gazetted. The first meeting of the Board was held on the 24th June, when Mr. George M. Thomson was elected Chairman. The members of the Board, along with Mr. L. F. Ayson, Inspector of Fisheries, visited the proposed site of the station on Saturday, 5th July, and were now getting plans and specifications of the required work ready. Papers. — 1. " On a Manifestation of Aurora in Southern Latitudes," by Mr. Henry Skey. (Transactions, p. 405.) 2. "The Kingston Moraine," bj Dr. P. Marshall. (Trans- actions, p. 387.) 3. " Notes on the Occurrence of Native Lead at Parapara, Collingwood," by Professor James Park. (Transactions, p. 403.) Mr. A. Hamilton exhibited fossil cetacean teeth from the phosphate-deposit at Millburn, and contrasted them with some from the Oamaru district, now in the Otago Museum. Mr. Hamilton exhibited a stone relic (belonging to Mr. Dunlop, of the Orepuki Shale- works), which he believed to be unique, and which was perhaps a sacred relic brought by early immigrants from the Society Islands. Foukth Meeting : 12th August, 1902. Professor Benham, President, in the chair. Neio Members. — Messrs. Thomas Brown and Robert Chisholm. Paper. — Dr. Truby King gave a very interesting address on " Protection and Reclamation of Sea-coasts by means of planting." Dr. King illustrated his remarks by lime-light illustrations and by a series of specimens of native and other plants used by him so successfully at Karitane. The paper led to an interesting discussion, and the Chairman con- gratulated Dr. King on his very useful and instructive address. 568 Proceedings. Fifth Meeting : 14th October, 1902. Professor Benham, President, in the chair. New Member.— Mr. J. S. S. Cooper, M.A., B.Sc. Papers. — 1. " On Tcenia echinococcus and Hydatid Disease," by Dr. Barnett. In the course of his remarks the author stated that hydatid disease was much more prevalent in some countries than in others. It was most so in Iceland, where the disease accounted for quite one- tenth — some said one-sixth — of the inhabitants, the reason being that the people of Iceland were extremely filthy in their habits, their dogs sleeping with them in their huts. The disease was common in some of the Australian States, and there was far too much of it in New Zealand. Taking only the Government hospitals of the colony for the five years ending 1896, there were 146 cases of hydatid disease, and twenty-two deaths. For the five years ending 1901 there were 226 cases, with forty deaths, a large in- crease. Taking the four leading towns for five years ending 1901, in Auckland Hospital there were fifteen cases, with five deaths ; at Welling- ton twenty-nine cases, with six deaths ; at Christchurch twenty-five cases, with four deaths ; and at Dunedin sixty-two cases, with nine deaths. This showed that Dunedin was more favoured by the disease than any other part of the colony. The lecturer then dealt with the leading points in the structure and history of the aduit Tcenia, which he stated was found in the dog alone, and he ventured to say that locally every second dog would be found affected. As for live-stock, almost every animal killed for consumption had the hydatid cystic stage present in its viscera, though this did not affect it as food. As for the dogs, they could hardly help becoming contaminated, as the offal from the animals killed was thrown to them. There was a law preventing its being thrown to pigs ; but, strange to say, none in regard to the dog, the only animal in New Zealand that could disseminate the disease. This, he had shown, was increasing in Otago. and things should not be allowed to go on as at present. He then indicated how the spread of the disease was to be pre- vented, laying particular emphasis on the treatment of dogs, and the avoidance of the use of impure drinking-water. The paper evoked considerable discussion, both the Chairman and Mr. G. M. Thomson suggesting that it was a matter for investigation by medical men. 2. " An Account of the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony, or Vilavilairevo, with a Probable Explanation of the Mystery," by Dr. B. Fulton. (Transactions, p. 187.) The Chairman announced that Mr. J. C. Thomson had been elected to fill a vacancy on the Council. Sixth Meeting : 14th October, 1902. Professor Benham, President, in the chair. Papers. — 1. " On the Wanganui Gravels," uy Dr. P. Marshall. 2. " Some New Species of New Zealand Earthworms,' by Professor Benham. (Transactions, p. 277.) Otago Institute. 569 3. " An Earthworm from Norfolk Island," by Professor Benham. {Transactions, p. 273.) 4. "On an Earthworm from the Auckland Islands — Notiodrilus aiccklandicus, n.s.," by Professor Benham. {Transactions, p. 275.) In connection with these papers the Chairman gave an account of the geographical distribution of this group of animals. Exhibits. — Professor Benham showed (1) a giant limpet (Patella) from the Kermadec Islands, and (2) a specimen of a crinoid mounted above a piece of mirror so as to enable all its aspects to be seen. Annual Meeting: 11th November, 1902. Professor Benham, President, in the chair. Abstract op Annual Eepobt. Since last annual meeting the Council has met seven times for the transaction of business. At the first meeting Mr. George M. Thomson, who had been elected Vice-president as well as Honorary Secretary, resigned the former position, and the Council unanimously elected Mr. F. R. Chapman a Vice-president. During the year Mr. T. D. Pearce forwarded his resignation as a member of the Council. This was accepted with regret, and Mr. J. C. Thomson was elected to the vacancy. The additions to the membership during the year were twelve, the total number now on the roll being 112, of whom ten are life members. Seven general meetings of the members have been held, and at these there has been, on the whole, a gratifying attendance. At two of these, interesting addresses illustrated by lime-light views were delivered — viz., by Miss M. E. A. Marchant on " Impressions of Florence," and by Dr. F. Truby King on " Protection and Reclamation of Sea-coasts by means of planting." The following papers were also contributed: "The Marine Mollusca of Totaranui Bay, Nelson," by Professor Park ; " Occurrence of Native Lead at Parapara, Nelson," by Piofessor Park; " On a Manifesta- ■ion of Aurora in Southern Latitudes," by Mr. H. Skey ; " The Kingston Moraine," by Dr. P. Marshall; "The Wanganui Gravels," by Dr. P. Marshall; "On Tcenia echmococcus and Hydatid Disease," by Dr. L. E. Barnett ; "An Account of the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony, or Vilavilairevo, with a Probable Explanation of the Mystery," by Dr. R. Fulton ; " Some New Species of New Zealand Earthworms," by Professor Benham; "An Earthworm from Norfolk Island," by Professor Benham; "The Evolu- tion of Life," by Professor Benham. At the last annual meeting it was resolved that the Institute be registered under "The Unclassified Societies Act, 1895." Steps were taken in accordance with this resolution ; but, as the Registrar of Friendly Societies required the rules to be amended, a special meeting of the members, called by circular, was held on the 13th May, when a draft of proposed rules and regulations was adopted. On the Sth July the certifi- cate of incorporation and a sealed copy of the rules were laid on the table, and it was resolved to deposit the same with the Institute's solicitors. At the June meeting of the members the following resolution, moved by Mr. A. Bathgate, was agreed to : " That this Institute, having learned with regret that sheep are allowed to run upon the reserve at Mount Cook, and that the interesting native flora of that locality is conse- 570 Proceedings. quently threatened with extinction, strongly urges on the Government the necessity for the immediate adoption of adequate measures to protect the reserve referred to from the depredations of stock and from injury by fire, and that the Government be asked to make and protect further reserves in that locality, including the country between the Tasman and Hooker Glaciers ; and that a copy of this resolution be sent to the Hon. the Minister of Lands." In reply to the Secretary's communi- cation the Minister of Lands stated that instructions had been issued to the Commissioner of Crown Lands for Canterbury, the Crown Lands Ranger, and other officials to repoit as to the facts of the case. Reference was made in the last annual report to the compilation of an "Index Faunae Novas-Zealandise," which it was hoped the Governors of the New Zealand Institute would publish. This the Governors did not see their way to do, and accordingly the Canterbury Philosophical In- stitute had itself undertaken to publish the work at joint risk with Cap- tain Hutton, the editor. Your Council resolved to co-operate with the Canterbury Philosophical Institute by subscribing for fifty copies at 10s. each. The matter of the marine fish-hatchery has been moved a step for- ward, and is now out of the hands of your Council, except as regards the appointment of a representative on the advisory beard and its liability of £250 towards the cost of construction of the station. On the 10th March Professor Benham, Messrs. A. C. Begg, P. R. Chapman, R. Chisholm, and G. M. Thomson waited on the Premier as a joint deputa- tion from the Institute and the Otago Acclimatisation Society, and received an assurance from him that the Cabinet had agreed to push on with the matter. In consequence of a letter received from the Marine Depart- ment, a conference of your Council with the committee of the Acclimati- sation Society was held on the 21st March. The letter stated that the Government was prepared to form an advisory board in connection with the marine fish-hatchery, and to go on with the construction at a cost not to exceed £1,100 : the Board to consist of one member from the Otago Institute ; one member from the Otago Acclimatisation Society ; the Commissioner of Customs, Dunedin ; the District Engineer, Public Works Department, Dunedin; and the Chief Surveyor, Otago District. After discussion it was agreed, " That, if it be understood that the ad- visory board shall have the management subject to the control of the Department, and that the representation of the societies be increased to two members each, the societies will agree to the Government pro- posals." On the 12th June an advisory board consisting of Mr. David Barron, Chief Surveyor; Mr. C. W. S. Chamberlain, Collector of Customs ; Mr. Robert Chisholm, representing the Otago Acclimatisa- tion Society; Captain C. E. W. Fleming, Superintendent of Mercantile Marine ; and Mr. G. M. Thomson, representing the Otago Institute, was gazetted. Although this is not in accordance with the foregoing resolu- tion, your Council, being desirous of seeing the work proceeded with, did not think it advisable to press the matter. On the 24th June the first meeting of the Board was held, when Mr. George M. Thomson was elected Chairman, and Mr. C. W. Chamberlain Hon. Secretary. Early in the session a letter was received from the Council of the Auckland Institute in regard to the delay in publication of the Trans- actions, and suggesting (1) the issue of the annual volume in parts, these parts either to appear at fixed periods or as soon as sufficient material is available ; (2) that no papers forwarded to the Manager of the Institute later than 31st December in each year shall appear in the volume for that year. In reply, the Secretary was requested to write expressing the concurrence of this Council with the proposals of the Auckland Insti- tute, and further to suggest that the Proceedings should be published separately from the Transactions immediately after the close of each session, or in two separate instalments during and after each session. Otago Institute. 571 The last instalment due on the moa's egg in the Museum having been paid to the Council during this session, the egg is now the property of the Otago University. Your Council has nominated Mr. James McKerrow as its repre- sentative on the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, and has forwarded the names of the following gentlemen as honorary mem- bers for any vacancies which may occur in the list : Dr. George S. Brady, P.R.S., Durham College of Science, author of papers on New Zealand Entomostraca ; Frank E. Beddard, F.R.S., Prosector of the Zoological Society of London, who has worked on New Zealand Annelids ; George 0. Sars, Professor of Zoology in Christiana, for work on New Zealand Crustacea. The following books have been added to the library of the Institute during the session: Benham, W. B. " Platyhelmia " ; Cambridge Natural History: — Beddard, " Mammalia," and Gadow, "Amphibia and Reptilia"; Christian, "The Caroline Islands"; Cole and Johnstone, " Pleuronectes " ; English Dictionary, Murray, 2 vols.; Flower and Lydekker, "Mammals"; Keane, "Man, Past and Present"; Kent, W. Saville, "The Naturalist in Australia"; Lloyd, Morgan, "Animal Behaviour"; Moore, "To the Mountains of the Moon"; Packard, " Lamarck, his Life and Letters " ; Skeat, " Malay Magic." The following books are now under order: Ratzel, "History of Mankind"; Meakin, Bridget, "The Moors"; Scientific Memoirs, edited by Dr. J. S. Ames, 15 vols. ; Thomson, Basil, " Savage Island" ; the Gilbert Club, " William Gilbert, of Colchester, on the Magnet," &c. The balance-sheet shows that the total receipts for the year were £135 13s. lid., and the expenditure £63 5s. 9d. The Assets Account shows that the sum of £450 is now on deposit, and that the bank balance amounts to £51 19s. 2d. Election of Officers for 1903. — President — A. Hamil- ton ; Vice-presidents — Professor Benham and George M. Thomson; Hon. Secretary — Dr. P. Marshall ; Hon. Treasurer — Willi Fels ; Council — A. Bathgate, C. W. S. Chamberlain, F. R Chapman, J. S. S. Cooper, James C. Thomson, D. Waters, and Dr. Hocken ; Hon. Auditor — D. Brent. The retiring President, Professor Benham, then read his address on " The Evolution of Life." Papers. — 1. " The Geology of the Eock - phosphate Deposits of Clarendon, Otago," by Professor James Park. (Transactions, p. 391.) 2. " On a Stone Eelic found at Orepuki, Southland," by A. Hamilton. (Transactions, p. 113.) WESTLAND INSTITUTE. Annual Meeting. Dr. Teichelmann, President, in the chair. Abstract of Annual Report. In presenting the thirty-sixth annual report the trustees are glad to be able to report a considerable advance in the utility of the society, and especially an increase in number of its members, amounting to nineteen, during the past year. Seven ordinary meetings were held, and were generally well attended. A new catalogue was printed and issued to members. A considerable number of these were posted for inspection t > residents in the town and district who were not members, and to this is largely attributable the increase in membership. New editions of some of the standard authors have been procured to replace worn copies. The expense of repairs and shelving was considerable, and half the cost of this was borne by the Borough Council. One hundred and fifteen volumes have been added to the library. The Museum, under the care of the Honorary Curator, Dr. Mac- andrew, has been improved by the addition of new specimens, and some of the old ones have been relabelled with the assistance of Mr. Goodlet, of the Otago University. A number of newspapers have, as usual, been forwarded gratis to the Institute by their proprietors, for which the trustees beg to return thanks. Notwithstanding the "considerable increase in membership this year, there is still room for great improvement in this respect, and the trustees feel that in a place of the size and importance of Hokitika an Institute such as ours should be very much better supported, and it is to be hoped that the coming year will show a great increase in membership. The Treasurer, Mr. McNaughton, submitted his annual statement of the financial position of the Institute, which he set forth in full detail. He explained that in the past year a very large amount of permanent renovation had been done. Nevertheless, their funds were in a very satis- factory state The usual subsidies from the Government, the Borough Council, and the Harbour Board have been received. The report and balatce-sheet were unanimously adopted. Election of Officers for 1903. — President — Mr. J. B. Lewis ; Vice-president — Mr. T. W. Beare ; Treasurer — Mr. McNaughton; Committee — Messrs. Clarke, Heinz, D. Mac- farlane, Michel, Morton, Park, G. Perry, Mahan, Dunne, Solomon, and Drs. Macandrew and Teichelmann. Votes of thanks were passed to Dr. Teichelmann, the re- tiring President, for the active interest he had taken in the management of the institution, and also to the Vice-president, Treasurer, and Auditors. Dr. Teichelmann and Messrs. Lewis and Morton were appointed a book-selection committee by the Council. HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. Fikst Meeting: 19th May, 1902. The President, Dr. Leahy, delivered the inaugural address, taking as his subject " The Fight against Tuberculosis in the Australian Colonies and New Zealand." {Transactions, p. 220.) Second Meeting : 21st July, 1902. Paper. — "The Birth and Development of Architecture," by E. N. Anderson. The lecture was illustrated by seventy-five lantern-slides. Third Meeting: 11th August, 1902. Paper.—'1 Technical Education," by H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. (Transactions, p. 153.) Fourth Meeting : 15th September, 1902. Paper.- — " The Honey-bee as seen through the Micro- scope," by Dr. Kennedy, M.A. This lecture was illustrated by over fifty photomicrographs. Fifth Meeting: 13th October, 1902. Papers. — 1. " Wagner," by H. Large. Several selections were given in illustration. 2. " The Maori To-day and To-morrow (No. 2)," by H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. (Transactions, p. 169.) 3. " The Horse : a Study in Philology," by Taylor White. (Transactions, p. 211.) 4. "The Travelled Goat," by Taylor White. (Trans- actions, p. 209.) 571 Proceedings. Sixth Meeting : 1st December, 1902. Paper. — " On the Tracks of Captain Cook," by Russell Duncan. (Transactions, p. 32.) The lecture was illustrated by lantern-slides. Annual Meeting. Abstract of Annual Report. Including the annual business meeting, there have been seven meet- ings of the Institute during the year just ended. The ordinary meetings were devoted to papers and popular lectures, there being six papers read during the session, and three illustrated lectures delivered. At most of the meetings the attendance of members and the general public was very satisfactory. Five Council meetings were held during the year. The library has received a good deal of attention, and forty-seven new volumes have been added. Orders have also been given for the supple- mentary volumes of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," " Index Faunae Novae-Zealandise," and Hudson's " Neuroptera." The following specimens and curios have been donated to the Museum: Three cases of moths and butterflies, one Mahratta dagger, one Mahratta sword, all presented by Mrs. Buckman ; one whalebone mere, by Mr. J. F. V. Williams ; and a collection of rock specimens, by Mr. E. Lyndon. Mr. C. W. Andrews has been appointed Curator of the Museum. During the year four members withdrew from the branch, and two new members were elected, leaving the membership at sixty-two. The Treasurer's balance-sheet shows the Institute in a satisfactory financial position, the total receipts (including balance carried forward) being £93 5s. 3d., and the expenditure £61 5s. 2d., leaving a balance to the Society's credit of £32 Os. Id. Of the " Colenso bequest" £84 17s. lOd. remains to credit. Election op Officers for 1903. — President — J. P. D. Leahy, M.B., M.S., B.A., D.P.H. ; Vice-president — T. C. Moore, M.D. ; Council— W. Dinwiddie, H. W. Antill, H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S., F. Hutchinson, jun., J. S. Large, T. Tanner; Hon. Secretary — James Hislop, District School ; Hon. Treasurer —J. W. Craig; Hon. Auditor — G. White; Curator — E. W. Andrews. NELSON INSTITUTE. Annual Meeting : 25th February, 1903. Abstract of Annual Report. The receipts for the year from all sources (including balance, £19 7s., brought forward) amounted to £243 2s. 8d., and the expenditure to £236 19s. 6d., leaving a credit balance of £6 3s. 2d. This small amount to credit is accounted for by the unusual expenditure of over £25 in con- nection with the Gordon Downs Accommodation house. It will be noted with satisfaction that the receipts from subscriptions amounted to £167 17s. 9d., as against £129 16s. for the previous year, representing an increase of about thirty-eight members. Some necessary repairs have been made to the Gordon Accommoda- tion-house at the request of the Licensing Bench, and £25 has been expended on this property during the year, as stated above. The new tenant has effected considerable improvements on the land during the short time he has had possession. The committee have received an offer to lease the Tadmor Block at a low rental, but have declined the offer, considering it better to defer deal- ing with it until the Tadmor section of the railway, now in progress, is completed, when it is considered a better rental will be obtained. About two hundred volumes of new works have been purchased during the year. Several new magazines and periodicals have been added, and an excellent collection of the best illustrated papers, reviews, magazines, and periodical literature is available for readers and for circulation. The free reading-room has been well attended during the year. The committee have extended the hours, for convenience of members, during which the library is open, from 5 to 5.30 p.m. and from 9 to 9.30 p.m., and trust that the increased prosperity of the Institute may enable them in the future to still further extend the hours. The committee desire to record their thanks to members who have kindly placed newspapers and periodicals in the reading-rooms, and to those who have generously presented books, and would again wish to express their appreciation of the courteous and efficient manner in which the duties of Librarian have been carried out by Miss Reeves. Election of Officers for 1903. — President — H. W. Robinson ; Vice-president — D. Grant ; Secretary — A. J. Red- grave ; Librarian — R. Reeves. APPENDIX 37— Tr. Meteorology. 579 CO u ce CD CO O V cd Sh Ph S3 cS cm O as X O o Hi B O « H CO PQ < l-H H 5d tf «3 § o Q ■a 3 •(01 0!} 0) o . oo . O . O 8 ;unoiny nvopi >co oT» d^a.S^'2 .a 43 g S o CO * S3 43 in Is 43 QQ «-< OCO CO in ■j'Bei jo; 9s O ii sepm nt 90^0^ * s ; 64 : Aijbq gS^jeAy ca iH •l[9j uiny; — o tpiqAY no 00 00 1-1 r-l oco CSlrH oo in Rain. SA'ua jo -om ao 53 oco ii i< •B9qoui in o fc-Oi COCO OOI at HBji ib^ox GO i-l CO ■* ooo coo coco in co CO H3 fl •(ooi = aon'Bjn^'Bs) cm en t-o mo OH CO IH OCO v O oju^sioim jo cot- t-t> 00 t> » an ao > 99*89(1 UB9J\[ •.mod's a. jo tsos S01 con O .fi o 90.10^ OpSBta CM C~ CO CO Scb (M04 UB9J^ oo oo OO s? £ a n*3 . q, cd g§°2 o o from Self-registeri read in Morning fo urs previously. Fi CO • csi • M S" ™ >°' o o a c " a ™ ■* : t»< : rH co : co : f-i CD ffi o in o CT> ■ O in Stf EH erature uments -four He g-sa-ga CO oo 05 i in csi : -1 ' a*3 >> cb a 3 pjBi « •*00 rHOS ini-i HM| C-00 i* ■& ooo SH CO mo m o Tt< in H * a a* csj : o m 1-.05 a a (NO o o 0QO CO CO d « oo oo coco CSOJ enen OICM oo en CO cc U H u d 03 d : > • >. • >> Z oo 00 oo CO CO CO Eh • CO a5 • cc •< E* CO T3 O a-:; .5 5 a. 2 a > a cd T3 CD •Mi-1 ^ Sn CD (h o — 3 < CD ^h o3 CD CO O CD U CD CD CO O +=> 4^> CD h ft O o co is o co <1 O M U H « H , d s csjoscsiin Scncbo-. Zi m in -oi p a h<: S enebo SOIOIO d s (^ H d S X! CD fc eq 00 fc*cn i^ gcb 6« gcocom B 03 a 9 p d co^ -HKC0 05 §COQi< S co co m CD a CD O CD 0 Sh CD A a CD > O & cm co co on Sinil c sh' ?; 2 M-0 P3 O „ rtoeico >H St- coo 2, m m in ^ a CD 43 a CD CO CC Z O H & «! CO a : a a.S dc-S 33 o 580 Appendix. REMARKS ON THE WEATHER, 1902. Januaby. — Hot and calm with but little rain over North Island and east coast of South Island. Heavy rain with thunder over west coast of South Island. Wind prevalent in both Islands towards the close of the month. Febeuaby. — Fine and warm over the north and centre ; the rains not quite up to the average. Good rains on west coast and south of South Island. Mabch. — Prevailing winds W. and S.W., the rainfall being slightly under the average everywhere except Dunedin. Apbil. — Thunder in the extreme north. Good rain all over; prevailing wind from the S.W. May. — Wet in the north, centre, and the west coast of South Island; but small rains over the East Coast. Pre- vailing wind, S.W. June. — Fine in the north ; wet and changeable over the centre and south. Continued gales with rain were felt over the centre about the middle of the month. The rain not quite up to the average anywhere. July. — Calm and fine all over. Wind mostly from the S.W., and but poor rains. Snow fell in the south on 14th. August. — Generally fine, the rainfall being small all over. Snow in the south. Septembeb. — Good rains in tbe north; wet and cold with S.W. winds and snow in tbe centre and south. In N.E. of South Island and centre changeable and wintry. Octobeb. — Windy in the north; small rainfall every- where, except the west coast of the South Island. Snow in the south. Novembeb. — Fine all over at the beginning of the month, but later on cold and boisterous. Rain under the average in the north of North Island and east coast of the South. Decembeb. — Rain under the average in the north. Else- where wet and cold ; W. and S.W. winds prevailing. Hail over the north. Earthquakes. 581 Earthquakes reported in New Zealand during 1902. Plaok. a ce a c 3 - < 4J Pi o 6 o Q IS * 15, 21,27 •• ■• •• •• 17,' 20, 16* 1,4* 28,* 29* 21, 30 • • • . . . . , , 29* 1* 18 26 26 •• •• i 5* 28 29* 28,* 29 29 29 18 •• 22 14 28,29* Opotiki Rotorua Gisborne New Plymouth Inglewood Napier Eltham Stratford Hawera Wanganui Waipawa Dannevirke Fdilding Pahiatua Masterton Greytown Carterton Wellington Kaikoura Cheviot 5,11 25 12* 21 21' 21 25 27* 8,* 27* 27 27 27 27,* 28 4* 10, 12, 16 16 9 16 8* 8* 8 8, 16 22* 9 1 10 1 12 1 4 1 1 3 3 1 1 4 1 1 1 2 10 1 3 Note. — The figures denote the day of the month on which one or more shocks were felt. Those with the asterisk affixed were described as smart. The remainder were only slight tremors, and no doubt escaped record at most stations, there being no instrumental means employed for their detection. These tables are therefore not reliable as far as indicating the geographical distribution of the shocks within New Zealand. The records of the Milne seismographs recently established at Wellington and Christohurch will be found on p. 582 et seq. 582 Appendix. cq .2 w o o a r *° OS " 3 CD r-l BH CM O W 5 2 o a s o S o - H O i-H S - a vi o CO cS w o Q do" VI S . CD 49 o o J3 05 <3 ffl r mh h EH ° O J e8 a CO CO H M a o 00 CO VI CD a ■ — . . « 6 8 a s 2 r1? 2 • ^H cq o OS CM O a CD *c3 o o O m a O CD O o Xi 03 u Vi o .a co 0 m § 3:5 pa sas VI ■ta "3 3 a 00 CD O VI a 2-| 3 --< vi d c3 CD P o -*a" a CO sa O on ■ O CO E"a &D >> a . >> VI CD VI CD C?o CD VI >> r o KrH O < tfi --. •+-• CD J3 a Ph til i-s 'S a^s S 3 > EH Oi> J EH o O cfq o >b co m o o d oo d d > a B.l-5 ^3 CD • .CO . • CD ' • • O lO O .CO d oo cm • d CM rH -r- H— o a* ^ a a s CO 00 H - C5 r— 1 Cu *" i3 o o CN r* H 11 c« a i_J c * o> 3 a o a »a B : • : : : : • CO ' CM O . . . t-1 • • • P p O 2 to g • i 4J> •-1 a -a a co a j.2 J P, a a • . O O . O C cp . . lO I— 1 0} CI 1> o s • * iH i-H 'CO-^lt-t-CMiHCOi-l cb • ■ iH * ft * g CO OC0 g.^ a a o«J o" cq o 00 6 cp d O ,3 co a w ^ s a a ca EH • CM 6 s m ® ° 22 2 — . o t X u U g a ca £ oo oo oo o o >c o © co * • CM CM CO • t> • * CO <3 s o ^ Vi (JD -^ —1 i-H rH rH CM rH co" 3 • a es d ^_, CD H o . otfl o co to •*-• M • • . . . oo o a co ; ; ; ib . "^ . * » • t-: • • • w 3 ,3 . a 13 co *a -►3 O <0 rrt CO '5b a o a -« 2 1 CO of c8 — ■ ^ _r^ o p rH p. 2 «o H " o o 05 co CD GO CD O hoo p-i * . CO . ■ d • • * CO CO CM . ■* i-l lO . • t^ d co * iH i-H § CO - u o-2-p co Oi •■# in 05 CO ■* h t-H 0 iH i-H i-l i-H i-H i-H CM CM i-H CM CM CQ o E S a - 3 3 o 3 * t2 o * 'a -a '£ +3 e3 CM o i-h a Q ^H Q J3 »- © V X ^ O 13 4a o3 i-s ' ' * ' % 4 o — r— « — -C 6 O i-l CM CO •* lO CO t- 00 05 O -*3 d tic qd 1 Z o o O O O o o o O O rH CD .- CM CM CM CM CM CM o? CM CM CM CM J -a J3 Seismograph Records. 583 M o e o . cS a > ' — ] o oj cd ^ -5 > a a 3 co . CO " .2§ Xl XI ."© L* CO 3 o 2 a a CD ri ^^ CD M fl o .fl 3 O cB u O 6 £ CD 3 m fl lO H * £ Is C 3 CD d PL..S 8 5* rj-j u o a CD 3 a M o CD M EH o CD CO 00 _o CD fl< I a o o PQ o a CD M -u CO -*3 3 fl a •§ 3 a >> CD > 60 fl • fH CD X> •O O 'm CD O O XI CD XI X) bo 3 o fl CD CD > 3 CD CD o fl CO c8 & -» fl CD 3 M go 9 O CO O CO CO rH © ni O 00 • o »o lO CM CM -# Tji CD CM CD CO -■# t-^ ci CM 9 9 6 6 . O CM t-^ CM -(-CM CO cp lb CM © co ( t-^ ib o CO US © , o oo o . rH .CO • o 'oo CO O 00 t- tH tH CM r-l US CO © CM • 9 US its t~ CM its . © its CM O in oc its us as cm cb o . . . . q pcj . . . . q ihj • • • d io • ■ • '6m CM T-t * ~9 9 •? 9 9" ? 9^ •? oo t-^-* m «5 -# -*cb 6jo> tH .-* .its . . .i-l .i-l . . .CM . . . .CO .CM . .'. .COi-l cd "ib 'oJ ■ 'o 'us • ' 'ai • • ■ -co 'its ' ■ ' 'i-icM iH iH tH CMiH iH CMiH CM cc5 o o oo o 00 -* CM t?- cb . . . .•* rH . . . CM CM.. ..CO. • • ■ 'ci ib ■ • ■ oS US ' ' ' ' rA ' 3 CD ^ XI -*- fl c3 o XI a o c3 o co o o t- CM o •* CM CM d oi CM ^H O CM ■ L? 9 • 00 t> CO IO o t- t- ao CM . 10-0 co • d oo iH CM 9 9 CD tH CO CO cb d i-l CM 9 9 4* d d t^ its its CM CM • bi o CO d CM lOCDt~i-l'-lincDCDt~THCMCMCO-*THlOCDt-OOOOCiOOO'-HcMCMCO-*lOCOCOt- CMCMCM HrtHHHH-HHHHHH <*H OS > 1— 1 43 S J2 •— 3 0 CO 0 T3 J-3 OS 3 C3 C 03 c • r-l CD CO Op CO CM CO CM 0 <*H 05 «H 43 ■-r CD 0) & 43 CD fl CD "5 a 00 DO -43 10 rH O O a (0 u 43 CO SH O 43 O -C CO r^. >- b OS a 03 CO 43 e3 3 S3 ■W O CO £ CD U ±3 CO J3 CD 43 . 3 0 3 43 CD CO CD > CO O os- , — CD M CJ CD .r- • u 3 « 3 to M 03 43 a 03 «*H Local. Deoided motion beg marked at 15.17'5 on d 03 cu 03 U >i 03 -a 0 ki Ph O _o 3 CO O PM Minute tremors. Followed by minut ■IH "3 .fl, c3 3 CO as >H 3 0 O a CD U 43 CD 43 3 a a >> |H CD CO IH O a CD U 43 CD 43 3 □ i "5 5 m a CO CD 3 a • r-( 00 0 O -a a: "5 3 OD (Boom-period, 17-5s Local ; tremors m M 0 0 ja 3 0 0 a) QQ C3 CJ CO 00 1 — ' 0 'E cu 3 0 0 w 0 a CD M 43 CD 43 3 3 a u CD > e3 CD 43 ■ rH CO I-s aj2 CO CO a a 2 » 9 CD lO 9 O 1{3 >b CO ib d ■b cb &H = rH rH • "**! . 10 HH . 0 ! °~ C~ O— cs. cn* . CN- ! c^- <<£ ' ' • 'tf CO • d • i-i t-^ ■ • -31 "i~ rH rH y-l o in 0 00 in CO ip "P 10 lO CO O CO ■^h cm 00 cm cb t- cm rH CM CM t-000 a lO H • "^ CO rH CO ■* rH oniod , in d • lb t-^ 00 O CM • CO CM CM ib 00 • 1 . rH 1-1 rH rH CM CM rH rH CM 1 a g'91099 1099910 . 9 O in 9 -^ CD lO CO gbi iH cb cb COOlHHiH • rH CM tH t- rH O rH O 0 CO co 9 9 00 O t- 01 CO CO rH t- d o . 0 . CO rH rH CO CO rH . EH • 0 • id t-^ 00 O CM CO co a co rH rH rH rH CM CM rH O9OO 00 00 co 9 in 9 CO CO CO lO lO CO CO a o u rH cb d d rH rH T(i rH CO d -tn d ib d ib 6S d 10 q rH rH rH rH CM CO 10 . rH O rH rH qco^q . 0 0 O in i>codoito' • ci CO CO rH CM CM lb 00 • • In 1-1 rH rH rH rH CM CM rH rH rH r-t CM ao 0 CO O 00 9 CO CO 9 CO 91OO9 cb cm CO t- rH CO CO CO H CO d 4h d cb . ■g 0 . O iri O O rH CM O 10 co -^i O . n 10 O rH • in rH <— 1 0 t-^ 06 d cm" rH ,H CM CM to <-< • rH l-H rH CM lO CD qp O lO 9 9 CO 0 9 0 in ejI do Ttl ITS d cb d ob d t- cb • "'. • *P W • cs. cn. cv. . 0 0 10 rH . 0 . D0 • . . . CO . rH«»H * 05 • ■* CO • rH Oi lO r- GO - OS ■ • ■ . d • rH rH H—tH i-H CM i-i rH CM H— co 00 00 ao 00 00 CO 00 Ol O O iH rHrHrHCMCMCOlOCO CO t~ t- t- t- 00 _ cm cm CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CO CO CO CD cm •4^ 03 Q 0 . ^H 05 u ft ft ft ft ft ft % ft ft % 8 p. ft £ ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft s > ... oj a . - £ oo 2 3 m g K 3 02 H 2 s a s 3 ° "3 b ° oi a h ja 3 13 a c3 a OJ > ID m H O a 03 r* O o J3 S3 13 3 co- co 03 ° 2 a a g-W *a ^3 1 • ^ CD |t? a o OQ 00 13 O "w OJ p4 3 O o oa 03 O a OJ h 49 OJ c3 OJ CQ 3 eS OJ J= d o en u O a CD § 3 o o o eo 10 o o o o oo CO CD . o CM CM 00 * 05 O t- rH 0)0 OO . ■* . * CO CD ' 10 * CM t-^ i-t CM H— o in 9 9 cb 10 , 10 -* 00 * CD * o rH CM 9 9 9 CO CO rH , CO »o lO 'ClOri rH CM CM O 00 rH CO CO CO S "3 .00 . . . . + »0 O . Ript- • • O ' ' • • O CM *0 . ^h ^h CD § CO R • co « • 10 00 . CM ioin co 0 00 . -* r-i • cm' CO 00 . -* • 0 CM 00 CO CO rH . rH CO • O lO OO -* cb . r-> CM ' cm' JO in cp O rH O o . . CO O CM ■ eo CM 0 CM • CO CM • CO CM • O CM • CM • - • • O lO 00 rH rH " O CM • CO O 00 -1— rH • CM CM • rH rH * CM CM • • rH CM CO CM r-l 00 oco eo'#iococot-t-GOo OOOCMCOCO-^-*»0>OlOOCMCO-^-*10COt-t-t-0000 CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCO «rl < « * % % 5 * * * 5 * * 4 5 5 5 5 » « * 5 5 5 5 aS » * * » 5 5 5 • 5 5 CO 10 CM 00 * >o CM O O rH CM CO •O CO CO CO CO CM CM CM CM CM CO CM CO CM CO t- CO CD CM CM CO CO CM O) CO CM O CM CM CM CO CM CM t- CM rH CM »o O CM CM lO CM lO CM co 10 CM t- lO CM »o CM 586 Appendix. 55 o I o CM 6 53 ca a co 8^s lO -^> o a CO CO a .a _ a -s a a to a > o -« fl * 2 a g . ■fl *3 a a a ■ a - a s o u o o O "-1 . O CO O . H CM CO O . CM lO 00 . CM i-H * O CM • 00 t- t-H • CO 03 1-1 H ' CO CM O0050300i-HCM CMCO COCO CM o CT> iOCCt-t-0000000305030 1-1 CM l-Hi-ll-lr-41-Hr-l.-li-lT-ll-ICM CMCN o CO fc- CO Oi O t~ t- C- t- CO CM CM CM (M CM CD CM CM 00 CM CO -^ »o CO t- CO CO 00 00 00 CO CO (M CM CM CM CM CM Seismograph Records. 587 0 0 ,3 CO «— < a! 0 O * 13 a CO >» M CD E> 13 u CO > i-H CD E5 43 rs; then small ae hours ; then G 03 BO u 3 O -3 CD 43 3 3 a &H < 13 inute for about ith some very very minute. CD 43 43 3 3 u OJS '8 d S*H cB h CD 0 CD 49 3 CO O ■a u •2 ^ » 2 n . O 0 raja .3 43 CD H 43 -1 EH EHd" O _ n-< CD fe CD -s? «- o3 O o3 i- 0 0 0 ,3 Ph CD CD CO p4 S a^ co — r ^^ eS cd a 0 co 2 ■— < a 0 43 "3 0 a m 2 »° S u 0 _: 0x1 3 3 a a P a q CO J >> 2 0 CO M O a a s^ £ a "a « Jl 0 ,, n 0 CD 43 — ■M a 0 ?3 CO CO H O 2 00 3 0 0 a CD u 4-J CO r-H O oom-period, 17 four hours ; tb small shocks (? a CO inute and smal ry minute trem ry small local s a 0 ja CO so ^ _^ 213 a 0 CD U 43 CD 3 3 ry minut ry small ry small T. very s for ten h dying aw _ "3 0 s o 11 "3 CJ 43 CD 4^ 3 3 Js 3 "3 |aa 2 CO CO H CD P-l a 0 0 < 3 c3 EH s CD CD CD >» PL, 2 es CD CD w W Ph 1— I OJ CD 0 0 0 0 00 0 O O 0 0 0 0 0 -*: in 0 0 iH m t— -h to t~ m CO m th CM O . 0 . 0 . ^* >-l Tjf . ■ ^H 0-. • 0 . 0 . . iH . . m . m ■* . . CM 00 • 0 • CO • CM -* t- " i-H 0 ' CO" • "* ■ i-i • co cm • • cm iH "*— i— 1 CM 4- iH CM CM O CO O ■n CM CM iH CM 0 to CM 0 0 CM O • (M . c*- • CO 01 c^- • .-1 • in • • CO • • ; ; c. <^. m in O 0 ~ 0 0 m 0 0 •<# m i-H -H cp 00 i-i in _H t- CO ' • CM en • CO • ' c^. . CO . . CM . • co • • • * CM CM • co • • • • • " OS CM 4 CM CM l-H CM CM 0 0 O 03 CO i-l i-H CM 0 O 0 O 000 O OO O O O O O O ■* O 0 t~ O CO •* m Ol O CO 0 CO CO O t- CM . CO . 0 . CO m CM CN . •H . . -# O , ■>* CM . CO . . 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Q. at Montana, remors. [Des 5th July.] a u o Q o A A M o o OQ a o o M d 5 S (X b j Small tremors. ) 17-5 sec.) fc *"* 8 cu a CO H CO ■— ' H CN. M CN. CD CD >> o o o o O O o ^^ CO O m ■^ O o o Hq -* -r1-^ t- rH CO rH rH * ft tH w rH ft * o o co • ■ tH H a 09 . iO © ■* • H CM fH : : : cn. o . . • • .9 • • CM < *? "? 9 ib oo o rH ■ : • o CO CO 03 o H -t— y cB o o o o CO lO tH lO 00 CM o OD CN o s a CM CO CO 03 o o o o tH CO I-H 03 «3 rH to • .loioo . . CO ■* o o . CO CO • -* CO • rH • «* • hi IQ • 'Ot-CO . CM looocft • CO •* • o b- ■ CO • Ol • • In CM CN O 00 CJ Ol rJH w O rH O O o o CO o CM O o " o t« rH >o CO lO OQ io o o CO ■<* r>l • O CO • CO . Ph *; o 05 t- " CO CO CM * 1— 1 iH ft tH CM rH ft CM ft CO CO t- GO CDCoOOriHH rH CM ■># -■# ■* lO CO CO CO CO CO CO H (M CN CM CM CM CM CM CO CO rH rH o CM D Q ™ o 4a i % . "3 * s £ ; % £ i a % fc % i 5 l-s r-5 6 T-l -f lO CO t- o-> o . CO -# in . 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CO CM CM . .. . »b cot>6 T-f CM O rH S o lO CO -rH rtf CJiOCOOOOOt-lOt-CMCSI-^COCOCMCMCMOCXCO r-HOcoio coowo«oiHoiffliooHmO'*WH©oc OOOO TUCMCOCMr-irHOCOCOCOOOlOiCCMCMCMCOCOCM >C CO CO CO |>OC0(MHMHiHH»HHC;HI«IO10raHi( —iCMCMCM OrHOCMOOrHOOrHOrHrHOrHrHrHQClOO CO L— O CC o ^ •& CO i-l CM CM CO CO ■# CM CO "*" CO i-H CM O CO CO OJC100 -*H CO lO ibibbs . . . . rt< . . . .t-.o rt< i— i CM . . -CM .""*< . rH t-^dtc ^ as »o O i-H O O i-i i-l oo .oicowot-coototct-csicoo OO'O'HtboCl^CD-ij^rtHt-O ■* ts s s o - 1 ia o to co co o cc co h t^ -oooidciooHwddoiHiio 01- 'OCMOOi-HOOi-HO'-'i-HOi-H acjooHHWt-^toHcoinoo HHHHHrilMM i-H rH O CO t- ** ■* »b rH CO CM CO r-i rj-' CM O O CM CO «5 CM CM CM CM o 1-6 &h Seismograph Records. 595 u o a OOiO(MOiM010000iflNOI>0«l>0(>lWO [>COCO'*01CDH(MCO^(MI>C»Hait-CO-#iOC7!'Ot>H(MOlOlO(NO'Ot-H(NfflCO ^Oo«isOHHioeoiaooioioci)eo'SHH^T(iMOioiooiocoHHMO'*H «30lO'OlOOffi01COHiOOOCD'*1l(MCCI>mcOHHlOCOOO«-*1000C0)OM^^t-0 O CM i-l i-H CM i-H CO cb cb cb CO COCOCOCOCOCDCOCOCO CO CO O O «3COm!NOONin010 ^OOOOOOOOOOOOtHr^OOOOOt^OTWiOcbcM Ot-OCMOOCMCNOCMOCMOOOCMOIOOOOlOCOGOO IMt>-*COT)IO(MOOIMCOtOMOHO)a)H(N10COmtOOHtO HOl'OiflHNHHM^TfMHMlOOWWWHmM'^lOlO COM«OqOWt>t-HHCOOn'NtOC5lOt>COCOCOCC!N(NN Oi-lr-lT-IOOOOCNfNOOOi-lOOOOOi-Hr-li-IOCMCM OJ O © CO in cq O iH © »b Pw.n cs Q oo»o w t-t- m (jKNt-o>o«ioooffl ibt-co cs ab as o t-t^ebcb-HCMcbabcsb- O CM O OOO -# tOHO(Ni0001M'*0 CM CO CM O r-t ,-H O iO t- OOO o CM cooocMcocMiot-ooco OOO-hOOOOO^h OS CO CM o CO 00 i-l CM lO H r-H CM CO CO CM o OS c3 t~ O000S05--ICNC0C0C0CO HHHH(N(N!N CO a D 00 Seismograph Records. 597 T3 9> Sj 3 o DO o EH «i S3 c3 oi bb . c □ COCO 13 c3 bo a o c3 S 09 a o 00 15 c6 bO S3 O 0 eS 00 -S3 to c3 bO c T3 0) o ^ •- bo > c 6S J3 be -Q 13 a) QD a o Oh CO as CO CD bo CM CM OHCqCOTllTtl^fMODOTOHl HH«CM(N01(NHC1H(M010 CM CO ■-0 CO : CO rH • • to CO • ■ rH rH fl -w ^1 00 00 05-*CO"*C73t-t-0 t- CO o in CM o 4=» ; • -H O 00 o i-rOOCOCDOCMCO HOIOO«5lOO«5 _ co ai co <*-• P" CO -# CO o o rH fc- o Ol M CO IO IO CO H GO iHOOCMOOiHO (M CO CD CM O O s o CO CO CO CO cn co . • . . CM iH . . en . rH a . •* 00 o CM r-i O CM d CM o +2 0) M i-l rH CO O CM IO O tOOWcOCM^HtNIO t- S •rH o • CM CM O CO t- CO -rX •^OCOOOO-HOCO iH rH • tH CO t- CO -X- -* . . CO CO o o . CO d CM o CD 00 00 OJ CO CO lOCMt— OCMCOOOCOt- ; ; rH rH o CM t- O t- e^.. © O Hi H O O CO •# H H CO CM IO CO IO CO CO CO CM CM CO "* 00 o o CO o CM CO — l o o o loaoocccnoot-io OO-HOOtHCMOO CO 0 *r2 . co 'Q NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. HONOKARY MEMBERS. 1870. Pinsch, Otto, Ph.D., of Bremen, Leiden, Holland. Hooker, Sir J. D., G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D., P.R.S., Royal Gardens, Kew. 1873. Cambridge, The Rev. 0. Pickard, M.A., C.M.Z.S., Bloxworth Vicar- age, Wareham, Dorsetshire. Gunther, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Litchfield Road, Kew Gardens, Surrey. 1871. McLachlan, Robert, P.L.S., oare I Newton, Alfred, F.R.S., Cam of Linnean Society, London. bridge, England. 1875. Sclater, Philip Ldtley, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Zoological Society, London. 1876. Etheridge, Prof. Robert, F.R.S., Berggren, Dr. S., Lund, Sweden. British Museum, London. 1877. Sharp, Dr. D., University Museum, Cambridge. 1883. Lord Kelvin, P.O., G.C.V.O., | Ellery, Robert L. J., P.R.S., D.C.L., P.R.S., care of Royal i Observatory, Melbourne. Society, London. 1885. Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., Wallace, A. R., P.L.S., Broad- F.L.S. stone, Widebourne, England. 1890. Nordstedt, Professor Otto, Ph.D., University of Lund, Sweden. Liversidge, Professor A., M.A., F.R.S., Sydney. 1891. Goodale, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D., Harvard University, Massachu- setts, U.S.A. 1894. Dyer, Sir W. T. Thiselton-, K.C.M.G., CLE., LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., Royal Gardens, Kew. 1895. Mitten, William, F.L.S., care of Linnean Society, London 1896. Codrington, Rev. R. H., D.D., Wadburst Rectory, Sussex, Eng- land. Lydekker, Richard, B.A., F.R.S., British Museum, South Kensing- ton. Langley, S. P., Smithsonian Insti- tution, Washington, D.C. Roll of Members. 599 1900. Agardh, Dr. J. G., University of I Avebury, Lord, P.O., P.E.S., High Lund, Swtden. Elms, Farnborough, Kent. I Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 1901. Eve, H. W., M.A., 37, Gordon | Goebel, Dr. Carl, University Square, London. of Munich. Howes, G. B., LL.D., P.R.S., Royal I College of Science, South Ken- sington. 1902. Professor G. 0. Sars, University of Christiania, Norway. ORDINARY MEMBERS. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. [* Life Adams, C. E. Adams, C. W., Blenheim Adams, Dr. Allen, F. Aston, B. C. Atkinson, A. R. Barker, G. H. Barnes, R. J. Barraud, W. F. Barton, W. Beetham, G. Beetham, W. H. Bell, E. D. Bell, H. D. Best, E., Hadfield Blair, J. R. Bothamley, A. T. Brandon, A. de B. Brown, E. G., A.I.C.E. Buick, T. L., Palmerston N. Buller, Sir W. L., K.C.M.G.; D.Sc., F.R.S. Caldwell, R. Campbell, J. P. Chalmers, W. M. Chapman, Martin Chappie, Dr. Chudleigh, E. R. Cohen, W. P. members.] Connal, E. Cowper, D. A. S. Davy, Dr. T. G., Kumara Dawson, B. Denton, George Easterfield, Prof., M.A., Ph.D. Elliot, Major E. H. J. Mr Evans, W. P., M.A., Ph.D. Ewen, C. A. Farquhar, H. Ferard, B. A., Napier Ferguson, W., C.E. Field, H. C, Wanganui Fitzgerald, G. Fletcher, Rev. H. J., Taupo Fraser, Hon. F. H. Freeman, H. J. Fyffe, Dr. K. Gifford, A. C. Gilruth, J. A. ! Gordon, H., F.G.S. | Gore, R. B. Grace, Hon. M. S., C.M.G., M.D. Gray, W., Palmerston N. Hadfield, E. F. Hanify, H. P. Harcourt, J. B. Harding, R. Coupland 600 Appendix. Hastie, Miss J. A.* Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.E.S. Herbert, W. H. Hislop, Hon. T. Hogben, G., M.A. Holmes, B. L., F.B. Met. Soc, Fiji* Holmes, R. T., Masterton Hosking, Dr. A., Masterton Hudson, G. V., F.E.S. Hustwick, T. H. Inwood, D., Canterbury Jenkins, Digby A. Jobnson, G. Randall* Joynt, J. W., M.A. Keys, B. King, T. Kingsley, R. I., Nelson Kirk, H. B., M.A. Kirk, T. W., F.L.S. Krull, F. A., Wanganui Lambert, T. S. Lee, H. M. Lewis, J. H., Otago Liffiton, E. N., Wanganui Litchfield, A. J., Blenheim Lomax, H. A., Wanganui Longton, Mrs. 0. V. Mackenzie, F. Wallace, M.B. Maclaurin, Prof. R. C., M.A. Mason, Thomas, Hutt Matheson, D. Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E. McDougall, A. McKay, Alexander, F.G.S. McLeod, H. N. Mc William, Eev. J., Otaki Mestayer, E. L., M.Inst.C.E. Moore, G. Moorehouse, W. H. S. Morison, C. B. Murdoch, E., Wanganui Nairn, C. J., Hawke's Bay Newman, Alfred K., M.B., M.E.C.P. Orr, Eobert Park, E. G.* Pearce, A. E. Petherick, E. W. Pharazyn, C, Wairarapa Phillips, Coleman Pierard, C. H. Pollen, Hugh Powles, C. P. Poynton, J. W. Prendergast, Sir J. Pringle, T. Purdy, Dr. J. S. Quail, A., Palmerston N. Eeid, W. S. Eichardson, C. T. Eichardson, Hon. G. F. Eowse, Eev. W., Greytown Eoy, E. B., New Plymouth- Eutherfurd, A. J. Eutherfurd, W. G. Eutland, Joshua, Marlborough Samuel, E. Simcox, W. H., Otaki Sinclair, J. Singer, I., F.C.S. Skerman, Dr. Sydney, Marton Smith, Charles, Wanganui Smith, M. C. Smith, S. Percy, F.E.G.S. Stewart, J. T., Wanganui Stowell, H. M. Tait, P. W. Talbot, Dr. A. G. Tanner, Cyril Travers, H. Travers, W. T. L., F.L.S. Tregear, E. Turnbull, A. H. Turnbull, E. T. Turnbull, Thomas Waley, A. S., London Wallace, James Waterhouse, G. M., F.R.G.S. Welch, W., Palmerston N. Weyergang, G. H., Taranaki Wilton, G. W. Woodhouse, Alfred James, London Young, J. Roll of Members. 601 AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. ["Honorary and life members.] Adams, J., B.A., Thames Aickin, G., Auckland Armitage, F. C, Ellerslie Aubin, E. D., M.D., Thames Austin, A. D., F.R.A.S., Auck- land Bagley, C, Epsom Bagnall, L. J., Thames Bakewell.E. H., M.D., Auck- land Ball, W. T., Auckland Bankart, A. S., Auckland Bartley, E., Devonport Bates, T. L., Newcastle, N.S.W.* Batger, J., Auckland Beere, D. M., C.E., Auckland | Egerton, Professor C. Berry, W., Auckland Auckland Ching, T., Remuera Clark, M. A., Auckland Clarke, E., Auckland Cochrane, W. S., Auckland Combes, F. H., Auckland Cooper, C, Auckland Cooper, T. Cozens, G. Craig, E. Craig, J. J. Crosher, W. Cussen, L., Hamilton Dannefaerd, S., Auckland Darby, P. Duthie, D. W. Edson, J., Devonport W., Best, Elsdon, Te Whaiti Brain, W. B., Auckland Brett, H. Broun, Captain T Drury Ewington, F. G., Auckland Farmer, J., London Fowlds, G., Auckland* F.E.S., ! Fox, C. H., St. John's College Gilbert, T., Parnell Brown, Prof. F. D., Auckland Girdler, Dr., Auckland Brown, J., Epsom Buchanan, J., Auckland Buckland, A., Auckland* Burgess, E. W., Devonport Burns, J., Auckland Burton, Colonel, Lake Taka- puna* Busck, A., Auckland Cameron, R., Auckland Campbell, H. Goldie, D. „ Goldie, W. H., M.D., Auck- land Gorrie, W., Auckland Gray, S. „ Haines, C. H., M.D.,F.R.G.S., Auckland Haines, H., F.R.C.S., Auck- land Hardie, J., Auckland Campbell, J. L., M.D., Auck- Harding, S., C.E., Auckland land:| Carey, M. P., Carnie, A. R. Carr, R. A. Casey, M. Chambers, J. Cheal, P. E., Auckland Haszard, H. D. M., Thames Auckland Henton, J. S., Auckland Herbert, T., Parnell Howden, J., Auckland Howell, J. H., Auckland Parnell Hume, J., Remuera Hunter, A. J., Parnell Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., Johnson, H. D., Te Aroha Auckland Jones, H. W., Papakura Cheeseman, H.H., M.D.,Coro- Kenderdine, J., Auckland man del Kidd, A. „ 602 Appendix. Kirker, J., Auckland Kitt, T. W., London* Lennox, J. M., Auckland Lennox, N. G., Sydney* Leys, T. W., Auckland McMillan, C. C, Auckland Mahoney, T., Auckland Mair, Captain G., Thames Mair, S. A. E., Rangitikei Mair, Major W. G., Auckland Makgill,R.H., M.D., Auckland Mander, F., Whangarei Marsack, A. E., M.D., Parnell Martin, J., F.G.S., Auckland Masefield, T. T. MacCulloch, C, Auckland McLean, M., Auckland McDowell, W. C, M.D., Auck- land McLachlan, J. M., Auckland Millar, A., Auckland Miller, E. V., Chelsea Moody, T. P., Hikurangi Morton, H. B., Auckland Morrin, T. Montgomery, A. Mueller, G. Mulgan, A. K. Munro, G. C, Sandwich Islands Murdoch, D. L., Auckland Myers, A. M. Nathan, L. D. Nicholson, 0. R. Pabst, Dr. Parker, W. F. Partridge, H. E. Patterson, G. W. S., Auckland Peacock, T., Auckland Petrie, D., F.L.S., Auckland Philcox, W., Devonport Pinfold, Rev. J. T., F.G.S., Parnell Pond, J. A., Auckland Potter, A. T., Whangarei Purchas,Rev. A.G., M.R.C.S., Auckland Purdie, E. C, Auckland Reid, J., Auckland Roberton, E., M.D., Auckland Russell, T., C.M.G., London* Seegner, C, Auckland Segar, Professor H. W., Auck- land Shakespear, R. H., Little Barrier Shaw, H., Auckland Sinclair, A. Smith, C. E., Auckland Smith, H. G. S., Auckland Smith, S. P., F.R.G.S., Wel- lington Smith, T. H., Auckland Speight, W. J. Stewart, J., C.E., Auckland Streeter, S. C. Suter, H. Swale, H., M.D., Remuera Talbot-Tubbs, Professor H.A., Auckland Tewsley, H. C, Auckland Thomas, Professor A. P. W.,- F.L.S., Auckland Tibbs, J. W., Auckland Tinne, H., London* Tucker, W. F., Ellerslie Upton, J. H., Auckland Urquhart, A. T., Karaka Vaile, E. E., Auckland Walsh, Rev. Canon P., Wai- mate Waterworth, A., Auckland Ward, P., Auckland Webster, J., Hokianga Webster, Rev. W., Waiuku Weetman, S., F.R.G.S., Christ- church* Will, W., Auckland Williams, T. O., M.D., Auck- land Williams, Right Rev. W. L., Bishop of Waiapu, Napier Wilson, A. P., Auckland Withy, E., Opotiki* Wrigg, A. A., C.E., Auckland Yates, E., Auckland Boll of Members. 603 PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. [* Life members.] Adams, T. W. Anderson, Gilbert Bealey, S. Beckett, T. W. Naylor Bishop, B. C. Bishop, F. C. C. Blunt, Prof. T. G. E., M.A. Booth, G. T. Bourne, C. F. Bowen, Hon. C. C. Bridges, G. G. Brown, B. Campbell, Dr. Graham Campbell, Bev. Joseph Carlisle, W. J. Chilton, Prof. C, D.Sc.* Cockayne, L. Cook, Prof. C. H. H., M.A. Craddock, A. E., B.Sc. Deans, J.* Dendy, Prof. A., D.Sc. Denniston, Mr. Justice Drummond, James Bnys, J. D. Evans, Prof. W. P., Ph.D. Farr, C. C, D.Sc. Flower, A. E., M.A., B.Sc. Frengley, Dr. J. P., D.P.H. Gray, A., B.A. Gray, G., F.C.S. Hall, Sir John, K.C.M.G. Harling, C. Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A., B.Sc Hutton, Capt. F. W., F.B.S.* Kitchingman, Miss E. Laing, B. M., M.A., B.Sc. Lee, H. M. Low, Miss E., B.A. Lowrie, W. Mayne, J. B., B.A. McLaren, D. B. Marriner, G. B. Mollett, T. A.* Murray-Aynsley, H. P. Nairn, B. Olliver, Miss F. M., M.A. Page, S. Palmer, Joseph Pairman, Dr. W. T. Prideaux, E. B. B., M.A. Purnell, C. W. Pycroft, A. T. Beece, W. Bhodes, B. Heaton Boper, E. W. Scott, Prof. B. J. Scott, Henry Scott, W. L., M.A. Seager, S. H. Sims, A., M.A. Smith, W. W., F.E.S. Sparkes, W. Speight, B., M.A., B.Sc. Stevenson, Miss E., M.A. Symes, Dr. W. H.* Thomas, B. D. Thomas, Dr. W.* Wall, Prof. A., M.A. Waymouth, F. 604 Appendix. OTAGO INSTITUTE. [* Life members.] Adams, C. W., C.E., Marl- borough Allan, Dr. W. H., Mosgiel Allen, James, M.H.E. Armstrong, F. Aston, B. C, Wellington Barnett, L. S., M.B., F.R.C.S. Barningham, J. Batchelor, F. C., M.D., M.E.C.S. Bathgate, Alexander* Beal. L. O., C.E. Bell, A. D., Shag Valley Benham, Professor W. B., D.Sc, M.A.,F.Z.S. Beverley, Arthur Bews, D. J. Black, Alexander* Black, Professor J. G., D.Sc. Blair, John Brent, Daniel, M.A.* Brown, Thomas Brown, Dr. W. Brown, William Browning, Miss K. Buchanan, N. L., Rakaia* Burnside, J. H. Campbell, Robert Carew, E. H. Cavell, Theo., St. Bathan's Chamberlain, C. W. Chapman, R. Chapman, F. R. Chisholm, R. Clarke, David, Waipahi Collier, E. Collins, T. J. Colquhoun,D.,M.D.,M.R.C.S Cooper, J. S. S., M.A., B.Sc. De Lautour, Dr. Don, J. R., D.Sc, Waitaki Duncan, Peter Dunn, J. D. Durrand, A. Ewing, John, St. Bathan's Fels, W. Fenwick, George Ferguson, H. Lin do, M.D., F.R.C.S.I. Fitzgerald, W. S. Fulton, S. W., Outram* Fulton, Dr. R. Gibbons, Professor F. B. de M., M.A. Gilkison, Robert Goyen, P. Hamilton, A. Hay, P. S., Wellington Hay, Robert, M.I. C.E. Hav, Dr. Frank, Waikari Hocken, Dr. T. M., M.R.C.S., F.L.S. Hosking, J. H. Howes, G. W. Hunter, T. H. Jackson, Howard, Blue Spur Joachim, George * Kempthorne, F. W. King, Dr. F. Truby, Seaclift Langmuir, James Lillie, C. 0. Logan, J. K., Wellington Logan, J. Lusk, T. W. McConnochie, William, St. Bathan's Mackenzie, M. J. Scobie, Anderson's Bay McKerrow, John, F.R.A.S., Wellington McLean, John* McLeod, J. G. McNicol, David A. McPhee, J. Marchant, Miss E. A., M.A. Marshall, P., D.Sc. Matthews, J. H. Mayne, Rev. Canon Meggett, A. Melland, E.* Roll of Members. 605 Milne, W. D., M.A., LL.B. Moore, F. Z. Moore, W. W., Waikouaiti Morris, Colonel Neville, Eight Rev. S. T., D.D., Bishop of Dunedin Ogston, Frank, M.D. Park, Prof. J., F.G.S. Pearce, T. D., M.A. Petrie, Donald, M.A., F.L.S., Auckland * Petherick, E. A.. London Powell, W. Reid, Donald, jun. Reid, George Rees, Miss Richardson, C. R., B.A. Ritchie, J. M. Roberts, W. S., M.R.C.S. Roberts, George Roberts, John, C.M.G. Russell, George Gray Sale, Prof. G. S., M.A. Salmon, H. Sargood, P. R. Scott, Prof. J. H., M.D. Shacklock, John B. Shand, Prof. J., M.A., LL.D. Shennan, Watson, Pomahaka Sidey, John, LL.B. Sim, William A. Sise, G. L. Skey, H. Smith, A. Smith, Dr. W. M. Smith, Major E. R. Smith, J. Crosby Stephenson, Dr. R. S. Stevens, D., Kurow Stewart, Alexander Stewart, Miss L. Stout, Sir Robert, K.C.M.G., Wellington Tennant, J. S., B.A., B.Sc, Ashburton Theomin, D. Thomson, G. M., F.L.S.* Thomson, J. C. Thomson, Lamb Turton, W. Hanson Ulrich, Prof. G. H. F., F.G.S. Wales, N. Y. A. Waters, D. B., A.O.S.M. Wharton, G. Whetter, Richard Gill, M.A. White, David R., M.A. Wilson, Alexander, M.A. Williams, Mr. Justice, M.A., LL.M. * Woodhouse, J. F. Young, Dr., Invercargill WESTLAND INSTITUTE. Addison, Miss Banks, Mrs. Beare, T. W. Benjamin, Mrs. Bignell, Captain Blakeley, R. Burgess, G. A. Burmeister, H. Campbell, J. K. Clarke, J. J. Corner, A. F. Dale, Miss Day, V. G. Denniston, Mr. Justice Douglas, Rev. W. Duncan, W. Dunne, P. J. Eisfelder, F. Emerson, W. R. Evans, J. D. Folley, W. Fowler, Mrs. Gale, T. H. Gill, T. H. Heinz, W. Holmes, Hon. J. 606 Appendix. Hughes, H. B. Inwood, Mrs. Jarnieson, Captain Keller, A. Lewis, J. B. Little, A. Lirmeman, C. Low, B. H. Lynch, J. D. Macandrew, Dr. Macfarlane, D. Macfarlane, J. C. Macgregor, D. MacNaughton, J. R. Mahan, A. Malfroy, Mrs. Mandle, J. Marshall, D. Martin, Rev. Canon Maunders, J. Michel, H. L. Miller, S. M. Moore, J. R. Morton, A. J. Newman, Mrs. Park, J. Perry, W. Ralfe, T. L. Renton, W. Roberts, G. J. Solomon, J. Stark, H. P. Stevenson, A. Teichelmann, Dr. E. Thornton, — . Wake, H. G. Westbrook, S. Wild, R. Williams, W. Wilson, W. HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. [* Life members.] Anderson, R. N. Andrews, E. W. Antill, H. W. Asher, Rev. J. A. Bernau, Dr. H. F. Burnett, H., Woodville Chambers, J. B., Te Mata Chambers, J., Mokopeka Chambers, W. K., Waereuga- ahika, Poverty Bay Clifton, R. Coleman, J. H. Craig, J. W. De Lisle, Dr. F. I. Dinwiddie, P. Dinwiddie, W. Donnelly, G. P., Crissoge Duncan, Russell Goggan, Rev. Father Gold- Smith, Eric C. Gray, W., B.A. Guthrie-Smith, H., Tutira Hamilton, A., Dunedin* Hall, T. Hallett, T., Puketitiri Harding, J. W., Mount Vernon Hill, H., B.A., F.G.S. Hislop, J. Holder, H. R., Woodville Hutchinson, F., jun.,Rissington Kennedy, Dr.. Meeanee Large, J. S.* Large, Miss Leahy, Dr., D.P.H. Lowry, T. H., Okawa Luff, A., Wellington McLean, R. D. D. McLernon, S. Moore, Dr. T. C. Ormond, G., Mahia Ormond, Hon. J. D., M.L.C. O'Ryan, W., Waipiro Ronald, Dr. A. Smith, J. H., 01rig:| Roll of Members. 60, ■Spencer, Miss Tanner, T. Tiffen, G. W., Wheturau, Gis- borne Townley, J., Gisborne White, T., Wimbledon White, G. Williams, A. J. Williams, F. W. Williams, J. N., Frimley, Hastings Williams, Rev. H. NELSON PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. Bishop of Nelson Bartel, — Cresswell, E. S. Curtis, W. S. Duncan, H. Fleming, A. Gibbs, F. G. Grant, D. Harris, J. P. Hill, Mrs. Rene Hornsby, J. P. Hudson, Dr. Moore, E. Noble, Mrs. Redgrave, A. J. Robinson, H. W. Worlev, W. F. 608 Appendix. LIST OF INSTITUTIONS AND PERSONS TO WHOM THIS VOLUME IS PRESENTED BY THE GOVERNORS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. His Excellency the Governor, President of the Institute. Governors of the Institute (eleven). Honorary Members (thirty). The Prime Minister. The Colonial Secretary. The Colonial Treasurer. The Minister of Lands. The Minister for Public Works. The Postmaster-General. The Attorney-General. The Minister of Education. The Minister of Native Affairs. The Minister of Trade and Customs. The Under Colonial Secretary. The Under-Secretary for Lands. The Legislative Council. The House of Representatives. The Colonial Office, London. The Agent-General, London. The Imperial Institute, London. Messrs. Kegan, Paul, Trench, Triibner, and Co. (Agents), Paternoster House, Charing Cross Road, London. British Museum Library, London. British Museum, Natural History Department, South Ken- sington, London, S. W. Linnean Society, London. Royal Society, London. Royal Geographical Society, London. Royal Asiatic Society, London. Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom. Royal Colonial Institute, London. Royal Statistical Society, London. Geological Society, London. Zoological Society, London. Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London. Entomological Society, London. Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London. Editor of Nature, London. List oj Free Copies. 609 Geological Magazine, London. Geological Record, London. International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, London. Zoological Record, London. Victoria Institute, London. Institution of Civil Engineers, London. Library of Patent Office, London. Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Philosophical Society of Leeds, England. Leeds Geological Association, Meanwood, Leeds. Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool, England. Biological Society, Liverpool. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist Society, Norwich, England. University Library, Oxford, England. University Library, Cambridge, England. School Library Committee, Eton, England. School Library Committee, Harrow, England. School Library Committee, Eugby, England. Natural History Society, Marlborough College, England. Clifton College, Bristol, England. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Eoyal Society, Edinburgh. Eoyal Botanic Garden Library, Edinburgh. Geological Society, Edinburgh. University Library, Edinburgh. Eoyal Physical Society, Edinburgh. Eoyal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. Philosophical Society of Glasgow. Natural History Society, Glasgow. Eoyal Irish Academy, Dublin. Eoyal Society, Dublin. Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. Geological Survey of India, Calcutta. Bombay Natural History Society. Eoyal Society of New South Wales, Sydney. Lmnean Society of New South Wales, Sydney. Public Library, Sydney. Library of Australian Museum, Sydney. Department of Mines, Sydney. Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney. University Library, Sydney. Agricultural Department, Sydney. Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Australasian Association for Advancement of Science, Sydney. Eoyal Geographical Society of Australasia, Sydney. Eoyal Society of Victoria, Melbourne. 9-Tr. 610 Appendix. Public Library, Melbourne. University Library, Melbourne. Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne. Field Naturalists' Club, Melbourne. Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne. Gordon Technical College, Geelong, Victoria. Legislative Library, Adelaide. Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide. University Library, Adelaide. Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart. Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart. Royal Society of Queensland. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. Botanical Garden Library, Brisbane. Queensland Branch, Geological Society of Australasia, Brisbane. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. Free Public Library, Capetown. Canadian Institute, Toronto. Hamilton Association, Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Montreal. Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, Canada East. Nova-Scotian Institute of Natural Science, Halifax. Natural History Society of New Brunswick, St. John's. Institute of Jamaica, Kingston. Science College, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo. Literature College, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo. National Library, Honolulu. The Colony of Tahiti. His Excellency the Governor, Pakeite, Tahiti. Society of Natural Sciences, Batavia. Boston Society of Natural History, U.S.A. Connecticut Academy, New Haven, U.S.A. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A. Academy of Science, Wisconsin, U.S.A. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. American Geographical Society, New York. American Museum of Natural History, New York. Natural History Museum, Central Park, New York. New York Academy of Sciences. Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. American Institute of Mining Engineers, Philadelphia. Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. Academy of Natural Sciences Library, Philadelphia. Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia. List of Free Copies. 611 Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York. Academy of Natural Sciences, San Francisco. Stanford University, California. University of Montana, Missoula. Academy of Natural Sciences, Davenport, Iowa. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massa- chusetts. Director of Library of Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo. Natural History Society of Frankfurt a. O. Royal Society of Literature and Arts of Belgium, Brussels. Royal Imperial Institute for Meteorology and Earth-Mag- netism, Hohe-Warte, Vienna. Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-koniglichen Geologischen Reichs- anstalt, "Vienna. Ornithological Society, Vienna. Botanical Society of the Province of Brandenburg, Berlin. Professor Keilback Wilmersdorf, Berlin. Dr. Bastian, Berlin. Royal Library, Berlin. Geographical Society, Berlin. Societas regia Scientiarum Bohemica, Prague. Imperial German Academy of Naturalists, Dresden. Physico-economic Society of Konigsberg, E. Prussia. Royal Zoological, Anthropological, and Ethnographical Museum, Dresden. Verein fur vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wiirtemberg, Stuttgart. Society of Geography, Leipzig. Naturhistorischer Verein in Bonn. Natural History Museum of Hamburg. Ethnological Museum, Cologne. Senekenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfurt a/M. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen. Redaktion des Biologischen Centralblatts, Erlangen. Biblioteca e dell' Archivio Tecnico del Ministero Cordoba dei Lavori Pubblici, Roma. R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome. Imperial Museum of Florence. Royal Geographical Society of Italy, Florence. Orto e Museo Botanico (R. Instituto di Studi Superiori) in Firenze. Tuscan Natural Science Society, Pisa. Museum of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy of the Royal University of Turin. Editor of Cosmos, Turin. Academy of Science, Modena. 612 Appendix. Societa Africana d'ltalia, Naples. Statzione Zoological, Naples. National Library, Paris. Societe de Geographie, Paris. Entomological Society of Prance, Paris. Museum of Natural History of Prance, Paris. Societe Zoologique de Prance, Pans. Natural History Museum, Bordeaux. Natural History Society, Angers. Professor Eudolph Burckhardt, University of Basle, Switzerland. Museum of Natural History, Geneva. Die Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Bern. Imperial Society of Naturalists, Moscow. Societe des Naturalistes, Kieff, Russia. Societe des Sciences de Finlande, Helsingfors. Royal Academy of Science, Stockholm. Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm. University of Christiania, Norway. Bergen Museum, Norway. Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Literature of Copenhagen. Natural History Society of Copenhagen. Dr. Lutkin, Copenhagen. M. Teyler, Haarlem. Academia Nacional de Ciencias de la Republica Argentina. School of Mines, Rio de Janeiro. Society of Engineers, Rio de Janeiro. Zoological Society of Brazil, Rocha. Musen Paulista, San Paulo, Brazil. Zoological Society, Brazil. Libraries and Societies in New Zealand. General Assembly Library. Executive Library. Library, New Zealand Institute. Library, Auckland Institute. Library, Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute. Library, Wellington Philosophical Society. Library, Nelson Institute. Library, Westland Institute. Library, Otago Institute. Library, Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. Library, University College, Auckland. Library, University College, Christchurch. Library, University College, Dunedin. Library, Victoria College, Wellington. Library, Library, Library, Library, Library, Library, Library, Library, Library, Library, List of Free Copies. Auckland Museum. Wanganui Museum. Canterbury Museum. Otago Museum. Otago School of Mines. 613 Thames School of Mines. Reefton School of Mines. Free Public, Auckland. Free Public, Wellington. Free Public, Christchurch. Library, Free Public, Dunedin. Editor. Assistant Editor. Draughtsman. Publishing Branch. Lithographer. Government Printer. Photo-lithographer. INDEX AUTHORS A. Adams, C. E., 201, 408, 557 Anderson, R. N., 573 B. Bigley, G., 476 Barnett, Dr., 568 Bathgate, A., 566, 569 Benham, Professor, 273, 275, 277, 566, 569, 571 Best, Elsdon, 45 Blunt, Professor, 564 Brown, E. G., 420 Brown, R., 323 Buller, Sir W., 555 C. Cameron, P., 290 Cneesemau, T. P., 377 Cockayne, L., 355 D. Dixon, Rev. W. Gray, 560 Dunoan, Russell, 32 E. E^sterfield, Professor T. H., 476 Egerton, Professor, 560 Evans, Dr. W. P., 562 F. Parr, C. Coleridge, 414, 415, 563, 564, 593 Field, H. C, 372 Fmlayson, Miss A. C, 360 Fulton, Dr. R., 187 G. Gibson, E., 311 Greensill, Miss N. A. R., 342 H. Haokel, Professor E., 377 Hamilton, A., Ill, 113, 262, 489, 566, 567 Haszard, H. D. M., 24 Heotor, Sir J., 312, 555 Hilgendorf, F. W., 264, 267, 483, 563 Hill, H, 153, 169 Hogben, G., 582 Hudson, G. V , 243 Hustwick, T. H., 557 HuttOD, Captain F. W., 562 K. Kennedy, Dr., 573 King, T., 428 King, Dr. Truby, 567 Laing, R. M., 563 Large, H., 573 Leahy, Dr. J. P. D., 220 Lewis, J. H , 272 M. MacKenzie, A. J., 309 Mair, Captain G., 240, 319 Makgiil, Dr. R. H , 139 Marchant, Miss M. E. A., 566 Marriner, G. R., 305 Marshall, Dr. P., 387, 568 Martin, Josiah, 559 Mason, T., 374 Murdoch, R., 258 P. Park, Professor, 299, 391, 403 Petrie, D., 321 Philpott, A., 246 616 Index. Q. Quail, A., 249, 256 R. Roberten, Dr. E., 225 Robertson, P. W., 452, 465 Scott, Professor R. J., 564 Segar, Professor, 117, 122 Skey, H., 405 Travers, W. T. L., 1, 556, 558 Vaile, E. E., 560 W. Walsh, Archdeacon, 12 White, Taylor, 209, 211 SUBJECTS, A. Architecture, The Birth and De- velopment of, 573 Atmosphere, Present Knowledge of Electrical Condition of the, 563 Auckland Institute — Date of Incorporation, xiv. Election of Officers, 561 Members of, 601 Officers and Rules, xiv. Proceedings of, 559 Report, 560 Auckland Islands, A New Earth- worm from, 275 Aurora in the Southern Hemisphere, On the, 405 Avifauna of New Zealand, Reserve for, 561 B. Barrier, The Little, Reserve for Birds on, 561 Bee as seen through the Microscope, The, 573 Bees, Supposed Magnetic Sense of Direction in, 483 Bibliography of New Zealand Geo- logy, 489 Bird as the Labourer of Man, The, 1, 555, 558 Birds, Reservation for Native, 561 Bone Relics of the Maori, 111 Botanical Papers, 321 C. Canterbury Philosophical tute — Date of Incorporation, xiv. Election of Officers, 565 Members of, 603 Officers and Rules, xv. Proceedings of, 562 Report, 565 Insti- | Catalogue of Printed Pap< rs on the Geology of New Zealand, 4§9 Cetacean Fossil Teeth, 567 Charagia virescens, On, 249 Chemis-try, Papers on, 405 Cbristchurcb, Record of Milne Seis- mograph at, 593 Coastal Reclamation bv planting. 567 Colophony, The Chemistry of, 476 Colour: Its Production by Absorp- tion, 562 Cock, Captain : His Goat, 209 Cook, Following the Tracks of Cap- tain, 32 Cook, Foct-tracks of Captain, 24 Coprosma, Structure of Leaf t f some Species of, 342 Corrigendum, iv. E. Earthquake Diagram, On the Inter- pretation of Milne, 415 Earthquakes reported in New Zea- land in 1902, 581, 582, 593 Earthworm from Auckland Islands, A New Species of, 275 Earthworm from Norfolk Island, A New, 273 Earthworms, New Species of, 277 Eider Duck, 555 Electrical Condition of the Atmo- sphere, Present Knowledge of, 563 Evolution of Life, 571 F. Fatty Acids, Molecular Complexity of the, and their Derivatives in Phenol Solution, 452 Fauna of New Zealand, Proposed Index of the, 563, 565, 570 Ferns, Note on Hybrid, 372, 556 Index. 617 Fire-walking Ceremony, Account of the Fiji, with a Probable Explana- tion, 187 Fish found in the Piako River, Notes on, 319 Fish - hatchery, Establishment of Marine, 567, 570 Flora, Destruction of Native, 566, 569 Florence, Impressions of, 566 Fly and a Spider, A, 256 Food Products of Tuhoeland, 45 Fossil Cetacean Teeth, 567 G. Galaxias, 309, 311, 312 Geological Papers, 387 Geology of New Zealand, List of Printed Papers on the, 489 Goat, The Travelled, 209 Gold, The Flood of, 122 Grasses, New Species of, 377 H. Harmonic Relations, Two Spherical, 414 Hawke's Bay Philosophical Insti- tute— Date of Incorporation, xiv. Election of Officers, 574 Members of, 606 Officers and Rules, xvi. Proceedings of, 573 Report, 574 Honey-bee as seen through the Microscope, 573 Horse, The: A Study in Philology, 211 Hydatid Disease an! Tcenia echino- coccus, 568 Hymenoptera, List of New Zealand, 290 I. Index Faunae Novae-Zealandise, Pro- posed, 563, 565, 570 Index of Writers on New Ze viand Geology, 489 Infusorial Earth, Note on, 557 Insectivorous Birds, Remarks on, 1, 555, 558 Insects, Notes on, 264 Interpolation, Use of the Standard Functions in, 420 Isopod from Ruapuke Island, An, 564 J. Japanese Medisevalism, 560 40— Tr. K. Kermadec Islands, A Giant Patella from, 569 Kingston Moraine, The, 387 Kumara, The : Its Cultivation and Treatment by the Primitive Maoris, 12 L. Lead at Parapara, Occurrence of Native, 403 Leafless Plants, Stem-structure of some, 360 Leaf-structure of some Species of Coprosma, 342 Lepidoptera, New Species of, 246 Little Barrier Island Reserve for Birds, 561 LoDgitude of Colonial Observatory, Wellington, 428 M. Macro lepidoptera, New Species of, 243 Magnetic Sense of Direction in Bees, Supposed, 483 Malaria and Mosquitos, 225 Maori, Bone Relics of the, 111 Maori, Cultivation of the Kumara by the Primitive, 12 Maori Customs and Superstitions with regard to Food, 45 Maoris, Food of a certain Tribe of, 45 Maori Method of fishing, 319 Maori, Stone Relic of the, 113, 567 Maoris, The, To-day and To-morrow, 169 Maori Workshop, Chips from an Ancient, 240 Mason, Thomas, Appreciation of the late, xx. Maxima and Minima, On some, 465 Mean Time of New Zealand, 428 Meteorology of New Zealand, 579 Milne Earthquake Diagram, On the Interpretation of, 415 Minerals, A New Method for their Determination by Rsfringence, 557 Miscellaneous Papers, 1, 483 Moa's Egg, 570 Molecular Complexity of the Fatty Acids and their Derivatives in Phenol Solution, 452 Mollusca of Totaranui, Marine, 299 Mosquitos and Malaria, 225 Mosses, New Species of, 323 Mount Cook Reserve, Destruction of Flora on, 566, 569 Myrsinacece, Changes in Nomencla- ture of, 355 618 Index. N. Natural Sines, On the Construction of a Table of, by Means of a New Relation between the Leading Differences, 408 Nelson Institute — Date of Incorporation, xiv. Election of Officers, 575 Members of, 607 Officers and Rules, xvii. Proceedings of, 575 Report, 575 New Zealand Garden, List of Plants in a, 374 New Zealand Institute — Accounts, 551 Honorary Members of, 598 Incorporated Societies of, xiv. Officers of, xi. Ordinary Members of, 599 Presentation List, 607 Proceedings of, 553 Report, 549 Rules of, xii. New Zealand Mean Time, 428 New Zealand, Trade and Debt of, 117 Norfolk Island, A New Earthworm from, 273 0. Observatory, Colonial, 428, 551 Odontria, A New Species of, 272 OposBums, Nomenclature and De- structivity of, 555 Organic Compounds, The Exhibition of a Maximum or Minimum in the Properties of certain Series of, 465 Otago Institute — Date of Incorporation, xiv. Election of Officers, 571 Members of, 604 Officers and Rules, xv. Proceedings of, 566 Report, 569 P. Paludicella: Its Occurrence in New Zealand, 262 Parapara, Occurrence of Native Lead at, 403 ParypJmnta busbyi, On, 258 Patella, A Giant, 569 Pendant in tbe Form of a Lizard, Notes on a Bone, 111 Penguins and Petrels, 562 PJialacrocorax carunculatus, Pair- ing of, 556 Phalangers, Destructivity of, 555 Philology, The Horse, a Study in, 211 Phreatoicus, Occurrence of, 564 Physics. Papers on, 405 Piako River, Notes on Pish found in the, 319 Plagiochaita, New Species of, 277 Plants growing at " The Gums," Taita, 374 Plates, List of, ix. Pollination of Rhabdothamnus so- landri, 321 Porrhothele antipodiana, On, 256 Proceedings of Affiliated Societies, 553 Psyllidce, A New Species of, 305 R. Reclamation of Sea-coasts by plant- ing, 567 Reservation for Native Birds, 561 Rhabdothamnus solandri, Pollina- tion of, 321 Rock - phosphates of Clarendon, Otago, On the, 391 Rotifera, List of New Zealand, 267 Rotifera of New Zealand, Structure and Habits of the, 563 Salius monachus, On, 256 Sanitation, Nature's Efforts at, 139 Scientific and Technical Training, 153 Seismographs, Records of Milne, 582, 593 Shag, Note on Pairing of the Ca- runculated, 556 Society Islands, A Visit to, 559 Somateria mollissima, Note on, 555 Southland Institute — Date of Incorporation, xiv. Officers of, xvii. Sparrows as Insect-destroyers, 1, 558 Spider and a Ply, A, 256 Standard Functions in Interpola- tion, Use of the, 420 Stem -structure of some Leafless Plants, 360 Stone Relic from Orepuki, 113, 567 Suffrage, Universal Equal, 560 Taenia echinococcus and Hydatid Disease, 568 Tahiti, A Visit to, 559 Technical and Scientific Training, 153 Index. 619 Tennyson, 560 Timbers of Australia and New Zea- land, Strength and Elasticity of, 564 Time-ball Observatory, 428, 551 Time, New Zealand Mean, 428 Time, On Universal, 428 Totaranui, Marine Mollusca of, 299 Trade of New Zealand, 117 Travers, William Thomas Locke, Appreciation of the late, xviii. Triangulation by Least Squares, Adjustment of, 201 Trioza alexina, n.s., 305 Troubadours, The Provencal, 564 Tuberculosis in Australia and New Zealand, The Fight against, 220 Tuhoeland, The Food Products of, 45 U. Universal Time Question, 428 V. Yilavilareivo, Account of the, 187 W. Wagner, 573 Wairaki Clay, Note on the, 556 Wanganui Gravels, The, 568 Weka, Note on a Supposed Hybrid, 566 Wellington, Longitude of Colonial Observatory at, 428 Wellington Philosophical Society — Date of Incorporation, xiv. Election of Officers, 557 Members of, 599 Officers and Eules, xiv. Proceedings of, 555 Report, 557 Westland Institute — Date of Incorporation, xiv. Election of Offioers, 572 Members of, 605 Officers and Rules, xvi. Proceedings of, 572 Report, 572 Wellington, Records of Milne Seis- mograph at, 582 Whitebait of New Zealand, 309, 311, 312 Z. Zoological Papers, 243 JOHN MACKAY, GOVEBNMENT PRINTER, WELLINGTON. — 1903. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. I. co N z: >> oq >> £. 3 o CO >» o 4-1 > d> CO .Q o o o O Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. II. -g^G^uv**^ Cooks Observatory Site. Mercury Bay, N.Z (looking N.W ). Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. III. To illustrate paper by H. D. M. Haszard. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. IV. N z c o o o c o O CO •DJO c •a c ctf (0 o o o Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. V. f '■■ i uMmm mm ''•--'* 5 WA-M l" '• I 'm ■■■J ^-% 4 ) ■ I ■ , ■■ t. ' •' '»-( V,.. ( ■'*<■: + : ■ > E- U £- 0> 03 O erf ■aD C •5 c 10 in o o a Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV Pl. VI. Grass Cove, Queen Charlotte Sound. N Z Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. VII. N >> CO o o I- © > o o o o o Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. VIII. Bone Pendant Hamilton. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV Pl. IX. Bone Needles —Hamilton Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Tl. X. SS\ /i\^ ^ ^ 15? &&a Stone Pendant — Hamilton Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XL 1880 100 1885 1800 1895 1900 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 \ \ \ /~ Megascolex laingii, /;. 5/. 10 11 12 13 14 17 13 Notiodrilus aucklandicus, n. sp. EARTHWORMS.— Benham. Trans. N.Z. Inst Vol. XXXV. PI. XXIII. 10 11 12 13 14 16 18 I J > hrjt 9 10 11 12 13 14 17 18 19 i^r^ _C S?/ ^s. ^\r £t2 ^ -gs> ^— ^ -> Plagiochseta sylvestris, Hutton. 4' 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 ® "& ^^_'^ 9 10 11 12 13 14 17 18 19 TJ W WW *t — ^ Plagiochasta lateralis, n. sp. EARTHWORMS.— Benham. Tr\ns. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PI. XXIV. / f^ / ii -/ 4 i — \j 6 /» HI 7 1 T 10 C a> 11 c. *> 12 c .> 13 c. .3 T 15 < y i~_ 17 ( j s 19 ^ (~_ 20 / \ 21 7 8 /J ^ 9 m& x^^> 10 w 12 m$ ^> p"^*s 19 ~V/^ 20 & Piagiochaeta rossii, n. sp. 1 -> s r 4 / \ "*° - / \ 1 6 it 10 C. ..> 11 c ..i 12 <&L •5 13 c- -.:> 18 / v / V 20 9 10 11 12 13 14 *£_ ^ ^W m_k* *h.^> 4-^ Plagiocha=ta ncardi, n. sp. EARTHWORMS.— Benham. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PI. XXV. 6 v 8 9 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 S e S 3 Oi f~ -(l fr\ 4 \ / i 6 —i II 7 II 10 c. .> 11 12 13 15 > 13 1 f / . \ / j \ 19 20 \ 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ^^5' mv ^m_ Plagiochseta montana, n. sp. EARTHWORMS.- Benham. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV Pl. XXVI. rw % t—- i Earthworms. — Ben ham. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XXVII. ANATOMY OF PARYPHANTA BUSBYI.-Murdoch. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XXVIII. • ' ; CHARAGIA VIRESCENS.— Quail. N.Z. Ins Pl. XXIX. FLY AND ' Quail. Trans. t., Vo Pl. * ? x. ars $$ ■«%* MACROLEPIDOPTERA.— Hudson, Trans. N.Z Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XXX.T. ODONTRIA EPOMEAS.— Lewis. \ / 4* \ I \ » • f f l ' • OPTERA.— Philpott. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PI. XXXIII. A NEW SPECIES OF PSYLLID^.— Marriner Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PI. XXXIV. A NEW SPECIES OF PSYLLID^E.— Marriner. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XXXV. 5 4 4 l\tes< 2 2 3 7 6 5 MU SCI.— Brown. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XXXVI. •4- 2 a 3 5 6 6 ■»- 3 Vy >^J 4- 6" 2 I 2 11 8 12 MU SCI.— Brown. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XXXVII. 6 2 2 17 -»- 5 18 MU SCI.— Brown. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XXXVIII. 19 21 A- * 23 20 22 24 MU SCI.— Brown. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XXXIX. 29 30 MU SCI.— Brown. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV Pl. XL. MU SCI.— Brown. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PI. XLI. LEAF-STRUCTURE OF COPROSMA.— Greensill. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PI. XLII. Up. chl. sp. chl. pa- ep- "■ LEAF-STRUCTURE OF COPROSMA.— Greensill. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PI. XLIII. 14- 16 l.ep. par r.b. chi. sp. chl. p.p ep. chl. sp. chl p.p. st.l. ep. cu. LEAF-STRUCTURE OF COPROSMA.-Greensill. Trans N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PI. XLIV. chl. p.p. ep cu LEAF-STRUCTURE OF COPROSMA.— Greensill. Trans. XX Inst., Vol. XXXV PI. XLV. STRUCTURE OF LEAFLESS PLANTS. Finlayson. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PI. XLVI. 5c 5b STRUCTURE OF LEAFLESS PLANTS. -Finlayson. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PI. XLVII. 3b st grains. STRUCTURE OF LEAFLESS PLANTS. -Finlayson. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XLVIII. COMPLEXITY OF FATTY ACIDS.— Robertson. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. Pl. XLIX. COMPLEXITY OF FATTY ACIDS.— Robertson. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV PI. LI. ANCIENT MAORI WORKMANSHIP.- Mair. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXV. PL LI I ANCIENT MAORI WORKMANSHIP.— Mair. *h i4" TEANSACTIONS \s AND PROCEEDINGS OP THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1902 VOL. XXXY. (Eighteenth of New Series) EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OP THE BOARD OP GOVERNORS OP THE INSTITUTE BY SIE JAMES HECTOE, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.E.S. Director Issued July, 1903 WELLINGTON JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE KEGAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER, & CO., PATERNOSTER HOUSE, CHARING CROSS ROAD, LONDON MBL WHOI LIBRARY