- X TRANSACTIONS .^i PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1911 VOL. XLIV (New Issue) EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OP THE INSTITUTE Issued 10th June, 1912 WELLINGTON, N.Z. JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE William Weslky and Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London WO. [After portrait in Kew Bulletin. SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, O.M., F.R.S. Frontispiece OBITUARY. SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, O.M., F.R.S. 11817-1911. > Through the lamented death of Sir Joseph Hooker, the greatest of British botanists, the New Zealand Institute has lost not only the most illustrious and revered of its honorary members, but one whose hand has laid an impress on New Zealand science never to be effaced. Hooker's connection with New Zealand botany commenced so long ago as the early summer of 1840, when, as naturalist to the famous Antarctic Expedition under Sir James Ross, he explored botanically the Auckland and Campbell Islands. How thoroughly this work was conducted is evidenced bjr the fact that, notwithstanding subsequent visits of several experienced botanists and one well-equipped scientific expedition, only twenty-five additions, many of which are doubtless extremely local, have been made to Hooker's original list of 124 species of vascular plants. As for the lower cryptogams (277 species), they remain virtually as they were. Three months (August-November) of the succeeding year were spent by Hooker at the Bay of Islands, where he made a collection of about three hundred species, and gained at the same time a first-hand acquaintance with a portion of the New Zealand flora proper. Perhaps even more important was his meeting Colenso, who, through contact with the brilliant young botanist, was stirred up to that life-long enthusiastic devotion to science which yielded such valuable results. Immediately on the return of the Ross Expedition Hooker commenced the study of his collections, and, notwithstanding their magnitude, the first volume of the magnificent " Flora Antarctica," devoted to the New Zealand Subantarctic Islands, appeared in 1844, and marked the commencement of a new epoch in New Zealand botany. The years 1853 to 1855 saw the publication of the " Flora Novae- Zelandiae," a quarto work in two volumes similar to the " Flora Antarctica," consisting of 729 pages and 130 coloured plates. In this and the last-mentioned work the species are not merely described, but their affinities and geographical distribution most thoroughly considered. Further, the essay on the New Zealand flora which formed an intro- duction to the " Flora Novae-Zelandiae " is a phytogeographic classic of the highest excellence. Written presumably to educate the colonial collector and to stimulate botanical research in the new colony, it deals in a most searching manner with the origin and affinities of the flora, and as a contribution to philosophical plant-geography has never been excelled in its admirable marshalling of the facts, clear- ness of style, moderation of tone, and carefully balanced conclusions. Another portion of the essay, treating of the limits of species, their dispersion and variation, is full of matter interesting even yet to a present-day student of evolution. iv Obituary. Hooker's investigations in New Zealand botany extended far into the "sixties," when his "Handbook of the New Zealand Flora" (1864-67) appeared. This was no mere reproduction of his former works, for many colonial collectors had been hard at work (Colenso, Travers, Haast, Hector, Buchanan, &c), and a vast quantity of fresh material awaited examination. Indeed, the task was one of no small magnitude, and when the marvellous accuracy of the descriptions is considered it is hard to believe the fact that they were drawn up from herbarium material alone. Assuredly, well might Darwin exclaim, " Oh, my heavens! to get up at second hand a New Zealand flora — that is work.'' How original the treatment was is shown by Hemsley's computation that sixteen endemic genera and half the species described have the affix "Hook, f." The indebtedness of New Zealand science does not end with Hooker's published work. To all serious investigators of the flora he was a friend, guide, and counsellor. There is, indeed, no name of moment in the later botany of the Dominion but is deeply indebted to Hooker's influence and assistance, generously given. Almost to the last did the great botanist feel keen interest in the progress of knowledge in that far-off region where his spurs had been won. Writing to the Council of the Canterbury branch of the Institute on the 24th June, 1910, he said, in reference to the recently published " Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand," " I was aware of the scientific expedition to the Auckland and Campbell Islands organized in 1907, and was looking anxiously for some records of its results." After explaining that, of course, he was specially interested in the botany, he adds, " There is really no section, biological and geological, which I can afford to overlook." Hooker's work on New Zealand botany, to which the above sketch does but scant justice, extending over a period of nearly forty years, reflects but a portion of that genius and untiring industry which have so strongly influenced botanical research throughout the Empire. L. Cockayne. H. C. FIELD. Henry Claylands Field was born at Holybourne, Hampshire, England, in 1825. He received his education at Stock well Grammar School and the City of London School, and completed the scholastic portion of his life by a course at King's College, London. Being destined for the profession of a civil engineer, he was articled to Sir John Rennie, whose name is well known all over the world in connection with great works of engineering, and who was the builder of the present London Bridge. At the age of twenty Mr. Field entered the service of an English railway company, where he remained for ten years. The colonies then attracted him, and he came out to New Zealand in the ship " Simla," and proceeded to Wanganui. The young settlement was then governed by a Town Board, which appointed Mr. Field its Clerk and Engineer. Subsequently he acted also as Engineer to the Road Boards of the dis- trict, and as Consulting Engineer to the Rangitikei Road Board. Obituary. v By the construction of good communications Mr. Field left his mark all over the district, being responsible for the construction of no less than two thousand miles of roads. His name is perpetuated by Field's Track from Wanganui to Karioi, the half of which nearest to Wanganui now forms part of the Parapara Road. This track has been and is still used by thousands, and is known as one of the best surveyed and graded roadways in the country, even though part of it never got beyond the track stage. In 1884 Mr. Field retired from active pursuits. He published several papers on scientific subjects, and a book entitled " Ferns of New Zealand," which gives a popular account of the ferns of these Islands and its immediate dependencies, and is noted for its good descriptions and excellent illustrations. He was an ardent supporter and exhibitor of the Horticultural Society, and took a great interest in harbour matters and public affairs generally. He died at Aramoho, Wanganui, at the advanced age of eighty-seven vears. CONTENTS. I. BOTANY. Transactions. Art. I. Observations concerning Evolution, derived from Ecological pages Studies in New Zealand. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. 1-50 II. Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant- habitats, Part VII. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. .. .. .. 51-59 III. Some Notes on the Botany of the Spenser Mountains, with a List of Species collected. By R. M. Laing, M.A., B.Sc. . . 60-75 IV. Notes on the Plant Covering of Codfish Island and the Rugged Islands. By D. L. Poppelwell . . . . . . 76-85 V. List of Lichens and Fungi collected in the Kermadec Islands in 1908. By W. R, B. Oliver . . . . . . . . 86-87 XV. A New Genus and some New Species of Plants. By T. F. Cheese- man, F.L.S., F.Z.S. . . . . . . . . . . 159-162 XVII. Descriptions of New Native Species of Phanerogams. By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D. .. .. .. .. .. 179-187 XVIII. On Danthonia nuda and Triodia Thomsoni. By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D. .. .. .. .. .. 188 XXXVI. The Anatomical Structure of the New Zealand Piperaccae. By Miss Anne F. Ironside, M.A. . . . . . . . . 339-348 XXXVII. Observations on Salicornia austrulis. By Miss F. W. Cooke, M.A. 349-362 Proceedings. Some Effects of Imported Animals on the Indigenous Vegetation. By B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S. . . . . . . . . Part I 19-24 Note on Helichrijsum fasciculatum Buchanan. Bv T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. Parti 24-25 Descriptions of some New Species of New Zealand Plants. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . Part II 50-52 II. ZOOLOGY. Transactions. Art. VI. A Revision of the Classification of the New Zealand Caradrinina. By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S. . . . . . . 88-107 VII. On the Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of New Zealand. By G. B. Longstaff, M.A., M.D., F.E.S. .. .. .. 108-115 VIII. Descriptions of Three New Species of Lepidoptera. By Alfred Philpott .. .. .. .. .. 115-116 IX. Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S. .. .. .. .. .. 117-126 X. Notes on some Dragon-flies from the Kermadec Islands. By R. J. Tillyard, M.A., F.E.S. . . . . . . . . 126-127 XI. Miscellaneous Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea. By Charles Chilton, M.A., M.B., D.Sc, F.L.S. .. .*. 128-135 XII. Report on Sundry Invertebrates from the Kermadec Islands. By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.R.S. . . . . . . 135-138 XX. Notes on New Zealand Fishes: No. 2. By Edgar R. Waite, F.L.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 194-202 324011 Vlll Contents. Art. XXI. New Species of Lepidoptera, with Notes on the Larvae and Pupae pages of some New Zealand Butterflies. By George Howes, F.E.S., F.L.S 203-208 XXIII. The Geographic Relationships of the Birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands. By W. R. B. Oliver. . 214-221 XXV. Notes on Nest, Life-history, and Habits of Migas distinctus, a New Zealand Trapdoor Spider. By J. B. Gatenby . . 234-240 XXVI. Some Features of the Circulatory System of Heptatrema cirrata Forster. By Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A., Victoria College. Wellington . . . . . . . . . . 241-244 XXXVIII. On a Collection of Mallophagu from the Kermadecs. By T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc, Queensland University, Brisbane, and Launcelot Harrison, Sydney . . . . 363-373 XXXIX. Vascular System of Siphonaria obliquata Sowerby. By A. J. Cottrell, M.A., M.Sc. . . . . . . . . ' . . 374-379 XL. Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. Bv Major T. Broun, F.E.S 379-440 Proceedings. Note on the Species of Hydra found in New Zealand. By Gilbert Archey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part I 25-28 Additions to the Fish Fauna of-the Kermadec Islands. By Edgar R. Waite, F.L.S., Curator, Canterbury Museum . . . . . . Part I 28-29 Notes on the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Geometridae, with Descrip- tion of a New Species. By L. B. Prout . . . . . . Part II 52-54 III. GEOLOGY. Transactions. Art. XIII. Earthquake-origins in the South-west Pacific in 1910. By George Hogben, M.A., F.G.S. . . . . . . . . 139-142 XIV. Fluctuations in the Level of the Water in some Artesian Wells in the Christchurch Area. By F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., D.Sc. .. .. .. .. .. .. 142-159 XVI. Some Rocks of Mount Cargill, Dunedin. By J. A. Bartrum, M.Sc. 163-179 XXII. The Raised Beaches of Cape Turakirae. By B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 208-213 XXIV. A Preliminary Account of the Lower Waipara Gorge. By R. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . . . . . 221-233 XXVII. Notes on Wellington Physiography. By C. A. Cotton, M.Sc, Victoria College . . . . . . . . . . 245-265 XXXIII. Nephelinite Rocks in New Zealand. By Professor Marshall, D.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . . . . . . . 304-307 XXXIV. The Discovery and Extent of Former Glaciation in the Tararua Ranges, North Island, New Zealand. By G. L. Adkin . . 308-316 XXXV. The Geology of the Bluff, New Zealand. By L. J. Wild, M.A.. . 317-339 Proceedings. Typical Sections showing the Junction of the Amuri Limestone and Weka Pass Stone at Weka Pass. By C. A. Cotton, M.Sc. (Abstract) Part III 84-85 Appendix. Records of Milne Seismographs, 1906-1911. By H. F. Skey, B.Sc, and G. Hogben. M. A.. F.G.S. .. 441-457 Contents. IX IV. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. Transactions. Art. XXVIII. The Composition of some New Zealand Foodstuffs. By John pages Malcolm, M.D., University of Otago . . . . . . 265-269 XXIX. Montan Wax. By Theodore Rigg, M.Sc. . . . . . . 270-287 XXX. The Chemistry of Bush Sickness. By B. C. Aston, F.C.S., F.I.C. .. .. .. .. .. .. 288-298 XXXI. Note on the Composition of Nitric Acid. By H. T. M. Fathers 299-300 XXXII. The Interaction of Iron with the Higher Fatty Acids. By Thomas H. Easterfield and Clara Millicent Taylor, M. A. . . 301-303 Proceedings. The Action of Alkyl Iodides on Copper-oxide. By H. G. Denham, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Parti 29-30 The Nature of Gamma Rays. By Professor T. H. Laby and P. W. Bur- bidge, B.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . . . Part I 30-31 V. MISCELLANEOUS. Transactions. Art. XTX. Migrations of the Polynesians according to the Evidence of their Language. By Professor J. Macmillan Brown, M.A., LL.D. 189-193 Proceedings. Description of a Multiple- Rainbow. By G. L. Adkin (Abstract) .. Part III 85 The Methods of Snaring Birds used by the Maoris, with Notes on a Bird known to the Maoris as "Tiaka." By J. Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S. (Abstract) . . . . . . . . . . . . Part III 87 PROCEEDINGS. [Following p. 457.] Part I.— Issued 30th August, 1911. II. — Issued 8th January, 1912. III.— Issued 10th June, 1912. .\c c <^1 LIST OF PLATES. (Text figures not inchided.) Cockayne, L. — Plate I. — Example of a taxonoinic species Plate II— Fig. 1. Three forms of the " species " Veronica buzifolia Fig. 2. Juvenile Coprosma Bmteri Plate III— Fig. 1. Sophora microphylla Fig. 2. Pittosporum divaricatnm Plate IV. — Podocarpus nivalis Plate V— Fig. 1. Veronica chathamica Fig. 2. Veronica loganioides, V. cassinioides, and 1'. tetragona Plate VI— Figs. 1 and 2. Sophora tetraptera Plate VII— Fig. 1. Aristotelia fruticosa Fig. 2. Pennantia corymbosa Plate VIII. — Pittosporum divaricatnm FOLLOWS PAGE 4 4 20 20 20 22 22 22 26 26 26 PoPPEJVWELL, D. L. Plate IX.— Fig. 1. Rugged Islands, from the north ; Codfish Island in the distance . . SO Fig. 2. Northern aspect of one of the Rugged Islands, showing Olearxa angustifolia and O. Colensoi . . . . . . . . 80 Fig. 3. Rugged Islands (weather side) . . . . . . 80 Waite, Edgar R. — Plate X. — Aegoeonichthys appelii Clarke . . . . . . . . 194 Plate XI. — Oreosoma atlanticum Cuvier and Valenciennes . . . . . . 198 Plate XII. — Eurumetopos johnstonii Morton . . . . . . . . 200 Aston, B. C. — Plate XIII— Fig. 1. Corynocarpiis association, Palliser Bay . . . . . . 208 Fig. 2. Corynocarpiis and Muehlenbeckia complexa associations, Beach No. 4 208 Fig. 3. Pond formed immediately above Beach No. 2 . . . . 208 Fig. 4. Beach No. 1, elevated at 1855 earthquake . . . . . . 208 Plate XIV— Fig. 1. Beach No. 5 (95 ft. above sea) . . . . . . . . 208 Fig. 2. Boulder Plain with No. 3 Beach (60 ft. above sea) 208 (xATENBY, J. B. — Plate XV. — Nests, &c, of Migas distinctus, a New Zealand trapdoor spider . . 240 xii List of Plates. Kirk, H. B.— r« x viTi FOLLOWS Plate XVI— PA0E Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of the circulatory system of Hepta- trema cirrata . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Fig. 2. Part of the dorsal vessels and the nephridial system, from the dorsal side . . . . . . . . . . 244 Plate XVII.— Fig. 1. The efferent branchial vessels and the anterior part of the dorsal aortic system, from the dorsal aspect . . . . . . 244 Fig. 2. The afferent branchial system, from the ventral aspect . . 244 Fig. 3. Right afferent branchial vessels, from the right side . . . . 244 Fig. 4. Anterior part of post-cardinal system, showing connection of right sinus with portal heart . . . . . . . . . . 244 Fig. 5. The jugular system, dissected from ventral aspect . . . . 244 Cotton, C. A. — Plate XVIII— Fig. 1. View looking southward up Makara Valley from surface of flood - plain of Tongue Point cycle . . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 2. The eastern shore of Miramar Peninsula, showing raised rock plat- forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 3. Elevated coast platform at Tongue Point . . . . . . 250 Plate XIX— . Fig. 1. South coast, east of Sinclair Head . . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 2. Scarp of the Wellington fault seen from Petone . . . . 250 Fig. 3. Facets at Petone Railway-station . . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 4. " Long Valley " : View from Ngaio towards Karori . . . . 250 Plate XX.— Fig. 1. View looking up the lower gorge of the Kaiwarra towards Wades- town . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Fig. 2. Fall in the lower gorge of the Ngahauranga . . . . . . 258 Plate XXI— Fig. 1. Narrowed spur in the Ngahauranga Valley . . . . . . 258 Fig. 2. Raised beaches and wave-cut cliffs on the south-eastern shore of Miramar Peninsula . . . . . . . . . . 258 Adkin, G. L. — Plate XXII— Fig. 1. General view of the glaciated part of Park Valley • . . . 308 Fig. 2. Waiohine-iti Valley . . . . . . . . . . 308 • Plate XXIII— Glaciated head of Park Valley . . . . . . 312 Plate XXIV — The largest glacial hanging valley in Park Valley . . . . 312 o v.- TRANSACTIONS. TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1911. Art. I. — Observations concerning Evolution, derived from Ecological Studies in New Zealand. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd August, 1911.] Plates I-VIII. Table of Contents. I. Introduction. II. Elementary species. III. Variation. IV. Mutation. V. Epharmon}'. 1. General. 2. Fixity of species — plasticity. 3. Response to ecological factors. (a.) Soil. {b.) Light. (c.) Wind. (d.) Water, (e.) Altitude. 4. After-effect of stimuli. 5. Convergent epharmony. (a.) The divaricating shrub form. (6.) The cushion form, (c.) The liane form. (d.) The prostrate form. 6. Persistent juvenile forms. VI. Hybridization. VII. The struggle for existence. VIII. Distribution of species. 1. Distribution in general. 2. Isolation. IX. Evolution in the genus Veronica. X. Concluding remarks. XI. List of literature cited. I. Introduction. Plant-ecology is concerned with the study of plants as living organisms, not in the laboratory under artificial conditions, but in the field as they grow naturally. Like every branch of a great science, its content is not bounded by any definite limits, but it intergrades with various departments 1- Trans. 2 Transactions. of botany, especially physiology and floristic botany, though its methods are different from those of the latter. The conditions which the earth offers, in its manifold soils and climates, for plant-life are extremely diverse and complex, but nevertheless there exists in no few instances an apparent harmony between the conditions and the plants, which is manifested in the latter by some special form either of the organism as a whole or of one or more of its organs. It is obvious that in attempting to correlate plant-forms with their environmental factors matters are being dealt with which deeply affect the study of descent, and data are accumulated which cannot be neglected by students of general evolution. But besides being occupied by plant-adaptations* the ecologist has also to do with the species of the taxonomist, since for one part of his work, at any rate, the groups of individuals indicated by the specific names are at present the units with which he has to deal. Furthermore, his practical acquaintance with such species, and particularly with their varieties, must in course of time become wide, while a variation with him is not merely a taxonomic mark to be noted for purposes of classification, but a physiological expression to be explained. Besides being concerned with the origin of adaptations and species, plant-ecology deals with the arrangement of the latter into the various more or less well-defined combinations entitled " plant -associations," and here come in such fundamental evolutionary concepts as distribution, isolation, and the struggle for existence. Plant-ecology itself, although studied in a more or less desultory and incoherent fashion since the time of Linnaeus, may be said to date, as a special branch of botany, from the publication of Warming's Plantesam- fund in 1895. f At first looked at askance by the older botanists, it has steadily advanced in importance. It is prosecuted by careful and enthu- siastic workers in many lands, and is now almost universally recognized as a field of the highest biological moment. Unfortunately, its methods are for the most part extremely crude, there is but little uniformity of procedure amongst its adherents, and its nomenclature is altogether un- fixed. Lastly, many of the problems that await solution are amongst the most difficult that science has to offer. Bearing the above statements in mind, it is obvious that the simpler the conditions and the fewer the species involved, the easier is it to draw conclusions of moment, and to state the ecological " facts," if one may so designate what arise from observations made under conditions far from stringent. Also, a virgin vegetation alone can give definite information on many topics. Tue New Zealand biological region supplies in some mea- sure the above desiderata. Its vascular flora, consisting of some 1,650 species, is not too great for an ecological worker to grasp ; its vegetation is still in many places absolutely virgin ; its climate varies from subtropical to subantarctic ;| some parts experience an annual rainfall of more than * The convenient term " adaptation " is used throughout this piper in a non- teleological sense. f This statement applies rather to the ecology of plant-distribution than to that general and more fundamental study of life-reactions known as " biology " by German investigators. In this latter sense Darwin himself stands pre-eminent as an ecologist. % The subantarctic and the subarctic climates are by no means identical. Intense cold plays no part in the first-named, its main characteristics being lack of sunshine, frequent cold gales, constant showers, and a low average temperature all the year, with but little frost in winter. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in E eolation . 3 500 cm. and other parts less than 30 cm. ; the plant formations include mangrove swamp, rain forest, heaths of various kinds, subglacial fell- and herb-fields, varied associations of rock and debris, subantarctic southern- beech forest, associations in and near hot springs, dunes, salt meadows, steppes, swamps, and moors — in fact, for an equal variety an ecologist would have to explore one of the larger continents in its entirety. Further, the isolation of the region for a vast period of time far from any other land- surface ; the absence of grazing animals, the moa (Dinornis) excepted ; the diverse floral elements (Malayan, Australian, Subantarctic, &c.) ; the strong endemism ; the numerous small islands where conditions are simpler than on the larger ones ; and, finally, the presence of many areas whose vege- tation has been changed within a very few years through the farming operations of the settler, and its components replaced by exotics of quite different growth-forms — all these attributes much enhance the importance of New Zealand for ecological research. Now, although I well know that the final court of appeal in evolutionary matters is experiment, still it seems to me that some few details having a bearing on various phases of the evolution question selected from numerous observations on a vegetation and a flora that one may venture to designate '' unique " may perhaps be worth the attention of students of descent. II. Elementary Species. Few will deny, whatever be their opinions as to its truth, that the most awakening contribution of late years to the evolution question has been the mutation theory of De Vries. Leaving out of consideration for the present the value of the theory as a means of evolution, the introduction of careful experimental methods — i.e., a return to Darwin's own procedure — rather than mere argument in favour of this or that dogma has given new life to the study of evolution. Moreover, a change of the highest moment is the substitution of elementary species* as the raw material for the evolutionary process, rather than the Linnean species, which, as shown below, are frequently ideas merely and not living entities. It seems well, then, first of all to examine how far the doctrine of elementary species is supported by the New Zealand flora, as interpreted by ecology. It need hardly be pointed out that the species of New Zealand taxono- mists belong to the Linnean category, and that, while some refer to definite and well-defined groups the individuals of which can be recognized at a glance (e.g., Veronica Gilliesiana T. Kirk, Senecio cassinioides Hook, f., Carmichaelia gracilis J. B. Armstg., Urtica jerox Forst. f.), others vary to such an extent that there is no special set of individuals reproducing a plant that matches the specific description, which is drawn up so as to include a varying series of formsf which are considered to intergrade (e.g., Veronica salicifolia Forst. f., Celmisia coriacea Hook, f., Asplenium bulbi- ferum Forst. f., Danthonia semiannularis R. Br., and, roughly speaking, perhaps 25 per cent of the vascular flora). Such " species " as these latter do not really exist ; they are ideas only, and their origin has nothing to do with evolution. Other " species," again, through want of a full knowledge of their * This is not very different, after all, from Darwin's view, who declared that " a well-marked variety may therefore be considered an incipient species . . . the term ' species' is one arbitrarily given to a set of individuals closely resembling each other, and that it does not essentially differ from the term ' variety.' " (Darwin, 1899, p. 39.) t And then accepting this as a species, it is said to be " extremely variable." 4 Transactions. forms, &c, may include even more than one Linnean species, as appears to be the case with Pittosporum rigidum Hook, f., as defined by Hooker, Kirk, and Cheeseman. Plate I shows this case clearly, where the type of P. rigidum on the right differs most markedly from the common South Island form on the left, which I am naming P. divaricatum* In some cases the difficulty as to distinguishing-names is met by the " creation " of " varieties " ; but these, again, are of quite different values, and may belong to distinct biological categories. A few examples taken from the " Manual of the New Zealand Flora ': (Cheeseman, 1906) will explain my meaning. 1. Hoheria populnea A. Cunn. (p. 78) is divided into the three varieties- — (a) vulgaris Hook, f., (b) lanceolata Hook, f., and (c) angustifolia Hook. f. There is no such plant in existence as H. populnea, for the description includes the three varieties (a), (b), and (c), each of which, however, is distinguished by a special diagnosis, the varieties (a), (b), and (c) respectively representing distinct groups of individuals which reproduce themselves true from seed. 2. Carmichaelia Enysii T. Kirk has a variety orbiculata T. Kirk (p. 111). Both the species and its variety are described. But in this case the specific description refers to one set of individuals possessing certain characters, which is C. Enysii proper, and does not include var. orbiculata, which is to be recognized through its having other characters absent in C. Enysii proper, which latter may then be termed the type. 3. Epilobium junceum Sol. has vars. cinereum Hausskn., hirtigerum Hook, f., and macrophyllum Hausskn., each of which is defined at consider- able length (p. 175). But none of these names represents a biological entity. for E. junceum, to quote from Cheeseman, " is an extremely variable plant, the numerous forms of which may be grouped in the three following varieties " — i.e., as above. Further he writes, " The extreme states of the above varieties have a very distinct appearance, and might have been treated as species were they not connected by numerous intermediate forms, which make it quite impossible to draw strict lines of demarcation between them." Here, then, the description of the species does not indicate a type, but it includes the three varieties and all the intermediate forms, while the varieties themselves are likewise not distinct entities,! and belong to a different biological category to the var. orbiculata of C. Enysii. 4. Gaultheria rupestris R. Br. (p. 407) is a similar example to the last, being said to be " a highly variable plant, the numerous forms of which are best arranged under two heads " —namely, var. lanceolata Cheesem. and var. parvi folia Cheesem. 5. In certain other cases, where there are a host of intergrading forms, the most divergent are treated as separate species notwithstanding that they are connected by intermediates. An example of this is Veronica, pinguifolia Hook. f. and V. Buchanani Hook, f., of which latter species Cheeseman writes (p. 527), " Larger forms approach V. pinguifolia so closely that it is difficult to draw a line of demarcation between the two species. My var. major might be referred to either." Other examples of similar * It seems possible also that P. divaricatum consists of two elementary species, found in the steppe and forest climates of the South Island respectively. See Plate VIII, and compare it with the figure in Diels (1906). f Biologically some are certainly distinct entities, as, e.g., the variety macrophyllum, which Petrie has " made " into a species under the name E. erectum, and which is greatly on the increases where forest is being removed in the Waimarino locality. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV Plate I. Example of a Taxonomic Species. On right and left, adults of Pittosporum rigidum, not distinguished as varieties ; in centre, juvenile form of plant on light. Face p. 4.] Trans. N.Z Inst.. Vol. XLIV Plate II. Fig. 1. — Three Forms of the 'Species" Veronica buxtfolia. Fig. 2. — Juvenile Coprosma Baueri. Showing early prostrate shoots and later erect ones. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 5 treatment are Olearia Haastii Hook. f. and 0. oleifolia T. Kirk (p. 290), Ranunculus Sinclairii Hook. f. and R. gracilipes Hook. f. (p. 18), and Poa seticulmis Petrie and P. pusilla Berggr. (p. 905). 6. Veronica buxifolia Benth., as originally denned, probably referred to a quite definite set of individuals Even by Cheeseman (pp. 522, 523) the species is spoken of as a " plant," and not as a varying series of forms. Further, the species is defined as " erect," and but one variety is allowed. In point of fact, however, the " species " includes three distinct growth-forms, at any rate, two of which, the prostrate, and the low, erect, sparingly branched, are shown in Plate II, fig. 1. The var. odora T. Kirk (patens Cheesem.) is of the ball-like growth-form. In this example, then, a taxonomic species includes plants belonging to at least three absolutely distinct biological categories. And, in addition, it is highly probable that a dozen or more distinct true- breeding entities might easily be separated from the heterogeneous mass of individuals known as V. buxifolia. 7. Many varieties are of a quite different physiological value to others. Some, as in cases 1, 2, and 6, reproduce themselves true from seed. This I have definitely proved in a number of instances ; they are, in fact, true elementary species. Others, again, are merely environmental (unfixed ephar- monic)* forms, such as are dealt with further on, of which notable examples are the var. prostrataf Hook. f. of Leptospermum scoparium Forst. (p. 160), the var. rhombifolius% Hook. f. of Ranunculus pinguis Hook. f. (p. 12), and the var. pauperatus§ T. Kirk of Rubus cissoides A. Cunn. (p. 125). Finally, other varieties represent a series of forms regarding the stability of which nothing is known, but which are supposed, without any sufficient reason, to be unstable. Without going into further details, it is evident that the species of New Zealand taxonomists are. rather the creation of man than of Nature. In saying this I am not hypercritical. The main object of a flora is to enable a plant to be readily identified, and this, from the very nature of the case, demands a more or less artificial classification. Where such precise and copious information as to variation is given as in Cheeseman's most careful and exact work there need be no mistake, and the worker in the field knows exactly what he may expect. But, as a rule, writers on evolution have quite neglected to distinguish between taxonomic and physiological species, which latter alone are their concern. !| Although breeding-experiments can alone decide as to fixity of form, ecology should tell something. If a certain set of individuals remain unchanged over wide areas, so far as their specific marks go, and under varying conditions, it may be assumed with tolerable confidence that they reproduce their like, and are therefore species, elementary or Linnean, as * Such forms are called by Massart " accomodative," in contradistinction to " adap- tive " — i.e., specific and hereditary. Regarding taxonomic varieties, the same author writes, " Malheureusement on ne peut pas toujours se tier aux travaux de eystematique pour distinguer les accomodations des variations proprement dites," and he cites the example of Polygonum amphibium, with its varieties nutans, terrestre, and maritimum, all of which are simply accomodative states. (1910, pp. 9, 10.) t See Cockayne, 1909, p. 16. % See Cockayne, 1909a, p. 201. § See Cockayne, 1901, pp. 293, 294. || O. F. Cook's remarks are worthy of consideration (1907, pp. 362, 363): "The difficulty of defining the term ' species ' has arisen mostly from the fact that the phenomenon is a physiological one, whereas the general supposition has been that it is morphological. . . . For evolutionary purposes a species is a group of inter- breeding organisms ; nothing more is required, nothing less will suffice." 6 Transactions. the case may be. And perhaps it is allowable to go further, and say that if several allied plants grow in close proximity in sufficient numbers, and preserve their distinguishing characters, they are probably distinct, and would come true from seed. A case of this latter class is to be seen at the lower gorge of the River Waimakariri, Canterbury Plain, where the vars. microphylla Hook. f. and prostrata T. Kirk of Sophora tctraptera J. Mill. grow side by side, and in this case I have proved experimentally that both varieties come true from seed. So, too, with certain forms of Acaena Sanguisorbae Vahl. growing on subalpine fell-fields. There is no need to multiply instances such as the above ; suffice it to say that both from experiment and ecological observations I am satisfied that elementary species are very numerous in the New Zealand flora, especially in certain genera — e.g., Calamagrostis, Danthonia, Poa, Festuca, Scirpus. Uncinia, Car ex, Luzula, ? Phormium, Ranunculus, Cardamine, Pittosporum, Eubus, Acaena, Carmichaelia, Oxalis, Coriaria, Aristotelia, Pimelea, Epi- lobium, Leptospermum, Anisotome, Aciphylla, Gaultheria, Dracophylhtm. Gentiana, Myosotis, Veronica, Coprosma, Celmisia, Cotula, Craspedia, and Senecio. On the other hand, many species vary to a slight degree only. and are to be recognized at a glance. III. Variation. Apart from constant hereditary distinctions, there are " the individual differences," as Darwin called them (1899, p. 31), or " fluctuating varia- tions," as they are now frequently designated. These are supposed to depend upon a reaction of the organism to a change of environment. Klebs (1910, p. 235) distinguishes two kinds, the one " caused by different external conditions during the production either of sexual cells or vegetative primordia," and the other " is the result of varying external conditions during the development of the embryo into an adult plant." The two sets of influences cannot as yet be sharply differentiated. The following case illustrates this difficulty. Olearia semidentata Dene, is a moderate-sized xerophytic shrub, which is confined to the moors of the Chatham Islands, where both the climatic and edaphic conditions appear to be of great constancy (Cockayne, 1902. p. 288). The leaves vary on different individuals in size, shape, toothing, and tomentum, and plants grow side by side which, so far as general ap- pearance goes, might easily be taken for distinct species. Probably here the variations are germinal, but at the same time each plant has its own rooting-place* and its individual physiological character, so it cannot be denied but that each plant is subjected to slightly different stimuli to those experienced by any other. A most important question is the heredity in fluctuating variations and the degree to which they can be accumulated. Darwin (1899, pp. 31, 32) considered them all-important. " These individual differences," he writes, " are of the highest importance for us, for they are often inherited, as must be familiar to every one ; and they thus afford materials for natural selection to act on and accumulate in the same manner as man * The importance of the rooting-places of individuals is generally neglected by plant-ecologists who define the conditions of the habitat as a whole, whereas species growing side by side may be subjected to quite different influences, as in the case of shallow- and deep- rooting species, erect and prostrate, and so on. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 7 accumulates in any given direction individual differences in his domesticated productions." And further on (p. 38), " Hence I look on individual differences ... as of the highest importance for us, as being the first steps towards such slight varieties as are barely thought worth record- ing in works on natural history." De Vries and his followers, on the other hand, deny that a fluctuating character can be accumulated indefinitely, and affirm that, " Selection according to a constant standard reaches its results in a few generations. The experience of Van Mons and other breeders of apples shows how soon the limit of size and lusciousness may be attained. . . . Improvements of flowers in size and colour are usually easy and rapid in the beginning, but an impassable limit is soon reached" (De Vries, 1904, pp. 806, 807). Further (p. 18), "Fluctuations always oscillate round an average, and if removed from this for some time they show a tendency to return to it. This tendency, called ' retrogression,' has never been observed to fail as it should in order to free the new strain from the links with the average." Again, " Fluctuations are not observed to produce anything quite new, and evolution, of course, is not restricted to the. increase of the already existing peculiarities, but depends upon the continuous addition of new characters to the stock." The opinion of Klebs cannot be overlooked in this matter. This famous investigator has shown in his remarkable experiments (Klebs, 1903) that variations can be artificially induced which are far beyond the limits of fluctuat- ing variability and considerably greater than any mutations hitherto recorded. Ecological observations can say little on a debatable topic like this, where long-conducted experiments are alone of weight. Some observations regarding vegetables which have escaped from cultivation in New Zealand are not without interest, as showing reversion to the wild state. The radish {Rhaphanus sativus L.) is abundantly naturalized near Wellington, but the roots are no longer swollen to any extent. The parsnip (Peucedanum ■sativum Benth. & Hook.), probably the celebrated " Student," which is supposed by writers on evolution to be a fixed race,* came up year by year in a neglected part of my garden, but in a much deteriorated form.f So, too, with " improved " pansies, primroses, and polyanthuses^ in my garden, and with Eschscholtzia califormoa as naturalized near Cromwell, Central Otago. In many cases fluctuating variations are very small, and appear to be neither an advantage nor the contrary to their possessor. In other cases there are variations of much greater magnitude, which ecological observations, as shown further on, prove to be distinctly dependent upon external stimuli bringing about a response within the plant which is manifested by a visible, morphological or an invisible physiological change. "&x * Romanes (1895, p. 125) writes, " That is to say, it has oome true to seed for the last forty years." Romanes mentions this case as an example in support of the heredity of an acquired character, but Darwin (1905, p. 229) mentions it as a case of " methodical selection." f With a species such as this it really must be nearly impossible to judge under European conditions how far a supposed " wild " plant may be really wild and not the descendant of a cultivated form. J The leaf-like calyx of the primroses, &c, known as " Jack-in-the-green " is a remarkably persistent character. 8 Transactions. IV. Mutations.* There seems to be no doubt but that De Vriesian mutations arise from time to time. That such afford a better material for preservation by natural selection than do small fluctuating variations is obvious. Unfortunately, the number of cases of veritable mutants is small, while most have originated in cultivation. This last fact discounts the value of the mutation theory in the opinion of many.f My own feeling, as an amateur gardener of many years' standing, and as one who has cultivated with his own hands several thousand species of both wild and garden plants in an antipodean garden far from the home of most, is that ordinary cultivation, without manure, has little effect in producing variations of moment. In my garden, plants reproduced themselves from seed freely and came to maturity, but beyond a number of daffodils and some, probably hybrid, dwarf phloxes (Phlox subulata L.) I remember nothing " new." In estimating the origin of species by mutation, nothing but experi- ment can prove the heredity of the new character. All that ecology can do is to note striking varieties, their frequency, their environment, the position of the individual possessing such variations with regard to normal individuals, and so on. The following examples of what may be full or partial mutations in the New Zealand flora, indigenous and introduced, may be of interest : — 1. The white form of Myosotidium nobile Hook. The species is confined to the Chatham Islands, where it grows on or near the sea-shore. In the normal form the central half of the corolla is bright blue, which fades to purple, and the edges are more or less white. Mrs. Chudleigh, of Wharekauri, some years ago discovered one plant with white flowers growing wild in the north of the main island, and although she is an excellent observer, and Myosotidium: has been carefully noted in its habitat by Mr. Cox and others, no more white-flowered forms have been observed. The plant in question is now fairly common in cultivation, and. I understand, comes true from seed. So, too, does the normal blue form. J * Something not very different to the mutation theory was propounded by J. B. Armstrong, formerly of the Christchurch Botanical Garden, in a paper dealing with the New Zealand species of Veronica in 1881, in these words : " I have been enabled to observe numerous garden-seedlings of many of the forms, and they almost invariably resemble their parents. Sometimes, however, sports appear, and when this happens there seems to be a strong tendency on the part of the sport to reproduce itself, and it appears to me that it is just in this manner that the greater number of our native forms have been produced. At some very distant date there were probably only two or three (perhaps only one) species existing within the limits of the colony ; but, oir account of the extreme local variations of climate and varied geological formation of the surface, certain varia- tions occurred, and a sport so produced, being self-fertile, and having within itself all the elements required for reproduction, naturally reproduced its like until another such sport occurred, and thus the forms gradually became differentiated from the type, and by a long series of such sports one large family of Veronicas has been formed." Then he goes on to show how similar mutations have taken places amongst species of other lands, and considers that the intermediates have been eradicated " by man or the larger animals, leaving only in most cases the more widely differentiated forms." But in New Zealand man has done little, and very many intermediate forms have been pre- served. f Klebs, however, writes (1910, p. 241), " Even if it is demonstrated that he was simply dealing with the splitting-up of a hybrid, the facts adduced in no sense lose their very great value." % Raising from seed is, in fact, the only satisfactory method of propagating both the type and the white-flowered form. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in E volution . 9 2. The white variety of Clianthus puniceus Banks & Sol. The type has scarlet flowers. It is now very scarce as a wild plant, but grew originally on or near sea-cliffs from the East Cape district northwards, and inland at Lake Waikaremoana. The type is a most common garden- plant ; it is propagated from seeds, and comes true. According to Cheese- man (1907, p. 443), from information supplied by Mr. H. Hill, the flowers of East Cape plants vary considerably in colour, size, shape, and relative proportions of the petals. At Waikaremoana the flowers are comparatively small and reddish-purple. At Tolaga and Tokomaru they are large, and the standard very broad, with a whitish stripe on each side near the base. The white form is white throughout. It is propagated from seed, and, according to Mr. T. W. Adams, comes true.* It is very common in culti- vation. As for its origin, according to Cheeseman, " a white-flowered variety is stated by the Maoris to grow on the Tiniroto cliffs." This may or may not be the source of the garden form. Possibly G. puniceus consists of several elementary species. 3. Geranium Traversii Hook. f. var. elegans Cockayne (Geraniac). The normal colour of the flowers of G. Traversii is white. It grows on coastal cliffs of the Chatham Islands. The flowers of var. elegans are pink in colour, and rather larger. It comes " true ': from seed. According to Captain Dorrien Smith, it is found occasionally on Chatham Island, but I only know it as a garden-plant. 4. Phormium tenax Forst., form with purplish leaves (Liliac). The origin of this striking plant is not known. It is very common in New Zealand gardens It appears to come very nearly, or perhaps abso- lutely, true from seed, and the young plants have much more brilliantly coloured leaves than the adult. P. tenax was commonly cultivated by the Maoris, who recognized by name many distinct-looking forms. f Some of these appear to reproduce themselves more or less true, while others are probably of hybrid origin. 5. Phormium Cookianum Le Jobs, form with bracts in part instead of flowers (Liliac). (See Williams, 1904, p. 333, and pi. 25.) The plant in question was discovered by the Right Rev. Bishop Wil- liams growing a little above high- water mark at Blackhead. It was then in seed, and the capsules were accompanied by numerous persistent bracts. A few of the seeds were sown. One of the young plants produced an in- florescence similar to that of the parent in 1900 and 1901, but in 1902 the four scapes produced flowers and seeds in the usual way, but these in the course of the summer " began to be clothed with leaves " in their upper portions. 6. Various crimson- and pink-flowered forms of Leptospermum scoparium Forst. (Myrtac). At least six individuals of Leptospermum scoparium bearing crimson or deep-pink flowers without a trace of white have been found wild in various * Mr. Cheeseman informs me that he also has raised the white form from seed, and that none of the plants produced flowers other than white. f Fifty-seven names are given in " Phormium tenax as a Fibrous Plant " ( Wellington, 1872), but it is now known that many of them are synonyms. There are extensive col- lections on some of the Government experimental farms, where their behaviour as to constancy, hybridization, &c, is being studied. 10 Transactions. parts of New Zealand. The two best known bear the garden names of L. Chapmanii* and L. Nicholsii* respectively. Seedlings in abundance have been raised from the latter by Messrs. Nairn and Son, Christchurch, in their nursery, and every opportunity was kindly afforded me of studying their form, &c. (see Cockayne, 1907a). The colour of the original plant is repeated more or less in the seedlings, but it varies a good deal, and some flowers are white. Dark-coloured leaves, a parental character, accompany the darker flowers. In a case recorded by Cheeseman the plant was reported by its finder, Mr. R. J. Gilberd, to come true to colour (Cheeseman, 1908, p. 275). It is obvious that these crimson forms only appear occasionally, for they are too striking in contrast with the familiar white blossoms to be overlooked by even a casual observer. Further, the change of colour is deep-seated in the plant, since the leaves are also affected. In L. Nicholsii Hort., too, the plant is of a weeping habit, as opposed to the normal erect stature. Finally, it must be noted that the semi-mutants grew in widely separated localities, some in the South and others in the North Island. 7. Double white form of Leptospermuni scoparium Foist. (Myrtac). This was found growing wild on pumice soil in the Hot Lakes district by Mr. E. Philipps Turner. The doubling is very complete, and, so far as I could judge from much-damaged specimens, resulted from petalody of the stamens. Probably it is unable to produce seed. This case is of further interest because double flowers, as De Vries has pointed out (1905, p. 489), are exceedingly rare in the wild state, though so common in cultivation. Only one individual was noted. The mutation was evidently quite spon- taneous, and cannot be attributed to any sudden change of soil-conditions. Leptospermuni scoparium is a most variable plant. Doubtless some of the forms are good elementary species. The form with pinkish flowers and hairy leaves, &c, of northern Auckland, which occurs over wide areas side by side with other forms from which it can be recognized at a glance, is a case in point. 8. Olearia semidentata Dene., form with white florets. The type has brilliant purple flower-heads. The white form was dis- covered growing wild by Captain A. A. Dorrien Smith. It is now in cultivation in the garden at Tresco Abbey, Scilly. A similar case is var. Dendyi Cockayne of Olearia chathamica T. Kirk, found on Pitt Island by Dr. A. Dendy, F.R.S., and which has purple florets and yellower denser tomentum on the under-surface of the leaf than the type, the florets of which, moreover, are white fading to purplish. 9. Metrosideros lucida Menzies, form with white flowers. The type has crimson flowers. The white -flowered form has been found in two places, one plant which I have seen growing near the head of the Otira Gorge, Westland, and the other lower down the valley. f 10. Metrosideros tomentosa A. Rich., form with yellow flowers. Mr. H. Carse (Cheeseman, 1906, p. 1137) discovered one specimen with yellow flowers, those of the type being dark crimson, at Rangaunu Harbour, northern Auckland. * Because I use these garden names it must not be concluded that I consider the plants of the same biological class as Linnean species, or even elementary species. 1 1 am indebted to Mr. J. O'Malley, of Otira, for calling my attention to the latter plant. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 11 11. Rubus Barkeri Cockayne. This is a presumably non-flowering species (see Cockayne, 1910, p. 325) ; at any rate, cuttings from an adult plant growing luxuriantly and under most varied conditions for a period of thirteen years have never flowered. Be this as it may, the plant in question, although closely related to R. parvus Buchanan, differs from that species in its trifoliate leaves with lanceolate* leaflets and not simple linear leaves, its serrate and not dentate leaf-margins, its different autumnal colouring and its greater size in all parts (see fig. 1). Fig. 1. — Outline of Leaf of (a) Rubus Barkeri, (b) R. parvus, x f. 'Only one plant was originally noted. Recently I have seen abundance of Rubus parvus in various localities in Westland and under different condi- tions, but it is remarkably constant in characters, and presented no transi- tions towards R. Barkeri. I know well that my action in " creating " a taxonomic species in this case is open to adverse criticism, especially as I believe that the original wild plant may be the only one in existence ; but if a species can originate by mutation there must be a time when there is only one individual, and if so, and its characteristic marks are of " specific " importance, it is just as much a " species " as if there were thousands of similar individuals. * So defined in original description, but leaflets in fig. 1 are broader. 12 Transactions. 12. Veronica Benthami Hook, f., form with white flowers. V. Benthami is a shrub of straggling habit endemic in the Auckland Islands. The flowers are normally of a brilliant blue, a most unusual colour amongst New Zealand plants. One or two individuals with white flowers were noted by me in 1907. Also, another plant had the flowers almost carmine when just opening, but fading to a paler colour on the outer parts of the corolla when fully expanded (Cockayne, 1909, p. 203). 13. Occurrence of variegation, &c. There are three forms of variegated Coprosma Baueri Endl. in cultivation of whose origin I know nothing. A variegated form of Griselinia littoralis Raoul was discovered a number of years ago by the late Mr. Purdie in the vicinity of Dunedin. The late Mr. H. J. Matthews found, also in the neighbourhood of Dunedin, a form of Fuchsia excorticata L. f. with very dark-coloured leaves, quite different from the normal. One individual of Cordyline australis Hook. f. with variegated leaves was found many years ago in a batch of seedlings raised at Duncan's nursery, Christchurch. It appears to come true from seed. Variegated forms of Veronica salicifolia Forst. have appeared on several occasions in cultivation. There are variegated forms of Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol. and P. eugenioides A. Cunn.. but their origin is unknown. A form of Coprosma robusta Raoul with yellow and not the typical red-orange drupes was found by me near Kaipara Harbour, Auckland. There are a number of variegated forms of Phormium tenax Forst. and P. Cookianum Le Jobs in cultivation, which come more or less true from seed, but a variegated plant of the latter species found wild by me on Mount Sherwood. Marlborough, upon being brought into cultivation reverted to the type. 14. Tetragonia expansa Murr. This case is cited by De Vries (1901, p. 169). There are two forms, one with brownish and the other with green flowers ; both came true. The wild plant in New Zealand has yellow flowers. 15. Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol., form with yellow flowers. In New Zealand, so far as is known, the petals are invariably dark- purple, almost black. But, according to H. M. Hall (1910, pp. 7, 8), two shrubs growing in a row of the normal-coloured plant in California pro- duced yellow flowers. Should this be at all common in New Zealand it could hardly have escaped notice. 16. Introduced plants. Some remarkable more or less hereditary variations have come about in the broom (Cytisus scoparius Link.), gorse (Ulex europaeus L.), and tree- lupin (Lupinus arboreus Sims). In the first two named species there are colour-changes from the normal yellow to white, differences in size and shape of flower, and, in the gorse, variation in time of blooming. Lupinus arboreus Sims, normally yellow, and varying but little in its native land, on the dunes near New Brighton, Canterbury, has undergone many remarkable changes in the colour of its flowers. There is, e.g., a pure-white, yellows of various tints, and a great variety of purples com- bined, or not, with whites and yellows. These abnormally coloured plants occur in patches here and there as a general rule, and appear to get more abundant year by year. In the North Island I have neither noticed nor heard of such variations, nor yet in Central Otago. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in E volution . 13 Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) and cowgrass (the var. perenne) vary to an astonishing extent in a small patch, chiefly self-sown, in my garden. Many of the forms are most distinct, and the new characters are diverse, affecting colour of flowers, stems, and foliage, form of inflorescence, degree and kind of hairiness, general habit, &c. Here pure culture-methods and Mendelian procedure would be needed to come to any reliable conclusions as to variants such as these. Holcus lanatus L. and Dactylis glomerata L., I am informed, vary at times beyond their ordinary fluctuating capacity. Capsella Bursa-pastoris Medic, a very variable species in its natural habitat, and which has already given rise to certain mutants, varies to an astonishing degree in New Zealand, especially in highly manured ground. A careful study of such variation is certainly demanded. Y. Epharmony. 1. General. It is when we come to epharmonic adaptations that ecology presents its most important contribution to the evolution question. In attempting to explain the origin of epharmonic adaptations it is evident that, as in the case of all explanations of evolutionary phenomena, no absolute proof can be given without experiment, and, where such is wanting, it seems reasonable that the most probable explanation should be accepted for the time being, notwithstanding that other though less probable explanations would fit the case. Generally in polemical dis- cussions on matters of evolution natural selection is assumed to be a vera causa which needs no demonstration, and if any other reason is put for- ward, however likely it may appear, it is considered of no moment, unless it can be proved not merely to the hilt, but to the objector's satisfaction. Now, I am of opinion that in the hereditary epharmonic variations cited below there is a much greater likelihood of their having been brought about by the direct action of the various ecological factors than by the continuous accumulative selection of fluctuating varieties, and in making this statement I am merely echoing the opinion regarding analogous phe- nomena of Romanes (1895, pp. 122-32), Warming (1909, pp. 370-73). MacDougal (1911, p. 57), Henslow (1895, 1908), Costantin (1898), (Scott- Elliott, 1910), and many other writers on evolution. With the much-disputed Lamarckian factors use and disuse, which are so frequently the only parts of the doctrine dealt with by the zoological opponents of modified Lamarckism, I have nothing to do. How far evolu- tionary methods correspond in the plant and animal kingdoms no one can say, but it does not seem unreasonable to imagine that they may have been in many respects different.* At any rate, this paper is concerned only with the botanical side of evolution. 2. Fixity of Species — Plasticity. Nothing has been brought out more clearly by ecological studies in New Zealand than the extreme " plasticity " of many species and struc- tures, and their rapid response to a change of environment. This is so * Leavitt (1907, p. 237) writes, " In no case is it safe to reason deductively from one kingdom to the other. In the factors affecting their evolutioTi, plants and animals differ vastly. 14 Transactions. great in numerous instances that the idea of " normal " loses its meaning* Take the following examples : — (a.) Leptospermum scoparium Forst. (Myrtac.) may be a moderate-sized tree, a tall shrub, a dwarf plant 2-8 cm. tall which flowers and ripens seed, and an absolutely prostrate plant which forms a dense covering to the ground and puts forth adventitious roots, although the erect forms are exceedingly difficult to artificially strike as cuttings. (6.) Certain shrubs are of the xerophytic divaricating growth-form when growing in the open, but of a comparatively loose, leafy, and mesophytic habit when growing in the shade and shelter of the forest — e.g., Pittosporum, divaricatum* Cockayne, Corokia Cotoneaster Raoul, Aristotelia fruticosa^ Hook, f., &c. In such a case, were the shade form alone in existence (see Plate VII, fig. 1), there is no botanist but would consider it fixed and normal, and yet it is the sun and wind form rather that is so considered. (c.) Fuchsia Colensoi Hook. f. (Onagrac.) is a twiggy shrub in the open, but in the forest it is frequently a scrambling liane. (d.) Hymenophyllum multifidum Sw. (Filic.) when occupying wet rocks in the Auckland Islands has its fronds closely curled up, but when growing in the forest interior of the same group they are quite flat. That the curled fronds are not fixed I have shown by means of moist-air culture (1904, pp. 266, 267). Suppose that H. multifidum was only found on a wind- swept treeless island, such as Macquarie Island, no one would question the curled frond being normal and fixed. (e.) Myoporum laetum Forst. f. (Myoporac.) is nearly always a small round-headed coastal tree having a distinct erect trunk, but on Moko Hinou Island it is altogether prostrate, and its branches far-spreading, cord-like, and twiggy. Were it not that I have seen intermediate forms on some parts of the North Island coast I could hardly believe that the Moko Hinou plant was not a stable form. (/.) Myrtus pedunculata Hook. f. (Myrtac.) is generally either a small tree or a twiggy erect shrub,% but at an altitude of some 1,200 m. in the Nothofagus forest of the volcanic plateau, North Island, it is frequently quite prostrate and rooting. StypheUa fasciculala Diels (Epacrid.), although nearly always an erect shrub as a forest-plant, behaves exactly as the last- named in the same station. On dunes it is also frequently prostrate. (g.) Dracophyllum politum Cockayne (Epacrid.) when growing on the mountains of Stewart Island is a turf-making shrub, a low spreading shrub with stout horizontal branches, or a massive ball-like cushion plant, accord- ing to circumstances. So different are these various forms that I can hardly yet believe them to be merely environmental unfixed forms of one another§ and that my observation is not faulty. (h.) Gleichenia dicarpa R. Br. and G. circinata Sw. (Filic.) differ speci- fically in the former having the margins of the segments of the pinnae in- curved so as to be pouch-shaped, whereas those of the latter are virtually flat. But the same individual of the var. hecistophylla Hook. f. will possess * This plant has been merged with P. rigidum Hook. f. A diagnosis has not yet been published, owing to lack of sufficient material, but it is necessary here to use a definite name, since P. rigidum and P. divaricatum are certainly distinct entities. (See Plate I.) t For further details, see Cockayne, 1901, pp. 265-67, and Diels, 1906, pp. 66-69. % It is possible that the tree and shrub are different species, but I hardly think so, though I have not seen intermediates. § See Cockayne, 1909, p. 16, and photo No. 13, facing p. 17. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 15 some pinnae with pouches and others quite flat, in accordance with, the degree of illumination to which they are exposed. In fact, here the specific dis- tinction does not hold — it is merely epharmonic — and the latest name must be abandoned ; nor can the two " species " be maintained even as " varieties." (i.) Discaria toumatou Raoul (Rhamnac.) when growing in positions subject to the attacks of rabbits may form low green cushions made up of leafy spineless shoots. " Normally " it is a stiff branching shrub furnished with abundant spines. Many more examples could be cited, but the above show clearly enough how unstable species may be, even when growing under natural conditions. When experimental methods are brought into play the effects from plasticity become still more striking. For example, spine-production may be sup- pressed in Discaria toumatou ; true leaves may be produced in the whip- cord veronicas and species of Carmichaelia (Legum.) ; rolled leaves made flat,* and vice versa ; cushion plants opened out widely. Undoubtedly a series of experiments such, as those of Klebs (1903) would yield results equally surprising. It can be seen from the above that this uncertainty as to " normal " form opens up room for great doubt in all discussions regarding the origin of permanent adaptations, for it may quite well be asserted that absolute fixity does not exist. It seems to me all that can be done is to consider as " normal " those forms which predominate and represent the general growth-form of the bulk of the individuals ; but assuredly in no few cases there is no normal form at all. 3. Response to Ecological Factors. Warming has summed up the state of knowledge on this head up to the date of publication of his admirable " Oecology of Plants" (Warming, 1909, pp. 16-81), so that only a few local examples are necessary here. First of all, it must be emphatically pointed out that it is virtually impossible in the field, where so many ecological factors are concerned, to say which is the predisposing cause of the internal response of the plant. Generally more than one factor will be concerned. (a.) Soil. Excess of salt leads to succulence, as in certain salt-meadow species which become less succulent as members of non-halophytic formations. The introduced Silene anglica L. develops more succulent leaves when growing near the sea than inland. Miss Cross examined the anatomy of certain salt-meadow plants and those of the same species grown in ordinary soil in a greenhouse. Her figures show considerable differences in thick- ness of leaves, but other factors besides want of salt doubtless affected the result (1910, pp. 569-71). The soil near hot springs containing excess of sulphur, &c, inhibits the erect shrub form of Leptospermum ericoides A. Rich., which then occurs only in the prostrate form. Lack of nutritive salts in sand -plains near the mouth of the River Rangi- tikei and elsewhere changes the leaf-form of Selliera radicans Cav. (Gooden). This is in accordance with the much more carefully conducted observations * la the case of Olearia cymlifolia Hook. f. the much revolute, boat-shaped leave become flat with moist-air culture, and what was considered an important specifi character, distinguishing the " species " from O. nummviarifolia Hook, f., vanishes. 16 Transactions. of Massart, which are supported by soil-analyses (1910, pp. 156-65). The prostrate habit of certain shrubs of dime-hollows in the north of Auckland may, in part, be similarly explained. Acid peat soils favour the cushion and other xeromorphic growth-forms, though mesophytic forms may also occur.* Phyllachne clavigera F. Muell. (Stylid.), and doubtless its allies of similar cushion-form, can be made of much looser growth by moist-air culture (Cockayne 1909a, p. 201). The shoots of Cotula Haastii T. Kirk (Compos.), one part of a plant rooted in deep soil, and another part on rotten rock or shallow soil, exhibit certain striking differences. These are chiefly in degree of intensity of characters. The portion in shallow soil has smaller leaves, stiffer stems, more glands, and the leaf-segments closer. The leaves are of a darker green, and are marked with brown on the lower half, whereas there is no trace of brown on the deep-rooting portion. A dune form of Acaena microphylla Hook. f. behaves similarly in my garden, the leaves of non-rooting shoots being much smaller than those of rooted shoots and broadly margined with brown, the " normal " leaves being lighter green and faintly brown at the apices of the teeth at most. This presence or absence of a dark colouring-matter would appear of small importance were it not that dark-coloured leaves are a rather frequent characteristic of New Zealand plants. Plants exposed to drifting sand may develop an upward growth. Thus, Poa caespitosa Forst. f., although a steppe tussock-grass, when growing on drifting sand in Central Otago gets more or less a sand-binding form. So, too, with Phormium tenax Forst. and Arundo conspicua Forst. f. on coastal dunes, though both are commonly swamp-plants. Scirpus frondosus Banks & Sol., a sand -binding plant of the most extreme type, is not only endemic, but belongs to an endemic subgenus (Desmoschoenus). Not only has this plant attained its growth-form in an isolated dune-area, but, as Mr. E. B. Oliver suggests in a letter to me, possibly in actual competition with the Australian Spinifex hirsutus Labill. At one place in Puhipuhi Valley, Seaward Kaikoura Mountains, nearly all the species, both indigenous and introduced, growing on cold, wet, lime- stone soil exhibit marked variegation, but beyond this tdaphic influence they are of the normal green. Highly manured soil, as is well known in cultivation, acts powerfully upon plant-form. In nature the same occurs. Plants of Sicyos australis Endl. growing on ground manured by Puffinus sphcnurus in the Kermadec Islands frequently produce male flowers in which " the petals turn green, and assume more or less the shape and character of foliage leaves " (Oliver, R. B., 1910, p. 132). Certain species appear confined to soil of the above character — e.g., Senecio antipodus T. Kirk, of Antipodes Island, and Cotula, Feather stonri F. Muell.. of Chatham Island. (b.) Light. The bright light of dunes probably leads to the red- or orange-coloured stems of the rush-like Leptocarpus simplex A. Rich (Restiac), which are green in the shade, and as salt-swamp plants not nearly so brilliantly coloured. It is a moot point how far the reddish, yellowish, or brownish hue of certain true dune-plants may be considered fixed and hereditary * See on this head Bum*, 1911, pp. 121,124. Xerophytes are confined to certain zones in the bogs studied, the largest bog-areas being hydrophytic or mesophytic. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 17 {?.g., Scirpus frondosus Banks & Sol., Coprosma acerosa A. Cunn., Gunnera arenaria Cheesem., Euphorbia glauca Forst. f.). An interesting case is that of Lycopodium ramulosum T. Kirk, a plant forming extensive patches on moors in the west of the South Island and Stewart Island, the sporophylls of which are absent or scantily produced in shade plants, but extremely abundant in those growing in bright light. Many young trees in the forest assume a special form with a slender main stem and few branches, which are confined to its upper portion. Similarly, the xerophytic fern Pteridium esculentum Cockayne becomes in a dim light a scrambling liane. An example observed by Mr. H. Carse and myself was growing amongst tall, slender Leptospermum scoparium on Reef Point, north-west Auckland. Some of the fronds were more than 3 m. in length. Pinnae were absent until the brighter light was gained. The final portion of the rhachis was green and succulent, and the distance between the pinnae 46 cm. These latter were still coiled up and quite rudimentary, although the largest was 25 cm. long. The rhachis was twisted — i.e., it showed a tendency to twine. Shade — and here probably comes in moisture in" the air — increases the size of leaves, changes certain xerophytes into mesophytes : e.g., species of Carmichaelia, Discaria toumatou. Podocarpus nivalis Hook., as may be plainly seen from Plate IV, responds markedly to changes in illumination, the shade form resembling P. totara much more than the species which it really is. The specimens were collected within a few feet of one another. The lie of the leaf is regulated by the light. Olearia insignis Hook, f., a shrub of dry rocks in Marlborough, arches its branches upwards to a sur- prising degree, thus bringing its leaf rosettes into a suitable position with regard to the light. This habit persists in plants raised from seed and grown on flat ground. (c.) Wind. Wind is a most important factor in New Zealand. First comes the '' wind-shearing " action, which is in part a physiological process ; it is well marked in trees and shrubs of exposed positions, and may be frequently seen in Podocarpus totara D. Don., Leptospermum scopariurn, Forst., and many other plants. The prostrate habit is encouraged by wind ; but here other factors may enter in, as cold and acid soil. Coprosma foetidissima Forst. is usually a tall forest-shrub, but when a member of the tussock- moor association of the Auckland Islands (Cockayne, 1909a, pp. 200, 201, and 219) it is prostrate and twiggy. The prostrate form of Leptospermum scoparium on the subalpine moors of Stewart Island is another and remark- able example. Well-developed prostrate trunks are to be seen in Metro- sideros lucida Menz. (Myrtac.) in the Auckland Islands, Stewart Island, and the Southern Alps, and in Olearia ilicifolia Hook. f. (Compos.) in some sub- alpine forests of the South Island. Reduction in size of leaves must often be attributed to wind-action. (d.) Water. Plants of still or slowly running water are subjected to a fairly con- stant environment.* Cotula coronopifolia L., as a land-plant, is a herb with branched, prostrate, more or less rooting stems, the branches of which are erect or semi-erect ; the internodes are short ; the leaves are rather fleshy, more or less lanceolate in outline, and pinnatifid, lobed, toothed, or sometimes entire ; the roots are, at most, of a moderate length. As a * Of course, the position of the plant with regard to the surface, the nature of the substratum, and other factors exercise a considerable influence. 18 Transactions. water-plant, the stem is straight, unbranched, and perhaps 40cm. long; the internodes are long ; the leaves linear and entire, and the roots numerous and 30— 10 cm. long ; when the shoot rises above the water-surface it branches, and the leaves are much as in the land-plant. Not only the leaves but also the inflorescence differ greatly in size in the land and water forms of the introduced Badieula Nasturtium -aquaticum Brit. & Rend. Specially moist air causes the production of aereal roots on the stems of certain whipcord veronicas. Schefflera digitata Forst. (Araliac), a low forest tree or shrub, when growing in certain damp gullies of northern Auckland produces sometimes leaves much more deeply cut than the normal. The moist-gully form and the dry- or acid-ground form of Bkcknum capense Schlcht. (Filic.) are so distinct in appearance that many might consider them distinct species. (e.) Altitude. Altitude is a complex combination of factors which sometimes produces striking differences in the same species, according to the height at which the individuals grow. A very common feature is diminution of stature with increase of alti- tude, though this is not so with all species. The trees Dacrydium cupres- sinum Sol., Weinmannia racemosa Linn, f., and Griselinia littoralis Raoul are much reduced in size when forming a part of the mountain-scrub of Stewart Island, the two latter eventually becoming small shrubs. On the other hand, if the lowlands can offer an equivalent environment to that of the mountains — though, of course, it can never be actually identical — alpine plants may occur at sea-level,, their forms differing not at all from those at an altitude of 600 m., 900 m., or considerably higher. The lowland moor of Stewart Island contains various alpine plants of this character — e.g., Celmisia argentea T. Kirk, Astelia linearis Hook, f., Dracophyllum politum Cockayne, Carpha alpina R. Br., Donatia novae- zelandiae Hook, f., Caltha novae-zelandiae Hook, f., Gaimardia ciliata Hook. f. (For full list, see Cockayne, 1909, p. 27.) 1. After-effect of Stimuli. It is most important with regard to the question of the ultimate heredity of changes in form and structure, &c, brought about by an internal re- sponse of the plant to stimuli from without to inquire as to definite examples where the form, &c, persists for a reasonably long time after the stimulus is removed. The following cases bear on this subject : — 1. A prostrate form of a species of Coprosma (Rubiac), which originally grew on acid peat on the Chatham Island tableland, was cultivated by me in a pot for three years, and then in ordinary garden-soil in a garden for four years more, during the whole of which time the prostrate habit remained. But all on a sudden, during the eighth year, it commenced to put forth erect shoots, and but for its unfortunate destruction would undoubtedly by this time have been on erect shrub. So assured was I that this plant would remain prostrate or stunted that I published cer- tain remarks to that effect (1907, p. 378). So, too, with a stunted form of another species of Coprosma, perhaps C. cuneata Hook, f., collected by me in 1903 in Antipodes Island. This was grown on the rockery at Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 19 Canterbury College for six years and kept its habit, but later on it too com- menced to put forth erect shoots. 2. Coprosma Baueri Endl. when growing on a sea-cliff is a straggling shrub, more or less closely flattened to the rock-surface, and puts forth nothing but long spreading horizontal shoots. Such plants bear flowers and fruit. This growth-form of the species may be referred to wind, and perhaps heat. But when C. Baueri grows in a coastal forest, or even when isolated on loamy clay, it is a tree with a stout trunk. Plants which I raised from seed, and which are now growing in the experiment-ground at Canter- bury College, possess long spreading horizontal shoots— i.e., they are of the shrub form, as above; but they are also developing erect shoots, and, if permitted, they will eventually grow into trees (see Plate II, fig 2). Here it is possible that the prostrate form is inherited from the race of rock- frequenting plants. But the stimulus has not been sufficient to make a really permanent race, and so the prostrate form only occurs during an early stage in the ontogeny of the individual. Similar cases of partial heredity are dealt with further on when treating of prolonged juvenile forms. 3. Olearia Lyallii Hook. f. (Compos.) forms a pure forest on some of the New Zealand subantarctic isknds. A striking feature is the prostrate or semi-prostrate trunk, which may be referred to wind, a peat soil, and perhaps a uniform low temperature. In the interior of the forest, no matter how boisterous is the wind without, it is quite calm, and yet the seedlings are nearly always more or less prostrate at first. So, too, with the seedlings of 0. Colensoi Hook. f. when growing on the mountains of Stewart Island. 4. The case of Sophora microphylla Ait. and S. prostrata Buchanan : This is fully discussed in this paper under the heading " Persistent Juvenile Forms " (p. 25), to which it may be well perhaps for the reader to turn and consider the case in relation to the point under discussion. It would be beyond the scope of this paper to mention in detail instances of after-effect of stimuli in places other than New Zealand, but it is well to briefly enumerate a few of the more striking. Such are Schiibler's cereals, which, grown in a northern climate, ripened their seeds earlier even when cultivated in southern countries ; Cieslar's conifers, whose seeds, collected in the Alps, when sown on the plains produced plants of slow growth and small diameter ; Klebs's Veronica and Sempervivum, whose striking abnormalities of inflorescence were repeated in plants raised from seed ; Blaringhem's races of maize and barley originating from plants pur- posely damaged in a specific manner (Blaringhem, 1907) ; Zederbauer's experience with a form of Capsella Bursa-pastoris from an altitude of 2,000-2,400 m. in Asia Minor, which through four generations in Vienna maintained in part the special alpine stamp ; and MacDougal's ovarial treatments, where one new induced form has maintained its character, so far, up to the fifth generation (see MacDougal. 1911, pp. 56, 57). 5. Convergent Epharmony. From what has gone before, it is plain that various growth-forms of New Zealand plants may be referred with confidence to stimuli from outer factors. It has been seen also that of such forms some are merely environ- mental; but there are others, now to be dealt with, which are hereditary, and remain constant, unless perhaps when exposed to such a change of conditions as they would not encounter in nature. 20 Transactions. It is a fact of the greatest significance that identical growth-forms are found side by side amongst species belonging to unrelated families. The import- ance of this occurrence is still more emphasized by the fact that other species in far-distant parts of the earth, growing under approximately similar conditions, may likewise possess the same epharmonic forms. That there should be this convergent epharmony, as it is called, seems to lend the strongest support to the view that the effect of an outer stimulus upon the plant, such as light, heat, &c, may become hereditary. Only a few characteristic growth-forms receive attention here, and the treatment of these is quite brief. A few others are dealt with when treat- ing of the genus Veronica (p. 44). (a.) The Divaricating Shrub Form. This very common New Zealand growth-form consists of much -branched often stiff and wiry stems which are pressed closely together or even interlaced, the branching being frequently at almost a right angle (see Plate III, fig. 2). Although I do not know of any example where wind has brought an exact replica of this form, a wind-shorn shrub is closely related. .Still more close is the unstable form assumed by certain lianes in the open (e.g., Rubus, Muehteyibeckia* and Clematis) which grow in company with true divaricating shrubs. Further, the relation to shrubs of an open growth is exhibited by the already mentioned Corokia Cotoneaster and Pittosporum divaricatum, when they grow as forest-plants. Suttonia divaricata Hook. f. (Myrsinac.) is virtually fixed under all circumstances, though in the forest- it may have a slender trunk. The ecological factors governing this growth-form appear to be wind, in the first place, and then various other xerophytic stimuli, of which soil must play an important part. The most instructive case of convergent epharmony in these plants is in the scrub of certain South Island montane river-terraces or river- beds, where so greatly do many of the species resemble one another that it is quite easy to confuse them. The following is an actual combina- tion : Pittosporum divaricatum Cockayne (Pittosp.), Rubus subpauperatus Cockayne (Rosac), Discaria toumatou Raoul (Rhamnac), Aristotelia fruc- ticosa Hook. f. (Elaeocarp.), Hymenanthera dentata R. Br. var. alpina T. Kirk (Violac), Corokia Cotoneaster Raoul (Cornac), Coprosma propinqua A. Cunn., C. parviflora Hook. f. (Rubiac). Hymenanthera would frequently be absent or confined to specially stony ground. There would also pro- bably be one or more species of Veronica and Carmichaelia, but their growth -forms are different. The divaricating growth-form also occurs in the following families : Polygonaceae, Ranunculaceae, Leguminosae, Rutaceae, Icacinaceae, Mal- vaceae, Mysinaceae, and Compositae — i.e., in fifteen families altogether, all of which have likewise members with altogether different growth-forms. Generallv speaking, the earlier juvenile form of these plants is mesophytic. (b.) The Cushion Form. Every transition exists between the open circular mat-like form and dense unyielding cushions. It is merely a question of degree in reduc- tion of internodes and closeness of growth. The genus Gelmisia shows * M . Astoni Pet ric. most closely related to the liane. M. complexa, is a divaricating shrub. Trans. N.Z Inst., Vol XLIV. Plate III. BH &3&k^ Fig. 1. — Soi;hora mh.rophylla. Juvenile divaricating form. Fig. 2. — Pittosporum dxvaricatum. A shrub of the divaricating growth- form. Face p. HO.] Tkans. \.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV Piaie IV PODOCARPUS NIVALIS. On left, shade form; on right, sun form. Plants from Otira Gorge. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 21 straggling mats in G. discolor Hook. f. and G. Walkeri T. Kirk, loose circular cushions in G. viscosa Hook, f., and true dense cushions in C. sessiliflora Hook. f. and C. argentea T. Kirk. Frequently the epharmony of such cushions can be seen clearly in one and the same species, as in the tiny taxad Dacrydium laxifolium Hook, f., which forms cushions on dry pumice at 1,200 m. altitude near Mount Rua- pehu, but which growing amongst other shrubs under more mesophytic conditions is frequently a straggling shrub, or when in colonies on sour peaty ground merely a close turf. The cushion form culminates in the great amorphous masses of certain species of Psychrophyton and Hoastia, which grow on alpine rocks* exposed to sun, frost, and wind, or at times, in the case of R. Goyeni T. Kirk, of Stewart Island, on wet peat. Excepting with regard to the physiologically different bryophyte cushions of moors or wet forests, the cushion form is governed by strong xero- phytic conditions, and the same species may thrive either in physically or physiologically dry stations — e.g., Phyllachne Colensoi Berggren (Stylid.), Psychrophyton Goyeni Beauverd (Compos.). The form under consideration occurs in the following families : Taxaceae, Gramineae, Gyperaceae, Centrokpidaceae, Xuncaeeae, Portulacaceae, Caryo- phyllaceae, Leguminosae, Violaceae, Thymelaeaceae, Umbelli ferae, Bora- ginaceae, Scrophularinaceae, Plantaginaceae, Stylidiaceae, and Gompositae. Epharmonically similar cushions occur amongst different genera and families in high mountains everywhere. Certain erect shrubs when wind- swept become virtually cushions. (c.) Lianes. Climbing-plants have most certainly descended from non -climbing species which through shade and moisture have grown upwards out of the lower tiers of vegetation in a stratified association. Many transitions between climbing and non-climbing plants can be observed, and these, considered along with the heredity of the climbing habit and its strong differentiation, afford weighty support to a belief in the heredity of epharmonic characters. The fern Hypolepis distans Hook. , which generally gives no hint of a pro- pensity to climb, when growing alongside a support may lengthen its fronds for considerably more than 1 m., though at this length they would fall but for the support. On the rhachis are minute excrescences, which, though certainly not adaptations for the purpose, f assist the frond to maintain its position. The climbing form of Pteridium esculentum, already noted, is specially interesting because of its hint at winding. So, too, with the scrambling liane Lycopodium volubile Forst. f., which, gaining a thin support, winds freely, the winding being in this case an hereditary characteristic. The case of Fuchsia Colensoi Hook, f., already mentioned, is of especial moment. This is a shrub in the open, and at times a scrambling liane in the forest. There can be little doubt that this latter habit is hereditary to some extent, and it is possible that there may be climbing and non- climbing races. This is the more likely as the " species " is considered variable, and large forms are said to " almost pass into F. excorticata " (Cheeseman, 1906, p. 187), which is a small tree or shrub, but never a liane. * Maastia pidvinaris appears to grow on shingle-slip, and not on rock, so far as I have observed ; but I am also advised that at times it grows on rock. f Strictly speaking, there is no " purpose :' in any adaptations, but it is often con- venient to speak teleologically. 22 Transaction*. In the case of Rubus cissoides A. Cunn. var. pauperatus T. Kirk there is no question of distinct races, although there are certainly two epharmonic growth-forms. The one is a high-climbing liane growing in forests. It is provided more or less abundantly with leaves, and produces plenty of flowers and fruit. But in the open, on hillsides fully exposed to wind and sun. it forms rounded bushes of interlacing twigs, has its leaves reduced to midribs, and never produces flowers. It is, in fact, a xerophytic form, governed by the non-forest conditions, and its presence depends upon seeds being brought from the forest-plant by birds. Seedlings raised by me from the forest-plant were leafy in an early seedling stage* ; this was followed by the epharmonic leafless form, which, although hereditary, can only persist so long as xerophytic conditions are maintained. Plants growing in the shelter of a cliff may have a few leafy shoots which can bear flowers and fruit. Rubus subpauperatus Cockayne, closely related both as a species and as a growth-form, has also a forest form and a xerophytic form, but in this case both produce flowers. The adult flowering forms of the root-climbing banes Metrosideros scandens Sol. and M. florida Sm. may become shrubs in the open, an analogous case to that of the artificially raised tree-ivy of gardens. It is highly probable that other climbing species of the genus behave in a»similar manner. The genus Clematis is represented by eight species^ in New Zealand. All are more or less variable, and some of the species appear to " run into " one another. Six may be considered mesophytes ; they are forest-plants, or some climb amongst shrubs. These species are abundantly furnished with leaves. But the var. rutaefolia Hook. f. of C. Colensoi Hook. f. grows under more xerophytic conditions, and, in accordance with these, it is smaller than the type, the leaves are more cut and present less transpiring surface ; perhaps it is a fixed form. C. marata is subxerophytic ; it grows in the open, frequently climbing into the branches of the xerophytic Dis- caria toumatou ; its stems are slender, brownish-green, pubescent, and interlaced, and its leaves much reduced. Finally. C. afoliata Buchanan is a true xerophyte ; it is virtually leafless ; the stems are green and func- tion as leaves ; they are rush-like, grooved, have the stomata in the grooves, and are generally closely intertwined — i.e., the growth-form is identical with that of the above Rubus, and approximates to the divari- cating form. The seedling has plenty of leaves, and when the adult grows in the forest this ' juvenile state may persist and even flower. It must be remembered that this range of forms of Clematis, which vary from forest mesophytes to an almost divaricating leafless shrub form, are all presumably descended from one ancestor, and that even now many are connected by intermediates, while one species is epharmonically meso- phytic or xerophytic, according to its station. (d.) The Prostrate Form. There are various modifications of the prostrate form, which depend chiefly upon closeness of branching and rooting-capacity. Here there are only mentioned those with more or less straggling stems, which may or may not bear adventitious roots. On certain subalpine moors a number * See also figs. 229, 230, Goebel, 1905, pp. 353, 354. -j- C. quadribracteolata Col. is omitted, as it seems to me merely a variant of G. marata J. B. Armstrong. Nor do I know anything regarding the vars. depauperata Hook. f. and trilobata Kirk of C. parviflora A. Cunn. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV Plate V. i Fig. 1. — Veronica chathamica. Cutting planted vertically but growing horizontally, thus showing an hereditary character. Fig 2. 1. Veronica loganioides. 2. V. cassinioides. 3. Reversion Shoot of V. tetragona. 4. V. TETRAGONA. X 3. Face }). 22. \ Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV. Plate VI. Fig. 1. — Sophora tetraptera. Young tree of Chatham Island form growing erect with straight branches. Fig. 2. — Sophora tetraptera. Seedlings of Chatham Island form. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 23 of plants of this class may grow side by side belonging to the genera Dacry- dium, Podocarpus (Taxac), Leptospermum (Myrtac), Styphelia (Epacrid.), Coprosma (Rubiac), Veronica (Scrophular.), and Celmisia (Compos.). In some cases the prostrate form is here hereditary, while in others it is unfixed and depends merely upon the station. The combination of species forming the shrub steppe on the subalpine volcanic plateau, North Island, contains a considerable percentage of prostrate shrubs, some of which are more or less erect under less xero- phytic conditions. Coastal rocks favour the prostrate form. Thus in such a situation near Island Bay, Wellington, there are Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook. f. (more or less hereditary), Coprosma Baueri Endl. (hereditary when juvenile), Veronica macroura Hook. f. var.* (perhaps hereditary when juvenile but erect when adult). Other veronicas of coastal rocks are more or less prostrate, and this is strongly hereditary in V. chaihamica Buchanan — so much so that a shoot grown verticallv in a pot quickly assumed the horizontal direction (see Plate V, fig. 1). An interesting instance of non-hereditary convergent epharmony of this growth-form is the wiry undergrowth of three species of Coprosma beneath the tussocks of Danthonia antarctica Hook. f. at some 250 m. altitude in Auckland Island. One of the species, C. foetidissima, is " normally " a tall twiggy shrub, and the other two are medium-sized divaricating shrubs. 6. Persistent Juvenile Forms. "f About two hundred species of New Zealand vascular plants, belonging to thirty-seven families, show a more or less well-marked distinction between the juvenile and adult stages of development, while in perhaps one hundred species the differences are very great indeed. The most interesting cases are those in which a juvenile form remains permanent for a number of years, so that in its ontogeny the individual passes through two, or even more, distinct stages, and not infrequently through two * I am inclined to think it would be better to consider' this a species. It differs considerably from the typical form, which grows in the East Cape district. f Heteroblastic development is a world-wide phenomenon which has not received nearly the attention it deserves from writers on evolution. It is its occurrence in so many endemic species in New Zealand that makes data from this region of special interest. In 1879 I. Bayley Balfour recorded a number of striking examples from the Island of Rodriquez — e.g., Clerodendron laciniatum Balf. f., reminding one of the New Zealand Nothopanax simplex Seem. ; Pyrostria trilocidaris Balf. f. ; Fernelia buxi folia Lam., a rubiaeeous plant, evidently when juvenile somewhat of the divaricating shrub form : and Mathurina pendidiflora Balf. f. (Turnerac), which has long narrow juvenile and broad adult leaves, as in Parsonsia heterophylla A. Cunn. and other New Zealand plants. Altogether seventeen species of trees and shrubs and one herb out of 175 species of spermophytes show marked dimorphism. Goebel (1889-93) gives a number of examples of heterophylly, &c, referring the phenomena in some instances to direct outer stimuli, and he deals further with the matter in his " Organography of Plants " (19CC-5) and his " Experimen telle Morphologie " (1908). Diels (190G) goes into the matter at con- siderable length, using many important illustrations from his observations in Western Australia. As for the phenomenon in New Zealand, Hooker was the first to refer to it, in his splendid " Introductory Essay to the New Zealand Flora " (1853, p. 1). Kirk gives many details in his " Forest Flora " (1889), and these are supplemented by Cheeseman in his Manual. Finally, my own writings since 1899 contain a good deal of scattered information not previously published. 24 Transactions. growth-forms. Although the juvenile and adult forms may be so dis- tinct as to virtually represent different species, yet in many cases the adult does not appear suddenly, but intermediate stages occur. In these there is very frequently a combination of characters which are primarily quite distinct. Thus in the intermediate leaf-form of Parsonsia capsularis E. Br. (see fig. 2) there are all kinds of combinations between the early seedling short rounded leaf and the later long narrow one. Elaeocarpus Hookerianus Raoul also exhibits a remarkable series of leaf-combinations, for which see fig. 3. Further, there are transitions of general growth-forms, as when Sophora microphylla Ait. commences the adult stage with stout semi-erect but still flexuous stems. It seems clear from the above facts and from those that follow that the possibilities of both juvenile and adult are latent in the one plant, but each requires its necessary stimulus to set it free in its entirety. If the stimulus is not sufficient, then one or the other t VP» f \ Fig. 2. — Various Forms op Leaf in Parsonsia heterophylla. a, adult leaf ; / and g, earliest form of leaf, but often more circular ; d, e, and h, tran- sitional forms ; b and c, second type of juvenile leaf. Life size. form may persist, or there may be a combination of characters, as in the transitional forms. In any case, heredity comes in, and this has attained to such a degree that under normal conditions there is a juvenile stage of a certain average duration, a transitional stage, and an adult. Different degrees of heredity have arisen, as I believe, in proportion to the length of time the original stimuli have functioned, combined with their intensity, and abnormal increase or decrease of stimulus can in many instances hasten or retard the procession of events. There is in some measure, per- haps, species-making going on before our eyes. This is best seen in those cases where the juvenile form produces flowers, for if progressive develop- ment should cease at this point what is virtually a species distinct from Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 25 the adult has appeared. Should such a flowering juvenile form be ephar- monic, then, as Diels has shown, we are face to face with a case of onto- genetic evolution (1906). In some of the species the juvenile and adult forms can both clearly be shown to be epharmonic (e.g., Veronica lyc&po- dioides Hook, f., Carmichaelia subulata T. Kirk, Discaria toumatou Raoulr Potamogeton Cheesemanii A. Bennett, Clematis afoliata Buchanan) ; they can even be experimentally produced or prolonged. In other cases ephar- mony can only be inferred (Sophora microphyUa, Podocarpus dacrydioides? Rubus schmidelioides) ; and in others it is more or less obscure (Parsonsia heterophylla, Pseudopanax crassifolium C. Koch, Pittosporum patulum Hook. f.). There is, therefore, a gradual gradation from the known to the unknown, but, as the main features are alike throughout, it is reasonable to assume an epharmonic origin in most cases, notwithstanding that con- tradictory examples occur, and to consider that there is a relation between the age of the form and its relative stability. Here there is no attempt to go thoroughly into the phenomenon under consideration ; certain typical examples are alone discussed. The significance of the divaricating growth-form has been already noted. It may be remembered it is eminently xerophytic, extremely well defined, and present in various unrelated families. But this form is not confined to shrubs alone, but appears as a persistent juvenile stage in the life-history of certain plants, which are thus xerophytic shrubs for some years and finally ordinary mesophytic forest-trees. The. following are examples : Pennantia corymbosa Forst. (Icacinac), Hoheria angustifolia Raoul, Plagi- anthus betulinus A. Cunn. (Malvac), Sophora microphyUa Ait. (Legum.), Elaeocarpus Hookerianus Raoul (Elaeocarp.). The case of Sophora microphyUa Ait. is the most instructive. It must be considered along with the remaining species — S. tetraptera* J. Mill., S. grandiflora Salisb., and *S. prostrata Buchanan. All the species com- mence with hypogeal cotyledons, and the first, or first two, leaves are simple and arrested structures, but the succeeding ones are pinnate and of the adult type. The primary stem is erect and somewhat flexuous (see Plate VI, fig. 2), except in the case of S. grandiflora. This species continues to grow erect, and in time develops into a small tree. There is no heterophylly beyond the early simple leaves, and no hint even of any xerophytic shrub stage. With S. microphyUa the progress of events is very different. Here the early seedling soon develops into a xerophytic divaricating shrub, and so it will remain for some ten years or more, and attain a height of perhaps 1-4 m. before the more or less erect branches shoot upwards, the forerunners of the mesophytic tree form (see Plate III, fig. 1). It is quite common to see a specimen which is shrub at the base and tree above. Occasionally the upper part of the shrub form will blossom, but I do not think this ever happens before the tree itself flowers. Sophora prostrata never grows out of the shrub state ; it is a fixed juvenile form, which, moreover, reproduces itself true from seed. Between S. microphyUa, and S. prostrata there are intermediates. With regard to *S. tetraptera, the juvenile plant differs but little from the adult (see Plate VI, fig. 1), though it has for a time a few flexuous twigs. I have * Under this name I include the Chatham Island plant, a form in the neighbour- hood of Auckland City, and the Chilian plant. As for the Auckland plant, I do not know its juvenile state well enough to speak with certainty, but in any case its behaviour, if different from that stated, would not in any way affect my conclusions. 26 Transactions. seen only one specimen raised from Chilian seed,* and it resembles closely the Chatham Island plant. S. microphylla and S. prostrata grow side by side at the lower Waimakariri Gorge, Canterbury Plain. In the above case of Sophora the adult form is probably the stem form, and the xerophytic divaricating shrub form an epharmonic adaptation which arose during a probable period of drought on the east of the Southern Alps at the time of the glacial period (see Diels. 1896, and Cockayne, 1900). In certain parts of the problematical Greater New Zealand where the climate still remained sufficiently wet the ancestral Sophora would re- main unchanged ; so we still see S. grandiflora in the East Cape district and S. tetraptera in the Auckland district and the Chatham Islands. In the South Island there is only S. microphylla and S. prostrata, in the former of which the xerophytic stimulus never evoked an absolutely hereditary form, whereas in the latter the effect of the stimulus is much more deep- seated. To what extent such a stimulus can leave its mark is shown in the forest-tree Elaeocarpus Hookerianus, which at any age may put forth reversion shoots high up the trunk or on the branches. The heteromorphy in the other species listed above may be similarly explained. There is first of all a short-lived erect mesophytic stage, then a long-persisting xerophytic stage, and a final adult mesophytic stage. The first stage, suited as it is to shelter by ground-plants, &c, is epharmonic ; it may also be considered a survival from the ancestral plant. The second (xero- phytic) stage was epharmonic during the steppe-climate period of the eastern South Island, but is certainly beneficial no longer ;f and the adult stage is more or less a return to the original form, but now called forth by the present mesophytic conditions. According to this supposition, it is considered that the tendency to both xerophytic and mesophytic form is latent in the plant, and that one or the other will appear as soon as the necessary intensity of stimulus is reached. Until that is the case, whichever form is the more hereditary — i.e., the more strongly fixed — will persist, even though it is far from being epharmonic. In a considerable number of instances there is a mesophytic juvenile stage and a xerophytic adult. In this class the present mesophytic con- ditions are not sufficient to inhibit the strongly hereditary xerophytic form, which also in a number of cases is in harmony with the xerophytic stations affected by these plants. The following examples of this and other persistent juvenile forms may be noted : — > (1.) Shrubs which are leafy as juveniles, *but leafless as adults, when they have flat or terete green assimilating stems — e.g., species of Car- michaelia,% Notospartium, and Corallospartium. How unstable really is the xerophily of many species of Carmichaelia is shown by their abundant production of leaves in shady stations. (2.) Shrubs with an abundance of leaves, sometimes very thin, when juvenile, but of the cupressoid form when adult — e.g., certain Taxaceae (see Griff en, 1908), whipcord veronicas, and some species of Helichrysum belonging to the section Ozothamnus. * The seed was very kindly sent to me by Dr. Eug. Autran, of Buenos Ayres, and the seedlings were raised by Mr. T. W. Adams, to whom I am greatly indebted. t The divaricating form of Elaeocarpus Hookerianus and the juvenile Pseudopanax crassifoliwm, with its thick, narrow, stiff, defiexed leaves, certainly seem out of place in a rain forest, where they are assuredly not epharmonic structures. % Carmichaelia gracilis J. B. Armstrong is leafy in the adult ; it is a scrambling iane, and grows in wet ground or swamps. C. grandiflora Hook. f. is deciduous, but abundantly leafy in spring and summer. G. odorata Colenso is also leafy. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol XLIV. Plate VII. Fig. 1. — Aristotelia fruticosa. On left, juvenile ; on right, adult. 432.*? Face p. 86.] Fig. 2. — Pennantia corymbosa. On left, adult ; on right, semi-juvenile in bloom. Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLIV. Plate VIII. X - M o ■*; 0 M H - gq Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 27 The juvenile stage . in these plants, the Taxaceae excepted, does not usually persist for any long period, and may be compared to the first stage in Sophora and the various divaricating shrubs. But in the veronicas, as I have shown, it can be made to persist artificially for years, so long as the plant is kept in moist air. Further, reversion shoots are frequent even on such a typical xerophyte as Helichrysum Selago, while it seems probable that hereditary semi-juvenile races occur of Veronica tetraqonai. Hook, and V. lycopodioides* Hook. f. These are further dealt with on p. 45. In the case of Dacrydium laxifolium Hook, f., a prostrate or suberect mountain-shrub, growing in wet ground or bogs, it is quite com- mon to find juvenile plants with the lax spreading leaves blooming freely, and never developing into the cupressoid adult. The juvenile stage of D. intermedium T. Kirk frequently becomes a tree, and flowers and fruits as abundantly as the " normal " adult growing in the same swamp forest. This flowering juvenile was given the varietal name gracilis by Kirk. (3.) Nearly all the divaricating shrubs have a primary juvenile meso- phytic stage. This is generally but transitory, but I have already shown in the case of Pittosporum divaricatum and Corokia Cotoneaster how the early stage may persist in the forest and reach its full stature. Semi- juvenile plants of the Pittosporum may also flower. Aristotelia fruticosa Hook. f. (Elaeocarp.) is an interesting case. The early seedling is erect, mesophytic, and, compared with the adult, shows a most remarkable variety of leaves. These are often more or less lanceo- late, toothed, lobed, or pinnatifid (see Plate VII, fig. 1). Later on the divaricating form appears, which may finally be of the most intense cha- racter, the small frequently more or less oblong leaves being scanty, and the ultimate shoots almost spinous. f But this form is not truly stable, plants growing in an adjacent Nothofagus forest being much more meso- phytic. Even when quite in the open, there are forms still divaricating to some extent, it is true, but juvenile so far as leaf-form goes, and these develop no further, and blossom. This semi- juvenile fixed form should be considered older than the " normal " adult, and it may represent the pre-glacial plant. Suttonia divaricata Hook, f., so far as I have observed, has no seedling mesophytic stage. But even this " well-fixed " species when growing on the Poor Knights Islands has leaves three times the size of those of the usual stations. (4.) Nothopanax simplex Seem, and N. Edgerleyi Harms. (Araliac.) have also a mesophytic juvenile form, but the adult must be considered meso- phytic likewise. Both are rain-forest plants, while the former is found also in certain subalpine scrub. I have not full details regarding N. Edger- leyi, the juvenile form of which sometimes so closely resembles that of N. simplex that I, for one, cannot distinguish between them, so my remarks are confined to the latter species. The early stage has a fern-like, much- cut, thin and large leaf. This is succeeded by a second stage with ternate * Cheeseman found a semi-juvenile form of V. tetrarjona at the base of Tongariro and Ruapehu, and writes (1908, p. 281), " Probably it is an intermediate state between the juvenile stage and the fully matured one, but if so it must persist for many years." Mr. Poppelwell collected a form of whipcord Veronica on the Garvie Mountains, a plant of which has kept the semi- juvenile form for two years in my garden. So, too, from some notes sent to me by Mr. F. G. Gibbs it is evident that he has had in cultivation a very similar plant. f Hymenanthera dentata R. Br. var. alpina T. Kirk also develops 6emi-spines under very dry conditions. 28 Transactions. leaves, and this by the simple- and thicker-leaved adult. In some localities the much-cut form is suppressed to some extent, or almost entirely absent (Auckland Islands ; but see Cockayne, 1904, p. 249,* and pi. 11). The closely related Nothopanax parvum Cockayne also seems to lack a cut- leaved stage. N. anomalum Seem., although frequently a forest-plant, has a juvenile mesophytic form with small ternate leaves and an adult divaricating shrub form connecting the ternate-leaved form of the genus with the divaricating shrubs. (5.) In this class come a considerable number of plants which cannot with any confidence be referred in their different stages to special outer factors. Take the case of certain species of Pseudopanax (Araliac.) : two (P. crassifolium C. Koch and P. ferox T. Kirk) have the curious narrow deflexed juvenile leaves and unbranched stem, but in P. lineare C. Koch, a subalpine shrub, the virtually similar juvenile leaves are erect ; and in P. chathamicum T. Kirk they are wanting altogether, the juvenile and adult leaves not being very different. The primary seedling leaves of P. crassifolium are somewhat similar in form to the adult, but, of course, much smaller. They are erect, and never deflexed. P. ferox, on the contrary, commences with narrow-linear toothed leaves of the second stage, which are not erect, but horizontal for a time. The small-leaved juvenile and the large-leaved adult forms of the root- climbing fern Blechnum filiforme Ettingsh. cannot be explained ephar- monically, though there probably is, or has been, some relation of the sort, since the first-named is the common ground form (creeping form) and the large-leaved the climbing form. Nor can I suggest any explanation of the two juvenile leaf-forms of Parsonsia heterophylla and P. capsularis R. Br. (see fig. 2). In the former species the long narrow-leaved shoots occasion- ally flower, and in the latter there is a fixed flowering juvenile race occur- ring in the uplands of the South Island which I consider a distinct species. Weinmannia racemosa L. f. and W. sylvicola Sol. (Cunoniac.) are two closely related species whose flowers are virtually identical, and which differ merely in the adult leaf of the first-named being entire and of the other compound. The early seedlings of both are identical ; they are erect, their leaves are simple, toothed, thin, and hairy. Then comes a second stage, in which in W. racemosa the leaves are ternate, and in W. sylvicola both ternate or pinnate. At this stage, when both plants are merely bushy shrubs, they can flower, and need not develop into trees. Frequently on the heath lands of northern Auckland W. sylvicola attains 3-4 m. in height ; the leaves are large, and have many leaflets, yellowish in colour, and although Mr. H. Carse, myself, and others have seen hundreds of these tall juvenile plants we have never seen them in flower. Ackama rosaefolia A. Cunn. (Cunon.), if not actually a companion plant, grows near by on the forest's outskirts, &c, and its adult form so much resembles this juvenile Weinmannia that no one could distinguish flowerless examples one from the other without a knowledge of certain quite obscure differences. f The adults of the two species of Weinmannia are lofty forest-trees. From the above it seems reasonable to conclude that W . sylvicola is merely a fixed * Through a clerical error " eutire-leaved " is printed several times instead of " simple leaves." The leaves are more or less serrate, but compared with the juvenile they are virtually " entire." f The distinctions given by Kirk in the "Forest Flora," p. 113, do not hold in practice, so far as the leaf is concerned. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 29 juvenile stage of W. racemosa, or else that the former is the stem form and W. racemosa a mutation or an epharmonic variant that has become fixed. Several instances of juvenile blossoming have already been given. The following are additional examples : — Ranunculus Li/allii Hook. f. (the juve- nile has a reniform leaf and the adult a peltate ; reversion leaves occur as a result of bad nutrition ; there are intermediates between the two types of leaves) : Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol. (the juvenile seems to me identical with P. nigrescens Hort.,* the plant so much used in certain parts of New Zealand for hedges ; as a hedge -plant the juvenile form is alone to be seen, it being preserved by the constant cutting!) : Clematis indivisa Willd. : Dracophyllum arboreum Cockayne : Agaihis aus- tralis Salisb. : Nothopanax Edgerleyi Harms, (one semi-juvenile form blooms and is the var. serratum T. Kirk) : and Anisotome filifolia Cockayne and Laing. There are also a number of forest-trees which remain in the shrub stage and flower (see Cockayne, 1908, p. 22). Each of the above cases would need deciding on its merits as to whether the flowering juvenile might be the beginning of a new line of descent, or was merely a reversion. I will only discuss the case of Anisotome filifolia Cockayne and Laing. This is an herb with the leaves in an erect rosette and a long tap-root which grows upon stony debris where there is a steppe climate in the moun- tains of Nelson, Marlborough, and Canterbury. The leaves are grassy, some 20 cm. long, ternately divided into segments which are filiform if the plant grows in the open, but 3 mm. broad, or broader, when growing in the shade. Both forms produce flowers. Seedlings raised from the fili- form xerophytic form had broad segments (see fig. 38, pi. 12, in Cockayne, 1900, and also pp. 295 97). The broad leaves are certainly beneficial for promoting rapid growth in a dry station, nor will the seedling be exposed to as rigorous surroundings as the adult, protected as it will be by the stones. Its form is therefore epharmonic. The broad-leaved adult of the shade is then a flowering juvenile, which may or may not be " fixed," but, if fixed, it would be an example of ontogenetic evolution, the arrival of the new species dating from the first time the juvenile plant reproduced its like from seed. Many of these heteroblastic species put forth when adult typical juvenile or semi-juvenile shoots, as the case may be. Such may often be traced to a special stimulus. Thus, stems of Phyllocladus alpinus Hook. f. when prostrate on wet soil may bear abundance of true leaves, but those in a drier position have phylloclades only ; Discaria toumatou Raoul cropped by rabbits produces leafy shoots onlyj ; and Ranunculus Li/allii Hook. f. grown in dry soil under unfavourable conditions may develop a certain number of reniform seedling leaves. The position of the reversion shoots upon the plant differs in different species. Very often they are confined to near the base, in which case they may be merely developed resting buds. Pseudopanax crassifolium C. Koch and Weinman-ma racemosa L. f. when cut to the ground regenerate from the stump by means of juvenile shoots. Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol., as a hedge-plant, remains permanently juvenile through frequent * H. M. Hall (1910) is of the same opinion. f Other species of Pittosporum also occur at times in these hedges through the sowing of mixed seed, and so other forms of leaf may be occasionally present. % I noted one adult plant growing on a sand-dime that was almost, if not entirely, without spines, the xerophytic station notwithstanding. 30 Transactions clipping. The shrubby bases so frequently seen of Pennantia corymbosa Forst., Hoheria angustijoUa Raoul, &c, above which the flowering and quite different adult rises, are not very long-lived, but finally die and are cast off. In some cases the distinction between juvenile and adult is equally great, as in the above, but the stability of each form is weaker, and the power of the cell derived through heredity to produce one or the other is present in every shoot, no matter how far from the base, reminding one somewhat of the behaviour of a " graft hybrid." Examples are : Dracophyllum arboreum Cockayne, whipcord veronicas, Podocarpus dacrydioides A. Rich, Aristotelia fruticosa Hook. f. In Elaeocarpus H ookerianus Raoul reversion shoots occur high up the tree, but I have not noted them in the uppermost branches. In these last-cited examples an observable stimulus does not seem necessary to bring forth the special form ; it is rather as if very little indeed — probably some slight internal change — can suffice to upset the equilibrium of the cell upon which one or the other form depends. An analogous example is a varie- gated form of Veronica salicijolia which originated spontaneously in the garden of the late Mr. W. Gray, of Governor's Bay, for many years an enthusiastic cultivator of New Zealand plants. The first leaves of each shoot have an irregu- lar band of green down the centre of every leaf, but as these become older chlorophyll gradually invades the pale portion until the leaf becomes normally green. Shade leaves are at first without any chlorophyll. Fig. 3. Leaf-forms of Elaeocakpus hookerianus. a, small adult leaf ; b, transition to adult ; c and d, early long narrow form ; e, /, and ij, early obovate short form. The long narrow and short obovate or rotund leaves are associated with divaricating branching. Life size. VI. Hybridization. Hardly anything is known as to the occurrence of wild hybrids in New Zealand. But field observations on this head are, in any case, merely suggestive, and, at most, pave the way for experiment. Long ago hybrids were raised in cultivation by Mr. Anderson Henry and others in Great Britain from some of the large-leaved lowland species of Veronica. What I take to be hybrids — one especially from V. pime- leoides Hook. f. — have originated spontaneously in the semi- wild collection of indigenous plants in the Christchurch Domain. Mr. D. L. Poppelwell has sent me a hybrid from his garden which he considers V . salicijolia x V. de- cumbens. It is somewhat of the salicijolia type, but with small glossy leaves ; I have not seen the flowers. Recently Mr. A. Lindsay, of Edinburgh, has raised one or two hybrids of which the parents are known. The Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 31 most important of these is V. Hectori Hook. f. (a "whipcord veronica") x V. pimeleoides Hook. f. (a small glaucous-leaved straggling rock-plant with blue flowers), and the result is a plant said to be identical with or near to V. epacridea Hook. f. If this is true, it opens up much suspicion as to the validity of many species of the genus in New Zealand, and, at any rate, in the case of variation in general, as some of the species are gynodioecious,* hybridism may be the simple explanation. Mr. Mclntyre, who had charge of the famous collection of New Zealand plants of the late Mr. H. J. Matthews, raised a good many hybrid forms of Celmisia, all of which appeared to have the so-called C. verbascifolia^ as one of the parents. I have seen a Celmisia on Jack's Pass which was most likely a hybrid between C. spectabilis and G. coriacea. Also, C. mollis Cockayne is possibly of hybrid origin, with C. spectabilis as a parent. In short, hybridization may account for some of the variation in Celmisia. Acaena, again, is a very variable genus, which suggests hybridization. Buchanan was the first to call attention to this matter, and he described a supposed hybrid between A. Sanguisorbae Vahl. and the introduced A. ovina A. Cunn. (1871, p. 208). Kirk reduced this to var. ambigua of A. ovina, notwithstanding that the inflorescence is altogether different from that of that species. Bitter (1911, pp. 297-321) describes fifteen hybrid forms of Acaena, illustrated by figures of leaves, in which varieties of A. Sanguisorbae, A. microphylla, and A. glabra are parents, one or the other. Tnese forms have originated spontaneously in the Bremen and other Con- tinental botanical gardens. Bitter is convinced they are true hybrids, and that the only question that can be raised is as to the parentage that he suggests for them. A full account is given of each form. I have seen, judging from the capsule, what appear to be wild hybrids between Phormium tenax Forst. and P. Cookianum Le Jolis. A good deal of the variation in P. tenax may be due to hybrid ele- mentary species, for that it is made up of many such entities seems very probable. J Melicope Mantellii Buchanan is supposed by some to be a hybrid between M. simplex A. Cunn. and M. ternata Forst. (see Kirk, 1889, p. 118). I have proved that it comes true from seed, and in the absence of experi- mental evidence it is quite as reasonable to suppose it is an elementary species connecting M. simplex and M. ternata. All three have ternate juvenile leaves ; M. ternata remains at this stage but with much larger adult leaves, M. Mantellii has both simple and ternate leaves in the adult, and M. simplex is a divaricating shrub when adult with simple leaves. VII. The Struggle for Existence. Plant-ecologists have many opportunities for observing various phases of the struggle for existence. They have also some opportunity of judging * I am indebted to Professor I. Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., for calling my attention to this phenomenon in our veronicas, which he was the first to discover. I had pre- viously wondered why certain species in my garden never produced seed, and others very little, and had ascribed it to the absence of the proper pollinating insect. How far the phenomenon is present in wild plants has not been as yet ascertained. t Probably C. verbascifolia Hook. f. = C. Brownii Chapman. % The Chatham Island form, with its thin broad leaves, is distinct, so far as I know, rom any of the mainland forms. 32 Transactions. as to the likelihood of extremely small* variations being preserved or the contrary. It must be understood that the " struggle " is not only between the individuals of the competing species, but also between these and their environment. This was distinctly stated by Darwin, who refers to the struggle for life against the drought on the edge of a desert (1899, p. 46). In manv instances this struggle with outer circumstances is the more im- portant ; it is also the deciding factor as to what plant-form can gain a rooting in the first instance. The formations themselves offer various conditions according as they are " open " or " closed," for in the former there is apparently room for new-comers, whereas in the latter it is almost impossible for a species from without to gain admittance. This fact is of major importance, for, amongst other matters, it has a strong bearing on the much-debated question regarding former land connections with distant islands as op- posed to bird carriage, &c, across wide"\ areas of ocean. The case of New Zealand as a whole is of great interest in this regard, especially as many misstatements;}: have crept into evolutionary writings regarding the spread of the introduced plants and their rapid ' replacement " of the indigenous flora. I will state briefly what I believe to be the true state of affairs. There have been recorded for New Zealand up to the present some 555 species of introduced plants, but less than 180 can be considered common, whilst others are local, rare, or even not truly established as wild plants. Many at first sight appear better suited to the soil and climate than are the indigenous species, and over much of the land they give the characteristic stamp to the vegetation ; but this is only the case ivhere draining, cultivation, constant burning of forest, scrub, and tussock, and the grazing of a multitude of domestic animals have made absolutely new edaphic conditions which ap- proximate to those of Europe, and where it is no wonder that the European * During the discussion following the reading of this paper the expression " ex- tremely small " was criticized as not giving a fair representation of the views of Darwin and his followers. Darwin, however, writes (1889) — p. 45, " Variations, however slight " ; p. 58, " any advantage, however slight " ; p. 59, " extremely slight modifications " ; p. 69, " individual differences, too slight to be appreciated by us." Weismann puts the case more strongly still (1910, p. 25) : " For the question is not merely whether finished adaptations have selection value, but whether the first beginnings of these, and whether the small, I might almost say minimal, increments which have led up from these beginnings to the perfect adaptation have also had selection value." Wallace, on the other hand (1889, pp. 126, 127), claims that though Darwin used the word " slight " and " small amount," these terms are " hardly justified," since the variability of many important species is of considerable amount, and may very often be properly described as large. t The case of Krakatoa, important as it otherwise is, seems to me to have but little bearing on this question, since the distance from the mainland is too trifling. % Wallace (1889, pp. 28, 29) refers to Tri folium repem exterminating Phormium tenux; excellent pasture destroyed in three years by Hypochoeris radicata, which can even drive out white clover; and Sonchvs oleracens growing all over the country up to an elevation of 6,000ft. Kirk (1896, p. 18) not only attributes the "displacement " ot Phormium to grasses and clovers, but also Mariscus ustulatus, and even Pteridivm escidentum (bracken fern). Further on (p. 19) he states that Aciphylla Colensoi is gradually replaced by self-sown pasturage plants. However, he also calls attention to the effect of grazing and trampling by cattle and horses as aiding the plants in their work, which, of course, is a very different matter from the effect of plants alone. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 33 invader can replace the aboriginal.* On the other hand, although this foreign host is present in its millions, and notwithstanding abundant winds and land-birds, f the indigenous vegetation is still virgin and the introduced plants altogether absent where grazing animals have no access and where fires have never been. On certain subalpine herb-fields the indigenous form of the dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Wigg.) is abundant, and yet the in- troduced form, with its readily wind - borne fruit, has not gained a foot- hold, nor even the abundant Hypochoeris radicata L., though it may be in thousands on the neighbouring tussock pasture, less than one mile away. On Auckland Island introduced plants occur only in the neighbour- hood of the depots for castaways, but on Enderby Island, where there are cattle, they are much more widely spread. Even where the rain forest has been felled or burnt, and cattle, &c, are kept away, it is gradually replaced by indigenous trees and shrubs — i.e., in localities where the rain- fall is sufficient. Some of the indigenous species are quite as aggressive, or even more so, than any of the introduced. In primeval New Zealand each would have its place in the association to which it belonged — there would be no aggres- sion ; but when the balance of nature was upset by the fire or cultiva- tion of Maori or European, then the plants best equipped for occupying the new ground become dominant, their " adaptations " for that purpose fortuitously present. The miles on miles of Leptospermum scoparium and Pteridium esculentum were absent in primitive New Zealand. So, too, the pastures of Danthonia semiannularis R. Br. J in Marlborough, and the many acres of Chrysobactron Hookeri Colenso (Liliac.) in the lower mountain region of Canterbury. Celmisia spectabilis Hook, f., an apparently highly specialized herb for alpine fell-field or tussock-steppe conditions, is now on the increase in many montane parts of the Ashburton-Rakaia mountains and valleys, owing to its being able to withstand fire, the buds being protected by a close investment of wet decayed leaf-sheaths. Nor are all the introduced species aggressive, by any means. Some can barely hold their own ; others are limited to certain edaphic condi- tions. Thus, Glaucium, flavum Crantz occurs, as yet, only on the coast of Wellington, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Cook Strait. It is con- fined to gravelly or stony shores, and appears unable to grow on the clay hillside. And yet where the latter is, in one place near Lyall Bay, covered with gravel there is a large colony of the plant, whence none have found their way on to the adjacent hillside. Lupinus arboreus, now so common on New Zealand dunes, appears unable to spread beyond the sandy ground. The often-quoted stories (see footnote, p. 32) of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) being able to wipe out Phormium tenax, of Salix babylonica over- coming the watercress (Radicula Nasturtium-aquaticum), of Hypochoeris * New Zealand may be roughly divided into three areas — viz., the cultivated, the pasture lands, and the primitive. It is only in the pasture lands that a real struggle between the introduced and the indigenous plants is taking place, and even there the con- test is very unequal, through the grazing, burning, and seed-sowing factors. Many pastures, however, are altogether new associations, as in the case of forest being felled, then burned, and the ground sown with grasses, &c, even before the ashes of the tree* are cooled, so that at once there is a foreign pasture brought into existence and subject to an entirely new set of conditions from that which governed the forest. This is certainly not biological " replacement." f Introduced, not native, birds. % The species may be D. pilosa, but I have no specimens for identification. 2— Trans. 34 Transactions. radicala displacing every other plant of excellent pastures in Nelson, are without foundation. P. tenax has certainly been eradicated in many places, and perhaps, in a sense, replaced by white clover, but not until fire and feed- ing of stock had killed the plant. The great screes, called locally " shingle-slips/' which are such a characteristic feature of mountain scenery in much of the South Island, possess a most scanty and scattered vegetation, made up of some twenty-five highly specialized species belonging to thirteen families, of which twenty species occur in no other formation. Here the struggle between the indi- viduals is nil, but that with the environment, especially the unstable sub- stratum, is most severe. I know of no instance where a non-indigenous plant has established itself on a true alpine shingle-slip.* In such a station no plant could gain a footing unless provided beforehand with some special " adaptations " fitting it for the severe conditions. The shingle- slip association, moreover, is neither the climax of a succession nor is it part of such ; it is an association complete in itself, and connected with no other. Of a number of plants germinating by chance on a shingle-slip, the seedling which possessed a slightly more xerophytic structure than its fellows would be none the better, but would perish equally. Granting that natural selec- tion can intensifyt characters by slow degrees, the conditions would select too rigorously — there would be no survivors. It is almost equally diffi- cult to see how epharmony could work, either. A plant to gain a shingle- slip must come from some specially xerophytic station. This is shown by the presence of Veronica epacridea Hook. f. and V. tetrasticha Hook, f., rock-xerophytes. Perhaps the true shingle -slip plant Craspedia alpina Backh., a summer-green herb with leaves in rosettes and thickly covered with a deep snow-white wool, also arrived from some other formation, and its abundant wool and deciduous leaves have arisen epharmonically. The dimorphic succulent Claytonia australasica Hook. f. also occurs elsewhere, one form being found in cold streams and damp gravel. Its rapid response to a xerophytic stimulus accounts for its presence. The seedlings of the true shingle-slip plants are, so far as they have been studied, strongly xerophytic at an early age. Thus an examination of a seedling of Stellaria Roughii Hook. f. raised by me under mesophytic conditions showed, " in the elastic stem, pale glaucous-green leaves, and ■early succulence of the seedling, how hereditary are the most striking peculiarities of shingle-slip plants" (Cockayne, 1901, pp. 267-69). An interesting point is the occurrence of two distinct species of Cotula, or varieties of one species, it matters not, which are epharmonic- ally equivalent. Taxonomically they differ in colour of florets, size of flower-head, and size of involucre as compared with head. Accumula- tive selection could do nothing here ; both plants thrive equally well, and there is no competition except with the environment. Mutation alone can explain this remarkable case, or some cause unknown. Another some- what similar example is Notothlaspi rosulatum Hook. f. and N. australe Hook. f. and its var. stellatum T. Kirk. Anisotome carnosula is in appear- ance exactly like A. diver sifolia Cockayne, but there are technical differences * Introduced plants occur at times on small screes at base of rocks, and on river- terrace scree in the lower mountain belt. f Weismann writes (191C, p. 01), "How often has the senseless objection being- urged against selection that it can create nothing; it can only reject. . . . But in rejecting one thing it preserves another, intensifies it, combines it, arid in this way creates what was new." Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 35 in the umbel and the involucral bracts. A. diversifolia has been found so far on only one mountain on which A. carnosula is not known to occur; but the species are so much alike that they could only be recognized when in bloom and examined closely. To trace the evolution of the shingle-slip plants it seems clear that one must go back to the origin of the shingle-slips themselves from their small beginnings before the eastern peaks of the Southern Alps were disintegrated into rounded summits. If for any reason the climate were wetter,* there would be a similar condition of affairs to what governs the shingle-slips of Westland to-day where true shingle-slip species are absent. On the embryonic debris slopes many plants could settle down, and to the be- liever in natural selection nothing could appear more probable than for these to have been gradually changed in accordance with the slowly chang- ing environment, species after species going to the wall, until only the few highly differentiated should remain. Even these are absent over wide areas of the most extensive and unstable of these alpine deserts. An exactly similar argument to the above would apply to water forma- tions, especially as there are cases where true water-plants — e.g., Pota- mogeton Cheesemanii Bennett — flourish in situations where they are quite uncovered for considerable periods. Even for unstable dunes, where there is certainly no struggle between plant and plant, and where no non-sand - binding form could possibly become established, a similar argument would apply, since all degrees of sand-movement exist in a dune-area. But in all the above cases we do know that ecological factors can evoke structures such as are essential, and we do not know for a fact that selection can intensify a character beyond a certain limit. In the tussock - grass Poa caespitosa the power to respond to sand-movement is already present, although its adaptations fit it for other conditions ; thus it has occupied the recent drifting sands of Central Otago. Cases such as these, of stony debris, water, and dune, should be decided not on preconceived opinions or theories, but on the most reasonable conclusions from the observed facts. Kock-vegetation, although open, affords plenty of scope for the struggle for existence both between the individuals and with the environment, since, leaving the lithophytes out of the question, the space for rock-crevice plants is very limited. On the recent roches moutonnees alongside the Franz Josef Glacier the occupation of rock is now in progress. The pioneer plant is a dark-coloured species of moss, which when it happens to grow in a crevice forms a soil, an essential for the successful germination of seeds in such a station. The first-comers are all plants of some neighbouring association, mostly xero- phytes, some herbs, and other shrubs, or even trees, whose long roots can penetrate into the chinks. Exceptions to this are the filmy fern Hymeno- phyllum, multifidum. Swz., the epiphytic or rock-dwelling orchid Earina autumnalis Hook, f., and Lycopodium varium R. Br. ; but it must be re- membered the atmosphere is nearly always saturated with water-vapour. The above first-comers react one upon another, the most vigorous finally conquering ; but this vigour depends rather upon age than on greater * Speight, in a carefully considered paper (1911), brings forward a good deal of very suggestive evidence as to the probability of a wetter climate on the east than the pre- sent one following the steppe climate. The most important fact adduced is the former presence of extensive forests where steppe alone now exists, since such forest could only te established during a period with many rainy days, and no other explanation seems to fit the ease. 2*— Trans. 36 Transactions. suitability for the station. At any rate, the chance for natural selection to effect anything here is very remote, although the competition is powerful. The number of true rock-plants in New Zealand is comparatively small ; but, on the other hand, a great many xerophytes, and even mesophytes, are encountered on dry rocks, but the latter are epharmonically modified during their individual development. Even hygrophytes may gain a footing, as already seen in the case of Hymenophyllum, nmltifidum. The most striking and truly amazing case is that of the kidney-fern (Trichomanes reniforme Forst. f.) and Hymeno- phyllum sangutnolentum Sw., which grow in the full blaze of the sun upon the lava of Rangitoto Island, Auckland Harbour. The fronds of both, as T saw them on a hot summer's day, were dry and curled up so as to appear dead, but Mr. Cheeseman informs me that in winter the kidney- fern covers the rocks with its translucent fronds, and that those of summer are not dead at all. It seems evident that in this case the protoplasm of these ferns must behave similarly to that of many lichens, and this will be an epharmonic adaptation. The question arises, does such a power lie latent in these ferns as normal rain-forest plants, ferns which cannot tolerate a drying wind or a hot sun and dry atmosphere ; and, if so, how can it have possibly come about ? Probably the porous rock contains a good deal of water, and the air is usually not dry. Although I do not think that any modification through the struggle for existence takes place amongst rock-plants, yet this case shows that one cannot tell but that the most unlikely species might settle in certain stations, and so inaugurate a new line of descent, no matter how the evolution be brought about. In closed formations the struggle for existence between individuals is very keen. As I write, in my garden, in a bed crowded with indigenous plants, two rapidly growing and far-spreading Chatham Island herbs have encountered, and one (Pratia arenaria Hook, f.) is rapidly replacing the other (Cotula Muelleri T. Kirk), a happening quite in accordance with the fact that the former plant is one of the most widely spread of the Chatham Island plants. Reduced to its ultimate factors, the struggle is chiefly one for nutriment in its widest sense, as Clements has shown (1905, p. 286) ; there is little actual destruction of one plant by another, though they func- tion indirectly by cutting off light, using up nutritive salts, &c. In some cases the greater part of the struggle takes place amongst the young plants, and it is on their adaptations, which may differ much from those of the adult, that the establishment of the latter depends. This is specially evident in those heteroblastic species already dealt with which have ecologically different forms in their different stages. In a forest the conditions for the seedling and sapling trees are very different from those to which the adults are exposed. A favourable variation which might preserve a seed- ling in the struggle with its environment would possibly have little to do with the imperative demands of the adult. Small outward modifications of a very few individuals could hardly be preserved in the dense growth of saplings* in an upland forest of Nothofagus cliffortioides Oerst. The chief requisite of success here is rapidity of growth, f a physiological * The saplings may grow so closely that one can hardly foice a passage through them. f The case described in my little book, " New Zealand Plants and their Story," of a species of Eucalyptus overcoming the eminently aggressive Leptospermum scoparium, through its more rapid growth, both germinating at the same time, is instructive in this regard Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 37 characteristic that, however much intensified, could bring about no specific differences unless correlated with structural change. In point of fact, the deciding factor in the struggle amongst a close-growing mass of these tree seedlings is probably age. Could all commence on exactly the same footing, then the determining factor would be the situation with regard to the food-supply and the illumination, and no slight beneficial modification would count in comparison. As for the adult forest-trees, each has, as a rule, its own rooting-place, and its death depends chiefly upon its . age, partly upon some disease or other, and but little upon the superior adaptations of its neigh- bour. Its growth-form, certainly, does have something to do with its longevity, as where spreading branches favour the presence of abundant epiphytes, whose weight may lead to damage and permit the attack of fungi. A mixed rain forest, apart from modifications due to the nature of the topography, might be expected to offer constant conditions extending over a considerable period. But this is not so ; topographically similar parts of a forest may show dissimilar undergrowth, the result of conditions which, similar at first, become dissimilar as the vegetation develops. Thus in the Waipoua Kauri Forest, of which I made a special study, a state of change ruled. In one part there was little undergrowth, and in another part such in abundance. This latter, in time, will, through survival of the fittest, change into forest with little undergrowth. These are two climaxes, and are expressions of the light factor, the dense undergrowth denoting the maximum and the final open forest with the close roof the minimum of illumination. Between these two climaxes there are many transitions. Bring in more light still and so increase the xerophily, the hygrophytes will go to the wall, until, with excess of light, a transition forest and finally a Leptospermum heath will be established (Cockayne, 1908, p. 30). From the above it follows that, even were natural selection at work amongst the young plants of any species, owing to the varying change of conditions brought about by these plants themselves there would be an insufficient length of time for any more suitable variety to arise, or, if such selection were very rapid, different types would be selected within a quite limited area. The believer in the efficacy of epharmonic variation would say that forest-trees have arisen from shrubs, or vice versa, owing to the stimulus of edaphic, climatic, and other factors, and that selection operated by elimin- ating those individuals which did not respond epharmonically at various stages of the plants' development. And the special evidence put forth would be that many species possess an unfixed epharmonic tree form and shrub form, while it is known that stature and other features can be modified through changes in nutrition. This, after all, is only Darwinian selection plus an assigned cause for rapid and sometimes favourable modification* ; but it is far from being neo-Darwinian selection. VIII. Distribution of Speciks. 1. Distribution in General. The distribution of species is primarily a matter of epharmony. Such, however, must in certain cases be referred to a state of affairs no longer * I do not mean to infer that all modification is favourable. 38 Transactions. present,* as in various instances of restricted distribution. Heat is a factor of prime importance, and, so, many species have a definite southern or altitudinal limit beyond which they do not extend {e.g., Agathis, Ipomaea. Veronica elliptica, Knightia, Senecio rotundifolius, &c). This is not because they cannot exist quite well farther to the south, or at a higher altitude, but that on approaching their heat-minimum they cannot compete with the other better epharmonically suited competitors. Further, changes of land-surface have affected distribution in some cases, especially where they have caused permanent or temporary barriers. The. annual number of rainy days is also a most important controlling factor, and one whose effect is more plainly to be seen than that of heat. The densely forested west of the South Island and the sparsely wooded country beyond the average limit of the western rainfall to the east of the main divide stand out in startling contrast. On the west the evergreen canopy tree, and on the east the brown grass tussock, reflect in their respec- tive dominance the prevailing ecological conditions. The slight differences,, too, of the closely related Gaya Lyallii Hook. f. and G. ribifolia Cockayne are excellent examples of quite small but distinctly epharmonicf distinc- tions influencing distribution. Wind is another most powerful factor in New Zealand. According to their relative wind-tolerating power do certain shrubs, &c, replace one another on the shores of Paterson's Inlet, Stewart Island, so that the shore- line has become in its vegetation an exact index of the frequency and velo- city of the wind. The above steppe district in the centre and east of the South Island is governed quite as much by the wind as by its moderate rainfall. Quite common plants are extremely rare in certain localities. Cordy- line australis Hook, f., a tree of physiognomic importance in many parts of both the North and South Islands, occurs in only one locality in Stewart Island. Leptospermum scoparium, usually so abundant, is represented by but one or two individuals in the Chatham Islands, where there is the ideal station for it to form a heath. J The tree-fern Hemitelia Smithii Hook., so abundant in Stewart Island, is confined, so far as known, to one gully in Auckland Island. Psychrophyton eximium Beauverd is abundant on low alpine rocks on Mount Torlesse, Canterbury, but is wanting in similar stations on the range on the opposite side of the valley. In some cases there is evidence that a plant has been much more abundant, but has been replaced by another species. This is true " replace- ment," and very different from the so-called replacement of indigenous by introduced plants. Podocarpus spicatus R. Br. was an important member of the Stewart Island forest, say, five hundred to a thousand years ago. At the present time there remain only a few trees of that species, but it is common to find old trunks of this taxad on which are growing * It is plain from the very nature of the case that perfect harmony can never be established between the growth-forms and the habitat, since change, progressive or retrogressive, is a feature of all formations, and growth-forms once epharmonic will persist long after their epharmonic relation is weakened or destroyed. f G. Lyallii has larger, thinner, and much less hairy leaves than the eastern G. ribi- folia. They have also drip-tips, which are frequently strongly developed. The juvenile forms are somewhat similar in the two trees. \ This term " heath " I have used in my writings in default of a better, well knowing the formation is not truly analogous, except after fire, with the heaths of Europe. By the settlers, when full grown, it is known as " manuka " or " tea-tree scrub." At this stage it is rather forest than heath. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 39 full-sized trees of Weinmannia racemosa L. f. Sophora tetraptera J. Mill, is restricted in Chatham Island to the forest on limestone near the shore of the Te Whanga Lagoon, though elsewhere in New Zealand it can grow abundantly on rock similar to that of the rest of Chatham Island. The accompanying trees are the same in the limestone forest as in forest of the island generally, but it is evident the volcanic rock of the remainder of the island favours the other trees, which do not allow Sophora to become established. Or it may be that Sophora is a comparatively recent arrival.* The distribution of certain species shows that epharmony is by no means so complete between plant and habitat in some cases as one might expect ; or, in other words, that a plant can live in a position for which it is not perfectly fitted. Thus, Mr. R. G. Robinson, Superintending Nurseryman for the South Island, informs me that the dominant tree of the Tapanui Forest, Nothofagus Menziesii Oerst., cannot be grown in the adjacent State nursery, although N. jusca Oerst., a comparatively rare plant in that locality, can be grown with extreme ease ; and yet I have seen N. Menziesii growing quite well on the flanks of Ruapehu as an isolated tree in the open.f The slow growth of many indigenous trees as compared with introduced species is another case in point. On Antipodes Island the plant-associa- tions are not distinguished by their different floristic components so much as by the relative abundance of the different species. This word " abund- ance " shows that all are not equally suited for each station, but that if a plant settles down on ground not specially fitted for its requirements it may be able to hold its place, the struggle for existence notwithstanding. So, too, with various stations on the Auckland Islands. A highly specialized species may thrive under conditions that might be deemed impossible. Such a case is the already mentioned hygrophytic almost aquatic Tricho- manes reniforme on the sun-baked rocks of Rangitoto. Here are a few more examples : Crassula moschata Forst., a coastal halophytic herb, is one of the pioneer plants in the heavily manured ground just abandoned by penguins on the Snares Island. Colobanthus muscoides Hook, f., an herbaceous dense cushion plant growing normally on coastal rocks, is an- other early-comer on the above manured ground, but as conditions become favourable for less manure-tolerating plants both are replaced, tussock moor or Olearia forest being the climax association. Metrosideros scandens Sol., a root-climbing woody forest-liane, grows in some places on rocks close to the sea. G-riselinia lucida Forst. f., so far as I am aware always either an epiphyte or a rock-plant, can be cultivated with ease as an ordinary garden-shrub. The presence of closely related species side by side in the same associa- tion has a strong bearing on the mutation question, for it is reasonable .to suppose with Leavitt (1907, pp. 210-12) that if natural selection, or even epharmony, is responsible for species-making, only one type will be present. As Leavitt writes, " Mutation breaks the species, and moment- arily at least must give a polytypic aspect to the group within a specific * H. H. Travers (1869) was of opinion that this tree was a very recent arrival, especially as an old resident, Mr. Hunt, did not know it, and as he found a seed on the shore of Pitt Island. I have given my reasons for be eving it an ancient constituent of the flora (1902, pp. 270—71), and have seen no reason to change my opinion. f The case may not be as strong as it appears, since the seedlings are shade-loving, whereas those of N. fusca can tolerate far stronger light. There is also a fine tree in the dry Christchurch Domain, where the climate is much more unsuitable for indigenous forest-plants than Tapanui. 40 Transactions. area " (loc. cit., p. 211). I cannot go fully into this important matter, but the following are rather striking examples. Many would not consider some of these plants " species," they are so close ; but so long as they are distinct entities which reproduce themselves " true " they meet the case as well or better. Dracophyllum scoparium Hook, f., and another species considered by Cheeseman a form of this species (1909, p. 420) but by Kirk a var. of D. Urvilleanum, grow in the scrub of Campbell Islands. Celmisia vernicosa Hook. f. and C. campbellensis Chapman, a very rare plant, grow side by side in Auckland and Campbell Islands. Cotula Traillii T. Kirk, C. pul- chella T. Kirk, and C. (obscura T. Kirk) ? grow together on coastal moor near Foveaux Strait. Two " species " of Acaena grow side by side on dunes in Southland : the one has more or less erect branches and long- peduncled flowers — it may be a var. of A. microphylla Hook. f. ; the other is pressed most tightly to the ground, and has almost sessile flowers — it is A. microphylla var. pauciglochidiata Bitter. Both forms keep their dis- tinctive characters for years when grown in garden-soil ; intermediate forms occur amongst the wild plants which may be variants, mutants, or hybrids. Cotula atrata Hook. f. and C. Dendyi Cockayne sp. ined. occur on the same shingle-slip. Several absolutely distinct forms of Veronica buxifolia Benth. grow pn the same subalpine herb-field (see Plate II. fig. 1). Rubus parvus Buch. and R. Barheri Cockayne are in near proximity in the neighbourhood of Lake Brunner, Westland. Nothofagus fusca Oerst. and N. apiculata Cockayne grow in company in the forests at Day's Bay (Wellington) and Kaikoura (Marlborough). Astelia linearis Hook. f. and A. subulata Cheesem. grow side by side on mountain- moors in Auckland and Stewart Islands. Raoulia australis Hook. f. and R. lutescens Cockayne grow side by side on river-beds of the South Island Olearia Colensoi Hook. f. and 0. Traillii T. Kirk grow mixed together in coastal scrub in Stewart Island. Cassinia albida Cockayne, C. Vauvilliersii Hook, f., C. fulvida Hook, f., and other closely related intermediate forms grow mixed on Mount Fyffe, Seaward Kaikoura Mountains. Two distinct forms of Cassinia Vauvilliersii grow just above the forest-line in Auckland Island (see Cockayne 1909a, p. 216). Cotula lanata Hook, f., C. propinqua Hook. f._ and C. plumosa Hook. f. grow side by side on the shore of Auckland and Campbell Islands. Olearia ilicifolia Hook. f. and 0. mollis Cockayne grow together in subalpine forest of Westland. Related Epilobia grow side by side in many places ; some I know come true from seed. Poa foliosa Hook. f. and P. Tennantiana grow close together in Auckland Island. Celmisia sessiliflora Hook. f. and C. argentea T. Kirk grow side by side on certain alpine moors of the southern botanical province. Nothopanax simplex Seem, and N. parvum Cockayne are companion plants in the forest, of Stewart Island and Westland. Carmichaelia Monroi Hook. f. and a related but more robust species not yet described* grow side by side on steppe and river-bed of the Canterbury Plain and eastern Southern Alps. Coprosma Petriei Cheesem. has two forms, one with claret-coloured drupes, and the other with faintly blue drupes ; they grow side by side on montane steppe in the South Island. Coprosma Colensoi Hook. f. and C. Banksii Petrie occur side by side in many forests. Ranunculus Lyallii Hook. f. and * What I take to be this plant received the herbarium name of C. humilis from D. Petrie many years ago. It has also been in cultivation along with C. Monroi Hook. f. in the Ohristchurch Domain for a long period. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 41 a plant I considered R. Traversii, but which Cheeseman is of opinion is either a hybrid* on a new species, grow together on the Snowcup Moun- tains, Canterbury. Ranunculus Buchanani Hook. f. and the closely related R. Matthewsii Cheesem. grow in company on certain alpine herb- or fell- fields of western Otago. Anisotome pilifera Cockayne and Laing and its var. pinnatifidum T. Kirk grow in company on peat-covered rocks, &c, in the Southern Alps. Leptospermum ericoides A. Rich, and L. lineatum Cockayne grow together on northern dunes. Coriaria angustissima Hook, f., C. thymifolia Hunt. & Bonpl., and C. ruscifolia L. grow in proximity on Westland river-beds. Aciphylla Colensoi Hook. f. var. conspicua T. Kirk and the var. maxima grow near one another on certain herb-fields or in scrub on the Southern Alps. Two forms of Ourisia sessiliflora Hook, f., the one densely villous and with large flowers, f the other a smaller plant in all its parts, the leaves darker green and less hairy and the flowers fewer and smaller, occur on the same herb-field in the Southern Alps. Pittosporum rigidum Hook. f. and P. divaricatum Cockayne (see Plate I) occur in the same forest-area on the volcanic plateau. Sophora micro- phylla Ait. and S. prostrata Buchanan grow side by side in the bed of the River Waimakariri at the lower gorge. Doubtless a number of other examples could be found. The coupled plants are in all cases so closely related that they are considered by most New Zealand botanists either varieties of one species, the type and a variety, or forms not worthy of or that have not yet received a name. They are quite sufficient in number to show that it is not unusual for closely related hereditary plant entities to exist side by side for considerable periods. The occurrence of distinct races of the same species at different points of its area of distribution is known in a few cases. As Leavitt says, such cases do not look like the work of mutation, nor can they be readily corre- lated with epharmony. The following are two striking examples : Rubus australis Forst. f. is a common plant both in forests and the open through- out the North, South, and Stewart Islands. In the northern part of the North Island it has, as a rule, much narrower leaves than in the southern part of its range— so much so that typical plants from the two areas have a very different appearance. The primary seedling-leaves seem to be identical in both forms : these are ovate or ovate-lanceolate, and coarsely toothed ; they are soon succeeded by narrow leaves, much resembling those of R. parvus Buchanan, even as to their yellowish or slightlv brownish marking. Seedlings growing in the forest-shade, and only 25-5 cm. tall, bear these narrow juvenile leaves, thus showing the form to be inherited, and not merely an epharmonic sun form. Since heredity is undoubted, the northern form demands a name. Styphelia fasciculata (Forst. f.), a heath-like small or tall shrub, extends from the North Cape to Canterbury and Westland. The adult form varies but little throughout its range, but the juvenile of the Auckland district has altogether broader leaves than that of the south. An example of a more local character is that of the mountain-herb Celmisia coriacea Hook, f., which from Mount Mau- ngatua and other mountains in that part of Otago can be distinguished at a glance as a cultivated plant from other specimens collected on the * The occurrence of this plant on Walker's Pass far from R. Monroi Hook. f. removes the suspicion of a hybrid origin, which Cheeseman adopted, partly at my own suggestion in the first instance. f To this plant I gave the MS. name of 0. splendida some year.s ago. 42 Transactions. actual dividing-range. The lowland form of the plant growing near the sea-cliffs at Charleston, west Nelson, is also distinct in appearance. 2. Isolation. This special form of distribution is considered by some to be of the greatest evolutionary importance. The New Zealand biological area offers many ideal localities for geographical isolation, differing in degree, and it is interesting to see as to how far they afford examples of related species which appear to have either diverged recently from a stem form, or one of them to be the actual parent plant. (a.) The Kermadec Islands. The total number of species of vascular plants is 114, of which twelve are endemic* These latter, one excepted, are closely related to, and in some instances almost identical with, New Zealand, Polynesian, or Norfolk Island plants. (b.) The Three Kings Islands. There is strong geological evidence that at no distant date these islands were united to the North Island. | The total number of species of vascular plants is 143, of which five are endemic ; with these Alectryon excelsum Gaertn. var. grandis Cheesem. may be included. Coprosma macrocarpa Cheesem., one of the five, is related to C. grandifolia Hook, f., and more distantly to C. robusta, both of which are present on the island. Pittosporum Fairchildii Cheesem. is allied by P. crassifolium A. Cunn. and P. umbellatum Banks & Sol. Veronica insularis Cheesem. is related to V. diosmaefolia R. Cunn., a species of the neighbouring mainland, and Paratrophis Smithii Cheesem. to P. opaea Brit. & Rend., while the fern Davallia Tasmani Field is not allied to any New Zealand species. None of the endemic plants, then, except the Alectryon, are particularly close to their mainland allies. (c.) The North Cape. This high promontory was undoubtedly quite recently an island. There are three endemic plants — Halorrhagis cartilaginea Cheesem! (a near relative of H. erecta Schind.), Geniostoma ligustri folium A. Cunn. var. crassuiu Cheesem., J and Cassinia amoena Cheesem. (probably related to C. Vau- villiersii Hook, f., but which latter is not found nearer than the volcanic plateau). (d.) Islands lying to the Eastward of Auckland. Veronica Bollonsii Cockayne, a species closely related to V. macroura Hook, f., is endemic on the Poor Knights Islands. Pittosporum inter- medium T. Kirk, intermediate between P. tenuifolium Banks & Sol. and P. ellipticum T. Kirk, is found only on Kawau Island ; only one plant has been found, and this has been destroy ed.§ (e.) The Chatham Islands. The total number of species plus named varieties is 236, of which thirty- one are endemic. The genera Myosotidium and Coxella are endemic and monotypic. The following is a list of the endemic plants ; those related * See Oliver, 1910, p. 150. t See Cheeseman, 1891, pp. 419, 420. t Were not Mr. Cheeseman extremely cautious regarding the " creation " of species, &c., I should suspect this to be simply an unstable xerophytic form not very different from that with thick leaves common on the lava of Rangitoto Island. § Cheeseman might consider this a hybrid were it not that P. ellipticvm is not known either in Kawau or the neighbourhood (1906, p. 54). Cockatne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 43 more or less closely to New Zealand species are marked with an asterisk : Adiantum affine Willd. var. chathamicum Field (Filic), *Poa chathamica Petrie, Festuca Coxii Hack. (Gram.), *Carex appressa R. Br. var. sectoides Kukenth., *Phormium tenax Forst. var. with broad thin drooping leaves (Liliae), Geranium Traversii Hook. f. and var. elegans Cockayne (Geran.), *Linum monogynum Forst. f. var. chathamicum Cockayne (Linac), *Plagi- anthus betulinus A. Cunn. var. chathamicus Cockayne (Malvac), Aciphylla Traversii Hook, f., Coxella Dieffenbachii Cheesem. (Umbel.), *Corokia macrocarpa T. Kirk (Comae), *Styphelia robusta (Hook, f.), *Dracophyllum arboreum Cockayne, *D. paludosum Cockayne (Epacrid.), *Suttonia Coxii Cockayne (Myrsinac), *Gentiana chathamica Cheesem. (Gentian.), Veronica Dieffenbachii Benth., V. Barkeri Cockayne, V. Dorrien-Smithii Cockayne, V. chathamica Buch., *V. gigantea Cockayne (Scroph.), *Coprosma chat- hamica Cockayne (Rubiae), *Olearia semidentata Dene., *0. chathamica T. Kirk, 0. Traversii Hook, f., *Cotula Muelleri T. Kirk, C. Featherstonii F. Muell., *Senecio radiolatus F. Muell., *S. Huntii F. Muell., *Sonchus grandifolius T. Kirk (Compos.). The nineteen " species " marked with an asterisk are closely related to forms found elsewhere in New Zealand, while sixteen of these are very close indeed. Veronica gigantea would certainly be considered a variety of V. salicifolia Forst. were it not for its distinct juvenile form, which still persists up to a stature of at least 80 cm., and its arboreal habit. It is the only true forest-veronica, and it may be that the juvenile form is a direct adaptation to forest-undergrowth conditions. (f.) Stewart Island. A number of species have, as yet, been collected only on Stewart Island, but in the face of the fact that year by year shows more of the plants thought to be endemic fairly common on the mainland, &c, it is quite possible that the island contains no endemic species. (g.) The Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand. There are 195 species and named varieties, of which fifty-one ara endemic, nineteen of these being closely related to New Zealand species. No list is given here, as these endemic species are treated of by Cheese- man with considerable detail (1909, pp. 463-66). With regard to special endemism in the various groups, the Auckland Islands have six species, the Campbells four, Antipodes Island four, Macquarie Island three, and the Snares two. (h. ) Isolation on the Main Islands. Endemism is not confined to isolated islands, but the various floral districts contain their peculiar species and forms. The most striking examples are western Nelson and western Otago, with thirty-three and thirty-eight endemic species respectively. The northern part of Auckland (thirteen species), Marlborough (fourteen species), and other localities show a distinct local endenrsm. It is obvious, then, that a strong endemism can exist apart from such a barrier as a wide stretch of ocean. But figures such as the above are not final ; further investigations may decrease or even increase them. Also, it is certain that not all the species included have originated in the " isolated " areas ; some of the most distinct have probably been much more widely spread, and are " relics " merely. The continuity of distribution of species of the New Zealand flora varies from those with a fairly continuous distribution to those which occur in only a few localities far distant from one another. Notable examples of extreme discontinuity are : Danthonia antarctica Hook, f., common in 44 Transactions. Auckland and Campbell Islands, but confined elsewhere to a few rocky point- and small islands in the far north of the North Island ; Urtica austral)* Hook, f., common in Chatham, Antipodes, and Auckland Islands, but in New Zealand proper occurring only on Dog and Centre Islands, Foveaux Strait ; Drosera pygmaea D.C., only recorded from near Kaitaia in the extreme north and the Bluff Hill in the extreme south ; Pittosporum obcordatum Raoul, occurs sparingly near Kaitaia, and Akaroa, Banks Peninsula ; Plagi- anihus cymosus T. Kirk, only recorded from Dunedin, Lyttelton, some of the Marlborough Sounds, and Kaitaia ; Suttonia chathamica Mez, com- mon in the Chatham Islands, and found in two localities in Stewart Island : Lepyrodia Traversii F. Muell., common in Chatham Island, and found in certain bogs of the Waikato and at one locality near Kaitaia ; Styphelia Richei Labill., common in Chatham Island, and found elsewhere only near the North Cape ; Melicytus macrophyllus A. Cunn., common in certain Auckland forests, but absent elsewhere, except one locality near Dunedin. Other examples of discontinuous distribution, though more connected than the above, include Elaeocharis sphacelata R. Br., Dracophyllum lati- jolium A. Cunn., Clematis afoliata Buch., Quintinia acutifolia T. Kirk. Celmisia Traversii Hook, f., Pseudopanax ferox T. Kirk, Carmichaelia gracilis J. B. Armstg., Coprosma rubra Petrie, Veronica speciosa R. Cunn.. &c. Were there merely one or two cases the discontinuous distribution might be attributed to chance, but as there are numerous cases, and as these gradually merge into examples of greater and greater continuity, it is probable that the species in most cases were at one time more widely spread, and that in the extreme cases as above we are face to face with the phenomenon of a species naturally on the verge of extinction. IX. Evolution in the Genus Veronica in New Zealand. The New Zealand flora, as already pointed out, possesses many genern containing very " variable species," which are of much interest for evolu- tionary studies. Of all such, Veronica is the most instructive, illustrating, as it does, the general principles of evolution apart from any theories as to method. , Cheeseman admits eighty-four species, but the view he takes is a most conservative one, and probably without forsaking the ideals of orthodox taxonomy some thirty more species could be conveniently added to the ist. Were, however, that school of botany which is dealing with Rosa. Rubus, Hieracium, and Crataegus in the Northern Hemisphere to study the New Zealand forms, several hundreds of species would be forthwith " created." Should this ever be done without experimental culture of each proposed form the work will be biologically useless. The species differ both epharmonically and floristically. The former concerns distinctions between groups of forms rather than between species, while the latter treats of the specific marks. There are two main classes — the shrubby and the herbaceous — together with the suffruticose. The multitude of forms, with but few exceptions, are connected, and a great number more or less intergrade in a linear series. There is every evidence, then, of descent from a common ancestor, which, considering the genus beyond New Zealand as well as within its confines, would probably be an herbaceous plant with a didymous capsule such as V. (Jhamaedrys L. Further, the plasticity of many " species and the astonishing variability suggest that changes of form are, bio- logically speaking, in rapid progress at the present time. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution . 45 The New Zealand species, with but few exceptions, reproduce them- selves readily and rapidly from seed, can be easily grown from cuttings, and are not restricted to any special soil. Some respond quickly to change of environment. The genus occurs in all parts of the New Zealand region, except Antipodes and Macquarie Islands. It has representatives in almost every plant formation, but there is only one true forest species (V. gigantea. of Chatham Island). An analysis of distribution shows that seventeen species are coastal, thirteen do not ascend beyond 300 m. altitude, ten to between 300 m. and 900 m., thirteen to 900 m. and less than 1,200 m., and forty-three to that altitude and upwards, while fifty-two of the ninety-six may be considered strictly mountain species. Regarding their growth-forms, perhaps six species might be considered herbaceous ; the remainder are all more or less woody, the great majority being shrubs. Beyond New Zealand there is one shrubby Veronica in Fuegia and the Falkland Islands, V. elliptica Forst. f., identical with or closely related to one or other of that series of forms known as V. elliptica in New Zealand, and V. formosa R. Br. and V. densifolia F. Muell. of Tasmania and south-east Australia respectively. Leaving the herbaceous cushion plants, formerly referred to the genus Pygmaea, on one side for the present, the remainder of the herbaceous and suffruticose veronicas (Division Euveronica J. B. Armstg.) are dis- tinguished by their didymous capsule. But the shrubby V. loganioides J. B. Armstg. has a similar capsule. This plant resembles in many respects a juvenile form of the whipcord section of Division I, Hebe. There is another epharmonically similar plant, V. cassinioides Hort., which has a capsule of the Hebe type, and which represents a fixed juvenile form of a whipcord Veronica, such as that fixed or semi-fixed form of V . tetragona Hook., which occurs occasionally on the volcanic plateau (see Plate V. fig. 2). Still more is the relation to whipcord veronicas shown in the toothed leaves of reversion shoots. With a broadening of leaf, a not un- common occurrence, there is a close approach to V. buxifolia Benth. In. considering the phylogeny of the species of Veronica the change from herb to shrub would be epharmonic, as may now be seen in the series of forms from just sufTruticose to almost shrubs. In such manner V . loganioides might arise, and, the form of capsule changing by mutation, there would be V . cassinioides, which on the one hand could develop by way of V . buxi- folia into the mesophytic species, or through pressing of leaves to the stem, and a certain amount of reduction, into the xerophytic whipcord forms. Of course, I do not imagine these are the actual ancestral species, but it does not seem absurd to take them as approximative to such. Some further details may shed a little light on the matter. The shrubby veronicas fall into three epharmonic classes, using Cheese- man's synopsis. The first would include from V. speciosa R. Cunn. to I*. pimeleoides Hook, f., the second from V. Gilliesiana T. Kirk to V. uniflora T. Kirk, and the third from V. macrantha Hook. f. to V. Raoulii Hook. f. The first class shows a leaf gradually decreasing in size, and varying from the willow form, broader or narrower as the case may be, to the small more or less oblong or ovate leaf of so many of the subalpine species — that is. there is a reduction of leaf-surface in accordance with increase of xerophytic conditions. Where lowland species occupy xerophytic stations large leaves are thickened in texture, as in V. Dicffenbachii Benth., V. speciosa R. Cunn., and V. macroura Hook, f., all plants of coastal rocks ; or reduced and thickened, as in V . chathamica Buch., another coastal-rock plant ; or much 46 Transactions. reduced in size, as in V . diosmaefolia R. Cunn., a heath-plant — indeed, there are few species whose leaf-form cannot be referred to evident epharmony. The general habit of the species is often strikingly epharmonic. In point of fact, all branch on the same plan, but density or looseness of branching in its extremes makes very different plants, as in the far-spread- ing, open, and stragglingly branched V. Cookianum Col. and V. Dieffen- bachii Benth., and the close ball - like V. buxifolia var. odora T. Kirk, V. Traversii Hook, f., and many of the subalpine semi-xerophytic species. Still more xerophytic species have the prostrate form, as V. chalhamica, a plant of wind-swept and spray-swept coastal rocks, and V. ■pinguifolia Hook, f., in some of its numerous forms, as it hugs dry alpine rocks or the stony surface of fell-field. It is instructive, too, to see how one and the same Linnean species varies in the growth-forms of its components. Thus V . buxifolia Benth. may be either a ball-like shrub, a low erect open little- branched shrub, or sparsely branched and prostrate. Its leaves, too, vary from patent to imbricating ; while as for small leaf- variations, they are with- out end. The degree of imbricating of leaves is a striking epharmonic feature in these small-leaved veronicas, and Cheeseman uses it, but in a guarded manner, as an aid to identification. But the truth is, the indivi- duals of a well-defined form vary much in this regard according to their surroundings, while there appears also to be non-epharmonic variation of this character. A more xerophytic station in general than that of the subalpine species of class 1 is demanded by those of class 2. Here reduction of leaf and imbricating reach their maximum in the whipcord forms. These have fully developed though small leaves as seedlings and on reversion shoots, and are thus united to Veronica Gilliesiana, T. Kirk, Hook, f., and others whose leaves are not so much reduced. Classes 1 and 2, as here defined, seem to be connected by V. buxifolia Benth., as a study of its seedling form shows.* But this latter is also related to V. cassinioides Hort., which, as already shown, is a juvenile or ancestral whipcord Veronica which may be linked with suffruticose and herbaceous species by V. loganioides J. B. Armstg. The relation, then, if my supposition be accepted, between such a species as V. buxifolia or some form such as V. cassinioides is so close that favour- able epharmonic conditions should convert the one into the other in course of time. The cupressoid growth-form of these whipcord veronicas may easily have appeared epharmonically several times. Each time there would be some slight difference in the form evoked, and thus some of the species of whipcord Veronica may have originated independently and not from one ancestralf cupressoid form, and there may have been actual ♦Details are given by me (1901, pp. 282-86) under the name V. odora Hook, f., which, however, is now known through the researches of Cheeseman (1909) to be distinct from the plant in question, which is V. buxifolia Benth. var. odora T. Kirk. PI. 11 in the above paper should be consulted, as it shows the relation in form between the juvenile leaves of V. buxifolia var. odora and V. Armslrongii T. Kirk, a whipcord Veronica. •f Regarding polygenetic origins, Chilton wrote (1884, p. 156), " Suppose the marine ancestor of the terrestial Isopoda to be widely spread, and to inhabit the shores of, say, New Zealand and England, and that in each case certain animals began gradually to leave the sea and make their home on the land, at first keeping within the range of the spray, as Ligia still does, but afterwards leaving the sea altogether, would not the new conditions in which these animals would be placed, being practically the same in both countries, produce in each case the same effect, so that the variations which would be preserved would bo the same in the two cases, and hence the animals, although arising independently from the same marine ancestor, might so far resemble one another as to be placed in the same genus or even in the same species ? " Guppy (1907) should also be consulted. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in Evolution. 47 polygenetic development of species. This polygenetic origin of form, if not of species, is the more likely, as the form exists in other families, while the distribution of the species shows that, though some are widespread, there are a number of species of restricted distribution— e.g., V. Langii Cockayne (Stewart Island), V. Hectori Hook. f. (western Otago), V. propinqua Cheesem. (Mount Maungatua and some other Otago mountains), V. sali- cornioides Hook. f. (Nelson), V. Astoni (Tararua Mountains), V. tetragona (volcanic plateau), and others not yet described. Veronica Haastii Hook, f., V. epacridea Hook, f., and V. Petriei T. Kirk are not definitely connected with the rest of class 2, and may be considered a side branch, with modified leaves. Class 3 form a distinct line of descent to itself, and its connection with any other branch of the genus is not clear. Two species are moor-plants, and the remainder rock-plants ; their growth-forms are epharmonic. The branched panicle of V. Hulkeana F. Muell., V. Lavaudiana Raoul, and V. Raoulii Hook. f. remove them from the rest of the class. Nevertheless. branching of the inflorescence is merely a question of degree, and occur.-, at times in various species— e.g., V. Traversii Hook, f., where it is un- expected— while in others a similar inflorescence is a specific character (V. diosmaefolia, V. Menziesii Benth.). Regarding the herbaceous species, V. pulvinaris Benth. & Hook, belong- ing to Pygmaea, their leaves are not arranged quadrifarionsly. By some they are regarded as forming a distinct section of the genus. At present it is impossible to assign them a place in the direct line of descent. They are cushion plants, and epharmonically similar to Myosotis pulvinaris Hook. f. The suffruticose veronicas (V. catarractae Forst. f., V. Lyallii Hook, f., and V. Bidwillii Hook, f.) are closely related to one another — so closely, indeed, that it is hard to assign limits to any as a Linnean species, and the simplest method from that standpoint would be to unite all three. X. Concluding Remarks. The object of this . paper is to supply material for consideration by students of evolution culled from a field which, although not altogether neglected, is much less cultivated for the supply of evolutionary pabulum, especially by English writers, than is the wide domain of zoology, whence come the bulk of the facts of so many works on evolution. Whatever of value there may be in this ecological material lies in the fact that it is drawn from an isolated and virgin vegetation, and one, too, where the grazing animal played a most insignificant part compared with its role in the Old World. The details have not been selected to support any particular theory, though, of course, as ecological observations are the basis of the paper, the relation of plant to environment takes the leading place. By one celebrated school of biologists the ultimate inheritance of cha- racters* evoked by stimuli affecting the body-cells is either considered impossible or an occurrence so rare as to be negligible, while such evidence as I have advanced is looked upon as worthless, or, at best, as quite * For years Henslow has battled strenuously for the cause of the inheritance of acquired characters, but without receiving the attention his works deserve; in fact, many writers seem acquainted only with his " Origin of Floral Structures," and neglect altogether his much more convincing " Origin of Plant Structures," a work full of suggestive material. 48 Transactions. insufficient. But another and equally famous school believe such inherit- ance to be a more or less frequent occurrence, botanists, as a rule, being more in its favour than are zoologists. Speaking of theories of evolution generally, there seems good reason to consider that such, if not premature, are chiefly of value as a stimulus to biological research. Our ignorance as to the minute structure, the chemistry, and the physiology of the protoplasm is profound. Nothing- is known as yet regarding the actual cause of variation. An epharmonic stimulus could do nothing were it not that the inner constitution of the plant is already able to respond — i.e., the " machinery " is there ready to produce the possibly epharmonic variation so soon as it gets the necessary touch. The construction of elaborate theories is not the method by which progress can be made. Actual experiments in the garden, the laboratory, and the field can alone lead to the truth. Even in taxonomy, only experi- ment can actually decide as to stable and hereditary forms. But observa- tions from nature are also demanded, and here ecology comes in, with the attempt to make use of the wild-plant world, where there are species in the making, as a source of observation. The duty of the ecologist is the collecting of facts in as accurate a manner as possible. The study of epharmony in its manifold phas3S is urgently required. Its vigorous prose- cution should yield a rich harvest of observations, to be examined in the light of experimental evolution. XI. Literature cited.* Armstrong. J. B. 1881. " A Synopsis of the New Zealand Species of Veronica Linn., with Notes on New Species." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 13, p. 344. Balfour, I. B. 1879. " The Collections from Rodriquez— Botany." Phil. Trans. R.S., vol. 168, p. 302. Bitter, G. 1911. " Die Gattung Acaena." Stuttgart. Blaringhem, L. 1907. " Mutation et Traumatisme." Paris. Buchanan, J. 1870. Introductory Remarks to " List of Plants found in the Northern District of the Province of Auckland." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 2, p. 239. — 1871. " On some New Species and Varieties of New Zealand Plants." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 3, p. 208. Burns, G. P. 1911. " Edaphic Conditions in Peat Bogs of Southern Michigan." Bot. Gaz., vol. 52, p. 105. Cheeseman, T. F. 1891. "Further Notes on the Three Kings Islands." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 408. 1906. " Manual of the New Zealand Flora." Wellington. 1907. " Contributions to a Fuller Knowledge of the Flora of New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 439. 1908. Ibid., No. 2. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, p. 270. 1909. " On the Systematic Botany of the Islands to the South of New Zealand." The Subant, Islands of N.Z., vol. 2, p. 389. Chilton, C. 1884. " The Distribution of Terrestial Crustacea." N.Z. Journ. Sci., vol. 2, p. 154. Clements, F. E. 1905. " Research Methods in Ecology." Nebraska. * Works consulted but not referred to in the text are not included, except in a few- instances. Cockayne. — Ecological Studies in E volution . 49 Cockayne, L. 1901. " An Inquiry into the Seedling Forms of New Zea- land Phanerogams and their Development, Part IV." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 265. 1902. " A Short Account of the Plant Covering of Chatham Island." Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 34, p. 243. 1904. " A Botanical Excursion during Midwinter to the Southern Islands of New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, p. 225. 1907. ' Note on the Behaviour in Cultivation of a Chatham Island Form of Coprosma propinqua" Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 378. 1907a. " On the Sudden Appearance of a New Character in an Individual of Leptospermum scoparium." New Phytol., vol. 6, p. 43. 1908. ' Report on a Botanical Survey of the Waipoua Kauri Forest." Wellington. 1909. " Report on a Botanical Survey of Stewart Island." Wel- lington. - 1909a. The Ecological Botany of the Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand." The Subant. Islands' of N.Z., vol. 1, p. 182. — ■ — 1910. " On a Non-flowering New Zealand Species of Rubus." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 325. — 1911. " On the Peopling by Plants of the Subalpine River-bed of the Rakaia (Southern Alps of New Zealand)." Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb., vol. 24, p. 104. Cook, 0. F. 1907. " Aspects of Kinetic Evolution." Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 8, p. 197. Costantin, J. 1898. " Les Vegetaux et les Milieux Cosmiques." Paris. Cross, B. D. 1910. " Observations on some New Zealand Halophytes." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 545. Darwin, C. 1899. " The Origin of Species." London. (6th ed.) 1905. " The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestica- tion." (Popular edition, edited by Francis Darwin.) Darwin, F. 1908. Presidential Address. Rep. Brit. Assoc. Dendy, A. 1902. " The Chatham Islands : a Study in Biology." Mem. and Proc. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc, vol. 46, pt. 5. 1903. "The Nature of Heredity." Rep. S.Af. A.A.S., vol. 1. Diels, L. 1906. " Jugendformen und Blutenreife im Pflanzenreich." Berlin. Goebel, K. 1889-93. " Pflanzenbiologische Schilderungen." Marburg. 1900-5. " Organography of Plants." Oxford. - 1908. " Einleitung in die Experimentelle der Prlanzen." Leipzig and Berlin. Griffen, E. M. 1908. " The Development of some New Zealand Conifer Leaves with Regard to Transfusion Tissue and to Adaptation to En- vironment." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, p. 43. Guppy, H. B. 1907. " Plant-distribution from an Old Standpoint." Author's copy of paper read before the Vict. Inst. Hall, H. M. 1910. " Studies in Ornamental Trees and Shrubs." Univ. of Cal. Pub. in Bot., vol. 4, p. 1. Haswell, W. A. 1891. " Recent Biological Theories.' Rep. A.A.A.S., vol. 3, p. 173. Henslow, G. 1895. " The Origin of Plant Structures." London. — 1908. ' The Heredity of Acquired Characters in Plants." London. 50 Transactions. Hooker. J. U. 1853. ' Flora Novae-Zelandiae." Vol. 1. Introductory Essay, p. i. Kirk, T. 1871. "On the Botany of the Northern Part of the Province of Auckland." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 3, p. 166. 1889. " The Forest Flora of New Zealand." Wellington. 1896. ' The Displacement of Species in New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 1. Klebs, G. 1903. ' Willkiirliche Entwickelungsiinderungen bei Pflanzen." Jena. - 1910. ' Influence of Environment on the Forms of Plants." Darwin and Modern Science, p. 223. Leavitt, G. G. 1907. " The Geographic Distribution of Closely Related Species." Am. Nat., vol. 41, p. 207. MacDougal, D. T. 1911. "Inheritance of Habitat Effects in Plants."' Plant World, vol. 14, p. 53. Massart, J. 1910. " Esquisse de la Geographie botanique de la Belgique." Bruxelles. Oliver, R. B. 1910. " The Vegetation of the Kermadec Islands." Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 42, p. 118. Romanes, G. J. 1893-97. ' Darwin and After Darwin." London. Scott-Elliott, G. F. 1910. " The Waning of Weismannism." Jourm R. Hort. Soc, vol. 35, p. 327. Speight, R. 1911. " The Post-glacial Climate of Canterbury." Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 43, p. 408. Thomson, G. M. 1901. " Plant-acclimatization in New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 313. (Contains various supplementary notes by D. Petrie.) Travers, H. H. 1869. " On the Chatham Islands." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 1, p. 173. Travers, W. T. L. 1870. " On the Changes effected in the Natural Features of a New Country by the Introduction of Civilized Races." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 2, p. 299. Vries, H. de. 1901-3. " Die Mutationstheorie." Leipzig. 1905. " Species and Varieties, their Origin bv Mutation." Chicago. Wallace, A. R. 1889. " Darwinism." London. Warming, E. 1909. " Oecology of Plants." Oxford. Weismann, A. 1910. ' The Selection Theory." Darwin and Modern Science, p. 18. Williams, W. L. 1904. ' Abnormal Growth of a Plant of Phormium Colensoir Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 36, p. 333, and pi. 25. Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant -habitats. 51 Art. II. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats (VII). By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. [Read before the. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th October, 1911.] This paper is divided into three sections, the first containing the usual general plant-habitats, the second devoted to the neighbourhood of the Franz Josef Glacier, and the third to the plants of the Omeroa Saddle. My list of plants in Dr. J. M. Bell's report on the Franz Josef Glacier is, as is therein indicated, most incomplete. With the addition of the species here published and those recorded only for the Omeroa Saddle the total is increased from 287 to 356, while a fair idea may be gained of the vascular flora of that part of Westland from the sea-shore to an altitude of 1,200 m. Doubtless there are still many mountain species not re- corded, since, so far as the higher land was concerned, I was only able to visit the fell-field, &c, on the right-hand side of No-go Creek, where the slopes are very steep and much broken, and the vegetation merely in patches. The Omeroa Saddle is situated on a spur which is crossed by the bridle- track leading from the Franz Josef to the Fox Glacier. Its altitude is about 330 m. There is a small amount of open boggy ground, but the bulk of the vegetation is forest. The occurrence of certain subalpine shrubs is remarkable for so low an altitude, but it must be borne in mind that every Westland lowland river-bed contains a percentage of plants which are generally to be found only at a higher altitude. To Messrs. W. Willcox, D. L. Poppelwell, W. Wilson, and C. Foweraker I am much indebted for various specimens mentioned below. Mr. Poppel- well further has sent me full lists of his collections on the Garvie, Eyre, and other mountains, but these are so extensive and important that it is better that he himself should publish them. I. Species from various Localities. Alsophila Colensoi Hook. f. South Island : (1.) Nelson — Forest near Reefton ; L. C. (2.) Canter- bury— Forest, Makarora Valley ; L. C. Anisotome Haastii (F. Muell.) Cockayne and Laing. South Island : Canterbury — Herb-field of Mount Ernest, head of Lake Wanaka. The Misses Ewing ! Anisotome intermedia Hook. f. South Island : (1) Otago — Curio Bay, near Waikawa, on cliff ; L. C. (2.) Westland— Big Bay ; L. C. Australina pusilla Gaud. South Island : Canterbury — Remains of forest near Waimate. C. Foweraker ! 52 Transactions . Blechnum Banksii (Hook, f.) Mett. South Island : Westland — Jackson's Bay ; Paringa Bay. L. C. There are no Westland records in Cheeseman's Manual either for this or B. durum. Blechnum durum (Moore) C. Chr. South Island : Westland — Jackson's Bay ; Paringa Bay. L. C. Carex Buchanani Berggren. South Island : Canterbury — Canterbury Plain, by side of water-races, almost to sea-level. L. C. This is an example of an indigenous plant becoming more widely spread through the farming operations of the settler. Celmisia bellidioides Hook. f. South Island : Otago — -Cecil Peak, Lake Wakatipu. W. Willcox ! Only three habitats are given by Petrie in his " List of the Flowering- plants of Otago " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28. p. 559). Celmisia densiflora Hook. f. South Island : Canterbury — Mount Stndholme, Hunter's Hills. C. Foweraker ! Celmisia mollis Cockayne. South Island : Nelson — Mountains near Hanmer. W. Willcox ! Celmisia pseudo-Lyallii (Cheesem.) Cockayne. South Island : Canterbury — Mount Studholme, Hunter's Hills. C. Foweraker ! This is, so far, the most southern record for this species. Mount Stud- holme is only 1,085 m. high, but it contains, besides the two species already noted, C. coriacea Hook, f., C. Lyallii Hook, f., and C. sfeCbdbilis Hook. f. Celmisia ramulosa Hook. f. South Island : Otago — Cecil Peak, near summit. W. Willcox ! Celmisia Walkeri T. Kirk. South Island : Canterbury — Mount Ernest, head of Lake Wanaka. The Misses Ewing ! Corallospartium crassicaule (Hook, f.) J. B. Armstg. South Island: Otago — Mount Rov. Lake Wanaka; 1,200m. altitude. L. C. Coriaria angustissima Hook. f. South Island : Westland — (1) Subalpine belt of mountains bounding Taramakau and Otira Valleys; (2) river-bed of Otira, at 300m. alti- tude, in company with the two other species, but much less abundant. L. C. Dacrydium laxifolium Hook. f. South Island : Otago — Near Curio Bay, Waikawa. within a metre or two of sea-level, in Sphagnum bosr. L. C. Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats. 53 Dracophyllum virgatum (Cheesem.) Cockayne sp. nov. = I), uniflorum Hook. f. var. virgatum Cheesem. in " Manual of the New Zealand Flora,'' p. 427 (1906). South Island : Westland — Swamp near Lake Brunner. L. C. Fuchsia Colensoi Hook. f. South Island : Westland — Near Lake Ianthe. L. C. F. Colensoi appears to be quite an uncommon species in Westland . For other stations, see II below. Gahnia rigida T. Kirk. South Island : Westland — What I take to be this species is common as far south as the Waiho River. L. C. Gunnera dentata T. Kirk. South Island : Canterbury- — River-bed of River Makarora. head of Lake Wanaka. L. C. Korthalsella Lindsayi (Oliver) Engler. South Island : Otago — Crescent Island, Lake Wanaka ; parasitic on Pseudopanax ferox. L. C. Leptolepia novae-zelandiae (Col.) Kuhn. Stewart Island— In rimu-kamahi forest. R. B. Oliver ! Librocedrus Bidwillii Hook. f. South Island : Westland — One of the members of the low river-bed forest in the Otira Valley. L. C. The most important trees of this association are Phyllocladus alpinas Hook, f., Podocarpus Hallii T. Kirk, and Pseudopanax crassifolium Seem. Lycopodium fastigiatum R. Br. South Island : Westland — Otira Valley, on old river-bed. L. C. Mazus radicans (Hook, f.) Cheesem. South Island : Westland — A characteristic plant of lowland and montane river-beds. L. C. Myosotis Goyeni Petrie. South Island : Otago — Mount Roy, Lake Wanaka, on dry rock-face, at altitude of 450 m. L. C. Nothofagus Menziesii (Hook. 1.) Oerst. South Island : Canterbury — Valley of the Makarora, forming a pure forest. L. C. Olearia Haastii Hook. f. South Island : (1.) Westland— Otira Gorge, in subalpine scrub ; only one plant noted. (2.) Canterbury — Bank of Sloven's Creek. Waimakariri basin. L. C. 0. Haastii, although evidently widely spread, is a rare species, having been recorded from seven localities only, including the above. •54 Transaction*. Pennantia corymbosa Forst. South Island : Canterbury — Makarora Valley. L. C. Pittosporum divaricatum Cockayne sp. nov. ined. South Island : Westland — Otira Valley, in low forest. L. C. This attains considerable dimensions. One example was 2*5 m. tall, and had a trunk 12*5 cm. in diameter. I am not sure but that the West- land form is distinct from that of the steppe climate of Canterbury. The seedling leaves are more deeply cut (see Plate VIII, Article I, in this volume). Poa imbecilla Forst. f. Stewart Island— R. B. Oliver ! Podocarpus spicatus R. Br. South Island : Canterbury — Makarora Valley ; formerly common in lowland forest. L. C. Pseudopanax ferox T. Kirk. South Island : Otago — Crescent Island, Lake Wanaka, on rocky slope. L. C. Both old and young trees are plentiful. Rubus cissoides A. Cunn. var. pauperatus T. Kirk. South Island : Otago — Crescent Island, Lake Wanaka. L. C. Schoenus pauciflorus Hook. f. South Island : Canterbury — Kaiapoi Island ; Canterbury Plain, almost at sea-level. L. C. Trichomanes Colensoi Hook. f. South Island : (1.) Westland — Mount Rangi Taipo, on rock, at about 600 m. altitude ; L. C. (2.) Otago — In forest, Anita Bay ; L. C. The number of records for this fern are few, but it is easily overlooked., Uncinia uncinata (L. f.) Kiikenth. Stewart Island. R. B. Oliver ! Veronica Buchanani Hook. f. South Island : Otago — Lindis Peak ; on summit. L. C. Veronica dasyphylla T. Kirk. South Island : Otago— (1.) Cecil Peak ; W. Willcox ! (2.) Summit of Mount Roy, Lake Wanaka ; L. C. Veronica epacridea Hook. f. South Island : Otago— Mount Roy, Lake Wanaka ; on summit, 1,560 m. altitude. L. C. Veronica odora Hook. f. Stewart Island- — Exact habitat forgotten, but perhaps Lord's River. D. L. Poppelwell ! Veronica subalpina Cockayne. South Island : Canterbury — Mount Ernest. The Misses Ewing! Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats. ■■ 55 II. Additional Species for the Neighbourhood of the Franz Josef Glacier from the Sea to about 1.200 m. Altitude. Anisotome pilifera (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing. Subalpine fell-field. Arundo conspicua Forst. f. Astelia montana (T. Kirk) Cockayne. Forest ; subalpine fell-field. Astelia Petriei Cockayne. Subalpine fell-field, forming extensive patches. Calamagrostis pilosa (A. Rich.). Roche moutonnee ; moraine; fell-field. Carex Cockayniana Kukenth. Forest. Carex comans Berggren. River-bed ; very common. Carex dissita Sol. Near pools of water, at about 210m. altitude. Carmichaelia (two species). River-bed. These species are probably " new." One is prostrate, and the other semi-prostrate. I have only fruiting specimens. Celmisia petiolata Hook. f. Subalpine fell-field. Celmisia Sinclairii Hook. f. Subalpine fell-field, forming large patches. Celmisia Walked T. Kirk. On rock where there is covering of soil, forming extensive patches. Cladium teretifolium R. Br. Lowland moor. Claytonia australasica Hook. f. Small wet stony debris in subalpine belt. Coprosma brunnea (T. Kirk) Cockayne. River-bed near terminal face of glacier. Coprosma' ciliata Hook. f. Subalpine scrub. Coprosma serrulata Hook. f. Roche moutonnee, at 650 m. ; old moraine, at 900 m. 56 Transactions. Coriaria angustissima Hook. f. Fell-field, at 1,200 m. Cotula dioica Hook. f. Salt meadow, Okarito. Cotula squalida Hook. f. Old moraine; river-bed and fell-field up to 1,200m Dacrydium Colensoi Hook. Lowland forest. Dacrydium intermedium T. Kirk. Lowland forest. Dracophyllum Kirkii Berggren. Roche moutonnee. Dracophyllum Urvilleanum A. Rich. var. montanum Cheese*n. Roche moutonnee. Epilobium chloraefolium Hausskn. Fell-field. Epilobium microphyllum A. Rich. River-bed. Epilobium sp. This is the western plant included by Cheeseman with^A'. gracilipca T. Bark (see Manual, p. 181). I hope to publish a description of this species shortly, and point out its distinguishing characters. Fell-field, 1,200 m. Euphorbia glauca Forst. f. Shore, Okarito. Euphrasia Monroi Hook. f. Fell-field, 1,200 m. Fuchsia Colensoi Hook. f. Near Lake Mapourika. Gahnia rigida T. Kirk. Forest ; lowland moor. Gaultheria perplexa T. Kirk. Old river-bed. Gentiana sp. (perhaps G. bellidioides Hook, f., but not in flower). Fell-field, at 1,200 m. Geum parviflorum Sm. Old moraine; fell-field, at 1,200m. Cockayne.— Some Hitherto- unrecorded Plant -ha bit (its. 57 Hypolepis millefolium Hook. Fell-field, at 1,200 m. Juncus maritimus Lam. var. australiensis Buchen. Salt meadow, Okarito. Loranthus micranthus Hook. f. Parasitic on various trees and shrubs. Mazus radicans (Hook, f.) Cheesem. On river-beds ; abundant. Metrosideros scandens Sol. Sea-cliff, Okarito. Muehlenbeckia axillaris Walp. River-bed. Myosotis Forsteri Lehm. Roche moutonnee. Myosotis macrantha Hook. f. & Benth. Fell-field, at 1,200 m. ; rare. Nothopanax anomalum Hook. f. Forest. Nothopanax parvum (T. Kirk) Cockayne. Forest. Olearia moschata Hook. f. Subalpine scrub ; abundant. Ourisia caespitosa Hook. f. Fell-field, up to 1,200 m. ; common. Ourisia macrocarpa Hook. f. Fell-field, at 1,200m. and lower; common. Oxalis magellanica Forst. Fell-field, at 1,200 m. Pennantia corymbosa Forst. River-terrace forest. Poa Astoni Petrie. Coastal cliff, Okarito. Poa pusilla Berggren. River-bed. Podocarpus Hallii T. Kirk. Forest, ■58 Transactions Ranunculus Godleyanus Hook. f. Bed of No-go Creek, at about 1,000 m. altitude. Ranunculus Lyallii Hook. f. Fell-field ; abundant from about 900 m. upwards. Ranunculus lappaceus Sm. var. Raoulia australis Hook. f. River-bed. Raoulia glabra Hook. f. River-bed. Rubus parvus Buchanan. (1) Open ground near Lake Mapourika ; (2) bed of River Onieroa. Both in open and amongst shrubs. Rubus subpauperatus Cockayne. Scrub of river-terrace. Schizeilema Haastii (Hook. f.). Fell-field, at 1,200 m. Schizeilema nitens (Petrie). Wombat Pond, on old moraine. Senecio Lyallii Hook. f. Fell-field, at 1,200 m. Trisetum Youngii Hook. f. Fell-field, at 1,200 m. III. List of Species of Omeroa Saddle. Aristotelia fruticosa Hook. f. Astelia montana (T. Kirk) Cockayne. Blechnum capense (L.) Schlecht. fluviatile (R. Br.) Lowe. penna marina (Poir) Kuhn. Carex Gaudichaudiana Kunth. ternaria Forst. f. Coprosma cuneata Hook. f. foetidissima Forst. parviflora Hook. f. rugosa Cheesem. species with yellow drupe. Cordyline indivisa (Forst. f.) Steud. Dacrydium biforme (Hook.) Pilger. Colensoi Hook. Danthonia Cunninghamii Hook. f. semiannularis R. Br. Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant -habitat*. 59* Dicksonia lanata Col. Dracophyllum longifolium (Forst. f.) R. Br. Traversii Hook. f. Drimys colorata Raoul. Elaeocarpus Hookerianus Raoul. Fuchsia excorticata Linn. f. Gaultheria antipoda Forst. f. depressa Hook. f. rupestris R. Br. Gleichenia Cunninghamii Heward. Griselinia littoralis Raoul. Hymenophyllum Malingii (Hook.) Mett. . multifidum (Forst. f.) Sw. Hypolepis millefolium Hook. Leptopteris superba (Col.) Pr. Libocedrus Bidwillii Hook. f. Luzuriaga marginata (Banks & Sol.) Benth. & Hook. ': Myrtus pedunculata Hook. f. Nothopanax anomalum Hook. f. Colensoi (Hook, f.) Seem. parvum (T. Kirk) Cockayne. — simplex (Forst. f.) Seem. Olearia Colensoi Hook. f. ilicifolia Hook. f. — — — lacunosa Hook. f. nitida Hook. f. Phormium Cookianum Le Jolis. Phyllocladus alpinus Hook. f. Pittosporum divaricatum Cockayne. Podocarpus acutifolius T. Kirk. Polystichum vestitum (Forst. f.) Pr. Pratia angulata (Forst. f.) Hook. f. Rubus australis Forst. f. Senecio eleagnifolius Hook. f. Styphelia acerosa Sol. Suttonia divaricata Hook. f. Uncinia riparia R. Br. ? Veronica salicifolia Forst. f. Viola filicaulis Hook. f. * I understand from Dr. C. Skottsberg that the New Zealand plant is distinct from that of temperate South America. That being so, the New Zealand species must receive a new name. 60 Transact ions . Art. III. — Some Notes on the Botany of the Spenser Mountains, with a List of the Species collected. By R. M. Laing, B.Sc. \Rd'id before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st November, 1911.] Route. In December-January, 1910-11, we arranged a small party* to take pack- horses and ascend the headwaters of the Waiau and the Clarence Rivers. We left Hanmer, and *went by way of Jack's Pass and Fowler's Pass to the out-station on the Ada. We camped near the foot of the saddle, and explored the surrounding country botanically. Our next camp was in Glacier Gully, a small tributary of the Waiau, some five miles farther to the east. Tnence we crossed Maling's Pass to Lake Tennyson, in the neighbourhood of which several days were spent. Bad weather, unfor- tunately, prevented the ascent of any of the higher peaks. The highest point attained was probably under 6,000 ft., on Mount Princess. Some of the upper alpine plants may, therefore, have escaped observation. The return to Hanmer was made via the Clarence Valley. Historical. The Spenser Mountains form a little-known district of the Southern Alps, lying at the headwaters of the Waiau, Clarence, and the Wairau. The district was first explored by Mr. W. T. L. Travers during the end of February and the beginning of March, 1860. An account of this explora- tion will be found in the Nelson Examiner of the 14th March, 1860. During the trip he named " the Spenser Mountains in honour of the poet of that name." The name is now often misspelt " Spencer." Maling's Pass is so designated in honour of Mr. C. Maling, who accompanied Travers, and who had seen the pass on a previous trip with Mr. Domett. Maling's Pass leads from the watershed of the Clarence into that of the Waiau. Tributaries of the Waiau were named by Mr. Travers after his children — -the Ada, the Henry, and the Anne. Gelmisia Traversii was originally discovered on the summit of the mountain between the Ada and the Anne. Other novelties discovered by Travers in the district were Ranunculus crithmijolius, R. Lyattii var. Traversii, R. Sinclairii, Pittosporum patulum, Gnaphalium nitidulum, and Wahlenbergia cartilaginea. Of these, Gnaphalium nitidulum has not again been found, unless, as appears likely (see subjoined list), it is amongst the specimens collected by us. Since the time of Travers the district has apparently several times been visited by collectors and botanists. However, there is no published account of its botany, and the only list of species drawn up for it is a short one appearing at the end of an article on the ascent of Mount Franklin by Park (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 18, p. 350). This contains seventy-eight species, identified by Buchanan. Of these, about a fifth were not collected by us, * The party consisted of Mr. W. W. Rowntree, my brother (Mr. T. M. Laing), Mr. C. E. Foweraker, and myself. My best thanks are due to Mr. Foweraker for much valuable assistance in the field. Without it the work could scarcely have been carried on. Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountain* . 61 but it has not been thought advisable to include them in our list. Indeed, it appears to us that several of those there recorded are most unlikely inhabitants of the district — e.g., Dodonaea viscosa, Gentiana concinna, G. saxosa, Dracophyllum Urvilleanum (typical form), Veronica odora, Ranun- culus pinguis. Various species, also, which we had expected to get were not found by us. Amongst these may be noted Celmisia Traversii, of which, however, we saw specimens from Mount Percival, at the back of Hanmer. and Ranunculus Lyallii, which we did not see at all, though we were assured that it grows in the district. It is quite clear that neither of these species are common in the Spenser Mountains. There are several reports on the geology of the district. References to it will be found in Haast's " Report of a Topographical and Geographical Exploration of the Western Districts of the Nelson Province," 1861. He visited the Buller and Grey Valley in 1860, and saw the Spenser Mountains from their western sides. He speaks of " the high mountain-chain, called by my friend Mr. Travers the Spencer [sic] Mountains, whose highest peak, clad with eternal snow, rose grandly above the low hills in front of it. I named this mountain. Mount Franklin, in honour of the late Sir John Franklin." In the " Reports of Geological Explorations during 1888-89 " (Wel- lington, 1890) there is an article by Mr. A. McKay on the " Geology of Marlborough and the Amuri District of Nelson," which describes the geology of the eastern slopes of the Spenser Mountains (throughout the report spelt " Spencer "). Topographical. The Spenser Mountains are some twenty-five miles in length, and are generally regarded as lying between the saddle of the Ada (3,300 ft.) and Mount Franklin (7,671 ft.). The peaks are of a nearly uniform height of 7,000 ft., with an upward tendency towards Mount Franklin. The height of 10,000 ft. allotted to Mount Franklin by some of the earlier explorers was an error, doubtless due to its extensive snowfields and alpine magnifi- cence. The Waiau, Clarence, and Wairau all converge upon this peak, and, indeed, their chief sources lie upon it. To the south are Mounts Guinevere, Aeneid (7,050 ft.) , Princess (6,973 ft.), Una (7,510 ft.), and Faerie Queene (7,332 ft.). The Tennysonian names are due to Governor Weld.* In the valley of the Waiau lies Lake Guyon, and in that of the Clarence Lake Tennyson. Both are glacier lakes, due to the banking-up of the waters by morainic deposits. Indeed, the whole country gives evidence of having at one time been heavily glaciated. The Ada Stream runs through a wide glacial valley, and there has been a large terminal moraine across the Waiau about a mile and a half below its junction with the Ada. The head of the low saddle lies also in a flat open valley, about 200 yards wide, having at its highest portion a Sphagnum bog. This valley shows no terracing. Opposite its mouth there are a number of parallel lines extending up to about 800 ft. on the left bank of the Waiau. These are perhaps lines of glacial pressure. Glacier Gully has doubtless at one time carried a secondary glacier, but now it can scarcely be regarded as true to name. It opens out at its head into a large cirque on the flanks of * '" Account by P. A. Weld of an Expedition with a View of Discovering a Direct Route between Nelson and Canterbury " (" Canterbury Provincial Gazette," vol. 2, No. 13, p. ;3l). Weld's trip was made in 1853. 62 Transactions. Mount Una, and the bed of the stream (about 3,300 ft. altitude) contains fragments of melting neve about 10 ft. thick. Judging by appearances, this neve, would scarcely last through the summer. The lowest portion was detached from the rest, and was about 100 yards long and 25 yards wide. It was bisected by the stream. A little clear ice was visible at the foot of the neve. A pronounced hanging valley on the right of the stream and the remnants of a lateral moraine showed that at one time a glacier of respectable dimensions had filled the creek-bed. The valley is an open one, about 100 yards wide. The country becomes progressively drier as we go eastward from the Waiau to the Wairau Valley. There are few shingle-slips to be seen on Mount Faerie Queen, as looked at from the Ada Valley. Those on Mount Una, as viewed from Glacier Valley, are a little more extensive, but in the neighbourhood of Lake Tennyson they become more numerous and occupy a larger area. The Wairau Valley, from a saddle above Lake Tennyson, appeared as dry as the region in the neighbourhood of Mount Arrowsmith. Doubtless the westerly rains pass over the saddle into the fertile Ada Valley and Stanley Vale, but are unable to penetrate to the country at the head- waters of the Wairau. The greater denudation in the Waiau Valley prevents the accumulation of shingle-slips there. Vegetation. In the absence of meteorological statistics, it is, of course, impossible to show directly how climatic conditions are affecting the vegetation, and indirect evidence only is available. The conditions in the district, however, resemble those that prevail in the Mount Arrowsmith region, as the plant formations are very similar, and a large number of species are common to both districts. Indeed, the general description given of the plant forma- tions in the Arrowsmith district* would apply to this with but few modifi- cations. Rock, river-fan, river-bed, tussock steppe, bog, lake, forest, fell - field, and shingle-slip present similar features and similar plant- associations in both districts. Certain subassociations of the Arrowsmith district were, however, not noticed in the Spenser Mountains. Dwarf Carmichaelias were observed only in the Waiau River bed near Hanmer, and there only a few plants of an unidentified species. The accompanying species of the Mount Arrowsmith district — e.g. Veronica pimeleoides var. minor and Muehlen- beckia ephedroides — were not observed in the more northern area, nor did we see in the Spenser Mountains any such forest as the subalpine totara forest of the Upper Rakaia Valley. Indeed, forest-trees of any kind, with the exception of species of Nothofagus, Noihopanax, Gaya, and Pittosporum, were completely absent from the Spenser Mountains. The complete absence of any of the species forming the usual coastal forests of New Zealand is perhaps the most remarkable feature of the district. The subalpine scrub is also poorly represented both in quantity and number of species. River steppe, fell-field, shingle-slip, and rock occupy nine-tenths of the district. The Nothofas/us forest was found only in the river-valleys, and decreased in quantity from west to east. Only a few acres are to be seen in the Upper Clarence Valley, close to the sides of Lake Tennyson. The upper portion of the Ada Valley, however, contains considerable quantities of the forest, and has contained more ; but some has been destroyed by fire * Cockayne and Laing, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 345. Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountain*. 63 and some cut out for timber. A fuller description of this forest and of the Sphagnum bog on the Ada Saddle are given, as they differ consider- ably in composition from the similar associations observed in the Arrow- smith district. Physiognomic Changes. The district has been in occupation by runholders almost since its discovery, and as a result many changes have been effected in the general composition of its vegetation. On the river-flats of the Ada and Clarence Valleys English pasture grasses have been sown, and flourish luxuriantly, displacing to a large extent the native plant covering. The lower portion of the Ada Valley contains beautiful pasturage of cocksfoot and white clover, with here and there a considerable admixture of Yorkshire fog. Occasional patches of Acaena microphylla, A. Sangwisorbae, Asperula perpu- silla, Oreomyrrhis andicola, Cotula dioica, C. squalida, and specimens of Stackhousia minima. Ranunculus foliosus, &c, occur in the midst of the pasture. In the stonier portions it is crossed by lines and thickets of Discaria scrub, which rises to a height of 15 ft. to 20 ft., intermingled with occasional specimens of Coprosma propinqua and Veronica cupressoides. This pasture in the Ada Valley passes at its upper margin into Nothojagus forest. The original tussock steppe and the forest-area has been much altered by burning. Severe burns have evidently taken place from time to time, and much of the southern beech* is second growth, with the stumps of the older and heavier trees still standing above it. Sorrel is rapidly gaining ground in many places, and is even invading the shingle -slips. Above the bush is Danthonia steppe, which has also in some places been subjected to severe burning. The fell-fields, too, have suffered occa- sionally from this cause, and new shingle-slips have sometimes formed where the old vegetation has been burnt out. It is difficult, however, to say whether consolidation from shingle-slip to fell-fields is not taking place at an equal or greater rate in neighbouring localities. The Nothofagus cliffortioides Forest. The forest of the Ada Valley may be taken as typical of this associa- tion. I therefore transcribe my notes upon it, with a few omissions. The river-flats have to a large extent been denuded of forest, and that on the sides of the valley has been much burnt and run through by stock. At its margin the ground-floor is covered to some extent with introduced herbage ; native plants, however, occur, such as Brachycome Sinclairii, Erechtites prenanthoides, Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae. As we go further in we find a large number of young beeches, showing that the forest tends to replace itself. Amongst them are often plants of Oreomyrrhis, Asperula perpusilla. >f tin Spenser Mountains. 67 pinnae ternately divided, upper ternately lobed, the whole leaf deltoid- ovate in outline. Petiole as long or longer than the blade, terete, strait,, with short broad membranous sheath, 6 mm. broad at the base. Lowei petiolules 10 mm. to 15 mm. long, upper shorter, ultimate divisions broadly cuneate, flabellate, dentate, teeth subacute not piliferous. Flowering- stems, several, compound, much exceeding the leaves. Peduncles with 1 or 2 bracts, the lower, if present, one-third of the distance from the base, usually with 3 linear lobes and a broad clasping base, upper bract set midway on the peduncle and smaller. Umbels compound, primary rays. 2-3, with a simple linear bract at the base of each ray. Secondary rays 5-7, somewhat unequal, pedicels rather longer than the fruit, 1*5 mm. to 2-5 mm. Fruit surrounded with an involucre of small linear acute bracts. Head heterogamous, the central florets generally male, the outer her- maphrodite. Calyx of 5 lobes, teeth deltoid, acute, minute. Petals white. Styles subulate, equalling the ovary in length, slightly recurved, fruit ellip- soid, carpels with 5 equal ridges. On the upper river steppe, Mount Princess, above Lake Tennyson ; altitude, about 3,500 ft. A specimen is deposited in the Canterbury Museum. 4. Myosotis Laingii Cheeseman. A hitherto-undescribed species from Lake Tennyson, now named by Cheeseman. 5. Haastia pulvinaris var. minor Laing (var. nov.). In omnibus partibus minor quam typus ; rami unacum foliis 6 mm. usque ad 15 mm. lati. Pappi capilli non supra incrassati. magis autem scabridi, pene fimbriati. Two distinct forms of this species appear on Mount Princess (alt., 5,000 ft. to 6,000 ft.). The smaller form is apparently distinguished by the pappus hairs being scabrid, almost fimbriate at the tips, and not thickened as in the typical form. The tomentum of this variety in the specimens we got is much whiter than that in the normal variety. A specimen is deposited in the Canterbury Museum. 6. Clemisia petiolata Hook. var. membranacea Kirk. Two forms of this variety were observed, one with the leaf nearly glabrous on both surfaces, and the other with margins covered with a ful- vous pubescence. The leaves in the glabrous form are often cordate at the base, and are broader and shorter than in the form with marginal pubescence. Fell-field, Glacier Gully ; about 4,000 ft, 7. Gnaphalium nitidulum Hook. f. Specimens of a species of Gnaphalium were collected on the upper river steppe of the Clarence Valley, at an altitude between 3,000 ft. and 4,000 ft, It appeared to me to agree fairly well with G. nitidulum in its characters, a plant that has not been collected since first obtained by Travers fifty years ago.^ I sent a specimen of it to Mr. Cheeseman, who thus reports upon it :— '' No. 1750. Gnaphalium sp. — The female florets are many times more numerous than the hermaphrodite, and the pappus hairs are very numerous, scabrid at the base, and the achenes are faintly downy. These characters place the plant in the genus Gnaphalium. The leaves are about Jin. long, 3* 68 Transactions. linear-oblong, obtuse, lower ^ thin and membranous, upper § densely covered with white felted tomentum. The heads are sunk among the uppermost leaves, and are about -i in. diameter. It matches the description of G. nitidulum, except in the size of the heads, which are given as \ in. hroad, on very short slender peduncles. But in the allied G. Traversii the involucral scales spread after the fall of the florets, making the heads in that state look very much larger than they do in flower, at which time the scales are erect. Hooker's specimens of G. nitidulum were evidently past flower, for he says ' florets not seen." I think it is very likely to prove to be G. nitidulum ; but specimens should be sent to Kew for comparison with the type." I have sent specimens to Kew.* and deposited a fragment in the Canter- bury Museum. LIST OF SPEC IKS. Pteridophyta. Filices. Hymenophyllum muUifidum (Forst. f.) Sw. villosum Col. ('ystopteris fragilis (L.) Bernh. Adiantum diaphanum Blume. Pteridium aquilinum L. var. esculentum Forst. f. Blechnum capense (L.) Schlecbt. penna marina (Poir.) Kuhn. Asplenium flabellifolium Cav. Hookerianum Col. Polypodium pumilum (J. B. Armstrong) Cockayne Ophioglossum lusitanicuni L. Lycopodiaceae. Lycopodium fastigiatum R. Br. scariosum Forst. volubile. Forst. f. Spermaphyta. Taxaceae. Podocarpus nivalis Hook. Dacrydium Bidivillii Hook. f. Phyllocladus alptnus Hook. f. Gramineae. Hierochlor redolens (Forst. f.) R. Br. Fraseri Hook. f. Trisetwn antarcticum (Forst. f.) Trin. Youngii Hook. f. Danthonia Raoulii Steud. flavescens Hook-, f. australis Buch. semiannularis R. Br. J'oa, Colenmi Hook. f. Kirkii Buch. imbecilla Forst. f. carspitosa Forst. f. * The Kew authorities now (Mirch, 1912) report the specimen forwar led to be identical with the type of G. nitidulum,. Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountains. 69 Koeleria Kurtzii Hack. Festuca ovina L. var. novae-zelandiae Hack-. ■ , • Agropyron scabrum (R, Br.) Beauv. Cyperaceae. Elaeocharis Cunninghamii Boeck. ( 'arpha alpina R. Br. Schoenus pauciflorus Hook. f. Oreobolus pectinatus Hook. f. strictus Berggr. J'ncinia uncinata (L. f.) Kukenth. iusco-vaginata Kvikenth. rubra Boott. hptostachya Raoul. < 'or ex stellulata Good. Gaudichaudiana Kunth. ternaria Forst. f. Raoulii Boott, Petriei Cheesem. lucida Boott. testacea Sol. A very aberrant form, or new (D. Petrie). Sinclairii (?) C. B. Clarke. Immature. Rostkovia gracilis Hook. f. Luzula campestris D.C. J uncus novae-zelandiae Hook. f. Naiadaceae. Potamogeton Cheesemanii A. Benn. Liliaceae. Astelia montana (T. Kirk) Cockayne. Phormium Coohianum Le Jolis. * ■hrysobactron Hookeri Col. Orchidaceae. Thelymitra longijolia Forst. f. Microtis unijolia (Forst, f.) Reichenb. PrasophyUum Colensoi Hook. f. Pteroslylis BanJcsii R. Br. Caladenia Lyallii Hook. f. bi folia Hook. f. ' 'hiloghttis cornuta Hook. f. Adenochilus gracilis Hook. f. (Jorysanthes triloba Hook. f. (iastrodia Cunninghamii Hook. f. Fagaceae. Nothofagus cliff ortioides (Hook, f.) Oerst, fusca (Hook, f.) Oerst. Menziesii (Hook, f .) Oerst, 70 Transactions. Urticaceae. Urtiea incisa Poir. Loranthaceae. Elytrunlhe tetrapetala (Foist, f.) Engl. ' ftavida (Hook, f.) Engl. Santalaceae. Exocarpus Bidwillii Hook. f. Portulacaceae. (Haytonia australasica Hook. 1. Montia fontanel L. Caryophyllaceae. Stellaria Roughii Hook. f. Colobanthus Billardieri Fenzl. var. alpinus T. Kirk. acicularis Hook. f. Scleranthus biflorus Hook. f. Ranunculaceae. Clematis australis T. Kirk. Ranunculus insignis Hook. f. Monroi Hook. f. Monroi Hook. f. var. dentatus T. Kirk. Sinclairii (?) Hook. f. Identification not certain in the absence of flowers and fruit, sp. Scarcely possible to identify in the absence of flowers and fruit. hirtus Banks & Sol. lappaceus Smith. foliosus T. Kirk. rivularis Banks & Sol. Cheescmanii T. Kirk. This is perhaps only a hygrophytic form of R. foliosus It is everywhere abundant throughout the district, in pools and slow-running water. Cruciferae. Cardamine heterophylla (Forst. f.) Schultz var. micrantha Schultz. heterophylla (Forst. f.) Schultz var. uniflora Hook. f. depressa Hook. f. fastigiata Hook. f. Enysii Cheesem. Notothlaspi rosulatum Hook. f. atistrale Hook. f. Droseraceae. Drosera arcturi Hook. Crassulaceae. Crassula Sieberiana Schultz. Pittosporaceae. Pittosforum patulum Hook. f. Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountain*. 71 Rosaceae. Rubus australis Forst. f. srhmidelioides A. Cunn. var. coloratus T. Kirk. subpauperatus Cockayne. parviflorum Smith. Potentilla anserina L. var. anserinoides (Raoul) T. Kirk. Acacna Sanguisorbae Vahl. var. pilosa T. Kirk. inermis Hook. f. inermis Hook. f. var. longiscapa Bitter. microphylla Hook. f. glabra Buck. adscendens (?) Hook. f. non Vahl. Leguminosae. Carmichaelia subulata T. Kirk. Geraniaceae, Geranium microphyllum Hook. f. woUe L. Oxalidaceae. Oxalis comiculata L. magellanica Forst. f. Coriariaceae. Coriaria rusci folia L. thymifolia Humb. & Bonp. angustissima Hook. f. Stackhousiaceae. Stackhousia minima Hook. f. Rhamnaceae. Discaria toumatou Raoul. Elaeocarpaceae. Aristotelia fruticosa Hook. f. Malvaceae. Gaya ribifolia (F. Muell.) Cockayne. LyalUi (Hook, f.) Baker. Violaceae. Viola Cunninghamii Hook. f. Hymenanthera dentata R. Br. var. angustifolia Benth. Thymelaeaceae . Pimeka Traversii Hook. f. Lyallii Hook. f. sericeo-villosa (forma) Hook. f. Suteri (?) T. Kirk. J>rapetes villosa Cheesem. var. muUiflora Cheesem. Myrtaceae. Leptospermum scoparium Forst. ericoides A. Rich. 72 Transactions. Onagraceae. Epilobium pallidiflorum Sol. BiUardierianum Ser. junceum Sol. pubens A. Rich. tasmanicum. Haussk.* pictum Pet lie. tenuipes Hook. f. alsinoides A. Cunn. linnaeoides Hook. f. nummular if olium R. Cunn. macropus Hook. gracilipes (?) T. Kirk. crassum Hook. f. vernicosum (?) Cheeseiu. microphyllum A. Rich. glabellum Foist. novae-zelandiae Haussk. pycnostachyum Haussk. This was collected by Cheeseman at Lake Tennyson, but not collected by us. Halorrhagaceae. Halorrhagis depressa Walp. Gunnera densiflora (?) Hook, f.f dentata T. Kirk. Araliaceae. Nothopanax arboreum (Forst. f.) Seem. Umbelliferae. Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae D. C. asiatica L. Schizeilema Roughii (Hook. 1.) Domin. pallidum (T. Kirk) Domin. trifoliolatum (Hook, f.) Domin. nitens (Petrie) Domin. Oreomyrrhis andicola Endl. var. Colensoi (Hook, f.) T. Kirk. andicola Endl. var. ramosa (Hook, f.) T. Kirk. Aciphylla Colensoi Hook. f. squarrosa Forst. Monroi Hook. f. Anisotome Haaslii (F. Muell.) Cockayne and Laing. filifolia (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing. carnosula (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing. aromatica Hook. f. imbricata (Hook, f.) Laing. Enysii (T. Kirk) Laing var. tennysonianium (Laing). pilifera (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing. Angelica Gingidium, (Forst. f.) Hook. f. var. | decipiens Hook. f. * Here used to include the New Zealand forms of the subantarctic M. con ferti folium. t Vide " Florist ic Notes." j A very distinct shingle-slip form (or new species), of which, however, only oae specimen was obtained. It is therefore not further described at present. Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountains. 73 Cornaceae. Ci/rukia Cotoneaster Raoul. Griselinia litt oralis Raoul. Ericaceae. GauUheria antipoda Forst. f. rupestris R. Br. Epacridaceae. Pentachondra pumila (Forst. f.) R. Br. Styphelia acerosa Sol. Colensoi (Hook, f.) Diels. fasciculata Forst. f. Fraseri (A. Cunn.) F. Muell. Dracophyllum rosmarini folium (Forst. 1.) R. Br. uniflorum Hook. f. Gentianaceae. Gentiana corymbifera T. Kirk. patula (T. Kirk) Cheesem. bellidijolia Hook. f. divisa (T. Kirk) Cheesem. var. magnifica T. Kirk. Borraginaceae. Myosotis australis R. Br. Forsteri Lehm. Traversii Hook. f. laeta Cheesem. macrantha Hook. f. Laingii Cheesem. Labiatae. Mentha Cunninghamii (A. Cunn.) Benth. Scrophularinaceae. Mazus radicans (Hook, f.) Cheesem. Veronica subalpina Cockayne. divergens (?) Cheesem. salicifolia Forst. f. vernicosa Hook. f. var. canterburiensis Armstr. buxifolia Benth. buxifolia Benth. var. patens Cheesem. cupressoides Hook. f. epacridea Hook. f. macrantha Hook. f. Raoulii Hook. f. pulvinaris Hook. f. & Benth. linifolia Hook. f. catarractae Forst. f. var. lanceolata Hook. f. Lyallii Hook. f. Bidwillii Hook. decumbens Armstr. pinguijolia Hook. f. leiophylla Cheesem. Gilliesiana T. Kirk. lycopodioides Hook. f. Haastii Hook. f. 74 Transactions. Ourisia macrophylla Hook. f. caespitosa Hook. f. Euphrasia Monroi Hook. f. Thus listed by us, but perhaps E. Laingri Petrie. Lentibulariaceae. Utricularia novae-zelandiae Hook. f. Plantago Raoulii Decne. Brownii Rapin. spathulata Hook. f. lanigera Hook. f. Plantaginaceae. Rubiaceae. Coprosma serrulata Hook. I. rhamnoides A. Cunn. parviflora Hook. f. ramulosa Petrie. virescens (?) Petrie. brunnea (T. Kirk) Cockayne. propinqua A. Cunn. linariifolia Hook. f. repens Hook. f. Petriei Cheesem. (falium tenuicaule A. Cunn. umbrostim Sol. Campanulaceae. Pratia angulata (Forst. f.) Hook. f. macrodon Hook. f. Lobelia Roughii Hook. f. Wahlenbergia cartilaginea Hook. f. 4 Stylidiaceae. Phyllachne clavigera F. Muell. Colensoi Berggr. Forstera Bidwillii Hook. f. Compositae. Lagenophora petiolata Hook. f. Barkeri T. Kirk. Brachycome pinnata Hook. f. Thomsoni T. Kirk var. membrani folia (?) T. Kirk. Sinclairii Hook. f. Olearia cymbifolia (Hook, f.) Cheesem. avicenniaefolia Hook. f. virgata Hook. i. Forma with rigid branches and spiny bjjanchleta. Celmisia Walker i T. Kirk. lateralis Buch. discolor Hook. f. incana Hook. f. incana Hook. f. var. petiolata T. Kirk.* petiolata Hook. f. var. membranacea T. Kirk. * Vide " Floristic Notes. Laing. — Botany of the Spenser Mountains. 75 ilelmisia coriacea Hook. f. hngifolia Cass. Shingle-slip form. longifolia Cass. var. alpina T. Kirk. laricifolia Hook. f. bellidioides Hook. f. viscosa Hook. f. sessiliflora Hook. f. spectabilis Hook. f. Vittadinia australis A. Rich. Haastia pulvinaris Hook. f. pulvinaris Hook. f. var. minor Laing.* Gnaphalium Traversii Hook. f. var. Mackayi Buch. nitidulum Hook, f.* luteo-album L. collinum. Labill. Raoulia australis Hook. f. apice-nigra T. Kirk. tenuicaulis Hook. f. eximia Hook. f. Monroi Hook. f. glabra Hook. f. grandiflora Hook. f. bryoides Hook. f. Helichrysum bellidioides (Forst. f.) Willd. grandiceps Hook. f. depressum Hook. f. (Benth. & Hook. f.). microphyllum Hook. f. (Benth. & Hook. f.). Selago (Hook, f.) Benth. & Hook. Cassinia albida (T. Kirk) Cockayne- fulvida Hook. f. Graspedia uniflora Forst. L alpina Backhouse. Ootula atrata Hook. f. atrata. Forma with brown florets. squalida Hook. f. dioica Hook. f. Erechtites prenanthoides D. C. scaberula Hook. f. glabrescens T. Kirk. quadridentata D. C. Senecio lagopus Raoul. bellidioides Hook. f. Lyallii Hook. f. scorzoneroides Hook. f. cassinioides Hook. f. Bidwillii Hook. f. geminatus T. Kirk. Microseris Forsteri Hook. f. Taraxacum glabratum (Forst. f.) Cockayne. * Vide " Floristio Notes." 76 Transfictians. Art. IV. — Notes on the Plant Covering of Codfish Island and ike Rugged Islands. By D. L. Poppelwell. [Read before the Otago Institute. 3rd October, ]y]].\ Plate IX. A. General. Codfish Island and the Rugged Islands lie oft' the north-west coast of Stewart Island, and form practically the first barrier met by the south- western storms on their long journey from the Antarctic ice. Unstayed by any break for thousands of miles, these fierce winds sweep across the waters, raising them in angry waves, which, gathering strength and bulk as they travel, ultimately strike these islands with almost irresistible force. The torn and ragged nature of the western coasts speak eloquently of their struggle with these keen winds and storms. The vegetation, too, has through the ages found its place in the struggle for existence both as regards its form and distribution. Dr. Cockayne, in his splendid and exhaustive report on the botany of Stewart Island, has confined himself practically to the mainland, hence a few notes on the flora of these hitherto - unbotanized western ramparts may be interesting. During Easter, along with a small party of Gore residents, including Messrs. G. J. Anderson, M.P., and R. Fisher, to the latter of whom I am indebted for the photographs here published, I had the good fortune, by the courtesy of the Messrs. Hansen Brothers, to spend the best part of two days at Codfish Island. We left Half-moon Bay by steamer early on Monday, the 17th April, arriving at Sealers' Bay, Codfish Island, at 10.30 a.m., and left again at 3.30 p.m. on the following day. I spent several hours of each day examining the flora, and this paper is based upon observation and notes taken on the spot. Sealers' Bay about eighty years ago was the site of a sealing settlement ; hence, no doubt, the name. The island has long since been deserted, but signs of the old settlement are evident in the clearings in the forest where the huts once stood. The indigenous species noted numbered 111, belonging to seventy-six genera and thirty-seven orders. In addition to the indigenous plants, some five naturalized plants were observed, all of which were confined to the open land, and all but one were on the sand-dunes. Perhaps the most abundant of these plants were Mentha spicata and Foeniculum officinale. Both of these species are used for flavouring sauces, and no doubt were a survival of the old settlement on Codfish Island. Two other plants were Cryptostemma calen- dulaceum and Cnicus lance Zealand Caradrinina. 107 Index of Species- — continued. infensa Walk. injuncta Walk. innocua Walk, innominata Hud*. insignis Walk, iota Huds. . . junicolor Guen. leueanioides Guen. levis Philp. lignana Walk, lignifusca Walk. liqnisecta Walk. lilacina Butl. lissoxyla Meyr. lithias Meyr. loreyi Hup. maori Feld. margarita Hawth. mauritia Boisd. maya Huds. melicerte Drury merope Huds. micrastra Meyr. mitis Butl. . . moderata Walk. morosa Butl. munda Walk, mutans Walk, nervata Guen. neurae Philp. nullifera Walk. ochthistis Meyr. octans Huds. ociias Huds. omicron Huds. omoplaca Meyr. oxygramma Hiibn. pachyscia Meyr. pallida Huds. paracausta Meyr. pauca Philp. pelistis Meyr. peracuta Morr. pessota Meyr. phaula Meyr. phricias Meyr. pictula White plena Walk, plusiata Walk. polychroa Meyr. prionistis Meyr. propria Walk. 66 proteastis Meyr. . 78 7 pulchella Linn. . 4 12 pulcherrima Luc. . 97 11 purdii Fer. . 18 59 purpurea Butl. . 13 15 quadrata Walk. . 12 20 radians Guen. . 7 87 reciproca Walk. . 12 81 rhodopleura Meyr. . . . 51 70 rogationis Guen. . 98 60 rubescens Butl. . 69 62 scapularis Feld. 7 102 scotosialis Walk. . 102 22 selenophora Guen. . 101 82 semivittata Walk. . 26 30 sericea Butl. . 8 45 sericea Butl. . 89 92 sistens Guen. . 33 92 skelloni Butl. . 59 57 smintkistis Hamps. . . . 38 96 specifica Guen. . 32 72 sphagnea Feld. . 53 29 spurcata Walk. . 60 33 steropastis Meyr. . 44 33 stipata Walk. . 71 80 strategica Huds. . 3 7 stulta Philp. . 28 60 subchalybaea Walk. . . . 99 43 suffusa Hiibn. . 10 23 sulcana Fer. . 27 32 tartarea Butl. . 76 79 temenaula Meyr. . 35 54 temperata Walk. . 84 95 thoracica Walk. . 88 73 toroneura Meyr. . 21 67 trans fixa Walk. . . 99 99 traversii Fer. . . 96 36 turbida Walk. . . 59 90 turbulenta Walk. 7 63 umbra Huds. . . 67 53a unica Walk. . . 20 80 unipuncta Haw. . . 31 45 ustistriga Walk. . 62 14 verticillata Guen. . 98 23 vexata Walk. . . 60 86 vigens Walk. . . 49 50 virescens Butl. . 34 53 viridis Butl. . 53 91 vitiosa Butl. . . 78 59 vitiosa Huds. . . 79 85 xantkogramma Meyr. . 58 48 ypsilon Rott. to 108 Transactions. Art. VII. — On the Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of New Zealand.; Bv G. B. Longstaff. M.A., M.D., F.E.S. Communicated by George Howes, F.E.S. [Read before the Ot.ago Institute, 6th June, 1911. \ During the early part of 191<> it was my good fortune to spend eight weeks in New Zealand, during which I visited many places in both Islands. Natu- rally enough, my attention was somewhat distracted from entomology by the other attractions of the country, but in spite of these, and in spite of the shortness of the time at my disposal, I was, largely owing to the kindness of Mr. Augustus Hamilton. Mr. G. W. Howes, and Mr. G. V. Hudson, able to obtain some slight knowledge of its insect fauna. Since returning to England many hours have been spent in the British Museum naming my captures. Moreover, I have had the opportunity of examining large consignments of New Zealand Lepidoptera recently received from Messrs. Hamilton and Howes. In addition, I have had the invaluable assistance of Sir George F. Hampson, Bart., and Mr. L. B. Prout, in the settlement of knotty points. Mr. Howes suggested that I might give some of the fruits of my labours to my brother entomologists in New Zealand. Obviously, it would not be possible to place at their disposal every determination of a specimen, but perhaps I may save them some of the trouble that I had to go through myself in seeking out the comparatively small number of New Zealand moths in the serried ranks of cabinets at South Kensington. All concerned in New Zealand entomology owe a great debt of gratitude to Mr. Hudson for his " New Zealand Moths and Butterflies, " which was published in 1898. The writer of a pioneer work of that description always labours under great difficulties — difficulties which must have been in his case greatly increased by his distance from the vast collections and rich libraries of Europe. This paper appears to be a criticism of Mr. Hudson's book, and so, indeed, it is ; but it is a friendly criticism. His book has been most useful to me, alike in New Zealand and in England ; and, in spite of imperfections, many of them probably unavoidable, no criticism can destroy the value of the life- histories and notes of habits and like matters, which find no place in such works as Sir George Hampson's great catalogue. All, I think, must join in hoping that some day Mr. Hudson may see his way to a second edition. Here I would put in a word of encouragement to those who, like myself, are not systematists, and are, naturally enough, much put out by the changes of nomenclature that are nowadays so frequent. The value of a generic name is comparatively small, since genera correspond to the views of natu- ralists rather than to the facts of nature, and with increasing knowledge the views of naturalists change rapidly. Some divergences of opinion are due to the recognition, or otherwise, of the genera founded by older authors, which may, or may not, comply with our rules of nomenclature. Sometimes it is discovered that the author's type of the genus was a species now recog- nized as very different in structure from the others included with it. Some- times a familiar old name is dropped because the type species is clearly congeneric with some earlier-described species. Many changes which seem from a New Zealand or an English point of view to be meaningless are clearly Longstaff. — Nomenclature of tfte Lepidoptera of N.Z. 109 comprehensible when a large fauna is reviewed. In short, generic names have changed, and, troublesome though it be, probably will change again. With species, however, the case is quite different. They correspond, or should correspond, with natural facts. There will probably always be both the "splitter" and the "lumper." Nevertheless, while it is com- paratively unimportant what generic name you use, it is most important, so far as possible, that all should agree as to the specific name. It is, for example, most important that you should all mean the same thing by vitiosa Butl., but it matters comparatively little whether you include it in Me- lanchra or Morrisonia. It was almost inevitable that Mr. Hudson should have adopted Mr. Meyrickfs system of classification and somewhat revolutionary nomen- clature. Sir George Hampson's system differs from Mr. Meyrick's, though the difference is not perhaps so great as appears at first sight. It is well that I should state quite plainly that I am in nowise competent to judge between the two systems, and make no claim to do so. My design in this paper is a much more humble one, being merely to help New Zealand ento- mologists to find out by what names their moths and butterflies are known in the latest English systematic work. A few remarks as to the formidable " Catalogue of the Lepidoptera- Phalaenae in the British Museum" may possibly be of interest to the mem- bers of the New Zealand Institute. The first volume was issued in 1898, the ninth, completing the Noctuidae Trifinae, in 1910. In these ponderous tomes, each accompanied by a fasciculus of coloured plates, illustrating species not previously figured satisfactorily, Sir George Hampson has dealt with close upon ten thousand species of moths. Vol. 3 deals with four New Zealand insects, vol. 4 with eight, vol. 6 with four, vol. 7 with three, vol. 8 with two. Three of the volumes (1, 2, and 9) contain no New Zea- land species ; but it is fortunate that no less than forty-six species, all in the subfamily Hadenidae, are described in vol. 5.* Since Sir George's monumental work is likely to be the standard authoritv for many years to come— at any rate, for English-speaking entomologists— I have adopted his arrangement of the species in preference to that of Mr. Hudson, or that of the " Hand-list of New Zealand Lepidoptera^ On the left-hand side will be seen the name of the species as it stands in Mr. Hudson's book, or in the original paper in which it was described. The page, plate, and figure follow. The mark If signifies that there is no illustration of the species. On the right-hand side are given : — (1.) The number borne by the species in the catalogue. An as- terisk (*) indicates that at the time of publication there was no specimen in the British Museum. In the case of the species recognized by the author since the publication of the volume the interpolated number is given in parentheses ( ). (2.) The name in the catalogue or in the British Museum collection. (3.) The number, in parentheses ( ), of specimens in the collection in November, 1910. This in most cases is only given when the number is under six. When the mark $ is added, the cJ is unknown to Sir George, and there is therefore some doubt as to the section of the genus in which the species should be placed. *Vol. 5 is issued at 15s.; the accompanying plates also cost 15s.: either ma)' be had separately. 110 Transactions. (4.) The reference to volume, page, plate, and figure in the catalogue. '' Fig." means that there is a woodcut in the text ; the mark If. that there is no illustration of the species. When the insect has been recognized since publication, any obsolete reference to it is placed in square brackets [ ]. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. = "Annals and Magazine of Natural History." Hmpsn. = " Catalogue of the Lepidoptera-Phalaenae in the British Museum." Huds. = " New Zealand Moths and Butterflies," 1898. Subantarc. is. N.Z. = " Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst. = " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute." Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. = " Transactions of the Entomological Society of London." Wellington list = " Hand-list of New Zealand Lepidoptera, Dominion Museum, Wellington. 1909." Metacrias huttoni Butl., Huds. p. 5. iv. 6 Metacrias strategica Huds., Huds. p. 4,* iv, 4 Metacrias erichrysa Meyr., Huds. p. 4,* iv, 5 Utetheisa pulchella Linn., Huds. p. 3, iv, 3 Nyctemera annulate Boisd., Huds. p. 2, iv, 1, 2 Heliothis armigera Hiibn., Huds. p. 32. v, 40, 41 Euxoa radians Guen. ^f Agrotis admirationis Guen., Huds. p. 31, \ v, 37 Agrotis sericea Butl., Huds. p. 31, v, 38. . ) Agrotis ceropachoides Guen., Huds. p. 32, vi, 1 Agrotis ypsilon Rott., Huds. p. 30, v, 35, 36 Urthosia immunis Walk., Huds. p. 7, v, 29 Agrotis innominata Huds., Huds. p. 31. v, 39 Ectopatria aspera. Walk., Wellington list Erana graminosa Walk.. Huds. p. 29, v, 24, 25 Melanchra rhodopleura Meyr., Huds. p. 19, iv, 38 Melanchra pictula Buti. et Huds., nee White, Huds. p. 19, iv, 37 Levcania griseipennis Feld., Huds. p. 9; but iv, 8, would appear to represent L. moderata 2063. Metacrias huttoni Butl. (5), vol. 3, p. 468 ; tig. 2064. Metacrias strategica Huds. (3), vol. 3, p. 468. %. 2065. Metacrias erichrysa Meyr. (1), vol. 3, p. 469. «T. ' 2088. Utetheisa pulchella Linn., vol. 3, p. 483 ; tig. — ■ Deilemera annulata Boisd. t 56. [Chloridea armigera] Hiibn., now C. obsoleta Fab., vol. 4, p. 45 ; fig. 285. Euxoa radians Guen. (1, from N.Z.), vol. 4, p. 164, lx, 7. 300. Euxoa admirationis Guen., vol. 4, p. 173 ; syn. sericea Butl. • . * 301. Euxoa ceropachoides Guen. (0), vol. 4, p. 174, Ixi, 7. 646. Agrotis ypsilon Rott., vol. 4, p. 368 ; 702. Agrotis compta Walk., vol. 4, p. 409, Ixx, IS. 895. Lycophotia innominata Huds. (1), vol. 4, p. 515 ; fig. 1123. Ectopatria aspera Walk. (3 N.Z.), vol. 4, p. 654, lxxvii, 27. 1128. Erana graminosa Walk., vol. 5, p. 8 ; fig. 1374. [Polia pictula White] (3), vol. 5, p. 174. % Miselia pictula White. J (1374a.) Miselia meyricci Hmpsn. ined.% (2). % 1526. Hyssia griseipennis Feld., vol. .>, p. 278. % -j- This is placed by Hampson in the Hypsidae, but it is taken here for convenience. Nyctemera is now restricted to certain African moths formerly called Otroeda, now placed in the Lymuntriidae. % Hampson has recently given the generic name Miselia Tr. priority over Polia Tr. With the imperfect material at his disposal when writing his catalogue he considered the North and South Island forms sexes of White's species. The type in the national col- lection is the same insect as Meyriek's rlwdopleura, so that name sinks. The description in the catalogue requires correction owing to the confusion of the two species. See Ann. Mag. Nat, Hist, (8), viii, p. 421 (1911). Longstaff. — Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of N.Z. Ill Hyssia inconetans Butl., Huds. p. 9, included under L. griseipennis Leucania temenaula Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1907, vol. 39, p. 106 Mdanchra cucullina Guen.. Huds. p. 27, v, 23 Leucania pachyscia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1907," vol. 39, p. 106. Leucania moderata Walk., Huds. p. 9, ? iv, 8 Hyssia sminthistis Hmpsn., Wellington list Leucania nullifera Walk., Huds. p. 9, iv, 9 Melanchra plena Walk.. Huds. p. 17. iv. 32 Melanchra insignia Walk., Huds. p. 16, iv, 29, 30 Melanchra mutans Walk., Huds. p. 18, iv, 34, 35, 36 Melanchra caeleno Huds., Huds. p. 26, iv, 39. Melanchra beata Howes, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1906, vol. 38, p. 511, xliv, 2 Melanchra levis Pkilpott, Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1905, vol. 37, p. 329, xx, 4 Melanchra paracausta Mevr., Huds. p. 15, iv, 28. 28a Melanchra mai/a Huds., Huds. p. 17, iv, 31 Melanchra bromias Mevr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1902, p.' 273 Mdanchra agorastis Meyr., Huds. p. 18, v, 30 Melanchra proteastis Meyr., Huds. p. 20, iv, 40 Melanchra infensa Walk., Huds. p. 23, v, 12 Melanchra rubescens Butl., Huds. p. 25, v, 18 Melanchra ustistriga Walk., Huds. p. 26, v, 20, 20a Mdanchra lithias Meyr., Huds. p. 17, iv, 33 Mdanchra homoscia Meyr., Huds. p. 21, v, 7 Melanchra stipata Walk., Huds. p. 25, v, 17 Melanchra ale/one Huds., Huds. p. 24, v, 14 Leucania alopa Meyr., Huds. p. 12, iv, 16 Mdanchra merope Huds., Huds. p. 19, v, 2 1527. Hyssia inconstans Butl. (3), vol. 5, p. 279, lxxxv, 23. (1527a.) Hyssia temenaula '.Meyr. (1). ^f. 1528. Hyssia cucullina Guen. (4), vol. 5, p. 279, lxxx, 27. (1528a.) Hyssia pachysia Meyr. (0). % 1529. Hyssia moderata Walk., vol. 5, p. 280 ; fig. 1530. Hyssia sminthistis Hmpsn. (1), vol. 5, p. 280, lxxxvi, 17. 1531. Hyssia nullifera Walk. (3), vol. 5, p. 281 ; fig. 1671. Morrisonia plena Walk., vol. 5, p. 367. H (1671a.) Morrisonia chlorodonta Hmpsn. (1$). Tf. Description in Ann. Mas. Nat. Hist. (8), viii, p. 423 (1911). 1672. Morrisonia insignia Walk., vol. 5, p. 368, lxxxviii, 20. 1673. Morrisonia mutans Walk., vol. 5, p. 369, lxxxviii, 21. (1673a.) Morrisonia caeleno Huds. (1 9) [vol. 5, p. 612, ignot.]. (1673b.) Morri sonia beata Howes (1). % (1673c.) Morrisonia levis Philpott (2 9). * 1674. Morrisonia paracausta Mevr. (6), vol. 5, p. 370. % (1674a.) M orrisonia oliveri Hmpsn. (19). Tf. Description in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8), viii, p. 424 (1911). (1674b.) Morrisonia maya Huds. (1) [vol. 5, p. 612, ignot.]. (1674c.) Morrisonia chyserythra Hmpsn. ■ (!)• U. . ' * 1675. Morrisonia bromias Meyr. (0), vol. 5, p. 370, lxxxviii, 22. * 1676. Morrisonia agorastis Mevr. (0). vol. 5, p. 371, lxxxviii, 23. 1682. Morrisonia vitiosa Butl. (3), vol. 5, p. 375. If- 1683. Morrisonia infensa Walk. (1 9). vol. 5, 376, lxxxviii, 27.f 1684. Morrisonia rubescens Butl., vol. 5, p. 376, lxxxviii, 28. 1685. Morrisonia ustistriga Walk., vol. 5, p. 377, lxxxviii, 29. * 1686. Morrisonia lithias Mevr. (0), vol. 5, p. 378. % 1687. Morrisonia homoscia Meyr. (5), vol. 5, p. 378, lxxxviii. 23. 1688. Morrisonia stipata Walk., vol. 5, p. 379 ; fig. (1688a.) Morrisonia alcyone Huds. (1) [vol. 5, p. 612, ignot.]. (1688b.) Morrisonia alopa Meyr. (3) [vol. 5, p. 611, ignot.]. (1688c.) Morrisonia merope Huds. (1) [vol. 5, p. 612, ignot.~\.\ f The male of this species is not known to Hampson, who thinks it likely to come near Alopa. % I found this in the British Museum as M. chlorograpta, so described by Hampson in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1905, p. 452, but he has since sunk that name. 112 Transactions. Melanchra diatmela Huds., Huds. p. 21, v, 5 Melanchra dotata Walk., Huds. p. 24, v, 16 Melanchra vitiosa But!.. Huds. p. 20, iv, 42 Melanchra tartarea Butl., Huds. p. 21, v, 6 Melanchra, omoplaca Meyr., Huds. p. 23, v, 13 Melanchra decorata Philpott, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1905, vol. 37, p. 328, xx, 2 Melanchra lignana Walk., Huds. p. 26, v, 19 Melanchra pelistis Meyr., Huds. p. 19, v, 3, 4 Melanchra prionistis Meyr., Huds. p. 27, v, 21 Leucania temperala Walk.. Huds. p. 9. ^j Melanchra phricias Meyr., Huds. p. 27. v, 22 Melanchra composite Guen., Huds. p. 22, v, 8, 9 Leucania arotis Meyr., Huds. p. 12, iv, 18 ! Leucania innotata Howes, Trans. N.Z. ) Inst. 1908, vol. 40, p. 534 ) Melanchra steropastis Mevr., Huds. p. 23. v, 10, 11 Leucania atristriga Walk., Huds. p. 10, iv, 12 Physetica caerulea Guen., Huds, p. 8, iv, 7 Leucania micrastra Meyr., Huds. p. 12, iv, 10 Melanchra disjungens Walk., Huds. p. 15, v, 43 Leucania propria Walk., Huds. p. 11, iv, 13 Leucania unipuncta Haw., Huds. p. 13, iv, 24 Ichneutica ceraunias Meyr., Huds. p. 14, iv, 25, 26 Ichneutica dione Huds., Huds. p. 14, iv, 27 Leucania acontistis Meyr., Huds. p. 11. iv, 14 Leucania toroneura Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1901, p.' 565 Leucania, neurae Philpott, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1905, vol. 37, 330, xx, 5 Leucania unica Walk., Huds. p. 12, iv, 17 (1688D.) Morrisonia diatmela Huds. (1 $). 1689. Morrisonia dotata Walk. (1), vol. 5, p. 380, lxxxviii, 31. 1690. Morrisonia ochthistis Meyr., vol. 5, p. 380, lxxxviii, 32. 1691. Morrisonia tartarea Butl. (3), vol. 5, p. 381, lxxxix, 1. I<>92. Morrisonia omoplaca Mevr. (I1. vol. 5, p. 382, lxxxix. 2. (1693a.) Morrisonia. decorata Philpott (4). If. 1694. Morrisonia lignana Walk., vol. 5. p. 383, lxxxix, 3. 1695. Morrisonia morosa Butl., vol. 5, p. 384, lxxxix, 4. * 1696. Morrisonia prionistis Meyr. (6), vol. 5, p. 384, lxxxix, 5. 1697. Morrisonia temperata Walk. (5). vol. 5, p. 385, lxxxix, 6. 1698. Morrisonia phricias Meyr., vol. 5, p. 385, lxxxix, 7. (1698a.) Morrisonia longstaffi Howes, Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1911, vol. 43, p.l2S; fig. (1698b.) Morrisonia sequens Howes, Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1912, vol. 44, p. 204 ; fig. 1699. Persectania evingi Westw., vol. 5, p. 386 ; fig. 1700. Persectania aulacias Meyr. (2), vol. 5, p. 387, lxxxix, 8. Syn. arotis Meyr. ; syn. obsoleta Howes ; syn. innotata Howes. 1701. Persectania steropastis Meyr., vol. 5. p. 388, lxxxix, 9. 1702. Persectania atristriga Walk., vol. 5. p. 388 ; fig. 1786. Physetica caerulea Guen. (5), vol. 5, p. 445 ; fig. 1787. Physetica vindimialis Guen. (1), vol. 5, p. 445, xci, 2. Hampson says, " Hab. (?) U.S.A., E. Florida (Doubleday). 1 $ type. The type has the abdomen of a male of some other species stuck on to it, and will probably prove to be from New Zealand." Vol. 5, p. 446. * 1788. Physetica micrastra. Meyr. (0), vol. 5, p. 446, xci, 3. 1816. Graphania. disjungens Walk., vol. 5. p. 469 ; fig. 1818. Tmetolophota propria Walk., vol. 5, p. 471 ; fig. 1915. C'irphis unipuncta Haw., vol. 5, p. 547. If. * 2036. Leucania ceraunias Meyr. (3), vol. 5, p. 590. * 2037. Leucania dione Huds. (0), vol. 5, p. 590. If. (2037a.) Leucania acontistis Meyr. (3) [vol. 5, p. 610, ignot.]. * 2038. Leucania toroneura Meyr. (1), vol. 5, p. 591, xevi, 1. Syn. Leucania neurae Pnilpott, 2039. Leucania unica Walk. (5), vol. 5, p. 591 ; fig. Loncstaff. — Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of N.Z. Leucania dunedinensis Butl. ^f 113 2040. Leucania dunedinensis Hmpsn. (2), vol. 5, p. 591 , xcvi, 2. 2041. Leucania semivittata Walk. (5), vol. 5, p. 592 ; fig. * 2042. Leucania blenheimensis Fereday (0), vol. 5, p. 592, xcvi, 3. (2042a.) Leucania purdiei Fereday (1) [vol. 5, p. 611, ignot.]. 2043. Leucania sulcana Feredav (5), vol. 5, p. 593 ; fig. * 2606. ? Sympistis pessota Meyr. (0), vol. 6, p. 412, ignot. * 2607. Sympistis iota Huds. (0), vol. 6, p. 413, ignot. 2608. Sympistis fortis Butl. (2), vol. 6, p. 413 ; fig. 2715. Austramathes purpurea Butl., vol. 6, p. 492 ; fig. 2775. Bityla defigurata Walk., vol. 7,, p. 41 ; fig. 2776. Bityla, sericea Butl. (1), vol. 7, p. 41. % 2777. ? Bityla pallida Huds. (1), vol. 7, p. 42, cix, 6. 3591. Cosmodes elegans Donov., vol. 8, p. 17 ; fig. 4071. Ariathisa comma Walk., vol. 8, p. 400 ; fig. Plusia chalcites Esp. Leucania semivittata Walk.. Huds. p. 13, iv, 21, 22 Leucania blenheimensis Fereday, Huds. p. 13, iv, 23 Leucania pnrdii Fereday, Huds. p. 10, iv, 11 Leucania sulcana Fereday, Huds. p. 13, iv, 19, 20 Miselia pessota Meyr., Huds. p. 6, v, 26 Miselia iota Huds., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1903, vol. 35, p. 243, xxx, 3 Orthosia fortis Butl., Mevr. Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1901, p. 565 Xanthia purpurea Butl., Huds. p. 8, v, 32 Bityla defigurata Walk., Huds. p. 29, v, 33 Bityla sericea Butl, Huds. p. 29, v, 31 Orthosia pallida Huds., Trans. N.Z. lust. 1905, vol. 36, p. 355 Cosmodes elegans Donov., Huds. p. 33, vi, 2 Orthosia comma Walk., Huds. p. 7, v, 27, 28 Plusia chalcites Esp., Huds. p. 35, vi, 3 Dasy podia selenophora Guen., Huds. p. 35, vi, 4 Hypenodes exsularis Meyr., Huds. p. 34. Hyperaucha octias Meyr., Huds. p. 37, vi, 7 (Rhapsa octias, Huds.)| Bhapsa scotosialis Walk,, Huds. p., 36, vi, 5, 6 Sir George Hampson has not seen any of the following thirteen species, the types of which would appear to be in New Zealand, consequently he is unable to give any definite opinion about them. His difficulty is the same as Mr. Hudson has often laboured under. Agrotis veda Howes, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1906, vol. 38, p. 511, xliv, 3 Orthosia margarita Hawthorne, Huds. p. 6, v, 31 Melanchra exquisita Philpott, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1903, vol. 35, p. 246, xxxii, 2 Melanchra omicron Huds., Huds. p. 22, v, 42 Melanchra asterope Huds., Huds. p. 24, v, 15 Melanchra grandiosa Philpott, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1903, vol. 35, p. 246, xxxii, 1 Melanchra mollis Howes, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1908, vol. 40, p. 533 Melanchra octans Huds., Huds. p. 25, v, 1 Melanchra erebia Huds., Subantarc. Is. N.Z. 1909, p. 68, ii, 15 Hypenodes exsularis Meyr. (0). Hypenodes anticlina Meyr. (0). Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 612 (? near Polia pictula). Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 612 (? Hyssia, near cucullina). Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 612 (? Morrisonia, near dotata). Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 612 (? Morrisonia). Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 612 (? Xylomania, near natalensis). f Mr. Meyrick (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1901, p. 566) confesses to having led Mi. Hudson astr.iv. 114 Transaction?. Leucania pagaia Huds., Subantarc. Is. N.Z., p. 67, ii, 9 Physetica hudsoni Howes. Trans. N.Z. Mr. Howes agrees with Mr. Hamilton in Inst. 1906, vol. 38, p. T>10. xliv. 1 regarding this as a form of Physetica caerulea Guen. ; but Sir George, who has not seen the insect, thinks it may possibly be a form of Hyssia grisei- pennis. Leucania stulta Philpott. Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1905, vol. 37, 329, xx, 1 Leucania phavla Meyr., Huds. p. 11, Hmpsn., vol. 5, p. 611 f? near L. blen- iv, 15 heimensis). At this place in Mr. Hudson's book the group that is usually called the Geometridae follows. As Mr. L. B. Prout is still engaged in his great revision of this group for Wytsman's " Genera Insectorum " (of which one part has already appeared), it does not appear expedient to deal with them here systematically., but at the same time it may be convenient to mention three points : — (1.) Xanthorhoe cineraria Dbld., Huds. p. 67, pi. viii, figs. 2, 2a. — Person- ally I have no doubt that the larger form is semi-signata Walk. (pi. viii. fig. 2a) and the smaller cineraria Dbld. (pi. viii, fig. 2), and that these constitute distinct species. (2.) Lythria euclidiata Guen... Huds. p. 68, pi. viii, fig. 35. — My speci- mens referred by Mr. Howes to this species agree absolutely with Butler's type of Arctesthes catapyrrha (in the British Museum), an insect, in my opinion (and, I believe, in Mr. Prout's also), quite distinct from the Australian euclidiata. (3.) Sestra humeraria Walk., Huds. p. 89, pi. x, figs. 1, 2 ; and Sestra flexata Walk., Huds. p. 90, pi. ix, fig. 37 (very poor figure). — Walker's types are in the British Museum, and I have compared them with his descriptions. There seems no room for .doubt that, by some unfortunate slip. Mr. Hudson has reversed the two species. In conclusion, I have a few remarks to make about the butterflies— (1.) Anosia erripus Cram., Huds. p. 102, pi. xi, figs. 1, 2. — The synonomy of this species is extremely confusing. Dr. Jordan, who has gone into the matter very thoroughly, says that the genus Anosia Hiibn. (and several of Moore's genera) are not really distinct from Danaida Latr., which has priority. It would be in accordance with the best modern usage to call the insect Danaida archippus Fab. (2.) Anosia bolina Linn., Huds. p. 104, pi. xii, figs. 7, 8, 9. — This is of course, not a Danaine, but a Nymphaline of the genus Hypolimnas Hiibn. (3.) Vanessa cardui Linn., Huds. p. 108, pi. xii, figs. 1, 2. — I quite agree with Mr. Hudson that the form kershawi McCoy does not merit specific- rank. The Hope collection at Oxford contains a specimen from Cyprus, one from Mongolia, and three from Great Britain, with blue centres to the black spots on the hindwing. The section of the old genus Vanessa to which the three New Zealand species belong is now more commonly called Pyrameis Hiibn. (4.) Junonia velleda Fabr., Huds. p. 109, pi. xi, figs. 16, 17. — This is now referred to Precis. 1 agree with Mr. Hudson as to the spelling of the name : ve.Uida is meaningless. Longstaff. — Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of N .Z . 115 (5.) Chrysophanus salustius Fabr., Huds. p. 117, pi. xii, figs. 18, 19, 20, 21 ; pi. xiii, figs. 2, 3, 4, 5. — Surely this name should be sallustius : the other spelling is meaningless. (6.) Chrysophanus enysii Butl., Huds. p. 117, pi. xii, figs. 22, 23, 24. — The types of enysii Butler and feredayi Bates are both in the British Museum. They are clearly conspecific, and Bates's name has priority. Mr. Hudson is in error in supposing feredayi to be a form of sallustius. (7.) Lycaena phoebe Murray, Huds. p. 119, pi. xii, figs. 10, 11. — This is indistinguishable from Zizera labradus Godart, which has priority. (8.) Lycaena oxleyi Feld., Huds. p. 119, pi. xii, fig. 12. — This was referred to Zizera, but has lately been placed in Neolucia. Waterhouse and Turner. Art. VIII. — Descriptions of Three New Species of Lepidoptera. By Alfred Prtlpott. Communicated by Professor Benham. [Bead before the Otago Institute, 3rd October, 1911.] Hydriomenidae. Chloroclystis lunata n. sp. o. 18-19 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen dark greenish-fuscous. Palpi 1|. Antennae biciliated with long fascicles, ciliations 3. Fore- wings triangular, costa almost straight, termen slightly bowed, subsinuate on lower half ; dark greenish- fuscous ; veins marked more or less with black ; lines obscure ; some faint thin waved green lines near base ; median band ochreous except beneath costa, anterior edge from | to f, waved, hardly curved, posterior from f to f, bluntly projecting at middle and concave on lower half ; a thin dentate bluish - green subterminal line : cilia ochreous, barred with fuscous. Hindwings fuscous, sprinkled with ochreous ; veins with alternate black and white dots ; a thin dentate bluish-green subterminal line. $ as 3, but median band almost obsolete, and with prominent irre- gular crescentic white mark in middle of forewing, the limbs directed posteriorly. Wallacetown, in December and January. A reddish-brown larva found feeding on Veronica on the 5th February pupated a few days later and emerged as a $ moth early in the following December. Unfortunately a fuller description of the larva was not secured. The species differs from most of its allies in its darker ground-colour, and in the $ the white crescentic mark is a good distinctive character. 116 Transactions. Crambidae, Orocrambus subitus n. sp. $. 15-16 mm. Head dark brownish-fuscous. Palpi dark brownish- fuscous, whitish above. Antennae fuscous. Thorax dark brownish-fuscous with white lateral stripe. Abdomen dark brownish-fuscous. Forewings, costa straight, apex obtuse, termen slightly oblique, golden brown sprinkled with white scales, densely irrorated with white in disc and along dorsum, white irroration produced as a streak from disc to apex, dorsum narrowly black from base to J ; a thick black central streak from base to |, apex obtuse, margined beneath with golden brown ; a short black streak above apex of basal streak, anteriorly tapered ; a few black scales before tornus indicating a black subterminal line : cilia dark golden brown with obscure darker line. Hindwings dark brownish-fuscous ; cilia brown, paler round tornus. $. Forewings with white irroration . extending to costa ; black streaks as in $, but margined with orange : cilia grey mixed with white. Hind- wings, grey, paler round termen ; cilia grey. Hump Ridge (Okaka) ; fairly common at 3,500 ft. in December. Nearest to 0. thimiastis, but differing from that species in the colour of the streaks in disc, which are white or yellow in thimiastis, black in subitus. Pyraustidae. Scoparia clavata n. sp. cJ. 26 mm. Head and thorax white, with a black lateral stripe from eye to near middle of thorax. Palpi moderate, white above, sides and beneath dark-brownish. Antennae and abdomen grey. Legs grey, ante- rior pair suffused with fuscous. Forewings moderate, posteriorly dilated, costa almost straight, apex rounded, termen subsinuate, oblique ; white, irrorated with brownish-ochreous, costa narrowly brownish ; a thick black median streak from base of costa to almost \, slightly constricted near termination, apex rounded ; a thick black streak in disc above middle, irregularly sinuate, beginning before \ and ending at about § in irregular dilatation ; a subterminal black striga, inwardly oblique and dilated beneath costa and above dorsum ; all streaks margined with brownish-ochreous ; a terminal chain of linear black dots : cilia whitish with two grey lines. Hindwings shining white, ochreous round termen ; cilia white, ochreous near apex. Hump Ridge ; in forest, at 3,000 ft., in December ; one specimen. Easily distinguished from *S. roluella, its nearest ally, by the subterminal black strigae ; it is also broader-winged than that species. Mkyrick. — ])escn /it/O/iK of New Zealand Lepidoptera. 117 Art. IX. — Descriptions oj New Zealand Lepidoptera. By E. Meyriok. B.A., F.R.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.] I am again enabled by the kindness of Messrs. G. V. Hudson and A. Philpott to present descriptions of a further series of new species of Lepidoptera, representing the results of their labours during the past season. These include some forms of remarkable interest. Caradrinidae. Melanchra xanthogramma n. sp. <$. 37 mm. Head and thorax reddish-brown mixed with whitish- ochreous, sides of patagia and ridge of collar streaked with black and whitish irro ration. Antennae bipectinated (a 2, b 1J), apical third simple, ciliated. Abdomen fuscous, sides and apex tufted with reddish- brown scales mixed with whitish - ochreous. Forewings elongate - tri- angular, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse, termen rather obliquely rounded, crenulate ; light reddish-brown ; subbasal. first, and second lines waved, indicated by interrupted edgings of black irroration, lower end of subbasal connected with base by a bent dark red-brown and blackish mark surmounted with yellow, second obsolete from near costa to below reniform ; an elongate-oval suffused yellow spot beneath sub- median fold between subbasal and first lines, and a streak of yellow suffusion along dorsum from J to f ; spots darker reddish-brown, edged with yellow and then with blackish, orbicular short-oval, rather oblique, somewhat paler - centred, claviform rather smaller, roundish, anteriorly defined by first line, reniform with posterior half pale and whitish-mixed ; space between these darker, with some yellow and blackish scales ; a dark-fuscous elongate patch extending from second to subterminal lines above submedian fold ; some whitish suffusion towards dorsum beneath this ; three whitish dots on costa between second and subterminal lines ; subterminal line slender, yellow, straight and edged with blackish posteriorly, towards extremities dentate and unmargined, at ^ with a dilatation, below middle with a very abrupt acute double dentation reaching termen ; a terminal series of lunulate blackish marks : cilia reddish-brown mixed with paler and whitish. Hindwings fuscous ; cilia whitish, basal half fuscous. Wellington (Hudson) ; one specimen. At first sight much like a variety of insignis, but (as Mr. Hudson correctly points out) the antennal pectinations in that species are somewhat longer. An easy distinction is afforded by the absence of the well-defined short black basal streak of insignis. Selidosemidae. Selidosema lactiflua n. sp. $. 36 mm. Head and thorax olive-greenish mixed with yellow- whitish. Antennal pectinations, a 6, b 5 ; about 8 apical joints simple. Abdomen whitish-yellowish. Forewings triangular, costa slightly archedT 118 Transactions. apex rounded-obtuse, termen evenly rounded, rather oblique ; 10 and 11 separate ; olive-greenish, sprinkled with blackish ; costal area strigulated with white from j to f ; lines formed by blackish suffusion, first and second double, waved, first somewhat curved, second slightly and rather irregularly curved, somewhat sinuate inwards towards dorsum, median thick, somewhat curved ; a blackish transverse discal mark beyond median line ; second line followed by a white band strigulated with olive-greenish ; subterminal line slender, waved, white, preceded and followed by blackish suffusion tending to form spots ; a terminal series of black lunulate marks : cilia pale olive-greenish, sometimes sprinkled with blackish, narrowly and obscurely barred with white. Hind wings whitish-yellow-ochreous, towards dorsum and termen sometimes finely and slightly sprinkled with grey ; a grey discal dot, sometimes faint ; a terminal series of slight dark-grey marks ; cilia whitish-ochreous-yellow. Lake Wakatipu (Hudson), in February ; two specimens. A fine dis- tinct species, resembling melinata and leucelaea. Crambidae. Orocrambus pervius n. sp. <$. 25 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax dark fuscous, palpi mixed beneath with whitish hairs, shoulder with a slight white mark. Antennae shortly ciliated (\). Abdomen dark grey, apex whitish. Forewings elon- gate, posteriorly dilated, costa hardly arched, apex obtuse, termen rounded, somewhat oblique ; dark fuscous, irregularly strewn or partially suffused with ochreous-brown scales ; costal edge slenderly whitish on median area ; a rather narrow white median longitudinal streak from base to termen, beyond middle shortly attenuated or interrupted : cilia grey, with a white bar on median streak. Hindwings dark grey, pectinations ochreous-whitish ; cilia ochreous-whitish, basal third grey. Hindwings beneath largely suffused with ochreous-whitish. Lake Wakatipu, 3,600 ft. (Hudson), in February ; two specimens. Closely allied to catacaustus, which, however, is browner, with a white shoulder-stripe (not mentioned in my description), and with the median stripe only seldom showing a tendency to interruption ; but the reliable distinguishing character lies in the form of the forewings, of which in cata- caustus the termen is not oblique on the upper portion. Pyraustidae. Scoparia triscelis Meyr. This distinct species, originally described from Auckland Island (" Sub- antarctic Islands of New Zealand," p. 71), has now been found by Mr. Hudson at Lake Wakatipu ; a very interesting observation. Scoparia locularis n. sp. $. 21 mm. Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi 2f, dark fuscous, basal joint white. Antennal ciliations §. Thorax white mixed with grey and dark fuscous. Abdomen grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, narrow at base, costa posteriorly moderately arched, apex obtuse, termen sinuate, oblique ; light grey, irregularly mixed with white, with some scattered black scales ; an oblique streak of black suffusion from base of costa ; first line white, rather oblique, slightly sinuate, posteriorly strongly edged with black suffusion ; orbicular and elaviform represented by elongate marks Meyrick. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. 119 of black suffusion connected with this : discal spot 8-shaped, outlined with black, upper half larger but less defined, connected with costa by a spot of black irroration ; second line slender, irregular, white, anteriorly interruptedly edged with black, slightly curved, indented beneath costa and more strongly on submedian fold ; subterminal suffused, whitish, strongly sinuate inwards in middle to touch second line and more or less interrupted above the connection, the sinuation filled with a spot of blackish suffusion : cilia pale fuscous, with blackish ante-median and fuscous post- median lines, broadly barred with whitish. Hind wings 1|, without hairs in cell ; pale grey, becoming darker posteriorly ; discal mark and post- median line faintly darker ; cilia grey-whitish, with interrupted dark- fuscous subbasal line. Mount Arthur, 3,400 ft., and Lake Wakatipu (Hudson), in January and February ; two specimens. Allied to tor odes. Scoparia agana n. sp. S- 23-25 mm. Head white. Palpi 3, rather dark fuscous, basal joint white. Antcnnal ciliations \. Thorax purplish-grey. Abdomen pale greyish-ochreous. Forewings elongate, narrow at base, posteriorly dilated, costa posteriorly gently arched, apex obtuse, termen straight, rather oblique ; fuscous, irregularly mixed with white ; indistinct streaks of dark-fuscous irroration along fold from base to first fine, and posteriorly between veins ; lines formed of white suffusion, first curved, oblique, second rather curved, indented beneath costa and above dorsum ; orbi- cular and claviform represented by indistinct longitudinal marks of dark- fuscous suffusion resting on first line ; discal mark obscurely X-shaped, formed by blackish irroration, lower half filled with whitish suffusion ; subterminal line broad' suffused, whitish, almost terminal, rather sinuate inwards in middle but not reaching second line : cilia grey-whitish, with interrupted grey ante-median line. Hindwings 1^, without hairs in cell ; grey-whitish, with brassy-yellowish reflections ; cilia yellow-whitish. Lake Wakatipu, in February (Hudson) ; one specimen. A second taken by myself on Arthur's Pass, at 3,000 ft., in January. Allied to crypsinoa. Pterophoridae. Stenoptilia vigens Feld. Oxyptilus vigens Feld., Keis. Nov., pi. cxl. 49. $. 19 mm. Head pale brownish, sides whitish, face prominent. Palpi 1\, ochreous-brown, lower edge whitish towards base. Thorax ochreous- white, suffused with light brownish anteriorly. Abdomen whitish-ochreous, towards base white. Forewings cleft to f, segments rather broad, apex pointed, termen oblique, on second segment slightly bowed ; reddish- brown, suffusedly mixed with whitish in disc, with a broad streak of white suffusion along dorsum, dorsal edge tinged with reddish-ochreous ; costa suffused with dark fuscous, dotted with whitish from base to beyond middle ; a dark red-brown spot mixed with black on base of cleft, above which is a patch of white suffusion not quite reaching costa ; posterior area of first segment occupied by a blotch of darker red-brown suffusion mixed with black, marked with a bar of white suffusion close before ter- men ; second segment somewhat sprinkled with whitish posteriorly : cilia on costa dark fuscous, on termen and in cleft white, with a small blackish patch at lower angle of first segment and upper angle of second, and a 120 Transactions. blackish basal line on termen of second segment ; cilia round torn us and on dorsum fuscous. Hind wings rather dark fuscous : cilia grey, base grey-whitish. Lake Wakatipu (Hudson), in February. This is an interesting re- discovery, as Felder's species had never been recognized before, and his localities are frequently quite erroneous. It is allied to choradrias. Stenoptilia zophodactyla Dup. Mr. Hudson sends a specimen of this nearly cosmopolitan species, taken near Wellington in November, stating it to be very rare. It has not been previously recorded from New Zealand. It is common in Europe, which is probably its place of origin ; but I have also received it freely from India, Australia, South Africa, and South America. The larva feeds on Erythraea, but must also be attached to other Gentianaceae, and is probably artificially introduced. It may have reached New Zealand only quite recently. Carposinidae. Carposina morbida n. sp. cj. 26 mm. Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi 2J, porrected, ochreous- whitish. basal half suffused with dark olive-grey. Antennal ciliations 4. Thorax ochreous-whitish, shoulders with an ochreous spot. Abdomen ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, posteriorly some- what dilated, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen straight, rather oblique ; silvery-whitish-ochreous, irregularly strewn with ochreous scales, costa and dorsum somewhat sprinkled with grey ; a small brownish- ochreous basal patch, edge parallel to termen ; six small shots of grey suffusion on costa between this and apex ; tufts brownish- ochreous, posteriorly white — viz., one beneath costa at \, preceded by a dash of black irro ration, one beneath this towards dorsum , a larger one in disc beyond these, preceded by a black dash on sub- median fold, two towards costa in and beyond middle edged with black beneath, one below middle edged with black above, and a ridge on transverse vein, irregularly edged with black anteriorly, between these in middle of disc is an elongate patch of grey suffusion ; some scattered black irroration crossing wing at £ ; cilia whitish, with two greyish shades. Hindwings and cilia whitish. Under-surface of fore- wings and hindwings largely clothed on anterior half with modified pale yellow-ochreous scales, on forewings anteriorly suffused with grey. Lake Wakatipu (Hudson), in February ; one specimen. Can only be confused with exochana ; but the , Hororata ; 7, Glenroy ; 8, Mount Tor- lesse (two miles above Springfield). Hilgendokf. — Artesian Wells in the Christchurch Area. 147 3 i / i .« ~i jf - o u ff D o « ri "- *a / 2 < — «°5 o • j i 5 i t/ % g *v ». i / »— C , rich brown ; c, dark opaque-brown. Though the tests made were scarcely satisfactory, apparently c A h = 6°. A = d, B = b, and mineral is positive. This amphibole is probably barkevicite, and it is considered that it is the same as that in the various other allied rocks of Mount Cargill. Sanidine, in much corroded crystals of small size, is persistent, but never plentiful. There are occasional corroded crystals of anorthoclase, of oligoclase, and of a more basic feldspar that is apparently andesine. The only other phenocrysts are small scarce ragged crystals of greenish and pink augite. The groundmass is the most characteristic feature of the type. A dense web of small feldspar laths, showing remarkable flow structure, constitutes the greatest part of the groundmass, and entangles fairly plentiful augite granules, very minute nepheline prisms, and a little scattered magnetite. Most of the augite is the greenish soda-bearing variety, but in many .sections pink augite also is common. The chief feldspar of the groundmass is sanidine. Cossyrite is absent. The typical rock from Signal Hill shows in comparison with the above an abundance of resorbed amphibole and of coarse feldspars, amongst which oligoclase and anorthoclase are prominent. A little serpentinized olivine also is present. No chemical analysis of this rock was made. D. Basalts. Of three main basaltic areas to be described, the most important is the old neck of Mount Holmes. There a good example of columnar joint- ing is shown. The disposition of the columns is irregular, but indicates that the vent from which the basalt flowed was of the nature of a fissure. This Mount Holmes basalt has apparently burst its way through the Logan's Point phonolite outcropping on Mount Zion. A basalt covers a considerable area near the Junction School, and is the same as that described from there by C. A. Cotton.* Mineralogicallv it agrees with the Mount Holmes basalt, but. as one would expect, textural differences are marked. It is very probable that this lava flowed from the former vent of Mount Holmes. A basaltic-scoria bed of an amygdaloidal nature is found on a branch road leading north-west from the junction School, and apparently is part or the surrounding Junction basalt. On a knoll close to the west side of the Main North Road, about half a mile north-west of its junction with the Port Chalmers Road, is a diffe- rent type of basaltic rock. It is similar in general characters to basanites found to the north-east of the district. Professor Park, in his paper on the geology of North Head. YVaikouaiti.f mentions Mount Cargill as the * " Geology of Signal Hill," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 4J, 1909, p. 121. t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, J 90.3, pp. 423, 424. Bartrum.. — Rocks of Mount Gargill, Dunedin, 175 probable point of origin of basanitic pebbles found in gravels at Mount Cronin. It is uncertain whether this supposed basanite is that recorded by Professor Ulrich from the Mount Cargill area. A similar rock is found in the vallev of the North-east Vallev Stream above where it strikes in a northerly direction away from its previous course alongside the North-east Valley Road. After some difficulty, staining-tests made on these rocks showed a few small crystals that may be nepheline. As, however, some undoubted olivine had gelatinized and absorbed the stain, there is doubt as to this identification. For this reason these rocks are only tentatively classed as basanites. (a.) Mount Holmes Basalt. This is macroscopically an open-grained basaltic-looking greyish-black rock, showing plentiful small crystals of olivine and augite, and weather- ing out to a greyish-fawn colour. Microscopically it is holocrystalline, and of porphyritic, hypidiomorphic structure. The chief phenocrysts are faint greenish-pink augite and olivine : they are of large size. The olivine is very fresh and sharply edged. Augite is frequently of a dirty-green colour ; it occasionally enwraps the olivine. Tue augite also commonly includes magnetite, and in a few instances a little feldspar. Feldspar and augite are both porphyritic. The feldspar typically is much corroded, and has numerous inclusions of groundmass. Twinning by the Carlsbad and albite laws is prevalent. The varieties varv from andesine-labradorite to labradorite. The open fine-grained base which encloses the phenocrysts consists of a plexus of well-shaped feldspar laths which enwrap plentiful microlitic almost colourless augite granules, fairly abundant magnetite, a little coarser olivine, and a little ilmenite. Crystallites of indistinct nature occupy the finest interspaces between the augite granules. Chemical Characters. An analysis of this rock shows that it is a fairly typical basalt. The percentage of ferrous iron is particularly high, and is probably due largely to the greenish augite, as well as to the magnetite and ilmenite. An analysis of a basalt, quoted from Rosenbusch's " Elemente der Gesteinslehre." is also appended. SiOo .. • A1203 Fe,03 Feb MgO CaO K20 Na20 H20 Ti02 99-63 100-46 A. Basalt. Mount Ho'.mes, Mount Cargill, Dunedin. (Analysis. J. Bartrum.) B. Basalt.* A. B. .. 42-75 . . 1717 17-24 2-60 8-01 11-77 5-88 5-80 617 . . 10-05 1114 . . 1-54 2-48 . . 3-60 4-21 . . 1-20 1-06 213 * Rosenbusch, " Elemente der Gesteinslehre," p. 323, No. 15, 1001 ed. 176 Transactions. (b.) Junction Basalt. The occurrence of this rock over an area around the Junction School has already been noted. In hand-specimen the Junction basalt is similar to the Mount Holmes rock, but breaks with a much less regular fracture than the latter. Under the microscope the chief difference is seen to be in the structure. The groundmass is dense and microcrystalline ; it consists of predominant magnetite in small squares, plentiful colourless augite granules, and inter- stitial microlitic grains of feldspar. Large laths of feldspar showing albite twinning are fairly plentiful, and, with olivine and augite, comprise the phenocrysts. The variety of feldspar is chiefly labradorite. Olivine and augite are in large very plentiful crystals. Celyphitic arrangement of the augite about the olivine is not infrequent. The augite is a pink variety, and the olivine often shows alteration to serpentine and to carbonates. A few large crystals of ilmenite and magnetite are present. A curious feature of the rock is the occurrence of occasional large crystals of nepheline that have suffered considerable resorption ; there is a wide fringing zone of small feldspars and a central remnant of the nepheline. The nepheline has probably been caught up from contiguous rocks. It is comparatively plentiful in a rock found on the hillside north- west of the North-east Valley tannery — a basalt characterized by abundant feldspar and sharply idiomorphic violet augite phenocrysts, and by a very dense groundmass — and has there the same peculiarities. The order of crystallization in the Junction basalt seems to be : Pheno- crysts (in order), iron-ore, olivine, augite, feldspar, and then (in order) the magnetite, augite, and feldspar of the groundmass. Chemical Characters. An analysis of the Junction basalt is appended, with, for purposes of comparison, analyses of two other basalts. The analysis shows high percentages of silica, magnesia, and ferrous iron, which correspond well with the abundance of augite in the rock. Si02 ' A12U3 Fe203 FeO MgO CaO K20 Na20 H20 CI Ti02 P206 NiO Ba() A. B. c. 45-80 47-68 48-97 17-91 17-90 16-37 614 4-48 1-33 8-69 9-05 8-56 3-92 8-71 6-22 8-10 5-65 7-49 1-77 2-68 1-72 4-71 2-35 4-09 2-10 1-16 0-38 0-11 0-20 0-35 3-95 1-04 0-08 0-06 99-50 99-86 100-26 A. Basalt No. I* B. Junction basalt. Mount Cargill. (Analysis, J. Bartrum.) C. Scoriaceous basaltic lava from recent eruptions at Pantellaria.f * Cotton, " (ieology of Signal Hill," Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 41, 19C9, p. 122. f H. S. Washington, " Titaniferoua Basalts of the Western Mediterranean," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 63, Feb., 1!>07, p. 75. Bartrum. — Rocks of Mount Cargill, Dunedin 177 Basanites. Mention has been made already of the so-called basanites. In the hand-specimen they are fine-grained dense blackish rocks, showing few conspicuous phenocrysts. Besides the occurrences already noted, a basanite is found as extensive rubble near the hypabyssal trachydolerite on Pine Hill. Under the microscope these rocks show a typically dense base and a paucity of phenocrysts ; augite is the commonest of the few phenocrysts that are seen. It is most often of a pale-pinkish colour, but a green augite with pink border and a purplish-violet variety are also present. In the basanite found north of the Junction School a strongly pleo- chroic mica is prominent. It occurs, along with a little serpentine, as an alteration-product of the olivine ; its pleochroism varies from deep brown to bright golden-brown. It is thought to be anomite. Feldspar seldom is a phenocryst in the Mount Cargill basanites ; a few very large feldspars show albite twinning, and seem to be o'igoclase. They are, however, so crowded by augite granules and other inclusions that an exact determination cannot be made. The groundmass is very dense, and is composed mainly of small grains and squares of magnetite. In the anomite-bearing rock the magnetite is less important, and an interstitial feldspar is the chief constituent, along with grains of colourless augite. The augite is usually in fair amount in these rocks, but feldspar typically occurs only in a comparatively few needle laths. No chemical analysis of any of the basanites was made. Relationships of the Trachydolerite and Phonolite Series. The analyses given in the subjoined table show how gradual a passage there is chemically from the more basic trachydolerites to the phonolites. Petrological characters also indicate that such a gradation is not a matter of chance, but represents a differentiation of many types from the one magma. In certain cases this is due to differences in the rate of cooling. All evidence from the Mount Cargill area would show that the Logan's Point trachytoid phonolite is a portion of the main alkaline magma, and, in fact, a modification of the trachydolerites and the nephelinitoid phono- lites. Evidence from other parts of the district dispels any idea of its contemporaneity with these latter rocks. A. B. C. D. E. Si02 . 50-43 49-02 54-24 54-88 56 12 A1203 . 18-00 19-50 18-08 22-80 21-32 Fe203 3-78 4-37 2-18 3-66 2-59 FcO 5-65 6-60 3-53 3-26 3-29 MgO 2-91 214 0-88 0-38 0-56 CaO 5-76 6-76 5-01 2-24 2-30 K20 . 4-79 1-70 5-09 3-65 4-81 Na20 5-76 7-35 7-29 7-53 5-79 H20 1-37 1-18 1-79 0-91 1-54 CI .. . 0-38 0-63 0-63 0-34 98-83 98-64 98-72 99-94 98-66 A. Trachydolerite, Main Peak, Mount Cargill. B. Trachydolerite, near Pine Hill, Mount Cargill. C. Basic type of trachydolerite. Butter's Peaks, Mount Cargill. D. Nephelinitoid phonolite, Butter's Peaks, Mount Cargill. E. Logan's Point trachytoid phonolite, Mount Zion, Mount Cargill. 178 Transactions. Source and Sequence of the Mount Cargill Rocks. In his paper on the " Geology of Signal Hill,"* Cotton deduces that the Logan's Point phonolite is earlier than the Signal Hill type. His statement is based on evidence brought forward by Professor Marshall showing the relative sequence of the two rocks at the North Head. It is probable that the Mount Cargill and Signal Hill occurrences of the two phonolites are portions of the same flows, and, if this is the case, field evidence at Mount Cargill makes it certain that the flow of the later of the two trachy- toid phonolites must have been south-west, down a steep slope of the earlier. Basaltic rocks in the North-east Valley Stream, near its headwaters, may represent basic outpourings intermediate between the two phonolites — a supposition in accordance with the sequence noted by Professor Marshall at the North Head.f The trachydolerite seems to overlie a surface of Signal' Hill phonolite that slopes gently south-west. This, together with the fact that the Mount Holmes basalt is the ' north-east boundary of the trachydolerite. strongly supports the contention that the flow of this latter rock was in a south-west direction from Mount Cargill. A series of rough joints, very steeply inclined, and running approxi- mately east and west along the strike of the prominent rock ridge of the Main Peak and of Butter's Peaks, together with petrological evidence show- ing differences in the rates of cooling, tends to indicate that the eruption of trachydolerite was from a fissure occupying the site of the present ridge. The North-east Valley seems to have begun its existence after the extru- sion of the trachydolerite and before the ejection of the Mount Holmes basalt, for basalt remnants are found on both Mount Cargill and Signal Hill slopes, and a simple explanation of this is that the basalt from Mount Holmes flowed down the already formed valley. The origin of the basanites is uncertain ; possibly many of them are more of the nature of intrusions than flows, but it is probable that they are in some way connected with the basanitic outpourings that were frequent in the district north-east of the Mount Cargill area. The nephelinitoid phonolite of Butter's Peaks may be a dyke. The other types outcropping near it are simply modifications of the main trachy- dolerite flow. Al! probably originate from the one magma. Quantative Classification. The quantative classification of this series of Mount Cargill rocks has been worked out by the method of Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washing- ton.! The following is the result : — 1. General lava trachydolerite — Class II. Dosalane. Order 6. Norgare. Rang 3. Salemase. Subrang 4 Salemose. * Trans. N.Z. last., vol. 41, 1909, p. 113. + "U.-ology of Dunedin," Quart. Journ. Geol. .Soc, vol. 62, 1900, p. 418. % " Quantative Classification of Igneous Rooks." Bartrum. — Rocks of Mount Gar gill, Dunedin. 179 2. Pine Hill lava trachydolerite — Class II. Dosalane. Order 4. Austrare. Rang 5. Andase . Subrang 4. Andose. 3. Dense basic type of trachydolerite — Class Dosalane. Order 6. Norgare. Rang Subrang 4. 4. (Not named.) (Not named.) 4. Nephelinitoid Class II. phonolite — Dosalane. Order 5. Germanare. Rang 2. Monzonase. Subrang 4. Akerose. 5. Logan's Point trachytoid phonolite— Class I. Persalane. Order 5. Canadare. Rang 2. Pulaskase. Subrang 4. Laurvikose. 6. Mount Holmes basalt — Class III. Salfemane. Order 6. Portugare. Rang 4. (Not named.) Subrang 3. (Not named-) 7. Junction basalt Class. — Between II (Dosalane) and III (Salfemane). Order 5. Germanare. (Gallare.) Rang 3. Andase. (Camptonase.) Subrang 3. Shoshonose. (Kentallenose.) Art. XVII. — Descriptions of New Native Species of Phanerogams. By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 28th November, 1911.] Colobanthus monticola sp. nov. Planta musciformis, humillima, dense caespitosa, ramosa, glaberrima. Folia arete imbricata, paribus oppositis basi in vaginam membranaceam brevem connatis, 6-8 mm. longa, lineari-subulata, acicularia, viridia, mar- ginibus stramineis valde incrassatis, cetera evenosa. Flores laterales breviter pedunculati, pedunculis fructiferis elongatis. Calyx alte 4-partitus ; lobis angustc lineari-subulatis, acicularibus, foliis subsimilibus. Stamina 4, inter calycis lobos disposita, lobisque dimidio breviora. Stvli 4, breves, stamina vix sunerantes. Capsula 4-loculata, sepala aequans matura. ]8<) Transactions. A very low densely tufted branched glabrous moss-like plant, forming small cushions rising an inch or less above the ground. Leaves closely imbricating, spreading, opposite pairs connate at the base and forming a short membranous sheath, 6-8 mm. long, linear- subulate, acicular, green, with strongly thickened margins, otherwise veinless. Flowers near the tips of the branchlets, lateral, shortly peduncled, the peduncles elongating in fruit. Calyx deeply 4-partite, the lobes narrow linear-subulate, acicular, and leaf-like. Stamens 4, short, inserted between the calyx-lobes and barely half as long. Styles 4, short, barely exceeding the stamens. Capsule 4-celled, as long as the sepals when mature. Hub. — Rocky faces of the Sealey Range, Mount Cook district, at 5,500 ft, The present species is closely allied to C. canaliculatus T. Kirk. It differs in the number of sepals and stamens, which are uniformly 4 ; in having the stamens and styles much shorter than the sepals ; and in the form of the calyx-lobes, which are linear-subulate and acicular. Epilobium microphyllum A. Rich. var. prostratum var. nov. Planta typo simillima, ramis omnibus prostratis diffusisque, pedunculis floriferis longioribus. Plant similar to the type, except in its prostrate diffuse branches and longer floriferous peduncles. Hob. — Broken River (lower part) ; Opihi River (near Fairlie) ; vicinity of Naseby. D. P. ; Mount Somers, B. C. Aston. This curious form maintains its distinctive characteristics over a wide area of the South Island. It occurs on gravelly flats in valley-bottoms. Aciphylla intermedia sp. nov. Caulis erectus, 4-6 dcm. altus. Folia parum rigida, 2-3-pinnata. 25-40 cm. longa ; vagina una cum petiolo laminam dissectam aequante vel excedente ; foliola ultima brevia (8-12 cm. longitudine), angusta (4-5 mm. latitudine). Innorescentia late oblonga, + 30 cm. longa. Bractearum vaginae anguste obcuneatae, in prolongationem 1 2-pinnate divisam foliorum laminis subsimilem productae. Pedunculi universales congesti, longiusculi, tenues, sulcati. Fructus lineari-oblongus, utraque facie 5-alatus. Culms erect, 4-6 dcm. high, rather stout (2\ cm. across in the lower part), strongly grooved. Radical leaves numerous, 25-40 cm. long, 2-3-pinnate, pinnae in 4 or 5 pairs ; ultimate leaflets crowded, narrow-linear, grooved, slightly rigid, 8-12 cm. long, 4-5 mm. broad, spinous at the tips, the margins thickened and delicately erose. Sheaths and petioles together equalling or exceeding the dissected blades ; sheaths 8-10 cm. long, 1 cm. broad at the tops, narrow-obcuneate. furnished at either side with a linear spinous leaflet occasionally subdivided and barely half as long as the petiole. Petrie. — New Native Species of Phanerogams. 181 Inflorescence broadly oblong, 30 cm. long or less ; bracts numerous. crowded, with rather long thin flaccid narrow-obcuneate sheaths, sur- mounted by two short linear lateral spines and continued into a 1-2-pinnate leaf-like prolongation greatly exceeding the sheath and bearing 2-3 pairs of leaflets besides the terminal one. Principal peduncles of the branched umbel crowded, slender, grooved, about as long as the bracts. Fruit linear-oblong, 5-winged on either face. Hab. — Mounts Hector and Holdsworth, Tararua Range. Wellington : on the alpine meadow, from 3,500 ft. upwards. I am indebted to Mr. B. C. Aston for specimens of this species, which is intermediate between A. Colensoi Hook. f. and A. Monroi Hook, f., with closer affinity with the latter. It is the plant referred to under the name Aciphylla Monroi Hook. f. in my list of the plants observed on Mount Hector (Transactions, vol. 40), and probably also the plant so named in Mr. Aston's list of the plants of the Wellington district (Transactions, vol. 42). The longer more flaccid leaves, the stout tall stem, and especially the dense broad elongated inflorescence mark it off from A. Monroi. The male inflorescence has not so far been seen. The plant is of infrequent occurrence on the Tararuas, where, however, A. Colensoi is most abundant. Coprosma Astoni sp. nov. Frutex subhumilis, gracilis, ramosus, ± 2 m. altus. Rami divaricantes, graciles, foliosi ; cortice + rugoso, cinereo-incano : ramulis dense breviterque incano-pubescentibus. Folia plerumque fasciculata, anguste linearia, 6-10 mm. longa, 1| mm. lata, leviter retusa vel truncata, tenuia, glaberrima, plana, basim versus subattenuata, supra enervia, in siccitate leviter recurva. Flores sessiles, ramulos laterales valde abbreviates terminantes ; masculi solitarii vel 2-4-fasciculati ; feminei solitarii. Drnnnp crlnhnsa.e. macmitudine mediocres. clare rubrae. CORRIGENDA. Page 180. line 30. As the specific name intermedia is already appropriated, if the genus Ligusticum as used in Cheeseman's Manual be merged with Aciphylla, the name oreophila is suggested by the author for the species. — Editor. [Fare p. 180. Drupes globose, rather small, bright red. Hab. — Whisky Gully, near Tapanui, B. C. Aston and L. Cockayne ; the Hump, between Lake Hauroko and the sea, J. Crosby Smith ; Route- burn Valley, in shady beech forest, D. P. The present species has its nearest ally in my Coprosma Banksii ; its leaves are smaller and shorter, very uniform in size and shajDe, and more freely fascicled ; the branchlets are uniformly grey-pubescent ; and the drupes are smaller, globose, and bright red. It is a very distinct plant, and the leaves are quite characteristic. ]gO Transactions. A very low densely tufted branched glabrous moss-like plant, forming small cushions rising an inch or less above the ground. Leaves closely imbricating, spreading, opposite pairs connate at the base and forming a short membranous sheath, 6-8 mm. long, linear- subulate, acicular, green, with strongly thickened margins, otherwise veinless. Flowers near the tips of the branch lets, lateral, shortly peduncled, the peduncles elongating in fruit. Calyx deeply 4-partite, the lobes narrow linear-subulate, acicular, and leaf-like. Stamens 4, short, inserted between the calyx-lobes and barely half as long. Styles 4, short, barely exceeding the stamens. Capsule 4-celled, as long as the sepals when mature. Hab. — Rocky faces of the Sealey Range, Mount Cook district, at 5,500 ft, The present species is closely allied to ('. canaliculatus T. Kirk. It differs in the number of sepals and stamens, which are uniformly 4 ; in having the stamens and styles much shorter than the sepals ; and in the form of the calyx-lobes, which are linear-subulate and acicular. Epilobium microphyllum A. Rich. var. prostratum var. no v. Planta typo simillima, ramis omnibus prostratis diffusisque, pedunculis floriferis longioribus. Plant similar to the type, except in its prostrate diffuse branches and longer floriferous peduncles. Hab. — Broken River (lower part) ; Opihi River (near Fairlie) : vicinity of Naseby, D. P. ; Mount Somers, B. C. Aston. This curious form maintains its distinctive characteristics over a wide area of the South Island. It occurs on gravelly fiats in valley-bottoms. part), strongly grooved. Radical leaves numerous, 25-40 cm. long, 2-3-pinnate, pinnae in 4 or 5 pairs ; ultimate leaflets crowded, narrow-linear, grooved, slightly rigid, 8-12 cm. long, 4-5 mm. broad, spinous at the tips, the margins thickened and delicately erose. Sheaths and petioles together equalling or exceeding the dissected blades ; sheaths 8-10 cm. long, 1 cm. broad at the tops, narrow-obcuneate. furnished at either side with a linear spinous leaflet occasionally subdivided and barely half as long as the petiole. Petrie. — Netr Native Species of Phanerogams. 181 Inflorescence broadly oblong, 30 cm. long or less ; bracts numerous, crowded, with rather long thin flaccid narrow-obcuneate sheaths, sur- mounted by two short linear lateral spines and continued into a 1-2-pinnate leaf-like prolongation greatly exceeding the sheath and bearing 2-3 pairs of leaflets besides the terminal one. Principal peduncles of the branched umbel crowded, slender, grooved, about as long as the bracts. Fruit linear- oblong, 5-winged on either face. Hah. — Mounts Hector and Holdsworth, Tararua Range. Wellington : on the alpine meadow, from 3,500 ft. upwards. I am indebted to Mr. B. C. Aston for specimens of this species, which is intermediate between A. Colensoi Hook. f. and A. Monroi Hook, f., with closer affinity with the latter. It is the plant referred to under the name Aciphylla Monroi Hook. f. in my list of the plants observed on Mount Hector (Transactions, vol. 40), and probably also the plant so named in Mr. Aston's list of the plants of the Wellington district (Transactions, vol. 42). The longer more flaccid leaves, the stout tall stem, and especially the dense broad elongated inflorescence mark it off from A. Monroi. The male inflorescence has not so far been seen. The plant is of infrequent occurrence on the Tararuas, where, however, A. Colensoi is most abundant. Coprosma Astoni sp. nov. Frutex subhumilis, gracilis, ramosus, + 2 m. altus. Rami divaricantes, graciles, foliosi ; cortice + rugoso, cinereo-incano : ramulis dense breviterque incano-pubescentibus. Folia plerumque fasciculata, anguste linearia, 6-10 mm. longa, H mm. lata, leviter retusa vel truncata, tenuia, glaberrima, plana, basim versus subattenuata, supra enervia, in siccitate leviter recur va. Flores sessiles, ramulos laterales valde abbreviates terminantes ; masculi solitarii vel 2-4-fasciculati ; feminei solitarii. Drupae globosae, magnitudine mediocres, clare rubrae. A rather low slender branched shrub, 2 m. high, or less. Branches divaricating more or less, slender, leafy ; bark dull grey, more or less rough and wrinkled ; branchlets brownish-grey, closely clothed with short stiff greyish pubescence. Leaves in small fascicles on the arrested side shoots, on the youngest twigs often in opposite pairs, narrow-linear, 6-10 mm. long, 1| mm. broad, truncate or retuse, narrowed towards the base, thin, flat, glabrous, slightly recurved when dry, nerveless above, below with evident midrib and indistinct nerves. Stipules grey, bluntly triangular, long-ciliate. Male flowers terminating the short side shoots, sessile, solitary or in fascicles of 2-4 ; female similarly placed, solitary. Drupes globose, rather small, bright red. Hob. — Whisky Gully, near Tapanui, B. C. Aston and L. Cockayne ; the Hump, between Lake Hauroko and the sea, J. Crosby Smith ; Route- burn Valley, in shady beech forest, D. P. The present species has its nearest ally in my Coprosma Banksii ; its leaves are smaller and shorter, very uniform in size and shape, and more freely fascicled ; the branchlets are uniformly grey-pubescent ; and the drupes are smaller, globose, and bright red. It is a very distinct plant, and the leaves are quite characteristic. 182 Transactions. Celmisia Cockayniana sp. nov. Folia anguste obovato-spathulata, 5-10 cm. longa, l|-2 cm. lata, sub- acuta, subcoriacea, minute denticulata (denticulis subteretibus), minute apiculata ; superne glabra, distincte venosa ; subtus dense et appresse albo-tomentosa (costa media excepta), venis haud distinctis. Scapi 2-3, 1^—2 dcm. longi, subgraciles, pilis articulatis glandulosis (ut etiam bracteae involucrique squamae) viscosi, rare- apice divisi ; bracteae numerosae, + imbricatae, lanceolato-oblongae, acutae vel subacutae. Involucri squamae pluri-seriatae, lineari-subulatae ; interiores longiores angustioresque, apicibus sparse lanatae. Capitula magnitudine mediocria, + 12 mm. lata. Aehaenia linearia, hispido-sericea. Leaves rather few, narrow obovate-spathulate, 5-10 cm. long, 1^-2 cm. broad, subacute, rather coriaceous, distantly and minutely denticulate, the short semiterete teeth standing out from the margin, bluntly apiculate ; upper surface dull green (when dry), glabrous, with evident venation ; under-surface densely clothed with closely appressed whitish tomentum, except the midrib, veins indistinct. Scapes 2-3 on each short creeping shoot, lf-2 dcm. high, viscid, densely clothed, as are the bracts and involucral scales, with glandular jointed hairs, rarely branched at the top ; bracts numerous, overlapping, lanceolate or lanceolate-oblong, acute or subacute. Involucral bracts numerous, in several series ; the inner longer, narrower, and sparingly cottony above. Heads of moderate size (about 12 mm. across). Achenes linear, hispidly silky. Hab. — Mount Fyffe, Seaward Kaikouras, at 4,000 ft. For specimens of this species I am indebted to Dr. L. Cockayne, who collected them so long ago as 1892. I have put off describing them, in the hope that further material might be procured, but the plant has not been met with since. Its affinity is with C. hieracifolia Hook. f. In form the leaves recall those of some states of C. Sinclairii Hook, f., but they are more coriaceous and much less distinctly dentate. The abundant glandular pubescence of the scape and its members relates it more clearly to C. hieracifolia, from which it differs in the whitish tomentum and in the smaller narrower spathulate more acute leaves. Celmisia Boweana sp. nov. Folia parum numerosa, stricta, integerrima, vix coriacea, 14-22 cm. longa, 1-1| cm. lata, anguste lineari - lanceolata, ad apicem versus gradatim attenuata, acuta, marginibus + recurvis ; superne glabra vel glabrescentia, per totam longitudinem rugato - sulcata, flavido - viridia ; subtus + sulcata, pilis flavidis laxe appressis (costa media excepta) tomentosa ; apicibus nonnunquam laxe lanatis. Vaginae + 6 cm. longae, striatae, membranaceae, extra incano-tomen- tosae, intus plerumque glabrae. Scapi 1-4, tenuiores, foliis sabduplo longiores, pilis subfiavidis laxe tomentosi ; bracteae numerosae, lineares, ad apicem versus diminuentes. tomentosae. Capitulum + 2| cm. latum ; involucri squamae lineares, tenues, to- mentosae. Aehaenia glabra vel parum hispidula. Petrie. — New Native Species of Phanerogams. 183 Leaves 14-22 cm. long, l-\\ cm. broad, fairly numerous, strict, narrow linear-lanceolate, entire, slightly coriaceous, gradually tapering to the acute tip, marked by close parallel longitudinal grooves or fine., wrinklings above and less prominently below ; upper surface yellowish-green, glabrous or glabrescent, the tips sometimes loosely tomentose on both surfaces ; under-surface, except the midrib, covered with loosely appressed pale-yellow cottony tomentum ; margins more or less recurved ; sheaths about 6 cm. long, thin and membranous, glabrous on the inside, cottony-tomentose on the edges and outside. Scapes 1-4, rather slender, flexuous, slightly rigid, nearly twice as long as the leaves, densely clothed with creamy-yellow loose cottony tomentum ; bracts numerous, linear, thin, tomentose except on the midribs, gradually diminishing towards the top. Heads about 2| cm. across ; involucral bracts numerous, linear, thin, cottony. Achenes glabrous or slightly hispidulous. Hab.- — Sealey Range, Mount Cook district, in tussock meadow, about 5,000 ft. ; T. F. Cheeseman, Mrs. F. Bowe, and D. P. This species is dedicated to Mrs. F. Bowe. a keen observer and ardent lover of our native alpine and subalpine plants, who first directed my attention to it. Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., collected it a good many years ago, and he considers it a form of C. Monroi Hook. f. This view I am unable to entertain. It differs from C. Monroi in the narrower, less coriaceous, more acute leaves that are green above and very distinctly grooved or finely wrinkled ; in the yellowish loosely appressed tomentum that clothes the under-surface of the leaves and the scapes ; and in the more slender flexuous scapes. Gentiana Matthewsii sp. no v. Planta subgracilis, ramosa, glaberrima, annua (?), li-2J dcm. alta. Caulis a basi ramosus ; rami graciles, adscendentes vel suberecti, sub- quadrangulares. Folia radicalia pauca, subrosulata, spathulata, tenuia, 2-4 cm. longa, + 6 mm. lata, obtusa vel subacuta ; caulina sessilia, late ovata vel ovato- triangularia, subacuta, basi semi-amplexicaulia, 8-12 mm. longa, in paribus distantibus disposita. Flores subnumerosi, solitarii, albi, 10-15 cm. longi, ramulos ultimos terminantes. Calycis lobi ovato-oblongi, subacuti, corolla persistente fere dimidio breviores. Capsula matura breviter rostrata, corollam superans. A rather slender branched glabrous annual (?) herb, H-2^ dcm. high. Stems branched from the base and again more or less subdivided ; branches slender, ascending or suberect, more or less distinctly quad- rangular from ridges running down from the bases of the cauline leaves. Radical leaves few, subrosulate, thin, spathulate, 2-4 cm. long, about 6 mm. broad, obtuse or subacute ; cauline 8-12 mm. long, sessile in distant pairs, broadly ovate or ovate-triangular, subacute, semi-amplexicaul. Flowers fairly numerous, solitary, at the tips of the ultimate branch - lets, 10-15 mm. long, white. Calyx divided for three-quarters its length, half as long as the corolla ; the lobes ovate-oblong, subacute. Stamens rather longer than the calyx-lobes. Capsule when mature one-quarter longer than the persistent nearly closed corolla. 184 Transactions. Hub. — Moist grassy slopes near Lake Harris. Routeburn Valley, Lake Wakatipu, 4,000 ft, This species is somewhat closely allied to G. Grisebachii Hook, f., differing in the stouter more erect stems and branches, the much larger flowers, and the shorter broader calyx-lobes. It is named in honour of the late Henry J. Matthews, for some years Chief Forester under the Dominion Government. Though Mr. Matthews did not write much on botanical subjects, he had a wide and accurate knowledge of the native flora, and, as he was an acute observer and had occasion to visit many out- of-the-way districts, he formed a fine collection of the native plants, and contributed very considerably to our knowledge of plant-distribution and to the elucidation of several imperfectly known species, besides discover- ing a number of new ones. To his kindness I am indebted for numbers of interesting and valuable specimens that have greatly enriched my herbarium. He was equally liberal to other botanical workers. His pre- mature death was a great loss to the science he loved so well. The magnificent alpine garden that he established at his home in Dunedin was one of the sights of the Dominion. Many of its treasures are still in cultivation in the Dunedin Botanical Gardens, which the taste and talent of Mr. Tannock have made so attractive and instructive. Euphrasia Laingii sp. nov. Planta perennis, erecta vel basi decumbens, 1-2 dcm. alta, a basi tan turn ramosa, bifariam pubescens. Folia in paribus distantibus disposita, erecta, cuneata, 8-10 mm. longa, 4-6 mm. lata, sessilia, glaberrima, subcoriacea, obtusa, apice triloba (lobo medio lato, lateralibus angustis), subrecurva. Inflorescentia racemus spiciformis, elongata (5-10 cm. longa), multi- bracteata, bracteis foliis similibus. Flores axillares plerumque in paribus oppositis dispositi, pedicellati, pedicellis folia aequantibus et + bifariam pubescentibus. Calyx bracteis aequilongus, breviter 4-lobatus, lobis acutis vel sub- acutis, manifeste venosus, venis ad 10. Corolla infundibuliformis, 12-15 mm. longa, limbo valde dilatato, venis manifestis. Capsula cuneato-oblonga, bracteis aequilonga, calycis tubum vix vel omnino aequans. Perennial, erect or decumbent at the base, 1-2 dcm. high, branched from the base, strongly bifariously pubescent. Leaves in rather distant pairs, erect, cuneate, 8-10 mm. long, 4-6 mm. broad at the tops, sessile, glabrous, subcoriaceous, the wide obtuse tips cut into a broad median lobe and 2 narrow lateral ones, slightly recurved, dull dark green. Inflorescence a bracteate spike-like raceme, 5-10 cm. long, bracts leaf- like. Flowers generally in opposite pairs, pedicellate, the pedicels as long as the leaves and more or less bifariously pubescent. Calyx as long as the bracts, 4-lobed, the lobes a quarter the length of the tubular part, acute or subacute, veined, the 5 veins corresponding to the midribs more prominent than the others. Corolla-tube funnel-shaped, much exceeding the calyx, 12-15 mm. long, limb widely expanded with evident nerves ; lower lip 3-lobed emarginate, upper 2-lobed refuse. Petrie. — New Native Species of Phanerogams. 185 Capsule cuneate-oblong, equalling the calyx-tube or rather shorter. Seeds numerous in each cell (8-10). Hab. — Mount Peel and Mount Winterslow, R. M. Laing ; Craigie Burn Mountains, at sources of Broken River, L. Cockayne and D. P. ; Hooker River, Mount Cook district, T. F. Cheeseman and D. P. This species is intermediate between E. Monroi Hook. f. and E. revoluta Hook. f. The pedicellate large flowers are like those of the latter, while the erect stems, the subcoriaceous leaves, and the capsule resemble those of the former. The elongated inflorescence, the pedicellate lary;e flowers, the erect habit, and the characteristic cuneate leaves unequally 3-lobed at the tips, form its most distinctive characters. The plant may be easily identified by the leaves alone. Euphrasia Townsoni sp. nov. Annua ; culmi graciles, erecti, simplices vel a basi ramosi, 4-7 cm. alti, pilis albis crispatis in parte articulatis et glanduliferis pubescentes. Folia pauca, parva, in paribus remotis disposita, sessilia, glaberrima, anguste rhomboidalia, dente unico prominente a utroque latere prope medium et lobo terminali acuto triangulari instructa, 6 mm. longa, 2 mm. lata ; marginibus reflexis. Flores pauci extremum culmum versus et saepe in paribus oppositis dispositi, majusculi, pedunculati ; pedunculi quam folia ter quaterve longi- ores, gracillimi, pubescentes ; in siccitate subflavido-albi. Calyx campanulatus ad tertiam partem 4-lobatus, lobis acutis, angustis. Corollae tubus calycem paullo excedens, limbus late expansus ; labium superius 2-lobatum, inferius alte 3-lobatum, lobis omnibus emarginatis : venis conspicuis. Capsula calyce brevior ; semina numerosa. Annual ; stems slender, erect, simple or branched from the base. 4—7 cm. high, pubescent (in part bifariously) with short crisped white hairs intermixed towards the tops with jointed glandular ones. Leaves few, small, in remote opposite pairs, sessile, narrow-rhomboidal, with a single prominent acute tooth on either side about the middle and an acute triangular terminal lobe, glabrous, subcoriaceous, margins reflexed, 6 mm. long, 2 mm. broad. Flowers few towards the tips, often in opposite pairs, pedunculate, large, yellowish-white when dried ; peduncles 3 or 4 times as long as the leaves, very slender, pubescent. Calyx campanulate, 4-lobed one-third the way down, acute, narrow. Corolla-tube a little longer than the calyx ; limb wide-spreading ; upper lip 2-lobed, lower deeply 3-lobed, all the lobes widely emarginate ; veins distinct. Capsule shorter than the calyx; seeds numerous in each cell (8 to 10). Hab. — Mount Rochfort. near Westport, W. Townson ; Denniston. J. Caffin (1896). The leaves of this species are highly characteristic, and easily distinguish it from any of the other native species. The long slender straight peduncles also form a good distinctive character. It gives me pleasure to name the species after Mr. W. Townson, who has so success- fully explored the floral riches of the West Nelson district, and to whom I am indebted for specimens of a number of the species peculiar to that part of the South Island. 186 Transactions. Pimelea Crosby-Smithiana sp. nov. Planta humilis, ramosa, glabra. Rami subgraciles, cicatricibus foliorum delapsorum notati. Ramuli glaberrimi, subquadrangulares. Folia dense quadrifariam imbricata, erecto-patentia, glaberrima, acuta, supra concava, infra distincte carinata, ad basim sessilem attenuata, anguste ovata, 7 mm. longa, 3 mm. lata, consimilia, margine cartilagineo instructa : subfloralia similia sed paullo latiora. Inflorescentia capitata, floribus numerosis. Perianthii tubus foliis aequilongus, passim la ids longis albis vestitus ; lobi late oblongi, obtusi, ciliati. Stigma exsertum. A low diffusely branched shrubby plant. Branches rather slender, greyish-brown, marked by the scars of fallen leaves. Branchlets glabrous, subquadrangular. Leaves closely quadrifariously imbricating, erecto-patent, glabrous, acute, concave above, strongly keeled below, narrowed at the sessile base, narrow-ovate, 7 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, very uniform, with a cartilaginous margin all round ; subfloral similar to the cauline but slightly broader. Inflorescence of numerous flowers, capitate. Tube of perianth as long as the leaves, everywhere clothed with long white hairs ; lobes broadly oblong, obtuse, ciliate. Stigma exserted. Hab. — The Hump, a high hill between Lake Hauroko and the sea. This plant was collected by Mr. J. Crosby Smith, F.L.S., of Invercargill. Its nearest relative is P. Gnidia Willd. The south-west corner of the South Island is difficult to explore, but Mr. Crosby Smith is reaping a fine reward for his zeal in examining this virgin country. Festuca multinodis Petrie and Hackel sp. nov. Culmi caespitosi, decumbentes, tandem ascendentes, ramosi, foliosi, 1-3 dcm. longi. Folia in culmis singulis ad 12, + secunda. Panicula 3-6 cm. longa, ovata vel lanceolata, + complanata ; rami inferiores binati, rhachi ramisque glabris. Glumae floriferae plerumque ex-aristatae. Densely tufted ; culms decumbent below, finally ascending, leafy, more or less geniculate, 1-3 dcm. long, slender, terete, subrigid. Innova- tion shoots extra- vaginal. Leaves generally secund, as many as 12 on each culm ; sheaths long, overlapping, glabrous, obscurely striate ; blades abruptly contracted above the ligule, with a callus at their point of origin, shorter than the culms, involute, setaceous, glabrous, acute, not or barely striate. Panicle 3-6 cm. long, ovate or lanceolate, more or less flattened, straight, compact ; rhachis and branches glabrous ; lower branches in twos, short, sparingly subdivided. Spikelets subsessile or shortly pedicellate, narrow-lanceolate, 8-12 mm. long, bearing 4-8 rather distant florets. Empty glumes unequal, thin, the upper reaching to the tip of the lowermost floret, narrow-lanceolate, acute, the lower 1- the upper 3-nerved. Petrie. — New Native Species of Phanerogams. 187 Flowering-glumes coriaceous, lanceolate, acute ; awn none, or very short; nerves 5, very obscure. Palea as long as the flowering-glume, slightly coriaceous, 2-nerved ; nerves glabrous. Hob. — Coastal cliffs and rocky slopes at Port Nicholson, and the shores of Cook Strait. Mr. B. C. Aston has furnished me with a fine series of specimens of this grass, which gives promise of some considerable economic value. It yields a large bulk of delicate foliage, and deserves experimental cultivation. Professor Hackel, who has kindly reported on specimens forwarded to him, and has also suggested the specific name, writes me as follows : ' The species differs from Festuca rubra L. not only in the number of nodes and leaves, but also in the character of the innovation shoots, which are extra - vaginal throughout, while in F. rubra part of them grow up in the axils of the persistent sheaths ; the sheaths of F. rubra are closed up to the mouth, those of F. multinodis are split throughout. The inflorescence and the spikelets show little difference, but the pales of F. multinodis are quite smooth on the keels, while these keels are scabrid or somewhat ciliate in F. rubra." Mr. Aston has for some years urged in correspondence with me that this Festuca was a new species, but, though agreeing with him, the genus is one of such difficulty that I should not have published it had not Professor Hackel supported our opinion. Trisetum antarcticum Trinius, subspecies tenella, subsp. nov. Folia fere omnia radicalia, brevia, 2-4 cm. longa, involuta, setacea, tenuiter pubescentia. Culmi valde graciles, teretes, glabri, tenuiter striati. Panicula spiciformis, densa, oblonga, lf-3 cm. longa Spiculae sessiles, compressae, 4 mm. longae. Glumae vacuae subaequales ; floriferae vacuis paullo longiores ; arista glumam aequans. A slender erect perennial, forming diminutive tufts. Leaves 2-4 cm. long, involute, setaceous, finely pubescent, one-third as long as the culms or less ; ligule short, truncate, hyaline, erose, and more or less ciliate. Cauline leaves solitary or rarely two, with sheaths several times longer than the blades. Culms very slender, terete, glabrous, finely striate. Panicle spiciform, dense, oblong, 1^-3 cm. long, 5 mm. broad. Spikelets sessile, compressed, 4 mm. long, the terminal ones very shortly stalked. Empty glumes almost equal, acute or acuminate, the lower narrower. Flowering-glumes glabrous, a little longer than the empty : the awn springing from the back a little below the tip, about as long as the glume, slightly reflexed. Palea as long as the flowering-glume. Hob. — Dry shingly flats in the wide alluvial valleys of the Mount Cook district, 2,500-3,500 ft. ; abundant, The present subspecies differs from the type form of the species in the short involute setaceous leaves, the slender erect culms that greatly exceed the cauline leaves, the dense oblong spiciform panicle, and the small spikelets with nearly equal empty glumes and shorter less reflexed awns. Its distinctive characters show little variation. Its foliage is so short and scanty that it is a quite unimportant element in the valley pastures. 188 Transactions. Art. XVIII. — On Danthonia nuda Hook. f. and Triodia Thomsoni (Buchanan) Petrie, comb. nov. By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 28th November, 1911.] Lx my herbarium there is a good specimen of Danthonia nuda Hook, f., collected at a high elevation on the Ruahine Range, Hawke's Bay. There can be little doubt that this plant is a true Danthonia, though it makes some approach to the genus Triodia. Sir J. D. Hooker's descrip- tion of it is brief, and wanting in some important details. The culms are very slender, leafy, and but little longer than the leaves. The sheath of the" topmost cauline leaf is three or four times as long as the blade, which reaches to the base of the panicle. The flowering-glumes show considerable variation in the hairy covering, which is more ample than one would suppose from Hooker's description. Besides the one or two small tufts of hairs on the sides of these glumes, there is usually a scanty band of sparse hairs across the back just above the middle, and often also a few straggling hairs lower down but above the basal tuft. The awn, which is quite straight, is one-third as long as the glume. The florets in each spikelet are more commonly 2 than 3. I have a few indifferent pieces of what is most likely this species from the Tararua Range, collected by that excellent observer Mr. B. C. Aston. Unfortunately, they are all past flower. Danthonia nuda has long been confounded, and by myself in the first instance, with a somewhat similar grass, the Danthonia Thomsoni of Buchanan. The latter was discovered by me at Mount St. Bathan's, Central Otago. As it has a wide distribution in districts explored by Hector and Buchanan, and also by Von Haast. it is singular that it was not found before. It may have spread and increased since*these early explora- tions were made, but I consider it much more likely that it was merely overlooked or mistaken for some other species that was collected then. At present it has a wide distribution in the upland districts of South Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. It is fully and accurately described in Mr. Cheeseman's Manual under the name Danthonia nuda Hook. f.. though he notes that his plant may not be the same as Hooker's. The grass is not, however, a Danthonia., but a characteristic species of Triodia, to which I now give the name Triodia Thomsoni. It was originally named in compliment to Mr. G. M. Thomson, and I am special lv pleased to be able to associate permanently with it the name of this old and valued friend. As a pasture-grass Triodia Thomsoni possesses a high value. It has a fair amount of foliage, is deeply rooted so as to withstand drought and exposure to drying winds, and is palatable and highly nutritious. It forms one of the most common and useful of the bottom grasses of the tussock-steppe in all the upland districts through which it ranges, and is much eaten by sheep. It is well worth artificial cultivation, and promises to help in reclaiming the now desert and semi-desert lands from which the native pasture has disappeared through long-continued overstocking. Triodia Thomsoni differs from Danthonia nuda in the narrow panicle with erect branches, the longer less-leafy culms that greatly exceed the leaves, the longer narrower more numerous spikelets that usually contain 5-7 nearlv glabrous florets, and the much shorter less rigid awns. Brown.- Migrations of the Polynesians 189 Art. XIX. -The Migrations of the Polynesians according to the Evidence oj their Language. By Professor J. Macmillan Brown. \Head before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 6th September, 1911.] In the " Transactions of the Royal Scientific Society of Gottingen " for 1909 there appears a long paper on this subject by the late Professor Finck, of Berlin. It attempts, as its title implies, to point out some of the distinctions between the various languages of Polynesia, and by this means to indicate the lines of migration that peopled the islands in which they are spoken. The gist of the arguments and conclusions is given in the last two pages, and is somewhat as follows : From the southern Solomons a really united people shifted to the northern fringe of Polynesia on their eastward trek. Before the expedition turned southwards to Samoa the ancestry of the present-day Ellice and Tokelau people branched off. The speech of that time possessed all that marks Polynesian as contrasted with the related Melanesian, especially the use of the old trial as plural, and the employ- ment of separate possessive pronouns where once only a suffix was used ; it was, in fact, probably the fundamental Polynesian tongue. The use of afe for " a thousand " does not contradict this, although it appears in this sense only in Fakaofa, Futuna, Samoa, Tonga, Uvea, and Niue ; for the word is, as the Maori aivhe shows, common to Polynesia ; but it was extruded in the other dialects by mano. There was a long rest in Samoa, as is shown by the use of tokelau for " north " and tonga for " south " in a majority of the groups, words taking this sense from the direction of the Tokelau and the Tonga Groups from Samoa. After a small colony had swarmed off westwards to Futuna, the great eastward-going expedition went south- wards to the Tonga Archipelago, as is shown by the use of h in all the groups to the south and east for s in Samoa and its immediate neighbours, and by the use of toko as a personal prefix to words implying number and quantity in all to the south and east for toka of Samoa, Fakaofa (the Tokelau Group), Vaitupu (Ellice Group), and Futuna. After a short rest in Tonga the expedition went off eastwards, leaving a contingent which sent branches to Niue and Uvea. In the Cook Group it made a long sojourn, and there formed the ground speech of eastern Polynesia ; it changed I into r and / into h before o and u, brought the adnominal particles na and no into use beside the older a and o, and abbreviated the old possessive tou into to. From this point various expeditions set out. One went to New Zealand and the Chatham Islands and developed h for / before other vowels than a and o ; it left before the counting by pairs arose that characterizes the other eastern Polynesian dialects. A second went off south-east to Manga- reva ; thence a branch hived off to Easter Island, farther in the same direction, before the birth of the linguistic neologisms that unite the dialects of the Marquesas and Hawaiian Groups with that of Mangareva. the forma- tion of adverbs by prefixing ma or mo to a noun, and the change of tokerau into tokorau. It was long before this northern expedition set out — long- enough to develop these peculiarities. The Marquesas Group developed as linguistic characteristics the pronominal form toia and the further duplication of numeration by pairs in the case of ran (there equal to 400) and mano (there equal to 4,000) before sending off the Hawaiian branch. Meantime from the Cook Group another colony hived off to Tahiti, whose 190 Transactions. dialect seems to be closely akin to that of Rarotonga, as is shown by the common use of the plural and dual prefix pu'e. From Tahiti the Paumotu and Manahiki Groups were colonized. At the end of the article a sketch-map is given of these branching migrations. But the limitations of the linguistic method are revealed by the accompanying sketch-maps, one made by Horatio Hale in the " forties" of last century on the " Wilkes Expedition," another by Gerland for Waitz's " Anthropologic " in the " sixties," and a third by Weule for Helmolt's " History of the World " early this century. Hale brings the expedition first to Samoa, with offshoots to the Ellice and Tokelau Groups, then to Tonga, and thence direct to New Zealand and the Chatham Islands ; from Samoa, also, one goes off to Tahiti, whence one goes to the south-east Marquesas, a second to the Tubuai Archipelago, and a third to the Cook Group. A third colonizing expedition leaves Samoa for the Cook Group, the Tubuai Archipelago, and Mangareva. Besides the branch to New Zealand, Tonga sent off one to the north-west Marquesas and on to Hawaii. Gerland, like Finck, brings his primary expedition through the Ellice and Tokelau Groups to Samoa, thence, like Hale, over Tonga to New Zealand and the Chatham Islands, whilst, as in Finck's, a Sanioan offshoot goes to Futuna and one Tongan offshoot to Uvea and another to Niue. He also sends a main expedition, like Finck, over the Cook Group to the Tubuai Archi- pelago, and one to the Marquesas, a third to Easter Island, and a fourth to Hawaii. Weule, like Hale, brings his expedition first to Samoa ; thence one colony goes direct to Hawaii and another by way of Tahiti ; a third goes direct to the Cook Group, and thence to the Tubuai Archipelago and Mangareva. From the Cook Group a colony goes to New Zealand, whilst from Tahiti one goes to the Cook Group and another to the south-east Marquesas, and the north-west Marquesas are peopled from Tonga. There is no better criticism of the linguistic method of finding lines of migration than the presentation of these differences. The fact of the matter is that these pure philologists isolate a few small phenomena that each belongs to several groups, and ignore hundreds of others in which the groups thus united disagree. One instance will be enough : Finck gives a table of the sounds of each group, and then he proceeds in his sketch to ignore some of the more striking variations. He gives ts (the English missionaries make it ch) as a variation of t in Futuna, Uvea, Tonga, and the Chatham Islands before the vowel i ; all the other dialects have only t ; yet he brings no migration from any one of these direct to the Chatham Islands, skipping New Zealand. So wh is given as a variation of h and / not only in New Zealand and the Chatham Islands, but in the Tokelau Group ; and the same groups are united by using w for v. Yet he ignores this community of linguistic phenomena, and brings no migration from the Tokelau Group to the southern groups, or the reverse. These are quite as important as the break (') for k, on which he bases the linguistic community of the Ellice, Tokelau, Samoan, Tahitian, South Marquesan, and Tubuai Groups ; or the variation of r from /, on which he bases an eastern Polynesian Group, consisting of New Zealand, Chatham Islands, Tahiti, the Paumotus, the Cook Group, Mangareva, the Tubuai Archipelago, and Easter Island. The radical mistakes made by these philological ethnologists are the attempts to draw inferences from the language without the culture, and the assumption that there was but one colonizing expedition. The extra- ordinary similarity of the dialects (Finck seems to acknowledge " dialects " as the proper term, for when he says " Sprnchen " he always adds, " that Brown. — Mir/rations of the Polynesians 191 is to say, ' Dialekte ' ") as contrasted with the countless variety of not merely dialects, but languages, in the Melanesian region and the Malayan region, if properly considered, might have saved them from the latter mistake. Even the few centuries which they seem to have in their minds as covering the history of the human race in Polynesia would have developed languages as distinct as, say, French and Spanish, or English and German. If we were to take into account the marvellous similarity of the Polynesian dialects not only in phonology and grammar, but in vocabulary, spread over an oceanic region as wide as Europe and Asia combined, we would not be far wrong in concluding that there have been thousands of migra- tions from every island to every other island ; in short, a new sketch-map of the Polvnesian migrations should so completely cross-hatch the central Pacific that it would look black. In other words, for centuries at least intercourse must have been almost unbroken amongst all the groups. If this means anything, it means that for a prolonged period all the Poly- nesians must have inhabited a large island or archipelago centrally situated, and also quarantined from other regions under a social, if not political, system that was practically a unity. The minute dialectic differences that arose must have been kept in bounds by the constant social intercourse that a single administrative system would allow — a system absolutely different from that of Melanesia or of Malaysia. The differences are no greater than those that separate the dialects of, say, Yorkshire and Somerset, or Scotland and Middlesex. v The consideration of the culture conveys the same impression ; the ethnological differences are as negligible as the linguistic when placed beside the points of agreement. One can find as wide variations of culture and dialect in the purely German part of the German Empire. They seem to have arisen in the presence of each other, as well as of the predominant community of culture. In other words, they must have slowly developed during the immense period of time that certainly was taken to produce the practical identity of culture and language. This identity would have been shattered into strongly contrasted fragments had it been compelled to run the gauntlet of the limitless variety of Malaysia and Melanesia, not to speak of having to sail right in the teeth of the south-east trades, the only fairly con- stant wind on that route, the contrary wind being brief, fitful, and cyclonic. There is, of course, a striking similarity between the languages of Poly- nesia, Melanesia, and Malaysia that makes many speak of them unitedly as the Oceanic language. But there is a phonological gulf between the Polynesian dialects on the one hand and the Malaysian and, still more, the Melanesian languages. Each of these two regions has its own range of sounds, with considerable community ; but Polynesian has the peculiar and distinguishing sounds of neither— it has the simplest range of sounds that ever language had, all easily pronounceable by Aryan and, one may add, by Japanese organs of speech. It has a similar contrast in voca- bulary : with any one of the Malaysian or Melanesian languages except Fijian it has never more than 20 per cent, of common words. It is the grammar that has led to their classification as one language ; for none of them have practically any formal grammar — they all move in an atmosphere of particles, and there is a very considerable resemblance in the particles used. But this absence of formal grammar is the commonest characteristic of crossbred languages — i.e., languages that have resulted from the per- manent or continuous settlement of a masterful people amongst a people linguistically different ; the formal grammatical peculiarities of both are 192 Transactions. gradually dropped, and particles take their place, or variations of order of words. The distinction which Max Muller drew between languages, classifying them into isolating, agglutinative, and inflective, according as they had no formal grammar, formal grammar with forms detachable from the stems, and formal grammar with forms undetachable, is no real distinction. There are few languages that have not at least traces of all three — isolation, agglutination, and inflection- — either as vanishing habits or as neologisms. It is the phonology, or range of sounds, that really distinguishes languages. This cannot change — i.e., the organs of speech cannot change, except by change of environment — i.e., by change of climate or change of educative influences in the formative period of the organs of speech. The grammar and the vocabulary are constantly changing by loss, or addition, or de- velopment. Within the same zone of climate and physical environment the sounds do not change except by change of mothers — i.e., by inter- mixture of races linguistically different. But in the languages of the three regions referred to — Polynesia, Melanesia, and Malaysia — there is a considerable similarity of particles. This undoubtedly means that one language has saturated the languages of all three regions. The great variety of languages in Malaysia bars that as the region from which this language came ; the still greater variety in Melanesia still more effectually bars that. There is an easy solution when we turn to Polynesia, which has only on# language, though it has many dialects. But were this in conflict with the racial and cultural phenomena of the three regions it would have to be abandoned, or considerably modified, or conditioned. It is not, however. A visit to the Solomon Islands soon convinces even the superficial, untrained observer that the fundamental race of Melanesia is negroid : the woolly, tufty hair, the thick lips, the flattened nostrils, the projecting muzzle, and the absence of calves on the lower limbs are to be seen on all sides, quite apart from the dark colour which gave the region its name. The predominance of the round head and the low stature indicates the negritoes or pigmies as the branch of the negroid race that first peopled Melanesia. But there is a considerable infusion of tall stature, straight and wavy hair, light-brown and even auburn hair, European features, and light-brown colour ; especially in the eastern islands of the Solomons are the last three apparent. In the western Solomons and the Bismarck Archipelago, though the colour is close to black, the hair is often straight or wavy, and the profile is what we call Semitic, whilst tall stature is not infrequent. There can be no hesitation in homing this peculiar western Caucasianism to the west — i.e., to Malaysia or the Asiatic Continent- — and in homing the light-haired Caucasianism of the eastern islands to Polynesia. In Malaysia, again, we have, as the name implies, a strong admixture of Mongoloidism with the primeval negroidism and the secondary Caucasianism. When we turn to Polynesia we find the purest racial elements — fundamental Caucasianism, with a slight admixture of negroidism. The culture exhibits similar phenomena. Polynesia is the realm of the patriarchate ; the pivot of relationship is the father. Right through Melanesia and Malaysia the matriarchate is the system ; the mother is the pivot of relationship : there is therefore no history, no preservation of the records of the past, no tradition, the mother being only a private person, and having no public events in her life to hand on the memory of to posterity ; the sons as well as the daughters belong to her and her kin, and do not count any relationship with the father and his relatives. The Bbowjj. — Migrations of the Polynesians. 19o patriarchate is at least thousands of years in advance of the matriarchate, for it makes history and tribal and political unities ; the father hands on to the children, and he is the warrior and event-maker ; hence, under the patriarchate, tradition accumulates into chieftainship and kingship. There is no broad realm of the patriarchate westwards from Polynesia till we reach India. That the Polynesian social system should have travelled tens of thousands of miles in frail canoes in the teeth of the trade- winds, and run the gauntlet of two matriarchal realms, has a touch of the miraculous in it or, in other words, seems contrary to the laws of nature. It seems more in harmony with the possible, if not the probable, that whatever kinship lies between the cultures and the languages of these three regions has gone westwards out of Polynesia. And this is borne out by facts. Fiji, the nearest part of the two regions to Polynesia, has had its social system transformed from the matriarchal to the patriarchal ; chief- ship and tribe and tradition have arisen in the group. It is highly Poly- nesianized. When we get to the Solomon Islands, the nearest part to Fiji in the eye of the trade-winds, three islands have gone in parts through the same transformation — Malaita, Choiseul. and New Georgia ; and their natives show a larger percentage of European features and light-brown hair than those of any others of the group ; they are also most warlike, and go back furthest into the past with their genealogies and traditions. The influence of the patriarchate, tapers off as we go farther west into Malaysia. The purpose of this excursion into ethnology is to show how close to the absurd those philologists, like Finck, go who make the starting-point of Polynesian colonization the south (they should say rather the east) of the Solomons. The basis of the conjecture is a name often given to San Cristoval, the most easterly of the Solomons. Hale identifies Bulotu, the paradise and probable original home of Tongan and Samoan tradition, with Bouro, one of the most easterly islands of Malaysia. German ethnologists prefer, as a rule, to identify it with Bauro, the name referred to as applied to San Cristoval. But Bauro is only a district on the north-east coast of the island, and the natives prefer to call the island, if they have any name for the whole, Makira. We get into the region of the miraculous when we start a patriarchal, tribal, genealogy-loving, chiefly Caucasian people from a matriarchal, kin- divisioned, skort-memoried negrito island ; and still nearer the miraculous when we start off, for nearly ten thousand miles of open oceanic wandering, a canoe expedition right in the teeth of the only constant winds, the trades that blow eight or nine months of the year, from an island that had only shallow shells of canoes, unfit for crossing anything but fairly narrow straits in calm weather or a favourable wind. The Polynesians were the only people in the world that learned oceanic navigation before the use of the compass. And it needs some exceptional, if not catastrophic, goad of nature to explain the exception ; that we have in the subsidence, probably often slow, but probably as often sudden, of the central island zone of the Pacific that stretches south-east from the southern end of Japan across the Equator, even as far as Easter Island. This manifestly went on for hundreds of thousands of years ; and any humans that got on to the islands of this zone would, time and again, have to go off the best way they could find in search of other standing-places in the great flux of waters. Nowhere else in the history of our world has such a goad been held by nature to the backs of human beings. We may be quite certain that the regions to the west would get flooded with migrations from water-logged Polynesia. 7 -Trans. 194 Transactions. Art. XX. — Notes on New Zealand Fishes : No. 2. By Edgar R. Waite, F.L.S., Curator, Canterbury Museum. [Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th September, 1911.] Plates X-XII. 6. Aegoeonichthys appelii Clarke. Plate X. To Mr. A. Hamilton; Director of the Dominion Museum, Wellington, I owe the privilege of examining the remains of a specimen of this species. This specimen is, I believe, only the second known ; it is in rather deplor- able condition, being in two pieces, and has been otherwise so cut about that no fully satisfactory description can be made. Mr. Hamilton writes, " Please do whatever you like with the skin ; it is so torn and knocked about that you will find description a difficult matter. The specimen was caught by some fishermen on a line at the Heads (Port Nicholson), and used by them for bait. Somebody saw it in the boat, and brought the remains to me." Though the specimen is in a very dilapidated condition, the rarity of the species makes it advisable to attempt to extract some few grains of information from the remains, and these will be useful in the case of definite and fixed characters. The type specimen was described and figured as having the head and body strongly depressed, and as the author had the specimen entire, and probably unmutilated, his description may be correct ; judging from our remains alone, I should have said that the head, body, and tail were all compressed, but the jaws appear to be so extensible and dilatable that the contour of the head may perhaps be altered with the varying positions of the jaws. Respecting this subject, Giinther* writes, " According to the figure, Aegoeonichthys would appear to be much more depressed in shape than Himantolophus ; however, we must remember that these flaccid deep- sea fishes may assume, or be made to assume, very different appearances." By careful piecing together it is found that the whole of the skin of one side and of portion of the other remains, so that it is possible to correctly render an account of all the fins, and the number and disposition of the dermal scutes. The whole of the body, with the exception of the vertebrae, is missing ; but if all the vertebrae are represented, as I believe they are, their total number is 17, and this is also the number supplied for Halieutaea, another member of the order. Of Aegoeonichthys Giinther also writes, ' Unfortunately, nothing is known of the gills of this fish, which, as regards grotesqueness of form, surpasses the fishes of the preceding genus (Himantolophus). It is evidently closely allied to Himantolophus reinhardtii, and I therefore suppose that it possesses the same number of gills. If this should prove to be the case, the question will arise whether it should be kept as the type of a distinct genus." * Giinther, " Challenger Reports," vol. 22, 1887, p. 51. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLTV. Platf X. Fact' p. 194. J Waite. — Notes on New Zealand Fishes. 195 The gills in the present example are, fortunately, preserved, but as I cannot refer to Lutken's paper* in which Himavtolopkus reinhardtii was described and figured, I am not in a position to decide the question as to generic identity. It is, however, possible that with the aid of the following description others more fortunately situated may be able to do so. The figure published in illustration of Clarke's paperf" is somewhat crude, and, gauged by the characters of our example, incorrect as regards the cephalic tentacle and the number and disposition of the dermal scutes. I have therefore thought fit to refigure the species from the assembled remains of the specimen intrusted to me. I have also essayed a descrip- tion of the specimen, but owing to the imperfect condition it will be under- stood that the proportional measurements are merely approximate, or, it may be, even conjectural. These remarks apply, however, only to the relative width and depth of the body and head, the bones being so flexible that the character of the head may be made to assume either depressed or compressed condition, while, as before stated, the absence of the soft portions of the body renders its original shape largely conjectural. D. I, 5 ; A. 4 ; V. 0 ; P. 17 ; C. 9 ; Vert, ? 17. Head enormous and grotesque, its length half that of the total, com- puted from the tip of the snout to the base of the caudal fin ; its depth is one-fifth greater than its length, and its width is a little more than half its length. The cheeks are subvertical, and the eye is placed in a large shallow depression rather high in the head. The eye is very small, about 12-3 in the head ; it lies midway between the tip of the snout and the supra- orbital spine ; the latter marks the termination of the supraoccipital ridge ; this is widely separated from its fellow where it originates behind the premaxilla ; these ridges diverge behind, but are somewhat contracted in the middle. The interorbital space is deeply concave, and from its centre the remarkable tentacle takes its origin. The gape is very wide, and the mandibular articulation is in advance of the eye, and even in front of the tip of the snout. When closed the mouth is almost vertical. Teeth. — -The teeth are in about three irregular rows, the innermost con- taining the largest ; they are spine-like, slightly recurved, and depressible ; they are slightly longer in the lower than in the upper jaw ; the longest are one-fifth more than the diameter of the eye. There are no teeth on the vomer or palatines. Upper pharangeal teeth only are present ; they form two clusters, which appear to act in apposition, the teeth of each group being directed towards each other to form a grasping apparatus. The teeth are similar to those in the jaws, but shorter and stouter, their combined number being 14. There are no teeth on the lower pharangeals. The chin forms the anterior contour of the head, projecting far beyond the mouth when it is closed. There is an extensive frenum behind the teeth in both jaws. The branchiostegals are 6 in number on each side ; they do not bear teeth, as stated by Clarke, who possibly wished to express the character of the branchial arches. The gill-opening is small, and placed below the base of the pectoral fin. The gills may perhaps be denoted by the formula applied to Himantohphus — namely, \2\ pairs — but a more detailed account of their character will be advisable, * Liitken, K. dansk. Vidensk. Skriv.. 1880, p. 309, pi. ], 2. t Clarke, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 10, 1878, p. 245. pi. 6. 196 Transactions The outer branchial is free only in its posterior half, the anterior portion being adnate to the ceratohyal. This attached portion only bears gills ; they are much smaller than those of the other arches, on which they are of considerable length. There is no trace of paired arrangement in the gills of this outer arch. A paired disposition is apparent in the gills of the two middle arches, for, though the rays are set in continuous series, they are of heteracanth nature. The inner arch is wholly adnate to the mem- branes at the lower part of the tongue, and is fully furnished with gill- rays. The gill-rakers are spiny tubercles ; there are 12 on the first arch, one of which is on the upper limb, just above the angle ; the rakers on the median arches are in two rows, arranged alternately, there being 19 on the second arch. Fins. — Some idea of the character of the dorsal tentacle will be derived from Clarke's figures, but as it was evidently imperfect, and is even more complicated than drawn and described, the following description will not be out of place : — - The tentacle lies in a deep groove between the supraorbital ridges, its bulbous base being rather nearer to the mouth than is the eye ; the shaft is very stout, and it terminates above in a large semispherical bulb, its total length from base to summit being 1-7 in the length of the head. From a cup in the summit of the bulb arises a freely movable stout tentacle, which divides at a short distance above its insertion, each branch throwing off 2 smaller twigs at about half its height. Inserted in the bulb and behind the cup are 2 thick b-anches, which, however, arise from a common base : they become flattened distally, and each, after throwing off a twig from its inner side, divides into 3 arms ; these are again subdivided, but the divisions are not the same in the two branches The illustration accurately depicts the condition. Also, on the hinder part of the bulb, but nearer its base and sides, are two other small twigs. The word " frond " would perhaps be more appropriate, for the whole tentacle may be likened to a plant of Fucus, the so-named twigs being quite like the fronds of a seaweed, while the main and secondary stalks answer to the stem and branches of the plant. There are, in all, 20 terminal fronds, and the distal portion of each is nacreous white, and is no doubt luminous in life. When the tentacle is bent forwards these luminous tips dangle just in front of the mouth, and are no doubt very effective lures. It will be apparent that the tentacle was incomplete in the type specimen, the stalk arising from the middle of the cup being absent, and doubtless leadinsr its author to conclude that the substance within the cup was luminous, though he does not actually say so. The. dorsal fin has a slightly more forward insertion than the anal, and has one more ray. The first is simple, the other four being divided nearly to their bases. The third is the longest, being 3-2 in the head. The last ray is connected to the peduncle, just free of the upper caudal ray. The anal is very similar, but the first two of its 4 rays are simple. The pectoral is short and rounded, and is placed nearly midway between the end of the snout and the base of the caudal rays. The caudal is large and rounded, arising from a very compressed and short peduncle, whose depth is equal to the longest dorsal ray. Armour. — The skin is soft and loose, warty on snout and chin, and, excepting the top of the head, cheeks, lower jaw, and all parts in front thereof, studded with round cartilaginous scutes, each of which bears in its centre a hard low thorn with roots radiating into the body of the scute. Waite. — -Notes on New Zealand Fishes. 197 Some of the scutes are much larger than others, and their exact number and disposition are shown in the illustration. The covering of the main stalk of the tentacle is formed of a mosaic of very small scutes, which also bear spines, but they are reduced to hard tubercles. Colours. — After long immersion in preservative the general colour is a pale-flesh tint; the margin of the jaws, the post-dental frenum, the space around the eyes, and the wart-like elevation on the chin are brown ; the mid-line of the back and part of the stalk of the tentacle are also brown : the branches of the tentacle are black, but their tips are white. Some Measurements. — Extreme length, chin to end of caudal, 410 mm. ; length as basis for comparisons, 270 mm. ; length of head to gill-opening, 135 mm.; diameter of eye, 10 mm.: length of tentacle-stalk, 78 mm.; extreme length of tentacle, inclusive. 205 mm. 7. Saccarius lineatus Giinther. In 1861 Giinther* diagnosed a new genus and species of the Pediculati under this name. The type was a single specimen taken at the Bay of Islands, New Zealand, presented to the British Museum by Sir A. Smith. The reference is duly included in the " Catalogue of New Zealand Fishes,"f also in the " List of New Zealand Fishes," likewise issued by Captain Hutton. J In his later list§ the reference is entirely omitted, and is not, in consequence, found in the " Basic List of the Fishes of New Zealand."|! This Antennariid is duly catalogued by Gill. If and, as I have not seen any note discrediting the stated habitat, I presume that the omission by Hutton was purely accidental. I therefore take this opportunity of draw- ing attention to the omission, in order that it may not be again overlooked. The type specimen appears to be the only example so far known. 8. Oreosoma atlanticum Cuvier and Valenciennes. Plate XI. During a recent visit to the Newtown Museum, Wellington, I noticed in one of the exhibition cases a small fish which seemed familiar, though at the time I was unable to name it. I find it to be an example of Oreo- soma, and the consciousness of recognition is explained by the figures of Cuvier and Valenciennes^ and the copy by Goode and Bean, familiar to all ichthyologists. The specimen was kindly lent to me by Mr. Perry, the librarian in charge, who informed me that the specimen was obtained alive on the beach at Lyall Bay, near Wellington. The genus Oreosoma is represented by a single species, of which only one example was previously known : it was taken in the Atlantic, and is only 1^ in. in length. This little fish was described in 1829 by Cuvier and Valenciennes, who state that the name Oreosoma was given in allusion to the great cones on the body, which resemble sugar-loaves, and are so rugged and bold that a drawing of the fish resembles a chart of a volcanic country. * Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit, Mus., vol. 3. 1861, p. 183. t Hutton, Cat. Fish. N.Z., 1872, p. 30. % Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 22, 1890, p. 280. § Hutton. " Index Faunae Novae-Zealandiae," 1904. || Waite, Rec. Cant. Mus., vol. 1. 1907. «f GUI Smiths. Miscell. Coll.. vol. 19. 1880, p. 222. 198 Transactions. It was the evident intention of the authors to allude to these cones in naming the species, for on the plate accompanying the description the figures are designated Oreosoma coniferum, whereas in the text the name Oreosoma atlanticu?n is used. The New Zealand example exhibits characters which are not referred to in the description of the Atlantic specimen, and these will be men- tioned later. The following is .a description of the fish taken at Lyall Bay :— D. VI, 30 ; A. Ill, 28 ; V. I, 7 ; P. 20 ; C. 13 + 4 ; L. lat, 90. Length of head, 2-64 ; height of body, 1-3 ; length of caudal, 4-7 in the length ; diameter of eye, 2-27 ; interorbital space, 2-63 ; and length of snout, 2-94 in the head. Head compressed, eyes lateral, the supra- and post-orbital ridges armed with a number of denticles, of which one in the middle of the series is larger, forming a short spine. Preopercle very oblique ; a ridge across the opercle. Eyes lateral. Interorbital space flat. Nostrils close together, in front of the upper anterior margin of the orbit ; the anterior nostril large, directed forward. Jaws equal ; mouth protractile ; the cleft sub- vertical. Dentary produced downwards into an acute angle. The maxilla, whose length is less than the diameter of the eye, scarcely reaches the anterior margin of the orbit when the mouth is closed. Gills 4, a small orifice behind the fourth; gill-rakers moderate, bristle-like; pstudo- branchiae present. Teeth. — The teeth are extremely small and villiform in character. A narrow band exists in the lower jaw, but no teeth are to be found in the upper jaw ; they are present on the vomer, but there are none on the tongue or palatines. The upper and hinder parts of the body are compressed and normal ; a pronounced median keel runs from the occipital region to the origin of the dorsal fin, lying between the swellings on which the dorsal cones are situated. The whole of the ventral portion of the body is enormously, naturally, and permanently distended, so that a section across the body is not unlike that of Lactophrys trigonvs. Fins. — The dorsal fin arises midway between the end of the snout and the base of the caudal. Its spines are short, the second and longest being little more than half the diameter of the eye. The first spine is very short, and the second and following are graduated. The longest rays occur behind the middle of the second dorsal, and are nearly as long as the eye. The anal spines are quite small, almost hidden within the folds of the posterior dilatations of the abdomen. The rays are similar to those of the dorsal, but have a somewhat more posterior hinder insertion. The ventrals are noticeably separated, and of considerable length, the slender spine being one-half longer and the first ray twice the length of the orbit. The pectoral is rounded, and its length is equal to the diameter of the eye. The feeble tail is also rounded, and the depth of the slender peduncle is less than half the eye-diameter. Scales. — The scales are nowhere imbricate, but form a mosaic, the com- ponents varying greatly in different parts of the body. They are minute on the interorbital space, small on the cheeks and opercles, and on the upper and hinder part of the body. They are larger immediately behind the opercles and on the sides of the body, while those on the ventral surfaces are tubercular. All are 6-sided and concentrically striated. The lateral fine is well marked : it originates behind the operc1^ and rises above the Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV. Plate X I ■e £> SJ ""* ,c ^ = % 05 p o J h* ^ H Z 1 Face p. 19S.\ Waite. — Notes on New Zealand Fishes. 199 pectoral fin to a point in advance of the first dorsal cone ; it thence drops to the mid-line of the body and passes along the middle of the caudal peduncle. Cones. — The remarkable cones which give the fish such a striking appear- ance are disposed as follows : The swellings on each side of the dorsal ridge above referred to support 2 pairs of small size ; the hinder pair lie at the base of the dorsal spines, and are directed outwards ; the pair in front of these have a more upward aspect. All the other cones exist on the ventral portion of the body ; the largest form a series of 5 pairs disposed along the lateral margin, the centre one on each side being the largest, and directed straight from the body, those before and behind being diver- gent. A smaller cone is placed immediately in front of each ventral fin, and a similar, though larger one, on each side of the vent between these ventral and anal cones. There are 3 pairs of much smaller ones, which thus complete the vertical armament. In these latter each cone is set close to its fellow. The mosaics in the mid-ventral line form small tubercles, but quite distinct in size and character from the true cones, which, as will be seen, number 12 pairs — namely, 2 dorsal, 5 lateral, 2 sub ventral, and 3 ventral. The cones, which arise from an enlarged series of mosaics, are as high as, or higher than, their diameter, and are sculptured with both radiating and transverse striae, the former being straight and the latter wavy. The area between each radial is flat. These correspond in number with the basal mosaics, of which there are 16 surrounding the largest cone —namely, that in the middle of the lateral series. Colours. — The ground-colour is brownish-yellow, and the markings form wide open reticulations, consisting of a black line merging into bluish- grey, which extends so as to nearly obscure the ground-colour. The latter remains fairly pronounced on the cheeks, the lower edge of the caudal peduncle, and an area at the base of the anal fin, due to the absence of markings on these parts. The membranes of the first dorsal fin and of the anterior ventral rays are black ; the other fins are colourless. Length, 80 mm. One specimen only. There is a temptation to give the Pacific fish a distinct specific name, not only on account of certain described differences in the two known individuals, but also in consideration of the widely separated habitats, the one being taken in the Atlantic and the other in the Pacific Ocean. The fish must have rather limited powers of progression, for its locomotory fins are feeble, and the general conformation of the body is opposed to even moderate progress. The original specimen was supposed to have been taken in the surface-net, and, as the New Zealand specimen was secured alive on the beach, it becomes fairly evident that we have either two very closely allied species, or, like Tetragonurus, a single species of pelagic habit, of which examples have been obtained from both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans without any intermediate occurrences. The differences noted between the two specimens may be due to certain characters in the smaller one having been overlooked. It is unlikely, for example, that the 3 spines preceding the anal rays were absent, or that the ventrals had only " le nombre ordinaire de 1/5." Other differences may be noted in the descriptions of the dental armature. The French authors apparently found teeth in both jaws, whereas my specimen exhibits them in the lower jaw only. There is agreement as to the presence of teeth on the vomer, but I find none on the palatines, their presence being 200 Transactions. affirmed by Cuvier and Valenciennes.* They describe the colour as that of cedar wood; but do not refer to any markings, though the illustration shows traces of large reticulations very similar though less extensive than in our specimen. Guntherf" originally included this species with the perch-like fishes, but afterwards accepted Lowe's { suggestion that it was a member of the Zeidae. An examination of this second specimen supports the conclusion which is adopted by Goode and Bean,§ who give the genus the status of a sub- family, Oreosominae. Though Cuvier and Valenciennes counted only 5 rays in the ventral fin, the fact of our example having 7 brings the species into still closer agreement with the Zeidae. The genus differs from other members of the family by having the dorsal spines very short (shorter than the rays), and in the development of large cones in place of the usual bony plates, though they cannot be said exactly to replace them. Boulenger|| is of opinion that Oreosoma is the young form of a fish allied to Cyttus. It is admitted that the characters of the fish are of the bizarre nature commonly associated with very young Scombroid and other fishes, and such might be found in examples but little over an inch in length. I am not aware, however, if such characters are likely to persist so completely in a specimen over 3 in. in length. 9. Eurumetopos johnstonii Morton. Plate XII. The Australian Museum. Sydney, possesses a mounted example of Eurumetopos johnstonii, sent from Tasmania by the late Alexander Morton, the author of the genus and species. He thought it was a Serranid, stating that " it bears in many respects a close resemblance to the aUgarus." I examined the specimen referred to, many years ago, and came to the conclusion that it was referable to the Stromateidae. It is, however, only quite recently that I have been able to satisfy myself on this point, and to ascertain more closely its systematic position and affinities. Last month (August 1911) Messrs. Dennis Brothers, of Christchurch, sent a fish to me for determination, with the remark that, notwithstanding their long experience in the New Zealand fish trade, they had never seen one like it before. On making inquiries I found that the specimen was one of five which the firm had secured, and that other fish-merchants had also obtained examples of the same kind, but had readily disposed of them before I became aware of the fact. Somewhat later the daily newspapers contained an announcement that some large fishes were being obtained at the Chatham Islands, and, though no one was able to give them a name, they proved to be excellent eating, and it was proposed to put them on the market as a regular commodity From the popular description supplied I strongly suspected that the Chatham Island fishes would be found to be of the same species as those sent to Christchurch, and therefore enlisted the kind aid of Mr. A. Hamilton, Director of the Dominion Museum, as the fish companies operating at the Chatham Islands ship their catches * Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., vol. 4, 1829, p. 515, pi. 99 (O. coni- fer um). fGunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., vol. I. 1859, p. 214 ; vol. 2, I860; p. 396. X Lowe, " Fishes of Madeira," p. xii. § Goode and Bean, Oceanic Ichth., 1895, p. 228, and fig. il Boulenger Camb. Nat. Hist. Fishes. 1904. p. 683. Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLIV. Plate XII z 3 o m s H 03 Face p. 200] VVaite. — Notes on New Zealand Fishes. 201 direct to Wellington. Mr. Hamilton was fortunate in being able to secure a specimen for me, which confirmed my supposition, and it is this larger specimen which forms the basis of the subjoined description. T understand that the occurrence of the fishes at the Chatham Islands was of short duration only, and that, though they were quite plentiful at the period of their appearance, they are not now to be obtained. During a subsequent visit to Sydney I was permitted to re-examine the specimen of Eurmnetopos johnstonii, and compared with it a cast of the smaller of our two examples. I found them to be specifically identical. The Tasmanian specimen exhibits the following characters :■ — B. VII; D. VIII, I, 20; A. Ill, 15. The length of the head equals the depth of the body, and the pectoral is as long as the head. The radial formula, as given by Morton* in his original description, appears to have been slightly mutilated by the printer, producing a very misleading result, which in all probability accounts for the non- recognition of the affinities of the species for such a long period. The figures D, 9 1-9, were intended for D. 9, 19, or. as now more usually written, D. VIII, I, 19. The anal formula is III, 13. The following is a description of the Chatham Island specimen : B. VII ; D. VIII, I, 20 ; A. Ill, 15 ; V. I, 5 ; P. 20 ; C. 24 + 6. L. lat. 84 ; L. tr. 18 + 34. Vert. 10 + 12 = 22. Length of head, 3-0 ; height of body.. 2-7 ; and length of caudal, 5-5 in the length ; diameter of eye, 5-2 ; interorbital space, 2-7 ; and length of snout, 4-0 in the head. Head rounded, compressed, naked and porous above, tumid over the nostrils ; the latter are close together, the anterior being circular, while the posterior one is an oblique slit lying midway between the end of the snout and the eye ; snout truncate ; the interorbital is broad and convex ; the eye is relatively low in the head and is somewhat overhung by an obtuse ridge. The cleft of the mouth is horizontal, and the maxilla, which has a supplemental bone, extends to below the second third of the orbit ; its distal portion is rounded and its width nearly half the diameter of the eye. The opercular bones are thin and entire, and the angle of the preopercle is greatly, though roundly, produced. Gill-membranes united far forward, not attached to the isthmus ; gill-rakers long, 21 in number on the first arch, of which 16 are on the lower limb ; pseudobranchiae present, but ill-developed. Teeth. — The teeth are confined to the jaws, the rest of the mouth being edentulous ; they are small, set close together, and form a single series along the whole margins of both jaws. Fins. — The dorsal fin commences over the edge of the operculum; the fourth and fifth spines are the longest, three-fourths the diameter of the eye ; the last spine is continuous with the rays, the anterior of which is the longest and twice the diameter of the eye. The anal commences beneath the eighth dorsal ray, and is similar in character to the dorsal, terminating more posteriorly, however. The pectoral is falcate, and its seventh ray is as long as the head. The ventral spine is long and slender, its length one- half more than the diameter of the eye ; the length of the first ray is twice the orbital diameter ; the fin lies below the pectoral. Caudal emarginate ; * Morton, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm.. 1888, p. 76, with plate. * 202 Transactions. the peduncle long and narrow, its depth one-fourth more than the diameter of the eye. Scales. — Head generally naked, but with scales on the opercles ; upper part of head with a spongy porous integument. The body-scales are not markedly deciduous, are of moderate size, and finely denticulated ; they extend on to all the vertical fins. The lateral line does not follow the curve of the back, excepting for its anterior half, the hinder part being almost straight. Length, 945 mm. The type was 990 mm., doubtless measured to the end of the longest caudal ray. Colours. — Steel-blue above, silvery beneath. The genus Etirumetopos, of which E. johnslonii is the type and only known species, may be thus defined : Body oblong, compressed ; snout obtuse ; mouth large ; teeth present only in the jaws. Premaxillaries slightly protractile, maxillaries with supplemental bone ; they are not entirely concealed by the preorbitals when the mouth is closed. Opercular bones thin, entire ; branchiostegals 7 ; gill-membranes united far forward, not attached to the isthmus, pseudobranchiae developed ; gill-rakers long ; scales of moderate size, fairly adherent, lateral line not concurrent with the dorsal profile. A single dorsal fin with about IX, 20 rays ; anal with about III, 15 rays ; pectoral pointed, with 20 rays ; ventrals below the pectorals. Vertebrae 22. The genus appears to be sufficiently established, and finds its nearest ally in Psenopsis Gill, differing in the larger mouth, the character of the maxillaries, the more adherent scales of relatively smaller size and their development on to the bases of the dorsal and anal fins. The lateral line is not concurrent with the dorsal profile, and the number of rays in the vertical fins is noticeably smaller. The following notes are supplied for the convenience of those wishing to make a further comparison : In 1862 Gill* erected the genus Psenopsis for Trachynotus anomalus Schlegel, a species taken in Japanese seas.f The affinities of the fish were previously recognized by Bleeker (1853), J who placed it in the genus Psenes. Regan § has more recently added Bathyseriola cyanea Alcock,|| from Indian seas, to the genus Psenopsis, remarking, " There can be no question that these two species belong to the same gemis, although their relationship has not hitherto been suspected, and the two species are very closely allied." EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate X. Aegoeonichtl ys avpelii Clarke. Less than half natural siz<\ Plate XI. Oreosoma atlanticum Cuvier and Valenciennes. Nearly twice natural size. Plate XII. Eurwudopos johnslonii Morton. One-fifth natural size. * Gill, Proc. Acad. Phil., 1862, p. 157. t Schlegel, Fauna Japon, Poiss., 1850, p. 107, pi. 57, fig. 2. X Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., vol. 26, 1853, p. 104. § Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), vol. 10, 1902, p. 130 (also see for further references.) || Alcock, Cat. Indian Deep-sea Fishes, 1899, p. 43, pi. 17, fig. 1. [The three papers last quoted are the only ones I have been able to consult, but Mr. McCulloch has kindly assisted me by referring to others in the Australian Museum library.] Howes. — New Species of Lepidoptera. 203 Laeentia cinnabari. X 2. Art. XXI. — New Species of Lepidoptera, with Notes on the Larvae and Pupae of some New Zealand Butterflies. By George Howes, F.E.S., F.L.S. [Read before the Otago Institute, 1st August, 1911.] The following are descriptions of some new moths recently collected in the Otago Province. Larentia cinnabari sp. nov. Expanse — in <$, 20 mm. ; in $, 22 mm. Forewings pale orange, marked with brown and light ochre. Basal area brown, extending to about £, where it is edged with a dark line, then a pale-ochreous thin line, which is followed by pale orange to ^. A dark-brown area from about f to f, edged on both sides with a pale-ochre line. This brown area is bent out towards termen at centre of wing, and slightly constricted below. Subterminal line appears as dark shading on costa, and very faintly below. An oblique shaded patch below apex. With the ex- ception of these markings, from § to termen is pale orange. There is a termi- nal series of small dark dots. Cilia rmrplisk-brown, darker at base. Hind- wings uniform orange, with slight dark dots along termen. Cilia purplish-brown. In the £ the markings are the same as in the 6*> hut the moth is paler. Considerable variation in depth of colouring and extent of the dark markings showed in the specimens taken. Appears to be close to bulbidata, which it resembles in appearance and habits. I am indebted to my brother, Mr. A. A. Howes, for the finding of this moth, he having first noticed it in the same locality in the previous year. Taken in fair numbers amongst tussock in swampy places in the Garvie Mountains and at the Cinnabar Gold-sluicing Company's claim, in November, 1910. Dasyuris transaureus sp. nov. Four specimens ; 19 mm. (§ in.). Palpi long, with dense long hairs. Antennae simple in both sexes. Forewings light ochre, marked with dark blown and golden orange. Dark-brown area at base, followed by a thin ochre line. A small golden patch continuing in dark brown to dorsum. A thin ochre line at £, followed by a wider dark-brown area. An equally wide ochre line at J, followed by a broad dark-brown area, which is interrupted at middle by a golden triangle. A thin ochre line follows, edged terminally with golden, i . , . . n ° ■, • i • i i Dasyuris transaureus. x 2. which is indented on terminal side, where the veins cross. A dark-brown area to termen, with a faint subternvnal 204 Transactions. line in ochre. The veins crossing this area marked in golden. Cilia dark ochre, barred with brown. The markings continue on through the hind- wings, the only difference being that there is more golden colouring, and the cilia are light ochre barred with brown. The small size of this insect, together with the triangular - shaped golden marking cutting across the other markings, makes this moth very distinct. It is with some hesitation I place it in the Dasyuris. It may have to be removed later. Taken on the Garvie Mountains, near Nevis, 20th November, 1910. Morrisonia pansicolor sp. nov. Three females, two males ; 29 mm. Head and thorax ochreous, slightly tinged with rufous. Antennae filiform, rufous. Crests well defined, dotted with rufous. Abdomen ochreous, in $ dotted with minute dark specks, ochreous-rufous in <£, with strong crests, especially the anal. Forewings ochreous, suffused with rufous ; all markings rufous. Subbasal line double, much broken, double line at ^ bending strongly outwards at centre of wing. A mark on cost a at J, followed by two marks over reniform, which continue through reniform as faint jagged lines across wing. by a series of dots. Morrisonia pansicolor x 2. An indistinct subterminal line formed Morrisonia mollis, x 2. Orbicular obsolete. Reniform filled with dark rufous. Veins faintly marked with rufous. Cilia ochreous. Hindwings ochreous, centre of wing clouded with rufous brown. Discoidal spot well defined. A faint series of subterminal dots. Cilia whitish-ochreous, with a darker line at base. Underside pale ochreous. Curved post-medial line across both wings. Reniform and discoidal lunule well defined. Taken in November, at Dunedin, at " treacle." The moth is so close to mollis that the first specimens I took I thought were that species. Subsequent captures, which gave me both sexes in both species, placed the matter beyond doubt. My last illustration of mollis being so unsatisfactory, I am giving another drawing of it. along with paniscolor. In mollis the reniform is clear, in paniscolor filled with dark rufous. Morrisonia sequens sp. nov. 6*, 31 mm. ; $. 34 mm. Head and thorax grey, strongly crested. Antennae filiform. Abdomen ochreous grey, crests slight. Forewings Howes. — New Species of Lepidoptera. 205 M.OKRISONIA SEQDENS. X 2. bright grey, irrorated with fuscous. A jagged subbasal line, strongly maiked on submedian fold, where it turns abruptly towards base. A dark line across wing at J, double, space between double lines grey (not irrorated), a dark mark on costa at |, followed by two more above reniform. Sub- terminal line faint and suf- fused. A terminal series of black points ; a few dark points outline veins. Orbi- cular faint, but with a well- defined line along lower edge. Reniform defined by a dark line below and on terminal edge. Cilia grey, mixed with fuscous. Hind -wings brown, darker towards termen. Cilia brown, with fine paler line at base. Tips grey-white. Taken at Whakarewarewa, North Island, on the 15th February, 1910, by Dr. G. B. Longstaff, F.E.S., whom I have to thank for the privilege of describing this moth. The well-defined line below reniform and orbicular readily distin- guishes this from phricias, which it is very close to — much closer than M. longslaffii. Neither has it the ferruginous markings of the latter. Morrisonia pascoei sp. nov. 6A, 38-40 mm. ; $, 36-38 mm. <$. Antennae filiform, reddish-brown. Palpi, legs, and face reddish- brown. Thorax and crests reddish-brown with slight fuscous in oration. Crests well developed. Abdomen slightly fuscous, with crests strong ; ochreous at sides. Anal tuft well developed, reddish-ochreous. Forewings red-brown with fuscous markings. Subbasal line double, very indistinct ; a double line at I, also indistinct; another before reniform, more plainly marked towards dorsum. Two faint jagged lines, then faint subterminal line Morrisonia pascoei. x 2. hardly traceable at apex but outlined by a dark suffusion on both sides at about vein 7. then forming two nearly equal dentate marks, then again suffused on both sides at about vein 3 to close to torn us. Reni- form deep fuscous, slightly edged on outer side with a thin ochre line. Orbicular obsolete. Veins faintly marked with fuscous. Cilia light 206 Transactions. reddish-brown, with a lighter line at base. Hindwings fuscous-brown with red-brown suffusion along termen. Cilia red-brown, with ochreous line at base, and ochreous tips. Discoidal lunule shows faintly. ?. Forewings ■ pale ochreous. Marks as in male, but slightly less defined. Cilia lighter than in male. Hindwings lighter than in male. The underside of both sexes is well marked with a well - defined reniform marking and discoidal lunule, also a well-defined line at about § passing right across both wings. In both sexes varieties occur with a strong fuscous suffusion from base above dorsum to near tornus, as seen in some specimens of Morrisonia omoplaca. Specimens such as these might be better to illustrate from, but apparently are not the typical form. The fore wing of the moth being dark in colour, with few determined markings, makes a poor illustration. Apparently close to rubescens, but more strongly crested, deeper in colour in the $, lighter in colour in the $. The subterminal line in rubescens is more deeply indented than in pascoei. The first specimen came to " sugar " at Orepuki, 1st September, 1910 (a $). In November of the same year- 1 took another at Queens- town (j Caps Turakirae. By B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.] Plates XIII, XIV. Cape Turakirae is the north-western point facing Cape Palliser. the two capes enclosing that noble stretch of water known as Palliser Bay. The remarkable geological and botanical features of Turakirae hitherto appear to have escaped the attention they merit, and it is with the hope of remedying this neglect that this paper is written. The Orongorongo River, near the mouth of which is situated Mr. Riddi- ford's homestead, cuts through a series of raised beaches, now more or less obscured by drifting sand or overgrown by herbage. They are, moreover, composed of finer material — mostly coarse sand — than those same beaches a mile nearer the cape. Their finer nature is accounted for by the fact that the rivers would bring down quantities of fine debris, which would be thrown up by the sea. Three beaches are here to be distinguished, and, as their altitude is the same, they are undoubtedly of the same age as those three hereafter described as being nearer the sea. The beach presumably elevated at the time of the 1855 earthquake is here very well developed. The influence of the fineness of beach-particles on the flora will be presently noticed. It is not until one has crossed the river, and proceeded a mile or so towards Palliser Bay, that the eye of the observer is arrested by the extraordinary physiographical aspect of the country lying between the track at the base of the steep hillside and the sea. The track follows a course close to the foot of the hills, about 100 ft. above sea-level, and between this and the sea is a stretch of rocky country varying from 250 to 400 yards in width, and extending some two or three miles, narrowing to nothing ou the further side of the cape. This rocky plain consists mostly Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol XLIV. Ptatf. XIII. bfj r. a < < w 02 O C - o 02 O M c/3 PH o < CO bic < PQ fr. P H CD 'bb R N o 02 w ,fl < > o < U k T3 n w < 03 - CO w c« H « SC (-1 In -f cd O «? — ao o H P Facsp. 308.] Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. XL1V. Plate XIV. Aston. — Raised Beaches of (Jape Turakirae. 209 of large boulders 3 ft. to 8 ft. in diameter, but running roughly parallel with the sea throughout the length of the boulder-strewn plain are two excellently defined shingle beaches. These stand out most conspicuously, and form natural roadways along which one may drive. For the greater part the shingle presents an appearance differing little from that of beaches which often exist now at the ocean's marge. In many places the shingle is, how- ever, overgrown with Muehlenbeckia complexa, or with grasses and other plants. The main impression left on one's mind is that marvellously little alteration has taken place in the peopling of these areas by plants, and in the external appearance of the shingle generally, in the hundreds of years which have probably elapsed since each was rapidly elevated. The survival of the beaches as shingle involves the fact that it is composed of the harder portions of the country rock, and which would hence, in the equable climate, offer a considerable resistance to the weathering influences ; isolated by boulder plains on all sides, little dust could blow in and form soil between the interstices, and without soil little atmospheric moisture could be retained. Only specially adapted shingle -plants, such as Muehlenbeckia, could, therefore, hope to survive in such a station. Happily, we are not entirely in the dark as to the rapidity with which these beaches may be elevated beyond the reach of the breakers. It is well known that the coast at Mukumuku was elevated 9 ft. during the earthquakes of 1855 (see Crawford, Trans. N.Z. Inst., Essay, vol. 1, p. 18). Knowing this, the author carefully searched the boulder-strewn shore a little above high-water mark, and was rewarded by finding traces of a shingle beach about that altitude above high-water mark. Further search nearer Mukumuku showed a long strip of shingle beach quite as well developed as the older beaches. The fact that the sea is now breaking on boulders and monoliths somewhat discounts the thought that beach No. 1 may be a mere storm beach. Exploring the country adjacent to the hills, two much older shingle beaches were found. These nearly everywhere have been obhterated by the debris carried down by temporary creeks from the steep hillsides, the site of the older beaches being now occupied by fans of angular shingle, mixed with finer detritus, many acres in extent, which may or may not support a flora. This recent alluvium has buried these two older beaches many feet below the surface, but where fragments of them remain one is again struck with the extremely recent appearance of the beach, as Plate XIV, fig. 1, truly depicts. The interesting fact that the younger of these beaches is that more thickly populated by a flora is probably accounted for by the difference in size of the component stones, which explanation must also suffice for the fact that much of the newer fan- material supports dense formations of herbage or arboreal growth. Five distinct shingle beaches have now been mentioned, which for the sake of ease of reference may be designated by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and £, No. 1 being the youngest (the 1855) beach and No. 5 the oldest. Observations taken with a surveying aneroid show that the level of each of these beaches is practically constant along its entire length — that is to say, beach No. 1 is approximately 9 ft. (see Plate XIII, fig. 4), beach No. 2 is 40 ft., beach No. 3 is 60 ft. (see Plate XIV, fig. 2), beach No. 4 is 80 ft. (see Plate XIII, fig. 2), and beach No. 5 is 95 ft. (see Plate XIV. fig. 1) above high-water mark. The material of which all this elevated country is composed has so far been roughly classified as boulders and shingle, but there is a third most extraordinary component, the solitary monoliths which stand out some- 210 Transaction*. times as much as 15 ft. above the surrounding country, enabhng a compre- hensive view of it to be obtained from their summits. There are no mono- liths or disproportionately sized boulders on the beaches, with a few unimportant exceptions. Plate XIV, fig. 1 , shows a few large boulders have rolled, perhaps comparatively recently, on or near beach No. 5. These mono- liths are often very much undercut, and present the appearance of having rolled into the positions they now occupy, rather than of having been weathered into their present shape by wave-action. Where the sea broke at the tide-limits a shingle beach would form ; above and below the tide- limits less weathering would occur. Sudden elevation would remove an area beyond reach of the waves, and as this was repeated the alternation of shingle and boulder is thus accounted for. Possibly the original relation of shore to sea-floor was that of a perpendicular or overhanging cliff with the floor projected at an obtuse angle from the base of it. Successive movements of the earth might dislodge much of the cliff-material, and build up a submarine platform. One would like to find some explanation for the fact that these rolled monoliths occur such a distance from the base of the present cliffs. It is not easy to see how faulting at the base of the cliffs can have been a factor in the uplift, as this would have to take place in a semicircular sweep round the cape, and there is plenty of evidence of recent dislodgment of large masses of rock from the hillside. Earthquakes may have played a considerable part in loosening large masses of rock. One rolled monolith examined was roughly cubical in shape, and its side measured 15 ft., its estimated weight being 250 tons. The age of these beaches is a most fascinating theme to speculate upon. The fresh appearance of the shingle makes it hard to realize that centuries must have elapsed since they were removed beyond the reach of the tide Mr. Elsdon Best informs me of a Maori tradition which relates that the Miramar Peninsula, previously an island, was elevated about four hundred years ago to its present position, which is evidence, of a kind, of coast- elevation within historic times, prior to 1855. (See also Cotton, p. 245 ( f this volume.) If the geological features of this area are intensely interesting, the botanical features are even more so. Within a few hundred yards may be found the plants of the arid rock-faces, the fresh-water swamps and ponds, the sea littoral, the grass meadows, and the forest. Starting from the sea-shore a little above high-water mark, in a situation well moistened by sea-spray are found the usual halophytic plants, Salieornia australis Sol., Samolus rcpens Pers., Triglochin striatum var. filifolium Buch., Apium prostratum Labill., Selliera radicans Cav., Scirpus nodosus Rottb., Gar ex ternaria Forst., J uncus effusus Linn. These are growing between boulders 3 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter, which formation occupies some 10 or 20 yards until the shingle of beach No. 1 is reached. On this grow the beautiful Glaucium flavum Crantz (naturalized), Senecio lautus Forst., Apium prostratum Labill., Poa anceps Forst., Calystcgia soldandla R. Br., and the naturalized Picris echioides Linn, and Plantago lanceolata Linn. Now comes a stretch of big boulders and monoliths, amongst which are growing in very wet or very dry stations the following : Leptocarpus simplex A. Rich., Mariscus ustulatus Clarke, Phormium Cookianum Le Jobs, Selliera radicans Cav., Raoulia australis Hook, f., Muehlenbech'a complexa Meissn., Olearia Solandri Hook, f., Cassinia leptophylla R. Br., Plagianthus divaricatus Forst., Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook, f., Arundo conspicua Forst., Euphorbia glauca Forst., Clematis Colcnsoi Hook f., Epilobium Aston. — Raised Beaches of Cape Turahirae. 211 erectum D. Petrie, Deyeuxia Forsteri Kuntk., Poa anceps Forst., P. caespi- tosa, Forst., Myoporum and Coprosma Baueri Endl. shrubs (occasionally), Australina pusilla Gaud., Adiantum affine Willd., and the naturalized Picris echioides Linn., Nasturtium officinale R. Br., Myosotis palustris Linn. Parts of this rockery may not be so wet, and may then contain Lepto- spermum scoparium Forst., L. ericoides A. Rich., Coprosma rhamnoides A. Cunn., G. robusta Raoul, C. parviflora Hook, f., Pimelea laevigata Gaertn., Olearia Cunninghamii Hook, f., and a sward of introduced Medicago lu- pulina Linn., and Hypochaeris radicata Linn., and some Caucalis nodosa Scop., Cnicus lanceolatus Willd., Rosa rubiginosa Linn, occurs. This boulder terrace occupies a width of from 50 to 150 yards, and at the further side of it an abrupt rise consisting of shingle is encountered. This is beach No. 2, and growing on it is often a sward of naturalized Rumex acetosella Linn., Lolium perenne Linn., Festuca myuros Linn., Hordeum murinum Linn., and Erodium cicutarium L'Herit., or a thicket of Silybum Marianum Gaertn. ; while the native plants present are Muehlenbeckia com- plexa Meissn., Aciphylla squarrosa Forst., Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook f., Bulbinella Hookeri Benth., Plagianthus divaricatus Forst., Olearia Solandri Hook f., Coprosma propinqua A. Cunn. At the Orongorongo River, where the beach is composed of coarse sand, it is almost covered in parts with the beautiful silvery Raoulia australis Hook f., with Zoysia pungens Willd. growing through it. Near Mukumuku Stream this plant covers a sandhill some 30 ft. high, which can easily be- picked out by its colour some three miles away. Towards the. north-east end of these beaches, on the landward side, just above No. 2 beach, are two ponds. The vegetation surrounding and growing in the larger of these presents considerable contrasts. On the dry shingle of the beach characteristic rounded clumps of Muehlenbeckia complexa Meissn. dominate that position. In wet ground, nearer the pond, Mariscus ustulatus Clarke abounds. Nearer still is Eleocharis acuta R. Br. and plants of Rumex crispus Linn. (natd.). The entire margin of the pond is fringed with a yellow Conferva, and the whole of the pond itself is filled with a dense dark-red growth of Myriophyllum elatinoides Gaud, and a little Potamogeton Cheesemanii Bennett. The landward shore of the pond is covered by Eleocharis and Typha angustifolia Linn., with some Lep'ocarpus simplex A. Rich., Scirpus lacustris Linn., Juncus effusus Linn., Cladium jun:eum R. Br., Phormium tenax Forst., Car ex ternaria Forst., Calystegia tuguriorum R. Br. The naturalized Nasturtium officinale R. Br. and Myosotis palustris Lam. also occur»in considerable quantity. In the dry boulder -bank or in boggy p'aces above are to be found the rare Sebaea ova'.a R. Br. (a yellow-flowered gentianous plant now for the first time recorded from Wellington Province), Poten'illa anserina Linn., Pelar- gonium a\istrale Jacq., Geranium molle Linn., Hydrocotyle asialica L:nn., Vittadinia •australis A. Rich., Gnaphalium collin'xm Libill., Craspedia uniflora Forst., Festuca multin)dis Hack., Microtis parvifolia R. Br., Linum monjgyn \tm Forst., Epilobium Billardieranum Ser., Ranunculus hirtus Banks & Sol., Samolus repens Pers., Galium umbrosum Sol., Euphrasia cuneata Forst., Haloragis alata Jacq., H. depressa Walp., Lagenophora pumila Cheesm., Ranunculus rivularis Banks & Sol., Dichelachne crinita Hook, f., and the naturalized Silene gallica Linn., Briza maxima Linn., Cyperus vegetus Willd., Vicia sp. Near Orongorongo Stream Eryngium vesiculosum Labill. occurs plentifully above the beach. In the centre of the stony plain, clustering round the monoliths on the upper edge of beach 212 Transaction*. No. 2, is to be found a little forest, consisting of Corynocarpus (sometimes 18 in. in circumference), Melicytus ramiflorus Forst., Myrsine Urvillei A. D.C., Coprosma Cunninghamii Hook f., Panax arboreum Forst., Cordy- line australis Hook, f., Piper excelsum, Forst., Coriaria ruscifolia Linn., Asplenium lucidum Forst., Coprosma Baueri Endl., Olearia Cunninghamii Hook, f., Pcllaea rotundifolium Hook. f. On beach No. 3 flourish most of the plants mentioned as found on No. 2. Muehlenbeckia complexa Meissn. is the most characteristic on this beach, which is the best developed of the five described. Danthonia semiannularis R. Br., and the naturalized Polycarpon tetraphyllum Linn.. Poa pratensis Linn., and Bromus mollis Linn, also occur. The next strip of boulder terrace, between beach No. 3 and beach No. 4, is most interesting for the number and variety of species it contains. Some portions consist of boulders 5 ft. to 8 ft. in diameter, and fairly uni- form in size, and growing among them are Phormium Cookianum L3 Jobs, P. tenax Forst., Dichondra repens Forst., Epilobium insulare Haussk., Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook. f.. Mariscus ustulatus Clarke, Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn., H. novae-zelandiae, Dichelachne crinita Hook. f.. Carex temaria Forst., Astelia nervosa Banks & Sol., Cordyline australis Hook f., Leplospcrmum scoparium Forst., Olearia Solandri Hook f., Scirpus prolijer Rottb... Drosera binata Labill., and the naturalized Ranunculus acris Linn, and Myosotis palustris Lam. are common. Extensive Phormium and Typha angustifolia Linn, swamps occur, which also contain J uncus caespiticius, J. prismatocarpus R. Br.', J. bufonius Linn., J. vaginatus R. Br., Schoenus axillaris Poir., and ponds may form. In this area occur most of the monoliths, the flora of which is utterly distinct from that of the swamp, pond, or damper ground immediately below them. The most remarkable constituent of the monoliths' flora is Dendrobium Cunninghamii, which is growing as a thick sward 6 in. or 7 in. high, and fully exposed to the wind and sun, a fact first noticed by Colenso in this very spot (see "First Journey to the Ruahine Range," p. 11). Four other epiphytic orchids are growing on the rock-faces — Sarcochilus adversus Hook, f., Bulbophyllum pygmaeum Lindl., Earina mucronata Lindl., and E. suaveolens Lindl. — and yellow clumps of Scleranthus biflorus Hook, f., the climbing Polypodium serpens Forst., and Mesembryanthemum australe Sol. In chasms or small clefts or on the tops some soil has formed, and here are to be found Coprosma Baueri Endl., Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook, f., Arthropodium candidum Raoul, Heli- chrysum filicaule Hook, f., Agropyrum scabrum Beauv., Craspedia uniflora Forst., Clematis Colensoi Hook, f., Luzula campestris D. C, Festuca multi- nodis Hack., Poa anceps Forst., Danthonia semiannularis R. Br., Pimelea laevigata Gaertn., Linum monogynum Forst., Trisetum antarcticum Prim, Tillaea Sieberiana Schultz, Aciphylla sguarrosa Forst., Rhagodia nutans R. Br., Thelymitra longifolia Forst., Dichondra repens Forst., Asplenium flabillifolium Cav., Metrosideros robusta A. Cunn. may even occur. Above beach No. 3, in wet parts, occur Cotula coronopijolia var. integri- folia Linn., Ranunculus rivularis Banks & Sol., Eleocharis Cunninghamii Boeck., J uncus pallidus R. Br., J. maritimus Lam., J. lampocarpus Ehr., Carex virgata Sol., C. lucida Boott., Azolla rubra R. Br.. Lobelia anceps Linn, f., Nertera depressa Banks & Sol. ; and in the drier parts Olearia Forsteri Hook, f., Prasophyllum Colensoi Hook, f., Urtica ferox Forst., Calystegia septum R. Br., Apium prostratum var. filiforme Labill., Rubus cissoides A. Cunn., Lomaria capensis Willd., and the naturalized Lythrum hfssopifolium, Linn., Sherardia arvensis Linn., Bromus sterilis Linn. Aston. — Raised Beaches, of (Jape Turakirae. 213 On beach No. 4, in places, true forest is found. This is nearly a pure Corynocarpus association. Some of the trees are very old, measuring up to 6 ft. in circumference, and may be two hundred years old. Plate XIV, fig. 1, shows No. 5 beach with one quick-growing tree, Myoporum laetum Forst,, on it ; but the Corynocarpus is confined to No. 4 beach, immediately below and contiguous to No. 5 beach. Where Corynocarpus has not established itself on No. 4, Muehlenbeckia complexa Meissn. covers the beach (see Plate XIII, fig. 2). On the slopes of it grow a charming shrubbery of Pcnnantia corymbosa Forst.. Melicopc ternata Forst., Myoporum laetum Forst., Sophora tetraptera J. Mull., Pittosporum tenuijolium Banks & Sol., Parsonsia heterophylla A. Cunn., Passiflora tetrandra Banks & Sol., Cordyline australis Hook f., Clematis Colensoi Hook, f.. Piper excelsum Forst., among the herbaceous plants being Parietaria debilis Forst., Wahlenbergia gracilis A. D. C. W. saxicola A. D. C, and the naturalized Fumaria muralis Sond. On beach No. 5 an unusual sight is Muehlenbeckia australis Meissn. adopting the habit and station affected by its congener M. complexa Meissn.. and scrambling over the horizontal stones, instead of climbing over trees in its usual manner. The flora of the fans which have covered up so much of the two oldest beaches may be briefly described. The oldest material supports pure woods of Corynocarpus (karaka), often with a pure fringing wood of Myo- porum. Plate XIII, fig. 1, shows a good example of a karaka grove. The action of the wind in bunching the topmost leaves and branchlets together at the southern, seaward, and exposed extremity of the grove, while they regain their normal habit as they approach the hills, is most instructive. The younger alluvium supports a dense sward of indigenous Danthonia pilosa R. Br. and Microlaena stipoides R. Br., and naturalized grasses and clovers. The youngest fan-material grows chiefly the naturalized thistles Cnicus lanceolatus Willd. and Silybum Mqrianum Gaertn., the latter often impenetrable thickets acres in extent. Reference must be made to that remarkable new species, Muehlenbeckia Asloni Petrie (figured in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 257). This rare plant grows on the talus slopes and shingle fans. It is remarkable for the regularity of the angle of branching (approximately 120 degrees) and for the fact that it is the only New Zealand species with an erect habit of growth. The author, who has made twelve visits to the cape altogether, desires to express his grateful acknowledgments for the support he has received from Professor Easterfield, Dr. D. Petrie, Messrs. T. F. Cheeseman, J. S. Tennant, E. Phillips Turner, P. Freyberg, and his brothers (C. G., Cyril, and W. B. Aston), who have all accompanied him in these lengthy walks at various dates during the last four years. Summary. The raised marine beaches at Cape Turakirae show that there has occurred comparatively recently, and perhaps within historic times, rapid elevation of the coast-line near Palliser Bay at least four times prior to the sudden elevation of 9 ft. which took place in 1855. Violent earth movements have so altered the physiography of the littoral as to result in some unusual ecological features. 214 Tran taction*. Art. XXIII. — The Geographic Relationships of the Birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands. By W. R. B. Oliver. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 28th November, 1911.] Whether the main islands of New Zealand, together with certain out- lying islands, be considered entitled to the full rank of biological " region," or only that of " subregion," will not affect the contention which the evidence assembled in this paper is held to support — namely, that the three groups of islands lying to the north of New Zealand (Lord Howe, Norfolk, and the Kermadecs) should be included within that region. It can be said that conclusions drawn from the study of one class of animals may not be trustworthy, and should be checked by con- clusions deduced from a consideration of other classes. There can be no questioning the truth of this statement, and I would go even further, and say that the claims of a district on the border-line of two biological regions to be included in any one of such regions should be decided upon an examination of the whole of the fauna and flora of the district in question, together with a consideration of its geological history. In most cases this is not practicable, and in this paper I will deal principally with the avifauna of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands, only referring incidentally to other sections of the fauna or to the flora, and endeavour to point out its true relationship to those of the adjacent biological regions. In treating of islands, the real test for deciding to which region they should be attached is to consider the evidence in favour of a land connection with a part of the region within the bounds of which it is claimed they should be included. If the probabilities are that the islands have never been actually joined to a land-mass, then the character of the fauna and flora must decide. But here certain life-forms, such as pelagic species, need not be taken into account, except as characterizing a pro- vince or subregion. Again, the presence of such a group as " accidental visitors " may be due merely to climatic conditions, and cannot be held to ally one fauna to another any more than the occasional occurrence of a stray royal spoonbill or pelican in New Zealand allies the avifauna of that country to that of Australia, for species of birds cannot often be dispersed by such accidents. From a geographical standpoint, the birds of a district may be ar- ranged according to their life-forms or manner of occurrence into groups. The ecological groups into which I have divided the birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands, and whose numerical strength in these islands is shown in the following table, would not necessarilv be the most useful to adopt Avhen treating the avifauna of a large area, but are, I think, the most convenient for the purpose of this paper. Ecological Group. Lor J Howe. Norfolk. Kerma lees. Resident land-birds — Breeding Sea-birds — Breeding Visitors — Sea-birds Migrants Occasional Accidental Totals ... ... .. 61 53 43 15 19 6 8 11 12 6 5 10 11 7 8 13 6 4 8 5 3 Oliver. — Birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and Kerrnadec Islands. 215 Resident land-birds are the most important from a geographical point of view, as they alone include species whose presence can only be accounted for by a former land connection. The group sea-birds includes forms which habitually frequent the open sea, but does not include coastal genera, such as Larus and Phalacrocorax. Those breeding in the islands are chiefly circumtropical species, and of no value in determining the geographic relationships of the avifauna, as their presence depends mainly on the latitude of the place. Migrants, especially if occurring regularly and in large numbers, are important as indicating the line of a former land connection.* Occasional visitors are those which regularly visit the islands, or have frequently been recorded. They probably belong to species which are in the habit of wandering far from their ordinary breeding-places, and possibly frequently cross and recross the Tasman Sea. Most of them are fairly widely distributed, ranging from the Malay Archipelago through Australia to New Zealand. Accidental visitors are stragglers (and I have included doubtful records under this heading). I wish here to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. Basset Hull's valuable paper on the "Birds of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, "f from which, mainly, the list of birds inhabiting those islands, together with other information, have been taken. By searching through the British Museum " Catalogue of Birds " I have added a number of other records, and the lists have been added to from other sources. In the list of birds of the Kermadec Islands there appear the names of six species not hitherto recorded from the group — Prion desolatus, Sterna bergii, Tringa canutus, Oestrelata macroptera, Snla leucogaster, Phalacrocorax sulci- rostris. For three of these I have to thank Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., who kindly supplied me with a list of the skins in the Auckland Museum collected by Mr. R. S. Bell on Sunday Island. Of the fourth — Oestrelata macroptera — dead specimens were found by myself in 1908 washed up on the beach in Denham Bay, Sunday Island. A dead speci- men of Sulci leucogaster was found on the beach in Denham Bay by Mr. R. S. Bell previous to my visit, and the same observer states that a small number of Phalacrocorax sulcirosfr.is once made their abode on Sunday and Macaulay Islands, staying for some years. They, however, failed to establish themselves. Loud Howl Island. Of fifteen species of resident land-birds breeding in the island, twelve (including Aplonis fuscus, which occurs also on Norfolk Island) are en- demic. The affinities of the peculiar forms are mainl}- with New Zealand and New Caledonia. Species related to New Zealand forms are Nesolim- nas sylvestris, Notornis alba, and CyanorTiamphus subflavescens ; those re- lated to New Caledonian forms are Turdus vinitincta and Aplonis fuscxis. The two species of Gerijgone are allied to forms in New Zealand and New Caledonia, while the Lord Howe and Norfolk Island species of Zosfcrops belong to a group occurring in New Zealand. New Caledonia and ad- jacent islands, and Australia. The remaining three endemic species — Ninox albaria, Rhi pidura cervina, Paehycephala contempta — are pro- bably related to Australian forms. Numerically the Australian. New Zealand, and New Caledonian elements in the endemic birds of Lord Howe Island are about equal, or overwhelmingly in favour of a New * Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 5, p. 235. f Proc. Linn. Soo. N.S.W., vol. 34, p. 636. 216 Transaction*. Caledonia - New Zealand migration as against an Australian immigra- tion. The two flightless rails turn the balance in favour of New Zealand. The distribution of the three resident land-birds not peculiar to Lord Howe Island shows but a slight excess of Australian immigrants over others. Stre-pera graculina extends to Australia, Halcyon vagans to New Zealand, while Chalcophaps chrysochlora (perhaps introduced) is found in Australia and New Caledonia. Eleven migrants have been recorded from Lord Howe Island, some of which occur regularly in considerable numbers. Two are cuckoos, the rest Charadriiformes ; all have been recorded in New Zealand, and all except' Eudynamys taitensis in Australia. It is evident that the island is in the line taken by these species on their migration to and from New Zealand, and thus probably on an old land-line stretching northwards from New Zealand. Of the thirteen occasional visitors which have been recorded in Lord Howe Island, all are found in Australia, ten extend to New Zealand, and eleven to New Caledonia or Malaya. The proximity of the Australian Continent to Lord Howe Island and the direction of the prevailing winds (westerly) in the south-west Pacific is sufficient to account for the pre- ponderance of Australian forms in the accidental visitors to the island. Of the eight recorded, only two extend to New Zealand. The large proportion of endemic forms in the resident land-birds of Lord Howe Island points to the long period the island has been an isolated spot. The existence of two brevipinnate rails belonging to genera found elsewhere only in New Zealand is sufficient proof of a former land con- nection with that country. That there was also land connection to the north, whence these birds probably came, is indicated by the large pro- portion of endemic Lord Howe Island land-birds which are allied to New Caledonian forms. Corroborative evidence of a land bridge between New Caledonia and New Zealand is furnished by the presence in Lord Howe Island of the large land-mollusc Placostylus* It would be over this bridge that the large portion of the New Zealand fauna and flora show- ing Malayan affinities migrated. As the two flightless rails mentioned above are closely allied to New Zealand forms, it is probable that the land bridge was severed in the north before the connection with New Zealand was broken. Lord Howe Island would therefore properly belong to the New Zealand biological region. Australia can have no claim whatever to include Lord Howe Island within its regional limits, as a permanent ocean-basin separates the island and continent, and what birds of Australian origin are found in Lord Howe Island have crossed the intervening tract of ocean, yet in spite of the proximity of the con- tinent have not outnumbered the New Caledonian and New Zealand forms except in those groups which I have designated occasional and accidental visitors. Norfolk Island. There are twelve endemic species of land -birds (including Aplonis fuscus). Of these, four — Hemiphaga spadicea, Nestor productus, Cyanor- hamphus cooki, Gerygone modesta — are related to New Zealand species; two — Rhipidura pelzelni, Pachycephala xauthoprocta — to Australian species; four — Petroica midticolor, Diaphoropterus leucopygius, Turdus fidiginosus, Aplonis fuscus — to New Caledonian species; and there are two species of Zosterops. Numerically the New Caledonian element pfe- Hedley, Proc. Linn. Soo. N.S.W.. vol. 7 (JS92), p. 335. Oliver. — Birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and. Kermadec Islands. 217 dominates, and, as with Lord Howe Island, the species of this and the New Zealand element together far outnumber those of the Australian section ; but again the presence of such important genera as Nestor and llemiphaga turns the scale in favour of New Zealand. Of the seven resi- dent land-birds not peculiar to the island, one — Halcyon vagans — extends to New Zealand; two — Platycercus elegans (perhaps introduced), Ninox boobook — to Australia; while the remaining four are found in both these countries. Australian forms are thus scarcely in excess of others. The migrants recorded include the same two species of cuckoo as occur in Lord Howe Island, and five Charadriiformes, two of which are said to be plentiful at certain seasons of the year. Here again an old land-line is indicated. All the occasional visitors to Norfolk Island occur in both Australia and New Zealand. Of the five accidental visitors, all are Australian forms, of which three have been recorded from New Zealand as stragglers, and one — Herodias t im or iens is— is resident there. There are no species of birds in Norfolk Island whose presence de- mands that the island should at one time have been connected with a large land-area; nor, as far as I am aware, are there any other members of the indigenous fauna or flora of the island whose presence cannot reason- ably be attributed to dispersal by their own means or by accident across a narrow sea. At the same time, as the avifauna shows similar charac- teristics to that of Lord Howe Island — namely, by its large proportion of endemic land-birds and strong New Caledonian - New Zealand affinities — it is evident that both islands received their first land-birds about the same time and b}' the same route. It seems most probable that at the time Lord Howe Island was actually part of the land bridge stretching northwards from New Zealand, Norfolk Island was a detached islet lying off the east coast of the land, and thus received its fauna and flora across a narrow strait. The present contour of the ocean-floor lends support to this view, as Norfolk Island is completely surrounded by deep water — over 1,000 fathoms — while Lord Howe Island lies in comparatively shallow water on the western edge of a submarine ridge stretching from New Zealand to New Caledonia. For reasons of like origin and characteris- tics the avifaunas of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands proclaim that both islands must be included in the same biological region, and their relation- ships as detailed above decide this to be the New Zealand region. Kkrmadec Islands. The conspicuous feature of the avifauna of the Kermadecs is its pau- city of land-birds, and what few occur there are of a decided New Zealand character-. There is practically no Australian element represented. The migrants include the two cuckoos mentioned above as occurring in Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, and six Charadriiformes. None occur in any great numbers; thus their presence affords but little indication of the island lying in an ancient land-line. If a large area of land ever existed in this direction, it disappeared before the present islands came into existence.* The occasional and accidental visitors are all common New Zealand species, and all except Anthus novae-zealandiae occur also in Australia. The Kermadec Islands are of a typical oceanic character — that is, they were formed by volcanic action in mid-ocean, and have been populated * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 20, p. 161 ; vol. 43, p. 531. 218 Transactions. entirely by trans-oceanic migration. The land avifauna and flora are unmistakably closely allied to those of New Zealand, so that the islands fall naturally within the New Zealand biological region. The marine fauna has affinities with that of Polynesia. An explanation of this meet- ing of New Zealand land species and Polynesian marine species may lie in the fact that during the winter months, which cover the period when plant-seeds are being dispersed, the prevailing winds in the Kermadecs are from the south-west, while during the summer months, when the free- swimming larval forms of marine animals are abundant, the prevailing winds are from the north-east. The Lord Howe - Norfolk Inland Province and the Kermadec Islands Province. Having shown by an analysis of their avifaunas that Lord Howe, Nor- folk, and the Kermadec Islands fall within the limits of the New Zealand biological region, it remains only to consider whether they form one or more provinces or subregions of that region. The avifaunas of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands are undoubtedlv closely allied. Of the resident land-birds two species are common, to which must be added the endemic species of four genera — Gerygone, Cyanorhamyhus, Turdus, Zosterops — having representative forms in each island. Most of the sea -birds (breeding), migrants, and occasional visitors are. common to the two islands, but, from the manner of their occurrence, this is not the case with the accidental visitors and the sea- birds (visitors). With regard to the six resident land-birds of the Kermadec Islands, all except Prosthemadera novae-zealandiae are identical with or closely allied to species in Norfolk Island or Lord Howe Island. But of resident land- birds in Lord Howe or Norfolk Islands found also in the Kermadecs the proportion is very low, so that the fact that five-sixths of the Kermadec land-birds are related to species found in Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands merely shows that in all probability, as Avith the plants, some of the species in the Kermadecs which occur in both New Zealand and Norfolk Island have arrived from Norfolk Island direct. The sea-birds (breeding) and migrants chiefly belong to the same species as occur in Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands. The occasional and accidental visitors, like the resident land-birds, are very few, a fact which can be explained by the isolated position of the islands. The three islands therefore fall naturally into two biological provinces. One includes Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, and is characterized by an avifauna containing four main elements : (1) an original element which includes the species which came by the ancient New Caledonia- New Zea- land land bridge (majority of resident land-birds); (2) Australian and New Zealand species arrived subsequently by trans -oceanic migration (some of the resident land-birds and all the visitors except migrants); (3) circumtropical species (sea-birds, breeding); (4) migrants. The Ker- madec province contains only — (1) New Zealand (and Norfolk Island) species arrived by trans -oceanic migration; (2) circumtropical species (sea-birds, breeding); (3) migrants. Although the important and charac- teristic element circumtropical species is common to the three islands, and, in the case of plants, formed the basis of my subtropical islands province,* I think now, on a consideration of the avifauna, that a more * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 155. Oliver. — Birds of Lord Hour, Norfolk, and Kermadec Islands. 219 natural arrangement is to keep the Kermadec Islands separate from Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands. The two avifaunas (and floras) will thus be grouped naturally according to their origin and characteristics. The following is a list of species of birds arranged in groups accord- ing to their manner of occurrence : — Lord Howe Island. Residen t La/id-birds — Breeding. Chalcophaps chrysochlora. Nesolimnas sylvestris. Notornis alba. , ., Ninox albaria. Cyanorhamphus subflavescens. Halcyon vagans. Gerygone thorpei. G. insularis. Rhipidura cervina. Turdus yinitincta. Pachycephala contempt a. Zosterops tephropleura. Z. strenua. Aplonis i'uscus. Strepera graculina. Puffinus sphenurus. P. carneipes. Oestrelata montana. Sterna fuliginosa. Sea-bird* — Breeding. Procelsterna cinerea. Anous stolidus. Sula cyanops. Phaethon rubricauda. Visitor* — Sea-b i rds . Majaqueus aequinoctialis. Prion desolatus. Anous leucocapillus. Fregata ariel. Phaethon lepturus. Sula leucoga.ster. Arenaria interpres. Charadrius dominicus. Numenius variegatus. N. cyanopus. Erolfa aurita. E. ferruginea. Visitors — Migrants. Limosa novae-zealandiae. Tringa canutus. Gallinago australis. Chalcococcyx hicidus. Eudynamys taitensis. Visitors — Occasional. Porphyrio melanonotus. Charadrius bicinctus. Notophoyx novae-hollandiae. Nycticorax caledonicus. Anas superciliosa. Phalacrocorax sulcirostris. P. melanoleucas. Circus gouldi. Eurystomus pacificus. Cuculus inornatus. Cacomantis rufulus. Coracina robusta. Grallina picata. Phaps elegans. Himantopus leucocephalus. Herodias timoriensis. Ardetta pusilla. Visitors— ^Accidental. Astur novae-hollandiae. Haliaetus leucogaster. Haliastur sphenurus. Chelidon neoxena. 220 Transactions . Norfolk Island. Reside/tt Land-birds — Breeding. Hemiphaga spadicea. Hypotaenidia philippensis. Porzana plumbea. Porphyrio melanonotus. Ninox boobook. Nestor productus. Platycercus elegans. Cvanorhamphus cooki. Halcvon vagans. Petroica multicolor. Gerygone modest a. Rhipidura pelzelni. Diaphoropterus leucopygius. Turdus fuliginosus. Pachycephalia xanthoprocta . Zosterops caerulescens. Z. albigularis. Z. tenuirostris. Aplonis fuscus. Puffinus sphennrus. P. assimilis. P. griseus. Oestrelata philippi. Sterna fuliginosa. Procelsterna cinerea. Sea-birds — Breeding. Anous stolidus. A. leucocephalus. Gygis alba. Sula cyanops. Phaethon rubricauda. Oestrelata macroptera. Puffinus cerneipes. Megalestris antarctica. Visitors — Sea-birds . Sterna albistriata. Ossifraga gigantea. Arenaria interpres. Charadrius dominicus. Numenius variegatus. Glottis nebularius. Visitors — Migrants. Limosa novae-zealandiae. Chalcococcyx lucidus. Eudvnamvs taitensis. Visitors — Occasional . Gharadrius bicinctus. Notophoyx novae-hollandiae. Anas superciliosa. Phalacrocorax sulcirostris Eurystomus pacificus. Circus gouldi. Visitors — Accidental. Himantopus leucocephalus. Platalea regia. Herodias timoriensis. Larus novae-hollandiae. Astur approximans. Kekmadec Islands. Resident Land-birds — Breeding Prosthemadera novae-zealandiae. Halcyon vagans. Cyanorhamphus cyanurus. Anas superciliosa. Porzana plumbea. 1 Hemiphaga novae-zealandiae. Oliver. — Birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and Kermadec Island*. 221 Sterna fuliginosa. Gygis alba. Anous leucocapillus. Procelsterna cinerea. Phaethon pubricauda. Sula cyanops. Daption capensis. Diomedea exulans. D. melanophrys. Phoebetria fuliginosa. Pelagodroma marina. Sula leucogaster. Sea-birds — Breeding. Pufhiius sphenurus. P. assimilis. Oestrelata cervicalis. 0. neglecta. 0. nigripennis. Visitors — Sea-birds . Purlin us tenuirostris. Fregata aquila. Prion desolatus. Oestrelata macroptera. Sterna bergii. Visitors — Mi y rants. Charadrius dominicus. Erolia aurita. €. veredus. Limosa novae-zealandiae. Tringa eanutus. Chalcococcyx lucidus. Numenius variegatus. Eudynamys taitensis. Visitors — Occasioned. Circus gouldi. Anthus novae-zealandiae. Zosterops caerulescens. Phalacrocorax sulcii-ostris. Visitors Hypotaenidia philippensis. Porphyrio melanonotus. Accidental. Demiegretta sacra. Art. XXIV. —A Preliminary Account of the Lower Waipara Gorge. By R. Speight. M.Sc, F.G.S. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th December, 1911.] Although the various localities of North Canterbury where Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks occur, such as the Middle Waipara, Weka Pass, Motunau, Oraihi, and the Okuku, have received most careful attention, and have been fully dealt with on different occasions by the officers of the Geological Survey, by Haast, Hutton, and Park, and latterly by Marshall, Cotton, and the present writer, the district at the mouth of the Waipara River has hardly been noticed. Except the very brief mention of its structure by Hector (Geological Reports, 18GS-69, p. x) and by Haast (" Geology of Canterbury and Westland," pp. 316-17), the published matter dealing with it consists merely of the list of fossils collected by Buchanan and Haast, referred to by Hutton in his report on the " Geology of the North- east Portion of the South Island " (Geological Survey Report, 1873-74, p. 52) and in his various publications dealing with our Tertiary series and its fossil-content, and the list given by Haast in his " Geology of 222 Transactions. Canterbury and Westland," pp. 319-22. This is, as far as I have been able to glean, the total reference in published reports to this interesting locality. The present account is necessarily imperfect, but it is based on work done on numerous visits, on two of which I was fortunate in having the advice and assistance of Dr. Marshall, to whom, as well as to Mr. Suter for valuable help in identifying the fossils, my sincere thanks are clue. General Description of the Locality. (See map.) The district referred to in this account lies, roughly, to the south- east of the point where the railway running north from Christchurch crosses the Waipara River, and for the purposes of more accurate defi- nition the lower gorge of the river may be taken as that part of its course which lies between its junction with the Omilii Creek and the sea. The creek joins the river about two miles belowT the railway-crossing, and is historically important, since it flows from the swamp where Haast obtained his Glenmark collection of moa-remains. The actual length of the gorge is about four miles. Its sides are moderately steep, easily climbed in most places, but unscalable in parts, and rising to an average height of about 350 ft. above the river-bed. They are higher on the eastern side, whence they extend as a stretch of irregular downs towards the slopes of Mount Cass, which forms the south-western buttress of the Limestone Range. On the western side of the river the banks are not so high, and they form part of the low downs stretching to the south-west towards Amberley. The breadth of the gorge varies, but it usually pre- sents a wide floor covered with shingle, on which the river wanders. At times, however, its breadth is reduced to about 100 yards, or even less, and then the river-channel is more definitely fixed. In some places the stream forms well-defined loops or meanders — a notable one occurs about half-way through the gorge — and it is now destroying the spurs which project laterally from the high banks into these loops. Although the stream has considerable fall, the large amount of detrital matter which it transports from higher levels, and specially from the banks of loose shingle bordering its course through the Waipara Plains, has so dimin- ished its power of erosion that it has apparently reached a temporary base-level, and this in spite of the fact that within fairly recent times — certainly since the Pleistocene — the coast has experienced a distinct up- ward movement. A recent upward movement of the coast-line to the north of the Waipara has been recorded by McKay at Amuri Bluff (Report of the Geological Survey, 1874-76, p. 177), where beaches with Recent shells are found at a height of 500 ft. Evidence of the same movement at the mouth of the Conway and at Motunau is given by Hutton (Report of the Geological Survey, 1873—74, p. 54), where the land has certainly risen 150 ft., and, judging from the features of the remarkable plain of marine denudation noted by Hutton and examined more recently by the present author, the elevation has in all probability been much greater. Rem- nants of this plain over a mile in breadth are to be found on both sides of the mouth of the Waipara River. A little way back from the present beach is an old sea-cliff about 50 ft. high extending along the coast for several miles, and from the summit of this the land slopes gently back for about a mile, the upturned edges of the beds forming the solid sub- stratum of the country being planed off neatly by the former action of the sea and then covered with a thin veneer of loose shingle, some of it Speight. — Lower Waipara Gorge. 223 Pareora Series. Grey Marls. Weka Pass Limestones, &c. Geological Sketch Map OF THE LOWER WAIPARA DISTRICT. Scale in Miles, Fig. 1. 224 Transactions. of marine origin, and of material which closely resembles the loess of the south-eastern portion of the South Island. This plain slopes back to the base of the low downs near Amberlev, where it reaches a height of about 150 ft. However, on looking up the coast to the north from the mouth of the Waipara, decided remnants of a shore platform can be seen at an estimated height of 250 ft. above the sea, and fronting the plain there are several small remnants at lower levels marking stationary periods during the prolonged elevation. It is therefore certain that a long stretch of coast-line has experienced the effect of this movement. That the rise is of recent date is very clear from the species of shells found at Motunau, and also from the forms of the stream-valleys that have been esta- blished on the elevated marine shelf. With few exceptions, the streams which run across it have very short courses, and are little more than extended gullie& or washouts. Through the somewhat loose Motunau marls, which form the solid base of the land, they have eroded deep channels, at times over 100 ft. in depth, extremely narrow, and with sides so precipitous that they are absolutely impassable for long distances. The whole plain is dissected by them, and they render communication a matter of difficulty where roads and tracks do not exist. The district furnishes a most remarkable example of the effect of a recent upward land-movement on the gradient and cross-section of the stream-channels. The phenomenon is intensified by the uniform seaward dip at moderate angles of the beds under the plain, and the parallelism of the strike to the coast-line. A similar phenomenon is to be observed near the mouth of the Waipara, but the features are not quite so perfect. This plain of marine denudation once extended much further sea- ward, and the small island at Motunau is a remnant of it, its flat top show'ing a marked alignment of its surface with that of the coast-line opposite. Howt far this plain extended seawards it is impossible to say at present, but at the mouth of the Waipara the river-terraces appear high above the present level of the water, and are terminated suddenly when they reach the edge of the old marine cliff which marks the edge of the coastal plain. At a former period the river must have extended much further seaward, and flowed on the top of the plain, the terraces with their shorn ends giving positive proof of its higher level and seaward extension at that level. As river erosion was proceeding the sea was eating back the margin of the plain, thus giving the streams a steeper gradient and increasing their erosive power, and the truncated ends of the terraces mark the limit to which the plain was destroyed. When one takes into account their perfect condition he must conclude that either terraces are stable land-forms or that marine erosion on this stretch of coast has been vary rapid and comparatively recent. There is also evidence of a more recent land-movement still. Along the base of the old marine cliff, referred to previously as bordering the coastal plain, there is a strip of flat land consisting of shingle-beds, sand- dunes, and swamp, half a mile wide and but slightly raised above the sea. It has, without doubt, been formed of detrital matter brought down by the rivers in the vicinity, such as the Ashley and Waipara, as well as by the small streams which flow directly into the sea, their load of waste being distributed by waves, tides, and currents along the base of the old cliff. These accumulations are several miles in length, and their size suggests that there has been either a remarkable increase in the supply of detritus or that there has been a small recent upward move- ment of the coast. There is no apparent reason why the streams should have been suddenly furnished with an increased load of detritus, although Speight. — Loire?- Waipara Gorge. 225 it must be noted that they are fully charged at the present time, and it is quite conceivable that they could build up a shallow sea-bottom till it was above sea-level without any change in the level of the land. I can- not, however, think that this explanation is altogether satisfactory, and conclude that a small and probably continuous uplift lias taken place after a comparatively long period of stability, during which the old coastal plain was eaten back to the line of the former sea-cliff. Judging from the profiles of the streams joining the Waipara from the flanks of the Deans Range and elsewhere, this movement has extended its effects some distance inland. The loops of the river in the gorge itself, placed as they are in a somewhat narrow trench, may owe their origin primarily to the fact that at a former period the river reached base-level, and that the gorge was cut down to its present depth during a subsequent period of elevation when the river had increased power to corrade, and that now it has again almost adjusted its grade to the load it carries, and all its erosive energy is devoted to destroying the loops that it previously formed. It is very difficult, however, to correlate these effects with certainty. Origin of the Waipara Gorge. The circumstances resulting in the formation of the Waipara Gorge furnish one of those interesting problems with respect to drainage direc- tions for which the North Canterbury district is noted. When the river leaves the hills between Mount Brown and the Deans, and issues from the middle gorge, whose existence has been largely determined by the great Mid-Waipara fault, it pursues a course of about seven miles across the Waipara Plains, and, instead of taking the easy path to the sea past Amberley, it cuts a somewhat deep channel through the downs which stretch south-west from the termination of the Limestone Range. Here it runs practically along the strike of the beds which form this somewhat elevated ground. At times it breaks across the strike for a short dis- tance; still, the coincidence is very marked, even when the strike swings round through a right angle. When the river leaves the downs and debouches on to the coastal plain it pursues a direct course to the sea, still following the strike approximately. There seems to be no reason from the present configuration of the ground why this difficult path should have been selected when an easy one was ready to hand, so that it is apparently one of the instances of the anomalous behaviour of rivers which the district furnishes. The Waiau and Hurunui, a few miles further north, and even the Waipara itself in its upper portion, have cut gorges through mountains composed of hard greywackes and slaty shales of Mesozoic age when they might easily have avoided the obstructions. The only satisfactory ex- planation is based on the fact that they are instances of " superimposed ' drainage. In late Cretaceous and early Tertiary times an archipelago of small islands formed of rocks of Lower Mesozoic age occupied the area now known as North Canterbury and the Amuri districts. In the straits and bays among these islands, greensands, solid limestones, marls, and loose incoherent calcareous sands and gravels were laid down, so that the original surface was completely masked. When the land was raised above the sea in late Tertiary times the course of the streams established upon it was largely determined by the form of the land as it emerged. While cutting down their channels the streams removed a large part of the veneer of loose and readily eroded material, encountered the hard underlying rocks, cut into them, and maintained their original direc- 8- Tran-. 226 Transactions. tions. As time went or. more and more of the loose sediments was re- moved, and the original form of the land-surface completely altered. The existing Tertiary deposits are in all probability but a small part of those originally laid down, for isolated fragments of these rocks are found in various places high above the present valley-floors, and in such positions that they may well have formed part of an extensive sheet. I think that this is the best explanation of the evolution of the land in the district, as well as of the anomalous courses of the rivers. A similar explanation was also indicated by Captain Hutton in a short paragraph contained in his paper on " The Formation of the Canterbury Plains ' (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, 1905, p. -167). It is quite possible, however, that the presence of the Lower Waipara Gorge in the peculiar situation in which it now occurs may be due to a small coastal stream cutting back its head through the escarpments of harder rocks, capturing the headwaters of other small streams, and finally tapping the Waipara itself; but the explanation based on the fact that it is a case of " superimposed " drainage fits the case best. Stratigraphy. The question of the stratigraphy can naturally be elucidated by a comparison with other known localities. Fortunately, the Mid-Waipara and the Weka Pass (in close proximity) have become classic in the history of New Zealand geology, having been reported on by nearly all those who have done field-work in this country. In these typical localities the following is a representative sequence, starting from the top, of the beds that have been recorded : — 8. Motunau or Greta Beds. — Sands and conglomerates, mostly calcareous, with shells of Mollusca in varying states of preservation, but usually fragmentary. The beds are generally loose and incoherent, but at time concretionary. 7. Mount Brown Beds. — Rough calcareous sandstones with harder con- cretionary bands, markedly fossiliferous in places. 6. Grey Marl. — Grey and greenish sandstones and blue sandy and cal-* careous clays. 5. Weka Pass Stone. — Glauconitic and slightly arenaceous limestone. 4. Amuri Limestone. — Foraminiferal and argillaceous limestone. 3. Greensands. — Markedly glauconitic in the upper portions, and with concretions full of saurian remains in the lower part. These beds arc often argillaceous, ferruginous, and calcareous, and at times exhibit marked efflorescence of sulphur. 2. Oyster - beds, containing shells of Ostrea, Gonchothyra parasitica, fragments of Belemnites, Inoceramus, and other shells. 1. Sands and clays with brown coal and impure limonite. The lower portion of this series is more completely developed further to the north-east, in the Omihi Creek and at Amuri Bluff. According to Hector, Haast, Hutton, Park, and perhaps McKay, the sequence is broken by unconformities, placed in different positions by the different authors, but it is very probable that it is quite conformable throughout. However, it is only the upper part of the sequence with which this paper is specially concerned — that is, with the Motunau and Mount Brown beds, and the Grey Marls and Weka Pass beds, which underlie them. The whole of the banks and terraces bordering the Waipara River as it passes through the lower gorge consist of the sands and conglomerates forming Speight. — Lower Waipara Gorge. 227 the highest members of the sequence recorded above ; the other beds are, however, in close proximity to the river on its eastern side. The former will be referred to hereafter as the Pareora series, seeing that their fossil fauna shows a close relationship to that of the typical Pareora locality. Structure and Arrangement op the Beds in the Gorge. (See map and section). At the junction of the Omihi Creek with the Waipara River the beds consist of sands, sandy clays with concretionary bands, and conglomerates with shells. The strike is N. 5° W., with a westerly dip of about 22 £°. A good exposure is to be seen where a recent flood has removed the surface covering of shingle, and laid bare the solid bank just opposite the mouth of the Omihi Creek. In the Omihi itself, just above the junction, the beds strike north-east and dip to the north-west at 45°. It is evident that the strike here swings round somewhat, a feature which will be readily understood when the general structural features of the locality are considered later, this small movement being only a part of one of wide extent. On following the river down from the junction, the high banks on the east are found to be obscured by soil and slip-material, but after going about 300 yards the dip observed at the junction changes to the south-east, with the same strike as before. The structure is thus anticlinal, and the same anticline can be distinctly traced for over a S j» Pareora Series. Grey Marls. Pareora Series. Grey Marls. Fig. 2. — Section from Omihi Creek through Bill's Hill to Sea (Five Miles). mile to the north-east along the bank of Limestone Creek, a tributary of the Omihi coming from the northern slopes of Mount Cass, the stream having eroded a deep channel lor some distance along the axis of the anticline. On going still further in that direction the underlying lime- stones are exposed, with what has all the appearance of an anticlinal arrangement. Following the banks of the Waipara further down, the south-easterly dip is maintained till the second gully below the Omihi is reached. At the head of this a well-marked syncline is exposed, the western side being chiefly composed of thick beds of fine gravel, but overlying them is a bed of coarse gravel with numerous molluscan remains. These include Fvlguraria arabica, Ostrea nelsoniana, 0. ingens, 0. angasi, Siphonalia dilatata, Paphia curta, Crepidida gregaria, Mactra elongata, Ancilla hebera, Ancilla australis, and Chione intermedia. The syncline here exposed can be traced to the north-east, parallel to the anticline running up Limestone Creek. On going still further down-stream the beds dip to the west, and an angle of about 60° is maintained for a distance down the river of about two miles, the strike being between N. 25° E. and N. 35° E. The beds are well exposed in the bluff just below the point where the road from Glasnevin Railway-station meets the river. They consist of sands. 8* 228 Transactions. calcareous sands with concretionary bands, and gravel -beds more or less cemented, and are highly fossiliierous. The chief genera to be col- lected are Mactra, Ghione, Ostrea, Pectin, Crepidula, and also Bryozoa . Some beds are almost wholly formed of the remains of Crepidula, but they are usually in a poor state of preservation. A characteristic feature of the beds at this point are the massive bands of coar.e cemented gravels, dipping to the west at an angle of 60°. For a long distance one of these beds forms one bank of the river, and it can !>e traced some distance to the north-east on the north side of Mount Cass. Here it dips at a steeper angle, and on going further it is apparently lost under the covering of soil. In all possibility it will reappear in the creeks which flow from the northern side of the Limestone Range. The same direction of dip and strike is approximately maintained on following down the river to the immediate neighbourhood of a pronounced meander of the stream. The strike here begins to swing round in a positive direction, so that, while just above the loop it is N. 5° E:, at the loop itself it is N. 5° W., with a westerly dip, several hard bands of cemented gravel occurring at this point rendering an .accurate determination easy. Just past the loop, on the eastern side ■of the river, and also on the flank of the high escarpment a little further down-stream, the beds consist of sand and concretionary bands full of shell-remains in excellent state of preservation. This is one of the 'best localities that I know of for the collection of Tertiary fossils, and when thoroughly exhausted will be found to yield a very rich harvest. A list of species collected by Dr. Marshall and myself is given later in this article, and it will be found to show a marked agreement with those collected at the typical Pareora locality, in South Canterbury. The structure of the beds becomes at this point somewhat compli- cated, and its unravelment is an interesting problem. On following down the western side of the river below the loop the strike is observed to swing round in the same direction as higher up t!>e river. Just at the mouth of the gorge proper the strike is N. 15° W., with a westerly dip, and just below the Teviotdale Bridge, half a mile further on, it becomes N. 55° W. In passing through the gorge the strike has thus swung round through a right angle, and its effect is to be seen in the shape of the ridges of the downs towards Amberley, which are found to circle round with it, the outward slope of the downs being generally towards the dip of the beds. At a point about COO yards above the bridge, at the mouth of a small gully, there has been a marked dislocation of the beds. They have been apparently folded down in an acute isocline, so that the two limbs are approximately parallel; but the beds immediately on either side of it do not appear to be affected, and they do not change their proper level or alter their dip or strike. The disturbance appears to he quite local, and it is not strongly in evidence on the opposite bank of the river. This is the only marked dislocation to be observed through- out the whole length of the gorge, and I have not been able to find any sign of the fault mentioned by Hector (loc. cit.). If we now consider the arrangement of the beds on the eastern side of the river, the structure on the western side can be readily understood. Below the loop mentioned previously, on the slope of the high escarp- ment which fronts the river to the west and north-west of the Teviot- dale Station, the beds dip to the south-east, but an open anticline is clearly visible at the point which projects into the river half a mile below. The axis of this anticline is not horizontal, but pitches to Speight. — Lower Waipara Gorge 229 the south-west, and thus the gradual swing-round of the .strike of the beds to the west of the river is easily explained. The amount of pitch must be considerable, for the lowest beds actually exposed in the gorge, at a height of about 100 ft. above sea-level, are the Grey Marls, whereas the limestones which underlie the marls are exposed on Mount Cass, about three miles to the north-east, at an elevation of 1,700 ft. It is possible, also, that the anticline not only pitches, but dies out as well. It is certain, however, that it is distinctly unsym- metrical, and the western limb dips down at a steeper angle than the eastern limb. The direction of the strike observed in the river near the axis of the anticline changes on following the escarpment towards Mount Cass. It is at first parallel with the river, but, on being followed further, strikes north-east with a dip to the south-east, and the beds forming it lie in just the same relation to the limestones of Mount Cass and the Limestone Range as the Mount Brown beds in the Weka Pass do to the limestones occurring there. The similarity of the arrangement is most marked. If the creeks between the escarpment and Mount Cass be examined, the " Grey Marl " of the Survey is found in its proper position and with characteristic development; but only the upper sandy beds of these marls are visible in the gorge itself in the immediate vicinity of the loop of the river and in the reach below it. The axis of the anticline which runs out in the Waipara continues to the north-east, the limestone of the Mount Cass ridge forming the limb dipping to the south-east, while the north-east limb is represented by isolated blocks to the north of the Limestone Range. At the core of the anticline, immediately to the north of Mount Cass, lies a prominent hill, formed of the underlying greywackes of Mesozoic age. This arrangement is exactly what might have been expected from a consideration of the structure and relationship of the beds in the Weka Pass and the Mid-% Waipara As the anticline is traced to the north-east from the river it appears to change to one of increasing asymmetry, so that some of the hard con- cietionary bands on reaching to the inland side of Mount Cass become nearly vertical. It is possible that on being followed further north-east still it grades into a fault with a downthrow to the north-west, since the limestones near the southern edge of the Omihi Valley, in the neighbourhood of Limestone Creek, show a marked discordance in level between those forming the crest of the ridge of Mount Cass, although they dip in the same direction. More accurate examination of this part of the country is necessary before a satisfactory conclusion can be arrived at. The apparent bend in the axis of the anticline near the Waipara River is perhaps due to this asymmetrical character, associated with the pitch of the axis; it may, however, be due to a disturbance caused by folding of the beds to the east of the mouth of the river in the neighbourhood of the Teviotdale Station. On all the stretch of country forming the triangular area between the Waipara River and the Teviotdale Creek the strike of the beds is uniformly N. 55° W., with a southerly dip. They consist of sands, sandy marls, loose gravels, and hard bands of conglomerate, composed of large pebbles of greywacke and full of fossil-fragments. The beds are so hard, however, that they rarely yield good specimens. One of the hard bands forms the escarpment to the south-west of the Teviotdale Station ; another forms a low indistinct parallel ridge to the north of this ; but the most 230 Transactions. prominent is a massive and solid bed on the north of the station, which rims out to the coast at a prominent rocky point to the east of the river- mouth. The immediate coast-line at this point consists of large blocks derived from this bed, and its continuation seaward is marked by a line of submerged reef. Fossil remains are very common in this bed, specially remains of Mollusca, and notably a flat sea-urchin (Arachnoides placenta), but the rock is so firmly cemented that it is almost impossible to obtain good specimens. This hard bed is primarily responsible for the shape of the ridge known as Bill's Hill, which lies to the north-east of the Teviotdale Sta- tion. Its peculiar position presents a somewhat difficult problem till it is recognized that the hill is an anticline, and that it is flanked on the north by a small syncline now coinciding approximately with the upper valley of the Teviotdale Creek. The northern side of this creek is formed of beds dipping to the south-east and rising to the north-west till they form the prominent escarpment facing Mount Cass on its southern side. The Bill's Hill anticline owes its preservation from denuding agents to the protection of its upper surface by the layers of hard conglomerate which covers it almost continuously, although individual layers are somewhat discontinuous in their extension, one band being frequently replaced by a slightly lower and parallel one on frequent occasions. Nevertheless, the total effect is to cover the hill and protect it from active denudation. The axes of both the anticline and its accompanying syncline run approximately N.E.-S.W., but they peter out between the Teviotdale Station and the river. It is possible, however, that they have exerted some disturbing effect on the main structural anticline, which runs from Mount Cass towards the river; and perhaps the curvature of its axis is due to the coalescence of the two lines of folding as they are followed to the south-west. A very complete examination of the locality is, how- ever, necessary before the precise effect of each fold on its neighbour can be determined. It will be observed that all the axes of folding enumerated above are approximately parallel, and they are also parallel to the folds which the Cretaceous and Tertiary series at Amuri Bluff and Kaikoura exhibit so markedly. These folding movements have therefore extended well into North Canterbury. Their presence in that locality, and also in the Tre- lissick basin, described by McKay and confirmed by examination by the present writer, suggest strongly that earth-movements connected with the folding of the great alpine chain had probably not ceased even late in the Tertiary era, although they were certainly more acute in the Kaikoura district than further south, and were, besides, of a different order of intensity and character from those primarily responsible for the forma- tion of the great mountain-range. The thickness of the beds exposed in the gorge certainly exceeds 1,800 ft., and all through them, as well as in the underlying Grey Marls and limestones, there is no sign of any discordance or dislocation other than folding, with the exception of the local disturbance referred to on page 228. The special importance of the absence of any evidence for a physical break will be understood when the fossil content of the beds has been considered. In many parts of the area the solid strata are covered with a veneer, of greater or less thickness, of what are evidently river-gravels, in addi- tion to the covering of recent marine shingle on the coastal plain. These may have been derived from rivers which flowed over the country at higher levels than now, of which there is abundant evidence in the downs Speight. — Loner Waipara Gorgt . 231 to the south-east of Mount Grey, but in many cases the pebbles have been weathered out of the conglomerates which form a fairly large percentage of the beds of Pareora age in the vicinity of the gorg". List of Fossils collected. The following is a list of myself on various visits, the made by Mr. Suter : — A no mi a sp. Cardium patulum Hutt. spatiosum Hutt. greyi Zitt. CJiione meridionalis Sow. stuchburyi Gray. sp. Near G. ckiloensis, but distinct, and probably new. sp. nov. sp. the fossils collected by Dr. Marshall and determinations in nearlv all cases being nov. Crassatellites ampins Zitt. Cucullaea alba* Sow. Diplodonta zelandica Gray. Dosinia magna Hutt. sub rosea Gray. greyi Zitt. lambata Gld. Glycimeris globosa Hutt. laticostatus Hutt. Lima paleata Hutt. bullata Tate. Lutraria solida Hutt. Macrocallista multistriata Sow. Mactra elongata Quoy & Gaim. chrydaea Sut. Mesodesma grande Hutt. ■ ■ sp. Mytilus caniculus Mart. Ostrea nelsoniana Zitt. ingens Zitt. angasi Sow. edulis Linn. Panopaea orbita Hutt. zelandica Quoy est is located in a mossy bank, the lid is thick, so that the surrounding growths will spread to the surface of the door. If the lid is situated in a hard, bare, clay bank, the spider, not needing to provide rooting-surface, covers the door with a thin cement layer. A thick door is often \ in. through; a thin door often less than -^hi. Construction of Lid. — The adult's lid is a compound structure, con- sisting of several layers. The number of layers is never less than two, and seldom more than twelve. Where the bank is mossy, the layers are generally two — viz., a thin silk layer and a thick earth layer. If the locality is dry and poor in growths, the lid has one very thin cement- clay layer on top, and from four to twelve separate silken layers (fig. 7, a, b* c, d, e — stages in growth). Layers of Lid. — Many adult lids show a rough, layered upper surface (fig. 7, e) caused by the enlargements of the door. Each silken layer is thicker at the edges than in the centre, and appears in texture like a piece of linen. The material for the top, or the earthy layer, is scraped from near the nest, and fine stones and pieces of vegetation are fre- quently mixed together with the earth; hence the door becomes very inconspicuous. Where the bank is lumpy, doors are sometimes con- structed from small, entire, irregular pieces of earth, cut fiat on one side, and hinged. Situation of Hinge. — The tube of the nest is very seldom straight, but enters the ground with a curve (figs. 9, 10, 13, &c). The hinge is invariably situated towards the curved terminus of the tube. Fig. 13 shows the natural position of tube, the hinge being on top, and hence the door always shuts with its own weight. The hinge is often with only one layer, but the remaining layers (sometimes five in number) are continued above the hinge itself with a little upward twist (fig. 9, a, just above arrow). This silken projection only allows the door to rise to an angle of 60°. Often the side near the hinge is sunken into the ground, and a ridge hangs over the depression (fig. 9, b and c, near the arrow); Gatenby. — Life-history and Habits of Migas distinctus. 235 hence when the door rises the projection catches the back of it and keeps it at an angle of 60°. On most doors these devices are present to a certain degree, but some doors are without them. It is difficult to say whether or not these above-mentioned devices are made on purpose by the spider. The Manner in which the Spider makes her Lid. — The spider begins by weaving a tag-like piece of silk on the hinge side. Having collected fine pieces of earth and stones near by, she gums them one by one to the tag. After she has got a little patch gummed together she turns around in her nest, applies her spinners to the little mosaic, and spins a silken layer under it, which binds it temporarily. She then goes on gumming the pieces together till the door-opening is covered. She then again turns around, and spins another covering over it. In this state the door is flimsy and elastic, and when the spider pulls at it from within (fig. 11) it drops into the mouth of the tube. Some spiders perform their build- ing in a night, others in some days. They generally work at night, although sometimes in daylight. The gum appears to be exuded from the mouth. The Tubular Cavity of the Nest. The depth and width of the tube varies greatly, depending, of course, upon the size of spider. Generally the nests are from 1 in. to 1^ in. in length, and t3q in. to fin. in width, taken lengthwise at the lid. The tube does not remain a uniform width in its entire length, but widens at the terminus to ^ in. (figs. 9, 10, 11, 12, &c.). The reasons for this terminal swelling are two — firstly, to allow room for eggs and young; and, secondly, to allow the spider to move and turn around in the nest. Lining of Tube. The interior of the tube is lined with a layer of silk, which is thick if the ground is dry or crumbling, thin if it is damp and firm. The rim of the mouth of the nest is generally thicker than the other linings. Abnormal Forms of Nests. If a bank is very hard or stony the spider is unable to pierce the ground deep enough. In this case man)' kinds of curious nests are seen. The spider generally scrapes out a shallow groove, and makes her silken tube in it. Hence a good deal of the nest is exposed, and to cover it the spider uses an earthy cement-like mixture of mud and stones (fig. 10, c). This is spread over the silk until the projecting unprotected side of the tube closely resembles a rounded stone or piece of earth. The work is marvellously executed, and until the door is discovered it is impossible to detect the artificial side of the tube. The door is discovered on account of the round rim. Sometimes the groove cannot be scraped deep enough, and then the spider makes a small nest like a nut, the door being on one side. This protrudes from the bank, and is covered so as to resemble a stone. Another curious form of nest is that with two doors, one at each end of the tube (fig. 13). These two-doored nests are met with in tubes built under stones, on cliffs, and sometimes on trees. Sometimes both doors are large enough for the spider to pass through, but more fre- quently only one door is the proper size, the other one being too small. I believe that when the young spider builds the nest both doors are large 23G Transactions. enough for her to pass through, but that after a while she neglects to enlage one of them, and only attends to the other. I have seen small tubes with two very fine doors; large tubes with two proper doors are rare. Why the spider should build a door at each end of her nest is hard to say. I believe that she must lose sight of the fact that she has already made one door, and, as there is no ending or terminus to the nest built under a stone, etc., as in a normal nest built in an earth bank, she naturally makes a door at each end of the tube. Afterwards she uses only one door and neglects the other. This suggestion credits the spider with little intelligence. How Bain and Wind affect the Nest. In exposed situations banks are gradually worn away by the elements; consequently nests are frequently seen blown half out of the bank (fig. 14, lowest). The spider has no remedy for this, except to spread cementitious mud-mixture over that part of her home which is laid bare. Fig. 14, lowest, shows a nest in the process of being denuded. Nests in this state are very conspicuous, and I have known a spider to extend her tube farther into the bank, so as to make it twice as long as before, the old door, &c, still being used (fig. 14, middle). Water seldom enters the tubular part of the nest, although the silk often becomes thoroughly saturated. About the Male and his Nest. (Fig. 2.) As the male is much smaller than his mate, he uses a smaller nest. I say " uses," because I believe that he seldom builds a nest of his own, and then only under certain circumstances. Firstly, I should say that the female does not eat her mate after he has accomplished his purpose. Repeatedly 1 have kept males and females through the breeding season, and in every ease the female refrained from dining on her lord. I have found males living in the same bank with females, and, although food was scarce, the male was untouched. Hence I know that this cannibalistic male-eating habit is not in vogue among M. distinctus. It is only when the male is living in a small colony or away from the females that lie is found in a nest which is in good repair, well hidden, and not too big or too small for him. Males living among big colonies are more often than not found in nests which are in disrepair. Especi- ally* in the breeding season are they so found, for after this is over the males retire into discarded nests, which they soon bring up to a good state of repair. The nests they adopt are those which have lost their occupants by some accident. The male is never found in the female's nest with the female, but the courting is done around the mouth of the tube. Evidently the male does not like the idea of trusting his life to his mate; and hie could be ill spared, for, as males of this species appear to be scare, the propaga- tion of young would be slight if every female managed to slay her mate. In the breeding season the male wanders over the bank at night, and when day breaks he hie;? himself to an old nest, chink, or cranny, and there awaits night. It is necessary for him to wander about, because the females' nests are so scattered. Although the fewness of male spiders as compared with female ones is sometimes exaggerated, I feel correct in saying that the males are generally in the proportion of about one to thirty females. Gatenby. — Life-history and Habits of Migas distinctus. 237 Life-history. About the months of February and March the female lays from thirty to sixty small white eggs. These are placed between the wall of the nest and a piece of silk stretched across a rounded part of the tube (fig. 10, Ot the arrow). The egg-bag is placed variously in the nest, but in fig. 14 (top) the commonest position is shown. The piece which stretches across the sides of the tube is fin. in diameter. Separate egg-cases, with two sides, not connected to the tube, are rare. The young emerge and lie dormant inside the case. After a week or so the mother removes the covering, and often weaves in lieu of it a transparent filament-like veil of silk- over them (fig. 10, b). After the young become strong enough they push out of the covering,, and wander out of their old home. Often some few remain with their mother, and frequently are met with as late as the end of April. These must be provided with food by their parent, for they are often a fair size- When the young emerge from the parent nest the majority are pounced upon and eaten by an eager, hungry horde of bank-inhabiting, vagabond spiders. Few escape; those that do proceed to burrow their tiny tunnels and to make their nests. They bite out the earth with their falces, which are very strong. Of course, the state of the earth determines the length of time taken to make the boring. The doors of the nests of young spiders are round, very small, being less than TV in. in diameter, ami very difficult to detect. As the spider grows she needs to enlarge her door- Enlargement of Tube and Door. If the food-supply is good the spider grows rapidly, and soon the nest becomes too small for her. When she wishes to enlarge her nest she tears away one side of the silken lining of the nest and widens that side in its entire length. She then spins a silk web over this. The door is enlarged as shown in fig 7, a, b, c, d, e. Fig. 7, a, shows a door which has been enlarged once, the original door of the young spider being the circle inside the larger door. Fig. 7, e, shows a door which has been enlarged six times. Nests are seen with nine or ten enlargements. When the spider wishes to enlarge her door, after having enlarged the tube, she spins under the old door an entire silk layer the size of the newly enlarged tube. The door after a few enlargements becomes very ragged, and hence less conspicuous. The newly spun layer is covered with earth where the edge protrudes beyond the rim of the old door. Where the lids have a thick earthy layer, and only one or two silken ones, the spider cements a rim of earth around the old door and then spins a web underneath it. I believe the spider enlarges her door and tube six or seven times during her life. The Spider's Enemies, etc. Although encased in a strong tube with a deceptive door, this Arachnid is not free from enemies. The greatest destroyer is excessive heat. In the middle of summer the banks, especially the clay ones, become very liot. Unless the spider is able to capture enough juicy insects to assuage her thirst she soon becomes dusty and emaciated, and ultimately suc- cumbs. Sometimes before she dies, in a last despairing effort to evade the ardent rays of the sun, she weaves a silken partition between herself 238 Transactions. and the door (fig. 10, c, the arrow). In many cases she is found dead behind this screen, while her door, after warping with the weather, allows the entrance of all sorts of vermin — woodlice, centipedes, aptera, small spiders, and a large number of other forms of insect-life. These cannot reach her, for the screen shuts them off. Unless there is an absence of moisture, hunger has no terrors for these spiders, for they are easily able to exist without food for three or four months. Frequently in a famine a spider devours her neighbour, a hard fight always ensuing first. I have several reasons to suspect that Pompilius fugax, &c, is a keen enemy of M. distinctus. I have caught P. fugax dragging a trapdoor spider across a bank. Whether the spider was caught by the fly by the latter opening the door, or by the spider jumping out to catch the fly and instead catching a Tartar, I know not, but I have more than once found a pupa-case of a small Ichneumon fly lying among the remains of a spider. The Spider's Age. This is a question I could not definitely settle, although I have kept specimens three years and a half. Unfortunately, I was obliged to travel to the north for a holiday, and my pets were put with their box in the garden, and when I returned the only remaining member of the thirty spiders was a young one three months old. I know that some spiders take two to three years to reach maturity, but if the food-supply is short the time may be longer. I have kept i nature spiders three years and a half, and possibly they would have lived much longer. Hence the spider may be six or even seven years old when it dies. The Food of M. distinctus. This consists mainly of Diptera and small Lepidoptera. The young eat small organisms like Aptera (Podura). While catching her food she shows a cleverness that is immensely superior to that of other sedentary spiders. On fine sunny days flies and other insects hover about the banks. Now and again they will alight on the bank near a group of nests. The spiders, if they are hungry, keep on the alert; when one hears a fly she creeps up from the bottom of her den, lifts the door slightly, and reconnoitres (fig. 10, b). Whilst peering out the spiders often become rather excited when an unsuspecting fly draws nigh, and this is shown by the rash way in which they sometimes open the door ; the fly then discovers its enemy, and escapes. This makes the spider more circum- spect, and the next fly that draws nigh is watched more carefully. The person who is watching the hunting operations of the spider is compelled to admire her great patience, and also the way she controls, with a front leg, the peeping-out space between the door and the rim of the tube (fig. 10, b; notice the bent leg). At last her patience is re- warded : a fly accidentally alights right in front of the treacherous door; the spider throws open the trapdoor and leaps right upon the back of the fly, driving her falces into it (fig. 8). She withdraws quickly into the tube, and pulls the door till it shuts firmly. Then she crawls down to the end of her tube and devours the fly. The capturing takes a very short time, and unless the observer watches closely he will miss the whole operation. Gatbnby. — Life-history and Habits of Migas distinctus. 239 She will seldom dash out unless the fly is right in front of the door. If it is too far away she would be obliged to expose her body to danger while she reopened the door. As it is, her abdomen keeps the door open, so she soon slips back. When the spider has eaten the fly she drops out of the door those parts which she discards. I kept thirty spiders in a small box placed on a shelf. On the sunny days when the flies were about I would sprinkle a few grains of sugar in front of each door, and put the box in the sun. The unsuspecting flies would come to feed on the sugar, and would fall easy prey to the spiders. In winter, when few flies were about, on the fine days I would catch house-flies and tie cotton to their wings, and make them walk over the door. The spiders would drag them in, cotton and all. Next day the cotton, with the dry carcase of the fly, would be found often an inch from the door. Spiders may be killed whilst attacking an Ichneumon fly inadvertently. This would explain why nests, even in a plentiful insect season, are found tenantless, except for vermin. Even when not looking for food, spiders will be caught watching out of their nests. Before they emerge at night they always' reconnoitre for an hour or so. If a spider is alarmed she rushes up from the terminus of her tube and proceeds to resist an entrance. The Spider's modus operandi whilst holding down her Door. Four legs (the front pairs) are, together with the falces, used to fix on the silken underlining of the door. The falces are driven into the middle of the door, the four legs being placed so that the claws hold to the edges of the lid (fig. 12). The thick bristles on the ultimate and penultimate joints of the first two pairs of legs present a spiny array (fig. 1, female; fig. 2, male). (Fig. 3 shows a few of these terminal protective bristles, with the claws.) The remaining pairs of legs are placed around the tube, the claws sticking into the silk lining (fig. 11). All the legs are slightly bent when holding on, so that the spider's hold is elastic, and better able to withstand a jerk. When in this position the spider pulls the door tightly, often exerting a force capable of lifting a half-ounce weight. Fig. 11 shows the profile of a spider holding her door. It will be noticed how well the spider's abdomen is protected by the curve in the side of the tube. Sometimes whilst frantically resisting the entrance of an enemy the spider will suddenly let go the door and make as if to rush out on the intruder. If a person has his hand near when this happens he quickly drops the pin with which he has been holding the door, and removes his hand to safety. But this is apparently what the spider wishes to happen, and immediately she turns on her back again (fig. 11) and closes the door. The whole business is a ruse on the part of the spider, for she would not forsake her nest to bite any enemy. Some spiders relinquish their hold when they 'perceive that they are weaker than their enemy, but they remain watching nearly hidden around the bend of the nest. Some spiders run to the bottom of their den when beaten at the door, and seek to hide themselves. In wet weather spiders often remain at the end of their dens even when the door is touched. In captivity spiders often weave some strands 240 Transactions. of silk between the door and rim, in order to keep out an intruder <(ng. 10, «, near letter D). Sometimes they do this whilst hibernating-. If the tube pierces the bank in a downward direction, in order to protect its abdomen while still holding the lid it would be obliged to hinge the door on the bottom side of the open. Consequently the lid would be continually falling open with its own weight. Hence the tube pierces the bank in an upward direction (fig. 14). Habitat. This spider is seldom found many miles from the sea-coast. The spiders prefer a sheltered bank, never, as far as I know, burrowing into the ground, as .some other trapdoor species. Spiders of the same species from different localities often show curious differences in habits and manner of building their nests. This is taken into account when I say that the results may be slightly dissimilar if spiders from provinces other than Auckland or Wellington are studied. I have been disappointed to find that .1/. distinctus is free from parasitic Acarina. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV. Fig. 1. M. distinctus, female ; x 2. Fig. 2. „ male : X 2. Fig. 3. Tarsus of female, front leg, showing bristles. Fig. 4. Terminus, female palpus. Fig. 5. Male palpus, side view. Fig. 0. Eyes. Fig. 7. a, young spider's door, and so on to e, the adult door, from above. Fig. 8. Female leaping on back of fly (see fig. 10). Fig. !). Side view of sections of nests, showing different devices for keeping the door from opening too far. Fig. 10. Female watching a fly, which is unaware of its danger. (Fig. 8 shows what happened a second later.) Fig. 10. a, at D, strands of silk woven to keep the door closed ; O shows position of egg bag (see fig. 14, top), b, at arrow, film of silk woven over young spiders. c, M shows partition often woven by moribund spi er. Fig. 11. Female holding door against intruder (profile). Fig. 12. Same from above, showing position of legs, &c. Fig. !.'3. Nests built under a stone. Both have two doors, one at each end. fig. 1 !. Top nest with egg-case; middle nest which has been denudated, after which the spider has bored in farther ; lowest a nest built near surface on account of hardness of earth. (Fig. 14 also shows a bank in which the nests are in their natural position.) Fig. S, '.), 10, 11, and 12 do not, of course, show true position of tube ; they should be as in fig. 14; but if drawings are turned around, the proper effect is obtained. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV. Plate XV. MlGAS DISTINCTUS. Face p. 24,0.] Kirk. — Heptatrema cirrata Forster. 241 Art. XXVI. — Some Features of the Circulatory System of Heptatrema cirrata Forster. By Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A., Victoria College, Wellington. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.] Plates XVI, XVII. During this year 1 obtained several specimens of Heptatrenui cirrata Forster. In this paper I give a short account of the circulatory system, which presents some features of interest. As there are not in New Zealand the publications containing the papers of most of the workers on Myxinoid anatomy, I do not go into any great detail in this paper. Ten specimens were at different times injected. Injections were made into the ventral aorta, the dorsal aorta, and usually one of the posterior cardinal sinuses. Although the injection of Heptatrema is often very effective, it is apt to be capricious. Usually an injection thrown into one of the posterior cardinal sinuses suffices to fill the whole venous system, but at times such an injection fails in one part or more. I have not yet attempted to inject the lymphatic system, which, from the extent of the subdermal lymph-spaces, is probably extensive and diffuse. I have found gelatine the most suitable injecting vehicle. The circulatory system of Heptatrema presents, as might be expected, many resemblances to that of Bdellostoma, but it presents also some notable differences. The ventral aorta, for example, branches before any afferent branchial arteries are given off; the jugular system achieves great development; the short subintestinal vein passes direct to the right hepatic portal vein, not to the sinus venosus. Heart. — The sinus venosus is, as usual, thin-walled, and it presents no considerable dilatation when fully injected. The atrium has thick, spongy, and muscular walls. It dilates greatly when injected, and then often presents a lobulated appearance. The passage from the atrium to the ventricle is guarded by a single pair of deep " pocket " valves. The wall of the ventricle is enormously thick, and its cavity is small. The passage to the short bulbus aortae is guarded by a single " sleeve " valve of peculiar construction. The base of this "sleeve" is attached to the wall of the ventricle, and the " sleeve " projects into the bulbus. It is not, however, free, but each side has a line of attachment to the wall of the bulbus. These lines of attachment are dorso-lateral and ventro- lateral. The terminal portion of the " sleeve " is wider than the basal portion, and the edges of this terminal portion tend to fall together, closing the passage. Ventral Aorta. — Except for the short bulbus, there is no median por- tion of the ventral aorta, forking of the aorta taking place immediately. Each division of the aorta runs for about 1 cm. before it fives off the earliest of its afferent branchial arteries. The afferent branchial arteries are long and curved, an arrangement that fully provides for the great dilatation of the pharynx that takes place when large pieces of food are passed along it. Each afferent branchial artery enters the wall of the gill-sac on its posterior aspect just below the point of origin of the excurrent branchial tube. The most anterior of the series of ovi- sacs is supplied by the terminal portion of the division of the aorta. I'll' Transactions. With regard to the forking of the ventral aorta, it is perhaps worthy of note that in two preparations that carry much injection the right division of the aorta appears as though it sprang from the left. Dorsal Aorta. — As in Bdellostoma, the efferent branchial arteries do not run direct to the dorsal aorta, but those of each side run to a vessel that may, for the sake of convenience, be called a lateral aorta. This occupies a dorso-lateral position parallel to the dorsal aorta, to which it sends regular communicating vessels. These communicating vessels are three in number on each side. The most anterior of these vessels are .behind the second pair of gill-sacs.' In "A Treatise on Zoology " (Ray Lankester) Goodrich represents in diagram the circulatory system of Bdellostoma, the diagram being based on the figures of Muller, Jackson, and Klinckowstrom, to ^hich figures I have no access. The diagram shows that the lateral aortae of Bdellostoma have more connecting: branches to the dorsal aorta than those of Heptatrema, and that in Bdellostoma there is communication anteriorly to the first gill-sacs. In front of the gill-sacs the lateral aortae of Heptatre?na can be traced forward nearly to the head. Posteriorly they turn inwards about abreast of the last gill-sacs to join the dorsal aorta, which has, of course, received all its blood through them. The turn inwards is made at a noticeable angle, and the last efferent branchial vessel of either side may not be received until after the turn is made (see Plate XVII, fig. 1). The efferent branchial arteries leave the gill-sacs on the anterior aspect. Those of the anterior pair always, and those of the second pair nearly always, branch just as they leave the gill-sac, the two branches entering the lateral aorta separately. The third, and sometimes even the fourth, efferent artery of one side, or both, may branch in like fashion. In the preparation figured in Plate XVII, fig. 1, the second efferent branchial artery of the left side has a distinctly double origin. From the median dorsal aorta vessels are given off to supply the notochordal sheath, the pharynx, and the body-wall. These last, the segmental arteries, often alternate with each other, but posteriorly to the heart a more or less regular arrangement in pairs becomes evident. One segmental artery often suffices for two myomeres. I have not been able to observe the blood-suppl}' of the pro-nephros. With regard to the nephridial system, each segmental artery that crosses the system sends, typically, a branch to the corresponding glomerulus. In cases — and they are frequent — in which there is no segmental artery corresponding to a glomerulus, a renal artery runs direct from the aorta (see Plate XVI, fig. 2). One case was observed in which a segmental artery sends branches to two glomeruli. Posteriorly to the heart splanchnic arteries run from the dorsal aorta to the intestine; the splanchnic arteries are numerous, and appear to be one in each segment. Numerous slender arteries pass from the dorsal aorta to the gonads. These arteries are much more noticeable in cases in which there are many ova forming. Jugular System.- — There is a large right jugular vein lying above the lingual mass and beside the pharynx. It arises well forward, abreast of the fifth slime-gland. The vessels that contribute to it come from the body-wall, the lingual mass, and the pharynx. Anteriorly to the gill-sacs it resembles a sinus rather than a vein. In the diagram for Bdellostoma already referred to, the anterior part of the right cardinal Kikk. — Heptatrema cirrata Forster. 243 sinus is shown to communicate with the right jugular — indeed, to form the anterior part of it; but there is no reason to suppose that that is the case in Heptatrema. When the right jugular of Heptatrema gets as far back as the gill- clefts its ventral position becomes more pronounced, as it has to pass below the incurrent branchial tubes. After passing the posterior end of the lingual mass it receives a vein that serves a considerable part of that mass, especially the left side. This may be referred to as the anterior lingual vein. There next enters a vein formed by the union of a left jugular and another vein from the lingual mass. This latter vein, which may be called the posterior lingual vein, is formed by two veins, one from the lower and right portions of the mass, the other from its upper portion. The left jugular vein is formed by two somewhat slender parallel branches lying below the incurrent tubes of the left gill- sacs. They unite T5 cm. before the posterior lingual vein is reached. After the vein formed by the union of the left jugular and the posterior lingual has entered, the combined jugular vein passes backward towards the heart. It receives the inferior jugular, a median vessel of consider- able size. This vein is itself formed by the union of two veins running in the ventral body-wall below the lingual mass. After entry of the inferior jugular the jugular trunk passes to the posterior end of the sinus venosus, which it enters in close conjunction with the right hepatic vein. Anterior Cardinal System. — The right anterior cardinal sinus starts beside the notochord at the base of the cranium. It runs backward in the body-wall until it comes abreast of the first gill-sac; then it tends towards the middle line, coming to lie beside the dorsal aorta, which, from the fifth gill-sac backwards, lies between it and the left anterior cardinal sinus. It receives many lateral veins. It ends in the portal heart. No part of it communicates with the sinus venosus. The left anterior cardinal sinus commences in a position correspond- ing to that of the right. It early receives a large branch from below and beside the pharynx. This suggests that the anterior part of the left jugular may perhaps join the sinus. Posteriorly the left anterior cardinal sinus joins with the posterior cardinal trunk to enter the sinus venosus. Posterior Cardinal Sinuses, Right and Left. — A median sinus origin- ates just below the notochord in the tail. A right sinus presently separates from this, runs parallel to it for a little way, and rejoins it. This may be repeated once or twice. Finally the two sinuses are well established, and communicate with each other by several wide connecting branches below the dorsal aorta. As the sinus venosus is reached the richt sinus gives off a small branch, which crosses the left sinus and runs to the portal heart. The right sinus then joins the left, and the combined trunk, with the left anterior cardinal sinus, joins the sinus venosus. Segmental veins running from the body-wall enter the corresponding posterior cardinal sinus. Usually there is one such vein to two myo- meres. Sometimes the renal vein running from a glomerulus enters one of these segmental veins, but more often it runs direct to the pos- terior sinus of its side. The renal veins leave the glomeruli on the ventral aspect. The segmental veins pass over the nephridial system dorsallv. 244 Transaction* Supra-intestinal Vein. — The supra-intestinal vein runs forward from near the termination of the intestine. It ends full in the portal heart. Subintestinal Vein. — Veins from the anterior ventral part of the intestine unite to form a short subintestinal vein. The veins upon the surface of the gall-bladder unite to form a cystic vein which joins the subintestinal. The subintestinal vein then enters the right portal vein. It does not carry blood through the liver direct to the sinus venosus, as stated by Goodrich (hoc. cit.) for Myxinoids generally. The portal heart receives blood from three sources — the supra- intestinal vein, the right anterior cardinal sinus, and the light posterior cardinal sinus; while into the right portal vein there flows the sub- intestinal. The portal vein, on leaving the portal heart, forks, right and left veins passing to the corresponding lobes of the liver. These branches enter the liver on the lower (concave) surface. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Plate XVI. Diagrammatic representation of the circulatory system. Part of the dorsal vessels and the nephridial system, from the dorsal aspect. a. Renal veinlet running from the dorsal aspect of a glomerulus to a seg- mental vein in the body-wall. b. Segmental artery sending branches to two glomeruli. Plate XVII. Fig. 1. The efferent branchial vessels and the anterior part of the dorsal aortic system, from the dorsal aspect. The afferent branchial system, from the ventral aspect. Right afferent branchial vessels, from the right side. Anterior part of post-cardinal system, showing connection of right sinus with portal heart. Fig. 5. The jugular system, dissected from ventral aspect. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. a.l. Anterior lingual vein. at. Atrium. d.a. Dorsal aorta. e.b.t. Excurrent branchial tube. ef.br. Efferent branchial tube. g.s. Gill-sac. i. Intestine. i.i. Inferior jugular vein. i.b.t. Incurrent branchial tube. j.t. Combined jugular trunk. I. Lingual trunk. La. Left division of anterior aorta. l.a.c. Left anterior cardinal sinus. l.h. Left hepatic vein. l.j. Left jugular vein. l.n. Left nephridial system. l.p.c. Left posterior cardinal sinus. l.pt. Left branch of portal vein. l.v. Left division of ventral aorta. m.a. Median division of anterior aorta. oes.d. Oesophageo-cutaneous duct. p.l. Posterior lingual vein. ph. pt.ht. r.a. r.a.r. r.c. r.h. r.j. r.n. r.p.c. r.pt. r.v. s.a. s.i. s.v. sb.i. sq.v. spl.a. v. r.n. Pharynx. Portal heart. Right division of anterior aorta. Right anterior cardinal sinus. Communicating branch from right posterior cardinal sinus to portal heart. Right hepatic vein. Right jugular vein. Right nephridial system. Right posterior cardinal sinus. Right branch of portal vein. Right division of ventral aorta. Segmental artery. Supra-intestinal vein. Sinus venosus. Subintestinal vein. Segmental vein. Splanchnic artery. Ventricle. Ventral aorta. Trans. N.Z. Inst., ^ Plate XVI. q fi.— Port Nicholson. * See F. P. Gulliver. "Shore-line Topography," Proc. Am. Ac. of Arts and Sci., vol. 34, No. 8, 1899, p. 1^9. f " The Outline of Cape Cod," Proc. Am. Ac. of Arts and Sci., 1896 ; reprinted in Geogr. Essays, 1909, p. < 90. % " Geographie physique," p. 685 ; Paris, 1909. Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography. 253 The diagram (fig. 6) is an attempt to explain graphically the evolution of Miramar Peninsula. It does not appear that the channel thus blocked had ever the importance of the present entrance, which has from the first been the main channel, and is the continuation of the Hutt Valley. Mr. Elsdon Best has drawn the writer's attention to an authentic Maori tradition, first put in writing about 1850, which relates some episodes in the history of the locality some seventeen generations ago (i.e. about the end of the fifteenth century). It appears that before that period Evans Bay and Lyall Bay were connected by a channel, which was probably kept open by the tide through the growing sand-bar. The tradition relates that, when a party of Maoris had retired to the island (Miramar Peninsula is clearly indicated) with all the available canoes, another party, pursuing them, were compelled to build rafts to effect the crossing. An account is given also of an event which appears to have been an earthquake accompanied by elevation of the land. By that movement the channel was finally closed. Fig. 6. — Diagram of Evolution of Miramar Peninsula (a Land-tied Island). In the lower diagram Evans Bay (opening to Port Nicholson) is on the left, and Lyall Bay (opening to the ocean) on the right. Spurs running down both to Evans Bay and to the ocean have been cut back by marine erosion, and rock platforms indi- cating their former area have been exposed by a recent movement of elevation. These are much more extensive at the seaward end, but even on the shore of Evans Bay a moderate amount of cutting has been done by the waves raised on the waters of Port Nicholson by the prevailing north wind. The sand-bar joining the island to the mainland must have been formed at an early stage, for the spurs running down into it have been almost completely protected from marine erosion. The upper diagram is a restoration of the initial form of Miramar " island." The case of Miramar Peninsula is therefore one where island-tying has been assisted by a slight movement of the land.* It seems probable that with- out a slight movement of elevation a shallow channel would always have been kept open through the bar by the tide. In a quaint paper by Crawford, f entitled " Port Nicholson, an Ancient Fresh-water Lake," the view was advanced that the present entrance had been opened quite recently by the sea, and that over a dam of boulders in the Evans Bay -Lyall Bay channel the waters of a fresh-water lake formerly escaped and cascaded down to join the " great Cook Strait liver." The small channel appears to have been formed by the drowning of two small streams, one flowing north and the other south, separated by a low divide which is evidently not deeply buried, for the spurs running- down from opposite sides into the sand-bar are not widely separated. * See Gulliver, loc. cit., p. 200. t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 6, 1874, p. 290. 254 Transaction* . From the above description and from fig. 6 it will be gathered that the coast-line of the downthrown Port Nicholson block is a normal drowned coast, passing through the normal cycle of littoral erosion which has reached the early mature stage. It is thus in strong con- trast with the coasts of the neighbouring high-standing blocks described in the next paragraph. Coast Features. The Cliffs. The actual outline of the coast of the high-standing block is the result of marine erosion working back from an earlier coast-line almost certainly bounded by fractures. This seems to be the only view tenable, for the amount of marine erosion necessary to cut back the present coast, with its line of lofty cliffs, from a coast-line of any other form would be enormous, and seems out of the question when a comparison is made with the recently revived condition of the land -drain age. There is no evidence of a slow sinking of the land such as would be required to keep up the activity of wave-action on a receding coast. The depths of hundreds of fathoms recorded within a very few miles of the southern coast indicate that the block to the south has sunk, and the closeness of the hundred-fathoms line to the western coast indicates sub- sidence in that direction. The hypothesis of a fracture-bound coast gains further support from the relation of the coast-line to stream-courses on the land-surface. The Silver Stream (see fig. 2) rises at a height of 1,000 ft. only three- quarters of a mile from the southern coast, and flows northward. The western coast also cuts in along a north-easterly line, making an angle with both the strike of the rocks and the stream-courses. The Ohariu Stream, on the north-west, like the Silver Stream on the south, rises almost on the coast, and flows inland. Cook Strait, which bounds the Wellington Peninsula on the west and south, has been generally regarded as the result of faulting since the time of Hochstetter, whose views were followed by Hutton and more recently by Park. Hochstetter's early view* was that one island had been thrust laterally past the other — that is, that the movement was of the nature of a " flaw."' As has been pointed out by Suess, however, Hochstetter's later viewf was that Cook Strait owed its origin simply to the subsidence of a mountain block or blocks, and he was aware that the continuation of the North Island ranges is to be found on the same line of strike in the Kaikoura Mountains of the South Island. This relation is brought out by Marshall's! maps of physical features of New Zealand. The west and south coasts present similar features. The only pro- jecting points are those composed of resistant rock, usually bands that are hardened with interlacing veins of quartz, filling joints. The inter- vening, less resistant rock bands recede as bays of gentle curvature, bounded by imposing cliffs. The larger streams emerge at beach-level, in gorges revived and steepened by the rapid recession of the coast, * Lccti iv on the Geology of the Province of Nelson, 1859, reprinted in " Geology of New Zealand" (Auckland. 1864), p. 106; see also Park's " Geology of New Zealand." 1910, p. 262. t " Reise der ' Novara," " 1864, Geol. vol. 1, p. 2. % Loc. cit., pp. 10, 11. Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography. 255 while the smaller ravines are truncated, appearing as notches, hanging at various heights on the cliffs. Wherever the lower reach of a stream makes a small angle with the coast the spur separating it from the sea has the form of a razorback, due to lateral cutting by the stream on one side and the sea on the other. The coast-line is, therefore, a continuous line of stupendous cliffs, rising in places on the south coast, where the coast-line cuts across the highest ridges, to 700 ft. or 800 ft. In Plate XIX, fig. 1, a portion of the south coast is seen eastward from Sinclair Head. The triangular cliff- facet photographed is 400 ft. or 500 ft. in height. To the west the height of the cliffs increases. The Coast Platforms. Along parts of the coast no relics remain of elevated platforms cut by the sea during pauses in the movement of uplift. They have either been completely cut away by the waves or cut off by faulting along new lines of fracture. At other places extensive shelves remain. The most prominent begins at Tongue Point and extends some distance west- ward (see fig. 7, and Plate XVIII, fig. 3). The shoreward edge of this shelf appears to indicate _^-~-^/>-^--r~ ' ^-> ..^^^laiiii^^ Fig. 7. — The Elevated Coast Platforms at Tongue Point. the base-level at the time when the streams of the district developed the greater part of the existing upland topography. For that reason the writer has named that erosion cycle the Tongue Point cycle. The height of the shelf at its inner edge at Tongue Point is 240 ft. Its slope seaward is at first 10°, but rapidly decreases, and at the end of Tongue Point, where the shelf is half a mile broad, it runs gently out at an angle of 2° or 3°. The upper surface of the shelf is covered by a veneer, 6 ft. or 8 ft. in thickness, of gravels similar to those of the present beach. They vary irregularly from beds of coarse roughly rounded gravel and boulders, material similar to what is being supplied to-day in large quantities by the smaller streams, to layers of fine flattened discs of beach-shingle varying from the size of a threepenny-piece to that of a penny. Jl layer of the coarser gravel is seen on the right in Plate XVIII, fig. 3. The varying height of the outer scarp of this marine terrace as seen from the sea is clearly due mainly to the varying breadth of the portions that have withstood the action of the sea, the seaward slope of the shelf being regarded as nearly constant. At the extremity of Tongue Point it comes down to 170 ft. Beyond the next creek to the west, where there is a well-preserved but narrower remnant, the outer edge bounded by the present scarp is, as might be expected, higher. It is evidently this apparent variation in the height of the shelf that 256 Transactions. led Park* to remark that he had satisfied himself " that it was not an uplifted marine platform of erosion." It may be remarked that a section, even on a vertical plane through a coastal platform, parallel to the average direction of the coast must not be expected to yield a per- fectly horizontal crest. It ought to show a convex crest opposite to bluffs, where the old coast approaches it, and a concave outline opposite bays, where the old coast recedes. To this initial irregularity there may be added slight variations in the amount of subsequent uplift. Rem- nants of this terrace extend nearly to Cape Terawhiti, and it may be seen also at Te Kaminaru Bay, on the western coast. There exists also a higher shelf, which was examined at Tongue Point. It may be seen in fig. 7. Its height is about 450 ft., and, like the lower shelf, it is covered with a layer of water-worn pebbles. Its width at the point examined had been reduced by the cutting of the lower shelf to about 50 yards. At Baring Head, on the coast south -eastward of Pencarrow Head, at the entrance to Port Nicholson, similar shelves occur, f and again at Cape Turakirae. They may be seen from the deck of a steamer enter- ing Port Nicholson. The sketch, fig. 8, represents them as seen from CO cw». mi Fig. 8.— The Elevated Coast Platforms between Pencarrow Head and Baring Head, as seen from the Signal-station on Miramar Peninsula. Pencarrow Head in centre, Baring Head on right. the signal-station on Miramar Peninsula. They are cut through by the revived Wainuiomata. The writer has not examined these platforms closely, but believes they correspond in a general way to those at Tongue Point, the sunken area of Port Nicholson lying between. The highest platform at Baring Head appears to be about 500 ft. above sea-level. It has been shown above that the general outlines of the coast appear to be determined by subsidence of land blocks, but, on the other hand, it cannot be assumed that the whole of the uplift of which we here have evidence is differential uplift along these lines of fracture. At many places on the New Zealand coast marine platforms and raised beaches are known, indicating uplift of varying amount. J McKav has recorded Recent shells on a beach at a height of 500 ft. at Amuri Bluff, about eighty miles south-west of Wellington. If this beach can be correlated with the highest shelf at Wellington it may indicate that the stretch of land between has moved as a whole. The latest movement, which took place in 1855, and was described by * Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 42, 1910, p. 586. and fig. 3. f See Park, loc. tit., p. 585, fig. 2. J See Marshal], lor. cit., p. 31. Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography. 257 •2? 2z Lyell,* affected both sides of Cook Strait. It was, however, a tilt to the west, which depressed the western shore of the strait and elevated the Wellington side as a whole — that is, the area ^ shown in fig. 1 — by an amount varying from zero ,-op on the north-west to about 9 ft. on the south- a east. The raised beaches of the Wellington coast ■5 which owe their elevation to that movement have o been described and figured by Bell.f They may •a be seen also in Plate XVIII, fig. 2, and" Plate m> XXI, fig. 2. Both views are of parts of the g eastern shore of Miramar Peninsula. J There is some evidence that this tilt is a §j continuation of an earlier tilting movement in ^ the same direction, the axis of the movement J lying a little to the west of Wellington. On the •g south-east a series of very fresh raised gravel a beaches at Cape Turakirae, the highest being g 90 ft. above the sea. are mentioned by Aston. J On the north-west there appears to have been a downward movement of small amount subse- quently to the general movement of elevation the proofs of which have been given. This move- ment, which has drowned the lower reach of the Porirua Stream, does not appear to have been more than 30 ft. or 40 ft. The stream had previ- ously developed a broad strip of flood-plain, and this has been drowned to a distance of about a mile and a half from the sea. At Porirua there appears to have been little or no movement either up or down in 1855. Raised rock platforms similar to those at Wellington are not found. This agrees with the accounts of eye-witnesses given in substance by Lyell. § 3 ^8 Vy \ V- W -~.,_tw .^-— fact that tributaries of the larger streams. /' '-^X^^-I ^£S>2cr :^\\ the Kaiwarra and the Ngahauranga, which / <^*^^yy , -^ -— ^S,- cross the fault-scarp show evidence of recent / \: 0- revival. | \ \^%{/ / . \\ \\ These two larger streams have been i i \ \\ .y/ / / \\v \ sufficiently active to capture the drainage i ' \ '\ \l -I i J^w-i of a longitudinal valley at the back. The i X-^<^-^^f^^^^-' ^^ changes in their courses are described in a later paragraph (p. 262). Both streams in FlGl 10- -Truncated Valley ,1 • i if i 4.1. 4.1 OVERHANGING THE NGAHAU- their lower reaches, where they cross the ranga Gorg] fault-scarp, flow in narrow, young gorges (see Plate XX, figs. 1 and 2).' The lme of the J"*" ff ce §ives tk m i l v x i-j.4.1 n a cross-profile of the upper Fig. 10, a sketch of a little valley part of the valley- truncated by the Ngahauranga, gives an indication of the depth to which the latter has incised its course below an older surface of moderate relief. The Kaiwarra, which is the larger stream of the two, has graded its course, and for a distance of a mile from its mouth has worked out an extremely narrow strip of flood-plain (Plate XX, fig. 1). The Ngahau- ranga is not graded. A fall in its lower course is illustrated in Plate XX, fig. 2. There is no doubt that both these streams are of extremely recent origin. Their lower courses are consequent upon the slope of the fault- scarp, or, at least, of the boundary of the Port Nicholson depression. Next to the extremely young character of the streams the most im- portant piece of evidence in favour of faulting is the abrupt manner in which the ridges separating them are terminated as a straight line of cliffs at the harbour side. If the theory of faulting is not entertained these must * Loc. cit., p. 539. Trans. X.Z. Inst.. Vol. XL1V Plate XX. Face p. 358 J Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV. Plate XXI. Fig. 1. — Narrowed Spur in the Ngahauranga Valley, Fig. 2. — Raised Beaches and Wave-cut Cliffs on the South-eastern Shore of Miramar Peninsula. Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography. 259 be regarded as having extended at least a mile out into the waters of Port Nicholson, enclosing between them the continuations of the present eorees: and the coast must have been cut back to a straight line by wave-action. The problem may be attacked in two ways : (1.) Search for the rock platforms which should remain to indicate the former exten- sion of the spurs. A glance at fig. 5 shows that these are absent, and that the deepest water of Port Nicholson comes close to this shore. Rock platforms, if they existed, ought to have been actually raised above water by the 5 ft. uplift of 1855, but for nearly the whole length of the scarp rocks are not exposed at low water more than 50 yards from the foot of the cliffs. (2.) Comparison with other parts of the coast-line where marine erosion has been more or less effective in cutting back the coast, The coast of the seaward end of Miramar Peninsula (fig. 6) may be considered. Here, indeed, bluffs have been cut back to the extent of a mile, as the exposed rock platform at their base shows,, but the coast has by no means been rendered perfectly straight. More- over, compared with its activity on the outer coast, wave-action within the harbour is extremely feeble. A safe comparison can therefore be made only with another stretch of coast within the harbour. When the eastern shore is examined it is found that wave-action has succeeded only in shaving off the ends of points. Fig. 11 represents the eastern shore as seen from the signal-station on Miramar Peninsula. Its irregular base-line may be noted on the maps, figs. 1 and 5. It should be noted that this side of the harbour is bounded by a strike ridge, and that no spurs of any magnitude run down from it. So a shore- line originally nearly straight has been rendered but little straighter by wave-cutting. Moreover, the increasing height of cliffs towards the harbour - entrance shows that the greater part of the work has been done by waves rolling in from the open sea. The western shore of the harbour, on the other hand, is affected only by waves raised on the harbour itself. The effect of waves raised within the harbour is seen on the shore of Evans Bay (on the left in fig. 6). The conclusion reached is that the scarp bordering the harbour on the north-west, with its straight base-line, cutting at an angle across the strike both of the rock strata and of the drowned ridges to the south of it, with its faceted spurs and its steep-grade gorges, is the result of recent faulting. Fig. 9 may be compared with the sketches and photographs of the Wasatch Range given by Davis,* and also with the diagrams illustrating his theoretical discussion of the dissection of the face of a faulted block. f Nature of the Movement. The fact that the portions remaining of the scarp along the fault- line are inclined back at an angle of about 55° may indicate that the surface along which movement took place had that inclination. On the other hand, if the fault-plane were steeper the slope would quickly be reduced by slipping along the crest of the high block. * W. M. Davis, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harv., vol. 42, No. 3, 1904, p. 153, ar.d pi. 4 ; and vol. 49, No. 2, 1905, fig. 2, and pi. 1, a. t Loc. tit., vol. 42, No. 3, 1S04, fige. 6-9. 9* 2r>0 Transactions. From the absence of slipped material along the base of the Wasatch Range, in Utah, Davis* argued that the slope of the spur-facets now found there gives the inclination of the plane of faulting. In the case of the Wellington scarp, however, it is uncertain whether a scree of slipped material exists or not beneath the water and silt of the harbour. Nor can the very even slope of the facets throughout the length of the scarp be taken as an indication that they represent the actual plane of faulting. Their slope appears rather to be " the angle of rest for the products of decay " of the material of which they are composed. The writer cannot agree with Bellf that the slope is steeper than the angle of rest. It is clear that many, if not all. of the clearly defined, sharp-edged facets owe their actual form to wave- action at their bases, the extent to which the scarp has been thus cut back b?ing indicated by a narrow wave-cut platform at its foot. This, however, seldom reaches a width of 40 or 50 yards, and part of it may represent a levelled-off scree of slipped material. It is now almost entirely covered by the railway-embankment along the shore. Reasons have already been given for believing that the actual movement- has been subsidence of the block to the south-east (p. 258). It was assumed by BellJ that the faulting movement was one of block elevation and tilting towards the north-west, and the Porirua Stream was cited as an example of a stream flowing down the tilted back slope of the block. There is no doubt, however, that the Porirua followed its present course before faulting took place. It follows one of the old strike valleys. In the valley there is evidence of recent revival, but not such as would be required by a tilt of the magnitude assumed ; it appears to be due solely to the general movement of uplift which has affected the Wellington Peninsula, although perhaps not everywhere by exactly the same amount. The drowning of the lower Porirua may be ascribed to a less-extensive later tilt of a much larger block of country (see p. 257). Other Faults. An origin by faulting is implied for some of the longitudinal features of the Wellington Peninsula by Bell,§ and the line of the Makara Valley is included by McKay|| among " active faults and earthquake rents." The presence of many faults, and particularly of the last mentioned, is revealed in natural sections. The three faults which McKayli describes as " converging on . . . the capital of New Zealand " can be recognized, although it is difficult to see why they are to be regarded as the continuation of faults in the South Island. The stratigraphy of the district is too little known to allow an estimate to be made of the amount of movement on the fault-planes, and the period at which the main movement took place has not been ascertained. It can be confidently stated, however, for the whole of the area west of the Karori-Khandallah Valley that physiographic evidence of recent faulting is entirely lacking (see pp. 262-61). The boundaries of the subsided Port Nicholson block may next be investigated. On the map of Port Nicholson given by Bell** there are indicated, iti addition to the Wellington fault, five other fault-lines bounding the * Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harv., vol. 42, No. 3. 190 i, p. 15S. t Loc. cit., p. 536. % Loc. cit., p. 539. § Loc. cit., section, p. 539. || "Reports of Geological Explorations, 1890-91." map, p. 1 ; Wellington,. 1891. •I Loc. cit., p. 19. ** Loc. cit., p. 537. Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography. 261 downthrown area. It is probable that these lines are only suggestions, for on the accompanying section giving probable faults* two given on the map are omitted and another is introduced. As mapped they are nearly parallel to one another, and appear to coincide with the strike of the rocks. For those bounding on the east and west the longitudinal ridges of Miramar Peninsula and the Kilbirnie ridge to the west of it there appears to be no evidence. The elongation of each ridge is satisfactorily explained as corresponding to rock structure. Neither ridge has, on either side, a straight or gently curved base-line, but sprawling spurs are given off (see fig. 6). Both shores of Lyall Bay (figs. 1 and 6) directly facing the ocean to the south are bounded by cliffs. That these are not fault-scarps there is abundant proof in the extensive rock platforms at their bases, which were raised above the sea by the small uplift of 1855. These prove a former long seaward extension of the spurs. Where the tombolo (fig. 6) connects Miramar Peninsula to the mainland this has afforded protection from marine erosion, and the spurs run far out, that from Miramar Peninsula almost meeting that from the mainland. To the north of the tombolo in Evans Bay, on both shores, smaller scarps are found, fronted by less-extensive rock platforms than those of Lyall Bay, all evidently the work of the waves on Port Nicholson, the energy of which is very much less than of those of the open sea. They are, however, sufficiently powerful, ^M^mm^mm^m^^^rM^ //.v Fig. 11. — Eastern Shore of Port Nicholson, looking North-east from the Signal-station on Miramar Peninsula. urged by the prevailing strong northerly winds, to account for the destruc- tion of the relatively small bulk of the spurs and slopes, the removal of which has resulted in the present scarped shore. Similar arguments can be used against the probability of a fault bounding the harbour on the east. The shore-line is fairly straight for several miles in the entrance, but the obvious reason for this is that it is the side of a low narrow ridge, without lateral spurs, between two straight valleys. The shore is subject to powerful wave-action, as it is not sheltered from waves entering the harbour-mouth, and marine erosion has been able, by the removal of quite a moderate amount of material, to cut a continuous line of cliffs. Farther north, towards the head of Port Nicholson, the land is higher, and no longer a narrow ridge. Torrent-gullies, opening to the harbour as small bays, are separated by tapering spurs which run down nearly to sea-level without change of slope. The points only of the spurs have been truncated by wave-action, and a marked decrease in the height of wave- cut facets can be traced northward on successive spurs. This appears to correspond to the decreasing energy of waves, running along the shore, with * hoc. cit.. p. 539. 262 Transaction*. increasing distance from the open sea. Before the delta of the Hutt River, at the head of Port Nicholson, is reached, effects of wave-action have shrunk to small dimensions, and the spurs which run down into the flats of the delta are not truncated at all. It will be gathered from the above description and from fig. 11 that the eastern shore of the harbour presents characters similar to those of any ridge in highly inclined stratified rocks, determined by the resistant nature of the stratum of which it forms the outcrop. It is continuous with the ridge forming the divide east of the Hutt River. This divide runs for some distance parallel with and very close to the Hutt River ; hence the tribu- taries entering the Hutt, or its continuation, Port Nicholson, can be only short, steep-grade torrents. The nearness of the divide to the Hutt at this point is explained by the fact that the ridge is composed of the strong greywacke with few joints, which is the hardest rock in the district. If, on the other hand, the ridge-face were determined by a line of recent faulting, and the ridge itself were composed of rocks of average or varying hardness, it might be expected that some of the streams of the fault-scarp would have worked through and captured the drainage at the back, as the streams of the Wel- lington fault-scarp have done. This ought all the more to be expected in the case under discussion, since, if it be a case of faulting, the actual scarp has reached a much more mature stage of dissection than the scarp of the Wellington fault. The question of what actually is the eastern boundary of the Port Nicholson depression must for the present remain open. There remains the line on the western side from Kelburne through the City of Wellington to the sea on the south. This is the line of one of McKay's faults (No. 3).* A section across this fault or a branch of it may be seen in the cuttings of the Brooklyn tramway, but the section gives no information as to the date of faulting or amount of movement. There is rather indefinite evidence of faulting in the steep scarp along the front of Kelburne and Brooklyn (the line AB in fig. 2). Evidence of faulting is much obscured owing to the fact that the line of fracture appears to have followed the course of a longitudinal mature valley in weak rock, the floor of which was very deeply weathered. The amount of movement appears to have been between 200 ft. and 300 ft. Farther south there is little evidence of a scarp, and the fault was perhaps replaced by a flexure. Changes in Drainage of the Karori-Khandallah or Long Valley. This old valley might be called the Karori-Khandallah Valley, from the names of two important settlements in it. For the sake of brevity, it is here called the " Long Valley." Its line is now followed by the Silver Stream, the Kaiwarra and its tributaries, the upper Ngahauranga, and the Porirua. In fig. 2 the line of the old valley is indicated as a double broken line, and farther north by the line of the Manawatu Railway. Starting at the head of the valley and following it northward, we may note the changes that have taken place. At the head of the Silver Stream, which occupies the southern end of the valley, the divide is now 1,000 ft. above the sea, and the old valley appears to have continued still farther southward, the divide now being rapidly pushed northward by the activity of torrents of the south coast. Two miles and a half from its source the Silver Stream turns very sharply * Loc. cit., }). 1. Cotton. — Notes on Wellington Physiography . 263 to the west, and finds its way to the sea as a tributary of the Karori, having thus a roundabout course eight miles in length. As indicated in fig. 2, the capture of the Silver Stream by the Karori is a double one, two branch ravines of the Karori tributary having successively tapped the course of the Silver Stream. The floor of the old Long Valley here stands about 840 ft. above sea-level. The deepening of the captured stream at the elbow of capture is 400 ft. or 500 ft. Northward from this divide the Kaiwarra. which here occupies the Long Valley, descends somewhat rapidly in a trench incised in an older mature valley-floor. At the upper reservoir (U.R. in fig. 2) it follows entrenched meanders of small radius, and a portion of the old flood-plain on which the meanders originated remains as a bench far above the present stream and at a height of 660 ft. above the sea. At this point a mature dry valley on a level with the old flood-plain bench, evidently the old stream-course, swings off to the north, while the course of the Kaiwarra. flowing north-east, is a young gorge. The sketch, fig. 12, shows the old valley and the young gorge of the Kaiwarra. Following the old dry valley mentioned above, we find ourselves in the broad mature valley occupied by the settlement of Karori. It has been invaded by the head of the Karori Stream from the south-west, as well Fig. 12. — Capture of the " Long Valley " Stream by the Kaiwarra. Upper reservoir on the left : young gorge of the Kaiwarra below the upper-reservoir clam on the light. as by the Kaiwarra from the north-east. The north-eastward continuation of the now broad and mature Long Valley through Ngaio and Khandallah is evident, but between Karori and Ngaio the floor of it has been almost completely gouged out by the numerous young deep-gorged tributaries of the middle Kaiwarra. Overlooking the Kaiwarra there are, however, abundant stream-deposits in Karori, and a bed of gravel on the western slope of the Tinakori hills at a height of 600 ft. The lower Kaiwarra leaves the Long Valley by a steep-walled gorge, and crosses the scarp of the Wellington fault. The north-eastward continua- tion of the valley is occupied next by a short obsequent stream, a tributary of the Kaiwarra. Farther on, at Khandallah, it is crossed by a stream which joins the Ngahauranga near its mouth. Still farther to the north- east the valley has been invaded by the Ngahauranga, a stream which, owing its activity to its position on the fault-scarp, has worked back in a profound gorge along a nearly straight course at right angles with the 264 Transactions. fault-line until reaching the Long Valley. It has reversed the drainage of the Long Valley for a mile and a half. It follows a winding course, but the taper- ing shape of the spurs on the concave sides of the meander- curves indicates that the winding character is due, at least in part, to lateral cutting that has accompanied the deepening of the gorge. At one point a narrowed and almost cut-off spur is a conspicuous feature in the Ngahauranga Valley. Plate XXI, fig. 1, is a view looking north-east across this spur and up the valley. The height of the narrowed neck above the stream on the down- stream side is 200 ft., and on the up-stream side 90 ft. Its breadth is about 100 yards, while the distance roundabout by the course of the stream is three-quarters of a mile. Beyond the divide, 500 ft. above sea-level, at the head of the obsequent Ngahauranga, is the head of the Porirua Stream, which, robbed of two-thirds of its ancient length, still occupies the northern end of the Long Valley. Probably this was the outlet at the close of the Tongue Point cycle. The cause of most of the captures in the Long Valley is, as has already been indicated, the subsidence of the Port Nicholson block, particularly along the line of the Wellington fault, giving a short descent to sea-level. With regard to the Silver Stream, it seems remarkable that its capture had not taken place earlier and in a less roundabout way than the pre- sent outlet to the Karori Stream. A reasonable explanation seems to be that in earlier times, when streams followed the Long Valley and the other main longitudinal valleys of the Wellington Peninsula, the peninsula formed part of a land-area extending to the north-west and to the south far beyond its present limits. Reasons have already been given for the writer's belief that the present coast was determined by fractures after the main lines of the present drainage were established. Type of Topography. A consideration of the courses of streams and the elongation of ridges of the Wellington district leads to the conclusion that, apart from local complications due to unequal vertical movement, the topography of the south-western end of the North Island mountain-chain is of the Appa- lachian type — namely, an old, folded range subjected for a sufficient time to denudation to bring about longitudinal drainage by subsequent streams adjusted to structure, not following original synclinal folds, and afterwards elevated sufficiently to allow dissection by revived streams to produce a surface of strong relief. The analogy with the Appalachian Mountains must not be pushed too far. For example, planation in the earliest cycle seems to have been far from complete, and the absence of transverse streams following antecedent courses is especially noticeable. Their unfortunate absence accounts for the difficulty of railway-construction between Wel- lington and the western coast. In spite, however, of the obvious differences the remarkable similarity of our range to the Appalachians is brought out by a comparison with Lesley's map of Pennsylvanian topography, repeated by de Lapparent,* or with the detailed maps of smaller areas given by Salisbury and Attwood.| It may be noted that the " great Cook Strait river" of Crawford, J it if existed, must have been transverse for part of its course ; but reasons have been given above for believing that Cook Strait is not a drowned river-valley. * " Lemons de Geographie physique," 1907, p. 613. t U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper GO, 1908, especially pi. 5 and 56. % Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 7, 1875. p. 448. Cotton. — Notts on Wellington Physiography. 265 Summary. The following conclusions have been reached : — (1.) The south-western extremity of the North Island of New Zealand is probably a horst isolated by subsidence of land blocks on the west and ■on the south, and possibly on the east also. (2.) The drainage-system has been developed by normal processes during a long period of elevation punctuated by pauses, the amount of elevation being at least 800 ft., and probably more. (3.) The nature of the longitudinal drainage suggests that adjustment to structure was established in an earlier erosion period. (4.) A prominent feature, Port Nicholson, has been produced by the subsidence of a block along lines which, with one notable exception, have not been clearly recognized. (5.) This exception is the line of the Wellington fault, along which fault- scarp topography is well developed. (6.) Eecent changes of drainage have had the effect of destroying, rather than completing, previous adjustment to structure. (7.) This is attributable to the activity of transverse streams on and near to fault-scarps. Art. XXVIII. — The Composition of some New Zealand Foodstuffs. By John Malcolm, M.D., Physiology Department, University of Otago. [Bead before the Otago Institute, 5th December, 1911.] I. Oysters from Stewart Island. Most of the oysters consumed in New Zealand come from the Bluff and Stewart Island. Owing to their comparatively large size, their pleasant flavour, and moderate price they form a much-prized addition to the dietary of all classes. So far as the writer knows, no analyses of these oysters have been published hitherto. The samples examined were procured from a fishmonger in the usual way, and were then probably not more than three days out of the sea. The analysis was begun forthwith, care being taken in opening the oysters not to allow particles of the shell to mix with the contents. The amount of sea-water and other fluid obtained on opening and draining the oysters amounted to about 3 c.c. each, a quantity, however, which de- pends on the time elapsing between opening and draining. As the animal dies it undergoes rigor mortis, or some analogous change, with the result that more fluid can be drained off; if heated even slightly the amount is still more increased. In the samples analysed the opened oysters were immediately drained under light pressure in a cheese-cloth, then minced, dried, ground in a coffee-mill, and preserved in powder form. Method Glycogen was estimated in the fresh material by Pfliiger's method — i.e., the weighed sample was heated with strong KOH on the boiling- 266 Transactions. water bath for three hours; the glycogen was then precipitated with alcohol, washed, and converted into glucose, which was estimated by Fehling's method. Fat was estimated by Rosenberg's method — i.e., extraction of the dried material with boiling absolute alcohol and chloroform alternately, with subsequent ether extraction of the material so obtained. Protein was calculated from the amount of nitrogen on the assump- tion that the nitrogen formed 16 per cent, of the molecule. It was recognized, of course, that all the nitrogen present was not in the form of protein — in fact, oysters owe much of their value in dietetics to the presence of nitrogenous extractives; on the other hand, they contain much nucleo-protein, or a similar body rich in phosphorus, in which the nitrogen must be under 16 per cent. Ash or mineral matter was estimated by incineration, aided by extrac- tion with hot distilled water and subsequent evaporation of the extract. The results are given in Tables I and II. Table I. — Composition of Stewart island Oysters. Edible matter per oyster... Dried solids per oyster ... Water, per cent. Solids, per cent, (by difference) Glycogen, per cent. Protein, per cent. (N x 6-25) Fat, per cent. ... Salts, per cent. Percentage unaccounted-for (assum- ing that II had same glycogen per cent, as I) ... 2"37 P16 3"72 In the above table it may be observed that samples I, II, and III were obtained early in the season, sample IV at the end, and on comparing these it is evident that a marked deterioration of the oyster occurs by the end of the season : it becomes more watery, glycogen drops to one- seventh of its initial value, the fat diminishes to nearly half, and the extractives are relatively increased. It would be interesting scientific- ally, and would throw a valuable light on what ought to be the limits of the oyster season in New Zealand, if analyses were made at regular and frequent intervals throughout the year. Table 11. — Comparison of Percentage Composition of hJried Solids. I. II. III. IV. lay 24. May 25. May 31. Oct. 31. 12 g. 9g. 11-5 g. 8-6 g. 2-5 g. 2-24 g. 1-8 g. 75-8 75-2 78-8 24-2 24-8 21-2 3-36 3-74 0-5 12-20 1372 12-72 3-66 347 1-83 234 2-71 2 43 Protein II. 50-51 III. 5556 IV. 60-00 Oysters.* 52-13 Glycogen Fat 15-00 1514 1500 14-01 2-35 8-64 28-20 11-96 Salts 9-67 1094 11-47 16-23 From Table II it will be seen that at their best the New Zealand oysters contain much less glycogen and relatively more fat than the average American oyster. ♦Calculated from an analysis by Lansrworthy quoted in Hutchison's "Food and Dietetics." Malcolm. — Composition of some .Yen: Zealand Foodstuffs. 267 Qualitative Exam i nation . Protein. — As already mentioned, oysters contain a large amount of nucleo-protein or similar body rich in phosphorus. Besides this a saline extract of oysters contains a protein which coagulates about 75° C. Fat and Figment. — To the naked eye the ethereal extract of dried oysters appears brown, as is generally the case with fats dried at high temperatures. On spectroscopic examination this ethereal solution shows a distinct absorption band near the red end of the spectrum — apparently nearer that end than the characteristic band of methaemoglobin ; on dilution the band approaches and fuses with the infra-red part of the spectrum. It is probably a lipochrome, as it is absent from watery extracts, and occurs only in extracts made by solvents of fat (ether, chloroform, acetone, alcohol, amyl alcohol, &c). It was found in all the samples examined. II. Frostfish (Lepidopus caudatus). This peculiar -looking fish, known in other parts of the English- speaking world as " scabbard-fish," is found in the Mediterranean and warmer parts of the Atlantic as well as around the Tasmanian and New Zealand coasts. It derives its popular name from the fact that it is thrown up by the sea in frosty weather, and is found dead or dying on the beach. According to one view, it comes ashore voluntarily, as if bent on self-immolation ; it has seldom, if ever, been caught alive, and is generally believed to be a deep-water fish. In shape it is long and ribbon-like, and has a bright scaleless skin. Unlike many New Zealand food fishes, it has a distinctive flavour, and partly from this and partly no doubt, from its comparative rarity it is regarded as a delicacy, and sells at Is. 6d. to 3s. per pound. For the purposes of sale and for cook- ing it is cut into slices across its long axis; all such cutlets include the vertebral column, and some also include the abdominal cavity. There is a considerable amount of waste matter in the cutlets; thus in an ordi- nary slice as bought only 85 grm. out of a total of 134 grm. consisted of edible flesh. The residue (36'5 per cent.) consisted of bone, skin, and tough intermuscular septa, although the latter would probably form gelatine during the process of cooking, and should not be considered altogether as waste. Fat. — The flesh is obviously fatty, and an oily scum forms on the water in which it is boiled ; but the fat is unequally distributed, there being much more in the tissues immediately surrounding the abdominal cavity than in the muscles of the sides. In the first sample examined the fat of the dorsal portion or sides of the fish amounted to 4"55 per cent., and that of the ventral to 16*77 per cent. In the second sample there was 7'36 per cent, fat in the sides, and 20 per cent, in the ventral por- tion. From the culinary point of view, therefore, the frostfish should be reckoned as a fatty fish somewhat akin to turbot. The fat extracted by ether is a yellow-coloured oil, half-fluid at room-temperature, and possessing a smell which recalls that of cod-liver oil. It contains 1 per cent, of nitrogen. Protein. — Owing to the presence of a considerable amount of non- protein nitrogenous substance, it is not permissible in this case to use the total nitrogen as the basis for calculating the percentage of protein. The following procedure was therefore followed : The residue, after ex- traction of the fat, etc., by chloroform and alcohol, was weighed and sampled for nitrogen-estimation — thus 10967 grm. partly dried "sides ' 268 Transactions. of fish, representing 37*45 grin, fresh material, was extracted with chloro- form and with alcohol; the residue weighed 8*412 grm. ; the nitrogen percentage of this was 1256, which equals 2*807 per cent, of protein- nitrogen in the moist fish, or 17*54 per cent, protein. The total nitrogen of the moist frostfish was found to be 3*6 per cent. Deducting the pro- tein-nitrogen (2*8 per cent.) we obtain 0*8 per cent, of nitrogen belonging to non-protein material. As already stated, the ether-soluble ' fat contains 1 per cent., but even after deducting this value (0*08) we have 0*72 per cent, nitrogen to account for, and, as will be mentioned later, this nitrogen was partly present in a special crystalline substance soluble in alcohol. Glycogen could not be detected in the samples of frostfish examined ; thus 30 grm. was treated by Pfliiger's method without positive result. The main points brought out by the analysis are shown in the fol- lowing table : — Table III. — Composition of Frostfish. (Flesh of "sides" or dorsal portion only.) Water, per cent. Solids, per cent. Fat, per cent. Total nitrogen, per cent. Protein, per cent. Glycogen Alcoholic extract, per cent. Ash, per cent. The data obtained from analysis of the ventral part of the fish are as follows : — Sample 1. — Fat, 16*77 per cent. ; substances soluble in boiling water (gelatine and salts), 3*7 per cent. ; substances insoluble in boiling water (coagulated proteins, &c), 2*73 per cent. The water percentage was not estimated. These figures are calculated on the assumption that it was the same as in the other parts of the fish. Sample 2. — 24*8 grm. ventral portion of frostfish gave 4*9584 grm. ether-soluble fat = 20 per cent. Crystalline Substance. — On boiling fresh minced frostfish with 96 per cent, alcohol, and allowing the extract to cool, a fine white crystalline deposit formed. Under the microscope twTo types of crystals appeared to be present; the more numerous were balls of fine, pointed needles slightly bent or twisted so that they resembled puff-balls, the others were much smaller rounded clumps of indeterminate crystalline matter. At first sight they might be mistaken for leucin and tyrosin. When filtered and allowed to dry in the air the deposit formed a white powder, easily soluble in water. It gave no biuret or Millon's reaction, and did not reduce Fehling's solution. Ammonia caused a slight precipitate. When directly tested the powder gave distinct evidence of carbon, nitrogen,, and phosphorus. While frostfish is undoubtedly of high nutritive value, and an excel- lent article of diet, the conditions under which the fish is obtained, its doubtful degree of freshness, its high percentage of fat which from its oily nature is apt to become rancid, the presence of a special alcohol- soluble substance at present of unknown nature, all tend to make one careful in advising its use for invalids. Parasitic worms — small, round, Sample 1. Sample 2 76*8 73*5 23*2 26*5 4*55 7*36 2*82 3*6 nder 1 7*6 17*54 Nil. 0*8 1*15 1*28 Malcolm. — Com position of some Xew Zealand Foodstuffs. 269 and coiled like a watch-spring — occur fairly often; they are probably quite harmless. III. Kumara, or Sweet Potato. The kumara, or Maori sweet potato, is cultivated to a considerable extent in the North Island of New Zealand. It seems to be the same as the sweet potato of America and the Pacific islands generally, but some slight differences in the composition were found, and these deserve to be put on record. No complete detailed analysis was made. Carbohydrate. — Starch, in the form of granules which present the usual appearance of batata-starch, constitutes the most important of the solids. On hydrolysis it yields a dextro-rotatory reducing-sugar. Dextrin. — Fresh kumaras were extracted first with absolute alcohol to remove sugar and other substances, then with cold water after driving off the traces of alcohol. On adding alcohol this yielded a flocculent precipitate when the alcohol present amounted to 60 per cent. This precipitate was separated out and dissolved in water. It gave reactions corresponding to those of a dextrin — viz., no reduction till after hydro- lysis— and with iodine a dull-violet colour. Cane Sugar (?). — An alcoholic extract of kumaras contains all the reducing-sugar present. If a watery solution of these sugars be hydrolysed the reducing-power is markedly increased. Thus in two separate samples the increase in reducing-power on hydrolysis indicated that 63'6 per cent, of the sugar was in this form. Monosaccharide (? ). — A fresh watery extract of kumaras always shows reduction. If left lying in the laboratory for a few weeks the kumaras tend to grow mouldy, probably due to the sugars present, and the amount of sugar of both kinds shows a slight increase (O'll per cent, in seventeen days in one case). In the process of drying minced kumaras to produce a powder for analysis there seems to be an increase in the amount of sugar formed. If the drying is done on a water bath where steam can reach the material, it forms gum-like masses, due to dextrin-formation, so that for analytical purposes drying is best done in an oven. Protein. — The amount of protein is comparatively small, being at most not more than 3 per cent., as indicated by the total nitrogen. An estimation of the nitrogen in the flocculent precipitate obtained on boiling a cold-water extract of kumaras indicated less than 1 per cent, protein. Fat. — The ether-soluble substances form a very small percentage of the solids (0"27 per cent.). They resemble resins or oleo-resins more than true fats, and it seems to be to these that kumaras owe their flavour. Ash. — The ash contains calcium, iron, magnesium, and phosphoric anhydride. The following table gives the main points examined : — Tat)le IV. — Composition of Kumara. Sample 1. Sample 2. Sample 3. American. Water, per cent. ... ... 68"44 67"7 77"35 690 Solids (by difference), per cent, 3P56 323 22"65 3T0 Starch, per cent. Cane sugar, per cent — Monosaccharide, per cent, Protein, per cent. Fat, per cent. A.sh, per cent. 1 24-84 ' 3'7^ 262 2-7 217 171 2-84 T73 13 0-27 ... . . 0-6 1-05 ... ... 0-8 270 Transactions Art. XXIX. — Montan Wax. By Theodore Kigg, M.Sc. (Jacob Joseph Scholar in Victoria College). Communicated by Professor Easterfield. [Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.] INTRODUCTION. Montan wax is a hard yellowish material which, on account of its high melting-point, is used for raising the melting-point of stearine candles, and, on account of its low price, has also found some use as an adulterant of beeswax. The wax was first manufactured from the brown coal of Saxony and Thuringia, and more recently has been prepared from Irish lignites. In the manufacture of montan wax, pyropissite is either extracted with light petroleum and the soluble bitumen, obtained from the extract, then distilled in superheated steam, the distillation being repeated until a nearly colourless product is obtained, or the brown coal is itself dis- tilled with superheated steam. The method of manufacture was first patented by E. von Boyen ) I 610 -300° Mixed (a'-', 62 &» -310° Mixed (c) 65 6G -310° Mixed (c) I fcs -310° 69 Mixed (c2) I I fell 612 -312° Mixed (c5) BH 32 % Melting-point, 66'5°-67 5° Ethyl montanate I el -310° Mixed («5) I ci -310° Mixed (6«) C 310° -330° -330 I -310 Mixed (611) I C8 -3-231 Residue I CG Residue I eS Residue C8 16% Ethyl melissatk C9 Residues 12 %. 276 Transactioni The following table is a comparison of the physical constants of the five final fractions obtained by repeated distillation : — No. Boiling-point. Melting- point. Ester. Melting- point, Acid. Per Cent. Weight of Fraction. Mole- cular Weight. Apparent Formula. A6 A9 Bll C8 C9 -292715 mm. -302715 mm. -312715 mm. -323715 mm. Residues 60-5-61 -5° 61-62° 66-5-67-5° 78-7-79 81-82° 83° 7° 11 385 *\' 5^-50^2 27 413 (-,27H5402 32 427 C28H5602 16 12 Fractions C8 and C9 were obviously impure, being mixtures of montanic acid and melissic acid, together with some ketone. The free acid derived from these two fractions did not crystallize in plates, and gave titration values much above that required for montanic acid. From the residue?, after saponification, a single fractional precipitation gave a regenerated acid, melting at 88-5°, which corresponds with the melting-point of melissic acid. The acid obtained from the saponification of Bll is to be regarded as pure montanic acid,* for further fractional distillation of the ester did not alter the melting-point of the ester or of the acid obtained from the ester, nor did it affect the titration value of the acid thus obtained within the limits of experimental error. Thus, acid from Bll : 1-0785 grams reqd. N . ^ KOH = M.W. 421. Acid from Bll twice redistilled: 1-845 grams reqd. 43-70 c.c. ^ KOH = M.W. = 427. The titration values approach very closely to that required for a formula C2SH5602, thus placing montanic acid among the even members of the higher fatty acid series. The montanic acid purified by this process crystallized in plates, and was readily soluble in hot ethyl acetate or motor spirit, and fairly soluble in hot alcohol and acetic acid. In concluding this section on the acid constituents the writer wishes to summaiize the following resuts : — (a.) Crude montanic acid is a mixluie of cerotic. montanic. and melissic acids. (b.) Pure montanic acid crystallizes =n plates, melts at 83". and has a molecular weight corresponding to the formula C28H5602. (Previous experimenters have described it as crystallizing in needles, which is correct so long as the substance is impure.) (c.) Cerotic acid has also been obtained for the first time in nacreous crys-talline plates. B. THE NON-ACID CONSTITUENTS OF MONTAN WAX. The alcoholic solution o the crude montan wax from which the acids had been precipitated by ca'cium ch'oiide contained an a'most neutral .-ubstance. which was lecovered by evaporation of the alcoholic mother * The acid crystallized in pearly scales, which also is an indication of purity. Rigg. — Montan Wax. 277 liquor. To remove the last traces of acid the substance was melted and stirred into powdered quicklime, which was then slaked by means of a solution of potash. The porous mass thus obtained was extracted with hot motor spirit which on evaporation deposited a crystalline substance which after repeated crystallization melted at 59-60° and was unchanged by further crystallization. On analysis, this substance gave the following values : 0-1492 grams gave 04713 grams C02 and 0-1882 grams H20. Calc. for CnH2ll. Calc. for C27H56. Found. C = 85-71 C = 85-26 C = 86-14 H = 14-29 H = 14-74 H = 1401 The analyses shows that the substance is probably an olefinic hydro- carbon. This was confirmed by its behaviour with bromine water, which was rapidly decolourized when warmed with it. A rough determination of the bromine absorbed was as follows : 0-25 grams hydrocarbon absorbed 0 073 grams biomine. Calc. for C28H56Br2. Found. Br = 29-0 per cent. Br = 22-6 per cent. Note. — Bromination was probably not complete, the reaction being only allowed to proceed for about three hours. The molecu'ar weight of the hydrocarbon as determined by the ebullio- scopic method pointed to a hydrocarbon of molecular weight 380. 0-64 grams hydrocarbon raised the boiling-point of 8-5 c.c. of anhydrous freshly distilled benzene 0-65°. Molecular weight = 380. Calc. for C2SH56 = 392. The melting-point (59-60°), the analysis, and the molecular-weight deter- mination all point to a hydrocarbon of the formula C2.H54 or C28H56, but it is only by the preparation and analysis of the carefully purified dibrom addition product that we shall ascertain whether the substance contains 26, 27, or 28 atoms of carbon. Part II.— The Acids of Montan Wax, and some Compounds derived FROM THEM. Since the ultimate aim of this research is to show the connection which exists between cerotic, montanic, and melissic acids, it follows that the physical constants of these acids, their melting-points, their molecular weights, and the properties and physical constants of their compounds should be accurately determined. The accurate correlation of such data affords no t-mall interest to the chemist, as has been pointed out by Krafft,* Franchimont,f and more recently by P. W. Robertson ("The Melting-points of the Anilides, P. Toluidides, and Naphthalides of the Normal Fatty Acids"). J Further- more, this series of fatty acids and their derivatives presents a group unsurpassed in the whole of organic chemistry for illustrating the principle of homology, and therefore it is desirable that the physical constants of * Berichte, vol. 15, 1719. t Rec. Pays., vol. 16. p. 126, 1897. X Journ. Chem. Soc. 1908. p. 1033. 278 Transactions. all the members of the series from the highest to the lowest should be accurately determined and correlated. Moreover, it is desirable that the proof of the constitution of the higher members of the series should be demonstrated with as absolute rigidity as has been the case with the lower acids from acetic to arachidic. A. CEROTIC ACID AND ITS DERIVATIVES. Since cerotic acid may be obtained from montan wax only after a very tedious and laborious process, and since the cerotic acid of beeswax has been shown to be identical with that prepared from montan wax, bees- wax was therefore used for the preparation of cerotic acid in large quantity. The beeswax employed for the isolation of cerotic acid was New Zealand unbleached wax, which was obtained from a business firm dealing in large quantities of the natural product, and was guaranteed by them to be pure unadulterated New Zealand beeswax. Th° beeswax \va> examined by Hiibl's method, which consists in determinations — (1) the free-acid value, (2) the saponification value, and the determination of the ratio of these two values. The results are given in milligrams of caustic potash for 1 gram of beeswax. In each determination a blank experiment, using exactly the same quantities of alkali and alcohol, was performed simultaneously with that on the beeswax. The following are the results of analysis : — „ , Melting- SamPle- point Y ree-acid > ™ , ^T , Sapomfica- tr , I Ester Value, i . r T7 , Value. tion Value. Ratio. I II 63° 18-62 72-34 63° 18-62 73-41 90-96 92-03 3-88 3-94 Lewkowitsch gives numerous estimations of European beeswax. In un- bleached wax, he points out the following variations for normal beeswax : — Melting-point. Acid Value. Ester Value. I Saponification Value. Ratio. 63-64° 19-21 72-74 91-95 1 3-5-3-78 Th^se figures indicate that the beeswax used had rather a low saponifica- tion value, thus inferring the existence of much cerotin in the beeswax. This supposition was strengthened by the fact that on potash-lime fusion* of beeswax, and subsequent isolation and crystallization of the acids pro- duced, a product was obtained melting near the temperature required for cerotic acid. Cerotic acid was prepared from this beeswax by Brodie's method — namely, extracting quantities of beeswax with successive volumes of ethyl alcohol until the free-acid value for 20 c.c. of the last extraction had been N -i reduced to 2-90 c.c. ya KOH. Four extractions were necessary to do this. lg={£ * According to Gmelin, myricin contains varying quantities of cerotin and real jnyricin. Rigg. — Montan Wax. 279 The free acid was precipitated by adding alcoholic lead acetate to the boiling solution. The insoluble lead salts were filtered off, and then boiled out repeatedly with alcohol to remove impurities. The purified lead salts were then decomposed by glacial acetic acid, and the free acid, after washing with water, was extracted with boiling methyl alcohol in whicb, according to Marie,* melissic acid is insoluble. The solution thus obtained was filtered while hot, and the cerotic acid, which separated on cooling,, was then found to melt at 75-5°. The acid was purified by recrystallization from ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, and motor spirit. An acid was thus obtained meltingf at 77'5° Brodie gives 78° for cerotic acid). Attempts to improve the process of obtaining cerotic acid by complete saponification of the beeswax with alcoholic potash, followed by the precipi- tation of the acids with alcoholic calcium- chloride, thus retaining the non- acid substances in i olution, were fruitless. It was found that the calcium salts in presence of a saturated solution of high-molecular-weight alcohols were easily soluble, and that the precipitated calcium salts always contained a considerable quantity of organic impurities. Attempts with the lead salts, using the same method, were also unsuccessful. Cerotic acid has hitherto been stated to crystallize in microscopic- needles.:]: Although this is the case when prepared by Brodie's method, yet a careful fractionation of the ester of the acid obtained by the above method gives on hydrolysis a pure acid which crystallizes in pearly plates from acetic acid. A titration of the cerotic acid purified by fractionation of the ester gave a molecular weight of 392-7, corresponding to the formula§ C26H5202, thus confirming the formula of Lewkowitsch|i and Henriques.^ Derivatives oj Cerotic Acid. Cerotanilide. — This compound has not previously been prepared. It was obtained by heating cerotic acid with twice the theoretical quantity of aniline in a sealed tube to a temperature 150° to 170° for four hours. At the expiration of this period the mixture had formed a homogeneous dark soft solid. This was then washed with dilute acetic acid, in order to remove as much free aniline as possible. The anilide thus obtained was then disso'ved in alcohol, the solution rendered alkaline with ammonia, and the unchanged cerotic acid precipitated by alcoholic calcium chloride. The filtrate from the insoluble calcium salts deposited the anilide on cool- ing. It was purified by crystallization from alcohol, acetic acid, and motor spirit. The anilide thus obtained melted at 98-5° C, and the melting-point was unchanged by further crystallization. * Journ. Ohem. Soc, 1895, abs. I, 81. t The melting-point of the purest cerotic acid obtained by the author was 78°. This was obtained by the conversion <>f the above acid into ester, and then by distillation, under reduced pressure. % Beilstein, vol. 1, Supplement, p. 1(31. § 1-5462 grams required 39-37 c.c. * KOH. i| Jahrb. f. Chemie, vol. 7, p. 3(59. * Zeit, f. Angew. Chem., 1897, p. 36(3. 280 Transactions. The anilide is a white solid, fairly soluble in both alcohol and acetic acid, but more so in motor spirit, from which, however, it does not crystallize well. The crystals from alcohol were large groups of fine needles, joined together in tree-like formation. The yield of the anilide was 55 per cent, of the theoretical. On one occasion a sample of anilide crystallized from ethyl alcohol commenced to melt at 98-5°, but did not melt completely until a tempera- ture of 118° was reached. After resolidification the sample melted sharply at the lower temperature ; and the sample when crystallized from motor spirit also melted sharply at the lower temperature. There can be little doubt, therefore, that this anilide is dimorphous. The only other instance T can find of an anilide exhibiting dimorphism is that of acetanilide.* Analysis of Cerotanilide. Cal. for G20H51O.C6H5NH. Found. N = 2-97 2-66 C = 81-52 81-56 H - 1210 12-32 Cerotone. — Two previous experimenters have worked upon the ketone of cerotic acidf : Bruckner, by distilling the lead salt of cerotic acid, obtained a ketone melting at 62° : Nafzger, by the distillation of cerotic acid, obtained a ketone melting at 92°. By applying the recently patented method of T. H. Easterfield and C. M. Taylor J — namely, the heating of fatty acids with metallic iron, whereby stearic acid yields 80 per cent, of stearone — the ketone of cerotic acid was easily obtained. The details of the preparation are as follows : 9 grams of cerotic acid were heated for four hours with 0-69 grams of iron filings in an air bath slowly raised to a temperature of 340° to 350°. Carbon dioxide was evolved when the temperature had reached 280°. The temperature was now slowly raised until 340° was reached, and the air bath was then regulated and maintained at this temperature for four hours. The ketone thus obtained was purified by the following procedure : 1 on was removed by boiling the ketone with dilute hydrochloric acid. Free fatty acid was then removed by boiling with dilute caustic soda. The soap thus formed was soluble in warm water, and was thus easily separated from the insoluble ketone. The ketone was now crystallized from motor spirit, and a pure product was obtained, which had a melting-point 93° C. The melting-point was not changed by further crystallization from motor spirit or acetic acid. A 55-per-cent. yield was obtained by this method of preparation. The ketone thus obtained is a white solid, fairly soluble in motor spirit and ethyl acetate, but sparingly soluble in acetic acid, from which it crystallizes in feathery flocculent masses. It is almost insoluble in hot alcohol, a saturated solution only becoming turbid on cooling. * Hans Meyer, " Analyse und Constitutionsermittelung Organ Verbindungen," p. 47. t Beilstein, vol. 1. p. 1000. X N.Z. patent 27607. Kigg. — Montan Wax. 281 Analysis of Cerotone. Calc. for C51H102O. Found. C = 83-83 83-50 H = 13-97 13-93 Cerotone Oxime. — This compound is new. It was prepared as follows : 1 gram of ketone was dissolved in 150 c.c. of amyl alcohol, and one and a half times the theoretical quantity of hydroxylamine hydrochloride, with an excess of caustic potash to decompose the hydrochloride, was added, and the alcohol then boiled under a reflux condenser for eight hours. It was found that unless prolonged boiling took place a poor yield of oxime was obtained. The hot solution was then filtered from the in- organic salts, and the filtrate allowed to crystallize. The crystals were filtered off, and recrystallized from ethyl acetate. The oxime thus obtained melted at 77°, and the melting-point was not changed by further crystallization. The oxime is easily soluble in hot ethyl acetate and amyl alcohol, but is only sparingly soluble in hot alcohol. The crystals from the ethyl-acetate or motor-spirit crystalliza- tions are groups of radiating needles. Analysis of Cerotone Oxime. Calc. for C51Hi03N.O. Found. N = 1-87 1-58 C = 8214 82-15 H = 13-82 13-63 Henpenteeonimtc* 26 01. This secondary alcohol is new, and was obtained by reducing the ketone, dissolved in amyl alcohol, with metallic sodium. 0-3 grams of cerotone were dissolved in 150 c.c. amyl alcohol and boiled under a reflux con- denser, while, at intervals, small pieces of sodium, of total weight 2 grams, were added over a period of five hours. The solution thus obtained was shaken out with water in a separating-funnel. The solid was filtered off and crystallized from ethyl acetate. The melting-point of ihe alcohol thus obtained was 97°, and was unchanged by further crystallization. Henpentecontyl Acetate. — This compound was obtained from the above- mentioned secondary alcohol by boiling it with a large excess of acetic anhydride under a reflux condenser for six hours. The alcohol gradually dissolved in the acetic anhydride, indicating that acetylation was taking place. The solution was filtered while hot. and the filtrate, on cooling, deposited the acetate as a white solid. This was recrystallized from acetic anhydride, and after drying over caustic potash in a vacuous desiccator, melted at 60-5-61-5°. The melting-point was un- changed by further crystallization. Analysis of Henpentecontyl Acetate. Calc. for C53H106O2. Found. C = 82-17 81-89 H = 13-69 13-57 * " Henpentacontane " would sound more euphonious, but " henpentecontane is philologically more correct. 282 Transaction* . It is interesting to compare S. Kipping's figures* for the secondary alcohol and acetates produced from ketones lower in the series with the data for henpentecontane 26 01. and acetate. Difference, Acid. Ketone. Alcohol. Acetate. Alcohol and Acetate. [Laurie 69° 75-76° 34-35° 41° S. Kipping- Myristic 76-77° 80-5-81-5° 45-45-5° 35° (Palmitic 82-83° 84-85° 47-49° 36-5° Stearic 88° 89-5°$ 61°J 28-5° Cerotic 93°t 97°t 60-5-61-5°t 36°t Montanic 97-5°t 101°$ 66°$ 35° Ethyl Cerotate. — This compound was prepared from cerotic acid by dissolving the acid in absolute alcohol and boiling for twenty-four hours with 5 per cent, sulphuric acid. The ester obtained by this process was carefully washed free from sulphuric acid, dried in a vacuum, and then distilled under reduced pressure. The distillate crystallized from alcohol in colourless plates. It is easily soluble in alcohol, motor spirit and ethyl acetate, and acetic acid. It boiled at 285° (14 mm.) and melted at 58-5-59°, and further crystal- lization did not raise the melting-point. Beilstein gives 59-60° as the melting-point of ethyl cerotate. The following is a comparison of the melting-points of montanic and cerotic acids, and the melting-points of their ethyl esters : — Ethyl Ester. Difference. Cerotic acid (78°) . . . . 58-5-59° 18-75° Montanic acid (83°) . . . . 67° 16° Analysis of Ethyl Cerotate. Calc. for C28H5602. Found. C = 79-24 79-14 H = 13-20 13-05 B. MONTANIC ACID AND DERIVATIVES. In Part I the isolation of pure montanic acid was described, and it was shown that it had a melting-point of 83°, and had a molecular weight corresponding to a formula C28H5602. Pure montanic acid crystallizes from acetic acid in colourless plates. § It is fairly soluble in hot alcohol and glacial acetic acid, but is much more soluble in motor spirit and ethyl acetate. Montanic acid is only slightly soluble in methyl alcohol. This fact is of interest, for, while cerotic acid is quite soluble in this solvent, melissic acid is said by Marie to be insoluble. * Journ. Chem. Soc, 1893, p. 466. t Determinations by the author. J Private communication, T. H. Easterfield and C. M. Taylor. § Previous experimenters have reported montanic acid as crystallizing in needles. RiGG — Montan Wax. 283 Another feature of interest is the sparing solubility of the sodium soap in hot alcohol, for sodium cerotate dissolves without much difficulty. Barium montanate is fairly easily soluble in hot ammoniacal alcohol, but calcium montanate is insoluble. , Montananilide. — This compound is new. It was prepared in a similar manner to cerotanilide. The pure anilide, after repeated crystallization, melted at 101-5°, and the melting-point was not changed by further crystallization. Montananilide is soluble in those solvents mentioned for cerotanilide, but the solubility has decreased somewhat. It crystallizes from alcohol in groups of wavy needles. The kjeldahl method was used for estimating the nitrogen. Calc. for C34H61O.N. Found. N = 2-80 2-40 Montanone. — This ketone is new, and was prepared in a similar way to cerotone: The ketone, after repeated crystallization, melted at 97-5°, and the melting-point was not changed by further crystallization. A 50-per-cent. yield was obtained by this method of preparation. Analysis of Montanone. Calc. for C55H100O. Found. C = 83-96 83-91 H = 13-99 1403 Montanone Oxime. — This compound was prepared in a similar way to cerotone oxime. The oxime, after repeated crystallization from ethyl acetate, melted sharply at 82-5°, and further crystallization did not raise the melting-point. Montanone oxime is a solid easily soluble in hot ethyl acetate, motor spirit, and amyl alcohol, but somewhat sparingly soluble in hot alcohol. Analysis of Montanone Oxime. Calc. for Cg5Hn, O.N. Found. N = 1-74 1-74 Ethyl Montanate. — This compound was prepared in a similar way to ethyl cerotate. The melting-point of ethyl montanate, after repeated crystallization from alcohol, was 67°, and this was unchanged by further crystallization. Ethyl montanate is a white solid, easily soluble in hot alcohol, from which it crystallizes in plates. Analysis of Ethyl Montanate. Calc. for C30HG0O2. Found. C = 79-64 79-41 H - 13-27 13-18 Methyl Montanate. — This compound was prepared by heating 200 c.c. absolute alcohol with 1 gram of montanic acid and 20 c.c. strong H2S04 in sealed tubes maintained at a temperature of 110° for three days. The methyl montanate crystallized out in glistening spangles, and was filtered off and purified, by removal of any free montanic acid, by precipitation as the calcium salt. The filtrate from the insoluble calcium salt deposited methyl montanate on cooling, and this was purified 284 Transactions. by crystallizing from ethyl alcohol. Thus obtained, methyl montanate melted at 67-67-5°. The melting-point was not changed by further crystallization. Methyl montanate is a white soft solid, soluble in hot ethyl alcohol, and less soluble in methyl alcohol. It crystallizes from both solvents in glistening spangles. Montanamide. — This compound was prepared in small quantity by heating 0-880 ammonia with ethyl montanate for three days in a sealed tube. It began to melt at 109°, and was completely melted at 111°. The sample was too small for analysis. C. MELLISIC ACID AND DERIVATIVES. The melting-point of melissic acid obtained from montan wax was shown in Part I to be 88-5°. Schwalb* and Brodief also give the melt- ing-point of melissic acid prepared from beeswax as 88-5°. On account of the difficulty in obtaining melissic acid, only three derivatives could be prepared. Melissone. — This ketonej was prepared from melissic acid obtained from both beeswax and montan wax. 0-5 grams melissic acid obtained from beeswax, and melting at 88-5°, was kindly placed at my disposal from laboratory stock. Melissone was prepared in a similar way to cerotone and montanone. The ketone, after repeated crystallization, melted at 99-5-100°, and the melting-point was not changed by further crystallization. Melissone is a white solid, insoluble in the usual solvents, slightly soluble in hot ethyl acetate, and fairly soluble in amyl alcohol. A 40-per-cent. yield was obtained by this method of preparation. Calc. for C59H1180. Found, 0 = 84-08 84-42 H = 14-01 14-06 Melissone Oxime. — The small quantity of ketone remaining from the preceding preparation was utilized for the preparation of the oxime by a similar method to that employed in the case of cerotone and montanone oximes. The oxime, after repeated crystallization from ethyl acetate, melted at 84°. The sample was too small for analysis. Melissanilide. — This compound was prepared from melissic acid, derived from montan wax, in a similar way to the anilides of cerotic and montanic acids. The anilide, after crystallization from acetic acid and ethyl acetate, melted at 103°, and the melting-point was unchanged by further crystallization. Melissanilide is a white compound easily soluble in ethyl acetate and motor spirit, and fairly soluble in alcohol. * Annalen, 235, p. 135. t Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, 1848. J Schwalb — "Non -acid Constituents of Beeswax" (Journ. Cbem. Soc, 1885) — men- tions that a ketone melting at 97-99° is produced during the potash-lime fusion of myricyl alcohol. Higg. — Montan Wax. 285 Table I. — Comparison of the Melting-points of the Anilides and Amides of some Fatty Acids. AcM. Amide. Anilid. Difference, Amide and Anilid. 62° Palmitic C16 . . 101° - 90° 11° 69° Stearic C1B . . 109° 94 15° Arachidic C2f) 108° (Feleto and Ponzio) Behenic C20 111° > ? 78° Cerotic C26 . . 109° (Marie) *98-5° 10-5° 83° Montanic C2 8 . . ♦109- 111° *101-5° 8-5° 88-5° Melissic C30 .. 116° (Marie) *103 13° Table II. — Comparison of the Melting-points of the Oximes and Ketones of some Fattv Acids. Difference, Acid. Melting-point. Ketone. Oxime. Ketone and Oxime. Caproic . . -1-5° 14-6° Caprylic . Caprie Laurie 16-5° 31-5° 43-6° 40-5° 58° 69° 20° 40° 20-5° 29° Myristic . 53-8° 76-77° 47-48° 29° Palmitic . 62° 82-83° 57-58° 25° Stearic 69° 88° 63° 25° Cerotic . *78° *93° *77° 16° Montanic . *83° *97-5° *82-5c 15° Melissic . *88-5° *99-5-100° *84° 15-75° As the series is ascended the higher members have a smaller difference in melting-point between ketone and oxime than lower members. Table III. — Summary of Physical Constants obtained for Cerotic, Mon- tanic, and Melissic Acids. Melt. Pt. Acid Anilide. Ketone. Ox- ime. Amide. Ethyl Ester. Methyl Ester. *78° 1 Cerotic *98-5°|*93° *83° I Montanic *101-5°|*97-5° .. *88-5°i Melissic. i *103° 1*99-5-100° *77° *82;1 *84° 109° (Marie) *58-5-59° . . 60° (Marie) *111° .. 1*67° .. !*67-67-5° 116° (Marie) ! 73° (Marie) j 74-5° (Marie) * Determinations by the author. 286 Transactions. Part III. — Constitution of the Higher Fatty Actds. It has been shown in Part I that three acids — cerotie. montanie, and melissie — exist side by side in montan wax. It was also shown in Part II that the properties of these three acids are closely related, and that their corresponding compounds are similar. It would hardly seem likely that three such compounds, possessing properties so closely related, should exist side by side in montan wax unless there be some simple constitutional relationship between them. Experiments have been made to show the relation of these acids to one another and also to acids lower in the series. (A.) The Relationship to Acids Lower in the Series. Mai* showed that when the barium salts of palmitic or stearic acid were distilled with sodium methylate, hydrocarbons resulted. From barium palmitate he thus obtained n.-pentadecan and from stearic acid n.-heptadecan. If barium montanate is heated with sodium ethylate, it should, if it behaves like palmitate and stearate of barium, give a hydrocarbon, n.-heptacosane. C27H5G. If this hydrocarbon is a normal primary paraffin it will be identical with the compound obtained by Krafft by the reduction of myristone, and montanie acid will then also contain a normal primary chain of carbon atoms. It will still remain uncertain whether the carboxyl group is at the end of the chain, for though the ease of bromination suggests that the bromine enters the chain in the a position, it does not show that the carboxyl group is at the end of the chain (isobutyric acid brominates more readily than normal butyric acid). Calcium montanate when distilled with sodium ethylate gave a hydro- carbon, which after recrystallizing melted at 56-5-57-5°. A sample of normal heptacosane prepared by the reduction of the myristone with hydriodic acid melted at 59-60°. When equal quantities of the two hydro- carbons were mixed the product melted at 58-59°— i.e., half-way between the two. There can, under these circumstances, be little doubt that the hydrocarbon from montanie acid was only slightly impure n.-heptacosane, otherwise the mixture would have melted almost for a certainty at a lower temperature than the melting-point of the lower melting-point hydro- carbon. (B.) The Relationship existing between the Three Higher Fatty Acids. Attempts were made to degrade montanie acid to cerotie acid, but, although much work was done in this direction, no definite conclusion has been arrived at. It was hoped that degradation would be effected by the following procedure, which is based on that employed by Le Seur in the degradation of stearic acid* : (a) Formation of a brommontanic acid ; (h) production of the unsaturated acid direct, or the formation of the a hydroxy acid and the conversion of this compound into the un- saturated acid ; (c) the oxidation of the unsaturated acid into the lower homologue. o * Berichte, vol. 22. 1889, p. 2133. Rigg. — Montan Wax. 287 The first step (a) took place without difficulty ; in step (b) the a hydroxy acid was readily obtained, but all attempts to prepare the pure unsaturated acid were unsuccessful, and step (c) could not therefore be attempted. Le Seur,* in the degradation of stearic acid to palmitic, also experienced considerable difficulty in the isolation of pure unsaturated acid (Aa oleic acid). He only obtained a 10-per-cent. yield. The following is a brief description of the compounds isolated and the experiments made in connection with the degradation of montanic acid to cerotic : — Brommontanic Acid. — Hell and Sadomsky's methodt was used for the preparation of this compound. 6 grams of ethyl montanate were ground with 0-19 grams of dried red phosphorus, which had been previously freed from phosphorous acid by repeated washing with water. Anhydrous bromine was now added drop by drop to the mixture contained in a flask. There was no violent action such as Le Seur records in the case of the formation of bromstearic acid. The contents of the flask were then warmed on the water bath for two hours under a reflux condenser. The condenser was now removed, and the excess of bromine allowed to escape. The molten mass thus obtained was poured into cold water. The crude brommontanic acid was melted twice in fresh water to decompose any acid bromide. The crude brommontanic acid was then crystallized from acetic acid and motor spirit. By this means a pure compound was obtained, which melted at 75° C. The melting-point did not change on further crystal- lization. Brommontanic acid crystallizes from acetic acid in colourless hexagonal plates. It is easily soluble in acetic acid and motor spirit ; the yield obtained after two crystallizations was 60 per cent, of the theoretical. Calc. for C28H55Br02. Found. Br. = 15-90 15-81 Attempts to remove hydrobromic acid from brommontanic acid by means of pyridine, quinoline, and a concentrated solution of caustic potash did not result in the production of the unsaturated acid, as had been expected. The hydroxy acid could easily be obtained, mixed with the unsaturated acid, by the action of 30-per-cent. alcoholic potash on brommontanic acid, but all attempts to remove water from it by means of ortho-phosphoric acid which had previously been heated to 200° were unsuccessful. In conclusion, the author wishes to thauk Professor Easterfield for suggesting this subject for research, and also for much practical advice, without which the writer could not have undertaken this investigation. *»• * Journ. Chem. Soc. 1904, p. 1708. t Berichte, vol. 24, 1891, p. 2390. 288 Transactions. Art. XXX. — The Chemistry of Bush Sickness* By B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th October, 1911.] The mysterious wasting condition locally known as ' bush sickness." which always eventually appears in ruminating herbivora pastured on certain areas of pumice country in the North Island situated near the inter- section of the 38th parallel of E. latitude and the 176th meridian of S. longitude has been the subject of much consideration for the past fourteen years, though it is only within the last two years that any adequate provi- sion has been made to submit the matter to systematic research. From the references given at the end of this paper one may find the little that is known regarding the veterinary aspect of the matter. It is desired here, at the direction of the Minister of Agriculture, to record some facts which have been elucidated through the chemical analysis of sundry specimens which I from time to time have collected or received. The reasons why the matter should be referred to a chemist to investigate are given in an article in the " Journal of the New Zealand Department of Agriculture " for November, 1911 (vol. 3, No. 5). An ordinary analysis of the soils of the affected district does not show any reason why stock should not thrive on the herbage grown by these soils. In Table 6 are given the total amounts of constituents of the soil obtained by breaking up the silicates with hydrofluoric acid. The manganese is perhaps high for New Zealand soils, but Hilgard quotes analyses of American soils with a greater percentage (see p. 372, " Soils "). Table 5 gives the chemical analysis as ordinarily stated for agricultural purposes. Analyses of grass-ashes are given in Table 1. In considering these results it must be remembered that they do not give constituents which may be present in amounts less than one- hundredth of 1 per cent., such as copper, barium, &c, and that it is possible that some of these constituents if taken up by the herbage might affect the health of beasts pastured thereon. To obtain a clue as to what element may exist in soil and grass that would produce bush sickness it is necessary to systematically examine many animal specimens, and it is this work which is being given first place in the research. As the symptoms of bush sickness would accord with those produced by chronic mineral poisoning, one of my first experiments was to examine the liver of a sick animal for traces of heavy metals. To my astonishment, I obtained a considerable quantity of copper from the ash of a liver from a steer which was killed under veterinary supervision as being a typical bush-sick animal. On consideration it appeared possible that copper * " Bush sickness" occurs in ruminants pastured on land which has been recently reclaimed from forest, or on open country which has been laid down in English pasture for over twenty years. Veterinarians can detect no abnormal micro-organisms or signs of disease in the wasting animal. Affected animals recover as soon as they are moved on to healthy country. The affection is confined to a definite area of pumice country, outside of which it does not spread, but within the area the sickness always in time (a few months in sheep, longer in cattle) develops in cattle and sheep. The affected area grows an abundance of green pasture — English grasses and clovers — at all times of the year, and yet the animals become emaciated, and eventually die if not removed. Ruminants from other parts of the country on being placed on " sick " country experi- ence decided benefit for the change and fatten for a time. Horses fed for years con- tinuously and entirely on the affected pasture are not injuriously affected. Aston. — Chemistry of Bush Sickness. 289 might have dropped into the sample while it was being dried, there being always a certain amount of copper and brass dust in most laboratories. For the work a room was therefore set aside in which copper utensils, brass bunsens, and all apparatus containing copper were rigidly excluded, and any brass fittings were coated with varnish. Further specimens were obtained. and analysed, great care being taken to guard against adventi- tious entry of copper into the assay. The results of analysis of these specimens are given in Tables 3 and 4. They show that there is always an excess of copper (compared with the amounts found by the authorities quoted below) in the livers of sheep suffering from bush sickness, although when these livers are extremely fatty the copper is diminished ; but if calculated on the dried fat-free liver the percentage is always excessive. Analyses of the livers of healthy sheep killed for consumption have shown, however, that a comparatively large amount of copper in the liver is quite consistent with health. Further, on dosing sheep and cattle with copper-acetate for over a year their livers were found to take up much larger amounts of copper than any liver hitherto examined with- out producing any of the final symptoms of bush sickness. Feeding experiments conducted by Mr. H. A. Reid, F.R.C.V.S., at Wallaceville Laboratory, in which copper-acetate in small doses was given with the food to sheep, showed that the liver could absorb large amounts of copper and remain healthy. The greater part of the copper was no doubt elimi- nated in the faeces. Some of the sheep died of a braxy-like disease, but others remained healthy, and the experiments were discontinued after they had been going on for seventeen months. Experiments with calves and rabbits extending over a similar period yielded negative results, which supports the experiments of du Moulin (Journ. Pharm., 5, 13, p. 189 ; abst. in J.C.S., 1883, p. 483), who gave doses of from \ gram to 1 gram of copper-subacetate every day for six weeks to dogs and rabbits without producing poisonous effects. The bulk of the evidence at present is against the hypothesis that copper is a causative agent in producing bush sickness, but the results obtained are so full of interest that it is deemed advisable to publish them at this stage. Copper is certainly a normal liver constituent in sheep and cattle. Wynter Blyth (" Poisons," 1895, p. 613) states that a sheep's liver contains 1 part of copper in 20,000 (0-005 per cent.), and quotes Dupre's statement that in the kidneys and livers of ruminants copper may always be found. Professor Malcolm informs me that the liver of the ox normally contains 0-00225 to 0-0051 per cent, copper. Professor Gilruth refers to articles by Lehman (Arch. f. Hygiene) in which the author gives 0-0048 as the percentage of copper in dried ox-liver. In sheep normally he found 0-0018 per cent, in the dried liver, but in copper districts only half that quantity in the liver but five times that quantity in the heart. Analysis of hearts from bush-disease areas do not show any such excess of copper. Ellenberger and Hofmeister (Beid. Centr., 1883, pp. 606-9 ; abst. in J.C.S.. 1884, p. 474) experimented with sheep, giving doses of \ gram to 3 grams. Among the negative results they obtained were no alteration of the muscular structure, no acceleration of the motion of the heart, no uniform alteration in the microscopic appearance of the blood-corpuscles, no alteration of the respiration nor of the secretion of the urine. Amongst the positive results were the presence of albumen, blood, and bile in the urine, flaccidity of the muscles, weakness, and loss of appetite. They note that the excretion of copper from the system is chiefly by the 10 -Trans. 290 Transactions. bile, partly by the urine but in lesser degree ; that the liver retains the copper with great tenacity and the pancreas with almost equal strength, and that the kidneys do not retain it as much as the other two organs. The nervous and muscular systems do not contain enough to interfere with their action. They recommend numerous small doses in order to obtain chronic effects. My experiments show that the pancreas does not contain much copper. Max Klemptner (Chem. Centr., 1894, ii, 620; abst. in J.C.S., 1895, p. 321) records the following symptoms in poisoning by sodium cupric tartrate : Atrophy both in acute and chronic cases ; diarrhoea some time before death, and persistent vomiting, in chronic cases ; enfeebled pulse and laboured respiration. When subcutaneously injected into the pleura the salt produces weakness and stiffness of the hinder extremities ; the same is noticed when the salt or copper haemoglobin is exhibited. In one case blood and albumen were found in the urine. Copper was not found in the blood serum, but in the corpuscles. The question whether chronic copper poisoning can occur in animals is evidently doubted by many authorities. A. Koldeway (Chem. Centr., 1896, ii, 1041 ; abst. in J.C.S., 1898, p. 39) states that no noteworthy evil results follow small doses of copper (or even large doses) in people in good health, or in animals that vomit readily ; long continuance in the use of copper, however, produces slight degenerative changes in the liver and kidneys, which can only be detected on microscopic examination. He doubts the existence of chronic copper poisoning amongst workers in that metal, any illness occurring probably being due to other metallic impurities of the copper. L. Lewin (Deusch Med. Wochenschr., 1900, 26, 689 ; abst. in J.S.C.I., 19, 1900, 1183) could not discover any phenomena indicating chronic poisoning in copper- workers. The editor of Taylor's " Medical Jurisprudence " (1905, p. 476) is evidently doubtful as to whether chronic copper poisoning can occur in human subjects. This doubt should be even greater as to whether the poisoning can occur in herbivora. Dieulafait (Compt. Rend., 89, 453: abst. in J.C.S., 1879, p. 1020; 1880, p. 489) states that copper occurs in all plants that live on primary rocks, or on soils derived from those rocks. One hundred grams of rock will always give a reaction for copper. Dupre (Analyst, ii, 1 ; abst. in J.C.S., 1877, p. 511) states that copper is found in all vegetables as well as in animals, but rarely amounts to more than 1 gram per 100,000 (0-001 per cent.). Dieulafait states that 1 gram of ash from all plants growing on primordial rocks give the copper-reaction, but plants grown on pure limestone contain but traces of copper, requiring at least 100 grams of ash for its detection. J. B. Harrison, in a recent report (1906) to the Science and Agricultural Department of British Guiana, shows its occurrence in hundredths of 1 per cent, in many igneous rocks of that colony, and Hille- brand (" Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate Rocks," Washington) con- siders that it can be found almost invariably if looked for in the rock- analysis carried out by the United States Survey Laboratory, but it is seldom reported unless extra precautions have been taken to prevent its entry into the analysis. The few determinations which have been made of copper in the soil and grass-ash of the affected country go to show that it exists in amounts of the order of thousandths of 1 per cent, rather than of hundredths. I have not been able to consult any of the original papers, owing to the difficulty in obtaining scientific literature in New Zealand. One is unable to conjecture how many specimens were analysed to supply the above data, and whether the figures might be taken as a standard. Aston. — Chemistry of Bush Sickness. 291 It having been decided to carry on an extensive series of field experi- ments with a view to ascertain whether top-dressing the pasture with various ertilizers would in any way mitigate or prevent development of the sick- ness, the following substances recommended by me were applied as top- dressings to different paddocks on which the animals were subsequently grazed : Basic slag, superphosphate of lime, rock phosphate, ferrous sulphate, caustic lime, carbonate of lime, nitrate of calcium, potassium - sulphate, blood and bone manure, agricultural salt. Both cattle and sheep were used in these experiments. Kock-salt has been given in most cases freely as a lick. On some experiments water has been given to sheep, and on other experiments no water was given. To cattle water was usually given. The results of these experiments, which were conducted under veterinary supervision, will be published in due course. One interesting- feature may be mentioned. The sheep which died of "' bush sickness " on these experimental plots provided with a plentiful supply of salt developed abnormally fatty livers, as the analysis shows. The liver was mainly fat and water. This occurred when the sheep were supplied with water, as at Mamaku, and without, as at Te Pu. It will be noted that the time the sheep were enabled to live on the affected pasture was unusually long. The writer desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr. Reakes, Director of the Live-stock Department, for affording information and every facility for carrying on the work, and to Dr. Maclaurin, Dominion Anaiyst, for permission to visit frequently the affected district. Messrs. Clayton, Lyons, Reid, and Kerrigan, Veterinary Officers of the Depart- ment, have proved of great help ; Professors Gilruth (Melbourne), Marshall (Dundee), and Malcolm (Dunedin), have provided many refer- ences and much valuable advice. Mr. R. Alexander, with his practical knowledge in the field, and Messrs. John Chilwell, F.I.C., and Theodore Rigg, M.Sc, in the laboratory have also rendered valuable assistance. Experimental. In the analysis of animal specimens for copper the method recom- mended by Raoult and Breton (Compt. Rend., 85, 40-42 ; abst. in J.C.S., 32, 1877) was used. The substance (about 100 grams wet or 30 grams dry) is heated in a porcelain dish with sulphuric acid untilfthe mass is carbonized. The charred mass is heated to redness in a muffle furnace, and in great part burnt in a good current of air. When the com- bustion becomes difficult in consequence of the fusion of phosphates (chiefly phosphate of iron in the liver specimens) it is exhausted with a small quantity of nitric acid and water. The filtered residue is again incinerated, and the operation repeated until a pure ash is obtained, which is exhausted with more nitric acid. The acid filtrates are evaporated and the nitric acid expelled by evaporating to dryness and taking up with hydrochloric acid. The diluted solution of the ash is now subjected to a current of sulphuretted hydrogen until the copper-sulphide separates out well. This is filtered and incinerated. The ignited residue is redissolved and filtered from any impurity (silica). The solution is made up to a known volume, and an aliquot part taken for colorimetric estimation of the copper by the well-known ferro-cyanide method. The result is always checked by a gravimetric determination made on another aliquot portion. The results agree very closely. I can indorse Raoult and Breton's warning as to the necessity of pushing the incineration till an ash free from carbon remains. Carbon appears to retain the copper with great tenacity. 10* 292 Transactions. Table 1. Analysis of Ash of Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), in Flower. Watt's Dictionary, With Ripe Seed, Meadow Grass, M221-2. Grass from Hay from vol. 2, Watt's Watt's disease Country. Te Puke. p. 943. Dictionary. Dictionary. Potassic oxide (K20) 29-52 3306 2213 1501 16-45 Calcic oxide (CaO) 5-82 8-14 913 5-25 8-90 Magnesic oxide (MgO) . . 2-22 3-47 2-49 3-36 407 Ferric oxide (Fe203) 0-59 0-23 0-62 093 0-72 Sulphuric anhydride (S03) 3-52 3-96 4-23 344 2-45 Silicic oxide (Si02) 2665 3218 3411 42-86 36-92 Carbon-dioxide (C02) 209 2-88 115 293 6-57 Phosphoric anhydride (P205) 8-60 6-41 5-56 383 3-79 Potassic chloride (KC1) . . 17-86 4-87 17-40 1104 1619 Sodic chloride (NaCl) . . 309 4-76 3 14 410 4-07 Manganese-oxide (Mn304) . . . . . . 0-97 . . Carbon and undetermined 5-90 . . Alumina * * 0-38 99-96 99-96 99-96 10000 10013 Ash in 100 parts fresh substance . . 1-59 2-61 ,, dry substance . . 531 5-51 Sulphur in 100 parts dry substance 2-37 2-48 Ash of grass dried at 100° C. • 8-47 Table 2. Analyses of Healthy and Unhealthy Bloods. Healthy Unhealthy F504 Carotid Artery Carotid Artery rpH ii pftH hk of Steer, of Steer, ■ ■'■'•' CIO 7-43 : 4-2. Waiwetu, G9. F504. Ash- Total ash 4-20 743 . . Insoluble in water 1200 12-71 . . Soluble 8800 87-29 . . Silica 1 06 2-77 1-55 Sodic chloride 5207 58-35 32-68 Phosphoric anhydride . 4-75 305 1 71 Calcic oxide . . 101 1-68 0-94 Magnesic oxide 0-49 0-82 046 Ferric oxide . . 7-64 3-80 2 12 Sulphuric anhydride 6 13 6-90 3-86 Potassic oxide 6-55 3 99 223 Sodic oxide . . 11 49 11-25 6-28 Carbon-dioxide 8-81 739 4-24 Percentage of ash constituents in the dried blood — Silica 0044 0-205 0 115 Sodic chloride 2168 4322 2-416 Phosphoric anhydride . 0-200 0-220 0123 Calcic oxide . . ' 0042 0124 0065 Magnesic oxide 0020 0060 0034 Ferric oxide . . 0318 0-281 0157 Sulphuric anhydride 0-255 0510 0-280 Potassic oxide 0-283 0-298 0167 Sodic oxide . . 0-478 0-833 0-467 Aston. — Chemistry of Bush Sickness. 293 ,3 £ Liver very fatty. Killed. Killed, 27/7/10, when recovering on clean country. Killed, 25/7/10. 70 per cent, water in liver. Killed, July, 1911. Liver very fatty. Killed, 25/7/11. Liver not fatty. Brain fatty. 72-7 per cent, water in livtr. 0-84 per cent, calculated on ash. 72-3 per cent, water in liver. 7> Abattoii- Inspector . . Dr. Reakes . . OQ > • • • -P5 ' '^ . - .> » r. " i § ^ "3 o " • c 5 c8 on CM o a o .2* o a: 3 Q Weight. 8f lb. 750 grm. 3 lb. 1 oz. 277 grin. sib. a a S J § a" hn hrOi J3» , . bC H. , . a bD tion, i inatio mal a ; : : ; 3 0} ;; o > -^ u > u > 5 i ; : ;§g x 3 ^S3ffi3 a;^ g rn -jb G 3 s-i G u f* o ® ■-So"3o^s! o o S? Pancreas Urine Liver i^a jnths) — 'aT , (small) (both) ed cow »2-2 > o W d co o o M ,0. CD N 42 » SI c o 42 co Q co O C co CD 5 =0 s a, p£ 1-4 O t- ' I-H O O poo 6 6 6 o o o © eo O -# CO 1* O Ph 02 d pi to cd -a co CD Ph s- o o o CO ■ O GOOMO 12 s t-l ID l> d 00 CO o a JO 6)3 !D 00 C ^fc'S o .S t: 5»* ! in d P5Mi-^ IcS > g $ > <3 s •a o ft CO o> -a CO 02 SO ft CD CB co t>> t- t- I- I- H*T*H*OTt 00 Aston. — Chemistry of Bush Sickness. 295 a > b S o to o Sh o .2 o P-i H _ f^a^ a o o r m _; 05 tsq © I jl o OOO 7\ PkO a o —J !-i CD -*= CO s3 u =3 03 -to .55 as d o • i-i o 2 o © c3 O GO I _ CO CO m ° S 2-s o a a * a '•§ ® O „" O ii G5 '-> a CD O O 'J © 1-1 £ ©~ 8^ £ S '3 © rj 3 O g © CJ - ^a CD CJ CD cS 53 Is So CD P-, . ° "S w | C CO CD -*o O "H i-—' ^ — ' oa ■ CD i ^O CD CN OOO CD r COCO-Hr— lfi(NO'#OSOiMiOOOOOOOffihn,*Hi(HHMc5)ot^xcot^fflC!^AcoN Oh t^ CDt^ coOOOCOCOO'COOOCOCOCOCOOOOOOOOOOOCOCOCOCOt^' 02 > 0 a ' OcT 'I I— < o o H 3 'o .« '-a cl CO J ""o o CO .2 o o *3 o o Ph CO o H p pq a o CD „ iao » t-( OQ . > U ci « ^ . : s§ Jl CD _q fl 0 tn ea .5 m f*l « 02 > O o 1— I CO 1— 1 CO O 0)OWHH»l0!0l0Ohl't"OM00M0000O-i!NOT)lffl«iOOiQ rJOWMW •■*MlOnn-*100HtOOHHOOINLOIOilWM05;100t'WO,*C»'* ffl t- ■* LO O •«CDhM>CDCDtOCOOiilOh>>^0(OXiOCBU3iOiO'^tOtO'*M CD QQ <5 ft CD ffi g ^ --q CD CD CO CD CO S>i : r s >^ J ->^> cS 0 0 0 ,y 0 cS CD CD K &3ccK^ W w ffi o ^J -to o & -d -^ 1 — 1 cS o M J -l-> •^H ^ CD Tl ^j CD m CD O O cS T) H CD a Ph P. CD 0 CD 0 ~ DQ Ort5)nS*MOOrtMCi)NM^KJOt'MC5HOn'fiOC8»OOHCfl Ttl^T|l^^«OCOt-C^I>t^COCOCCCOCC(»»CCO>0)©03ffl»rtrtMfHpHrtMCXlCS| So 296 Transactions. . Died amaku, ied on '11. ied on '11. Died e Pu. ied on tober, Died 11/11. Idock, ded at Died o d CD P^P- .H P X • >> CO 3 CD -o M d . "3 ^ — i— 1 +3 \ \ CO ,. ^^^ - .■s • O : O *H -t3 CO CO .13 TC; +3 — CO M d " -i3 "s ^5 '-' co d ft ■gP4-SP4 S » ""o^ S CO ft - O 0 Or® • 11. d 36 per cent. paddock. 5/1' cl 30-3 per cen :d 17-7 per a Pu. •* a c3 S CD Ph o •- ft~ SO CO ed 36-1 perce paddock, Te ed 21-3 perce paddock, Te ed 47-15 per itratc - of - line CD i— i CD ^ CD ^ obS 7-7 per plot at 1 •05 per c Te Pu - CO " » o: 01 o: 43 CD CD d £ .2 to CO . ■ t, 1— 1 H-S ft 43 ^3 £ ft^ ^ CD . CD p CD c ^» v 02 fi c d — co \ ontain limed ontain limed ontain on n: I-H rt ^ . H.S l)H ^ cc C-1 — ! .a a .a ^ CO \^ cb . d cS n d c ^2 d c — < 1 — ' — 02 *— o dcdcDfMdr-gdcc COvSO oo CD a is c 'a (3 O *, ,-5 o o o o O o ofl o au ■a ° •"* CM i— 1 OS CO -* co cr. T3 '— a as o O t;- © 00 o oo (N OO -e o d CD % ft a s CD ^H -^ CO CO SKI co 6: co © CO CO d iC LO CO -* to CO CO m t*> co .a -<^ CI o o 1 CO "o-§ i g o d CD &d 1 S «3 •ca * (r- CO o a * s| CD i— 1 CO ■* os CO o CO © 00 "3 It CO US 50 CO >o r~ tj< t- W 1—1 CD Eh : : : : • co ~- o "^ © - an ^H D 6 of^ "3 O ;-. r-, CD 1 CD > •■ J - j ^ i - ° I-H +3 El CO - o c .2 J CO * . . . OS © K ^H d en CD - "5 S # . .1 - o 2; CD 3 ft d '3 02 CO < ft CD t-5 CD -d CD 7.1 CD * r '. J t r - '. r 1 02 -d co is ■* o o F5"ft lO CO t- 00 CO •P d CO 00 00 CO OS OJ Ol CO » Sfc ^H CD Aston. — Chemistry of Bux/i Sick/us*. 297 o >-H "S o V) £ o *W +2 CO c3 >> cS Eh o 6 CO o © O —i © o 6 6 o © CO © © o 6 CO o ^H o 6 o I — I © © CN i— , © © © © CN 00 — h 00 © © "3 a cS a o Q 3 » 3 cu S M O Eh s o o ^3 CN 00 © i—i >o rH CN CM (N lO ID 00 O © © © t^ lO t^ © lO o © © iO ■* oo t> CO © ; t- »o © lO CN 1— i vv •v> mrawmnw**,* Geological Structure of Part of East Otago. grains of T5mm. in diameter is rather frequent, and displays its usual structure. Olivine is fairly common in crystals as much as 6 mm. in diameter, and is somewhat serpentinized. The augite is a titaniferous 306 Transactions. variety, with pronounced zonal and hour-glass structure, and with the usual pleochroism, and occasionally shows the steel-blue birefringence due to the high dispersion of the optic axes. A narrow margin is usually dark green. The mineral is completely idiomorphic. The nephe- line is abundant, For the most part its crystallization was finished before that of the feldspar. It is largely altered to natrolite. The feld- spar is much twinned on the albite and pericline laws, and has in many places the appearance of microline. The extinction-angle, however, proves it to be andesine. It was the last of the larger crystals to form. There is here and there a small quantity of groundmass. It consists of idiomorphic and often bent crystals of feldspar, probably andesine, ailotriomorphic aegerine, nepheline converted into natrolite, and much apatite. Of these minerals, the nepheline was the last to form. In some of the finer-grained specimens the idiomorphism of the augite is less pronounced, and occasionally shows ophitic structure with the feld- spar, which is then distinctly anterior in crystallization to the nepheline. The basaltoid forms of the rock are well exemplified by a large dyke at Clarendon (analysis B). Here apatite is much less noticeable. The ilmenite and olivine are not more than 025 mm. in diameter. The augite is in moderate to small crystals, sinking to the dimensions of miciolites, but always idiomorphic. Feldspar is not abundant, and is always in the form of microlites. Nepheline is quite abundant, and is in the form of ailotriomorphic plates enclosing numerous crystals of olivine, augite, and ilmenite. Lava-flows that cover a considerable area of the country to the west of the dyke are also somewhat similar, but are of much finer grain (analysis C). The irregular plates of nepheline are in these rocks extremely small and hard to distinguish except by micro- chemical methods. This type of rock has previously been described by Andrew, who, however, failed to distinguish the nepheline, though he recognized that much of the rock was soluble in dilute HC1. The type from Omimi is particularly interesting from the point of view of structure (analysis D). The apatite and ilmenite have the same features as before. The olivine, however, is in extremely small needles, sometimes 1 cm. long, but only 0-08 mm. wide. The direction of neigh- bouring crystals is in remarkably parallel lines in longitudinal as well as transverse section. They are similarly oriented over a considerable area. The phenocrysts of augite have pleochroism, zonal and hour-glass structure, as in the Waihola type. A similar appearance of lattice structure in the feldspar is also very noticeable. The nepheline is wanting in crystallo- graphic boundaries, and is usually intergrown in complete micrographic fashion with augite. In some instances at least this augite is in optical continuity with the large crystals. This micrographic intergrowth is sometimes found in the groundmass in an extremely minute scale, and constitutes its dominant feature. The augite is sometimes slightly green in its smaller members. There are minute crystals of feldspar and apatite crystals in the groundmass. The intergrowth is of the same nature as that found in the Lobauer Berg type, but is much more complete, and is shown on a finer scale than in the German type. As at Waihola, the rock is associated with basaltoid types, the exact distribution of which and their relation to the coarser type of rock has not yet been fully made out by Mr. Smith. Here, however, there appears to be a complete series through types with large ailotriomorphic nephe- line plates to types of a dense nature in which the nepheline is extremely hard to identify. Marshall. — Nephelinite Socks in New Zealand . 307 The Auckland type is somewhat similar to that of Omimi (analysis D). In most specimens the large augites have an ophitic structure. The olivine crystals, again, have a great length, 1-5 cm. by 0-46 mm., and again the direction of elongation is that of the axis a. The intergrowth of augite and nepheline is very complete, but is not carried to the extent of excessive fineness that is found in the Omimi type. The groundmass is rather more plentiful, and contains aegerine, apatite, and feldspar. This rock is associated with basaltoid lavas which contain very little nepheline. The numerous volcanic cones near Auckland are formed of this dense type of basanite. The Auckland rocks have been mentioned previously (Marshall, 8). Chemically, as would be expected, all the rocks mentioned are closely related, as is clearly shows by the following analyses : — A. B. c. D. E. F. Si02 3600 41 04 4219 45-30 46-60 43 60 TiOo 2-50 237 0-87 0-71 1-76 1 37 A1?0, 1451 11-78 1800 16-44 16-79 9-87 Fe,Oa 719 6-86 7-73 1-82 3-87 7-43 FeO 10-28 9-52 8-67 8-82 7-58 5-40 CaO 12-95 1050 9-27 7-85 7-85 14-26 MgO 402 5-38 706 2-73 2-88 7-18 K90 3 04 2-38 105 405 331 3-81 Na,0 361 4-36 3 15 8-60 518 1-74 p2o5 . . . 1-56 1-23 . . 1-68 1-76 1-85 Loss on ignition 4-40 400 1 35 296 304 101 Total . 10008 99-42 99-34 100-96 100-62 100-22 A. Coarse nephelinite, Lake Waihola. B. Fine nephelinite, Clarendon. C. Finest type of nephelinite, Clarendon. Andrew, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38 (1906), p. 461. D. Nephelinite with micrographic structure, Omimi. E. Nephelinite with micrographic structure, Auckland. F. Nephelinite, Regatta Point, Tasmania. Paul, Tscher. Mitt., bd. 25 (1906), p. 301. Literature. 1. Hutton, F. W. " Geology of Otago," p. 56. Dunedin, 1875. 2. Hutton, F. W. " The Eruptive Rocks of New Zealand." Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 134. 3. Ulrich, G. H. F. ;" On the Occurrence of Nepheline-bearing Rocks in New Zealand." Trans. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol. 11 (1907), p. 127. 4. Andrew, A. R. " On the Geology of the Clarendon Phosphate- deposits, Otago, New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38 (1906), p. 461. 5. Marshall, P. "The Geology of Dunedin, New Zealand." Quart.. Jour. Geol. Soc, vol. 62 (1906), p. 381. 6. Paul, F. P. " Beitrage zur petrographischen Kenntniss einiger Foyaitisch theralitischer Gesteine aus Tasmania." Tscher. Min. Pet. Mitt., bd. 25, heft 4 (1906), p. 301. 7. Marshall, P. " Trachydolerites near Dunedin." Trans. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol. 10 (1904), p. 183. 8. Marshall, P. " Distribution of the Igneous Rocks of New Zealand." Trans. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol. 11 (1907), p. 366. 308 Transactions Akt. XXXIV. — The Discovery and Extent of Former Glaciation in the Tararna Ranges, North Island, New Zealand. By G. L. Adkin. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 6th September, 1911.] Plates XXII-XXIV. The discovery of evidence of former glaciation in the Tararua Ranges was made by the writer in February,. 1909, and two years later (March, 1911) further discoveries were made and the previous ones confirmed. The glaciated areas and the memorials < f former frost-action so far dis- covered are situated on the highest ranges of the Tararuas — viz.. on that part of the Dundas Range lying nearest the geographical centre of the mountain - system, and on the Mitre-Holdsworth Range. During the maximum phase of glaciation the heads of five river-valleys were filled with glacier-ice : (1) Park River,* the main tributary of the Waiohine-iti River, named after the well-known New Zealand glacialist ; (2) the main source of the Waiohine-iti River ; (3) Dorset Creek, a left-bank tributary of the Waiohine-iti River, named after a pioneer explorer of the Tararuas ; (4) Bennington Creek, a tributary of the Waingawa River, rising in the south-west foot of the Mitre Peak, named after a companion of Edward Dorset ; and (5) the Mangaterera River, another tributary of the Waingawa. The phenomena resulting from the presence of glaciers now non-existent consist of — (1) U-shaped valleys ; (2) glacial cirques ; (3) rock basins ; (4) glacial hanging valleys ; (5) fluviatile hanging valleys. In order to give a clear and correct impression of the extent and cha- racter of former glaciation in the Tararuas, the phenomena tabulated will first be dealt with seriatim, and then the topography of the Park Valley ■ — the locality where these phenomena attained their maximum develop- ment— will be fully described. (1.) U-shaped Valleys. U-shaped valleys furnish the principal evidence of the former presence of ulacier-ice. So far as is at present known, they occur in five situations. The head of Park Valley is U-shaped for a distance of two miles ; in the Waiohine-iti Valley the same feature extends for about one mile ; in the valleys of Dorset and Bennington Creeks, for about half a mile each ; and at the head of the Mangaterera Valley, about a quarter of a mile. The accumulation of scree-material, talus, and alluvium has to a certain extent obscured the U-shaped form and reduced the original steepness of the walls of these valleys, but even now their special character is unmistakable. Below their U-shaped heads the valleys contract to narrow gorges typical of fluviatile erosion. * The river draining this valley has hitherto neither been named nor shown on any available map. On every available map the main source of the Otaki River is represented as draining the site of the upper portion of Park Valley. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV. Plate XXII. Fig. 1. — General View of the Glaciated Part of Park Valley. Fig. 2. — The Waiohine-iti Valley. Showing the glaciated head and the V-shaped lower part. The Waiohine-iti pinnacle's on left. Face p. 308.] Adkin. — Former Glaciation in the Tararua Ranges. 309 won ■SCAl-E- 1 V* V*. 'it- o OF" 1 Ml UE.&<. 2. SOUTH m Cr .t-.A. 310 Transactions. (2.) Glacial Cirques. By far the finest example of a glacial cirque is to be found at the head of the U-shaped portion of Park Valley. This cirque is nearly half a mile across, and is bounded by mural precipices of imposing appearance. At the heads of the other U-shaped valleys the cirques are not so typically developed, the precipices being inconspicuous or absent. (3.) Rock Basins. There is every reason to believe that a rock basin exists in the floor of the cirque at the head of Park 'Valley. Since the disappearance of the ice it has been filled in with alluvium, and therefore its existence can only be demonstrated by evidence supplied by the general topography of the valley-floor. This evidence will be set forth below (p. 314). (4.) Glacial Hanging Valleys. Three glacial hanging valleys open into the cirque at the head of Park Valley. They lie at heights of from 360 ft. to 510 ft. above the surface of the alluvial flat forming the present floor of the cirque. The largest has a length of about 15 chains, and the other two, which lie close together and are only divided by a low rocky ridge, are about 6 chains and 8 chains in length respectively. The lips of all three glacial hanging valleys have been cut by the streams that have drained the latter since the disappear- ance of the ice. The floors of the glacial hanging valleys of Park Valley, and particularly that of the largest — and the evidence is therefore the more conclusive — show some signs of downward curving at the points where these valleys terminate and open into the main cirque. For this reason it is clear that the ice in the U-shaped hanging valleys must have descended to the head of the main glacier as icefalls ; the upper surface of the ice in the main cirque — i.e., the head of the trunk glacier — must therefore have stood somewhat below the level of the floors of the U-shaped hanging valleys, and probably attained a thickness of 500 ft. If the surface of the ice forming the head of the trunk glacier had stood above the level of, or even on a level with, the floors of the U-shaped hanging valleys, the terminal downward curving of their floors would have been absent, and the tribu- tary glaciers would have joined the main one at grade. This they may have done during the maximum phase of glaciation, the icefalls and the wearing of the lips of the glacial hanging valleys by them being referable to a later date. Glacial (U-shaped) hanging valleys occur at the heads of some of the other glaciated valleys also. There is a tiny one at the head of the valley of Bennington Creek. The cleft cut in its lip is in its incipient stages, so that small waterfalls still descend into the main valley. The precipices of the Mitre Peak surmount the north-east side of this hanging valley, and its head lies in the side of the main watershed of the Mitre-Holdsworth Range. Another small glacial hanging valley is situated at the head of the glaciated portion of the Mangaterera Valley. Its lip also has been cut by the small stream which now drains it. Adkin. — Former Glaciation in the Tararua Eang.es. 311 "Mmnntmiiili 312 Transactions. (5.) Fluviatile Hanging Valleys. Hanging valleys having the typical V-shaped cross-section of stream erosion, and which owe their present state as such to the former presence of a glacier, are found in Park Valley only. The best examples are situated on the left wall of the valley, about three-quarters of a mile below the main cirque. The height of the falls which descend from their lower ends into the main valley is now greatly reduced by the infilling of the latter with scree-material. In the glaciated part of Park Valley the fluvia- tile hanging valleys are the sole remaining relics of its pre-glacial form — a form due entirely to fluviatile erosion. Prior to the glacial period the portion of Park Valley referred to was very much narrower, and also rather less deeply excavated than it is at the present time. From the ridges forming the watersheds on either side of the valley steep lateral spurs ran down to the valley-bottom, and the intervening gullies were in topographic adjustment with the trunk valley. With the advent of the ice the pre-glacial topography of the upper portion of Park Valley was modified in two ways — the valley was both deepened and widened. The deepening was relatively greater in some parts of the valley than in others ; in the main cirque the valley was over- deepened and the gradient of its floor reversed. Throughout the glaciated part of the valley the deepening was sufficient to remove all traces of the V-shaped contour of the pre-glacial trench, and to give the valley the typical flat bottom of glacier erosion. The widening of Park Valley by ice-action was of even greater extent and importance. In the achievement of this result the lateral spurs were deeply truncated, the intervening gullies betrunked and converted into hanging valleys, and the sides of the main valley cut back to such an extent as to give them a steep wall-like character. The present fluviatile hanging valleys were never ice-filled, but at the time of maximum refrigeration the tributary gullies nearer the head of the main valley were filled with ice, and were moulded thereby into their present U-shaped form. These TJ-shaped hanging valleys owe their present state as such more to the rapid erosion of the main cirque by the process known as " plucking " than to the lateral grinding which produced the fluviatile hanging valleys. The Topography of Park Valley. (See map, p. 311, and Plates XX1I-XX1V.) The topography of the upper portion of Park Valley is undoubtedly of glacial origin. The valley contains the most extensive and the best- preserved memorials of the erosion of glacier-ice, and therefore it has the distinction of being the former site of the largest of the extinct glaciers of the Tararua Ranges. The general trend of the glaciated part of the valley is west by south, but it is not straight ; it runs in two curves — the upper bending southward, the lower northward. From the lower limits of glacial erosion the valley turns south-south-west and south-east to its junction with the Waiohine-iti River. This part of Park Valley is narrow and gorged. Lofty ridges form the boundaries of Park Valley, and the highest points of these — Mounts Thompson, Lancaster, and Dora, and Arete Peak — encircle its head, and in the past formed the gathering-ground oi the perennial snowfields which fed the old glacier. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV. Plate XXIII. T3 C CO cu a o < > < c CU cS < w X CD O 0 H H J c O ■- CI c o (73 Facep 312.] Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV. Plate XXIV. EM W i-l < > P? < w 1-1 j < > o z < o •< 0> £>D eg _C 'eS C O^ MODERN STULAM. BED or GlacisH ZSoo' ccbove sva. - Level. 5CALE5. VERTICAL. /ooo loco Jooo Or*£ MICC. F«T. Diagrammatic Sections of the Glaciated Portion of Pa^k Valley. (1.) Cross-section and diagram of main cirque. (2.) Enlarged view of cirque, showing glacial hanging valleys. (3.) Longitudinal section and diagram of left wall of valley. 4000 3 rather poorly developed cirque. It has a length of about 15 chains. The other two lie between Arete Peak and Mount Dora, and rise in ill-defined cirques. They are twin valleys, being separated only by a low rounded ridge. Their length is about 6 chains and 8 chains respectively. A small narrow gorge has been cut in the lip of each of these glacial hanging valleys by the streams which now drain them. 314 Transactions. The most striking feature of the main U-shaped valley is the high development of screes. These bury the precipitous walls to a height of from 250 ft. to 320 ft. above the valley-floor. Above the screes the lateral walls rise to a height of from 50 ft. to 100 ft. In the main cirque the pre- cipices rise 290 ft. above the apexes of the screes. Throughout the greater pajt of its length the floor of the main valley is loaded with scree-material ; the bases of the screes on the one wall meet the bases of those on the other, and the modern drainage- channel of the valley follows the line of contact. The screes are now not in the course of formation, being clothed with tussock-grass and subalpine scrub. In the U-shaped section of its valley the Park River is actively engaged in altering the gradient of the valley-floor. In the main cirque it is an aggrading stream, and has there formed an alluvial flat several acres in extent. Below this flat the river flows in a narrow channel of gradually increasing depth. Near the lower limit of glaciation this channel is about 20 ft. deep, and the rock floor of the valley, upon which the screes rest, has been incised by the river to a depth varying from 10 ft. to 15 ft. The infilling at the head of the valley, and the excavation below, clearly demonstrate that the valley was overdeepened* by the old glacier. After the disappearance of the ice the rock basin was probably the site of a small lake until it was filled in by the accumulation of alluvium. Such criteria of former glaciation as moraines, roche moutonnees, and striated surfaces have not been found in Park Valley or in any of the other glaciated areas of the Tararuas. It is highly probable that some of the phenomena enumerated do exist, but in Park Valley, and in the other glaciated localities also, the present excessive accumulation of scree-material and alluvium precludes all possibility of their detection. The apparent absence of a terminal moraine may be accounted for by the small size of the glacier. It may be, however, that some of the angular debris resting on the valley-floor near the lower limit of glaciation is morainic material laid down during the slow but regular shrinking of the glacier during its final retreat. Another suggestion is that the great piles of boulders that encumber the narrow gorges situated immediately below the lower limits of glaciation in Park Valley are the re-sorted relics of a terminal moraine. According to this supposition, the terminal moraine of the old glacier was demolished and carried to lower levels since the disappearance of the ice by the periodic floods of the modern river. In this way the angular blocks forming part of the moraine were rounded and transformed into the boulders as they now exist. The boulders in the gorges referred to are very much larger and more numerous than any that lie within the glaciated upper portion of the valley. The following altitudes in Park Valley were determined by the use of an aneroid set by the trig, on Mount Dundas : The saddle in the watershed of the Dundas Range at the head of the largest glacial hanging valley, 4,440 ft. above sea-level ; the lip of the largest glacial hanging valley, 3,900 ft. ; the lips of the twin glacial hanging valleys, 3,750 ft. ; the centre of the alluvial flat in the floor of the main cirque, 3,380 ft. ; the summits of the precipitous rock walls of the main U-shaped valley — left wall 3.800 ft., right wall 3,670 ft.; the lower limit of glaciation (i.e., of the U-shaped part of the valley), 3,000 ft. above sea-level. * The glacial hanging valleys furnish additional evidence in favour of this con- clusion. Adkin. — Former Glaciation in the Tararua Range* 315 General Conclusions. The former glaciers of the Tararuas owed their existence to the then greater elevation of the country and to the more rigorous climatic con- ditions. At the present time the snow-line in the latitude of the Tararuas is about 8,000 ft. above sea-level. " The late Sir Julius von Haast, in his ' Geology of Canterbury and Westland,' estimates that during the glacial period the snow-line was 1,000 ft. lower than it is in New Zealand at the present time."* This estimate involves only a slight reduction of the annual temperature — a reduction presumably induced by cosmic or ex- ternal causes or conditions — and appears to have been based on such, other factors being neglected. The evidence furnished by the configuration of the bed of Cook Strait (as shown by soundings) and by the physiography-] of the lowlands at the western foot of the Tararuas indicates that the ele- vation of that part of the country has been reduced since the glacial period by at least 1,000 ft. Taking for granted that these estimates are correct, and that they represent the sum of the influences that lowered the snow- line, the snow-line in the Tararuas during the glacial period was, in re- lation to the present sea-level, 2,000 ft. lower than at the present time ; in other words, the snow-line of the Tararuas formerly stood at a height of 6,000 ft. above the present sea-level. But it is evident from the known altitude and position of the extinct glaciers of the Tararuas that the lower limits of the permanent snowfields that fed them were at the most 4,000 ft., and perhaps only 3,500 ft., above the present sea-level. By taking as correct even the greater altitude — i.e., 4,000 ft. above the present sea- level) — there is a discrepancy between it and the foregoing of 2,000 ft. This lack of agreement between the tentatively adopted and the actual altitude of the former snow-line may be removed by accepting one of the following amendments : that during the glacial period the snow-line was lowered (in each case with reference to the present sea- level) — (1) by more rigorous climatic conditions 3,000 ft., and by the greater elevation .of the land 1,000 ft.; (2) by climatic conditions 1,000 ft., and by greater elevation 3,000 ft. ; or (3) by climatic conditions 2,000 ft., and greater elevation also 2,000 ft. The last of these is probably nearest the truth, since the estimate that the snow-line was lowered by climatic influences only 1,000 ft., as pointed out by Mr. H. Hill (Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. 27, p. 453), " is a very small one, representing, as it does, only a difference of about 3 degrees of temperature ; and this certainly would not be sufficient to bring about a glacial climate in the South Island " ; and, of course, still less so in the North Island, unless it can be shown that the latter stood at an enormously greater elevation in the early Pleistocene period. The former glaciers of the Tararua Ranges give some indication of the extent and nature of the Pleistocene sflaciation of the North Island : they show that in these respects it was limited, localized, and moderate. On comparison this view is found to be in harmony with the known extent * H. Hill, " On the Hawke's Bay Pleistocene Beds and the Glacial Period," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 27, 1S95, p. 452. t G. L. Adkin, " The Post-tertiary Geological History of the Ohau River, &c," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, 1911, p. 49fi. 316 Transactions. of the Pleistocene glacial development in the South Island, a development which attained its maximum in the Wakatipu ice-cap in Otago, and its lesser phases in Canterbury and Nelson, where systems of gigantic glaciers of the alpine type came into existence. In the South Island the Pleistocene ice-masses decreased from south to north, and, though at that time they made an appearance in the North Island also, they were there of even less extent than might have been expected. The northernmost of the centres of glacier dispersion in the South Island appears to have been situated in the Hardy Range,* in Collingwood. In that locality the signs of former ice-action are abundant and well preserved ; yet in the Tararuas — moun- tains only slightly inferior in altitude, and situated in practically the same latitude — the relics of the Pleistocene glaciers are meagre, and of a less definite character. It seems apparent, then, that conditions in the North Island were not so favourable for the development of glacial phenomena, and that no widespread glaciation was experienced. These facts and inferences are quite at variance with the idea, expressed in a paper on " Some Evidences of Glaciation on the Shores of Cook Strait and Golden Bay,"f that the bed of Cook Strait during the Pleistocene elevation was occupied by a great glacier rising in the central highlands and flowing southward. In a succeeding paper by the same author it is stated that " a large portion of the Province of Wellington suffered intense glaciation in that [the Pleistocene] period. "{ In keeping with these views of the extent of former glaciation of the North Island, Professor Park ex- pressed the opinion that evidence of ancient ice-action and the products of such would probably be found, among other places, " in the Wairarapa, near the Tararuas." The only interpretation which can be placed on this statement is that the author quoted believed that during the maximum phase of glaciation the Tararua Ranges supported glaciers which deployed upon the plains to the eastward. The evidence furnished by the Tararuas themselves is entirely opposed to such a suggestion. Until some more definite and conclusive evidence is adduced to support it. the doctrine of widespread glaciation in the Province of Wellington, and more particularly of the low-lying maritime areas of the same, is scarcely likely to gain general acceptance. * See Bell, Webb, and Clark, Bulletin No. 3 (New Series), N.Z. Geol. Survey, pp. 31, 32, 1907. t James Park, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1910, p. 585. % James Park, " The Great Ice Age of New Zealand," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42. 1910, p. 599. • Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 317 Art. XXXV. — The Geology of the Bluff, New Zealand. By L. J. Wild, M.A. Communicated by Dr. P. Marshall. [Read before the Otago Institute, 3rd October, 1911.] 1. Introduction and Description of the Topography of Area. The generally even surface of the Southland Plain is broken on its coastal margin by a range of hills extending in a south-easterly direction from the mouth of the New River Estuary for a distance of seven miles, and terminating in Bluff Hill. The height varies much from point to point, but the outstanding feature is Bluff Hill, which attains an elevation of 860 ft. Several geologists have visited the locality, or have examined speci- mens of rock from it, but the area has never been submitted to accurate and systematic geological examination. Hutton,* in 1872, referred to the Bluff Hill in describing the geological structure of the Southland District. He also described the relative positions of some of the rocks found there, and such of their characters as can be detected in the field. In his " Geology of Otago," published in Dunedin in 1X75, he repeated the conclusions he had come to. In 1888 the general structure and physiographical nature of the district was described at some length by Park,f who also went into the evidence as to the age of* the rocks; but the writer offered neither chemical nor microscopical descriptions of the various rock types. At a later date Huttonj named and described sections of specimens of rock from Bluff Hill, but subsequently, with more material at hand, published additional notes, § in which he expressed a change of opinion with regard to the nomenclature of some of them. It is rather unfor- tunate that the localities from which these specimens were obtained have not been recorded more definitely. Hamilton|| has also contributed to the literature on the subject, and the locality is also mentioned several times in " The Geology of Otago," by Hutton and Ulrich. The references in the latter publication will be discussed below. Thomson^ has recently published notes on some rocks which are " the result of a few hours' collection along the shore south and west from Bluff Harbour," and "from a small headland about half a mile round the coast to the south-west just beyond the mouth of the harbour." A glance at the map will show that " west " must be a misprint for " east." * Hutton, " Report on the Geology of Southland," Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1871-72. p. 89. t Park, " On the Geology of Bluff Peninsula," Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1887-88. p. 72. X Hutton, " Notes on the Eruptive Rocks of Bluff Peninsula," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23 (1891), p. 353. § Hutton, " Corrections of the Names of some New Zealand Rocks," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 31 (1899), p. 484. || Hamilton, " Notes on the Geology of the Bluff District," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 19 (1887), p. 452. Tf Thomson, J. A., " Notes on some Rocks from Parapara, Bluff Hill, and Waikawa," Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 42 (1910), p. 33. 318 Transactions. The present paper will aim principally at an accurate description of the rocks that outcrop on the portion of the foreshore of Bluff Harbour lying between the wharves and Starling Point, together with the related rocks of Tewaewae Point, since this area exhibits in most striking manner the different rock types and their mutual arrangement. The more detailed investigations herein described point to conclusions somewhat opposed to previously accepted ideas of the geology of the district. Position . The Bluff Range forms the backbone of a prominent peninsula of the south coast of the South Island of New Zealand, in latitude 46° 32' S. and longitude 168° 23' E. It extends for seven miles from north-west to south-east. It is united to the mainland by a narrow strip which projects to the east from the flank of the range at its north-western end, Fig. 1. — Map of the Bluff District. and separates the waters of Bluff Harbour on the south from the Moko- moko Inlet on the north. At its north-western extremity the range terminates in somewhat abrupt cliffs impinged on by the New River, the mouth of which has been driven east by the sands of the Riverton Beach, which are constantly travelling in this direction under the influence of the seas and currents caused by the prevailing westerly winds. Origin of the Land- forms. The range consists of a mass of igneous rock which was originally a deep-seated intrusion. Subsequent denudation acting more readily on the intruded than on the intrusive rocks has exposed the intrusive mass as a range of hills. The area of contact, which is fully described in the following pages, is thus a metamorphic aureole. The resulting meta- morphic rocks outcrop in places as the base of the range on the north-east side, the most extensive outcrop being on the foreshore of the harbour from Henderson Street for a distance of 37 chains towards Starling Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 319 Point. A study of the rocks in this locality, together with those of Tewaewae Point, reveals the nature of the metamorphism, though the gap in the series occupied by the mouth of the harbour cannot be bridged in a manner absolutely satisfactory. The origin of Bluff Harbour and Awarua Bay, as well as Waitur>a and other lagoons along the south coast between Bluff Hill and Fortrose, requires some explanation. The sand and shingle driven by the prevailing current through Foveaux Strait came to rest at the lee side of Bluff Hill. Thence, after the manner commonly described, a sandbank extended outwards in a direction slightly north of east. At length it reached the headland of Waipapa and Slope Points, which attains a height of 800 ft., or slightly Tewaewae Pt- Plutonic— Norite. Plutonic^- Basic secretion. Hypabasal— Porphyry. Metamorphic—Hornhlpnde schist Amphibolite. A I- 10 15 20 CHS. 1 =1 Starling Pl Fig. 2. — Geological Map of the Bluff. more, some twenty miles to the east. Thus a considerable area of water was cut off and enclosed by the sandspit. As the sandbank received further additions it increased in height and mass most rapidly at its eastern end, where its onward progress was stopped by the headland already named. Finally, at its lowest end — that is, immediately adjacent to Bluff Hill — the waters broke over the barricade, and restored communication with the ocean. The channel was made across the intruded rocks, possibly along a groove commenced by the ancient rivers, and long since filled in with sand and alluvium. This channel, once begun, was rapidly deepened by the inrush and outflow of the tide, which in the middle of the channel travels at the present time at the rate of eight knots an hour, such is the size of the basin to be filled. Subsequently this large lagoon was subdivided by lateral sandspits, and Waituna Lagoon was separated from Awarua Bay, and a separate outlet was formed. 320 Transactions. II. Description of the Bock Types and their Geological Occurrence. For the purpose of description the rocks of the Bluff district are conveniently divided into two main divisions, distinguished here as 4 and B. These divisions are — A, the igneous rocks; B, the meta- morphic rocks. Each of these divisions may be further divided into classes, the rocks of each class in the division being entirely distinct. The igneous rocks, Division A. consist of — I, igneous rocks of plutonic origin; II, igneous rocks of hypabyssal origin. The term " hypabyssal ' is here used in the same sense as Harker* uses it, hypabyssal rocks corresponding in a general way, though not precisely, with the group " gangesteine or " dyke-rocks " of Rosenbusch. The metamorphic rocks, Division B, contain two classes, as follows : I, acid metamorphic rocks; II, basic metamorphic rocks. An attempt will be made below to show that there is an intimate connection between the acid metamorphic rocks (Division B, Class I) and the igneous rocks of hypabyssal origin, the metamorphic rocks being derived from the hypabyssal ones. This is not the view taken by previous investigations — e.g., Button and Park — but the present theory is the outcome of the examination of material that had not previously been brought under inspection. The point will be fully discussed in the course of this paper. The relationship among some classes and the absence of relationship among others thus briefly mentioned makes it difficult to suggest any perfectly satisfactory scheme of classification. DIVISION A. THE IGNEOUS ROCKS. Glass 1. — Igneous Bocks of Plutonic Origin. 1. Norite. As has been stated above, igneous rock of plutonic origin forms the backbone of Bluff Peninsula. The mass is believed to lie essentially one throughout as regards chemical and mineralogical composition. This Parkt definitely states to be the case. The present paper will deal with the rock as it is typified in Bluff Hill. There are numerous outcrops at the surface, as well as a continuous outcrop at sea-level along the south-east end and the south-west side of the range, except in the rare intervals occupied by sandy beaches. From specimens collected from different parts of the mass some thirty sections have been prepared and examined. Hand-specime?i (specific gravity, 2"68). — The rock varies somewhat in grain in different parts of the mass, though this valuation is apparently not systematic. In some parts it tends towards a pegmatitic structure; sometimes a dense black rock of fine grain is found. The typical rock is a rather coarse-grained type, speckled black and white. With a lens the black grains may be distinguished as pyroxene or hornblende, according to the characteristic cleavage. The white specks are feldspar. * Harker, A., " Petrology for Students," 4th ed. (1908), p. 108. t Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., " The Geology of Bluff Peninsula." 1887, p. 89. Wild.— Geology of the Bluff. 321 Under the Microscope. — Examination of thin sections shows the rock to be composed essentially of feldspar, augite, hypersthene, and horn- blende, with magnetite as an accessory constituent. The feldspar, which on an average forms half the rock, occurs usually in plates, ranging in size up to 1*4 mm. long by 1 mm. broad. It also is found in irregular- pieces enclosed ophitically by the feno-magnesian minerals. It is a triclinic variety, showing both coarse and fine albite lamellation. The extinction-angle ranges up to 27°, this angle being the one recorded most frequently in sections as nearly perpendicular as possible to the albite lamellae parallel to the brachipinacoid. According to the statistical method of Michel Levy for determining the feldspars, this angle denotes labradorite. In some cases, however, an angle of 16° in found on each side of the trace of the twinning-plane. In such a basic rock this figure indicates andesine, and Thomson thinks this is the prevailing species, though he affirms that " probably more than one variety of feldspar is present." Undulose extinction and the bending of twin lamellae in a number of the crystals give evidence of considerable crushing. Of the ferro-magnesian minerals hornblende is the most prominent. It frequently occurs as a fringe of varying breadth bordering the crystals and masses of pyroxene. In these cases it is a pale-green colour, and rather feebly pleochroic on the inner margin, but in the outer portion of the fringe it becomes more compact and denser in colour and pleochroism, changing from yellow-green to browny green. Often, again, the hornblende occurs in masses apparently independent of the pyroxenes. Under these circumstances it is compact, brownish- green in colour, and strongly pleochroic. Thomson* mentions that " the cores of the hornblende crystals generally consist of a paler variety in optical continuity with the green exteriors, so that the former pre- sence of pyroxene is suggested.'' This point will be further discussed (pp. 331-2). Both monoclinic and orthorhombic pyroxenes are to be seen. Augite occurs in rounded grains and in irregularly shaped crystals. It is colourless and non-pleochroic, and, where fresh, shows brilliant polariza- tion colours of the second order. But often it is cloudy, and shows signs of decomposition, which, no doubt, ultimately gives rise to the particles of chlorite recorded by Huttonf and Thomson.* Diallage also occurs, though somewhat sparingly. It encloses minute tabular scales of a reddish-brown colour, arranged parallel to the basal plane, giving it the schiller structure, which distinguishes it from augite. The orthorhombic pyroxene is hypersthene. In some cases it exhibits schiller structure like the diallage, but it may be distinguished from the latter mineral by its pleochroism and by the fact that it extinguishes straight. These characters also distinguish it from augite. The pleo chroisrn showed a or a brownish red, b or b reddish yellow, c or c green, pale watery colours in each case. To determine definitely that the mineral was not enstatite, many sections were examined in convergent light to secure an optic axial interference figure, and thus find its optical character, but these attempts were unsuccessful. However, the pleo- * Thomson, J. A., " Notes on some Rocks from Parapara, Bluff Hill, and Waikawa," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42 (1910), p. 33. t Hutton, F. W., " Notes on the Eruptive Rocks of Bluff Peninsula," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23 (1891), p. 353. 11— Trans. 322 Transact ion .t. chroism is usually accepted as sufficiently distinctive. After hornblende, hypersthene is the chief ferro-magnesian constituent in this rock. It occurs in rather elongated crystals, some of which show cross-fractures, and in smaller rounded grains. Magnetite is fairly abundant, in irregular masses, moulded on the other minerals. Thomson* thinks the iron-ore is probably ilmenite. He gives no reason, however, for thinking it to be ilmenite rather than magnetite. Hamiltonf noticed considerable disturbance of the magnetic needle while he was in this district, but, as ilmenite also affects the magnetic needle, Hamilton's observations do not point conclusively to magnetite, though they are certainly significant. Order of Crystallization. — Observation of the form and arrangement of the minerals in this rock does not support the theory suggested by Rosenbusch as to the normal order of crystallization. According to his theory, magnetite should have been the first mineral to crystallize, and in sections there should be at least some well-shaped crystals idiomorphic towards the other constituents. Next in order the ferro-magnesian minerals should have separated out, forming crystals idiomorphic towards the feldspar, the last mineral to crystallize. The actual sequence of events, however, seems to have been as follows : First a small amount of feldspar crystallized out, for crystals of this mineral are enclosed in both magnetite and hornblende ; then the remaining feldspar and the ferro-magnesian minerals crystallized out, and sometimes the latter constituents show an approach to idiomorphism, while sometimes the opposite is the case ; finally magnetite separated from the magma, and formed interstitially. In accordance with recent theories of the dependence of structure on eutectic relations,! the explanation would be as follows: Feldspar was originally in excess, and an amount crystallized out sufficient to reduce the ratio of feldspar to ferro-magnesian minerals to a eutectic propor- tion. These minerals then crystallized together until a eutectic propor- tion between them and the magnetite was arrived at, when all crystallized together, but since a large percentage of the rock was already in a crystalline state the magetite had little chance of becoming idiomorphic. The Origin of the Hornblende. — The Rev. H. Baron in conversation with Captain Hutton§ long ago expressed the opinion that all the horn- blende in this rock is of secondary origin. This opinion receives support in the fact that very many of the pyroxene crystals are bordered by a rim of hornblende, which first appears as a narrow fringe, pale green in colour, and rather faintly pleochroic. This fringe increases in width at the expense of the pyroxene, and as it widens it increases in depth of colour and in intensity of pleochroism. Finally the pyroxene is entirely replaced by amphibole. The examination of a very few sections shows this change in all its stages. These observations show definitely that at least a large amount of the hornblende is secondary. * Thomson, J. A., " Notes on some Rocks from Parapara, Bluff Hill, and Waikawa," Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 42 (1910), p. 33. f Hamilton, " Notes on the Geology of the Bluff District," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 19 (1886', p. 452. % Vogt, J. H. L., l> Physikalische-chemische Gesetze der Kristallisation folge in Eruptivgesteine," Isch. min. u. petr. Mitt. 24, p. 437, 1905. § Hutton, P. W., " Corrections of the Names of some New Zealand Rocks," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 31 (1899), p. 484. Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 323 The inference that all the hornblende in this rock is secondary i.s supported by descriptions of similar areas in various parts of the world. Such areas have been described by Irving* and by Williamsf in America, by Phillips^ in Cornwall, by Reusch§ in Norway, by Lehmann|| in Saxony, by Beckell in Lower Austria, by Wadsworth** and by Hawesff in America, and more recently by HarkerfJ in the west of Scotland. As regards the causes that produced the alteration of the pyroxene little is yet known. The experiments of Mitscherlich and Berthier (1824), Gustav Rose (1831), and Professors Fouge and Michel Levy, of Paris, and the recent researches of Vogt, Joly, Cusack, Doelter, Brun, Day, Allen, and others have shown that augite appears to be the stable form at high temperatures and hornblende at low temperatures. From this it may be assumed that any condition tending to facilitate molecular readjustment at ordinary temperatures must necessarily tend to facilitate the change from augite to hornblende. These considerations inclined Williams§§ to ascribe the uralitization of some rocks to the action of great pressure, such as might be exerted by the upheaval of mountains, and Lehrnann|| and HatchWl readied similar- conclusions. Subsequently, however, Williamsf decided that, though pressure may, and doubtless does in many instances, assist in the para- morphism of pyroxene in rocks, it cannot in all cases be regarded as even a necessary adjunct. In the case of the plutonic mass of rock forming Bluff Hill the follow- ing points are put forward merely as suggestions. The magma was intruded at sufficient depth to allow of the formation of a holocrystalline mass by slow cooling. At the temperature of the mass augite was formed. When ordinary temperature was reached the augite would tend to change to hornblende if conditions should change so as to induce unstable equilibrium in the crystals so far as the molecular forces were concerned. Such a change of conditions would possibly be brought about by either or all of the following : — (1.) Diminution of pressure by denudation of the overlying rocks. This undoubtedly took place, but whether it would tend to induce molecular readjustment is a matter for speculation. (2.) Movements of depression and elevation described above. (3.) Lateral pressure due to the folding to which the whole country was submitted in late Palaeozoic or early Mesozoic times. * Irving, R. ()., " Origin of the Hornblende of the Crystalline Rocks of the North- western States," Am. Journ. Sci., vol. 26 (1883), p. 32. t Williams, G. H., " The Gabbros and Associated Hornblende Rocks occurring in the Neighbourhood of Baltimore, Md.," U.S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 28, 1886. % Phillips, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 32 (1876), p. 155, and vol. 34 (1878), p. 471. § Reusch, " Die fossilienfuhrenden krystallinen Schiefer von Bergen in Norwegen," German translation by R. Baldauf, 1883, p. 35. |l Lehmann, " Untersuchungen iiber die Entstehung der altkrystallinischen Schiefer- gcsteine," p. 190; Bonn, 1884. •j Becke, " Mineralogische und petrographische Mittheilungen," vol. 4, p. 357, 1882. ** Wadsworth, "Bulletin Museum Comparative Zoology of Harvard College, Cam- bridge," vol. 7, p. 46. ft Hawes, G. W., Am. Journ. Sci. (3), vol. 12, p. 136. %X Harker, A., Mem. Geol. Surv., Tert. Ign. Rocks Skye (1904), p. 319. §§ Williams, G. H., Am. Journ. Sci. (3\ 28, p. 266 (1884). If If "Mineralogische und petrographische Mittheilungen." vol. 7. p. 83 (1885). 11* 324 Transactions. In this paper the name " norite ' has been adopted in accordance with the views of Harker and Rosenbusch. As has been shown above, the Bluff rock consists essentially of a soda-lime feldspar, a monoclinic pyroxene, and an orthorhombic pyroxene. Both kinds of pyroxene are changing to hornblende, and in the case of crystals, where the change is completed, it is impossible to sajr whether the hornblende is derived from orthorhombic or from monoclinic pyroxene. However, so far as may be judged from what remains, the orthorhombic variety is dominant, and the rock is therefore a norite rather than a gabbro. Chemical Composition. — If the chemical composition be appealed to, as some authors demand, it also will be found to support the classification here suggested. Si02 Ti02 A1203 Fe203 FeO MnO CaO MgO K20 Na20 H20 and loss on ignition 48-10 20-85 4-85 10-55 Trace. 715 3-99 0-63 2-73 I -00 Total Specific gravity. 2-68 99-85 2. Basic Secretion. At Starling Point the norite encloses a mass of a dark-coloured rather tine-grained rock. Specific gravity — 3'035. The size of the mass cannot be made out definitely, as there is a coating of soil at this locality. The outcrop is small, being exposed in a cutting about half a chain in length and 6 ft. or 8 ft. deep. But, judging by the position of the outcrops of norite around it, the surface extent of the mass cannot be more than a chain in diameter. As has already been stated, the norite varies much in texture from point to point, and in some cases approaches to a material similar to that now under description. This led Hutton to describe several varieties of rock from the district. Under the microscope the rock presents a similar assemblage of minerals to the norite, but there is a very noteworthy increase in the proportion of ferro-magnesian minerals. Hornblende forms mere than half the rock, magnetite is abundant, there is a little pyroxene, and a basic plagioclase, sometimes containing needles of apatite, forms the rest. There is an approach to a rough gneissic structure. Structure and Order of Crystallization. — The rock lias a coarsely schistose or gneissic structure, and this tends to obscure the order of crystallization, so that it cannot be made out with any degree of accuracy. Hornblende seems to dominate, but the edges of its crystals are extremely ragged. In fact, no mineral can be said to be idiomorphic, and the Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 325 manner in which the crystals of the principal three constituents are intergrown suggests simultaneous crystallization. The fact that there is no sign of graphic structure, however, and the tendency towards gneissic structure that is observable suggest recrystallization. Park,* in 1887, described this mass as an inclusion of the meta- morphic rocks in the norite. But this explanation now seems improbable, as a glance at the following list of analyses will show. A and C are the results obtained above on an analysis of the hornblende schist and the norite respectively. They are repeated here for comparison with B, an analysis of a specimen of the mass under discussion. A. B. C. Si02 .. .. 6100 44-40 48-10 Al.,0, .. 13-66 20-55 20-85 Fe203 2-43 6-57 4-85 FeO .. .. 10-83 9-26 10-55 CaO .. 7-35 11-50 7-15 MgO .. 1-44 5-21 3-99 K,0 .. 0-52 019 0-63 Na20 1-90 114 2-73 Loss on ignitio l .. .. 1-20 1-00 I 00 Totals .. 100-33 99-82 w-xr, Specific gravity 2-56 3035 2-68 The analysis shows that the inclusion is more basic even than the norite, so that it cannot be considered merely as an included mass of hornblende schists. For the same reason it is not likely to be due to the complete absorption of a portion of the schist in the norite magma. A more probable explanation of the occurrence of this mass depends on the theory of differentiation, to which much importance is attached by many modern geologists. Thus Harkerf says, "We are left free to conjecture that the settling-down of crystals, which seems to be generally ineffective in a sill or laccolite, may give rise to very important differen- tiation in a large intercrustal magma-basin, cooling at an extremely slow rate. Various special features observable in igneous rocks are susceptible of interpretation on this hypothesis, and serve in a measure to support it. The dark basic secretions or ' clots ' wdiich occur sporadic- ally in many granites and other rocks may be taken as an example. These consist in general of the same mineral as the normal rock, but are much enriched in the darker and denser minerals or in those of earlier crystallization. It seems reasonable to regard them as portions picked up from a lower stratum of the magma-reservoir, where crystals of these minerals accumulated by settling down in the magma." This theory certainly seems to explain the case in point, where we have an inclusion which, compared with the norite, shows a decrease of 3*7 per cent, of silica, and a total increase of 6 per cent, in the oxides of the banes iron, calcium, and magnesium. Its specific gravity, also, is 3*035, compared with 2' 68 in the case of the norite. * Park, J.. "" Notes on the Geology of Bluff Peninsula,'" Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv.> 18S7— S8 ry 7*> fHarker, A., "The Natural History of Igneous Rocks," p. 322, 190S». 326 Transaction s . Class II. — Igneous Rocks of Hypabyssal Origin. 1. Porphyry. The typical rock is found across the channel of the harbour, opposite Starling Point, where it forms a fringe bordering the tongue of sand which bears the name of Tawaewae Point, and which is really the north head of the harbour. The outcrop extends below low-water mark, but above that line its width is only 15 or 20 yards. The rock is traversed by joints which divide it into more or less oblong blocks of a variety of sizes. One set of these joints strikes approximately north-west to south-east; the other set crosses at right angles. The dip varies from 0° to 30° X.E. The total length of the outcrop is about 16 chains. II and- specimen (specific gravity = 2"5). — The rock is dense, and when freshly broken is of a light-grey colour. The weathered surface, how- ever, is of a dirty brownish-yellow colour, and from it project numerous crystals of feldspar. Under the Microscope. — Thin sections show phenocrysts of feldspar in a groundmass consisting of feldspar, quartz, hornblende, and mica. Magnetite also occurs, partly in masses of irregular size and shape, and partly in small crystals. The phenocrysts of feldspar vary considerably in size, some going up to as much as 2'4mm. by 1*2 mm., but the average size is 0*9 mm. by 0'6mm. They are chiefly orthoclase, and show twinning after the Carls- bad law in nearly every case. Less common are phenocrysts of a plagio- clase variety. These show the albite twinning very poorly developed, and I have no section in which an absolutely satisfactory identification may be made. The available evidence, however, points to albite. None of the phenocrysts are entirely fresh, while many bear in a marked degree the signs of decomposition, and all stages between the two extremes are represented. The first stage is a cloudiness which spreads irregularly over the crystal, and associated with it is the deposi- tion of a very fine dark-coloured opaque dust. Then appear minute pale colourless microlites, which as they increase in size assume a pale-green colour, and are distinguishable as hornblende. As the microlites increase in size and number, larger and more definitely shaped crystals of mag- netite appear. The needles of hornblende grow at the expense of the feldspar, for they penetrate through and through the crystals of this mineral, and also appear in great number round the edges of crystals, where they finally arrange themselves in aggregates. As mineral change becomes more and more complete small grains of quartz and flakes of brown mica appear. Finally we see a cloudy space, recognizable by its size and shape as the ghost of a feldspar, containing needles of horn- blende, grains of magnetite, and quartz and flakes of biotite. The groundmass is partly crystalline and partly glassy. The crystal- line portion consists of grains of feldspar and of quartz, crystals of hornblende, and small flakes of brown mica. The grains of feld.spar are rather rounded in shape, much decomposed, and many show undulose extinction. The decomposition is associated with the deposition of the fine dust above mentioned and with the formation of hornblende. Quartz is in rounded grains, ranging up to 0"08 mm. in diameter. Chemical Composition. — It was found impossible to obtain an analysis of a true porphyry similar to that of the Tewaewae Point rock. Com- parisons with rocks from American and European localities are niven A. B. C. D. 67-60 71-33 73-50 68-65 0-55 0-20 12-29 . 12-55 14-87 18-31 3-15 ■; 3-75 0-95 0-56 4-88 0-85 0-42 0-08 ■ 0-04 003 Sp. 2-90 0-94 2-14 1-00 1-08 . 0-58 0-29 0-12 2-16 4-20 3-56 4-74 5-67 ; 4-52 3-46 4-85 0-15 ■•- '■ 0-42 0-90 0-83 Wild.— Geolor,!/ of the Bluff. 327 below. B is a type mineralogically similar to the Bluff porphyry; C and D are analyses of typical porphyries, one from ' Analyses of Rocks," U.S. Geol. Surv.. the other from Rosenbusch. Si02 Ti02 A120, Fe203 FeO MnO CaO MgO K20 Na20 Loss on ignition Totals .. .. 99-88 99-73 100-12 99-35 Specific gravity, 2-5. A. Porphyry, Tewaewae Point, Bluff. B. Porphyry, Missouri. Composed principally of orthoclase and quartz, with some microline, plagioclase, and biotite, and minor accessory minerals. ("Analyses of Rocks," U.S. Geol. Surv., F. W. Clarke, 1904.) C. Porphyry, Mount Zion. Contains orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, biotite, apatite, magnetite, and zircon. (Anal., L. G. Eakins.) D. Alkaligranitporphyr mit Einsprengl. von Orthoklas und Oligo- klas; grundmasse wesentlich Quartz und Anorthoklas. (Rosenbusch, H., "Elemente der Gesteinslehre," 1901, p. 205.) A study of these analyses shows that compared with typical porphyries the Bluff type is relatively rich in the oxides of the bases calcium, mag- nesium, and iron, and correspondingly poor in silica, while the pro- portion of alumina and alkalies is about normal. Further, it compares favourably with the analyses of the quartz-porphyrites except as regards the percentage of alumina. In other words, the rock is mineralogically a porphyry, but chemically it tends towards the porphyrites. We conclude, therefore, that from the evidence of both chemical and mineralogical composition the rock is a porphyry which has been enriched with the bases calcium, magnesium, and iron. Further considerations are necessary before the method of this enrich- ment can be studied. (See p. .334, "The Origin of the Hornblende Schists.") DIVISION B. THE METAMORPHIC ROCKS. These are found along the southern shore of the harbour. The out- crop is exposed between the levels of high and low water. Above high- water mark, as has been pointed out above, is a plain of marine denudation covered now by recent alluvium. On the other hand, the lowest ebb of the tide fails to disclose the limits of the outcrop. The main outcrop begins at Henderson Street, and strikes 15° S. of E. for a distance of 15 chains. The strike then varies to E.S E., and continues so for other 22 chains, when a southerly bend of the coast cuts off the outcrop. 328 Transactions. The rocks are traversed by numerous nearly vertical foliation-planes, which divide them up into layers of varying thickness. The joints have been mistaken for bedding-planes by previous investigators, who have recorded a dip varying from 84° to vertical. There is another outcrop of the rocks further up the harbour, at Green Point, but here they are less metamorphic. They strike west- north-west to east-south-east. The rocks are readily divided into two main kinds. One is a coarse dark-coloured rock consisting, as may be seen in the hand-specimen, almost entirely of hornblende. It forms the basic class of this paper. In the other rocks hornblende is also apparent, but no well-formed crystals may been seen in hand-specimens, as the rocks are much finer grained and more schistose in character. They form the acid class in this paper. Glass I. — Acid Metamorphic Rocks. These rocks vary much macroscopically in the amount of hornblende and biotite, but under the microscope all prove to be varieties of horn- blende scist. 1. Hornblende, Schist. Two complete series of sections were made from varieties of rock obtained by crossing the strike at right angles. Series A was obtained along the line marked AB on the map (fig. 2). Series B was obtained along the line CD. Notes of the microscopical examination of series A are appended. A 1. - -Low-water mark, 157 ft. from high-water mark. Feldspar phenocrysts fairly abundant; cloudy and decomposed; some contain needles of hornblende. Hornblende in small crystals; especially nume- rous in the vicinity of feldspars; parallel arrangement. A little biotite. Grains of quartz, magnetite, and feldspar form groundmass. A 2.-97 ft. Much the same as A 1. A 3. — 67 ft. Phenocrysts of feldspar, some showing Carlsbad twin- ning, decomposing as in A 1 and A 2. Increase of hornblende relative to feldspar compared with A 1 and A 2. A little epfdote. Groundmass as before. A 4. — 37 ft. Hornblende still more prominent. Feldspar phenocrysts much smaller and more decomposed. Schistose structure marked. Magnetite abundant in groundmass. A 5. - - 7 ft. Hornblende dominant; longitudinal axes of crystals parallel. No phenocrysts of feldspar. Magnetite abundant. A little epidote. Groundmass grains of feldspar and quartz, feldspar pre- dominant. A 6. — High-water mark. Rock chiefly hornblende. Schistose struc- ture perfectly shown. One section showed remains of a feldspar pheno- cryst. Grains of feldspar, quartz, and magnetite, and other accessories between crystals of hornblende. As will be seen from the map, the B series is actually a continuation of the xV series. It is not necessary to describe the rocks in detail. They are perfectly schistose in structure. Half the rock is hornblende. There are no phenocrysts of feldspar, but the grains of quartz and feldspar in the groundmass are clear, as though due to recrystallization. Biotite is more abundant. Summing up the results of the examination of this series of rocks, we find that — (1) the phenocrysts of feldspar are more and more broken Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 32y down the nearer they are to the plutonic mass; (2) the decomposition of the feldspar phenocrysts corresponds to an increase in the amount of hornblende in the rock. These facts will be made use of when we discuss the origin of rhe hornblende schists (p. 3*34). Chemical Composition . — A sample of specimen No. 4, series A, was submitted to chemical analysis, with the result given in the following table. This analysis probably represents the average composition of the schists, though microscopical examination of sections leads one to expect more acid results in the case of the outer members of the series, and more basic results in the case of those neai-er the norite. Si02 . . TiO Al263 .. Fe203 .. FeO . . MnO . . CaO . . MgO . . K20 .. Na20 . . Loss on ignition . 61-00 13-66 2-43 . 10-83 7-35 . . 1-44 . . 0-52 1-90 1-20 Total Specific gravity, 256. 100-33 Class II. — Basic Metamorphic Rocks. 1. Amphibolite. Parallel with the series of hornblende schists just described is a band of coarse hornblende rock. The outcrop commences at a point 330 ft. from the shore-line measured along the line CD on the map, and extends below the level of low water a distance of 27 ft. Hand-specimen (specific gravity = 2'94). — A coarse-grained black or dark-green rock. The weathered surface is rough on account of the exposure of large crystals of hornblende. A freshly broken specimen shows the bright cleavage surfaces of the hornblende. The rock appears to be almost wholly crystalline, there being but a small quantity of a dark-coloured matrix. There is no appearance of schistosity. Under the Microscope. — The rock contains a very little feldspar in small grains in granular masses of dark hornblende. The rest is horn- blende, a pale watery-green variety, feebly pleochroic, and fibrous in structure, all of which characters identify it as the form known as uralite. Where the fibres of uralite are packed together into large groups it is easy to recognize some of the edges of former crystals of pyroxene, but more commonly the fibres have broken away from the mass, inducing a schistose character. That uralitization has taken place in the amphibolite can be proved in a most satisfactory manner. At Green Point several dykes of a diabase, a rock mineralogieally and chemically similar to but less meta- morphic than this amphibolite, are found, striking north-west to south- east. One of the dykes has suffered to a very considerable extent from the effects of weathering. Tn consequence of this, crystals are found to 330 Transactions. project from the weathered surface, and can readily be removed from the soft matter that encloses them. These crystals exhibit to perfection the form of augite, but when sections of some of them were made they all proved to consist of a core of colourless augite surrounded by a margin of uralite. These facts are of great significance. If the strike of these dykes be continued it is found that they may be expected to appear as outer members of the hornblende-schist series lower down the harbour. There is, therefore, no doubt that the amphibolite is a continuation of these dykes, but that, being in closer proximity to the norite, it has suffered metamorphism and uralitization to a greater degree. No lengthy explanation of the name applied to this rock need be offered, as all authorities use the term for rocks " more or less markedly schistose in which hornblende is the dominant mineral." The chemical composition is given below : — SiO, 49-75 Ti02 A.UO3 .. Fe20, FeO MnO .. MgO .. CaO .. .. •• • - " K.,0 .. Na,0 Loss on ignition . . . . 17-75 514 8-75 3-49 . . 13-20 0-37 2-30 1-00 Total 101-75 Specific gravity, 2-94. The Contact of the Amphibolite and tin. Hornblende Schists. — At the line of junction these two rocks are more easily recognized in hand- specimens than they are under the microscope, for the causes that pro- duced the metamorphism in both tended to bring about an exchange of material between the two. Thus the amphibolite is richer in feldspar where it is in contact with the schists, and the schists are relatively enriched with hornblende. THE PROCESS OF URALITIZATION. So far as I can ascertain, no writer has yet put forward an exact definition of uralite, and there does not seem to be a con- sensus of opinion as to what varieties of secondary hornblende are covered by the term. For instance, Harker,* in discussing the decomposition of augite, says, " Another common alteration is the conversion to hornblende, which may be light green and fibrous (uralite) or deep brown and compact." On the other hand, Williamsf mentions the fact that the uralite fringing the pyroxenes " exhibits a marked tendency to become compact along its outer edge." Again, GeikieJ terms uralitization " the conversion of pvroxene into compact or fibrous horn- blende." * Harker, A., " Petrology for Students." 4th ed. (1908), p. 70. t Williams, G. H., Am. Journ. Sci., vol. 28 (1884), p. 261. % Geikie, "Text-book of Geology." vol. 2, 4th ed. (IOCS), p. 790. Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 331 Nevertheless, since perhaps the majority of authorities give pro- minence in their definition of this mineral to a fibrous or acicular structure, this distinction will be observed in the present paper, and the definition adopted here is as follows : Uralite, pale-green slightly pleochroic fibrous variety of hornblende, derived from pyroxene. The hornblende of the norite, therefore, though of secondary origin, is not in this paper referred to as uralite, for it is a compact variety, rather dark in colour, and strongly pleochroic. Uralite was first described by Gustav Rose from a green porphyritic rock at Mostovaya, near Ekaterinburg, and at Kaminskaya, near Miask, in the Ural Mountains. It has since been observed from many localities. The microscopical study of rocks has shown the process of " uralitiza- tion " to be very common, and some authors regard many hornblendic rocks and schists to represent altered pyroxene rocks on a large scale. The crystals obtained from the dyke at Green Point afford abundant and excellent material for the investigation of the changes that take place when augite is converted into uralite. These crystals are usually short and stout, and show an equal development of the unit prisms (110), tin' orthopinacoids (100), and the clinopinacoids (010), while the usual terminal faces, the plus pyramids (111), are also perfectly formed. Twinned forms, with the orthopinacoid (100) as twinning and composi- tion plane, are also quite common. The results obtained from an examination of sections of some of these crystals cut in various directions will now be given. The Core of Augite : The internal core of augite is colourless, except where recrystallization has commenced. Cleavage : The usual cleavage-lines are not very distinct in sections in the zone of the prisms, though they are seen well enough in cross- sections. What is very distinct in sections parallel to the ortho- and clino-pinacoids is a series of parallel lines which intersect the cleavage- lines at angles approximating 70° in sections parallel to the clinopina- coid, and at right angles in sections parallel to the orthopinacoid. These lines thus represent a series of parting-planes parallel to the base (001), a not uncommon feature in augite. Refractive Index : A rough surface in polarized light indicates the usual high value. Pleochroisin : Not noticeable. Crossed nicols : Interference colours : Bright tints of second order. Extinction : In sections || a (100) - 37°. b (010) = 0°. Alteration- products tvithin the Mineral. — These are feldspar and hornblende in about equal amount and a little olivine. The decom- position begins at points on the cleavage-lines and proceeds most rapidly in the direction of them. The hornblende is dark green and strongly pleochroic. It extinguishes when the cleavage-lines of the augite arc parallel to the vibration-directions of the nicols. The feldspar extin- guishes at small angles. Olivine occurs in small grains; it is very rare. There is no trace of calcite, epidote, or chlorite, minerals that are commonly reported as associated with such changes as are here described. The fact that hornblende and feldspar are always associated as decomposition-products in the interior of the crystals suggests that the material derived from the decomposing augite is divided between 332 Transactions. them, the calcium and magnesium going towards the formation of the one, the alkalies and alumina to the other mineral. The internal decomposition of the augite seems in no way associated with the formation of uralite on its margins. The border of uralite is quite distinct, and shows no gradation towards the products of decom- position in the interior of the crystals. Th* Fringe of Uralite. — Dana says in his " System of Mineralogy," " The crystals, when distinct, retain the form of the original mineral, but have the cleavage of amphibole. The change usually commences on the surface, transforming the outer layer into an aggregation of slender amphibole prisms, parallel in position to each other and to the parent pyroxene. When the change is complete the entire crystal is made up of a bundle of amphibole needles or fibres." Present Observations. — The fringe of uralite varies in width with the size of the crystal, indicating that the amount of change varies as the surface exposed. Usually, however, it is noticed that the change has taken place more rapidly in the direction of the vertical axis than in the other directions, for the fringe bordering the terminations of the crystals is wider than that bordering prismatic faces. Statements about the parallel arrangement of the prisms of uralite do not find support in an examination of the sections of the Green Point crystals, for the fibres are seen to be arranged in radiating groups which show7 no signs of systematic arrangement. Between crossed nicols some of these groups, or parts of the groups, are extinguished, while other groups are not. Each fibre extinguishes at an angle that varies from 15° to 18° to the direction of the longest axis, so that a dark wave traverses the group as the nicols are rotated. In sections parallel to the clinopinacoid the groups commonly make an angle of 45° with the edge of the crystal, measured either in a + or — direction. In sections parallel to the macropinacoid and to the base these groups are commonly parallel, and the fibres show straight extinction. This seems to indicate that the fibres are arranged in fan-shaped aggregates parallel to the clinopinacoid, and making angles of about 45° with the macropinacoid. Rosenbusch* states that the fibres are parallel, and that the vertical axis is the same in the parent mineral as in the new one. Also, that in the case of a twinned crystal the fibres of uralite stand in twinned position on opposite sides of the twinning-plane. With regard to this latter statement, an occurrence in one section shows quite a different state of affairs. The twinning-plane is distinct enough in the augite, but disappears completely on the verge of the uralite friuge. Chemical Changes. — So far as present knowledge goes, the composi- tion of uralite is believed to conform nearly to that of actinolite. The most prominent change in passing from the original pyroxene is that corresponding to the difference existing between the two species in general — that is, an increase in the amount of magnesia and a decrease in that of calcium. Analyses of the Bluff minerals are compared below with results given in Dana's " System of Mineralogy." In the absence of other means of separating the materials the following process was * Rosenbusch-Iddings, " Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals," 4th ed. (1900), p. 271. Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 333 resorted to : Having made a sufficient number of sections to ascertain the thickness of the covering of uralite, crystals were ground down on all faces to remove this portion. The remainder provided material for an analysis of the core of augite. cleaved, and the analysis of these position of the uralite. From other crystals thin flakes were was taken as representing the com- A. B. C. 1). Si02 . . 49-95 49-80 50-87 52-82 A1203 5-32 6-21 4-57 3-21 Fe„0, 3-57 4-26 0-97 2-07 FeO 7-85 9-61 1-96 2-71 MnO . . . , 0-15 0-28 CaO . . 23-45 14-80 24-44 15-39 MgO 7-57 12-39 15-37 19-04 K20 Na20 " " I Undet, Undet. [0-50 10-22 0-69 0-90 Loss on ignition 0-36 2-50 1-44 . 2-40 Totals . . 98-07 99-57 100-49 99-51 Specific gravity 3-00 2-6315 3-181 3-003 A. Augite. From dyke of amphibolite. Bluff. B. Uralite. Forming exterior of A. C. Central portion of pyroxene crystal, Templeton, Quebec. (Anal., Harrington, Geol. Canada, p. 21, 1879.) D. Amphibole forming exterior of C. (Anal., Harrington, Geol. Canada, p. 21, 1879.) These analyses emphasize the change in the relative amounts of magnesia and calcium. There is also in the case of the uralite a rise in the percentage of alumina and iron-oxides corresponding to a fall in the total percentage of magnesia and calcium. This is what we might expect in the case of a mineral derived from another mineral by hydro-chemical processes. The process of uralitization is commonly reported to be accompanied by the separation of calcite and by the formation of epidote.* In the case of the Green Point minerals the augite un- doubtedly loses calcium, but neither calcite nor epidote are seen as decomposition-products. Both sets of analyses emphasize the fact that the change of augite to uralite is not strictly a case of paramorphism, though usually so desig- nated. The causes that led to the production of uralite are discussed later under the heading " The Origin of the Amphibolite." III. Relationship between the various Rock Types. It has already been stated that there is a close relationship existing between the porphyry and the hornblende-schist series. The relationship between the amphibolite and the hornblende schists also requires explana- tion, and it must also be shown what part the intrusion of the norite * See, e.g., "Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals," Rosen - busch-Iddings, 4th ed. (1900), p. 271. 334 Transaction*. has taken in producing or altering the various rock types. Perhaps the best way of opening up these questions will be to discuss independently the origin of the metamorphic rocks, and a subsequent paragraph will deal with the relative age of all the rock types. An attempt will now be made to deal with these problems. A. Origin of the Hornblende Schists. To an observer traversing the schist area described above, the solution of the problem seems evident. The rocks are hornblende schists, apparently well bedded, and inclined at various high angles. Intruded into them is a mass of igneous rock. The suggestion at once occurs that the rocks are the result of the metamorphism of a series of sediments, produced by the igneous intrustion. Hutton* first put forward this view in 1872, referring to the rocks as slates and sandstones, some argillaceous and some arenaceous. Parkf made similar statements in 1887, and added, " Tewaewae Point, on the mainland opposite to the Pilot-station, appears also to be formed of sedimentary rocks, but I had no opportunity of determining this." This is the view at present held as to the origin of the schists. A visit to Tewaewae Point, however, and an examination of the rocks that actually do occur there, at once raises grave doubts as to the correct- ness of this view. For there we find not a sandstone, but a typical porphyry. Microscopical examination shows evidence of strain in the undulose extinction of some of the feldspars, and metamorphism is indicated in other ways. The feldspar phenocrysts are cloudy, they have irregular outlines, and new minerals are closely associated with their decomposition. The chief of these are hornblende, mica, and iron- ores. The rocks are traversed by joints striking in the same direction as those found in the schists. The outcrop disappears below low-water mark, and presumably reappears on the other side of the harbour. At any rate, I have the assurance of the Engineer of the Bluff Harbour Board that rocks outcrop in situ right across the channel. Microscopical examination of the members of the schist series shows that the outermost members contain comparatively large phenocrysts of feldspar. These are much broken down, and are quite surrounded by microlites and crystals of hornblende. Associated with this is the separation of iron-ores, especially magnetite. As the norite is ap- proached these residual feldspars are found to decrease in size, until finally with the innermost series they disappear completely. This gradual disappearance of the feldspars is found to correspond to a gradual increase in the amount of ferro-magnesian minerals, especially hornblende and iron-ores. The groundmass of the porphyry consists of feldspar and quartz, and small flakes of hornblende and brown mica. The groundmass of the schist is essentially similar. The feldspar grains have been considerably comminuted, while an opposite process has taken place in the case of the hornblende and mica. The schists also contain secondary minerals, such as apatite and epidote. * Hutton, P. W.. " Report on Geology of Southland," Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv , 1871-72, p. 89. fPark. J.. "The Geology of Bluff Peninsula," Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1887-88 •p. 72. Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 335 The analyses of the porphyry, the norite, and an intermediate member of the schist series are repeated here for comparison. Porphyry. Schist. Norite. Si02 .. •• •• 67-60 61-00 48-10 Al263 Fe20, FeO CaO MgO K,0 Na20 Loss on ignition . . 12-29 13-66 20-85 3-15 2-43 4-85 .. , 4-88 10-83 10-55 2-90 7-35 7-15 . . " 1-08 1-44 3-99 216 0-52 0-63 . . '.'.'. 5-67 1-90 2-73 . . " 015 1-20 100 Totals .. .. 99-88 100-33 99-85 Specific gravity . . . . • . • • 2-68 These considerations — namely, the held relations of the rocks and their mineralogical and chemical compositions — lead to the conclusion that the hornblende schists are derived from the porphyry by meta- morphism induced by the intrusion of the norite. The porphyry has become sheared by enormous pressure, so that it has become foliated, and its original character is masked. The thermal metamorphism of igneous rocks has received compara- tively little attention, and geological literature available to me presents no comparisons with the area to which this paper refers, and gives no description of the chemical changes that take place in similar circum- stances. In the case under consideration the principal changes to be accounted for are the destruction of the phenocrysts of feldspar in the porphyry, the devitrification of the glassy portions of its groundmass, and the great increase in the amount of the ferro-magnesian constituents. The first two points can be explained by the ordinary processes of hydro-, thermo-, and dynamo-metamorphism, all of which would be active at the time of the intrusion of the norite. The water would be partly magmatic and partly meteoric. The third point, however, involves the supply of large quantities of calcium, magnesium, and iron for the formation of the ferro-magnesian minerals, for the supply in the original porphyry was by no means sufficient, and, in any case, the chemical analyses show that a large quantity has been introduced. The norite we may at once presume was the store from which the supply of these elements was derived, for the norite magma is very rich in them. Transference of Material from the Norite to the Porphyry . — Perco- lating water is universally recognized as a most potent agent, especially at such high temperatures as would obtain in the case of a plutonic intrusion. The small percentage of water in schists — 1 per cent, by weight or 2 per cent, by volume — is held to be sufficient to account for all the recrystallization that has taken place in rocks that are completely metamorphosed. The solubility of minerals increases greatly when they are in a state of strain. All these facts are well attested. 336 Transaction*. All the conditions for solution and recrystallization were abundantly present in the case under consideration. The intrusion of the norite produced a high state of strain in the porphyry. There is still evidence of this in the strain shadows observable in the feldspar phenocrysts at Tewaewae Point, and the strain must have been much greater in rocks nearer the intrusion. This is shown in the schists by the number of shearing-planes, often but a few inches apart. The temperature of the intruded mass must have been very high, and the cooling must have been prolonged, for the norite is holocrystalline and of coarse grain. Water would be present in sufficient amount, as percolated meteoric water in the porphyry perhaps, but more probably the supply would be the magmatic waters from the norite itself. B. The Origin of the Amphibolite. Of amphibolites Harker* says, " The name ( amphibolite ' has often been applied to rocks, usually more or less markedly schistose, in which hornblende is the dominant mineral. Many of them are doubtless the results of dynamic action on diorites, and sometimes on dolerites and gabbros." Teallf describes the formation of a hornblende schist from a dolerite (or diabase) from two dykes which occur in the Archaean gneiss of the north-west of Scotland, near the Village of Scour ie. A comparison of his analyses with that of the Bluff amphibolite is instructive: — Si02 Ti02 A1203 Fe,03 FeO MgO CaO K20 Na20 H20 CO. Totals A. B. 0. . . . . 47-45 49-78 49-75 . . 1-47 2-22 . . . . 14-83 1313 17-75 2-47 4-35 5-14 14-71 11-71 8-75 . . 500 5-40 3-49 . . 8-87 8-92 13-20 . . 0-99 1-05 0-37 . . 2-97 2-39 2-30 . . 1-00 1-14 1-00 0-36 0-10 . 100-12 10019 101-75 Specific gravity 3105 3-111 A. Dolerite (diabase?), Scourie, north-west Scotland. B. Hornblende schist derived from A. C. Amphibolite, dyke, Bluff, derived from diabase. Teall's conclusions are: "(1) That the hornblende schist of the Scourie dykes has been developed from a dolerite by causes operating after the consolidation of the dolerite, and that the metamorphosis ha^ * Harker, A.. " Petrology for Students," 4th ed. (1008), p. 326. t Teall, J. J. H., " On the Metamorphosis of Dolerite into Hornblende Schist " Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 41 (1885), p. 142. Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 337 been accompanied by a molecular rearrangement of the augite ami feldspar ; and (2) that the molecular rearrangement has in certain cases taken place without the development of foliation." Other cases of the formation of hornblende schist from igneous rock have been described by Allport,* who, in his summary, expresses the opinion that " hornblende schists may be metamorphosed igneous rocks, some being derived from dolerites or gabbros, while others are very probably foliated diorites." These considerations, in conjunction with the chemical ami mineralogical composition and the structure of the rock, suggest that our amphibolite is derived from the metamorphism of a basic igneous rock. Furthermore, at Green Point there actually does occur a basic igneous dyke rock consisting chiefly of augite in process of uralitization, and striking in a direction such as to indicate its identity with the amphibolite of the Lower Harbour series. There yet remains to be shown the causes that produced the change to amphibolite. Williamsf points out that augite appears to be the stable form at high temperatures and hornblende at low temperatures. The change, therefore, must have been subsequent to the consolidation of the dykes, for at the time of intrusion the temperature would have been too high to admit of the formation of hornblende. We have, therefore, to supply some conditions such as would facilitate molecular readjustment in the augite crystals after consolidation. Such conditions would certainly attend the intrusion of the norite. We need not assume, however, that the intrusion of the plutonic mass at once produced uralitization of the augite. On the contrary, the heat attend- ing the intrusion may have been so high as to prohibit the formation of hornblende. The important point is that a state of strain was induced throughout the whole intruded mass. Evidence in support of this statement has been given above. This condition of strain would con- tinue to exist after the consolidation of the norite, and when the temperature had again fallen to normal. Then would commence the process of uralitization, and it would be assisted by the percolating waters that aided in the metamorphism of the porphyry. The conclusions here are, therefore, similar to those of Teall in the case of the Scourie dykes. The amphibolite is derived from a diabasic rock by metamorphism that most probably acted after the consolidation of the diabase, and was accompanied by a molecular readjustment of the augite. C . Relative Age of the Rocks. The porphyry and the rocks derived from it — that is, the hornblende schists — are the oldest rocks, for into them the other rocks have been intruded. Of the intrusive rocks, we assume that the diabasic dykes are older than the norite, for the diabase is metamorphosed to an amphibolite, and the metamorphism is presumably connected with the intrusion of the norite. * Allport, " On the Metamorphic Rocks surrounding the Land's End Mass of Granite," Quart. Journ. Geo]. Soc., vol. 32 (1876), p. 407. + Williams, G. H., Am. Journ. Sci.. vol. 28 (1884), p. 259. 338 Transactions. IV . Age of the Kocks. ^4. Age of the Metamorphic Hocks. Hector early classed the hornblende schists in his Te Anau series on account of their lithological resemblance to rocks of the typical area. He referred the Te Anau series to the Devonian period, because in Nelson Province the rocks were thought by him to underlie the Maitai slates, which were classed as of Carboniferous age. Hutton,* in 1875, placed the rocks in his Kaikoura formation, corresponding to the Te Anau series of Hector. Of the age of the Kaikoura formation he says, "As it underlies quite unconformably the Maitai formation, which is of Lower Jurassic or Triassic age, we may consider it for the present as belonging to the Carboniferous period." In 1877 Hectorf placed the Te Anau series in the Maitai system, to which he now ascribed a Triassic age. Subsequently, however, he gave up this correlation, and the Maitai system was referred back to the Carboniferous age. In 1885 Hutton J gave up his name of Kaikoura formation in favour of the nomenclature of Hector. At the same time he adopted the corre- lation of the Geological Survey for the Maitai system. In 1877 Park§ reported on the Bluff Peninsula at the instance of the Geological Survey Department. He says, " There is only one sedi- mentary formation represented in this area, and, although it contains no fossil remains, it is referred to the Te Anau series, to which the mineral character of its rocks have some resemblance." In his latest work Park|| refers to these schists as argillites. In one place (p. 42) he says they are " of the Wangapeka formation (Mana- pouri system, Silurian age) "; in another place (p. 46) they are " argil- lites that belong to Kakanuian or Middle series (Ordovician age) of the Manapouri system." Present Conclusions. — In the entire absence of palaeontological and stratigraphical evidence we have to rely solely on lithological evidence. Previous investigators have apparently failed to recognize the extremely metamorphic state of the schists, and have assigned to them a correlation that their original nature does not justify. The dykes of diabase at Green Point (amphibolite in the schist series), however, are rocks similar to those of the Te Anau series — namely, greenstones, aphanite, breccias, or greenstone breccias in the Te Anau- Wakatipu area, and diabase and diabase breccias in the Nelson District. In the absence of other evidence, therefore, we shall place the basic dykes in the Te Anau series of the Maitai system. The porphyry, therefore, and the hornblende schists will be somewhat older than the basic dykes, but there is at present no reason to remove them altogether from the same series. B. Age of the Intrusive Rocks. The evidence for the age of the plutonic rock is even more scanty. Park, in 1887, thought the mass was of late Carboniferous age, for he * Hutton, F. W., " Geology of Otago " (1875), p. 36. f Hector, Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1877. $ Hutton, F. W., " Sketch of the Geology of New Zealand," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 41, p. 191 et seg. (1885). § Park, J., " The Geology of Bluff Peninsula," Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1887-88, p. 72. || Park, J., " Geology of New Zealand," 1910. Wild. — Geology of the Bluff. 339 mistook the rock for syenite, boulders of which were thought to be found in the Hokonui Hills, of Permian age. It is now known that there is no rock resembling the norite in the Hokonui conglomerates. In his " Geology of New Zealand," recently published, Park makes no definite statement of the age of the norite intrusion, beyond discussing it under his Manapouri system, which includes series of Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian age. There is, in fact, no evidence that accurately fixes the age of this intrusion. We know definitely that it is younger than the intruded rocks — that is, late or post Carboniferous. Very probably the intrusion is connected with the widespread elevation that in Jurassic times enlarged New Zealand to continental dimensions. This movement resulted in rock- folding, and the main mountain-ranges were formed. The folding was associated with the intrusion of igneous rocks in various localities. Art. XXXVI. — The Anatomical Structure of the New Zealand Piperaceae. By Anne F. Ironside, M.A. [Read before the Manaioatu Philosophical Society. 20th April, 1911.] The Piperaceae have formed the subject of much research recently, by Campbell, Johnson, and Hill, to throw light on the relationships of the order, and on the phylogeny of the Angiosperms generally. Hill's preliminary account on seedling-structure in the order appeared in the " New Phytologist," No. 3, 1904 ; the full account appearing in the " Annals of Botany," April, 1906. He gives a comprehensive account of seedling-structure in Piper cornifolium and in many Peperomias, then a description of development in the Saurineae, the whole concluding with certain theoretical conclusions. Hill, in common with Johnson, looks on Peperomia as a reduced genus ; but he suggests that this reduction mav be due to the epiphytic character of many of the species. The object of the present investigation was the examination of the anatomical structure of the mature plant and seedling of the New Zealand representatives of the order, to see what bearing they had on the subject. The work was commenced at the Auckland University College some three years ago. My thanks are due to Professor A. P. W. Thomas for the assistance he rendered me. New Zealand Representatives. There are three representatives of the order : — 1. Macropiper excelsum is either a shrub, forming a common under- growth, or a small tree, often 20 ft. in height, aromatic, glabrous. Stem flexuose, jointed. Leaves 3-5 in. long, broady ovate-cordate, often sharply pointed ; petioles 1-2 in. long, with sheathing base, which serves as a pro- tective organ. Catkins solitary or 2 together, axillary, erect, slender 1-4 in. Ions; ; berries vellow. 340 Transactions. 2. Peperomia EvMicheri (P. Urvilleana of Hooker, 20) is a small creep- ing, succulent herb. Grows in damp woods, on rocks, less often on trees. 3. A second Peperomia, which is probably identical with the Pepe- romia reflexa of Australia and many tropical countries, is not very common in New Zealand, and was not obtainable for investigation. Anatomical Features. Stem. The woody stem of Macropiper excelsum shows the double ring charac- teristic of the woody Piperaceae. In a transverse section we find on the outside periderm ; beneath is cortical tissue. A young stem shows a distinct epidermis, the cells of which are more or less oblong in outline ; immediately below are from 2 to 3 rows of cells, showing tangential divi- sions. It is from these we have the periderm. Below the epidermis, or periderm, is well-marked collenchyma, espe- cially thick behind the bundles. De Bary refers to a similar structure in Piper rugosum : :i The hypodermal layer surrounds the whole stem as a distinct closed, multiseriate (collenchymatous) layer." The collen- chymatous layer consists of from 8 to 10 layers, narrowing to less layers with slightly wider elements between the bundles. Immediately beneath this is a discontinuous ring of sclerenchymatous elements, one or two elements wide, abutting at places on the vascular bundles ; longitudinal sections show these elements to be branched occa- sionally. Then comes the outer ring of bundles, each bundle separated by a wide medullary ray from its neighbour. The bundles of this ring show secondary thickening to a marked degree. On the inside of this ring is a sclerenchy- matous band several layers thick, broken occasionally between two bundles (fig. 2). In the centre of the stem is medulla, in which is a ring of separate bundles. In stems % in. to 1 in. broad there are about 10, but the number varies in accordance with the size of the stem ; 3 to 4 is common in young parts, especially seedlings. On the outside of each bundle both of the outer and often of the inner ring are much-thickened sclerenchymatous elements. Then there is the inner sclerenchymatous band. De Bary, remarking on the inner scleren- chymatous band, says, " The converse case, that a continuous layer of sclerenchyma supports the whole inner side of the ring of vascular bundles, is rare in Dicotyledons. This is the case in the woody Piperaceae — Artanthe, Chavica sp." In some stems — Ranunculus repens, for instance — we find sclerenchy- matous elements on both sides of the bundle, representing a sheath. It is probable that in the Piperaceae these sclerenchymatous elements repre- sent the bundle-sheath, which has become much thickened and extended on the inner side for mechanical purposes. There is sclerenchyma to the inside of each bundle of the medullary circle, but it does not form a con- tinuous ring ; also at the base of the stem, and in young branches coming from the base, as in fig. 6a, in seedlings the continuity of the ring disappears, all which lends to the view that the sclerenchymatous ring is an extended sheath. The phloem consists of several layers showing deeply staining sieve-tubes, and companion cells ; sieve-plates, where cut through, show very fine pits. Ironside. — -Anatomical Structure of N .Z. Piperaceae. 341 The cambium shows especially well the tangential divisions for wood and bast formation. The cambial or merismatic region is continuous round the stem in the outer ring, though it is only where the cambial layer passes through the bundle that it gives rise to wood and bast. Between the bundles the tangential divisions increase to the medullary ray. In no instance are secondary bundles found between the primary bundles. The wood, as is seen in longitudinal sections, shows pitted and scalari- form vessels and pitted wood-fibres, besides annular and spiral elements of the protoxylem. Some of the bundles show the primary elements of the wood to be distinctly scattered ; longitudinal sections and oblique /; ' i^\y\ Fig. 1. Outer tissues, young stem : a. epidermis ; b, collenchyma ; c, sclerenehyina - X 150. M. excels ipn. Fig. 2. Portion of sclerenehyina band : a, sclerenehyina ; b, medulla at break in rinsi passing into medullary rajr. x 44. M. excelsum. Fig. 3. Inner portion of bundle from outer ring, showing scattered primary xylem : a, secondary xylem ; b, wood-fibres ; c, c', protoxylem to sides and to inside of bundle ; d, boundary of sclerenchymatous band. X 44, M . excelsum. Fig. 4. Bundle from stem : a, phloem ; b, cambial region ; c, xylem. x 150. Pepe- romia Endlicheri. transverse sections show the protoxylem in many cases to be endarch, but there are frequently scattered elements to the sides of the bundle as well (see fig. 3). The question is. Is this a trace of centripetal wood- formation ? In the medullary bundles secondary-wood formation does not take place to the same extent as in the outer ring. On the inside of the wood, in the bundles of both rings, are a fair number of parenchymatous elements. At first sight they look like internal phloem, but on examination of young stems, and especially of those bundles of the inner ring where there are very few lignified elements, it is seen that these are only parenchymatous elements. Some bundles show only 6 to 8 lignified elements in a mass of tissue staining deeply with haematin. As more wood is formed, more of this becomes lignified also, but a little to the inside always remains unlignified. In bundles where the primary xylem is scattered, the elements are scattered through parenchymatous elements. The medullary rays are very wide, sometimes 5 to 6, often 10 to 12 elements wide, parenchymatous mainly : in older stems slightly lignified. 342 Transactions. Young stems, the base of the stem, and to a less extent an older stem, show the central medulla and medullary rays thickly set with starch. Engler has said that in Macropiper heckeria, Piper chavica, the bundles are in rings, the outer bundles joined. In Macropiper excelsum the bundles of the outer ring are separated by very wide medullary rays, as already stated. Tangential sections can also be cut in which the medullary ray is continuous right through. A portion of the internode of the woody stem was boiled for some time in water, and the outer tissues stripped off. The bundles showed only an occasional join. Some of the bundles could be separated throughout almost the whole length of the piece, 2 in. There is no network of anastomosing. A join is effected by a branch of very Fig. 5. Bundle from stem, showing xylein scattered : be neither soil nor water, except from the sea. Plants 350 Transactions. ^rowing on low rocks washed by the sea are found on the tops of them, the action of the waves being too strong for them to get a footing at the base. These plants have a stellate appearance, owing to the complete drying- up of old branches, the new ones all arising from the base. The roots are closely pressed against the rocks, and are matted together to collect any particles of soil. The stems of many plants growing on loose shingle are long, thick, and woody, and are continued some distance below the surface, giving rise at the nodes to thick, long, adventitious roots. A curious feature is shown in some stems, especially in those on which an inflorescence has been borne. The internode nearest the stem is withered and brown, several adjoining it are green and succulent, then again there are several brown and withered internodes, then either the suc- culent apex or the withered remains of the inflorescence (see fig. 9, a). Plants growing on rocks almost in the sea become red, and wither very soon. The more exposed and drier, both physically and physiologically, a situation is, the more is the plant inclined to turn red. Colouring always begins in the internode at the base of a branch, and proceeds upwards to the apex. The internode does not long remain coloured, but soon turns brown ; thus there are never more than two or three internodes on the same branch coloured at the same time. It would seem that the plant turning red is an indication that the chlorenchyma is about to disappear. This is further borne out by the fact that the coty- ledons of the seedlings growing on a small salt meadow at Paremata turn red before withering. That plants that die down early do not usually turn red shows that the withering is not necessarily preceded by the plant turning red. The red colouring is dissolved in the cell-sap, which gives an acid reaction. It is therefore probably anthocyanin. It is purple in reflected and red in transmitted light. At Oriental feay S. australis grows on cliffs 40 ft. above the sea-level, and with it large quantities of Mesembryanthemum australe and Aciphylla squarrosa. It also grows at the edge of the water, but is not immersed even at high tide, although in some other places it is. At Napier the salt meadow covered with S. australis and plants men- tioned above extends for several miles. This is one of the few extensive salt meadows in New Zealand. Most of the meadow is in the process of draining, so that each year it becomes drier. The whole meadow in autumn has a reddish tinge. The finest specimens I found at the. edge of a lagoon which receives each day fresh supplies of salt, and is sheltered by a shingle- bank. The branches remain succulent for twelve months, and secondary wood is well developed in them while still succulent. They are duller in colour owing to a coating of wax. which serves to check transpiration. These plants contain much salt, and remain succulent for a long time when picked, showing that transpiration is greatly restricted, and that the water tissue has not given up its water to the atmosphere, but to the green tissues. At Plimmerton, along the railway embankment, Salicornia forms a thick mat several feet wide and extending for some 50 yards. In some places the plants are very shrubby. Salicornia australis is a frutescent or shrubby perennial. The stems are upright or procumbent ; the usual height is 4-8 in. In a sheltered position at the edge of a lagoon the plants are li— 2 ft. in height, and the Cooke. — Observations on Salicornia australis. 351 brunches are very long and thick. Sometimes when the stems are pro- cumbent they are as much as 3 ft. long, and give off adventitious roots at the nodes. Short procumbent branches often become very thick and woody, being sometimes over h in. in diameter. The young branches are cylindrical, green, and succulent, owing to the succulent leaves and leaf- bases which surround them. The branching is opposite. In some plants the branches appear to be given off from the main axis, just below the insertion of a branch. These are, in the cases I examined, branches given off from the lowest node of that branch, the node being almost indistinguishable. Sometimes two branches arise together, and are surrounded by leaves (with only slightly developed bases), in the form of a spiral (see fig. 9, c). Intermediary 'S^p^ growing-point §&& I Leaf base ■ (2.) Structure. Leaves. Thomson, Cheeseman, Laing and Blackwell, and Miss Cross, all following Sir Joseph Hooker, describe Salicornia australis as " leafless," but I find that as long as green tissue remains on the plant leaves persist, and are short and connate — the free portions like decussate scales. At the apex they are only a few cells in thickness, but lower down abundant water tissue is present. The veins are not visible till a section is made. It is the greatly developed leaf-base which forms the " cortex " referred to by writers on Salicornia. A longitudinal section of the growing-point shows an apical cone surrounded by leaves. Those near the apex have the base only slightly enlarged. Apical growth of the leaves soon ceases, and inter- calary growth takes place at the base, as in the majority of leaves. This is recognizable by the fact that all the mitotic nuclei are there. The cells containing these nuclei are small and iso- diametrical in shape (fig. 3, b). In leaves further down the stem the mitotic nuclei are still observ- able at the base. Thus this intercalary growing- point proceeds downwards, and gives rise to all the chlorenchyma, as well as all the water tissue of the leaf-base. Running down the middle of the dorsal surface of the leaf is a white line, due to the absence of chlorophyll in the underlying tissue. The lower termination of the line marks off the free portion of the leaf from the beginning of the leaf-base. As each whorl of leaves overlaps the bases of the whorl above, the stem is never visible till the leaves have fallen. The dorsal surface of the leaf is concave, the ventral convex. The leaf- margins are colourless, since, being only two cells in width, there is no palisade tissue developed between the dorsal and ventral epidermis. Fibro-vascular bundle - - Fig. 2. — Longitudinal sec- tion of bud, X 1 6. 352 Transactions . The vascular system is well developed. I found no bundle-sheath present. The following references show that the structure of the so-called cortex is constant throughout the genus :■ — Ganong (3, b) describes Salicornia herbacea as having " a branching, succulent, practically leafless stem . . . possessing a compact stele (with cortical system of bundles replacing those of abandoned leaves), thick water-storing cortex. Warming (2) says that in Salicornia ambigua the leaves stand out like collars round the older parts of the branches, which are shrivelled and thin, and in structure it differs little from Salicornia herbacea, described by De Bary. De Bary (1, b) says Salicornia herbacea has chlorophyll tissue in pali- sade form in the cortex of the stem, and has short scaly leaves arranged in decussate pairs. Reasons for calling Leaf-base what appears to he and has been descnbed as " Cortex ." 1. The vascular-bundle system in the cortex-like portion resembles that of a leaf. The leaf-trace divides, the middle branch behaving nor- mally : the two lateral branches are directed upwards for a short distance. Pa Hsade tissue Storm / Aqueous ~(~7\ tissue Oennatoge) Penblem 'Plervwe Ftg. 3. — a, Longitudinal section of growing-point; b, c, x and y of fig. 2 under higher power. and then run downwards in the aqueous tissue, anastomosing freely, and forming a network. This position of the vascular bundles is comparable to that in the basal portion of peltate leaves. 2. Except for the median branch, the network has no connection with the stem. |g| 3. The bundles end blindly in mesophyll. ?! 4. There is no difference between the palisade-cells in the leaf and leaf- base, and there is no break in continuity, they being developed in both on the ventral side. Cooke. — Observations on SaJicornia australis. 353 5. The water tissue of the leaf-base (cortex) is in all parts similar to the mesophyll of the leaf, when this does not consist of palisade-cells. 6. Below what I regard as the leaf-base the stem loses its palisade tissue (see fig. 3, c). This is a very short portion of each internode, just the part covered by the leaves of the next node below. 7. A longitudinal section through the growing-point shows the leaf- base of the usual kind, with a very extensive growing-point (see fig. 2). Cross-section of the internode before leaf-base disappears shows : — (1.) Epidermis, a single layer of cells, the outer walls of which have developed a cuticle. (2.) Palisade parenchyma and scattered tracheides. (3.) Aqueous tissue, the internal limit of which is the endodermis. (4.) Portions of fibro-vascular bundles scattered about in the aqueous tissue. These I regard as the vascular bundles of the leaf-bases. (5.) Central cylinder or stele with a well-marked pericycle. This is the only portion in this section which can be called " stem." In this are embedded the collateral fibro-vascular bundles, which in this section are seven in number. Cross-section of stem below the leaf -base shows : — (1.) A thin -walled epidermis of cells much smaller than those of the leaf. (2.) Hypodermis, two cells deep. (3.) Cortex of thin- walled parenchymatous cells resembling those of water tissue, only much smaller. Chloroplasts are few in number in com- parison with those of the chlorenchyma in the leaf and leaf -base. (4.) Central cylinder. There is no cuticle, no stomata, no palisade tissue, no scattered tracheides, and no fibro-vascular bundles except in central cylinder. Epidermis of Leaf and Leaf -base. The epidermis consists of a single layer of thin-walled cells whose outer walls present cuticular thickenings. The cells of the dorsal differ con- siderably from those of the ventral side of the leaf, the radial walls being short and the tangential long. The outer wall is quite flat, and there are no stomata. On the ventral side a longitudinal section shows the epidermal cells have the vertical diameter about the width of the radial, and the outer walls are raised into small papillae. Surface view shows that the cells are — (a) hexagonal, with sharp corners ; (b) elongated transversely. This transverse extension, according to De Bary (1, d), occurs only in the leaves of several plants or in the stems when palisade tissue is developed in the cortex. It occurs also in the leaves and leaf -bases of Salicornia australis. The nucleus of epidermal cell is large, and when treated with alcohol turns yellow and becomes very obvious. As usual in the case of the epidermal cells, there are no chloroplasts except in the guard-cells of the stomata. If, however, the plant is grown under a bell jar, and is watered often, chloroplasts, few in number, may be found in the epidermal cells. Under these conditions the epidermal cells are not elongated transversely, and are wavy in outline. The cells of the epidermis of the hypocotyl are very much longer than they are wide, but the elongation this time is longitudinal. Cross-section of hypocotyl shows a number of the epidermal cells dividing periclinally (see fig. 4, e). 12— Trans. 354 Transactions. Stomata. — vStomata are numerous on the ventral surface, but absent on the dorsal. Development, as far as I have made out, takes place in the usual way, and the first stomata are formed about the 4th leaf from the apex. The guard-cells are long, and are comparatively narrow. Their walls are thick, and at the top and bottom the thickened portion of the wall bounding the pore projects in the form of a ridge. Midway between these ridges the walls are not thickened, and when turgid jut out into the pore, and thus facilitate its closing. The guard-cells are half the epidermal cells in height, and are sunk beneath the epidermis, the inner walls being in the same plane as the inner walls of the epidermal cells. Warming (2) and Miss Cross (7) describe stomata as not being sunk. [ found that they were sunk in every case, except in the cotyledons, which are not referred to by either of these writers. Stoma Respiratory cavity Aqueous tissue Scattered tracheide Aqueous tissue Stele Aoueous tissue Chhrenchyma Fibro-vascular bundle Epidermis . Aqueous tissue DTO Fig. 4. — a, Transverse section of stem surrounded by leaf and leaf-bases; b, trans- verse section of tracheides; c, longitudinal section of stoma at 9.30 a.m.; d, longitudinal section of stoma at 6 p.m. ; e, transverse section of epidermis of cotyledon, showing cells dividing. If a longitudinal section of leaf or leaf-base is taken at the end of the day, after transpiration has been going on freely, it is seen that the cells which abut on the guard-cells curve over them. If a section is taken late that night or early the next morning, these cells are no longer curved. Thus when turgidity is reduced the cells curve over the stoma, and the amount of transpiration is diminished (see fig. 4, c, d). The stomata are situated above the palisade tissue. This is not usual in ordinary leaves, but occurs in plants having much the same structure as Salicornia. The guard-cells are at right angles to the axis of the stem. Cooke. — Observations' on Salicornia australis. 355 Aqueous Tissue. — The cells are large, thin-walled, and colourless, and have a delicate lining of protoplasm. The nucleus is large and well marked, and the remainder of the cell is filled with water. In a plant whose cells have remained succulent all the winter the water has much salt dissolved in it, and chloroplasts are found in the protoplasm. Starch-grains are present, and are often aggregated round the periphery of the nucleus. In plants grown under a bell jar through the winter all the aqueous tissue contained chloroplasts. It may be inferred that the aqueous tissue is modified chlorenchymatous tissue. Palisade tissue is developed on the ventral side of the leaf and leaf- base. The tissue is two or three cells deep. The cells are thin-walled, elongated at right angles to the epidermis, have rounded ends, and are separated by numerous small intercellular spaces. Large intercellular spaces, respiratory cavities, lie beneath the stomata. Palisade-cells contain numerous chloroplasts, and, with the exception of the guard-cells and aqueous tissue in the case mentioned above, they are the only cells containing chlorophyll. The chlorenchyma is interrupted at intervals by small patches of water tissue two or three cells wide, and in these patches are sometimes found the scattered tracheides. Palisade tissue is not found in the stem itself. A longitudinal section of the growing-point shows palisade tissue well developed about the 6th or 8th leaf down. Further down it is to be seen developing from an intercalary growing-point. Scattered Tracheides. — These are present in the palisade tissue of both leaf and leaf-base. Their length is perpendicular to the epidermis, but they do not reach out to it, ending one short cell from it. There are a number of these short palisade-cells, but they do not form a layer. The other end of the tracheides abuts on the water tissue, but there is no con- nection with the vascular bundles there. According to De Bary (1, c), these tracheides occur close to one of the numerous air-cavities of the stomata. 1 also found them in the water-containing palisade tissue in the leaf, and in such cases they were two or three cells from the epidermis. The tra- cheides are cylindrical in shape, the ends being sometimes oblique. The walls are thicker than those of the adjoining cells. Thickening takes the form of a close fine delicate spiral. The function is that of air-storage. Similar air-storing tracheides are referred to in Salicornia herbacea by Ganong (3, a), and by Duval Jouve in Salicornia emerici (see fig. 4, a). Apical Growth. — A longitudinal section through the apex of the stem shows an apical cone surrounded by leaves. It appeared as if the opposite character of the leaves was a secondary consideration, since the leaves were at the very apex alternate. This was probably due to the twisting of the young stem, since cross-sections did not bear out this theory. The meristem at the apex is differentiated into three layers — (1) the outer dermatogen. a layer of cells all the same size with mitotic nuclei ; (2) periblem, two or three cells wide ; (3) plerome (see fig. 3, a). There is a slight bulging in the apical cone where the next leaf will arise. The leaves overarching the growing-point are wider at the apex ; the other leaves taper to a point (see fig. 2). There is a depression in the leaves on the lower side, and in this depression the apex of the leaf next below lodges. Stomata do not appear to be formed till the 4th leaf down. 12* 356 Transactions. There is a clear indication that the leaf-trace bundles are sent inwards. The Root. — The stele is diarch ; the bundles of phloem are quite distinct and easily distinguished from the xylem. As in the majority of roots, the medulla becomes obliterated. In old roots the structure resembles that of the stems, in that secondary xylem and phloem are developed from an extra-fascicular cambium. It differs in that phloem islands in the root are slightly larger than those in the stem, and the fibrous cells round them have thinner walls. The dis- tinction between one season's growth and the next is more apparent. A cross-section of the hypocotyl shows two groups of xylem which converge to form, in the root, the plate, on each side of which is the phloem group (see fig. 5, a). The development of the root takes place as usual. Seedlings have numerous long delicate hairs, the outline of which is often crinkled and wavy. They present a curious resemblance to fungal b c Xylem Phloem Phloem, islands Tracheae. Xylem Rootlet Fig. 5. — a, Transverse section of root of an old plant; b, transverse section of young branch, near tip ; c, transverse section of part of internal structure of root of a seedling. hyphae, and portions of them are often swollen, especially the tip. Some of them are as much as 2 mm. in length, while the root is only 0-25 mm. in diameter. They extend along the root, from just behind the growing- point to the base of the hypocotyl. Cotyledons. — Stomata occur on the upper and lower surfaces, and are placed as in leaf and leaf-base, but are not sunk beneath the epidermis. The guard-cells are short and wide, so that in surface view the stomata appear circular. Epidermis. — Surface view of epidermal cells shows that they are wavy in outline. In a cross-section the radial walls are shorter than the tan- gential, and the outer walls are flat. Seedlings grown in a greenhouse showed chloroplasts, few in number, in some of the epidermal cells. In cotyledons palisade tissue is developed beneath the upper epidermis only. Secondary Growth . Stems of Salicornia increase greatly in thickness owing to secondary growth, some of the older ones being | in. in diameter. The cambium in the original collateral nbro-vascular bundles soon becomes exhausted, causing the secondary phloem and xylem to have an unusual origin. As a rule, with the exceptions noted below, interfascicular cambium is not formed. Cooke. — Observations on Salicornia australis. 357 A cross-section of a branch six months old shows just outside the phloem a layer of cells divided usually by tangential and occasionally by radial walls. Thus a complete extra-fascicular cambium ring is formed (see fig. 6). This has been recorded by De Bary for Salicornia herbacea (1, e). The xylem formed from this cambium consists of thick-walled fibrous cells, among which are situated, in irregular rings, the vessels, with very large lumens. The phloem consists of thin-walled cells, forming, as usual, a cylinder outside the cambium. No sieve-tubes could be detected among these cells, which in Salicornia amtralis always contain chlorophyll, and are densely packed with starch-grains. Some of these cells disintegrate, those remaining being arranged in radial rows, between which are large intercellular spaces. Endodenhjs \Pericycle \Cork cells Phellogen ^7=fe^* — Pkelhderm ^^ *> Phloem2 t. cambium Phloem island Medulla Fig. 6. — -Transverse section of stem, showing extra-fascicular cambium ring (E. cambium). In addition to the phloem cylinder, there are phloem islands scattered about in the fibrous cells of the xylem, in each case lying just outside the large vessels, from which they are separated by only a few fibrous cells. A theory which might account for these phloem islands is this : The formation of the large vessels consumes time ; while these are forming, the cells each side of the group of vessels, growing more quickly, grow over, enclosing a small patch of cambium. This gives rise to the phloem and several small fibrous cells, the latter separating the phloem from the vessels. The phloem islands consist of thin-walled cells, which show great uniformity in length. When stained with saffranin they are easily distinguished, since they turn an orange colour, the cells of the xylem 358 Transaction*. turning red. Particles in the cells of the phloem islands exhibit Brownian movements. The phloem islands were at first thought to be either phloem or xylem parenchyma cells. Careful investigation showed that in some cases undoubted sieve-tubes are present, although none were found in the phloem cylinder. The walls of the sieve-tubes, as usual are thin and colourless, and the sieve-plates slightly oblique. I could not with certainty observe any pits in the sieve-plates, or any callus. The Tracheae. — In this plant, as usual, the protoxylem vessels are spiral, the spiral being here from right to left. The xylem of the leaf-traces consists entirely of spiral vessels. In addition to these, there are the large vessels mentioned above. In many cases they are observable in the course of formation. They usually occur in groups of two or three, but there may be as many as six. They are the only cells of the xylem which do not Endodermis . Pericycle E. cambium Phloem' O. cambium Xylem parenchyma Xylem Medulla I. cambium Fig. 7. — Transverse section of stem, showing extra-faseiculav, interfascicular, and original cambium. contain starch. Their walls are greatly thickened and pitted, the pits differing from the simple pits of fibrous cells, although in the walls of the vessels bordering the fibrous cells they are simple. The pits differ from ordinary bordered pits in that their walls, instead of being dome-shaped, are perpendicular to the middle lamella (see fig. 8, a, b). Fibrous Cells. — In this plant the secondary wood consists chiefly <>f fibrous cells. These have greatlv thickened walls, and resemble woodv fibres more or less closely in form. There is no stratification or striatic >n observable. A few are septate. The fibrous cells always contain, abund- ance of starch-grains, which are large and closely packed. In places a few chloroplasts are present. The cells are all about the same length. The nuclei are large, those of the adjoining cells being in a straight line, showing there has been practically nq, displacement of the cells due Cooke. — Observation* on Salicornia australis. 359 to elongation. There are numerous pits, simple, both in radial and oblique walls. As the cells always remain living, there is no differentiation into heart and sap wood. No sclerenchymatous fibres were found anywhere. Medullary Rays. — Primary medullary rays are not continued through the secondary wood, and, as a rule, no clearly distinguished secondarv medullary rays are formed ; nor is there any necessity for them, seeing that most of the xylem-cells are living and are connected by pits. Occasionally- 1 found a distinct medullary ray, the cells of which were elongated radially, being three times as long as they were broad, and narrower than the fibrous cells. There occur also a number of bands of cells one or two wide, the cells having then radial diameters slightly longer than the tangential. These resemble the medullary rays in Mahonia given by Schleiden, where they are very thick-walled, and scarcely to be distinguished from the fibrous cells of the wood. In Salicornia they are packed with starch-grains. The result of this slight development of medullary rays is that they are not observable in longitudinal section. Cork ceils ?V^U°S^,'cUodcrr'1 Phloem? 6-.C Xylen-,2 Fibrous cells Tracheal Phloem island Fig. 8. — a, Longitudinal section of stem of secondary growth; 6, pits in trachea; r, longitudinal section showing periderm. A cross-section of a branch which has remained succulent all the winter shows not only the fascicular cambium dividing and increasing in size, but cells are dividing between the bundles to form interfascicular cambium (fig. 7). When the bundles are close to each other the dividing cells reach right across, but when far apart the line of the dividing cells curves out- wards and joins on to the extra -fasicular cambium, forming a complete ring round the phloem. The interfasicular cambium does not long remain functional, and the majority of secondary tissues are formed from the extra-fascicular cambium as usual. The Formation of Cork.— As winter advances, as a rule, all the branches formed in spring assume a different appearance. The succulent tissue becomes withered and turns brown, the free portion of the leaves of each internode surrounding the base of the internode above like a collar. This 360 Transactions. brown portion finally falls off, or. if the plant is at the water's edge, is soon washed off, .and the branches appear green again. They are, however, much smaller, having lost all palisade and aqueous tissue. The green colour is due to chloroplasts in the phelloderm and the phloem cylinder. Chloroplasts are also present, although to a less extent, in the fibrous cells of the wood and in the outer portion of the medulla. The development of chlorophyll corresponds to that in several desert-plants mentioned by Austin (9) (see fig. 8, c). This withering of tissue is due to the formation of cork. The inner layer of pericycle, which is now several cells thick, gives rise to phellogen. Cork tissue and phelloderm are formed in the usual way. The phelloderm in this plant even more than usual shows great uniformity in the length of cells. Chloroplasts are present, and starch, which is never found to be exhausted. The granules are larger than those of the phloem cylinder. Flowers. SaUcornia australis flowers from December to March. The flowers are wind-pollinated. All the branches may be fertile, and bear small Fig. 9. — a, Branch showing withered inflorescence, two-fifths natural size ; 6, flower- ing-branch, two-fifths natural size ; c, bud, X 3 ; d, flowers, X 6 ; e, transverse section of flower — (1) with one stamen, (2) with two; /. persistent perianth; g, hooked hairs on testa ; h, pistil ; j, pollen-grain ; k, longitudinal section of flowering- branch taken in July, five months before flowers are mature. insignificant flowers at their apex ; these flowers are placed side by side in the axils of the leaves, and form an almost complete ring. The leaf-bases in the flowering-branches are developed only to a comparatively small extent. The number of flowers in each axil, as a rule, varies from five to ten ; occasionally there are as many as sixteen, and then they form a double row round the branch. Cooke. — Observations on Salicornia australis. 361 The flowering-branches are thicker than the ordinary branches, and do not taper to a point like those of Salicornia herbacea, shown by-Schimper (4, a). A very young flowering-shoot does not differ in appearance from an ordinary one. When the internodes of the ordinary branch lengthen, the difference becomes apparent, since those of the flowering-branch always remain short. If a longitudinal section is made (see fig. 9, k) the flowers are seen sessile in the axils of the leaves. The section was made five months before the plant flowers, and even then the perianth was little different from that of a mature flower. Flowers are hermaphrodite or polygamous. Several whorls of flowers were examined in order to find some regular arrangement, but none was observable. An examination of a large number of flowers shows that the stamens are usually two in number, occasionally one, rarely wanting the pistil of one carpel. The perianth is monochlamydeous, fleshy, broad, flat, and quadrangular at the top. The lobes, three in number, fit together, almost closing the mouth. On this quadrangular portion the epidermal cells are very thick- walled and isodiametrical, and there are a number of stomata. Beneath this lies a little chlorenchyma, and then the aqueous tissue. The flowers are narrower at the immersed base, and the epidermis of the perianth here is very thin-walled, and the cells are elongated longitudinally, as in the hypocotyl. When the seed is ripe the fleshy perianth persists, the cell-contents dis- appear, and the cell-walls become thickened by regular bands which run in different directions in different cells (see fig. 9. /), and the cells are filled with air. This is evidently an adaptation for dispersal, for by means of this persistent perianth the seeds float on the top of the water for a long time. Seeds were placed in fresh water, and at the end of a week only 3 per cent, of them had sunk. The perianth remains attached to the cotyledons even when the seedling is several months old. - Androecium. Stamens are perigynous, two or one, occasionally there is only one staminode. In the young flower the filament is short, but it is later elongated so that the stamen hangs out of the mouth. When there are two fertile stamens they are protruded successively. There are two large anther-lobes attached to the filament for about half their length. Develop- ment takes place as usual. Each lobe consists of two compartments when the anther is young but when mature of one only. Dehiscence is by a longitudinal crack coinciding with the partition between the two pollen- sacs. The pollen-grains are developed in the usual way. Each has a thickened wall in which there are numerous round pits (see fig. 9, j). Gynoecium. Ovary is superior, of one carpel, and ovoid, containing one basal ana- tropous ovule. Styles, two in number, are papillose, long and narrow, and tapering to a point. 362 Transactions. Flower is protogytious, and the styles hang out of the mouth before the stamens. Utricle is ovoid, consisting of a thin loose pericarp enclosing the seed. It is itself surrounded by the persistent perianth. Testa is brown, coriaceous, and covered with hooked hairs of different shapes (see fig. 9, g). The inner coat of the seed is thin and membranous. There is no endosperm. Embryo has thick fleshy cotyledons, and an incumbent, terete, radicle. Bibliography. 1. De Bary. "Comparative Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of Phanerogams and Ferns," 1884 — a. p. 45 ; b, p. 48 ; c, p. 226 ; d, p. 31 ; e, p. 591. 2. Warming. " Halofyt-Studier," pp. 215, 216. 3. Ganong. " The Vegetation of the Bay of Fundy Salt and Diked Marshes "—a, p. 357 ; b, p. 448. 4. Sckimper. " Plant Geography " — a, p. 654 ; b, p, 182 ; c, p. 652. 5. Cheesman. " Manual of New Zealand Flora," p. 585. 6. Schleiden. " Principles of Botany." 7 Miss Cross. " Observations on some New Zealand Halophytes." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1910, p. 563. 8. Kerner and Oliver. " The Natural History of Plants." 9. Austin. " The Topography of Chlorophyll Apparatus in Desert Plants." 10. Harshberger. " Comparative Leaf-structure of the Sand-dune Plants." 11. Pehr Olsson Seffer. " Hydrodynamic Factors influencing Sandy Sea- shores." " New Phytologist," vol. 8, 1909. 12. G. Hill. " Observations of the Osmotic Properties of Root Hairs of certain Salt Marsh Plants." " New Phytologist," Nos. 6 and 7, 1908. 13. Laing and Blackwell. " Plants of New Zealand." 14. Hooker. " Handbook of New Zealand Flora." 15. Hooker. "Students' Flora of the British Isles," p. 341. 16. Warming. " Systematic Botany " ; translated by Potter. 17. Thomson. " Introductory Class-book of Botany." 18. Strasburgher. " Text-book of Botany." Johnston and Harrison. — Mallophaga from the Kermadecs. 363 Art. XXXVIII. — On a Collection of Mallophaga from the Kermadecs. By T. Harvey Johnston, M.A.; D.Sc., Queensland University, Brisbane, and Launcelot Harrison, Sydney. Communicated by A. Hamilton. [Read before the Wellington Philosojihical Society, 6th September, 1911.] The material which forms the subject of this paper was collected by the expedition of New Zealand naturalists which visited the Kermadec Islands in 1907-8 under the guidance of Messrs. Tom Iredale and W. K. B. Oliver. From the labels we judge that it was collected chiefly by Mr. W. L. Wallace. It was forwarded by Mr. Oliver to the Dominion Museum, Wellington, and the Curator of that institution, Mr. A. Hamil- ton, has been kind enough to place it in our hands for description. The Mallophaga collected comprise thirteen species from five bird hosts, and one species from a mammal, the introduced domestic goat. To these we have added two species taken by one of us from a skin of Oestrelata neglecta Schl, forwarded by Mr. Oliver to Mr. A. F. Basset Hull, of Sydney. As Mr. Iredale's notes (1910) mention about thirty species of birds observed on the group, it is obvious that nothing like a complete collection of the Mallophagan fauna was obtained. Of the sixteen forms reviewed, we have described six as new species, one as a new variety of a known form, eight have been ascribed to already known species, and consideration of one species has been deferred. List of Hosts, with Parasites. Pelagodroma marina Lath. Ancistrona procdlariae Westw. Lipeurus languidus Kell. & Kuwana. Lipeurus exiguus Kell. & Kuwana. Oestrelata neglecta Schl. Philopterus fuscoclypcatus nobis. Lipeurus diversus Kellogg var. excavatus nobis. Lipeurus Jcermadecensis nobis. Charadrius dominions Mvill. Philopterus ivallacei nobis. Degeeriella oraria Kellogg. Colpocephalum timidum Kellogg. Numenius variegatus Scop. Philopterus armatus nobis. Philopterus numeniicola nobis. Degeeriella oliveri nobis. Sturnus vulgaris Linn. Philopterus leontodon Nitzsch. Degeeriella nebulosa Burmeister. Menopon sp. Capra hi reus Linn. Trichodectes climax Nitzsch. 364 Transactions. LlOTHEIDAE. Menopon sp. Among the parasites collected from the European starling (Stumus vulgaris Linn.) are specimens of a Menopon similar to some which we have ourselves collected from the same host in New South Wales, but which do not agree with any Menopon described from the starling that we can trace. As it seems somewhat improbable that what is apparently a common parasite of an extremely common bird should have eluded obser- vation, we have deferred consideration of this species until we are dealing with our New South Wales material, in order to allow of a further search. Colpocephalum timidum Kellogg (1896, p. 145, pi. 12, fig. 6). One male and a few females from Charadrius dorninicus Mull. This species has previously been taken by Kellogg from the same host in Kansas. U.S.A., and also from Squatarola squatarola Linn, from California (1899, p. 112). Kellogg gives the breadth of the female as 0-37 mm., which is evidently a misprint, as our specimens measure from 0-58 mm. to 0-64 mm. The male, which is apparently undescribed, resembles the female, with the exception that the angles of the abdominal segments project a little more prominently, and the last segment is more bluntly rounded. Length. 1-65 mm. ; breadth, 0-52 mm. Ancistrona procellariae Westwood (1874, p. 197). Syn.. Ancistrona gigas Piaget {1885, p. 117), Kellogg (1896, p. 150, and 1899, p. 116). One individual referable to the genus Ancistrona was found upon Pelagodroma marina. Two species have been described under this genus ; the type, A. procellariae. by Westwood from a Daption capense presented by Messrs. E. Brown and Baird to the Hope Museum, Oxford. No locality is given, but it may be assumed that the bird in question formed part of an Antarctic collection, as Baird described parasites from Antarctica. Piaget described a second species, A. gigas, from a Proeellaria collected on the Barendts north polar expedition. We have a separate copy of the paper containing his original description, but it bears no date, and no indication as to the periodical in which it originally appeared, and we have been unable to trace a reference to it in any bibliography of the group accessible to us. The date may be fixed roughly as 1883-84, as the paper in question follows immediately on another by the same author, criticizing the " Die Mallophagen " of Taschenberg, which was published in 1882. The original description is, however, reproduced verbatim by Piaget in his Supplement (1885, p. 117), and this reference is given by Kellogg (1896. p. 150 ; 1899, p. 116 ; 1908, p. 75) for the original account, Piaget gives a detailed description of his type, but does not particularize any characters by which it differs from A. procellariae Westwood, except its larger size. His own words are, " L'espece se rapproche generique- ment de 1' A. procellariae de M. Westwood, mais en differe specifiquement. surtout par les dimensions. Seulement la description donnee par le savant entomologue est trop sommaire pour permettre une comparaison detaillee." Westwood gives the length of his species as 2| lines (roughly, 5J mm.), while Piaget gives his as 6 mm., so that the difference in size is only f mm Johnston and Harrison. — Mallophaga from the Kermadecs. 365 in a length of 6 mm., which hardly justifies an assumption of specific differ- ence. It seems to us possible that Piaget has read Westwood's measure- ment as millimetres, not lines. Westwood's description is short, and his figure poor, but there is nothing in either to indicate a specific difference between the forms described by him and by Piaget. The poorness of his figure may be accounted for by the fact that Andstrona is very difficult to view satisfactorily under a microscope, the variations in thickness being comparatively so large. As a matter of fact, Piaget has fallen into error in his figure of the ventral parts of the head, for he figures as a posterior production of the hind-head what is really an anterior intercoxal production of the prothorax. Kellogg (1896, p. 50 ; 1899, p. 116) obtained specimens of an Andstrona from various petrels on the Californian coast of the North Pacific, which he has referred to A. gigas Piaget. Finally, the individual we have under review comes from the South Pacific, and on that account might well be expected to agree with West- wood's species rather than Piaget's, if the two were distinct. We find it agrees with Piaget's description of A. gigas in all details except size, as it measures only 4 mm. We conclude from the foregoing that there is only one species so far known in the genus, and we rank A. gigas Piaget as a synonym of A. pro- ceUariae Westwood. Philopteridae. Lipeurus kermadecensis n. sp. Description of Female. — Head subcorneal, elongate, narrower in front ; anterior portion of clypeus obtusely rounded and transparent ; lateral margins of forehead strongly chitinized, with narrow transverse interrup- tions to roots of marginal hairs, and. continued as antennal bands behind antennary fossa, ending internal to the eye ; temples rounded, not distinctly wider than at trabecular angles, without distinct bands ; occiput roundly emargin- ate ; all the hind-head evenly chitinized, with transparent interspaces from the antennary fossae meeting in the middle line at about half the distance between the line of the antennae and the occiput, and continuing to apex of occipital emargination ; from each branch a lateral interspace given off, passing posteriorly parallel with temporal margins to occiput ; trabeculae practically absent ; antennae with 1st and 2nd segments equal and longest, 5th next in size, 3rd and 4th smaller and about equal ; 3 marginal hairs on side of forehead, corresponding to interruptions through the lateral band ; between the anterior pair a dorsal and a ventral hair, internal to lateral band ; small hair in front of trabecular angle, and one at angle ; 4 or 5 small hairs round temporal Lipeurus kermadec- lobe, that at temporal angle more prominent than the ensis. 0. others ; 2 pairs of hairs on dorsal surface of forehead . Prothorax approximately rectangular, broader than long, evenly chitin- ized, slightly darker at antero-lateral margins, with a median interrup- tion. Metathorax more than twice as long as prothorax, approximately rectangular, anterior angles slightly truncated, lateral margins somewhat Fig. 1. 366 Transactions. compressed ; middle of posterior margin projecting slightly on to abdomen ; evenly chitinized, mid-lateral parts more deeply coloured ; median inter- ruption continuous with that of prothorax ; a long hair at posterior angle, and inwards from it a group of 3 pustulated hairs. Abdomen of 10 segments, narrow, elongate, sides subparallel ; gradually increasing in width to 6th segment, then sharply tapering to 10th, which is slightly bilobed ; all evenly chitinized, with median interruption as in thorax extending through 8 segments ; 9th completely chitinized ; 10th with chitinous lateral blotches ; 2 pairs of small hairs on posterior margin of each segment, and a large pair of ventral hairs, one on each side of the mid-line ; on 1st segment 6 other small hairs, 4 of which are near anterior border ; one hair at posterior angle in seg- ments 2 to 4 two in 5 and 6, three in 7th, one in 8th and 9th ; on segments 9 and 10 a pair of dorsal hairs. Length, 1-76 mm. ; breadth, 0-28 mm. Head, 0-44 mm. by 0-28 "mm. Three females taken by one of us from a skin of Oestrelata neglecta Schl. forwarded to Mr. A. F. Basset Hull, of Sydney. This species approximates closely to Lipeurus limitatus Kellogg (1896, p. 124) from Pufpnus griseus Gmel. from California, but differs in being little more than half the size, in the shape of the prothorax, in the median interruption of the abdomen being con- \^? tinuous through 8 segments and not 7 only, and in the disposition of the interruptions of the hind-head. The male is unknown, as is the male of L. limitatus, Kellogg also having collected females only. \\ \% W t . c-v'^ Lipeurus diversus var. excavatus var. nov. This form is intermediate between L. augusticeps Piaget (1880, p. 306) and L. diversus Kellogg (1896, p. 123), approaching more closely to the latter. Our form differs from Kellogg's species in having distinct lateral bands on the margin of the clypeus.. in front of the antennal bands ; occipital blotches slightly different in arrangement ; bands of prothorax produced more markedly on to metathorax, and not interrupted at the suture ; hairs on posterior margin of metathorax slightly different in arrangement, the second hair from the angle being small, and not of almost equal length with the others ; lateral bands of abdomen distinctly broader, each produced anteriorly into a concavity in posterior margin of that of preceding segment ; this posterior margin with a clear diverticulum towards lateral margin, the exact relations being best seen in the figure. The sexual dimorphism agrees with that shown in Kellogg's figures of L. diversus, but as the one male at our disposal has lost his antennae we are unable to compare the males satisfactorily. Several specimens from Oestrelata neglecta Schl. from Sunday Island. We have figured a female. Fig. 2. Lipeurus diversus var. excavatus. 0 Johnston and Harrison. — Mallophaga from the Kermadecs. 367 Lipeurus languidus Kellogg and Kuwana (1902, p. 475, pi. 29, fig. 8). Two females and one male of this species were taken from Pelago- droma marina Lath. The species was originally described from Galapagos Island, where it was taken from Oceanites gracilis and Procellaria tethys, as well as on a number of other hosts to which it had obviously straggled. Lipeurus exiguus Kellogg and Kuwana (1902, p. 479, pi. 30, fig. 2). One female from Pelagodroma marina Lath. The species was origin- ally described from Oceanites gracilis from Galapagos. Degeeriella oliveri n. sp. A few males and one female of this species were collected from Numenius variegatus Scop. The form resembles fairly closely D. actophilus of Kellogg and Chapman (1899, p. 78) from Calidris arenaria Linn, from California, and, in a less degree, D. inaequalis of Piaget (1880, p. 176) from Numenius arquatus Linn, from Europe ; but differs markedly in detail from either. From both the forms mentioned our species differs in the proportionately greater length of the head in front of the antennae, and also in the relations of the chitinous framework of the clypeal parts. The signature does not extend across the width of the clypeus, as in Kellogg's figure of D. actophilus, and its rounded posterior angle projects strongly into a clear uncoloured space, which is thus not a transverse bar, but a more or less horseshoe-shaped clear area. Dorsal to the signature, the clypeal bands of either side are produced as a deeply sinuous structure crossing the anterior margin of the head. From D. inaequalis, to which it approximates in size, it is easily distinguishable from the fact that the sides of the abdomen are convexly subparallel to the 6th segment, and then taper somewhat to a broadly rounded 9th segment in the male, while Piaget's species has the abdomen much swollen at the 4th and 5th segments, and tapering considerably before and behind. Also, the Degeeriella oliveri last segment of the abdomen in the female is barely . Costleya simmondsi Broun. Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 381 3237. Ol'OUp EUCNEMIDAE. Talerax dorsalis Broun. Group Elaleridae. 3238. Protelater diversus Broun 3239. Chrosis dubitans Broun. 3240. Corym bites fulvescens Broun. 3241. ' „ vitticollis Broun. 3242. „ approximans Broun. 3243. „ sternalis Broun. Group Dascyllidae. 3244. Atopida basalis Broun. 3245. Mesocyphon mandibularis Broun. 3246. Cyphon pachymerus Broun. Group Melyridae. 3247. Arthracanthus foveicollis Broun. Group Cleridae. 3248. Phymatophaea griseipennis Broun. 3249. Partnius violaceus Broun. Group Axobiidae. 3250. Anobium inaequale Broun. 3251. „ niticolle Broun. Group Opatridae. 3252. Syrphetodes truncatus Broun. Group DlAPERIDAE. 3253. Menimus lineatus Broun. Group Helopidae. 3254. Adelium complicatum Broun. 3255. Cerodolus curvellus Broun. Group Axthicidae. 3256. Cotes insignis Broun. Group Melandryidae. 3257. Hylobia plagiata Broun. 3258. „ guinnessi Broun. Group Otiorhynchidae. 3259. Nicaeana nesopbila Broun. 3260. Epitimetes grisealis Broun. 3261. Nonnotus nigricans Broun. 3262. Tigones rugosa Broun. 3263. ,, albopicta Broun. 3264. Platyomida liamiltoni Broun. 3265. „ morosa Broun. 3266. Lyperobates guinnessi Broun. 3267. ,, elegantulus Broun. 3268. ,, rostralis Broun. 3269. ,, punctatus Broun. 3270. Phaeocharis cuprealis Broun. 3271. „ punctatus Broun. 3272. Notiopatae terricola Broun. 3273. Getopsephus acuminatus Broun. 3274. Brachyolus labeculatus Broun. 3275. „ var'ius Broun. 3276. Agatholobus waterhousei Broun. Cl'oup RllYPAROSOMIDA E. 3277. Phrynixus setipes Broun. 3278. ,, binodosus Broun. 3279. Lithocia acuminata Broun. 3280. Bradypatae minor Broun. 3281. Clypeorhynchus calvulus Broun. 3282. ,. caudatus Broun. 3283. Phemus curvipes Broun. 3284. ,, constrictus Broun. 3285. Sosgenes planirostris Broun. 3286. Rachidiscus multinodosus Broun. 3287. Phygothalpus sulcicollis Broun. Group Cylindrorhinidae. 3288. Tocris aterrima Broun. 3289. „ hamiltoni Brown. 3290. Heteromias foveirostris Broun. 3291. Geochus posticalis Broun. Group Erirhinidae. 3292. Erirhinus titahensis Broun. 3293. ,, oleariae Broun. 3294. ,, exilis Broun. 3295. Dorytomus maorinus Broun . 3296. ,, consonus Broun. 3297. Aneuma spinifera Broun. 3298. Eugnomus calvulus Broun. 3299. ,, dennanensis Broun. 3300. Oreocharis albosparsa Broun. 3301. ,, veronicae Broun. 3302. ,, picipennis Broun. 3303. ,, uniformis Broun. 3304. ,, dives Broun. 3305. ,, castanea Broun. 3306. Hoplocneme vicina Broun. 3307. Pactola nitidula Broun. 3308. ,, fuscicornis Broun. 3309. ,, binodiceps Broun. Group Anthoxomidae. 3310. Hypotagea lewisi Broun. Group Cryptorhynchidae. 3311. Psepholax acanthomerus Broun. 3312. Mesoreda Iongula Broun. 3313. Acalles conicollis Broun. 3314. „ eruensis Broun. 3315. ,, peelensis Broun. 3316. ,, consors Broun. 3317. „ gracilis Broun. 3318. ,, contractus Broun. 3319. Tychanus costatus Broun. 3320. C'risius humeralis Broun. 3321. ,, semifuscus Broun. 3322. ,, decorus Broun. 3323. Tychanopais flavisparsus Broun. 3324. Allanalcis ignealis Broun. 3325. ,, oculatus Broun. 3326. ,, dilatatus Broun. 3327. Metacalles erinitus Broun. 3328. „ lanosus Broun. 3329. Zeacalles pictus Broun. 3330. ,, femoralis Broun. 3331. Onias irregularis Broun. Xenacalles gen. nov. Type 1-127. 3332. Getacalles substriatua Broun. 382 Transactions . ( i| ,,,) ( lOSSONIDAE. .3333. Pentarthrum impressum Broun. 3334. .. . tenebrosum Broun. Group Anthribidae. 3335. P^ugonissus turneri Broun. 3336. ,, sylvanus Broun. 3337. Anthribus cornutellus Broun. 3338. ,, levinensis Broun. 3339. „ obscurus Broun. 3340. ., wairirensis Broun. Group Cerambyctdae. 3341. Didymocantha media Broun. 3342. .. oedemera Broun. 3343. ., fuscicollis Broun. Group Lam Hi) a i;. 3344. Somatidia thoracica Broun. 3345. ,. uodularia Broun. 3346. ,, piscoidea Broun. ( rroup Lamiidae — continued. 3347. Somatidia posticalis Broun. 3348. „ corticola Broun. 3349. ., pinguis Broun. 3350. Tetrorea niaculata Broun. 3351. Hybolasius cupiendus Broun. 3352. ,, tumidellus Broun. 3353. ,, rugicollis Broun. Group Eumolpidae. 3354. Pilacolaspis angulatus Broun. 3355. „ latipennis Broun. Group Galerv/ctdae. 3356. Luperus simmondsi Broun. 3357. ,, foveigerus Broun. 3358. „ o'cormori Broun. 3359. „ atrip 3nnis Broun. Group Erotylidae. 3360. ( Iryptodacne ocularia Broun. Gkoujp Cnehacanthidae. 3164. Mecodema o'connori sp. nov. Mecodema Blanchard, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 7. Robust, moderately convex, shining, elytra less so; black, legs and antennae rufo-piceous, palpi more rufescent. Head large, including the mandibles, a fourth longer than the thorax, with a series of fine punctures across it behind the prominent eyes, near which, and on the forehead, the rugae are well marked and longitudinal. Ihorax with crenulate margins, which are a little ex- panded in front; it is slightly broader near the apex than at the middle, and considerably curvedly narrowed behind, so that the base is but little more than half the breadth of the frontal portion, just at the obtusely rectangular angles the sides are almost straight, the apex is slightly but widely incurved, the base truncate, its length is a fourth less than the width; the mesial groove is well marked and ends at the transversal impression near the apex, the basal fossae are deep, placed close to the sides, extend a little inwards, and are limited behind by the raised basal margin; the disc is finely transversely striate, the base and apex longitudinally but indefinitely, near each side there 'is a shallow foveiform impression. Elytra, oblong-oval, gently narrowed towards the base, which, notwithstanding, is rather broader than that of the thorax; their striae are well marked, the 5 nearest the suture, on each, are closely and distinctly punctured, with plane, broad interstices; near the sides the striae are deeper and broader, and their punctures rather coarser and somewhat transversal, with narrower and more convex inter- stices; the smooth space outside the 8th stria is rather narrow, and is not prolonged forwards much beyond the posterior femur. Antennae pubescent from the 5th joint onwards. Legs relatively rather slender, the anterior and intermediate tibiae with moderately prominent external angles. Underside black, a little nitid, nearly smooth, the terminal ventral segment finely transversely striate, unipunctate at each 'side of the middle, at the extremitv. Ukoun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 383 The diagnosis shows clearly enough that this cannot very well be confounded with previously described species. $. Length, 35 mm.; breadth, 11mm. Levin, near Wellington. A single .female. This bears the name of its discoverer, Mr. A. O'Connor, who has recently brought to light many interesting beetles from the Tararua Range and other localities. 3165. Mecodema bryobium sp. nov. Elongate, slightly convex, head and thorax a little shining, elytra rather dull; nigrescent, legs and antennae rufo-piceous. Head nearly as broad as front of thorax and, including the man- dibles, rather longer than it is; rather coarsely rugose, longitudinally at the sides and on the forehead, transversely on the vertex, in line with the back part of the prominent eyes it is rather coarsely rugosely punc- tate, the sculpture behind consists of short irregular wrinkles and fine punctures. Thorax slightly broader than long, widely yet not deeply incurved in front, lateral margins not definitely crenulate, slightly munded from the anterior angles to beyond the middle, behind strongly curvedly narrowed, but straight near the obtuse angles, its base little more than half the width of the middle; disc nearly flat; the distinct central furrow does not quite reach the base or apex, both of which are impressed with short longitudinal striae; the well-marked rugae do not extend right across the surface, being somewhat interrupted or irregular; there is no distinct punctation ; the basal fossae are deep, and situated close to the lateral and basal margins. Elytra oblong-oval, gradually narrowed towards the base, which, however, is broader than that of the thorax; on each elytron the 5 discoidal striae are narrow and rather finely punctured, but are much more deeply impressed at the base; the intervals between these are nearly quite flat, and under the microscope appear densely and minutely coriaceous; the outer striae are deep, but not coarsely punctured, with subcarinate interstices, which, as well as some of the adjoining ones, are traversed more or less by short trans- verse impressions. Underside shining black; the middle of the head with short trans- verse rugae, its sides with short, dense, very irregular rugosities; pro- sternum irregularly punctate, flanks of mesosternum densely and rugosely; abdomen finely sculptured, its last segment bipunctate at each side of the middle at the apex. This bears a considerable resemblance to M. acuductum (2602), but the thorax differs in form, being more abruptly contracted at the base; there is no punctation near the anterior angles; the discoidal rugae are more numerous, coarser, and interrupted, and no single one stretches right across the disc; and, moreover, the lateral margins are not per- ceptibly crenulate. The punctation of the outer elytral striae is entirely different. In 2602 the punctures are deep and subquadrate, and the transverse intervals between them are on about the same level as the longitudinal interstices, just the reverse of what occurs in this species. These are not sexual disparities, as my specimen of each species is of the male sex. t attaining the base or apex, basal fossae deep, well limited, and touching the sides and hind margin. Elytra oblong-oval, rather broader than thorax at the base; on each elytron there are 4 discofdal series of rather slender fine punctures, the 6th and 7th series are moderately large and rather coarser than the 5th or 8th; the marginal sculpture, too, is rather fine, and more or less duplicated, the apical irregular and coarser. Legs stout; external angles of the front pairs of tibiae slightly pro- minent, posterior pair simple. Antennae with the 5th and following articulations pubescent. Underside shining back ; flank of presternum moderately punctate and rugose; abdomen smooth, its last segment bipunetate at each side of the middle, at the extremity. The glossy, rather smooth surface, simple thoracic margins, and deep well-defined basal fossae, distinguish this from all the other species of moderate size. M. seriatum (2605) is perhaps the most nearly allied; its sculpture, however, is very different. o*. Length, 20 mm. ; breadth, 6^ mm. Bold Peak, Wakatipu ; altitude, about 6,000 ft. A specimen was given to me by Mr. O'Connor, but its discoverer is Mr. H. Hamilton. 3167. Mecodema quoinense sp. nov. Elongate, slightly convex, moderately nitid ; black, femora and basal joint of antennae piceo-rufous. Head, mandibles included, a sixth longer than thorax, but rather narrower, with numerous fine punctures behind the small prominent eyes; near these latter there are 3 or 4 curved striae, and some fine transverse ones in front. Labrum slightly rounded, quadripuncate only. Mandibles elongate, obliquely wrinkled, the left particularly. Thorax nearly a third broader than long, widest before the middle, slightly rounded there, gradually curvedly narrowed backwards, without any definite sinuation or contraction near the base, which is medially in- curved, with obtuse angles; lateral margins not crenulate, rather narrow, only slightly expanded in front, the apex subtruncate ; its sculpture consists of feeble transverse striae, short longitudinal ones in front and at the base, and a few slight punctiform marks near the front ami the basal fossae, which are deep, but not large, and situated near the angles; the mesial groove is well marked. Elytra almost twice as long as broad, a little wider than the thorax, their sides gently and evenly curved, so that the apex is nearly as broad as the base; they are punc- tate-striate, rather finely on the disc; the striae nearest the sides are Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 385 deeper and more strongly and closely, yet not very coarsely, punctured; these become convergent, and do not reach the base; the 3rd and 5th interstices are a little broader than the others, the 5th at some distance from the base is split up by a finely punctured stria, the 7th is quadri- punctate; the smooth space along each side is rather broad and convex; the marginal punctures are small; the sculpture near the apex becomes coarsely punctiform and irregular, but the margin, though fine, is quite distinct there. Legs rather thick; the external angle at the apex of the front tibiae is hardly at all prominent, that of the intermediate pair is moderately angulate. Antennae with the basal 4 joints smooth and glabrous, the others finely and closely punctate, but, in my specimen, only scantily pubescent. The shape of the thorax is somewhat similar to that of M. laeviceps and M. cognatum, but the elytra! sculpture, rather thick legs, and reduction of labial punctures are good distinguishing features. p. 255. Subquadrate, moderately nitid, bearing short, rather fine, flavescent setae, which on the elytra! interstices are disposed in almost regular duplicate series; nigrescent or rufo-piceous, legs dark rufous, antennae and palpi rufo-testaceous. Head narrowed towards the front, bidentate there, rather coarsely and closely punctured. Thorax twice as broad as long in the middle, widely emarginate and with acute angles in front, the sides nearly straight for two-thirds of their length, then obliquely narrowed an- teriorly, the base slightly rounded, its angles, nevertheless, nearly rect- angular; with shallow oviform impressions rather than punctures, these are not very close, and each has a short seta proceeding from it, there is only a slight longitudinal depression behind. Elytra of exactly the same width as the thorax at the base, broadly rounded posteriorly, and covering the pygidium; on each there are 6 lines, which can hardly be termed striae. Tibiae finely setose, the anterior curvate, gradually dilated, obliquely truncate at the extremity and with acutely prominent external angles, there are 2 more denticles on the outer edge. Intermediate and hind tarsi well developed, the anterior slender and abbreviated, so that during repose they do not extend outwards as far as the external angle of the tibae. Antennae inserted below the sides of the head; their elongate basal joint, which is as long as the following five combined, is therefore partly concealed from above; 2nd conical, stouter than the 1st; 3rd and 4th small; 5th and 6th somewhat transversal; club moderate, pubescent, triarticulate. Underside shining, piceous, with minute setae, the sternum coarsely punctate, abdomen finely, metasternum nearly smooth on the middle. In other species the eyes, though not at all prominent, are quite dis- cernible above; they extend downwards, and are situated at the back part of the head just inside the thoracic angles, but in this species they are almost invisible above, though well developed underneath; these organs, therefore, and the neatly arranged setae on the elytra, will enable this species to be identified. Length, head exserted, 4 mm.; breadth, 2 J mm. Erua, near Waimarino. Found amongst decaying leaves on the ground (elevation, 2,500 ft.), January, 1910; and sent during March by Captain H. S. Whitehorn, of the Geological Survey Department, amongst vegetable matter collected at the head of the Retaruke River, about five miles from Erua. Group Melolonthidae. 3233. Odontria nitidula sp. nov. Odontria White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 265. Convex, subovate, shining; testaceous; the vertex, middle of thorax, and tibial teeth more or less infuscate; forehead rufo-castaneous, spar- 426 Transactions. ingly clothed with decumbent, pale yellow, and outstanding elongate hairs, these latter chiefly confined to the sides. Head coarsely punctured, the forehead rather less so, with dark re- flexed margins, Avhich are obtusely rounded in front. Thorax only half as long as broad, apex widely emarginate; base distinctly margined, rather deeply bisinuate, so as to appear somewhat lobate, or obtusely prominent, in the middle, its angles obtuse, the sides gently curvedly narrowed towards the front; it is very distinctly punctate, but not as coarsely as the head, and is slightly impressed along the middle. Elytra nearly thrice the length of thorax, of the same width as it is at the base, much broader behind, apices subtruncate; the sutural striae moderately impressed, the others more or less indefinite, quite obsolete near the base, their punctation irregular, similar to that of the thorax. Antennae short; 2nd joint nearly as stout as the 1st, but shorter; 3rd and 4th of about equal length; 5th very short, simple; club tri- articulate. Anterior tibiae tridendate. The somewhat glossy surface, pale colour, very distinct thoracic punc- tation, and the rather lobate base distinguish this from all the other species except White's Rhizotrogus zealandicus (474). In one example the elytra are slightly infuscate. $. Length, 12-14 mm.; breadth, 7-8 mm. Titahi Bay, Wellington. One from Mr. A. O'Connor. 3234. Odontria monticola sp. nov. Oblong, a little dilated posteriorly, opaque; light yellowish-brown, and, excepting the head, almost immaculate; the decumbent pubescence rather slender, pale greyish-yellow, the erect setae much more elongate and more scanty; head fusco-testaceous, the middle irregularly dark fuscous, as are also the outer edges of the anterior tibiae and all the tarsi. Head very sparingly and coarsely punctured, the reflexed margins of the clypeus gradually narrowed anteriorly and subtruncate at apex. Thorax with the breadth double the length, incurved in front, bisinuate at the base, posterior angles obtusely rectangular, its surface finely and rather distantly punctured. Elytra thrice the length of thorax, with slender striae, which are moderately definite behind but less so near the base; the seriate punctures are blackish, distinct, regular, and small, and are separated by intervals of about the same size as themselves; interstices plane, finely but not closely punctate; apices subtruncate; pygidium short, fuscous. Male. — -Antennae short, their 1st joint stout, 2nd shorter, both dilated towards the extremity; 3rd elongate; the 4th nearly as much elongated as the 5th, which is just as long as the other leaflets; the club, conse- quently, is 5-articulate. Female. — Antennae short, their 5th joint very short and hardly at all produced; the club is therefore composed of three leaflets. Thorax more sparingly pubescent, so that the fine, though not close, punctation can be easily seen. Elytra with less nigrescent, less regular, but slightly coarser punctures, and therefore with less discernible linear sculpture than in the male, and with a few light-fuscous spots on some of the interstices. The stature is about the same as that of 0. striata, but in it the dark lines and serial punctures on the elytra are distinct in both sexes, and the interstices have numerous large obvious dark spots Length, 16 mm.; breadth, 9 mm. Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 427 Bold Peak, Wakatipu. A pair, mounted on cardboard, forwarded for inspection by Mr. A. O'Connor, of Wellington. The male was cap- tured by Mr. Howie, the female by Mr. H. Hamilton. 3235. Odontria similis sp. nov. Oblong, elongate, slightly convex, opaque; thinly covered with de- pressed, yellowish-grey, moderately short and slender hairs, and with coarser, elongate, and somewhat rufescent ones along the sides and on the head; the base of thorax also with elongate but much paler ones; legs fusco-testaceous. Head coarsely and very irregularly punctured, the back part and a large spot near each eye almost smooth, its rims reflexed and very slightly curved in front. Thorax of the usual form, twice as broad as long, moderately finely and not closely punctate. Scutellum sparingly punc- tured. Elytra slightly widened behind, apices very slightly rounded; they are of the same width at the base as the thorax, but fully thrice its length; the sutural striae are distinct and finely punctate, the others are shallow and indefinite, the interstital punctation is fine. Pygidium broadly obconical, medially angulate at the extremity, with shallow rugose sculpture. Similar in form to O. marmorata, the thorax and hind-body light brown, but both very irregularly and numerously maculate with dark fuscous, so that the insect appears much darker ; the pygidium is pitchy brown instead of being somewhat testaceous ; the head is dark shining brown, with a testaceous streak across it near the back. The breast is testaceous, finely and rather distantly punctate and pubescent ; the abdomen is fuscous and more closely punctured. The labrum is more vertical and less prominent. The 5th antennal joint, though short, is rather more produced; the club is triarticulate. 0. fusca (2518) has striate elytra. Length, 14 mm. ; breadth, 8 mm. Mount Greenland, near Ross; elevation, 2,500ft. Found by Mr. Hamilton. 3236. Costleya simmondsi sp. nov. Costleya Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1115. Broadly oval, moderately convex, nitid; nearly glabrous, having only a few slender setae on the head and along the sides, the pygidium and tibiae with coarser ones; the clypeus, elytra, and sides of thorax fusco- testaceous tinged with green ; the back of the head and middle of thorax light fuscous; tibiae oiceous, more or less viridescent, the outer edge of the anterior reddish ; antennae pale castaneous, club opaque and nearly black. Head irregularly, coarsely, but not closely punctured ; clypeus with somewhat reflexed margins, slightlv medially incurved in front. Thorax nearly twice as broad as it is long, its sides finely rimmed, more narrowed in front than behind, its base strongly bisinuate, the apex deeply emarginate, front angles projecting beyond the middle of the eyes; its punctation coarse, not very close, but irregular; there is a median impression near the front. Elytra of the same width as thorax at the base, rather wider behind the middle, apices obtusely rounded towards the suture; with rather broad, closely punctured striae; inter- stices smooth, the 3rd, 5th, and 7th broader and more elevated than the others, their sculpture, however, becomes indistinct near the apices; the lateral margins are somewhat explanate almost to the extremity. 428 Transactions. Antennae 8-articulate, basal joint largest, dilated towards the ex- tremity, 2nd rather longer than 3rd and twice as stout, 4th longer than the preceding, gradually thickened, 5th very short but not broader than the 4th j club composed of 3 rather short equal leaflets. Differs from 1977 (C. discoided) in coloration, by the coarse sculpture of the head and thorax, deep elytra! striae and more costiform inter- stices, obviously tridentate anterior tibiae, and by the more elongated tarsal joints. Length, 14 mm.; breadth, 8 mm. Mount Alpha, near Wellington; elevation, about 4,500 ft. Described from a specimen mounted on cardboard and sent for examination by Mr. Hubert Simmonds, of Wellington, in whose honour it has been named. Group EUCNEMIDAE. 3237. Talerax dorsalis sp. now Talerax Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 279. Subparallel, moderately narrow, nitid; black; legs fuscous; the knees, tarsi, and apical margin of thorax castaneous; pubescence cinereous, slender, and elongate, slightly flavescent and thicker at the base of the thorax. Head almost as broad as the front of the thorax, feebly medially im- pressed, distinctly but not very closely punctate. Eyes large and pro- minent. Thorax a third broader than long, apical margin somewhat rej&exed and broadly rounded, posterior angles robust, rathei long, a little curved, not at all divergent; disc convex, distinctly yet rather finely but nowhere closely punctured. Scutellum minutely sculptured. Elytra as broad as thorax at the base, thrice its length, tapering very gently towards the extremity ; the shoulders and each side of the suture, at the base, obtusely elevated, sutural striae indefinite but terminating near the apices in deep foveiform depressions, their punctation is coarser than that of the thorax and appears slightly rugose in some aspects, there are also some obsolete striae near the middle. Legs very finely pubescent; tarsi slender, simple, basal joint nearly as long as all the following ones, their penultimate joint with slender lobes. Antennae distinctly but not widely separated at the base; 1st joint stout and somewhat curved; 2nd very short and feebly rufescent ; 3rd elongate, as long as the 1st; joints 4—10 subserrate, all longer than broad, the 4th, however, is shorter than adjoining ones; 11th elongate; they bear distinct infuscate pubescence. T . mi cans (2366) comes nearest, but is rather larger, its thorax is more glossy and irregularly punctured, so that the middle and other spots are almost smooth, the elytral sculpture is more definite, the basal elevations less so. Length, 3§ mm. ; breadth, 1^ mm. Mount Pirongia. One captured by myself in December, 190!). Group Elateridae. 3238. Protelater diversus sp. nov. Protelater Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 304. Narrow, elongate, and shining, pitchy black, elytral base somewhat rufescent, the knees and claws pale castaneous; pubescence scanty, slender but distinct, greyish-yellow. Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 429 Head rather large, finely and irregularly punctate, with a pair of nearly smooth spots on the vertex. Eyes prominent. Antennae filiform, densely and finely pubescent, their 9th joint reaching backwards to the shoulder; 3rd joint slightly shorter than 2nd, these, together, about as long as the 4th. Thorax elongate, its length more than doubt the breadth at the middle, with rather thick and very divergent posterior angles, the anterior rectangular and with a pale transverse spot near each; its whole surface very distinctly and moderately closely punctured. Elytra elon- gate, tapering gradually towards the rounded apex; they are rather closely and coarsely punctate-striate, but less distinctly punctate near the base; interstices finely punctured, the 3rd and 5th more elevated behind than the others. Underside nigrescent, moderately punctate, with greyish pubescence. The species most resembling this, 1369 (P. nigricans) and 1990 (P. urquJiarti), may be readily separated, the former by the less divergent and rufescent thoracic angles and shorter, stouter antennae; the latter by the very fine thoracic sculpture, and by the striae being nearly obsolete on the basal half of the elytra. 3. Length, 10 mm.; greatest breadth, 2^ mm. Mount Quoin. Found on dead trunks of Fagus, at an elevation of about 3,800 ft., by Mr. H. Simmonds, from whom a specimen has been received. 3239. Chrosis dubitans sp. nov. Chrosis Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 296. Robust, not parallel; pubescence distinct, pale brassy; nitid, rufo- piceous, antennae nigrescent. Head moderately coarsely and irregularly punctured, with a nearly smooth space near each eye. Antennae finely pubescent, hardly attaining the base of thorax, 3rd joint rather longer than 2nd. Thorax of about equal length and breadth, gradually narrowed anteriorly, with carinate, robust, and slightly divergent basal angles; the sides, before the middle, are broadly yet slightly impressed, there is an elongate median impres- sion near the base, and near the front an indistinctly elevated line, the disc is finely and rather distinctly punctured, but the sculpture becomes closer and more distinct near the sides and apex. Elytra rather deeply striate, the outer striae evidently punctate; interstices distinctly but not very closely punctured, the 2nd becomes obsolete behind the middle; apices rounded singly. Nearly allied to C. barbata (529), and perhaps only one of several varieties. It is distinguished by the rather distant sculpture of the thorax and the abbreviation of the 2nd elytral interstices. Length, 16 mm. ; breadth, 5 mm. Mount Alpha, near Wellington. Found under stones, at an altitude of 4,700 ft., by Mr. H. W. Simmonds. 3240. Corymbites fulvescens sp. nov. Corymbites Latreillr, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 299. Elongate, subparallel, nitid; fulvescent, the head, thorax, and basal five joints of the antennae reddish, legs testaceous, tibiae lighter than the tarsi ; elytra densely clothed with slender yellowish hairs, the thorax more sparingly. Head densely punctured and distinctly pubescent. Thorax, in the middle, scarcely longer than broad, somewhat curvedly narrowed near 430 Transactions. the front, subparallel behind; its basal angles finely carinate above and directed backwards, the anterior prominent but obtuse; the surface moderately closely and rather finely punctate, still more finely near the base; there is no median impression. Elytra thrice the length of the thorax, a little wider near the hind thighs than at the shoulders, their apices emarginate and minutely angulate; they are finely punctate- striate, with minutely sculptured interstices. Underside fulvescent, very finely clothed and punctured, the sternal structure similar to that of C. antipodum . Antennae filiform, attaining the base of the thorax, their 2nd joint quite half the length of 3rd. It may be readily identified by being more brightly coloured than any New Zealand member of the genus. C. antipodum (532) is its nearest ally, but the punctate elytral striae and the differently formed and less densely sculptured thorax are distinctive. Length, 14 mm. ; breadth, 4 mm. Wairiri, Seaward Kaikouras. A single individual t'ound by Mi-. W. L. Wallace, of Timaru. 3241. Corymbites vitticollis sp: nov. Elongate, slightly nitid, fuscous ; the elytra with a broad streak along the middle of each, and the suture somewhat rufescent; the thorax with a more definite and rather broad reddish median streak, its sides paler ; legs and antennae testaceous; the clothing flavescent, rather dense, and coarser on the head and labrum than it is on the elytra. Thorax moderately convex, about a fifth longer than broad, in the middle, posterior angles indistinctly carinate and almost quite straight, its surface closely and moderately finely punctate. Elytra rather finely sulcate, the sutural pair of striae impunctate, the punctation of the others becoming coarser towards the sides, interstices closely and very finely punctured, the apices simple. Underside pale castaneous, but with the Hanks of the presternum testaceous and very distinctly punctured, metasternum medially sulcate, abdomen finely and closely punctate; with fine greyish-yellow pubescence. Antennae short, not attaining the base of thorax, their 2nd joint only a little shorter than the 3rd, which is rather shorter than the 4th. Tarsi elongate, their penultimate joint but little more than half the length of the 3rd. Distinguishable from G. strangulatus by its coloration, simple and less divergent thoracic posterior angles, differentry formed antennae, &c. Length, 13 mm.; breadth, 3| mm. Silver-stream, near Wellington. A pair of mounted specimens received from Mi'. A. O'Connor. 3242. Corymbites approximans sp. nov. Elongate, a little shining, castaneo-rufous, the legs and basal two joints of antennae testaceous, remaining joints infuscate; pubescence yellowish-grey. Thorax closely and moderately finely punctate in the middle, about a fifth longer than broad, with slightly divergent and finely carinate pos- terior angles. Elytra with narrow impuncate striae, interstices closely and finely punctured, apices simple. Underside rufo-fuscous, densely and finely punctate and pubescent, metasternum medially sulcate. Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. -131 Antennae filiform and elongate, reaching backwards just beyond the middle femora, 2nd joint more than half the length of 3rd, the latter as long as the 4th. In some respects like C . antipodum (532), but differing from it in colour, &c. It is easily separable from C. vitticollis by the impunctate elytra! striae. $. Length, 13 mm.; breadth, 3 mm. Silverstream. Also discovered by Mr. O'Connor. 3243. Corymbites sternalis sp. now Elongate, rather slender, slightly nitid; elytra fusco-rufous, the thorax of a lighter hue, with its sides and base subtestaceous, the legs, palpi, and basal two joints of antennae testaceous, the other joints fuscous ; rather closely covered with slender yellowish hairs. Head very distinctly and closely punctured. Thorax slightly longer than broad, basal angles very slightly divergent, not perceptibly carinate; the surface closely and moderately finely punctate. Elytra with simple apices, the striae nearest the suture rather fine and impunctate, the outer ones distinctly yet rather finely punctured, the punctation of the inter- stices very fine and close. Antennae elongate, extending as far as the intermediate thighs, their 2nd joint fully half the length of the 3rd, which equals the 4th. Tarsi elongate, their penultimate joint well developed. Underside fusco-rufous, closely and very finely punctate, with slender greyish pubescence; flanks of prosternum testaceous, densely and rather finely punctured, saltatorial process fuscous. Rather smaller than 532, much more brightly coloured, its thorax differently shaped, not at all straight-sided. Length, 10 mm. ; breadth, 2h mm. Silverstream. The third species of this genus obtained by Mr. O'Connor within a limited area, and, so far as I know, not occurring elsewhere. Group Dasctllidae. 3244. Atopida basalis sp. nov. Atopida White. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., pp. 311 and 1141. Elongate, slightly nitid; head and thorax fusco-rufous, elytra cas- taneous with suffused dark marks, legs and palpi testaceous; antennae infuscate from the 4th joint onwards, 2nd and 3rd yellowish, the basal joint rufescent; clothed with decumbent yellowish hairs, those on the elytra coarser and greyish. Head large, including the slightly convex eyes, as broad as the front of thorax, closely and rather finely punctate-granulose. Thorax nearly twice as broad as long, base and apex subtruncate, with acutely rect- angular angles, the anterior somewhat depressed, its sides sinuously narrowed behind, in one example strongly rounded at the middle; the sculpture dense, less close at the basal margin, not coarse, punctate- granulose. Scutellum triangular, elongate. Elytra evidently broader than thorax at the base and about four times its length, subparallel, slightly transversely impressed before the middle, irregularly but not coarsely punctured, with a tendency to become subgranulose near the shoulders. 432 Transactions. Antennae reaching backwards to beyond the base of the elytra, their 1st joint stout, 2nd short and moniliform, 4th thicker than 3rd and quite as long. In A. sinuata (2524) a basal sinuosity near each side of the thorax causes the posterior angles to appear as if they were directed backwards; this is not the case in the present species, which, moreover, has more finely sculptured elytra, differently coloured antennae, and larger eyes. Length, 5| mm. ; breadth, 2 J mm. Kaitoke, near Wellington. I am indebted to Mr. A. O'Connor for a pair of specimens. 3245. Mesocyphon mandibularis sp. nov. Mesocyphon Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 316. Robust, subdepressecl, moderately nitid, unevenly clad with distinct yellowish pubescence; rufescent, the elytra with irregular fuscous and testaceous marks. Head densely and distinctly but not coarsely punctured. Eyes pro- minent. Mandibles elongate, more than half of their whole length ex- posed. Antennae elongate, rather stout, their 3rd joint almost as long and thick as the 4th; 5-10 about equal, their length about double the breadth, each narrowed towards the base; 11th oviform; they bear fine pubescence. Thorax a third broader than long, its apex slightly bisinuate, anterior angles rectangular and only a little deflexed ; its sides nearly straight and distinctly margined, with nearly rectangular basal angles; its sculpture is like that of the head, but on a spot at each side of the interrupted median impression the punctures are more distant. Scutel- lum large, thickly pubescent. Elytra evidently wider than thorax at the base, gradually expanded backwards; on each, alongside the suture, there is a shallow basal impression which is curved outwards and becomes broader near the middle; there is also an indefinite discoidal costa; their punctation is rather finer than that of the head. There is no perceptible curtailment of the anterior portion of the head; the unusual exposition of the mandibles is caused by their length. It is rather larger than M. divergens (575), with a broader head, and impressed thorax and elytra. Length, 7£ mm. ; breadth, 3J mm. Mount Alpha, Tararua Range. Several specimens found under a stone, at a height of 4,800 ft., by Mr. H. Simmon ds, who presented me with a pair. 3246. Cyphon pachymerus sp. nov. Cyphon Payk, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 318. Subopaque, broadly oval, slightly convex; elytra densely clothed with inconspicuous, slender, cinereous pubescence; body smoky black, legs and basal two joints of antennae fuscous. Head short and broad, very minutely granulate. Antennae with the 3rd joint very small, yet rather longer than broad, 4th evidently larger than the following ones. Thorax strongly transverse, its sides but little rounded, their margins much finer than the basal, with subrectangular angles, the anterior somewhat deflexed, its sculpture like that of the head. Scutellum large. Elytra ample, without depressions, closely and finely punctured. Broun.— New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 433 Femora incrassate, the posterior particularly; hind tibiae with a pale, very elongate terminal calcar. These two characteristics at once differen- tiate this species from its allies. In general appearance C . aethiops (1730) most nearly resembles it. An aberrant .species, probably representing a distinct genus. Length, nearly 3 mm. ; breadth, quite Ik mm. Silverstream. Both of my specimens were discovered by Mr. A. O'Connor, of Wellington. Group Mei.vridak. 3247. Arthracanthus foveicollis sp. nov. A rthr acanthus Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 781. Elongate, slightly nitid; pubescence greyish, slender yet quite dis tinct; elytra, legs, and basal four joints of antennae more or less infus- cate, tibiae rather more rufescent, remaining joints of antennae piceous, head and thorax nigrescent. Head slightly broader than thorax, with a large median fovea behind; it is finely and distantly punctate. Eyes large and prominent. Thorax of equal length and breadth, obtusely dilated laterally at the middle, distinctly but finely and rather distantly punctiired, with a median linear impression in front, a basi.l fovea at the middle, and a shallow impression at each side. Scutellum distinct. Elytra elongate, subparallel, wider than thorax at the base ; distinctly, moderately closely, and rugosely punctured. Antennae stout, not serrate, basal two joints thick, 3-5 moderately elongate and about equal, 6-10 similarly elongate, 9th and 10th somewhat triangular, 11th elongate-oval. Legs elongate, the basal joint of the anterior tarsi with a spiniform process at its front or inner angle. Female. — Occipital fovea absent. Basal joint of anterior tarsi very short, not distinctly spinose. The thoracic fovea is distinctive. Length, 2|mm.; breadth, § mm. Akatarawa, Wellington. Two specimens, mounted on cardboard, from Mr. A. O'Connor. Croup Ct.eri.dae. 3248. Phymatophaea griseipennis sp. nov. Phymatophaea Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 334. Elongate, subdepressed, with numerous erect, slender greyish setae, subopaque; nigrescent, but the elytra, with the exception of their basal portion, are yellowish-grey; antennae and tarsi infuscate. Head very closely and coarsely punctured. Thorax of about equal length and breadth, obtusely dilated laterally behind the middle, its punc- tation hardlv as close and coarse as that of the head, finer in front, with a pair of smooth, slightly raised spots before the middle. Scutellum sub- triangular. Elytra thrice as long as thorax, not twice its width at the base, rather wider behind, without inequalities of surface; evenly punc- tured, more coarsely but not quite so closely as the thorax. Legs pilose, anterior tibiae moderately curved. Tarsi with well- developed membranous appendages, claws thickened but not dentate. Eyes prominent, finely faceted, emarginate in front. Length, 5 mm. ; breadth, If mm. Silverstream, near Wellington. A single specimen, from Mr, A. O'Connor. 1-5— Tran§, 4:34 Transactions. 3249. Parmius violaceus sp. nov. Parmius Sharp. Man. N.Z. Coleopt. p. 331. Elongate, subdepressed, shining; violaceous, the tibiae and basal two joints of antennae fusco-testaceous, remaining joints and the tarsi darker, the front of the forehead and the clypeus pale yellow; the body and legs with numerous outstanding conspicuous pallid hairs. Head, including the large prominent eyes, as broad as the middle of thorax, longitudinally bi-impressecl in front ; it is very irregularly, finely, and indistinctly punctured. Thorax of about equal length and breadth, a good deal dilated laterally near the middle; its surface apparently impunctate but finely transversely rugose, with an angular basal impres- sion and a pair of small shallow foveae near each side. Elytra a little uneven, with slightly elevated irregular rugae. Antennae rather short, their basal joint stout and evidently longer than 2nd; joints 3—8 differ but little, each longer than broad; club tri- articulate, its intermediate joint cordate and hardly as long as the others. More robust than the representative species, 602. In this species, as well as 602, 603, and 2037, there is a more or less definite emargination of the eyes; the author's generic diagnosis therefore requires correct ion . Length, 6^ mm. ; breadth, 2 mm. Mount Quoin. Described from a mounted specimen forwarded by Mr. Hubert W. Simmonds. Group Anobiidae 3250. Anobium inaequale sp. nov. Anobium Pabricius. Man. N.Z Coleopt.. p. 339. Cylindric, uneven, variegate; fuscous, the hase and the elevations of the elytra somewhat rufescent, legs and antennae rufo-piceous, tarsi obscure fusco - testaceous ; vestiture unequally distributed, variegated, flavescent and greyish. Head vertical in front, slightly narrower than thorax. Eyes huge and subrotundate. Thorax rather broader than it is long, somewhat con stricted near the middle, apex slightly rounded, posterior angles obtusely rectangular; distinctly gibbous on the middle, its sculpture close and granular. Elytra rather broader than thorax, their apices individually rounded and not entirely covering the pygidium; with minute, dense, rugose, and granular sculpture, and series of punctures winch are regular along the sides but more or less interrupted on the dorsum ; on each elytron, near the suture, there is a slight basal elevation, a narrower but more distinct elevation in line with the hind thigh, and a nodosity on top of the apical declivity; in advance of the last, hut nearer the side, there is an oblique one; besides these, some smaller asperities are visible. Antennae elongate, basal joint stout, 2nd short, joints 3-8 inwardly serrate, 9-11 elongate, the 9th being almost as long as the preceding four combined. Tarsi gradually expanded, penultimate joint broadly excavate above, the 5th short and thick, dilated towards the extremity, so as to be of elongate-cordate contour, with thick claws. Macranobium truncatum (161.'') is the only species that is at all similar, but the antennal structure is manifestly different. Length, 5 mm. ; breadth, nearly 2 mm. Titahi Bay, Wellington. A single mounted specimen from Mr. A. O'Connor, and one, minus legs and antennae, received from Mr. Hubert Simmonds. Broun. — New Genera and Species of Coleoptera. £35 3251. Anobium niticolle sp. uov. Cylindric, nigrescent, legs and antennae rufo - piceous ; head and thorax moderately nitid ; elytra dull, covered with hue ami rather short cinereous pubescence. Head vertical in front, the occiput closely and minutely punctate. Eyes very prominent. Thorax moderately dilated laterally near the middle, base and apex gently rounded, its length and breadth about equal; there are no superficial inequalities, the middle of the disc is very sparingly punctured, the base distinctly and very closely, the apex much more finely. Scutellum quadrate. Elytra broader than thorax, elongate- oblong, apical margins moderately expanded; they are rather densely and minutely sculptured and rugose, and have numerous series of mode- i ate punctures. Antennae inserted in front of the eyes; basal joint stout; 2nd much smaller, yet longer than broad; 3rd longer than 2nd; joints 4-10 more or less serrate, each evidently longer than broad; 11th slightly longer than LOthj but hardly as broad as it is. Legs moderately elongate, inter- mediate femora distinctly thickened at the extremity. Tarsi gradually dilated, basal joint of the anterior as long as the following two combined, 4th deeply and widely excavate above and prolonged more than half-way under the 5th, which is short and thick, with stout, basally thickened claws. Described from a single specimen mounted on cardboard and smeared with gum, so that all the structural details could not be seen. It is therefore treated provisionally as an aberrant Anobium, from which, however, it may be readily separated by the structures of the antennae and tarsi. Length, 3£ mm. ; breadth, IJmra. Silverstream. Discovered bv Mr. O'Connor. Group Opatridak. 3252. Syrphetodes truncatus sp. nov. Syrphetodes Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 351. Opaque, dark fuscous, elytral margins slightly rufescent, antennae and legs obscure rufous, tibiae indefinitely maculate, the palpi and terminal joint of the tarsi bright castaneo-rufous ; the squamiform setae decumbent, very short, yellowish. Head with a smooth central spot, the forehead obtusely elevated in front so as to be on nearly the same plane as the antennary orbits ; there is no perceptible sculpture. Thorax, in the middle, about a fourth broader than long, anterior angles acute and projecting as far as the centre of the prominent eyes, the apex medially deeply emarginate; its sides slightly sinuate and narrowed before the middle, with a shorter and deeper sinuositj- behind, so that the posterior angles seem somewhat acutely prominent; disc obtusely and slightly raised, but not nodose, behind the centre, its sculpture fine and indefinite, apparently granular. Elytra oblong, their sides almost quite straight from behind the shoulders to the hind thighs, curvedly narrowed behind, the apices, nevertheless, are rather broad and obliquely truncate towards the suture, the base is evidently broader than that of the thorax, and there is a slight projec- tion behind each rounded shoulder; their punetation is not quite seriate, 436 Transactions. and a little coarser near the suture than elsewhere, their sides have several coarse, smooth foveae ; on each elytron there are 4 distinct tuber- cular elevations; the 1st is basal, near the scutellum, the 2nd before the middle, the 3rd on top of the apical declivity; these are nearly in line; the 4th is placed just outside and a little in advance of the 2nd; there are 4 smaller ones near the 3rd, the innermost pair being near the suture. Underside fuscous, covered with short tawny setae. Intermediate coxae as far apart as the anterior pair, the posterior slightly more approximated. Basal ventral segment longer than the 2nd in the middle, cuneiform between the coxae, 4th rather shorter than 3rd, 5th simple. Epipleurae broad nearly to the extremity Antennae with short brassy setae, their basal joint twice as thick but not much longer than the 2nd, which is almost half the length of the 3rd, joints 4-8 about equal; club finely pubescent. A rather elongated species, with broad, obliquely truncate elytral apices, and unusually brightly coloured palpi. Length, 12 mm.; breadth, 5 J mm. Mount Quoin. My specimen was found by Mr. A. O'Connor. Group DlAPERIDAE. 3253. Menimus lineatus sp. nov. Menimus Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 360. Oblong-oval, slightly transversely convex, nitid; nearly glabrous, there being only a few slender, erect, inconspicuous greyish setae on the hind-body; those on the forehead and legs, however, are more easily seen, as they are more elongate and flavescent; body somewhat infuscate piceo-rufous, the lateral margins and apical portion of elytra paler ; legs, antennae, and palpi more or less ferruginous. Head smaller than thorax, finely yet quite distinctly but not closely punctured. Eyes minute. Thorax a third broader than long, very slightly curvedly narrowed anteriorly, nearly straight behind, where the lateral margins are more expanded than they are in front; the apex is bisinuate, with obtuse angles; base subtruncate, closely applied to the elytra, its angles rectangular but not at all prominent; the punctation distant, and rather finer than that of the head ; just in front of the fine basal margin and parallel to it there is a fine linear impression which appears more definite when examined sideways. Scu- tellum broadly triangular, finely punctate. Elytra twice the length of the thorax, of about the same width, but witli the rather acute humeral angles extending just outside the hind angles of the thorax; they are gradually narrowed posteriorly, with a corresponding diminution of the lateral margins, which when looked at from above seem quite obsolete ; their punctures are subseriate, rather coarser near the sides and suture than those of the thorax, and become indistinct behind. Antennae stout, rather short ; 2nd and 3rd joints rather longer than broad, each evidently longer than the uncovered portion of the 1st; 4th quadrate; joints 5-7 of about equal length, but successively expanded, narrowed towards the base; 8th and 9th large, transverse, narrowed backwards; 10th large, subrotundate. Legs moderately slender; tibiae with minute terminal spurs; basal joint of posterior tarsi rather shorter than the 2nd and 3rd combined. Broun. — Neiv Genera and Species of Coleoptera. 437 In shape intermediate between the elongated M. oblongus (656) and .1/. thoracicus (662) and the series of more thickset species, such as M. crassus, but separable from these by the linear impression across the base of the thorax. Length 3^ mm. ; breadth, U- mm. Erua. Unique. January, 1910. Group Helopidae. 3254. Adelium complicatum sp. now Adeiium Kirby, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 386. Elongate, subdepressed, glabrous, nitid; nigro-violaceous, legs inclu- sive; antennae and palpi fuscous; labium fusco-rufous. Head uneven, irregularly and coarsely punctured, somewhat depressed and coarsely rugose between the eyes. Thorax distinctly margined, a third broader than long in the middle, its sides slightly rounded from the obtuse front angles backwards, but near the base moderately narrowed and nearly quite straight, with rectangular angles; disc with a median linear impression from base to apex but not sharply defined, basal fossae somewhat indefinite and situated nearer to the sides than the middle; its punctation moderate and irregular; there are several slightly raised and depressed spots which cause the surface to appear uneven; the base and middle of the apex are nearly truncate. Scutellum subquadrate, transverse. Elytra more than double the length of thorax, slightly broader than it is at the base, nowhere more than a half broader; the shoulders strongly margined and a little curvate; they are gradually narrowed behind the posterior femora; their sculpture is complex, con- sisting of smooth, longitudinal, linear and irregularly curved elevations and minutely punctate intervals. Tibiae stout, curvate externally, the anterior most so near the ex- tremity, the posterior above the middle, but below that part slightly twisted and laterally compressed. The general contour is intermediate between the parallel-sided series, such as A. Zealand iciim, and the broader A', bullatum, with the base of the thorax resting on the elytra. A. gratiosum (2055) is a much larger insect. In A. bullatum the elytra! sculpture consists, to a great extent, of oviform elevations; these are not smooth, being more or less distinctly punctate. Underside piceous, feebly rugose, basal ventral segment very broadly rounded between the coxae. Length, 14 mm. ; breadth, 4£ mm. Greymouth. Unique. Secured by Mr. J. H. Lewis over a year ago. 3255. Cerodolus curvellus'sp. nov. Cerodolus Sharp. Man. N.Z. Coleopt. p. 1161. Elongate-oval, moderately convex, glabrous, nitid ; nigro-aeneous, elytra somewhat iridescent, the legs, antennae, and palpi rufo-castaneous. Head finely punctate, rather more distantly behind than in front; antennary orbits almost fiat. Thorax fully a third broader than long, base distinctly bisinuate, its sides finely margined and gently curved, front angles rounded, the posterior obtusely rectangular; disc finely yet quite definitely but not closely punctured, and with a slight basal depression between the middle and each side. Scutellum short and 438 Transactions. broad. Elytra slightly broader than thorax at The base, nearly thrice its length, a little wider just before the middle than elsewhere, considerably narrowed posteriorly, with well- developed margins; each elytron lias eight series of moderate punctures, two of these are quite lateral, the three nearest the suture, behind the middle, are substriate ; the inter- stices are finely punctured. Antennae scarcely as long as the head and thorax, joints 7-11 a little broader and more distinctly pubescent than the others, the exposed por- tion of the basal joint is much stouter than the 2nd but hardly at all longer, the next is longer than the 4th, the terminal elongate-oval. In ('. chrysomeloides the elytra! punctures are less numerous and quite foveiform. C. genialis (2059) more nearly resembles this species, in which, however, the anterior angles of the thorax are more broadly rounded and the sides almost evenly curved, the elytra! punctures are nowhere coarse, and in 2059 the 4th antennal joint is almost as long as the 3rd. The vestiture of the front tarsi is rather dense and nearly grey- Length, 8 mm. ; breadth, 3§ mm. Advance Peak, Otago. One found by Mr. F. S. Oliver, and sent to me by Professor Chilton. The pygidium is unnaturally distended and uncovered, owing to saturation with alcohol. Group Anthicidae. 3256. Cotes insignis sp. nov. Cotes Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 410. Elongate, subdepressed, clothed with slender fulvescent hairs, head and thorax shining, dark rufous; elytra, at the base, also rufous, of a pale chestnut-red across the middle, someAvhat nigrescent behind, but light red at the apex; the legs, antennae, and palpi rufescent, tarsi yellowish. Head broader than the thorax, the vertex smooth, with a few in- distinct punctures near the eyes. Thorax quite equalling in length the width of its basal portion, deeply constricted behind the middle, in front of the contraction it is subglobose ; it exhibits no definite sculp- ture. Scutellum triangular. Elytra not double the breadth of the thorax, but more than thrice its length; rather finely yet quite percep- tibly, but not perfectly seriately, punctured from the base to the hind femora, the posterior sculpture obsolete ; there is a slight obtuse eleva- tion on each at the base, and the pale central portion is very slightly depressed; the pygidium is uncovered, and nearly testaceous. Eyes large, prominent, and distinctly faceted. Antennae stout, dis- tinctly pubescent, reaching backwards to the middle thighs, their 2nd joint nearly as long as the 1st and more than half the length of the 3rd, the 11th scarcely any longer than the penultimate. C. rufa only, from Mokohinau Island, resembles this species; it is larger, but in 2072 the punetation of the wing-cases is much more dis- tinct, and, before the middle, a broad area is covered with fine golden pubescence. Length, 51 mm. ; breadth, If mm. Kaitoke, near Wellington. My specimen is another of Mr. A. O'Connor's novelties. In his specimen tine white hairs almost form a fringe across the dark part of the elytra. Broun. — New Gtnera and Species of Coleoptera. 439 ( , roup M RLANDRYIDAE. 3257. Hylobia plagiata sp. nov. Hylobia B oun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 403. Convex, very elongate oval, slightly nitid, fusco-castaneous, legs and antennae fusco-testaceous, tibiae half fuscous; each elytron with 3 obscure rufo-testaceous spots at the side, behind the middle; pubescence cinereous, very fine, rather dense, and lying close to the derm. Head of about the same width behind as the apex of thorax, derlexed, with flat eyes. Thorax a little broader than long, slightly rounded late- rally, base bisimiate, with a depression between the middle and each side, its surface with minute transversal sculpture, which in some lights appears granular. Scutellum transversely quadrate. Elytra four times the length of thorax, of the same width as it is at the base, wider roar the middle, acuminate posteriorly; their suture well marked and slightly rufescent, the sculpture similar to that of the thorax. Antennae elongate, 2nd joint rather shorter than 3rd, the following joints very gradually and slightly expanded, 9th and 10th subquadrate. Spurs of posterior tibiae closely pectinate, hardly as long as the basal tarsal joint. Anterior tarsi moderately elongate, basal joint nearly the length of thj3 subquadrate 2nd and 3rd taken together, 4th subquadrate, angularly emarginate at apex, 5th rather longer than its predecessor, half its width ; claws simple. Somewhat similar to H. calida (715), but readily distinguishable by the more elongate outline, separately acuminate and trimaculate elytra. Length, 5 mm. ; breadth, 1| mm. Hayward's, near Wellington. One individual, mounted on cardboard, from Mr. H. W. Simmonds. 3258. Hylobia guinnessi sp. nov. Convex, very elongate oval, covered with slender, depressed, ashy pubescence, subopaque ; head and thorax castaneous, elytra of a choco- late lfue, legs fusco-rufous, tarsi and antennae obscure testaceous, the joints of the hinder pairs of tarsi tipped with fuscous, palpi rlavescent. Head finely punctured, rather distantly in front, its breadth about half that of the middle of thorax. Eyes moderately prominent, with coarse facets, gradually obliquely narrowed downwards. Thorax sub- truncate at base, its sides gently curved, but, owing to the deflexed angles, appearing much rounded in front; the apex, in the middle, however, is nearly straight; the sculpture is fine on the disc, a little coarser at the sides, but ill-defined; it is a third broader than long as seen from above. Scutellum invisible. Elytra of same width as thorax at the base, but more than thrice its length, a little broader near the middle, attenuate posteriorly; the suture is slightly depressed, their sculpture is rather closer than that of the thorax and equally indefinite ; there are no distinct punctures, granules, or transverse lines. Antennae inserted close to the front of the eyes, their 2nd joint more than half the length and thickness of the basal; 3-5 almost equal, each longer than "2nd; joints 7-10 a little dilated, 9th and 10th as long as broad, 11th slightly larger. 'J ibiae with short pubescence, the anterior slightly curved along the inner edge, with a rather thick calcar at the inner extremity; basal joint of the tarsi as long as 2nd and 3rd combined, 4th bilobed and cleft 140 Transactions. nearly to the base, 5th us long as the preceding two, with simple slender claws. Spurs of posterior tibiae distinctly pectinate, as long as the dilated tibiae, but shorter than the basal tarsal joint. The prevailing indefinite sculpture and apparent absence of the scu- tellum are good distinguishing characters. Length, 4 mm.; breadth, limni. Makatote. Mr. W. J. Guinness, whose name is bestowed on this species, forwarded a package of leaf -mould which he collected near the viaduct in February, 1910. Besides some other rare species, one of this was found amongst the decaying leaves. [To be concluded in a subsequent volume.] APPENDIX. RECORDS OF MILNE SEISMOGRAPHS, 1906-1911. Records of the Milne Seismographs Nos. 16 and 20, taken at Christchurch and Wellington by H. F. Skey and G. Hogben. Communicated by G. Hogben, M.A., F.G.S. P1; first phase ; P2, second phase ; P3, P4, P5, large waves. Time is Greenwich mean civil time, given in hours, minutes, and decimals of minutes ; 0 or 24R. = mid- night. B.P., boom period. Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16, at the Magnetic Observatory, Christ- church, New Zealand. (Latitude, 43° 32' S. ; longitude, 172° 37' E. Director, Henry F. Skey, B.Sc.) Date. Commence- ment. Max. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 1906. H. m. H. m. Mm. H. m. Jan. 3 2 03-7 2 09-9 0-4 1 10 ,. 4 4 08-7 4 33-5 0-3 0 51 „ 18 1 35-3 . . 0 28 Thickening of line. , 22 4 16-9 4 231 1-5 0 44 „ 24 7 46-2 . . 0 49 Thickening of line. „ 24 22 01-2 22 04-3 0-4 End between 22h. 09-4m. and 22h. 13-6m. while attending instru- ment. „ 25 1 53-9 . . 0 16 Slight thickening. „ 30 23 00- 5 . . , . Slight swelling. „ 31 j 16 030 15-5 ? ? P2.. Beginning and end obscured by tremors. Feb. 1 2 30-9 . , , . 2 36- 1 2 39-2 2 42-3 2-95 1 09 „ 2 0 21-6 . . . . 0 19 Thickening of line. » 5 4 29-1 . . . . , , Pi- 4 33-2 4 34-3 3-45 1 15 „ 8 0 20-7 . . 0 52 Thickening of line. „ 10 9 16-3 9 29-7 0-4 0 22 „ 12 6 46-2 . . Pi- 6 49-3 6 53-4 1-5 0 52 „ 14 0 40-7 0 45-9 10 0 26 „ 16 23 28-7 , , Pi- 23 32-8 23 380 1-4 0 56 „ 19 2 07-2 Pi- 2 12-4 2 22-7 2 24- 1 17*0+ 2 54 » 20 6 07-2 6 11-8 i 0-2 0 14 Mar. 3 j 9 51-3 : 0-7 ? Beginning and end obscured by night tremors. „ 8 21 27-5 21 32-7 0-5 0 09 „ 9 j 19 32-6 5-4 1 Beginning and end obscured by night tremors. „ 10 6 40-8 . . 6 48- 1 6 51-2 5-3 ? Beginning and end obscured by night tremors. 16— Trans. 442 Transactions. Records of Milne Seismograph iVo. 16 — continued. Date. Commence- ment. Max. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 1906. H. m. H. m. Mm. H. m. Mar. 10 16 33-6 16 35-7 8-5 9 Beginning and end obscured by night, tremors. „ 11 3 35-7 3 38-8 0-85 0 36 . „ 11 8 49- 1 8 52-2 0-9 0 30 „ 11 ? 21 52-4 0-5 ? Beginning and end obscured by tremors. „ 20 2 24-8 2 34-1 0-45 ? End obscured by second quake. ,. 20 3 310 3 32-5 3 33-6 0-75 0 57 April 14 18 19 May A ug. 29 2 12 „ 13 „ 15 „ I? „ 18 „ 19 „ 19 „ 19 „ 21 June 1 „ 2 „ 2 „ 2 5 „ o „ 9 „ 22 „ 24 „ 30 July 12 „ 12 „ 17 „ 19 „ 22 .. 22 .. 23 „ 31 3 3 7 8 9 12 12 (Mean boom period, 15-4 sec. 1 mm. = 0-66" of tilt.) 4 02-9 4 07-5 13 33-6 14 010 6 15-4 6 21-6 6 44-9 13 181 8 11-5 5 28-4 23 41-9 0 41-9 2 31-5 12 58-8 4 40-2 01-4 29-8 28-8 14 43-2 0 28-0 0 00- 1 23 18-6 o 4 6 8 7 8 6 11 3 1 I 22 1 II (i 9 7 38-1 10 21-5 10 21-5 19-6 18-7 14-1 26-2 32-5 20-3 240 271 40-8 13-6 20- 1 25-8 25-8 4 111 14 300 6 13 8 12 13 5 23 0 2 11 13 5 4 14 0 10-3 470 24-8 131 01-3 23-2 34-6 43-9 43-9 32-6 38-8 16-9 02-9 340 48-4 32-2 12 7 10 11 15' 15 8 1 22 1 11 6 35-2 49-5 410 21-5 45-7 52-9 24-7 25-9 li 41-6 11 39-6 3 21-8 4 53-4 28-6 48-6 18-8 23-2 27-S 17-0+ 1 56 9 360 6-7 70 0-4 1-4 0-45 0-55 0-5 1-2 0-9 0-45 0-4 0-8 10 3-5 0-5 0-9 0-5 0-4 0-35 01 0-4 0-1 0-4 <)•:;.-> 0-45 0-9 3-4 0-35 0-25 0-6 0-2 0-25 3 21 4 09 0 38 0 41 0 21 0 42 0 28 0 22 0 26 0 46 0 43 0 56 0 18 •> 0 48 0 04 0 04 0 25 0 05 0 42 0 18 0 16 0 05 0 43 0 24 0 41 0 58 0 11 0 18 0 15 0 14 0 30 ? Origin, New Hebrides. San Francisco. Subsequent tremors at 17 17-6, 18 19-7, 19 20-7. I Small, and in middle of night j tremors. In middle of night tremors. B.P.. 15-1 sec. B.P., 15 sec. Thickening of line. End obscured by night tremors. Very slight. Very slight thickening. In middle of night tremors. Thickening merely. Very slight thickening. I Beginning and end obscured by / night tremors. Very slight. Slight swelling. Appendix. Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued. 443 Date. 1906. Aug. 17 „ 18 „ 22 „ 23 „ 23 „ 26 „ 30 Sept. 6 „ 14 ., 14 15 16 17 21 21 29 2 2 .. 2 .. 2 .. 3 •„ 4 „ 11 „ 18 „ 27 „ 29 Nov. 5 9 .. 10 .. 12 .. 14 ., 19 Oct. Max. Commence- ment. .Max. Ampli- tude. 1 Duration. Remarks. H. m. H. m. Mm. H. m. 0 33-3 Valparaiso. i Subsequent tremors : 6 33 to 7 14, 0 57-3 1 36- 1 1 39-8 minute ; 7 41 to 8 07, minute ; 9 22 to 10 12, minute ; 13 23 to 1 44-4 120 4 18 | 13 25, large ; and minute to 1 14 15-2. 6 56-8 m m . . 7 01 o 7 03-5 1-85 1 39 ? ) Pi. Beginning and end obscured 19 45-6 19 48-7 5-4 1 1 by continuous tremors. 1 44-6 1 48-8 0-8 0 21 16 29-6 i 16 30-6 6 16-7 6 30-7 3 03-5 3 38-7 19 060 19 11-2 13 34-8 16 121 16 19-3 2 43-2 4 24-2 8 52-8 9 02-6 1 280 1 49-7 0 10-2 1 59-8 2 07- 1 ? •? 0 18- 1 06-5 18-8 06-3 52-5 33-9 23 06-2 15 5 4 50-2 31-0 39-6 19 22 05-6 6 34-8 6 45-2 3 46-5 19 11-7 13 530 16 30-2 16 31-7 16 35-9 4 26-8 9 06-2 1 53-3 20 08-2 14 12-7 0 13-8 2 12 14 0 0 221 340 51-6 29-4 45-5 5 36-9 4 08-0 1 58-5 23 34-2 17 57-9 8 8 22 01-7 07-3 10-7 1-25 3-3 1-4 2-4 0-8 20-2 0-4 3-2 1-7 0-8 0-3 170 + 0-85 0-85 0-4 0-4 0*45 0-4 5-6 100 1-2 2 23 1 28 0 10 9 0 03 0 12 0 27 0 33 3 18 9 1 03 0 10 0 55 0 19 0 30 «) 55 0-95 1 16 09-6 15 11-5 2-8 •> 16-2 5 26-5 11 0 41 12-5 4 14-6 ■2-r, 0 09 Pt. Beginning and end obscured by continuous tremors. B.P., 15 sec. End obscured by night tremors. End obscured by night tremors. End obscured by night tremors. Minute tremor. Shock noted at 20 10-0 at Christchurch, Cheviot, and Kaikoura. Probably night tremors. B.P., 15 sec. Subsequent tremors. Possibly night tremors. Thickening of line. Thickening of line. B.P., 15 sec. | P]. Beginning and end obscured | bv night tremors. I Pi. Beginning and end obscured I by night tremors. :; 27 0 52 444 Transactions. Records of Jlilne Seismograph Xo. 16 — continued. Date. Commence- ment. Max. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 1906. Dec. 7 „ 15 „ 17 „ 18 „ 19 1907. Jan. 4 Feb. 8 14 3 „ 16 „ 27 Mar. 13 April 7 „ 15 „ 18 „ 19 „ 20 „ 22 „ 24 May 4 „ 9 ,- 12 13 14 17 23 27 „ 30 „ 31 June 5 H. m. 23 511 3 12-2 22 09-4 9 20 30- 1 0 31-6 0 36-8 5 31-9 5 43-4 13 59-5 5 420 9 54-7 ? 20 01-3 21 23-4 21 291 0 46-3 15 5 08-4 18 7 34-9 27 0 59- 1 29 6 06-8 31 ■? 9 6 7 21 21 0 0 2 23 24 5 6 8 54-4 32-5 02-0 11-4 39-8 07-2 320 13-5 '! 40-9 02-6 58-3 08-7 29-9 8 04-6 21 23-5 3 50-3 1 22-6 5 08-6 5 13-5 12 51-8 3 46-2 H. m. 23 52- 1 22 12-5 20 30-6 20 35-7 0 44-5 6 07-0 6 12-2 6 22-6 14 02-7 6 21-3 9 56-8 20 01-8 21 31-7 9 191 9 211 5 100 6 08-6 22 13-8 22 17-9 10 02-7 7 30-9 21 48-6 0 36-2 2 21-8 18 10-7 24 04-7 6 180 8 330 8 06-1 21 26-7 4 02-9 1 24-6 11 21-8 5 13-8 5 15-8 22 04-9 12 580 4 23-9 Mm. 0-9 0-75 2*5 8-5 4-5 140 0-5 10 205 4-5 1-25 2-5 4-1 1-5 15 1-3 0-7 11 2-7 11 H. m. 0 12 0 29 0 59 3 18 3 55 ? 1 36 0 37 1 32 1 03 0 07 0 10 0 32 0 08 1 '/ 2 53 1 39 1 53 1 14 0 58 1 0 07 1-9 0-45 0 32 0-4 0 09 0-4 1-4 0-7 4-9 0-4 B.P.. 15 sec. Thickening of line. I Pj. In middle of continuous tre- mors I Pi- Beginning and end obscured i by night tremors. i B.P., 15 sec. Beginning and end i obscured by night tremors. Very small. B.P., 15 sec. Thickening of line merely. Very slight. Minute. Minute swellings. In middle of night tremors. Followed by continuous tremors. 9 1 54 In middle of night tremors. End obscured by night tremors. Very slight. Beginning and end obscured by night tremors. 1 Ditto. In middle of minute night tremors. I End obscured by night tremors. In middle of continuous tremors. I Beginning and end obscured by I night tremors. Appendix. m Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued. Max. Date. Commence- ment. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 1907. H. m. H. m. Mm. H. m. June 13 9 57-2 10 10-7 0-7 1 52 „ 13 12 17-9 12 210 0-3 0 18 „ 18 9 06-3 9 07-9 1-9 0 11 Felt in towns south of Timaru. „ 19 17 28-6 m 0 05 Very small, carrot-shaped. „ 19 19 03-8 ' " „ 27 19 30-7 9 19 32-2 1-9 1 34 22 430 22 49-2 6-0 + ? In middle of continuous tremors. July 18 0 48- 1 0 51-2 0-25 0 20 „ 18 5 06-7 5 10-8 0-8 0 38 „ 20 , . 14 21-5 0-8 In middle of night tremors. „ 29 0 55-7 1 27-3 0-6 0 25 „ 29 19 51-4 20 110 0-4 0 53 Aug. 4 6 39- 1 6 44-8 0-3 1 00 „ 3 7 02-7 7 04-7 0-3 1 10 „ 13 21 54-4 . . . . 22 05-7 22 06-8 2-4 1 17 „ 16 3 57-7 , , " Small, sudden. „ 18 6 17-6 6 21-7 0 15 Swelling. „ 19 6 09-5 6 16-8 -• 0 21 Very small. „ 23 7 10-0 7 13-1 0 28 9? ,. 23 13 380 13 47-3 01 0 23 „ 28 19 20-8 19 23-9 0-3 0 50 „ 31 8 43-8 8 48-9 0-3 0 16 Sept. 2 16 26-3 , . . . . . 16 54-3 16 55-7 1-5 y After-tremors for about two hours. „ 15 5 28-3 5 32-9 5 36-6 2-2 1 30 „ 24 6 00-7 . . 0 32 Thickening of line. „ 24 16 58-6 17 03-8 1-4 0 34 „ 29 5 03-8 0 08 Swelling. Oct. 2 1 35-6 2 05-8 2 07-7 1-9 1 49 B.P., 15 sec. „ 10 V . , . . 22 05-1 22 05-8 3-5 y In middle of continuous tremors. „ 11 j 14 54-9 5-9 y In middle of night tremors. „ 17 4 15-6 4 18-1 0-2 0 19 „ 17 9 00-2 9 02-3 0-4 0 08 Nov. 3 I 1 Beginning and end obscured by 18 06-3 18 10-9 2-5 y 1 night tremors. „ 8 12 37-9 12 43- 1 0-4 y Followed by continuous tremors. „ 8 21 49-3 21 59-7 0-3 0 23 „ 12 7 100 7 14-2 0-9 1 12 Followed by continuous tremors. „ 13 3 26-7 3 34-9 0-8 1 03 „ 19 4 54-6 4 59-8 5 11-7 0-9 0 43 ,. 19 21 49-4 22 06-5 0-45 0 45 » 21 9 04-9 9 14-8 0-45 0 49 „ 21 20 48-4 21 12-2 0-6 0 49 „ 25 0 29-7 0 33-8 0-3 0 36 „ 26 3 05-8 3 140 0-8 0 46 „ 27 2 06-7 2 09-8 0-35 0 08 ,, 28 3 41-9 3 55-3 0-2 0 27 Dec. 11 1 090 1 27-3 0-6 0 53 „ 12 22 13-9 22 18-0 01 0 06 „ 15 •' . . . . 1 Beginning and end obscured by 17 55-3 18 07-8 4-8 y ) night tremors. „ 18 1 41-3 1 46-5 015 0 09 ,. 23 1 36-6 0 29 Thickening of line. 17— Trans. 446 T ran sort ions. Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued. Date. Commence- ment. Max. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 1907. H. m. H. m. Mm. H. m. Dec. 30 6 45-3 . . , . 7 27-8 7 35-5 1-9 2 22 1908. Jan. 19 7 33-7 7 42-0 01 0 33 „ 20 0 46-5 , . 0 06 Small, carrot-shaped. „ 24 0 46-8 0 530 0-9 0 56 Feb. 6 1 50-4 0 37 Thickening of line. „ 6 6 00-2 0 06 Small, carrot-shaped. „ 7 2 56-5 3 00-6 015 0 07 „ 14 1 03- 1 1 06-2 0-7 0 24 „ 24 23 57-8 24 01-5 24 02-5 1-6 0 38 „ 27 0 21-6 . . 0 03 Minute. „ 27 9 19-6 0 44 Swellings. „ 27 " 12 30-4 1-4 ? In middle of continuous tremors. Maximum appears at beginning of quake. „ 29 21 49-6 21 55-8 0-4 0 12 Mar. 5 2 28-8 , . . , , . 2 52- 1 2 59-8 1-6 1 53 „ 15 ? . . . . . . 1 Beginning and end obscured by 10 19-4 '10 20-4 2-7 1 ) night tremors. „ 19 3 08-1 3 117 0-5 0 48 , „ 21 4 25-8 0 38 Thickening of line preceded and followed by minute tremors. „ 23 ? . . . , , , i Beginning and end obscured by 11 46-6 12 06-2 2-9 ? i night tremors. „ 26 23 16-3 . . . . 23 27-6 24 090 24 29-7 4-25 2 59 „ 27 4 11-6 4 53-5 5 15-2 0-55 2 07 April 7 1 26-2 1 37-5 0-5 0 43 B.P., 15-4 sec. „ io 0 03-6 , . 0 200 0 31 -8 1-55 1 40 „ 12 9 09- 1 9 14-8 0-1 0 17 „ 12 19 18-4 19 360 0-75 0 40 „ 15 6 06-1 6 17-4 0-4 0 28 „ 23 0 070 0 09-6 0 39-9 1-85 2*05 May 5 5 28-8 6 03-8 6 05-4 10 1 40 „ 20 8 00-9 8 24-7 0-8 ? Followed bv night tremors. „ 21 7 19 1 # . 0 15 Slight, June 3 ■'■ 21 25-3 10 ■} In middle of continuous tremors. „ 18 1 39-0 1 43-7 0-25 0 14 Aug. 17 10 50-8 . . 10 59-5 11 28-4 11 34- 1 .">■.") 2 44 Sept. 2 •? 21 15-8 0-9 V Beginning and end obscured by night tremors. „ 14 3 32-5 3 36-7 0-4 0 19 „ 21 6 55-7 7 11-8 0-9 1 44 „ 22 3 11-8 3 23-7 0-35 0 30 „ 26 5 27-4 . . 5 320 5 34-1 4-9 1 13 Oct. 7 1 00-7 1 21-9 0-8 0 46 „ 13 5 31 0 . . 1 42 Swellings. Appendix. Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued. 447 Max. Da te. Commence- ment. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 1908. H. m. H. m. Mm. H. m. Nov. 11 21 22-3 21 300 10 0 59 Preceded by night tremors. j j 15 2 00-8 0 21 Slight swelling. j j 22 22 52-7 22 58-4 0-25 0 21 • j 27 0 380 0 411 0-3 0 24 j? 30 21 24- 1 21 27-2 1-9 0 28 Dec. 1 3 05-4 , . 0 38 Swellings. 9* 2 15 12-5 15 15-6 0-25 0 23 99 7 2 00-3 2 06-9 015 0 28 97 8 0 26- 1 0 26-4 0 27-5 6-0 0 15 1 Severe shock in North Canterbury j and slight in South Canterbury. 99 16 . , 6 07-7 0-4 . . In middle of continuous tremors. 99 28 4 40-9 4 55-3 5 00-5 5 07-8 5 20-9 ^ 5 300 6 07-2 6 13-4 i- 0-6 2 22 Subsequent tremor at 7 171. Origin, Italy. 6 17-1 i 6 20-2 J 6 24-3 1909. Jan. 1 4 11-7 . . . . 0 07 Swelling. ?> 3 21 46-5 . . 21 51-2 21 52-2 21 54-3 6-4 0 23 1 In progress while attending to I instrument. »5 17 3 17-9 3 28-2 0-4 0 25 99 21 2 38-4 2 47-7 0-5 0 29 99 23 3 49-6 1 37 Tremors. J? 28 0 38-5 0 04 Thickening merely. J? 29 0 59-8 1 15-9 0-3 0 45 55 29 •? 13 33-4 1-5 1 In middle of night tremors. Feb. 11 1 . . . . , . I Beginning and end obscured by 18 24-2 18 25-8 2-3 ? I night tremors. JS 22 9 26-7 . . , , 9 31-3 9 370 3-4 1 53 ?J 27 ? 13 33-4 1-5 ? Beginning and end obscured by night tremors. Mar. 8 11 45-7 11 56-0 11 56-5 1-9 1 B.P., 15-4 sec. End obscured by f night tremors. 11 59- 1 ? 99 10 7 37-4 7 38-4 0-45 0 05 99 17 23 05-2 , . . . 23 32-3 23 35-9 3-3 3 56 )? 22 22 05-3 . . , . . . 22 06-4 22 07-4 17-0 + 2 16 Direotion N. and S. Felt in south- ern towns. JJ 26 1 53-8 * " * " 0 06 Maximum at beginning. Ampli- tude very slight. Felt in Christ- church ; direction N. and S. April 1 5 33-4 . . , . B.P., 15-5 sec. 5 43-8 5 45-9 5 46-9 6-0 2 05 99 12 1 14-3 . . . m 1 18-5 1 22-6 3-95 1 29 J) 22 7 14-8 7 15-8 0-2 0 27 ?? 27 12 54-7 • • • * 1 13 09-0 13 19-3 6-8 2 01 448 Transactions. Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued. Date. Comrueuee- ment. .Max. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 1909. H. m. H. m. Mm. H. m. May 2 7 06- 1 . . , • . . 7 12-3 7 15-4 1-9 1 25 „ 2 . . 15 24-4 . . Very slight. „ 2 18 20-3 . . , . 18 25-4 18 29-6 2-5 0 57 „ 11 V 13 21-7 1-75 ? In middle of air-tremors. „ 12 0 57-2 1 19-3 0-3 0 55 „ 17 8 20-2 8 31-0 0-9 1 37 . „ 24 7 13-4 7 170 0-5 0 12 „ 25 4 59-7 5 27-6 11 1 08 „ 30 ? , , , , . . 21 35-9 21 37-9 2-9 ? Beginning obscured by air-tremors. June 3 18 52-7 . . . , 19 24-8 19 37-7 2-2 2 52 „ 8 6 09-7 6 11-8 6 39-7 6 55-2 0-7 7 13-9 . . ? End obscured by air-tremors. „ 9 0 51-0 . . . . 0 04 Very small ; maximum at beginning. „ 12 20 25-5 . . , , 20 29- 1 20 34-3 7-5 1 36 „ 14 7 311 7 38-4 0-4 0 22 „ 15 1 19-8 . . 0 40 Thickening merely. „ 26 9 35-8 9 36-6 0-1 0 04 „ 27 7 22-0 , . . w , , 7 30-3 7 35-5 4,-1 1 59 „ 28 ¥ 15 290 0-7 ? Beginning and end obscured by air- July 1 13 03-7 13 10-9 0-3 0 28 tremors. „ 2 6 25-9 6 28-5 0-1 0 31 „ 5 ? 17 55-3 3-5 ? Beginning and end obscured by air- „ 10 13 40-3 13 42-8 14 11-3 0-4 0 33 tremors. „ 26 22 06-6 22 08- 1 . . 0 16 Slight thickening. „ 27 4 34-5 4 36- 1 0-2 0 29 „ 30 11 16-5 11 16-5 0-8 . . First maximum at beginning. 11 31-2 . . 2 34 ? Origin, Mexico. Aug. 4 6 18-3 6 20-4 0-1 0 06 „ 6 5 46-0 5 49- 1 0-4 0 11 „ 10 6 56-1 7 01-2 0-25 0 22 „ 13 12 19-7 12 21-7 0-25 0 06 „ 16 7 54-6 8 17-7 0-4 0 42 „ 18 0 35-4 t n . , 0 46-2 0 56-4 3-9 0 29 In progress while attending to instrument. „ 29 23 59.5 1 34 Thickening of line Sept. 3 8 112 8 18-4 0-35 0 19 B.P., 15-5 sec. „ 25 12 29-6 12 32-7 0-5 0 14 Oct, 3 1 28-8 , , 2 15 Thickening. „ 4 13 53-2 14 070 0-9 V End obscured by air-tremors. „ 21 0 45-5 . . 0 55 Thickenings. „ 23 1 21 28-9 V Beginning obscured by air-tremorm. „ 27 1 32-3 1 33-3 0-35 0 36 „ 30 10 33-8 11 020 0-9 ? End obscured by air-tremors. Nov. 3 6 19-0 . . • • 6 23-9 6 25-4 3-25 1 16 „ 10 5 55-6 , . 0 11 Thickening of line. „ 10 6 26-4 6 35-6 6 38-2 1-4 1 57 Appendix 449 Eecords of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued. Date. Commence- ment. 1909. I H. m. Nov. 12 10 04-4 Max. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Kern arks. Dec. 14 27 28 28 3 8 9 9 9 47-3 21 19-1 1 07-8 1 14-5 8 28-3 3 250 9 17-6 9 23-8 ? 15 50-6 21 23-3 21 27-4 22 9 22 040 9 i ? 23 49- 1 13 01-3 23 23 28 1910. Jan. 10 „ 13 ., 15 „ 15 .. 19 29 30 3 3 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 7 13 15 1 19 30-2 22 32-3 ? 0 22-2 Feb. 22 15 15 5 3 3 9 52-9 01-1 07-7 03-7 49-2 52-2 57-9 16 50-7 14 07-5 14 09-9 1 14 52-4 17 44-2 17 48-3 Mar. 18 2 4 1 11 46-3 13-7 41-5 7 16-2 23 03-2 10 04-9 271 37-8 H. m. 10 05-7 9 49-7 1 15-6 8 340 3 33-3 ! 3 34-8 9 25-8 15 59-1 | 21 310 21 32-3 22 29-0 24 030 13 02-8 ! 19 36-4 22 45-1 i 19 56-5 19 27-8 0 34-6 10 58-1 15 09-3 5 11-9 3 540 10 05-8 | 16 51-9 14 14-2 14 55-5 5 17 50-9 18 47-8 2 15-2 I 4 451 i Mm. H. m. 10 0 18 0-15 1-6 0-5 0-9 21 5-75 2-0 10 1-4 5-9 2-3 1-0 10 0-3 0-45 0-65 1-5 1-0 17-0 + ' 0-75 0-25 0-2 23 04-7 01 10 08-5 0-45 1 31-2 0-25 11 440 0-5 0 07 0 28 1 24 0 31 0 40 1 01 t 0 40 1 21 1 03 0 58 0 42 0 20 1 22 1 01 2 31 0 27 17-0 + 17-0 + 0 about 2-75 1 1-4 9 0 11 0 10 0 21 0 10 0 34 0 31 1 15 Severe shock ; felt in Wellington, New Zealand. Slight thickening. Possibly air- tremors. Preceded and followed by minute air-tremors. i Beginning and end obscured by air- i tremors. '. Origin, Ladrone Islands. 55 55 ? Origin, Ladrone Islands. Began while attending to instrument. Preceded and followed by air- tremors. In middle of air-tremors. Beginning and end obscured by air- tremors. Beginning and end obscured by air- tremors. Thickening of line. ? Origin, Samoa. Begmning and end obscured by air- tremors. End obscured by air-tremors. ,' Beginning obscured by air-tremors. End obscured by air-tremors. Beginning obscured by air-tremors. Thickening of line 450 Transactions. Records of Milne Seismograph No. 1<> — continued. Date. 1910. Mar. 29 „ 30 „ 30 „ 31 April 1 „ 4 „ 12 .. 13 „ 16 „ 18 „ 20 „ 23 „ 27 May 1 „ 1 3) 5 „ 6 „ 8 „ 10 „ 13 „ 15 „ 21 „ 22 „ 29 „ 29 „ 31 „ 31 June 1 „ 2 „ 5 „ 9 „ 9 „ 13 „ 23 „ 24 „ 29 „ 29 July 5 Commence- ment. 11 12 Max. H. 17 17 23 5 13 5 01-5 05-6 59-4 37-2 35-3 23-7 H. 8 8 17 24 5 14 in. 48-9 50-4 100 02-7 40-9 27-8 Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 16 55-2 0 50-3 0 50-6 5 56-6 i 5 58-7 ? 13 09-3 7 34-9 22 28-5 ? 2 16-3 4 44-7 0 23 18 18 2 4 22 6 8 11 5 5 6 10 5 6 8 13 10 2 10 57-4 22-9 25-2 32-7 33-6 420 58-3 48-1 38-4 12-2 19-8 32-6 00-7 30-5 02-6 500 10-5 08-1 16-6 58-9 51-5 22 49-0 15 52-8 10 421 8 26-8 20 36-0 21 080 4 18 1 23 18 2 4 23 5 0 6 6 6 10 46-3 45-7 09-8 29- 1 34-4 3(5-2 49-5 07-5 10-6 21-3 01-8 09-3 22-9 12-5 32-0 04-6 13 10 13-2 20-7 11 03-8 Mm. 0-25 015 17-0 + 0-4 0-2 0-9 0-9 1-5 0-4 1-3 0-25 5-5 0-2 0-4 01 0-3 015 0-2 0-4 0-15 0-7 51 0-2 01 0-3 0-4 H. 11 08-7 170 + 14 28-9 4-2 10 460 10 10 54-4 11 10 59-3 0-9 8 58-7 1-0 9 141 0-8 9 23-3 11 20 39-4 12 20 47-3 1-5 21 12-1 7-0 21 37-7 3-5 m. : | Sharp and sudden. Felt at Christ- i J church. • ? End obscured by air-tremors. 0 28 0 14 1 38-5 0 08-2 i Slight thickening. ? Pj and duration obscured by air- tremors. 1 04-4 Preceded and followed by minute air-tremors. 0 18-5 0 41-0 1 14-4 0 35- 1 0 11-8 ? 0 41-0 0 38-0 0 20-0 0 35-4 0 12-8 0 26-4 0 22-5 1 11-2 1 26-1 0 06-1 0 06-6 1 29-2 3 000 0 06-1 0 271 0 051 0 02-5 0 39-5 0 26-9 0 14-3 1 57-5 0 53-5 1 47-2 Px and duration obscured by air- tremors. Thickening of line. Preceded by continuous air-tremors. Pi and duration obscured by air- tremors. Thickenings. Pi and duration obscured by air tremors. Small swellings. Minute tremors, possibly air-tremors. Slight swellings. ? Origin, Fiji. Minute. Very slight. i End obscured by quake following. Pi obscured by preceding quake ended 15h. 49-5m. 1 110 Appendix. Records of Milnt Seismograph No. 10 — continued. 451 Max. Date. Commence- ment. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarl -. 1910. 1 H. m. H. m. Mm. H. m. July 15 12 08-5 12 140 10 12 21-8 12 25-3 10 10 1 19-5 „ 15 21 48-7 21 51-9 0-2 Swellings. 21 56-7 0-3 0 14-8 Preceded and followed by minute' tremors. ,. 19 19 33-5 19 39-3 19 52-2 0-2 0-2 0 22-0 ,. 24 15 27-7 15 38-9 2-0 0 31-9 .. 29 10 381 11 01-3 11 14-3 2-5 2-3 1 14-3 Aug. 5 15 38-3 15 39-5 0-6 0 05-9 „ io 20 49-6 21 08-2 0-4 0 38-3 „ 21 5 36-3 5 53-6 5 55-1 7-0 50 2 31 1 Sept, 7 7 33-9 7 51-4 7-0 1 25-0 » 9 9 00-0 9 19-8 9 28-4 5-1 30 0 55-3 „ 10 12 21-9 12 33-4 1-4 0 38-3 Oct. 7 7 05-8 7 110 8 26-5 2-4 10 0 57-0 End obscured by air-tremors. 7 11 54-4 12 07-9 2-2 0 530 „ 12 8 00-2 8 06-8 10 0 28-6 ., 18 2 42-5 2 47-7 4-0 1 10-4 „ 30 7 47-5 7 53-7 2-5 0 51-7 Nov. 9 6 09-8 6 32- 1 17-5 3 03- 1 Reproduced. „ io 12 28-4 12 40-4 2-0 0 30-6 Duration doubtful owing to tremors. air .. 26 4 50-4 5 04-8 10-8 .. 26 5 49-2 4 01-6 6 38-9 20 2-1 15 3 27-7 End obscured by air-tremors. Dec. 1 3 52-3 3 55-4 0-6 0 16-5 „ 2 3 20-2 3 26-4 1-5 0 25-9 „ 3 7 58-3 8 04-5 8 38-0 16-4 10 1 21. 7 • „ 3 4 13-8 4 30-3 0-8 0 21-7 „ 4 11 05-4 11 10-6 11 300 170 3-5 1 45-6 „ io 9 37-4 9 47-0 10 00-2 17-5 50 11 36-3 ,, 11 3 570 4 04-2 0-7 0 20-5 „ 12 23 55-9 0 21-7 0-8 0 42-3 ,. 13 12 25-6 12 58-6 1-6 1 16-5 „ 14 20 54-4 21 02-7 1-5 1 07-3 » 16 14 55-3 15 26-3 15 41-8 51 3-5 2 17-6 1911. Jan. 2 22 59-7 23 05-9 140 1 52-7 ,, 3 23 46-3 0 26-6 1-4 Duration uncertain. „ 4 . . 1 05-9 1-5 2 33-8 „ 1 2 33-2 3 05-2 10 1 13-5 „ 8 16 24-7 16 27-8 0-8 1 End obscured by air-tremors. „ 8 9 26-8 9 320 9 41-4 2-5 1-5 0 38-2 „ io 16 37-7 16 46-2 7-4 0 550 „ 16 9 08-8 9 37-8 10 0 41-4 Feb. 7 9 42-4 9 46-5 0-8 0 12-4 452 Transactions . Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued. Date. Commence- ment. Max. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 1911. H. m. H. ui. Mm. H. m. Feb. 7 9 59-9 10 020 0-6 0 10-4 „ 17 10 14-6 10 29- 1 0-5 0 51-7 „ 17 23 23-9 23 50-8 20 0 47-6 ., 21 23 460 23 49- 1 0-2 0 070 „ 25 16 12-7 16 171 0-8 0 01-5 Mar. 11 3 29-5 3 43-9 1-5 0 52-7 „ 17 9 28-2 9 30-3 10 0 07-3 „ 21 4 04-2 4 22-4 0-2 0 42-5 April 6 9 55-1 10 01-3 0-3 0 14-5 Duration uncertain owing to tremors. ,, 7 7 33-2 7 36-5 7 41-6 0-2 0-2 0 50-7 „ 8 2 16-2 2 18-4 0-5 0 09-3 Excellent lecorcl. „ 11 13 400 13 41-9 1-5 0 240 In middle of tremors. „ 13 10 14-7 10 18-3 11 0 19-6 Excellent record. „ 15 4 59-9 5 050 2-5 . , 5 13-4 1-6 0 50-5 L.W. commence 5h. 02-5m. „ 21 2 15-5 2 20-4 2 330 1-5 10 1 17-5 „ 23 12 43-3 12 50-6 21 0 23-8 Duration uncertain. „ 26 1 18-3 1 27-5 0-4 0 59-5 „ 27 3 03-3 3 04-8 0-2 0 06-9 May 1 12 27-4 12 32-6 0-3 0 10-3 „ 20 16 19-6 16 20-4 0-2 0 06-3 „ 23 4 33- 1 4 37-8 4 40-3 01 01 0 19-2 •Tune 3 20 39- 1 20 41-6 20 45-6 20 47-5 1-5 2-0 1-7 1-5 Commencement and duration certain owing to tremors. tin „ 6 13 05-1 13 06-6 13 12-6 0-5 0-5 0 180 7 11 17-5 11 31-5 12 00-5 12 09-5 12 14-5 0-7 10 0-8 0-8 2 52 „ 10 17 00-8 17 07-6 11 1 14 „ 12 7 12-6 7 17-6 01 0 14 „ 15 14 36-4 14 46-9 14 48-7 14 52-4 15 04-5 5-5 40 30 3-8 3 08 „ 28 19 57-3 19 40-4 1-5 0 28-5 July 12 4 19-1 4 380 4 450 4 49-3 21 4-5 9-0 3 26 L.W. begin 4h. 28-2m. „ 19 9 02-2 9 05-8 9 07-3 1-2 10 End obscured by tremors. Aug. 6 1 260 1 28-6 0-4 0 17-5 „ 10 0 33-4 0 45-9 0-4 0 31 „ 16 22 51-2 23 18-3 23 21-7 23 23-7 23 27-4 90 6-0 6-0 6-2 4 40-5 L.W. commence 22h. 59-8m. „ 19 2 21-8 2 24-8 0-3 0 13 Duration approximate. „ 21 16 380 16 41-6 40 Duration obscured by tremors. Sept. 6 1 17-9 1 20-7 0-6 1 12 „ 12 14 07-7 1-5 Beginning and end obscured tremors. by Appendix. 453 Records of Milne Seismograph No. 16 — continued. Max. Date. Commence- ment. Max. \ Ampli- tude. i Duration. Remarks. 1911. H. m. H. m. Mm. H. m. Sept. 15 12 25-2 12 25-4 0-6 End obscured by following quake. ,. 15 13 44-8 13 48-8 20 0 11 Oct. 5 7 38-9 7 41-3 10 . . 7 44-5 0-5 0 55-4 Shock felt at Hastings, Hawke's Bay, New Zealand. Nov. 2 0 56-2 1 Oil 2-1 0 33 End uncertain. „ 16 11 45-9 11 47-9 1-7 11 49-6 1-8 0 11-3 „ 30 10 29-2 10 33-2 11-5 0 27 Duration uncertain owing to tremors. Dec. 3 11 50-3 11 520 4-5 0 11-7 .. 13 12 01-8 12 03-2 0-9 0 01-9 Small local quake. „ 23 21 52-4 22 090 11 End uncertain owing to tremors. Note. — Previous to 11th May, B.P. = 14-5 sees. 1 mm. = 0-49" static tilt. On 11th May, 1911, the new type of recording apparatus giving a time scale ap- proximately four times as open as the old type, was installed. With this recorder the time scale is 241 mm. to the hour. After 11th May, B.P. = 16-5 sees. 1 mm. = 0-4" static tilt, Principal Records of Milne Seismograph No. 20, at Wellington, New Zea- land. (Latitude, 41° 17' S. ; longitude, 174° 47' E. Observer, George Hogben.) (The instrument is placed in a special room below a house standing about 30 ft. from the edge of a rocky cliff about 50 ft. high, situated about 250 yards from the shore-line of Wellington Harbour.) Date. Commence- ment. Max. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 1906. H. m. H. m. Mm. H. m. Jan. 10 16 16-3 , . 0-6 0 03 B.P., 19-6 sec. „ 26 8 04-2 8 21-1 8 21-8 8 26-5 3-8 0 57 Pj. Several previous slight shocks , 31 15 00-4 , . 15 57-6 16 03-3 16 22-6 1-2 3 23 Feb. 1 2 29-8 , . B.P., 19-6 sec. 2 33-9 2 34-2 2-8 0 18 3 9 55-1 8-0 0 04 .. 19 2 17-3 2 270 2 30-9 2 48-0 100 1 45 Pi- Mar. 19 19 24-9 # u B.P., 19-6 sec. Pi. 20 04-9 20 06-9 0-6 2 35 Probably Formosa. .. 28 17 13-2 18 11-5 18 24-5 18 13-8 160 13 36 Pi- April 5 22 37-8 22 46-3 22 52-8 •- 22 48-4 10 ? B.P., 18-7 sec. Pi. mors. • Previous tre 454 Transactions . Principal Records of Milne Seismograph Jo. 20 — continued. Date. 1906. April 14 18 Commence- ment. „ 19 June 1 „ 2 „ 27 July 15 | „ 17 ,. 18 „ 17 „ 18 „ 23 „ 23 „ 2(i Sept. 7 ., 14 H. in. ? 3 59-6 4 02-3 4 08-1 13 26-6 13 30- 1 14 01-9 14 10-5 14 39-7 27-3 06-1 15-1 43-6 47-8 02-3 28-1 30-6 0 39- 1 1 56-5 16 01-2 16 08-8 15 37-3 15 38-9 15 410 Max. Max. Ampli- Duration, tude. Remarks. 19 42-4 19 48-2 1 00-6 1 14-9 1 22-7 1 31-4 5 13-5 0 27-2 0 33-5 1 19-6 6 03-9 6 26-3 6 58-3 08-4 23-5 26-6 35-5 19 41-2 20 05-8 21 47-3 1 6 300 19 080 19 41-7 13 41-3 12-8 7 16 16 16 16 16 M H. m. 4 05-4 14 11-9 7 08-4 5 07-3 5 240 4 33-7 2 00-2 2 02- 1 16 10-6 16 15-4 15 42-8 15 49 1 19 43-3 1 24-8 5 14-6 1 23-8 2 03-8 7 04-7 16 29-4 21 51 0 6 35-7 6 40-5 19 54-3 16 30-9 Mm. 7-5 90 H. m. 17 03 30 41 2-1 0-6 0-6 1-6 11 0-5 1-5 0*5 180 30 0-6 0-8 3-2 1-0 20-0 + 29 1)1 03 B.P., 19-6 sec. Pi. Po. p" > San Francisco earthquake. End overlapped by beginnins; of next quake. Pi ? Probably S.E. Asia. B.P., 18-6 sec. P,. P2- Pi- B.P.. 18-5 sec. Pj. Pi- Po. Pi- p3. B.P.. 18-5 sec. Px. Po. Pi- [Valparaiso earthquake; evidently [ two or three shocks overlap. Pi- Po. Pi. ? Calabria. B.P., 18-5 sec. Pi. P2- Px ; obscured by tremors. B.P., 18-5 sec. Pi. ? Obscured by tremors. P2? B.P., 15-9 sec. Appendix. 455 Principal Records of Milne Seismograph No. SO — continued. Datr. Commence raent. Max. Max. Ampli- Duration, tude. Remarks. 1906; Oct. 2 „ 15 „ 21 „ 29 „ 30 Nov. 6 „ 14 „ 19 1909. Mar. 17 April 10 May 30 June 11 Nov. 3 Dec. 9 1910. June 1 H. m. 1 58-6 29 29 July 29 Aug. 18 Sept 31 7 04-6 151 13 2 2 1 27-9 05-1 17-6 39-8 1 52-4 19 13-7 19 18-5 19 23-6 20 06-1 20 17-2 20 36-9 22-4 47-2 17 17 18 10-6 7 27-5 7 35-2 7 48-0 8 05-3 8 14-3 23 17-4 23 27-2 5 40-9 5 49-9 21 20- 1 21 32-2 10 09-4 11 02-1 6 21-7 15 45-2 15 55-8 5 30- 1 5 40-2 16 6 34- 1 6 45-2 10 50-5 11 02-8 14 24-8 14 27-8 10 43-7 10 52-3 10 57-4 12 40-5 12 411 21 49-5 7 04-5 7 11-7 7 28-7 7 34-8 39-4 H. m. Mm. 2 19-9 130 '/ 2-5 2 19-9 130 1 53-6 1-4 19 1*9-4 10 20 20-5 2-1 17 50-6 7-8 7 53- 1 10-5 23 30-4 6-0 5 510 5-6 21 35-5 4-0 ?11 16-8 11 40-4 6 26-5 0-5 1 0-5 j 20 15 58-6 4-5 5 43-7 7-5 6 49-3 14-5 11 06-9 12-5 14 29-5 90 10 58-0 30 1-0 , H. m. 31 56 B.P., 18-5 sec. Probably Indian Ocean. Pi- Obscured by tremors. Pi- Pi- Obscured by tremors. B.P., 18-5 sec. Pj. Pi- Pi- P2- 25 3 13 i Or P.T. commence 23 12-8, or even 6-0 1 1-24 about i 23 050. 2 42 ,i Repeats at 23 55-1, 24 53-5, 25 19-8, | 26 260, &c. 2 02-6 ! S. France. 0 15 Tremors before and after. 1 27 1 40 2 14 1 38 B.P., 13-5 sec. Pi. S.W. Pacific, near New Hebrides. /Probably S.W. Pacific, about 450 miles north of New Zealand. Followed by tremors and repeats I until 5 55 on 17th June. Origin, 11° S., 172° E. Origin, 51° S., 173F E. Pi- P3- Ps. Pi - Local. 17 40 Almost continuous tremors. Pi 40 P2 x3 i P5J Origin, 32° S., 179° W. 456 Transactions. Principal Records of Milne Seismograph No. 20 — continued. Date. Commence- ment. Max. Max. Ampli- tude. Duration. Remarks. 1910. H. in. H. m. Mm. H. m. Sept, 9 9 13-4 9 19-2 Pi- P3- 9 25-2 9 27-4 1-8 P5. Oct. 18 2 33-8 • ■ Pt. 2 42-3 2 44-5 2-8 P3. ■ 2 49-5 . , P5- Nov. 9 6 07-3 6 11-4 pi" P2 6 13-3 , . P3 }■ Origin, 17° S., 167° E. P4 6 15-4 . . 6 18-6 ? 17-0 + ' ' • P5J „ 26 4 46-5 4 51-2 • Pil P3 [►Origin, 5° S., 165° E. 4 54-8 4 56- 1 1 7-0 + P5J Dec. 10 9 38-1 9 41-7 • p0 P3 V Probable origin, 2° N., 146° E. 9 44-9 9 46-5 70 p5! „ 13 12 03-2 f Pi. 12 37-5 12 49-8 6-3 Probably P5 or P3. „ 16 14 56-2 15 090 Pi- P3. 15 25-3 15 27-5 15-3 - PS- 1911. Jan. 2 22 53-4 22 59-2 23 01-4 „ 3 2 24-7 2 59-7 3 320 3 48-5 4 27-3 >, 3 23 51-6 24 14-5 24 28-2 24 42-7 24 45-2 „ 9 17 43-0 Note. — 1 mm. of amplitude = 0-70" of tilt (static). 23 04-1 10 April 17 21 .May 4 12-3 ) 16 35-9 16 37-1 16 38-6 23 080 23 10-9 23 12 6 23 13-8 2 16-2 2 17-4 2 19-2 2 20-5 14 01-4 14 04-4 14 09-7 23 590 24 22-4 24 46-7 17 43-5 B.P., 18-3 sec. 0 41 Distance, about 2,100 km. 16 23 14 24 40-8 14-4 22-5 12-8 28-9 30 1-0 1 02 0 24 0 10 about 0 22 about 0 21 1 02 Pi P2? P3 ? [►Turkestan. P4? J Local. Principal shock, 2-3 sec, Rossi-Ford, V. fp0 J P2 i Distance, about 1,200 km. I P3 ( B.P., 20-7 sec. IPE ! fPi j p 7 o2 r Distance, about 1,500 km. I1 p2 > Distance, about 1,150 km. P5J Distance, about 2,100 km. p1 I Distance, about 8,000 km. I p3 j B.P., 19-5 sec. Note. — 1 mm. of amplitude — 0-70" of tilt (static). Appendix. Principal Records of Milne Seismograph No. 20 — continued. 457 Date. Commence-' ment. 1911. June 7 10 16 21 July 12 Aug. 16 Oct. 17 H. m. 11 27-8 11 49-8 11 53-7 12 03-9 16 59- 1 17 04- 1 14 30-2 14 32-4 14 47-9 16 33-9 16 43-6 4 18-6 4 49-2 22 51-4 23 000 23 12-8 23 15-7 23 19-5 7 36-7 9 41-9 Max. Max. Ampli- tude. H. m. Mm. - - 1 11 56-2 1 130 J- • • 1: J 1-2 ) 17 001 17 05-2 0-8 / 14 49-3 8-0 J 16 44-9 2-5 4 51-3 8-0 23 16-7 7-0 23 22-2 100 7 37-5 7 390 9 46-4 2-0 Duration. H. m. 2 30 I Remarks. B.P., 18-4 sec. Pi. P4. P5. Long waves. Origin, Mexico. ■ Times P8. Probably transverse | uncer- waves. J tain. 0 07 | ? Local. 3 07 0 44 1 08 r j-3 18 «j J I 0 36 I Beginning obscured by tremors. B.P., 17-5 sec. Pj. P5- B.P., 170 sec. Px. P2- P3- • P4. P5- B.P., 12-5 sec. Origin, about 200- 250 miles east of Wellington. ? Origin, about 550 miles from Wel- lington. PROCEEDINGS. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1911 PART I EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE IsscED 30th August, 1911 Wellington. IX JOHN MAOKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE William Wesley and Son, -28 Essex Street, Strand. London W.C, ' C O N T E NTS PROCEEDINGS. Wellington Philosophical Society : Meetings, 10th May. 18th May. 7th June, 12th July ; Report of Astronomical Section. Auckland Institute : Meeting. 12th June. Manawatu Philosophical Society : Meetings. 16th March, 20th April, 6th June. Otago Institute : Meetings. 2nd May, 6th June, 4th July ; Technological Section— Meetings, 16th May. 20th June. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury : Meetings. 3rd May, 7th June, 12th July. Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute : Meetings. 2nd June, 30th June. PAPERS. 1. Some Effects of Imported Animals on the Indigenous Vegetation. By B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S. 2. Note on Helichrysum fasciculatum Buchanan. Bv T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. 3. Note on the Species of Hydra found in New Zealand. By G. Archey. 4. Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Kermadec Islands. By Edgar R. Waite. F.L.S. 5. The Actio)i of Alkyl Iodides on Copper-oxide. By H. G. Denham, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D. 6. The Nature of Gamma Rays. By Professor T. H. Laby and P. W. Burbidge, B.Sc. ABSTRACTS. 1. Die Gattung Toivnsonia Cheesem. — R. Schlechter. 2. Some Constants of Mutton-bird Oil and Fat. — L. Hewgill Smith. 3. An Attempt to introduce Olearia semidentata into the British Isles. — A. A. Dorrien -Smith. 4. New Zealand Plants. — A. A. D^rrien-Smith. 5. Remarkable Instances of Plant-dispersion. — G. Henslow. 6. Olearias in Ireland. — C. F. Ball. 7. Hybrid Veronicas. — Editor of Gardeneri Chronicle. 1*— Froc. pt. i. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1911. PART I. P E OGEE J ) INGS WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. First Meeting : 10th May, 1911. An ordinary meeting of the society was held on Wednesday, 10th May, 1911, in the Dominion Museum. Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about fifty present. New Members. — Mr. L. Birks, B.Sc. Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. (transfer from Auckland Institute), Mr. F. J. Carter, M.A., Mr. J. W. Salmond, M.A., Mr. W. J. Anderson, M.A.. LL.D.. and Mr. W. H. Morton, M.Inst.C.E. Eugenics Education Society. — Reference was made by Professor Kirk and the President to the meeting called for 11th May, to form an Eugenics Education Society in Wellington. Presidential Address. — " The Value of Natural-history Studies." By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. Abstract. The lecturer used the term " natural history " to mean the study of nature in the broadest sense, the object being the extension of human knowledge and happiness apart entirely from commercial and economic interests, and he stated that the growing tend- ency to judge every sphere of action on its commercial value was distasteful to him. Although children often take a very keen interest in natural objects, the majority of adults are absolutely indifferent to the wonders and beauties around them. This loss of interest he attributed to the influences, both at home and at school, directing the atten- tion of children to other studies which are commonly supposed to enable them to get on in life — though, as Herbert Spencer long ago pointed out, a knowledge of the laws of life is more important than any other knowledge whatever. Although to many persons a naturalist is a dreamer who is more or less incompetent to deal with the problems of life, yet the qualifications required for a successful naturalist, such as keenness of observa- tion, accuracy, continuity of purpose, &c, are precisely those most required in business, and many well-known naturalists have been also successful business men. The study of natural phenomena exercises the powers of observation and also the memory, while many of the subjects in the school curriculum exercise the memory only. Natural history also acts as an antidote to the dullness and ennui that is apt to overcloud middle life when the brightness and originality of childhood have departed, and, further, it leads the student to the consideration of the deepest questions of philosophy — questions bordering on religion, which are perhaps unwisely excluded from the scope of the Institute. Examples of the ignorance of natural phenomena displayed by persons supposed to be well educated were given, and it was pointed out that mistakes in such matters are usually thought little of, while a man who makes a slight slip in spelling or grammar is branded as an ignoramus. 6 Proceedings. If the conclusion of many naturalists that acquired characters are not inherited is correct, it follows that the labour expended on education is for each generation only ; and, though this may be a disappointing doctrine to those who have believed that the race could be improved by the inherited effects of education, there is a brighter side to the question, for if the absence of men of commanding personality at the present time is due to the repression of individuality during early years, we may reasonably anticipate that with improved and more enlightened methods of education and a more suitable environment men of commanding personality will again arise. Some signs of the growing dissatisfaction with many of the present educational methods, and of greater attention being paid to natural history, were noted with approval, and in connection therewith the lecturer made the following suggestions : — (1.) That young members might be induced to join the society as associates, and on payment of a small fee be entitled to all the privileges of membership except the annual volume. (2.) That further efforts should be made to secure closer and more united action between the various branches of the Institute. (3.) That special efforts should be made to place the New Zealand Institute more on the same status as the Linnean, Geological, and other learned societies, so that its members might be termed " Fellows of the New Zealand Institute." (4.) That in addition to its present functions the New Zealand Institute might with advantage promote the objects pursued by the Sel borne Society of the United Kingdom, such as the preservation of such wild animals as are harmless, beautiful, and rare, the protection of places and objects of natural beauty or antiquarian interest, &c. (5.) The formation of sections for special subjects, and the closer co-operation of the similar sections of the different branches of the Institute. Papers.— 1. " Some Effects of Imported Animals on the Indigenous Vegetation." By B. C. Aston, F.I.C.. F.C.S. (See p. 19.) 2. ' Notes on Nests, Life-history, and Habits of Migas distinctus." By J. B. Gatenby. Astronomical Section.- — The following report of the Astronomical Sec- tion was presented : — Report. The Astronomical Section of the Wellington Philosophical Society was formally constituted at a special meeting held in the Museum on the 22nd August, 1910. At present the section consists of thirty-two members, with the following officers : President and Treasurer, Mr. C. P. Powles ; Director and Curator of Instruments, Rev. Dr. Kennedy ; Council, Professor D. K. Picken, Dr. C. M. Hector, and Messrs. C. E. Adams, G. Hog ben, W. S. La Trobe, and A. C. Gifford (Secretary). On the 29th September the Rev. Dr. Kennedy gave a popular lecture on astronomy, in aid of the Observatory Fund, which resulted in a net profit of £18 6s. In this con- nection we must thank the City Council for kiudly granting us the free use of the Concert Chamber in the Town Hall. The following is a list of the papers read and lectures delivered at the ordinary meetings of the section : — October 11. — Presidential Address on Astronomy. — Mr. C. P. Powles. November 15. — The Pressure of Light. — Professor T. H. Labj'. February 21. — The Mechanism of Astronomical Instruments. — -Mr. W. S. La Trobe. April 11. — Spherical Geometry and Trigonometry. — Professor D. K. Picken. It is proposed to start an astronomical library in connection with the section. We must thank Dr. C. M. Hector for astronomical catalogues presented for this purpose, and Mr. J. Grigg, F.E.A.S., for a photo of Hailey's Comet, 1910, taken by himself at the Observatory, Thames. A number of members have sent to the Secretary lists of the astronomical worki? in their private libraries, which may be of great use to members when searching for information on particular points. The solar eclipse : The Council endeavoured to organize a party to co-operate with the Australian Eclipse Expedition. Unfortunately, owing to the short time avail- able for making arrangements, the long time the expedition would take, and the con- siderable expense involved, they were unsuccessful in this attempt. Wellington Philosophical Society. 7 The section is very deeply indebted to Mr. A. Hamilton, Director of Observatories, tor his kindness in placing at our disposal a fine 5 in. Cooke telescope, and tor granting the use of a portion of the Time Observatory site at Kelburne for storing, and observing with, the same. The telescope has been moved to Kelburne, and is now available for the use of members, but we hope that it will be much more conveniently so before very long. Nearly live months ago the Council ordered from England an equatorial mounting for it. This should very soon arrive in Wellington, so immediate steps must be taken to provide for the housing of the instrument. The principal object of the section is to promote and encourage in every possible way the study of astronomy. As one of the chief means to that end the section is striving to secure the speedy establishment in or near Wellington of a fully equipped astronomical observatory, it is felt that progress in this direction will be slow unless public interest in astronomy can be aroused. It is proposed, therefore, as soon as the telescope is mounted and housed, to give those who desire it an opportunity of seeing some of the wonders of the heavens. Unfortunately, the section as constituted has no direr! and permanent source of revenue. Membership of the Philosophical Society carries with it the right of member- ship of the section without any additional subscription. The section started with uothing, and although there is now £34 12s. in the savings-bank it is in urgent need of further funds. The equatorial mounting ordered from England is catalogued at £33 without some extras that were found essential, and, of course, the mounting will be useless unless the telescope is adequately housed. Subscriptions for this purpose would be very welcome now. When the section was constituted Dr. C. M. Hector opened the Observatorj' Fund with a donation of £10. This was followed by donations from Miss Helycr, and Messrs. J. P. Firth, W. H. Carter, jun., J. Thompson, and A. C. Gifford The total subscriptions up to the present amount to £16 6s., which with the £18 6s., the net proceeds of Dr. Kennedy's lecture, makes up the £34 12s. already referred to. The question of the best way to house the telescope was discussed at the last meeting of the section, and is at present a matter for the serious consideration of the Council. Several interesting papers are promised for the forthcoming meetings, so, with the increased interest that will doubtless be aroused by the facilities for observation that will soon be provided, the section can look forward with confidence to a successful season's work. A. C. Gifford, Hon. Secretary. Special Meeting : 18th May, 1911. A special meeting of the society was held on Thursday, 18th May, 1911, at Victoria College. Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about seventy present. Lecture. — Professor T. H. Laby delivered an interesting lecture on the principles of gyroscopic motion, and showed a number of experiments with gyroscopes and a model of the Brennan mono -rail car, which had been built in the physics laboratory. All the experiments were most successful, and when the requisite speed had been attained by the gyroscopes of the car it was run over a wire stretched across the room, and maintained its equilibrium in spite of tiltings and repeated shakings of the wire. Mr. G. Hogben, Inspector- General of Schools, moved a vote of thanks to the lecturer, and remarked on the interesting manner in which Professor Laby had explained one of the newest developments of mechanics. Mr. A. L. Beattie, Chief Mechanical Engineer to the Railway Department, seconded the motion, and said that as a railway engineer of forty-five years standing he had been particularly interested in the professor's exposition. The motion was carried with ereat heartiness. 8 Proceedings. Second Meeting : 7th June, 1911. The second ordinary meeting of the society was held on Wednesday. 7th June, 1911, in the Dominion Museum, Wellington. Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about eighty present. New Members. — Mr. J. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc, Mr. W. E. Spencer, M.A., M.Sc, Mr. G. Stuart Thomson, and Mr. J. Allan Thomson, B.Sc. The President, referring to Kapiti Island, announced that the society would make strong representations to the Government to reserve the whole island for Native fauna and flora. Papers. — 1. " Further Note on Migas distinctus." By J. B. Gatenby. 2. " Othello." By H. L. James, B.A. Mr. James delivered an interesting address on Othello, and during the evening Mrs. B. M. Wilson sang Desdemona's song to the original music. 3. " Maori Curiosities." By Dr. A. K. Newman. Dr. Newman described and exhibited Maori curiosities collected recently. 4. " The Nature of Gamma Rays." By Professor T. H. Laby and P. W. Burbidge, B.Sc. (See p. 30.) Third Meeting : 12th July, 1911. The third ordinary meeting of the society was held on Wednesday, 12th July, 1911, in the Dominion Museum, Wellington. Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about forty present. New Member. — Professor Garrow. Exhibits. — 1. Mr. A. Hamilton, Director of the Museum, exhibited some recent acquisitions to the Museum, including two collections of Lepidoptera, one from Brisbane in exchange for New Zealand specimens, and the other from Aru Island on the south-west coast of New Guinea. 2. On behalf of Professor Laby, who was unable to attend, Mr. P. W. Burbidge, B.Sc, exhibited and explained the action of a vibration galvano- meter. Address. — Mr. R. W. Holmes, Engineer-in-Chief, Public Works Depart- ment, delivered an interesting address on the " Federal Capital Territory," and illustrated his remarks by means of numerous plans — contour, meteoro- logical, geological, &c. — -panoramic views, and a large relief model of the locality in which Australia's capital city is to be built. Paper. — Professor T. H. Easterfield read a paper on the " Higher Fatty Acids," and described experiments made by himself and Miss C. M. Taylor ; and exhibited and described the apparatus used. A ucklan d Inst it uie. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. First Meeting : 12th June, 1911. Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair. New Members.— Messrs. A. W. Clark, F. N. R. Downard, T. Ellison, Edwin Hall, J. W. Hall, R. D. Gunson, Dr. R. H. Makgill, Dr. Milsom, Dr. Rossiter, Rev. D. D. Scott, Mrs. R. H. Shakespear, J. J. Walklate, and S. Walker. The President delivered the anniversary address, taking as his subject '" Free Public Libraries and Museums." He made a reference to the public libraries of ancient times, and to the people wtio possessed them. Some remarks were given on the libraries, of the present times. Consideration was given to the best methods of maintaining libraries, and the dangers were described that are likely to follow upon the injudicious admission of inferior books. He held that the main purpose of a public library should be educational. Museums were regarded as institutions supplementary to public libraries. A reference was made to several well-known public museums, and an outline was given of what a museum may be. 10 Proceedings. MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. First Meeting : 16th March. 1911. Captain Hewitt, R.N., in the. chair. Lecture. — " Ramblings and a little Philosophy." By H. B. Drew. The lecturer gave interesting reminiscences of a two-years cycling tour on th<- (Jontinent of Europe and in the Holy Land, and illustrated them by lantern-slides from sketches and photographs by Mr. G. E. Woolley. He took his hearers — mostly by by-ways — through parts of Italy, France, Austria, Switzerland, Denmark, and Germany, as well as Jerusalem and its neighbourhood, giving his impressions of the cultivation of the land and the condition of the peasantry in the different countries. He was much struck, he said, by the great cordiality with which he and his companions were received throughout their travels, especially in Austria and Germany, and by the high opinion apparently everywhere entertained of England and English honour. Second Meeting : 20th April. 1911. Mr. J. E. Vernon, M.A., in the chair. Papers. — 1. " The Anatomical Structures of the New Zealand Pipe- raceae." By Miss A. F. Ironsides, M.A. This paper gives in full detail the results of an examination of the anatomical structure of the adult plant and seedling of the New Zealand representatives of the Piperaceae, and discusses the bearing of the facts on the relationships of the order and on the phylogeny of the Angiosperms generally. 2. " Some New Zealand Moths." By the Rev. A. Doull, M.A. Illustrated by a collection of about forty species showing curious individual varia- tions, including Bityea defigurata, found only at Palmerston North, in the North Island. 3. " Moose and Wapiti in New Zealand." By R. Henry. The writer stated that these animals, which had been brought from Canada, where they had abundance of grain and sunshine, enabling them in the summer to put on sufficient fat to carry them through the winter, while the weaklings were carried off by the wolves, had been turned out in a valley in the Sounds, where there was neither grass nor sunshine, and almost perpetual rain, with sides so steep that it was hardly possible for them to get out of it. 4. " Pike as Health Officers." By R. Henry. Showing by an illustration in the Sporting and Dramatic News, and by statistic* from English papers, that pike by structure and habit are adapted for the capture of sickly fish only, and are therefore most useful as health officers, and that (he same func- tion is discharged in New Zealand by eels, and probably also by shags. Manawatu Philosophical Society. 11 Third Meeting : 6th June, 1911. Mr. W. S. Durward in the chair. M.i. Justice Chapman gave a very interesting lecture on the '"Alpine Flora ol New Zealand.'' He began by denning " alpine flora " as that which prevailed above the forest-line, but pointed out that the altitude of this line, here as elsewhere, gradually decreased from the Equator towards the Poles, sinking from 4,000 ft. in the North Island and Nelson to the sea- level in the Campbell Islands. There was great similarity in the alpine flora all over the world ; the chief distinction of the New Zealand variety was that it was almost entirely white, especially in the higher regions. This flora was of great beauty, and was to be found in great profusion in the higher parts of the Tararua and Kuahine Ranges and on Ruapehu, as well as in the larger alpine areas of the South Island. The existence of this alpine flora in conjunction with the almost tropical forest, rendered it probable that New Zealand had at one time been connected with a large continent extending as far as New Guinea, and at another time with the Antarctic. He warmly recommended the study of the New Zealand alpine flora to all who desired healthful recreation, as the regions where the alpine flora prevailed were now easily accessible from all parts of the Dominion. At the conclusion of the lecture a cordial vote of thanks was moved by Mr. Wilson, and seconded by Mr. Vernon. 12 Proceedings. OTAGO INSTITUTE. First Meeting} : 2nd May, 1911. The President, Mr. A. Bathgate, in the chair. Technological Section. — The President announced that the newly formed Dunedin Technological Society had affiliated itself with the Otago Institute, members of the society becoming full members of the Institute, with the right to form a Technological Branch with control of its own lectures and proceedings, and with power to select a chairman and officers to manage the same. New Members.- — Professor (Miss) W. E. Boys-Smith, Mrs. Montgomery Spencer, Messrs. J. N. Lawson, C. Parr, H. D. Skinner, D. L. Poppelwell, A. Walker, and R. W. Rutherford. The following sixty-five members of the Technological Society were also elected members : Dr. W. Newlands, Messrs. E. W. Ackland, L. 0. Beal. D. E. Booth, H. Brasch, H. C. Brent, F. R. Brown, Ross Burt, W. E. Chis- holm. B. B. Couston, E. C. Creagh, R. E. Davidson, W. R. Davidson, G. W. Davies, C. Duke, G. C. Edgar, K. Edge, M. Elliot, G. Ferguson, P. Findlay, A. C. Forsyth, H. V. Fulton, Joseph Fulton, C. Frye, G. W. Gough, H. J. Gould, M. C. Henderson, G. T. V. Hobart, B. B. Hooper, J. T. Hungerford, S. H. Howrth, R. C. Jones, A. Lambie, G. A. Lee, F. J. Lough, J. Lvthgoe, W. L. McEvoy, D. McKenzie, H. McRae, W. P. Macdougall, jun.,"' Angus Marshall, Watson Munro, Alex. Neil, T. R. Overton, R. V. Parker, T. A. C. Preston, T. C. Ross, J. H. Scott, F. M. Shortt, D. Sherr.fE, George Simpson, George Simpson, jun., F. W. Skelsey, J. A. Smith, R. E. Stark, J. Stark, James Stark, H. Symes, S. Symington, R. S. Thompson. R. N. Vanes, R. D. Veitch, T. S. Wansbrough, P. Y. Wales, and E. W. Walden. Address. — Mr. Bathgate then delivered his presidential address, entitled " Some Neglected Aspects of Afforestation." Abstract. The lecturer dealt with some of the more neglected aspects of afforestation, and pointed out that in addition to the primary object — i.e., the production of timber — the other benefits of afforestation were chiefly two — -(1) climatic, and (2) conservancy of the water-supply. The climatic effects were increased rainfall and shelter. The connection between forests and the rainfall was fully considered, and in opposition to the opinions of many modern writers it was urged that the presence of forests on mountain-slopes probably favoured precipitation from clouds that would otherwise pass over causing only mists, and that even where they do not increase the actual rainfall, forests affect the distribution of rainfall. The climate of Central Otago and its possible alteration by afforestation was fully considered under this head. The beneficial effects of forests in affording shelter and equalizing the temperature were described at some length, and special attention was drawn to the beneficial effects of tree-planting in Jutland. The lecturer then dealt with the effects of forests in minimizing floods and in retaining the Olago Institute. 13 moisture of the soil, and numerous examples were given from different countries of the effects of deforestation in drying up springs and producing desert conditions. The appointment of a thoroughly trained scientific forester in New Zealand to control all existing natural forests and to direct the formation of artificial forests was strongly urged, and it was argued that though afforestation on a more extensive scale than at present would lead to additional temporary expenditure, it was a duty that we owed to our descendants, and that eventually it would yield handsome profit. At the close of the address several members spoke instancing cases of deforestation in various parts of Otago, and the following resolution was moved by Mr. J. N. Lawson, and carried unanimously : " That this Institute respectfully urge upon the Government the urgent necessity for a more vigorous prosecution of the work of afforestation through- out the Dominion, and that, notwithstanding its vast importance, the production of limber should not be the sole object of the forestry operations, but climatic consider- ations and the conservation of water should also be dealt with ; and this Institute would also further urge upon the Government the necessity for appointing without delay a scientifically trained Chief Forester to direct and control the Department." Second Meeting : 6th June, 1911. Mr. A. Bathgate, President, in the chair. Neiv Members. — Miss Edith Howes, of Gore, author of " The Sun's Babies," was elected an honorary member. Dr. P. D. Cameron, Dr. A. J. Hall, Captain S. G. Sandle, and Messrs. W. D. R. McCurdie, F. A. Simpson, Nelson Jones, F. Oakden, C. H. Marriott, C. H. N. Thomhnson, K. A. Mc- Donald, F. R. Shepherd, W. J. Mitchell, A. Mackie, W. J. Scoullar, W. J. Crawford. G. J. Orchiston. and H. C. Auty were elected members. Papers.- — 1. " On the Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of New Zealand." By G. B. LongstafT, M.A.. M.D.. F.E.S. ; communicated bv Mr. G. W. Howes. F.E.S. 2. " Notes on the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Geometridae." By L. B. Prout ; communicated by Mi. G. W. Howes, F.E.S. 3. " New Lepidoptera.'" By L. B. Prout ; communicated by Mr. G. W. Howes, F.E.S. t 4. " Life-history of Argyrophenga antipodum." By G. W. Howes. F.E.S. 5. " The Food-value of Oysters." By Professor J. Malcolm, M.D. The author stated that he had recently been investigating some of the food-products of New Zealand, and particularly oysters. One of the great principles of diatetics was that the food should supply a sufficient amount of combustible matter in the body to supply heat and energy. He referred to the three divisions of foodstuffs — fat, protein, and carbohydrates— and to the quantitative and qualitative ways of looking at food. New Zealand oysters contained from 6 to 12 per cent, of protein, and also a fair pro- portion of fat and carbohydrates, so that they had all the constituents of diet. There was also their value as an appetizer. He instituted a comparison between Stewart Island and American oysters, and also between the nutritive value of oysters and other common foods. A dozen of oysters equalled an ordinary hen's egg. He predicted that oyster-culture, as in France, would yet be a very large industry in New Zealand. Professor Boys-Smith spoke at some length on the cooking of oysters, and stated that the less all protein food was cooked the better, provided it was made palatable. Carbohydrates were made more digestible by cooking. Oysters should be eaten as fat- as possible raw. She knew of only one good recipe for cooking oysters. 14 Proceedings. 6. " The Maoris of the West. Coast of the South Island." By H. D. Skinner. The author explained that his paper dealt with a very small part of the subject. He mentioned first the passes to the West Coast, then some of the preparations the Maoris made for travelling across these passes, and finally indicated the discoverer of the first pass. All the greenstone we knew of in New Zealand came from one or two •.iver-beds on the West Coast, and must have been brought across these passes. Some idea of the amount carried over might be gathered from the fact that from Murdering Beach alone about 3 cwt. of worked greenstone had been removed. The author 'made use of a length}' manuscript containing the only record of the history, customs, and mythology of the Maori tribe now on the verge of extinction on the West Coast. After referring to the various passes of the Southern Alps and their significance to the Maoris, he gave a vivid description of the journeys which the Natives used to make across the .Alps, and concluded with the story of Raurika, the mad woman who, about the year ] 700, discovered Browning's Pass, and was the first to find a way across the great barrier. 7. " The Mammalian Heart : the Nature of its Beat, and Some Striking Variations in Rhythm recently discovered^' By Dr. Stuart Moore. Commencing with a few simple points about the anatomy of the heart, the writer went on to discuss the two theories of the causes of its action and to describe some remarkable recorded irregularities, and made the subject clear by the use of the black- board and of several interesting diagrams shown through a magic-lantern. Incidentally, some insight was given into the remarkably ingenious methods by which physiologists can detect, record, and interpret the most delicate variations in the action of the heart. Third Meeting : 4th July, 1911. The President, Mr. A. Bathgate, in the chair. There was a large attendance, over two hundred members and friends being present. Address. — Mr. R. Speight, M.A., F.G.S., of Christchurch, gave an in- teresting illustrated address on " Remote and Unknown Canterbury." Abstract. The address dealt chiefly with a part of Canterbury which is little known to the general public, and lies at the head of the Rakaia, Ash burton, and Rangitata Rivers. The lecturer first of all gave a brief account of the geographical features of the area, ind referred to the work of exploration carried on by Haast, Potts, and Whitcombe, as well as to the connection of Dr. Sinclair and Samuel Butler with its early history. Some account was given of the geological structure of the district and the evolution of the chief landscape-features. The lecturer drew attention to the fact that the Southern Alps in their present form are not a mountain -range of the alpine type, but rather a dissected peneplain of which the present mountain -tops are a remnant. The dissection has been brought about first of all by stream-action and then by glaciation. The effect of the latter was dealt with at greater length, and the address concluded with a description of the present glaciers at the head of the Rakaia and the adjacent river- valleys, which probably afford the finest alpine scenery in New Zealand with the excep- tion of that in the Mount Cook district — a feature which is all the more remarkable seeing that the highest peaks in that part of the main range do not reach the height of y,000 ft. Even this comparatively moderate elevation seems competent to deprive the wet westerly winds of by far the greater portion of the moisture they carry. The lecture was illustrated by an extensive series of lantern-slides, giving a fine series of views of the country dealt with, and at its close a hearty vote of thanks was KTOorded to the lecturer on the motion of the chairman. Otago Institute. 15 TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION. Officers.- — The following have been elected the executive of the section r Chairman— Mr. E. E. Stark : Vice-Chairman— Mr. M. Elliot and Mr. F. W. Furkert ;. Hon. Secretaries — Messrs. H. Brasch and E. C. Creagh ; Com- mittee— Professor J. Park. Messrs. E. W. Ackland, J. Lythgoe. F. W. Payne, and J. H. Scott. First Meeting : 16th May, 1911. Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair. Mr. Stark, chairman of the section, delivered an interesting address on " Alternating Currents of High Frequency," illustrated by many effective experiments. The attendance was very satisfactory for the initial meeting of the section, there being over seventy members present. Secont> Meeting : 20th June, 1911. Present— Mr. E. E. Stark (in the chair) and a large number of members. Address. — Mr. Frank Oakden gave a. long and interesting address on " Portland Cement." The evening was found to be too short to permit of the address being brought to a close, and it was unanimously decided to continue the lecture and the discussion on it on the following Tuesday (27th June). Another large audience met on the latter date and heard the con- clusion of the address. The address dealt fully with the whole subject under the following heads : (1) His- torical outline, dealing with methods of manufacture from earlier times up to the present day ; (2) physical tests ; (3) theories of hardening, showing the existing diversity oi opinion between the highest authorities. [A full report was published in the Otago Daily Times of the 29th June, 1911.] lrj Frooeedtwgs. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. First Meeting : 3rd May, 1911. Present : Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and eighty others. New Members.— Messrs. L. S. Jennings. W. Brock. H. R. Hogg, and -1. Caughley. A large number of donations were received and laid on the table. Anton Dohrn Fund. — A letter was received from Dr. Benham, enclosing < irculars and asking for subscriptions to the Anton Dohrn Fund. Dr. Chilton explained the reason for making the appeal, and hoped members would subscribe to such a worthy object. Address. — Mr. R. M. Laing, the retiring President, then delivered his ex-presidential address on " A Study in Multiple Personality." The lecturer pointed out that this address was really a continuation and develop- ment along specialized lines of an address previously given by himself to the Institute on the subject of hypnotism. The investigation into the phenomena of multiple personality has now reached a highly technical stage. Three different types of theory have been put forward to explain these aberrations of personality and allied phenomena. These three types may be roughly classified as follows : (a.) The " unconscious cerebration " theory. This has been put forward in different forms by W. B. Carpenter, A. H. Pierce, and Munsterberg. According to it the automatic speech and writing of a secondary personality were no more accompanied by intelligence than the song of a gramophone. The lecturer con- sidered this theory was quite insufficient to account for the phenomena witnessed in the more remarkable cases of alternation of personality, such as shown by Miss Beauchamp, the Rev. Thomas Hanna, and Ansell Bourne. (6.) The second type of hypothesis may be termed the " stratification " theory. According to it there underlies the normal consciousness one or more deeper strata of consciousness often possessed of supernormal powers. Forms of this theory may be found in the "transcendental" consciousness of Du Prel, in the " subliminal " consciousness of Myers, and the " subjective " consciousness of various popular American writers, such as Hudson. This type of theory appeared to the lecturer to be largely unsubstantiated, (c.) The " dissociation " theory. According to this theory certain complexes are dissociated by amnesia from the normal consciousness and lead to " automatonisms," or, when very fully developed, sometimes assume control of the bodily organism and more or less permanently play the role of the normal consciousness. This theory appeared to the lecturer to provide a firm foothold for the study of multiple personality and many related phenomena. Dissociation, indeed, is exhibited in sleep, dreams, hypnosis, sensory and motor automatonisms, such as crystal visions, auditory and visual hallucinations, automatic speech and writing, the phenomena of revivals, conversion, demoniacal pos- s ssion, spirit-control, and many cases of insanity. Thus a naturalistic explanation was obtained of many phenomena usually termed occult. However, after full scope had been given to explanation by dissociation, there still remained a residuum of unexplained phenomena, which might for the present at least be regarded as " supernormal." The body of the address consisted of a detailed description of the above phenomena as exhibited by Miss Christine Beauchamp and described by Dr. Morton Prince. With infinite patience Dr. Morton Prince was able to synthesize the disintegrated memories of Miss Beauchamp and restore her to normal health. Under ordinary circumstances her neurasthenic and psychasthenic condition would inevitably lead to her confinement in a mental hospital, but Dr. Prince by his close investigation of the case and his treat - inent of it by therapeutic suggestion was able to control the various personalities developed and bring out renewed mental equilibrium. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 17 Second Meeting : 7th June. 1911. Present : Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and nearly one hundred others, including the officers of the s.s. "Terra Nova," and Captain Bo lions of the G.s.s. " Hinemoa." New Members.— -Messrs. W. \V. Garton, Richard Finch, T. Fletcher G. D. Hansford, W. D. Kirkpatrick, B. Seth Smith. C. Foweraker. I. E. Newton, M.A., G. Whitehead, B.A.. H. D. Acland. Address.—" The Natural History of Whales." By D. G. Lillie. B.A., Biologist to the Antarctic Expedition. The lecturer first gave a brief outline of the phylogenetic development of the various orders of the mammalia, with special reference to the whales, and detailed the chief differences between these animals and fishes. He showed the relationship between the whales and the mammals most closely connected with them, specially mentioning the modification of the various organs to suit a marine environment. He noted that the grooves which appear in the skin of the rorquals probably function in respiration. The lecturer concluded with an account of the classification of whales and of their habits. The address was illustrated with an extensive and excellent series of drawings. In moving a hearty vote of thanks to the lecturer Mr. Edgar H. Waite referred to the original work which had already been done by Mr. Lillie in connection with whales, a subject of investigation of the greatest difficulty. in acknowledging the vote of thanks, Mr. Lillie gave some brief indications as to how the different species of whales could be determined by any one seeing them from the deck of a ship, but said that it was scry difficult indeed to come to a correct conclu- sion without long experience. Third Meeting : 12th July, 1911. Present : Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and forty others. Neiv Members. — Messrs. W. Goss, J. Deans, and W. C. Colee. Address. — " Recent Advances in Radioactivity." By D. C. H. Florance, M.A., M.Sc. The lecturer gave a very clear and interesting account of the methods adopted during the last two years for investigating the phenomena of radioactivity, and illus- trated his remarks with exhibits and experiments. He paid special attention to the series of products derived from uranium, and the behaviour of atoms under the influence of the a, ,3, and y rays. At the close he was accorded a very hearty vote of thanks. Papers. — 1. "The Action of Alkyl Iodides on Copper - oxide." Bv H. G. Denham, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D. (See page 29.) 2. " Note on the Species of Hydra found in New Zealand." By G. Archey ; communicated by Dr. Chilton. (See page 25.) 3. " Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Kermadec Islands." Bv Edgar R. Waite, F.L.S. (See page 28.) Inset— Proc. pt. i. \R Proceedings. HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. First Meeting : 2nd June. 1911. The President, Mr. H. Hill. B.A., F.G.S., in the chair. New Member. — Mr. Alexander. Address. — The President delivered his presidential address on 'Indi- vidualism versus Collective Industrialism." Mr. Hill first referred to the advantage of being a member of the Institute, and urged the desirability of keeping records of early settlement, of the natural characters of the country, of original and introduced flora and fauna, of climate, of temperature, of rainfall, of floods, &c. The address dealt with the economic relations between workers and masters and the State. The comparison between the State and a person was made with respect to the various changes taking place as time passed, and deductions were made therefrom. Some scenes in industrial centres in England which were visited by the lecturer were described, and the evil effects of specialization were noted. The treatment of the '" human machine " was discussed, and the question raised why the employer did not treat the worker as well as the inanimate machine. The State should help workers in sickness, unemployment, and old age by better methods than it does, and national pro- vision should be made for such cases. As the State looks after children in providing education for their future trades and professions, so also it should make provision that during their later life they should never be dependent upon mere charity. Germany has provided a scheme for her workers, and New Zealand has instituted pensions and a National Provident Fund. More is required. Second Meeting : 30th June. 1911. The President, Mr. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.. in the chair. New Member. — Mr. Malcolm McLeod. Papers. — 1. " Some Contents of Napier Waters." By J. Niven. A later paper will deal more fully with the subject. 2. " A Chat on Some Peculiar Stones." By H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. Various peculiar and interesting stones were shown and their story told. Papers. 19 PAPERS 1. Some Effects oj Imported Animals on the. Indigenous Vegetation. By B. C. Aston. F.I.C. F.C.S. [Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th May, 1911.] The Tauherinikau Valley is portion of a public-works reserve, and extends from the mouth of the gorge near Featherston for some twelve miles in a northerly direction. The valley is a natural fastness into which man seldom penetrates. Bounded on all sides by mountains of 1.500 ft. or more in height, the only outlet for the river bemg a trackless gorge, the valley has become a sanctuary for escaped cattle, wild pigs, and rabbits. On either side of the river, which is comparable with the Hutt in size, are extensive gravel-flats covered with light scrub, chiefly Leptospermum (manuka), fre- quently broken by patches of good grass land on which Yorkshire fog, red and white clovers, and cocksfoot ffcr 1 excellent pasturage for cattle. In January, 1910, one herd of eleven, which allowed one to approach closely, was seen. Along the narrower and higher portions of the valley, where the forest closes into the stream, tracks have been made by the cattle in all directions. It is probably from this valley that they have gained access to the Mount Alpha portion of the Tararua Range above the bush-line. On this high country the effect of the cattle is most readily observed. Well- beaten tracks have been made along all the main ridges from the Quoin (3,900 ft.) to Mount Alpha (4,600 ft.), and thence, to the south side of Mount Hector, approaching almost to the summit. No tracks were observed on the Otaki side of Mount Hector. On the slopes of Mount Alpha nearly every plant of Ligusticum dissectum T. K.* had been closely cropped, from which it appears that this succulent umbellifer, which is one of the most abundant and characteristic plants of this range, will disappear where the cattle are able to reach it. No good argument can be adduced for allowing the cattle to remain. Being so tame they will not provide sport ; of the Hereford breed, they are not so picturesque as, for instance, Highland cattle would be ; and, although as track-makers they have done some good work, further toleration of their existence is likely to result in a perma- nent alteration of the flora, which, from the proximity to Wellington City, should be preserved intact. The effect of the depredations of pigs is every- where noticeable in the valley, both in the forest and on the manuka flats and grass lands, where in the aggregate large areas have been turned over. On the valley-flats a fine patch of the rare orchid Gastrodia sesamoides had been destroyed. Gastrodia Cunninghamii, with its large underground tubers, now fairly common in the Tararua forests, is likely to become very rare. On the high bushed spurs, where well-defined tracks have been worn, the most noticeable objects of the attentions of pigs are the species of Panax (family Araliaceae). These shrubs (P. Colensoi, P. arboreum, and P. simplex) are often barked up to 3 ft. or 4 ft. from the ground, the white wood beneath showing the imprint of large teeth. In the Marlborough Sounds goats are *_High up orTNgauruhoe rabbits are similarly exterminating L. aromaticvm. 20 Papers. fast killing out the species of Panax, which are completely barked up to 4 ft. or 5 ft. from the ground. Horses will also bark the shrubs of this genus. The Waipakihi River (the main source of Lake Taupo and the Waikato River) rises in the Kaimanawa Mountains, and flows through them for some eighteen miles before emerging into the plain. The upper reaches drain some thousands of acres of pumice-flats, the Kaimanawa Range, although of old sedimentary formation, having been plentifully peppered with pumice from the contiguous volcanic area. The pumice-flats contain material in which rabbits may easily burrow, and they have accordingly taken possession in their thousands. The flats are at an elevation of from 3,000 ft. to 3,500 ft., and are covered with a shrubby growth of Veronica buxifolia, V. laevis, V. tetragona, and V. salicijolia (family Scrophulariaceae), or with tussocks of Poa caespitosa and Festuca rubra and Danthonia Kaoulii (family Gramineae), with smaller plants between, such as Raoulia australis, Acaena sp.. &c, and Aciphylla Colensoi. It is difficult, owing to the ravages of the rabbits, to say what the flora of the grass-flats originally was. Pro- bably a number of finer grasses have been eaten out. and evidence is not wanting that food is scarce. Little piles of the leaves of Veronica salicijolia were seen near the bushes, which may be attributed to rabbits nibbling the stalks off and leaving the blade. Many plants of Aciphylla Colensoi (family Umbelliferae) had been eaten down to the heart. The harsh Festuca rubra tussocks seemed to have suffered less than other grasses, but even these had been occasionally attacked. At Waipahi (Kaimanawas), just above the bush-line at 4,400 ft., on the hillside, Danthonia Raoulii was the sole sur- vivor, and that had been badly eaten, possibly by wild horses as well as by rabbits and pigs. These two valleys, though widely separated, are excellent examples of natural sanctuaries, including extensive river-flats walled in by steep, heavily bushed mountains, the only natural outlet being a long, winding gorge where the river issues into the plain. The floras of these valleys are rapidly changing in character owing to the attacks of imported animals, which, because of difficulty or illegality of access to the valleys, are not kept in check by man. One effect of imported animals may be to restrict the more edible plants to situations beyond their reach. A species, therefore, which is able to adapt itself to any station may by compulsion be restricted to one. For instance, lepidium oleraceuw (" Cook's scurvy-grass " — family Cruciferae) has been eaten out along the Wellington Coast, and is nowr generally only to be found growing on inaccessible rock-faces. Similarly, Senecio Greyii (family Compositae), although able to grow on any soil, as testified by its presence in most collections of native shrubs, at Mukumuku, Palliser Bay, is restricted, possibly chiefly owring to goats, to stations which would lead the ecologist to class it as a chasmophyte. One may see abundance, of this beautiful free-flowering plant growing on the cliffs, but it is with great diffi- culty that specimens may be secured. A common plant of littoral rock- faces is the grass Agropyrum scdbrum, which is greatly relished by sheep. It is being eaten out possibly on the central volcanic plateau of the North Island and elsewhere. At Alexandra, Central Otago, this grass assumes the habit of a tussock-grass, and is then better able to resist close cropping. It is, indeed, on the littoral that the evidences of the destructive influence of animals on vegetation are most readily found. The long winding coast- line of South Wellington Province affords a commonage where both domestic Papers. 21 and wild animals may resort for salt-licks and saline plants, such as Salicornia australis and other plants of the salt-bush family (Chenopodiaceae) . When food is scarce the giant perennial-stemmed grass Spinifex hirsutus is voraciously eaten, as has been observed at Pencarrow Heads and Titahi Bay. At the latter habitat marram-grass (Ammophila arundinacea) was untouched, but horses had eaten the Spinifex off short. The pre- ference which stock exhibit for Spinifex over marram should be taken into account in considering the rival merits of the two grasses as sand-binders. A fern, Gymnpgramme, once abundant on Wellington coasts, is believed to have been exterminated by sheep and rabbits. Being an annual it would be eaten before the spores were shed. At Rocky Bay (Titahi Bay) is a recently raised beach. High above high-water mark is a boulder beach, then a sandy strip containing fresh- water pools, the sand being covered with a closely cropped sward of (1) Crantzia lineata (family Umbelliferae), (2) Samolus repens* (family Primulaceae). (3) Ranunculus acaulis, named in the order of their relative abundance. There are also present Atropis stricta (family Gramineae), Cotula coronopifolia (family Compositae), and Selliera radicans (family Goodenovieae). Sheep greedily browse on this sward and drink from the pools, in which frogs are living. The term " salt meadow," which is applied by ecologists to this formation, must therefore not be interpreted in a superlative sense. Separating the salt meadow from the sea is a raised rocky terrace. Sheep have been observed browsing on a sward of similar composition near Island Bay. On the dry hillside above Rocky Bay Eryngium vesiculosum (family Umbelliferae) has been closely eaten down by sheep, and it is feared that Lepidium tenuicaule var. minor (family Cruci- ferae), common here in 1907, has been entirely eaten out. On the rocky scarps near here Aciphylla squarrosa was observed in March, 1908, to have been badly eaten back. Further round the Titahi Bay peninsula, at the point facing Plimmerton, are stretches of raised sandy beach containing the remains of sea-animals and consequently much carbonate of lime. This has resulted in a shallow black soil supporting a sweet herbage, largely the naturalized alfilaria (Erodium circutarium, family Geraniaceae). The rabbits are spoiling much of this by covering it with earth from their burrows. Changes in the indigenous flora by means of the spread of exotic species, the seed of which is distributed by imported animals, are being brought about in various localities. Examples which might no doubt be added to are the African box-thorn (Lycium horridum), which is spreading in the Taranaki bush ; the blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), in many parts of the North Island and in the Nelson Province ; the elderberry (Sambucus niger), near Dun- edin ; the gooseberry (Ribes grossularia), in many parts of the South Island ; the Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana), in the Wanganui, Thames, and Tauranga districts ; the ink-plant (Phytolacca octandra) ; and even the strawberry (Fragaria vesca), in some parts of the Auckland Province. All these fruits are spread by birds, especially the blackbird, and thereby the native vegetation certainly is being displaced. f * At Havelock (Marlborough) the estuarial mud-flats are covered with Samolus, and the cattle laboriously drag themselves through the mud to obtain the plant. •f- The spread of introduced weeds is not without its economical side. Sheep have been fattened on fleabane (Erigeron strigosa) in North Auckland and on Atriplex patula var. hastata in Canterbury, while the winged or star thistle (Carduus pycnocephalus) is, according to Dr. Petrie, the salvation of the runholder in parts of Central Otago. 22 Papers. Rats (both the grey and the black), by eating the seeds, undoubtedly influence the spread of many species. The grey rat has a fondness foi the seeds of the New Zealand passion-flower (Passiflora tetrandra), the fruit of the kiekie (Freycinetia Banksii), and nikau-palm (Rhopalostylis sapida). Possibly the introduced birds may assist in the spread of the indigenous plants having edible fruits, such as the wineberry (Aristotelia racemosa). Ftichsia excorticata, poroporo (Solanum aviculare), and bramble (Rubus australis). No one who has seen sheep covered with Acaena " burrs " (piripiri) can hesitate to admit the large part which that animal plays in the spread of this nativ weed. Pigs are most partial to the seed of the hinau (Elaeocarpus dentatus,. family Tilioceae), on which they fatten, and the roots of bracken (Ptcris aquilina). The native arrowroot fern (Marattia fraxinea) is fast being killed out by pigs on account of its large starchy rhizome. The spread of clovers and other leguminous seed by animals must be a considerable factor in altering vegetation. At Palliser Bay gravel-fans, covering in some cases many acres, are formed by heavy rainfalls. The first plant to establish itself on the finer detritus is Raoulia australis, forming- large depressed patches. Ultimately a certain amount of organic matter is formed by these patches of vegetation, and in October, 1907, clovers and other introduced leguminous plants were noted to be growing out of these patches. It is possible that they may in time displace the Raoidia, as in older but similarly formed land in the vicinity a close sward of Leauminosae monopolizes the soil. The partiality which stock exhibit for certain shrubs such as the mahoe or hinahina, the so-called " cow-tree " of the settler (Melicytus ramiflorus,. family Violaceae), the karamu (Coprosma grandifolia and C. tenuifolia, family Rubiaceae), and the broadleaf (Griselinia littoralis, family Cornaceae) have led to the practice among stockmen of cutting the shrubs down for fodder in times of scarcity. Another shrub evidently much relished is the mangrove (Avicennia officinalis, family Verbenaccae). Travellers along the Thames railway-line may see the lower branches of the fine mangrove shrubs of the estuaries trimmed off by cattle in the same way as they do the weep- ing willows in the meadows, no branches appearing below a certain level- — the limit of the cattle's reach. In the Rotorua district I am informed that tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa, family Lauraceae) leaves are readily eaten by stock. Cattle greedily eat karaka-leaves (Corynocarpus laevigata, family Anacardiaceae). The fruit, poisonous to some animals, causes in pigs only a partial paralysis of the hind legs. Central Otago, which contains such excellent examples of the effects of overstocking and of the rabbits on the indigenous vegetation, has furnished me with a few notes. On the Rock and Pillar Range (Middlemarch side) in December, 1908, Hymcnanthcra crassifolia* (family Violaceae) was found to be eaten down by rabbits. (This effect has also been largely observed on the raised beaches at Turakirae Head. Palliser Bay.) Celmisia Lyalln (family Compositae) was almost eaten out except on a few inaccessible rocks at 3,700 ft. At Gimmcrburn, on a dry hillside above the Government nursery, the ground was bare save for a few scattered plants of Agropyrmu pcdinatum (naturalized) and Koelcria Kurtzii. These two grasses had been nibbled down very short, but were surviving, and the former was producing seed in quantity. * Mr. Cheeseman thinks this may be //. dmiata var alpina. Papers. 23 The soils of the Southern Islands are the very antithesis of those of 'Central Otago, but even here the flora is being slowly changed by imported animals. On Auckland Island, in November, 1907, at Flat-topped Moun- tain, Carnley Harbour, and above the scrub-line, pigs had eaten freely of Pleuwphyllum Hookeri (family Compositae), having grubbed up the plant to get at the rootstock. At Port Ross, Auckland Island, in January, 1909. at 1,100 ft. numerous pig-tracks were observed, and Pleurophyllum specio- sum appeared to have been eaten out on all stations but inaccessible rock- faces. At Enderby Island the cattle had considerably cut up the bush, but their greatest effect Avas noticeable on the tussocks of Poa littorosa, a .grass which is evidently being exterminated at that habitat. At Camp- bell Island, which is inhabited and farmed as a sheep-run, the Stilbocarpa polaris (family Araliaceae) is being eaten out by sheep. On the other hand, there are no pigs, as at Auckland Island, to attack the Bulhinetta Rossii* (family Liliaceae), which is spreading at an alarming rate. On the " burn," under the " Judge's Chair," at 725 ft. the Dracophyllum scoparium and D. longijolium are being replaced by Poa littorosa and Bulbinella Rossii. In <>ne paddock near the wool-shed at Perseverance Harbour the flora con- sisted solely of a thick mass of Bulbinella Rossii — a magnificent sight. The important family Leguminosae is sparsely represented in New Zea- land. Horses are fond of chewing the taller species of Carmichaelia. It would be interesting to learn whether the dwarf species are diminishing owing to the attacks of rabbits in the more arid parts. Sheep, and to a less degree cattle, frequently eat the smaller species of tutu (Coriaria. family Coriariacae), though it is not likely that they appre- ciably affect its abundance. Fern (Pteris aquilina, family Filices) is kept in check by close feeding by cattle. Both of these are. instances of plants which under certain conditions may have a poisonous effect on stock, serv- ing as part of a regular ration. The hinahina (Melicytus raw/iflorus) has been suspected of injuriously affecting stock at Catlin's (Otago), but definite information is wanting. Cattle and sheep, though having their preferences, will eat most ferns, any shrubs, and seedlings of forest-trees when food is scarce. In small isolated clumps of bush the undergrowth is sometimes completely destroyed. Omitting the grasses, the native plants which find most favour with herbiverous animals would appear to be those belonging to the families Cruciferae, Umbelliferae, Araliaceae, Violaceae, Malvaceae, Tiliaceae, Rubi- aceae, Primulaceae. Leguminosae, and Chenopodiaceae ; Juncaceae and Cyperaceae contain genera (Juncus, Luzula, and Mariscus) species of which •are often devoured by stock ; Compositae and Liliaceae contain some species which are often browsed. There are doubtless other non-poisonous native plants which supply either normally or in times of scarcity food for animals, and the author would be extremely obliged if other observers would publish or communi- cate to him any facts which will throw further light on the subject. Very little has been recorded in the past on the subject of this paper. An interesting article on " The Displacement of Species in New Zealand," by the late T. Bark (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 17) gives a general account of the naturalization of many forms of life and the probable effect on the indigenous forms. Of special interest under the title of this paper are the * Although the Bulbinella does not seem to be relished by sheep or cattle, the allied liliaceous plants Phormium and Oordyline are eaten on the mainland by cattle. 24 Papers. facts that rats attack the Gastrodia tuber, that birds apparently spread the tutsan (Hypericum Androsoenum) seeds, and that the tainui (Pomaderris apetala) has been completely destroyed at Kawhia. where it was formerly abundant. Dr. L. Cockayne, J. S. Tennant, and E. K. Waite (" Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand," pp. 235, 599) also have some remarks on the effect of pigs on Auckland and of sheep on Campbell Island floras. (See also Dr. L. Cockayne in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, p. 297.) Mr. Cheeseman ("Manual of the New Zealand Flora," pp. 81, 82, 223) mentions that Hibiscus diver sifolius (family Malvaceae) is being destroyed rapidly by cattle, fires, &c. ; that Entelea arborescens (family Tiliaceae)* is greedily eaten by cattle and horses, and is consequently becoming rare on the mainland, except in comparatively inaccessible situations ; and that Angelica gingidium has become scarce owing to the attacks of stock. I am indebted to Messrs. T. F. Cheeseman, D. Petrie, E. Phillips Turner, F. R. Field, and A. Morris Jones for much information contained in this paper. 2. Note on Helichrysum fasciculatum Buchanan. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. In the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," vol. 9, p. 529, Mr. J. Buchanan described, under the name of Helichrysum, fasciculatum; a plant collected on the Tararua Mountains by Mr. H. H. Travers. When pre- paring my " Manual of the New Zealand Flora," Mr. Buchanan's types of that particular species were not accessible to me, and the only specimen available for examination was in such poor condition that no positive con- clusions could be arrived at. Under such circumstances, I had to rely principally on Mr. Buchanan's description and figure, which seemed to show that the species was distinct. » During a recent visit to the Dominion Museum I had an opportunity of inspecting Mr. Buchanan's original specimens, and was at once impressed with their resemblance to Raoulia grandiflora. Since then Mr. Hamilton has been kind enough to lend them to me for leisurely examination, the result of which I submit herewith. In the first place, an examination of the flowers proves that the plant cannot be referred to Helichrysum, as that genus is understood at the present time. Helichrysum, in addition to its numerous hermaphrodite florets (a character which distinguishes it from Gnaphalium, in which the female florets outnumber the hermaphrodite), possesses slender pappus-hairs, which are scabrid or pectinate at the base, and the achenes are either glabrous or simply puberulous. Now, in Mr. Buchanan's plant the hermaphrodite florets certainly outnumber the females, but the pappus-hairs are stout, rigid, compressed, thickened and toothed above, but quite naked at the base, and the achenes are hirsute with long hairs. These characters of the pappus and achenes are not only at variance with the definition of Helichrysum, but agree perfectly with that of the section Imbricaria of the genus Raoulia, to which R. grandiflora belongs. Comparing 11. fasciculatum with R. grandiflora, they appear almost identical, one important difference being alone noticeable : R. grandi- flora invariably has its flower-heads solitary and terminal. I have gathered * Stock are also partial to the allied winebeiiv (Aristotelia racemosa). Papers. 25 it in many localities in both Islands, and examined hundreds of specimens, but I have never seen even two flower-heads to a stem, and I understand that the experience of other observers is the same. On the other hand, Mr. Buchanan's two flowering specimens of H. fasciculatum each have three flower-heads. If this character should prove constant, it is quite sufficient to uphold the specific distinction of his plant, but until additional speci- mens with the same peculiarity have been obtained it is permissible to take the view that we are dealing with a pair of abnormal specimens. In sup- port of this view I may mention that the individual heads are precisely similar to those of R. grandiflora, the shape and size of the corolla, the pappus-hairs, and the achenes being identical in both. The leaves of H. fasciculatum are slightly larger and broader than in R. grandiflora, and the covering of felted tomentum somewhat denser, but these differences are not more than might be expected in an unusually luxuriant form. On the whole, I am inclined to regard it as an aberrant form of R. grandiflora rather than a distinct, species. Both Sir J. D. Hooker and myself have expressed the opinion that the remarkable differences between the pappus-hairs of the two sections of the genus Raoulia would ultimately, when the gnaphalioid Compositae were fully worked out, prove sufficient to separate them as distinct genera. In a series of papers contributed to the Botanical Society of Geneva, under the title of " Contributions a l'Etude des Composees," Dr. Gustave Beau- verd, the well-known keeper of the Boissier Herbarium, has endeavoured to clear up some of the difficulties which at present encumber the classi- fication of the Gnaphalieae. In a special number of the series he dis- cusses the relationships of Raoulia with its allies, and establishes three new genera — Psychrophyton, consisting of Hooker's section Imbricaria of Raoulia ; Leucogenes, containing Helichrysum Leontopodium and H. grandi- ceps ; and Ewartia, comprising three species from Victoria and Tasmania, of which R. catipes is the type. Dr. Beauverd's paper, which is printed in the Bulletin of the society for 1910 (pp. 207 to 241), is one of the most im- portant publications dealing with the New Zealand Compositae that has appeared for many years, and I hope to prepare a resume of it for publica- tion in the Transactions. 3. Note on the Species of Hydra found in New Zealand. By Gilbert Archey. Communicated by Dr. Chas. Chilton. [Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 12th July, 1911.] Very little appears to have been published on the species of Hydra found in New Zealand. The first definite record was made in 1867 by Dr. Coughtrey,* who found a specimen in a stream near Dunedin. In his note he says, " This Hydra, in general form, is like //. viridis, in colour pale brown, and has seven tentacula, which are peculiar in this respect, that they are distinctly annulated and each ring is fringed." No name was given to this species by Coughtrey. In an earlier paper he says in a footnote, " I have seen two Hydrae in New Zealand, one nearly like H. viridis of Britain, and the * Coughtrey : " Critical Notes on New Zealand Hydroida." Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. 17, p. 22; 1867. 26 Papa*. other I have not been able to identify with th>' British members of Gymnochroa.'"* In 1879 Mr. A. Hamilton,! in a paper on fresh-water Polyzoa, incidentally mentioned the occurrence in a swamp near Napier of '* a large reddish - brown Hydra.''' The next record is by Farqnhar.J who, in 1896, published a catalogued list of the New Zealand Hydroida. In his list he mentions only one Hydra — -i.e., the one which Coughtrey had described as above. Unfortunately, he calls it H. viridis. evidently misreading Coughtrey\ description. Under this name h appears in the " Index Faunae Novae- Zealandiae."§ In 1910 Dr. W. B. Benham|i published a note on " A Species of Hydra new to New Zealand," which was found in the Shag Valley, and which, he said, was characterized by a rich reddish-brown, almost mahogany, colour, and by the great size (up to 15 mm.). He also refers to a small brown species found near Dunedin. probably the same as the one mentioned by Coughtrey. In addition to the published facts referred to above, Dr. Hilgendorf. Professor Thomas, Professor Kirk, and Dr. Chilton have kindly contributed information as to the occurrence of species of Hydra in New Zealand. Dr. Hilgendorf has seen a small brown form which occurs in ponds at Woodhaugh, near Dunedin. This is probably the same as the brown species of Coughtrey and Benham. Professor Kirk writes that there appear to be two kinds in Wellington, one a dark-brown form, and the other a light-brown one. Professor Thomas says that Hydra appears to be widely distributed about Auckland, and notes the occurrence of the following : (1) a brownish or yellowish-brown form ; (2) a form of a colour to suggest orange ; (3) a nearly colourless form ; (4) a green species. He considers (1) to be the form commonly called H. jusca, and (2) and (3) to be colour-varieties of it. The forms noted by Professor Kirk and Dr. Hilgendorf probably belong to this species also. In 1885 Dr. Chilton in his manuscript note-book recorded the appearance of a Hydra in Christchurch. The animal observed was light brown in colour, and appeared to him to be the same as the form commonly known as H. jusca. Specimens of a brown Hydra have, for several years past, been obtained in moderate numbers from the River Avon, for use in the biological laboratory at Canterbury College, though until lately no green ones were seen. But in April of this year, while searching for Hydra in water from the River Avon, several green specimens were discovered. These forms agree exactly, in the characters that can be observed, with the descriptions given of H. viridis. The gonads, however, have not been seen. According to Hickson,^ three species of Hydra are known in England -viz., H. viridis Linn.. H. oligactis Pall. (= H. jusca Linn.), H. vulgaris Pall. Hickson gives a short description of each of these species. A comparison of the forms found in New Zealand with these and other descriptions shows that the green species observed in Christchurch is certainly H. viridis, and the green form noted by Professor Thomas at Auckland probably must be placed here also. It seems likely that the Shag Valley * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 8, p. 299; 1876. f Hamilton : " On Melicerta ringens and Plumatdla rcpen$." Trail*. N.Z. Inst., vol. 12, p. 303. % Farquhar : Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 468; 1896. § " Index Faunae Novae-Zealandiae," edited by F. W. Hutton, London ; 1904. i| Benham : Proc. N.Z. Inst, for 1909, part iv, p. 128 ; 1910. • Hiekson : ': Cambridge Natural History." vol. 1, OoehrUerata, p. 2G6 ; 1906. Papers. '21 specimens described by Dr. Benham are representatives of H. vulgaris. though this cannot be decided with certainty till they have been examined more closely. The large reddish -brown form noted by Hamilton will pro- bably also belong to this species. The light-brown species mentioned above as found at Dunedin, Chr'stchurch, &c. appears to belong to the well- known brown Hydra of Europe, commonly referred to as H. fusca. This should, however, be called H. oligactis, this being the name first given to rhe species by Pallas. It seems to be the most common species in New Zealand, having been seen in Christchurch, Wellington, Auckland, and Dunedin. Coughtrey's species evidently belongs here too. The New Zealand species now known of Hydra, then, arc H. viridis. H. vulgaris, and H. oligactis. Hydra viridis Linn. Hydra viridis Linn.. Sys. Nat.. 12th ed., p. 1320, 1767 ; Johnston, British Zoophytes, p. 121." 1847 ; Hincks, British Hvdroid Zoophytes, p. 312. 1868:' Hickson, Camb. Nat. Hist,, vol. 1, p. 256. 1906: Brauer, Zool. Anz., vol. 33, p. 790, 1909. Dr. Brauer says that the correct name for this species should be //. viridissima Pall. (1766), but the name H. viridis is so well known and commonly accepted that it would be inconvenient to alter it ; and, more- over, it was used by Linnaeus for this form in the 10th edition of the Systema Naturae, though not definitely as a specific name. In this edition Linnaeus gave all the forms of Hydra under the one name, H. polypus, and it was not until the 12th edition that he divided them up into separate species. Hickson describes this species thus : " Colour grass-green. Average number of tentacles, eight. Tentacles shorter than the body. Embryonic chitinous membrane spherical and a7most smooth." The specimens from the River Avon agree closely with the descriptions i^iven by Hickson. Johnston, and Hincks. The species is now known in New Zealand from Christchurch and Auckland. ? Hydra vulgaris Pallas. ? Hydra vulgaris Pallas, Elench. Zooph., p. 30, 1766 ; Hickson, Camb. Nat. Hist,, vol. 1, p. 256, 1906. Hydra (" reddish-brown species "). Hamilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 12, p. 303. 1879 ; Benham, Proc! N.Z. Inst., 1909, p. 128, 1910. Hickson's description is as follows : " Colour orange-brown. Tentacles rather longer than the body, average number six. Embryonic chitinous membrane spherical and covered with numerous branched fpines." Brauer adds that the proximal end of the body is not narrowed into a stalk, that four kinds of thread-cells are present, and that the ammal is hermaphrodite. Habitat. — Shag Valley, Dunedin ; Petane Valley, Napier. I have not seen specimens of this species. Hydra oligactis Pallas. Hydra oligactis Pallas, Elench. Zooph., p. 29, 1766 ; Johnston, British Zoophytes, p. 124, 1847 ; Hincks, British Hydroid Zoophytes, p. 315, 1868 ; Hickson, Camb. Nat, Hist., vol. 1, p. 256, 1906 ; W. M. Sale, Cat. Austral. Hyd. Zooph., p. 187, 1884 ; Brauer, Zool. Anz., vol. 33, p. 792, 1909 ; H. fusca Linnaeus, Sys. Nat,, 12th ed., p. 1320. 1767 ; H. viridis Farquhar, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. W. p. 468. 1896 : Hutton. Index Faunae N.Z.. p. 321. 1904. 28 Papers. " Colour brown. Tentacles capable of great extension, sometimes. when fully expanded, several times the length of the body. Average number, six. Embryonic chitinous membrane plano-convex, its convex side only covered with spines." — (Hickson.) Habitat. — Christchurch, Wellington, Auckland, and Dunedin. In the paper by Dr. Brauer referred to above II. oligactis is divided into two species- — viz., H. oligactis Pall, and II. polypus Linn. The defining characters given by him are, — " H. oligactis Pall. Stalked, tentacles very long. Body 2-3 cm. long. Three kinds of thread-cells, sexes separate, testes on all parts of the body except the stalk. Eggs usually adhering in groups, spherical, and covered with very short spines. Colour grey, brown, or red." " 77. polypus Linn. Stalked, body not more than 2 cm. long, usually 1-1-5 cm. Four kinds of thread-cells. Hermaphrodite, testes only in distal third of body, eggs attached singly with under-surface smooth, upper convex and covered with short spines. Colour grey or brown." The brown forms I have examined seem to belong to H. oligactis. Only three kinds of thread-cells can be made out. the three kinds apparently corresponding to those described by Brauer as occurring in H. oligactis. It has not been possible, however, to examine the gonads in these forms, and until this is done their identity must remain to a certain extent doubtful. Of the specimens found near Melbourne, Mr. W. M. Sale observes that " the attenuation of the lower part of the body is by no means so conspicuous as shown in Mr. Hmck's figures of the English species." This, too, is the case with most of the specimens of H. oligactis seen in Christchurch. It is to be noted that all the specimens of Hydra in New Zealand seem to have been found near habitations. I have not heard of any having been found in spots where the possibility of introduction by man could be excluded. The consideration of this, and the fact that the New Zealand species are apparently the same as those found in Europe, seem to lead to the conclusion that Hydra is not indigenous to New Zealand, but has at some time or other been accidentallv introduced. 4. Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Kermadec Islands. By Edgar R. Waite, F.L.S., Curator, Canterbury Museum. [Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 12th July, 1911.] In consequent of the destruction of his farm at the Kermadec Islands by the recent hurricane, Mr. Roy C. Bell returned with his family to New Zealand. H*^ brought with him a small collection of fishes, in continua- tion of the endeavours of Mr. W. R. B. Oliver, who, as a member of the party which visited the islands in 1908, supplied the material already recorded.* The specimens were, for the most part, picked up dry upon the beach or gathered from rock-pools on Sunday Island. Owing to mutila- tion many of them are irrecognizable, and those which can be identified are known species. The following have not been previously recorded from the Kermadec Islands : — * Waite : Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1910, pp. 370-383, pi. xxxv and xxxvi. Papers. 29 Ruleptorhamphas longirostris Cuvier, Regne Anim.. 2nd ed., vol. 2. p. 286. 1829. The only specimen contained in the collection measures 336 mm. from the tip of the upper jaw to the end of the middle rays of the caudal, and the mandible projects 120 mm. beyond the upper jaw. I have previously recorded this species for Lord Howe Island.* Aulacocephalus temmincki Bleeker, Verh. Batav. Gen., vol. 26, 1857, Tchth. Jap., p. 12. This record appears to be the first for the species in the Western Hemi- sphere, and the locality represents its most southerly known range. The places whence it has been obtained are widely separated, and are as follows : Japan. Siam, Mauritius, Kermadec Islands. The specimen measures 270 mm. in length. Epinephelus daemelii Giinther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), vol. 17, p. 391, 1876. Quite common on the coast of New South Wales, and found also at Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, this species is now recorded for the Ker- madec Islands, and furnishes another instance of the similarity of their respective fish faunas, a matter to which I have already drawn attention. Upeneus signatus Giinther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3), vol. 20, p. 59, 1867. A similar example is provided by the red mullet, known from the waters of New South Wales .and Lord Howe Island. Though not yet taken at Norfolk Island, it is tolerably certain to be found there when representative collections of its fauna are made. 5. The Action of Alhyl Iodides on ( \>ppir~oxide. By H. G. Denham. M.A.. D.Sc. Ph.D. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 12th July, 1911.] The existence of cupric iodide in aqueous solution was first demonstrated by Moritz Trautz (Ber. d. D. Chem. Gessell, 1884, vol. 17, 1866), while Carnegie (Chem. News, 1889, vol. 59, 57) showed that any attempt to obtain solid cupric iodide by the evaporation of a solution containing Cu++ and L'ions always led to the separation of iodine and cuprous iodide. Walker and Dover (Jour. Chem. Soc, 1905. vol. 87, 1584) obtained a compound of the formula Cul4, but all efforts to obtain cupric iodide itself have up to the present proved futile. The presence of the slightest trace of moisture is sufficient to cause the decomposition of the unstable cupric iodide, and it is to this fact that our failure to prepare this salt is due. The action of dried methyl-iodide vapour on heated copper-oxide appeared to the author to form a promising method for securing cupric iodide, and, as the vapour of the alkyl iodides can be readily dried over phosphorus-pentoxide, it was hoped that the iodide, once formed, would not suffer the usual decomposition. * Waite : Rec. Aust. Mus., vol. 5, p. 24, 1903. 30 Papers. The apparatus consisted of a distillation-flask containing the alkyl iodide and pkosphorus-pentoxide, two U tubes containing the same drying reagent, a further U tube containing carefully dried copper-oxide, and an upright condenser connected to a receiver with suitable guard-tubes. Between the distillation-flask and the first drying-tube was interposed a T piece that allowed the entry of dry carbonic acid. After the whole ap- paratus had been sealed together, glass to glass, the various U tubes were heated to the required temperature and the apparatus exhausted. Dried carbonic-acid gas was then allowed to stream in, and, in order to insure the complete absence of oxygen, as well as complete drving, this opera- tion was repeated about thirty times. A preliminary experiment showed that at a temperature of 310° G. the oxide reacted quickly with the iodide, while at this temperature the vapour of the volatile alkyl compound suffered no decomposition. The rate at which the iodide distilled could be readily controlled, and it was generally so regulated that about 80 grammes were distilled over in 45 minutes. A few experiments sufficed to show that the reaction, instead of taking the course represented by the equation CuO -f- 2 CH3I = Cul2 -f (CH3)20, took a much more complex path, the ultimate solid product invariably being cuprous iodide. Since not the slightest liberation of iodine was noted, as would occur were the cuprous iodide formed by the decomposition of the unstable cupric salt, it is to be concluded that cuprous iodide is the primary product of the reaction. Numerous other products of the reaction were also obtained. The distillate always gave a strong aldehyde reaction, and it was also possible to collect a considerable quantity of gas. This proved to contain oxygen, carbon-monoxide, ethylene, methane, and its homologues. When methyl- iodide was used, the first three gases were contained to the extent of about 3 per cent., while the methane series bulked very largely in the total. The substitution of ethyl-iodide for methyl-iodide caused a marked change in the ratio of saturated to unsaturated hydrocarbons, for the percentage of ethy- lene rose to about 50 per cent., while the saturated hydrocarbons fell from about 90 to 45 per cent. 6. The Nature of Gamma Rays. By "Professor T. H. Laby and P. W. Burbidge, B.Sc. Senior University Scholar. | Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 12th July, 1911.'] Dr. E. von Schweidler pointed out in 1905 that an effect such as ioniza- tion by a rays due to a finite, number of independent events would be subject to fluctuations. The mathematical theory of the different experiments which have been made with light, a and /? rays, has been developed by Mr. N. R. Campbell. One of us began some preliminary experiments in 1908 at the Cavendish Laboratory to detect discontinuous effects with y rays. Two forms of apparatus have been used in our experiments. In the first two similar cylindrical ionization- vessels were placed close together with their axes directed to the source of the y rays — some radium. If the y rays have Papers. 31 a spherical wave-front, the two similar vessels, being syinetrically placed with respect to the source, should be equally effected by the y rays, though the results of the equal effects may not be the same. If, on the other hand, the y rays are any type of corpuscular radiation (in the New- tonian sense) made of a finite number of pai-ticles. the effect in the ioniza- tion-vessels would be unequal over short periods of time. To compare the number of ions produced in the two vessels, the electrodes were con- nected to an electrometer, one vessel being positively the other negatively charged. The positive and negative currents from the two cans were balanced as closely as possible for long periods of time, and so there was no large steady drift, of the electrometer. The quartz fibre electrometer (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. 15, p. 106, 1909) showed fluctuations in this balance. In the second apparatus a box-shaped ionization-can with a central plane electrode was used. The positive ions formed in one half of the can were received on one side of the flat electrode, the negative ions from the other half of the can on the other side of the electrode. By making the can airtight and thoroughly drying the contained air, complete "saturation" was produced with a field of only 8 volts per cm. Large fluctuations were observed when the ionization currents from the two halves were balanced, the source of y rays being placed outside the can in the plane of the central electrode. This experimental result would be explained if (1) the y rays from radium are projected particles, or (2) if the number of ions produced in air by a constant source of rays is subject to fluctuations. We are. continuing the experiments with a view to determining what part each of these factors plays in producing the fluctuations observed. The radium used in these experiment* was lent by the Royal Society of London. 32 Abstracts. ABSTRACTS. 1. Die Gattung Townsonia Cheesem. Bv R. Schlechter. (Abstract from Fedde, Repertorium ix, pp. 249-250 : 1911). The genus Townsonia was originally published by T. F. Cheeseinan in 1906 in the "Manual of the New Zealand Flora" (p. 691), and was placed in the vicinity of Adenochilus Hook. f. When Dr. Schlechter undertook a new arrangement of the Poly- chondreae (equivalent to the Neottieae of other authors) he was unable, through the absence of specimens, to decide on the exact relationships of the genus. Having received a copious suite from its describer, he has now been able to study it in detail. He has arrived at the conclusion that it is best placed between Acianthus R. Br., which is found in Australia and New Caledonia as well as in New Zealand, and Stigmatodactylus Maxim., which has three species in Japan, India, and Java respectively. At the same time, there is an undoubtedly strong resemblance to the subfamily Caladeniinae in the broadly winged column, a character which is not found in Acianthus and allied genera. On the other hand, the smooth labellum, devoid of any projections or protuberances beyond two obscure ridges at the base, and the habit of the plant, point towards the Acianthineae. A remarkable character, which is not shown by any Acianthus, is that the flowering-stems often produce offshoots which bear solitary radical leaves. The petals are much reduced in size, but this peculiarity is approached by some of the New Caledonian species of Acianthus, although not carried to the same extent. The elongated finger dike rostellum much resembles that of Stigmatodactylus. As soon as specimens of Townsonia were examined, it was noticed that it was closely allied to Acianthus viridis Hook. f. from Tasmania. This led to a careful examination of the Tasmanian plant, which resulted in proving that it also was a genuine Townsonia, closely allied to but clearly distinct from the original T. defiexa. Townsonia will there- fore rank as a typical austral-antarctic genus, with one species — T. defiexa Cheesem. — confined to the South Island of New Zealand, the other— T. viridis (Hook, f.) Schlechter — endemic in Tasmania. T. F. C. 2. Some Constants of Mutton-bird Oil and Fat. By L. Hewgill Smith. (Journ. Soc. Chem. Industry No. 7. vol. 30, p. 405 : 15th April, 1911.) The mutton-bird {Oestrelata lessoni), a petrel peculiar to the Antarctic, when dis- turbed ejects from its nostrils an oil with considerable force. This oil— the first bird- oil to be put on the market — in colour varies from bright ruby red to straw, with not unpleasant fishy smell. On treatment with sulphuric acid the ruby colour is destroyed and straw oil results. At 0° C. the oil solidified to a translucent mass. One specimen contained 2-23 per cent, free fatty acids (as oleic acid). Constants : Specific gravity, 0-8819-0-8858 at- 15-5° C. ; saponification value, 125-9 ; iodine value (Wijs), 71 per cent. ; unsaponifiable (alcohols), 36-88 percent. ; melting-point of alcohols, 30-5-31-5° C. It yields no glycerin. It appears that the oil is not a glyceride, but a liquid wax resembling arctic sperm-oil to a remarkable degree, and, like it, showing no tendency to gum. It was suggested in discussion that the oil contains a large amount of cetyl oleate. The body-fat of the bird, of soft consistency, brown colour, and strong fishy smell, con- tained 3-5^4-3 per cent, free fatty acids (as oleic acid) ; iodine value (Wijs), 89-1 per cent. ; unsaponifiable matter. 1-76-2 per cent. ; specific gravity, 0-9351-0-9380 at 15-5° C. ; titre test. 29-4° C. B. C. A. 3. An Attempt to introduce Olearia semidentata into the British Isles. By A. A. DDrrien-Smith. (Kew Bulletin, No. 4, pp. 120-126, 8 photos ; 1910.) A popular account of a short excursion to the Chatham Islands by the author in quest of living plants. A general account is given of the vegetation of the main island. Abstracts. 33 Veronica gigantea, 20ft. high, was seen in full flower; its seedlings are noted as being very different to the mature trees, " the leaves being larger and covered with downy hairs, while the stems are of a reddish-purple colour." The author considers Plagi- anthus chathamicus Cockayne distinct from P. betulinus A. Cunn. In some places Marchantia cephaloscypha covers bog an acre in extent. The vegetation of a sea-cliff at Te Tuku consisted of Phormium tenax, a long grass (probably Festuca Coxii Hack.), Astelia nervosa, Veronica chathamica, Geranium Traversii, Aciphylla Dieffenbachii, Senecio Imitus, S. radiolatus, Myosotidium -nobile, Urtica australis. The Myosotidium, Phormium, and Aciphylla are threatened with extinction. L. C. 1. New Zealand Plants. Bv A. A. Dorrien-Smith.. {Gardeners'1 Chronicle, vol. 49, p. 58; 1911.) The author brought from New Zealand to England 2,000 plants, comprising 217 species. Of these, he lost 45 species on the voyage. Amongst those landed in good condition 38 species were new to cultivation in the British Islands. A list of these is given, and, amongst others, it includes Aciphylla Dieffenbachii, Astelia montana,6 species of Celmisia (including G. Rutlandi), 3 species of Dracophyllum, Olearia semidentata, Podocarpus acutifolius, Ranunculus lobulatus, Rubus Barkeri, R. parvus. Veronica Astoni, and V. Bollonsii. This latter is a species from the Poor Knights Islands, of which the ■reviewer hopes shortly to publish a diagnosis. L. C. 5. Remarkable Instances of Plant-dispersion. By G. Henslow. (Journal Royal Horticultural Society, vol. 35, pp. 312-351 ; 1910.) In this paper the author repeats the assertion that white clover wiped out Phormium tenax in New Zealand, but that the former was ousted by Hypochaeris radicata ; further, that the latter in less than three years wholly destroyed excellent pastures and absolutely displaced every other plant on the ground. Reasons are assigned for this (alleged) vigour in white clover and other introduced plants, such as — the climate favouring duration of life ; more than one crop of seeds in a year; scarcity of graminiverous birds. Further, it is stated that annual weeds which in England would have no chance with perennials " have spread in inconceivable quantities into the wildest glens, before either white men or even their cattle and Hocks penetrate their recesses."' L. C. 6. Olearias in Ireland. By C. F. Ball. {Ga/rdeners' Chronicle, vol. 19, pp. 52-53 ; 1911.) An account of the species of Olearia in cultivation at the Glasnevin Botanical Gardens, Dublin. Eighteen are New Zealand species. Amongst others are 0. chathamica, 0. insignis. O. Lyallii, and O. lacunosa. L. C. 7. Hybrid Veronicas. By Editor of Gardeners' Chronicle. {Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 18, p. 103 ; 1910.) An account of the following hybrid Veronicas raised by Mr. Lindsay, formerly of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh : V. x myrtifolia is the result of a cross between V. Balfouriana { ? ) and V. salicifolia ( <$ ). V. x edinensis had V. Hectori for ? parent and V. pimelioide-s for 3 parent. The cross is closely allied to V. epacridea, if not identical. L. C. Bv Authority: John Mackay, Govcmmeut'-PrirrttM-, Wellington. — 1911. [950/7/11—10953 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1911 PART II EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE Issued 8th January, 1912. littgtoit, "$.%. JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE William Wesley and Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London W.C. CONTENTS. PROCEEDINGS. Wellington Philosophical Society : Meetings, 9th August, 6th September. Auckland Institute : Meetings, 7th August, 28th August, 2nd October. Manawatu Philosophical Society : Meetings, 31st August, 2Sth Septem- ber. Otago Institute: Meetings, 1st August, 5th September, 3rd October; Technological Section — Meetings, 18th July, 15th August, 19th Sep- tember. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury : Meetings, 2nd August, 6th Sep- tember, 4th October. Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute : Meetings, 30th June, 1st Sep- tember. PAPERS. 1. Descriptions of some New Zealand Plants. Bv Dr. L. Cockayne, F.L.S. 2. Notes on the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Geometridae. By L. B. Prout; communicated by George Howes, F.E.S. ABSTRACTS. 1. Marine Algae from the Kermadecs. — A. and E. S. Gepp. 2. Fructification of Macrocystis. — E. J. Hoffman. 3. Studies in Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. — H. M. Hall. 4. Die Geographie der Fame. — H. Christ. 5. Die Gattung Acaena. — G. Bitter. 6. On the Peopling by Plants of the Subalpine River-bed of the Rakaia. — L. Cockayne. 7. The Hepatics of New Zealand. — L. S. Gibbs. 8. Handbuch der Regionalen Geologie : New Zealand and Adjacent Islands. — P. Marshall. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1911. PART II. PROCEEDINGS. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Fourth Meeting : 9th August, 1911. Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about sixty members and friends present. New Members. — Captain G. S. Hooper and Mr. J. G. Wilson. Papers. — 1. " The National Home Reading Union." By Thus. King, F.R.A.S. 2. ' Immunity; or, How the Body defends itself against its Microbic Foes.-' By J. M. Mason, M.D., F.C.S., D.P.H. Camb. '■). "Notes on Salicornia australis." By Miss Cooke, M.A.; com- municated by Professor Kirk. 4. " Hoisting the Flag at Akaroa : an Incident of 1840." By Miss E. M. Jacobson, M.A. ; communicated by C. E. Adams. '). 'Notes on Dragon-flies from the Kermadec Islands." By R. J. Tillyard, M.A., F.E.S. ; communicated by A. Hamilton. 6. " Longitude of the Hector Astronomical Observatory, Wellington." Bv C. E. Adams, M.Sc, F.R.A.S. 7. " Wellington Tidal Records." By C. E. Adams, M.Sc, F.R.A.S. Fifth Meeting : 6th September, 1911. Mr. G. V. Hudson, President, in the chair, and about fifty members and friends present. New Member.— Mr. W. F. Howlett, B.A., Oxon. Papers. — 1. ' Notes on New Zealand Acarina." By J. B. Gatenby. This paper comprises descriptions of about fifty New Zealand Acarina, which belong to Trombidium, Notophallus, Linopodes, Eryihraeus, Bdellus, Anyxtes>, Cytn, Tyroglyphus, Ixodes, Gamasus, Uropoda, and several other more or less doubtful 40 Proceedings. genera. As the author intends to leave for England, where the best libraries will be at his disposal, it was thought better to temporarily withhold publication with a view to finding out whether any of the species had been described before by Euro- pean acarologists. Amongst other interesting A carina dealt with in the paper is the description of an acarid (genus Ixodes) found on the tuatara lizard. 2. ' Account of some Exploration of, and the Discovery of Former (rlaciation in, the Tararua Ranges." Bv G. L. Adkin. 3. "The Raised Beaches of Cape Turakirae." Bv B. C. Aston, F.l.C, F.C.S. 4. "On a Collection of Mallophaga from the Kermadec Islands." By T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc, and Launcelot Harrison ; com- municated by A. Hamilton. 5. " On the Migrations of the Polynesians according to the Evidence of their Language.'" By Professor J. Macmillan Brown. Auckland Institute 41 AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. •Second Meeting : 7th August, 1911 . Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair. New Members.— Messrs. T. Bassett, A. G. Lunn, W. H. Webbe, W. E. Woodward. Lecture. — " Sources of Plague in Auckland, and its Prevention." Bv R. H. Makgill, M.D. The lecturer briefly alluded to the history of plague, which he said was the most anciently known of diseases, the first record being at least four thousand years old ; and traced the more important epidemics of plague during historic times. During the nineteenth century, however, the old endemic centres of the East had become practically free from plague, and the present widespread prevalence of the disease had been traced to the Chinese province of Yun-nan, in which it appeal's to be truly endemic. It reached India in 1896, and, favoured by the rapid transit of modern times, found its way to Australia and New Zealand in 1900. In Auck- land in the past eleven years there has been twenty certain cases of plague, nine of them being fatal. The characteristic disappearance of the disease for intervals manifested itself during that time. In 1901 there was one case, in 1902 none, in 1903 three, in 1904 two, in 1905 and 1906 none, in 1907 two, in 1908 and 1909 none, in 1910 three, and 1911 eight. As plague was usually discoverable in rats in Sydney, it might reasonably be supposed to have been absent during the intervals, and to have been reinti-oduced by rodents brought across. Point was lent to this supposition by the fact that the first case after the last interval occurred in a man who had been handling goods from Sydney. But until quite recently the examina- tion of rats had not been sufficiently widespread to make it quite certain that the disease had not remained in the rats of the locality. The lecturer pointed out that it was now perfectly well established that the rat carried the disease from place to place, and that infected rats were always found to precede cases of human plague. When the disease was once firmly established among the rats of any city, then the rat-flea became the carrier of the disease from rat to man. Now, fleas, and to a smaller extent rats, are always much mor6 abundant in summer and autumn than at any other time of the year. Hence we find that the twenty cases of plague in Auckland had occurred as follows : Five in March, three in April, seven in May, and five in June. In combating plague, constant war must be waged against the rat and the flea. One of the first lines of defence was the water-front ; and the ferro-concrete wharves, as far as they had been adopted in Auckland, had brought about a great reduction in the rat-popula- tion. But much remained to be done in the city itself. Eternal vigilance was the price of immunity from plague. Spasmodic effort could not take the place of con- tinuous hard work, and hysteria was dangerous. Every one must keep his premises, and especially his business premises, clean, and encourage others to do the same ; and care should be taken to elect to the local governing bodies men who would see that sanitary laws were effective and properly executed. Third MeetinCx : 28th August, 1911. Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair. New Members. — R. Burns, W. Coleman, H. C. Choyce, Bishop Crossley, G. Dunnett, J. W. Ellis, Dr. W. A. Fairclough, Dr. G. Fenwick, Rev. H. A. Favell, H. T. Gorrie, J. H. Gunson, H. R, Hesketh, Dr. P. A. Lindsay, S. Milroy, W. F. Napier, S. J. Nathan, P. Oliphant, A. B. Roberton, W. Ware, W. S. Whitley, J. W. Wiseman, Captain C. A. Young. 42 Proceedings. Lecture.—'1 Heredity." By Professor A. P. W. Thomas, M.A. The lecturer explained the scientific facts upon which the modern theories of heredity are based, illustrating his remarks by carefully prepared diagrams and numerous lantern-slides. Especial weight was given to the researches of Weismann, and to the totally new light which the tardy recognition of Mendel's laws had thrown upon the sub- ject. He then passed on to the subject of eugenics, now becoming so prominent, and pointed out what could be reasonably expected from it, and what effects of importance on the physical and mental characters of mankind might be anticipated if the principle ever came within the range of practical achievement. A very hearty vote of thanks was passed to Professor Thomas at the close of the lecture. Fourth Meeting : 2nd October, 1911. Mr. J. H. Upton, President, in the chair. New Members.— W '. E. Arev, W. R. Bloomfield, G. Court, J. Court, G. Elliott, D. Hay, C. T. Major, L. Myers. Lecture. — "Whirling Discs and their Uses." By Professor F. D. Brown, M.A. In this lecture Professor Brown discussed the principles of gyroscopic motion, pointing out that the gyroscope, which at one time was regarded as little more than a scientific toy, though a very interesting one, had now, through the modern development of mechanism, been found to have many possibilities of application to ships, motor-cars, aeroplanes, and railways, to say nothing of minor examples. A great number of experiments with different forms of gyroscopes, &c, were exhibited to the meeting, and fully explained. A model of the Brennan mono-rail was also exhibited, and made to travel along a wire stretched across the lecture-room. On the motion of the President, a vote of thanks was passed to Professor Brown by acclamation. Manawatu Philosophical Society. 43 MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Fourth Meeting: Jlxf August, 1911. Captain Hewitt, R.N., in the chair. Exhibit. — A fine specimen of volcanic reck brought by the "Terra Nova" from Mount Erebus, and presented to the Society by Mr. J. J. Kinsey, was exhibited, and descriptive notes thereon communicated by Miss Souper were read by the Secretary. The rock was described as an alkaline basalt or trachydolerite, intermediate in type between ordinary basalt and phonolite, almost precisely identical in character and chemical composition with the kenytes of Mount Kenya and the rhomb-porphyries of .Mount Kilimandjaro recently described by Dr. Finkh. Paper.-' Memory : What is it? " By Sir Robert Stout. The paper defined memory as the storing-up of past impressions, including therein not merely the impressions received by the individual, but those also inherited from countless generations of ancestors. This was illustrated by instances of the marvellous instinct shown by insects and larger animals, and also by the transmission of special talents in particular families, such as those of Bach, Darwin, and Gregory. Quoting Walt Whitman's saying that " Every hour of light and dark, and every inch of space, wras a miracle," the speaker laid stress upon the fact that nature's methods were not only miraculous but very slow, and that any attempt to unduly hasten them in the desire for progress was sure to end in failure. On the motion of the Chairman, a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to the lecturer. Fifth Meeting : 28th September, 1911. Captain Hewitt, R.X., in the chair. The President announced that at the last meeting of the Council ten new members were elected; and that, as the alterations in the fire-brigade building kindly undertaken by the Borough Council were now nearly completed, he hoped that the Museum would be ready to be opened in the new premises by the end of October. Mr. Hamilton had very kindly promised, with the permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs, to superintend the arrangement of collections; and several firms and offices had promised valuable additions, illustrating the different forms of local industry. Paper. — Mr. J. E. Vernon, M.A., read a paper on " Recent Local Weather," describing the different instruments belonging to the Society which had been in his charge for the last four months, and giving statistics of local rainfall, temperature, barometric pressure, and wind. 44 Proceedings. OTAGO INSTITUTE. Fourth Meeting : 1st Atigust, 1911. Present : Mr. A. Bathgate, President, in the chair, and about twenty others. Xew Members. — Dr. K. Church, Messrs. Sydney Beaumont, A. W. Bethune, A. Davis, and W. Gillanders. Astronomical Society. — The chairman announced that the Astrono- mical Society had accepted the proposed terms of amalgamation with the Institute, and that the Society's members would shortly be elected mem- bers of the Institute, forming a separate branch in the same way as the Technological Society had done. Exhibit. — Mr. D. Tannock exhibited some fine specimens of Primula sinensis, grown by himself in such a way as to exhibit mendelism. Both Mr. Tannock and Dr. Benham, in speaking of the exhibit, referred to the fact that mendelism had been of great service to horticulturists and agriculturists, instancing several changes that had been brought about by the application of Mendel's laws. Payers. — 1. " New Species of Lepidoptera." Bv G. W. Howes, F.E.S. 2. "On the Larvae and Pupae of some New Zealand Butterflies." By G. W. Howes, F.E.S. 3. "The Food Value of Kumaras." By Dr. J. Malcolm. Of the kumara, two-thirds consisted of water ; carbo-hydrates were present in the kumara to the extent of 19 per cent, of the whole. The sweet taste of the kumara was due to the presence of a substance which promoted a plentiful flow of saliva, which converted the starch into sugar. There was only 0'27 per cent, of fat in the kumara. It was a vegetable that did not keep well. Mould grew quickly, owing to the presence of sugar ; the ordinary potato was not so affected, owing to the absence of glucose. 4. " The Application of Phonetics to English Pronunciation," and " The Question of a New Zealand Dialect." By G. E. Thompson, M.A. Nearly all of the English dialects could be heard in New Zealand, but people born in this country and educated in its schools showed a uniformity of pronunci- ation. New Zealand speech was more like the southern English type, and least like the Scottish. As the Dominion was only some fifty years old, the difference in speech was very slight. The chief and noticeable feature was the distinct tendency, when uttering vowel sounds, to lower the tongue, the result being the expression of more open vowel sounds and a mispronunciation (in the vowels) of such words as "sea," "twelve," "mood," "put." These differences in pronunciation showed what was probably the beginning of a distinctly New Zealand dialect. In the discussion that followed Mr. Morrell advocated the inclusion of the study of phonetics in the curriculum of our training colleges. Ota go Institute. 45 Fifth Meeting : 5th September, 1911. Present : Mr. A. Bathgate, President, in the chair, and fifty others. New Members.— -Messrs. T. B. Hamilton, M.A., B.Sc, C. E. Pfeifer, R. Price, A. L. Murray, T. Thomson, and the following members of the Astronomical Society : Professor J. M. E. Gar row, B.A., LL.B., Welling- ton (life member), Mr. W. H. Price (life member), Rev. Bro. Brady, Rev. D. Dutton, F.R.A.S., Rev. P. W. Fairclough, F.R.A.S., Messrs. E. Anscombe, 0. Balk, James Bremner, A. C. Hanlon, J. W. Milnes, H. E. White, G. R. Hercus, J. Loudon, Tompson Lamb, J. F. Morris, W. G. Somerville, J. Swann, C. S. Smith, W. S. Wilson, and Mrs. Buckland. Address. — " Soap-bubbles and the Forces that mould them." Bv E. E. Stark, M.Am.I.E.E. The address was illustrated by a very large number of experiments with soap- films. Sixth Meeting : 3rd October, 1911. Present : Mr. A. Bathgate, President, in the chair, and about twenty-five others. New Member. — Mr. L. J. Wild, B.A. Exhibit. — Dr. Benham exhibited a plaster mould and gelatine cast of a warehou or sea-bream as an illustration of the modern method of mounting museum specimens of fishes, contrasting it with the result obtained by the old method of stuffing the dried skins. Papers. — 1. "Some Rocks of Mount Cargill." By J. A. Bartrum, M.Sc. ; communicated by Dr. Marshall. 2. "Geology of the Bluff." By L. J. Wild, B.A. ; communicated by Dr. Marshall. 3. 'Report on Sundry Invertebrates from the Kermadec Islands." By Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S. 4. 'Description of Three >sew Species of Lepidoptera." By Alfred Philpott; communicated by Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S. 5. " Vascular System of Sipho/iaria obliquata." By A. J. Cottrell, M.A., M.Sc; communicated by Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S. 6. " Structure of the Nephridium of the Earthworm Maoridrilus rosaey Bv Miss G. Cameron, M.Sc; communicated bv Dr. W. B. Benham, F^R.S. 7. "The Plant Covering of Codfish Island." By D. L. Poppelwell. Observations on the flora of Codfish and Eugged Islands (Stewart Island) made by the author on a recent visit there, and a comparison of it with that of Stewart Island. 8. " The Food Value of Frostfish." By Dr. J. Malcolm. The waste in frostfish amounts to over 30 per cent. In the remainder the per- centage of fat varies from 5 to 8 in the flesh of the sides, and rises to over 16 per cent, in the part surrounding the body cavity. The frostfish must therefore be classified as one of the less digestible kinds of fish. The amount of protein is about 16 per cent. No glycogen was detected. 9. " An Ancient Maori Stone-quarry." By H. D. Skinner. A description is given of an ancient tool-manufactory near the Dun Mountain, in the Upper Maitai Valley, Nelson, and of the processes employed in breaking the stone and fashioning the tools. 46 Proceedings. TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION. Third .Meeting : 18th July, 1911. Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair. Address. — Mr. E. W. Eurkert, District Engineer of the Public Works Department, gave an address on " The Hapuawhenua Viaduct." The lecturer, in addition to giving a detailed description of the structure itself, illustrated by lantern-slides, gave an interesting account of the history and building ■of the viaduct, and of the nature and climate of the Hapuawhenua country. Eocrth Meeting: 15th August, 1911. Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair. Address.— " The Stability of Ships." By Mr. H. McRae. Fifth Meeting: 19th September, 1911 Present : Mr. E. E. Stark (in the chair) and a large number of members. Lecture. — Professor D. B. Waters : " Coal — its Classification and Analysis." In concluding his address, Professor Waters referred to the experiments that had been going on at St. Louis to determine the best use to which inferior coals could be put, and to ascertain the relative cost per horse-power generated by coal and by producer-gas. These experiments were still going on, and in America the use of gas-engines was rapidly increasing. He thought the Government, through the Mining Department, should take steps to ascertain what use^ could be made of ■the inferior corI in the Dominion. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Fourth Meeting : 2nd August, 1911. Present: Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and eighty others. New Member. — Mr. 8. S. Blackburne. Kapiti Island Sanctuary. — The following resolution was carried : ' That the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury desires to express its cordial approval of the enlightened action of the Government in declaring Kapiti Island a sanctuary for the birds and animals of New Zealand, and hopes that the proposal to use it as a holiday resort as reported in the Lyttelton Times of 1st August is not seriously contemplated. Its reservation as a sanctuary is already widely known and cordially approved by naturalists throughout the world, and specially so seeing that it is ideally situated for the purpose. Its use in the manner pro- posed not only would inevitably undo all the good which has resulted from its original reservation, but it would be universally regarded as a retrograde step, and out of keeping with the admirable policy of the Government in providing adequately for our native fauna and flora." Paper. — Observations concerning Evolution derived from Ecological Studies in New Zealand." By Dr. L. Cockayne, F.L.S. The paper on which the address was based had been previously circulated amongst members, as the details were too numerous and technical for submitting to a mixed audience. The following heads were dealt with : Elementary species, variation, mutation, epharmony, persistent juvenile forms, hybridization, the struggle lor existence, distribution of species, and evolution in the genus Veronica. The address was illustrated by forty lantern-slides. A critical discussion followed, in which Drs. Hilgendorf and Chilton and Messrs. Laing and Andersen took part. Fifth Meeting : 6th September, 1911 . Present : Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and forty others. New Member. — Mr. T. D. Burnett. Addresses. — 1. "Bogs and their Bearing on Climate." By Mr. It. Speight. The lecturer gave a resume of the work which has been done recently in Sweden, Scotland, and the United States in this department of science, and sketched the general tendency of the conclusions as to the variations of climate since the last period of glaciation. A number of lantern-slides were shown illustrative of bogs and peat-deposits in various parts of the world, including New Zealand, and the lecturer expressed a hope that it might be possible to examine some of our own bogs by modern methods. 2. 'Modifications of Deep-sea Fish to suit their Environment." By Mr. Edgar P. Waite. The lecturer gave a most interesting account of the modifications of deep-sea fish to adapt themselves to their condition of life, and specially to the effects of pres- sure in the abyssal depths, and to the absence of light. ' A number of excellent 48 Proceedings. slides showing the grotesque varieties of form and the lures with which these fish attract their prey, and the modifications of the mouth and stomach to deal with it when caught, were displayed on the screen. Papers. — 1. " A Redescription of Aegaeonichthys appeal." By Edgar R. Waite. 2. " Miscellaneous Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea." By Dr. Charles Chilton. Exhibit. — A specimen of Veronica lycopodwides w~as exhibited and described by Mr. R. Nairn, who said that the specimen under consider- ation had been grown in a greenhouse from cuttings, and had put forth not only larger leaves than it usually showed when growing wild, but also the leaves of the ordinary form. This he attributed to the influence of the warm, still, and damp atmosphere of the greenhouse. Sixth Meeting : Jfih October, 1911. Present : Mr. A. M. Wright, President, in the chair, and seventy-five others. New Members. — Misses Sanders and Izard, and Mr. Henry Suter. Address. — " Profit-sharing." By Mr. A. W. Beaven. The lecturer in his introductory remarks said that neither employer nor em- ployee was satisfied with the present wages system, but he was not in a position to formulate a remedy for the defects of that system. The lecturer dealt with the nature of capital and with the evolution of the modern industrial system. He said that socialism, co-operation, and profit-sharing had been suggested as remedies for the present defects. His personal opinion was that though compulsory socialism might be successful in equalizing the division of products, it is certain that there would be less products to divide than at present. Co-operation had failed generally because of the rarity of organizing and directing ability. Profit-sharing was a modi- fication of the wages system which made the worker a partner to a specific extent in the profits realized. The speaker gave instances of cases in which profit-sharing had been tried in industries. He gave full details of the following cases— the French house of Le Clair, of the Pillsbury Flour-mills in Minnesota, of the South Metropolitan Gas Company in London — and brief reference to numerous other cases where the scheme had been successful, as well as to others where it had been unsuccessful. In con- clusion, the lecturer said that the examples he has quoted led him to consider that profit-sharing was practicable and advisable. It was necessary that any arrange- ment made should have an element of permanency, and should not be dependent upon the arbitrary action of the employer. Every system should be suited to the business to which it was applied. The ideal trade-union would be that in which employer and employed were united to advance the interests of the industry by which they earned their livelihood. At the conclusion of the address Dr. Hight pointed out that in estimating the effects of profit-sharing they must inquire whether the conditions prevalent in any two businesses were quite the same. In some cases success was partly due to the business having a partial monopoly, as in gas companies, and in other cases to special organizing ability. He also pointed out that there had been a steady decline in profit-sharing in England, and that the method was only a palliative and gave no ultimate solution of the labour problem The lecturer was accorded a hearty vote of thanks. Papers.— 1. " New Plant-habitats," Part VII. By Dr. L. Cockayne. 2. "Descriptions of New Species of Plants." By Dr. L. Cockayne. (See page 50.) Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute. 49 HAWKE'S^BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. Third Meeting : 30th June, 1911 . The President, Mr. H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S., in the chair. Papers. — 1. " The Haslemere Educational Museum." By Mr. F. Hutchinson, jun. This paper outlined the principles on which the Museum, founded by the author's uncle, was based. Geological and historical specimens, books, pictures, and other articles were arranged chronologically. A herbarium and a vivarium formed part of the Museum, and in these fresh specimens from the surrounding district were kept according to the season. Specimens were for sale. Questions to encourage thought were on the labels — e.g., " What is the best quality of the bird? " 2. ' Moa-remains from Wainui Beach." By W. Townson ; com- municated by J. Niven, M.A., M.Sc. As the result of the interest aroused by these papers, a number of gentlemen volunteered to rearrange and classify the objects in the Napier Museum if the Borough Council, the controlling authority, would agree. The Borough Council were to be asked to help in the matter of making the Museum more up to date. Finances. — Mr. Hill was appointed to interview the member for the district with regard to more financial help for the Xew Zealand Insti- tute. Fourth Meeting : 1st September, 1911. The President, Mr. H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S., in the chair. Xew Members.— \N. Scott, W. Murphy, W. Morris, W. Smith, B.A. Papers. — 1. ' Pore Space and the Influence of Surface Tension on the Moisture in the Soil." By W. Morris. This paper dealt principally with the relation between volume and surface of particles of different kinds of soil, and the effect of the comparatively enormous surface of the soil-particles on the passage of water through the soil. 2. 'Fungi and their Kelation to Domestic Life." By E. G. Loten. Illustrated. (To be continued.) 50 Papers. PAPERS 1. Descriptions of some New Species of New Zealand Plants. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. \_Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th September, 1911.} 1. Nertera Balfouriana Cockayne sp. nov. Herba perennis, glabra. Caulis repens, gracilis, ramosus, radicans.- Folia late oblonga v. subrotundata, 2'5— 3 mm. longa, 2-2'."> mm. Lata, petiolata, basi rotund at a v. cuneata ; petiolus dire. 2"5 mm. longus, supra canaliculatus. Flores non visi. Drupa piriformis, 7-9 nun. lotiga, aurantiaca. South Island: Canterbury — Rakaia, Ashburton, and Rangitata Valleys, at altitude of about 600-800 m., R. M. Laing and L. C. ; Wai- makariri Valley, at about same altitude, L. C. ; neighbourhood of Mount Cook, D. Petrie. Grows in Sphagnum bogs. N. Balfouriana is at once distinguished from all the other New Zen- land species by its large pyriform orange-coloured drupes, which are produced in such profusion as to quite hide the leaves. The plant forms close patches on Sphagnum cushions, the stems and leaves being fre- quently hidden amongst the moss. When in full fruit it is a beautiful object, and should be a rival of N. depressa Banks and Sol. as a plant for rock-gardens. The fruits are ripe during March and April. The plant is named in honour of Professor I. Bayley Balfour, F.R.S., who, as Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, lias done much to make known the horticultural capabilities of the ,Xew Zealand alpine flora. 2. Veronica BoUonsii Cockayne sp. nov. Frutex erectus, glaberrimus, circ. 1*5 m. altus, multiramosus ramis teretibus. Folia obovato-oblonga, glabra, lucida, 2-6 cm. longa, 1-3 cm. lata. Racemi folia superantes, 10"5 cm. longi, vix densiflori, rhachibus pedicellisque brevissime pubescentibns ; pedicelli 3 mm. longi. Flores palide lilacini. Calyx profunde 4-partitus, corollae tubum fere aequans, 3-3' 2 mm. longus; lobi anguste lanceolati, acuti, ciliolati. Corollae tubus 3-4 mm. longus, fauce pubescens ; lobi ovati. obtusi vel subacuti, 4 mm. longi. Capsula ovata, acuta 41 mm. longa. North Island : Auckland— The Poor Knights Islands, L. C. Blooms in cultivation in the neighbourhood of Christchurch in April and later. but the same autumn-blooming plant may flower again in the succeeding summer. In Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38, p. 354, I referred, but with some measure of doubt, this plant to V. macroura Hook, f., for my material, with only fragmentary racemes many months old, was insufficient for accurate determination. Since that time, plants that I raised from cuttings have bloomed both in the garden of Mr. Lough, Linwood, and at Canterbury College, and have proved that the plant is a species quite distinct from any other in New Zealand. It is at once separated from V. macroura Hook. f. by the erect habit, glossy somewhat dark- green glabrous leaves with a" subapiculate apex, much larger flowers Papers. 51 which are not crowded very closely, glabrous calyx except for scanty cilia on the margin almost equalling the corolla-tube, and ovate obtuse or subacute corolla-segments 4 mm. long as opposed to the oblong ones 2 mm. long rounded at the apex of V. macroura. The season of flower- ing is altogether different. Whether V. Bollonsii is identical with the Whangarei plant found by Colenso and referred by Hooker to V . macrotira I do not know. This latter species, in my estimation, is found only in the East Cape district, the var. dubia Cheesem. being a good species as well as the unnamed plant growing in the neighbour- hood of Wellington, and which I followed Hooker in referring to V. macroura, but considered distinct enough to warrant a varietal name (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 361). I also consider V. Cookiana Colenso as distinct from V. macroura. V . Bollonsii is dedicated to Captain J. Bollons, to whom not only New Zealand botany, but zoology also, owes much. 3. Veronica Dorrien-Smithii Cockayne sp. nov. Frutex parvus paido ramosus, ramulis ± incano-pubescentibus. Folia sessilia, oblonga, elliptico-oblonga vel elliptico-lanceolata, circ. 5-6 cm. longa, supra glabra, subtus ad costam pubescentia. Racemi folia aequantes vel paulo superantes, minute pubescentes. Calyx brevis, profunde 4-partitus, T9 mm. longus; lobi late ovati, acuti vel apiculati. ciliati. Corollae tubus 2*5-2*8 mm. longus, fauce pubescens; lobi obovati, 2*8 mm. longi. Ovarium glabrum ; stylus vix exsertus. Cap- sula late ovata, 4 mm. longa, calycem duplo excedens. Chatham Island : Growing on peaty ground at margin of Lake Tekua Taupo, at an altitude of 240 m. Herb. Cockayne No. 8003. Flowers in December and January ; seed ripe in February and March, V. Dorrien-Smithii is allied to J*. Dieffenbachii Benth., but is a much smaller plant, and though the branches are straggling they are not widely divaricating. It differs also in the hoary pubescent more slender stems, broader light-green not whitish-green leaves, the very small bracteoles and much shorter racemes. It is a variable plant, but it does not seem to pass into V. Dieffenbachii. The stems may be con- spicuously hoary or almost glabrous. In one example the leaves measure 9 cm. long by 3' 2 cm. broad, in another they are 5 cm. long and 2*8 cm. broad with internodes 2*5 cm. long. The flowers are sometimes lavender at first, then fading to white, or they may be white from the beginning. A plant growing under the waterfall at Te Awatapu is so distinct as to merit a varietal name if it is constant from seed. The stems are slender and straggling. The leaves are narrower than the type, darkish- green, 5*5 cm. long and 1cm. broad; the midrib is purple; the raceme slender, half as long again as the leaves, with the flowers rather distant; the pedicels and base of the calyx dark red-purple and the stigma hardly exserted. The flowers are lilac, changing to white. The plant is in cultivation in my garden, and there is a specimen, No. 8005, in my herbarium. The species is called after Captain A. A. Dorrien Smith, D.S.O., who recently collected what I take to be a form in Chatham Island, and who likewise is paying great attention to the cultivation in England of New Zealand trees and shrubs. 4. Celmisia lanceolata Cockayne sp. nov. Herba perennis Celmisiae coriaceae habitu. Folia ensiformia vel lineari-lanceolata, circ. 24-28 cm. hmga, 2-2*6 cm. lata, acuta, rigida, 2— Proc, pt. ii. 52 Papers. coriacea, margine valde recurvo, supra longitudinale sulcata, glauca, cuticula pellucida vestita, subtus dense sericeo-tomentosa ; nervus medius supra luteo-aurantiacus, prope basim 3—5 mm. latus, subtus carinatus. Scapi compressi vel teretes, circ. 32 cm. longi, niveo-lanati ; bractae numerosae, magnae, ensiformes, scapo adpressae. Capitulum 7*7 cm. diamet. ; involucri squamae lineares, acuminatae, scariosae, brunneae ad basim carnosae. Flosculi radii plurimi, angusti, 3"6 cm. longi. Achenium minute pubescens. South Island : Southland — Longwood Range near summit, but not common, J. Young! H. Reichel ! Flowers in January. Celmisia lanceolata is intermediate in character between C. coriacea Hook. f. and C. Armstrongii Petrie. It is best distinguished by the large heads, but not so large as reached by C. coriacea, the long narrow rays, the stiff woolly scapes with many leaf-like ensiform bracts, the long dull glaucous or yellowish-green linear-lanceolate leaves in erect rosettes with a conspicuous yellow or even orange midrib and widely recurved margin, the broad pale leaf-sheaths, and the very close silvery tomentum. The scape when compressed is about 6 mm. broad ; it is densely woolly with long white matted hairs. The bracts are ensiform, concave on the upper surface, about 11cm. long by 1cm. wide, pale yellowish- green with a brownish-yellow midrib. The involucral bracts are green at the fleshy base but brown elsewhere, ciliate, more or less glabrous else- where, and about 2-3 cm. long and 3 mm. wide. 2. Notes on the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Geometridae; with Description of a New Species. By L. B. Prout. Communicated by George Howes, F.E.S. [Read before the Otago Institute, 6th June, 1911.] The following extracts from the letters of Mr. L. B. Prout are of con- siderable interest to students of Lepidoptera in New Zealand, as several disputed points are settled here : — Xanthorhoe cinerearia Dbld. The large form is rightly semisignata Walk., and is a true Xanthorhoe (discocellular veins of the hindwing simple). Its antennae have about 28 segments pectinated. Synonyms : Xanthorhoe semisignata Walk. = semilisata Walk. = corcularia Guen. = dissociata Walk. = punctilineata Walk. The small form is cinerearia Dbld., but is a Larentia (discocellulars triangulate), and has about 22 segments pectinated. Synonyms : Larentia cineararia Dbld. = diffusaria Walk. = infusata Walk. = invexata Walk. — inoperata Walk. = infantaria Guen. = ado- nata Feld. Larentia farinata Warr. L. farinata is of a more unicolorous slaty grey (not brownish-grey) than cineararia, and is larger and more weakly marked. About 21 seg- ments of the antennae are pectinated. Its proximal areole is minute, but this may vary. An excellent description, from Wellington specimens, is given in " Novitates Zoologicae," vol. 3, p. 388. Papers. 53 Xanthorhoe lucidata Walk. The insect identified by Hudson as A", lucidata is not the typical lucidata of Walker. The true lucidata is smaller in size, lines less straight, colours more varied, &c. Hudson's species agrees exactly with veinapuncta Walk. The whitish dots on the veins are quite characteristic of the species. Lythria euclidiata Guen. The large form without any red on the underside is L. euclidiata Gn. ; the smaller, which answers to Hudson's description and figure, is aatapurrha Butl. This latter should be known as Arcteothes catapyrrha until it can be proved that the two strikingly different forms are con- specific. Dichromodes petrina Meyr. Petrina sinks to an older name — sphaeriata Feld. — which was un- known to (or unidentified by) Meyrick, through Felder having assigned it not only to the wrong genus, but to the wrong subfamily, and given rather a poor figure of it. E pirranthis alectoraria Walk. Sufficiently distinct from the true Epirranthis to form a new genus under the name Xynonia (Prout) ; and included in alectoraria are apparently two species — Xynonia alectoraria, the long-winged species with the margins irregular; Xynonia ustaria (Prout), the stumpier- winged with strong angle (almost a tooth) in middle of outer margin of forewing and with strong dentate margin of hindwing. E pirranthis hemipteraria Gn. This should be Xyridacma hemipteraria : the singular form of the hindwing renders it convenient to keep it separate from Xynonia. Drepanodes muriferata Walk. Drepanodes is a South American genus, and, as your New Zealand muriferata is probably structurally distinct therefrom, it seems prema- ture to merge them, so advise keeping to the generic name Gargaphania Walk, expressly founded for muriferata. Leptorneris rubraria Dbld. This should be Acidalia rubraria. The genus has been known by quite a number of synonyms (Leptorneris, Craspedia, Emmitis, &c), but Acidalia is the oldest name for it. Selidosema . Selidosema Hubner is a European genus, and probably does not occur in New Zealand. Meyrick (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 17, p. 65) made a genus Gelonia for S. panagrata and S. dejectaria. This had better stand provisionally. It would be well to use Pseudocoremia Butl. for sua vis, lupinata, rudisata (" rudiata " is an orthographical alteration of Hudson's), melinata, ochrea, and allies — apparently a quite compact group. Sestra humeraria and Sestra flexata Walk. Hudson has unfortunately transposed these two. It is really Butler's fault, at least in part, and shows the mischief of premature lumping. 54 Papers. Hudson had to separate the two again, and, of course, could not consult Walker's types. The species figured by Hudson (pi. ix, fig. 37) as flexata is really S. hnmeraria = obtusaria = obtruncata = punctilinearia. The true flexata is figured by him on pi. x, figs. 1 and 2, as humeraria. Larentia exoriens Prout nov. sp. J . 26-35 mm. Face pale ochreous, strongly tinged with red. Palpus the same, reddest on the outer side. Pectinations rather long. Legs pale ochreous, spotted with fuscous, more or less red on upper side. Vertex and front of thorax sometimes tinged with red. Abdomen with paired dark dorsal dots, which are seldom distinct. Wings shaped as in aegrota Butl., pale ochreous; basal and median areas of forewing — and especially costa as far as subcostal vein — sometimes flushed with rosy rufous. Forewing sometimes with an indistinct curved rufous line near base; other lines rufous-grey, arranged nearly as in aegrota; sub- basal pair oblique (almost parallel with termen), sometimes curved, some- times rather sinuous, scarcely ever strongly bent basewards near costa as in aegrota; median series of four rather variable, the first usually crossing the black cell-spot, the third weak sometimes lost in a greyish suffusion, the fourth dentate usually projecting rather more before and behind the radials than is normal in aegrota; a pale band distally to the line, usually bisected by a very feeble grey line; subterminal area usually more or less shaded with grey, at least to the extent of some spots before a pale vague lunulate subterminal line; termen marked with paired black dots; fringe slightly dark-marked, generally more feebly than in aegrota. Hindwing with or without black cell-spot, no other distinct markings, faint traces of those on the underside; termen and fringe as in forewing. Underside pale ocherous, in fresh speci- mens usually strongly flushed with rufous, especially costal terminal areas of forewing and whole of hindwing; basal area, especially of forewing, more greyish, both wings with dark post-median line usually pretty well defined, sometimes dark-shaded proximally, usually pale-margined distally; in well-marked individuals with a distinct pale subterminal line; hindwings also sometimes with one or two dark lines in basal area;, cell-spots present ; termen as above. Type (G. Howes, 15th March, 1910) in coll. L. B. Prout. Glenorchv (March, 1910)— G. B. Longstaff; G. Howes. Nevis (24th March, 1911), Kinloch (20th March, 1911)— G. Howes. Bv the kindness of Dr. Longstaff and Mr. Howes I am enabled to describe this species from nine males, including two or three in ex- cellent condition and others little inferior. When worn or faded it is exceedingly similar to L. aegrota, but, apart from the points indicated above, it may be known by the absence of strong fuscous clouding on the underside, and by two structural characters : the antenna! pectina- tions are appreciably longer (one-sixth or one-seventh as long again), and the posterior part of the cell of hindwing is considerably less pro- duced, vein 5 arising near the cell-spot. Note. — I use the name Larentia Frietschke for Xanthorhoe. Sec- tion 2 of Turner (Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, xvi, new series, p. 274): " hindwings with vein 5 from below centre of discocellular, which is angled." Here belong of New Zealand species — L. semifissata Walk., chlamy- dota Meyr., beata Butl., semisignata Walk., farinata Warr., and doubt- less a few that I cannot at the present moment compare. Abut/acts, <% ABSTRACTS. 1. Marine Algae from the Kermadecs. By A. and E. S. Gepp. (Journal of Botany, vol. 49, pp. 17-23; 1911.) A list of marine Algae collected by Mr. R. B. Oliver on the Kermadec Islands in 1908. The Kermadecs are washed by oceanic currents from the north and south-west, the latter being the stronger. This is plainly reflected by the algal flora, which is principally New Zealand. The following is the complete list. The dis- tribution of the species is enclosed in brackets. Ulva Lactura L. (general) ; U. laetevirens Aresh. (South Australia, Tasmania) : Enteromorpha cornpressa C4rev. (Atlantic and Pacific, both north and south) ; Clado phora fusca Martens (Borneo) ; Vaucheria sp. ; Caulerpa racemosa var. uvifera Weber v. Bosse, forma intermedia W. v. B. (Indian and Pacific Oceans, West Indies); Codium tomentosum, Stackh. (general); Durvillea sp. ; Hormosira Banksii Dene. (Australia, Tasmania, New Zeland) ; Carpophyllum maschalocarpum Grev. (New Zealand) ; G. elongatum comb. nov. = Cystophora elongata Dickie (New Zealand) ; G. Phyllanthus Hook and Harv. (New Zealand) ; 0. plumosum J. Ag. (New Zealand); Taenia australasica J. Ag. (Victoria); Gymnosorus nigrescent J. Ag. (North, South, and West Australia) ; Dictyota prolifirans A. and E. S: Gepp (New South Wales and Queensland) ; Sargassum fissifolium J. Ag. (Queensland) ; Chantransia sp. ; Galaxaura sp. ; Zanardinia marginata J. Ag. (North and South Atlantic, North and South Pacific. Indian Ocean) ; Gelidimn longipes J. Ag. (New Zealand) ; Pterocladia capillacea Born. (Atlantic, Mediterranean, Cape of Good Hope, Indian Ocean, China, Japan, Australasia) ; Gracilaria confervoides J. Ag. (Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans) ; Laurencia Forsteri J. Ag. ? (South and West Australia); Plocamium brachiocarpum Kiitz (New Zealand); Martensia elegans Her. (South Africa, West Australia, New South Wales); Nitopliyllum decumbens (New Zealand) ; Delisea pulchra Mont. (Eastern Australia, Tasmania, New Zea- land) ; Asparagopsis Sandfordiana Harv. (Western Australia and Queensland); Euzoniella incisa Falk. (South-west Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand) ; Spongo- rlomium Brownianum De Toni (West Australia) ; Peysionnellia rubra J. Ag. (Adriatic, Polynesia) ; Melobesia sp. ; Amphiroa anceps Dene. (Norfolk Island) : Gheilosporum elegans Aresch. (New Zealand, New South Wales) ; Gorallina officinalis L. (general) : Coralhna sp. ; C. Guvieri Lamx. (South Australia, Tas- mania) L. C. 2. Fructification of Macrocystis. By E. J. Hoffman. (Univ. of California Publications in Botany, vol. 4, pp. 151-158, pi. 1; 1911.) A quite different result is arrived at to that of Smith and Whiting, for the specimens examined show that the sorus is not confined to the newly formed bladder- l^ss leaves alone, and also that the reproductive bodies appear in continuous instead of disconnected layers only in the furrows of the leaves. It is suggested that the authors named above worked with an entirely different species. L*. L- . 3. Studies in Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. By H. M. Hall. (Univ. of California Publications in Botany, vol. 4, pp. 1-71, pis. 1-11: 1910.) \v account with descriptions and remarks of a number of exotic ornamental trees and shrubs cultivated in California. The following are the New Zealand species : Pittosporum tenuifolium, P. crassifolium, P. Ralphu, P. eugenioide*. Leptospermum scoparium, L. ericoides, Me.trosiderog robusla, M. tomentosa. 3— Proc, pt. ii. 56 Abstracts A yellow-flowered form of Pittosporum tenuifolium has appeared at Berkeley, growing in a row of normal black-flowered plants. This form is unknown in ^sew Zealand, but according to Oheeseman yellow-flowered forms are known in other dark-flowered species. „ Li. L/. 4. Die Geographie der Fame. By H. Christ. Pp. ;br>7, figs. 130 (mostly from original photographs), and 3 maps. Gustav Fischer. Leipzig; 1910. This work, from the hand of a. most eminent pteridologist, is obviously of special interest to New Zealand biologists. It is divided into a general introduc- tion and two parts, the first (pp. 0-136) being ecological, and the second (pp. 139-333) floristic. There is also a bibliography, which does not aim at completeness, of 18V titles arranged according to the various fern floras and their divisions, together with those dealing with general plant-geography, general works on ferns, and studies on special ferns and groups. The illustrations show both individual plants and fern-associations. Fig. 124, entitled Leptopteris superba, taken by Cockayne, is really Polystichum vest it am, and the locality is not Stewart Island, but forest at hase of Big Ben, Canterbury. In the introduction it is pointed out that the general impression that ferns. through ease of distribution by their spores, are more readily spread than flowering- plants, and have a wider distribution, is not the case. Thirty years' study of fern material from all over the globe has convinced the author that, in general, the dis tribution of ferns goes parallel with that of phanerogams. Where endemism is strong for the latter, so too is it with the accompanying ferns. The ecological section is brimful of interest for New Zealand botanists, and requires close attention; a brief summary would be of no value. Many New Zea- land species and genera are mentioned, while the ferns of other regions frequent 1\ exhibit parallel structure. Ferns, as a whole, are considered mesothermous hygro- phytes and xerophytes. Part II, dealing with fern floras, concerns students of bio-geography in general. Certain fundamental principles and matters are first explained — e.g., endemism, which may be recent or ancient, as in the case of the New Zealand Loxsoma, with its sole relatives two species of Loxsomopsis of Central and South America; numerical '.elation of ferns to seed-plants in the different floral regions, and amongst other details it is shown that out of the 149 genera of ferns only thirty-three do not occur in the tropical forest-region, and of these Doodia, Loxsoma, Leptopteris, and Toden are confined to the South Temperate Zone; the fern-areas, which are, on the whole, more extensive than those of phanerogams, but yet a similar local endemism occurs in both classes ; the cosmopolitan ferns, of which there are twelve well-defined (though it may be polymorphic) species, which occur with a few trifling exceptions over the whole globe*; pantropic ferns; the northern circumpolar extension of terns, the author being of opinion that a backward current of species is moving northwards from a Tertiary haven of refuge for the forest-ferns in South Chinn. the basal Himalayas, and Mexico ; the arctic-alpine element, together with relics from the glacial period, but these are much fewer than are the flowering-plants of that character ; and, finally, discontinuous areas of distribution, of which the following examples concern New Zealand : Blechnum Fraseri (New Zealand and Philippines), B. Patersoni, Gleichenia dicarpa, and other ferns of the Australasian flora, which, in common with the phanerogams, Spinifex, Melaleuca, and Casuarina. extend to the mountains or the strand of Malaya, and Todea barbara of New Zea land, Australia, and South Africa. The distribution of certain genera is considered in detail : that of Ophioglossum , Botrychium, and Gleichenia alone concerns New Zealand. The forms of Ophio- glo8sum are ill equipped for wide distribution, since they spread rather by a feeble vegetative increase than by their scanty spores. Their universal but quite local occurrence — for they are frequently isolated by wide tracts — together with their small amount of variation, is. according to the author, the greatest puzzle in the geography of ferns. In the far south of Australia and New Zealand, and in Argentina, South Chile, and Patagonia, the little northern species Botrychium lunaria occurs — an arctic footstep in the snbantarctic ! Between Ophioglossum and Botrychium s fundamental distinction exists, the former being tropical-cosmopolitan. * The following are absent in}N>w Zealand: Adumtum capillus ven«ri$, ! Pt-erix cretico. Dryopleri? lilixmiK. Oxmunia regali*. Abstracts. 57 but also mesothermous, and the latter boreal, but endowed with a strong power of expansion. Gleichenia is abundant in Tertiary rocks of Europe in its subgenera Mertensia and Eugleichenia, but the ice age drove it far to the south. The retreat of a Tertiary genus into the far oceanic south, with its insular climate, and into the tropical mountains, is most remarkable. The author divides the earth, so far as ferns are concerned, into twelve floral regions, of which the Australian New Zealand is one. The latter includes the rain-forest region of eastern Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. Central Australia is of no moment for ferns, and northern Australia comes into the Malayan region. The boundary between the two fern floras extends from King Sound along the north coast to the east coast, and thence through Queensland to the tropic of Capricorn, beyond which, southwards, the Malayan element gradually fades away. As for New Zealand, to quote the author's words, "The fern-world is not only one of the most luxuriant and largest, but floristically one of the most interesting. Tt is a little world of ferns in itself, where almost all the genera of tropical and temperate ferns are to be found." A brief review of the species and genera is given, and their most important growth-forms; the presence of an endemic species of the tropical genus Lygodium is considered very remarkable. The author con- cludes : "It would be profitable to stay longer with this magnificent flora, which, though it is not the expression of a maximum hygrothermous forest climate, is easily the ideal fern climate of the present day, and plainly shows the optimum average conditions for the well-being of ferns." The interesting question of the circumpolar extension of the Australian-New Zealand fern flora is discussed. The special group which ma}', in a certain sense, be called "antarctic" is not at all of a boreal-arctic character, but rather of a temperate to a subtropical character. Neither are the species analogous with either arctic phanerogams or even antarctic with the highly characteristic cushion form of these latter. First come six species of Bhchnum, two of Polystichum, two of Polypodium, Hymenophyllum ferrugineum,, Asplenium obtusatum,, and Schizo' u fistulosa. Also Todaea comes here, with its distribution in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. All the above are common to Australia - New Zealand, South America with Juan Fernandez, and in part South Africa. H'ypolepis ruguloaa juay be also included (New Zealand, Reunion, Tristan d'Acunha, St. Helena, Juan Fernandez). The genus Dirhsonia in closely related species extends from the Aus- tralasian floral region to oceanic Malaya, Juan Fernandez, and St. Helena. Then there is Schizaea, the most scattered, however, of all these genera. The distribution of the above species may be explained on the supposition of a Tertiary or yet older region lying in the far south, whence they, in common with so many flowering-plants of the same area, extended radially. That the region in question was both ancient and warm is proved by the frondose structure and stems of the larger and the delicacy of the smaller ferns, Schizaea of Juncus form excepted. This element is a relic of a more extensive southern flora which dates from the Tertiary, or earlier, and which now remains on its small New Zealand- Australian area, thanks to the climatic conditions persisting that it requires. Further, in discussing the origin of the antarctic element of the south Chilian flora the author brings more facts in favour of an antarctic Tertiary centre of distribution, which is supported, moreover, by the additional fact of the presence of several Tertiary fossil ferns from Seymour Island which are related to, if not identical in some cases with. South American species. L. C 5. Die Gattung Acaena. By G. Bitter. (Bibliotheca Botanica, Heft 74, pp. 336, pi. 38, figs. 98. Stuttgart, 1910-11.) This voluminous and most painstaking work consists of two parts, the one general and introductory, and the other systematic and floristic. The author has not confined his studies to herbarium material of wild plants, but has searchingly examined the garden forms of Europe, especially those cultivated in the Bremen Botanical Garden, of which he is the director. These horticultural studies have led to the important discovery, first, of undoubted hybrids, and, secondly, of two cases of mutation. The first of these mutants arose from Acaena ova'li folia E. and Pav. in the botanic garden of Christiania, and the plant is described as subsp. glabricaitlis ; the second originated in the botanic garden of Bremen itself from a plant of A. sericea Jacq. f. var. gracilis Bitter, which had been in cultivation for many years. 58 Abstracts Chapter 11 deals with the principles of a natural arrangement of the species within the genus, and in Chapter III the importance of the different forms of hairs is considered from both the taxonomic and ecological standpoints. Chapter IV deals with seedling forms, those of six New Zealand members of the genus being described at length. The occurrence of long, many-celled, thin-walled hairs in certain early seedlings, but which are absent in the adults, is noted as requiring special investigation. Chapter V deals with the plant-geography of the genus. The question as to whether it is primarily subantarctic or the contrary is discussed, and. on the assump- tion that certain characters are older than others, a pica is established for a northern rather than a southern origin. But. on the other hand, it is shown how the pre- sent extensive occurrence of species not only in subantarctic South America, but throughout the subantarctic zone as a whole, together with New Zealand and pa its of Australia, supports the theory of a southern origin. Certain cases of discontinuous distribution are cited, especially that of the section Acrobyssinoideae, one species of which .4. tasmanica Bitter, is endemic in Tasmania, but all the other species occur in the Chilian Andes from lat. 39'5° south to Cape Horn and South Georgia. A. californica Bitter, endemic in California, belongs to a section not otherwise extending north of central Chile and Patagonia. The occurrence of local forms is much commoner than has been thought hitherto, especially on the isolated subantarctic islands. This discounts considerably the general view that the supposed wide area of certain species was due to carriage of the fruits with their hooked barbs by birds. At the same time, the author con- siders the occurrence of closely related species in distant localities due to bird- carriage, and cites a Sandwich Island species, with its close I'elatives in south and central Chile, and the Acrobyssinoideae of the Magellan region and Tasmania, but absent in New Zealand. But such distribution was not frequent enough to hinder the evolution of many local forms. It is a remarkable fact that the New Zealand species of Acaena possess the following peculiarities not present in members of the genus elsewhere : (1.) A stunted habit of growth, although their foreign allies are robust and large-leaved — as, e.g., the New Zealand forms of the polymorphic A. Sanguisorbae Vahl as com- pared with the Australian, and the three new species formerly referred to A . adscendens Vahl in New Zealand in comparison with the true species of that name and A. laevigata (Ait.) Bitter of South America. Nor can the alpine climate be responsible for the marked exhibition of this growth-form in the endemic New Zealand section Microphyttae, since the Chilian Andean species show no such character. (2.) The brownish colour of the leaves in certain varieties of the Sanguisorbae group and in .4. microphylla Hook, f., and such colouring is present in members of other families of New Zealand alpine plants. Grey-coloured leaves, arising either through a covering of wax or through air-spaces between the cells, is another characteristic, but there are Chilian examples of similar phenomena. It would serve no purpose to draw up a synopsis of the author's arrangement of the New Zealand species. A really critical study of his work is demanded on this point. Here only some general conclusions are noted regarding the limitations of species, important alterations, and so on. First, it must be pointed out that a most comprehensive view is taken as to the species themselves, so that the polymorphic species are groups which do not exist at all as true entities. These species are subdivided into smaller but still comprehensive groups as subspecies, these into varieties which are the true entities of the flora, and these occasionally into forms. A subspecies of A. ovina A. Cunn. is created called nanella Bitter, based on specimens sent by Cockayne to Berlin as introduced and collected on the Canter- bury Plains, the author considering the stunted habit of specific importance. Acaena adscendens Vahl, hitherto supposed to extend to New Zealand, is restricted to plants of the Magellan region and Kerguelenland, while the New Zea- land forms referred to A. adscendens are treated by the author as three distinct species — A. saccaticupula Bitter, A. hirsutula Bitter, and A. fissistipula Bitter, the two latter being closely related, but the former coming into a different subsection allied to that containing A. adscendens. Varieties are also described of all three species. Acaena Sanguisorbae Vahl is restricted to Australian, Tasmanian, and New Zealand plants, the Tristan d'Acunha plant being referred to A. sannrntosa Car- inichael and considered as restricted to that group, while the New Amsterdam plant is referred to A. insularis Citerne. Abstracts 59 Eight subspecies of A. Sanguisorl>a< ;\xv created £91' the Australian and Tas- manian forms, none of which extend to New Zealantl. The New Zealand forms, all of which arc endemic, consist of the following subspecies :— 1. Novae-Zelandiae (Kirk) Bitter, and its varieties— viridissima Bitt. and subtusglaucescens Bitt. 2. Oaesiiglauca Bitter (probably = var. pilosa T. Kirk of .4. Sanguisorbae) and its vars. brevibracheata Bitt. and involucrata Bitt. :?. Profundeincisa (described from cultivated plants) and its variety sericeinitens Bitt. (Kelly's Hill. leg. L. Cockayne). 4. Pusilla (described from a cultivated plant in the Bremen Botanical Garden) and its five varieties, three of which are founded on speci- mens in Herb. Berol., collected by Krull in Chatham Islands, and another var. antarctica Cockayne. 5. Aucklandica* (Auckland Island, Hooker, f. Herb. Berol.. Florent,, Paris). The remainder of the New Zealand species arc put into two special sections ol the genus, both of which are endemic. A. glabra Buchanan forming the section pteracaena Bitter, and A. microphylla Hook f. and A. Buchanani Hook f. the section microphyllae Bitter. A. microphylla is divided into the subspecies eumicrophylla B'itt. and obscurascns Bitt. The former contains the var. inermis (Hook, f.) Kirk, and this is resolved into two forms named respectively longiscapa Bitt. and breviscapa Bitt. and the var. pallideolivacea Bitt. described from a culti- vated plant in the Berlin Botanic Garden. The subspecies obsr.urascehs is based on cultivated plants coming from the nursery of Thomas Ware ; the vars. depressa T. Kirk and pauciglochtdiata Bitt. are included here. This latter is evidently the dune form of Southland. A new variety inermis Bitt. of A. Buchanani is described. Finally, a number of hybrids of garden origin* mostly between New Zealand species, especially A. microphylla and A. Sanguisorbae are described and their leaves figured. It must be added that the author docs not look upon this work as a monograph of the genus, but onlv as material for such. L. C. 6. On the Peopling by Plants of the Subalpine River-bed of the Rakaia (Southern Alps of New Zealand). By L. Cockayne. (Trans, and Proo. Bot. Sue. Edin., vol. 24. pp. 104—125, pi. 3; 1911.) The relation between the evolution of a land form and its plant covering is a matter of high phyto-geographical interest, but one extremely difficult to estimate in the majority of cases. A New Zealand stony river-bed affords an excellent subject for such a study. The peopling of such near its glacier source may be a similar phenomenon to what happened on the Canterbury Plains at the close of the glacial period. A brief account is given of the physiography of a river-bed, and it is shown to be in a constant state of change, and to present all gradations of station from new stony bed, swept at times by water, to low stable terraces. The river-bed in question is in a forest climate depending upon the average dis- tance reached by the western rainfall. Generally speaking, the climate is partly hygrophytic and partly xerophytic, for the effect of the heavy rain is neutralized by the insolation, the frost, and. above all, the high winds. An important factor affecting the soil is the presence, at no great distance below the surface, of ice-cold water. A glacial river-bed near its source is both a physically and physiologically dry station. A synopsis is given of the species of the river-bed according to their growth- forms. There are two low trees, fourteen shrubs, two lianes, and thirty herbs or subshrubs. A special account is furnished of the Baoulia form, and it is pointed out how the species show an epharmonic gradation of forms from the rapidly grow- ing mats of B. tenuicaulis, with its open mesophytic leaves of seedlings and rever- sion shoots, to the highly differentiated woolly masses of B. eximia, &c. Tin [* It is almost certain that this is identical with A. Sa"iui orlae var. nn'wdiia Cockayne. That variety was founded, so far as the description of the flower and scape went, upon one flower coming out of season on a plant just brought from Auckland Island. It is now known that the fruiting-scape is much longer than as described, and that its hairiness was underestimated. Bitter suggests the Auckland Island plant may be related to -4. msularis.] 60 Abstracts. peopling of the bed resolves itself into several distinct stages, each of which is really a valid plant association always present on the river-bed, and although, like any so-called stable plant formation, it is capable of change, it is just as much a feature of the landscape as is a forest. The first stage on the unstable bed is an Epilobium association consisting of certain species of that genus and 2-3 species of Raoulia. The second stage is a Raoidia association, which denotes more stable ground. Here the low cushions of Tf. Haastii become dominant. They offer a soil for various steppe-plants, which in time kill and replace them, and by degrees steppe, the third stage, is established through tussock-grasses becoming dominant. In some places, where the conditions are favourable, scrub Is the climax associa- tion. The affinities of the river-bed associations are dealt with. Prior to its peopling it is nearest allied to shingle-slip, but they have no species in common, unless the shingle he fairly stable, as in the bed of a gully. The Raoidia association is ecologically and Boristically related to lowland river-bed, though there R. Haa-. Leipzig, 1907. In the "Genera Plantarum" Hooker and Bentham remarked that about forty species of Taraxacum, had been described, and that some authors reduce these to six. Hoffman, in "Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien," gave the number of valid species at from twenty to twenty-five, and more recent writers have made various estimates, ranging from twenty to forty-five. Dr. Handel-Mazetti, who is generally acknowledged to be the leading authority on the genus, admits no less than fifty-seven, contained in eleven sections. Forty-two of the species are found in Asia, twenty-eight in Europe, three in Africa, six in North America, two in Australia, and one in New Zealand (in addition to the introduced T . vulgare). The New Zealand 2 — Proceedings, pt. iii. 96 Proceedings. species was first observed by Banks and Solander, who applied the manuscript name of Leontodon glabratum to it. Hooker associated it with the introduced T. officinale Wigg {T. vulgare Schrank). Kirk, in the "Students' Flora," separated it as a variety, under the name of glabratus, while more recently Dr. Cockayne has given it full specific honours as Taraxacum glabratum. Neither Kirk nor Cockayne appears to have compared our plant with the South American T. magellanicum Comm., which ranges from Chile to Fuegia and the Falkland Islands. Dr. Handel-Mazetti, how- ever, has done this in a very complete manner, and has satisfactorily established the identity of the two plants, which must in future bear the name of T . magellanicum. He points out that T. magellanicum can be readily distinguished from T. vulgare (T. officinale) by the outer bracts of the involucre being broad, conspicuously mar- gined, and always erect and appressed. In T. vulgare the exterior bracts are linear, not margined, and usually reflexed. Dr. Handel-Mazetti's monograph must be regarded as an excellent example ol careful and painstaking systematic work, and will probably long remain the standard authority on the genus. T. F. C. APPENDIX. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACTS. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1903. The following Act reconstituting the Institute was passed by Par- liament : — 1903, No. 48. An Act to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute. [18th November, 1903. Whereas it is desirable to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute with a view to connecting it more closely with the affiliated institutions : Be it therefore enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : — 1. The Short Title of this Act is the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903. 2. The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867, is hereby repealed. 3. (1.) The body hitherto known as the New Zealand Institute (here- inafter referred to as "the Institute") shall consist of the Auckland Institute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophical Insti- tute of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland Institute, and such others as may hereafter be incorporated in accordance with regulations to be made by the Board of Governors as hereinafter mentioned. (2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be ipso facto members of the Institute. 4. The control and management of the Institute shall be in the hands of a Board of Governors, constituted as follows : — The Governor ; The Colonial Secretary ; Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council during the month of December, one thousand nine hundred and three, and two members to be similarly appointed during the month of December in every succeeding year ; Two members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin during the month of December in each alternate year; One member to be appointed by each of the other incorporated societies during the month of December in each alternate year. 5. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council two shall retire annually on the appointment of their successors ; the first two members to retire shall be decided by lot, and thereafter the two mem- bers longest in office without reappointment shall retire. (2.) Subject to the provisions of the last preceding subsection, the appointed members of the Board shall hold office until the appointment of their successors. Neiu Zealand Institute Acts. 99 6. The Board of Governors as above constituted shall be a body cor- porate, by the name of the " New Zealand Institute," and by that name they shall have perpetual succession and a common seal, and may sue and be sued, and shall have power and authority to take, purchase, and hold lauds for the purposes hereinafter mentioned. 7. (1.) The Board of Governors shall have power to appoint a fit person, to be known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all necessary work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, and to pro- vide him with such further assistance as may be required. (2.) It shall also appoint the President or some other fit person to be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint a com- mittee to assist him in the work of editing the same. (3.) It shall have power to make regulations under which societies may become incorporated to the Institute, and to declare that any incorporated society shall cease to be incorporated if such regulations are not complied with, and such regulations on being published in the Gazette shall have the force of law. (4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books or specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and dispose of them as it thinks fit. (5.) The Board shall have control of the property hereinafter vested in it, and of any additions hereafter made thereto, and shall make regulations for the management of the same, for the encouragement of research by the members of the Institute, and in all matters, speci- fied or unspecified, shall have power to act for and on behalf of the Institute. 8. Any casual vacancy on the Board of Governors, howsoever •caused, shall be filled within three months by the society or authority that appointed the member whose place has become vacant, and if not filled within that time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board of Governors. 9. (1.) The first annual meeting of the Board of Governors herein- before constituted shall be held at Wellington on some day in the month of January, one thousand nine hundred and four, to be fixed by the Governor, and annual meetings of the Board shall be regularly held thereafter during the month of January in each year, the date and place of such annual meeting to be fixed at the previous annual meeting. (2.) The Board of Governors may meet during the year at such other times and places as it deems necessary. (3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the meeting a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and a balance- sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf of the Institute. 10. The Board of Governors may from time to time, as it sees fit, make arrangements for the holding of general meetings of members of the Institute, at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion of science in the colony by any means that may appear desirable. 11. The Colonial Treasurer shall, without further appropriation than this Act, pay to the Board of Governors the annual sum of five hundred pounds, to be applied in or towards payment of the general current expenses of the Institute. 100 Appendix. 12. (1.) On the appointment of the first Board of Governors under this Act the Board of Governors constituted under the Act hereby repealed shall cease to exist, and the property then vested in, or belong- ing to, or under the control of that Board shall be vested in His Majesty for the use and benefit of the public. (2.) On the recommendation of the President of the Institute the Governor may at any time hereinafter, by Order in Council, declare that any part of such property specified in the Order shall be vested in the Board constituted under this Act.* 13. All regulations, together with a copy of the Transactions of the Institute, shall be laid upon the table of both Houses of Parliament within twenty days after the meeting thereof. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908 1908, No. 130. An Act to consolidate certain Enactments of the General Assembly relating to the New Zealand Institute. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : — 1. (1.) The Short Title of this Act is the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908. (2.) This Act is a consolidation of the enactments mentioned in the Schedule hereto, and with respect to those enactments the following pro- visions shall apply : — (a.) The Institute and Board respectively constituted under those enactments, and subsisting on the coming into operation of this Act, shall be deemed to be the same Institute and Board respec- tively constituted under this Act without any change of consti- tution or corporate entity or otherwise ; and the members thereof in office on the coming into operation of this Act shall continue in office until their successors under this Act come into office. (b.) All Orders in Council, regulations, appointments, societies incor- porated with the Institute, and generally all acts of authority which originated under the said enactments or any enactment thereby repealed, and are subsisting or in force on the coming into operation of this Act, shall enure for the purposes of this Act as fully and effectually as if they had originated under the corresponding provisions of this Act, and accordingly shall, where necessary, be deemed to have so originated, (c.) All property vested in the Board constituted as aforesaid shall be deemed to be vested in the Board established and recognized by this Act. (d.) All matters and proceedings commenced under the said enact- ments, and pending or in progress on the coming into opera- tion of this Act, may be continued, completed, and enforced under this Act. See New Zealand Gazette, 1st September, 1904. Neiu Zealand Institute Acts. 101 2. (1.) The body now known as the New Zealand Institute (herein- after referred to as " the Institute") shall consist of the Auckland Insti- tute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland Institute, and such others as heretofore have been or may hereafter be incorporated therewith in accordance with regulations heretofore made or hereafter to be made by the Board of Governors. (2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be ipso facto members of the Institute. 3. The control and management of the Institute shall be vested in a Board of Governors (hereinafter referred to as " the Board "), constituted as follows : — The Governor : The Minister of Internal Affairs : Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council, of whom two shall be appointed during the month of December in every year : Two members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin during the month of December in each alternate year ; and the next year in which such an appointment shall be made is the year one thousand nine hundred and nine : One member to be appointed by each of the other incorporated societies during the month of December in each alternate year ; and the next year in which such an appointment shall be made is the year one thousand nine hundred and nine. 4. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council, the two members longest in office without reappointment shall retire annually on the appointment of their successors. (2.) Subject to the last preceding subsection, the appointed members of the Board shall hold office until the appointment of their successors. 5. The Board shall be a body corporate by the name of the " New Zealand Institute," and by that name shall have perpetual succession and a common seal, and may sue and be sued, and shall have power and authority to take, purchase, and hold lands for the purposes hereinafter mentioned. 6. (1.) The Board shall have power to appoint a fit person, to be known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all necessary work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, and to provide him with such further assistance as may be required. (2.) The Board shall also appoint the President or some other fit person to be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint a committee to assist him in the work of editing the same. (3.) The Board shall have power from time to time to make regu- lations under which societies may become incorporated with the Institute, and to declare that any incorporated society shall cease to be incorporated if such regulations are not complied with ; and such regu- lations on being published in the Gazette shall have the force of law. (4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books or specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and dispose of them as it thinks fit. (5.) The Board shall have control of the property from time to time vested in it or acquired by it ; and shall make regulations for the 102 Ajjpendix. management of the same, and for the encouragement of research by the members of the Institute ; and in all matters, specified or unspecified, shall have power to act for and on behalf of the Institute. 7. (1.) Any casual vacancy in the Board, howsoever caused, shall be filled within three months by the society or authority that appointed the member whose place has become vacant, and if not filled within that time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board. (2.) Any person appointed to fill a casual vacancy shall only hold office for such period as his predecessor would have held office under this Act. 8. (1.) Annual meetings of the Board shall be held in the month of January in each year, the date and place of such annual meeting to be fixed at the previous annual meeting. (2.) The Board may meet during the year at such other times and places as it deems necessary. (3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the meeting a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and a balance-sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf of the Institute. 9. The Board may from time to time, as it sees fit, make arrange- ments for the holding of general meetings of members of the Institute, at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion of science in New Zealand by any means that may appear desirable. 10. The Minister of Finance shall from time to time, without further appropriation than this Act, pay to the Board the sum of five hundred pounds in each financial year, to be applied in or towards payment of the general current expenses of the Institute. 11. Forthwith upon the making of any regulations or the publica- tion of any Transactions, the Board shall transmit a copy thereof to the Minister of Internal Affairs, who shall lay the same before Parliament if sitting, or if not, then within twenty days after the commencement of the next ensuing session thereof. Schedule. Enactments consolidated. 1903, No. 48.— The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903. REGULATIONS. The following are the regulations of the New Zealand Institute under the Act of 1903 :— * The word "Institute" used in the following regulations means the New Zealand Institute as constituted by the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903. Incokporation of Societies. 1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the pro- visions of the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903, unless such society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate * New Zealand Gazette, 14th July, 1904. Regulations. 103 a sum of not less than £25 sterling annually for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the President for the time being of the society. 2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less than £25. 3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one -third of the annual revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and main- tenance of the New Zealand Institute. 4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue specified in Eegulation No. 3 aforesaid in manner provided shall from henceforth cease to be incor- porated with the Institute. Publications. 5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated with the Institute shall be deemed to be communications to the Insti- tute, and then may be published as Proceedings or Transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Institute regarding publications : — (a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of — (1.) A current abstract of the proceedings of the societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled "Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute"; (2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the incorporated societies (subject, however, to selection as here- inafter mentioned), and of such other matter as the Board of Governors shall from time to time determine to publish, to be intituled " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute." (6.) The Board of Governors shall determine what papers are to be published. (c.) Papers not recommended for publication may be returned to their authors if so desired. (d.) All papers sent in for publication must be legibly written, type- written, or printed. (e.) A proportional contribution may be required from each societv towards the cost of publishing Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute. (/.) Each incorporated society will be entitled to receive a propor- tional number of copies of the Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, to be from time to time fixed by the Board of Governors. Management of the Pkoperty of the Institute. 6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from incor- porated societies, and placed in charge of the Institute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of 104 Appendix. Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the property of the Institute. 7. All donations by societies, public Departments, or private indi- viduals to the Institute shall be acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and shall be entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct. Honorary Members. 8. The Board of Governors shall have power to elect honorary members (being persons not residing in the Colony of New Zealand), pro- vided that the total number of honorary members shall not exceed thirty. 9. In case of a vacancy in the list of honorary members, each incor- porated society, after intimation from the Secretary of the Institute, may nominate for election as honorary member one person. 10. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with the grounds on which their election as honorary members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the President of the New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting. General Begulations. 11. Subject to the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, and to the foregoing rules, all societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the by-laws for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs. 12. Upon application signed by the President and countersigned by the Secretary of any society, accompanied by the certificate required under Begulation No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under the seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the fore- going regulations of the Institute are complied with by the society. 13. In voting on any subject the President is to have a deliberate as well as a casting vote. 14. The President may at any time call a meeting of the Board, and shall do so on the requisition in writing. of four Governors. 15. Twenty-one days' notice of every meeting of the Board shall be given by posting the same to each Governor at an address furnished by him to the Secretary. 16. In case of a vacancy in the office of President, a meeting of the Board shall be called by the Secretary within twenty-one days to elect a new President. 17. The Governors for the time being resident or present in Wellington shall be a Standing Committee for the purpose of transacting urgent business and assisting the officers. 18. The Standing Committee may appoint persons to perform the duties of any other office which may become vacant. Any such appoint- ment shall hold good until the next meeting of the Board, when the vacancy shall be filled. 19. The foregoing regulations may be altered or amended at any annual meeting, provided that notice be given in writing to the Secretary of the Institute not later than the 30th November. Hut ton Memorial Fund. 105 THE HUTTON MEMOEIAL MEDAL AND EESEAECH FUND. Eesolved by the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute that — 1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the committee of subscribers to the Hutton Memorial Fund be called " The Hutton Memorial Eesearch Fund," in memory of the late Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.E.S. Such fund shall consist of the moneys sub- scribed and granted for the purpose of the Hutton Memorial, and all other funds which may be given or granted for the same purpose. 2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Governors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys, and may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust- moneys. 3. A sum not exceeding £100 shall be expended in procuring a bronze medal to be known as " The Hutton Memorial Medal." 4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid, shall be invested in such securities as aforesaid as may be approved of by the Board of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment shall be used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund. 5. The Hutton Memorial Medal shall be awarded from time to time by the Board of Governors, in accordance with these regulations, to persons who have made some noticeable contribution in connection with the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand. 6. The Board shall make regulations setting out the manner in which the funds shall be administered. Such regulations shall conform to the terms of the trust. 7. The Board of Governors may, in the manner prescribed in the regulations, make grants from time to time from the accrued interest to persons or committees who require assistance in prosecuting researches in the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand. 8. There shall be published annually in the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute " the regulations adopted by the Board as afore- said, a list of the recipients of the Hutton Memorial Medal, a list of the persons to whom grants have been made during the previous year, and also, where possible, an abstract of researches made by them. Eegulations undeb which the Hutton Memorial Medal shall be awarded and the eesearch fund administered. 1. Unless in exceptional circumstances, the Hutton Memorial Medal shall be awarded not oftener than once in every three years ; and in no case shall any medal be awarded unless, in the opinion of the Board, some contribution really deserving of the honour has been made. 2. The medal shall not be awarded for any research published previous to the 31st December, 1906. 3. The research for which the medal is awarded must have a distinct bearing on New Zealand zoology, botany, or geology. 4. The medal shall be awarded only to those who have received the greater part of their education in New Zealand or who have resided in New Zealand for not less than ten years. 5. Whenever possible, the medal shall be presented in some public manner. 106 Appendix. 6. The Board of Governors may, at an annual meeting, make grants from the accrued interest of the fund to any person, society, or commit- tee for the encouragement of research in New Zealand zoology, botany, or geology. 7. Applications for such grants shall be made to the Board before the 30th September. 8. In making such grants the Board of Governors shall give preference to such persons as are denned in regulation 1. 9. The recipients of such grants shall report to the Board before the 31st December in the year following, showing in a general way how the grant has been expended and what progress has been made with the research. 10. The results of researches aided by grants from the fund shall, where possible, be published in New Zealand. 11. The Board of Governors may from time to time amend or alter the regulations, such amendments or alterations being in all cases in con- formity with resolutions 1 to 4. Award of the Hutton Memorial Medal. 1911. Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc. F.R.S., University of Otagu— For researches in New Zealand zoology. Grant from the Hutton Memorial Research Fund. 1911. To Professor C. Chilton, Canterbury College — £10 for the preparation of illustrations for a revision of the Crustacea of New Zealand. HECTOR MEMORIAL RESEARCH FUND. Declaration of Trust. This deed, made the twenty-seventh day of January, one thousand nine hundred and twelve, between the New Zealand Institute, a body corporate duly incorporated by the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, of the one part, and the Public Trustee, of the other part : Whereas the New Zealand Institute is possessed of a fund consisting now of the sum of one thousand and forty-five pounds ten shillings and twopence (£1,013 10s. 2d.), held for the purpose of the Hector Memorial Research Fund on the terms of the rules and regulations made by the Governors of the said Institute hereinafter set forth : And whereas the said money has been transferred to the Public Trustee for the purposes of investment, and the Public Trustee now holds the same for such purposes, and it is expedient to declare the trusts upon which the same is held by the Public Trustee : Now this deed witnesseth that the Public Trustee shall hold the said moneys, and all other moneys which shall be handed to him by the said Governors, for the same purposes upon trust from time to time, to invest the same in the common fund of the Public Trust Office, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the purposes set out in the said rules hereinafter set forth. Hector Memorial Research Fund. 107 And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public Trustee to pay, and he shall pay, all or any of the said moneys, both principal and interest, to the Treasurer of the said New Zealand Institute upon being directed so to do by a resolution of the Governors of the said Institute, and a letter signed by the Secretary of the said Institute, enclosing a copy of such resolution, certified by him and by the President as correct, shall be sufficient evidence to the Public Trustee of the due passing of such resolution : And upon receipt of such letter and copy, the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Institute shall be a sufficient discharge to the Public Trustee : And in no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to inquire into the administration of the said moneys by the Governors of the said Institute. As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year first hereinbefore written. Rules and Regulations made by the Governors of the New Zealand Institute in relation to the Hector Memorial Research Fund. 1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the Wellington Hector Memorial Committee be called " The Hector Memorial Research Fund," in memory of the late Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Such fund shall consist of the moneys subscribed and granted for the purpose of the memorial, and all other funds which may be given or granted for the same purpose. 2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Go- vernors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys, and may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys. 3. A sum not exceeding one hundred pounds (£100) shall be expended in procuring a bronze medal, to be known as " The Hector Memorial Medal." 4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid, shall be invested in such securities as may be approved by the Board of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment shall be used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund. 5. The Hector Memorial Medal and Prize shall be awarded annually by the Board of Governors. 6. The research for which the medal and prize are awarded must have a distinct bearing on New Zealand — (1) Botany, (2) chemistry, (3J ethnology, (4) geology, (5) physics (including mathematics and as- tronomy), (6) zoology (including animal physiology). 7. Whenever possible the medal shall be presented in some public manner. The seal of the New Zealand Institute was hereto affixed, the 27th day of January, 1912, in the presence of — T. F. Cheeseman, President. B. C. Aston, Secretai-y. Signed by Frederick Fitchett, the Public Trustee, and sealed with the seal of his office. Award of the Hector Memorial Research Fund. 1912. L. Cockayne, Ph.D. — For researches in New Zealand botany. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OP THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND INTITULED THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867 ; RECONSTITUTED BY AN ACT OP THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OP NEW ZEALAND UNDER THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1903, AND CONTINUED BY THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908. A. Board of Governors. EX OFFICIO. His Excellency the Governor. The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs. NOMINATED BY THE GOVERNMENT. Hamilton, F.L.S. (December, 1911); B. Tregear, F.E.G.S. (December, 1910) ; John Young, (December, 1911) ; Charles A. Ewen (December, 1910). ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES (DECEMBER, 1911). Wellington Philosophical Society Auckland Institute .. . Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. Otago Institute Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute . Nelson Institute Manawatu Philosophical Society Wanganui Philosophical Society Martin Chapman, K.C. Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A. D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D. J. Stewart, C.E. F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A., D.Sc. B. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. Professor Marshall, D.Sc, F.G.S. G. M. Thomson, M.P., F.C.S. H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. K. Wilson, M.A. W. Hesse, B.A. OFFICERS FOR THlf YEAR 1912. President: T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S, F.Z.S. Hon. Treasurer: C. A. Ewen. Joiht Hon. EmTORs:]^ %«&}■ M.A M.Sc, F.G.S. (F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A, D.Sc. Secretary: B. C. Aston, F.I.C, F.C.S. (Box 40, Post-office, Wellington.) AFFILIATED SOCIETIES. Wellington Philosophical Society Auckland In stitute Philosophical Institute of Canterbury Otago Institute Westland Institute Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute Southland Institute Nelson Institute Manawatu Philosophical Society Wanganui Philosophical Society DATE OF AFFILIATION. 10th June, 1868. 10th June, 1868. 22nd October, 1868. 18th October, 1869. 21st December, 1874. 31st March, 1875. 21st July, 1880. 20th December, 1883. 16th January, 1904. 25th January, 1912. Former Honorary Members. 109 FORMER HONORARY MEMBERS. 1870. Agassiz, Professor Louis. Drury, Captain Byron, R.N. Flower, Professor W.H., P.R.S. Hoohstetter, Dr. Ferdinand von. Hooker, Sir J. D., G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D., F.R.S., O.M. Mueller, Ferdinand von, M.D., F.R.S., C.M.G. Owen, Professor Riohard, F.R.S. Richards, Rear- Admiral G. H. Darwin, Charles, M.A., F.R.S. Gray, J. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. Grey, Sir George, K.C.B. Huxley, Thomas H., LL.D., F.R.S. 1871. Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1872. I Stokes, Vice- Admiral J. L. Bowen, Sir George Ferguson, G.C.M.G. Cambridge, the Rev. O. Piokard, M.A., C.M.Z.S. 1873. Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S. McLachlan, Robert, F.L.S. Newton, Alfred, F.R.S. Filhol, Dr. H. Clarke, Rev. W. B., M.A., F.R.S. Baird, Professor Spenoer F. Garrod, Professor A. H., F.R.S. Miiller, Professor Max, F.R.S. 1874. Thomson, Professor Wyville, F.R.S. 1875. | Rolleston, Professor G., M.D., F.R.S. 1876. | Etheridge, Professor R., F.R.S. 1877. | Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G. 1878. Tenison- Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S. 1880. The Most Noble the Marquis of Normanby, G.C.M.G. Carpenter, Dr. W. B., C.B., F.R.S. Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.S. Gray, Professor Asa. 1883. Thomson, Sir William, F.R.S. 1885. | Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., F.R.S. 110 Appendix. 1888. Beneden, Professor J. P. van. j McCoy, Professor F., D.Sc, C.M.G. Ettingshausen, Baron von. P.R.S. 1890. Riley, Professor C. V. 1891. Davis, J. W., P.G.S., F.L.S. 1895. Mitten William, F.R.S. 1896. Langley, S. P. 1900. Agardh, Dr. J. G. .... 1901. Eve, H. W., M.A. | Howes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S. FORMER MANAGER AND EDITOR. [Under the New Zealand Institute Act, 1867.] 1867-1903. Hector, Sir James, M.D.. K.C.M.G., F.R.S. PAST PRESIDENTS. 1903-4. Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.R.S. 1905-6. Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G.. F.R.S. 1907-8. Thomson, George Malcolm, F.L.S., F.C.S., M.P. 1909-10. A. Hamilton, F.L.S. 1911-12. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. HONORARY MEMBERS. 1870. Finsch, Professor Otto, Ph.D., Brnunschweig, Germany. 1873. Gunther, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Litchfield Road, Kew Gardens, Surrey. Honorary Members. Ill 1875. ■ Sclater, Philip Lutley, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Zoological Society, Loudon. 1876. Berggren, Dr. S., Lund, Sweden. 1877. Sharp, Dr. D., University Museum, Cambridge. 1885. Wallace, A. K., F.R.S., O.M.. Broadstone, Wimborne, England. 1890. Nordstedt, Professor Otto, Ph.D., Uni- versity of Lund, Sweden. Liversidge, Professor A., M.A., P.R.S., Lot don. 1891. Goodale, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D., Harvard University, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 1894. Dyer, Sir W. T. Thiselton, K.C.M.G., I Codrington, Rev. R. H., D.D., Wadhurst CLE., LL.D., M.A., P.R.S., Royal Rectory, Sussex, England. Gardens, Kew. 1896. Lydekker, Richard, B.A., F.R.S., British Museum, South Kensington. 1900. Avebury, Lord, P.O., F.R.S., High Elms, I Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.M.S., Royal Farnborougb, Kent. Botanic Gardens, Kew. 1901. Goebel, Professor Dr. Carl von, University of Munich. 1902. Sars, Professor G. O., University of Christiania, Norway. 1903. Klotz, Professor Otto J., 437 Albert Street, Ottawa, Canada. 1904. Rutherford, Professor E., D.Sc, F.R.S., I David, Professor T. Edgeworth, F.R.S., University of Manchester. Sydney University, N.S.W. 1906. Beddard, F. E., F.R.S., Zoological Society, London. Milne, J., F.R.S., Isle of Wight, England. Brady, G. S., F.R.S., University of Dur- ham, England. 1907. Dendy, Dr., F.R.S., King's College, University of London, England. Diels, Professor L., Ph.D., University of Marburg. Meyrick, E., B.A., F.R.S., Marlborough College, England. Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R., F.R.S.. Tun- bridge Wells, England. Darwin, Sir Geobge, F.R.S., Cambridge. 1910. *y;^| Bruce, Dr. W. S., Edinburgh. <^«-^ 112 Appendix. ORDINARY MEMBBES. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. [* Life members, f Adams, C. E., M.Sc, A. I. A., F.R.A.S., Lands and Survey De- partment, Government Buildings Adams, C. W., Bellevue Road, Lower Hutt Adkin, G. Leslie, Queen Street, Levin Anderson, W. J., M.A., LL.D., Education Department, Govern- ment Buildings Aston, Eev. A. E., Devon Street Aston, B. C, F.C.S., F.I.C., Devon Street Atkinson, E. H., care of Tudor Atkinson, Wellington Baldwin, E. S., care of Baldwin and Ray ward, Lambton Quay Bartrum, J. A., M.Sc, Geological Survey, Government Buildings Beetham, W. H., Masterton Bell, E. D., care of Bell, Gully, Bell, and Myers Bell, H. D., K.C., care of Bell, Gully, Bell, and Myers Berry, C. G. G., 35 Bolton Street Birks, L., B.Sc, A.M. Inst. C.E. and E.C., Public Works Department Blair, J. R., The Terrace Brandon, A. de B., B.A., care of Brandon, Hislop, and Brandon Browne, M. H., Education Depart- ment, Government Buildings Campbell, J., Government Archi- tect, Wellington Campbell, 0. N., Rangitaiki Drain- age-works, Matata Carter, F. J., M.A., Diocesan Office Carter, W. H., jun., 4 Mowbray Street Chapman, Martin, K.C., Brandon Street Christie, Mrs. H. M., 182 Moxham Avenue, Kilbirnie Chudleigh, E. R., Orongomairoa, Waihou Climie, J. D., Lower Hutt Cotton, C. A., M.Sc, Victoria Col- lege Honorary members.] Crawford, A. D., Box 126 Crewes, Rev. J., 90 Owen Street Dymock, E. R., Woodward Street Easterfield, Professor T. H., M.A., Ph.D., 17 Talavera Terrace Ewen, C. A., The Terrace Ferguson, W., M.Inst. C.E. , 99 Hill Street FitzGerald, Gerald, A. M.Inst. C.E. , Brandon Street Fleming, T. R., M.A., LL.B., Edu- cation Board, Mercer Street Fletcher, Rev. H. J., The Manse, Taupo Freeman, H. J., Manners Stree Freyberg, Cuthbert, Tourist Dep rt- ment Garrow, Professor J. M. E., B.A., LL.B., Victoria College Gifford, A. C, M.A., Shannon Street* Girdlestone, H. E., Lands and Sur- vey Department, Government Buildings Godley, Major- General A. I., Ori- ental Bay Graham, K. M., A. O.S.M., Defence Department Gray, William, M.A., B.Sc, Pres- byterian College, Melbourne Hamilton, A., F.L.S., Dominion Museum t Hanify, H. P., Panama Street Harding, R. Coupland, care of Evening Post Hart, H. S., care of Diamond and Hart, Taranaki Street Hastie, Miss J. A., care of Street and Co., 30 Cornhill, London E.C.* Hay, F. C, A.M. Inst. C.E., Public Works Department Heard, Colonel E. S., Oriental Ter- race Hector, Dr. CM., Lower Hutt Helyer, Miss E., 13 Tonks Grove Henderson, Dr. J., Geological Sur- vey Hogben, G., M.A., F.G.S., Educa- tion Board, Government Buildings Boll of Members. 113 Holmes, E. W., M.Inst.C.E., Public Works Department, Government Buildings Holmes, R. L., F.R.Met.Soc, Bau, Fiji* Hooper, Captain G. S., Grant Road (North) Howlett, W. F., B.A. (Oxon), Tane, Eketahuna Hudson, G. V., F.E.S., Hill View, Karori Hunter, Professor T. A., M.A., M.Sc., Victoria College Hislop, J., Department of Internal Affairs, Government Buildings Hector, B., Lower Hutt Izard, Dr. A. W., Murphy Street James, H. L., B.A., Khandallah Johnson, Hon. G. R., care of Martin Chapman, Brandon Street" Jones, Rev. J., Lower Hutt Joseph, Joseph, Grant Road Kennedy, Rev. D., D.D., F.R.A.S., St. Patrick's College King, Thomas, F.R.A.S., 58 Ellice Street" Kingsley, R. J., Collingwood Street, Nelson Kirk, Professor H. B., M.A., Vic- toria College Krull, F. A., Wanganui Laby, Professor T. H., B.A., Vic- toria College La Trobe, W. S., M.A., Technical School Levi, P., M.A., care of Wilford and Levi Lewis, J. H., Public Works Depart- ment, Greymouth Liffiton, E. N., F.I.A.,N.Z., Wa- nganui Lomax, Major H. A., "Araruhe," Aramoho, Wanganui Lomas, E. K., M.A., M.Sc, Train- ing College Ludford, E. J., care of Ross and Glendining (Limited) Marchbanks, J., M.Inst.C.E., Har- bour Board Mason, Mrs. K., Queenstown, Lake Wakatipu Mason, Dr. J. M., M.D., F.C.S., D.P.H. (Camb.), Barrister-at- Law, Lower Hutt Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E., care of W. E. Bethune, Featherston Street Mestayer, R. L., M.Inst.C.E., 139 Sydney Street Moore, G., Eparaima, via Master- ton. Address during session, Legislative Council Moorhouse, W. H. S., 134 Dixon Street Morgan, P. G., M.A., Geological Survey, Government Buildings Morison, C. B., Featherston Street Morton, W. H., M.Inst.C.E., Town Hall Myers, Miss P., B.A., 26 Fitzher- bert Terrace Mackenzie, J., Karori Mackenzie, Professor H., M.A., Victoria College Maclaurin, J. S., D.Sc. F.C.S., Dominion Laboratory, Sydney Street McKenzie, Donald, Carnarvon, Feilding Macdonald, J. W., Public Trust Office Newman, Dr. A. K., M.B., M.R.C.P., M.P., 56 Hobson Street Oram, M. H., M.A., LL.B., Wel- lington College Orr, R., care of Travers, Campbell, and Peacock, Featherston Street Patterson, H., Public Works De- partment, Cass Pearce, A. E., care of Levin and Co. (Limited) Phillips, Coleman, Carterton Phipson, P. B., care of J. Staples and Co. (Limited) Picken, Professor D. K, M.A., 16 Kelburne Parade Pomare, Dr. M., M.P. Powles, C. P., 219 Lambton Quay Poynton, J. W., The Treasury Parry, E., Public Works Depart- ment Porteous, J. S., Brandon Street Reid, W. S., 189 The Terrace Renner, F. M., M.A., Wellington College Robertson, J. B., Public Works De- partment Roy, R. B., Taita* 114 Appendix. Salmond, J. W., M.A., Crown Law Office, Government Buildings Sims, T., Cuba Street Sladden, H., Lower Hutt Smith, M. Crompton, District Sur- vey Office, Government Insurance ! Buildings Spencer, W. E., M.A., M.Sc, Edu- cation Department, Government Buildings Stewart, J. T., 21 Plymouth Street, Wanganui Strachan, J. B., District Survey Office, Government Insurance Buildings Strauchon, J., Lands and Survey Department, Government Build- ings Stuckey, F. G. A., M.A., Island Bay School Sunley, R. M., Karori Swan, W. G. Collington, Public Works Department, Government Buildings Tennant, J. S., M.A., B.Sc, Train- ing College Thomson, G. Stuart, Hamilton Road, Kilbirnie Thomson, J., B.E., M.Inst.C.E., Brooklyn Thomson, J. Allan, B.Sc, Geo- logical Survey, Government Buildings Tolley, H. R., 34 Wright Street Tombs, H. H., Burnell Avenue Tripe, J. A., B.A., LL.B., Grey Street Turnbull, A. H., care of W. and G.' Turnbull and Co. Turnbull, J. U., care of W. and G. Turnbull and Co. Turner, E. Phillips, Lands and Survey Department, Government Buildings Von Zedlitz, Professor G. W., M.A., Victoria College Ward, Thomas, A.M.Inst. C.E., Grey Street Wilson, Miss J. A.. Dominion Mu- seum Wilson, J. G., Bulls Wilton, G. W., 61 Cuba Street AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. [* Honorary and Aickin, G., Queen Street, Auckland Aldis, M., care of Neumegen and j Mowlem, Shortland Street, Auck- land Alexander, L. W., P.O. Box 816, Auckland Arey, W. E., Shortland Street, ; Auckland Arnold, C, Swanson Street, Auck- land Bagnall, L. J., O'Rorke Street, Auckland Ball, W.T., Mount Eden, Auckland Bankart, A. T., care of Campbell- Ehrenfried Company, Queen Street, Auckland Bartley, E., Royal Insurance Build- ings, Queen Street, Auckland Bassett, T., Onehunga Bates, T. L., Station Street, Wara- tah, Newcastle, New South Wales" Batger, J., Mount Eden Road, j Auckland life members.] Benjamin, E. D., L. D. Nathan and Co., Shortland Street, Auckland Bloomfield, W. R., Owen's Road, Mount Eden Brett, H., Shortland Street, Auck- land Briffault, R., M.B., Mount Eden Road, Auckland Broun, Major T., Mount Albert, Auckland Brown, Professor F. D., University College, Auckland Buchanan, A., Victoria Avenue, Remuera Buddie, J. H., care of Brown and Stewart, Swanson Street, Auck- land Buddie, T., Wyndham Street, Auck- land Burgess, E. W., Harbour Board Offices, Auckland Burns, R., Custom Street East, Auckland Boll of Members. 115 Burnside, W., Education Offices, Auckland Burton, Colonel, The Grove, Brank- some Park, Bournemouth, Eng- land* Bush, W. E.,C.E., Municipal Build- ings, Auckland Buttle, J., New Zealand Insurance Company, Queen Street, Auck- land Cameron, R., Savings-bank, Queen Street, Auckland Campbell, Sir J. L., Shortland Street, Auckland Cheal, P. E., Upper Queen Street, Auckland Cheeseman, T. F., Museum, Princes Street, Auckland Choyce, H. C, Remuera Boad, Remuera Clark, A., Wellesley Street, Auck- land Clark, A. W., care of P. Hansen and Co., Queen Street, Auckland Clark, A., M.B., Ellerslie Clark, H. C, Wellesley Street, Auckland Clark, M. A., Wellesley Street, Auckland Clarke, E. de C, University Col- lege, Auckland Clarke, W. St. John, Electric Tram Company, Auckland Coates, T., Orakei Cochrane, W. S., Shortland Street, Auckland Coe, James, Mount Eden Road, Auckland Cole, W., Mount Eden Road, Auck- land Coleman, W., Queen Street, Auck- land Combes, F. H., Victoria Avenue, Remuera Cooper, C, Bourne Street, Mount Eden Cooper, Mr. Justice, Judge's Cham- bers, Wellington Cottrell, A. J., Training College, Wellesley Street, Auckland Cousins, H. C, Normal School, Wellesley Street, Auckland Court, G., Karangahape Road, Auck- land Court, J., Ponsonby, Auckland Craig, J. J., Queen Street, Auck- land Cranweil, R., Crescent Road, Par- nell Crosher, W., Devonport Crossley, Rt. Rev. Lloyd, Bishops- court, Parnell Cufi', J. C, F.S.A., Emerald Hill, Epsom Daw, A. G., Victoria Arcade, Queen Street, Auckland Dearsly, H., Box 488, G.P.O., Auckland De Clive Lowe, G. T. H., L.R.C.P., 27 Symonds Street, Auckland Dettmann, Professor H. S., Univer- sity College, Auckland Devereux, H. B., Waihi Devore, A. E. T., Wyndham Street, Auckland Dickenson, J. C, Public School, Ponsonby Douglas, W. S., Herald Office, Queen Street, Auckland Downard, F. N. R.,Pahi, Kaipara Duthie, D. W., National Bank of New Zealand, Queen Street, Auck- land Dunnet, G., Rocklands, Epsom Earl, F., Swanson Street, Auckland Edson, J., Queen Street, Auckland Egerton, Professor C. W., University College, Auckland Elliott, G., Bank of New Zealand Buildings, Queen Street, Auck- land Ellis, J. W., Hamilton, Waikato Ellison, T., Papatoetoe Ewington, F. G., Durham Street, Auckland Fairclough, W. A., Watson's Build- ings, Queen Street, Auckland Favell, Rev. H. A., Picton Street Auckland Fenwick, G.,Cargen, Eden Crescent, Auckland Finch, F., Harbour Board Offices, Auckland Finlayson, T., Sargood and Son, Victoria Street, Auckland Florance, R. S., Blenheim Fowlds, Hon. G., Queen Street, Auckland 116 Appendix . Garrard, G. W., Education Office. Horton, H., Herald Office, Queen Auckland Street, Auckland George, G., Technical College, Wei- ' Houghton, C. V., Quay Street, leslev Street, Auckland Auckland Gerard, G., Custom Street East, i Inglis, Dr. E. T., Maroondah, Pon- Auckland sonby Eoad, Auckland Gilbert, T., Manukau Eoad, Parnell i Jarman, Professor A., Waihi Girdler, Dr., Khyber Pass Eoad, ; Johnson, H. D., Maungahenga, Te Auckland Aroha Goldie, D., Breakwater Eoad, Auck- Johnstone, Hally burton, Howick land Gordon, H. A., Eanfurly Eoad, Epsom Gorrie, H. T., A. Buckland and Sons, Albert Street, Auckland Graham, G., Tudor Street, Devon- port Grant, Miss J., Devonport Gray, S., Mount Eden Borough Offices, Mount Eden Guinness, Dr. W., Devonport Gunson, J. H., Custom Street East, Auckland Jones, H. W., Public School, Papa- kura Kenderdine, J., Sale Street, Auck- land Kronfeldt, G., Custom Street, Auck- land Lamb, S. E., University College, Auckland Langguth, E., Custom Street West, x\uckland Lennox, J. M., Eemuera Lennox, N. G., care of Auckland Institute, Auckland:,: Gunson, E. W., Custom Street Leys, T. W., Star Office, Shortland East, Auckland Haines, H., F.E.C.S., Shortland Street, Auckland Street, Auckland Lindsay, Dr. P. A., O'Eorke Street, Auckland Hall, E., Agricultural Association, ! Lunn, A. G., Collins Bros., Wynd- Auckland ham Street, Auckland Hall, J. W., Victoria Avenue, Macfarlane, T., C.E., Municipal Eemuera Hall, E., Eemuera Offices, Auckland McLean, M., Otira, Westland Hamer, W. H., C.E., Harbour McDowell, Dr. W. C, Eemuera Board Offices, Auckland Hansen, P. M., Queen Street, Auck- land Harding, A. B., Te Papapa, One- hunga Hay, D. A., Montpellier Nurseries, Eemuera Hazard, W. H., Queen Street, Auck- land Heaton, F., Grammar School, Auck- land Heath, H. W., Alfred Street, Auck- land Herbert, T., Shortland Street, Auck- land Hesketh, H. E., Wyndham Street, Auckland Hodgson, J., Victoria Street East, Auckland Holderness, D., Harbour Board Offices, Auckland McGowan, Hon. J., Thames McMillan, C. C, care of Auckland Institute, Auckland* Mahoney, T., Swanson Street, Auck- land Mair, Captain G., Eotorua Mair, S. A. E., Hunterville, Wel- lington Mair, Major W. G., Eotorua Major, C. T., King's College, Eemuera Makgill, Dr. E. H., Public Health Office, Auckland Martin, J., Victoria Arcade, Auck- land Marchesini, Dr. G., Princes Street, Auckland Metcalfe, H. H., Palmerston Build- ings, Auckland Miller, E. V., Chelsea, Auckland Milnes, H. A. E., Training College, Wellesley Street, Auckland Boll of Members. 117 Milroy, S., Kauri Timber Company, Auckland Milsom, Dr., Cargen, Eden Cres- cent, Auckland Mitchelson, Hon. E., Eemuera Moore, J. E., Esplanade Road, Mount Eden Morgan, A. H. V., School of Mines, Waihi Morgan, H. H., University College, Auckland Morgan, E. J., Shoal Bay Road, Devonport Morton, H. B., One - tree Hill, Epsom Moss, E. G. B., Swanson Street, Auckland Mulgan, E. K., Education Offices, Auckland Myers, A. M., M.P., Campbell- Ehrenfried Company, Auckland Myers, Leo, Campbell-Ehrenfried Company, Auckland Napier, W. J., Victoria Arcade, Auckland Nathan, N. A., L. D. Nathan and Co., Shortland Street, Auckland* Nathan, S. J., 9 Symonds Street, Auckland Newton, G. M., 102 Victoria Arcade, Auckland Nicholson, 0., Royal Insurance Buildings, Queen Street, Auck- land Oliphant, P., 24 Symonds Street, Auckland Pabst, Dr., Parnell Partridge, H. E., Queen Street, Auckland Patterson, G. W. S., Gore Street, Auckland Peacock, T., Queen Street, Auck- land Petrie, D., Rosmead, Epsom Philson, W. W., Colonial Sugar Company, Auckland Player, Dr. C. E., Birkenhead, Auckland Pond, J. A., Queen Street, Auck- land Powell, F. E., Harbour Board Offices, Auckland Price, E. A., Buchanan and Co., Albert Street, Auckland Pycroft, A. T., Railway Offices, Auckland Rangihiroa, Dr. Te, M.P., Auckland Reid, J., 43 Fort Street, Auckland Renshaw, F., Sharland and Co., Lome Street, Auckland Rhodes, C, Waihi Gold-mining Com- pany, Shortland Street, Auckland Roberton, A. B., Custom Street West, Auckland Roberton, Dr. E., Symonds Street, Auckland Roche, H., Horahora, near Cam- bridge, Waikato Rolfe, W., Sharland and Co., Lome Street, Auckland Rossiter, Dr. E. B., Mount Albert Satchell, W., Church Street, North- cote Savage, Dr. T. C, Princes Street, Auckland Scott, Rev. D. D., The Manse, Onehunga Seegner, C, Bank of New Zealand Buildings, Queen Street, Auck- land Segar, Professor H. W., University College, Auckland Shakespear, Mrs. R. H., Whanga- paraoa Shaw, H., Vermont Street, Pon- sonby Simson, T., Mount St. John Avenue, Epsom Sinclair, A., Symonds Street, Auck- land Smeeton, H. M., Binswood, View Road, Mount Eden Smith, H. G. Seth, Victoria Avenue, Remuera Smith, S. Percy, New Plymouth Smith, W. H., Smith and Caughey, Queen Street, Auckland Somerville, J. M., Chelsea, Auck- land Spencer, W. C. C, Grafton Road, Auckland Stewart, J., C.E.,Tuaorangi, Owen's Road, Epsom Stewart, J. W., Wyndham Street, Auckland Stewart, R. Leslie, Brown and Stewart, Swanson Street, Auck- land lib Appendix. Stewart, W. F., Auckland Gas Com- pany, Wyndham Street, Auck- land Streeter, S. C, Mount Eden Thomas, Professor A. P. W., Moun- tain Road, Epsom Tibbs, J. W., Grammar School, Auckland Tinne, H., Union Club, Trafalgar Square, London Trotter, Rev. W., Manukau Road, Epsom Upton, J. H., Queen Street, Auck- land Urquhart, A. T., Karaka, Drury Vaile, E. E., Broadlands, Waiotapu Vaile, H. E., Queen Street, Auck- land Walker, Rev. F. W., Ellerslie Walker, S., Devonport Walklate, J. J., Electric Tram Company, Auckland Wallace, T. F., Waihi Gold-mining Company, Shortland Street, Auck- land Walsh, Archdeacon P., Cambridge Ward, Percy, Mount Roskill Road, Auckland Ware, W., Portland Road, Remuera Waterworth, A., New Zealand Photograph Goods Company, Shortland Street, Auckland Webbe, W. H., Berlin Piano Com- pany, Queen Street, Auckland Webster, J., Cheltenham Avenue, Devonport Webster, W. H., care of Auckland Institute, Auckland Weetman, Svdnev, Westbourne Road, Remuera Wells, T. U., Westbourne Road, Remuera | Whitley, W. S., Albert Street, Auckland Williams, Right Rev. W. L., Napier Wilson, Albert, St. Stephen's School, Parnell Wilson, A. P., Victoria Arcade, Auckland Wilson, J., Shortland Street, Auck- land Wilson, R. M., Russell Road, Remuera Wilson, W. R., Herald Offices, Queen Street, Auckland Wiseman, J. W., Albert Street, Auckland Withy, E., Rotorua Woodward, W. E., Union Bank of Australia, Queen Street, Auckland Wyllie, A., Municipal Buildings, Auckland Yates, E., Queen Street, Auckland Young, J. L., Henderson and Mac- farlaue, Custom Street, Auck- land Young, Captain C. A., General Post Office, Auckland PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. F Life Acland, Dr., Salisbury Street, Christchurch Acland, H. D., Park Terrace, Christchurch Adams, T. W., Green dale Adamson, Rev. H., Papanui Ager, F. T., Woodham Road, Lin- wood Aldridge, W. G., M.A., Technical College, Christchurch Allison, H., care of Harman and Stevens, Christchurch Andersen, Johannes C, Govern- ment Buildings, Christchurch members.) . . Anderson, Dr. C. Morton, Worces- ter Street, Christchurch Aschman, C. T., Training College, Christchurch Baker, T. N., Cashel Street, Christ- church Bartrum, J. A., M.Sc, Geological Survey Beaveu, A. W., care of Andrews and Beaven, South Belt, Christchurch Bell, N. M., M.A., Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge, England Bevan-Brown, C. E., M.A., Boys' High School, Christchurch Boll of Members. 119 Bishop, F. C. B., Armagh Street, Christchurch Bishop, G. W., New Brighton' Bishop, R. C, Gas Office, Christ- church Blackburne, S. S., Manchester Street, Christchurch Blunt, Professor T. G. R., M.A., Canterbury College Boag, T. D., Bryndwyr Booth, G. T., Carlyle Street, Sydenham Borrie, Dr. F. J., Latimer Square, Christchurch Bowen, Sir Charles C, F.R.G.S., Middleton Brock, W., M.A., Education Office, Christchurch Brooker, F. J., Post-office, Christ- church Brown, Professor Macmillan, M.A., LL.D., Holmbank, Fendalton* Bruce, H. A., Opawa Buddo, The Hon. D., M.P., Rangi- ora Bullen, Miss Gertrude, Clyde Road, Christchurch Burnett, T. D., Cave, South Can- terbury Caughley, J., M.A., West Christ- church D.H. School Chilton, Professor C, D.Sc, M.A., M.B.,F.L.S., Canterbury College- Cockayne, L., Ph.D., F.L.S., Canal Reserve, Linwood Cocks, Rev. P. J., B.A., Sydenham Cocks, Miss, Colombo Road South, Christchurch Coles, W. R., Wilson's Road, Christchurch Colee, W. C, M.A., Rugby Street, St. Albans Corkill, F. M., Canterbury College Cross, Miss B. D., M.A., Canter- bury College Cuthbert, E., M.Inst. C.E., M.Inst. San.E., Drainage Board Office, Christchurch Dash, Charles, Spreydon Deans, J., Kirkstyles, Malvern Denham, H. G., Ph.D., D.Sc, Canterbury College Deuniston, Mr. Justice, Durham Street, Christchurch Dobson, A. Dudley, M.Inst.C.E., City Council Office, Christchurch Dorrien Smith, Captain A., D.S.O., Tresco Abbey, Scilly, England Drummond, James, F.L.S., Lyttcl- ton Times, Christchurch English, R., F.C.S., M.I.M.E., Gas Office, Christchurch Enys, J. D., Penrhyn, Cornwall, England Evans, Professor W. P., M.A., Ph.D., Canterbury College Farr, Professor C. Coleridge, D.Sc, A. M.Inst.C.E., Canterbury College Farrow, F. D., M.A., care of A. P. Farrow, Ensor's Road, Opawa Finch, Richard, M.R.C.V.S., De- partment of Agriculture, Christ- church Finlayson, Miss, M.A., West Christ* church School Fletcher, T., District High School, Christchurch Florance, D. C. H., M.A., M.Sc, Canterbury College Flower, A. E., M.A., M.Sc, Christ's College Ford, C. R., F.R.G.S., Hereford Street, Christchurch Foster, T. S., M.A., Cashel Street, Christchurch Foweraker, C, High School, Waimate Gabbatt, Professor J. P., M.A., M.Sc, Canterbury College Garton, W. W., Elmwood School, Christchurch Gibson, Dr. F. Goulburn, Papanui Road Godby, M. H., Hereford Street, Christchurch Goss, W., Durham Street, Christ- church Gray, G., F.C.S., Lincoln College, Lincoln Gray, Melville, Tnnaru Grigg, J. C. N., Longbeach Grimes, Rt. Rev. Bishop, D.D., Christchurch Gudex, M. C, M.A., Boys' High School, Christchurch Guthrie, Dr. J., Lyttelton Hall, J. D., Middleton Hall, Miss, Gloucester Street West, Christchurch 120 Appendix Hallenstein, P. L., Bealey Avenue, Christchurch Hansford, G. D., Winchester Street, Linwood Haszard, H. D. M., F.E.G.S., Lands Department, Christchurch Haynes, E. J., Canterbury Museum Herring, E., Papanui Hight, Professor J., M.A., Litt.D., Canterbury College Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A., D.Sc, Lin- coln College, Lincoln Hill, Mrs. Carey, Papanui Eoad, Christchurch Hitchings, F., Durham Street, Sydenham Hodgson, T. V., F.L.S., Science and Art Museum, Plymouth Hogg, E. G., M.A., F.E.A.S., Christ's College Hogg, H. E., M.A., F.Z.S., 2 Vicar- age Gate, London W. Howell, J. H., B.Sc, Technical College, Christchurch Hughes, T., B.A., Geraldine Humphreys, G., Fendalton Hutton, Mrs., Gloucester Street, Christchurch Ingram, John, Mansfield Avenue, Christchurch Irving, Dr. W., Armagh Street, Christchurch Izard, Miss, Four Peaks, Geraldine Jackson, T. H., B.A., Boys' High School, Christchurch Jameson, J. O., care of Thomas Cook and Son, Hereford Street, Christ- church Jamieson, J., Hereford Street, Christchurch Jennings, L. S., M.A., Canterbury College Kaye, A., Webb Street, St. Albans Kidson, E. E., M.Sc, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Wash- ington, U.S.A.* King, E., High Street, Christchurch Kirkpatrick, W. D., Eedcliffs, Sumner Kitchingman, Miss, Fitzgerald Avenue, Christchurch Laing, E. M., M.A., B.Sc, Boys' High School, Christchurch Lester, Dr. G., Cranmer Square, Christchurch Louisson, Hon. C, M.L.C., Glouces- ter Street, Christchurch Macbeth, N. L., Canterbury Frozen Meat Company, Christchurch Marshall, Mrs., New Brighton Mayne, J. B., B.A., Sydenham McBride, T. J., Papanui Eoad j McCallum, P., M.A., M.Sc, Uni- versity, Edinburgh Macleod, D. B., M.A., Canterbury t College Meares, H. 0. D., Fendalton \t Meredith-Kaye, E. K., Papanui ■ Mill, Dr. Thomas, Geraldine Mollett, T. A. (address unknown)* Moorhouse, Dr. B. M., Oxford Terrace, Christchurch Moreland, Eev. C. H., M.A., Christ's College J Murray- Aynsley, H. P., Clyde Eoad, Eiccarton ! Nairn, E., Lincoln Eoad, Spreydon j Newton, I. E., M.A., Technical College, Christchurch North, W. B., Beautiful Valley, Geraldine Oliver, F. S., care of A. E. Craddock, Manchester Street, Christchurch Oliver, W. E. B., H.M. Customs, Auckland Olliver, Miss F. M., M.A., M.Sc, Hokitika Opie, C. H. A. T., New Brighton Page, S., B.Sc, Canterbury Col- lege Pairman, Dr., Governor's Bay Pannett, J. A., Cashmere Hills Pinfold, Eev. J. T., Springston Parker, W. L., Canterbury College Poulson, John, Styx Powell, P. H., M.Sc, Canterbury College Purnell, C Eeece, W. church Eelph, E. W., Eolleston Avenue, Christchurch Ehodes, A. E. G., B.A., Fendalton Ehodes, Colonel E. Heaton, M.P., Tai Tapu Eichardson, Miss Margaret, Cash- mere Hills, Christchurch Eobinson, W. F., F.E.G.S., Canter- bury College W., Ashburton Colombo Street, Christ- Boll of Members. 121 Ross, R. G., Telegraph - office, Christchurch Rowe, T. W., M.A., LL.B., Here- ford Street, Christchurch Sanders, Miss, Worcester Street, Christchurch Scott, J. L., Manchester Street, Christchurch Seager, J. H., Worcester Street, Christchurch Seager, S. Hurst, F.R.I.B.A., Cathedral Square, Christchurch Seth-Smith, B., Stratford Street, Fendalton Sheard, Miss F., M.A., B.Sc, Girls' High School, Christchurch Shrimpton, E. A., A.M.I.E.E., Telegraph Engineer, Auckland Simmers, G. A., M.A., High School, Timaru Sims, A., M.A., care of Sims, Cooper, and Co, Hereford Street, Christchurch Skey, H. F., B.Sc, Magnetic Ob- servatory, Christchurch Sloman, C. J., Crown Brewery, Christchurch Snow, Colonel, Papanui Road, Christchurch Speight, R., M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Canterbury College, Christchurch Spiller, J., Oxford Terrace, Christ- church Staveley, N. C, A.M.I.C.E., Drain- age Office, Christchurch Stead, E. F., Papanui Road Stevenson, Dr. J., Fendalton Stone, T., Lyttelton Times Office Suter, Henry, Hereford Street, Lin- wood Symes, Dr. W. H., Worcester Street, Christchurch* Symes, Langford P., Belfast Talbot, Dr. A. G., M.A., Oxford Terrace, Christchurch Taylor, A., M.A., M.R.C.V.S., Lin- coln College Taylor, G. J., Madras Street, St. Albans Thomas, Dr. W., Colombo Street, Christchurch* Tripp, C. H., M.A., Timaru* Vickerman, H., Public Works De- partment, Christchurch Waite, Edgar R., F.L.S., The Museum, Christchurch Waller, F. D., B.A., West Christ- church District High School Waymouth, Mrs., Bank of New Zealand, 1 Queen Victoria Street, London Weston, G. T., B.A., LL.B., Cashel Street, Christchurch Whitaker, C. Godfrey, care of Booth, Macdonald, and Co., Christ- church Whitehead, G., B.A., Boys' High School, Christchurch Wigram, Hon. F., M.L.C., Park Terrace, Christchurch Wilding, Frank S., Hereford Street, Christchurch Wilkins, C, The School, Addington, Christchurch Williams, C. J., M.Inst.C.E., Cran- mer Square Wilson, Miss, Lyndhurst, Bealey Avenue Wright, A. M., F.C.S., Box 617, Post-office, Christchurch OTAGO INSTITUTE. [* Life members.] Ackland, E. W., Box 261 Alexander. Dr. E., Ashburn Hall Allan, Dr. W., Mosgiel Allen, James, M.P., Clyde Street Allen, Dr. S. C, 220 High Street Anscombe, E., 134 Princes Street Balk, O., Driver Street, Maori Hill Barnett, Dr. L. E., Stafford Street Barr, Peter, Ann Street Batchelor, Dr. F. C, 368 George Street Bathgate, Alexander, Neidpath Road, Mornington* Beal, L. O., 79 Princes Street Beaumont, Sydney, care of Salmond and Vanes 122 Appendix. Bell, A. Dillon, Shag Valley* Benham, Professor W. B., M.A., D.Sc, F.B.S., Museum Bethune, A. W., Inspector of Ma- chinery Black, Alexander, 82 Clyde Street" Black, Professor J. G., D.Sc, Uni- versity Blair, John, 46 Eglinton Boad, Mornington Booth, D. E., 480 George Street Boys-Smith, Professor, University Brady, Bev. Brother, Pitt Street Braithwaite, Joseph, 36 Princes Street Brasch, H., 55 London Street Bremner, James, 14 Princes Street Brent, D., M.A., Anderson's Bay* Brent, H. C, 74 Queen's Drive, Musselburgh Brickell, B. W., 136 Eglinton Boad, Mornington Brown, F. B., 7 Bridgeman Street, St. Kilda Brown, W., 87 Clyde Street Browne, Bobert, Technical School, Hawera Buchanan, N. L., Paturau, Col- lingwood, Nelson"''- Buckland, Mrs., Waikouaiti Buddie, Boger, Selwyn College Burnside, J. A., 3 Vogel Street Burt, Boss, care of A. and T. Burt (Limited) Butterworth, Charles, Town Belt, Boslyn Cameron, Dr. P. D., 145 Leith Street Chamberlain, C. W., 6 Begent Boad Champtaloup, Dr. S. T., University Chapman, C. B., 135 Town Belt, Boslyn Chapman, Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Christchurch Chisholm, Bobert, Boss Street, Boslyn Chisholm, W. E., Telegraph-office Church, Dr. B., High Street Clarke, C. E., Ogg's Corner, South Dunedin Clarke, E. S., Woodhaugh Collier, E. E., 30 Crawford Street Colquhoun, Dr. D., High Street Couston, B. B., Jetty Street Crawford, W. J., 179 Walker Street Creagh, E. C, P.O. Box 383 Davidson, B. E., Hawthorn Boad, Mornington Davidson, W. B., Assistant Engi- neer, New Zealand Bailways Davies, G. W., 9 Gladstone Street, Belleknowes Davies, O. V., 109 Princes Street Davis, A., Test Boom, Cumberland Street De Beer, I. S., London Street Don, J. B., M.A., D.Sc, 20 Main South Boad Dowling, F. L , Standard Insurance Company Duke, C, care of Salmond and Vanes, Water Street Duncan, P., " Tolcarne," Maori Hill Dutton, Bev. D., F.G.S., F.B.A.S., Caversham Edgar, G. C, Market Street Edge, Kelburne, P.O. Box 109 Elliot, Michael, 16 Albert Street Fairclough, Bev. P. W., F.B.A.S., York Place Farquharson, B. A., M.Sc, 56 Elgin Boad, Mornington Fels, W., 48 London Street* Fenwick, Cuthbert, Stock Exchange Fenwick, G., Otago Daily Times Fergus, Hon. T., Boyal Terrace Ferguson, G., Telegraph-office Ferguson, Dr. H. L., Park Street Findlay, Peter, 126 Albany Street Fisher, T. B., Standard Insurance Company Fitchett, Dr. F. W. B., Pitt Street Fitzgerald, J. A., School, Maori Hill Forsyth, A. C, 203 Maitland Street Frye, Charles, Gasworks, Caver- sham Fulton, H. V., A. and P. Society, Crawford Street Fulton, Joseph, 305 Castle Street Fulton, Dr. B. V., Pitt Street Fulton, S. W., The Exchange, Collins Street, Melbourne* Furkert, F. W., Public Works Office Gall, N. W., care of John Chambers and Sons Garrow, Professor J. M. E., LL.B., Victoria College, Wellington* Roll of Members. 123 Gibson, G. W., Silverton, Ander- son's Bay Gilkison, R., 14 Main Road, North- east Valley Gillanders, W., Test Room, Cum- berland Street Gillies, T. M., Otago Foundry Glasgow, W. T., Albert Street, Roslvn Gough,"G. W., Town Hall Gould, H. J., care of L. O. Beal, Princes Street Goyen, P., 136 High Street, Roslyn Graham, T. S., 177 Princes Street Grave, W. G., M.A., Oamaru Green, B. R., 102 Princes Street Guthrie, H. J., 426 Moray Place E. Hall, Dr. A. J., Stuart Street Hamilton, A., F.L.S., Dominion Museum, Wellington* Hamilton, T. B., M.A., B.Sc, Uni- versity Hancock, Miss A. D., Forbury Road, St. Clair Hanlon, A. C, Pitt Street Hay, C. W., 212 High Street Henderson, M. C, Electrical Engi- neer's Office, Market Street Henton, J. W., 140 York Place Hercus, G. R., 20 Albert Street Hobart, G. T. V., 152 Dundas Street Hodgkinson, Miss E., 25 Bowmont Street, Invercargill Hooper, B. B., A.M. P. Buildings Hosking, J. H., K.C., Salisbury Street Howes, Miss Edith, School, Gore::: Howes, G. W., F.E.S., F.L.S., 812 George Street Howrth, S. H., Grove Street, Musselburgh Hungerford, J. T., Gasworks Jeffrey, J., School, Anderson's Bay Joachim, G., Randall Street, Morn- ington* Johnstone, J. A., Driver Street, Maori Hill Jones, Nelson, 7 Ferguson Street, Musselburgh Jones, R. C, 596 George Street Kempthorne, T. W., Albert Street King, Dr. F. Truby, Seacliff Laing, John, Queen Street Lamb, Tompson, 5 Liverpool Street Lambie, A., Telegraph-office Lawson, J. N., 58 St. David Street Lee, G. A., Otago Harbour Board Lee, Robert, Engineer's Office, N.Z.R. Livingston, W., 56 Royal Terrace Loudon, John, 43 Crawford Street Lough, F. J., Dowling Street Lusk, T. H., Black's Road, Opoho Lythgoe, Jos., Test Room, Cumber- land Street Macdougall, W. P., jun., 28 Cargill Street Mackie, A., Test Room, Cumber- land Street Malcolm, Professor J., M.D., Uni- versity Marchant, Miss M. E. A., M.A., Girls' High School Marriott, C. H., 38 Normanby Street, Musselburgh Marshall, Angus, B.A., Technical School Marshall, J. C, Onslow House, St. Kilda Marshall, Professor P., M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., University Mason, J. B., Otago Harbour Board Massey, Horatio, Invercargill McCurdie, W. D. R., Town Hall McDonald, K. A., care of A. and T. Burt (Limited) McEvoy, W. L., Grove Street, Musselburgh McGeorge, J. C, Eglinton Road, Mornington McKellar, Dr. T. G., Pitt Street McKenzie, D., 268 Princes Street McKerrow, James, F.R.A.S., Wel- lington McKnight, Miss S., M.A., M.Sc, Girls' High School McRae, H., 23 City Road, Roslyn Melland, E., Arthog Road, Hale, Cheshire, England* Miller, David, 25 City Road, Roslyn Milnes, J. W., 39 Lees Street* Mitchell, W. J., U.S.S. Company, Port Chalmers Moore, Dr. S., 5 London Street Morrell, W. J., M.A., Boys' High School Morris, C. B., Waitaki Pharmacy, Oamaru Morris, J. Fairly, Port Chalmers 124 Appendix. Munro, Watson, P.O. Box 519 Murray, A. L., 95 Upper Grosvenor Street, Kensington Neil, Alexander, Gasworks Nevill, Et. Eev. S. T. , D. D. , Bishops- grove Newlands, Dr. Street Nichol, James, Riverview, Gore Oakden, F., Milburn Lime and Cement Company Ogston, Dr. F., 236 High Street Orchiston, G. J., Test Room, Cum- berland Street Overton, T. R., Test Room, Cumber- land Street Park, Professor J., M.A., F.G.S., University Parker, R. V., Survey Office Parr, C, 6 Albany Street Parr, E. J., M.A., B.Sc, Boys' High School Paterson, J. G., M.A.. M.Sc, Wai- kato High School, Hamilton Payne, F. W., 177 Princes Street Petrie, D., M.A., Ph.D., Education Office, Auckland* Pfeifer, C. E., Survey Office Pickerill, Professor " H. P., M.B., B.D.S., University Poppelwell, D. L., Gore Preston, T. A. C, care of Turnbull and Jones Price, R., Public Trust Office Price, W. H., 55 Stuart Street* Rawson, G. A., Kew, Caversham Reid, Donald, jun., 116 Rattray Street Richards, Professor D. J., M.A., University Richardson, C. R. D., B.A., Educa- tion Office Riley, Dr. F. R., Pitt Street Ritchie, J. M., 19 Pitt Street Ritchie, Dr. Russell, 400 George Street Roberts, E. F., 128 High Street, Roslvn Roberts, John, C.M.G., JLittle- bourne Roberts, Dr. W. S., 403 George Street Ross, T. C, care of Ross and Glen- dining (Limited) Russell, G. Gray, care of Trustees, Executors, and Agency Company Rutherford, R. W., Playfair Street, Caversham Sandle, Captain S. G., Onslow House, St. Kilda W., 12 London [ Sargood, Percy, " Marinoto," New- ington Scott, J. H., Converter Station, Cumberland Street Scott, Professor J. H., M.D., Uni- versity Scoullar, W. J., care of W. J. Craw- ford, Walker Street Shacklock, J. B., Bayfield, Ander- son's Bay Shand, Professor J., M.A., LL.D., University Shennan, Watson, 367 High Street Shepherd, F. R., P.O. Box 361 Sherriff, D., 42 Heriot Row Shortt, F. M., care of John Chambers and Sons Sidey, John, Caversham Sim, Mr. Justice, Musselburgh. Simpson, F. A., care of John Chambers and Sons Simpson, George, 98 Russell Street Simpson, George, jun., 9 Gamma Street, Roslyn Sise, G. L., 3 Queen Street Skelsey, F. W., Milburn Lime and Cement Company Skey, Henry, Leith Valley Skinner, H. D., 67 Heriot Row Smith, C. S., Star Office Smith, J. A., Town Belt, Roslyn Smith, J. C, 196 Tay Street, Inver- cargill Somerville, W. G., 18 Leven Street, Roslyn Spencer, Mrs. Montgomery. Geral- dine Stark, E. E., Vauxhall, Anderson's Bay Stark, J., care of Ross and Glen- dining Stark, James, care of Kempthorne, Prosser, and Co. Stark, R. E., Vauxhall, Anderson's Bay Statham, F. H.( A.O.S.M., 26 Dow- ling Street Stewart, W. D., LL.B., 62 Heriot Row Boll of Members. 125 Stout, Sir Eobert, K.C.M.G.; Wei- j lington Swarm, John, 87 Great King Street Symes, H., Town Clerk, Mornington Symington, S., P.O. Box 88, Inver- cargill Tannock, D., Botanical Gardens Theomin, D., 42 Royal Terrace Thomlinson, C. H. *N., Coney Hill Road, St. Clair Thompson, G. E., M.A., University Thompson, R. S., Otago Harbour Board Thomson, G. M., F.L.S., M.P., New- ington Thomson, J. C, Burwood Avenue, Maori Hill Thomson, R. G., Otago Daily Times Thomson, T., Mines Department, Princes Street Vanes, R. N., 8 Water Street Veitch, R. D., Telegraph-office Walden, E. W., 12 Dowling Street Walker, A., Government Inspector of Machinery Wales, P. Y., Rattray Street Wansbrough, T. S., Railway Engi- neer's Office Waters, Professor D. B., A.O.S.M., University White, Professor David R., M.A., 83 St. David Street White, H. E., P.O. Box 132, Wel- lington Whitson, T. W., 584 George Street Williams, Sir Joshua S., M.A., LL.D., K.C.M.G., Supreme Court Wilson, W. S., 375 Cumberland Street Woodhouse, J. F., Alva Street Young, Dr. James, Don Street, Invercargill WESTLAND INSTITUTE. (No list sent in.) HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. [* Life members.] Alexander, R., Napier Antill, H. W., Kumeroa Andrew, E. W., B.A., Napier Asher, Rev. J. A., Napier Bernau, Dr. H. F., Napier Bull, H., Kaiti, Gisborne Burnett, H., Woodville Butterfield, Rev. M. W., Gisborne Chambers, J. B., Te Mata Chambers, J., Mokopeka Chambers, W. K., Repongiere, Gis- borne Clark, Thomas, Eskdale Clark, Gilbert, Napier Coe, J. W., Napier Cooper, S. E., Napier Cornford, Cecil, Napier Craig, J. W., Napier Darton, G., Gisborne Dinwiddie, P., Napier Dinwiddie, W., Napier Donnelly, G. P., Napier Duncan, Russell, Napier Edgar, Dr. J. J., Napier Fitzgerald, J., Napier Fossey, W., Napier Grant, M. R., Napier Guthrie- Smith, H., Tutira Hamilton, A., F.L.S., Wellingtons- Harding, J. W., Mount Vernon Henley, Dr. E. A. W., Napier Hill, H., B.A., F.G.S., Napier Hill, Howard, Napier Hislop, J., Napier" Holdsworth, J., Havelock North Hutchinson, F., jun., Rissington Humphreys, E. J., Tokomaru Bay Hyde, Thomas, Napier Kerr, W., M.A., Napier Large, J. S., Napier Large, Miss, Napier Leahy, Dr. J. P., Napier Locking, Dr. B., Napier Loten, E. G., Napier Lowry, T. H., Okawa Luff, A., Wellington Mayne, Rev. Canon, Napier McLean, R. D. D., Napier 126 Appendix. Metcalfe, W. F., Kiritaki, Te Ara- roa Moore, Dr. T. C, Napier Niven, J., M.A., M.Sc., Napier Oates, W., J. P., Tokomaru Bay Ormond, Hon. J. D., M.L.C., Napier O'Byan, W., Waipiro Paterson, R. L., Napier Eowley, F., B.A., Gisborne Sinclair, G. K., Clive Sherwood, T. E., Makarika, Wai- piro Bay • Sheath, J. H., Napier Smart, D. L., Napier Smith, J. H., Olrig* Snodgrass, J., Napier Spencer, Miss, M.A., Rissington Tanner, T., Havelock North Thompson, J. P., Napier Tiffen, G. W., Gisborne Townley, J., Gisborne Townson, W., Gisborne Turvey, W. J. W., Napier White, T., Wimbledon Williams, G. T., Mokoiwi, Tuparoa, East Coast Williams, F. W. Williams, J. N., Frimley, Hastings Williams, Rev. H., Gisborne NELSON PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. (No list sent in.) MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Akers, H. Armstrong, E. J., C.E. Barnicoat, J. L. Barraud, E.N. Batehelar, J. O. Bendall, W. E. Bennett, G. H. Bond, F. W. Buick, D., M.P. Chappell, Rev. A., M.A. Clausen, A. E. Cohen, M. Cooke, F. H. Crabb, E. H. Davis, R. Doull, Rev. A., M.A. Drake, A. Durward, W. F. Eliott, M. A. Foote, F., B.Sc. Gardner, R. Gerrand, J. B. Glendinning, A. A. Graham, A. J. Greer, S. Greig, Dr. Guy, A. Hankins, J. H. Harman, V. E. Hewett, C. R. Hewitt, Captain, R.N. Hoben, E. D. Hodder, T. R. Ironside, Miss, M.A. Jickell, S., C.E. Johnston, J. Goring Keiller, W. A. Kerslake, T. T. Low, D. W. Macdonald, A. McNab, R. Manson, Thomas Martin, Dr. A. A., M.A. Martin, D. Mitchell, J. Monckton, C. A. W. Moodie, T. A. Mounsey, J. Mowleni, H. Nash, N. H. Nathan, F. J. O'Donnell, W. J., C.E. Park, W. Peach, Dr. Boll of Members. 127 Powles, Captain Putnam, Dr. P. T. Bait, D. H., M.E.C.V.S. Riddiford, E. Roth, C. A Russell, A. E. Scott, G. J. Seifert, L. Sinclair, D., C.E. Smith, W. W., F.E.S. Stevens, J. Stowe, Dr. W. R., M.R.C S. Strang, W. Sutherland, A. Tatton, Dr. Vernon, J. E., M.A. Waldegrave, C. E. Warden, C. H. Watson, F. E. Welch, W„ F.R.G.S. Wilson, Dr. G., M.B. Wilson, K., M.A. Wollerman, H. Young, H. L. 3 — Proceedings, pt. iii. ll> Appendix . LIST OF INSTITUTIONS TO WHICH THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTE ARE PRESENTED BY THE GOVERNORS OP THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, 30. Neiv Zealand. Cabinet, The Members of, Wellington. Executive Library, Wellington. Free Public Library, Auckland. Christchurch. „ Dunedin. Wellington. Government Printer and publishing staff (6 copies). Library, Auckland Institute, Auckland. Auckland Museum, Auckland. Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College, Christchurch. Biological Laboratory, University College, Auckland. Biological Laboratory, University of Otago, Dunedin. Biological Laboratory, Victoria College, Wellington. Canterbury Museum, Christchurch. Dunedin Athenaeum. General Assembly, Wellington (2 copies). Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, Napier. Manawatu Philosophical Society, Palmerston North. Nelson College. Nelson Institute, Nelson. New Zealand Geological Survey. New Zealand Institute of Surveyors. New Zealand Institute, Wellington. Otago Institute, Dunedin. Otago Museum, Dunedin. Otago School of Mines, Dunedin. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch. Polynesian Society, New Plymouth. Portobello Fish-hatchery, Dunedin. JReefton School of Mines. Thames School of Mines. University College, Auckland. University College, Christchurch. University of Otago, Dunedin. Victoria College, Wellington. Wanganui Museum. 'Wellington Philosophical Society. Westland Institute, Hokitika. List of Free Copies. 129 Great Britain. Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London. British Association for the Advancement of Science, London. British Museum Library, London. „ Natural History Department, South Kensington, London S.W. Cambridge Philosophical Society, Cambridge University. Colonial Office, London. Clifton College, Bristol, England. Entomological Society, London. Geological Magazine, London. Geological Society, Edinburgh. „ London. Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London. High Commissioner for New Zealand, London. Imperial Institute, London. Institution of Civil Engineers, London. International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, London. Leeds Geological /Association, Meanwood, Leeds. Linnaean Society, London. Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool. Liverpool Biological Society. Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth. Natural History Society, Glasgow. Marlborough College, England. Nature, The Editor of, London. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist Society, Norwich. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, Newcastle-upon-Tyne . Patent Office Library, London. Philosophical Society of Glasgow. Philosophical Society of Leeds, England. Boyal Asiatic Society, London. Boyal Botanic Garden Library, Edinburgh. Boyal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. Koyal Colonial Institute, London. Boyal Geographical Society, London. Boyal Irish Academy, Dublin. Boyal Physical Society, Edinburgh. Boyal Society, Dublin. „ Edinburgh. „ London. Boyal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, London. Boyal Statistical Society, London. School Library Committee, Eton, England. „ Bugby, England. University Library, Cambridge, England. „ Edinburgh. „ Oxford, England. Victoria College, Manchester. Victoria Institute, London. William Wesley and Son, London (Agents). Zoological Society, London. 130 Appendix. British North America. Canadian Institute, Toronto. Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ottawa. Hamilton Scientific Association, Hamilton, Canada. Institute of Jamaica, Kingston. Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, Canada Bast. Natural History Society of New Brunswick, St. John's. Nova-Scotian Institute of Natural Science, Halifax. Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society, Ottawa. South Africa. Free Public Library, Cape Town. South African Philosophical Society, Cape Town. South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Cape Town. South African Museum, Cape Town. Rhodesia Museum, Bulawayo, South Africa. India. Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. Colombo Museum, Ceylon. Geological Survey of India, Calcutta. Natural History Society, Bombay. Raffles Museum, Singapore. Queensland. Geological Society of Australasia, Queensland Branch, Brisbane. Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. Library, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane. Neiv South Wales. Agricultural Department, Sydney. Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Sydney. Australian Museum Library, Sydney. Department of Mines, Sydney. Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney. Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Lmnaean Society of New South Wales, Sydney. Public Library, Sydney. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, N.S.W. Branch, Sydney. Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney. University Library, Sydney. Victoria. Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne. Field Naturalists' Club, Melbourne. Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne. Gordon Technical College, Geelong. Legislative Library, Melbourne. Public Library, Melbourne. Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne. University Library, Melbourne. Victorian Institute of Surveyors. List of Free Copies. 131 Tasmania. Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart. Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart. South Australia. Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide. University Library, Adelaide. Russia. Finskoie Uchonoie Obshchestvo, Finnish Scientific Society, Helsing- fors. Imper. Moskofskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo - Ispytatelei, Imperial Moscow Society of Naturalists. Kiefskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo-Ispytatelei, Kief Society of Natural- ists. Norway. Bergens Museum, Bergen. University of Christiania. Srveden. Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm. Royal Academy of Science. Stockholm. Denmark. Natural History Society of Copenhagen. Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Literatwe of Copenhagen. Germany. Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin. Konigliche Bibliothek, Berlin. Kbnigliche Physikalisch-Oekonomische Gesellschaft, Konigsberg, E. Prussia. Konighches Zoologisches und Anthropologisch - Ethnographisches Museum, Dresden. Naturhistorischer Verein, Bonn. Naturhistorisches Museum, Hamburg. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Frankfort-an-der-Oder. Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum (Stadtisches Museum fur Vblkerkunde), Cologne. Redaktion des Biologischen Central-Blatts, Erlangen. Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfurt-am-Main. Verein fur Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wiirttemburg, Stuttgart. Austria. K.K. Central- Anstalt fur Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, Vienna. K.K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienna. 132 Appendix. Belgium and the Netherlands. Musee Teyler, Haarlem. Academie Koyal des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux- Arts de Belgique, Brussels. La Societe Koyale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels. Sivitzerland . Musee d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve. Naturforschende Gesellschaft (Societe des Sciences Naturelies), Bern. France. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Musee d'Histoire Naturelle de Bordeaux. Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Societe Entoruologique de France, Paris. Societe de Geographie, Paris. Societe Zoologique de France, Paris. Italy. Biblioteca ed Archivio Tecnico, Eome. Museo di Geologia e Paleontologia del K. Instituto di Studi Superiori, Florence. Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Comparata della B. Universita, Turin. Orto e Museo Botanico (B. Instituto di Studi Superiori), Florence. R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettre, ed Arti. Modena. R. Accademia dei Lincei, Borne. Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, Naples. Societa Africana d'ltalia, Naples. Societa Geografica Italiana, Rome. Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Pisa. United States of America. Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York. Davenport, Iowa. „ Library, Philadelphia. „ San Francisco. American Geographical Society, New York. American Institute of Mining Engineers, Philadelphia. American Museum of Natural History, New York. American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Boston Society of Natural History. Connecticut Academy, New Haven. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. Natural History Museum, Central Park, New York. New York Academy of Sciences. List of Free Copies. 133 Philippine Museum, Manila. Rochester Academy of Sciences. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Stanford University, California. Tufts College, Massachusetts. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. University of Montana, Missoula. Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia. Washington Academy of Sciences. Brazil. Museo Paulista, Sao Paulo. Escola de Minas, Rio de Janeiro. Argentine Republic. Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Ayres. Uruguay. Museo Nacional, Monte Video. Japan. College of Literature, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo^ College of Science, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo. Hawaii. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu. National Library, Honolulu. Java. Society of Natural Science, Batavia. INDE AUTHORS OF PAPERS. AdKIN, G. L. PAGE The Discovery and Extent of Former Glaeiation in the Tararua Ranges, North Island, New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . 308 Description of a Multiple Rainbow. Abstract in Proceedings, Part III . . 85 Archey, G. — Note on the Species of Hydra found in New Zealand. Proceedings, Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Aston, J3. C. — The Raised Beaches of Cape Turakirae . . . . . . . . . . 208 The Chemistry of Bush Sickness . . . . . . . . . . 288 Some Effects of Imported Animals on the Indigenous Vegetation. Proceed- ings, Part I .. .. .. .. .. .. ..19 Bartrtjm, J. A. — Some Rocks of Mount Cargill, Dunedin . . . . . . 163 Benham, W. B. — Report on Sundry Invertebrates from the Kermadec Islands . . 135 Broun, Major T. — Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Coleoptera . . 379 Brown, J. Macmillan. — Migrations of the Polynesians according to the Evidence of their Language . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Burbidge, P. W. (with Laby, T. H.). — The Nature of Gamma Kays. Pro- ceedings, Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Cheeseman, T. F. — A New Genus and some New Species of Plants . . . . . . 159 Note on Helichrysum fasciculatum Buchanan. Proceedings, Part I . . . . 24 Chilton, C. — Miscellaneous Notes on some New Zealand Crustacea . . . . 128 Cockayne, L. — Observations concerning Evolution, derived from Ecological Studies in New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats (Part VII) . . . . 51 Descriptions of some New Species of New Zealand Plants. Proceedings, Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Cooke, F. W. — Observations on Salicornia australis . . . . . . . . 349 Cotton, C. A. — Notes on Wellington Physiography . . . . . . . . . . 245 Typical Sections showing the Junction of the Amuri Limestone and Weka Pass Stone at Weka Pass. Abstract in Proceedings, Part III . . 84 Cottrell, A. J. — Vascular System of Siphonaria obliquata Sowerby . . . . 374 Denham, H. G. — The Action of Alkyl Iodides on Copper-oxide. Proceedings, Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Drummond, J. — The Method of snaring Buds used by the Maoris, with Notes on a Bird known to the Maoris as " Tiaka." Abstract in Proceedings, Part III . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 PIasterfield, T. H. (with Clara Millicent Taylor). — The Interaction of Iron with the Higher Fatty Acids . . . . . . . . . . 301 Fathers, H. T. M. — Note on the Composition of Nitric Acid . . . . . . 299 Gatexby, J. B. — Notes on Nest, Life-history, and Habits of Migas distinctus, a New Zealand Trapdoor Spider . . . . . . . . . . 234 Harrison, L. (with Johnston, T. H.). — On a Collection of Mallophaga from the Kermadecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Hilgendorf, F. W. — Fluctuations in the Level of the Water in some Artesian Wells in the Christchurch Area . . . . . . . . . . 142 4 — Proceedings, pt. iii. •460 Index. PAGE Hogben, G. — Earthquake-origins in the South-west Pacific in 1910 . . . . 139 Hogben, G. (with Skey, H. F.). — Records of Milne Seismographs, 1906-1911 . . 441 Howes, G. — New Species of Lepidoptera, with Notes on the Larvae and Pupae of some New Zealand Butterflies . . . . . . . . . . 203 Ironside, Anne P. — The Anatomical Structure of the New Zealand Piperaceae . . 339 Johnston, T. H. (with Harrison, L.). — On a Collection of Mallophaga from the Kermadecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Kirk, H. B. — Some Features of the Circulatory System of Heptatrema, cirrata Forster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Laby, T. H. (with Burbidge, P. W.). — The Nature of Gamma Rays. Proceed- ings, Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Laing, R. M. — Some Notes on the Botany of the Spenser Mountains, with a List of the Species collected . . . . . . . . . . 60 Longstaef, G. B. — On the Nomenclature of the Lepidoptera of New Zealand . . 108 Malcolm, J. — The Composition of some New Zealand Foodstuffs . . . . 265 Marshall, P. — Nephelinite Rocks in New Zealand . . . . . . . . 304 Meyrick, E. — A Revision of the Classification of the New Zealand Caradrinina . . . . 88 Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera . . . . . . ..117 Oliver, W. R. B.— List of Lichens and Fungi collected in the Kermadec Islands in 1908 . . 86 The Geographic Relationships of the Birds of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Petrie, D. — Descriptions of New Native Species of Phanerogams . . . . 179 On Danthonia nuda and Triodia Thomsoni . . . . . . 188 Phtlpott, A. — Descriptions of Three New Species of Lepidoph ra .. . . 115 Poppelwell, D. L. — Notes on the Plant Covering of Codfish Island and the Rugged Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Prout, L. B. — Notes on the Nomenclature of the New Zealand Geometridae, with a Description of a New Species. Proceedings, Part II . . 52 RiGG, T.— Montan Wax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Skey, H. F. (with Hogben, G. ).-* Records of Milne Seismographs, 1906-1911 . . 441 Speight, R. — A Preliminary Account of the Lower Waipara G*orge . . 221 Taylor, Clara Millicent (with Easterfield, T. H.). — The Interaction of Iron with the Higher Fatty Acids . . . . . . . . . . 301 Tillyard, R. J. — Notes on some Dragon-flies from the Kermadec Islands . . 126 Waits, E. R.— Notes on New Zealand Fishes : No. 2 . . . . . . . . 194 Additions to the Fish Fauna of the Kermadec Islands. Proceedings, Part I 28 Wild, L. J.— The Geology of the Bluff, New Zealand. . . . . . . . 317 John Mackay, Government Printer, Wellington. — 1912. Registered for transmission by post as a Magazine. VA* TRANSACTIONS AND PEOCEEDINGS OF THK NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1911 VOL. XLIY (New Issue) EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE Issued 10th June. Iyl2 WELLINGTON, N.Z. JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE William Wesley and Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand. London W.C. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. TRANSACTIONS. Price. Complete sets and partial sets, together with the: index to the forty £ s. d. volumes of the first series, can be supplied as special prices, whioh will be quoted on application. Vol. 1, second edition .. .. .. .. .. ..110 Vols. 2, 3. 4, and 8. (Out of print.) The price for the other volumes will be given on application to the Secretary. The price varies according to the number in stock. The Proceedings for the year 1909 and subsequent years are published in parts. The price to non-members is, p£r part . . . . 0 1 U INDEX TO TRANSACTIONS, VOLS. 1-40. Part 1 — Authors and Titles of Papers; Part 2 — Subject-index. Cloth, 5s. Quarter-bound, 3s. 6d. Paper cover .. ..020 MAORI ART. A few sets of the five parts of this w.a-k are in hand. For set of five 4 4 0 Separate copies of the parts can be obtained, — Part 1 (Canoes). (Out of print..) Part 2 (Houses) — This is a double part, and contains coloured plates of raitervpa .tterns .. .. .. •• .. ..076 Parts 3, 4, and 5 . . . . . . . . . . each 0 5 0 Specially designed covers for the full work in maroon cloth 0 5 0 MANGAREVA DICTIONARY. By E. Tregeab. 1899 ..010 LIBRARY CATALOGUE of the Joint Libraries of the Geological Survey, the Museum, New Zealand Institute, and the Wellington Philosophical Society. 1st edition, 1890. (Out of print.) 2nd edition, 1900 .. .. .. .. .. ..010 CATALOGUE OP THE CARTER COLLECTION OP NEW ZEALAND BOOKS. Catalogue and three Supplements. (Oat of print.) MANUAL OP THE NEW ZEALAND COLEOPTERA. By Major Bkoun. Part 1, 1880; Part 2, 1881; Part 3, 1886; Pari 4. 1886; Part 5, 1893 ; Part 6, 1893 ; Part 7. 1893 BULLETIN No. 1. New Genera and Species of j Coleoptera. By Major Broun. ( To members BULLETIN No. 2. Revision of the New Zealand j Byrrhidae. By Major Broun. I To members 110 0 2 0 0 16 0 3 6 0 3 0 PUBLISHED *BY THE PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. INDEX FAUNAE NOVAE ZEALANDIAE. Edited by £ s. d. Captain F. W. Hotton, 8vo ..... . . . . . . 0 12 6 SUBANTARCTIC ISLANDS OP NEW ZEALAND. Edited by Dr. Cha:;. Chilton, 2 vols., 4vo jTo members; \ '[ £ I MBL WHOI LIBRARY uh nflT s 1 1 I 1 i