ah Fp LYING AGNI DRE = 4 ier. Bia —¥ ioe x Anowb pane seatene | A v A TREATISE ON . FORMING, IMPROVING, AND MANAGING COUNTRY RESIDENCES ; AND ON THE CHOICE OF SITUATIONS APPROPRIATE TO EVERY CLASS OF PURCHASERS, IN ALL WHICH THE OBJECT IN VIEW IS TO UNITE IN A BETTER MANNER THAN HAS HITHERTO BEEN DONE, A TASTE FOUNDED IN NATURE WITH ECONOMY AND UTILITY, IN CONSTRUCTING OR IMPROVING _MANSIONS, AND OTHER RURAL BUILDINGS, SO AS TO COMBINE ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS WITH PICTURESQUE EFFECT ; AND IN TORMING GARDENS,ORCHARDS, FARMS, PARKS, PLEASURE.GROUNDS,SHRUBBERIES, ALL KINDS OF USEFULOR DECORATIVE PLANTATIONS, AND EVERY OBJECT OF CONVENIENCE OR BEAUTY PECULIAR TO COUNTRY SEATS; ACCORDING TO THE EXTENT, CHARACTER, OR STYLE OF SITUATIONS, 4ND THE RANK, FORTUNE, AND EXPENDITURE OF PROPRIETORS ; FROM THE COTTAGE TO THE PALACE. WITH AN APPENDIX, CONTAINING AN ENQUIRY INTO THE UTILITY AND MERITS OF MR. REPTON’S MODE OF SHEWING EFFECTS BY SLIDES AND SKETCHES, AND STRICTURES ON HIS OPINIONS AND PRACTICE IN LANDSCAPE GARDENING. ILLUSTRATED BY DESCRIPTIONS OF SCENERY AND BUILDINGS, BY REFERENCES TO COUNTRY SEATS, AND PASSAGES OF COUNTRY IN MOST PARTS OF GREAT BRI. “a zi AND BY THIRTY-TWO ENGRAVINGS. a ile | By JOHN LOUDON, ESQ. F.L.S. MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, COMMERCE, é&c. LONDON, OF THE SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE, PLANTING, &c. BATH ; AUTHOR OF A TREATISE ON HOT-HOUSES, AND OBSERVATIONS ON LANDSCAPE GARDENING, &c. IN TWO VOLUMES.——VOL. I. LONDON: PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, HURST, REES, AND ORME, PATERNOSTER-ROW, BY C. WHITTINGHAM, DEAN-STREET, 1806, a4 A LaF sf “i ki " EL OTe Aids, a py tanh wa i Fee ante hae aA cbt Hat Oy a Maar ate fa eats | ne x fee itt ' ea és hi ester leh acta opment DA ae bee Ra r =a - NOBLEMEN, LADIES, AND GENTLEMEN, Po | WAROSE RESIDENCES Vea ima aa ARE REFERRED TO IN THE FOLLOWING Pee he Wh WORK, cee ae Pav __ IT Is RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY THEIR DEVOTED SERVANT, ~ - 5790; THE AUTHO: ‘A ees 90, Newman Street, eae DS a 18 Oct, 1908. re MAME fi es: ( < PREFACE. Tuoven a work of this nature has hitherto been a desideratum in rural economics, it was by no means that circumstance _ which induced the author to compose the following ‘Treatise. The subject, from his earliest years, has been his favourite study and amusement; he has considered every branch of it practically and theoretically—minutely and generally; and he is now engaged in it in a professional capacity. He is con- vinced that the principles of the theory from which he acts lead to effects much preferable to the results of general prac- tice ; and that this theory is sufficient to establish an art (which has hitherto been guided chiefly by fashion or caprice) upon principles inherent in the nature of man. Conceiving that a detail of these principles, and the practices which flow trom them, if disseminated in a book might tend materially to their general introduction, he has thence been led to consider the - subject in that extensive manner which gave rise to the title page of this volume. , Vili PREFACE. The reader will not imagine, from this, that every elementary branch of the art of forming a, residence is treated as minutely as they would be in separate treatises. Such a plan would have been mere book-making, and must have contained so much of what has already been repeated by other writers, as to have rendered it displeasing to all readers of taste : to those of inquiry the drudgery of selecting the particular views of the author among such a mass of common-place matter, would have been so great as in all probability to. have precluded the task, The whole is but a short transcript of the leading ideas and general principles which are prominent in the author's mind on the subject of his profession. ‘he reasoning and the practices recommended are just those which he is in the daily habit of applying to real scenery. Without implying any dis- respect for the opinion of others, he has shewn no anxiety either to coincide or differ with them, farther than as these opinions have been put in practice. It may be necessary here to make an apology to the pro- prietors of those residences which I have occasionally so freely criticised. Let it be considered, that no natural or unavoid- able deformities are ever objected to; but merely such as are considered to be the result of bad taste, and such, of course, as can be removed or improved upon, should the remarks that I have made be felé to have any weight. Neither are these . PREFACE. 1X residences ever referred to as the only examples of faults or beauties; but merely as those which more immediately occur- red to the author at the time of writing. Both kinds of references became necessary, not only as illus- trations of my principles, but as tests of their truth and prac- ticability. And I may add, that in some instances it is done to silence and set at defiance a certain class of men, who are ever ready in theory to coimcide with such principles as may be deemed new or excellent; while by theit practice they shew that they neither understand nor feel the force of such principles. I may remark here, that where I use the word improver in the following pages, I as commonly allude to-stch as direct the operations upon their own grounds as to professors. When I use the term Designer, or Landscape Gardener, I of cotrseé allude to Professors. If whem speaking of them, eénerally, I have occasionally used strong language, it must be attri- buted to two causes; in the first place, to the general obsti- nacy and dogmatical manner in which Mr. Brown’s' disciples, and those whomay be called geometrical architects*, give * I mean those who never consider picturesque effect, and the harmony of the building with the situation, but do every thing by geometrical elevations, without any reference to surrounding scenery, > x PREFACE. their plans and opinions, without being able to reconcile what they propose with common sense, or ever condescend- ing to alter or improve them agreeably to the natural taste of their employers; and, in the second place, to a firm conviction of their truth, and a strong feeling of their im- ‘portance. It would have been easy to have softened them off by palliatives, or even to have used weak expressions; but I have in every instance found, that writers who have adopted this practice were actuated, not by real diffidence or mo- desty, but by a conscious deficiency of knowledge—weakness of intellect—or, an undecided opinion with regard to the subject. Good taste and nature are the same, and their im- pressions being congenial to unprejudiced minds, are deci- sive, clear, and permanent. Language is the offspring of impressions. Nota single remark, however, will be found, either on art or its professors, but what is perfectly in unison with that candour and politeness, which, if wanting, would display such a bad taste as might justly induce the reader to doubt my judgment in every thing else. A number of the plates in this volume are mere geometrical elevations, plans, or sections, and therefore are chiefly to be considered in connection with the text. The others are alike illustrative ; but being views of the same scenes under two dif- PREFACE. XI ferent styles of improvement, they also serve, by a mere in- spection of them, to characterize the nature of that part of the improvements proposed which regard picturesque effect. Such are Plates VII. VIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XXIII. with their contrasts, and also the other plates placed together at the end of Vol. II. All these, except Plates VII. and VIII. are taken from nature ; and though it would be next to ridiculous to say, that every particular must be done exactly as shewn in them, yet the general style of the alterations can never be mis- taken for that of modern gardening. In opposing these im- proved views to those of the scene in its previous state, it would have been easy to have rendered the beauties of the one and the defects of the other much more striking, by finishing the one engraving more than the other. But this I have uniformly avoided, as a trick unworthy of science. Neither have I ever used slides in Mr. Repton’s manner, to which I have the same objections*. But I wish it particularly to be remarked, that I have not in any case given a fictitious age and form to the trees _ Inthese drawings, as is commonly done. In them, as in every part of the work, a rigid adherence to truth is observed. I now submit this work to the reader, with that confidence which arises from a strong experimental conviction, that the \ - * See Appendix, No. 1. Mt PREFACE. leading principles assumed, and the practices recommended, are founded in good taste and utility; but, at the same time, with that deference to public opinion, which humility requires, and that openness to correction and advice which a sense of human imperfection renders necessary, and which good taste naturally dictates. CONTENTS. Ree BN TRO DUCTION <(il-accsericesscapvetecubecdcesvecsdetalecrssocenscsdths Pleasures of a Country residence ......scccesececsceccvoseerscscrveccescosces Advantages of a country residence ...sccrccercerssesesssvscseceevereceece Antiquity of a country residence ...sscecssersesseseesssscceercescacescoeers General history of the art of laying out grounds in Britain .........0+ the architecture of mansions in Britain...+....0+0 The object or intention of country residences ..rccesssscscssseseccscreses Leads to the manner of treating the subject ....+0 ccssosecerseesesscaoes Arrangement of this work SPHOSOHHLOSEOHHOTHSHOSTHHTTHOSHASHHHDEHHSHATHHOASHHSEEIE PART I. TREATS OF THE ELEMENTARY BRANCHES OF THE ART OF FORMING AND IMPROVING COUNTRY RESIDENCES. BOOK J.—On Taste. INTRODUCTION. General view of the Subject .....ccccsccreecossovsserecrscoveersenssseresevess Proposed mode of pursuing an inquiry into the principles of taste... CHAP. I. Of the elementary senses of taste. Tasting—hearing.......ssssrorccescsessccecsccscsccossovsnresencansnacra cance Smelling—seeing—touching.....ccccccecsecserscecscscscnscsesencsceseonense Effect of practice and reflection on these SENSES ....crerevessssesseecsves c ZA “ CONTENTS. CHAP. Il. Of the elementary modifications of matter which correspond to the elemen- tary senses of taste. TVOVILIS hvil's dice 4.6 v'nsea’s aiictw'e opt ORAM a NH tenieiszitaN es utoms sole raat amaetaeaeduarwes Disposition of fOrms ....+2ssssssssccsveeeccessescetenevesseeesesersesnssceeeees Hardness, softness, roughness, and smoothness.......sssssceecsseeeee so ELS Toth LOGUE wear ute oe ans ealenebieie oman ce tata ated Re eah Men ees eer ene axles Heat and cold—mMotion....crsessssescecseesees diose es pvigclecenudeneeenuneetne rs Sounds—gravity.ccccsscccsrnseeressenncseesecesees «ON its CHAP. Ill. Of the combinations of the elementary modifications of matter, forming what may be called different kinds and degrees of beauty....+++++0+ Truth and nature—utility ......-.sscccsssssseeeeernreseeececnesenessesoeroees Fitness or proportion—symmetry Or CONfOTMILY....eeesseesseersneeeees Uniformity—unity ...scscccsssecccecsee ceseeeerereceessncecenaneeccocunereees ONAET towers oocadevae teas tmmec ges es ets vetascsinsts ie eat shapleis ages reamtentetaee rete Contrast—varlety ..cscrcecsescesscscsesesenacerees anlnils she co asieiailsicns cenaicanes Tntricacy—harmony .scccccsssesesrecneesesessnnnnecececeenereseenensesereaee CHAP. IV. Of such combinations of the modifications of matter as are productive of particular expressions, and correspondent effects on the mind, andmay be denominated characters ..s..0+se1vess a SeSoriat Ae Son SER BOR ES CRECOCR Difference between mere beauty and sentiment or character, or be- tween that which affects the senses, and that which touches the Rev Ee detacounecanenncdauncugenosolctidounadoOLEd obEHHbboPHadodudsccordad quceer SubMMMVILY. cess. ssnseraperpetlemaeny wereenaaveens ceaetataaes ARERR YE Mere aeelie Beauty cccecccderscsvnscseccetscovseeasescess sesnceerssassssseeseasererecneans Deformity.....ssccsccsescescnsecsseescenscesseneceseeaeceneensseescsesen een scsnes Picturesque, sculpturesque, antique, and romantic beauty.......e..0 OW ii Lin eSSias vibe rubeeie we tieteerctae wet siglo toate paatala ne etes a stpinian eerste ceive cneeetcdiasta rine wae Tranquillity, melancholy, age, and ruit.....sesecseseesserneceensersn ees Elegance, gaiety, Novelty .....s.sssseessseserseessers seule Cote Genie a eae Ridicule—other characters ....cssesieccccseccccsroveceseccsccsesoossseoeers CHAP. V. Of the exercise of the faculty of taste in discerning combinations and ex- if. a) pressions Peer e coer ee se oreo oo e VCO TO SURE HS SHH EPE SOE LORE HEHE SHE LOD LODE ODDO ROE me ‘ D f . . . anger of taste or feeling, without judgMENE....secseerererseereeenrere Practice and reflection suited to perfect judgment in matters of taste Nature the source and end Of taste .....scsecsrcessereverecssecccersesesceres A general taste, though not refined, is greatly preferable to taste only in particular arts CHOCTHOORHCS SPH OOK EDD TED OOH HOS TOM OTHEEE LOH OCHH EDT OHORFFFER: PAGE 22 2 o 24. 25 26 Zh 28 29 30 31 OM 33 34: ae, ¢ CONTENTS. CHAP. VI. Of the causes which may influence our feeling and judgment in matters of EASEE wacvcsccccsccrecrcesncice eevcersssenecesesnscers sen sesssessseessessssssesed The imperfection of the elementary SeNSES .....ssseecescretereesensecees other faculties of the mind .......scssesscoeees The limited sphere of individuals .....scssscoeoescccnsecscsseeeseceevecers Particular associations Of 1d €aS......ccsesssccsescrcececesavoccceosescoesesens CONCLUSION, i The natural progress of taste in the mind ....cereeccrcenssevsvesescensenes anger of proceeding on our own taste, before it become fixed and can be resolved into good SENSE cesereseresectoesvernvescseresencrcases EE PART Il.—Or Parntina. INTRODUCTION. Painting intimately connected with taste and rural improvement, be- cause it tends to perfect our judgment in visible objects .......... Arrangement of this part of the subject ...s.ccscocsersceesecscnsssessecee CHAP. I. Of the general principles of landscape painting. Design ....scasesccsescevscceccsavcsesseccacssuscsceseessesscesssenseesneseaesnens Disposition, drawing, and perspective ..reecsecererecseesersecerseseaees Light, shade, and keeping—colouring .....s.ssecseceseeseesececrecenees Expression—general effect—grac€ ...seecsecoesserserseresnsenecesenseers CHAP. Il. Of the advantages to be derived'from the study of the principles and practice of painting, in architecture, and laying Out ZrOUNAS ..+..sseccencevers Its use in perfecting the faculty of taste......cssssesessccerersersereneenres In assisting in the discrimination of character ....sccccsseesssseneenreeees In assisting in the composition of real sCeENeTY «..seecccesesereseereeee aie The advantages of perspective and optics in architecture ......++0+0 The advantages of practising drawing OF Painting ...s.sessesereseeesense CHAP. Il. Of the advantages to be derived from studying prints and paintings... They enable the improver to distinguish the excellent from the in- FELiOL SCENES iN NALUTE.....ecsecsscerrcescaccesecsesenesseevereeeesseenee They may sometimes mislead those who are not acquainted with the practice of drawing or painting ...cssseossereersveeeccevceteessdaceees PAGE 47 48 43 48 49 50 5] 53 oh] 65 66 -CONTENTS.. PART III.— Arcuirecture. PAGE INTRODUCTION, Fihdantental prineiples Of tHiSiare Gaassesvedeesucsvevenahiseteitevedeteatea OF ATrangement-Ohehis pakmOrtle KORG -cocperersvtussceptettaseenververrcss OT DIVISION I.—rse THEORY OF DESIGN IN ARCHITECTURE. CHAP. I. Of utility and convenience. We In buildings for the inferior animals’..........:0.cccdMMecscoscocscesses, O69 In buildings for the different classes of mankind ....ccssscovescesacseese 70 CHAP. [ly Of Beanianitn Architecture cs csats 05s tbekeiae tides evi csleoteenees> doer tna digete denen sue MeL Truth, utility, and fitness .......0cccecssees aeeatditane bacls tee desecoses qrasaesen Dee Fitness the most general beauty im buildings.......cocoesscocsesecsvarseree 79 Symmetry—uniformity .......ceeseeseees Doeee(d Se dtvadeeuveteetcareceravedgeved Nt Unity; order, variety, intricacy, and harmony ....c.ccccesecsvesseers Aa iy is: Harmony the most exquisite beauty in buildings ........ hole Relators Beem FE, CHAP. III. Of character in architecture. Grandeur, sublimity, and beauty—how produced ....sssecoreereseseeee 78 Antique: beatity, Wiclancholys (SCs ies.tdsuiersesedess eovate vanes eauseeeeen CO Every building ought to assume a decided character, and one ex- PICHSIVE Ol 1tS USE .rseneoevertees tiie ase ise dinreatetes ieledeet edie ne eeu 1G CHAP. IV. Of the manner or style of execution in architecture ...... Seige vontet qereteey AA Two manners have long prevailed—the Grecian and the Gothic .... 79 General characteristics of each ....sccceceeeseeees Minds atecdewereeesguceearsen ao Advantages of inquiring into the origin of these styles or manners... 82 CHAP. V; OF the Grecian: sivle;of GnChicGPamiciveresectarectiapeccariavessstarevangsase (GO Buildings in the early ages were probably constructed of timber ... 83 Grecian buildings, we may suppose, were formed of timber regularly DEVIN essen cuss aye era diet it oct seihits tacaet ag ee NRE ar ase 83 This rendered plausible from the members of Grecian architecture :. 84 Grecian architecture exemplified in the antient Athenian temples, to which this mode of building was first applied ..........sesseee0. 85 Afterwards applied to the houses of individuals .....s.sssssssessesereee 86 And thus its characteristic simplicity injured even in Greece .......... 86 And the:style much corrupted by the Romans ....sssssseccesssrverereee 87 Roman architecture imitated in Britain, and not the chaste Grecian models COCTOH HEHE HEHEHE TOKO CHPOTCHLHDTOHTHS HHT HHRCHOREHESEDMHHLOHHHD DOH HRT EEHOOe 88 CONTENTS. Inferior artists in this country have done little but copied parts from these Grecian or Roman edifices, and misplaced them ........... Hence the degradation of the column and pilaster....... Meeps has misapplication of the pediments ......... ‘it geian Peas baie ovis veh an — COrMICES.....+++ Salsas stearate eee neat Chimney-tops a fruitful source of variety in the hand of an able artist—the vulgarity of those used in Grecian buildings in this country shews the penury of our inventive powers.......... Luxuriant fancy of Sir John Vanbrugh, as opposed to this want of Originality OF INVENTION ........eeeeeeee baaesvawitecvecdye detre pad ticeants Varieties of Grecian architecture commonly called Orders......... aes The characteristics of these Orders ..... es EU TO Ate CHAP. VI. Of the Gothic style of building. SECT, I. 2. Of the pointed Gothic style. — Original Gothic buildings may be supposed to have been built by young trees, not hewn timber, as in the Grecian style............ This rendered plausible from the facility with which they might form Gothic windows and columns, such as we see in Ca- CHET AStatrccntcresieectsaeercetewsoarsebae ces eschacnepelyaucs Rash tae eae Though this theory may not be true, it affords good leading princi- ples of criticism and design.......sssssecosssseveseerevenceeeres decease : The characteristics of a Gothic cathedral ........sccsccssscssccccesccevees The great beauty and fitness of this style of architecture..........s00 Fitness too much neglected by architects, exemplified in the Gothic Hall in Windsor Castle, recently finished ......s.socsesseee soeves Of the Saxon Gothic style. This, to give an idea of ‘it to general observers, may be considered as a medium between the Grecian and pointed Gothic style ... Characteristics of the Saxon style .....csseccssssceenes UF kde cp Bcc Natntwree Of the irregular or mixed Gothic style .........4 tee ee Peis ARAN Applicable chiefly to the houses of individuials.......s.ssesessessseeeeees Capable of every variety of beauty and USC ....cssssessesesseseeeesceens Consists of several varieties—cathedral style.....ssscscseseseeoees enor) Castle style: ..vestcsseccseccssrencrvsvvevscsteveccssctesserseeacecs Seucarnpeeeee Quadrangular style—tower style....sccseecesecccssecercsseeoerserscsceseees Turret style—other styles v.iwesvevsare des tie canGivnsshannwaatdevadeneseseees : New. styles etch oy sseiids Cot pS evr ee eu eer oD eh eee TuabietNebatnsrnees:eecesees PAGE 88 88 90 91 93 94 96 96 97 98 99 100 101 101 103 104 105 105 106 107 108 109 111 112 CONTENTS. CHAP. VII. OF styles composed both of Grecian and Gothic architecture. sect. 1. Of mixing Grecian and Gothic architecture . ..sssssseescescosseceneecers 2 Of blending or compounding them ...... se seececscnsectcsaecensnseceresoees Numerous buildings in this style erected and erecting in Scotland Great mistake of the artist who first introduced it, and the bad taste and servile ideas of those who adopt it. ........ccessvsvescesccesoees DIVISION Il.—ruHe APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN TO THE DIFFERENT CHAP. I. SECT. CHAP. II. SECT. Ie SUBJECTS OF ARCHITECTURE. Of public buildings ..cssecoveccssereevceavecteecccencsanectsceasecaevessescesenannecs ORCHURCHESi 2.3 cewee seve de ccs tos cesteneae ae olseta seal Paces ao eatdoia o's Horak MesKs General form of the masses in Churches ...ccccssesecsecncerenccecceseoere : Of spires ....... a views 9 peepee an enndelyses Spo pa Pen Sea seetsecccsssors ses The form of churches being generally alike in all parts of the country, is a source of sublimity and moral instruction ...... Sera Of bridges ...... taclebisie dea ty teas Le watictdntastens tate tae Saket brane venetian oeieea Simplicity ought to be their characteristic in general cases, ornaments being lost from the excess of light on all sides preventing ENATMIUMATLON TON MME icon re ae cetaeiee sttaeee else tele eleneleicile sintcinalasiamsleesieicie Of private buildings. 1. Of Cottages crecccesccccscesccecersensaecossrsceccescencasseseeserseseeses eee ees The English cottage characterized .....csescssecssetsecseseosceeceseresere The Scots cottage characterized ..... ee ewinles teat ase aer. anatetele Saige 2. Of ornaments iin COP DEES .5.c- sabaeed nab cdvdpanaenstenp hen eames: AE Aa Decorations of the English cottage ......+++0+ Saraekegameres soaievewaagars : ie Scots cottage ..... eeainn du sates sinha wales PE SPITE 3. Of the fire-places of cottages ..:.....jececsseeees Nubdcapenepaee ce emeevates 4, Of improved and ornamental cottages .......++++. a eta t aetna mctnnas fee noe 5. Of villages ........5. a ee be RaReiclas teste wivuiplecteis helen eRe Meas Meeieceye Their origin ....... MA rcs icnecnere c setaveverenaedscaseetoneesecorseacoses Villages avowedly artificial ..... ss deviate oto alate Divis eset Mente dadoseeyiestte Villages professedly irregular, in imitation of the most picturesque natural ones...... PadnM asec sititaalinais cats iets smal suake Maeabecnsue Aenepnach 6; SOL OWS: and ClileSuasy avenlesereueeh ae Sa Ae a Masalets EAM circ enn bana ce Their different characters of maritime, inland, &C. cesccosccessecsvers PAGE 114 115 117 118 119 120 120 121 122 122 N23) 124 126 129 133 133 134 137 LAL 143 143 144 145 146 147 CONTENTS. Towns and cities in regard to Streets ..sseccsessssccssensvecaesensouaeseeees to the preservation of character. .......+++ — to the magnitude of the buildings which they contain CORREO KORE COO COOH DH OE TSE L ETH SOD HSS EDEHEDEDAEHLEREDE SOHO E OOD The vulgar vanity of most magistrates, often injures both the uti- lity and picturesque effect of towns and cities, exemplified at Edinburgh ...ccsssccevscescesevesseceenscesenseccnsensensensnensans haweeet . Of manufactories .........+- aE Anse Mere MLAL ci tiloceetal atic cence seats sts Great beauty of water mills and iron works when judiciously placed . Of the habitations of the husbandMen .....sccsesereereessererereseeseesees Best examples for utility .....ccssesessseneesersssseserarseceevenseccecaseanes Best examples for effect ....cc.cscessencensenceecenensaneessesvearoessecceess The union of both qualities desirable, especially in the farms of COUNTY TESIGENCES...scccsessanecerereeeseeeceaneneesanesceseneseuensoere CHAP. HI. Of the habitations of the wealthy and noble. SECT. |. te General remarks and proposed arrangement of this chapter......+++. On chusing a situation for a country-house ssersseeeeeenes LHeslaWix slave wie With regard to relative CONVENIENCE -corserseersensersseeeres “tim Suaa sey 2 the most striking SIt€ ...0ssesreeeeeseeeeeees Ren Saosin the views toward the COUNETY ....csscesse seeseeeceeeees On adapting the style of the building ........sessossescscereseenveeeeeeees With respect to the growth Of trees vecsssssseeseeseceeesescesreresenseens : forms of particular trees. which may be peculiar to GL CESTEST IEE ce IISA: sateen Rn SRI VOUN oFileteoeinitoseindis sla.slee ere sisebieeeslde'eee —— the general character Of the COUNLIY......sereceeeees colour of the surrounding rocks and ground ....... Importance of attending to these considerations collectively......... : . Of uniting the mansion to the scenery by means of the offices or other architectural appendages .se.sccssscssscseceeeeeeeerenees Sticks Conweetion Universal i NATUMEs....c.ccpcessccsoarenceosecccsscrssiesee seesisis Should thence be imitated in works of art ...csscscesecsseeccasesseeecenes Of uniting a mansion with the surrounding scenery by means of HL OGHNG CSAS Ee Net ona Reso tiod Nese ec sb aowi cadena ciwen sesmncnwaees These ought not to be concealed as at present ...-.cscseserseeeeeeerenees Advantage should be taken of gentle elevations of ground—and deviations made from vulgar forms in the buildings, &c....... Towers may sometimes be raised even with a view to utility ......... Attention requisite to group these buildings with trees ..10-sssseseeeee PAGE 147 147 149 151 151 152 152 153 154 154 155 Pore 157 158 160 161 162 164 164. 166 169 170 170 171 172 172 iz 173 1:73. CONTENTS. PAGE Bad taste of those who, because they cannot give dignity to common buildings, attempt to change their character .....scssscececeseeess 174 Great economy results from shewing buildings in a proper manner 174 —~— beauty would thus be added to particular residences and the COUNTY BEANE Gy. oy eente sien tule s daria swiheddaida ds discesesdeceeccssinesee LUD 4. Of uniting the mansion with the surrounding country, by means of architectural appendages, chiefly ornamental.......csecseesseseeee 175 En, common, labourets’. Cottages.seyece acess success sssetsicdsocaveeavereseeecees 170 Tniernamented: oottages sed ciicnls 6b She acntads ove dep abtaees ns ceederdecses 176 In-the-entrance frontoft yallase..3.tpscsrespe'dssbuares MMe aes ccocdvacscdes 177 —- houses of greater magnificence ......s..se00eeeee 178 In the garden fronts of the commonest Villas......sscsscssceseescsseoseese 180 — more elegant Villas...sccsssssesssesresersssereees 180 —— magnificent buildings.......ssccccsscesssccseree 181 DIVISION IJi.—or ExEcUTION AND FINISHING. Importance of attending to the qualities of the foundation.......+.... 183 of the stone and other materials 183 — a ——— ______—_—— of the mortar secsscsoccseccessceee 183 Conclusion—general remarks on architects, and books of architec- [LURE Soda gna OO SECO Io Goo aDeoe ar Deatsie flee Niwieisuislais/ebelsusrere pasieinieiees cece secon None have ever laid down fundamental principles; Perrault, Cham- bers, Wren, Palladio, and every other author have copied ser- vilely from the antique, or from Vitruvius, without either con- sidering the intrinsic causes of their beauty, or the fitness of buildings to our climate and PUrpOSeS ...scereecsseserscrsrrerseseors 185 Vitruvius lays down no abstract principles—and beauty in no art or class of objects can be fixed until this is done .....seessevere 186 PART IV.—Aericutrors. INTRODUCTION. Agriculture, a branch of husbandry....-..+«. cccorsecsecetscccsrssvonscsase 187 General principles of husbandry.........+ sOebbE ee hee loeeeks Precrceercee G7! - view of the vegetable kingdom, as subservient tothe pur- poses of husbandry..cersccccsorescssersecesssssescsssecsccssscsorsssvses 188 CONTENTS. PAGE The economy and laws of vegetationses .cocrgasssssessvsceeoes The classification and nomenclature of vegetables..s...+..0. The properties of vegetables....csseseseceseseesevenseeeereeeeens The uses of vegetables....sssesesseeseeerseraeesseeeecersanereeee General view of the animal kingdom, as subservient to the purposes Of husbandry ...secrersencascsvrecscnerscsccsoseseersseeecsceceesenseners The animal economy, physiology, anatomy, &C...ssessseeoe The classification and nomenclature of animals......+.eese0e The natural properties of animals ....5...s.seessecseesssseeenees Their uses or subserviency to Mankind.......sssecceeeeescces General view of the mineral kingdom, as subservient to the purposes Of husband ry...sccssecsecenesenceneceeces seussweceeveseceneeseseeeeecnsaes General view of the mechanical powers, with a reference to the pur- poses Of husbandry .csrcecesrseaseserseesrssceccescscrssevssenseeeeenenes Gravity, cohesion, extension, MOON... csserecerrececseeeees General view of husbandry, with a reference to country residences... The ignorance of professors in the different branches of husbandry, has been the grand source of error in ru- ral improvement, and the ruin of many individuals... Proposed arrangement of the branch of husbandry under consider- ation namely a oRiCUltanes hes satis ssVaais socstaeadltiod tylys + oot] Zaeste SCTE Oy chicamprocerien: ef Lie SONI SUNT OCEY sau tn ace Surg tagcieian OTT aheoh one Sieanionet six Draining ..sscccsssscevecvscrersccvescevescescsonccsassesssenscssapsecasersrscees OPSPTINGSs ves nese soa bao traegh aeninch aislepi ep vabiersee sen ceecsaba sas of lakes, bogs, and MOrassess-y.o0iiicwavelesiewevdsecscscccveeeses Struice OF PSSeX CVE LNGS serena Uncsol ender eo Vsnevaveccsev scenes. Embanking, general view Of....cessssesssvvesssssnsoereetvesanvorsccercsences Of the general causes of the failure of embankments al- PEAY MAGE. w. sal advan devas sate eceseacsiansvcedcsaceaes see Of the forms of the most secure natural shores, with the ; CAMSES POR AGI SGC Ya pion ilant Path oselnen tay ceenest edu: rh Of the modes of imitating these forms by art, or of improy- ASU OMOPVOIM araleta hyd evn al sa memetiines aalPRud task viandonies Of the preservation of embankments or banks of rivers, by erecting piers or projections to ward off the current... Of the materials with which embankments are constructed Of the expense of forming embankments.......ssssesssscseees Of the management of land gained from the sea....sccsseore d 188 188 189 19] 192 192 193 194 194 195 196 196 197 198 199 200 200 200 202 203 203 205 208 210 213 215 218 218 = CONTENTS. PAGE Of the quantity of land which might be gained by embank- ing, and preserved by constructing piers Luicllackesap RODD Warping, paring, burning, and clearing of surface incumbrances... 225 Improving the composition Of SOiIS...ssicsecsseseccecsseecevessvvscvevesses 225 UMCLOSING Jes leechisoosnteedeanre severenvesetecesrsveecivecossesesteee ness? wsdiee 220 The propriety and advantage of inclosing.....+...+0+» eedeeree 226 The size and magnitude of inclosures....+.secsssereesesoeseeees 226 PHCiE Tore ner eer ye tactet er rneratatet st cepenlauronnbredacsaene Meee The direction of the fences........sscccessoeoes Mee ciie ree pe pen eal) PRCUAROMOL TENE Os yas ceneetian cu enect Vane tiles aenres trees Mage PLAT Hedgerow trees icssecc2..s. 46 cdeeseeenuntesaeegneess lactase astegs Oe Sheltering exposed grounds...........++. pene cea tan wee vase lanes ses vimemsasent noe \ HINAHG: ORPOMICR Eee AC ree sev easecare rs ep B ree osCr Penne Cae iss DIMI TEx POSMTe Sere ts weve seats treteset Or dncspuaxhieed sommacess 229 CRAP. Eh OF the tnaprooenicnt Of Te SATOMI rss vied tiycacedeverancetes cocesascseaserenca” 200 Roads Wier ditecwion sss iweceesrstetoce cee etevoeuas see sates Gehry ceraieh ee WHCMMOEMAIOM or eee hea tan sek eve see enechi va ceposianvasawencates tage PheiY TUtUTe TANASEMEN Terese cecsecesseereocsscevevnvencscucyecs sav Ol k Canal making cec.scccessssoce scversscscovcsovens ase eat Ck: MRS RRA CHAP, Ill. Of cultivation, and of the culture of the vegetables used in agriculture. GultivatronoPtihe soley us ccssescetdecdeecetarsespeossetadedserceirrascexensa Mae Different implements used.,....ss.seeceresvees Mets e temas ce scare. ee pieniers OO Destimnisthon Wl Weeds! 20.eecantnstencs sete Cdn coheheasecenterssteecdeshencaeees . 234 Perermyal OP TaOt WEEUS s rvcacecarecs ten cdoarpecssaettcsnecocracepterm sae WAST INEE OL ISEER WECUSe va eee seessm cerned ceneweswedracpassuscs esvteeegen SOM Manuring Manures which augment the quantity of vegetable nou- PISWMIC Moder lactase scntcsetecemsecun ss ac stsares cuneate rere suens | OV? Manures which bring what already exist into creation..... 235 Great advantages which might attend the use of salt both to vegetables and animals.......ssscosssssesevcsssecerseeses 236 IT PETNUS ais ourdeclenatetnets oar Coed treetprics cate a eer a aenettentse ns snake ted Culture of vegetables...cccsscscosoececsssescsvvevcscenescevesvescersscesaccecs LOT The different species Of COMNS.........cersescesesorsssereeseccess 2ST Dive CiMETENt SPECIES OL STASSES 62. cavrossuscecserecsesnsaneres’ LOT Top dressing. ....s.sscccccccrecssesscescecscsssveccsccses 238 Irrigation secccrssscsersssserescssevesevevsssveressoesvens 238 CONTENTS. PAGE FlOOdINgG..cccececenerscnesecetoreseeasescusescscs eevsesosoe 239 Roots, leaves, and other herbage....scccescsessersrseeeres Recunny, 240 Particular crops, or garden vegetables..........+++- Soucek weer 240 CHAP. IV. Of breeding, rearing, and fattening animals, and of their general management 242 Breeding vsecccccccsssencccvscsscncacscacsescssssessevscvssnvcrecssscssescsscssces 242 Rearing eR for ae eee Fence Mente dea ee Cas ies renew seat ae of labour........ Ren SM obese eee cat ssionese cue eusraces is) = ANd training Horses ...secserccccecscssrerscerserecsecseseveresceson LAB - poultry, game, fish, rabbits, bees, pheasants, swans, &C...... 244 CHAP. V.... OF. oe size, formation, and management of farms ....... DEKE ce coseiesa svaue eset 245 : Their size in general ....... banecicenase4oecatesensqeccorescos ces Scene iceticn ee ate The size of sheep walks...........+ waco Ee dyeedussuecraes Witeatsasspesnsseh Ok The size of farms under particular modes of cee Meee save 246 The formation of farms........ Safe Soeietiay Bes Cane ANS Poo e eet oee acs eves ZAT Their subdivision by fences......++.-++0 weieee Geet cd Ue pratiat thes nee eeesy oa The formation of buildings.......scsccssseereees ecu nee ettnecebere cee for arable farms........+0. PO ROE eu eee de: IBAStIRG habIGodeeusseeeans oe: Be cose iee access LAO (Mixed: Teindss.civetbhsectsececccctossersesseesrs 249 Family farms..ccccecssseeees Revere ctaeai's cesses 2D The management of farms....... Gogt thot es seo oe FRONTED Se)! Remarks on bailiffS......csssseececees MUA Us ahcatie Subs veuke sess vveucsssaeascar SO. SrA sett Seer PART V.—UsEeErut oR CULINARY GARDENING, FINERODUCTIONsccessscoccccscercescerwccs seiososSacocods Been Mesa an ne Mwaniise oa cecminesebcicseessenss sey OO Horticulture, its subdivisions ....... at Seopa y Weaetatmerncreotsceeeecee oO Distinctions between culinary gardening and agriculture........ Koes od Theory of culinary gardening......... Ae por nC EEX EOS TS CCRC » 254 Proposed arrangement of this part........++ eteee te escen dana veacn sons es 255 CHAP. I. Of the cultivation of the soil.......0..00 SEED On Ar ee Sry atte ae 256 APMLVGTIMALION aes tgate ace seiagehaat obeseceatnaCinslcsadesievacseressncss ser Beier e200 Resting or refreshing soil .......ccsccsecesessesescseccescessevcesscetsesenses LOT by particular Crops...ccssecscesesscecceconscncersenceesensesces LOT - by particular modes ofe exposing uke soil to be cropped 257 eee eee eeaoeeee PeeeKCsenFSeesseteossosseeeeeeFagsesesgoeaegoezenD 958 CONTENTS. PAGE: According to the nature of the plants cultivated....cssssoseseee TOG ES FO LG UIGUL CRUISE Usantiesceccccseaeesececlceelse — duration of the plants cultivated........0.00 Destructo i ofaweed sis csnvalii sin caved ceueaeteoie, tee ieee teas te natal sate VETMID.....0. eA beeetmadselg he tdestaa0 SPN ee nECe TE sstane eeaaes sine Watering ..ocsscrcssoscrecsssescescenescseseeaces biullak sie MMO a rahe opele ee valseiee To excite vegetation ...scccecssceseseees etotein PIII TS Tee te Raaralcalsg To. promote Vegetation ...ssc.ssseoees seececetedecvescescveeesonane To destroy HDT SEXCE SACI sd PCRS woh) Mee oe ennai ale dis’ ovals Pruning, to promote the growth of trees .......+. itn MMAR case AE To retard their growth..... sss... Saas shhh ke Atoneate cue ae To modify their growths.....s.ccsseseescoseenes Mette eh vee cede General effects of pruning that part of trees above ground Onl Viae vee omens civnteses Baicioly ats slats eel eG eM OAe Reece PAE — in the ground only The different modes in which trees produce their fruit, lead to correspondent modes Of pruning......sscceceerseeeee a TDRELUUIIE cantons cede he cs mebtae eee: pacrmceteyent wei patents othe h didclvasandeseemaeg to protect trees from the wind......... Seeds wena Dead A atelivaeres to improve their climate ........+sseceeees ABET EH date aanienact to support climbing plants .........seeseeeesee: Mea iclcananan ste general and important effect of bending branches of fruit ETOCS cc orvcacccsccserssvrovccs wiv esesencies oneene: sasoduodcene teccceee -—_———— cutting the roots of trees Ablaqueation ......sssecsserees ERR ER UR IRS KEN ss weieietens Maewleoercaiete eta carina CHAP. II.. Of the culture of herbaceous vegetables....sscceervereensereees eager Diecemeereee toe The annual or biennial............00. Sear! POWs celcsacdccs ual The perennial.........+++ sitar N ohaee teased Spats olauetcteree ae Ae Pot herbs and salads....... Kab aeidicur nes arene Pee a attested £ Great.advantages of cultivating the annual garden crops in the open fields of a farm....-.....40+« SAA ORR cateihce CHAP.. Hl. Gf the culture of fruit. trees. and fruit Shrubs.cccesscavensesconcerceesereeeces sels The culture of wall fruits........ PALE Be ages Ae at aS Formation of the soil for the different aoads Siccaeere Choice of proper sorts.and. healthy plants...... Seaigenee General manageMEent....cccsescorercesscesrescoees Roeder The culture of espaliers...sesseeseeeees Soh eee S ocveaetr ess StaAMGAaLdS i ceidcicesd shoves ShAMWaeeslasts aise y spa aen ae Olastan dandsworpywalllScssevessarecac cusses cece 259 259 259 (961 261 262 263 263 263 263. 263. 263 264. 264: 265: 265: 265: 265 265 267 268. 269° 269 269 269: 269 270° 272 272 272 274 274: 275 275: 273: CONTENTS. The culture of standards for orchards...csecsosssersesssovasvees The cultivation of small fruits......cccecccccssevsssccvevevscveces CHAP. IV. Of the culture of culinary ex0tiCs ss.00r00 TN ied ne Mer DA at "The Ppin€.rccssoveseccressesencseanesvecenscsarescsnevecenecsaneree ses vine evoeeevooeeesed ecoeoeeeeaeeeeeneoeeee Seeteetsaverseveseneeeere Modes of accelerating the ripening of the fruit — retarding the ripening of the fruit... Melons and CUCUMbDETrS.+.csecoveessercsescvecse renee Mabasea ised hs Passiflora quadrangularis BMA ted eetsanso tiene caer eate staat Cactus opuntia, or Indian fig .ssssscecessenscesceeessnsecencouens Oranges crorseseseccsecseeccesssercersersasceannsaarsenecenseeeeseres ; CHAP. V. Of forcing vegetables into a state of growth or fruit at particular or unnatu- TAL SEASONS cacrccvecerceveracesesscnvccercsesccensscvessenserasscseseaasseenss } Forcing by mechanically operating upon the vegetable, or altering the nature of the soil only ..scseccerseeeeroeeies ———— by preservation, &c..... Fat A es i dtatesiere olelalere aatetersls a —~ by removing vegetables into an artificial climate. CHAP. VI. Of the construction of hot-houses, hot-walls, pits, hot-beds, and mushroom- houses. General history of the rise.and progress. of oneal hot-houses ...06. Plans of Speechly, Abercrombie, Nicol, &C..ssesssrere sosseeessereeecens -— Dr. Anderson, Stewart, KCisessssseeee Ae i PRP ee ES ». 289 = the late John Mawer, Esq........ Pa tube mraueiaedaicckr npeavesea HOON) Hot-houses, their requisite PrOperties.....csceserersereevererceereres Raceus, QO Heat, how produced in. them...,.0rsseceesees Db Baa eae ie tei ke slates 6 Sette, SoU! Soil, air, light, water,.wind, how PFOdUCEM:.ccssersecreverseaseeseee sense 293 Hot-houses for peaches,.cherries, figs, &C+ssseeeceeseenereeeseeees Peete eu4 ——— VN CS. ocrccoreccrevesscscveus. cvossccscvccesoesnsssevesseosecses 295° —=— PINESsseoreccreoevoeceeeeenseres aaa eiaictepiniorsrsie Rate sesiohedenees 295. Hot-walls.......++ Ljssasclastasdi ale pchrewtesoroisese pot oieceers oietehe ue ehuete dninersisew 9 8'¥= Patience eran O 3 ME ean ch Tec eee en sage aletle untar Sens sesseesesgnig te OT Blot berks eeasist cae tmncmandes utes sober enatadents cecagemqaiies ens sengbvesares, 2007 Mushroom -houses ...+..00. Rie sain caeiusisieieiiers teers Metis raat ie tatnan 3 Sits deanna 99 CHAP.. VIL Of other buildings. which are. ee for a, kitchen- ee Beene ca iaweees “ Sheds. for. implements; &C..sscsssesessescenssereneeseaeeessseeeees Seed-rooms, fruit-rooms, &c...... La heaatene bien ee Seles yeaa av Covered seats, porches, porticos, KC.csereessevereeseccnensce ses GCHAR. VII. Of the formation of orchards..c.cecsresccserrerreccsererecocensersansacssenes ers Family orchards..esessesesssenssnasenessersevsessensanonrevescerees CONTENTS. PAGE Farm OECHATOS sp dcdcveadercascecesstotet He eeetseseooreovesososousetssegonsousos 303 CHAP. TX. Of the general formation of @ garden seesessscecesrscersscsscseccssescessescesee 304 INTRODUCTION. EXPOSULE seccsscasssssesscsscreevessesscessaess seseveesessescessecsesssosvsseres SOL SHeMer ices icssedsccccadacsses tdtebast uvaWeb ith Reeats Ua cdwenbeceonercxesavees, OD Situation ....ceccececesesees de saeidnelecs'esevieesetpevaraes Wea seesidapsoes sss as seee 305 Proper sOll fe Uicvesessanversseuvievedrnas sah ede ssaved napaahawedicn dens anss sxesnae| COG General form ..1; sists senenest> nee igberegnysdabidseseasamasecinn teesevecedes BOS Subdivisions by walks, walls, espaliers, hed ges....sssseseeeseres Pegaexes OOo Disposition of buildings; GiGi d.tiacesigdessdeteseoeessedceesancececcessescscs, 10 Impropriety of introducing ornamental productionS.......ss0ce0seeeree S11 Ancient British) sardens..25454n05004 .34s secu teenies evade sokage esata ns caemavet SLD Yearly management of gardens, an agreeable recreation.,.........00.. 313 PART VI.—OnrnaMENTAL GARDENING. Ornamental gardening includes parterre, botanic, and shrubbery APACHE. (ols cgec cou mdaincidts sever sweet canneradsbeclasdadedaseeatevetsesegs OAM Their Objects... .ceccscoccescnassscnesadecgucdecssess cesesosasovesesecsecscsseses SIS Their connection with useful gardening in regard to culture......... 315 Proposed arrangement of this part.....sesereesss Ldddvevieeetesecsnetineveses. SUD CHAP. I. Of the materials of ornamental gardeningssrrcccocencesssccececesascsesessscvceses 316 BA WA wveieys snevareunvstiawenvoees Ns te Seeds amen ranean atta Goes rontcctevacee: Gl dseuseg sansa sient uuenwskone Surrey. Eglinton Castle............. The Right Hon. the Earl of Eglinton........ .Ayrshire. HSM OLE De mcepaes eens = sense The Right Hon. the Earl of Egmont .......... Somersetshire. NAME rec ak edt eannes veg The Right Hon. Lord Stamford .......... Citas Worcestershire. BOS Les lasses ce veaeeneroneess a8 The Hon. Miss Frances Pelham .............c008 Surrey. HixtOn Parke Foti tess Colonel G. Noel Edwards ..........ssesseeseseenees Rutlandshire. Warnley Tall irvvicsse venece Walter Fawkes, Esq. ......ssssseesesesceseveeesneans Yorkshire. HAICIGES cetera sparen; His Grace the Duke of Roxburgh .............. Roxburghshire... Fonthill Abbey ............. Wim. Beckford, Esq. ....scsseeseserevees ees Ch Wiltshire. BLOG on went fracsery cite wu Uvedalé Price, Esq. ......0 Heh Gee ..sseseELerefordshire. Gleneagles ......0..600. sae. Miss Euphemia Haldane ........ pi che Hdbsaul shane Stirlingshire, Glentuiriyeniinntandes Colonel DMCA pes ukscce. tstinenceodseaee ste rese Stirlingshire. Gossford init sicedacetaten The Right Hon. the Earl of Wemyss............ Haddingtonshire, Gordon Castle... s.....ce0 His Grace the Duke of Gordon .........sse0:eee Aberdeenshire.. Gorhambury ......0..ce000+ The Right Hon. Lord Grimston............06 Hertfordshire. GOAT a icccpensssssnset nae . William Ramsay, Esqu.ccccssesevecenseseesteees Edinburghshire. Grange ....ssescrseeeereree bs As Knight, Esq. .cccecsesessetensee sesseeesaeees Herefordshire. Haddoneall fof... kee His Grace the Duke of Rutland ............... .. Derbyshire. TAB OLEY es cay santae Rane se nart The Right Hon. Lord Lyttelton .........:.s008 Worcestershire, Harewood Hall... ......... The Right Hon. Lord Harewood ........ ecseese YOrKshire, MEDAN SUCIN Ge vercates ves paroten ste SMI IC HRC LAr etch: Uws, cyt: fee astens alntmyasect es cre Shropshire. Hawthornden............. .. The Rt. Rev. the Lord Bishop of Abernethy..Edinburghshire, Hamilton ........0.:00000.... Phe Most Noble the Marquis of Douglas,..... Lanarkshire. LAV OG cerectsee: eet orceces Thomas Joins, Esq. .2....cs.c.skctee sasseeceensones Cardiganshire. Heathfield Park ...... .....F. Newbery, Esq. ....csssccseseeses cosensessseeeenes Sussex. TL GyiBlaN Cress seep srenes anes The Right Hon. the Earl of Shrewsbury ...,..0xfordshire. Heron House ...,........ ..Sir John Stewart Maxwell Heron, Bart. ......Wigtonshire: LIST OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES. Herdmanston ........000 «The Right Hon. Lord Sinclair........cceeccees Haddingtonshire. Eacktally ues Hy: NCR Ne Mins. AU nSOTce av Bue cac oscar te aemire ame te caren Ee Yorkshire. Holme ..... NSE es SEN Hy. -Peploe, Esq .e..:eeue sae bakehiuduive dec vataaineet ns Herefordshire. Fol naniiieeer tees AT. (We Cokes miiggyWiatien, ae tiree, coy ups payee Norfolk. Hopton Court... ees Botfield, NOKSTs Rove Ds Aa AN Urs okt 9, i Shropshire. ELOWW y sBus hs waves saga toe. Ws Grisbotiness- Rusa ea thtsts days te neateto seo Chay Staffordshire. Hopton House ........0..+.. The Right Hon. the Earl of Hopton. ..........Linlithgowshire. Hurst Parks iver eagiescrss Sussex. TICK WORTH Eee es teue ass cee The Right Hon. the Earl of Bristol............... Suffolk. ENVELARY eeeant ere beets teens ce His Grace the Duke of Argyle....... Gaaee ease Argyleshire. Tnelestony nubs vetene en James Gibson, -Hsq:c jy sccc ess. cceveseen ea eegees Edinburghshire. INBESEPEE es sateen Jweeedaeds The Right Hon. Earl Talbot......... cesses Staffordshire. Pah ieee ponndlacareant POnty MleSiien tin ters tree trecactat ear eeeses see. Derbyshire. Kinnaird Castle............ SirWayid, Carnage; Bart. 22,.ss20,-ctarccstnnntruss Angusshire. Kenilworth Castle.... ....The Right Hon. the Earl ef Clarendon......... Warwickshire. Retse sida lie acres ates William Loudon, Esq. ....... ied ee cre. hoa Edinburghshire. Keddlestons.. tc gosncteee? The Right Hon. Lord Scarsdale ...........-.+.+00 Derbyshire. Kelham House... .........J. C. Girardot, igen eal oe am a eitenaeats Nottinghamshire Kenwood, or Caenwood.The Right Hon. the Earl of Mansfield ....... .Middlesex. Kentchurch Park ......... PeISCUCAIMOLe ncn an keecgo naan Megect se meeee sare Herefordshire. Kingswood Lodge......... Gideon BikerdykesnEsq.. Fi... hicsesesesscsassersens Surrey. Kings Weston -rorisscrcwese The Right Hon. Lord De Clifford ............... Gloucestershire. Kimbolton 7 tavaenas, His Grace the Duke of Manchester .......0... Huntingdonshire. WinFochtree «Aten teres ShJus. Maxwelitteran, sBattets.! ky .hesccters Wigtonshire, Knowlesly Hall............. The Right Hon. the Earl of Derby ............. Lancashire. NOWILE!tassaeaeevests .-so.sEler Grace the Duchess of Dorset ...............5 Kent Molanarchiey tease teccee Jol POnes; Ease. iia, ce ar deeeran ance tartans lenec ane Monmouthshire. Lanercost Abbey .......... The Right Hon. the Earl of Carlisle ............ Cumberland. Daa: caapecenstueaiaes eenes PCAN a CUO vase. soos tense nonce ances sn cents Wigtonshire, Panshans les iste. kae Monmouthshire. Lenny Park....,...........Robert Carlaw, Esq.....cc.0 ise sscesssessasenrs coors Edinburghshire. Lesbury....-...s.s00 Sceueaeie NMSA BUEN cele hekyag Ml OF 6 Meine ge ccn area brctheansae Northumberland. Levens Park. ....0...ie..s008 William, ‘Bridgeman, sBisqe...ccres: ce neeeansess Lancashire, oe EG TONG PE ase sRichand=Den aston.) Ausds yeu sees taencaerts Dumbartonshire. Wenshicast cna aatety: Sir Hew Hamilton Dalrymple, Bart............. Haddingtonshire. LjCaSO WES As ccctisivcesecsase: Ge Har tops Hsqciis 5 teats scieees asenvetia mad oues VU GORGES Tans ines Linkhouse .....+...-00... Thomas Allan, Esq........0 Maacancenon ante Bacar Haddingtonshire. LIST OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES. Lowther Hall ............... The Right Hon. Lord Lowther ....... ...cceee Cumberland. Loudon Gastle fe. .ts The Rt. Hon, Countess of Loudon & Moira ...Ayrshire. Luton, Barks. Buckie The Most Noble the Marquis of Bute ......, . Hertfordshire. Malsley Castle... ........ The Right Hon, the Earl of Hyndeford ...... Lanarkshire. Memes. drcnaecsycseteictyaees tro er Ces HO MLE PREC Bt eects ade dea dagsase yer tes one Haddingtonshire, Machany Castle ...........General Drummond.........6..cccceceeeeeeeseees Perthshire. IVEY DEG Aestas «sus iene s caven Richard Howat, Esq. ...... sNtcadsvelyecusherens Dumfriesshire. Margan Park ...... .... ..—-—— Talbot, Esq... ..ccceeses sseresesneee «¢Glamorganshire. GNISTSEG AM © rstscsceses es Poh TUtChimse ws, AaSg x. .cecyernctevewet ace sgveoue Kircudbrightshire. UWfelville, Castle... sc. STi ee caailecaes! A adel THE THEORY AND PRACTICE — OF FORMING A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. Me ete ee i Satine cat ora by a Sai ith i INTRODUCTION. Rurat scenery is so. congenial to the human mind, that - there-are few persons who do not indulge the hope of retiring at some period into the country. Its peculiar and gentle pleasures are suited to all ages and every rank of life, and af- ford not less gratification to the general observer, than to the philosopher, the poet, or the painter. Works of art ge- nerally require from their votaries time, thought, and a parti- cular study, in order to become acquainted with their beauties: but we have only to see nature, to love and admire her. Every one feels himself touched by her effects,—enlivened by scenes. of verdure, freshness, and fragrance,—aroused by the roar of the cataract,—or soothed almost to repose by the set- ting sun gilding the western skies, and illuminating the tops of the distant mountains. Who has not felt the varied effect of the seasons, or even the no less amazing variety of a single day? Whodoes not feel himself animated by the rising splen- 4, INTRODUCTION. dour of the morning? Who has not felt the heat and excess of noon, the serenity and magnificence of evening, and the solem- nity and grandeur of night? If there be any one whose frozen soul has never felt the energy of such scenes, to him it is in vain to recommend them; to others no recommendation is wanting. — Those who enjoy a country residence have an opportunity of adding to the charms of ‘rural scenery, thé pleasures re- sulting from agriculture and gardening. These recreations are almost equally congenial with the human mind; and the plea- sure that attends their pursuit is still farther recommended by their utility in life and their influence on society. The culti- vation of a garden was the first employment given to man; and agriculture and planting have been pursued by some of the greatest men in every age; many of whom have left ample testimonies of the satisfaction which they derived from prac- tising those arts. ‘“* God Almighty first planted a garden,” says Lord Bacon; “and indeed it is the purest of human pleasures. It is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man; without which, buildings and palaces are but gross handy- works.” Such is the superiority of rural occupations and pleasures, that commerce, large societies, or crowded cities, may be INTRODUCTION. § justly reckoned unnatural. Indeed, the very purpose for which we engage in commerce is, that we may one day be enabled to retire to the country, where alone we picture to ourselves days of solid satisfaction and undisturbed happiness. It is evident that such sentiments are natural to the human mind. All men, even though born in cities, possess the same ideas, which, if they be not erased by poverty and disease, haunt them through the whole journey of life. Perhaps it is in this sphere only that man may approach the simplicity of nature, and at- tain the enjoyments and pleasures of pristine innocence. But laying aside these considerations, which may be slighted or misconceived, let me add a motive more common, and likely to be more generally attractive; I mean the ease, liberty, and independence of a country residence. Large cities, from their very nature, are scenes of contmual activity. ‘There every individual must fill up with vigour and constancy the place which he occupies in society ; he must often. forego his own pleasures, in order to accommodate himself to the inte- rests, wishes, humour, or caprices of those with whom he is connected. He must enter into their business and amuse- - ments; speak and: think in a certain degree upon the same topics; dress, and even perform many of the animal functions, in the fashion of his neighbours, or he will be despised, and disearded. from society. But even.though he conform as much: 6 INTRODUCTION. as possible to the ruling fashion of the day, he is still liable, whilst among such numbers, to incur displeasure. In the country, however, it is otherwise: there, a gentle- man may live with his family upon his own estate, free from the intrusion, bustle, and discord, which prevail in public cities. In place of the risk and uncertainties of commerce, he enjoys the less fleeting products of the soil. His hours are, devoted to the pleasure of cultivating his fields, gardens, and planta~ tions, and in promoting the happiness and prosperity of an in- dustrious peasantry. In this way he enjoys the society of his own amiable family :—his improvements give bread and, com- fort to the poor; while he selects his particular friends, and renders all around him smiling, comfortable, and happy. But without saying any thing more on the pleasures and advantages of a rural life, I shall proceed to make some re- marks on the nature of a country residence, and on the plan of this work. The wants of man, even when in a low state of civilization, are such, that no one spot of nature is sufficient to supply them. If he take up his residence in a forest, he must have recourse to the open country for pasturage for his cattle, or for the cultivation of grain. This, from obvious reasons, he would INTRODUCTION, en J soon find inconvenient. If he resolved to live entirely on the plain, in order to guard his cattle and preserve his corn, he must first have recourse to the forest for wood, or to the loose rocks of the neighbouring hills for stones, to construct huts and fences. Water, it is true, he might generally command, by fixing on a spot near a spring orariver. Finding some of the advan- tages of this situation, he would easily discover methods of in- creasing its conveniences; and a very trifling reflection would suggest to him the possibility of intermingling part of the forest with the plain, thus to add shelter, shade, and fuel, to his house, corn, and cattle. These being continually in his ' view, he could easily guard them from the ravages of other whinials, which would lurk in forests and commit frequent de- predations on the flocks and corn in the vallies. To obviate the trouble of keeping, he would soon invent fences; and to provide shelter or shade, in seasons of excessive heat or violent _ storms, he would naturally have recourse to trees, either planted along those fences or collected in some place of no great. use, and where, in all probability, they would grow spontaneously when surrounded by any rude fence, It is easy thus to conceive what would be the appearance of a primitive country residence; which, in fact, would be no- thing more than a farm and a farm-house of the rudest struc- ture. As population increased, however, and property be- 8 INTRODUCTION. came known, different orders of society would be established. These farms, when possessed by individuals in the higher classes, would be distinguished from those of the vulgar, by a due cor- respondency with their rank, fortune, or power,—-as well as the nature of the country. In almost every case, in the progressive state of cultivation, that place would be considered as most elegant, which contained the greatest appearance of art, in the house, garden, and grounds. ‘The surrounding objects being nearly in a state of nature, their beauties were unperceived, and no one could venture to put them in competition with the charms of novelty, and the appearance of wealth and power. ‘To give these appearances in a rude age and a wild coun- try, little more would be necessary, after ouilding the house, than to form near it a walled garden, and to place the divi- sions of the fields in straight lines. But in the progress of improvement, and as agriculture became general, inclosure would be common over the greater part of the country. This would lead to a progressive step of refinement, in order to preserve the proper distinction. Trees would now be planted, either in masses of artificial forms, in particular devices, or in avenues. And now the formation of a place would have some relation to the fine arts. The magnitude or architectural deco- rations of the house would be increased. ‘The ground near it would be smoothed, and formed into terraces and platforms : INTRODUCTION, ' g and, in time, bowling greens, labyrinths, parterres, and wilder- nesses, would be introduced, either in the gardens, or in some place convenient to the house. The trees in the garden, in order to distinguish them from others, would rot only be placed in an artificial manner, but would also (thus more strongly to produce the strange, and excite wonder) be cut into singular shapes, sometimes of geometrical figures, as pyramids, cones, &c. and at others, into the figures of men or other animals. Rural improvement still continuing its advances, to these decorations would be added other ornamental appendages, which might either arise from the manners of the people, the nature of the country, or the principle of imitating other na- tions. Thus one country might introduce architecture or sculp- ture, because it excelled in those arts: another might contrive fountains, which threw the water into the air, and produced an appearance of gaiety and coolness analogous to the cli- mate and the temper of the people. Another nation might in- troduce water in the forms of ponds or canals, which are more still in their effect, but more useful in domestic or horticultural ceeconomy. ‘These modes, characteristic of particular countries, have been imitated by each other and hence have produced a diversity of ornamentand show. Thus statues, fountains, and ponds, are often found collected together in one place. Cc 10 INTRODUCTION. ‘It should here be remarked, that the kitchen garden, which still formed the capital feature in the place, and was the usual receptacle of these decorations, was generally placed in front of the house, and consequently would be the chief resort of. such as chose to walk for pleasure. ‘This garden, in cold cli- mates, was always surrounded by a strong and high wall, which added to its security, comfort, and utility. In laying out the walks and divisions, every thing was done by lines, distin- guished from those in nature by their simplicity and deter- mined character. They were either perfectly straight, or re- gularly curved. In the general disposition of these lines, sym- metry and regularity were promment features. Avowed con- sequence and formality gave the leading hints in conceiving the whole design. Symmetry directed the execution. In this state was the art of laying out the grounds of a rural retreat all over Europe in the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury. But when mankind are in a progressive state of civili- zation and refinement, the polite arts seldom remain dor- mant :—they either make advances toward nature, which is ultimately perfection in every polite art, or they are entirely neglected, and sink into their primitive rudeness. To the immortal honour of this country, the art of laying-, out grounds was destined to make one advance, to which it had INTRODUCTION. ik neyer ‘before approached in any age or nation, > = = CE fw Seen calcutta fordewn decoutled nite it hy 8 Creepers, and Le led Ga i frartccular Alualiin, ad thennin Late Ul, Bllowleit sculpt Fiblished May 31-2606, by Longman Hurst, Rees & Orme FatemosterRow H ‘Nh Bae r Nanied if Opa te tuts a ey PART I1l. ) ARCHITECTURE. © 1138 formable to my ideas of it; but Storton Castle, Downton, and Foxley, come near it in several respects. The house being built (which willbe soon done, as little or no hewn masonry would be necessary), the chief art will consist in training the creepers to proper places, leaving frequently large spaces of the wall quite naked inorder to preserve breadth and contrast. Plate IV. fig. 2, represents a building of this kind newly finished, but without any creepers added to it. . To these species of style might be added a great number of others equally characteristic; but it is not necessary in a work like the present. The ingenious reader will easily conceive, from these, what is intended, and what can be done. Let me only caution the architect to preserve harmony in every style which he attempts; and indeed, in producing a new species of style, he will frequently be more certain of escaping censure by attending chiefly to variety. hdteot Q —— 114 ARCHITECTURE BOOK If. CHAPTER VII. OF STYLES COMPOSED BOTH OF GRECIAN AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. Havine now considered the different styles of Grecian and . Gothic architecture separately, a few remarks must be made on mixing and blending them in the same building. SECTION I. OF MIXING THEM. Wuen the style of the general masses of a building is pure Grecian, appendages in the Gothic style can never be admis- sible, except on the supposition that the whole has been built at different periods. Should this be the case, the general effect produced may be good; as the effect of time in producing mosses and weatherstains will serve to harmonize what would present too strong a contrast when new. It is affirmed by some, that mixtures* of this kind have a good effect in Italy ; * Tt cannot be doubted, that the first attempts of this nature must have been the effect of necessity, and that they were afterwards imitated from a reverence to antiquity. PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 115 ‘the reason probably is, their being built at different times, or the two styles being impure, as we see in many Italian designs, and also in several houses in England. Allerton is partly in the Gothic and partly in the Grecian style ; which happened from some alterations that were begun several years ago and never finished. Both the styles in that building are impure, and would not have been strikingly incongruous even when first built ; now the whole edifice is so covered with lichens, that it presents one harmonious and singular mass; which seen from one view appears nearly in the Grecian style, and from another nearly in the quadrangular Gothic manner. SECT. II. OF BLENDING OR COMPOUNDING THE GRECIAN AND GOTHIC IN THE SAME MASS. To unite in the same mass forms so opposite as those which characterise Grecian and Gothic architecture, may justly be thought so ridiculous as never to have been attempted. Win- dows, or openings, are the most striking parts in the walls of buildings. ‘They are all for the same use; and we are led ah imagine, from the productions of nature, that they should in the same building be all of the like figure. At any rate, we are sure that when uniformity of figure is deviated from, it is ex- 116 ARCHITECTURE, BOOK I. pressly for the purpose of producing variety. This being the case, the mind is much more fastidious about these forms and variations, than if their uses were less known or more diversi- fied. If variety be produced by giving the central window of a plain'front, or those of the two extremities, a round top; or if there be projections, the windows in each of them may some- times deviate from the central form, and assume perhaps the Venetian shape, without offending. But if round topped or Venetian shapes were alternately introduced among the com- mon forms, the incongruity would at once be felt by every spectator. Still, however, this is Grecian architecture. Imagine the operation carried on further, and every second circular topped window made pointed in the Gothic manner, and cer- tainly nothing can be more ridiculously mcongruous. It is not meant to be insinuated, that this has actually been done in every case; it is only intended to explain, to those who have not reflected on harmony in buildings, how the mixtures of Grecian and Gothic which we see in numbers of buildings must affect men of taste. In some of these buildings the win- dows are mixed much in the style mentioned above *; in others, the incongruities extend chiefly to the general masses. Thus in some places the Grecian proportions have been given * Asin Airthrie Castle.. PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 117 to Gothic topped windows; and Venetian windows have been terminated and finished by mouldings and labels, in the Gothic manner. All distinction between the mouldings of each have been confounded ; and in the roof, domes, towers, and pedi- | ments, terminated by monkish crosses or gilded balls, and sur- rounded by battlements or ballustrades, have been crowded together, to the entire destruction of that principle which con- stitutes the essential excellence of architecture—harmony. Some of the best situations and finest scenery in Scotland were some years ago disgraced by buildings of this kind; and the irrational admiration paid to the eminent artist who introduced them has rendered this style so much the fashion in that coun- try, as to exclude almost every other. Sooner or later, how- ever, those gentlemen who erect these productions will discover their mistake; though it will not be until so many have been erected, as will make posterity regret the taste of their an- cestors. The artist who introduced this mode of architecture enjoyed all the advantages of education, fortune, travel, and friends ; and it is truly humbling to human nature, to think that he should have so far deviated from good taste. Some errors of architects are pardonable, as having been copied from those productions of antiquity which ought always to be examined with care, and which every one reveres. But this error pro- 118 ARCHITECTURE. | EB OOH, ceeds from ignorance of principles ; for who, knowing the dif- ference between harmony and incongruity, would ever have proposed to unite in one object such a diversity of contrary qualities? ‘Though it be possible for a person to overcome the prejudices of mankind, by uniting similar qualities in one view, which we had ever been accustomed to see separate, and which is no inconsiderable victory; yet when these qualities are of different kinds, and when, in addition to prejudices, there are inherent principles of human nature adverse to the union, it is folly and madness to attempt it. Had that most respectable artist attended to this, he never would have pro- duced Airthrie Castle, Malsley, or Colzean, nor any of his other buildings in this style. It is with no small reluctance that I make these remarks upon the practice of an artist, whose friends I respect both for their rank and merits; but the laws of taste and the amor patrie require it. Such productions coming from a high au- thority impose upon mankind, and diffuse their baneful influ- ence among other artists. This, as already observed, it has unfortunately effected in that country. In future, I hope that either private gentlemen intending to build, or artists who pro- pose to design in this style, will, before they proceed, reflect upon the general principles of taste, and particularly upon Fit- NESS, UNIFORMITY, VARIETY, and HARMONY. PART IIL. — ARCHITECTURE. 119 DIVISION II. THE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN TO THE ; DIFFERENT SUBJECTS OF ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER I. OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS. We have now taken a general view of those fundamental prin- ciples of architecture which, if understood, are sufficient to guide an artist in every possible case. As a further illustration of them, I proceed to make some remarks on their application to some of the different subjects of architecture which most generally come under the practice of a rural designer. All the subjects of architecture may be included under the two general divisions of public and private buildings. ‘Public buildings include churches, theatres, prisons, senate houses, hospitals, bridges, &c. But, excepting churches and bridges, few of these are built by country gentlemen, and therefore do not come under notice in this work. 120 ARCHITECTURE. | BOOK I. SECTION I. OF CHURCHES. ‘Tuer expression of a church ought, in every case, to be subli- mity ; and Here are two ways in which this may be accom- plished. Ist, A form should be fixed upon which is suited to produce this emotion. And 2dly, The general masses of this _ form should in no situation be altered, though their magnitude may differ: the reason for preserving the form always the same | is, chiefly, that in some cases, where the sublime cannot be pro- duced’ by magnitude, from the limited extent of the building, the form, though of less size, may, from association of ideas, produce this effect. Taking a medium between the cathedrals and the simplest Gothic churches, they may be said to contain two parts: the body, which is generally an oblong mass, ex- tending over the surface; and the spire, which is either a tapered mass placed upon its base, ora parallelogram placed upon one end. Now these general characteristics of a church should never be deviated from when sufficient expence can be afforded; and if simplicity in forming these parts be attended to, a case can hardly occur where both the tower (or spire) and body may not be erected. When this is not the case, churches will dwindle into mere barns, as 1s the case with a number of the country churches in Scotland and Wales; or when itis over- PART Ill. ARCHITECTURE. 12t done, and new forms are introduced, it will convey the idea of some other edifices; of a play-house perhaps, as does the church of St. Chad’s, Shrewsbury ; of manufactories, as do several meet- ing-houses in London; or it may present such a form as will perplex most people, as St. George’s Chapel, Edinburgh, which by its ornaments and singular form excites curiosity and totally destroys the sublime. Spires may be erected at much less expence than they com-. monly amount to, owing to the superfluous introduction of co- lumns, cornices, and projections, in place of simplicity, which should pervade them throughout. In London there are nume- rous spires composed of parts taken from Grecian architecture, and piled up at an immense expence. Let me ask the unpre- judiced observer who has seen that of St. Andrew’s, Edinburgh, which, though after the Grecian manner, contains little or no ornament, whether there be in London any one comparable to it. There certainly is not, though that of the New Church in the Strand, which is among the best, must have required at least twenty times the sum to erect it which such a one as I allude & to would cost. Landed proprietors ought to encourage the introduction of spires into country villages, as one of the noblest ornaments of R 199 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. rural scenery. They confer a degree of dignity on every thing around ; their simplicity and boldness requires no exertion of the mind to comprehend their form; and their use is at once perceived ; for still as they shoot up in the horizon, and meet the eye of the traveller as he passes from village to village, they convey pleasing information, and useful moral instruction. They inform us, that we still continue in a civilized country, and among men who live and think as we do; they remind us of our vows to friendship and love, of our duty to our Creator and our neighbour, and of the final scene of man on earth. SECT. II. OF BRIDGES. Firwess and utility must prevail in this class of building; any attempt at combining ornament, and giving it the semblance of use, is sure to be detected, and frequently will destroy greater beauties. ‘This is exemplified in the bridges of Black- friars and Kelso. The power and ingenuity displayed in even the rudest bridges occupy the mind and leave no room fox at- tending to mere ornaments. When viewing large bridges, we feel all the force of the power and wisdom displayed in their execution ; asmall one ever so tastefully ornamented, never can PART Ill. ARCHITECTURE. 123 supply the deficiency. In some romantic situations, such as occur in Wales or Switzerland, the cross, a sublime emblem, has been introduced above the keystone with good effect. Perhaps niches may be introduced in some places; but in general it will be found the safest rule not to bestow designedly any ornament whatever. Among some of the noblest bridges in this island is that of Perth: it consists of thirteen large circular arches, sup- ported by high slender piers; the whole has no other ornament than a plain Grecian cornice, which is carried across under the parapet on a level with the surface of the road. The simpli- city and elegant proportions of this bridge deserve particular attention. | 194 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK Tf. CHAPTER II. OF PRIVATE BUILDINGS. Private buildings may be divided into, 1. Those of the la- bouring poor and inferior tradesmen; which may be included under cottages singly, cottages collectively or villages, towns and cities. 2. Those of the husbandmen. 3. Manufactories. —A few observations shall be added under each of these divisions. SECTION I. OF COTTAGES. Tur wants of man in the lowest stage of society are compara- tively few: they are only those of simple nature; and nature, always consistent with herself, affords obvious and simple means of resource. The part acted by the cottager in the great drama of life, though important when viewed collectively, is nevertheless; as to the operations of the individual, scarcely discernible. The first and last time that we see him is in the PART ILI. - ARCHITECTURE. 125 field or in the highway at hard labour; when he is no longer capable of toil, he retires under the shelter of his cottage, and leaves the world as obscurely as he came into it. But, notwithstanding these unavoidable circumstances, the importance of the labouring poor to society is too well known to be neglected in an age like the present. This is evident from the exertions of societies and individuals to increase their comforts. Humanity can never be more nobly employed. ‘To promote this view, and at the same time to correct the vague and erroneous ideas respecting ornamented cottages, either for the poor or as rural retreats of the opulent, I shall extend the remarks on this part of the subject to a length otherwise in- compatible with the general plan of this work. The simplicity of a cottager’s establishment requires but a few small apartments ; and as the whole is erected for necessary use and convenience, every part is done in the simplest and most economical manner. ‘The size and number of the apart- ments are first marked out on the ground: then the walls are erected, of such materials as are most convenient, without much consideration respecting their durability. The roof is put on from similar motives, and under similar circumstances, and immediately the cottager takes possession. 126 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. As different countries, or separate parts of a country, furnish different kinds of materials for erecting cottages, and as the climate and other particulars would operate upon their form, we may suppose that various forms of cottages exist in different countries according to circumstances. In Great Britain, as far ’ as I have observed, these may be reduced to two distinct kinds, the English and the Scotch; from which, either separately or combined, all the other varieties appear to have arisen. 1. The English Cottage—From the nature of this country, its general levelness, its freedom from rocks or stones, and its com- paratively mild climate, we have reason to suppose that the walls of the oldest structures of this kind were originally built of clay, turf, or similar materials, strengthened by posts and cross pieces of wood, with which also the country so generally abounded. ‘The roof was considerably elevated ; as the higher it was, the pressure upon the side walls was more perpendicu- lar, and consequently less liable to derange the materials than if it had been more lateral, which is the necessary consequence * of a flatter roof. This roof was also made to project consider- ably over the wall, that the rain might be entirely thrown off; for it is evident, that it would have otherwise soon destroyed the adhesive qualities of such crude materials: this projection was likewise useful in keeping off the rain from the windows | PART Ill. ~ ARCHITECTURE. 127 and doors; so that in general it served a double purpose. Often, however, windows were made in the lower part of the gable ; and though the projection extended over that part also, yet from the height of the eaves of the roof, the rain, in falling, particularly in times of wind, might be thrown inwards upon the window. ‘To prevent this, a projection was made over it for the express purpose of keeping off the same; and as it was known to be also advantageous in preserving the wall, it was sometimes carried across the whole end or gable, as we see still practised in several places. ‘The chimnies in this style of cot- - tages were generally carried up singly at one or both ends of the building, commonly in the outside of the wall, and generally of a roundish shape, and terminated with a projecting coping to throw off the rain. ‘The materials of the roof were principally wood, covered either with straw, reeds, or slate stone. Some- times garrets were formed under it, and consequently windows were placed either in the end, in the flank or slope of the rooi, or both. The form of the windows was everywhere much broader than high, both from the lowness of the side-wall, and more suitable for giving light. This required a long cover at top ; but as these were made of wood, it was no disadvantage ; and besides they were frequently supported in the middle by upright pieces, which served to divide them into compartments. ‘lo this general form, which included every thing relating to the personal accommodation of .the cottager, he frequently, 128 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. when in possession of a cow or horse, added a small shed and other hovels to one end, or to the side; the methods of doing which are too obvious and simple to require explanation. From circumstances which it is unnecessary to recount, this kind of cottage would in time be made two stories in height. In this case, if the walls were still made of clay, the projections would | be continued, and also placed over the lower windows ; but as brick or stone would be often used, when this form was adopted, there would then be less reason for a projecting roof. But, from the thinness of the walls, the windows would neces- sarily be placed nearly even with their surface, and conse- quently much exposed to the weather ; still, | say, projections over them became necessary, as well as over the doors. ‘These | projections, as in the other case, would sometimes be made of wood, and sometimes of slate or grey schistus ; sometimes car- ried across the whole length of the side walls, and sometimes no farther than over the windows. Cottages of both these kinds, formed of clay and wood, may be seen in many parts of Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, and Herefordshire. In other counties the same form exists; but the materials are either entirely bricks, or bricks with the wood. in placejof clay, turf, or even stone above, as at Ambleside, and several parts of Lancashire.—[See Plate V. fig. 1.] ‘ PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 129 2. The Scots Cottage.—The peculiar forms of these originated from the abundance of stones, the comparative scarcity of wood, and the severity of the climate. In them the walls were built thick, in order that they might contribute to warmth, and bear the weight of a flatter roof. The flat roof was preferred, both because less of that scarce article wood was requisite, and also because this form was less liable to be injured by the winds, which always prevail in naked mountainous countries. The walls in this style not being so liable to decay as in the other, the projection of the roof was comparatively small. This did not give occasion, however, to projections over the win- dows, because the walls being thick, the glass frame was less exposed to the weather by receding from the outer surface of the wall. ‘The form of these windows was narrow, in order that a stone of no uncommon length might easily cover them at top; and this shape likewise better secured them from the weather. Still, however, as these cottages required as much light as the others, the windows were made proportionally deep; and this gave rise to a mode of framing and glazing dif- ferent from the English; and hence also another mode of “opening the glass frames for admitting air. In these long nar- row windows, it is done by having the glass cases divided hori- zontally: In the broad low English windows, it is done by dividing them perpendicularly. In the former case, the sashes are placed in grooves, the upper one fixed and the lower one 8 130: ARCHITECTURE. BOOK ft. loose: in the latter case, one or both of the frames have hinges, and open either outwards or inwards. In the Scots cottage windows, the glass is always in large square pieces fixed in wood; in the English, always in small square or rhomboidal lozenges*, glazed in lead, and fixed in an iron frame. 5. The chimnies in this cottage were sometimes, and most ge- nerally, carried up in the two end walls or gables; but fre- quently in the central wall which separated the two: apart- ments+. In this case, the roof was sloped on all sides in the pavilion manner. The roof here, as in the other kind, was covered with the most ready materials, generally thatch and turf; in some places heath was used, as in many parts of the * Why the lozenge or diamond form should have a preference to the square is: foreign tothe present inquiry. + There is a sort of cottage common in several parts of the north, in which the chimney is a hollow cone, or pyramid, formed of wood and clay, and suspended from the gable ; the fire is made in an iron grate with open ribs on all sides, and, placed under the middle of this projection, diffuses its heat on every side, Hak the smoke ascends the wide cone or chimney. This plan hasthe advantage of allowing a numerous family to sit around it, and originated from the practice of small far- mers, who formerly used to live in their kitchens with their servants and the whole family. This practice is still in use in several parts of England ; but it is given up in Scotland, where the agriculture is more perfect, and the farmer a much more enlightened and respectable member of society. This mode of constructing the "kitchen fire-place exists only in some old cottages. Modern families are seldom or never so large as to render it necessary, and hence it deserves no particular consideration in these pages.. PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 131 Highlands; in others, blue slate, as in Peebleshire ; greystone slate, as in Kircudbright ; or red flagstone, as in most parts of Dumfriesshire. In every case, the roof being flatter, light gar- rets were inadmissible; and of course windows were seldom made in the gable ends or in the sides of the roof.—[ See Plate V. fig. 2.] This cottage being peculiar to poor countries, as in those rocks and stones most generally abound, the cottagers were sel- - dom blessed with a cow, or even pigs, and hence had no occa- sion to add appendages, as in the other case. Fuel and most other things were lodged under the principal roof. Happily, in all the improving counties of the north, the practice of giv- ing cows to all the farm servants is becoming general; and the pleasing appendages which they occasion begin to appear in many of the counties south of Edinburgh: In most of the northern and western counties, however, there still exists a pe- culiar formality, or sense of imagined dignity, which manifests itself upon every occasion, both in the physical and moral ac- tions of the inhabitants. They are strict and formal in their religion ; and so rigid in regard to symmetry, which, ina coun- try so very irregular, it is natural to imagine will be the most striking and generally perceived beauty, that rather than make a cottage irregular by an exterior appendage (necessary for the cow) they extend it in length, adding a gable and chimney a ARCHITECTURE. BOOK f. top; thus making the external appearance of the cowhouse and the lodging apartments exactly alike. Hence a house of this kind presents a chimney at each end, and two doors placed together in the middle. One of these doors is the entrance of the cottager, the other that of his cow. I should not have thought this circumstance worthy of notice, were it not that some respectable improvers near Edinburgh are building a number of stiff unconnected cottages of this kind for their la- bourers, under the name of* ornamental cottages. It must be evident to every one, that whatever their form may be, they can never be so clear, fresh, and wholesome, as if the cow-house was made an appendage, with its door either in the end, or at some distance from the door to the living apartments of the peasant.—The Scots cottage, when increased in height so as to contain two stories, has still more formality than the low kind, from being of greater magnitude. From these two styles have originated all the varieties in their general construction and distribution. In general, we find the two styles pretty distinct ; but in countries which contain ma- terials suitable for both styles, as in the borders of Wales and the north of England, or where the people from one county have migrated to another, we find them mixed or blended in vari- ous degrees. This is the case in Northumberland, Lancashire, and some parts of Stirlingshire, as at Carron. PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 1338 SECT. Il. OF ORNAMENTS IN COTTAGES. Arter this view of the general forms and different parts of the cottage styles, as far as regards utility, I shall proceed to make some remarks on the disposition of ornaments. The use of cottages, however, is the chief source of their beauty ; and from attending to this alone, arises that simplicity which is frequently so pleasing both in the manners and dress of the lowest class of society. But in regard to dress we generally find, that no sooner has the pretty milk-maid been enabled to cover her bosom with a shawl, or her hair with a straw bonnet, than she wishes to adorn her neck with beads. So it is with the labourer and his cottage; it is no sooner erected, and. he comfortably lodged, than he thinks of something farther, and begins to add ornaments. ‘These, it is true, are more generally confined to the internal parts of it, but are often applied also to the external; and especially when cottages are near the high- way, or when they are collected together in villages, through an ambition to excel in neatness and decorum. In the English cottage of the original kind with the project- ing roof, the first external ornament would be, to take chalk and whitewash the clay walls, which would have a wonderful a 134 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK f. - effect in giving them a gay appearance. The neat thing in this style would be, the decorations of their little garden, and the planting of roses, or some of the smaller fruits, against the pales which inclose it. And now, proud of this little spot, he would erect a seat close under the roof and at the side of the door, on which he may sit with his children after the close of his labour, and enjoy the general effect of the whole—[See Plate V. fig. 3.] When the English cottage was made two stories high, the chief difference in the style of ornament would be, that in place of whitewashing the walls, he would plant fruit-trees or orna- mental creepers of some sort against them, which he could not do in the case where projecting roofs were adopted.—[See Plate VI. fig. 1.] The inhabitant of the other cottage, naturally of a less gay disposition, is not profuse in whitewashing the external part of his house; he bestows a little of it however upon the edges of his windows, to indicate that all is comfortable within. He frequently places a seat near the door, as in the other style; though the difference of the climate is adverse to this luxury, and indeed the nature of the foreground, which would come im- mediately under his eye, is not of an inviting kind to any of the senses. Scotch cottages in a few situations, however, either © PART EII. ARCHITECTURE. E35: from their vicinity to another style, or from accidental circum- stances in the employment of the inhabitant, are decorated with: excellent effect; by trainmg honeysuckles or ivy upon the walls, and also by adding another ornament not very general in the other style. This is a row of hiacaleek placed along the ridge of the roof. In afew years it becomes highly ornamen- tal, and the stems of its flowers probably gave rise to a mode of decorating the same part in professed ornamental cottages.—. [Plate V. fig. 4.]—Cottages decorated in this way may be seen in several villages near Edinburgh; but in their style there re- mains ample room for the interference of gentlemen, who, with. little or no trouble or expence, might oblige their cottagers to. plant trees in their gardens, and train creeping shrubs. upon their walls; which, with the removal of an appendage in front peculiar to that country, and which shall be left unnamed, would contribute much to the beauty of villages, and ultimately tend. to increase the health and comforts. of the peasantry. The ornaments mentioned are what would naturally be added by the inhabitant himself, and what would long consti- tute the sole decorations of cottages. There is another class. which in a certain stage of the progress of society, the builder would introduce : thus, as the houses of rich individuals, or the churches and cathedrals of rich bodies of men, became com- mon, artisans to construct them would become more nume-- $ 136 ! ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I¢ rous; and as they could not always be employed in these great buildings, they would frequently assist those whose occupation was chiefly that of rearing buildings for the lower classes of man- kind. This, froma principle of vanity inherent in man, would lead them, even in these low buildings, to imitate in some de- gree what they had been accustomed to in their greater works. And as the vulgar, in imitating the manners or dress of the rich, always attach themselves to the ornamental parts; so those artists, disregarding the proportions of rooms, or the principles of strength in walls or roofs, would copy such mouldings and cornices as could be applied over their doors and windows. Hence, in place of mere projections of wood or slates placed over these parts to keep off the rain, Gothic labels of hewn- stones would be substituted. Instead of plain round or square chimney tops, they would erect those clustered angular stalks which have to this day such an excellent effect in many places. [See Plate VI. fig. 2.|—These imitations were carried so far, that in many places the wood which supported the roof was carved in all the parts exposed to view ; an excess of decoration that would. please all, in the tasteless age in which it was exe- cuted, which is now pleasing from its age, but which we need not fear seeing soon renewed, as men of abilities equal to such work cannot be employed by the inhabitants of these buildings. It is thus, that even in matters of taste, every evil works its own remedy. In Scotland the imitation seldom went such a length, eTr raha son Preprste MOY L2PSOUL RT IULLOY PY IY, WUNUPUOT fig gogrre hay PY SY Od PORNO) Y2R0IS P2ghL022q- PORTO) YIRLOIS PIYPN i ae wc I {RP U0epreT/ brag) yen hus P2yON- ll Pious 4 allh : | | HN an c tor’ We tn the last stage of decor tn Try Wlish Cop Lp coratiol ne 2 ry le esi Cottage in.the second style of © Ze shewing Z-mode of By an approved thd & at ¢ ge inthe last tage of decoration ollity A. Scotch Ci Ground Plan Published May UX*1806 by Longman, Hist, Rees & Orme Leternoster Raw. } Lendon, del t WAngtis. veudp, Var PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 137 except in the towns or villages adjoining cathedrals or monas- teries ; and even in those places it seems, by the fatal influence of general poverty, soon to have given way to the common _ mode. Occasionally, however, after the introduction of orna- ment, the gables were finished with hewn stone in successive pieces like steps. A border or frame of stone became frequent -round the windows, and slates were more generally introduced in the roofs.—[ Plate VI. fig. 3.] When Grecian architecture became fashionable, a few of its ornaments were introduced into cottages, particularly in towns and cities where stone was used, as in the suburbs of Edinburgh, Glasgow, &c. But ere this time the great passion for fine buildings that gave risé to our Gothic cathedrals was allayed ; artists expert at carving on wood or stone became compara- tively rare; and the fashionable style of decorating cottages seems to have been finally settled at nearly the same as that of the present day. SECT. Tit. OF THE FIRE-PLACES OF COTTAGES, Ir is not necessary to make any observations. on the internal disposition of cottages. The best practical method for an ar- chitect to adopt is, to take the remarks of county builders or : | : — 138. ARCHITECTURE. BOOK £. bailiffs, and to inspect himself the general mode in use in the particular part of the country in which they are to be erected.. He may then devise improvements and incorporate them with the old plan’; for to alter the style of the internal disposition, or indeed of any useful part, all at once, will not often be agree- able, particularly to that class of mankind. The most impor-. tant improvements are such as relate to the construction of fire-places, and the adoption of particular utensils for preparing. food. Having attended to and compared most things proposed as improvements in these branches of cottage architecture, as well as made a great many experiments myself on the nature of heat*, I think that I have formed some general conclusions: of considerable importance. Here I shall only advise the in- troduction of a mode of constructing a fire-place which: will be found to throw out more heat from a given quantity of fuel than perhaps any other hitherto proposed, however intricate in their construction. It is so simple, and so similar to the general form, that I should think no cottager could find any’ objection to it. Let A (Plate VI. fig. 4.) represent the ground plan of the gable or end in which the fire-place is to be erected. B the * Some of which, relating to hot-houses, are noticed in my treatise on that: subject. i PART IIl. ARCHITECTURE. 139 , fire-place, or fuel chamber, built with stone or brick on three ‘sides, and open in front. C the ash pit, and D the floor of the house. ‘Then suppose fig. 6. a section of this gable and chim- ney. IE is the grate that contains the fuel, placed on a level with the surface of the floor, which is represented by F. G the solid wall, or gable, which projects completely over the fire. H the vent or funnel by which the smoke escapes. The advantage of this plan is, that more heat is thrown out into the apartment by a given quantity of fuel. This is effected, ist, By the lowness of the fire-place ; 2dly, By the projection over it, which makes the smoke ascend very slowly, and thus gives it time to cool, or give out its heat into the room. 3dly, By having the vent at H of proper dimensions ; that is, such as will neither permit more nor less than the re- quisite quantity of smoke and air to escape. I have generally found in like cases, that its superficial contents should be equal to that of the upper surface of the fuel chamber. These circumstances occurred to me in the course of making experiments for heating rooms (a branch of domestic economy, which, notwithstanding the meritorious labours of Franklin and Rumford, still affords an ample field for discovery and im- provement): and should they tend to benefit the labouring poor, which I think they may in a remarkable degree, if pro-. 140 ARCHITECTURE, BOOK fF perly adapted, 1 shall consider the time and expence which I * have bestowed upon thesubject as having been wellapplied. At present, I shall only remark, that the supposed improvements in patent cast-metal grates, or in the fire-places of rooms, will be found much inferior to what I have here announced; ob- - serving only to make the fuel chamber rather broader than in the figures to which I have referred, where it is made nearly of a square form, for the greater convenience in holding cooking utensils. a, The importance of rendering the labouring people more comfortable by increasing the conveniencies of their habitations, either in respect to the commodiousness and warmth of their cottages, the dimensions of their gardens, or giving them cows and such like advantages, appears great even at first sight: but if by these, in conjunction with other means, such a spirit could be aroused or excited in the English peasantry, as would make them sensible of the disgrace of going to a workhouse, a na- tional benefit would be effected, which posterity only could duly appreciate. In the mean time, let. me remind the humane proprietors of both countries, that it is their duty oc- casionally to look into the condition of this class of their de- pendents. A visit to their dwellings would reanimate their drooping spirits, strengthen their resolution, or prompt them to exertions: it would not occupy much time; would never be re- PART III. ARCHITECTURE. TA] ‘membered with regret ; nor would it be forgotten as a vacuum in time in which no new ideas were acquired, nor any action performed, that could afford pleasure in the: remembrance. SECT, IV. OF IMPROVED AND ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. From all that has been said it will appear, that I recommend no particular ferm or mode of construction, either for gentle- men to adopt when they erect houses for their labourers, or for ~ such as chuse.to build for their own use, what is-called an orna- mented cottage. ‘The general principles and forms of parts which pervade the English style are what I particularly wish te recommend wherever an ornamented cottage is to be preduced — in either country. . Where common use and neatness are the objects in view, an improvement upon the style of the country, whatever that may be, will generally be best, and may easily be effected everywhere by such as attend to the foregoing re- marks. The materials in Scotland are ill suited to the English style, if copied exactly ; for rubble work could not be formed into Gothic chimnies without considerable expence; nor could the windows with propriety be made low and broad, where they are to be covered with stones, and where the frame is to be constructed in the manner of the country. To place labels over these windows would be inconsistent with economy and 14.2 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK Tf. use. The glass in them being always six or eight inches within the level of the outer surface of the wall, sufficient shade is pro- duced for beauty; and so well is it sheltered, that wood, an article much cheaper than lead, can be used for the glass frames ; whereas were wood used for this purpose in the English style, it would soon be rotted by exposure to the weather. Simplicity in the design, and economy in the execution, are essential cha- racteristics of every building in the cottage style: wherever these are lost sight of, as has been the case in almost all orna- mented cottages, and even labourers’ houses, built by professed architects, incongruity is a never-failing consequence. The two styles described have been blended together, and the ornaments of both bestowed with profusion. Thus we see projecting roofs, and under them labels over windows which are sunk in the wall as much as in the Scots style. In addition to this, we have these walls covered (at least as high as creepers will grow under the projection) with shrubs and trained plants. All this is use- less and incongruous, and produces a degree of intricacy ap- proaching to complexity, and totally incompatible with the simplicity of a cottage. I pass over the modes of colouring ornamental cottages, or of imitating the effect of decay, so frequently practised in the neighbourhood of London, as altogether beneath observation. In some of them the architect is to blame; in others, the taste PART IIT. ARCHITECTURE. 143 of the possessor is displayed ; which, as observed by Cooper in his “ Letters on Taste,’ may serve to give us some idea of his mental energies. SECT. V. OF VILLAGES. Numerous circumstances have contributed to lead the labour-- ing class to build their cottages near each other. When agticul- ture was the chief employment of man, he would voluntarily adopt this mode from his natural love of society. When pro- -perty became known, men would be compelled to it from various obvious causes which it is unnecessary to mention. It. is sufficient for my purpose to observe, that they possessed ori- ginally a large quantity of ground, on which each might erect his cottage as he chose. Every individual thus forming his own plan, and often executing it himself, contributed to give existence to that variety in the disposition of these buildings, which we find in old villages, and which has been so justly ad- mired by lovers of picturesque beauty.. In chusing out their given quantity of grounds, which we may suppose to have been part of an extensive common, all would agree in fixing upon some dry bank neara rivulet, if 144 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK 1. such a spot could be found. In cold countries also, they would take care that it should be sheltered from the north by rising grounds or woods. Hence the setuation is another source of picturesque beauty. And if we reflect on the garden be- longing to each cottage, the fuel stack, the angular interstices in the ground formed by the irregularity with which they were placed; the trees and bushes in these places, as well as the rocks, stones, weeds, and broken ground, and finally the roads to the different cottages, and the general road through the whole village, forced to wind and turn in many different direc- tions, we have a picturesque village; which, to render com- plete, we have only to people with old men digging in the garden, children in the interstices tending cows and asses, women washing clothes near the brook, and children playing up and down throughout the whole. Artificial villages are formed in different manners : ist, By partitioning off a quantity of ground on each side of a public road, and giving to each individual a quantity of ground more or less as may suit him, allowing him to build his house and lay out his garden as he pleases, but requiring a cer- tain number of forest or larger fruit-trees to be grown round, or in some part or parts of his division. This I imagine to be PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 145 the best mode, as giving least trouble to either party, and in general securing variety, and picturesque effect. 2dly, To give each villager a certain quantity only, and bind him to a particular form of house; which will generally be found a bad mode: or, Sdly, The proprietor building the houses at his own ex- . pence, and letting them out to the villagers, with the obli- gation to preserve them in condition, under certain penal- ties. This mode is a good one where cottage building is not well understood, as in many parts of the highlands of Scotland. | By attending to the idea of a natural village, and to that of one built after cither of the last mentioned methods, such a ge- neral plan and situation might be fixed upon as would unite beauty with utility. Unfortunately, however, most villages built by proprietors are so stiff and formal as to be entirely destructive of picturesque beauty, without exciting any idea sufficient to compensate the want of it. As such villages contain cottages generally two stories high, two families are obliged to lodge in. one louse; and this at once destroys the native liberty of the -cottager, and probably may introduce some of the corruptions U 146 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. of great towns in place of rustic innocence and simplicity*. Such villages may please from their novelty when first erected ; but they deserve praise in no other respect, however laudable might be the intention of the proprietors in erecting them. SECT. Vi. OF TOWNS AND CITIES. I micur now proceed from villages to another modification both of the forms and collections of the habitations of the lower classes; but these are foreign to my purpose. I shall, however, make a few observations on the general effect and management of towns and cities, because in some cases gentle- men may have it in their power to promote their beauty or uti- * The evils resulting from this practice have not been sufficiently attended to. Whenever a peasant can patiently suffer his neighbour to know his private penury and dependence, his native and honourable pride is extinguished, and he soon contemplates the parish-relief, not as a voluntary charity, but as a right which he claims from the community to prolong his indolent existence. In this state, the facilities of unprofitable conversation but contribute to extenuate and sanction his idleness, and the industrious respectability of his family sinks into the merited con- tempt of its unworthy chief. Hence one of the primary sources of rustic depra- vity : and it ought to be an indispensable rule with all proprietors, to prevent a too great familiarity among their villagers, and to enable them to conceal as much as possible their little domestic arrangements from the prying eye and flippant remark of their more independent neighbours. It is, perhaps, in part owing to the greater number of isolated houses, and the smaller number of villages in Britain, that the peasantry of this country are found more virtuous than that of any other in Europe. PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 14.7 lity ; though this is commonly left to men who, of all others, are the most tasteless and extravagant. Towns and cities may be ranged under the following deno- minations: 1st, Commercial sea-port; 2dly, Commercial in- land; 3dly, University towns; 4thly, Situations for health, as sea or inland bathing towns. These different names indicate that each must have a distinct character. The first in regard to utility must have good quays, warehouses, and a harbour or river capable of containing numerous vessels. The second will be remarkable for markets, good roads, large retail shops, and manufactories. The third for fine buildings, as at Oxford, Cambridge, St. Andrew’s, &c.. And the fourth for beautiful streets and commodious lodgings. My remarks are intended to apply to the two last kinds; the two first being, as to gene- ral arrangement, entirely and very properly guided by the principle or necessity of utility. ist, With regard to the direction of the stréets, ornament being considered as worth attending to in these towns ; those which are principal may be made in winding directions, espe- cially if any natural circumstance favour that idea, as a river, inequalities of surface, the irregular side of a hill, or perhaps some established road already existing. A most excellent ex- ample of this kind of street may be seen at Oxford, and in 148 ARCHITECTURE. . BOOK I. an inferior scale at Musselburgh and Prestonpans; the latter two being sea-port towns on a broken irregular shore. Some- times different circumstances may first point out the propriety of making them straight, as on a level plain of limited extent | which is to be covered with buildings. ‘This is exemplified in the new town of Edinburgh; or on the side of a regularly sloped hill, as in the new town of Glasgow, where the streets run parallel to each other, and horizontally across the slope of the hill. When the streets are straight, they may always be varied by projections either of private houses or public edifices, as in the High-street of Edinburgh, and Holborn, in London ; and whatever may be the form of the street, its beauty will always be heightened by the occurrences of such buildings as present themselves to view in the High-street of Oxford. In cases of straight streets crossing each other at right angles, where breaks might not be advisable on account of what is now become general, sunk areas, porches should be placed in front of each door, reaching from the wall of the — house to the pavement. The roofs of these porches should be - supported either by columns or solid walls of masonry, which last would in general be more suitable with the houses of private individuals in the middling classes, and would even have an excellent effect in the best houses and streets. Porches of this kind should have a large door towards the street, and a window PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 149 on each side ; and their floor within might either be level, which is the most desirable, or itmight be steps ascending to the inner door. In large streets, such as Portland Place, or George’s Street, Edinburgh, the appearance of large porches in succes- sion would have a grand effect. They would at the same time, if well constructed, add to the warmth, and somewhat also to the convenience of the houses. Qdly, The character and general magnitude of buildings in ‘towns ought to have some relation to the nature of the surface, - the climate, and the surrounding country. A better illustra- tion of the good effect which this would have cannot be given, than by referring to Edinburgh. ‘There the old town, or origi- nal city, is built upon’a high ridge of rock surrounded by a deep valley, formerly a large lake, and which on one side separates. it from a level plain. Upon this plain is now built the new town, in regular streets and squares, the houses of which are all in the Grecian style, and built of a most beautiful yellow freestone. ‘The old town, on the other hand, has only one principal street, which is conducted in a crooked direction along the top of the ridge, commencing on a plain where is built the Royal palace of Holyrood House, and after proceed- ing a mile up-this ridge terminates abruptly with a large fort or castle built upon a rock, which on three sides rises perpendicu- - 150 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. larly from the valley or lake. ‘The houses on each side of this street are very high, but diminish as they descend toward the vallies: they are allGothic, or at least so irregular and mixed as not in general to be denominated Grecian. They are black by age and smoke, and from the new town form a contrast which is striking and pleasing. This characteristic irregularity in form and disposition, and the black colour of the old town, the beautiful symmetry and regularity of the new, the spacious bridge thrown across the valley which connects them, and the towering hills, and romantic scenery in the immediate vicinity. of the whole, renders it, as confessed by all travellers, the most beautiful city in Europe. It will be regretted, however, by men of taste, that the ma- gistrates of this city have contributed so much to its deformity in point of picturesque effect, that it will probably never regain its former beauty. They have clogged up and greatly destroyed the grand effect of the valley, by throwing a huge mound of earth across it, upon which they intend to build a street. The fine character and harmonious effect of the old buildings are much injured by the introduction of huge deformities of masonry, under the name of Grecian architecture. Many other absur- dities they are accomplishing; and it is probable they will continue to operate until they destroy all that beauty and ae Pe PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 151 character which their own tasteless souls cannot feel, and which they will not allow others to enjoy, in order to indulge the vulgar vanity of displaying the power attached to their office. nd SECT. VII. OF MANUFACTORIES. | Mawnuracroriss are of various sorts; as corn-mills, forges, - iron or carron works, cotton works, bleachfields, clothiers’ yards, &e. This class of buildings, in general, is highly inju- rious to the beauty of rural scenery ; as, being mostly driven by water, they are constantly placed in the most romantic parts of rivers, as on the Esk in several places between Roslin and the sea, on the Dove, at Matlock, and many other places. Forges and iron works have generally the best effect, as at Downton, Colebrookdale, Schawpark, and Carron. Corn mills driven by water are universally pleasing, particularly in ro- mantic scenery. At Southwic and Downton they may be seen very picturesque ; and at Warwick castle, a wheel which drives a corn-mill, seen trom the windows of the principal apartments, operates on the mind of a stranger like enchantment. Wind *” machinery is sometimes pleasing at a distance, as at Yarmouth and Newcastle; but one great misfortune which attends this class of mills i is, that they cannot be grouped with trees. Corn- 152 ARCHITECTURE. ~~ BOOK I. mills driven by water are what the rural designer may take the greatest advantage of, as will be afterwards shewn in the proper place. SECT. VIII. .OF THE HABITATION OF THE HUSBANDMAN. Ever since agriculture became a distinct profession, the ha- — bitations of farmers must have been different from those of the other classes: Ist, As to situation; they being almost always solitary, and unconnected with either villages or towns: and Qdly, In having a number of houses or sheds for cattle, as well as ricks of corn and hay, attached to them. ‘These grouped with a few trees, and connected with the surrounding fields by hedge-row timber, or even by hedge-rows alone, must at all times have a pleasing effect. In these cursory remarks, it would be unnecessary to inquire into the original forms or progressive improvements in farm buildings, or to notice the various modes of arrangement in different parts of the island. There is scarcely a class of build- ings in which there is less risk of erring ; for if the farmer be a man of spirit who understands his business, he will be the best — contriver of his own offices; and if he be not, the improve- PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 153 ments suggested by architects may make his farmery ornamen- tal ata distance, but will never prove of any real use. The most liberal and extensive farmeries are to be found in East Lothian and Berwickshire, where there are both pasture and arable farms. ‘There the general plan of the offices is a square surrounded on three sides by buildings ; the remaining one, which generally fronts to the south, being inclosed with a wall only. Ata small distance from this wall is placed the farmer’s dwelling- house; from which, while sitting in his parlour, he sees every thing going on in the court and offices. On one side of the " square (generally the west) appears a large conical roof, which contains the gin, or outer wheel of the thrashing machine. Around this machine is the farm-yard, which shews a number of conical and pointed ricks. The garden is commonly placed in front, or on one side of the house, which completes the general appearance; unless a few trees or straggling buildings group in with the rest, which is not often the case in these countries where every thing gives way to utility. Very different is the English farm yard. There the whole is perfectly irregular; the farmer's dwelling-house is grouped and connected with the sheds and other offices. The large barn is the prominent building. No thrashing machine appears. The ricks are few, because the farm is generally of small extent, and the ricks are made of a longer size than in the north. & 154 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. But to counterbalance these disadvantages, at least to the man of taste, the trees are most frequently large, numerous, and luxuriant. The offices too are sometimes varied by pigeon- houses and other tower-like appendages, which deserve atten- tion where ornament is desired in this class of buildings. This may frequently be the case where they are to be erected on a residence ; and often the best way of varying a dull country scene from a mansion, is to erect picturesque farm: buildings.. By a practical examination of the useful and ornamental properties of these two opposite styles, as, for example, of Ber- wickshire and Shropshire, every intermediate variety may be constructed. The one style naturally suggests ideas for pic- turesque effect ; the other shews where visible effect ought to give way to the necessary, or useful. ‘The judicious contriver, if he possess a practical knowledge of farming, will forma com- | bination uniting both qualities. PART IfI. ARCHITECTURE, 155 CHAPTER III. OF THE HABITATIONS OF THE WEALTHY AND NOBLE. Tuesr may be divided into two kinds; such as are built in towns and cities, and such as are suited to the country. The former require comparatively little consideration ; and as they — do not generally come under the practice of a rural designer, they must pass here unnoticed. ‘The latter includes a number of styles and conveniencies suitable forall ranks, and combined under various designations, from the ornamented cottage to the baronial castle and royal palace. ‘l’o enumerate the ge- neral names of these varieties is easy ; but to detail the different accommodations introduced into each would be tedious, and could not be of half the service, either to the gentleman or ar- chitect, that visiting and examining a few of the best laid-out houses will be. The artist will find many good and numerous bad ground-plans in books ; from both of which he may derive advantage, by imitating the excellencies of the one, and avoid- ing the errors of the other. But if he consult the situation in which he is to-build, he will seldom be able to transfer to it any plan from a book ora house already executed. ‘This mode 156 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK Tf. of copying, together with the idea of making buildings every- where symmetrical, has been the chief source of most of those deformed clumps of masonry which shock the feelings of the tasteful traveller in all parts of the country. : The remarks which I propose to offer on this subject will be included under the following heads : 1. On choosing a situation for a country house. 2. On adapting the style of the building. 3. On uniting the mansion with the grounds, by means of the offices and other appendages. 4. Of uniting it by the offices. 5. Of uniting it by other architectural appendages, chiefly ornamental. ' t] PART EIf. ARCHITECTURE. 157 SECTION I. ON CHOOSING A SITUATION FOR A COUNTRY HOUSE. In attempting this, the following particulars must be attended to: ist, That it should be the most convenient with regard to site and situation, as they relate to the adjacent country.. -Qdly, That it should be the most striking that the grounds. will afford; and 3dly, That the views of the auitoundings o¢ coun- try from the house should be good. Ist, With regard to the relative conveniencies of a house, the artist should have a perfect knowledge of what is wanted ; and by applying every particular to the proposed spot, he will be able to judge of the propriety of fixing on it, by discovering whether some particulars are not wanting altogether, or others wanted which cannot be easily obtained. Great assistance, in some respects, may frequently be derived from houses already built in the neighbourhood of the grounds under view; particu- larly as to the weather, permanency of springs or rivulets, state of roads, markets, &c.: though these points and most others: can generally be ascertained with very little trouble.. 158 ARCHITECTURE. . BOOK I. 2dly, ‘The next thing is, to fix upon the most striking site; which is of the utmost consequence to the effect of the edifice. Where the surface of the ground is gently varied, one of the highest of the eminences should generally be chosen, as at Leughie and Llanarth. If the surface be varied considerably, and several hills are within the given range of choice ; then, if these hills slope gently, it may frequently be placed on one of their sides, as at Mountwhanny and Prinknash ; or, when they are very steep, upon a gentle eminence near their base, as at North Berwick and the Holme. In some cases, where a river passes through the grounds, it may be placed on one of its banks, and always at some part of these rendered interesting either by rocks, as at Carphin and Airth; or, where these do not abound, by a bend of the river, as at Eglinton and Moccas. The mar- ’ gin of a lake may also be frequently chosen with good effect, as at Luss and Leven; or the rocky margin of the sea, as at Weymss Castle, Barnbugle, and Rosyth. A great variety of other situations, commonly to be found, might be mentioned ; but these may serve to explain what is meant by striking ones, as well as to shew the manner in which they may be chosen. Few things deserve more attention than this in making a place; for should the house be improperly placed at first, it is not only an enormous expence to remove it; but, supposing this done, every thing else about it is PART [II. ARCHITECTURE. 159 deranged. Many are the advantages that result from placing a house in a striking situation. One of these, and which is of no. small importance, is, that less expence is required in build- ing; because'a simple edifice, in a remarkable situation, strikes. much more forcibly than the finest piece of architecture set down in a mere field or plain space. ‘This might be instanced from hundreds of examples: I shall only mention two; the | first is Hawthornden, built upon the summit of a prominent rock on the banks of North Esk, which though composed of the most vulgar shapes, forms a singularly picturesque scene; the ‘second is Keddleston, one of the finest in the kingdom; but. appearing as if placed in a flat grass field, it is so uninteresting, that, except for the architecture, no one would ever think of making a drawing of the scene. Buildings in the country require much more attention, on this account, than those in towns; in the latter, they may be rendered sufficiently striking by architectural decoration ; but mm the former, it is not the style of the building, so much as its situation, and connexion with the surrounding scenery, that renders it picturesque. It is mortifymg, however, to see the buildings that are every where erecting in spots undistinguished in either of these respects. ‘The side of a hill, it is true, is sometimes chosen instead of the base of it; but even there a miserable taste is. often displayed in neglecting some spot natu- 160 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. rally preferable to the rest. The happy art of chusing striking - situations seems lost since the days when our forefathers were compelled for safety to build only on islands, isolated rocks, or otherwise almost inaccessible places. It isa lamentable fact, that in Scotland, where good and often romantic situations are so abundant that it might seem difficult to avoid them, and where several architects of considerable merit have appeared, scarcely one of these situations has been advantageously appropriated for more than a century past. 3dly, The next requisite of a’ good situation is, that the views toward the surrounding scenery be agreeable. ‘The great art of accomplishing this lies in disposing the apartments properly. - When symmetry is to prevail in the building, this cannot _al- ways be accomplished ; but when it is irregular, which, as for- metly observed, should generally be the case in the country, there can be little difficulty. By means of projections and re- cesses, the principal apartments may easily be contrived so as to comprehend all the chief views, and this in an appropriate manner. ‘The breakfasting room, for example, should front a morning scene, and. present somewhat of a prospect to invite to exercise during the day: the drawing-room should be so dis- posed as to shew the effects of the setting sun, &c. In every view, some object should appear sufficiently striking to charac- terize it; as a hill, a spire, &c.; for unless this be the case, it ‘PART IIT ARCHITECTURE. 161 ‘will leave but a faint impression on the mind. The best way of accomplishing all these things is, to contrive the disposition of* the apartments on the spot where it is proposed to build ; then to mark out the whole, and leave it forsome time ; being care- ful, upon the review of it, to take advantage of the remarks of ‘such persons as may have been shewn it by the proprietor. Too often, however, all these things are settled by the architect in his study, independently either of the situation, or of the general remarks of those who, though not artists, often judge better than them in matters of taste, by speaking without prejudice . the feelings of the heart. SECT. II. ON ADAPTING THE STYLE OF THE BUILDING. To assist in this branch of the subject, we have the following considerations to attend to: ist, The general growth of trees in the proposed situation ; Qdly, The forms of particular trees which may be peculiar to it; | Sdly, The general character of the surrounding scenery ; _Athly, The colour of the rocks, and of the ground. Y 162 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. ist, With respect to the natural growth of the more common species of trees, we find that, whether single orin groups, they deviate a little in general form, and in the delicacy of their parts, according to the situation in which they are placed. Thus, in exposed places they are generally broad and low, and are more hardy, rough, and picturesque, than when covered with young shoots, which are comparatively soft, fresh, and beautiful. In rocky elevated situations, trees are much broken, or divided into parts, and distant from one another, | but still appear firmly fixed to the spot; these are hardier than the others, and have much less softness and. beauty. In low fertile plains, trees are generally large and erect, extending : their branches on every side ; the foliage is fresh and luxuriant, the general outline round, full, and flowing. If a tree be single in this situation, the balance of the branches.is better preserved than in the former instance. In confined vallies between hills, trees grow high and erect, seldom broad, or sending forth ex- tensive horizontal branches: the growth is rapid; the young shoots and foliage are tender and delicate; the trunk is com- paratively slender, and the whole tree more elegant and more capable of graceful motions than in any of the former situations. These different circumstances in the growth of trees readily suggest styles of building somewhat analogous in the general. magnitude, height, and finishing. In exposed rocky situations, PART ITIl. ARCHITECTURE. 163 where trees grow low and irregular: irregular and low edifices in the castle style may be built. In vallies, where they grow high and elegant, houses in the tower style, which implies con- siderable height, should generally be adopted. In extensive rich plains, buildings in the Grecian, or at least in a more massy and regular style than the others, should be chosen. This mode is certainly deserving attention, were it for no other reason than that the trees might group well with the building: that, when full grown, they might neither be too large nor too small; that they might neither diminish it into insignificance, nor leave it staring through trees, which, from want of due pro- portion to it, appear as copse-wood. Many instances of both these evils are to be seen in every part of the country. Let it be observed, that this mode of fixing on the style must be attended to, though trees be not growing on the situa- tion at the time of building. The judicious and experienced designer will examine the qualities of the soil and climate, and will thereby be enabled to judge what forms and dimensions certain kinds of trees will assume in the given situation. Neg- -lect of this, in the naked country of North Britain, has pro- duced several houses so buried in wood, that they cannot be - seen until you are close upon them, and then they appear so diminutive, compared with every thing around, that their gran- deur of effect is almost totally destroyed. This is one power- 164 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK fr. ful argument why picturesque improvers should unite the pro- fession of architects in so far as relates to buildings in the country. 2dly, In respect to the forms of trees peculiar to the situa- tion, most parts of the country will produce the common: trees, as oaks, elms, beeches, &c. But there are several places, however, on which it may be desirable to build, where certain species only will prosper so as to attain the magnitude of trees. Many instances of this kind occur in hilly and maritime situa-. tions. They require the particular attention of the designer, because the kinds of trees that generally suit them are so diffe- ‘rent in all respects from the common sorts, that if.he were erecting a building with a view to group it with oaks. and: beeches, he might be grievously disappointed to find that no thing would grow near it but spiry larches, dark Scotch firs,. birches, mountain ash, or perhaps only ivy and elder. This. would lead to a long train of useful remarks for architects in: the northern part of the island; but it is not of such general: interest as to justify any thing farther in this place. 3dly, The general character of the country.—This deserves: attention as much as the trees, and ought to concur in deter-. mining the style of the building. It is a common idea, that. the works of art, and buildings in particular, ought to be PART ITT. ARCHITECTURE. 16S: strong contrasts to the works of nature. Thus, when the trees are spiry, it is said that Grecian buildings, the masses of which extend chiefly in breadth, ought to. be adopted; and when they are round, Gothic buildings, with towers and perpendicu- lar lines, ought to’be contrasted with them*. Upon similar principles, in romantic scenery, fine edifices of exotic architec-. ture are introduced, with a view to. contrast with the natural: irregularity and wildness of the scene. These ideas arise from: a superficial view of nature, and from. not. distinguishing be-- tween contrasts and oppositions. A little farther inquiry will: convince us,. that contrasts so sudden as these are not to be: found in general nature. Accidental contrasts in weather,, for: example, are sometimes striking, as in thunder and snow ;. but: even then, they are preceded by prognostications which pre-- pare the mind for what is to follow... _In ordinary weather,. the most powerful oppositions are. united, but in a manner. which. never occasions the smallest tendency. to:discord.. ‘hus: light: and darkness are opposites, which are united by nature im the: most harmonious manner,. by the gradual:appearance and de-- cline of the sun, and by the morning and: evening twilight... Strong contrasts, (either in forms or colours as in music), al-- ways produce discordant and disagreeable impressions on the mind; while harmony, which is divided from it by thin parti-- tions, excites those grateful sensations of pleasure which are: * See Repron’s Observations on Landscape Gardening, &c.. 166 ARCHITECTURE. | BOOK tf. much easier felt than described. When I see, therefore, the architecture of St. Peter’s transplanted to a romantic island secluded. from the rest of the world, or an outline of spiry towers and pinnacles opposed to a straight line of hill or woody scenery, I never feel such sensations. I am forcibly struck, it is true; but the emotion, though strong, is not pleasing: it soon appears discord; and discord, when prevalent, always produces disgust. | Athly, The colour of the rocks, and the ground.—Not only the general forms of the surface, but the colours of the soil and the rocks, are worth attending to, as contributing considerably to promote the principle of harmony. The tints of rocks, stones, gravel, and the soil are generally the same in one part of the country. Where they agree with the colour of the man- sion, the effect must be singularly happy. This we may see from the works of painters, and in many ancient baronial castles, as well as cottages, in different parts of the country, particularly in Argyleshire and Dumfriesshire. Brick houses, when the brick has been made of an earth colour, have a good effect. By mixing proper earths when manufacturing them, they could. be made of any tinge to suit with all situations. The effect of contrary colours may be seen in numerous houses of red brick, or white Portland stone, in several counties near London, which are both more or less incongruous among rural scenery; and of white-washed buildings among the rocky | PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 167 scenery of Cumberland and Westmoreland. There are two eases only when the colour of the stone, if faint, may be in a great measure dispensed with, though different from the soil. The first is, in a country where no rocks appear for some distance around. the edifice ; the other is, in towns. where rocks may ap- pear, but where it is more economical to use a species. which, though at a greater distance, or concealed from the eye under ground, is yet easier wrought than the other. In small villages, however, this is. not allowable; as may be exemplified, by re- -ferring to the bad effect of Matlock bath, built of white stone, though placed among red rocks; and the good. effect of Cul-- ross, built of the yellow rock on which it is founded, and. which: appears in large perpendicular masses at one end of the town.. Though the colours of edifices were made exactly the same as the ground: on which they stand, or the roads which lead to. them, the difference in the position of the materials, by reflect- ing the light in opposite ways, will always make a sufficient contrast between them. When the rock is red, black, or of any dark colour, beautiful architecture (that is, either Grecian or Gothic buildings, depending upon smoothness and gradation of light and shade) should not be attempted. Nature here is sug- gesting a variety, where the effect is produced by strong pro- jections and bold parts, which particularly accord with the principle of fitness and economy ; as dark coloured stones are 468 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK 1. generally too hard, coarse, and brittle, to admit easily of ele- gant polishing or fine cornices, mouldings, or other smaller ornaments. It is a common practice to whitewash most edifices that are not built of brick or polished hewn stone. This is -done either with the view of adding beauty, or preserving the walls; and often from both motives. The colour of the wash or mortar is generally, if not always, made too glaring. It must be remembered, that in mineral substances exposed to the air, a pure colour, either white or yellow, is never seen. Even chalk and‘ marble, in that situation, in a short time ac- quire a dusky hue; and in their native quarries or precipices are often so grey as with difficulty to be recognized for these substances. Ewen the reddest rock never presents such a deep colour as at the moment when it is cut, but is soon rendered of a greyish or blueish hue by the weather. Hence, in white- washing buildings, the same general idea should be adopted as was recommended for choosing the colour of the stones; with this addition, that the aerial tint which, in using stone, is only gained by time, may here be produced at once, by mixing powdered charcoal, bistre, ashes, or similar substances, with the prevailing colours. It may beremarked here, that in the internal parts of buildings we admire the colours pure and true to their kinds, without any mixture of aerial tint. This is because such colouring is agreeable to nature. For the same reason, ave generally prefer light colours in the apartments of houses, $ PART Ill. ARCHITECTURE. 169 except in white and black. ‘The reason is, that most objects of other colours externally have their internal parts lightest ; as in the greens, blues, and yellows of vegetables. White and black objects, and sometimes red ones, are generally darker in- ternally than on their outer surface. The two last, dark red and black, are more rare in nature than the others ; and hence we admit them more sparingly in internal finishing, or indeed in ornament in general. In concluding this section, let me caution the reader against carrying into the extreme these, or any other ideas which have been suggested, in opposition to general practice. When the expression of gaiety, or striking beauty, is desirable, no reasons that I have suggested, from the colour of rocks or soil, are in- tended to hinder the production of these characters, if in gene- ral harmony with what surrounds them. One principle, taken apart, and followed out in its fullest extent, will often prove pernicious ; and the developement of such a principle in a book is always liable to the wrong explanations of the captious and opinionative. In practice, it is the combination of the whole in the mind of the artist, and the full consideration of every particular connected with the case, that must guide his judg- ment upon every occasion. He will soon find, that there are many things that may be taken advantage of in architectural painting, or poetry, which would ill accord with real execu- Zz 176 © ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. tion; and many fine speculations, even of practical men, that cannot be introduced into practice without considerable dif- ficulty. SECT. II. OF UNITING THE MANSION WITH THE.GROUNDS BY MEANS OF THE OFFICES, OR OTHER APPENDAGES. ‘Tue immediate vicinity of the mansion is jointly the province of ornamental gardening, picturesque improvement, and of ar- chitecture. At present, what is called landscape gardening occupies it wholly. That art 1s a professed attempt to restore nature and landscape. Whether this is effected, is not the business of the present inquiry. It is enough, in this place, to know that it has been the aim of all her operations near the mansion, where she has destroyed works of every kind profes- sedly artificial, such as terraces, parapets, &c. An unprejudiced observer of the works of nature, who has discovered the general principles by which she unites her contrasts, and harmonizes her compositions, will perceive the incongruity of placing ab- ruptly, and without the least preparation or connexion, such a strikingly artificial object as a piece of architecture among others so obviously different in every respect. In nature, we never see a hill or mountain rise abruptly from its base, but always sur- PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 17] rounded by lesser irregular hills, rocks, and detached stones. Nor in the ocean do we ever see an island that is not connected or grouped with smaller masses and scattered fragments thrown around, appearing more or less above the water. In the vege- table kingdom also, we seldom see her magnificent productions: rise alone; thus-a large tree in a natural state is always connected by smaller ones, or shrubs, &c. with plants and grasses, all which diverge from and group around it as their centre. Every edifice should be placed amidst scenery on the same general principles. One large mass should assume the principal part ; and others, according to circumstances and the kind of edifice, should be placed around it at different distances. On a nearer approach, even appendages analogous to the small rocks. in the sea, the scattered stones round rocky hills, or the thorns or brambles round large trees, should appear. This, let me ob- serve, is a general principle applicable to every artificial pro- duction, and in particular to every edifice. If we apply it in the case of mansions, we shall find it accord in a pleasing man- ner. The mansion itself, or some prominent part of it, may form the principal mass; the offices the secondary ones; and the last class, those balustrades, terraces, and such like .archi- tectural appendages, partly useful and partly produced on pur- pose, as connecting masses. Let us first consider the larger appendages, viz. the offices, and secondly such as are chiefly ornamental. 172 ARCHITECTURE, BOOK I. SECT. III. OF UNITING A MANSION WITH THE SURROUND- ING SCENERY BY MEANS OF THE OFFICES. ‘Tue offices of a complete country residence may be divided into three kinds : 1st, The servants’ apartments, coal cellar, &c. immediately adjoining the mansion ; 2dly, The stables, gene- rally near those; and, 3dly, The farm offices, sometimes near, but most frequently at a considerable distance. The whole, according to the present fashion, are studiously concealed by trees, and therefore can have no effect in accomplishing what I propose. To bring them into view so as to form subordinate masses to the mansion, care must be taken, 1st, Not to place them upon a lower level than the mansion, but if possible on rather more elevated ground. ‘This may occasionally be ac- complished on the sides of hills, when it would give a very splendid effect to the whole. 2dly, In designing the offices, the present poverty and formal simplicity should be avoided, by carrying up parapets and towers, disguising the chimney tops, and concealing the roofs. All this ought to be in due propor- | tion to the’style of the mansion. If it be plain and simple, the offices must be still more so. If rich and magnificent, the offices should have a correspondent appearance. In every case,, PART II. ARCHITECTURE. 73 the same style, beauty, and character, ought to pervade both ; the degree only should be differert The towers, projections, &c. raised in offices, whether of — farm buildings, stables, or such as adjoin the house, need never be useless. They may serve as granaries, store-rooms, seed- rooms, pigeon-houses, and often for sleeping apartments. The chief extra expence attending this mode will be required to raise the parapets and finishings, and to disguise the chimney tops; but as these will be finished in astyle a degree inferior to that of the mansion, the expence will also be less in proportion. The expence attending this scheme, however, must be a very trifling consideration to any one about to build, and what no one would ever put in competition with the effect that will be produced. 3dly, In grouping them with trees, attention must be paid to conceal chiefly such parts as too plainly point out their use ; not that they are meant to appear what they really are not, but merely to disguise their vulgarity, and give them an air of dig- nity and consequence analogous to the difference between the servants and horses of a farmer and those of a gentleman. Offices and appendages to a mansion, or any other building about a place, ought: always to be avowed, whatever may be: 174 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK f. its use. ‘They can always be so disguised or improved as not to convey disagreeable ideas, and often so as to form the hap- piest combinations with the surrounding scenery. ‘The misfor- tune has been, that when buildings for common uses were orna- mented, as it is called, nothing less was attempted than to change their character: thus barns have been deformed so as to appear like churches or ruins. Common dwelling-houses have been changed to Gothic towers, or ruins of abbeys; and commonly with such a penury of taste, as would disgust of it- self, though the deceit were allowable. But no disguise of this. kind ought ever to be attempted. Wretched indeed must that man’s genius be, who cannot elevate common objects by any other way than making them appear what they are not. If, instead of the common practice of either concealing all kinds of offices and inferior buildings, or of disgracing them as is sometimes done, they were elevated in a manner corresponding with the mansion, the beauty of every place, and consequently of the whole country, would be increased in a degree which, though it may not be obvious to a superficial observer, will never fail to make a. lasting impression on the man of taste. We have seen that every mansion has. three classes of offices ; now supposing each class to make an object in the general scene, independently of lesser offices, there would be (to apply arithmetic to taste) three times the present beauty in every residence, and in the country in general. Thisisa motive which | PART IIl. ARCHITECTURE. 175 - will have its proper influence with men of taste; but there is another, which, in deference to certain persons, I would pre- sent in connexion with it—it is economy ; not that a house will cost less when this mode is adopted; but by bringing all the parts into view, a more splendid effect will be produced for a given sum. $ECT. IV. OF UNITING THE MANSION WITH THE SURROUND- ING COUNTRY BY MEANS OF ARCHITECTURAL APPEN~ DAGES, CHIEFLY ORNAMENTAL, Tne great art in this branch of appendages will be, to give them an appearance of fitness; for as a house is useful as well -as ornamental, so should every thing belonging to it be. But although the appendages under consideration are of less utility than the others, their appearance will not displease even those who are devoid of improved taste, unless they have been pre- viously prejudiced against such things. Such indeed is the excellence of harmonious combination, that although it cannot force the approbation of the insensible, it will never of itself _ excite their displeasure. In pursuing this subject, let us trace it in two or three stages between the palace and the cottage. 176 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK £.. Ist, In common labourers’ cottages.—Here the appendages. of the first kind are the cowhouse, the shed: those of the se- cond kind, the pales or rude wall which inclose the garden, the seat close by the door, and in some instances stone troughs for water, &c. ‘These are all made for the purpose of utility by the cottager; but with the painter they are appendages which serve to connect and harmonize the whole. 2dly, The ornamented cottage —Here the first class of appen- dages are not approached by the front of the dwelling-house ; their doors do not. appear open; but still they come in as subordinate parts, grouped by trees and shrubs, and variously ‘concealed with honeysuckles and other creepers. In the se- coud class the paling is made light and open ; its styleis simple, but yetit is enriched by roses; and, in place of inclosing a plot of cabbages from the depredations of straying cows, &c. it now incloses a parterre from the bite of sheep, which we may suppose are pastured in the paddock which contains the whole. It may also be in a still smaller spot, as is most commonly the case in the neighbourhood of towns or cities ; and then, in leu of the paling, is substituted a wall, which separates it from the public road. In place of the rude wicket, the neat yet simple gate is substituted. Sometimes it may happen, that a carriage road is made to the front of the cottage ; at others, a footpath only ; but still the same principle is applicable, and the same ~ PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 177 idea is not frustrated ; for common cottages have frequently cart roads which are carried close to their front. Sdly, Villas —The lowest class of these must be supposed to be visited by carriages ; consequently they have always a road to their front, and generally a portico. Frequently too they have an entrance front, and another called a garden front, which looks into the pleasure ground. ‘Thus we have two, and _ often three fronts in villas, which chiefly require ornamental appendages. ‘These fronts are plainly divided into two parts— those on the ornamented side of the house; and those on the useful or entrance side, which is generally less decorated than the other. On the park front, or useful side, then, we require a barrier to keep off the cattle. A paling would betoo mean. A wall raised on the surface would exclude the view; but one partly built in an excavation, in the manner of a sunk fence, carried up two or three feet above the surface, and finished either with a balus- trade if the mansion be in the Grecian style, or with battle- ments if it be Gothic, or with a finish corresponding with the finish of the parapets or other parts of the mansion. Across this fence the road to the'portico must pass, which will require a gate, and consequently a bridge over the excavation. Piers also will be requisite on which to hang the gate and parapets AA 178 ARCHITECTURE. ‘BOOK ft. on each side the bridge. Frequently another gate and bridge will be required, by which the carriage may pass to the stables. This is a farther.source of architectural appendages. When the wall and piers are partially covered with ivy or other shrubs, and its termination, or union’with some other fenee, is con- cealed by trees, the effect will be complete for the entrance front of what we may term the first style of villas. 4thly, But a house of greater magnificence will generally be placed upon a site made, either naturally or by art, of more consequence than the one mentioned. If the general surface be flat, it may be built upon a raised platform. This will require a gradual ascent in the carriage road, from the outer wall or fence to the entrance. But, except where this road is made, the ascent should be sudden, that the site of the house may be more striking, and consequently its importance be heightened. This may produce terraces, or a variety of other appendages, as in Plate VIL. fig. 1. | 5thly, In addition to the above, a magnificent villa may have a rampart, as an ascent for carriages to the portico: and this will form an interesting source of grandeur, use, and beauty. Plate VII. fig. 2, was designed for a situation in a fertile country near the sea. The entrance front, which is here given, is to the north east, and of course admits of little ornament, as - 4 i PLID. C7) st “4 pati! TEER, acer — Gat SOT. 7 S , * Wie the suarronditu scenery, by moans UT the t a) fat it s J pee , eae , at i Op os Yay Gan ip. ; ney -. deste ” Wedt Oe ct-) yp ding sole". Jas OT 5, us C - a OF hea, - es eis * » puprouTElls = pole ch “rgp, 2 OReren pay The Dy, rinwnving a Greaan building wih the es tectcant: Pe ata OP ary iT nie th, Care ,: ~theDome of thy ‘ sple on Gus diate" pre counts ded py Ve the silo al fut rich ET! whele a clafrical appearance, analogous fc Sz Oude ded. . Flow let saudp « Lubtithed May te 7808 By Zs ongmantint Reew & Omi Paternarter Row - . @ ML [PULL PY PITS ISLIP ULULE PLT Oy te AnnMg ALP aliyatd YY t27IDV IVY UOY LE 2 OUIUP LSA WY JIULI PDIVMIAMIIL MAUL AP PUIULNLIP UPINJIG ATUL TP PRILO FUP MIUS ALLL Wy Lf A UOUPADT! 8YV YTEN, PI] SV LYULID Jumping SY L 7 aU, YS AM 1 ts Tt Z fh f b /, ra 722 MAL IL/ TP) } 7 ld top LULL. u Lert, y DADA L t L y ul We PIU/2 7 le YIU Lap 7 WV te7IT Uf. vy Le ts is * a ts ‘ TAN a act /, Lh ety “7 LIED dyn 9 waaay of 11 HUN pel EY EL AM a KE ET RE “dinas 'Bi219 7° Bp waynes: SIL PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 179 the absence of the sun during the greater part of the day would prevent it from having its full. effect. Symmetry is preserved in the offices, as in unison with the style and the ground, and also in this case strictly connected with utility. The roof is covered with large slate, and is shewn, not only as agreeable to Grecian architecture, but also that it may catch and shew light when the walls of this front are under shade. The whole unites great convenience, and will produce in its situation a splendid general effect. These remarks will give some idea of appendages which may be placed at the entrance or park front of a mansion in a level or plain situation. Where an irregular ‘one occurs, an endless variety of similar appendages or parts will most readily be suggested by the inequality of the ground, the regularity of the house, and other circum- stances. See Plate VIII. which is intended to shew the effect that such a house as fig. 2. Plate IV. will have, when adapted to the ground, and when it has been erected four or five years, so as to be varied by quick growing creepers. See also, Plates XIV. XXVI. and XXVIII.. | The kind of appendages which connect the garden or orna- mental front are next to be taken notice of. As already ob- served, these are professedly ornamental; and consequently ob- vious utility will be in-a great degree dispensed with; espe- cially if the effect be good. If displeasing, however, we natu-. 180 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. rally call in question the use of the parts which gave rise to i or of which it is composed. Ist, In the first or lowest style of villas, steps may descend from the door of the garden front into a gravel walk, broad and of a fine surface, and separated from the lawn by a parapet of hewn stone six inches or a foot high; upon which, at regular distances, are placed stone flower-pots, or vases containing plants or ornamental shrubs. .The direction of this low orna~ mented parapet should bear a. relation to the projections or _ recesses in the ichnography of the mansion; the extremities should be concealed by shrubs, or any easy contrivance, such as a seat, a few steps, or by numerous other ways. 2dly, In the next kind, in place of this low parapet may be erected an elegant balustrade with antique urns placed at re- gular distances ; flowering plants and shrubs may be planted close by the balustrade on the lawn side, which will grow up and intermingle with the balustrade, and twine round these urns. In place of a broad gravel road, let it be neatly paved with flagstone, on which may be set stone pots of plants in pa- rallel rows, &c. 3dly, In addition to this plan, may be given jet-d’eaus or fountains of different kinds, according to the situation, whether PART IIl. ARCHITECTURE. ' 181 cheerful, grand, or melancholy ; and they may be connected in different ways with the paved walk and balustrade. Athly, The last addition to these appendages may be statues; which, in my opinion, should never be placed far distant from the house, as is done in the French gardens, and in several places in England, as at Castle Howard, Bramham Park, &c. Artificial water-works should be used under the same regula- tions, and not scattered up and down every where as at Chats- worth and Studley, &c. But on both these subjects more will. be added in their proper places.. In order to give the clearest view of my ideas on this subject,. I have considered it in relation to two different fronts. But there ought to be no limitation of either the number of fronts. or degree of ornament in them. Sometimes the entrance front may be the most highly ornamented ; at other times, only one side of a building may be seen, the other may overhang a precipice, &e.: in fact, there are innumerable ways in which. a Mansion may appear, without coming under the two divisions treated of. But these are sufficient to convey my general ideas. on the subject ; and if they are understood by the artist, he will adopt schemes suitable to every situation and mansion, whether in the Grecian or Gothic style, much better by viewing them, than by any further detail. 182 "ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. The next way of uniting a mansion with the surrounding scenery is by wood; 1st, The general masses by large trees, of forms different, but not totally opposite to those of the house, &c.; 2dly, The lesser appendages by shrubs and plants; and, Sdly, By creepers, ivy, &c. trained on different parts of the masses, as well as on the appendages. But as planting is not an operation of architecture; it does not come under our dis- cussion here.—See PLANTING. PART III. ‘ ARCHITECTURE. 183 DIVISION ITI. OF EXECUTION AND FINISHING. Turis is included under masonry, carpentry, plastering, painting, glazing, &c. which are not necessarily connected ° with my intention in. this work. The most important points to attend to in masonry are, the foundation, the quality of ‘the materials, and the formation of mortar. Mortar, as the prin- ciples of chemistry and the practice of the best architects shew, ought never to be soured or mellowed as is commonly done, particularly in the North: See Dr. Anderson’s Essays on Limestone, Higgins’s ditto, Irwin’s (of Glasgow) works on Chemistry, lately published ; and see also a Paper in the Farmer’s Magazine for 1805. It only remains for me, in concluding these remarks on Architecture, to reply to an objection sometimes, and with an appearance of justice, made against the idea of those who lay out grounds combining that profession with architecture; be- St 184 : ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I. cause, say the objectors, the division of arts and labour is the way to perfection, and not their combination. My reply is, that rural designers combine only the practice of one branch of it, viz. that which relates to country buildings ; and even in them it is chiefly confined to design ; the executive part must always be done by a builder or inferior architect, and generally inspected by the proper persons who are appointed for the purpose. In this branch then the picturesque improver, or, as I rather choose to call such, on account of his combining this profession, the pz- - SIGNER, does every thing that is done by architects. Small buildings in the country, as cottages, farm buildings, &c. are generally both designed and executed by the masons or builders of the place; and when their employer is poor, they abide by utility, and seldom disgust if they do not gratify taste ; but when they have the least power of bestowing ornament, they are sure to present hideous productions, which I could exemplify from every part of the island. City builders also near London (where it is carried to the greatest length) erect the most absurd combinations under the name of cottages. Architects in the capital are laudably endeavouring to overcome this evil by publishing. Hence some have gone to the remote parts of the country, chosen the most vulgar and disgusting forms, and published them with a view tocorrect the prevailing taste. Others have not travelled so far, but chiefly in their closets have com- bined all sorts of forms and parts of architecture, whether from x PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 185 castles or temples, under the idea of improving the taste in cottages by introducing something classical. Neither of these kinds of cottages, it is to be hoped, will ever become general. True taste in this branch of architecture is to be formed, and ever must be formed, from cottages already erected in the county ; from considering their various forms and combinations, and their origin ; and from being able to distinguish between that wretched poverty of form which is the result of necessity, and the more pleasing simplicity which is the result of content- ‘ment and sufficiency. This is neither to be accomplished by partial views of the county, nor by the study of the five orders and their combinations. ‘This remark on cottages, and other inferior rural buildings, is equally applicable to villas, castles, and mansions; which, as being more striking objects, and erected by such as can bestow more money, the mere architect can indulge himself in drawing more lines, producing longer elevations, and finer columns and rotundos ; but which, when erected, only strike the discerning traveller with more force, and raise his mind from feelings of displeasure to sentiments of dis- gust. Ido not hesitate to say, that this will ever be the case, until architects shall consider rural buildings, and those in towns, - as two distinct branches of their profession, and which ought to be followed by different professors : and I add, that the profes- sors of the rural style must cease to consider the buildings of BB 186 ARCHITECTURE: BOOK Is Greece and Rome. as models of perfection*, and must study equally with architecture the character of landscape, the nature: - of its materials,and the principles of its composition. This points’ out the necessity of what I propose,—the uniting the profession af rural architect with picturesque improver; and at the same time, to every candid mind, it will be a complete justification of the innovation proposed ; which will, no doubt, be disputed and rejected by a certain class of men. There are some architects, however, with whom I have the pleasure of being acquainted, that justify these arguments both by their consent of opinion and their example in practice. * ¢¢ The antique is to the architect, what nature is to the painter,” says Sir William Chambers ; and “ Learn for ancient rules a just esteem, ‘< To copy nature is to copy them,” says Pope; but both are equally wrong. A too great reverence for antiquity, and dependence upon rules, have ever been the most fatal adversaries to improve- ment. None of these can deserve attention, but such as have been derived from na- ture ; which is still the same inexhaustible fund of knowledge and improvement. Even rules derived from her laws should never be exclusively enforced, because they always tend to shackle the mind ; but, to shut out nature, by imposing rules, systems, or models, in her room, is in the last degree unphilosophical and dan- gerous. It is evident from the best ancient edifices, that they did not adhere strictly to the same proportions of columns, though the moderns are constantly en- deavouring to find out some of these proportions, as perfect standards. But such is the natural propensity in man to establish rules and systems, that even in Gothic architecture, the great superiority of which over Grecian is that it is unincumbered with artificial regulations, and consequently admits all kinds of effects, a late writer has efideavoured to discover proportions which he thinks may be applied to.all the English cathedrals!! But, “© Such formal coxcombs let us still defy ; <¢ And dare be pleas’d although we know not why.” 187 BOOK TL. ' PART IV. AGRICULTURE. INTRODUCTION.. Hussanpry, the most ancient, useful, and agreeable of arts, may be included under the following heads: 1st, Agriculture, and the management of live stock ; 2dly, Planting; and, 3dly, Gardening: each of which admits of several subdivisions. The principles of husbandry are derived from nature: either by observation, or by experimental inquiry. Observation re- lates chiefly to a knowledge of the three kingdoms of nature, as they appear in their pristine, or uncultivated state. Experi- mental inquiry relates to the effects of culture, or artificial agency, on the subjects of these kingdoms, and to the mecha- nical powers of the implements by which culture and other purposes are effected. 188 AGRICULTURE, - BOOK I. Tur VecrETABLe Kinepom may be considered under the four following subdivisions; viz, Ist, General economy; 2dly, Classification and nomenclature; 3dly, Natural properties ; and, 4thly, Uses. 1. The Economy and Laws of Vegetation.—This includes the physiology of vegetables; their structure and anatomy ; the motion of the sap; their natural propagation; the formation of their parts, their nourishment, &c. A knowledge of this branch of botany is of the utmost importance in discovering the cause and nature of diseases ; in promoting the growth, increasing the natural longevity, or augmenting such essential parts of indivi- dual vegetables as are particularly subservient to mankind. 2. The Classification or systematic Arrangement of Vegetables, and Nomenclature.—This has been effected in many different ways. Nearly all are agreed on the sevenfold divisions and names of trees and shrubs, plants, grasses, ferns, mosses, fungi or mushrooms, and flags or sea weeds. ‘The system of Linneeus is at - least the most useful hitherto proposed, and perhaps as com- plete as the number of vegetables yet discovered will admit of. Its arrangement of vegetables into twenty-four classes, and each of these into orders, genera, species, and varieties, is gene- rally adopted, and the Linnzean nomenclature almost univer- sally followed ; it consequently deserves the particular study of PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 189 all who would acquire a knowledge of this kingdom of nature. The use of this system of natural history is extensive ; it assists the memory in recollecting the qualities of vegetables, both of individuals and of general classes; it enables us to derive advantages from the writings and discoveries of authors ; and, by ascertaining to what link of the system a new Or unknown plant belongs, to communicate intelligibly our ideas to others. 3. The Properties of Vegetables.—By this is meant their place of growth, their natural soil, exposure, climate, longevity, time _ of flowering, &c. It is discovered by observation, and ought to be recorded in all complete descriptions of vegetables. It is of great utility to agriculturists, by enabling them to adopt proper modes of cultivating useful plants, or destroying pernici- ous ones, and also to diseover the soils and plants reciprocally adapted to each other. With respect to proper modes of cul- ture, it directs the choice of suitable agents, as soil, situation, climate, moisture, &c. It also shews the proper season of sow- ing or planting, reaping and renewing the crop. With regard to destroying pernicious vegetables or weeds, it teaches us, that many plants die when cut down immediately before they come into flower; that others are prevented from producing seed, and thus rendered less pernicious by this practice; that some produce and scatter their seeds in a few days after they have ceased flowering, as the hieracium vulgaris and tussilago forfara, 190 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. and consequently ought to be removed, if not previously, at least immediately after the period when they come into flower; that some vegetables send out their roots horizontally along the | surface, and are easily killed by being planted too deep in the earth ; as the mentha, tanacetum, and couch-grass, or triticum repens; that some sorts are destroyed by rendering land firm and close, as the common nettle ; and others, by rendering it soft, as the common ragweed, or hieracium, &c. ; that good plants are often produced by making land firm, as the poa trivialis ; others by simply laying it dry, as the white clover, &c. &c. With respect to discovering the nature of soils by the proper- ties of plants, it can be done with greater certainty by this than. by any other branch of science. Growing crops may fre- quently deceive; but when the natural plants or weeds are discovered, they are almost infallible indications of the nature of the soil. Mr. Kent, in his hints on landed property, has very judiciously mentioned several plants which indicate cer- ° tain qualities of soil; to which any person practically ac- quainted with agriculture, and accustomed to make botanical excursions in the fields, might add many others; for example, in the genus plantago, the species lanceolata indicates a deep, free, or sandy loam; the p. major a firm good loam; the p. co- ronopus, linearis, maritima, arenarious, gravelly, and poor soils. The tusstlago petasites near the margin of rivers is a:sure PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 19} sign that they overflow their banks. The presence of the as- phodelus palustris is generally a certain indication that the dro- sera is near, which brings on a terrible disease in cattle, and often turns their milk into blood in mossy soils. The water- lily in pools among moss or peat commonly indicates marl, or rich clay, &c. The different species of lichens upon stones indicate their firm close texture; the bryums and jungermaniums generally the contrary. The absence of all moss on stones exposed to the weather, shews that they are oxydable, that their surface crumbles off in the winter season, and consequently ‘that.they are unfit for being used in buildings. 4. The Uses of Vegetables.—These are either for supporting life, restoring health, furnishing food for animals, or being used in the arts. With respect to medical and nutritive qualities, that knowledge is acquired either by observing the daily food of cattle; or the instinct of these or other inferior animals, which often, when diseased, have recourse to certain plants that give them relief—hence the names of dog-grass, cat-mint, &c. ; or by observing what effect is produced upon cattle by pastures in which particular plants prevail. In this manner Linnzeus ob- served what took place after harvest when cows were turned upon the stubbles ; and this factis taken advantage of by such as give parsley, mint, &c. to their cows on certain occasions; or it may be also derived from actual experiment upon animals, 192 AGRICULTURE. BOOK Tf. or by chemical decomposition, &c. Our knowledge of the uses of vegetables in the arts, whether in their juices or extracts, for dyeing or tanning, salts for bleaching, or wood for implements or architectural purposes, is acquired by various modes of compa- rison, observation, and inference; but more particularly by ac- tual experiment and researches, either chemical or mechanical. Tur Anima Kincpom may be similarly divided with the vegetable; viz. into 1st, The animaleconomy; 2dly, The clas- sification and nomenclature of animals; 3dly, Their natural pro- perties; and, 4thly, Their uses, or subserviency to mankind. ist, The animal economy includes physiology, anatomy pro- per and comparative, digestion, circulation of the blood, gene- ration, &c. Anatomy proper is a branch of knowledge with which every one ought to be more or less acquainted, not only because it will enable him in many cases to guard against or al- leviate accidents or diseases, and especially the present danger- ous systems and practices of physicians ; but also as a source of philosophical reflection, and sublime contemplation. Even a very slight general knowledge of the human frame will excite our wonder and aweat the contrivance of the whole, and confirm and establish the mind in the natural sentiment of Deity. Com- parative anatomy, digestion, generation, &c. are of great impor- tance in breeding, rearing, and fattening animals, as well as in PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 193 curing their diseases. It is a branch of natural history by no means scientifically understood, especially by those practical men who most stand in need of it. A good deal may be learned with respect to the useful classes of inferior animals, by com- paring what has been written on the subject, with the opinions and practices of butchers, graziers, farriers, &c. But in regard to destroying ravenous birds, and the various classes. of perni- cious insects and worms, (the bee and a few others excepted,) we have yet much to learn. Unless nature should effect this herself, by means of other animals, as she often does, we can rarely do any thing that will prove directly destructive, or per- manently useful in such cases, ‘The science of entomology affords a striking lesson to the moralist, and a wide field of ex- periment and enquiry to the philosopher. 2dly, The Classification and Nomenclature of Animals.—The classification most generally adopted is that of Linneeus, by which the animal kingdom is divided into six classes, and these into orders, genera, species, &c. as in botany. ‘The classification and nomenclature adopted by naturalists in treating of animals are of less importance to the husbandman than those of bo- tany, as in general the animals with which he is concerned are comparatively few, and those sufficiently well known in all ci- vilized countries. 194, AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. 3dly, ‘ihe natural Properties of Animals.—Necessity, experi- ence, and perhaps ambition, have contributed to make us ac- quainted with most of the animal race. Many of these, besides being highly useful im husbandry, often evince an instinct which inay be of considerable use in picturesque improvement. Thus in pasture abounding with centawrea cynapium, which cows and sucep refuse, the horse eats it greedily. In those where the counnon groundsel, or the perennial ragweed abounds, horses and cows refuse it, but sheep devour it readily. The sonchus oleracitus and dandelion are passed untouched by all these; but swine eat them voraciously.. When grass has been watered with salt, it will be greedily consumed by all graminivorous ani-. mals. Linnets make their nests chiefly in furze, and much more readily in the Ulex europea, or Scotch furze, than in the dwarf English whin. ‘Their food is chiefly the seeds of the plantago, or those of the annual polygonums; which last plant affords food to most kinds of singing-birds. The thrush lives chiefly on the berries of the mountain ash; the goldfinch on those of the thistle, &c. There is such an infinite number of useful facts to be gathered from this branch of natural history, that it were endless to retail them *. - 0 4thly, ‘Their Uses, or Subserviency to Mankind.—tThis know- | ledge is derived from experience in the first classes, and in the * See Linneus, Buffon, Edwards, Pennant, Goldsmith, Berkenhout, &c. PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 195 others from experimental inquiry. From these studies we derive the knowledge of such animals as are subservient to man; of such as, though apparently useless, destroy others which would do more harm; as crows, magpies, and others, devour grubs and worms; ducks and hens slugs and caterpillars, &c. We also learn to rear the young of tender birds, or to feed others pro- perly, by providing them with their peculiar food: thus we give ant-eggs to young turkeys, worms to fish confined in ves- sels, &c. Numberless useful facts might be added from such an interesting study; but these are sufficient in this place to shew its importance. Yur Mrnerat Krnepom may be considered, Ist, under the vulgarly reputed elements of fire, water, earth, and air; and 2dly, under chemical decomposition and combination. Under the first head, extensive and useful information may be ob- tained respecting the application of heat, the uses of water, the diversity of soils, stones, and metals; and lastly, the weather. Under the second head considerable information may be had respecting manures—the process of vegetation, malting *, &c. The process of malting is purely vegetative, and consists merely in an artificial method of bringing the vegetative principle of seeds intoa state of germination. . This state is carried even to the length of placentation and radiation, when it is found by experience, as yet very imperfect, that the greatest portion of the saccha- rine matter of vegetables is then in a disengaged state, and fit to be converted into ardent spirit. It is singular, that the specific temperature, or the entire process, 196 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. though this science, in the confined sense of the word, has not hitherto been of much real benefit to husbandry. These THREE KINGDOMS may be considered in another point of view, and that is in regard to MECHANICAL PowERS. The qualities and capacities of matter, by means of which mecha- nical power is effected, are its gravity, cohesion, extension, and motion. "The various powers of mechanism may be reduced to | the lever, and inclined plane. | Upon the principle of. the former the steelyard is constructed; on the latter, the wedge, screw, and cart-wheel. ‘The application of these in hus- bandry is as various and extensive as the diverse forms of its machinery and implements; from the spade, which is simply a lever, and the plough, which operates chiefly on the principle of the wedge, to the thrashing or erinding machine, which adds to their powers the principle of the screw and the agency of motion, and the cart-wheel, which acts as an inclined plane ac- cording to its diameter and breadth. The importance of husbandry in completing the usefulness: of a country residence must be sufficiently obvious. But the neglect of this study by those who have assumed the profession for converting grain into malt, has not yet suggested some new means 1s of facilitating the vegetation and final growth of those seeds, the Rage of which has long been emphatically denominated the pabulum vite. PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 197 of laying-out grounds has been productive of the worst conse- quences. | By attending entirely to external show, or mere perspective effect, in the production of landscapes (which may look well enough on paper,) kitchen gardens have been placed in unsuitable soils and situations formed upon bad principles. The disposition of the other parts is equally unprofitable and inconvenient, and the whole residence disordered from errone- ous ideas of picturesque beauty. Farms also have been sub- jected to the same inconveniency ; and extensive pasture fields, lawns and parks, have been rendered unprofitable, useless, or expensive to the owners, from neglect of the most simple and obvious principles of agriculture, and often from neglect of the common practices of farmers in improved counties. I scarcely need advert to the evils which have arisen from planting on the contracted principles of what is called landscape garden- ing. Mr. Kent has justly remarked, that “ Gentlemen are “apt to consider themselves as great planters, merely because their habitations are surrounded. with a thick margin, half the trees of which will never be of any national use; while heaths, “moors, hills, and other uncultivated grounds, which might, - enrich the owner and the public, by producing timber fit for the navy or other purposes, are left entirely neglected.” I shall mention another, general evil which has resulted from the neglect of the study both of the theory and practice of hus- bandry, and which is perhaps greater than all the others: this 198 AGRICULTURE. BOOK TI. is, that those unacquainted with such arts produce plans which never can be executed. ‘This is evident from the writings of se- veral authors; and it explains the reason why few or none of those shewy plans or views for altering and improving places which some have published, have ever been executed; or if some have, it has always been in a different way from that re- presented in the ‘drawing. Let me not be thought uncandid or severe in particularizing these things; they are mentioned, first, with a view to justify gentlemen in disregarding the plans of such professors; and secondly, that those who propose follow- ing the art may attend to this branch of it; both in theory, by reading books, and studying nature; and in practice, by serving apprenticeships to agriculture and gardening; a practice which is neither inconsistent with high birth, riches, nor politeness, as some of the greatest men of this age have evidenced. I may further add respecting the neglect of this study, that many things are hence obliged to be left to the direction of garden- ers, bailiffs, or foresters, who, though frequently conversant in their respective branches, yet generally and of necessity have more or less contracted ideas, and in most cases are without sufficient experience in regard to general design and contriv- ance. Thus they often lead their employers into immense ex- pences, which frequently end in total disappointment, and too often in mischief and ruin*. * A striking instance of this has just come under my notice. Since writing the preceding page, I have been called above a hundred miles into the country bya PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 199 After this general introduction to husbandry, | proceed to that branch of it which is the immediate subject of this part, viz. Agriculture; and I shall do nothing more than notice a few particulars from the several parts of the science, chiefly to shew their use in laying out the grounds of a residence. ‘These I shall arrange as follows: 1. The improvement of the soil and surface. 2. The improvement of the situation. 3. The culture of the vegeta- bles used in agriculture. 4. Breeding, rearing, and fattening of cattle. 5. The formation and management of farms. friend of mine, who some years ago, by the advice of a gardener and nursery-man, formed a large garden, and built an uncommon number of hot-houses; the whole upon such'a bad plan, and in such an improper situation, that they area perfect nuisance to his place; which is otherwise by nature and artificial planting equally surprising, grand, and romantic. The garden walls, hot-houses, masonry, and sheds are almost one entire ruin; nearly every pane of the glass in the hot-houses is broken, from bad glazing, and an erroneous conceited opinion of making the panes overlap an inch over each other. The wood-work is twisted, and of four times the requisite size and weight. ‘The garden is in a low moist bottom between hills, and consequently subject to chilly damps and mildews. ‘The whole cost several thou- sand pounds; and unless speedily improved will soon be a complete ruin. 200 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. CHAPTER I. OF THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL AND SURFACE. Dratnine.—tThis is of three kinds. ist, The draining of springs, or water issuing from the bowels or internal strata of the earth; 2dly, The draining of lakes, bogs, fens, or morasses, or water stagnated in hollows or among the surface strata; and 3dly, Surface, or Essex draining ; which is used for preventing, certain soils from being over moist in times of rain, Xc. The draining of springs depends upon the knowledge of the internal strata, or layers of soil, stone, or gravel, under the sur- face. This may be obtained from observing the manner in which the springs burst forth; from the appearance when the ground is broken to any depth, as in quarries, gravel-pits, banks of rivers, &c.; by digging pits, or by boring with the auger. In the practice of this mode of draining, the general method is, to intercept the springs, by cutting drains across declivities, either of such a depth as to penetrate into or through the strata containing the water ; or, when the drain cannot conveniently be dug so deep, the same thing is accomplished by digging pits 4 Se SSS SS ESS SS ( — TT NN RWG A st y na a | a SS SSS P| "y — ) ————————— i ——————— ae | er) "i a) za By sii Hy bil all : it =f a il eso Pith Ceres Ese Putlished wiry $1 41808 bu L ory Ture Bees bigs Fatarnosty Bret PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 901 or boring holes; both which are perfectly simple, and easily _ understood and executed. The practice of boring and digging = pits is sometiines made use of for carrying off water, by letting it sink from the surface. into lower strata (as well as for bringing: it forth into the cuts or drains); and this practice sometimes pro- -duces astonishing effects at very little expence. Much may be done, however, and often very striking effects are produced, by cuts alone, without either boring or making pits: aconsider- -able number of these have come under my notice in different places; [shall here mention one which occurred at Kersehall “some years ago. ‘The two fields in, Plate IX. are upon an irregular hill or knoll, and contain nearly thirty acres. ‘The water which issued forth at AAA rendered them not worth 20s. an acre; and the drains there shewn were made at a great expence to carry it off, but without effect. My father, however, having paid a good deal of attention to this branch of Georgics, on examining the substrata along with me, caused . the drain BB to be cut, which in less than a month drained ~ both the fields, and aie land is now worth 3/. an acre. ‘This drain, when made, did not cost one-tenth part of the amount of the others ; and the difference of preserving it in repair must be comparatively nothing in this case; as the others are mostly on a loose bottom, and so small as easily to be choked up. The sections © D and E F will, without any explanation, shew the reason of this success ; which arose from the inclination of DD. 902 AGRICULTURE. BOOK tI. the strata towards the hollow B B, and from their termination on the sides of the hill under impervious clay or loam. Errors, similar to those adopted in the first drains cut in these fields, are common every where, and occasion vast expence ; number- less instances, both in England and Scotland, might be ad- duced; but let the above suffice to caution those who proceed to this business, to devise a proper plan ere they attempt any part of the work. Much might be said as to the practical operation of this branch of draining ; such as the form of the drain, the cut- ting, filling, covering, repairing, &c. but the whole of this part of the volume is only calculated to contain a few general hints chiefly respecting design. The draining of lakes, bogs, morasses, or fens, is less expensive, and often more simple, than the foregoing. It depends upon finding a sufficient outlet for the main drain; from which others are cut in proper directions, so as to lay the whole dry.. Much information may be obtained on this subject. by travel- ling through Lincolnshire and Ayrshire, and in those two coun- ties by inspecting what has been done by Sir Joseph Banks* at Revesby Abbey, and J. Smith, Esq. at Swineridge Muir. No species of draining pays so well as the draining of fens, marshes, * Sir Joseph Banks has acquired land worth upwards of 60,0001. and will gam: much more. | . PART EV. AGRICULTURE. 303 and lakes, which commonly turn out the most productive of all soils. Morasses and peat: bogs are of a different nature : they may commonly be drained at little expence; and the moment the operation is completed they begin to improve; the growth of the sphagnum is checked; decay ensues; and, suppos- ing nothing else to be done, in a few years grasses and other _ vegetables appear upon the surface, which will in course of time become clothed with tolerably good pasture. Surface draining is the most sumple of any ; being little more than mechanical labour. It is known to every agriculturist, and is performed with excellent effect. in Essex and Peebles- shire. In this last county it has been of immense service.—See an excellent Survey of the Agriculture of pease. by the Rev. Charles Findlater. Empanxine.—As this subject, so faras I know, has not beer treated by any author (for Dugdale’s history of it contains no- thing of the practice), and as I have had considerable practice in designing embankments either for preserving or gaining land from rivers or the sea, er for guarding the banks of rivers, I shall extend these hints to a length that had been otherwise unnecessary in a work like the present. I shall, therefore, make some remarks under the following heads: 904 AGRICULTURE, BOOK TI. 1. Of the general causes of the failure of embankments already made. 2. Of the forms of the most secure natural shores and banks of rivers, with the causes of their security. 3. Of the modes of imitating these forms by art, or of im- proving upon them. 4. Of the preservation of embankments, or banks of rivers, by erecting piers or projections to ward off the current. 5. Of the materials with which embankments are con- structed. 6. Of the expence of making embankments. 7. Of the management of land gained from the sea.. §. Of the quantity of land which might be gained by embank- ing, and preserved by constructing piers. pis" Q A ‘ Be ¥ 4 “ft ‘ 4, y) 2 > bi 8 ee hg ABE | — lh AK AX \\\ \\ \ \ \\ \\ ANI \\ \" \ \\ \\ A oI ua ee A\\ \ vi i ANN oN “ ‘ L ‘ MM \ \\ NWS \\ \\ WS aay S . \\ = W = —— =——S Sr 2= ae SS ED a Soa eee ((q(q((© «ls me “A _ ..., __ PART FV. AGRICULTURE. 205. SECT. I. OF THE GENERAL CAUSES OF THE FAILURE OF EMBANKMENTS ALREADY MADE. Tue general causes of failure are two: the first concerns the: form of the embankment; and the second the materials with. which it is constructed.. 1. With respect to form.—Embankments are generally made too narrow at the base, in proportion to their height; by which. means, the side next the sea is too upright (as is represented in: Plate X. fig. 2.) Hence, it is unable, in high tides, to with- _ stand-the weight of the sea; which, it must be remembered,, presses. laterally as well.as downwards. Another very bad: consequence of this. form. is, that the tides, m. ebbing. or flow- ing, act a. longer time on one place, than if the slope were more. gradual : and, consequently, they have a much greater. ten- dency to break or damage the surface of the bank. Most of the embankments that have been constructed in England are. of this form, more or less varied, and the materials generally of earth or turf. Bays, or creeks, are the most favourable situa-. tions for this kind: there, if they endure until the sea leaves. sand or mud against them, so as to form a gradual slope next. =i at a 206 AGRICULTURE. BOOK to it, (shewn by the dotted line aa, fig. 2.) they may answer very well; but in the situations where they are commonly placed, the sea is very frequently making breaches in them, which are with much difficulty filled up; and if this work be for a very short time neglected, the whole embankment will be ruined. 2. As to the materials, it is of less consequence with what the body of the embankment is constructed, provided those used on the surface next the sea be of the proper kind, and that the whole will contain water. Where the slope next the sea is such as shewn in fig. 2., no material, that is not equal in effect to close-jointed pavement, will be complete. Earth, turf, sand, shells, gravel, or common causeway, are all liable to be damaged by the beating of the tide. Causewaying is much inferior to a good coat of gravel. Even though the slope were considerable, still it does not resist the action of the sea. The | water enters at the crevices, sinks down among the stones, loosens the clay or earth below, part of it is divided and ecar- ried off every tide, vacuums are formed below, one small stone sinks from the rest, a larger succeeds (which gives more room for the operation to go on), some of the surface-stones follow, and the sea, now rushing in with violence, soon displaces the rest, and ruins the embankment. This is almost always the case with heads thrown across rivers, or causewayed banks, PART IV. _ AGRICULTURE. 207 made to preserve bold shores which are apt to be washed away or undermined by the action of water; for they have seldom been properly built with mortar, and pointed with strong cement, or built with hewn stone very neatly jointed, either of which are sufficiently durable. Notwithstanding these general censures on embankments, however, there are numerous instances in which they have answered the purpose in the most satisfactory man- ner. ‘Those made of earth, in some places in England, are 100: feet broad, and only 12 or 14 feet high; and these have always. been proof against the tides. Some quays are built with mor- tar * made from powdered. unburnt limestone and coarse sand, and pointed with puzzolana earth ; and these resist the sea like solid rock.. But the general errors which.I have noticed, have been sufficient to raise numberless objections against the com-. mon mode of making embankments,. and have also deterred: many from.attempting to gain land from the sea. * A water cement,.or mortar that hardens. under water, has been ‘fermed, by. mixing four parts of blue clay, six of black oxyde of manganese, and-nine of carbo- nate of lime ; this mixture, after.being submitted to a white heat; is mixed with sixty: parts of sand, and water sufficient to form it into mortar.. At Dorking, Surrey,. is found the limestone used for the West-India and WappingDocks, which has been: considered as capable of forming the most durable mortar of any in this. country. 208 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. SECT. Il. OF THE FORMS OF THE MOST SECURE NATURAL SHORES AND BANKS OF RIVERS, WITH THE CAUSES OF THEIR SECURITY. In examining the sea-shore, or the banks of rivers, we uni- formly find, that the least liable to»-be damaged are such as have a gentle, easy slope from the bed of the sea or river to the’ top of the shores (as Plate X. fig. 1. @.), or such as are com- posed of solid perpendicular rocks (as fig. 5.); both of which I shall consider separately. 1. The sloped banks, or inclined planes, on the sea-shore are least liable to accident from the surge and high tides, when they are covered with a coating of sand or gravel. Those on — rivers are best defended from extraordinary floods when they are uniformly covered with close pasture grass to the edge of | the water. The strength of these banks depends upon the: length of the slope ; their durabihty on the uniformity of its sur- face, one part not being rougher or harder than another.—From the length of the slope, the river, as it increases or decreases, and the tides, as they ebb and flow, act but a short time on one part of their surface. ‘The greater the weight of water on the bank, the more it is pressed down, and the firmer it is ren- PART IY. AGRICULTURE. . 209 dered. From the uniformity of the surface the water acts with - the same power on one part ason another. Were a few stones or bushes distributed on it, the water would form eddies round them, each of which would soon become a large hole. If the surface be harder in one place than another, a similar effect will be produced. 2. Bold, perpendicular, rocky shores are always backed by earth or other rocks (as represented in the section, fig. 5.); and it is evident, that their strength consists in the resistance of this accumulation of materials, not in their disposition, as in the other kind. Their durability consists in the compactness and uniform texture of the rocks on the side next the sea. If it be full of clefts, or if some parts of it be of a softer nature than others, the sea in time will enter these, and break down the bank more or less, according to these circumstances. Instances. of this frequently occur, of which there isa recent example in the land that perished by the sea in the Isle of Wight. 910 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. SECT. bil. OF THE MODES OF IMITATING THESE FORMS BY ART, OR OF IMPROVING UPON THEM. 1. ly many places on almost every sea-coast, we see shores of the first kind (fig. 1. a.); and it will not be denied, that if a trench were cut down behind one of them, as represented in this figure by 6, the bank or shore, though now detached as it were from the land, would be equally strong and capable of resisting the pressure of the sea as before. This being granted, it follows, that if a bank or mound were moved and placed two _or three miles from shore, within the bed of the sea, as suppose atc, it would be as strong as ever, and no more liable to be - broken down by the water, than when in its former situation ; and that, here, it will as completely guard the sea from the in- termediate space of two or three miles, as it formerly preserved it from the bottom of the trench 8, of three or four feet wide. 2. Shores of the second kind, (fig. 5.) more or less perfect, abound on most sea-coasts. The cause of their strength and duration has been already noticed. They cannot be wholly imitated with advantage; but excellent hints may be taken from them for defending bold, abrupt, broken shores composed of earth, or of earth and rocks mixed. It will at once occur, PART IV. AGRICULTURE. . 911 that building a perpendicular wall of good stone, against broken abrupt shores, will make them nearly as strong and durable as the natural ones, which are composed of perpendi- cular, solid rock. A case of this kind occurred at Seacliff, near Edinburgh. (See fig. 4.) Walls built thus are of great use in defending abrupt sea- shores. ‘They are not. so generally applicable to rivers; be- cause there, the water, in times of flood, requires room to | spread ; and this is the great use of sloping their banks ;—but this mode, by confining it on every side, would only tend to make it do more damage than before. There may be cases, however, where it may be desirable to defend one part of the banks of a river without sloping them, or to defend one bank at the expence of that opposite; and here it may be used with propriety,—though piers properly made in such places are often more complete, and always more economical. Between these two kinds of banks, which are natural, art may contrive one, which ‘shall answer some of her purposes better than either. | 3. In place of collecting sucha quantity of earth or other ma- terials as will be necessary to form a bank similar to fig. 1. or3., it may be more economical to make one such as fig. 6.; the side next the sea forming an angle with the base of 45 degrees. 919 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. This will bear all the weight of water that can possibly be put on it, equally well with fig. 1., only the action of the tides would break the surface of the side next the sea, which we may con- trive to prevent, by coating that side with the durable material in the natural kind, fig. 5., or, in other words, paving it with flagstone or bricks. 4. Between this and the first natural kind, a great variety may be contrived, differing only in the degree of inclination towards the sea; that which has the greatest slope, as fig. 1., being coated over with sand or gravel; that which has the least slope, as fig. 6., covered with pavement; and the interme- diate slopes coated with materials between the two extremes, as coarse gravel, chalkstone, brick or sand, as in fig. 7. It may be observed of this embankment, that it is wholly made of a sandy loam, and placed upon soil of the same nature; but as this would not sufficiently contain the water, at least for some years after it was built, an upright column of clay is carried up the centre from the argillaceous substrata below. This column is represented by aa in the section, fig. 7. ‘The case occurred at Edenside, near St. Andrew’s. In some very sandy shores, embankments may be made en- tirely of wicker-work. Three or four rows of paling may be made of different heights, and the intervals between them filled PART LY. AGRICULTURE. . 218 with furze, brushwood, orstraw, &c. (fig. 8.) These materials would retain the sand as the tide passed through ; and in a very short time an embankment would be made of the form shewn in the figure, which should then be planted with the elymus arena- rius to bind it. At extraordinary tides it would continue to attract more, until at last it was raised above their reach. I know several places (Severn, Humber, Frith, &c.) where from twenty to thirty thousand acres could be gained by this mode in a few years! ! Whatever kind of embankment is constructed, proper sluices and tunnels, with valves next the sea, should be placed here and there according to circumstances, to allow the water collected within to pass off, and the sea to enter occasionally, either for admitting the practice of warping or depositing sand, or mud, to _ raise the surface of the land gained, or to flood the soil, in order to produce salt, marsh, &c. &c. SECT. IV. THE PRESERVATION OF EMBANKMENTS OR BANKS OF RIVERS BY ERECTING PIERS OR PROJECTIONS TO WARD OFF THE CURRENT. Iw nature, we see the great power of projecting points on the ‘sea. or rivers; either upon a great scale, as promontories de- fending bays and inlets ; or upon a small scale, as rocks, roots 214 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. or stones, defending parts of the banks of rivers, by throwing the current to the opposite side. This naturally leads us to the idea of piers, which are of great use either in defending em- bankments, or the margins of brooks or rivers. In the former. case, they may generally be made and coated over with the same material as the embankment itself. In the latter they should be made of stone decreasing every way as they project outwards, as shewn in fig. 9. In both cases, however, they may be composed of brushwood fastened to stakes with much better effect. Frequently a simple fence of rude wicker-work, (called in many places stakes and rice) three or four yards long, will be sufficient. Stone embankments, unless made as shewn in fig. 9., often form eddies below them; but fences of brush- wood cannot operate in this manner. They have the same mild effect in checking the rapidity of water, that a hedge has in softening a current of air, In the designing and disposition of piers or projections in rivers, considerable reflection is requisite, to ascertain the proper spot in which they should be placed, and the exact length which they should project into the river: too great a projection en- — dangers the opposite bank, and may produce an eddy below the pier, and a reverberation from the opposite bank, which will do more harm than if no pier had been built. When the pier is to be built of stone, which is necessary in rivers of rocky PART IV. - AGRICULTURE. 215 bottoms, fig. 9. is the best shape, as it will scarcely produce any eddy, and will-have an effect almost as mild as one of wicker-work. ‘This pier was designed for and highly approved by the Hon. Lord Sinclair of Herdmanston, to guard and pre- serve a valuable court of stable offices from the river Tyne, which was rapidly undermining them some years ago. It is’ built of rubble masonry internally, ashler work externally, and with mortar prepared in the proper manner. Piers of wicker-work, which answer well, may be seen on the river Jed near Crailing, and on the Almond near New Liston. SECT. V. OF THE MATERIALS WITH WHICH EMBANKMENTS ARE CONSTRUCTED. Tue perpendicular kind of embankment, fig. 4., for defending abrupt shores, as already mentioned, is simply a wall, which may be good brick-work, rubble-work, or ashler. The mortar used should be of the strongest kind; or else, if built in the common way, they should be pointed with puzzolana earth, or Roman cement*. The sloped embankments may be made of a Prepared by Parker and Co. London. 216 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. common earth, clay, mud, stones, ora mixture of these; or any materials which will form into a solid, compact mass. “The side next the sea, of such as fig. 3., which forms an angle of twenty degrees, or any side forming an angle between that and thirty-five degrees with the base, may be covered with sand, sea-shells, or gravel, from the natural shores; or stones may be broken of uniform sizes, about three pounds weight each, and used in the same way; or, should neither of these be at hand in sufficient quantity, it may be covered with mats of reeds, straw or bark *, which require to be renewed frequently ; or, it | may be defended by a fence of brushwood placed upright all along the bottom of the bank, and of the same height, which tends to break the force of the waves.; or the whole face of the bank might be covered with brushwood, either in bundles, or as wicker-work, or neatly laid on and fixed down with long poles and strong hooks. It might be causewayed with stones and moss—or moss might be spread on the bank, and then covered with wicker-work—or moss might be wrought into the wicker-work, and then these mossy covers neatly laid on and pinned down, which mode would last a very long time—or by various other ways, some of which would require no atten- tion, as gravel, stones, &c.—or by others that would require * As is done in Holland. : + Plants of moss in their living state are meant here; such as the sphagnum, bryum, hypnum, &c.—not mere peat. PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 217 constant attention and occasional renewal, as straw, mats, brushwood, &c. The side next the sea, of such as fig. 6., which forms an angle with the base of forty-five degrees ; and all the variety of slopes or inclined planes between that, and those where the inclination forms an angle of thirty-five degrees, may be covered with flag-stone*, jointed with cement made of clear sand and powdered, unburnt limestone, puzzolana earth, or Roman cement: or, if flagstone cannot be had, clay may be found, and bricks of proper kinds may be made, and used in the same manner as stone. In those planes inclined between 40 and 45 degrees, it will often be more economical to cover with stones about six or eight pounds weight, laid on eighteen or twenty inches deep; or with a bed of moss of three inches, or’ peat-moss + of six inches thickness, laid on the bank, and then a covering of si- milar stones of only six or eight inches thick: or these stones may be causewayed, or laid in strong clay, and their surface jointed or plastered over with lime, or strong cement Of any kind that will harden ¢ quickly, and endure the action of the tides and the air, which will operate upon it alternately, &c. Cases may occur where it will be most economical to cover the \ * A case of this kind occurred at Tullyallan, the property of Lord Keith. + That.kind called the flow-moss will answer best. fee 207: BF 918 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. side next the sea with wood, such as the larch (alone, ) or any other wood coated over with pitch and sharp sea-sand. Even old sail-cloth or oil-cloth, pitched and sanded, and then neatly laid on, will answer as completely as pavement during a cer- tain time, although these materials will fail much sooner. Per- haps in some cases it might be requisite to cover it with a me- tallic substance, as sheet-lead, or tinned copper plates; or by many other ways, at different rates of expense, and diverse de- grees of duration. SECT. VI. OF THE EXPENSE OF MAKING EMBANKMENTS. Aurnovuen the expense of embanking 1s considerable, it is far from being so great as is generally imagined. It is, however, impossible to mention any specific sum for this purpose, un- _ less certain data were given; but, from the different calcula- tions and estimates which I have made for various places in Great Britain*, I find that a dike of earth covered with gravel or sand, such as fig. 1. Plate 10. would cost from threepence to eightpence per cubic yard;—such as are of a more steep slope, say from thirty-five to forty-five degrees, and covered with pavement, from sixpence to one shilling per cubic yard; the * Partly for my own information, and partly for proprietors, as Lord Keith, the Earl of Selkirk, Earl of Galloway, &c. = PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 919 kind, fig. 4., from ten pounds to twenty-five pounds, per rood of thirty-two yards. ‘The barrier recommended for soft grounds, which, at first gaining from the sea, will not bear the weight of a wall, that is the one composed of brushwood, or stake and. rice, will cost from sixpence to five shillings per lineal foot. SECT. VII. OF THE MANAGEMENT OF LAND GAINED FROM THE SEA. Tut principal difficulty that can occur in any situation will be, to keep off the water of the rivulets or rivers that may come from the surrounding lands, and to deliver to the sea the sur- face water collected from the land gained ; the next considera- tion is to clear this land of surface incumbrances. Ne It will frequently happen, that the ground to be embanked is intersected by a river. This is the most expensive and diffi- cult case that can occur; but it is only necessary to carry an embankment along each side of it to the sea; aid there, where it intersects the other line of embankment, to place a flood- gate*, which shall prevent the tide from entering, except when it may be necessary to admit vessels, and which shall allow the * Such a gate may be seen at Lynn, Norfolk. 920 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. water of the river to pass into the sea. Small rivulets. and springs can either be turned along the margin of the land gained, and let out at one end of the embankment, where it joins the land, or led the most convenient way to one or more of the valves or flood-gates which it is necessary to make in all embankments for excluding the water within. The water col- lected on the surface of the land gained, will generally be let off by the flood-gates or valves already mentioned; but where the embankment is extended into the water, this cannot be the case, as the level of the sea will generally be above the level of the land. In this instance, windmills for driving pumps must be placed at proper distances, according to the particular case. Perhaps, in general, one small windmill driving four pumps, would be sufficient for draining 1000 acres. The expense of such a pump-mill would not be above twenty or thirty pounds. By making a small embankment from two to four feet high some distance within the larger one, all the water collected be- tween that and the original shore would be accumulated; and it might be led in a raised canal in the same level to a flood- gate in the outer embankment. - This would leave very little water to be drawn up by the pump; and, in this way, though 20,000 acres were gained, one windmill only would be neces- sary*. Often, and indeed in most cases, in place of a wind- * As I proposed in the design, estimate, and report, given in for embanking 4000 acres in Wigton Bay. PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 991 mill, the brooks, rivulets, or springs collected within might ea- sily be made to turn a water-wheel, which would be more per- manent and uniform than that turned by the wind. A bason might also be constructed, so that the ebb and flow of the tide would turn a draining-wheel; or a great many other methods . might be successfully adopted. Thus, in land gained from the sea, there cannot be any difficulty in preserving it from water, from whatever quarter it may come. When the land to be gained is covered (more or less) with stones, these should be put in flat-bottomed boats at low water; and when the tide - floats them, they should be rowed to the proposed line of em- bankment, and then dropt. This mode of conveyance will ge- nerally be found the most economical with all the solid and distant materials. When the ground is sandy or poor on the surface, and argillaceous earth or rich loam below, it may be trenched (with the plough) of such a depth, as to turn up the good, and bury the bad soil*. If the soil be shallow, and even rocky, it may still be rendered valuable. The most rocky parts may be covered five or six inches with soil, and the whole sown either with meadow grass, to be flooded with fresh water, and kept as meadow; or with other grasses, as the juncus Buide bosus+, &c. and kept as salt marsh. When mud of a good quality and considerable depth is gained, it may in some cases * As might be done at Aberlady, East Lothian. + The grass that generally composes salt marsh pasture. 99.9 AGRICULTURE. BOOK 1. be desirable to summer-fallow it for one or more seasons after it is embanked. At other times, it may be better to sow it with rapeseed for the first season, and to summer-fallow it the next, as preparatory to a corn crop, &c. No kind of land can be gained from the sea but what is of great value, in consequence of this peculiar circumstance, that it can be flooded most generally by fresh water as well as by the sea at all times. By flooding, the most barren sand-or rock, with only an inch or two of soil, will bear excellent :pas- ture. Indeed, much of the sand that is often reckoned barren and useless, is mixed with broken shells, and, upon examina- tion, will be found to contain three or four parts in ten of cal- careous earth. Most of the large rocks within the salt water mark are in a state of rapid decomposition, and so fragile on the surface, as to be easily penetrated by the roots of Srasses ; more particularly after they have been exposed a year or two i to the action of the atmosphere. I do not here mean the large detached stones that we often find within the water-mark; these I suppose to be either buried in the ground, or boated off as before mentioned; but those continued rocks which frequently constitute the basis of the sea-shore for several leagues toge- ther, and the surface of which is so completely oxydated and sometimes decomposed, (in which state they are vulgarly called rotten) that they will yield either an excellent manure for cer- PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 923 ‘tain soils, or are fit to support. the vegetation of saline plants in their actual condition. SECT. VIII. OF THE QUANTITY OF LAND WHICH MIGHT BE “GAINED BY EMBANKING, AND PRESERVED BY CON- STRUCTING PIERS. - Wirun respect to the quantity of land which might be gained from the sea or rivers, by embanking in the above way; I have only to say to individual proprietors adjoining shore lands of every description, that nothing more is necessary than to ob- - serve how far out the sea ebbs at ordinary tides; and they may _,, safely conclude that it is practicable to gain and preserve at " least-half of that land which appears uncovered by the water at that time, and that such land, when gained, will be of equal, if not superior value, to the best parts of their estates. With respect to the quantity that might be gained throughout the whole island, I could not exactly say; but I think it cannot be less than three millions of acres. I have offered little, in the foregoing hints, respecting the modes of defending the banks of rivers, or altering their 294. AGRICULTURE. - | BOOK I. courses; but if the general principles noticed be properly ap- plied, many great advantages will arise to proprietors. I know some estates that lose, from the encroachments of rivers, several acres annually; which five or ten pounds, judiciously and timely applied, would completely prevent. ‘The advan- tages that arise from placing proper flood-gates on the mouths of rivers which the tide enters; are very great, as may be seen in several places in England*. In embanking land from rivers, one great advantage is, the deepening of their course, by which vessels of a larger size than formerly may be admit- ted to traffic in them. This is a well known fact, and of considerable importance. It may be observed, that as embankments are made here and there on the borders of rivers and sea-shores, the inter- vening spaces will thus become bays; and quantities of shells, mud, sand, or gravel, will soon be deposited there by the tide; so that these, however difficult to be embanked at first, will in the course of years be as easy as natural bays and creeks are at present. ‘Thus, many rivers which, in their present state, are eight or ten miles wide at their junction or influx with the sea, may, in the course of years, be only two or three furlongs. Such embankments would not only be highly advantageous to the landed proprietor, but also to the merchant and manufac- * See Marshall’s Management of Landed Property. PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 995 turer, as many of our rivers might thereby become much more ° easily navigable than they are at present, and those bars which frequently obstruct their mouths {as the Severn and Avon near Bristol) would by such means be entirely removed. WARPING, PARING AND BURNING, AND CLEARING OF SURFACE INCUMBRANCES, come next in order in the list of _ improvements. The first is derived from what we see takes place in nature, where land is covered by muddy water, either _ on the sea shore, or on the banks of rivers. It is of great use, and is successfully practised in Lincolnshire. Paring and burning are seldom advisable; clearing the surface of stones, roots, bushes, &c. is easily understood. IMPROVING THE COMPOSITION oF soILs is held out by agricultural chemists -as of great importance; and although their observations have not hitherto been of- much consequence to practical men; yet the discoveries already made with. re- gard to the proper food of plants and vegetables must eventually be of incalculable advantage, in facilitating the increase of the’ vegetable productions which support animal life. Inctosine. This important branch of agriculture natu- rally divides itself into, 1. The propriety and advantage of inclosing. 2.'The size of inclosures. 3. 'Their ferm. 4. The GG 226 | AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.. direction of the fences. 5. The kind of fence, and 6. Hedge- row timber. 1st. With respect to the propriety and advantage of inclo- sing either commons or private property, I shall advance no- thing; it being pretty generally known to be of the first con- sequence as to augmenting their value. There are, however, some cases, as the large sheep-farms in Peebleshire, and most parts of the Highlands of Scotland, where no other inclosure is necessary, than a ring fence or barrier round each farm. If any inclosures are necessary within this fence, it is only such as are for admitting the cultivation of a few acres for the use of the farmery, or for making some plantations for shelter. and. The size or magnitude of inclosures depends on the kind of husbandry to be followed, the nature of the soil, of the surface, and of the climate. 1. In pasture farming, where the object is breeding, the inclosures should generally be small; where it is rearing, larger; and where it is fatting, largest. 2. Each kind of soil should be as much as possible kept separate ; so as that every part Oe each field may be laboured and cropped. at the sametime. 3. On a level surface the inclosures should be largest, on a hilly one least; as the greater the number of inclosures there are, the more the shelter is increased in severe: weather, moisture preserved in dry weather, and beauty pro- PART IV. AGRICULTURE. A | duced at all seasons. Ina severe climate, or one excessively hot, inclosures should be more numerous than in ‘moderate temperatures—in order that in the former shelter, and in the latter shade, may be produced. 3rd..The form of inclosures. The best form, where it can be obtained, is that ofa square, or parallelogram: when the lat- ter, itshould have the length from north to south. The nature of the soil, and the variations of the surface, are the best guides both as to the form and size of inclosures. 4th. The direction of the fences. In general, this should be up the sides and directly across the tops of eminences, which greatly increases their apparent height. Sometimes, however, it is preferable to carry them obliquely across, which is better calculated for the direction of the ridges, and for affording shelter and shade. In levels, or vallies, they have the best effect, and are most useful, when parallel to the rising grounds, when they intersect one another at right angles, and when each inclosure is nearly a right square. 5th. The kind of fence. In meadows, these should be of the unseen kind; either ha! ha’s! open water-cuts, or light palings. In low fertile arable grounds, and all arable grounds in mild exposures, they should be low hedges or walls. In 998 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. exposed and elevated grounds, the higher the fences so much the better, both for effect and utility. Almost every part of the country has some fences peculiar to it. By enquiring into these, and contrasting them with those in other parts of the country, the best and most economical may easily be disco- vered. 6th. Hedgerow timber. This is highly advantageous in cer- tain soils and situations, and highly destructive, both of beauty and use, in others; as I shall have occasion to observe under PLANTING*®. SHELTERING EXPOSED GROUNDS. — In fixing on the proper places for marking out plantations of this sort, considerable reflection is requisite. It does not consist in fixing on the highest spots, and in a regular distribution of the masses, as some tell us; but in finding out where the current of wind strikes most violently, either when first obstructed by the hills, or after it has been reverberated ; which often points out decli- vities, and lesser eminences, as proper places for planting upon; and directs us also to proportion the magnitude of the different plantations, in a manner corresponding with these effects. A knowledge of this may be obtained by examining the appear- * See also, in confirmation of the same ideas, Mr. Kent’s Hints on Landed Property. PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 229) ances of such trees as are. already there, by inspecting the grounds in times of deep snows, and by consulting the oldest native inhabitants, particularly shepherds, &c. In situations ex- posed to the’sea, where the shore is bold or irregular, as at Col- zean, Gossford, and Dunglass, similar caution is necessary; but where it is level, as at Tynningham, Southwick, and Mersehead,. it is only necessary to plant along the margin of the shore. This has been done at Mersehead and ‘Tynningham; at the late ter place with the greatest success, and at the former with a very promising appearance. At Linkhouse I have lately made considerdble plantations on a low shore, which, though only planted two years, look as well as on any other situation. The trees, when put in, should either be very young, or else the fences should be of considerable height, so as to shelter them. In low shores, most species of trees will succeed except the larch. In such as are bold and irregular, the ash, sycamore, sorbus, elder, &c. are the best. For other particulars respect- ing the formation and management of such plantations, see- PLANTING. 930) AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. CHAPTER IL. OF THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SITUATION. Roap MAKING may be considered under the following heads: ist, Direction; 2dly, Formation; and, 3dly, Management. 1. The direction of roads in level countries is easy. On such as are hilly it requires some attention, surveying, and levelling, so as to find the shortest and least fatiguing line. ‘There are few or no countries, though ever so irregular, but will admit between their hills or mountains roads nearly level, or at least very gradual ascents and descents: were it otherwise, the val- lies would be continually covered with water; whereas we al- ways find some outlet or passage by means of which it easily runs off. The most difficult cases are, when a road comes di- rectly in front of a compact ridge of low hills, such as the Cots- wold in Gloucestershire, or those between ‘Thirsk and Helmsley, | called Whitestone Cliff, in Yorkshire*. Insuch cases, the only way is to make the road ascend in a zig-zag direction to the — lowest part of the summit. There is no particular advantage in having the surface of a road exactly level during its whole * Hills of this kind seldom occur, except in level countries, such as England. PART IV. AGRICULTURE. . 931 - length; but, on the contrary, some benefit results, to draught cattle at least, from having a variation of surface to pass over, as it varies the line of draught, and rests it alternately on dif- ferent parts of the body. Something of this kind takes place in walking, as every one accustomed to use this exercise in any considerable degree must have experienced. . 2. The formation of roads. The first requisite is to lay them dry, by open drains at each side, which must be. of a depth and width proportionate to the road. When the latter is narrow, and the drains deep, the pressure of carriages is apt to cut the surface and derange the materials. The surface of the road in level countries is generaily made somewhat convex, in order to throw off the rain; but in mountainous districts it is perfectly level; and in some places concave roads have been adopted: with considerable advantages. 3. The management of roads refers to cleaning and repairing them. Hxcellent management does not consist so much in doing a great deal, as in a ‘constant attendance and repara- tion of every little injury; by this means roads may be kept in proper order for a great length of time, and ata small expence. \ . . . On canat Maxine I do not judge it necessary to advance any thing, as it is a branch of national improvement in which. 93% . AGRICULTURE. - - BOOK 1. I have never had much experience. On the advantage of erecting VILLAGES AND COTTAGES much might be said; but I rather refer to what I have already advanced on this subject under ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER. III. OF THE CULTIVATION AND THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES USED IN AGRICULTURE. Tue cuctivation of the soil includes several things; the chief of which are, 1st, Its pulverization or comminution ; Qdly, The destruction of weeds and insects; 3dly, Manuring. Of the different implements used for pulverization, the Nor- folk wheel-plough seems the best for light soils, and the im- proved Lothian swing plough the best for stiff soils and gene- ral purposes: both are worked by two horses. Oxen seem the most proper draught animals when a slow continued motion is required ; horses when a quick or occasionally violent motion is requisite. The amiable and diversified qualities of the horse, however, will often, no doubt, preponderate over the real ad- / PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 23S vantages.to be obtained by employing oxen. The Wynne har- row * seems. the best in almost every case. There are two distinct kinds. of spades ; one proper for sandy soils, and garden work ; the other for stiff, cohesive soils, and for farm operations in general. It is difficult to describe these two spades without a drawing: practical men will understand the difference when it. is observed, that the mouth-plate of the one is solid through- out, while that of the other has.a considerable open space under each tred. The former is. used in the nurseries about London and Edinburgh, and in most gardens; the latter is. pretty extensively used in Renfrewshire, and in several parts of Gloucestershire. Very great advantages result from employing this last kind. Pulverization is jointly accomplished by the weather, by the alternate operations of frost and mildness in. winter, and drought and rain in summer; by the shade from vegetables,.as the pea and bean tribe; and in some degrees. by the roots of others, as the carrot and the clover. The advan- tages of pulverization are, that it renders the earth more sus- eeptible of the fertilizing influence of the external elements, as. heat, air, rain, &c. enlarges its capacity and facility of yielding nutriment to the roots of vegetables, and facilitates the destruc-- tion of extraneous seeds, which preoccupy the nutritive prin-- ciples of the soil, instead of leaving them to support the cul- tivated plant. * See the Bath Society’s Papers.. HH 234 AGRICULTURE. - f LEBOO KALE 2. Tun pEsTRUCTION or wEBDs.—Weeds may be divided into two classes; those which spring up annually, and those which are perennial. The former are destroyed in broadcast crops of corn,and in naked fallows, Ke. by harrowing when they appear | alive on the surface ; or in drilled crops by hoeing’, either with the hand or horse-hoe. The latter are chiefly destroyed by fal-- lowing, either partially, as in the preparation for potatoes, bar- ley, turnips, &c.; or completely, as in naked or summer fallows. In this part of cultivation, much depends upon knowing the nature of the weeds to be destroyed, and much upon our pre- venting them from coming into seed. There are some seeds which, although buried under ground for many years, do still germinate where brought within a certain distance from the surface ; such as avena communis (wild cats), the rhaphanis rapha-. nistiam, and r. vulgaris, which are very common weeds. A field that has been infested with these all the summer, will have its surface covered with their seed at harvest; if the ground be ploughed soon after, the seed will be preserved in the soil for years; but if it be allowed to remain until spring, and then gently har- rowed, the whole will vegetate, and may easily be destroyed. In this way all seeds of weeds could be rendered inefiectual ; though it is not always consistent with the general management of a farm, as it throws the labour behind, and prevents the land from deriving the advantage of the winter's frosts, &c. One field, however, managed in this manner each year, would soon PART IV. AGRICULTURE. O35 clean a whole farm, and the future attention of a judicious hus- bandman will ever take care to keep it so. ‘The destruction of insects, or pernicious animals, is also a duty incumbent on the cultivator; but in agriculture it is too trifling to demand con- sideration here. 3. Manurtne.—Manures may be divided into two kinds; those which promote vegetation, by augmenting the quantity of vegetable nourishment, as all vegetable and animal matters; and those which promote it, by bringing what already exists. into action, or by communicating to the soil the power of seiz- ing from the atmosphere, digesting, and oradually administer- ing the nutritive principle to the plant, as lime, salts, gypsum, and most mineral substances, do. The proper application of putrescent manures is one of the most important, and at the same time the most critical branches of cultivation. A given quantity of manure inserted in the soil in a proper stage of pu- trescency, when the soil is in the fittest state to receive it, when it is no sooner distributed on the surface than it is covered, and when the crop is soon after to be planted or sown, will produce astonishing effects. Apply the same quantity either in a more or less putrescent state, leaving it exposed to the atmosphere for weeks, and covering it as lobg before the seed or plants are inserted, and it: will produce comparatively no effect. The qualities of putrescent manure are of such a fleeting nature, 236 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. that the utmost attention is requisite to collect them; and, when they are collected, to preserve them from returning to their simple state, which is ultimately gaseous or aerial. ‘This subject fully considered will shew the immense importance of not letting any vegetable substance, if possible to avoid it, be dried in the sun; but of collecting all organized bodies that can be found, such as leaves, weeds, peat, moss, &c. and forming them into composts with calcareous matters, and other putres- cent manures, as practised and explained by Lord Meadow- bank *, and recommended by the Highland Society. It also shews the immense advantage of soiling with clover, tares, or lucern, and the great benefit of the turnip husbandry. Cal- careous and mineral manures are most successfully applied to lands containing vegetable matter, either chiefly or almost en- tirely, as peat soils ; in the body of the soil, as arable grounds ; or on the surface, as old pasture lands. Lime is also used on ferruginous soils, which it frequently improves, unless the iron exist in very great proportions. Some mineral manures are also of advantage from the salts which they contain ; as lime and gypsum are supposed to be by some, and as salt and soot are known to be by every ingenious agriculturist +. * See also the Earl of Dundonald’s Remarks on Chemistry and Agriculture. + So convinced am I of the great benefit to be derived from strewing salt on the surface of grounds, that I hesitate not to say, that if the tax were removed and far- mers allowed to use it, double the quantity of pasture would be produced annually.— oy PART IV. . AGRICULTURE. 937 WarTERING is a species of cultivation which will be noticed under the culture of grasses, but which might also be very ad- vantageously employed to all grain in the spring months. Cunrurr.—tThe culture of vegetables in farming divides itself into, 1st, The different grains or corns; 2dly, The different grasses; 3dly, Roots and leaves, or other herbage; and, Athly, Particular crops, as hops, madder, rape, &c.; or gar- den vegetables, as onions, spinage, &c. 1. The different grains or corns are either cultivated in broad- cast, or in drills. The former method is in most cases the best with corns and grasses, especially on cohesive soils ; the latter ‘almost always the best method with roots, leaves, and indeed all the others. The different corns are commonly sown by rota- tion, one species succeeding another every year. 2. The grasses are either cultivated a number of years toge-. ther, as in pasture fields, meadows, and lucern, &c.; or only two or three, as in the case of sown hay crops. A knowledge of the That this pasture would not only be equally good with that where no salt is used, but much better and earlier, is evident from the effect of salt marshes. This subject deserves the attention of the present enlightened administration ; and it may serve as one instance to shew what thin partitions separate mankind from the most impor- tant discoveries, and their application to the necessary arts of animal existence. What immense advantages might not result from itin years of scarcity ! 238 _ AGRICULTURE. BOOK f. different grasses is of importance both in useful and ornamental agriculture. Perennial rye-grass ( lolliaem perenne) is the most generally useful for good soil; common meadow grass ( poa tri- vialis) the best for middling soils; large meadow grass (pou pra- tense) the best for rich meadows. Festuca flutans, or floating fescue, the best for middling meadows. The holcus lunatis the best for mossy lands or bad meadows. ‘The festuca avina, and cynosurus cristatus, the best for sheep pastures. ‘The juncus palustris the best for salt marshes, &c. In cultivating grasses three modes require to be mentioned,. which are of considerable importance: the first is top-dressing with manure; which, when done early in spring, greatly aug- ments the crop: the second is irrigation, which is naturally sug- vested by the effects of small brooks upon the sides of hills, which run along their margins, and wherever they overflow are sure to produce good grasses and white clover, except in a few instances where the water is impregnated with mineral sub- stances injurious to vegetation. Irrigation is a very simple, but. most excellent practice. It may be performed by farmers in all hilly and pasture countries with the greatest ease and at a very little expence. In Herefordshire, Montgomeryshire, &c. itis much practised, both with brooks, and in times of rain with the water collected on the highways. ‘The pasture of fields so managed is always much earlier than others. PART IV. | AGRICULTURE. 939 The third mode adopted in the cultivation of pasture lands is flooding, which differs from irrigation only in this, that the ground is covered or flooded with the water, which remains stagnated upon it for a considerable time ; whereas in irriga- tion it runs constantly off. Flooding is derived from nature ; for we see it take place when large rivers overflow their banks for some time in the winter season, and leave after them a con- siderable coat or layer of mud or slime which greatly enriches the pasture. It is nearly allied to warping; but differs from it in this, that warping is used when the quantity of mud depo- sited is so great as would bury the grass, and thence is chiefly used in arable marshes or over salt grass, which being a species of rush (juncus palustris) easily springs through ‘it. Flooding is of immense advantage * to mossy meadows, even though the water be clear and not capable of depositing mud. ‘ In the preparations for flooding ground, two things are re- quisite: the first is, to lay it as level as possible, or to divide it into different levels ; the second is, to convey the water to them in a safe and judicious manner, so as not to interfere with the * On the estates of Baldoon I had the honour of being employed to estimate the advantages to be derived from draining, embanking, irrigating, and flooding ; and the improvement which I conceived the mossy meadows were capable of from flooding was not thought over-rated at triple their present annual value. - 240 AGRICULTURE. 3) BOOK SE cultivation of the surrounding fields. This part of the business is sometimes critical in mossy or sandy ground. In a compre- hensive scheme devised by me for flooding, at Linkhouse, nearly 2000 acres of blown sand or downs near the sea, and covered with little more than elymus arenarius,—the reservoir to hold the water for this purpose, being built in sandy ground (though tolerably well puddled), broke down as soon as it was. filled with water, and apparently defeated the whole scheme. Fortunately, however, this took place when little more than 15/. had been expended. Soon after I found it equally practicable, and not much more expensive, to turn off the stream further from the ground, and lead it to different parts in gutters, either made upon the surface, or in the most sandy parts formed of wooden or baked-clay troughs or conductors. When this has been accomplished a few years, it will render ground which now rents at 13s. an acre annually, worth 4/1. 4s. for the same period. : 3. Roots, leaves, and other herbage, are commonly culti- vated by the drill husbandry, and often serve the double pur- pose of a crop and fallow. Their culture, though various, is simple and easy. 4. Particular crops, or garden vegetables.—This class in- cludes some very profitable crops, and a considerable diversity PART EV. AGRICULTURE. QALY of culture; generally inconsistent with the business of exten- sive corn or pasture farmers, but well calculated for such as. have small farms in good soil, especially if near towns or cities, The culture of garden vegetables in the fields deserves the par- ticular attention of landed gentlemen; as they may thereby save much of the expence which is at present incurred in kitchen gardening, and are besides sure of having sweeter ve- getables. Indeed, those roots and plants which are reared in gardens being always forced into luxuriance by manure,, it often imparts to them a particular flavour, or destroys. their natural one, as in the case of cabbages, pa and. turnips, which are cultivated in that manner. 11 949 , AGRICULTURE. BOOK T. / CHAPTER IV.. OF BREEDING, REARING, AND FATTENING ANIMALS; AND OF THEIR GENERAL MANAGEMENT. ‘Tuts branch of rural economy, as observed in the Introduc- tion, depends much upon a knowledge of several facts in natu- ral history which will enable the judicious farmer to improve upon general practice: being less connected with laying out a residence than the others, a few remarks only shall be offered. I shall pass over the different modes of breeding (whether for preserving the same race unadulterated, or for improving the stock) and come to REaRinG; which, whether it regards beasts of labour or for the butcher, is of much importance. Beasts of labour, with respect to food and shelter, should be brought tip hardy, by allowing them chiefly such food as is of a coarse nature, and keeping them in such an exposed situation as will accustom them in a considerable degree to the atmo- sphere. In consequence of this mode of treatment, animals grow to a much larger size, and become capable of enduring much PART IV. AGRICULTURE. I45: more fatigue. ‘Training isan important branch of rearing beasts of labour.. Much depends not only upon the knowledge, but also upon the natural temper, of the person employed for this pur- pose. We always observe, that horses, which have been long under the care of the same servant, imbibe in a considerable degree his temper and spirit. In horses, as in men, this temper and manner, if impressed upon them at an early age, gene- rally remain through life. Common labouring horses gene- rally acquire all their bad practices while under the dominion of those boys which in farmeries have the care of attending them and other cattle while at pasture: whereas if this busi- ness were committed to grown up persons of steadiness and ingénuity, or, were these young persons better instructed ‘and more critically looked after, the advantages would certainly be considerable. It would render an animal that is useful much more so, and prevent many accidents which arise either from bad education or inherent vicious habits *. * It is impossible to mention the horse without regretting the cruelties which, by the lower classes, are every where and every day inflicted upon this noble ani- mal, as well as upon asses, mules, and horned cattle. It is deeply to be re- - gretted, that there is not a suitable and effectual mode of punishing such offenders. Even in London, where working horses are uncommonly sagacious and tractable, it is shocking to see the unprovoked cruelties of draymen. In Edinburgh it is much worse ; there the cart-horses are, besides this barbarity, generally overloaded, always in bad condition, often covered with wounds, bruises, and putrefying sores ; sometimes they are seen to drop down dead in the streets, and frequently are starved to death in the stables of their inhuman proprietors ! BAA AGRICULTURE. BOOK I. Many of the above hints will apply to cattle reared for the butcher ; as a good-tempered well trained animal always feeds best. Small bones are in general most favourable for fatten- ing, and are produced by a practice contrary to the above, viz. by feeding with rich food when young. ‘lameness and gentle- ness of temper, which are produced by kind treatment, are highly favourable to the same purpose*. The rearing of poultry, game, fish, rabbits, and bees, is worthy of notice, and is useful in a country residence. ‘Too little attention is generally paid to nature in rearing game. Pheasants or swans are not so easily reared under domestic hens, as other birds are, such as the turkey, peacock, &e. Much depends upon encouraging the former when allowed to go wild, by giving them proper and abundant cover, and sowing among it such herbs as they are particularly fond of; some of these are cresses, chervil, parsley, thyme, &c. which also tend to encourage and domesticate hares. Abundance of fearless game about a residence adds a peculiar nobleness and appear- ance of liberty (so to speak) which few things else can com- municate. The general management of fish + and bees is commonly * See Messrs. Culley’s excellent work on this subject. + See Bradley’s Husbandry, and Marshall’s Kitchen Garden. { Bonar on Bees. PART IV. AGRICULTURE. GAB understood.—For the construction of aviaries, poultry-housés, fish-ponds, &c. see Part IX. Or THE CONVENIENCIES PECU- LIAR TO A RESIDENCE. CHAPTER V. OF THE SIZE, FORMATION, AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS. Tuer stzz or rarms has occasioned considerable altercation among agriculturists and speculators on political economy ; some contending for their being small, others very large, and others again for different sizes, limiting the largest to a given number of acres. It is easy to see that all these schemes must be equally wrong. It is one of the greatest blessings of this coun- try, that there are farms to be had of all sizes, and of every di- versity of yearly value ; by which means the unlettered but in- dustrious peasant may gradually ascend to wealth and indepen- dence ; and at the same time the judicious agriculturist, who possesses capital and information capable of enriching himself and introducing improvements, has an opportunity of embark- ing at once and of reimbursing himself for the sum laid out. The consequence of parcelling out the country in large farms 2946 AGRICULTURE. BOOK T. alone would tend to destroy liberty. The consequence of small farms alone would occasion great variation of prices and occa- sional dearths. ‘These things will appear plain to every one who chooses.to reflect a little upon the subject. The general conclusion which I draw is in favour of all sizes of farms; not all sizes upon each estate, though something of this sort a pru- dent landlord will attend to also; but I wish, principally, all sizes to be found in the country in general. Some countries require to be laid out almost entirely in large farms, .as sheep- walks ; others in small ones, as wherever particular crops are attended to, as hops, orchards, &c. In stiff and moist clayey soils, as well as in very dry ones, large farms are highly advan- - tageous, as giving the farmer a command of strength to en- able him. to work these soils at the proper seasons. In small farms these soils seldom yield theirfull produce: the moist clay is laboured when too wet, and the dry loam cannot always be over- taken in time, particularly in-the culture of turnips and barley ; by which means it loses the sap or moisture, and thence the crop either fails entirely or is materially mjured. Middling — soils, that is, such as are free, deep, and of moderate moisture and easily laboured, are in every case the best for small farms. The proper way, upon the whole, with this as with many other things in political economy, is to leave the business entirely to itself. FART IV. AGRICULTURE. 947 In the FORMATION oF FARMS, two things chiefly require consideration: Ist. ‘Their subdivision by fences; and, 2dly, The erection of proper buildings. I interfere not with their subdivisions in regard to crops, that being sufficiently known and followed by every intelligent farmer. With regard to sub- divisions in general, the remarks offered under ENCLOSING may suffice also for this branch of formation. I shall only ob- serve farther, that frequently in arable farms, where the soil is of great value, as in some parts of Mid and East Lothian, where it lets from five to ten pounds an acre, the cheapest fences are hurdles, either of pitched or tarred fir wood, oak, or young larches. Hurdles also are of great use in family farms, espe- cially in uniting them with the park or lawn, and also in parti- tioning off part of the park in order to join it with the country. This will be explained in a subsequent part of the volume. The farm designed for Barnbarrow is:almost wholly subdivided in this way, and will tend to unite it with the park in a beauti- ful manner; and also to render the latter more valuable, by oc- casionally bringing the whole, or at least the greater part of it, under the plough for sucha period as may be necessary to bring the soil into excellent condition. The same thing has been exe- cuted from my designs at Mountwhannie, which shews the excel- lent effects that residences would have if laid out in this way. Mr. _ Gillespie, the proprietor of this estate, saw at once the superiority 2AS AGRICULTURE. BOOK 17. of this scheme over the mode of clumping and surrounding every place with a belt, to the exclusion both of the family farm and the country. Though this wretched taste prevails everywhere around him, and though he had already gone a certain length in it himself, he with a great and liberal spirit instantly rejected the remaining part of his plan, and adopted that which is here recommended. At Hopton court ideas corresponding with this principle were recommended in the design for laying out that place as an ornamental farm of a particular kind, pasture and orcharding being the chief products. J had the happiness of seeing these plans fully approved of; and every part of them is carrying gradually into execution, under the proprietor’s own general superintendence, with my occasional visits. I proceed in the next place to give a few hints respecting buildings for the different kinds of farms. | 1, Arable farms.—The situation of the buildings should, if possible, be near the market road, near the centre of the grounds, and either on an eminence or open space, so as to command wind, or near a brook, so as to obtain the advantage of water for machinery. The large expensive barns erected in England may generally be dispensed with, the extra cost, of these barns would be much better laid out on a thrashing PART IY. | AGRICULTURE. 249 machine, which is an acquisition of considerable importance to arable farms*. Wheat, whichis commonly kept in the barns in England, would be much safer if preserved in stacks or ricks, as in the northern parts of it, and in Kast Lothian and Berwick- shire, where farming is at greater perfection than in any other county. 2. Pasture farms.-The buildings are few in sheep farms, and not numerous when the object of the farmer is rearing cattle or horses. ‘They should be placed in the most convenient situa- ~ tion as to roads and water. 3. Mixed kinds; that is, pasture and aration together, or al- ’ ternately, such as where the convertible or Berwickshire husban- dry is followed, require the same consideration as arable farms. 4. Family farms, or such as are made for the convenience of a residence, are almost always of a mixed kind. The lawn near the mansion affords pasture for rearing sheep, the park for rear- ing other cattle and horses, and sometimes for fattening them ; at least it may always be partitioned off by hurdles for this pur- pose. Small old grass parks or paddocks, which, according to * For the best plan of a farmery for arable grounds, see the Farmer’s Magazine, which is conducted by one of the best wheat cultivators in the United Kingdom, Robert Brown, Esq. of Markle. K K ~ 250 AGRICULTURE. BOOK fF. the way I propose for laying out a residence, ought to unite the park with the farm or general country, form excellent: pastures for milch cows, breeding mares, &c.; or for growing meadow hay; and the arable farm supplies. artificial hay, corns, roots, leaves, garden vegetables, green food for soiling with,.and every thing else to be expected from a complete farm*. The buildings ona farm of this kind require to be equally various and compre- hensive with the purposes for which the farm is used. The chief group of them, or what may properly be called the far- mery, should be near, or at least of easy access from, the family offices or livery stables; at the same time contrived so as not to interfere with the principal approaches to the mansion, nor to shew from it the common operations in the yard. Field ope- rations are of a different nature, and may frequently be shewn from a mansion.) Such a farmery should be well connected * [had an excellent opportunity of embodying my ideas on this subject, and on every thing else respecting the formation of a complete and extensive residence, in the treatise, estimates, designs, plans, and models given in to Sir Hew Hamilton. Dalrymple, Bart. Ihad the honour of seeing them fully approved of ; and should nothing occur to prevent their full execution, the natural advantages of the situa- tion, and the good taste of the proprietor, will certainly make it one of the finest places:in the island. It will unite all the beauties of Mount Edgecumbe on oneside, and more than those of the woods and grounds of Hawkstone, within itself. The practice of some would justify me in giving plates from these designs, without hint- ing whether they were already executed or approved of, or not. But this and other species of quackery I despise, not wishing my fame (if I may ever obtain any) to depend upon ostentatious exhibitions on paper, but upon real execution; and general good principles in my art. ; PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 951 with all the parts of the farm, the park, the paddock, and the public roads; and should, if possible, be in a situation to take the proper advantage of wind or water, &c. Besides the prin- cipal group of houses, which, as mentioned under ARCHITEC- , TURE, should be dignified or elevated in character, other sheds and hovels for shelter of cattle, and hay-ricks, may be distri- buted in different parts of the old:pastures, which, besides their utility, have an excellent effect as objects in rural scenery. THE MANAGEMENT OF FARMS includes a great variety of objects. But as it is a‘branch in general better known by bai- liffs than most others, and besides, as it does not come within the province of a designer in laying out a residence, scarcely any thing need be offered here. I shall just mention, that gentle- men, in choosing bailiffs, should endeavour to obtain them as much as possible from a soiland situation similar to their own, but farmed in a more scientific and profitable manner: or they should first ascertain what species of husbandry or management ‘will best suit their situation, what particular improvements might be introduced, such as the drill husbandry, flooding, irri- gation, cultivation of peat moss, &c. and then procure a person from a part of the country where these practices are best per- formed. Where such places are, is easily learned, either from any well-informed land valuator, or from the agricultural re- 9.52 AGRICULTURE. BOOM: ports of the different counties. I may observe however, u pon the whole, that the husbandry of Northumberland and Ber-. wickshire is the most extensively useful, and that the best bailiffs are commonly obtained. from those countries. They have, in general, acquired such an education and habit of observation as, besides enabling them to transplant their own practices, renders them capable of improving upon that of the country in which they may be called upon to employ their talents. 253 BOOK I. PARI V. USEFUL OR CULINARY GARDENING. INTRODUCTION. Horricurture may be subdivided into CULINARY OR USE- FUL gardening, including the production of fruits and vegeta- bles for the kitchen; onnameNTAL gardening, including the production of vegetables for show, beauty, and amusement,’ as parterres or flower gardens, or instruction, as in botanic garden- ing; and, NURSERY GARDENING, which comprehends every thing relating to propagating and rearing either trees, shrubs, oer plants. Culinary gardening, the branch to be here considered, is se- parated from Agriculture on the one hand, only by the differ- ence in the implements used for cultivation; and from Orna- mental and Nursery gardening on the other, by the difference: 954, CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK f. between the objects in view. All the operations of this mode of cultivating the earth being manual, on a limited scale, and more interesting to individuals, it is thence calculated to effect the highest degree of vegetable produce from a given surface. Cu- linary productions being more or less requisite for every state of society, as well as for every family, are peculiarly so for the wealthy and independent; and thus, in ages of general igno- rance and barbarism, gardening might exist in considerable perfection from the encouragement given to it by the chiefs or nobles. Hence it has been generally better understood than agriculture, and hence also agriculture has derived many of its greatest improvements from gardening. The theory of garden- ing, like every other branch of husbandry, is derived from the study of nature; either simply, as from the observation of the three kingdoms; or abstractedly, from chemical or mechanical experiments. Having made some remarks on these subjects in the general introduction to husbandry, I shall, without farther preamble, proceed to glance over some of the principal topics in this branch of it:—without a full and practical knowledge of which, I am well convinced, it is impossible for a de- signer to understand the art of laying out a kitchen garden *. * It may be observed here, that from the short remarks offered in this division of the work, the ‘practical and scientific reader will discern much better whether the author understands husbandry, than if he had made a more copious treatise on the subject. Here his business is to.seize on the prominent features, and such as chiefly irefer to the design of a garden or farm, This is both easily. done ‘and PART V. CULINARY: GARDENING: B55 The remarks offered will be included under the following heads: 1. Of the cultivation of the soil. 2. Of the culture of herba- ceous vegetables. 3. Of the culture of fruit trees and fruit shrubs. 4. Of the culture of culinary exotics. 5. Of forcing vegetables into a state of growth, so as to produce fruit at par- ticular or unnatural seasons. 6. Of the construction of hot- houses, hot-walls, pits, hot-beds, and mushroom-houses. OE the other buildings requisite for a kitchen garden. 8. Of the formation of orchards; and, 9. Of the general formation of a garden. easily discerned by those of practical knowledge. But this observation is made in order to arouse the attention and excite the enquiry of those superficial readers;, who may think the whole of what I have advanced on this subject a mere compen- dium from books, and which might have been written by any person without much practical knowledge. | 250 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I. CHAPTER I. OF THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. Wrruour making any remarks on draining, clearing of in- cumbrances, or any of the first improvements of the soil, I proceed to puLVERIZATION, which in horticulture is per- formed chiefly by the spade, with the occasional assistance of the mattock. On the surface, it is performed by the hoe and the rake, as in destroying weeds, or in stirring the earth about the roots of young vegetables. Pulverization is also much promoted by frost, as in ground laid up in ridges; and by the alternate effects of heat and rain, as in that dug or trenched during the summer months. In MaNnuRING garden grounds, composts are preferable, or at least pu- trescent manure in the last stage of decomposition; wien — rank or new, it never fails to give a peculiar and disagree- able taste both to the roots and leaves of culinary vegetables. This every one must have experienced in early potatoes, or such as are raised on what are called lazybeds. It isto be re- egretted for the sake of agriculture, that kitchen gardens re- quire so large a proportion of manure. The scheme of culti- ge es PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 257 vating most of the summer crops of greens and roots in the fields, and of resting the soil, as to be afterwards proposed, it: is thought will tend to counteract this evil. In many places’ where peat moss abounds, considerable advantage may be ob- tained by mixing a quantity of that material with the stable - dung used for making up hotbeds. _ RESTING or REFRESHING garden soil is a species of culti- vation which is performed two ways. ‘The first is, by sowing a certain portion every year with corn and grass seeds, letting it remain under the last for three or more years, and then breaking it up again. ‘This is a very beneficial plan, and is advantageously practised by most market-gardeners, who use the corn or grass so raised for their cattle. In gentlemen’s gar- dens, care should be taken never to let the grass run to seed, as is sometimes done in the market-garden; but im other respects the general practice should be performed in the same manner. By sowing and laying down a certain quantity annually, a si- milar quantity may be broken up: this will consequently af- ford so much fresh soil every year, upon which such crops as answer best on new land, as onions, carrots, and indeed most garden crops, may be raised. ‘The second mode was invented by Mr. Walter Nicol*, who * Author of The Forcing Gardener, &e. LI 958 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK TI. may be ranked among the best culinary gardeners that Scot- land ever produced. It is excellently adapted for producing the same effect as above, and should be used jointly with it; by which means a large portion of fresh surface soil would every year be obtained. As this practice is not much known in England, I shall give the directions for performing it in Mr. Nicol’s own words. ‘ Take three crops off the first surface, then trench three spit deep, by which the bottom and top is reversed, and the middle remains in the middle; take three crops of this surface, and then trench two spit deep, by which the top becomes the middle and the middle the top; take also three crops off this surface, and then trench three spit deep, whereby that which was last the middle, and now the top, be- comes the bottom; and that which is now che Botbonh and was the surface at first, now becomes surface again, after having rested six years. Proceed in this manner alternately; the one time trenching two spit deep, and the other three; by which means the surface will always be changed, and will rest six years and produce three. Hence will there always be new soil on the garden for the production of wholesome vegetables; and hence also will much less manure be required than when the soil is shallow and the same surface constantly in crop.” RoraTron is the species of cultivation next in importance. In managing it, the vegetables cultivated should be divided PART V. _ CULINARY GARDENING. 259 into classes according to their respective natures, modes of cul- ture, and duration. With respect to natures, they may be di- vided into, 1. Such as have ramose roots, as the cabbage, cauli- flower, brocoli, &c. 2. Such as have fusiform roots, as the car- rot, beet, parsnip, &c. 38. Such as are squamose, as the onion, leek, eschalot, &c. 4. Such as are fibrous, as the lettuce, en- dive, xc. 5. Such as are tuberose, as the potatoe, Jerusalem artichoke, &c. They may be also divided into such as partake of two of these divisions, as the fusiform and fibrous, exemplified in the bean, pea, kidney-bean, spinach, &c. &c. Some crops require to be cultivated in large quantities, as pease, turnips, Onions ; others in small portions, as most salads and pot-herbs. Some require very rich soil, and generally manure previously to planting or sowing, as celery, cauliflower, and feeks ; others require a tolerably rich soil, but are much injured by manure immediately previous to their insertion, as carrot, beet, and most esculent roots of fusiform shapes. With respect to modes of culture, culinary vegetables may be divided into, 1. Suchas are sown upon the surface broadcast, as onions, turnips, spi- nach, &c. 2. Such as are sown or planted on the surface, but in drills, as pease, beans, and potatoes. 3. Such as are placed in hollow trenches, as celery, and sometimes artichokes. 4. Such as are sown or raised on beds or ridges, as asparagus, sea- cale, and frequently early crops of pease, &c. 5. Some require 260 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I. the soil to be often pulverized while growing, as potatoes, pease, and most drill crops; others admit of it but in a small degree, as onions, leeks, carrots, &c. Some are occasionally and often materially injured by it, as strawberries. With respect to duration, some are sown and removed within three months, as early crops of turnips, radishes, brassica plants, for removal, &c. others continue double that time, as onions and po- “tatoes; others treble, as frequently brocoli, and cabbages ; some continue two seasons, as parsley, fennel, &c.; others for several years, as strawberries, asparagus, artichokes, &c. A judicious gardener, by studying the above, and other divi- sions which might be made, will thence contrive a proper suc- cession of crops: thus celery, by being planted in hollow trenches, pulverizes the soil in a high degree; by requiring a considerable quantity of manure, it enriches it; both which properties are necessary for the production of plants of large ramose or fasiculate roots, which penetrate deep into the soil, such as artichokes, scorzonera, asparagus, &c. Again, these crops by remaining long on the soil afford, when removed, an excellent situation for such as are more transitory, as pease, po- tatoes, &c. Every experienced gardener knows that it is of | the utmost importance to study a proper rotation of crops; for : the same thing happens in gardening as in agriculture, when- ever two or three of the same kind, or of the same natures, fol- / PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 961 low each other, they never fail to degenerate both in quantity and quality. THE DESTRUCTION OF WEEDS Is performed upon the same principles as in agriculture; the only difference is in the appli- cation of labour, which here is always manual, and is either by the spade, hoe, rake, weeding-iron, or by the hand. But in gardening, if attention be paid to the fermenting of putrescent manure, and spreading and exposing other composts before they are used, and never letting any weeds perfect their seeds, there will be comparatively little occasion for the operation. These things, however, and particularly the preventing of weeds from flowering, are too little attended to by most gardeners. It is true that, after all, the birds and the wind will continue to dis- tribute these enemies to cultivation; but their effects are as nothing when compared with those of ill-fermented stable ma- nure, and the seeds of such weeds as are produced in the garden. THE DESTRUCTION OF VERMIN is an important branch of cultivation, that in gardening, as in agriculture, is not well understood. Some are, after all that has been tried, best de- stroyed by gathering with the hand as soon as they begin to appear, as the caterpillar tribe; others by plentiful steaming, dew, or watering, as the aphis; others by tobacco smoke, as 962 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK £.. the thripes; others by compositions of various kinds, such as soap-suds and sulphur, lime-water, &c. as the coccus, phalena, &c. Some are caught by artifice, as wasps, flies, mice, &c.; others are devoured by the introduction of other animals, as the grub by the rook, the snail or worm by the duck or gull, &c. Blight* is most probably produced by insects, or is rather a collection of small insects; sometimes it is removed b y chang- ing the situation of vegetables, and removing them to a more open exposure; at other times by placing them in a more invi- gorating soil; and very commonly by placing them in a higher situation. Honey-dew is an exudation from vegetables, which frequently breeds an immense collection of small insects upon their surface; a more invigorating soil is often a complete cure for this malady, particularly where it attacks young trees. Watering, in horticulture, is generally performed by the hand, and either with the common watering pot, the syringe, or the forcmg engine. In many cases I think it possible to accomplish it by a practice similar to irrigation, or by sub-_ flooding. ‘The last may be done by having a stratum of gravel * According to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. and some others, maldew or rust in wheat is occasioned by a parasitic plant that insinuates itself into the pores of the straw, and thereby prevents the grain from obtaining its proper nourishment. Others have supposed the yellowish red appearance on the straw of grain to be a mere ve- getable tumour, occasioned by obstructed circulation, and the blight of the ear ‘only, to be produced by insects. PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 963: under the whole garden; which, by means of a trench sur- rounding it (or, if upon a slope, at the upper side of it), might be saturated with water, which would soon be absorbed by the incumbent surface containing the vegetables under cultivation. The first by having pipes, open cuts, or rather small wooden troughs, which might conduct it upon the surface of every quarter of the garden. There it might distribute itself in the intervals between beds or drills, and over the general surface of broadcast crops. ‘The former method could be putin prac- tice at any period of the summer or spring; the latter chiefly in moist weather, or in the night season. Watering is bene- ficial in three ways: first, in prompting or exciting vegetation, as in new-sown seeds, or newly transplanted vegetables; se- condly, in promoting vegetation, as in watering crops or trees; and thirdly, in destroying insects, as the aphis or red spider, and some species of coccus, &c. Prunine is a branch of cultivation highly requisite in hor- ticulture, particularly in what regards the culture of trees and shrubs. Itis used either to promote, to retard, or to modify growth. Pruning may be used either to promote the growth of wood, leaves, or fruit, or to retard them. With respect to the modification of trees and shrubs, it is applied to many sorts to bring them into convenient shapes for being cultivated with care; as to gooseberries, raspberries, shrubs in pots, &c.; 204 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK f£. and to others, to make them accord with peculiar situations, as often occurs in connexion with training in the management of wall-trees. These different objects of pruning are to be effected from a general acquaintance with the vegetable eco- nomy, and a particular knowledge of the individuals to be pruned. With respect to general laws, the common effect of pruning that part of trees above ground only, is to produce more vigorous annual growths; and in respect to fruit, commonly a smaller number, but those of greater magnitude. The common effect of pruning the roots of trees only, is the contrary, and ge- nerally causes them to produce smaller and less vigorous an- nual shoots, but more fruit. Much pruning, either of the tops or roots, makes them produce smaller and more numerous rami- fications; which, as they are unable to run out to any great distance in quest of food, either from the air or the earth, do consequently form a spherical bush above ground, as may be seen in pollards; and a globular mass of roots under it, as may be seen by taking up any tree which has been frequently removed. In general also, the extremities of shoots or branches bent downwards, and the extremities of roots bent upwards, check vegetation and tend to produce fruit; while an oppo- site practice has contrary effects. With regard to individual trees, there are some sorts which only produce their fruit from the young wood of the preceding year, as the vine, the fig, and the raspberry. ‘There are others which produce them from two \ Ct PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 205 years shoots only, as the peach and nectarine. Others produce them chiefly from studs, or spurs, as the apple, pear, and plum. Some by both these modes, as the apricot and gooseberry. Others almost entirely from studs and knotty joints, as the red and white currants, &c. Some trees require most of their young wood to be cut off, as the currant; others very little of it, as the peach, and most*pears; others are materially injured by being much pruned, as the cherry, plum, and most stone fruit. Some bear any degree of it, as the apple and several kinds of pears. Trainine by fixtures is properly a branch of pruning. It is used for two purposes; either to protect exotics or tender fruit trees from the wind; to improve their climate, by spread- ing them regularly upon a wall, or to support climbing or trailing plants. ‘The first method is generally performed either by spreading the branches, horizontally and parallel to each other, upon an upright rail, as in common espaliers, or by spreading them upon a horizontal rail, as in table espaliers. In some cases it is also done upon an inclined rail, or upon cir- cular or basket ones. Training to improve the climate is chiefly against a wall, and is either performed in the fan, or ho- rizontal manner. ‘The fan manner is calculated for soonest co- vering the wall, and is also most proper for such kinds as do not abound in superfluous woods as the cherry, peach, and MM 266 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK -f. apricot. ‘The horizontal manner fills the wall more completely, though it is longer in accomplishing it; and is best calculated for such as run much to wood, as do many pears and apples. Tn training to support climbing plants, nature should be imi- tated as nearly as possible. With such kinds as twine round other trees or supports, or fasten themselves to walls, nothing more is necessary, than to put these on similar objects within their reach; but with others, which support themselves by clasp- ers or tendrils, it is requisite to fasten them by art when these tendrils fail. In nature, they fail commonly the second year; and then the whole twining shrub or climber falls down, or hangs by its last made tendrils in such a way that its shoots are bent, twisted, or inclined in every direction. This is the case with vines, passion-flowers, and many others, and readily suggests “the advantage of training these sorts in a twisted or serpentine direction. Indeed, nothing can be more unnatural than to train them erect, as is generally done where vines are planted - against the back walls of hot-houses. When trained upon a trellis under the sloping glass, they are in a more natural situation, and are more likely to send out shoots or to break (as gardeners term it) at every joint; but still experience has proved the immense advantage of trainimg in a serpentine direction in every situation. In many hot-houses in England, and in the greater number in Scotland, nearly two-thirds of the crop which might be produced annually are lost for PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 207 want of attention to this circumstance. It requires no argu- ments to. support a practice so evidently natural, and uni- formly attended with such good effects whenever it has been tried; and as it can never do harm, every gardener ought to adopt it*. Great advantage may be taken of the same prin- ciple in training other trees; whenever the sap is constrained by twisting a shoot or branch, it is sure at those places most bent, or at the most angular parts of each curve, to send out a shoot. This was taken advantage of, and is excellently illustrated, by Mr. Hitt in his Treatise on Fruit Trees; and had this and several other old treatises not been too much neglected, the late Mr. Forsyth’s would not have been rendered necessary. In training trees, few gardeners understand or avail them- selves of the advantages which might be taken from this gene- ral law in the vegetable economy, that the extreme branches bent downward, or the extreme roots turned upward and ex- posed to the air, throw the tree more or less into fruit. I have lately seen it done in two instances by accident, where the ef- fect was astonishing. The first was at Tynningham, where some pear-trees which never bore well, but grew vigorously, at- -* See Forsyth’s Treatise on Fruit Trees. 268 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I. tained the top of the wall, and were turned down upon the other side. ‘This has been done two or three years, and every year those branches so turned down have borne immense quan- tities of fruit, and the other parts of the tree have begun to bear better. Were every other branch turned downward in this manner, either by bringing them over to the other side of the wall, or turning them downward upon the same side, the'whole tree would soon become fruitful. The second instance was at Palatine House, where vines were grown in a pit, and trained from the top of the back wall, under the sloping rafters, to the lowest part of the front glass, and uniformly produced extra- ordinary crops of grapes, with a less than usual quantity of shoots. ‘The good effects arising from the same principle may be seen in most gardens in a greater or less degree, at the cor- ners of walls or espaliers, or around doors or other openings. Where trees are trained upon houses, it may be very frequently seen; the bends and twists, and downward training of the shoots, occasioned by the doors and windows, chimnies and projections, always producing this effect; and hence we often ° find trees in these situations afford more fruit than those in gar- dens. ‘The excellent effects of cutting the roots of trees either at some distance or near the chief stem, and also the effects of cutting the stem itself, in order to throw them into fruit, have been fully recorded by former writers on horticulture, and have PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 269 been recently practised with complete effect by an excellent gardener at Woodhall. ABLAQUEAT ton, or laying bare the roots of trees, is a species of cultivation nearly allied to pruning, and has the same ten- dency as the practice above mentioned*. I pass over many important particulars in this department of cultivation, and omit some branches altogether. CHAPTER IU. OF THE CULTURE OF HERBACEOUS VEGETABLES. a ‘Turse may be divided into three classes, viz. 1. The annual or biennial; 2. The perennial; and, 3. Salads and pot-herbs. The first class occupies the chief part of a garden; the two others occupy comparatively little space. ‘To enlarge on the modes of culture applicable to the individuals of each class would in this place be improper, and indeed useless in a work of this nature, where only such hints are offered as may be in- * See Miller’s Dictionary, Eyelyn’s Kalendarium Hortense, &c. 270 ' CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I. teresting to gentlemen, or may tend to enlarge the ideas of the naturalist or amateur in gardening. What Ihave here to remark upon is, the important advantages to be obtained from culti- vating the summer or late crops of the first class, annual and biennial kitchen crops, in the fields. The advantages are, 1. More wholesome and better flavoured vegetables, arising from the freshness of the soil and the open exposure. 2. The ex- pence attending their culture is less, it being performed by agricultural implements, and consequently requiring little ma- nual labour, and also less manure than in gardening. 3. Less manure being necessary in the garden, consequently more can be spared for agricultural purposes. Manure used in agri- culture doubles itself every year; whereas that used in gardens makes scarcely any returns: the advantage therefore of em- ploying as much of it as possible in agriculture is evident. 4. The last advantage consists in reducing the quantity of land destined for a garden; which, when this practice is to be fol- lowed, need never be so large as they commonly are. The garden crops which may be best raised in the fields are all or most of those which are not sown before the middle of February in England, and the first of March in Scotland, and which are removed before those periods in the next year. Of this class are the principal crops of pease, beans, turnips, — PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 271 carrots, parsnips, potatoes, onions, brocoli, and several others, which will grow perfectly well in the field, and with the same or similar culture as the turnip or potatoe husbandry. In all well regulated home or family farms there is every year a cer- tain portion of ground allotted for turnips, potatoes, or other drill crops; now that allotment has only to be increased, and part of it used for the culture of these garden vegetables. When they were full grown, or when the turnips were to be eaten off by sheep, or otherwise removed from the rest of the field, that part of it under this culture could easily be -inclosed by hurdles, which would preserve every thing safe during the winter. In spring it would no longer be neces- sary, and then the hurdles or temporary fence might be taken away, and the ground ploughed and sown with oats or barley, and grass seeds, &c. according to the nature of the rotation followed by the farmer. ne ¢ 972 CULINARY GARDENING. _ BOOK TI. CHAPTER III. OF THE CULTURE OF FRUIT TREES AND FRUIT SHRUBS. - ‘Tuts is one of the most comprehensive and difficult branches of horticulture: it may be subdivided as follows; viz. 1. The culture of wall fruits; 2. The culture of espaliers; 3. The cul- ture of standards; 4. The culture of the lesser fruits, or fruit: shrubs. 1, THE CULTURE OF WALL FRUITS.— The first object of at- tention here is the construction, situation, and height of the walls, and general dimensions of the borders; but as these natu- rally belong to the general formation of a garden, I shall pass over it to the formation of the soil. With regard to depth: in dry situations, it may be three feet for most kinds; but in many cases two feet will be preferable; in such as are moist, eigh- teen or twenty inches is most proper, the bottom being paved or imbedded with a composition of loam and grayel, or rub- bish of masonry, and forming a declivity southwards. ~The pro- priety of a shallow border on moist soils, and indeed in general, I have lately experienced in several striking cases, particularly PART V¥. CULINARY GARDENING. ! OF, at Knowlesly; and it agrees also with what Mr. Hitt recom- _mends and practised in making borders for fruit trees ; several % of which, when the subsoil was gravel or rock, were not above one foot in depth ; and these he always found produced the largest crops, and by much the best flavoured fruit. ‘The qua- lity of the soil must vary according to the kind of tree to be planted. In general, it may be sufficient to observe here, that pears, plums, and apples, require rather a strong loam; cher-. ries, apricots, figs, and vines a lighter; and peaches and nec- tarines a kind of medium between them; though, upon the whole, daily experience proves that all these sorts will prosper in the same soil, if other circumstances are favourable. In Dr. Monro’s garden, at Slateford cottage, excellent crops of grapes, and indeed of most fruits, are produced from a strong clay; and in hundreds of places in Surrey equally good crops are pro- duced from soils chiefly composed of sand and gravel. Apples and plums seem to prosper best in argillaceous soil, as may be observed both in the Clydsdale and Herefordshire orchards; though there are some kinds that prosper much better in a light one, as the paradise and oslin pippin and the drap-d’or plum *. * The finest flavoured fruit in Normandy is found on very light and even shal- - jow soils, which are:the kind indeed that most generally prevail throughout all that province, as well as Picardy. Even the rich loam that covers the most fertile plains on the banks of the Seine abounds in small gravel and sand. Both that soil NN 274 - CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I. The next object is the choice of proper kinds and good plants from the nursery. Upon the different kinds a great va- riety of opinions prevail. The kinds which generally prosper best in England may be found in Mr. Forsyth’s Treatise, and those in Scotland in Mr. Nicol’s. A good practice for gentle- men who are unacquainted with a great variety, is to observe those sorts which do best in the neighbouring gardens; and also to attend to the opinions of the most eminent nurserymen, who from their general sale of these trees, and intercourse with practical gardeners, are always well acquainted. with the kinds most in repute. When the trees are planted, each may be numbered so as to preserve the name of the kind. This num- ber may either be marked on lead or copper and nailed to the wall, painted on the wall, or registered by various other de- vices. With respect to good plants, every gardener knows the leading signs of health and vigour; viz. fullness, and well- formed buds in the extremities of the shoots. The next object in the culture of wall fruit is their general: management, which is too extensive and. common-place to ad- mit of any remarks here. | and its: products, however, are very inferior tothose of Herefordshire, notwith- standing what may have been erroneously said to the contrary. Tour in France. PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. Q75 2. THE CULTURE OF ESPALIERS may be considered under heads similar to those above. ‘The remarks there made are all applicable here, except what relates to the depth of soil; for here several reasons concur to shew, that this ought in fewer cases to be less than twenty inches or two feet deep. The con- struction of espalier rails is perfectly simple; they should be fixed in masonry, and their parts under ground should either be charred on the surface or pitched, unless the whole be made of larch wood, in which case both pitch and paint are unneces- sary. Espalier rails painted white have a harsh glaring effect in gardens ; in all cases, therefore, they ought to be painted of some quiet colour, as brown, grey, or green. They are gene- rally placed parallel to the walks on one side, as on those walks which surround the garden ; or on both ends, as on those which cross through it. In both cases when the proper proportions are adopted, they have an excellent effect, especially in the cross walks. 3. THE CULTURE OF STANDARDS. . When these are placed uregularly throughout the garden, which is seldom an advisa- ble practice, nothing can be said respecting the soil, as they must give way in that article to the general crops. But the best way of using standards (under which I comprehend all unfastened trees) is evther in rows, as gooseberries commonly are, along the borders ;—in quarters by themselves ;—or in 276 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK TI. orchards. Standards for borders in the kitchen garden should always be kept low, in order that they may shade the crops on each side as little as possible. But perhaps the best way is to have quarters for this kind of standards—to have them grafted on paradise or quince stocks, by which means they come sooner into fruit; and by the time those in the orchard or on the walls are in a full bearing state, these quarters are fit to be thrown out: and if requisite another quarter could be planted to suc- | ceed them. In this way, when a new garden was made, a tole- rable supply of fruit might be had every year after the third ; it being well known, that apples on paradise stocks, and pears on quince stocks, will frequently bear the second year after grafting, and very generally the third: and as those to be planted in the quarters would be three or four years old before they were removed from the nursery, they would commence bearing immediately. Standards for orchards ought generally to be of the tall or high kind, and always grafted upon crab stocks.—See ORCHARDS. A, THE CULTIVATION OF SMALL FRUITS, as gooseberries, currants, raspberries, &c. is commonly known. In the cultiva- tion of red and white currants much depends upon pruning. ‘They should be allowed to produce only from studs ; and from en ee PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. QUT these, after the bush is four years old, the young wood should be wholly cut away every winter. This however is only applicable to standard currants, where large fruit is wanted; when cur- rants are grown upon walls, and the object is to preserve fruit upon the tree from the currant season till the middle of _ winter, as is done in some places, the mode is to have the fruit rather smaller, and to have the tree large, and so much covered with fruit as to. admit of few shoots. The former practice is excellently carried on at Duddingston, and the latter at Archerfield. CHAPTER IV. OF THE CULTURE OF CULINARY EXOTICS. Amonce plants or fruits which in this country require artificial climates, the pine first deserves attention. Much has been . written respecting its culture, and much still remains to be done. ‘The largest fruit and most uniform crop that I have ever seen was at Kelham House *. The soil in which they are * In the year 1802 Mr. Griffin the gardener cut frail queen pines, which weighed together eighty-seven pounds seven ounces :—in 1803, one weighing five pounds three ounces ;—in July 1804, one of the New Providence kind weighing 278 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I. grown is a stronger loam than is recommended by Speechly and Nicol, or used by any gardener as far as my observation has extended; from which, and several other particulars in. management which I observed when there, it is probable some real improvement is effected in the culture of this excellent fruit. But for this I beg to refer to the Treatise which Mr. Griffin proposes to publish.—In the next chapter some farther observations will occur. The general culture of the vine* need not here occupy our at- seven pounds two ounces ;—and in August 1804, he cut one of the same kind which weighed nine pounds three ounces: these being the first and only two plants of the New Providence kind ever placed under his care.” ‘This is extracted from the Prospectus of a Treatise which he proposes to publish on the Pine. * It may be remarked here, that the general imperfection of English grapes is their defect of saccharine matter and want of sweetness. Thisis, perhaps, in part owing to the humidity of the atmosphere, more than to its coldness ; as very sweet grapes grow, and spiritous wines are made, in much colder and more northern latitudes than a great part of England. A very obvious remedy for both cold and moisture is the adoption of small glass covers, made with lateral openings in such a manner that they might be placed over the grapes and branch of the vine in any direction. Another reason why the fruit of English vines possesses considerable aci- dity, is the general taste for large globular grapes, without regard so much to the delicacy of their flavour, as the grandeur of their appearance. ‘This species of vine does not produce delicious grapes in the hottest climates, and consequently ought not to be so generally cultivated in this. The grapes most abundant in sac- charine matter are always small and round, as those of the currant grape. It must be confessed indeed, that the more exposed the vine is to the most intense meridian sun, so much the sweeter will be the grape, and the greater the quantity of saccha- rine or spiritous juice that it will contain. PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 279 tention (see Chap. III.); but some effects which maybe produced. by particular modes of culture, though they are perfectly sim- ple, and result from laws in the vegetable economy well known to every practical naturalist, may deserve to be mentioned. The first is, that when put into a hot and rather poor soil, as | lime rubbish, brick-bats, and stiff vegetable mould, the growth will be limited, and the tendency to produce fruit greatly in- creased *, Hence vines of this kind may be cultivated like currant bushes, either in the open air,—under a frame or hand- glass,—or in pots which may be forced in a hot-house or con- servatory, or placed when in fruit in the drawing-room, &c. A soil of an opposite kind, free, porous, and deep, such as rough sand and light loam kept moist, will encourage the growth of wood, and greatly lessen the tendency to produce fruit. Hence the advantage which may ‘be taken of this in nursery gardening, where raising vines is an object, and hence also the advantage which may be occasionally taken from it in filling a large house with one plant. It is true, it would lessen the production of fruit for a year or twoat first ; but whenever the house was sufficiently covered with shoots, by removing part of the sand and free soil, adding some of a richer and more hot nature, and giving less water, the whole tree may be thrown * This every attentive observer must have seen in the fields, whether in the growth and fruitfulness of weeds, common crops, hawthorn hedges, or trees. 980 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK Tf. into any degree of fruitfulness. Let me add here, that these two opposite effects of different soils afford excellent ideas for improving the soil of borders, either in the open air or hot- houses, and either with a view to make the trees produce more wood or more fruit. It is particularly adapted for vines and stone. fruits ; for cutting the roots of these, and especially of vines, is generally less successful, and is always attended with greater risk, than on other trees: of this I had lately a striking proof, by the shameful conduct of a gardener when about to leave his situation. Other particulars respecting the culture, training, pruning, and management of the vine might be men- tioned, were it suitable to this work. In every topic or parti- cular of vegetable culture there are numerous and important effects which may be produced by the simplest means, if we but advert to nature, from which the most important precepts in this branch of knowledge are obtained. But itis long before mankind, especially the practical part of them, can throw off the shackles of habit and prejudice ; and thence any thing ofa remarkable nature which is produced in these arts is commonly discovered or effected by accident. It is then either told to the world as a wonder or singularity—wrapt up under a dark re- ceipt, like a quack medicine—or concealed, as an invaluable secret until a suitable reward be offered to the inventor. So contracted and imperfect are the general ideas of husbandry in this island, that even public bodies of the first importance have PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 981 been imposed on by these quack cultivators, both by men bring- ing forward practices recorded by old writers, and by others re commending things of no real use. Metons anp cucumbers next demand attention.—They are generally grown upon hot-beds, or in pits, which will be noticed in the next chapter. Considerable art and constant attention are requisite to have them early. Much depends upon the steadiness of temperature and kindly moisture of the atmosphere in the bed, and much also upon the soil employed. - Considerable improvements might be made in the culture of these fruits, by adopting in certain cases the same general prin- ciples which have been noticed above in treating of the vine, and particularly in late crops. In hot-houses, cucumbers may be preserved in a bearing state during the whole winter, as is practised at Knowlsely and several other places. The culture of the PAsSIFLORA QUADRANGULARIS, or apple bearing passion- flower, is nearly that of the vine. The chief difference is, that it requires to be preserved in a growing temperature during the whole year. This is easily effected, by planting them in pine stoves or hot-houses. One plant bears an immense quantity of fruit ; and as these are of an agreeable taste and flavour, and have a beautiful and uncommon appearance, one or two plants will have a good effect if introduced into hot-houses. That number, however, is abundantly sufficient for any family ; as it 0 0 282 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.. is still far inferior to the other exotic fruits that have been men- tioned. ‘They may be seen in great plenty at Harewood Hall, and the botanic garden of Liverpool. The cactus opunrTtia is said to produce a fruit little in- ferior to the pine apple. It may easily be raised by a si- milar culture, but with a greater degree of dry bottom heat. It certainly demands a trial from the curious epicure.—See Justice’s British Gardener. As ORANGES are generally cultivated for show, they are re- ferred to ornamental gardening. The best directions will be found in “ The Retired Gardener,” and the: best fruit and trees in this country may be seen in the garden at Woodhall. There, every species of oranges, lemons, limes, shaddocks, &c. are cul- tivated in a variety of ways; and, with a degree of success, hitherto unparalleled in this kingdom. PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 383 CHAPTER V. OF FORCING VEGETABLES INTO A STATE OF GROWTH OR FRUIT AT PARTICULAR OR UNNATURAL SEASONS. Turis is effected either by operations upon the vegetable when in its natural climate, upon the soil in which it grows, or _ by removing it into an artificial climate. ‘1. ForcineG, BY OPERATING UPON THE VEGETABLE O08 THE SOIL, is done in various ways, and from different known facts in the economy of plants. The simplest mode of forcing is by sowing or planting at an uncommon season; that is, either later or earlier than usual. The next is, .by placing the vegetable in a warm and dry or cold and moist situation, or in a hot or cold soil*; by which it either comes into perfection later or earlier than if placed in the medium between these two extremes. ‘The essences of every vegetable are its flowers and fruit; and every individual species grows, or has a continual tendency to grow, until it produce these in perfection. An- nuals in general do this the same season in which they are sown ; * See CHAPTER IV.—VINE. 284 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I. perennials, the second or third season, and once every year after- wards; trees and shrubs frequently do not show flowers for seve- ral years after they are sown; but when once they have begun, they do so regularly every summer afterwards. Now by taking proper advantage of these known facts, considerable effects may be produced, both in the way of forcing vegetables, and rendering them more useful. ‘Thus, by preventing annuals from coming into flower the first year, which can easily be done by removals or cutting them over near the surface, they will live, unless in too cold a climate, till next season ; and if the same operation be performed on them the second year, they will live for athird: and so on, sometimes for a number of years ; in al- most every case for two, and often for three or four years. In this way, by mowing tares or barley, two or three green crops may be obtained in one season, and a very early one be pro- duced the next. By the same means annual rye grass is made to last two or three seasons ; and on good soils is frequently, by being pastured afterwards, made perennial. In the kitchen garden, plants of cabbage, savoys, ereens, &c. which are an- puals, are frequently preserved the first season under one foot Anigh, and by being planted in autumn, or immediately before winter, produce either a late crop that season, or avery early one the next. Parsley also may be made to last some years, by being cut over before it begins to bloom, &c. In perennials by cutting over the artichoke, sea-cale, or asparagus, early \ PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 285, / in the season, a late autumnal or winter crop may be produced ; and if we take all the blossoms from a strawberry-plant in April, it will produce excellent fruit in November following. In trees and shrubs, by depriving them of their leaves and flowers in spring, or the beginning of summer, they will pro- duce these at different periods, according to their nature, from August to February ; and if protected from the inclemency of the weather at these seasons, would produce fruit. This is easily — done with raspberries, currants, gooseberries, and strawberries,. as they come into fruit (as I have found on trial) in October -and November, and do therefore require little covering. But with most other fruit trees the period is later ; and not only is. a covering requisite, but the tree is often so materially injured as to be good for little during some years afterwards; and sometimes it dies altogether at the time. Another method of forcing or producing fruits or vegetables at uncommon seasons is by preservation. Thus currants, some species of green gooseberries, cherries, &c. may be preserved until Christmas, by bemg covered with mats or cloths, either thrown over the bushes and borne up by them, or fixed om pro- per frames made for the purpose. Roots are preserved in sand or earth, as carrots, potatoes, &c. &c. , | \ 286 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I. 2. ForciNG, BY REMOVING VEGETABLES INTO AN ARTI- FICIAL CLIMATE, 1s performed by means of glass-houses, or glass-cases, heated either by fuel fire, the heat of steam, or the heat of putrefaction or fermentation. In every case, the great art lies in imitating natural climates as to light, dew, rain, heat, air, wind, &c.—For the modes of accomplishing this object, see the next chapter. CHAPTER VL OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF HOT-HOUSES, HOT-WALLS, PITS, HOT-BEDS, AND MUSHROOM-HOUSES. Tuar the construction of hot-houses is very imperfectly un- derstood among those who are generally employed to erect them, will appear evident to any one who shall investigate the subject in the slightest manner. Nor will this appear surpris- ing, when we consider how very recently they have become general in gentlemen’s gardens. It is presumed that there were few green-houses in England before Mr, Evelyn erected his con- PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 287 servatory at his seat near London. Now the same general form was implicitly followed till within these few years past * : not indeed exactly the same construction; for certain iron. pipes, which Mr. Evelyn ingeniously, but rather unsuccessfully, introduced for the purpose of supplying heated air, have been rejected ; and this has been done evidently without that en- quiry into their intended use, which was due to every scheme devised by that great man. Mr. James Justice, of Crighton near Edinburgh, erected the first pine-stove in Scotland ; and if we observe the plan of this hot-house, as given in Justice’s British Gardener, we shall observe little or no difference, either in the principles of construction or external appearance, be- tween it and those in general use at the present day. With respect to books on hot-houses, there has never yet been _ published any thing in the way of inquiry into the principles of their construction and general management. Mr. Evelyn, in describing his conservatory, gives two or three hints respect- ing the properties and management of air which are deserving of attention. But in the several books of designs. that have been published, not a sentence is to be found respecting the principles, or even the properties, of the designs recommended. * Of this any one may be convinced by examining his Kalendarium Hortense, 10th Edition. 988 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I. Indeed, these designs are impracticable, and such as could not answer the purposes of horticulture: the natural consequence that ever follows hot-houses designed by mere architects or builders*. ‘The plans given and recommended by Steel, Aber- cromby, Speechly, and others, answer better; but they contain no deviation from general practice, to entitle them to claim the ‘merit of making improvements in their construction. Indeed, it evidently appears, from the writings of these men, that they were unable to think accurately on the subject. The same remarks are applicable to the designs lately published by Mr. Nicol in his Forcing Gardener ; but it is with pleasure I remark, that these designs, though exactly upon the same principles with those mentioned above, are perhaps upon the whole better adapted for the purposes of forcing. ‘To Dr. Anderson the public have been indebted on many occasions; and horticulturists are emi- | nently so, for the many ingenious hints contained in the ac- count of his patent hot-house. This small volume is certainly of more real importance than all the designs or books on the subject that have preceded it. But though in some of the warmest counties of England the Doctor’s hot-house may per- haps succeed fora year or two after it is erected, it is the humble opinion of the author that it will never come into general use. * For we have many of these, but very few qualified to assume the former title. PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 289 In different parts of the island there are, and have long been, peculiarities in the construction of some hot-houses, which, had they been understood and attended to by planners, would long ere now have made a material difference in the general design and erection of these edifices. At Abercairnie, near Crieff in Perthshire, heated air introduced by a vacuity around the fur- nace has long been used to heat a peach-house. Now though the manner in which this is effected is extremely simple, yet the end is answered in a considerable degree, and a tolerable sav- _ ing of fuel produced. I am also informed, that heated air was in the same manner introduced into a hot-house in the neigh- bourhood of Manchester near forty years ago; and asit is pro- bable that there may be some other cases in England which ~ have not yet come under my observation, it is likely, however strange it may seem, that the practice may be traced as far back as Mr. Evelyn’s time. I only mention this to shew how very little men generally think upon what they hear or see, and how prone they are to persevere in old common practice. This improvement by heated air, having escaped the attention of planners (who must have seen or heard of some of the instances mentioned, but who evidently have not understood its nature) would have been lost to the public had not a Mr. Stewart, gar- dener at Woodlands, brought it boldly forward to public notice in his patent hot-house. Mr. Stewart deserves much credit for this; and it is to be hoped he will find such a demand for his PP 990. CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK f. kind of patent hot-house as amply to recompense his talents and industry. Reflecting upon these various improvements, in connection with a great number of experiments and observations made at Dalry*, I conceived the plan recommended in my treatise on hot-houses, for heating them; and by thinking on the subject in a free and unprejudiced manner, and studying the nature of heat, I conceived the idea of an inner roofing, an invention of immense use in their management. ‘These improvements were first tried experimentally upon an old hot-house in Broughton Park Nursery, Edinburgh ; where, although several things were ill executed, still the effect was so astonishing, as to encourage me to prosecute the ideas I had conceived. I have now, after considerable practice in designing, and seeing them constructed, fixed on improvements which appear to me much superior to any adopted, or at present known in Great Britain. They are perfectly simple and practicable, and will not only save much fuel, but greatly lessen the risk of over-heating or over- cooling the house, and will also require much less attendance * Dalry, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, was then the property of John Mawer, Esq. an eminent horticulturist and ground architect, who had at that time, 1796, the most extensive range of hot-houses and steam apparatus in that part of the country, as well as a very extensive practice in planting, building hot-houses, forming gardens, and laying-out grounds. The author had the honour to be his draughtsman and general superintendant for the three years previous to his death.. PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 991 from the gardener, and none at all m the night season, as is | frequently the case with those in general use. In England these improvements may be seen at Palatine House, Trigger Hall, &c. In Wales, at Havod, where ten large hot-houses are altering according to the author’s mode. In Scotland, at Mr. Smith’s, Leith Walk, Broughton Park Nursery, Macheny, Glen- fuir, and several other places. To enter fully into them in this work is unnecessary; but a few general hints are what the nature of my purpose demands, and they shall therefore be given as concisely as possible. 1. Hor-nouses. ‘The chief agents in vegetation, and which demand attention in the construction of hot=houses, are heat, soil, air, heht, water, and wind, or motion. Heat is generally produced by fuel, which is consumed in a furnace, and the heat and smoke conducted through the house in a flue or ho- rizontal chimney. It has occasionally been done with steam, either alone, or jointly with fire; but this is much too expen- sive for general use; the only advantage which attends it is, _ that a house at any distance from the boiler may be raised to "the same height as one close to it: an advantage of little use - in gardening, though in heating houses or rooms from a kitchen range, &c. it might be of service. Heat may occasionally be | communicated by fermentible or putrescent matters, such as dung, litter, leaves, moss, or other vegetables fit only for 292 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I. being changed into manure. In some cases, it may also be generated by the sun, (as in Dr. Anderson’s patent hot-houses,) and preserved in proper compartments, though probably in very few situations. All modes may occasionally be employed, or taken advantage of, in particular circumstances; but that by fuel, furnaces, and flues, is the only plan capable of being put in general practice with advantage. The greatest difficulty that occurs with heat is its management, so as to retain and regulate its degree agreeably to the nature of the climate to be imitated. It is retained partly by having the house made as nearly air-tight as possible, and partly by an inner curtain in- vented by the author, which is let down duritig night immedi- ately under the glass, and which, by preventing the heated air of the house from coming in contact with the glass, permits only a very smal! quantity to escape. It is: preserved at the proper regulation chiefly by this curtain, which, as it retains the proper temperature, does not require the heat to be greatly raised at the beginning of night in order that it may not be too. low in the morning, as is the case in all hot-houses where a cur- tain is not in use. For be it observed here, that though the house be perfectly air-tight, yet as glass from its porous nature is easily permeable by either heat or cold, and consequently as heated air always ascends to the top of the house, it must be continually given out to the atmosphere through the roof as well as sides of every glass hot-house. And this is the sole PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 993 reason why hot-houses with glass on all sides are so difficult to manage without this improvement. Soil is obtained either by inclosing a portion of the ground surface, and preparing it in a proper manner; or by placing it in pots or boxes, which may be removed or altered at plea- sure. Air, it is almost unnecessary to observe, is inclosed, and can - be excluded, and frésh air admitted, either wholly or to mix with it, by having apertures at different places, which may be opened or shut at. pleasure. Light is admitted by constructing all or part of the roof, or even the sides and the roof together, of glass frames. _ Water as such, that is in its fluid state, is easily given to the plants by pouring it on the ground only; as rain, it is given by the syringe, or engine, or watering-pot; and as dew, by pour- Ing it upon hot masonry, such as the flues, by which it first ascends as steam, and then descends, on parting with its calo- ric, as dew. Wind, which has two effects, that of putting the plants in motion, and removing stagnated air, is produced by admitting a OA CULINARY GARDENING: BOOK I. current of external air. As this can only be done with propri- ety when the external air is nearly of the same temperature as> that of the house, it is evident that vegetables grown in hot- houses must be great part of the year without this invigorating motion. I have attempted by several methods to produce a motion of the air of the house alone, by means of ventilators of different kinds, and which might produce wind, or a breeze, to exotics at all seasons of the year. I have hitherto, however, been unsuccessful, except in some particular houses where a good deal of room could be obtained; and then wind may be produced by putting in motion several large boards, which may be fastened on one side, by hinges, either to the back- wall, front glass, or roof. After these general remarks on culinary not-houses, a few observations shall be added on the particular kinds. These arrange themselves into three classes: 1. Those for peaches, nectarines, cherries, figs, &c. 2. Those for vines. 3. Those for pines. 1. Those for peaches and similar trees, where the climate is cold, are with propriety placed against walls, and formed of glass on one side: but where it is moderate, as in most parts of England, a house formed of glass on all sides, and with the trees planted and allowed to grow irregularly as standards, will tig. 1, CY 2 OF POE bi * 7) p a he cS j tA ; : A) / : Surface Ton ie a LL for forcing ‘eget YE pal aeyye young inte, Aji hl EW friniifle Za GC oC rn o ‘ NUN ee mi] = = SSS SS 0 SINE SSS Ss So E GALA I li E \ o os =o ; k = : SS | \ (MMMM MMM A MMMM | MM A MM UMMA LZZZzzzz Zz ZALES Z i we IL! TLLLTIL LULL TIPLLPL EEE TTP EEDE PLAS PA TIL ELDN LED = ys SAA — BIAS Ge 5 ot 2 Aeelion of aL Wew ES WE AOKE € Suvented Done Dive yo y _— Ye ’ td Cc A WT: 7 JLaudon del. tre seule Did lshad May 31-1808, by Longinan, Hurst, Rees & Urine, Paternoster Kon PART Y. CULINARY GARDENING. 295 “be found preferable and: more beautiful; the most decisive proofs of which I have given from facts which took place at _ Dalry. See the Treatise on Hot-houses, page 186. 2. Those for wines may be of any form, and large or small according to the period at which they are intended to be brought into fruit. A double roofed house, with an inner roofing, will always be found most economical for a general crop. Vines clothed with foliage, and enlivened by bunches of fruit, are so beautiful and accommodating, that they should be introduced into every kind of glass-house in a greater or lesser degree. 3. Pines are commonly grown at an immense expense, incur- red chiefly by the tanner’s bark and leaves, which require such frequent renewals, and occasion so much labour in moving and replacing the plants, &c. This, with the risk which always at- tends heat added by fermentible substances, has discouraged many from growing them. In the treatise already mentioned, I have described and delineated a plan which would almost en- tirely remove these objections. I am now happy in being able to refer to a house constructed by me upon the exact princi- ples, viz. the pinery at Prinknash; I shall here only refer to Plate 11. fig. 3, which is a section illustrative of the mode adopted, and may serve to impress the plan upon the memory of the reader. «aa a are,\the smoke flues; p the air flue; ca 906 CULINARY’ GARDENING. BOOK I. large vacuity of heated air; p the rubble stone vacuity; £ walk in the centre; F earth in which the plants grow; c¢ steam and air tubes; Hw inner roofing; x surface of the ground, &c. See the plan, sections, and a full description in the “ TREATISE.” 2. Hor-waxus. The formation of these consists of two parts: the construction of the flues and furnace in the wall; and the construction and contrivance of a covering of canvass, or netting, to be let down over the trees in severe weather, and during night. ‘The construction of the flues, so as to distribute the heat equally over every part of the wall, is perfectly simple and need not be insisted on.. The fronts of these flues should be made at least a brick thick to preserve that heat. The pro- _ per furnace is that recommended* for hot-houses in connexion with a damper; the great superiority of which in hot-walls I experienced in a striking degree at Mr. Smith’s hot-wall, Leith Walk. In contriving thé covering of Scotch gauze, or small netting, small rafters must be fixed to the top of the wall, and - to the border, about three feet from the roots of the trees. Along the lower ends of these rafters, the roller for containing ' the covering must be fixed. By cords and pullies this cover- ing can easily be drawn up to the top of the wall, or rolled down, as occasion may require. Wherever a hot-wall is con- * Sold at Cooke’s Foundry, Theobald’s Road, Holborn, Londen; andthe Edin- burgh Foundry Company, Edinburgh. \ PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 207 structed, this covering should not be neglected, as is too fre-. quently the case; it beg of very great importance in preserv- ing the heat, and preventing chilly dews, frosts, &e. 3. Prrs are constructed upon the same principles as hot- houses. They are of great use in raising crops of culinary ex- otics, as cucumbers, &e.; in forcing common vegetables, as. asparagus; in raising young exotics, as pines and other plants; or in producing grapes. or the general purposes for which pits are constructed, I shall beg leave to. recommend one invented by me, and erected on a small scale at Glenfuir; which, with only one fire,is capable of producing four different. temperatures at the same time; and, consequently, of forcing all kinds of common vegetables, and growing vines, pines, and melons, each in their proper climate, with one fire and little trouble or expence. It will be found described: and fully deli- neated in the Treatise on Hot-houses; and some idea of its ap- pearance may be formed from Plate XI. fig. 1., which is.a sur- face plan of it: a represents the cover of the excavation con- taining the furnace; s the air registers, which assist in produc- ing the different temperatures; c the air and steam tubes, by which heated air is admitted from the rubble stone vacuity, and steam produced by pouring in water, &c. Fig. 2. is a sec- tion of this pit; which shews a the smoke flue; 3 the air flue;. ¢ the chimney; p the supports of the rubble vacuity; © the rubble: Q2Q 298 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK f. vacuity; F the earth and the plants; c the inner roofing rolled up; 4 the damper; 1 the furnace-hole; x the cover of the same; t the surface of the ground, &c. ‘The advantages that would result from this pit, not only in producing earlier and better . crops than those in general use, but also in saving much time, labour, and annual expence, bestowed on forcing-houses and | hotbeds of all kinds, while they demand the attention of such gentlemen as indulge in these luxuries, are also of importance to the agriculturist. By substituting them for hotbeds (and one of them, a hundred feet long, would surpass a dozen of these) the disorderly appearance of dung and, litter in a garden would be avoided, and much stable manure saved, which could be applied more advantageously to the reproduction of vege- tables, by permitting it only to undergo the proper degree of fermentation; for I may here observe, that after dung has been nearly a twelvemonth in a hotbed, as every chemist knows and - many farmers have experienced, it loses a great proportion of its nutritive qualities. But besides this advantage, there is another of no small importance, and that is the formation of composts with peat or other matters, as I have formerly men- tioned under Agriculture. Though the plan given in Plate XI. fig. 1. and 2. be chiefly recommended for forcing common ve- getables, and growing young pines, cucumbers, &c. yet by avoiding the erection of any thing except the smoke and air flues, and by placing a trellis about eighteen inches under the PART VY. CULINARY GARDENING. 299 glass, without any other expence, the quadruple compartments will make four excellent vineries, which may be brought into fruit at the same number of periods. The general principle of forming vineries in this manner will be found to answer equally well with those raised above the surface and placed against walls, and they may be executed in the first instance at much less expence. 4. Horseps are commonly formed of stable manure; either alone; mixed with bark, moss, or coal ashes; with bark or moss in the centre only; with brushwood and ashes in the centre ;. or with turf, sand, or ashes on the top under the earth, &c.. ‘They are also occasionally formed of masonry, or brick-work, and surrounded by dung, as in M°Phail’s mode of cultivating the cucumber; whose practice and hotbeds answer well for early forcing, especially in England. This subject, however,, being more connected with the cultivation of a garden than the formation or design of it, I shall leave it to gardeners, it being generally their favourite business. _ 5. Musuroom-Housns require little ingenuity. If placed in a dry situation, they can seldom fail to answer. They may — easily be contrived so as to be forced into perfection at all sea- sons. ‘The erecting of houses on purpose for them, however,, is seldom requisite: an empty shed, barn, cottage, or cellar, are generally the places in which they are raised. 300 CHAPTER VII. OF OTHER BUILDINGS REQUISITE FOR A KITCHEN GARDEN, Sueps for implements, flower pots, hotbed frames, glass- sashes, or for working in during rain or stormy weather, are re- quisite in every garden; they are generally placed behind the hot-houses, and serve at the same time to contain the furnaces, fuel, &c. The strep room and Fruit Room should generally be erected adjoining each other, and placed near the hot-houses; as should also the gardener’s house, and most other useful buildings. CovERreD sEATS, ornamental rooMs or RETREATS, may either - be made in different quarters of the garden, in the centre, in the angles as at Aimsfield, or in the range of hot-houses, as at Twickenham and several other places. The particular design and construction of the useful garden buildings areso well understood, that it would be absurd to add any thing on the subject. The last class should be contrived in conformation to the style of the garden, the place, and the proprietor; and may be erected from designs as diverse as they PART ¥. CULINARY GARDENING. 301 are numerous, and of every degree of elegance, from the bower of honeysuckle, hops, or vines, twined upon bent poles, to the Grecian porch or temple of the finest masonry. Great caution is requisite, however, in admitting ornamental buildings into a kitchen garden. Tiven in them, as in every thing else in the garden, use should be the prevailing idea. But wse and beauty go hand in hand, and the most vulgar objects may be dignified by the judicious introduction of elegance. A kitchen garden, though unmixed with productions purely ornamental, is still a _ pleasing scene, because full of uéelity and animation, and always varying both from the practice of cultivation and the seasons. It is, therefore, very generally resorted to at most times of the year, and particularly early in spring. In our variable climate, whenever walks are frequently used at that season, there should be covered seats, and these seats should corre- spond with that whole of which they are conspicuous parts. 09 = $9 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK £. CHAPTER VIII. OF THE FORMATION OF ORCHARDS. Orcrarps, with regard to formation, may be divided into two kinds: Family orchards, which are a necessary appendage. to every good residence; and farm or market orchards, which are peculiar to certain counties, or the neighbourhood of great cities. The soil of both kinds should be strong, and the situa- tion sheltered, either naturally, or by means of forest planting. Natural shelter is produced by the variations of the grounds surface, and prevails chiefly between the high banks and holmes - of winding rivers, as the Wye, the Clyde, &c.; or by woods. al-; ready full grown. The exposure is likewise generally best in these situations; which arises both from the declivity and ex- posure of the north banks to the sun, from the reflection of the opposite banks, and the stillness of the atmosphere, which in- these situations is little affected by the wind. In forming fa-. mily orchards, whenever the side of a dell or river, or a natu- rally sheltered declivity, occurs, it should be preferred. It is too common a practice for gardeners to fix on level places, or regular slopes, on account of their more garden-like appearance ; PART Y. CULINARY GARDENING. 303 and to attempt producing shelter by planting, which never can be fully equal to that which is natural. It may be farther added, in favour of the other situations, that the soil is gene- rally of the best quality for fruit-trees. In most places diffe- rent species* of fruit-trees may be advantageously introduced, either in groups, or among other plantations in the park or pleasure-ground ; and it is highly probable, that the improve- ments in the form of the tree, and colour and quality of the fruit, which will result from Mr. Knight’s experiments and in- quiries into this subject, will render these trees much more in- teresting in such situations. Farm orchards are highly pro- fitable for sending the fruit to market, as in Clydesdale ; and for * It is extraordinary, that practical men have not more particularly recom- mended the cultivation of mulberry trees in this country, where they succeed so well, and produce such excellent fruit. These trees are not only of great impor- tance as furnishing food to the silk-worm, the breeding and rearing of which might become a delightful and profitable source of amusement to ladies during their resi- dence in the country; but they are also capable of being made of national utility by the wine that could be made from the juiceof this fruit. Whoever understands alittle of the theory, and somewhat of the practice of making wine from grapes, could make a very pure delicious wine from mulberries 5 and if it be remembered, on the one hand, what enormous sums of money are annually given for wines to a country that will probably long be our rival and enemy under every form of govern- ment ; and on the other, the various foreign matters, dangerous to the health, that are used in the manufacture of artificial wines; it is surely no less desirable than patriotic to endeavour to raise a very salutary and highly delicious substitute en- tirely of English growth. It is not an exaggerated calculation to say, that in the course of a very few years half the consumption of the united kingdom might be supplied with mulberry wine ; and it has naturally most of those qualities particularly relished by Englishmen. 304 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK F.. making cyder, asin Herefordshire, Worcestershire, &c. Where- ever they occur, they afford an excellent subject for a ferme ornée ; since no species of culture can be more beneficial and profitable. An instance, which I flatter myself will prove this in a few years, came under my practice at Hopton Court. I have in several places in the course of practice introduced fruit-trees in groups, sheltered hedgerows, and plantations. CHAPTER IX. OF THE GENERAL FORMATION OF A GARDEN, Tue first and most essential requisite, in fixing on the situation of a garden, is a good pxposuRE. Soil and shelter may be improved, and often entirely changed ; but exposure generally remains for ever the same. The best exposure for a garden is. the south-east; but in an extensive and complete garden, it would be desirable to have part of it with a northern aspect, to raise late crops. This can frequently be obtained, by fixing either upon both sides of a gentle eminence, or the two oppo- site sides of a hollow. If this hollow wind considerably, every ~~ PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 305 kind of exposure would be at once obtained, and generally in connexion with shelter and a good soil. The next requisite is sHELTER. Natural shelter has been already treated of, in the preceding chapter: where that can- not be had, and the garden can neither be placed in a natural hollow nor in a wood, recourse must be had to planting. This should be done on all sides of the garden, and near to, or distant from it, according to circumstances. When the garden is ona level, the nearest forest trees should not, generally, be closer to the outer fruit wall than a hundred feet.; and onthe south side twenty or thirty more: but when it is on a steep bank, they may frequently approach within fifty or sixty. In most cases, a deep sunk fence should be made between these trees and the garden ground, to prevent the roots from too freely pas- turing in the surface soil. If the trees are of the fir kind, which . make the best shelter, this will be particularly requisite. It is a common and dangerous error, to place gardens in. too low situations, for the sake of present natural shelter; but hoar frosts, mildews, and blights, seldom fail of being attendants. A number of such gardens could be pointed out both in Eng- and and Scotland. The next requisite is seruatron ; which chiefly refers to its connection with the rest of the place, and with water. It RR 306 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK 1. should be, if possible, near to the family offices and livery stables, and not far from the farm; at the same time it ought to be concealed from general view, and, if possible, so con- trived as not to interfere with picturesque improvement; which they frequently do when unguardedly set down. With respect to water, it should in every case be so near, and in such abun- dance, as that no scarcity of it for the common purposes of watering may take place in the summer months. Frequently, water may be used after the manner of irrigation, either by | making it pass under the garden through a porous substratum, or distributing it over its surface by means of troughs * and pipes, as already mentioned+. Both ways are practicable when water can be commanded: and where the surface is either a uniform slope or level, the expence would be very trifling, and the advantages certainly considerable. I have seen a great number of gardens where it might be put in practice with very little trouble, and perhaps none would be more im- proved by it than the garden now forming at Luss. The next requisite is PROPER so1L; whichsome will imagine ought to have been placed before Situation. But the soil can * These should be removed in winter, and intime of frost ; no water should touch a garden in winter thatcan be kept off; even rain, if it were possible to prevent it, should not fall on it; water produces cold by its evaporation, and in the process of congelation. + See Chapter .—CuLTIVATION. ‘PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 307 generally be altered at pleasure ; whereas situation, shelter, and exposure, cannot. Shelter indeed may be improved in the course of time, but frequently not during the life of the owner. Soil however can, though with considerable expence, be altered ina few months. The best general soil for a garden is a middling loam ; which, in some parts, can be made of different degrees of lightness, to suit different vegetables, by the addition of sand; and in others, of different degrees of stiffness or cohesion, by the addition of clays. 'The depth of garden soil mm general, | where the bottom is dry, may be considerable, and not less than three feet; where the bottom is a moist clay, a less depth will be requisite, especially if that clay be well drained; but if this cannot be accomplished, nor the expence of placing a stratum of gravel above it incurred, then it should not be less than four feet deep, in order to prevent the roots of herbaceous vegetables from reaching it. For fruit trees such a soil would be ruinous, without pavement at two and a half or three feet under the surface. When the natural soil has to be removed, and a new soil formed, regard should be had to the introduc- tion of different kinds of earth; and particular care taken to form the fruit tree borders of proper depth and quality, and with proper substrata. After these remarks on choosing the site of a garden, I add a few on its general form and subdivisions. 308 “ CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK f. The form, whichis determined by the walls, is best calculated for the general purposes of horticulture when it is that of a pa- rallelogram. ‘Though, if the production of wall fruit were the prime object, an oval form, with its long diameter from east to west, would be preferable ; as it would contain the smallest quan- tity of wall hid from the sun, and at the same time a consider- able portion of it would be always exposed to the south. But as all forms, except the square kind, derange the regulation of the quarters, and consequently would be particularly troublesome in digging and cropping, they are generally and very properly disregarded, except in some kinds of flower gardens, where fruits are cultivated upon the walls*. The outer inclosure or boundary of a garden may either be a sunk fence and hedge, or a sunk fence and low wall. Between that and the garden wall, a space of from forty to ninety feet should be reserved for common crops in the north side of the garden, and for early ones on the south. In several cases, a shrubbery may occupy a part of this space toward the plantation, forming a phalanx of varied vegetation, from the lowest shrub at the walk’s edge, to the tops of the forest trees. ‘This will make a very complete shelter, and have an agreeable appearance at most seasons. * Frequently, however, when flower gardens which are to have fruit upon the walls are formed, ignorance of culture, and want of ingenuity in the Designer, in- duce him to be content with common forms, as in that mass of deformity called a flower garden at Valleyfield, and also that at Douglass Castle. PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 309 Often, however, a single holly hedge upon the top of the sunk fence may supply its place, and then a greater portion may be allotted to the growth of kitchen vegetables, and the general character of utility be better preserved. Sometimes it fortu- nately happens, from the declivity of the ground to the south, that the regularity of this outer inclosure can be broken, and a large bay or recess made in the wood, either to contain all the hot-houses, -hot-beds, &c. or to contain the hot-beds only. Where this can be done, it is a great advantage; but regard must be had to the shadows which a high north wall projects § in winter when the sun’s rays are nearly horizontal. Within this space or outer border is placed the fruit-tree walls; and the space within these is subdivided into bor- ders and quarters by walks, alleys, espaliers, rows of trees, and hedges. Wall borders should, in general, be of the breadth of the wall’s height; espalier borders the width of the walks, or of the espalier, which ought to be in unison. When walls or espaliers are very low however, the former perhaps under ten, and the latter under three feet, this rule will not apply. Quarters, if not so small themselves, should be subdivided into spaces not more than a hundred feet broad; their length does ~ not signify, as it can be varied by rows of trees, bushes, or, what is frequently preferable, the mode of cropping alone. Walks, as to direction, should surround and cross the garden, 310 : CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK TI. always intersecting one another at right angles. This should be done in such a manner, as to form a border on each side of the walls, and to form quarters of convenient size, &c. The garden may be subdivided by walls similar to that which sur- rounds it; or by hedges, which produce better shelter. The breadth of walks and the height of walls must depend upon the extent of the whole. Walls should seldom be made lower than twelve or thirteen feet, and never need be made higher than sixteen, except for hot-houses. Walks in kitchen gardens should seldom be narrower than five feet, and very seldom broader than fifteen; ten or twelve feet is generally a proper breadth for extensive gardens. Espaliers are commonly, and very properly, placed parallel to the walks, both round and across the whole garden. Rows of fruit-trees are placed across it to produce shelter, or irregularly in the quarters, to | effect variety; but this last practice is seldom advisable. Hedges are perhaps too little used in modern gardens. In exposed places, they are much to be preferred to walls for sub- divisions. Walls, in such situations, produce violent currents and eddies of wind ; but hedges only soften and refine it as it passes through them: besides, the beauty and grandeur of high holly hedges, when contrasted with brick walls and the red eravel of the walks, is certainly another recommendation which ought to have some influence, though utility were out of the question. PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 311 Culinary hot-houses may be placed against the south 8ide of the north wall as usual; or, if a convenient space can be found, without the walls; where the whole of the forcing- houses, pits, and frames, may be placed together. When this is not the case, the pits and hot-beds should be placed in a sunk area in one of the quarters of the garden, and not far dis- _tant from the hot-houses. In a complete and magnificent residence, the kitchen gar- den ought to be laid out at first, and managed ever afterwards, with a view to the cultivation and production of culinary fruits and vegetables only. No green-houses or plant stoves, flower- borders, roses, or parterres, should be introduced ; but utility should be predominant in every part. In many cases, even the edgings of the walks should be made of strawberries*, parsley, or other useful plants; and in place of holly hedges, double rows of espaliers or standard fruit-trees. In a complete resi- dence, the flower-garden, green-house, and plant-stoves, should be entirely by themselves. In a less magnificent residence, however, they may be, or at least are commonly, intermingled ; and when the flowers and shrubs introduced in the borders are * Strawberries always produce best in this situation, though in most cases box” is preferable ; for what is gained by the fruit of the strawberries, is lost by the extra labour of preserving the earth of the border from mixing with the gravel of the walk. 312 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK Tf. of commonly cultivated kinds, or annuals, utility is not much frustrated, and the effect is not strikingly incongruous. But when rare or uncommon sorts are introduced, they require such careful and diversified culture, that the general use of garden ground, and the pulverization of the soil for the growth of the trees in the borders, cannot be sufficiently attended to; and with regard to beauty or taste, there is such a contrast between the state and appearance of a wild plant grown only to amuse the botanist, and the monstrosity of cabbages, turnips, fruits, and even roses, lilies, and pinks, that in place of producing variety or harmony, which moderate contrasts will do, it pro- duces discord, and thence excites disgust. There was once in this country a kind of gardens where | beauty, grandeur, and use, were mingled in a way at present unknown, or nearly forgotten. In them terraces, green slopes, ballustrades, stone steps, ponds, statues, arbours, high hedges, _ and other architectural and aquatic decorations, were mingled with fruit-trees, flowers, herbs, and culinary vegetables: The union of so many different things was certainly in a high degree unnatural; but it was so fully avowed, and was so completely blended and harmonized by the appearance of great art in every part of the garden, and by the immediate vicinity of the house itself, that they must have produced a whole agreeable to good principles; and as pleasing to connoisseurs at the time, PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 313 by its contrast to the general appearance of the country, as the ideas that we have of them and the fragments which still exist are gratifying to us from their antiquity and rarity. _ Thecultivation and yearly management of a garden includes a great variety of matter highly interesting and amusing to those who take delight in a country life. It has occupied the leisure hours and the pen of a | Bacon, an Evelyn, a Temple, and a Boyle, and therefore is not unworthy the attention of their countrymen. ‘There still remains much room for experi- ment and observation, and much need of shewing the applica- tion of those facts already known. It is astonishing to observe what trifling evils are reckoned insurmountable, or are at- tempted to be removed by unsuitable or totally inadequate means. I have often seen, and daily see, great labour and expence bestowed to render ground or trees fruitful, which, if the simplest facts were adverted to, might be done much more completely with scarcely any trouble. 314 BOOK I. PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. INTRODUCTION. Ornaments gardening may be divided into three kinds; 1. Parterre or flower gardening; 2. Botanic gardening; and, 3. Shrubbery gardening, or the culture of flowering shrubs. In a complete treatise these different heads should be discussed se- parately; here they need only be noticed together, and that in a very cursory manner. ‘The object of this kind of gardening ts chiefly ornament, taste, and amusement. To effect this pur- pose, we have materials of different natures to be selected, exhibited, arranged, disposed, or combined together. How custom proceeds in this matter may easily be learned; but what is truly proper can only be discovered by reflection, and recurrence to the principles of good taste; which are as uni- versal in their application, as the sources from which they are PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BIS! drawn, the mind of man, and the elementary modifications — of matter are unlimited in the extent of their existence. It is scarcely necessary to observe here, that the operations of cul- tivation in this branch of gardening are performed. after the same manner,. and on the same principles, as in the former branch of it; the only difference being this, that here less gross. _ culture (so to speak) is necessary; for as the productions of orna- mental gardening address themselves chiefly to the mind, which. being inthis age and country more refined than the mere animal sensations, is consequently more capable of relishing the beauty and simplicity of nature. Some there are, however, so gross. in taste, as. to prefer tulips and Dutch flower roots to ericas and violets, and who are more delighted in a Dutch parterre than in Dovedale or Arthur’s seat. This perverted taste can: only be accounted for on the same principles, as some prefer a country covered with dirty ruinous cottages, and. inhabited: by gypsies and old starved peasants, to one where cleanliness,, comfort, and cultivation, are the prevailing ideas. All ex-- tremes of this sort are unphilosophical, and totally opposite to: the principles of true taste-—The remarks which I offer on this. subject are arranged as follows: 1. Of the materials of orna-- mental gardening. 2. Of the principles of selection: and. are. rangement. 3: Of the subjects of ornamental gardening... 316 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I. CHAPTER I. OF THE MATERIALS OF ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. Tusss are lawn, gravel, soil, water, stones, flowers, shrubs, and trees. Lawn, or smooth turf, is a pleasing and extensively useful material, and in many of the subjects of ornamental gardening forms a conspicuous part. Itis produced from grass seeds sown on poor soil, or by turf brought from old pastures. It 1s pre- served and much improved by rolling and mowing, and greatly injured by worms, rich spots of soil, or manure. Walks are frequently made of lawn, which have a good effect in some or- namental scenes; but there should generally be others of gra- vel, to have recourse to when these are moist or unpleasant. In almost every case, where lawn 1s not fed by sheep, it should not be formed of mere grasses; which require continual mow- ing, and present one dull, vapid, surface of uniform green. They should be composed of primroses, violets, common and garden daisy, camomile, graphallium, doicum, hieracium pilo- sella, and especially white clover. Any three of these species, or the whole of them judiciously mixed, would form a varie- / PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. Jol7 gated carpet of gay flowers, from April to December, the effect of which, compared to mown lawn, would be as gaiety to gloom, or insipidity to expression—All the expence of mowing would be avoided, and all the smoothness necessary for lawn pre- served, in connexion with such a variety of roughnesses as would give the whole a natural appearance. Lawns of this kind exist in nature, and have occupied the pastoral poet. ‘The beauty they would add to artificial scenery is beyond descrip- tion—the economy in yearly management by no means incon- siderable. GRAVEL AND sanpare useful materiaJs for walks and paths. As these are most generally used in mornings and evenings, when the grass is moist with dew, and also after rain, when it ‘is a great luxury, unmolested by water or moisture, to observe “the face of nature, they should always be made of a firm and dry material, and gravel is the best of this kind yet discovered. Gravel walks in parterres and ornamental gardens.should ge- nerally be in free easy directions, and with neat determined ' outlines. But there are exceptions to the former remark in the case of parterres of bulbous roots, and those where particu- lar shapes and figures are imitated. Sorz is not only of use for growing several of the materials, but also by way of contrast and relieving them. former ar- 318 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK f. tists, taking advantage of this effect, have introduced different. coloured earths, which Lord Bacon justly reprobates as trifling. The natural soil throughout is always preferable, and if taste-_ fully varied by the green of vegetation will have a very harmo- nious effect. Soil, with regard to its quality, should be poor for most ornamental: plants and shrubs:—various but chiefly dry virgin pasture loam for most botanic plants:—mossy and moist for ericas and most American and Cape plants, &c. W aTeEr is introduced in parterres, shrubberies, and botanic | gardens, either in still ponds, drooping fountains, or jets-d’eau; but as they are all artificial, no perfect models can be held forth for imitation. Still, however, there are principles to which we can ever have recourse, either in judging of or con- triving all works of art. Contrast, in every modification of matter, is capable of producing either incongruity, variety, or harmony, and consequently of effecting scenes which shall disgust, please, or highly interest, the spectator. The appli- -eation of the principle of contrast to the formation of artificial ponds and jets-d’eau might be advantageously treated of at great length; but it would occupy more time than can be spared in this work ; and is the less necessary for this reason, that to those who understand the principles of taste, which I have already endeavoured to lay down, it would be almost un- necessary; and to others it would not carry conviction unless PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 319 reduced to practice. Jets-d’eau are not so much condemned in this country as they were a few years ago; but they are less understood in most places. Where they have been intro- duced, as at ‘l'rentham, they are contemptible or misplaced. Stroness of singular shapes, or shells, &c. are used in parterre gardening, in collections of what is called rock-work, on which are inserted mountain plants. They are admissible in this way, _and sometimes have a good effect, especially when they sur- round a pond in a parterre, as at King’s Weston. FLOWERING AND BOTANIC PLANTS are the most extensively used materials. They may be divided into, 1. Bulbous rooted plants, far removed from their natural state; 2. Tender herba- ceous plants; as pinks, auriculas, carnations, &c.; 3. Common herbaceous kinds; 4. Annual flowers; 5. Bog or moss plants; 6. Botanic plants, or such as are cultivated for botanical amusement. A few hints shall be offered on the culture of each of these divisions. 1. Bulbous rooted plants require very particular manage- ment; first to produce new varieties, and afterwards to pre- serve them. ‘The varieties are produced chiefly from seed, and are improved, or broken, as florists term it, by the soil, &c. See Justice’s Flower Garden, Maddox's Directory, &c. 320 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. | BOOK & 2. Tender herbaceous plants. ‘To these nearly the same re- marks apply. They are better deserving of culture than the other, because less monstrous. Pinks, carnations, auriculas, and polyanthuses, are singularly fine flowers in the eyes even of the botanist. | 3. Common herbaceous plants are easily propagated and cul- tivated. They will grow in most soils, and are so various in magnitude, forin, mode of growth, time of flowering, colour of the flower, &c. as to suit themselves to every situation which can occur in those parts of a place devoted to ornamental gar- | dening. With respect to magnitude, some grow very large, as the solidago*, rhubarb, &c.; others very small, as the common thyme, daisy, &c. There is every variation between these two extremes, asin the primula, dianthus, cherianthus, valeriana, vicia, &c. ‘There are frequently all the varieties of magnitude in one genus, as in aster, cardus, &c.; often most species of a genus are very large, as the rudbeckia; and frequently they are very small], as the beds and the hepatica. Wath respect to form, some plants, when disengaged from others, assume a regular conical shape, as the common larkspur; others an inverted cone, as most asters, and plants bearing their flowers in a corymbus. * Tt is unnecessary to mention the particular species of those to which these cha- racteristic distinctions are applied, as they will occur at once to every person in the least acquainted with plants. ‘PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. So ‘Some form a broad, flat, and apparently solid mass upon the sur- face, as the cerastium, savifraga, &c.; others a more loose, but still a broad mass, as the trollius, convalaria, primula, &c. From this solid mass some send out high flower stems, as the asphode- lus; and others conceal these among the flowers, as the epiden- dron. With respect to modes of growth, some send out branches from a principal stem like a tree, as the cardus; others send all their stems from the root, as the mentha, &c. ‘There is a me- dium between these two extremes in the astrantia; and both modes are united:in the scandex. Some plants always creep upon the surface, as the ajuga; some constantly attach them- selves to others by tendrils, as the piswm; some again attach themselves by twining round other bodies, as the convolvulus, &e. With respect to the flowers of plants, their form, colour, and time of flowering, are endless; and no discrimination ei- ther in the characteristics of general form, or of the flowers, can be of much use to those who are not botanically and_practi- cally acquainted with them. Such will find their memory re- freshed by the occasional use of Don’s Hortus Cantabrigiensis, and Stillingfleet’s Catalogue of Flora. 4. Annual flowers are equally various with such as are her- baceous or perennial. Their culture is well known. They are highly beautiful, and peculiarly adapted for parterres or flower gardens, as being removed every year. | , TT 322 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK i. 5. Bog or moss plants and shrubs are a highly beautiful class, requiring a particular soil, situation, and mode of culture: hence, in ornamental gardening, they ought generally to be placed by themselves, particularly the more rare kinds of them, as the American and Cape tribes. The soil in which these commonly grow best is a sandy moss of moderate moisture; the situation low and well sheltered ; the exposure generally to the south, though many species will thrive well under the shades of other trees, or exposed to the north. This is strik- ingly exemplified in the beautiful undergrowths of rhododen- drons and arbutus at Kenwood and Mount Edgecumbe, also in the large American plants at Zion House, Croome, and se- veral other places. Exotic bog and moss plants, as ericas, diosmas, &c.; and indeed all exotics, though kept in green- houses most part of the year, should always be in a northern exposure when placed in the open air, as is customary during the summer months. This cool and sunless summer will make their winter in the green-house, comparatively with what it would otherwise be, light and agreeable. 6. Botanic plants and trees. This division includes all those - not comprehended in the former. 'The word plants 1s here taken in its most extensive or general sense for all vegetables, except~ ing trees and shrubs; consequently all of these are included from monandria to palme. Their natural soils, situations, &c. are PART VI.. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 3233. almost as various as their Hames; but upon the whole the fol- lowing kinds of soils and situations will grow most of them in a botanic garden: 1. Virgin mountain earth dry; 2. Mossy earth-in a moist situation; 3. Half of each in a moist situa- tion; 4. Half of each dry; 5. Moist clay and moss; 6. Dry gravel and sand; 7. A running brook, with a clear gravelly or sandy bottom; 8. A stagnate brook or pond, with a muddy bottom; 9. A rock work, with the stones large, and joined as. close as in causewaying or building, but without mortar; built in the form of an irregular pyramid or cone, on all sides of which certain species of mosses, ferns, &c. could be grown; 10. Trees alive and full grown, and also decayed for the growth of mosses and funguses; 11. Part of the sea-shore, of which to: form proper places for most sorts of sea-plants; 12. Hot- houses, &c. for exotics. ‘Thisincludes the chief requisites of a complete botanic garden; but 1,2 and 8 will nearly serve the purposes of all the rest (excepting sea-plants) under the ‘ma- nagement of a judicious gardener. Survuss forma class of materials no less: interesting than flowers. ‘They require less care in cultivation, and their beau- ties, consisting chiefly in the general form and appearance, are less fleeting with the seasons, and more striking ata distance.. They may be divided into evergreens and deciduous kinds; and each of these divisions into such sorts as are rarely seen, and: A 324 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK It. such as are generally cultivated. Evergreens may be formed. into many sub-divisions, according to their magnitude, forms, mode of growth, colour, &c. which are of every shade between the ruscus, which is among the least, and the Bermudian juni- per, which is nearly the largest—the cypress, which grows in the form of a spire, to the daphne tarton raira, which forms a globular tuft upon the surface—the hedera, which fastens it- self to the wall; to the andromeda, or vinca, which recline them- selves upon the surface—from the holly slightly tinged with red, to the box of a golden yellow. ‘The deciduous sorts are capable of the same sub-division, and are diversified in each of these particulars. Here they may be divided into such as are cultivated chiefly for the beauty of ' their flowers, as the rhododendron, erica, &c.—for the smell, as the sweet briar, absinthides, cleriodendron, jasminum, &c.—for both, as the rose, Cape jasmine, &c. Others are cultivated chiefly for the beauty of the leaves, as the acuba, variegated . holly, &c.—others for the fruit, as the mespilus pyracantha and the orange; others for the beauty of the whole plant, as the aristotelia, &c. but most for all of these properties together, as the myrtle, dawristinus, laurel, &c. ‘Trens form the last natural material in ornamental garden- _ ing; and though the use of them more properly belongs to the PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 325 subject of planting, or picturesque improvement, yet they de- serve to be noticed here, because afew of them are occasionally introduced into parterres or botanic gardens, either for their individual beauty, for shelter, shade, or some of the uses of pic- turesque improvement. It is in the shrubbery, or those parts of the pleasure grounds which contain flowers, shrubs, and TREES—which occupy considerable space, exhibit views of the country, or of other parts of the ground, that ornamental gar- dening and picturesque improvement blend themselves toge- ~ sther. STATUES, URNS, INSCRIPTIONS, BUSTS, MONUMENTS, &c. are materials which should be introduced with caution. None of the others require so much taste and judgment to ma- nage them with propriety. The introduction of statwes*, ex- cept among works of the most artificial kind, such as fine ar- chitecture, is seldom or never allowable; for when they obtrude * Perhaps there is no other mechanical effort of art so preposterous as naked bronze-coloured human figures exposed in the open air, and surmounted with lumps of snow orice. Decency and common sense equally loathe them, and good taste flees their presence. As an apology for such insupportable absurdities, it is alleged that they are of Grecian origin. This is an error: it is true, the Greeks, despairing of being able to execute figures with drapery, produced naked statues ; but these were always placed within their temples. The exposwre of nakedness is a comparatively modern corruption of the true Grecian taste, which ought not to be thus abused. The Romans and modern Italians are the authors of this vulgar prac- tice. In every case (except bathing scenes, which are properly private, and consc- quently unfit for public representation) the introduction of nudity, whether in paint- ing or sculpture, betrays bad taste and want of talents in the artist. , / 826 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK f.. themselves among natural beauties, they always disturb the train of ideas which ought to be excited in the mind, and ge- nerally destroy the character of the scenery. In the same way, busts, urns, monuments, &c. in flower gardens, are quite mis- placed; as any unprejudiced person, capable of attending to his own mind, may feel in the flower garden at Nuneham, and as reason and judgment may convince any one who under- stands the principles of taste. The obvious intention of these appendages is, to recal to mind the virtues, qualities, or ac- tions, of those for whom they were erected: now this requires time, seclusion, and undisturbed attention, which must either render all the flowers and other decorations of the ornamental garden of no effect; or, if they have effect, it can only be to interrupt the train of ideas excited by the other. As the garden, and the productions of nature, are what are intended to interest the spectator, it is plain that the others should not be introduced. This reasoning, while on the one hand it shews the absurdity of such a practice, on the other directs that urns, monuments, &c. should only be placed in solitary unfrequented places, where the mind is naturally led to contemplate, and where the remembrance of the virtues of great men, or the worth of rela- tions now no more, afford proper subjects of contemplation.— But even in places apparently solitary, or secluded, these have ‘been introduced in so affected or improper a manner, as to furnish reason for the greatest caution in future. PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 327 When, on viewing sublime productions of architecture, the mind is rapt in wonder, astonishment, or awe, statues often come in well, and increase and prolong the emotion; as in contemplating the west front of St. Paul’s Cathedral, York Minster, or Westminster Abbey; but they can seldom. raise the emotion of sublimity when they become principal in any composition of architecture; as when they are employed as co- lumns or for other useful purposes, as in the order of carya- tides*; and of scenery, as when they are used among trees, flowers, or shrubbery. If placed among scenery to be ad- mired as works of art—as fine pieces of sculpture, they will never sufficiently interest any but such contracted connoisseurs as would not enjoy the other objects, and would much distract the attention of men of true taste. Witness the bad effect of the very excellent statues placed near to, and in, the green- house at Shuckborough. Inscriptions, merely as such, are in general despicable re- sources, and only indicate conceit and want of mind. If the imscription be apposite, we are much better pleased to feel or recollect the coincidence on reading than to be told it by others; if it be foreign, or far fetched, it argues a gross defect in those who placed it there, and serves to excite ridicule; if it be * This is exemplified in Liverpool Exchange. 328 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I: merely a whim or fancy, as where an urn or seat in a plea- sure ground exhibits in large letters “'To all friends round the Wrekin,” it is disgusting.. Buiiprines, being more conspicuous than either statues, urns, or inscriptions, require to be introduced more sparingly, and with greater caution. In mere garden or ornamented sce- nery, they should seldom obtrude themselves by their magni- tude or glaring colour; and they.should rarely be erected but for some obvious purpose of utility. The chief use of such buildings will be as covered seats, arches, or gateways, or hot- houses; other larger and more conspicuous buildings are treated of under picturesque improvement, or the conveniences of a residence. Covered seats are introduced of many forms, and under a great variety of names, such as root-houses, heath-houses, moss- houses, huts, bowers, caverns, caves, grottos, temples, mosques, &c. besides plain covered seats either of wood or stone. The imitation of temples or mosques, as they must generally be on a small scale, is quite ridiculous. The propriety of introducing the others depends entirely upon the character of the scene. Light bowers formed of lattice-work, and covered with clim- bers, are in general most suitable to parterres; grottoes to American gardens, or aquatic scenes; plain covered seats suit PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 329 the general walks of the pleasure ground. Most of the others may be introduced in romantic, singular, wild, or melan- choly places. Arches or gateways in the scenery of the pleasure ground, be- sides their utility when properly placed, are often picturesque improvements, both by giving more force and strength of effect to mere earth and vegetation; and also by occasionally produc- ing the charm of surprise, which, when unaffectedly introduced, is sufficiently allowable. Thusin the transition from one scene to another, an archway and close gate or door between them ‘is often necessary to complete the purpose of the separation fence: now, though there be no difference in the kind of scenery on each side, yet on approaching the gate from either, the extent of vision is gradually diminished, from considera- ble width, length, and height, to the mere size of the gateway ; which, when opened the full extent, bursts upon the sight at once. Quick and angular turns of walks have a similar effect, and may often be advantageously introduced. Hot-houses, in ornamental gardening, are chiefly of the green- house or conservatory kind, and are more properly objects of use.than external beauty, though this also ought to be attended to.» ‘They will naturally be considered'in Chapter ITI. — UU 330 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I. CHAPTER II. OF THE PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT IN ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. Tue object of ornamental gardening is to exhibit beauties, either stngly or collectively. The first and most obvious purpose of selecting sine objects is to shew minute beauties, such as flowers, or fruits. This is done by placing the plants or shrubs which produce them in the most conspicuous situations, either on lawn, pulverized earth, or in pots. The next thing which would naturally strike gardeners in selecting beauties. from wild nature would be, to collect a number of them. together ; this would be first done in rows, and afterwards in’ beds or masses of various forms and dimensions. Originally, symmetry and regularity would be studied, as first perceived beauties ; but in time, as parterres or flower gardens of this sort became more general, fancy would be exercised to produce novelty and variety, and excite wonder and curiosity. Hence the origin of fashion or style in this kind of gardening, both with regard ito different countries, and the same country at different periods. To pursue the subject farther, however, in an historical way, would not afford much instruction with regard to princoples ; > PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 331 and I shall therefore observe, that the selection of single objects, which may be called the lowest principle of ornamental gar- dening, may either refer to trees, shrubs, or plants; and of these, either to the leaves, flowers, fruits, or to all of them together. The next purpose of ornamental gardening is, to shew beau- ties collectively. This is accomplished either by arnraNcE- MENT. OF GROUPING. ARRANGEMENT may either be effected upon the principles of botany, of culture, of general nature, or artificial borderings. Botanical arrangement may be as various as the different sys- tems which have been invented by botanists, whether natural or artificial. This mode of arrangement is employed in botanic gardens, or collections either of plants or trees. Arrangement according to culture refers chiefly to such plants or trees as re- quire a particular attention with regard to soil, climate, &c. Thus all the bulbous-rooted flowers, tender herbaceous plants, American plants and trees, and in some instances exotics, are arranged according to this mode; and particularly the first class, which are always, when in a cultivated state, guided by it, as in Dutch parterres, &c. The arrangement universal in nature is what will be most pleasing to general admirers.’ Its principles are perfect! y simple ; being nothing more than this, 332 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I. “that one kind of objects, beauties, or characters, always pre- vails in one place; and that when another succeeds, it is gene- rally done in a gradual manner, the interval between them being composed of characters or beauties irregularly blended together.” This is beautifully illustrated throughout all nature, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral. It may be observed,’ as I shall afterwards shew*, in the trees of natural forests, no less than in the grasses~and mosses which form a carpet upon’ the surface; and is intimately connected with a similar ar- rangement which takes place in the soil, both with regard to quality, variation of surface, and moisture. It is equally ob- servable in the animal creation, from the several varieties of man which inhabit different quarters of the globe, to the nu- merous species of insects or reptiles, which have each their par- ticular habitats in plants or trees, or particular kinds of sur- faces and local climates. It has hitherto been totally neglected, as most of nature’s laws have been in this branch of science ; while in its place is substituted, by custom and ignorance, a mode of arrangement totally inconsistent with nature or good taste; ] mean the vulgar mode of mixing different species to- gether indiscriminately ; not only without the smallest regard to connexion or difference of character, but in studied opposi- ‘tion to it. Thus, in green-houses, the common rule is, never # See PLANTING. PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 333 to let two species be placed close together, but to distribute each species equally throughout every part of the house. The same rule is applied to flower gardens, shrubberies, and plant- ing in general; but any one capable of reflecting.on the sub- ject will perceive, that it is as opposite to the principles of good taste, and as destitute of connexion, variety, or character, as the order of words in a dictionary is to that of common conver- sation, or the arrangement of colours on a painter's pallet- board is to that of the rainbow. This principle of arrangement is the most generally applica- ble in ornamental gardening, whether we regard their general distribution into lawn, flower, and shrubs ; or the smaller parts, composed of flowers or shrubs only. Even a collection of beauties, exhibited singly, may still be contrived agreeable to this principle. ‘Thus in a plot of finely varied auriculas each minute variety may be kept by itself, and the same often (though not always) in beds of tulips, hyacinths, and ranuncu- luses. Artificial borderings, that is, flower borders along the walks in gardens, or borders of flowers in papered rooms, or indeed ornamental wreaths or borders of any kind, are formed upon the principles of contrast and repetition. A small part of that border, of a length more or less according with its breadth, ' and the variety to be contained in it, is first formed by placing together flowers of different forms and colours, so as to set off 834, ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK TI; one another to the greatest advantage, and thus form either a varied or harmonious combination ;—then the same thing is re- peated, generally without any variation*, ever afterwards, which forms a continued series of the same harmonies. This mode of arrangement is chiefly applicable to flower borders that are carried along the walks of commonkitchen gardens. It is well practised by most gardeners, not only in planting the roses or shrubs which they distribute regularly throughout the yas but also in placing the perennial plants; and in spring, i sowing the annuals, it is done in a most minute and accurate manner. In some species of flower gardens, as in the culture of tulips or other similar flowers, itmay be applicable; but it is too trifling for being generally employed, and ought never to appear in shrubberies, or any sort of extensive works. Being of a simple nature, and easily comprehended by most gar- deners, it has given rise, and is in fact nearly allied, to the er- roneous arrangement reprobated under the preceding head :— an arrangement which has been followed, as far as can be known, from the earliest ages ; but which is not on that account to be continued, when founded, as I trust I have satisfactorily shewn, upon no just principles. * In some Egyptian and Grecian borders of ornaments, perpetual variations have been made, but not with a good effect; of which the unfrequency of the practice may be a sufficient proof, — PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 335 Grovupinc. has been explained under Painting. It effects variety, intricacy, and harmony, and may be applied either to objects of the same kind in which the chief principle is con- trast of the parts, or to objects of different kinds in which the chief principle is disposition or contrast of different objects. Itis applicable to all the larger scenes of ornamental garden- ing, in connexion with all the natural principles of arrange ment, except culture and bordering, where it would cause much inconvenience in pulverizing the soil, Even there, however, it may frequently be introduced with advantage and effect; but considerable judgment is requisite, to decide when ornamental effect should give way to convenient culture. In shrubberies, and scattered trees or shrubs, either alone or seen in connexion with any of the other materials of ornamental gardening, grouping is an indispensable requisite, and can never be omitted without foregoing one of the greatest beauties in nature; one which is universally prevalent in every variety of natural scenery, which is instantly perceived, and so highly fascinating to the man of taste, that no other beauty whatever can com- pensate forits absence. It will be at once perceived, that the beauty I mean is connexion ; which, according to the objects connected, may either produce order, variety, intricacy, or harmony. Unfortunately, however, it isa beauty not much, if at all, perceived by gardeners, and is rather adverse to the principles of cultivation, and that love of offspring inherent in 336 ORNAMENTAL: GARDENING. BOOK TI. the mind, which makes a gardener so fond of the trees that he has reared, as either to use every means to keep them isolated from one another, so as they may properly enjoy all the agents of vegetation, and become conspicuous single objects; or else, from want of courage to extirpate individuals, to let the whole grow up together until they destroy each other. The princi- ples of natural effects, however, are universal in their applica- tion, even with regard to utility. These principles, and also the imitation of the effects produced by the extremes of their ope- ration, will ever be the true criterion of beauty * in the arts of taste, or im ornamental productions. * This is equally true, both of the physical and moral world,—of men and things ; variety and unity are attributes of perfection. PART VI. |. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 33 CHAPTER III. OF THE SUBJECTS OF ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. Turse are, Parterres of different kinds; Botanic Gardens ; | Hot-houses ; Conservatories, &c. Small Groups of Shrubs and Flowers placed upon Lawn ; Shrubberies, and Pleasure-grounds. 1. Parterres.—The form, extent, and kinds of these are various, from the general flower-garden to be met with in seve- ral places of England, as at Nuneham, Beaumont Hall, &c. to the remains of the antient French parterre, containing the arms of the family cut out in box, divisions of sand and shell work, and trees shaped into men and animals, as at Wentworth Castle and Levens Park *. In ornamental gardens or parterres of every kind, the soil should be unmanured, and rather poor than otherwise : but the situation and exposure should be good, and the surface of the ground beautifully varied. Their extent must be in propor- * Laid out by King James the VIth’s Gardener. xX X Raye 338 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK f. tion to the place to which they belong. In general, they need not be large. In almost every kind, a few trees and shrubs should be introduced, to remove from the general view the ap- pearance of insipidity, and to break it into separate scenes ; one of which alone should be seen at a time, that the extent of vision being circumscribed the spectator may thus be induced to examine or admire the minute beauties of single objects or small compositions. I may observe here, that where parterres are intermingled with lawn, those disgusting lines of separation at | the edges of walks, or round groups and dug patches of flowers or shrubs, which abound every where, should not be introduced ; the gravel of the walk, and the earth at the edges of the dug patches or groups, ought to be kept nearly on a level with the grass on the lawn. Where much culture is requisite in the groups, the line of separation should be delicate and graceful ; and where this is not necessary, or not much attended to, both the lines of the walk and the lines of the dug group or patch should blend and harmonize, and, in a natural, easy manner, glide insensibly into each other.—A few of the most remark- - able varieties of parterres shall be characterized below. 1. A general flower-garden, or parterre, should contain sucha variety of beautiful trees, shrubs, flowers, &c. as that a number of each will be in perfection every month of the year, particu- PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 339 ° larly in the ine season. They should be placed in irregu- lar groups and thickets, of different sizes, gliding into one another on smooth lawn, beautifully varied, and broken into small, confined scenes, by trees and shrubs of the most elegant sorts. Throughout the whole, smooth gravel walks should wind in a graceful, easy manner. In such a garden, the green- house and stoves for exotic plants and trees may be placed. In summer, those which are reared in the green-house may be dispersed throughout the garden; and the pots being sunk in the earth, the plants will appear as natives; or they -may be arranged in a situation by themselves, and retain their own character; and, during this season, the house may be filled with balsams, coxcombs, amaranths, and other ten- der annuals. A few elegant seats, both covered and unco- vered, may be introduced ; but no grottoes, ufns, busts, nor temples; which have all their proper places in ornamental scenery, but which, as I have formerly remarked, are unsuita- ble to this scene. 2. A winter garden should contain such trees, shrubs, plants, ‘&c. as are in perfection, or retain their verdure, during this season; such as most of the evergreen tribe; and several flowering plants, as aconite, Christmas-rose, &c. They should be grouped and arranged in the natural manner, and a dry 340 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. _ BOOK tf. gravel walk should be conducted throughout the whole. This garden should be situated near the mansion, in order that it may be conveniently and comfortably approached in the winter months. In it the conservatory should be placed. © 3. A spring garden should contain all those deciduous shrubs and trees which blossom or put forth leaves the most early in the spring, such as the almond, mezerion, fringe tree, &c. &c. All the early-blowing flowers, both of the bulbous and fibrous- rooted kinds, as the narcissus, crocus, iris, cowslip, auricula, hepatica, &c. The walks should be of gravel, and little or no lawn should appear. This garden may contain a house for heaths, auriculas, and | other early-flowering plants. It should be placed near the for- mer one, and connected with it and the mansion by a comfort- able gravel walk, that they may be approached at any season. The soils of both should be light and dry, the situations well exposed to the sun, and sheltered from the northern blast. 4. An autumn garden should contain such a collection of or- namental plants and trees as are in perfection at this season; such as most annual flowers when late sown; many herbaceous. plants, as aster, solidago, &c.; and several trees and shrubs PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 341 that continue long in perfection, as the honeysuckle, rose acacia, &c. 5. A parterre of bulbous roots requires to be somewhat diffe- rent, in form and design, from any of the above, The general form ought to be regular. It may be a square, a circle, or oval, divided into compartments, and each of these laid out into beds of three or four feet broad. Here may be grown the different varieties of tulips, hyacinths, ranunculuses, anemo- nies, &c. each in their proper soil*. It may contain a stove for the Izias Amaryllis, and similar exotic bulbs ; and near it _may be placed the auricula and carnation shed. 6. Gardens may also be made solely for the purpose of cul- tivating any single family, genus, or species of plant or shrub, as a garden of roses—of annual flowers—of pinks and carnations —of double flowering plants and trees—of variegated kinds only, &c. :—or of ferns—of grasses—or of the vegetables, natives of any particular country, as those of America, Siberia, the Alps, &c. 7. An ancient British flower-garden may be laid out agree- * See Maddox’s Florist’s Directory. 342 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK F. ably to the directions of Meagre’s Designs, Hyll’s Art of Gardening, published 1596, and Switzer’s Gentleman’s Re- creations. | ' 8. Modern British flower-gardens.are of two kinds; 1. Those laid out into beds fringed on the edge with box, pink, or gentian, &c. as at Blenheim, Raith, and most places; or, 2. Those laid out into patches and clumps on lawn; as at Nuneham, Beau- mont Hall, Eglinton, Colzean Castle, &c. 9. A Chinese garden, if desirable, may be formed from the hints in Chambers’s Dissertation on Oriental Gardening. 10. 4 Grecian garden. See Moore’s Letters, Alian’s Various’ History, Athenzeus, &c. | 11. Roman and Itahan gardens. See Cato De Re Rustica, Virgil, Pliny’s Epistles, &c. _ 12. A Dutch garden. See Haveneer Konst, by Johann Her- - man Knoop, published 1753. _ | 13. French parterres and gardens. See Quintinius, James, Ke. a PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 343 These scenes are not only pleasing or amusing in themselves, but, when introduced in a pleasure-ground, by their contrast with other scenes, and with one another, may add to the variety and interest of that species of ornamental scenery. A SMALL BOTANIC GARDEN, OR BOTANIC PARTERRE, may contain a large-collection of all, or several, of the different fami- lies of vegetables, as an arboretum, frutecetum, harbarium, ar- ranged either by the sexual or the natural systems of Linneeus, or by the natural system of Jussieu, or any other author. These may be planted either in beds, as is commonly done when the Linnean system is followed, or in irregular masses when any natural arrangement is adopted. A university botanic earden does not come within the plan of this work.—See _ Chapter L - - Hor-nouses, in ornamental gardening, are of various kinds, characterized by the modes in which the plants are. grown, and the different degrees of temperature employed in their culture. The principles of their formation and management are the same with those already mentioned under Userun GarpDENIne, and therefore do not require to be repeated here: all that is necessary is, to offer a few hints on the different varieties re- quired for ornamental purposes; these are, Stoves, Green- hhouses, and Conservatories. 544 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK f.. Stoves are of two kinds; dry stoves, in which the plants are grown in pots without being plunged in beds of earth or bark ; and moist or pit stoves, in which the plants cultivated are chiefly grown in pits; or, beds of earth, or bark, the individuals commonly inserted in pots, but sometimes merely inserted in the soil. Dry stoves are kept of a temperature in general between 55 and ‘70 degrees; and moist stoves be- tween 65 and 90 degrees. ‘The most economical form is a parallelogram, placed from east to west, of glass sashes on the south side, roof, and ends, and masonry toward the north ; but the most elegant and eligible for the plants is one placed north and south, and of glass on all sides. Unless an inner. roofing is used, however, glass on all sides is precarious, espe- cially in the northern parts of this island. Where the plants are grown in pots and plunged in earth or bark, the pits are made of considerabic depth to admit of those materials, as in the culture of pines; but pits filled with earth, and treated in the manner proposed by me for growing the pine, are at first. sight so decidedly preferable, both with regard to beauty and economy, that no unprejudiced person, who understands the plan proposed, will reject it for stove plants, though he might even reckon it unfit for growing pines. GREEN-HOUSES.—I'o the general form of these the above ‘remarks are equally applicable; and the particulars of their PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 345 tioned. They ought to be made of different dimensions, ac- cording to the kind of exctics to be cultivated. In disposing the plants in the house, besides the general principles mentioned in the preceding chapter, regard should be had to the placing of minute beauties together, and as near the eye as is consistent with elegance. Geraniums, myrtles, hydrangias, should never in- terfere with ericas, brunias, or diosmas, nor should either. be mixed with ivias, owalis, or cyclamen, &c. A green-house may generally appear as an object in the flower-garden, but should always be well blended with vegetation. What will contribute to this, and greatly heighten effect in entering it, is a small | porch or archway of lattice-work, continued a few yards from each door. The spectator, on entering the green-house after passing through this confined and shady passage, will conceive it much loftier than it really is; for now the mind, in place of having a tendency to compare it with the open air, will compare it with the low dark passage of the porch. Moveable green- houses, as at Nuneham, where the plants during summer are exposed on all sides to the sun, wind, and rain, are very agreeable, and may easily be contrived. A large orangerie after this plan would have an excellent effect in a regular flower-garden. ‘That at Nuneham is too formal and confined for its situation, which is among beautifully varied ground, winding walks, and numerous groups; and is particularly dis- cordant with the large trees which surround this garden, and YY 346 | ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I. materially injure it, by being so near its boundary, both in re- spect to culture and effect. ConsErvatortEes.—These are kept of various temperatures, between that of the dry stove and the open air. They may be constructed of any form, and placed either in a parterre, or ad- joining to, and connected with, the mansion. In them may be grown all kinds of green-house or dry stove plants, and fre- quently fruit trees intermingled with them. In the Treatise on Hot-houses, I have shewna great variety of ways in which con- servatories or green-houses may be heated from the fires requisite for the house. I shall therefore not repeat any of them here, but refer to Plate XII. fig. 1., which isa plan of a house with a large conservatory and vinery, designed by me for a small place in the immediate neighbourhood of London, where no prospect, or good external views, can be obtained from the windows. The vinery is heated by the fires of the kitchens, and a small dressing or book-room. The conservatory by those of the drawing-room, library, and dining-room. From all these three rooms agree- able perspectives through the conservatory may be obtained, © even while sitting at table ; as the dotted lines in the plan serve to shew*. In those parts of the conservatory farthest from the * The central part of the principal building is intended to be carried up a consi- derable height, as a tower ; the rest is to be two stories high, with parapets all round, of sucha height as to conceal the chimnies. As few windows as possible are PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 347 fire places, the hardiest green-house plants may be grown ; and im those nearest. them, succulents, and even dry stove plants, will thrive. Vines may also be trained up a few of the rafters, and ornamental creepers or climbers on the rest. Standard peaches, cherries, figs, &c. may be grown; which, besides their gay effect in spring, and the beauty of their fruits, which are al- ways most numerous on these trees when grown as standards, communicate also an umbrose appearance which is a great ac- quisition to a conservatory. When these trees become of too ereat magnitude, and when myrtles, mimosas, and other exotics, are large enough to supply their place, they may then be taken out or removed. And if a little fruit be still wanted, some of these trees in pots can easily be introduced in spring, and taken out as soon as the fruit is gathered. By paving the bottom of the pits or beds in this conservatory, and placing above the pave- ment astratum of gravel six inches in thickness, and above that three inches of green moss, and then the soil, the whole house, except the plants in pots (and these ought to be few), may be to be shewn ; those of all the bed-rooms on the south side being to come down to the floor, and looking entirely into the conservatory, which will also derive heat from their fire-places. ‘The bed-rooms and dining-rooms may be wholly heated at any time by opening the windows and admitting the air of the conservatory. The greater part of the house externally is to be covered with ivy and other creepers, which will give the whole a singular and romantic appearance, and, distinguish it from the tasteless cottages and villas which abound every where in the neighbourhood of London, the productions of meagre fancy or whimsical novelty. 8348 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I. watered in two minutes by pouring in water to this stratum by a convenient tube contrived on purpose. It may be thought, as some plants require less water than others, that thereby they would be injured ; but this can easily be prevented by placing such plants in a porous and non-retentive soil, by which means they will absorb no more than whatis necessary and proper; at thesame time any plants that mayrequireanextraordinary quan- tity ought to be put in a retentive soil, and may further have a little water given to them upon the surface ; for this mode is not meant to supersede surface waterings entirely, except in winter, when that practice generates damps. It is evident, that a glass house of this kind, (heated by fires which at any rate re- quire to be kept up,) with a porous substrata and inner roofing, could be managed with very little trouble or expence. And as a conservatory is one of the greatest luxuries both to a princi- pal residence in the country, and a small villa or cottage near town, perhaps it may tend to promote their more general in- troduction. Fig. 2. In this plate is a section that shews the exact manner in which the heat is obtained from the kitchen fire-place: aa is a wall of masonry; 5b two carron plates; ccc the passage for the air; which by being thus confined easily becomes heated, and passes out by the holes in the board d, which serve to diverge it regularly, and prevent any plants from being scorched by it. PART VI; ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 349 By pouring water upon the plate e, abundance of steam may be produced, when requisite for the vines. The same kind of plan is applicable to the ‘fire-places of the family apartments, only with a little more elegance in the curvature of the carron plate next the room, &c. SMALL GROUPS OF SHRUBS AND FLOWERS, when placed upon a lawn, should always be of very irregular shape; when upon gravel, this must depend upon circumstances. If in a part where art is avowed and ought to prevail, then the more artificial the form, so much the better; but if merely a group for dividing or varying a road, walk, or natural path at a dis- tance from artificial scenes, then it should be as irregular as those upon the lawn. In almost every case, whether these groups are made regular, or irregular, they require to be cultivated for some years afterwards. ‘This, according to the present mode of digging them, produces a harsh and disagreeable boundary line ; and the chief improvement which I propose in this branch of ornamental gardening, independently of arrangement,grouping, , and-conrexion, which have been already treated of, is to de- stroy asmuch as possible this line of separation. Nothing can be-easier done; it being only requisite to keep the earth on the margin of the group of the same level as the lawn or pas- ture, and to let both blend harmoniously together. As all groups of this kind are only dug during a certain time; that 350 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK E is, until: the shrubs are so large as to render culture unneces- sary; the pasture ought to be allowed gradually to encroach among the shrubs and flowers, until at last it wholly cover the surface. After this, the group becomes rough and picturesque ; the flowers still continuing to grow among the shrubs will pro- duce exactly what we see in natural groups; with this elegant difference, that in place of nettles, thistles, and such gross weeds, which however are ‘as good. to the painter as the finest flowers, we shall have narcissus, saxifrage, saponaria, &e. which will be quite in character with the rest of the pleasure-ground, and thrive well among pasture. In planting the shrubs in these groups, the great art is to put them in irregularly 5 for ~ though. the outline of the ground to be cultivated must, even under the best taste, be somewhat formal, yet the shrebs. can always. be planted as irvegularly as if no outline: or form of eroup existed. This, however, is a thing never done ; for what- ever be the form of the ground which is to be dug, the shrubs areregularly distributed over every part of it :—even when dig- ging is no longer attended to, still none of the shrubs are thinned out, but the whole left a formal, unconnected elump of vegetation ; an appearance as different from the irregular group thickets of nature, asa green hillock is from a rocky pre- cipice. Groups, or rather masses of formal shapes, such as ovals in front of small villas, or basket-work patches upon lawn PART Vi. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 351 in front of a mansion, must always have determinate outlines ; because, being devoted chiefly to tender flowers and flowering shrubs, they will always require to be cultivated. Their out- lines may either be formed of elegant masonry, wood, basket- work ; or flowers, as thrift, daisy, &c. or often a broad margin of turf, when surrounded by gravel. ‘The general form of these masses may be oval, circular, pentagonal, or fanciful, accord- ing to pleasure; and their surface may either be kept level with the lawn, or gradually raised from the margin to the centre. . But it may be observed, when raised in this way, that the sides ought always to present a concave slope and not a convex one, as they commonly do, and which has a very bad effect in the public squares of London*. Basket groups often have a very pretty effect when covered with moss, as may be seen at Dalkeith. Others unconnected among themselves, and of shapes rather unsuitable to the situation, may be seen at Donnington. Though much has been said on the connexion of groups in the preceding chapter, I must repeat that neither those of irregular nor of regular shapes ought ever to be placed ‘but where they have a proper relation and union with what surrounds them. * See some farther remarks by the author on this subject, in the Literary Jour- nal for January 1804. $52 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK Bf. SHRUBBERIES.— This term is properly applied to a narrow belt or strip of shrubs and flowers, which is sometimes the chief ornament of a small seat. The idea of such a thing is good ; and, if executed according to the principles of nature and good taste, it would produce an effect both interesting and’ pleasing. But as the reverse has constantly been the case, Mr. Knight justly reprobates their tawdry insipidity *. They are generally | made for the sake of obtaining a wal!:, which may either con-— duct to some particular place or scene, as the kitchen garden, farm, wood, &c. or it may lead merely through the shrubbery for its own sake, and such views of external objects as can be obtained from it, or as deserve attention. This being kept in view in designing and forming shrubberies, these three things require particular attention: First, the arrangement and group- ing of the trees, which ought to be that of general nature. Secondly, the intermixture of glades and pasture, which in most cases is an essential requisite. Thirdly, the judicious in- troduction of views of more distant scenery; which is most frequently desirable, unless in such parts as, by way of con- trast, are preserved in umbrosity. This and the former requi- sites are naturally connected with picturesque improvements, the general principles of which are blended with this branch of ornamental gardening, * ¢¢ Curse on the shrubbery’s insipid scenes,” &c.. PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 3538: THE PLEASURE GROUND isa term applied to that part of the grounds near a mansion which is devoted chiefly to ornamental purposes. Many of the separate scenes of which it is composed relate to those subjects of gardening which have been already mentioned ; but very frequently scenes formed almost entirely upon the principles of picturesque improvement are also intro- duced, and are always most interesting ; suchas lakes, rills, &c. Sometimes.a number of the conveniencies of a residence are also included, as the dairy, apiary, &c. ‘The general princi- ples which demand attention in arranging these scenes are, convenience, connection, particular expression, and picturesque effect. END. OF VOL. I. 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