5 arith ony ‘i fete yp tee ree Walther \2 ha dep Supt elibe 9 a ned raiment) Marea eave ery : 4 a) 44 oa Watindeataras yahsve Maes MeN rile Pyaar Hellew ae) Al Sa. Ad 8 1, DSS Bass Mua 345 a > 210 erie neces 4 Yee > rere Haw TNS) Mo Oh be dah biti pase hey 4 aie Ay i} ay Seda yt ied 90) aie ¥ win hi Pernt OSA Dibetp pitas yaa iar uber it ait 84 eget 1 iin rremercer + hb ba ys we DEM te Nate Bs prebetetrest a 19) Sata rere tonpmnehig nce pegwe miata Were eee ee ita fethbaoilc seh eae ls bet Beerenrecres. Rae ae be enh ogi Wore tren ts : Seelste et aed sas aitaeane ah duh} yy Nas Moses ess seel ene “inlesacee aeaansee PUrtrere ne! te pec ti evenrereacty tity wee silty aes 00) Fh Se hs ty ‘Shade eh Daa! ny ipl cite Ae REDE OT he tae bay Bribes 4 ptsansa che ay © Niipeeria iat eeaares: Sates Os F424 pe iet Peery Na tie 2s py Fe pepe tt he on gp ta samenene see te bate Og) Hate cee ay! Eretrie teeta J85 ws Pit yey meas aay arrears ’ recht Sabesd bc aap) > ite vena re py ae kena Me 0S be Bits oe ty he ee ahha LTE habeda be bidbaelbhenss WUT iea sie 7 Dever Aha Sane 6 wi #038 96 7a anes 2 thy rar HSA “ Por eie re) Sere Meret ty te are Eiscaeie) Obs bh tehseibe 438) Bd ya wel * pd toh a Abu 494. Fea ey Le paehd Vinee se Ein Forested MST tone eelaty teh aed. ¥ isietite th + 9 : ‘ 5) E43 't9 Sh Nseh ts eae its bod WANTS fees sas ADereaasps beleere tess Pah woagasecrogs tet re ESN idee Tipean yt be. brt Nie Bheey AIMS ; 4 ite ¢ HAAS eh brat ttt Wiethea) in yesanaginits RT) BB, eek its hs yas eho) sya Pt Yad 4 re aha Pere vere tet Tob) bh tagraatt hy adh pes Thay abs hah i} ot Di fay ity pitasten Vi ak ipl ae a mien Ni Se he? ity Sate 93 Pheis He tatbasaease ote ae Ash te so ae? cai ke Hist 7 Hesite a sie see itaistass rt sie> See} ah iad \ site ist aeali sf aH Wrarhy easiest nf Eat iitesee it Rabati dupe iri ised 14 Wad, yteult ite ; pal Ha , i} v bos eT aoe bbe ph ‘a Bs kik Sey ata vad ab ter fe a ritro: a ty a" eines! Chasis ref - pyisye? ati Pet fa xt erat wy hes Fs eit verti abe - bok [sat cadet beeader its rf, eyes 4 e Pea fs ap aan ie ot nay as wei y Pitas tt oe ae cere 14 a WA aot etirtee ith bf A Haass ‘a sae bed eo) ee b Syterantt ager Se tbe eG EN Ld a FOAM We abe ae righ eet false sete i Soies 9101 feared dado phe ba basi day , Ui haunt nit * th rae is! isha a = fate . ie ae pee ty sSitearivteater i be Gh Ve. : a TRANSACTIONS PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Lee: pane Ny Za f VOL. VI. ee EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE, BY JAMES HECTOR, MD. FBS. qe Se 25 : > pony O# cs JUNO 1926 x) 4 Issunp June, 1874. yh "Ona muse» WELLINGTON: JAMES HUGHES, PRINTER, LAMBTON QUAY TRUBNER & CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. “sae ERRATA ET ADDENDA. PAGE 64, in the table under Aquila audamx, for 8:20 read 8:02. 64, 5 33 Be » and p. 65, line 9, for 22:03 read 21°85. 66, ,, 8 from bottom, for proximal read procnemial. 69, ,, 4, for ridges read caleaneal ridges. 70, ,, 3 from bottom, for shorter read stouter. '5, in the table, for Metatarsus read: Fibula, and insert ‘‘5-6. Metatarsus of H. moorei.” EGS as », transpose Weight and Bulk. 35, line 14, for curved read convex. 130, ,, 13 from bottom, add ‘‘ He has since repeated this error in his ‘Catalogue,’ by stating (p. il) that Certhiparus nove-zealandie inhabits both islands.” 183, .,, 38, for January, 1874, read July, 1873. 319, ,, 22, for 6,000 read 1,000. 320, ,, 15, for Reid’s read Ross’. 323, in the second table, for Liang read Leaning. 301, line 14, for of read by. 334, ,, 22, for Liodon read Leiodon ; algo on pp. 336, 338. 350, for Mauisaurus latibrachialis read M. brachiolatus. 385, line 13 from bottom, omit the second ‘‘ by.” XXXVil,, in the table, line 8, for the first ‘‘munga” read manga; for the second read mangu. xli,, line 19 from bottom, omit Mu. sdbittss 55 kN an » under Kau add Mu. lu., ,, 32, for dun read dan. liv., ,, 12, for of read on, ly., ,, 8 from bottom, for ubah read uba. lvi., ,, 12 and 19, for Crawford read Crawfurd. Ixi., ,, 26, for karana read karaua. Ixvi., ,, 5 from bottom, for Garlandinea read Guillandina. Iborabithyay, MIPS. », Jor oullana read orellana. ERRATA. Tue ‘‘ Minimum Temperature on Grass,” or terrestrial radiation readings for Bealey, which appear in Table VI. of the Reports on the Climate of New Zealand, published in Vols. V., VI., and the present Vol. (VIL.), are unreliable, owing to errors in the instrument. CONTENTS. TRANSACTIONS. I.—MIscELLANEOUS. ART. I. On the Variation of the Declination of the Magnetic Needle in the Southern Portion of the Middle Island, and Remarks on the Desirability of establishing ene Observatories in New Zealand. By A. H. Ross II. On Observed Irregularities in the eae of the Compass in ion - Steam Vessels. By A. H. Ross III. Description of the Patent Slip at Evans Bay, ielbucien, and of the Mode of Erecting or (ous wees the same. By J. Rees George, C.E. was IV. On a Smokeless and Self-feeding Witenace for Tigsites and Sac: ~ Fuels, and the Utilization of the Waste Heat. By H. Skey .. V. On the Most Economic Mode of eee Steam Boilers. By J. C. Firth VI. On the Probability of a a Water Sabply Nees Sueuinba for the City of Auckland from Mount Eden. By John Goodall, C.H. . Notes on the Proposition to supply Auckland with Water fron Mount Eden. By James Stewart, C.E. ws . On the Reclamation of Sand Wastes on the Coast, nna the te tion of their Inland Advance. By James Stewart, C.E. ee TX. Notes on the Plants best adapted for the Reclamation of Sand Wastes. By T. Kirk, F.L.S. X. Notes on Indigenous Materials for the Manuincutre of Paper. By T. Kirk, F.L.8. XI. On the Prediction of Occultations of stars by the Moon. By T. Heale Il.—Zoonoey. XII. On Harpagornis, an Extinct Genus of Gigantic pantry Birds of New Zealand. By Julius Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., Director of the Canterbury Museum On Cnemiornis calcitrans, Owen, snopes its Affinity. ie the armel: lirostrate Natatores. By James Hector, M.D., ask Notes on Delphinus forstert. By James Hector, ae ERS. Notice of a Variation in the Dentition of eae ee Gray. By James Hector, M.D., F.R.S8. XVI. List of Seals, Whales, anal Dolphins of New ealana. Gray, Ph.D., F.R. 8., Hon. Mem. N.Z. Inst. : Notice of the Binion of dhe New Zealand Bight Whale rie acleay ae australiensis). By J. E. Gray, Ph.D., FR.S. XIII. XIV. XV. By J. E. XVII. PAGES 3—9 10—14 1425 25—32 32—34 35—40 40—42 4245 45—54, 55—57 57—61 62—75 76—84 85 86—87 87—89 90—92 vi XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXII. XXIV. XXV. XXXVI. XXVIT. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXII. XXXII. XXXITI. XXXIV. XXXYV. XXXVI. XXXVIT. XXXVITII. XXXIX. XL. Contents. Notes on Dr. Hector’s Paper on the Whales and Dolphins of the New Zealand Seas. By J. E. Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S. On the Occurrence of a New Species of Wishes (Z. potieiyee remarkably small Catodont Whale, on the Coast of New Zealand. By Julius Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S. é On Cheimarrichthys fosteri, 1 New (one belonging to the Nee Zealand Freshwater Fishes. By Julius Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S. Notes on some New Zealand Fishes. Be Cae RW. Button, C.M.Z.S. Notice of Motella nove- Elena, n. 8. FE.R.S. On a New Genus of Rallide. By Captain F. W. atroat C.M.Z. s. By James “Hector, M. D., Notes on the New Zealand Woodhens (Ocydr ee. F. W. Hutton, C.M.Z.S8. Notes on the Ornithology of New ete ID ISiG:5 JIVE Ge.” | cee Notes on he Little Bittern of New egal (Ar hie maculata), By Walter L. Buller, D.Sce., F.L.S. 3 Note on Platy lycercus un icolor in the British Museum. i Walter a Buller, D.Se., F.L.S. Remarks on Captain Hutton’s Note on Certain Species of Wee Zealand Birds. By Walter L. Buller, D.Se., F.L.S. Notes by Captain Hutton on Dr. Buller’s ‘‘ Birds of New Zealand,” with the Author’s Replies thereto On the Birds of New Zealand (Part IV.) By T. ra ate F.L. S, Note on the Occurrence of Dermestes lardarius and Phoracantha recurva in Canterbury, New Zealand. By C. M. Wakefield ... Notes upon certain recently-described New Genera and Species of Coleoptera from Canterbury, New Zealand. By C, M. Wakefield List of the Insects recorded as having been found in New Zealand previous to the Year 1870. By Captain F. W. Hutton, C.M.Z.S. List of the Lepidoptera recorded as having been found in New Zealand previous to the Year Beles By R. W. Fereday, C.M.E.S. L. Observations on the cenerende of a Butterfly, new to New Zealand, of the Genus Danais. By R. W. Fereday An Introduction to the Study and Collection of the Avansideas in New Zealand, with a Description and Figures of Cambridgea fasciata, L. Koch, from Chatham Island; and also’ of a New Species of Macrothele, Auss., M. huttonii, Cambr., found at Wellington, New Zealand. By t the Rev. O. P. eae M.A., C.M.Z.S. : By eee By ne: L. Baler, III .— Botany, List of the Algc of the Chatham Islands, collected by H. H. Travers, Hsq., and examined by Professor John Agardh, of Lund. Communicated by Baron Ferd. von Span C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Hon. Mem. N.Z. Inst. Notes on the Flora of the Province of Wellington, with a List of Plants collected therein. By John | Buchanan, 0 of the seco ceteal Survey of New Zealand Descriptions of some New Zealand Lichens, Buchanan in the Province of Wellington. M.D., Glasgow. On some New Species of New Zealand Plants. collected by John By James baie Communicated by. John Buchanan By John Beha PAGES 93—97 97—102 103—104 . 104—107 . 107—108 108—110 . 110—112 . 112--118 . 119—121 . 121—123 . 123—126 . 126—138 139—153 153—154 155—157 158—171 ... L7I—I182 . 183—186 187—207 . 208—210 . 210— 5 bie . 235—241 241—244 Ea Contents. Vil PAGES XLI. Motiee of an Undescribed ges of Coulutine: By Thomas ee E.LS . 244-246 XLII. Gn the New Zealand Poeas of Cheilanthes. By T. Kirk, FLAS. ... 247—248 XLII. On the Spread of Cassinia leptophylla. By W. T. L. Travers BLAS. eas ces 248—251 IV tee 5 XLIV., Notes upon the Mineral Oils of New Zealand. By William BEY, Analyst to the Geological Survey of New Zealand 252—259 XLY. Further Report on the Chemistry of Phormium tenax. By Acthus Herbert Church, M.A.Oxon., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, England ~ ... 260—271 V.—GEOLOGY. XLVI. Un the Geelogical Structure of the Thames Gold Fields. By Se F. W. Hutton, F.G.S. . 272—283 XLVI. On the Fermatien of Mountains; a Ronly to the Rev 0. Wishes By Capt. F. W. Hutton, F. Gs . 284—290 XLVIIL.- Pert Nichelson an Ancient Fresh- eats Lake. By 3. C. Craton F.G.S. . 290—294 XLIX. Notes en the Glacial eae By A. D. Dobson, C. E. . 294 —297 L. On the Extinct Glaciers of the Middle Island of New Fennel By W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. . 297—309 LI. Gn the Glacial Action and Tekiade fiebusiens “of South New Zealand. By J. T. Thomson, F.R.G.S. a . 309—332 LI. On the Fossil Reptilia of New Zealand. By James Hecter, M. D., F.R.S., Director of the Geelogical Survey of New Zealand . 333—358 LIil. On the Teeth of the Letedon. By Charles Knight, F.R.C.S. ... 3d8—363 PROCEEDINGS. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Anniversary Address ef the President, Dr. Hector, F.R.S. is ... 367—376 ‘On the Occurrence of Selenium and Telluriwm in the Ae eunourecd of Welling- _ ton. By W.S. Hamilton i be a 376 Notes on the Fixing ef Sand-hills. ee. William enn Communicated by J. C. Crawferd, F.G.S. * . 376—377 Notes respecting the recent Change in te Apex of ‘Monnt Cask. By amd Barff 379—380 Notes respecting a Hot cee in the Bed of ihe Watares Re Westland. By W. H. Ralph ... : 380 Notice of the Occurrence of a Red shales among te Fruit sitrces in the ci and the Disappearance of the Blight. By James Morton... . 380—381 - Suggestions for the Conversion of Sawdust into Fuel. Communicated by J. C. Crawford, F.G.S. ie . 381—382 On a new Lepyrodia. By Baron F. v. Poacenien C. M. Gave D., B. R.S., ions Mem. N.Z. Inst. ... 384 Notes of a Visit to White Tae in ae course es a Trip tis in H.M. 8, ‘‘ Basilisk.” By the Rev. William Sewell, M.A. .. 386—387 Notes respecting the Moa Cave at Earnscleugh, Otago, By T. ‘HL Cockburn Hood, F.G.8. Ace as tes 387 —388 Note on Sporadanthus, a new Genus of Plants one the Grathan Tends By Baron F, v. Mueller, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Hon. Mem. N.Z. Inst. ... 389 Abstract Report of Council =~ a pe con ... 389—390 Vili Contents. PAGES Election of Officers for 1874 ae sae aa 390 On the Durability of New Zealand ese with Siogestions for its Preserva- tion. By John Buchanan es . 390—391 On Solar and Terrestrial Radiation. By C. Rous Abate’ F.M. s. ... 891—392 AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. Abstract Report of the Council as FA a or 393 Election of Officers for 1873 ae Be 393 Anniversary Address of the President, His Honor 7. B. Gillies | . 394—399 Report on, and Analysis of, the Water with which it is proposed to supple Shortland and Grahamstown. From the Colonial Tabeees Communi- cated by His Honour the Superintendent aaa : 399 Remarks on Dr. Bastian’s recent Work on the Beginnings of Life. By T. Hee 400—401 On Cosmography. By J. Leith 24 ae 401 On Induction and Necessary Truth. By the Rev. R. Kidd, ith. D. See 402 Remarks on Mr. Leith’s Paper on Cosmography. By T. Heale 402 Report on Samples of Stone from the Tokatea Tunnel. By Dr. Ae E.R. . Communicated by His Honour the Superintendent . 402—404 Abstract Report of the Council re la ies ..» 405—406 Election of Officers for 1874 Sieh Bad ioe ee 406 PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Anniversary Address of the President, Henry J. Tancred ee ‘ ... 7—415 On the Desirability of dedicating to the People of New Zealand small Areas of Ground, assimilating to the Village Greens of England. By F. E. Wright 415—416 Résumé of the Characters of the Family Epeiride. By Ll. Powell, M.D. sah 417 © Note upon recently-described New Zealand Coleoptera. By C. M. Wakefield 417 Further Notes on recently-described New Zealand Coleoptera. By C. M. Waketield ae ane aut ase ae 418 Abstract Report of the Council oe ae Se se 418 Election of Officers for 1874 wk : at is 419 Exhibition of a Skeleton of Aptornis by Dr. aeaet / a 419 Anniversary Address of the President, Julius Haast, Ph.D., F. R. S. .. 419—432 OTAGO INSTITUTE. Remarks on the Whale Fishery in the South Seas 433 A Visit to Sandymount District, Otago Peninsula, and a brief Desteapaen of some of its more prominent Natural Features. Ry Peter Thomson . 484435 On the Skull of a Grampus killed by the Maoris at the Heads. By A. C. Purdie 435—436 Salmon Acclimatization in New Zealand. By W. Lauder oe M.D., F.R.S.E., Hon. Mem. N.Z. Inst. , 436—438 Election of Officers for 1874 “a ... 439—440 On the Mythology and Traditions of the Maori in New mental By the Rev. F. H. Wohlers hss pac 440 Anniversary Address of the Baeedeus. Ane A nhoecae! F.R.G. 5. ... 440—446 Maori Traditions in the Native Language. By the Rev. F. H. Wohlers ae 446 On some Naturalized Plants of Otago. By G. M. Thomson Wr ... 446—447 Remarks on Hepaticz collected by eh Hutton and Mr. Kirk. By Dr. 8. Berggren... 447 Note on a Sea Trout caught in mnie Harbour. By Ee F. Wr Button! F.G.S. ae : 447 Contents. ix NELSON ASSOCIATION. PAGES Election of Officers for 1874 ae ae ce 449 Note on a Green and Brown Spotted Lizard. By .. Mackay ... fics 449 NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Fifth Annual Report by the Board of Governors... sit ... 451—453 Accounts of the New Zealand Institute poker ae 453 Address to His Excellency Sir G. F. Bowen, G.C M. G. ie ... 453—454 Reply to Address noc 50 ane ae 008 454. APPENDIX. PAGES Meteorological Statistics of New Zealand for 1873 ee ae xix—xxi Earthquakes reperted in New Zealand during 1873 ~ ae ie xxi Comparative Abstract for 1873 and Previous Years aie a3 xi Notes on the Weather during 1873 Ee ses .. XXii—xxiv Philological Considerations on the Whence of the Maori. By J. T. Thomson, ELR.G.S. ae xxv—lxv On the pony of Tahiti. (A nee Tee ) Coronel by the Hon. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S. .. Ixvi—Ixxx Abstract of Lecture on New Guinea. By Captain Moresby, R.N., of H.M.S. ‘ Basilisk” F . Lxxxi—lxxxix A Catalogue of the Neuropterous Tasects of Noe Zealand ; a Notes wid Descriptions of new Forms. By Robert M ‘Lachlan, F.L.S. (Re- printed from Ann. and Mag. N. H., July, 1873, p. 30 e¢ seq.) ee XC—Xcix Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute ss as G Ordinary Members aa as Sy es c—cvi Errata et Addenda a0 506 508 age hii Contents aa ae ai iva Ope v—ix List of Plates aa Sad ise +x Board of Governors of the New renaed Tati at ane xi Abstracts of Rules and Statutes of the New Zealand Institute se xi—xili List of Incorporated Societies... ae xiv Officers of Incorporated Societies and Tepe Gor the Bales bat xiv—xvi bo x. Contents. ILLUSTRATIONS. TO FACE PAGE J. J. T. ToHomson. -—Rainitsontsoraka te was Oa II. A Map illustrating ‘‘ Whence of the Maori’ : BB XXX Til. A si ae se 55 lvuli IV. Grorce.—Wellington Patent Slip ais ae aaa 16 V. Firtra.—Boiler Felting 32 H. Sxey.—Smokeless Furnace ce she - VI. Camprince.—Macrothele huttonii, Cambridgea fasciata 208 204 VII. Haast.—Harpagornis mooret = ce Bc 64 VALET. 55 Harpagornis assimilis ae Hf ais 68 TEX 55 Harpagornis moorei até 1s ee 72 X. Hector.—Cnemiornis calcitrans ve =e nee 76 Del Giaimee ‘3 55 as ete ie 78 XC iiss 5 e ae te ues 80 p.@1 110 ear 3 56 Se as ity 84 SONVA eS ss 6 2 Se ae oe 80 TVeAS 955 On ac es pe 82 XV. Haast.—Huphy cls pottsit me ore ae 98 XV.A. Hecror.—Mesoplodon hectori an ae ae 86 XVI. Gray.—WMacleayius australiensis aes nes ies 90 WAN oe is a ae ite side 90 XVIII. Haast.—Cheimarrichthys fosteri sat Bee Hectror.— Motella nove-zealandie : 104 Hurron.—Lotella rhacinus, Gaster ochisma melampus, Odazx vittatus XIX, 35 Leptoscopus macropygus, Leptoscopus eee Rhombo- solea tapirina uss oP 104 XxX. _ Cabalus (Rallus) modestus ... ne ae 108 XXI. BuLtier.—Ardetta maculata ie Ax oat 120 XXII. BucHanan.—Senecio robusta, Rubus parva oct Ae 240 XXIII. Ae Senecio hectori Ses ise aes 244. XXIV. Knicut.—Leiodon hawmuriensis Sto one a 360 KXY. i Bae 39 as =a ae 360 XXVI. on 35 on as Ss as 362 XXVII. Heroror.—Plesiosaurus australis, Polycotylus tenuis... es 338 XXVIII. Fe Plesiosaurus crassicostatus, Plesiosaurus hoodii ae 344 XXIX., Pe Mauisaurus haastii a sey bee 348 XXX. 55 Leiodon haumuriensis an aa aes 352 XXXII. 7 Taniwhasaurus owent obi acit Sab 354 ¢ NE We 2k ALAND oF Nis wk. ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND INTITULED “THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867.” BoaRD OF GOVERNORS. a (EX OFFICIO.) His Excellency the Governor. | The Hon. the Colonial Secretary. His Honour the Superintendent of Wellington. : (NOMINATED. ) Hon. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S. (retired 1868), Hon. Col. Haultain (retired 1869), Jas. Edward FitzGerald, C.M.G. (retired 1871), Charles Knight, F.R.C.S8. (retired 1872), Sir David Monro, W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., Alfred Ludlam, James Hector, M.D., F.R.S., Hon. G. M. Waterhouse, Hon. E. W. Stafford. (ELECTED.) 1873.—His Honour William Rolleston, B.A., His Honour Mr. J notice Chapman, Captain F. W. Hutton, F.G.8. 1874.—His Honour William Rolleston, B.A., His Honour Mr. Justice ehapman, James Coutts Crawford, F.G.S. ABSTRACTS OF RULES AND STATUTES. GAZETTED IN THE ‘‘ NEw ZEALAND GAzzTTE,” Marcu 9, 1868. b) SEcTron 1. Incorporation of Societies. 1. No Society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the provisions of ‘‘ The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867,” unless such Society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than fifty pounds sterling annually, for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the Chairman for the time being of the Society. 2. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the Institute in case the number of the Members of the said Society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such Members shall at any time be less than £50. 3. The bye-laws of every Society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one-third of its annual revenue in or towards the formation xii New Zealand Institute. or support of some local public Museum or Library ; or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and maintenance of the Museum and Library of the New Zealand Institute. 4. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue affixed in manner provided by Rule 3 aforesaid, shall from thenceforth cease to be incorporated with the Institute. 5. All papers read before any Society for the time being incorporated with the Institute, shall be deemed to be communications to the Institute, and may then be published as proceedings or transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regula- tions of the Board of the Institute regarding publications : Regulations regarding Publications. (a) The publications of the Institute shall consist of a current abstract of the proceedings of the Societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled, ‘‘ Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute,” and of transactions comprising papers read before the Incorporated Societies (subject, however, to ~ selection as hereinafter mentioned), to be intituled, ‘‘'Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.” (6) The Institute shall have power to reject any papers read before any of the Incorporated Societies. (c) Papers so rejected will be returned to the Society before which they were read. (d) A proportional contribution may be required from each Society towards the cost of publishing the proceedings and transactions of the Institute. (e) Each Incorporated Society will be entitled to receive a proportional number of copies of the proceedings and transactions of the Institute to be, from time to time, fixed by the Board of Governors, (f) Extra copies will be issued to any of the Members of Incorporated Societies at the cost price of publication. ; 6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from Incorporated Societies and placed in the charge of the Institute shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the. discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the property of the Institute, 7. Subject to ‘‘ The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867,” and to the foregoing rules, all Societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the bye-laws for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs. 8. Upon application signed by the Chairman, and countersigned by the Secretary of any Society, accompanied by the certificate required under Rule No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under the Seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the foregoing rules of the Institute are complied with by the Society, Secrion II, For the Management of the Property of the Institute, 9. All donations by Societies, Public Departments, or private individuals, to the Museum of the Institute, shall be acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and shall be duly entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct. Abstracts of Rules and Statutes. xiii 10. Deposits of articles for the Museum may be accepted by the Institute, subject to a fortnight’s notice of removal to be given either by the owner of the articles or by the Manager of the Institute, and such deposits shall be duly entered in a separate catalogue. — 1l. Books relating to Natural Science may be deposited in the Library of the Institute, subject to the following conditions :— (a) Such books are not to be withdrawn by the owner under six months’ notice, if such notice shall be required by the Board of Governors. (6) Any funds specially expended on binding and preserving such deposited books, at the request of the depositor, shall be charged against the books, and must be refunded to the Institute before their withdrawal, always subject to special arrangements made with the Board of Governors at the time of deposit. _ (c) No books deposited in the Library of the Institute shall be removed for temporary use except on the written authority or receipt of the owner, and then only for a period not exceeding seven days at any one time. 12. All books in the Library of the Institute shall be duly entered in a catalogue, which shall be accessible to the public. 13. The public shall be admitted to the use of the Museum and Library, subject to bye-laws to be framed by the Board. Section IIT. 14, The Laboratory shall, for the time being, be and remain under the exclusive management of the Manager of the Institute. Secrion IV. OF DATE 23RD SEPTEMBER, 1870. Honorary Members. Whereas the rules of the Societies incorporated under the New Zealand Institute Act provide for the election of Honorary Members of such Societies; but inasmuch as such Honorary Members would not thereby become Members of the New Zealand Institute, and whereas it is expedient to make provision for the election of Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, it is hereby declared— ) Ist. Each Incorporated Society may, in the month of Novemher next, nominate for election as Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute three persons, and in the month of November in each succeeding year one person, not residing in the colony. 2nd. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with the grounds on which their election as Honorary Members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the Manager of the New Zealand Jnstitute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting. 3rd. From the persons so nominated, the Governors may select in the first year not more than nine ; and in each succeeding year not more than three, who shall from thenceforth be Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, provided that the total number of Honorary Members shall not exceed thirty. xiv Incorporated Societies. LIST OF INCORPORATED SOCIETIES. NAME OF SOCIETY. DATE OF INCORPORATION. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ‘ 4 . June 10th, 1868. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE are : 5 : ; . dune 10th, 1868. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY d . October 22nd, 1868. OTaGo INSTITUTE ; 3 : 2 e ee . October 18th, 1869. NeLson ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY . : : . ‘ : . Sept. 23rd, 1870. a WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1873.—President—Charles Knight, F.R.C.8., F.LS. ; Vice-Presidents—J. C. Crawford, F.G.S., Captain F. W. Hutton, F.G.S. 5 Council—W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., H. F. Logan, James Hector, M.D., F.R.S., John Kebbell, W. 8. Hamilton, J. R. George, C.C. Graham ; Hon. Treasuwrer— F. M. Ollivier ; Hon. Secretary—R. B. Gore ; Auditor—Arthur Baker. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1874.—President—Charles Knight, F.R.C.8., F.L.S.; Vice-Presidents—J. C. Crawford, F.G.8., W. T. L. Travers, F.L.8. ; Council— Dr. Hector, F.R.S., H. F. Logan, W. 8. Hamilton, J. R. George, C. C. Graham, Commander R. A. Edwin, R.N., J. Blackett, C.E.; Auditor— Arthur Baker ; Secretary and Treasurer—Richard B. Gore. Haxtracts from the Rules of the Wellington Philosophical Society. 5. Every Member shall contribute annually to the funds of the Society the sum of one guinea. 6, The annual contribution shall be due on the first day of January in each year. 7. The sum of ten pounds may be paid at any time as a composition for life of the ordinary annual payment. 14. The time and place of the general meetings of Members of the Society shall be fixed by the Council, and duly announced by the Secretary. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1873.—President—His Honour T. B. Gillies ; Council—J. L. Campbell, M.D., T. Heale, C.E., J. Stewart, C.E., T. Kirk, FE.L.S., Rev. J. Kinder, D.D., D. Hay, H. H. Lusk, T. Russell, Hon. Colonel Haultain, Rev. A. G. Purchas, M.R.C.S.E., T. F. 8. Tinne; Auditor— C. Tothill ; Secretary—T. Kirk. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1874. — President—Chief Justice Sir George Timber for foundations - - - - - 200,000 superficial feet Timber for other purposes — - - - - 150,000 ys 5 Concrete - - - - - - - 5,000 yards Cement, upwards of — - - - - - 3,000 barrels Bricks for engine house, boilers, ete. - - 200,000 Time occupied in erection = - - - - Fifteen months. To raise a vessel the cradle and large chain is hauled out into the water by means of the endless chain, the cradle being first pulled up a short distance to enable the palls to be lifted out of the racks, the bilge blocks also being prepared to fit the shape of the vessel, the blocks being placed at the end of the slide beams. A water-mark, fixed at the head of the cradle, shows when 24 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. it is out into water deep enough to allow a vessel to pass over it. The stem or nose of the vessel is hauled up into the guide on the head of the cradle, which is simply a pair of iron bars bent to the proper shape and bolted on to the cradle. The stern of the vessel being hauled into its proper place, the keel is over the centre of the carriage ; the back guides are then lifted up to secure the vessel in its place. The back guides are strong iron bars, working separately on a 4in, pin, passing through strong uprights bolted to the side of the longitudinal beams at such distances as may be required to suit the length of a vessel. So soon as a vessel is thus fixed in position, the cradle is hauled up until the keel rests its whole length on the cradle, and the bilge blocks being then pulled under the vessel’s bottom she is hauled up out of the water, the palls being dropped so soon as the bilge blocks are pulled into their proper position. These palls prevent a vessel running back into the water in the event of its being necessary, from any cause, to take the weight off the machinery, and also serve to keep the cradle in its place when up on the ways. To launch a vessel, the cradle is hauled up sufficiently to allow the palls to be lifted. It is then lowered, by means of the large chain, conveniently near to the water’s edge ; the large chain is then released, and the cradle and vessel allowed to run out by their own impetus, taking, of course, the small chain. The mode of releasing the large chain is by knocking the pin out of the shackle which secures the return end when passed round the wheel at the head of the carriage, the pin being made conical for the purpose. The impetus caused by running out generally carries the vessel clear of the cradle, but if, from any cause, the vessel does not run out sufficiently fast to clear the cradle, the small chain serves to haul it into deeper water to clear it, and, the engine being reversed, the small chain hauls up the cradle out of the water. It is sometimes required to raise a second vessel when the cradle is occupied. This is effected by blocking the vessel already up off the cradle. To do this wooden blocks are placed under the vessel between all the bilge beams of the cradle, and the weight of the vessel taken off the cradle by wedging these blocks up tightly. To allow the cradle to be removed, and to clear the keel of any vessel requiring it, small pieces of wood, 2 in. thick, are nailed on to the keel blocks on the centre longitudinal beam before a vessel is taken up. When a vessel is tightly wedged up on to the wooden blocks, as described, these small pieces are split out, leaving a space between the keel of the vessel and the cradle. The bilge beams are removed by knocking out the _ wedges and releasing the ends from the teeth on the centre beam, and taking out the cotter pins on the outer longitudinals. The bottom of the vessel being thus cleared of the cradle, it is hauled out from under by means of the small chain; the bilge beams, ete, are then replaced in position, and the — cradle lowered into the water in the usual way, the chains working under the ‘ae? H. Sxry.—Smokeless and Self-feeding Furnace. 25 vessel on the ways. To replace a vessel on the cradle, the operation is merely the reverse of that just described. The time occupied in raising a vessel after it is once fixed securely on the carriage’ is, in the case of small vessels, about twenty minutes, when the hauling-up chain is worked single. With a large vessel the speed is found to be about 15 ft. or 16 ft. per minute. In this case the chain is used double. Dolphins, consisting of clusters of five piles, are placed in convenient positions for steadying a vessel going on the slip. At present only three of the dolphins are completed, but three more are to be erected. The piles used for these dolphins are of the jarrah wood of South Australia, which is believed to resist the worm for an unlimited period. et Or a) Smokeles and Self-feeding Furnace for Lignites and other Fuels, and the Utilization of the Waste Heat. By H. Sxny. (Pl. V.) [Read before the Otago Institute, 12th August, 1873.] At a time when the material wealth of nations is recognised as being so intimately associated with those immense stores of power obtainable from the fuels occurring in the carboniferous deposits of past ages, any apology for treating on the economic consumption of these fuels would be superfluous. It is evident that when fuel, of whatever kind, is consumed in such a manner that there is no smoke evolved, and no cinders and unoxidized portions of the fuel left among the ash, then the theoretical conditions leading to the evolution of all the heat force are present, so far as the furnace itself is concerned ; while it belongs to the external arrangements, such as form of boiler and flues, and perfection of engine employed, to determine how much of this force is actually available, or, in other words, how much duty can be obtained from a given weight of fuel. Judging of the evaporating power of fuels by the amount of their fixed carbon, their analyses show that the combustion of 1°5 tons of Green Island or Clutha coal should produce the same amount of steam as one ton of Newcastle coal. If we take one ton of Newcastle coal and consume it in a given time —say twenty-four hours—in an ordinary furnace specially adapted for the combustion of this and other coals that coke and can be stirred, and then, in the same furnace, attempt the combustion of the equivalent 1-5 tons of Green Island coal in the same time, failure would be the probable result. For, in the first place, the bottom of the fire and fire-bars would soon be covered with an D 26 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. accumulation of ash and small fuel, which would prevent a proper supply of oxygen to the rest of the fuel and to the evolved gases—the fire, therefore, smoulders rather than burns ; and, secondly, when the fire is stirred (and also when fresh fuel is added) a certain amount of the burning fuel is broken and falls through the bars to waste, and if the fire-bars are placed nearer to each other, with a view to prevent the fuel passing through them, so much more will the draught be impeded. Another evil arising from the stoppage of air through the fire will be that unburnt gases and smoke pass up the chimney. Now, if these sources of waste were removed, there would, of course, be the same quantity of heat evolved from the 14 tons of Green Island coal as from the ton of Newcastle coal ; but considerably more time would be required, first in getting up the fire, and then in consuming it, which is a serious drawback to its use for steam purposes, and determines the use of Newcastle and other coals even in those places where the brown coals may be said to be at our very doors, It becomes a matter of importance, therefore, to consider whether a special construction of furnace could be devised in which the ashes are removed as soon as formed from all parts of the glowing fire, and all the evolved gases which are capable of uniting with the oxygen of the air thoroughly oxidized, while, at the same time, such a degree of intensity may be imparted to the combustion as to render it available for the generation of steam with the rapidity requisite for marine boilers and locomotives. To effect this, I propose to do away with the fire-bars, and to use a certain fraction of the heat force of the furnace (when changed into its equivalent motive force), so that it shall send a gentle blast of air upwards through all parts of the fuel, and thence through a great number of small and thin copper tubes of the boiler till it reaches the smoke box. It now becomes necessary, before proceeding further, to consider the relative specific gravities of the contents of the furnace after the fire has been kindled some time and the blast in operation ; and there is this remarkable property which must have struck everyone that has used these brown coals, with regard to their ashes, namely, their extreme lightness and the ease with which they are reduced to an impalpable powder. Specific gravity of Clutha coal = = = = 1:96 Specific gravity of its ash flake : : 4 - 0:04 The ash is therefore about thirty times lighter than the fuel, and twenty times lighter even when the volatile gases are driven off from it. It is important that these bulky ashes be removed, not only from the bottom of the furnace, but from every part of the glowing fuel, for dust would not be more obstructive to the proper action of the human lungs than aceumulations of ash to that of a furnace. The difference between the specific gravities of coal and its ash flake allows, therefore, of its removal as fast as it is formed, while the ~~ H. Sxny.—Smokeless and Self-feeding Furnace. 27 clean and glowing fuel remains, and is by the same means supplied with a constant stream of oxygen ; heat of any required intensity is thus produced, which can be adjusted by regulating the blast. If we take the experimental quantity of 1-5 tons of lignite, and consume it in twenty-four hours, then the furnace must be supplied with a charge of 1|4Ibs. of fuel every six minutes, and as this fuel yields on analysis 5:5 per cent. of ash, it follows that only 3ib. of ash requires removing and carrying along with the draught in the Six minutes. We may now consider whether there is really any loss of power, and, if so, how much, by the use of a blast. By its use, the tall chimney is, of course, dispensed with. It may be thought that the draught caused by ordinary chimneys costs nothing ; but is it not a fact that a certain amount of motive force, or its equivalent of heat force, is used in the act of causing a draught in common chimneys, and that if all the heat of the furnace were really utilized (as by evaporating the theoretical amount of water, for instance), there could then be no heat left to expand the column of air in the chimney to work the draught, for the gases evolved would be no hotter than the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere? The modern theory of heat shows that in whatever manner work is done, if work be done at all, then its equivalent of heat force is expended. Now, the column of ascending gases and air in a chimney is continually pushing away the atmosphere and making room for its passage through it. The furnace may be taken as so much colder by that amount, that is, there will be that amount of heat less that can be used for evaporating the water. Haperiment No. 1.—In a closed furnace, specially arranged so that no air could pass into it except through the burning fuel, a thermometer was attached so that the bulb projected into the furnace about 3in. above the fuel, until it showed a constant temperature of 286°, with the damper open; then, on shutting the damper in the chimney, in seven minutes it rose to 358°; then opened it a very little, the temperature at once fell proportionately to the amount that the damper was opened ; on opening it wider, it fell to 285°; then completely closed it, when it rose in three minutes to 320°. This experiment was varied with like results. Also, on another occasion, when the thermometer was removed and a vessel of water placed on the top, it commenced boiling when the damper was shut, and immediately ceased when it was opened. This was repeated several times, which results may be ascribed principally to the fact of the gases above the fire being more easily heated under the extra pressure when the damper is shut ; for when it is opened, then some of the heat can exert itself in expanding the gases in the chimney, and thus disappears. Now let the chimney be removed and the fire supplied with the same amount of air from a blast, and there can be no more 28 - Lransactions.—Miscellaneous. dynamic force required to work the blast than could be obtained from the heat which disappears in a chimney. It has been calculated that 1b. of coals employed to raise steam will do the work of 500Ibs. expended in rarefying air, such air being discharged through a chimney 35 ft. high. After proving that there is no real loss of power by the using of the blast, we will proceed to consider how it now opens up a way to utilize a large portion of the waste heat after it leaves either the tubes of the steam boiler or the super-heater and hot-air jackets of the engine. It has been calculated that lib. of coal should vaporize 14tbs. of water from 212° F., whereas about 10Ibs. only are evaporated in Cornish boilers ; this is ascribed mainly to the large amount of heat which passes up the chimney. Taking the temperature of the contents of the boiler to be 300° F., that of the gases leaving the tubes is considerably more than this, being in locomotives as high as 600° F., or about one-fourth of the total heat of the furnace. Now, in common boilers, if we cool this heated air in the chimney by attempting to utilize this heat, we at once impair the draught, but the use of the blast allows us to exhaust all the heat we can the moment that it leaves the boiler. ‘The way that I propose to utilize this heat, is to cause it to raise the temperature of all the large volume of air which is required for the combustion of the fuel in the furnace. The apparatus—which we may call, for convenience, a thermo- convector—corresponds to the ordinary smoke-box somewhat enlarged, and divided horizontally into a series of narrow compartments, the connections of which alternate as in the figure (Plate V.), so that the discharged products of combustion pass along those spaces marked Bp in the direction of the arrows, while the current of fresh air is conveyed in the opposite direction within the other spaces AA. These latter spaces also communicate with one another by broad lateral arches not shown in the figure. We have, now, virtually two broad and narrow tubes. The walls or partitions of these tubes should be of material specially selected, either for its transmitting power, or else for its conducting power, such as a metal with its surfaces so prepared as to facilitate the absorption and radiation of heat, as, for instance, thin unpolished sheet- iron, which is usually covered with oxide of iron, which oxide Tyndall has shown to be almost as effective an absorber and radiator for obscure heat as lampblack, which is, as we know, capable of absorbing nearly all the heat from any source, luminous or obscure. Experiment No. 2.—A common thermometer at 60° was placed 1 in. distant from a heated mass of iron, forming a constant source of obscure radiant heat ; in seven minutes it rose to 118°. A large piece of the oxidized iron was then interposed midway between, and the thermometer (previously cooled to 60°) was returned, when in seven minutes it rose to 104°. The thermometer was then removed to a place where the temperature was 60° ; H. Sxey.—Smokeless and Self-feeding Furnace. 29 then, in four minutes, it sank to 64°, and in six minutes to 63°. This indicates a loss of heat corresponding to only 14° F. by the interposition of the sheet of oxidized iron. This material was proved to heat very rapidly, and it also cools rapidly if a current of cooler air is passed over it. From these considerations it is evident that the heat in the flattened tubes BB is continually radiating as long as there is*a current of cooler air flowing through the other tube aa. Let us assume that the gases in both tubes are similar in quantity and properties, then it follows that all the air required by the furnace can be formed into a hot blast, having a temperature of at least 300° F. This is on the assumption that the fresh air is made no hotter than it would be if actually mixed with all the evolved gases ; but it will be seen that, by a proper arrangement and selection of material for the tubes, the air will have been raised to nearly 300° when it has traversed only half the length of the tube, or at a? ; consequently, as it goes onward toa still hotter part, near the tube B, it is continually acquiring fresh accessions of heat until it reaches that part of the thermo-convector where the temperature is, as we have seen, 600°; and similarly it may be shown that the evolved gases are cooled down to near 300° when they reach B*, and as they pass on they are rapidly cooled by imparting heat to the incoming current of cooler air. In the above apparatus, conduction and surface radiation only are alluded to ; but let us consider if transmission through a diathermanous medium could not be employed to advantage. We are indebted to Melloni for the discovery of the almost perfect transparency of rock-salt for all kinds of radiant heat. It, moreover, does not appear to suffer by a heat approaching to redness. I am unable to ascertain if there is any difficulty in procuring it in large pieces, but as optical perfection would not be necessary, and plenty can doubtless be procured sufficiently transparent, small panes of this substance could be inserted at the top of each convolution of the air tube a. Then the hot gases from the furnace will instantaneously radiate heat into the air tube, and because the heat rays impinge on the surface of the sheet of oxidized iron at the bottom of the air tube, therefore they are immediately arrested and impart their vibrations to the contents of the air tube. Thus, as glass in our windows transmits all the rays of light, so do these plates of rock-salt form, ot doors only, but windows for radiant heat. It is necessary for us now to consider the radiative property of the evolved gases in B, and the absorbent property of the air in the tube a (premising that both these properties are always possessed equally by the same body). First, with reference to the evolved gases, Tyndall has shown that they possess these qualities in an eminent degree, because they are compound gases; but this cannot be said of the air in the other tube ; indeed, if this air was quite dry and pure, all the radiant heat would merely pass through it without heating it at 30 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. all wnéil it reached a surface formed by an absorbent body, such as our oxidized iron, which is capable of receiving the heat vibrations, which receptive surface can then heat the air above it. Now, as the small amount of aqueous vapour in our atmosphere is the main absorber of radiant heat, thus allowing the diathermanous air to become heated, which heated air can then be conveyed to distant parts by winds ; so also can a minute admixture of the compound molecules of various gases— such as those from coal—greatly promote the heating of air for blast furnaces. It is evident that in this manner the heat vibrations alone can be transferred trom one tube to the other, while their gaseous contents are prevented from mixing. If a revolving fan be the means adopted for circulating the gases, it can be applied to any convenient part of the circuit of either of the tubes A or B. In the figure it is connected with A, and therefore first draws the fresh and heated air, and then discharges it under pressure into a large and broad tube extending close along the bottom of the boiler, and thence into a reservoir directly below the furnace and boiler, which supplies the tuyéres with the heated air. The thermo-convector and connections there- from are covered with felt, and then cased with tin, leaving an air space between. The outlet of the tube B conveys the waste and cooled gases downwards over a Shallow vessel of water (c), thus arresting the ashes, which speedily sink, and the gases can escape there for locomotives (which would be an important desideratum in tunnels and underground railways), or be conveyed over the ship’s side in marine engines, or else made to go upwards through a funnel by the pressure of the blast. This funnel is useful in first getting up the fire, for which purpose the door p is lowered, which then closes the tube B. As there is a considerable amount of water in some brown coals, and as this would have a tendency to condense in the tube B and thus arrest the ashes, it was necessary to determine the temperature at which its vapour would condense, and I find that if 10 per cent. of water exist in the coal, its vapour will not condense until it is lowered to 27° F., which gives a sufficient margin to ensure a dry exit to the ashes. It has been shown by Joule and Mayer that the mechanical force arising from heating lib. of water 1° F. is equal to raising 772Ibs. one foot high. When we therefore consider the enormous quantity of air necessary to promote combustion of the fuel (one ton of coal requiring about 448,000 cubic feet, or more than 15 tons), and, further, that this immense volume of air requires its temperature raising to that of the burning fuel, it is evident that a very great saving can be effected by heating it before it enters the furnace, for it matters not on what part of the absolute scale this 1° increase occurs, let it only be H. Sxuy.—Smokeless and Self-feeding Furnace. 31 imparted to a substance at a lower heat requiring it and we utilize the obscure heat, whether it be 1° or 500°, while, at the same time, the luminous heat in the furnace is vastly augmented, and can act quicker by conduction and radiation upon the contents of the boiler. The bottom of the furnace is made concave upwards, and is formed by the boiler-plate itself, so that the water is brought close to that part where ignition is the strongest, which could not be effected in a furnace with fire-bars. Steam will be generated at this part of the furnace with immense rapidity, for not only have we radiation of the heat, but conduction too. A number of tubes convey the hot blast upwards, in a convergent direction, through this part of the boiler into the furnace, and these tubes or twyéres, together with the bottom of the furnace, are kept from overheating by the water in the boiler. To prevent the possibility of the spheroidal condition being imparted to the water from the intense heat, this part of the boiler is roughened internally to facilitate the vaporization and agitation of the water; and, still further to insure safety against explosions and to prevent priming, a certain amount of the evolved gases from B, above the ash-pit, are conveyed into the boiler near this part of the furnace, either directly by a pump, or into the feed water, or else into the distilled water of the surface condenser, if one be used. From the repeated vaporizations and condensations of the water in the surface condenser it is deprived of its air, and its boiling point is thus raised from its increased cohesion ; but when it is charged with these gases, which it quickly absorbs, then ebullition takes place from the bottom and from all parts of the boiler, and this at a less temperature and with more regularity. Fresh fuel is added by placing it between doors in front of the furnace, one of which is shut when the other is opened, which serves to keep it sufficiently air tight when fed, at the same time preventing loss of heat by radiation, and rendering it cooler for the fireman ; and sufficient fuel is added so that it falls in the proper form of heap of itself, and covers all the twyéres but one to a proper depth. The tuyere which is not covered delivers hot air among the evolved gases, and, therefore, instead of cooling them and thus forming smoke, as cold air would, it heats them and ensures their combustion ; and this is effected without cooling the sides of the furnace and boiler. If the fuel be lignite, it will not need stirring, neither will there be any clinkers formed to need removing. The use of the blast allows the furnace to be made smaller, and because heat varies inversely as the square of the distance, it is obvious that intensity of evaporation of the water is increased by being brought nearer to the centre of heat ; and because the density or elasticity of the air is diminished one-half for an increase in temperature of 491° F,, therefore it will require discharging 32 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. under double the pressure of a cold blast. From the increased diffusibility of these gases, it follows that the boiler tubes can be reduced in diameter, and consequently made thinner with safety; and, as combustion is rendered complete, there will be no smoke to deposit soot in them. The advantage to be derived from the use of a hot, in place of a cold, blast is clearly proved in a series of blow-pipe experiments made at the laboratory of the Geological Survey of New Zealand, and published in Vol. II. of the ’ where it is shown that such refractory substances as platinum, “ Transactions,’ fire-clay, flint, pipe-clay, agate, and opal, were fusible if air at a temperature of 500° F. be employed. And with an exalted intensity of heat in the furnace, we are enabled to avail ourselves to a still greater extent of the economy arising from both the super-heating of the steam and its subsequent expansion in the cylinders of the steam engine. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE. A The air tube, the top of which supplies the blower E. B The tube containing the gases of combustion. C Ash pan, containing water. D A door which can drop and close the tube B. G A tube, or space, the full width of the thermo-convector, through which the waste and cooled gases can be discharged upwards to the funnel. E The blowing apparatus supplied with the fresh heated air from the top of the tube a, by means of a space similar to G, and which fills in the front of the convector, but is removed in the figure in order that the interior can be seen. H Reservoir of hot air. J Water space of boiler perforated by the air tubes, K Fire doors, enclosing space holding a charge of fuel. Arr. V.—On the most Economic Mode of Felting Steam Boilers. By J. C. Firra. (Pl. V., figs. 1 and 2.) [Read before the Auckland Institute, 6th October, 1873.] Durine the period when low-pressure condensing steam engines were in general use, various plans were adopted to prevent waste of steam and heat in boilers by condensation or radiation. With boilers at 1UIbs. to 15Ibs. pressure, a simple covering of felt, protected by wood or canvas, answered sufficiently well. But when steam boilers are run, as at present, at 50lbs., 75ibs., or 100lbs. per inch, for working steam expansively, or for working compound engines, it has become much more important that the surface of a TRANS. NZ. INSTITUTE,VOL-VI. PL.V. Saeco ee oe o BOILER FRONT BO MZE RS GEsaniNiG TO PREVENT BURNING AND RADIATION OF HEAT. Mustrating Paper by J. C. Firth. SS C= T- 2 RTT SMOKELESS FURNACE. L lustrating Paper by H. Shey. Firta.—On Felting Steam Boilers. 33 boiler working at these high pressures should be so protected that heat and steam may not be wasted by radiation or condensation. Tt is true that common felt cased with bricks will prevent much conden- sation and radiation, but with the serious disadvantage that a leakage from a rivet, or otherwise, causes rapid corrosion when running unobserved under the brick casing, and with the further disadvantage that the felt is destroyed in a very short time. Various materials, such as asbestos, cloth, or fabrics saturated with chemical preparations, have been tried, but, so far as my investigations have gone, much the best material yet discovered is common felt. The proper application of felt has been, and I believe still is, the real difficulty. Applied in contact with the surface of a steam boiler at even 5O0ibs. pressure, felt will need replacing about once in six months. About two years ago, to lessen this destruction of felt, I made a species of hurdles or gridirons of common hoop-iron, with wooden battens of | in. thick rivetted to the hoop-iron. These were placed upon the boiler, and the sheets of felt laid upon them, the upper surface of the felt being protected by canvas. This plan secured a small space between the boiler and the felt, but, though a great improvement upon the old plan, I found that in the course of about fifteen months the wooden battens had become charred and the felt a stratum of dust, slightly adhering, indeed, to the canvas back if undisturbed, but practically useless. Both substances had simply been destroyed, as before, by too close a contact with the boiler. A very simple contrivance now presented itself to my mind, which I immediately put in operation. I constructed an iron grid as before, but with one important difference. I placed pieces of hoop-iron aa (Figs. 1 and 2) at 10 in. distance, to lay on the circumference of the exposed portion of the boiler. I then prepared transverse pieces of hoop-iron BEB (Figs. 1 and 2), putting two double cranks in each cc (Fig. 1) 2}in. high x 2hin. wide. I placed these transverse pieces at 10in. distance, and rivetted each of the cranks at D (Fig. 1) to the pieces of hoop-iron intended to lay on the circum- ference of the boiler. When cranked, the transverse pieces were 21 in. long, about the width of an ordinary sheet of felt. Upon these cranked pieces I placed wooden battens 2in. broad by 14 in. thick Ex (Figs. 1 and 2), screwing them together at rrr (Fig. 1). This completed the hurdle, or grid, 21 in. wide, and of sufficient length to lay across the boiler from side to side. I next provided sheets of felt long enough to cover each grid, sewing each sheet to strong canvas 24 in. wide, thus leaving at one side a margin of cauvas to lay over the sheet of felt on the adjoining grid. The 4 in. air space (which may be increased at pleasure by increasing size of cranks) between the boiler and felt, besides preventing all charring of wood or felt, is an excellent E 84 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. non-conductor. To prevent a circulation of cold air from end to end of the boiler, I attached a piece of sheet-iron, cut to the circumference of the boiler, to the ends of the battens on the grids at each end of the boiler G (Fig. 1). A coat of paint on the canvas completed the apparatus. I exhibit a full-size section of one of the grids, with felt and canvas attached, to be placed for reference in the Museum of the Society at Auckland. I have attached the felt to the grid in this section to show the apparatus complete ; but, in practice, the felt and canvas only are attached to each other, but not to the grid, so that each can be stripped from the boiler without difficulty. I come now to results. I find that loss by radiation and condensation is reduced to a minimum ; the canvas covering of the boiler being always quite cool, with. steam at 50Ibs. As an instance, I may mention that when the engines stop at 6 o'clock p.m., with steam at 50ibs., with the felt on, at 6 o’clock next morning steam is about 25ibs. ; without the felt, steam goes down to nit before 6 o'clock next morning, the dampers being in both cases the same. The saving of coal has, of course, been considerable. Nine months have elapsed since I applied this mode of felting at my own works, and I find that both wood and felt are practically uninjured. ; Where compound engines are in use, this mode of felting the steam pipes leading from the boilers to the high-pressure engine, and from the high- pressure to the condensing cylinder, will be found most effectual in preventing loss by condensation or radiation, besides being comparatively indestructible. For covering steam domes and engine cylinders it is equally effective. For these latter the grids and felt may be covered with wooden battens, hooped and varnished as usual. It will be necessary to observe, when covering pipes or other steam chambers of small diameter, that the cranked pieces of hoop-iron must be placed sufficiently near to each other to secure a space of 3in. or 4in. between the steam-pipe and felt. In all cases it will be found more practicable to run the pieces of plane hoop-iron round the pipes or cylinders to be covered, running the cranked pieces longitudinally, as already described in the case of steam boilers. GoopaLu.— Water Supply for Auckland. 35 Art. VI.—On the Probability of a Water Supply being obtained for the City of Auckland from Mount Eden. By Joun Goopait, C.E. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 10th November aid 8th December, 1873.] AUCKLAND, advantageously situated as it is on an isthmus between two fine harbours, the Manukau and the Waitemata, commanding both sides of the island, is rising fast to be a fine city, and will doubtlessly some day be one of the most magnificent in the southern hemisphere. In spite of its many advantages however, it would always remain one of secondary importance if, in its progress, it could not obtain a sufficient supply of water. Happily there is no lack of this needful commodity ; perhaps; for the present, it had been better for Auckland if so many sources of supply had not been known to exist, for then the question might have been settled, and the pure element flowing through Auckland, refreshing its inhabitants, purifying its atmosphere by sweeping away all refuse into the sea, saving life and property in the extinguishing of fires, thus adding health and preserving wealth to its citizens. / Had there been only one source of supply, probably that would have been in Auckland by now, as the only delay seems to be caused by not knowing which source to choose, which, after all, is a purely financial question. The various sources are known to be good and abundant, therefore all that remains is to find out which can be most cheaply brought into this town. The Nihotupu gravitation scheme would yield more water than is required at present. The western and Onehunga springs would yield, by pumping, much more than is wanted. Lake Takapuna, North Shore, has also been talked of as a likely source, but the cost of the engineering works requisite for bringing the water over or under the Waitemata would be a sufficient hindrance for that source to be entertained at present. All these sources, excepting the Nihotupu, arise from the volcanic forma- tion at and adjacent to Auckland, yet this city may at any time be scourged by a pestilence or burnt to the ground for want of an available and sufficient supply of water. These varied schemes have been from time to time pro- pounded by their supporters ; it is not the intention of this paper to enter into their various merits, but to bring under notice another scheme which may prove to be as good, and which is close to Auckland, namely, from the scoria and lava beds of Mount Eden. We all know that in the vicinity of Auckland there is a vast tract: of volcanic country, consisting of extinct voleanoes, tuff cones, and lava streams, extending over twenty or thirty square miles. Almost the entire rainfall over this large tract of country is being stored by Nature in the porous lava rocks, 36 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. and being served out again through the many springs occurring on the road to the Whau (the Western Springs), at Onehunga beach, Lake Takapuna, and other places. These springs are merely the overflow of what is a natural subterranean reservoir. To prove this, one must consider how voleanie rocks occur, especially those at Mount Eden and its vicinity, and their physical construction. Dr. Hochstetter remarks about these volcanoes that “the first outbursts, as a closer observation shows, were probably submarine ; they took place at the bottom of a shallow, muddy bay, little exposed to waves and wind, and consisted of flowing mud mixed with loose masses, such as fragments of sand- stone and shale, lava debris, cinders, and scoria (/apilli), which now form beds of volcanic agglomerate or tuff. The eruptions occurred, no doubt, at intervals, for in this manner alone can the fact be accounted for that the ejected material has been deposited round the point of eruption in layers one above the other, forming low hills gradually rising, and with a circular basin or dish- shaped crater in the middle; a cross section presents clearly the different layers which usually slope inwards towards the bottom of the crater, as well as outwards down the sides.” Further on, he says:—‘ A complete volcanic system accordingly consists of three parts: a tuff cone the base and pedestal of the whole frame, a lava cone, the chief mass of the mountain, and a scoria or cinder cone forming the top, with the crater.” These violent outbursts and ejection of such large quantities of scoria and lava would undoubtedly produce very important effects on the surrounding country and on the rocks immediately below and through which the eruptions occurred. Before a vent could have been made through the earth’s crust, it must have been somewhat upheaved and cracked to emit the molten materials below, which, as they ascended, would have enabled the crust to subside, and this it would continue to do as long as material was ejected, for the earth’s crust, by its own weight and that of the piled-up scoria and lava above, would necessarily sink down and occupy, in a measure, the place of the ejected materials. Thus, below a volcanic mountain of any considerable extent, there must be a basin-like depression immediately beneath capable of holding a large quantity of water, which, combined with the water in the mountain above, retained in it as if it were a large sponge, may probably be made available for a water supply. But as the quantity in the basin and above it may be inadequate for a large supply, we must consider whether this may be helped by the adjacent waters stored up all around. An inspection of lava and scoria beds prove that they are able to hold a large amount of water from their porosity, dependent upon the amount of resistance to dam the waters back. Before it can be decided whether a sufficient quantity of water could be GoopaLL.— Water Supply for Auckland. 37 obtained from Mount Eden, it will be necessary to prove the depth of the basin or floor of the voleano, its shape, height of the rim of the basin at its lowest part, probable direction of the flow of water from it, summer level (minimum) of water, and inclination of the water from the rim of the basin to its outlet at the springs. A part of these questions may be answered by a survey of the ground, and by obtaining levels—that is, by surface examination ; and the entire question would be solved by adding to the above a series of bores. A survey of the ground would determine the probable shape of the rim of the basin, also the ~ course of the water travelling beyond the rim. The lava streams having run in the old valleys formed by the tertiary rocks, indications may yet be obtained of the course of the bottom of that valley by the run of the lava and other indications, such as the outcropping tertiary formation ; and, as the overlaying lava rocks are of a very porous nature and abounding in large cracks and cavities, any water pouring from the hills above (after rain) would undoubtedly flow through the ancient valley, but would occupy more space, have a greater inclination, and would take more time to flow than were it unimpeded. Having completed the survey, it will then be advisable to put down a series of bores between the site of the reservoir at Gilfillan’s corner and Mount Eden. These bores, put down between the limit of the scoria and half way to the centre of the hill, would probably be sufficient to give the depth and shape of the basin. This will be important to ascertain accurately, as on that side the necessary shaft would be sunk, and a correct knowledge alone could be a guide as to the depth of shaft and distance of a drive to tap the water. Then, at a point to the westward of the hill facing the lava flow, another series of bores should be started, beginning at about half-way down the hill, over the rim of the basin, and thence along the probable course of the subterranean stream to its outlet at the springs. These bores would determine the depth of the basin, the permanent level of water, and the inclination of the water towards the springs. Having all these data, it can now be calculated, without much trouble, what available water there is; and by the height of the rim of the basin may be determined how much extra supply can be obtained from the outward flowing stream ; for the lower the rim is, the better will it be, as then, by pumping at Mount Eden, any insufficiency of water in the basin would be supplied by infiltration. Having arrived at this stage, it can be positively ascertained if there be an adequate supply or not ; and, if there be, a shaft will have to be sunk, and pumping machinery erected for supplying the reservoir. There are two available sites for a shaft, one being at the proposed reservoir. If this be fixed upon, the shaft should be sunk to the level of the bottom of the basin under Mount Eden, unless that exceeds high-water mark, 38 Transactions._— Miscellaneous. in which case the shaft need not be deeper; from the bottom of the shaft a drive should be put in towards Mount Eden, till the lava or scoria beds are’ reached, when an abundant supply of water would be sure to be met with. This, flowing through the drive to the bottom of the shaft, would be pumped up into the reservoir. By this method no piping would be required for transmission of water to the reservoir, beyond that necessary for the pumping mains. The other site, and perhaps the better one, would be by the side of the proposed railway to Riverhead, at the bottom of the valley between the proposed site of the reservoir and Mount Eden. The advantages here would be, that the railway would be available for carriage of machinery and other material necessary for the erection of works, and coals would be cheaply conveyed for boiler purposes. The depth of this shaft would be less, and the drive towards the basin would be materially shortened, which latter advan- tages alone would compensate for the pipes which will be necessary to convey the water to the reservoir. The shaft, in this case, would probably penetrate a layer or two of lava: it will be advisable to avoid it as much as possible, to save cost, and sink on the verge of the lava, and thus get all the shafting and driving through the soft tertiary rocks. That water may be obtained from Mount Eden is already proved, indepen- dently of theory, by the success of Mr Seccombe’s well, which supplies his brewery on the Kyber Pass Road. This well is only a moderate depth down. There is yet another point to be touched upon, and that is, the volcanic cracks in the earth’s crust, which must necessarily exist with a series of volcanoes such as cecur here ; for it is probable that, after the first outburst, other volcanoes started along the cracks, and the number kept increasing till the number of vents created were sufficient for the emission of the pent up gases and molten lava. Perhaps it is owing to the large number of volcanic centres that have existed near Auckland, that they have been so short-lived, and that none of them are now active—many have been the fires, but they have burnt themselves out .the sooner. That the cracks existing between these craters are capable of acting as water channels is proved by the existence of Lake Takapuna (an old crater), North Shore; for how otherwise can this lake be supplied with water than from its connection with other volcanic centres? To test this, a drive should be started from the pumping shaft at right angles to a line between two craters; this would be sure to cut the connecting channel between them, and drain them of their waters and others connected with them, and who knows but we may yet bring Lake Takapuna waters into Auckland by this means. The advantage of using these volcanic waters (if we may term them thus), Goopatu.— Water Supply jor Auckland. 39 provided always that experiments have satisfactorily proved them to be avail- able ; the cheapness with which they can be utilised, being so close to the proposed reservoir, and the waters being so pure, there will be no necessity for settling-tanks or filters. Having shown that Mount Eden contains a large quantity of water, and sketched a scheme whereby the same might be proved and rendered available for supplying Auckland, I will now make a few remarks as to its sufficiency and probable cost. Supposing that the basin under Mount Eden would draw its supply of water from an area of about five square miles, and accepting twenty-four inches of rainfall as available, it will give the large yield of four million five hundred thousand gallons per day ; or, reducing the yield to one-fourth of that quantity to allow for any over-estimate of the area of the gathering ground—it being impossible at present, without boring and other investiga- tions, to determine the exact area of supply—there would still be left over one million gallons per day, which would be more than sufficient to supply thirty-three thousand inhabitants with thirty gallons daily per head. These results depend entirely upon the depth and circumference of the basin, which, when ascertained, will give reliable data.. It seems natural that by pumping at the centre of such a supply, before it had time to distribute itself, the full amount of rainfall percolating through the gathering area may be raised, and a larger quantity could be obtained than from a similar area at the Western Springs, or from those at Onehunga, where only comparatively small quantities flowing in particular directions can be used, the natural outlets being numerous. The cost of such a scheme would be less than one from Onehunga or from the Western Springs, as not only would a great saving be effected in transit pipes, but also in cost of pumping, as the water might be obtained at a considerably higher level than at either of the above-mentioned places. By examining the level of the outflow of the water at the Western Springs and the water standing in a well sunk by Mr Edgecombe—the distance between these two places being about a quarter of a mile—it will be found that the latter level is twenty feet above the former, which would give a rise to the centre of Mount Eden of about one hundred feet. This evidence is further corroborated by the large quantity of water obtained at a high level in the well of the Northern Brewery, on the Kyber Pass Road. The height to which the water would have to be lifted would be under two hundred feet, to a reservoir at Gilfillan’s corner, which point is nearly three hundred feet above the sea level. The cost of plant capable of raising a million gallons daily will be as follows :— 40 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Engines, boilers, engine-house, workmen’s cottages - - £10,000 Mains (including laying), 70 tons at £15 10s. - - 1,085 Shaft, 100 feet - - - - - - - - 500 Drive, say - - : - - - - - - 500 Air cocks, check valves, etc. - - - - - - 250 Reservoir - - . . - - - - - 3,500 15,835 Contingencies, 10 per cent. - - - - - - 1,583 Total expenditure = - - - - £17,418 The yearly cost will be: Wages, coals, oil, ete. - - - - - - - £1,860 Interest, at 8 per cent. - - - - - - - 1,393 Annual expenses - - - = pede Cost per million gallons - - - - - - £8 18s, 3d. Art. VII.—Wotes on the Proposition to Supply Auckland with Water from Mount Eden. By James Stewart, C.E. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 8th December, 1873.] AT last monthly meeting of this Society, Mr. Goodall read a paper in which the above proposition was pretty fully set forth, and a scheme for testing its feasibility stated in detail. This is not, by any means, a new idea, as about eleven or twelve years ago it was proposed as original, and advocated with other three schemes for the same purpose. One of the schemes was, in sober earnest, a proposal to impound the water flowing down the valley of Newton, from the cemeteries; and the advocacy of the Mount Eden one showed equally the absence of all engineering thought or study. Mr Goodall’s paper dealt with it differently, and in a clear manner stated a method of testing the level and area of the supposed water basin. One grand point was, however, overlooked, just as the earlier propounder had done. While the existence of water in wells near the base of Mount Eden is undisputed, and that at a tolerably high level above the sea, there is no attempt to show that there is a source of supply at all adequate to the demand. It is not only necessary to show a reservoir of water, but how much may be daily and yearly drawn from it without failure must also be demonstrated. Two lines of evidence are required to show the latter point in this case. Firstly, the discharge of the Srewart.— Water Supply for Auckland. 41 water from the presumed basin, and, secondly, the source from whence it is drawn. In ordinary gathering grounds, the first of these only would be pretty conclusive, although the second would always be required and given as corro- borative evidence. There being no visible overflow which would be anything like an adequate supply within more than two miles, or nearer than the Western Springs, we must look to the source of supply, and compare it with that discharge. The Mount Eden cone has been thrown up nearly in the centre of a tufaceous basin, which is now incomplete, although distinctly traceable on several parts of its circumference. Towards the east the tuff crater has been washed away, or broken through by the solid lava streams on which New- market stands ; the clay is 12 ft. to 18 ft. below the level of that place, and it is important to note that it is at very nearly the level of that clay at which water is found in the wells at Messrs. Seccombes’ brewery and at the gaol. We have no means of knowing the exact area of the annular space between the lip of the tuff crater and the central aperture from which the lava was, subsequently to the elevation of the tuff basin, discharged. But from the enormous masses of lava ejected in many successive eruptions, and in nearly all directions, the annular water-holding area must be very small, and cannot be looked on as being more than half a square mile. It is needless to remark that such an area, or double that area even, is wholly inadequate to serve as a gathering ground. Thus far have we considered the supply from rainfall. It is true that, in dealing with these lava cones and their so-called mysterious springs, many do not look to local rainfall as the source, but boldly scan some distant lake, and, totally ignoring the laws of gravitation and those regulating the flow of water, as well as the seemingly insuperable difficulty of intervening seas, point to a probable subterranean connection and source of supply. Such a connection between Mount Eden and TakapunaeLake is hinted at in the paper calling forth these remarks, and not a few have expressed belief that the rainfall of Rangitoto is the source of the waterflow from that same lake. Now, it seems the result of an exceedingly strong imagination to conceive that water falling on a mountain like Rangitoto, composed of scoria extending into and below the level of low water, should find its way to any place but the sea; or why should the very limited overflow from the lake suggest any other source than the area of its surrounding basin ? But to return to the subject of enquiry, the outflow at the Western Springs represents with certainty that of several thousand acres, as at that locality only has the tertiary formation permitted the lava to reach the sea, which was ejected from Mounts Eden and Albert to the northward. ‘The rainfall on that area, not evaporated or retained by soil and vegetation, must be that F 42 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. overflow which wells up so grandly ; and many underground rivulets, following ancient valleys in the tertiary clays, must be convergent to form those noble springs.’ And the farther inland at which water is sought, the smaller and further apart will be those rivulets, until, on reaching the summit of the watershed at Mount Eden, the minimum will be attained ; and, although at that elevation a basin may be found containing many million’ cubic feet of water, it would only be a work of time to exhaust it if the all-important points of rainfall and gathering ground are inadequate to keeping up the supply. Art. VIII.—-On the Reclamation of Sand Wastes on the Coast, and the Prevention of their Inland Advance. By James Stewart, C.H. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 4th September, 1873.] THE existence of a very serious evil will be recalled to mind by perusal of a carefully-considered paper on the above subject, by Mr. C. D. Whitcombe, as_ given in the last volume of the ‘“ Transactions,” especially by those who have had occasion to notice the increasing and apparently resistless advance of sand inland from a great length of our coast line. In places this is covering the fairest and most fertile soils, burying forests, and driving before its dread advance all the efforts hitherto made by a few individuals more immediately concerned to ward off or retard its progress. The subject claims public attention, as not only has a very large tract of country been lost to settlement already, and many fertile farms are now being threatened with annihilation, but, as is shown in the paper referred to, and well remarked during the discussion on it, the existence of streams, the navigation of rivers, and safety of lighthouses, and such like, are concerned in the adoption and success of preventive measures. This attention, if it is to be at all, cannot be awakened too soon. The features presented by this encroachment vary on different coasts, but it will suffice to describe those nearest to Auckland. Those are, the coast from Waikato to Manukau Heads, and from Waitakerei to Kaipara Heads. The former is, where uncovered by driving sand, of a very fertile nature in general, It is a rich sandy loam—in some places an excellent black soil— throwing up a good pasture, and carrying a stock of, in some cases, the heaviest cattle which come into the Auckland markets. The land is very easily brought into cultivation, and is about all taken up, and much of it settled on. * Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. V., p. 108. ag ee Srewart.—On the Reclamation of Sand Wastes. 43 Perhaps the best idea of the evil which threatens this fair district may be had by a journey from Waiuku to Port Waikato. As the traveller advances in this direction, the land is seen to change from the heavy clay lands at Waiuku to lighter and more loamy soils. When the distance is about half traversed—and the road lies generally parallel to the coast—the advance-guard of the sand-drift is seen covering half of what was not long ago a field of rich pasture. At the southern boundary of the Maioro, a village site with a few houses and smal) farms is reached, and the advancing sand-hills and drift are only a few yards to the westward of them. Close brush fences have been erected with the view of protection, but that is only a most temporary remedy, and nothing hitherto done is of any avail. From this point the traveller strikes into the desert, and for about four miles, to the Waikato Ferry, traverses such a waste as few imagine can be witnessed in New Zealand. Nothing but sand is in sight, and, may be, the tops of trees long since buried. This desert stretches farthest inland just at the river, and does not extend south of it, if we except the flat between the bar and the southern cliffs, which has been formed by an enormous landslip causing a change in the course of the river about three-quarters of a mile to the northward of where it formerly flowed. On this landslip the township of Port Waikato is now laid out. A small portion of the coast between Waikato and Manukau Heads is still unbroken on the surface, and in many places the first eroding action of the wind is to be observed. The South Head is a striking example of this. Within the last few years many millions of tons of sand have been carried out into the channel of the southern passage of the bar. A remarkable feature on the coast is that of blind gullies, two of which are to be seen near the Manukau South Head. The principal one must drain at least 800 acres, half of it being heavy bush land, but its outlet is covered by a hill of sand 480 feet high, through which the water filters to the sea. The Kaipara sand-hills differ from the above described, inasmuch as that while in the latter case the sand is encroaching on a rolling country of nearly its own level, in the former the encroachment is tumbling inland over, for a great part, a country of much lower level, and will soon reach extensive plains but a few feet above high water. The advance is consequently very slow, but none the less sure, and, if not arrested, eventually the Kaipara river itself will be choked. In considering the possible remedy, one point has certainly been deter- mined, although only of a negative character. It is quite useless to begin inland. Neither fence nor trees can arrest the drift. When a brush or other close fence is erected in the sand it certainly seems to have immediate effect ; the force of wind is checked near to the surface, and sand ceases to be carried forward and deposited within a few yards of it, but soon a ridge is formed to 44 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. windward, where it ceases to have onward motion, and, rising higher and higher, its leeward side towards the fence soon shows a face as steep as the material will allow of. The drift still rises, and the crest rolls over the steep side, continually approaching the fence, until at last it is buried. A forest has the same effect and ultimate fate. Of what use, then, is planting young trees, if fences and old “bush” are of so little avail? But the same experience shows that if the drift can be arrested at its source, then all to leeward may be gradually worked on and reclaimed. There can be little doubt that these hills have been originally blown up from the sea sand, but this has been most likely during a gradual elevation of the land. The closing in of the valleys above mentioned with nearly 500 feet of sand seems conclusive on that point. But it is most unlikely that any rein- forcement of sand is now got from the beach. The hills in general rise 100 feet to 300 feet abruptly from high-water mark, and the drift does not appear to rise much above the surface. The face of the coast then, and the tops of the first hills, are the places where, if anywhere, an effectual start can be made to arrest the evil. In Mr. Whitcombe’s paper much valuable information is given as to the methods found successful in France, and a record is given of the plants and trees found most efficacious. But it seems in the case of the hills under reference in our Province, that the violence of the south-west winds is such that it would not prevent any shrubs or trees from having the sand blown from under them, unless it is first protected by a sward of some grassy sort of vegetation. The effects of the prevalent winds are strikingly indicated by the appearance of the “bush” near the Manukau South Head. The prevailing timber is puriri, and the branches and foliage look as if shorn, and have a singular overlapping appearance, one tree with another, as of a roof shingled and lapped the wrong way. The reclamation of the Surrey Hills, in Sydney, is a case in point. There the sand was of a nature even less adapted to support vegetation, being sharper and more suitable for builders’ use. Yet these heights, which not long ago were a waste of driving sand, are now covered with a beautiful sward of grass. The means in detail by which this was accomplished is unknown to the writer, but he has a recollection of hearing a description of a method adopted in some of the Western Isles of Scotland, and which was successful. There the difficulty was, as with us, to keep the seeds of the grasses stable sufficiently long to allow of germination and striking root. The grasses selected were, when seeded and ripe, spun into hay ropes without threshing. These ropes were pegged to the sand all over the area to be reclaimed, in chequered lines. The seed was thus enabled to germinate and take firm hold, and soon the whole was an uniform mass of vegetation. Such a process is 7 Kirx.—On the Reclamation of Sand Wastes. 45 well worth a trial, and the necessary modifications in our circumstances would soon be ascertained. If our friends learned in those things will indicate such littoral grasses as have the properties of root-spreading and, at the same time, striking moderately deep into and flourishing on nearly pure sand, the practical result cannot be very uncertain, nor the application difficult. It is, in the first place, only a carpet of any sort of vegetation which will prevent the driving of the surface that is wanted. This will allow the planting of trees, and, where the soil is the more suitable, proper pasturage grasses can afterwards be substituted. But the great result would be attained if even the onward progress of the sand was arrested, and, as 1t must evidently be commenced at the sea, every year’s delay loses not only so much more land now good, but increases the width of waste to be reclaimed in order to preserve the remainder. Arr. [X.—Wotes on the Plants best Adapted for the Reclamation of Sand Wastes. By T. Kirn, F.LS. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 6th October, 1873.] As attention has been drawn to the importance of preventing the further inland extension of our coastal sand wastes by the recent papers of Mr. Whitcombe* and Mr. Stewart,f it seems desirable to point out the various indigenous and exotic plants available for the purpose, and to state their respective advantages and disadvantages so far as demonstrated by actual experience or close observation. Mr. Heale has well shown that, as a general rule, it will be found much more difficult to reclaim the sand wastes on the west coast of the North Island than those on the east, on account of the greater set and force of the wind on the former. While assenting to the general truth of this statement, I am led to the belief that in all except perhaps a few peculiar localities, the object sought may ultimately be obtained by commencing the work of reclamation at high-water mark, since the added sand, except in the case of moving sand- hills, is chiefly derived from the space between tide-marks. If, therefore, we can succeed in arresting this at the extreme verge of high water, the mass will accumulate so slowly, owing to local eddies and coastal dispersion, as in most cases to admit of the growth of arboreal vegetation forming a permanent barrier. When the sand is but slightly exposed to the action of the wind, the process is very simple, or rather a number of simple processes may be adopted. * Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. V., p. 108. + See Art. VIII. 46 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. # Where young plants of the marrem or the lyme-grass can be procured, they may be placed about fifteen inches apart, by simply making an incision with a spade, inserting the plant, and pressing the adjacent sand about it with the foot. estuca littoralis, which is common all round the coast, might be used for the same purpose ; Poa australis var. levis, an abundant grass from Port Waikato southwards, is also available, as are the pingao (Desmoschanus spiralis) and the Spinifex hirsutus, which may be obtained in unlimited quantities on all coast sand-hills in the colony, although they are not so effective as the marrem, lyme-grass, and maritime fescue. Zoysia pungens, a creeping rooted grass, but with herbage rarely exceeding two inches in height, might be sown or planted amongst the larger kinds ; its herbage is succulent, and it is eaten with avidity by sheep and horses, while it forms a remarkably dense, compact sward. Poa breviglumis, a grass more common on sandy shores in the South Island than in the North, affords a larger yield of herbage, and may be either sown or planted. Other suitable plants for this purpose are mentioned in the appended list. In a few exceptionally quiet spots, grasses of a more nutritive kind might be sown at once : the rat’s-tail, or chilian grass of the settlers, the doab grass, buffalo grass, and the common meadow grass are well suited for this purpose, alike from their creeping roots and dense yield of herbage. The sheep’s fescue grasses are also of great value. The plan of forming ropes of seeded hay, and fastening them on the sand, has been described at length by Mr. Stewart, so that I need not refer to it here. In spots where moisture percolates through the sand for a portion of the year, the common water-cress might be sown or planted ; even if the supply of moisture failed during a protracted drought, the matted roots and decaying herbage would prevent the surface from being disturbed by the wind, and the plant would start into luxuriant growth with the first showers. In partially-sheltered valleys amongst sand-hills—such, for instance, as are found near the Manukau Heads—it might be worth while to try the experi- ment of sowing wheat with subterranean trefoil and the native Poa brevi- glumis. A small yield of grain might be expected, but the benefit to be derived + would arise from the decaying roots of the wheat, and subsequently of the trefoil, affording additional nourishment for the meadow grass, so that a compact sward would be,formed more speedily than by the ordinary method. But in all cases, in order to afford protection at the most vulnerable point, it will be advisable to plant a belt of coarse-growing plants or small shrubs capable of enduring the spray of the sea at high-water mark, This should be of several yards in width, varying according to the nature of the situation, degree of exposure, etc., aud may be composed of toe-toe grass (Arundo conspicua J, Kirx.—On the Reclamation of Sand Wastes. 47 4 prickly toe-toe (Cyperus ustulatus), and sea spurge (Huphorbia glauca), all of which are abundant on the coast, and in many places may be planted with- out subdivision. The sea mallow (Lavatera arborea), of which seeds may be collected in the neighbourhood of every New Zealand port, would form a valuable addition to the native plants adapted for this purpose. In places but little exposed to the wind it would not be absolutely neces- sary to introduce shrubs or trees, although such a course offers many advantages. The osier and the white willow are well adapted for such localities, and may be readily increased by cuttings, so also the weeping willow, the sea buckthorn ( Hippophae rhamnoides), the pohutukawa, ngaio, and others to be presently mentioned. The best of all known trees for this purpose, however, is the pinaster, but plants not more than one or two years old should be used ; in the latter case they should have been transplanted the first year. But the process is not quite so simple in localities exposed to the full action of the wind: here it is imperative at the outset to provide temporary protection by covering the surface with branches of evergreens, straw, rushes, reeds, etc.; or by erecting a stout wattled fence ; by thatched hurdles; or, best of all, by a fence of close boards. In not a few spots it will be necessary both to erect the fence and to cover the surface with branches, or the most available substitute. It is obvious that under such circumstances planting cannot be undertaken to any great extent, and must be restricted to spots where it is absolutely necessary, and to such objects as creeping-rooted grasses, etc., some of which will not only endure the diminished amount of light and air caused by the overlying branches, but will, for a time, derive considerable benefit. But as grasses alone, even if thoroughly established in such exposed situations, would soon become buried by the moving sand, it will be necessary to employ trees and shrubs to a large extent; and these can only be established by sowing, which is happily the most economic method. The most effective plan would be to commence at high-water mark, and erect a fence, as already suggested, at right angles to the prevailing wind ; then to sow a belt with the seeds selected, which should be immediately covered with overlapping branches of evergreen trees, lightly pegged down, or secured with stones. The width of the belt must depend upon the violence of the wind, degree of exposure, ete.; but too much should not be attempted at once. This belt of itself would, in a short period, form a shelter for another belt, and so on until the entire area was reclaimed. The best mixture I can suggest for general. purposes of this kind in the Colony is: 1 fb. broom (Spartium scoparium ). 1 bb. pinaster (Pinus pinaster ). 48 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. i bb. tavata (Piitosporwm crassifolium). 4 ib. cottonwood ( Cassinia leptophylia). 1 ib. toe-toe (Arundo conspicua ). 2 Ibs. buffalo grass (Stenotaphrum glabrum ). i Ib. sea meadow grass (Poa breviglumis ). The above would be sufiicient for one acre. The selection might be varied by substituting any of the plants enumerated hereafter, at the judgment of the cultivator. As before remarked, it would be advantageous in all cases to plant at high-water mark a broad belt of toe-toe, prickly toe, sea spurge, and sea mallow, or similar plants, of which we have happily a fair choice ; also, if practicable, to plant roots of maritime creeping grasses amongst the seeds when sown. The broom would attain a height of two feet or more the first season, but the pines would not exceed a few inches. In the north the pines would probably overtake the broom and other shrubs about the fourth year, by which time they would require thinning, and the thinnings might be used to protect other sowings. As the thinnings became larger the tranks and roots might be burned for tar and charcoal. In about eighteen or twenty years the trees might be tapped for resin, when the supply would increase yearly. Unfortunately the timber is not so valuable as that of P. sylvestris and other species, although in Central Europe it is used for inside work and for shingles. The following enumeration of plants adapted for the reclamation of sand wastes is by no means exhaustive. Several Australian and Tasmanian species besides those named would, doubtless, prove available, but my limited knowledge of them does not warrant their inclusion in this list. A Tasmanian Spinifex growing on coastal sands is said to be a great hindrance to travellers, and may be expected to prove especially valuable for our purpose. The native country of non-indigenous plants is stated in all cases. A—TREES AND SHRUBS. Pittosporum crassifoliwm, sea-side tarata, or kihihi.i—A fine shrub or small tree, sometimes attaining the height of twenty-five feet ; common on sandy and rocky coasts, from the North Cape to Poverty Bay ; produces seed freely ; a most valuable plant. P. umbellatum.—Of less value than the preceding ; seeds freely. Dodonea viscosa, akeake.—Common ; on the sand forms a dwarf twigg shrub ; seeds freely. Corynocarpus levigata, karaka.—A handsome evergreen tree, but will not flourish when exposed to the wind ; seeds freely. Metrosideros tomentosa, pohutukawa.—On sandy and rocky coasts, Auckland. Kirx.—On the Reclamation of Sand Wastes. 49 A fine tree with tortuous spreading branches, endures the sea spray ; timber of great value for shipbuilding. This tree and the kauri have contributed so greatly to the prosperity of the Province of Auckland that it is surprising to find no steps have been taken to perpetuate the supply. Seeds are produced freely.* Leptospermum procumbens.—Australia.—This is stated by Baron Ferd. von Miieller to be of great value for covering sand-hills. I am not aware that it has been introduced into New Zealand at present. Coprosma baveriana, angeange.—Common on the coast. Coprosma petiolata.—Common. Much-branched shrubs or small trees ; endure wind and spray ; cuttings root easily, and seeds are produced in abundance. Myoporum letwm, ngaio.—Common on all the coasts, and readily propagated by seeds and cuttings. Hippophae rhamnoides, sea buckthorn, Kurope.—Seeds ; a branched shrub 2 — 10 feet high, with silvery foliage. Salix caprea, sallow, Kurope. Salix viminalis, osier, Europe. Salia alba b. cerulea, white willow, Europe. Salix babylonica, weeping willow, Persia, etc. The osier is a valuable plant for our purpose, and is readily propagated by cuttings, which may be obtained from the Nelson nurserymen. The sallow and Salix alba may be seen in the gardens of the Auckland Acclimatization Society, but I fear the variety cerulea has not been introduced at present. Populus acladesca, black Italian poplar, North America. Populus greca, Athenian poplar, Levant. These trees are well worthy of trial ; cuttings root freely, and can be easily obtained. Pinus pinaster var. maritima, pinaster, Hurope.—One of the best of all known trees for our purpose, and can be obtained at all the nurseries. It has been so generally planted about Auckland and other places in the colony that seeds can be procured in large quantities. In the south of Europe the seeds form an article of food. P. pimea, stone pine, Ravenna pine, Europe. P. halepensis, Aleppo pine, Aleppo.—Inferior to the pinaster ; the seeds of the stone pine are larger than those of the pinaster, and more highly valued for food. Both species produce seeds in the vicinity of Auckland. * It has been asserted that the pohutukawa will only grow on clay soils. On the South Head of the Manukau, which isa mass of blown sand, it is abundant and luxuriant, attaining a large size. Other instances might be stated. G 50 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. B—UNDER-SHRUBS AND CREEPERS. Hymenanthera latifolia b. tasmanica. Hymenanthera latifolia ce. chathamica. Rocky and sandy places on the coast, but remarkably local; 0., Spirits Bay to Onitangi Beach, rare; ¢, Chatham Islands, compact shrubs, 2 ft. to 4ft. high when growing on exposed sandy beaches ; increased by seeds and cuttings. Young plants may be seen in the gardens of the Auckland Acclimatization Society. Ulex europeus, L., furze, gorse, Europe.—Naturalized throughout the Colony. U. nanus b. gallit, dwarf furze, British Islands. Spartium scopartwm, broom, Hurope. Naturalized in many places in New Zealand; valuable, and readily | propagated by seed. I believe Ulex gallii would prove more effective for our object than U. ewropeus, but it has not been introduced into the Colony. Rubus discolor, blackberry, Kurope.—On sands this plant forms dense bushes, almost impervious to cattle. It is naturalized in several localities, and may be increased by seeds or cuttings. Coprosma acerosa.—Abundant on coastal sands ; seeds freely. Opuntia vulgaris, prickly pear, South America.—Mr. Knorpp states that this plant has been successfully applied in reclaiming coast sands in Madras, but that it has become so abundant as to be a serious hindrance to travellers in certain localities. It has long been cultivated in the Province of Auckland without evincing any tendency to spontaneous propagation ; it would prove serviceable in most parts of the North Island, although not in the South. Increased by cuttings, which merely require to be laid on the surface of the sand. Olearia semidentata.—Said to form compact dwarf masses on the sandy shores of the Chatham Islands, where it is endemic. Cassinia leptophylla, cotton-wood.—Common on sand-hills all round the coast; seeds abundantly. Lewcopogon frazert.m—Common on sands and open places; seldom more than six inches in height ; stems creeping, ascending at the tips; seeds. Vinca major, large periwinkle, Europe.—Naturalized to many places; the trailing stems take root at the tips and speedily form a close covering to the surface. Veronica speciosa, large koromiko, Hokianga.—Grows on sand, forming a compact, luxuriant bush ; easily increased by seeds or cuttings. V. dieffenbachit, Chatham Islands.—Valuable on account of its peculiar depressed and spreading habit. Veronica elliptica.—Of similar value to the preceding, but of taller growth. Kir«.—On the Reclamation of Sand Wastes. 51 Muhlenbeckia axillaris.—Common ; seeds. Pimelea arenaria.—Common on all sand-hills and dunes ; seeds. Agave americana, American aloe, South America.—Increases freely by suckers, and might be used in the North Island, but grows very slowly when young. C—SuFFRUTICOSE AND SUB-HERBACEOUS PLANTS, most of which cover the surface with their foliage. Nasturtium officinale, water-cress, Hurope.—Abundantly naturalized. Crambe maritima, sea-kale, Hurope.—Seeds freely, and holds the sand by its thick roots. Cakile maritima, sea-rocket, Europe. Portulaca oleracea, purslane, Kurope.—Naturalized; sometimes forms a matted turf in the sand, but is only of annual duration. Lavatera arborea, sea-mallow, Europe.—A valuable plant, withstands the most violent winds, and, notwithstanding its biennial duration, seeds so freely that it is always effective ; naturalized at all New Zealand ports. Ononis arvensis, restharrow, Hurope.—Seeds. Trifolium subterraneum, subterranean trefoil, Hurope.—Seeds. Mesembryanthemum australe, fig marigold.—On all the coasts ; cuttings root easily. M. maximum, M. falevforme, and many other cultivated species, may be advantageously employed. Tetragonia exapansa, New Zealand spinach.—Common all round the coast. Eryngium maritimum, sea-holly, Europe.—Seeds; a valuable plant, and much superior to the native Z, vesiculoswm. Feniculum vulgare, fennel, Hurope.—Naturalized ; seeds. Diotis maritima, cotton-weed, Europe, North Africa.—Seeds ; valuable on account of its creeping, woody root-stock and procumbent branched stems. Tanacetum vulgare, tansey, Hurope.—Cultivated in New Zealand ; seeds; forms compact masses on sand. Convolvolus sepium, bindweed.—Abundant. C. soldanella, sea-bindweed.—A bundant on coast sands, and of great value. Artemisia abrotanum, southern-wood, Europe.—Sparingly naturalized; cuttings and seeds. Mentha cunninghamit.—N ot rare in sands and moist places. Atriplex cinerea.—On the coasts of both islands, but rare and local ; a dwarf, branching shrub, rarely more than 3ft. in height, Beta maritima, beet, Europe.—Cultivated. Salsola australis, saltwort, Australia.—Naturalized on the shores of the Waitemata. 32 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. Polygonum rayi, Ray’s knotgrass, Britain.—Seeds; grows close to the surface, which it speedily covers. Euphorbia glauca, sea-spurge.—Common all round the coasts; a most valuable plant for binding the surface, often growing in places exposed to the wash of the sea. £. portlandica, Portland spurge, Europe. E. paralias, Europe. The above are in no way superior to the native species. £. peplis, san-spurge, Europe.—This has been recommended by some writers,’ but, from its annual duration, is of little value. I consider it inferior to the purslane, which is abundantly naturalized. Iris sustana, Chalcedonian iris, Levant. I. germanica, Germany. Seeds and divisions of the root ; naturalized in many parts of the Colony, especially abundant at the Bay of Islands ; plants of great value from their abundant, fleshy rhizomes and rigid fas Asparagus officinalis, asparagus, Europe.—Seeds; cultivated in New Zealand, holds the sand by its matted roots. Arthropodium cirrhatum, rengarenga.—-Common on the coasts of the Auckland Province. Cyperus ustulatus, prickly toe-toe.—Abundant throughout the Colony, and of great value. Arundo conspicua, toi-toi.—Abundant throughout the Colony ; seeds; one of the most valuable plants available for coastal reclamation. Asplenium lucidum, wharengarara.— Abundant, especially near the sea; forms large clumps on the sands in the southern part of the Colony. D—SepceEs anp Grasses, chiefly with creeping roots. Desmoschenus spiralis, pingao.—Common on blown sand all round the coast ; seeds freely. Carex pumila.—Common on loose sandy shores. C. raoultt.—N ot uncommon. C. inversa.—Rare and local. C. arenaria, sand-sedge, Europe. Seeds are produced freely, and all the species may be increased by cuttings of the creeping rhizomes, or, in the case of C. raoulii, by division of the root. C. arenaria is more valuable than either of the native species. Spinifea hirsutus.— On all loose maritime sands the long trailing stems are often 20ft. long, or more, and will root at every joint if fastened down ; like the pingao this will only flourish in loose sand. Kirx.—On the Reclamation of Sand Wastes. 53 Paspalum distichum—Common on beach margins in the North Island, and about Nelson; forms a compact sward in rather moist situations. Zoysia pungens.—Abundant on sandy and muddy beaches, etc., etc. ; forms a dense matted turf; greedily eaten by sheep and horses. Dichelachne stipoides.—On sands north of the Hauraki Gulf; a fine wiry grass of tussocky habit. Sporobolus elongatus, rat’s-tail grass, chilian grass.—Abundant in the North Island and Nelson ; a strong, coarse grass capable of adapting itself to a great variety of soil and exposure ; eaten by cattle. Psamma arenaria, marrem, Kurope.—Cultivated in New Zealand; extensively used in Europe for binding sands.* Cynodon dactylon, doab grass, India.—Naturalized throughout the Clone 3 of great value. Holcus mollis, soft fescue, Kurope.—Naturalized throughout the Colony ; valuable on account of its creeping roots; endures the sea-spray; herbage of little value. Aira canescens, Europe. Giyceria loliacea, Europe. Poa breviglumis.—Common on sands, etc., especially in the South Island; a grass of great value. | P. australis var. levis —Common from Port Waikato southwards ; resembles Dichelachne stipoides in habit, but is more diffuse. P. bulbosa, Europe. Festuca littoralis.—Common on sands in both islands ; of great value. Triticum repens, couch grass, Hurope. T. junceum, Europe. Creeping rooted grasses of great hardiness, but producing herbage of little value. * In the course of a recent hasty walk on the beach between the town of New Plymouth and the Sugar Loaves, during the stay of a passing steamer, I had pleasure in observing dead culms of an exotic grass apparently belonging to this species, and which exhibited great luxuriance, being 4ft. to 5ft. in height. I was unable to ascertain if it occurred in other localities in the district, or to procure any particulars respecting its introduction ; but, from its being found in several patches of considerable extent and in many widely-scattered and isolated tussocks, it would appear that seeds were scattered on the beach without protection. It is much to be desired that any person acquainted with the circumstances under which the plant was introduced would place a statement thereof on permanent record, with particulars as to date and present extent of diffusion, as precisely as can be ascertained. A considerable quantity of seed could be collected without difficulty, and, in some cases, offsets might be taken off, so that with comparatively little expense a portion of the beach might soon be fixed, Offsets must, in all cases, be taken off sparingly, so as to disturb as little of the fixed surface as possible, 54 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. Lepturus incurvatus, Europe.—Abundantly naturalized on sands in the Auckland Province, but of trivial value. Elymus geniculatus, lyme grass, Europe.—Of equal value with the marrem. Stenotaphrum glabrum, buffalo grass.—TIncreased by seed and cuttings, ete. ; of stout procumbent habit, and producing a large yield of nutritious herbage. It would ultimately prove advantageous to the Colony if a small portion of the money now being spent on public works could be applied to the reclamation of sand wastes. The magnitude of the evil to be remedied is admitted by all who have paid the slightest attention to the subject. In several localities the natives are compelled, year by year, to abandon their cultivations as the sand-wave advances, and settlers are helpless witnesses of the destruction of their paddocks from the same cause. Fences, large trees, and patches of bush, have been overwhelmed within the memory of settlers of comparatively recent standing, and, in some cases, still more serious injury must result unless preventive measures are taken. The danger is not confined to any one district or province ; it is general, and demands prompt attention. While much can be done with the means already at command, there can be little doubt that other plants, both indigenous and exotic, would prove available on actual experiment, and some species may be found to possess greater value than many of those at present known. The work of reclamation in this Colony is greatly facilitated by the favourable nature of the climate, which allows the employment of many plants not available for the purpose in other countries. It must be confessed that such localities as the Waikato Heads, and some parts of the Kaipara sand-hills, are calculated to produce an impression of man’s inability to cope with nature; but, if we look at what has been accomplished with more slender resources than those now indicated, it will be seen there is abundance of encouragement. In the Gulf of Gascony immense wastes of trackless sand were utterly destitute of vegetation, and during violent storms exhibited a complete change of surface, hills becoming valleys and valleys taking the place of hills, the sand being gradually carried into the interior, and covering cultivated fields, villages, and entire forests. This process of devastation has been completely arrested, and thousands of acres of former sand-waste now yield a handsome revenue, and support a considerable population. To arrest the process of destruction now to be seen in so many localities in this Colony is an object for which we may well venture to encounter the possibility, the probability even, of repeated failures in the certainty of ultimate success. Kirn.—WMaterials for Paper-making. or ib) | Axt. X.—Wotes on Indigenous Materials for the Manufacture of Paper. By T. Kirk, F.L.S. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 8th December, 1873.] Dovusts having been freely expressed as to whether the Colony possesses a sufficient abundance of raw material for the manufacture of paper to allow of the process being undertaken on a remunerative scale, it may be worth while to call attention to several plants available for the purpose, all of which occur in abundance, and are being yearly destroyed to an enormous extent by the progress of settlement. Several of them could be cultivated so as to afford a regular supply. Kahakaha, Astelia solandri.—The tree-flax of the settlers; abundant on lofty trees and rocks throughout the Colony; the entire leaf produces a considerable quantity of fibre, and is thickly clothed at the base with silky, shaggy, lustrous hairs ; it is usually found on rocks from sea-level to 2,500ft. or 3,000ft., and on the limbs of trees, where, at a distance, it resembles the nest of some huge bird. ‘The leaves are radical, lft. to 2ft. long, and produced in large numbers. Hundreds of tons are destroyed on every acre of forest land cleared in the North Island. Kowharawhara, Astelia bankswi and A. cunninghamit, have the habit of the preceding species, but the leaves, although narrower than that plant, are from 3ft. to 6ft. in length, and produce a superior fibre. A. cunninghamii is common on trees and rocks, and A. banksw is found in immense profusion in wooded places by the sea; both occur in abundance in the North Island, but their southern distribution is uncertain. Kauri-grass, Astelia trinervia.—Perhaps the most abundant of all the species, occasionally forming the chief part of the undergrowth in the northern forests up to 3,000ft., and so dense that it is often difficult to force one’s way amongst the interlaced leaves, which are from 3ft. to 8ft. long, and of a paler green tinge than either of the preceding. It could be procured by hundreds of tons, and as, like the other species, it is found in situations not adapted for ordinary cultivated crops, a permanent supply might be fairly calculated upon. Experience has shown that it may be cut yearly. The leaves of all the species of Astelia are clothed at their base with silky shaggy hairs, and the entire surface is covered with a thin pellicle. A shrub or small tree, from 6ft. Ti, or cabbage-tree, Cordyline australis. to 25ft. high, found throughout the Colony, often in immense abundance—as in the Bay of Islands and Waikato districts. This plant is too well known to need description; it is sufficient to state that it produces a large quantity of fibrous material, and might be readily cultivated. An obscure plant closely 56 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. allied to this is cultivated for food by the natives of the Upper Wanganui district. Some years ago leaves of this plant were sent to England and manufactured into paper at one of the Yorkshire mills. The article was highly commended in a trade periodical, and the propriety of importing a constant supply of the raw material steadily advocated. I greatly regret that I have mislaid my reference _to the trade circular in which the notice appeared. Ti ngaberehere, Cordyline banksii.itA much smaller plant than the last, producing fibre of a superior quality, but in smaller quantity. It is abundant on the margin of forests, gullies, etc.,’ throughout the North Island and northern parts of the South Island, and, like the preceding species, could be readily cultivated. Cutting grasses, Gahnia setifolia and Gahnia ebenocarpa, appear well adapted for the manufacture of coarse papers. The former is abundant in both islands, and could be procured in almost unlimited quantity ; the latter is rather local in its distribution, but the tussocks individually afford a larger quantity of leaves, which are often 8ft. in length. Other sedges and grasses might also be utilized, especially the curious sand-grass, Spinifex hirsutus, and the sand-fescne grass, Mestuca littoralis. The last might possibly form a substitute for Esparto. The curious sedge called the pingao, growing on shifling sands, might prove to be valuable ; also, the tawera, or New Zealand screw pine, Preycinetia banksii, which is abundant in moist woods, often climbing to the tops of the loftiest trees, and might be procured by thousands of tons. The nikau also appears to offer material suitable for the manufacture of coarse wrapping papers, etc. I have not mentioned Phormiwm, since its merits are so well recognized that a company has been formed in Auckland specially for the utilization of its fibre in paper manufacture. The various species of Ce/mzsia, chiefly known by the settlers as cotton-grass or leather-plant, appear well adapted for our purpose. They are comparatively rare in the North Island, the most common being C. longifolia, which is abundant on the central plains but does not attain a large size ; to the north of Auckland it only occurs in isolated localities. In the South Island the genus is plentiful, numerous fine species with large leathery leaves, more or less hairy or woolly, being abundant. I have specimens of C. verbascifolia in my possession, in which the leaves are nearly 2ft. long. C. coriacea, a much commoner species, is perhaps still more valuable. Although strictly outside the limits of this paper, it may not be amiss to state that at several English mills wheaten straw has, for many years past, been manufactured into paper of good quality, and which has come into general use. At present wheaten straw is of little value in the Colony, so that a Heate.—On Moon Occultations. i considerable amount of raw material could be obtained at small cost, to the joint benefit of the agriculturist and the manufacturer. Wrapping paper has long been manufactured by the Americans from the flowering sheaths of maize, but this material could scarcely be obtained here in sufficient quantity to be made available by the manufacturer. Art. XI.—On the Prediction of Occultations of Stars by the Moon. By T. HEAte. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 10th November, 1873. | Aw the methods in use for ascertaining the longitude, independently of chronometers, depend upon the observation of the moon’s position at a certain . instant of time at the place, then ascertaining from the tables of the moon in the nautical almanac, or other similar publications, the instant of time at Greenwich, or other standard position, at which she reaches that point. The difference between the two times so obtained is the difference of longitude between the two places. The most complete, as well as the most simple, method of making this comparison, and the one almost invariably used for observatory purposes, is to note the exact time of the moon’s crossing the meridian of the place by the transit instrument, taking, at the same time, her zenith distance, or not, according to the instrument employed. But to effect this in at all a satisfactory measure requires an observatory and fixed instruments of an expensive character, and accurate observations kept up for a considerable period and elaborately reduced by computation. It is, therefore, inapplicable to the purposes of a traveller, either by sea or land. The method chiefly employed when an approximate result has to be obtained from a single set of observations, is by observing the moon’s angular distance from the sun, a planet, or a fixed star, commonly called lunars. The chief objections to this method depend on the circumstance that since the moon at fastest moves only about 1 second to 24 seconds of longitude, and ordinarily much less, every second of error in the angular measurement produces an error about thirty times as great in the longitude; and as the observations have often to be taken in very inconvenient postures, in which only light instruments held in the hand are available. On board ship accuracy cannot, as a rule, be expected from them, and in practice they are now but little used—far less frequently, as far as my observation goes, than they used to be forty years ago, though the trouble of computing them has been greatly lightened by special tables. The only remaining method of importance is by occultations of fixed stars, H 58 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. by which a very accurate determination of longitude may be had from a single observation, for which no instrument is necessary but a hand telescope of moderate power. This excellent method was scarcely available for travellers before binocular telescopes came into use, but they seem to me now to be very unduly neglected, especially by seamen. The causes of this neglect are not far to seek. The first is an irreparable one: they occur very rarely—there are not, on an average, more than twelve each month for each latitude, of which seldom one- half are fairly available for good observation on shore—and with the small- power telescopes, which it would be necessary to use on board ship, the really available cases would hardly occur oftener than two in a month. But another cause of the unpopularity of these observations is, that it is necessary to make a preliminary investigation for each star that seems likely to be available, the result of which, when made, very often is simply to show that it is useless ; so that out of half-a-dozen stars predicted it is rarely that more than one proves altogether suitable, and even that one may be lost by a passing cloud. It must be confessed that this is a discouraging circumstance at the best, and when the prediction required an elaborate calculation, involving the solution of three spherical, and at least two plane, triangles, it was fatal to its use by practical men. I shall proceed, however, to show that the trouble may be reduced to very small dimensions indeed. The elements necessary for the prediction and computation of occultation are given in the nautical almanac, and more copious ones in the American ‘nautical almanac ; but they could only be given without great labour for belés of latitude, and a special investigation has to be made for each place. Various plans have from time to time been published for abridging the labour of these predictions. The first I am acquainted with is a pamphlet by Captain, now Admiral, Shadwell, which was published by the Admiralty in 1847. The principle on which it is based, is to use essentially the same processes as those required for the final computations, but to shorten them by using approximations instead of the accurate elements ; by treating all the triangles as plane, and solving them by the use of the traverse-table, with which seamen are very familiar. But the most practically useful method of approximate prediction is by the method of graphical projection. Drawing a diagram of the earth as it would appear to an eye situated in the star at the moment of conjunction in right ascension, showing the line on it upon which the spectator would be carried in given intervals of time by the earth’s motion, then marking a point on the picture at which the moon’s centre would be at the same moment, and a line to indicate the direction of her movement, with the points on it which she will reach in given intervals; then it is clear that if the figure of the HeaLte.—On Moon Occultations. 59 moon covers any point on the earth at the time the spectator is there, the star will not be visible to him, or it will be occulted, and it is obvious that the moment when the moon’s image on the drawing just touches the part where the spectator is at the moment, on either side, will be the time at which the disappearance or occultation and egress will occur. To construct such a diagram as this does not require any considerable calculations, but it is tedious, and, in practice, a pretty expert computer and draftsman would hardly compute it in less than an hour, which is a good deal of labour to expend on a mere preliminary, which may have to be many times repeated before one is come to which proves to be available for observation. _A rather large book by Mr. F. C. Penrose, containing an elaborate method of shortening the labour of this graphical process, was published in England three or four years ago. In it there are diagrams ready made, upon which the elements of an occultation, as taken from the nautical almanac, may be laid down, the reduction necessary being made by means of a slide rule. I hardly think that this method will be much used. It is possible that I may be so wedded to methods to which I am accustomed that I do not readily take to other ones ; but, to me, it appears quite as troublesome as the ordinary plan as given in Loomis and many other astronomical books, to which, after giving every attention to Mr Penrose’s method, I have found it most convenient to adhere ; but, in practice, I have adopted some mechanical aids which, without in any degree altering or modifying the plan, assist so largely in carrying it out that I now find that by their use I can predict at least four in the time it used to take me to project one, and without any sensible diminution in accuracy, the result being, that when an occultation occurs while the moon is within an hour or two of the meridian, the prediction is true within a limit of about two minutes, the possible error increasing to about double that quantity when the moon is four hours from the meridian. In laying down a diagram by any process it is necessary to lay down in their true relative values the magnitude of the earth, or, at least, of the ellipse into which the observer’s latitude-parallel is projected; of the different hour spaces upon it ; and of the moon and her position and motions. The ready way of doing this is either to take the moon’s horizontal parallax in seconds, and to adopt that on a suitable scale as the earth’s radius, in which case the values of the hour intervals and of the observer’s distance from where the star is vertical must all be reduced to that radius; or an arbitrary radius, as 1,000, may be used, and the value of the hour intervals in the observer's latitude may then be laid off one for all, the same diagrams being used for an indefinite number of predictions ; but then all the other quantities must be reduced to that radius, and in either case the ellipses into which the observer's latitude- parallel is projected must be set out for each occultation or eclipse predicted, 60 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. and the values of the hour-spaces marked on it, and this is the most troublesome part of the operation. Penrose’s method gives several ellipses already drawn, from which one may be selected which corresponds most nearly with the circumstances of the eclipse to be predicted. Now the method I employ is the first and simplest one. I take out roughly, by inspection, the moon’s horizontal parallax at conjunction, and adopt that as a radius ; the position of the observer and of his antipodes are then got out by taking the sum and difference of the declination and the sine of the observer’s latitude into the adopted radius. ‘These can then be laid off by scale on a vertical line drawn on any sheet of paper from a fixed point at its upper end, through which a line is drawn perpendicular to it. The moon’s place at conjunction can then be marked on the same line by scaling off the distance south in seconds, as given in the nautical almanac, and the moon’s hourly motion in right ascension, reduced to an are of a great circle, is measured on the horizontal line on top, and her motion north or south on the perpendicular line. A line parallel to the diagonal of those co-ordinates drawn through the moon’s place at conjunction will give her course, and the distance she travels in parts of an hour may be marked off on it, the times of which should be marked on them. All this is just as would have to be done on the ordinary method, but then, instead of constructing the ellipses representing the parallels of latitude and computing the hour divisions, I keep a set of ellipses, cut out of cardboard, for every 30” of horizontal parallax, and for every 100” of semi-minor axis, on which the hour divisions are permanently marked. I see at a glance which ellipse suits the conditions best—that is, the one drawn to the same horizontal parallax, and of which the minor axis corresponds with the distance in seconds of the observer and his antipodes—and at once rule in the curve from the card, and also mark the hour divisions from it. I have then only to take off the moon’s semi-diameter, which, bearing a fixed proportion to the horizontal parallax, may be marked off on each cardboard ellipse, and it is the work of a minute to see the moment at which the ingress and egress occurs, and the point on the moon’s perimeter at which the star enters and emerges. It is obvious that the same process is equally applicable to solar eclipses, taking of course the differences of their parallaxes and motions and the sum of their semi-diameters. i Now that binocular telescopes are so largely used, and are made to powers so considerable as 7 or 8 diameters, the observation of a star of fourth magnitude entering on the dark limb of the moon—that is before the full—may be perfectly well observed on board ships, and, I believe, in clear weather fifth magnitude stars could be seen ; and, as one observation will give a longitude thoroughly trustworthy within very narrow limits, it seems a pity that they should so seldom be used. pee Shy Ss Trans.N. Aomet Yok Vi. PL AE. > * Nae Vesey & Wn NU > AYALA Wi em W West & Coimp. BY HES : SN SS sila, bs Wa | AT. Hollick delet th. HEALE— On Moon Occultations. 61 T have here the computations of five occultations which I have observed with a portable telescope at different times without any special care. Of these four agree with one another within a maximum of seven seconds ; the fifth is apparently affected by some blunder, as it varies upwards of twenty seconds from the others, but, as even this discrepancy is only about four and a-half statute miles, it might be considered accurate in comparison with the approximations generally available on board ship. The calculation of longitude from the observations is, it will be observed, not by any means formidable for its length, and it presents no intricacies which an ordinary navigator may not easily master. Il..—ZOOLOGY. Art, XIL—On Harpagornis, an Latinct Genus of Gigantic Raptorial Buds of New Zealand. By Jutius Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., Director of the Canterbury Museum. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th June, and 2nd July, 1873.] Plates VIL, VIII. TX. (ApsTRAct.)* In a paper read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, in 1871,T I offered the first account of the discovery of a few bones belonging to a gigantic bird of prey, which were obtained with a considerable quantity of Moa bones in the turbary deposits of Glenmark, a locality which will ever be celebrated in the scientific annals of New Zealand as the spot which, doubtless, has furnished the largest quantity and variety of bones available for the elucidation of the anatomy of the wonderful, wingless, struthious birds of this country. The bones described in that paper consisted of a left femur, two ungual — phalanges, and a rib, all belonging to the same specimen. Since the publication of those first notes, further excavations were undertaken in the same locality ; and in following down the swampy water- course from which these few remains of Harpagornis were previously obtained a further series of bones was discovered, which, on examination, proved to be another portion of the same skeleton described in that first memoir. The bones recently obtained were scattered over the bottom of the turbary deposit along the old water-course, 6ft. to 7ft. below the surface, amongst the remains of decaying swampy vegetation. They were mixed up with pieces of drift timber, and with a considerable number of Moa bones, several of them belonging to the larger species (Din. giganteus var. maximus, and Din. robustus). « The bones obtained during these latter excavations consisted of the following :—right and left metatarsus, right and left tibia, right and left fibula, right and left ulna, right and left radius (one fragmentary), right and left scapula, one rib, five phalanges, four ungual phalanges, * At the request of the author, the publication of this paper at full length has been deferred until all the illustrations can be published of natural size, in quarto form. —Ep. + Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. IV., p. 192. Haast.—On the Extinct Genus Harpagornis. . 63 Our search after the pelvis, sternum, and cranium, was in vain, so that I shall not be able to offer a description of these important parts of the Glenmark skeleton ; but, as will be seen in the sequel, I can at least do so as far as the pelvis of the species is concerned, Dr. Hector having kindly handed over to me, for such purpose, a well-preserved specimen of that compound bone, found in one of the Otago caves.* This list does also not contain any humerus, but we possess at least a fragmentary one, without doubt belonging to this species, which was obtained about a mile above Glenmark, from the banks of the Glenmark Creek. These banks rise in some places about 100ft. above the water-line, in nearly perpendicular cliffs, and consist of postpliocene alluvium, formed by large beds of shingle, with which smaller deposits of sand and turbary deposits are interstratified. We obtained also the lower portion of a metatarsus, from a similar older postplocene bed situated close to Glenmark, so that there is sufficient evidence to show that this diurnal raptorial bird existed, like the Dinornis and Palapteryx species, during a long period in New Zealand. Some time after having made the discovery of the further portion of the skeleton of Harpayornis moorei, in continuing our excavations on the Glenmark property, on the left bank of the Glenmark Creek, and opposite the spot previously alluded to, we obtained, amongst a considerable quantity of - Moa bones, a large portion of another skeleton of a raptorial bird, which, although of smaller size than the first-named species, is still of remarkable dimensions. These bones were found not far apart, and near the bottom of the swamp, close to a layer of clay, 7ft. to 8ft. below the surface. This new find consisted of the following bones: pelvis (fragmentary), right and left metatarsus, right and left tibia, right and left femur, right humerus, right and left ulna, left metacarpal, left scapula, one rib, four phalanges, one ungual phalanx. In comparing these with the bones of Harpagornis moorei, it became at once evident that they belonged either to a closely allied form, or, making allowance for sex, to the former species. The disproportion in size of our recent diurnal raptorial birds is so great, that even at the present time the question as to the existence of one or two species of Hieracidea is not yet definitely settled. This remarkable difference in size is also observable in the New Zealand Harrier, where the female is * This is one of the bones referred to in Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. IV., p. 114 (foot- note), as having been forwarded by Mr. W. A. Low, which were found in the surface soil under an overhanging rock, and not in a proper cave. This particular bone is in wonderful preservation, and is still covered with periosteum and has the capsular and some other ligaments adherent, while the osseous substance has lost hardly any of the original animal matter which it contained.—J. Hxcror. 64 Transactions. —Zoology. generally much larger than the male bird. Moreover, when comparing the male and female skeletons of Circws with each other, there are some slight sexual differences easily discernible, which might suggest that they belonged to two nearly allied species, did we not know their real relations to each other. As I shall show further on, the bones of both specimens of Harpagornis belong to adult birds, of which the largest died at.a more mature age than the smaller one. Thus the smaller specimen might possibly be the male of H. moorei, assuming the latter to be the female. However, as I am not able to settle this point at present, I shall propose for the second and smaller specimen the specitic name of H. assimilis, in order to point out the close relationship of both. De. Hector suggested* to me that the Harpagornis might possibly be the Hokioi of the Maoris, which, however, according to Buller, is the Great Frigate Bird (Pregata aquila ), obtained repeatedly in New Zealand, and of which he gives several instances in his work on the birds of New Zealand.t What the large bird of prey is that I have met several times during my explorations amongst the snow-clad ranges constituting the Southern Alps, without being able to secure a specimen, is a question which I hope future and more fortunate explorers of those regions will one day solve. Before offering a description of the extremities of Harpagornis, I wish to draw attention to the following table of measurements, in which I have placed in juxtaposition the length of the principal leg and wing bones of all the diurnal birds of prey of which I had material for comparison. TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS. Circ Hieracidea Harpagornis| Harpagornis ee assimilis, sag moorei assimilis Medes New see ; : Australia. New Zealand. Zealand. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Metatarsus - - 6:08 5°87 4°63 3°47 2°25 Tibia Satie 9°52 8:92 7:04 4:26 2°91 THe Gh 6°66 6:09 4:90 2:79 DH. 22,26 20°88 16°57 10°52 7°38 Humerus - - eee 8°57 8°20 4:06 235 Ulna (hai 10°06 9°35 9°38 4°81 2°65 4°48 4°45 2°47 161 Met eae pee BE Tea eae wee ee Ga 22-40 92-03 i134 661 In comparing, in the first instance, the length of the femur with the * On the authority of Sir George Grey. Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. V., p. 435.—Eb. + Buller’s ‘‘ Birds of New Zealand.” 4to., 1873. P. 340.—Ep. TRANS.NZINSTITUTEVOLVEPL. VIL HARPAGORNIS MOOREI. JB. del, et Lath. Haast.—On the Extinct Genus Harpagornis. 65 metatarsus, it will be seen that in Harpagornis the former is longer than the latter limb bone, in this respect resembling Aguila, whereas in Circus the opposite is the case, the metatarsus being longer than the femur. This, to a minor extent, we observe also in Hieracidea. However, when we take the united length of the three principal leg bones into consideration, and compare them with the three principal wing bones, the result is quite different. Thus, whilst the wing bones of H. asstinilis are only 1-52 inches longer than the leg bones (20°88 inches to 22°40 inches) in Aquila, they are, notwith- standing their smaller dimensions, 5:28 inches longer (16°57 inches to 22.03 inches) ; Harpagornis here again agreeing more with Circus (10°52 inches to 11-34 inches). According to their different proportions, the wing bones of HW. assimilis, when compared with Aquila audax, ought to be 27:53 inches, instead of 22-40 inches their actual size; and, with Circus, 22:50 inches, a result which closely agrees with the above measurement. Of //. moorei we possess only the ulna, the length of which, 10-06 inches, compared with the same bone in the smaller 7. assimilis, 9°35 inches, would give for the whole wing bones a total length of 24-10 inches, instead of 29-62 inches, as calculated according to the measurements of Aquila audax. T wish also to point out that in Mieracidea the united length of the wing bones is actually less than that of the leg bones (7-38 inches to 6°61 inches), although this little bird is remarkably strong on the wing. FEMUR. Harpagornis moore. Trans., Vol. IV., Pl. X., Fig. 1. In my former notes on Harpagorms I offered a short description of the femur (vol. iv., p. 193), comparing it at the same time with the corresponding limb bone in the skeleton of Palioaétes leuwcogaster, the white-bellied Sea-Hagle of Australia, and of Circus assimilis, the New Zealand Harrier ; but I shall, in the following notes, compare all the principal bones of Aquila audax, the largest Australian species of Diurnal Raptores, with those of the extinct New Zealand bird. Harpagornis assimilis. Inches. Total length of femur... wae bia zie ONOO Circumference of proximal extremity ibs screed LO Circumference of distal extremity ... ais a. 4:83 Circumference of shaft where thinnest Age leanne 2 This bone, besides being of smaller dimensions, is somewhat slighter in its form, otherwise the description as given of that of Harpagornis moorei closely corresponds in all its principal points. There is no doubt, judging from the insertion marks of the muscles and the intermuscular linear ridges, that this I 66 Transactions.—Zoology. species was also very powerful. Of the latter the linea aspera is not quite continuous, being repeatedly interrupted at more or less considerable intervals. The form of the proximal orifice is somewhat different from that of H. moorei, it being more rounded; however, this may be a sexual or even individual peculiarity, and of no specific value. Examining the femora of a male and a female Circus, I observe that this proximal orifice in the larger female is also oval, and in the smaller male more rounded off. . I have already alluded to the probability that the portions of the two skeletons of extinct birds under consideration might belong to the male and female of the same species, owing to a resemblance in their principal osteological features and to the great disparity of size of many of the recent Diurnal Raptores. In order to illustrate this more fully, I would suggest a comparison of the femora of Circus assimilis of both sexes, both belonging to full-grown and mature birds, obtained under similar conditions. Certainly, if these two bones had been found in a fossil state, one would not deem it expedient to place them in the same species, owing to their remarkable difference in size. TIBIA. Harpagornis moore. Pl. VII., Figs. 1 and 2. Inches. Total length... aie cae ae Rr )55)" Circumference at proximal end bse oe . 9°48 Circumference at distal end os sah ..- 4:60 Circumference of shaft where thinnest one wea nee The same pachydermal character, if I may thus express myself, distinguishes also this bone, like all those of the posterior limb of this gigantic species, from any bird of prey known to inhabit New Zealand at present. Even in comparing the same with that of Aquila audax, of Australia, with which it has otherwise many features in common, this character is well exhibited. The form of the surface of the proximal end agrees well in both species, with the exception that the proximal ridge is more rounded off, and the intercondylar tuberosity stands higher in Harpagornis, in which two features the fossil bone agrees more with Circus. Two narrow and low intermuscular ridges are well marked, the first of which begins at the base of the procnemial process and extends to the inner side of the extensor tendinal canal, above the bony bridge spanning over the precondylar groove ; the other at the termination of the vertical fibular ridge, descending the shaft in a transverse line till it has crossed two-thirds of its Haast.—On the Eautinct Genus Harpagornis. 67 breadth, within one inch above the bridge, then retreating again with a gentle curve. After forming the outer boundary of the groove, it then terminates on the outer side of the canal for the extensor tendon ; thus differing from Aquila, where this second ridge reaches only to the middle of the shaft, and does not describe such a considerable are as we observe upon the fossil bone. The distal condyles are well curved at their anterior ends, and have a more rounded form (which the outer condyle shows most conspicuously) than either Aquila or Circus, in which they are more oblong. Moreover, those of the recent species stand more in advance of the shaft. , The inner distal condyle is also more developed in a transverse extent than the outer one—a feature also exhibited by Aquila. — The shaft of the bone, although slightly bent backwards near its proximal end, is, however, straighter than in Aquila, but not so straight as that of Circus. The fibular ridge is strongly developed. Harpagornis assimilis. Inches. Total length ... ae Sa a sie Oo Circumference at its proximal end ...__ (partly broken away). Circumference at its distal end a va Ai MeasteKl) Circumference of shaft where thinnest Mp spun lS This tibia, although possessing all the main characteristics of the larger species, 1s, when considering its total length, of a somewhat slighter form. I observe, however, that the distal condyles are more oblong, agreeing more in their shape with the recent species hitherto used for comparison. This is best seen in the outer condyle. Might this peculiarity not be traced to age, the skeleton of Harpagornis mooret doubtless having belonged to a more aged bird than the smaller species? Thus the texture of the extremities of the tibia of the former is far more compact than in the latter, in which, although well anchylosed, a want of solidity is observable. Fisuuta. Pl. VIL, Figs. 3 and 4. beacnest the smaller bones obtained from the locality where the principal portion of the skeleton of Harpagornis mooret was excavated are a pair of fibulee, which, on closer examination, proved to belong to that skeleton. Of these the right one is the most perfect. It is 4:27 inches long, the distal point being broken off. The articular head, 0:80 inch long and 0°31 inch broad, is very large and posteriorly slightly convex, its anterior edge sloping down at a considerable angle, far more than in Aquila or Circus, in which the articulating surface is nearly plane, and stands at a right angle to the shaft. The head is also far more hollowed out on the inner side than Aquila. 68 Transactions.— Zoology. The shaft in its upper portion is considerably bent backwards, and very ~ broad where it is attached to the tibia, after which it decreases rapidly in size. Two shallow pits for the insertion of tendons are well marked. METATARSUS. Harpagornis moore. Pl. VIL, Figs. 5 and 6. The following are the measurements of this important bone :— Inches. Total length ... ae xe we sea Ors Circumference at its proximal end, the calcaneal ridges included... nee mere we che) AOS Circumference at its distal end Bi Be ity pee - Circumference of shaft where thinnest cae oe In its general form also, this bone resembles in its main features that of Aquila, except being somewhat more robust. The shaft at its upper end is expanded and transversely flat, gradually becoming narrower, and assuming towards its middle a trihedral shape, after which it flattens again above the fore and aft canal, between the middle and outer metatarsal, near their distal ends. In Circus the trihedral portion of the bone is much longer, even in comparison to its whole length, than either in the fossil bone or in Aquila. The form and position of the trochlear condyles agree more closely with Circus, they being broader and with a larger space between them than in Aquila. The tuberosity for the insertion of tibialis anticus is remarkably developed, another proof of the great power the fossil bird must have possessed. The ectocondylar concavity is well marked, far more than in the recent species, in both of which the outer side of the proximal surface is almost plane. The three tendinal grooves between the calcaneal processes and the inner posterior ridge are deeply excavated, much more than in Aquila audax. Half-way down the shaft they unite to form one concave channel, which, above and close to the process for the attachment of the metatarsal of the back toe, runs out to a flat surface. The two fore and aft foramina in the upper part of the bone, in the grooves near the base of the anterior intercondylar prominences, are well marked. The surface of the bone running from the outer margin of the ectocondylar ridge down to the outer condyle is very broad and flat, as in Aquila, having its greatest diameter in the middle portion of the bone, thus forming the base of its trihedral form. In Circus the base of the bone is situated more in its posterior portion, the ridge running towards the centre of the anterior portion of the shaft, giving the latter a triangular form for about two-thirds of its entire length. NSTITUTE, VOLVIPLVIL. Zt TRANS. N HARPAGORNIS MOOREL. ASB. del. ci: Lith. @ Haast.—On the Extinct Genus Harpagornis, 69 Harpagornis assimilis. Inches, Total length ... Len Sor ae sey RON Circumference at its proximal end, ridges ainda Be eeas late Circumference at its distal end a. nae aoe A Circumference of shaft where thinnest ie med LOPiES) The shaft of this bone, if we compare its total length with that of H. moorei, is generally narrower ; this is most conspicuous above the deeply excavated process for the attachment of the back-toe metatarsal, where the shaft is thinnest. The ectocondylar ridge is also more pronounced, by which the shaft assumes a more triangular form than it possesses in the larger species. The two posterior ridges on both sides of the concave channel are more sharply defined, so that the latter is deeper than in H. moorei, approaching in form more that of the Australian Eagle. HuMERUS. Harpagornis mooret. T already observed, in the preliminary remarks, that our search in the turbary deposits of Glenmark after the humerus of this species had been unsuccessful, but that we obtained a fragment of that bone from the postpliocene alluvium on the banks of the Glenmark Creek, about one mile above Glenmark. This fragment consists of the greater portion of the shaft, the proximal and distal extremities being broken off. The shaft where thinnest has a circumference of 2°20 inches, or 0:15 inch more than the same bone of Harpagornis assimilis, of which we possess a perfect specimen. It doubtless belonged to an adult bird, and, if restored, would be about an inch longer than the smaller species. Harpagornis assimilis, Pl. VIII, Figs. 1 and 2. Inches. Total length ... he Ne Ss Csi Circumference of proximal end aus No wee 4°49 Circumference of distal end nae cS, SOP eG) Circumference of shaft where thinnest Nes seen ponOd This important bone, with the exception of a small portion of the radial crest, is quite perfect. In its general outlines it has, like the other portions of the skeleton, great affinities both to Aquila and Circus. The shaft is not so straight as that of Aquila, having below the lower termination of the radial crest an outward bend, which is also well exhibited in Circus. At the same time, the proximal extremity is more curved towards the ulnar side in the fossil bone. 70 Transactions. —Zoology. The shaft at one-third of its total length above its distal end is nearly round in a transverse section, a feature it has in common with Circus, whereas the shaft of Aquila is more subelliptic. The articular head forms’a more distinct tuberosity than in Aguila, which is also observable in Circus ; a broad groove dividing it from the ulnar crest, which advances considerably over the pneumatic foramen. | The radical crest being partly broken off, its whole extent cannot be ascertained. The ridge forming the boundary of the large depression for the insertion of the pectoralis major is well marked. The articular convexities of the distal extremity are also of considerable size, and well carved out ; the pits for the attachment of the muscles are large and deep, all tending to prove that Harpagornis possessed considerable power of flight. ULNA. Harpagornis mooret. This bone has the following dimensions :— Inches, Total length ... ee eas ace »6 10:06 Circumference at its proximal end ... nhs 22k) wees Circumference at its distal end me re LP ee Circumference of shaft where thinnest aAe ot Sale In comparing its total length with the corresponding bone in Aquila audax, as given in the table of measurements, it will be seen that it is only 0°68 inch longer, but that it is distinguished from it by its considerable thickness and the greater expansion of both articular ends. ‘This is most conspicuous when examining the proximal surface, but, considering the great breadth of the distal end of the humerus, quite a natural consequence. The anconal side of the shaft is rather flatter than in Aguila, so that the bone does not exhibit quite such a great curve as the latter. The quill knobs are obliterated. 3 Harpagornis assimilis. Pl. VIII., Figs. 3 and 4. Inches. Total length ... se acne ae See. Ot, Circumference of proximal end ae sof seein Circumference of distal end he Se og) Bee Circumference of shaft where thinnest bay acs le& The pachydermal character of the genus under consideration, when compared with Aguila audax, is well exhibited in this ulna, because, being actually shorter than the corresponding bone in.the Australian species, it is much shorter in all its proportions. The ulna of this species being better preserved than that of Warpagornis mooret has been figured by preference. The two rows of quill knobs, and Haast.—On the Extinct Genus Harpagornis. 71 principally the one on the ulnar side, are well seen, as well as the intermuscular ridge on the palmar side, and the flat processes for the attachment of the muscles. RaADIUvs. Of the left radius of Harpagornis moore: we possess only a fragment of the proximal side. The proximal end is well expanded, and the tubercle for the insertion of the biceps stands considerably forward, the shaft becoming afterwards very flat towards the ulna, not being so much bent as in Aquila. The radius of Harpagornis assimilis (Pl. VIII, Figs. 5 and 6), which has a total length of 7:62 inches, against 7-90 inches for the corresponding bone in Aquila audas, is, like the ulna, of much stouter proportions. It is more bent towards its distal extremity, so that the same stands at a greater angle to the shaft than any of the recent species. Meracarpus. Pl. VIII, Fig. 7. Only one specimen of the metacarpus belonging to Harpagornis assinvilis was obtained, being in an excellent state of preservation. It is not only a little longer than that of Aquila, but also much stouter in its proportions. This is most conspicuous in the medius metacarpal and the proximal end. ; The process for the attachment of the index phalanx is broad and heart- shaped, and the two principal intermuscular ridges upon the medius metacarpal enclose a broad and well-defined channel. Petvis. Pl. 1X., Figs. 1, 2, and 3. In my introductory remarks I stated that all search after the pelvis of Harpagornis mooret had been unsuccessful, but that we were fortunate enough to obtain this important bone of the smaller species H. assimilis when excavating the other bones belonging to the latter. abate Last year, when visiting the Colonial Museum in Wellington, I observed - amongst the specimens of our extinct avi-fauna a perfect pelvis, which, on examination, I assigned to Harpagornis. Dr. Hector, at my request, allowed me to take this fine specimen with me for comparison and description. After placing it near the pelvis of Z. assimilis, with which it agreed in all main points except its larger size—bearing the same proportion as the bones of H. moorei do to those of the smaller species—I had no hesitation in assigning it at once to the former. This compound bone, belonging to a fully-grown but still young individual, has all the characteristics which belong to the pelvis of a diurnal raptorial bird, some of the complex features, owing to its enormous size, being developed in a most remarkable degree. It combines great strength with lightness and 72 Transactions. —Zoology. elegance of form, of which the drawings attached to this memoir will convey an accurate conception better than words can do. In the following pages I shall offer a description of the larger and perfect pelvis, which I assigned to Harpagornis moorei, whilst the references to that of the smaller 4. assimilis will prove the close generic, if not specific, relations of both. In comparing the pelvis of H. mooret with those of Aquila audax, the wedge-tailed Eagle of Australia, and of Circus assimilis, the Harrier, and Mieracidea nove zealandie, the Sparrow-Hawk of New Zealand, as shown in the following table, the striking difference in size becomes at once manifest. TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS, IN INCHES. Pelvis of Greatest Length. Greatest Breadth. Harpagarnis mooret oe 7°22 See 3°38 Aquila audax ane 4-75 ae 2°35 Circus assimilis 2°75 oe 1:40 Hieracidea nove zealandie ... 2:00 my 1:13 When examining this table of measurements another peculiar feature of the fossil bone will present itself to our attention, namely, its great length when compared with its breadth; whilst in the three recent species the double breadth is more than the length, in Harpagornis it is considerably less. This peculiarity is produced principally by the greater steepness of the pelvic roof and by the comparatively greater length of the ilio-ischial plates ; moreover, it is also higher in proportion than any of the recent species of Diurnal Raptores with which I could compare it. When viewed from below the space formed by the hind part of the neurapophysial crest and the two ilia has an oval shape; whereas in the three recent species previously alluded to it is shorter, more open, and semi- circular (a). Beginning with the first sacral vertebra, we observe that the articular surface of its centrum is broader in a transverse than in a vertical direction, 0:69 inch by 0°58 imch. The neural canal has an oval form, its largest diameter, 0-21 inch, being in the vertical line, in this respect resembling Circus; whilst in Aquila, and still more in Mieracidea, the canal approaches the circular form. The prezygapophyses (pr.) are of middle size and stand forward, their articular surface of a rounded shape, being almost plane. The neural spine is broad and strong at its base, gradually contracting, and forming only near its coalescence a small neurapophysial expansion lying between the iliac plates (2). A broad and deep ilio-neural opening is formed on each side of the spinal plate, having a greater vertical than lateral extent, and here again differing from the pelvis of the three recent species previously alluded to, the roof eee = a ee TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE VOLVIPL IC HARPAGORNIS MOOREI. JB. del.ct lith. Haast.—On the Extinct Genus Harpagornis. 73 ‘formed by the iliac plates of Harpagornis being consequently considerably steeper. \ The surfaces for the head of the two free sacral ribs are strongly developed, the iliac roof extending, however, a little beyond them. The under surface of the first sacral centrum in its anterior portion is slightly carinate, whilst the centres of the two succeeding ones are rounded, the edges of their articular surfaces being well raised, the posterior one of the third centre the least ; after which they flatten and expand to the beginning of the interacetabular region, contracting again to its termination, and possessing a transversely concave, shallow, inferior surface, being broadest near the anterior articular surface of the seventh vertebra. From the eleventh to the fourteenth they still diminish in breadth, and now exhibit a low but well marked inferior ridge, running out before the last sacral vertebra is reached. The parapophyses of the third to the sixth sacral vertebra are anchylosed to the lower border of the ilia, forming four interapophysial vacuities on both sides ; of these the last parapophysis is the strongest and thickest, standing at right angles to the direction of the axis of the vertebral column. There is a short parapophysial process starting from the seventh vertebra (the first of the four next vertebre forming the interacetabular region), which has a downward direction, and is still attached on the left side of the pelvis to the inner edge of the head of the pubic bone (h). In the pelvis of Harpagornis assimilis this process does not exist, and it resembles in this respect the recent species previously used for comparison. Of the parapophyses of the last four vertebree, forming the postacetabular region, the first one belonging to the eleventh sacral centrum is a filamentary bone (m) joining the second round and strongest parapophysis, which abuts against the innominate, and with which the posterior ones are also connected by their distal ends. Of the interapophysial vacuities the first, second, and fourth are elongate, whilst the third and largest is more circular. In the smaller pelvis of Harpagornis assimilis these vacuities are not relatively, but actually, larger than in that of H. moorei. © ? The coalesced distal portion of these parapophyses runs in an oblique angle from the inner region of the ilia to the abutment of the twelfth sacral centrum, the space between this distal line and the upper side of the ischiadic foramen, below the pelvic disk, being spanned over by a thin deck of bone (d), perforated by a large oval opening 0:48 inch in its largest diameter, which runs parallel to the main axis of the pelvis, and is situated on each side behind the upper and anterior wal] of the ischiadic foramen. The last sacral vertebra of HZ. moorei is not yet quite anchylosed to the K 74 Transactions —Zoology. foregoing vertebra, thus shewing that it belonged to a not quite adult individual ; on the other hand, in the pelvis of H. assimilis the articular surfaces of these two last vertebrae are well anchylosed, and the junction of the parapophyses with the lower border of the ilia in its antacetabular part is also well accomplished, which is not quite the case in the pelvis of the larger species under review, so that we may safely assume that the former belonged to a full-grown mature specimen. : The gluteal ridge is decayed in H. moorei, but is well developed and preserved in the smaller species, the gluteal process forming a rounded knob (g), which rises well above the pelvic disk, whilst in Aquila this process has a convex form, directed downwards, and standing well in advance of the ilia. Of the recent species Circus resembles most, in this respect, the extinct gigantic form. The pre-acetabular iliac plates unite about one-third from their anterior end above the summit of the sacral ridge, diverging again after having been united for 1:70 inch to form a small interposed neural expansion, anteriorly lying scarcely below the upper border of the iliac plates. In this respect it resembles Aquila, whilst in Wieracidea, and still more in Circus, the neural interposition is continuous all the way, but is narrowest in the region where, as observed, the iliac pre-acetabular plates meet in Harpagornis. The ischium is very strongly developed at the back part of the acetabulum, as might be expected in a bird of such great strength. The tuberosity of the ischium, a roundish flat process, 0°72 inch from its posterior termination, rises conspicuously above its lamelliform surface (4). The posterior termination of the coalesced ischium and ilium is not rounded off, as in Aquila, but has a rather acute form, which, of recent species, Circus, and still more conspicuously Hieracidea, also possess. The pubic bone, after forming the lower boundary of the obturator notch, gradually loses its trihedral shape and assumes a vertically flattened form, continuing to run for some distance parallel with the ischium ; however, as in both specimens its posterior portion is broken off, I cannot say how far it may have extended. Im any case it is longer than in Aquila. A thin plate of bone, closely connected with the lower border of the ischium and gradually thickening, runs to the termination of that latter bone. At its beginning it forms the posterior boundary of the obturator foramen, and fills up the space between the ischium and the pubic bone. The subacetabular fosse (f), which are very shallow in Aquila and the Diurnal Laptores now living in New Zealand, are deeply excavated. The pelvic disk is a strong bone separated on each side by a well-marked line from the hind part of the neurapophysial crest, which rises well above it, the latter showing, like all the rest of the bones of which the pelvis is formed, a Haast.—On the Eutinct Genus Harpagornis. 75 remarkable development of all the principal features to be observed in the pelvis of the smaller recent Diurnal Raptores. Finally, I wish to observe that the pelvis of Harpagornis moorei, from Otago, has still some of its integuments and ligaments attached, of which the lining membrane on the walls of the acetabulum are best preserved ; whereas the more fragmentary bone of H. assimilis is in the semi-fossil condition in which all the bones from the remarkable turbary deposits of Glenmark are usually found. Since my former paper a second ungual phalanx has been obtained, which, applying the same mode of measurement previously used, is 2°75 inches long, and has a circumference of 2:92 inches at its proximal end. It is the third phalanx, and belongs to the second or inner toe of the right foot. Amongst the sthaller bones lately excavated I found also the second phalanx, with which that latter ungual phalanx articulates. The pachydermal character, even in these toe-bones, is well sustained, and the form and peculiarities of the articular ends, and the large concavity behind and below the trochlear joints of the distal end, are developed in a striking degree. Of Harpagornis assimilis we possess, as previously observed, several phalanges. DESCRIPTION OF PLates VIL.—IX. Plate VII.—Figs. 1-2. Tibia of Harpagornis moorei. o—4. Metatarsus ,, VIII.—Figs. 1-2. Humerus of Harpagornis assimilis. 99 3-4. Ulna % BH 5-6. Radius * ig 7. Metacarpus 55 s IX.—Figs. 1-3. Pelvis of Harpagornis mooret. 76 ; Transactions. —Zoology. Art. XIII.—On Cnemiornis calcitrans, Owen, showing its Affinity to the Lamellirostrate Natatores. By James Hucror, M.D., F.R.S. Plates X.—XIV.A. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th August, 1873.] Since the discovery of the very interesting specimen of the Moa’s neck with well-preserved muscular tissue and integuments in the Harnscleugh cave, in the interior of the Province of Otago,* the locality has been visited several times, and especially last year by the Hon. Captain Fraser, who obtained, besides Moa bones, several belonging to a smaller-sized bird, being part of a skeleton most of which had been previously removed by some gold-diggers. I recognised these to belong to Cnemiornis calcitrans, of Owen, the only difference being that the humerus differed from that described by Professor Owent in several important characters.{ Besides the humerus were the right femur and tarso-metatarsus and the metacarpal bones ; the two former agreeing accurately with Professor Owen’s description and plates, and the last- mentioned being a new addition to the osteology of the bird. The chief difference in the humerus from that attributed to this bird by Professor Owen is its greater proportional size, it being equal in length to the femur, instead of one-ninth less, and in its having a very distinct pneumatic fossa, closed by a cribriform bony septum. In addition, the tuberosity representing the pectoral ridge is not so wide, and the proximal articular surface is slightly broader and more convex at its middle part than in the typical bone. These characters might lead to the surmise that it belonged to a carinate bird, but the massiveness of the bone was thought sufficient to disprove this. In order to determine this point with some degree of accuracy, I compared the weight with the bulk of the same bone in several species of birds, with the following results :— Weight. Bulk. 1. Cnemiornis (Harnscleugh cave) ae bs 10 244 2. Weka ( Ocydromus) (non-volant) aa cee 10 210 3. Kakapo (Stringops) (non-volant) “ei sits 10 187 4, Kaka (Nestor) (volant) —..... 300 $50 10 131 5. Hawk ( Hieracidea) (volant) ... oe Sis 10 126 A small portion of the shaft was also removed, and the thickness of the bony wall found to be so great that the internal diameter is only two-thirds that of the external. . In consequence of the above divergence of character from the humerus described by Professor Owen, I was much interested in obtaining the * Trans. N.Z. Inst., TV., 111. + Trans. Zool. Soc., V., 399, Pl. 66. £ Trans. N.Z. Inst., V., 406. TRANS. NZ.INSTITUTE.VOLVIPUX. q SKELETON OF CNEMIORNIS CALCITRANS sa Hecror.—On Cnemiornis. 77 remainder of the bones of this skeleton, and, after tracing it through several hands, Captain Fraser at last succeeded in obtaining possession of the box containing the bones in the same state in which they had been found, and at once handed them over to me for description. The skeleton is still far from complete, but the following bones are in a very admirable state of preservation :—Skull ; vertebrze, 12 cervical, 4 dorsal ; sternum ; furculum ; humerus, right ; metacarpal, right; sacrum; femur; tibize, both ; tarso-metatarsal ; ribs, six. They agree perfectly in appearance, colour, peculiar stains, texture, and other external characters, so that there is no reason to doubt that they all belong to one individual, which is further confirmed by the study of their anatomical characters. The structure and form of the skull and sternum shew that this bird belongs to the Lamellirostrate family of the order Natatores, but that the power of flight had become obsolete, and that it differs from most others of the duck kind in its short, lofty head, very solid palate, and in the peculiar character of the tympanic cavity, which is bridged across by a bony process between the mastoid process and the basi-occipital. The great solidity of the skull, and the absence of occipital fontanelles and of all sutures excepting the naso-frontal and the lachrymal, is also remarkable. Every bone of the skeleton, excepting the upper part of the sternum, has the close-grained, reticulated surface which is so characteristic of the bones of Cnemiornis, giving the impression of a very solid, powerful framework, that in the fresh state would contain much oily matter. The absence of the power of flight is evidenced by the rudimentary tubercular ridge that represents the keel, and the small area of attachment for the pectoral muscle on the surface of the sternum. Sxuutt. Pl. XI. What remains of the skull is well preserved, every process being sharp and distinct, as in a freshly-macerated specimen, but unfortunately the following appendages have been lost :—the quadrate, jugal, pterygoid, and lachrymal bones. The shape of the head, including the lower jaw, and allowing the usual proportion for the quadrate, would have been :—Height, two-thirds the length ; transverse diameter, one-half the length. The brain-case is short, high, and compressed laterally, its posterior- inferior diameter being greatest. The nasal portion of the skull, which is distinctly shorter than the cranial, is detached ; and the mobility of the upper mandible, which in such birds is usually effected by the flexibility of the thin nasal bones, must, if it existed, have been effected by a straight joint with thick, irregular margins, somewhat as in the parrot. In the occipital region the muscular ridges are moderately developed. The 78 Transactions. —Zoology. condyle (oc) moderate, reniform, flattened, and excavated above, with a mesial notch, slightly excavated beneath, but not laterally. The foramen (/'m) is very large, being one-third the height of the occiput in its vertical diameter, which is one-fourth greater than the transverse. It is rounded above, but has the lateral and inferior margins almost straight. The occipital area is rather square in form, with a blunt mesial ridge (So), having a shallow pit (a) on either side, but no fontanelles. A bold par-occipital process (po) extends downwards and backwards on each side, and forms the extremity of the cranium in that direction, giving rise to the most remarkable feature in its external conformation as viewed laterally. A deep perforated pit (6) separates this process from the basi-occipital, which is very largely developed, and has two inferior lateral processes (/) separated by a wide, smooth, sub- condylar notch (c), and then extends forward as a broad, slightly-concave surface, which occupies a large area at the base of the skull (67). The basi- sphenoid (4s) has a small share in the base of the skull, and has large oval basi-pterygoid facets (bp) only slightly divergent. The character presented by the tympanic fossa is very remarkable, as it is divided into a posterior and anterior portion by a quadrate ossicle (ms) that connects the tip of the mastoid process with the basi-occipital and with the anterior process of the ex-occipital, thus enclosing a wide canal descending obliquely backwards and outwards, with a sub-circular aperture deeply notched inferiorly. The articular portion of the tympanic fossa, with its two facets, is thus separated from the posterior or auricular portion, a character which appears to be unique.” The frontal bone (/’) is slightly swollen at the vertex and depressed between the orbits, which have strong overhanging orbital processes, on which are rough, deeply-impressed areas (d), which probably gave attachment to a posterior development of the cere of the mandible, these impressions being separated by a smooth groove with only a faint mesial ridge. ‘There appears to have been a deep notch (d’) in the upper part of the orbital border, but the lachrymal bones having been lost this is not very clear. The width of the nasal suture (F') is equal to the length of that for the attachment of the lachrymals (7), which extends from the glandular groove to the transverse suture. The inter- orbital septum is complete, and there are well-ossified rhinal chambers (Rh). The roof of the orbit is flat, and with a very slight granular groove. The optic foramen is at the posterior and inner angle of the orbit, directly above the front of the basi-pterygoid facet. Behind the post-orbital process is a deep imperforate pit. The brain cavity extends for 6 lines anterior to the optic foramen. The upper mandible has all its elements completely fused; the large nostrils (¢) occupy more than half of the superior sloping area, their * I have since found it, but less marked, in Cereopsis. ee TRANS. N.Z. INSTITUTE, VOLVI PLAT, SKULL OF CNEMIORNIS CALCITRANS. JB Lnth. ¥ Hector— On Cnemiornis. 79 aperture being directed outwards, forwards, and upwards, rounded in front and angled behind, and they are separated by a smooth bony interspace (/) which is one-fourth the width of the mandible. The tip is rounded, with a tumid area for the attachment of the horny mandible, the length of which is equal to the width. Interiorly the palatal plate is flat, with deeply-incurved borders, notched on each side of the tip, and deeply excavated by a longitudinal groove (h), which is perforated by two well-defined apertures, the one (h’) large and directed upwards, the other (h”) small, directed backward in a line with the groove. The palatines are firmly united with the vomer, the upper surface of which has a slight groove to receive the pre-sphenoid. The lower mandible is stout, but broad and compressed in every part, the rami preserving a lamellate structure throughout, and being united by a broad symphysis (sy), the length of which is equal to one-fourth of the mandible, the anterior half being flat and the posterior excavated. Inferiorly the punctate surface of attachment of the horny mandible covers the whole of the symphysial portion. Prtvis. Pl. XIV. This bone agrees with Professor Owen’s description™ so far as his imperfect. specimen enabled him to fix its characters, but the complete preservation of the bone obtained from the Earnscleugh cave enables me to add the following :— The neck of the ischium (a) is compressed to form the inferior notch, which is 9 lines in diameter, and contracted posteriorly (at 6) to 5 lines. The ischium then expands to 8 lines, with a concave external surface, its upper margin being united with the ilium for the last two inches (cd), forming a rhomboidal convex plate with a thin posterior margin that descends obliquely backwards ; the inferior margin is produced (e), and has been united by cartilage to the pubic styles for about 9 lines. The latter are attached by a stout compressed process to the inferior fifth of the acetabulum, and thence produced backwards as a narrow, curved bone, flat externally, and with a strong ridge internally, 3 lines wide at its narrowest part, and posteriorly expanding into a flat curved process that descends at an obtuse angle and continues the edge of the posterior pelvic aperture (f). The coccygeal bones are wanting. ‘The first sacral vertebra is anchylosed to the sacrum only by _ its spinous process. The posterior roof of the pelvis is pierced by eight foramina in almost parallel lines an inch apart, separated by a concave interspace anteriorly and a convex ridge posteriorly ; the rhomboidal form of the area being produced by a blunt expansion of the border which, on either side, overhangs the anti- trochanteric process. #1. ¢: p. 397. 80 Transactions.—Zoology. Sternum. Pl. XII, fig. 1, and XIIL, figs. 1, 2. This bone is almost perfect, having lost only a few lines of its inferior margin, and, though it differs considerably from the characters attributed to it by Professor Owen, this is, without doubt, due to his not having had a connected fragment of the superior portion of the bone, so that its enormous posterior concavity was not appreciated. It is chiefly remarkable for its regular oblong shape, without any irregularities of outline or unossified inter- spaces. The texture must be cancellated, for, though apparently thick and massive, it is very light in proportion to its size, as will be seen in the appended table. Its general form is scaphoid, the concavity being very marked in the upper half, amounting to one inch in depth measured from a transverse chord, and to one-and-a-half inches in depth if measured from a longitudinal chord ; the total length of the latter being 7 inches. The anterior width at the costal processes (a) is 4 inches, and at the posterior end of the costal border 3 inches 6 lines. The costal border (e-e’) occupies half the lateral margin of the bone, the posterior half of the line being only slightly concave interiorly, and exteriorly being flat in the middle and sloping very slightly to the inferior angles. The superior margin is thin, and presents a wide mesial notch (f) and two lateral notches (y), which are bounded exteriorly by the costal processes, which project backwards and upwards for 6 lines. ‘The coracoid grooves (b’) are 1 inch 6 lines in length and 2 lines in depth of anterior border. They are separated by a slight triangular interspace (/’) 5 lines wide, beneath which is a smaller triangular pit (h). The keel (c) commences by two angular ridges bounding this pit posteriorly, and forms a blunt process 3 inches in length (c’), expanded anteriorly to a rough tuberculate surface 4 lines in width and 9 in length, and then compressed into a narrow tuberculate ridge that is gradually lost in the smooth convex surface of the bone at less than one-half the distance from its superior margin. The greatest elevation of the keel above the convex surface of the bone is less than 3 lines. The impression (d) for the attachment of the pectoral muscle extends from the exterior angle of the coracoid notch towards the posterior part of the keel, including a triangular area which occupies only one-sixth of the exterior surface of the bone, showing the extremely limited and feeble attachment of the great muscles of flight. Large pneumatic foramina (2) exist in the interior of the bone at the upper _ angles, and one (7) on the exterior surface on the left side only. Furcutum. Pl. XII, figs. 2 and 3. The clavicles are completely joined into a smooth, slightly-compressed furculum, like that of the goose, except that the antero-posterior curvature is confined to the articular processes, which diverge 1 inch above the general < en ~ Rete OE ed prs o's TRANS.N.Z. INSTITUTE, VOLVI PLXIL. CNEMIORNIS CALC TRANS. SB. del. et lth. SNVULIOQTVO SINGOIAAND: cS Sai Hector.—On Cnemiornis. 81 plane, and are expanded with a large pneumatic foramen (a) on the external surface, overhanging which is a triangular articular surface (6). The coracoids have not been found, but must have been stout triangular bones 2 inches in length and 14 inches wide at the sternal attachment. The scapula also is missing. VERTEBRA. The following vertebre have been preserved :—The 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 10th, 11th, 13th, and 14th cervical; 2nd, 4th, 5th, and 6th rib- bearing or dorsal ; the last having no hypapophysis may be termed the first of two pre-sacrals, the second of which is wanting. The total number of vertebrze seems to have been :— Cervical ae a as aus Ly. Be 14 Dorsal an a Bs ie in ee 5 Pre-sacral ... nae Be) ce Ais ie 2 Sacral sas 17 The total length from the tip of the beak to the coccyx would be about 35 inches. Riss. Pl. XIIL, figs. 3—7 and 7’. The 3rd, 4th, and 5th ribs of the right side; the 6th and 7th of the left, and also the 7th sternal rib of the same side, have been preserved. The first six ribs have well pronounced uncinate processes (a) with a broad attachment one inch in length, that on the 6th rib (a’), being bent backwards so as to be almost parallel with the bone, and having a blunt expanded tip. The ribs are much compressed, their margins having wavy irregular outlines. They are broad in the middle and taper off towards each extremity, when viewed laterally. The last two ribs articulated with sacral segments, the total number having probably been nine. The number of sternal ribs was seven. Humerus. Pl. XII, figs. 4 and 5. The humerus has already been described, so far as it differs from the bone attributed to Cnemiornis by Professor Owen, and the femur, tibia, and tarso- metatarsal have been figured in Pl. XIV.A for convenience of reference by collectors. They agree so perfectly with Professor Owen’s description as to require no further notice, except to point out that the external articular process of the metatarse, instead of being obliquely reflexed, as in the goose, swan, and other swimming birds, is straight, as in true cursorial birds, indicating that the habit of the bird was rather to walk on land than swim in water. The metacarpal (figs. 6, 7) is made wp of the first and second digits, which are completely fused at both extremities, leaving a narrow interspace (a) for less than half the length of the bone. It resembles closely the corresponding bone L 82 Transactions.—Zoology. in the weka (Ocydromus), and bears almost the same proportion as in that bird to the length of the humerus, or about two-fifths of the length of that bone. I should state that this bone has been found in several instances in Canterbury by Dr. Haast associated with fragments of a similar humerus, and rightly assigned by him to Cnemiornis. A fragmentary skull, in which the basal, posterior, and nasal portions are wanting, and several leg bones, in the Colonial Museum—some found by Mr. W. D. Murison, in Otago, and others from the Wairarapa, in Wellington—must also” be referred to this species, and prove that it was widely dispersed over both Islands of New Zealand. .° As the leg bones of Cnemiornis are not infrequent in collections, especially from the most recent turbary and cave deposits, this bird must have been of common occurrence, and the foregoing details afford conclusive evidence that it was a gigantic bird, probably allied to and of similar habits to the Cape Barren Goose of Australia (Cereopsis*), but in which the power of flight had become obsolete. From the size of its pelvis, ribs, and sternum, the bulk of its body must have greatly exceeded in proportion any of its existing congeners, while its lower extremities were not less remarkable for their massive development. The height of its back above the ground exceeded 2 feet, and the length of the body from the beak to the tail was at least 32 inches. TABLE OF ADMEASUREMENTS, IN INCHES. Skull. Weight, 535 grains eae lower a) Length ... Breadth ACLOSS paroccipitals post-frontals temporal fossa middle of oe mandible ti Length from ee to pre. sphenoid of palatines of pre-maxillary He trom point of external nostril to end of pre- -maxillar y of nasal aperture Width of nasal aperture ans » of internasal septum—anterior Supra-occipital tuberosity to post-nasal suture, following the curve Supra-occipital tuberosity to external basilar process Length of vertical basilar area a horizontal ES Width of if 4 2? HMOSOrND COCHHH DHE HE tbs WOMWAD BPRDWOMNKHOMAMOON * Having procured a skeleton of this species for comparison, through the kindness of Professor M‘Coy, I am able to confirm this surmise. Among the chief structural differences, I notice the presence in Cnemiornis of an extra pre-sacral vertebra, so that two, instead of three, ribs articulate with the sacrum, and an elevated pent-roof arrangement of the ossa innominata, which indicate more decided cursorial habits. Z.ANSTITUTE, VOLVIPUXIV, A. S.N TRAN Se) CNEMIORNIS CALCITRAD Hector.—QOn Cnemiornis. Sternum. Weight, 1009 grains. Extreme length of side Extreme width at costal process ‘ 2 middle 6 posterior margin Costal margins—length ee af pidth at middle Coracoid grooves—length of each interspace—inter-coracoid Keel—length At Supra-carinal fossa—length ss » width Height of are Furculum. Weight, 81 grains. Vertical chord Transverse chord Total exterior length Average Gomeien ok ss Diameter of articular process... Humerus. Weight, 412 grains. Length Extreme breadth, proximal end - distal end Seen ence, middle of shaft Metacarpal. Weight, 85 grains. Length femur. Weight, 1021 « grains. Length Tibia. Weight, 1789 grains. Length wee Tarso-metatarse. Weight, 787 grains. Length : Ribs. drd—length Ath a 5th i 6th 55 7th ie : Tth sternal—length Ay Vertebre. eee Cévvical. Transverse diameter of centrum el 0:25 0:6 Breadth through transverse process 0:8 Lig Antero-posterior diameter, or height of centrum a ans shee 0-2 0-4 Total height ... ae Eee SONG 1:3 Length of centrum 0:9 0:8 Pelvis. Weight, 2400 grains. Total length Avaleiosin salle Acetabulum 2nd Dorsal. DOOWSHOWWWRA NAAnAHMIAMTFEOANL OO SS wT ID OW © met et Et OD a— orn — OO 83 84 Transactions. —Zoology. Height through acetabulum ... Antitrochanteric width Mesial iliac suture Post-sacral area—length Hs = in between fice lateral chong », | width between posterior lateral foramina — imeheitie notch—breadth Mi length Pubic style—length ie Bs breadth, gr eatest 5 " A middle Superior posterior iliac interspace Inferior Fe i ee is is inter-ischiatic space . als epecerioe pubic interspace Tlum—anterior width », posterior width at middle Ist sacral vertebra—height of centrum . 53 Be BS neural see! and spine oh m4 width of centrum .. : 3 transverse processes Length of 8 Sie sacrals DESCRIPTION OF PLATES X.—XIV.A. (Cnemiornis calcitrans.) WIOSOWORNNWNHODSONTWHH HE wo DD WHOAHONDCOCSCONWNOWUNONHNANE oH Plate X.—Restoved skeleton one-fifth nat. size, from a photograph. XI.—Skull, nat. size. Fig. 1. Side. Fig. 2. Inferior. Fig. 3. Posterior. XIT.—Fig. 1. Sternum, front view. 2-3. Furculum. 4-5. Humerus. 6-7. Metacarpus. XITI.—Fig. 1. Sternum, side view. 2. Inner side of right costal process. 3-5 6—7. 6th and 7th ribs of left side. 7’. 7th sternal rib of left side. XIV.—Figs; 1=3. Pelvis: XIV.A.—Figs. 1-2. Femur. Erratum.-—The words ‘‘ Weight” and ‘‘ Bulk” in the table on page 76 should be trans- posed, the bulk of the bone being reduced to the same number in each case for comparison. 3-4. Tibia. 5-6. Tarso-metatarse. coating it with a film of wax, and ascertaining the displacement by weight. . ord, 4th, and 5th ribs of right side. The bulk was ascertained by immersing the bone in water after a Ss TPANS.N.ZINSTITUTE, VOL-VI- PLAX. LB. dei. e& Lith. Herctor.—On Delphinus forsteri. 85 Art. XIV.—Wotes on Delphinus forsteri. By James Hector, M.D., F.RS. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 22nd September, 1873.] In March, last a specimen of Delphinus forsteri, which was cast up on the beach at Lyall Bay, gave me, for the first time, an opportunity of observing its external characters and of having a sketch made, which does not, however, differ sufficiently from that copied last year after Forster to make it worth reproduction (Vol. V., Pl. 3). Unfortunately the colouring had faded, so that the whole skin was of a dark tint, and the spots on the fins, mentioned by Forster, could not be distinguished. The skull, however, since prepared agrees exactly with that which I have already described as belonging to Forster’s Dolphin, although the drawing given in the last volume of Transactions, of the first skull I had, does not show the full width behind the notch. The following are the notes I made of its characters :— Beak sharply defined above by a frontal groove. Forehead very curved. Fore part of the body fullest. Hind part of the body much compressed vertically, being 6 inches in advance of the tail lobes, 6 inches high, and only 2 inches thick. Tail strongly keeled, both above and below ; notched. Lower jaw longest. Length of pectoral equal to gape, and greater than height of the dorsal. Ft. in. Male.—Total length ee Ds aa ors (fe Snout, upper surface OW o;9 Blow-hole from tip of beak Te 18) Commencement of dorsal at af Slee. Base of dorsal—length . coe if 1.0 Height of dorsal (posterior edge being nearly vertical) . 0 85 Insertion of pectoral from beak 1 55 Length of pectoral # Ba Lo Width a (constricted at base) 0 4 Generative organs, behind posterior vertical of pectoral Oar? Width of tail-lobes from tip to tip ib The complete skeleton of this specimen is being prepared, and will be the subject of a further communication. I may say, for the present, that the intermaxillaries, as in all the skulls of this dolphin I have previously seen, are united to form a bony tube for fully one-third of their length. 86 Transactions.—Zoology. Art. XV.—Wotice of a Variation im the Dentition of Mesoplodon hectori, Gray. By James Hector, M.D., F.B.S. Plate XV.A. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 13th October, 1873.] THIS specimen is only a fragment of the lower jaw, but the portions preserved afford sufficient characters to determine the genus, and to show that it differs from any described specimen, and also throw some light on the little known subject of the dentition of the Ziphude. The posterior portion of the left ramus from the condyle to the symphysis, and the middle portion of the right ramus, is all that remains. About two inches of the surface of the suture enable the angle of divergence of the jaws to be determined, and, therefore, the width of the cranial articulation. Opposite the commencement of the symphysis (sy) was a deeply excavated alveolus, which, in the left side, contains a triangular tooth (¢). The dental groove has evidently been open and deeply excavated in the back part of the jaw, and where broken off on both sides, it appears as if it was expanding to form a second tooth chamber (¢’). Left Ramus.—The condyle is very feeble, but not more so than in M. hectori, to which the jaw bone is very similar except as regards the teeth.* The articular surface is 1:3 inches long and 0:3 inch wide, and situated above the middle of the posterior border, which is convex externally and 4 inches in length. On the inside the posterior third of the bone is deeply excavated, very thin, and on the outer surface shows one large inferior and a small superior ridge. The upper margin is compressed, thin, and elevated to form a blunt angle, behind which the dental groove begins at 6 inches from the condyle. The inferior margin is rounded, but with a blunt keel-like ridge, and slopes up rapidly; reducing the width of the ramus from 3°93 inches posteriorly to 1:5 inches in its middle third. This middle third is solid, compressed, and obliquely turned like a ploughshare, so that at the symphysis the dental grooves are on the outer side of the jaws 2 inches apart, and separated by a flat area formed by the symphysial processes, which are conjoined to form the terminal portion of the lower beak. The width at the ~ condyles was probably 8 inches ; length to the symphysis, 12-5 inches. Tooth.—The chief interest of this specimen is the dentition, as in this it differs from the type specimen both in the position and character of the tooth. In the first respect it resembles the original type of the genus IZ. sowerbyensis, as the tip of the tooth (¢) is exactly opposite to the posterior end of the symphysis (sy). Behind it the dental groove, though distinctly visible, is quite closed, but it * Brans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. IL., p. 27; Vol. IIL, p. 125; Vol. V., p. 167. 1 Lip Bee cp A GED OVID 0k mel Lanog *LD/, foe (YOLITH NOGOTAOSIW Hector.—On a Variety of Mesoplodon hectori. 87 dilates to form a dental cavity, in which the tooth is lodged, its tip only reaching to the level of the upper edge of the jaw. It occupied the cavity loosely, but could not be removed without breaking the bone. ‘The tooth (figs. 3 and 4) is a very thin, hollow, conical shell, compressed, but not filled with solid dentine as in previous specimens. The tip is smooth and enamelled. The height is 1:2 inches; width, 1:0; and its thickness, 0:3. The tooth shows the specimen to have been a young animal, and this will account for the slightly smaller size and different proportions of the jaw from the type; and the posterior, instead of the terminal, position of the tooth shows that probably several existed on each side, and that the dental characters in this group of whales are not constant or sufficiently important to form the basis of specific distinction. At the same time it is interesting to find that, even in the young state, this whale has the compressed form of teeth and the same mode of their arrangement which obtains in Gerardius, to which genus it was at first referred.* : This specimen was found on the beach at Kaikoura, and forwarded to the Museum by Mr. J. R. W. Taylor. Art. XVI.—List of Seals, Whales, and Dolphins of New Zealand. By J. E. Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S., Hon.Mem.N.Z. Inst. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 6th August, 1873.] Tue fauna of New Zealand, as regards marine mammalia, is extending, and I have no doubt will be found to be much richer as they become more studied. For example, we have not yet had the “Sulphur Bottom” or the “Trigger” of New Zealand whales, and there are other species mentioned as found in those seas, but in such a manner as not to be able to be entered in scientific catalogues. There are many more species recorded as inhabiting Australian seas, which, no doubt, range as far as New Zealand, but I have only inserted these on the authority of specimens. 1. Stenorhynchus leptonyx.—The Sea Leopard, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales, p- 16; Webb, Trans. N.Z. Inst., II, p. 29; Fraser, l.c., p. 33. Habitat—New Zealand, Port Nicholson (F. Knox), Skull in British Museum. [Skeleton in Colonial Museum] 2. Arctocephalus cinereus.—The Grey Australian Fur Seal. Otaria cinerea, Perron and Le Sueur; Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Astrolabe, t. xii, xiii., xiv.; Hector, Trans. N.Z. Inst., IV., pl. 12, f. 1 (skull); not Gray, * Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. IIL, p. 108. —_ 88 Transactions. —Zooloqy. Suppl. Cat. Seals and Whales, p. 24 ; Phoca wrsina, Forster, Cook’s Voy. ; Otaria forsteri, Lesson, Dict. Class. Hist. Nat., xii., p. 421; Phoca forsteri, Fischer, Synops. Mam., p. 232;