I

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N

TREATISE

ON

FORMING, IMPROVING, AND MANAGING

COUNTRY RESIDENCES.

A

TREATISE

ON

FORMING, IMPROVING, AND MANAGING

COUNTRY RESIDENCES ;

AND ON THE

CHOICE OF SITUATIONS APPROPRIATE TO EVERY CLASS OF PURCHASERS.

IN ALL WHICH THE OBJECT IN VIEW IS TO UNITE IN A BETTER MANNER THAN HAS HITHERTO BEEN DONE,
A TASTE FOUNDED IN NATURE HTIH ECONOMY AND UTILITY,

IN CONSTRUCTING OR IMPROVING

MANSIONS, AND OTHER RURAL BUILDINGS,

SO AS TO COMBINE ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS WITH PICTURESQUE EFFECT;

AND IN

FORMING GARDENS.ORCHARDS, FARMS, PARKS.PLEASURE-GROUNDS.SHRUBBERIES, ALL KINDS OF USEFUL OR DECORATIVE
PLANTATIONS, AND EVERY OBJECT OF CONVENIENCE OR BEAUTY PECULIAR TO COUNTRY SEATS ;

ACCORDING TO THE EXTENT, CHARACTER, OR STYLE OF SITUATIONS,
AND THE RANK, FORTUNE, AND EXPENDITURE OF PROPRIETORS ;

FROM THE COTTAGE TO THE PALACE.

AN APPENDIX,

CONTAINING AN ENQUIRY INTO THE UTILITY AND MERITS OF MR. REPTOVS MODE OF SHEWING EFFECTS BY SLIDES AND
SKETCHES, AND STRIC TURES ON HIS OPINIONS AND PRACTICE IN LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

ILLUSTRATED BY DESCRIPTIONS OF SCENERY AND BUILDINGS,

B Y REFERENCES TO CO UNTR Y SEA TS. AND PASSAGES OF CO UNTR Y IN MOST PARTS OF GREA T BRITAIN,

AND BY THIRTY-TWO ENGRAVINGS.

Br JOHN LOUDON, ESQ. F.L.S.

MF.MBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, COMMERCE, &c. LONDON, OF THE SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE, PLANTING, &c. BATH ;
AUTHOR OF A TREATISE ON HOT-HOUSES, AND OBSERVATIONS ON LANDSCAPE GARDENING, &c.

IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II.

LONDON:

FR1NTKD FOR LONGMAN, HURST, REES, AND ORME, PATEUNOSTER-ROW,
BY C. WHiniNGHAM, DEAN-STREET.

180G.

355

BOOK L

PART VII.

PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT.

INTRODUCTION.

This elementary branch of the art of forming a residence has
commonly been confounded with the former, and treated of
under the general tenn Ornamental or Landscape Gardening :
a term which, upon a very slight reflection, will appear incor-
rect and void of meaning, however natural or easy it may have
appeared to apply it in the first instance. But the operations
of those who lay out grounds are commonly more connected
with planting and agriculture than gardening; and therefore,
though Landscape Husbandry would seem an awkward appel-
lation, it would be much better than Landscape Gardening.
Still,however, there are improvements made on scenery which do
not belong to husbandry; such as the formation of picturesque
pieces of water, or the introduction of buildings; and therefore

356 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

this term would be too limited also. The nature of these im-
provements, made upon the scenery may assist us : they are not
done solely with a view to render it more useful; nor can we
with propriety say more ornamental, because this quality de-
pends chiefly on fashion, and what is ornamental in one age is
often the reverse in another. The term picturesque, how-
ever, will fully express the leading principles of the whole ope-
rations alluded to. This epithet, in the common language of
mankind, seems to have two significations: by the one, it de-
notes a particular character, or kind of beauty, distinguished by
roughness, abruptness, and irregularity, either in form, colour,
sound, or touch, and may be produced in every polite art;
by the other, it is applied chiefly to visible objects, and is used
to signify that they are capable of producing a good effect
when painted. In this last sense of the word I propose to ap-
ply it, and thenceforth to use the term picturesque im-
provement in place of landscape gardening. This par-
tial innovation is not at variance either with the common sense
of mankind, or the general sentiments of judicious writers
upon this subject, who have bestowed various designations
upon it, but have never fully approved or made use of the
term landscape gardener*.

* See the reviews of publications on this subject ; also Mr. Knight's Inquiry into
the Principles of Taste ; the review of that work in the Edinburgh Review for 1806 ;
and several other works. See also, as proof of another kind, Mr. Repton's- writings
•n landscape gardening.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 35"J

As picturesque improvement has been so much involved in
planting and ornamental gardening, there is some confusion in
its history. But it may suffice here to say, that it is of British
invention; that the first suggestions were probably derived
from Sir William Chambers's Oriental Gardening, and first ex-
emplified by Mr. Kent, at Esher; but that very little of the
picturesque appeared in any place, or publication, before the
proprietors of Foxley and Downton improved their residences,
and produced their writings. By public professors nothing has
yet been done according to the principles of these gentlemen*;
but on the contrary, as might naturally be expected, from the
selfishness of mankind, they have been every where decried and
opposed by that class of men. Hence nothing can be expected
in the way of an historical introduction.

In proceeding to treat of this art, the following subjects will
be taken into consideration: 1. The leading principles of the
art. 2. The materials of real landscape. 3. The union of
these materials in forming a picturesque composition. And 4.
The subjects to which picturesque improvement is applied.

* Unless I may except my own humble efforts, made with no inconsiderable op-
position from the general opinion, as well as the whole class of rural designers ;
and consequently made from principle and conviction of their intrinsic excel-
lence.

<tt

3.58 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

CHAPTER I.

OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT.

In picturesque improvement, the first objects of attention are
the leading principles; which, as the name imports, must
obviously be those of composition in landscape painting ; the
universal guide in which is, unity of design and character with
regard to the whole, and grouping, or connexion, in respect to the
parts. Unity of expression or character is the essential and
fundamental principle of all the polite arts, and pervades every
striking or exquisite composition, whether in landscape, poetry,
or music. It derives its importance from the nature of the hu-
man mind, which never can view or conceive clearly above one
object or impression at a time; and hence Avhatever does not
assist the prevailing idea must serve to weaken it, either by
rendering it uninteresting, or by disturbing the attention altoge-
ther. It is produced by the particular conformation, relation,
and allusion of all the parts to the whole; which whole, in the
characters of scenery or art, as in those of human life, may ei-
ther be pleasing or disagreeable, amiable or disgusting. Still
in each the proper component parts are necessary to complete
the exj^ssion : the faults of some men are as necessary to render

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 359

them interesting, as the prevailing virtues of others: take away
these attractions, and though they may still be good, or useful
members of society, they will, to use the words of one deeply
versed in human character, be " men of no mark or likelihood."
Whenever we find, either in scenery or in the human species, all
the qualities of mind, or all the parts in the composition, mak-
ing equal claims to our regard, we may safely apply this lan-
guage; and if we attentively observe what takes place in our
own minds, we shall find that either men, portraits, or composi-
tions of this kind, are soon forgotten or neglected. Where cha-
racter is wanting, and even where it does exist, there are fre-
quently occasional or accidental peculiarities, which often de-
ceive the unpractised both in life and art. Those peculiarities
can only be distinguished by experience, both with the parti-
cular individual, and with others of the same kind. For cha-
racters are so various, and often so slightly marked, that the
unpractised and unskilful are ever liable to err; either by per-
ceiving marks which are only accidental, or by passing over
such as have genuine indications of character, but faintly im-
pressed, or of a kind not generally known, perceived, or re-
lished.

Characters, in picturesque improvement, are either original
or appropriate ; and the operations of art are with a view either
of heightening or destroying them. Original characters are

36"0 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

such as arc indicated by nature, and may be either beautiful,
grand, picturesque, romantic, wild, or solitary, &c. the ex-
pressions, of either of which may be heightened by ana-
logous improvements, by adding suitable appendages, or re-
moving incongruities. Original characters may also be un-
suitable or disagreeable; and then they are to be removed, and
other characters appropriated in their room: and hence, in this
case, the appellation of the epithet appropriate. AVhether in
heightening such as are natural or original, or in creating the
appropriate in their room, the same principles are alike appli-
cable and important. But be it observed, that in scenery, as
in men, a natural character only, improved by education or
art, will always be more striking, and often preferable to a cha-
racter formed by education or art alone. A scene not com-
posed of many parts, and tending to simplicity, will be improved
in character with much more ease and effect by removing some
of these, and increasing simplicity, than by adding others to pro-
duce richness. In picturesque improvement, the character ap-
propriated should always be a natural one, or one justified by
propriety, in opposition to such as have been called emblemati-
cal and imitative. Emblematical characters may succeed in po-
etry or painting, but can never succeed in rural scenery, and
seldom in architecture. When at Stowe, and told that we are
in the Elysian fields or the Grecian valley, the information pro-
duces no emotion, but some recollections of Italy or Virgil,

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 3<5l

which would be pursued with much better effect in the closet
over the Eneid, or a work on geography ; for still as we pass
through these Elysian fields, the attention is caught by new
objects, in attending to which properly we either forget the
allusion, or, absorbed in reverie, shut our eyes to the real
beauties which surround us. When the whole is once seen, all
the charms of illusion vanish, and the obvious want of utility
renders such scenery nauseous and tiresome, and only worth
preservation for its singularity and antiquity.

From unity of character in the whole, naturally arises the
connexion of the parts. Connexion is every where apparent
in nature, from the splendour of the noon-day sun to the dark-
ness of midnight; the severity of winter to the heat of the
summer solstice. It is produced by the abrupt intermixture,
or gradual union of different or opposite qualities. This is
effected in ways as various as the constituent properties of mat-
ter, but upon principles as constantly the same as the effect to
be produced. The rule is simple, but of unlimited and uni-
versal application; it is, to bring together such qualities or
properties as are different, but not opposite; as form contrasts,
but not opposites. Grouping is merely a term for con-
nexion, when applied to landscape painting; and to illustrate
this I may observe, that with regard to trees, a painter or im-
prover connects or groups, trees differing only in magnitude —

3 A

362 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

in disposition — in figure — or in all of these; and these again
he connects with buildings, cattle, or rocks. All that can
be said on picturesque improvement, whether on the mate-
rials, or general subjects, or indeed on any polite art, is but
the application of these two principles, character and connexion,
varied according to the nature of the expression, and the na-
ture of the materials which are to produce it. Hence the im-
portance of this branch of knowledge in every department of
rural design. With it, the slightest operations will produce
the most enchanting effects; but without it, the artist is
sure to Wander in darkness and confusion — to effect things
only by immense labour and difficulty, and consequently
much unnecessary expense. It is plain, however, that most of
those who follow the profession of laying out grounds, have no
conception of this kind of knowledge; — nor do they need it,
according to their system: for as Mr. Price observes, Mr.
Brown " has so fixed and determined the forms and lines of
clumps, belts, and serpentine canals, and has been so steadily
imitated by his followers, that had the improvers been incor-
porated, their common seal, with a clump, a belt, and a piece
of made water, would have fully expressed the whole of their
.science, and have served for a model as well as a seal*."

* Price's Essays, vol. i. p. 264.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 363

CHAPTER II.

OF THE MATERIALS OF REAL LANDSCAPE.

These may be divided into three kinds — the necessary, or
permanent — the occasional, or appropriate — and the fleeting, or
accidental.

SECT. I. OF THE NECESSARY OR PERMANENT MATERIALS.

These are ground, rocks, stones, wood, low growths plants and
grasses, water, and buildings.

Ground. — Though this material is generally less under the
control of art than the others, because the necessary opera-
tions are commonly too expensive; yet it deserves to be re-
marked, that when ground is placed immediately under the
eye, improvements are easily accomplished, and always pro-
duce a singular and striking effect — an effect si?igular, because
upon a material which we seldom see altered — and striking,
because on one which shews the full effect instantly after the
labour is finished.

.304 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

In offering a few hints upon the operations of art in improving
the surface of ground, it may be considered in regard to quality
of surface, form of surface, character, and connexion in the parts.

With respect to quality of surface, ground is either smooth
lawn or pasture, rough heathy pasture, swamp, mossy or mea-
dow pasture, or entirely naked : each of which have their pe-
culiar uses in landscape, according to its character, though
most of them generally require to be improved, either in imita-
tion of dry lawn or pasture, or meadow pasture : the method
of effecting these improvements belongs to agriculture. — Form
of surface is various. In regard to the parts, it is either con-
cave, convex, a level, a hanging level, abrupt, or broken. The
concave is the most agreeable form; the level, or hanging level,
the grandest; and the abrupt and broken the most picturesque.
"With respect to the general surface of ground, it is either un-
dulated, composed chiefly of concave and convex forms ; simple,
composed chiefly of straight or gently varied lines; or irre-
gular, composed of all these forms. These different appear-
ances of the general surface form what is denominated the
character of ground; and in the operations of art, whether in
strengthening the effect of particular parts, or increasing the
expression of the whole, this must ever be kept in view. Thus
undulated surfaces may be rendered more characteristic by
deepening the hollows, increasing the swells, and softening off

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 365

rigid brows, or harsh angular abruptness. The simplicity
of plain or simple surfaces may be increased by removing
trifling parts, and promoting their tendency either to grandeur
or beauty. Thus a plain is improved in grandeur by the re-
moval of those lumps and excrescences which frequently may
be seen on their surface; and a hill, covered equally with
stones, furze, or tubercles of earth, will, by having some places
entirely freed from these appendages, be rendered less in-
tricate and featureless, and consequently more simple and
beautiful, or grand. Irregular or picturesque surfaces are ea-
sily improved, either by increasing the abruptnesses and broken
ground already there, or by the addition of others in connex-
ion and concord with the present. Broken or picturesque
ground is frequently admissible, especially if the broken or
naked places are abrupt, or nearly perpendicular; but where
nakedness seems to overspread the surface, the effect is too
barren and inhospitable to be pleasing in cultivated scenery*.
In some species of heaths, and shores of rivers or the sea,
naked surfaces are often characteristic, and therefore ought not
to be replaced, unless the character is to be entirely changed.
Changing the natural character of the surface with regard to

* In the foreground of Plate XXX., contrasted with that of Plate XXIX., the ef-
fect of broken ground will be readily perceived. There it is not only more inte-
resting of itself, but is better suited with the rough wild style of scenery to which
the walk there shewn leads.

366 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I,

form can seldom be effected, except on small spots under the
eye, as on ground intended for a parterre, or in that immedi-
ately adjoining the mansion; but in respect to quality of sur-
face, it may frequently be changed : thus heaths and rough
commons are often made fertile fields. Sometimes the charac-
ter both of the surface and form may be changed; as when a
level surface of moss is cleared from a varied surface of soil, as
in agricultural improvement sometimes happens with such
grounds in Wales and Scotland.

Connexion is essentially requisite to the formation of charac-
ter; and nothing in ground is so disagreeable as its interruption.
The most beautiful mound formally placed upon a level or the
most elegant sweep, amid abruptnesses and irregularities, will
ever be discordant. In undulating and simple surfaces, the
parts ought to co-operate with each other in producing every
variation of form ; and in picturesque surfaces, the union of
abruptnesses and broken ground should neither be forced, re-
gular, nor unmeaning. A level surface broken into holes, or
covered with heaps, is totally different from a picturesque sur-
face: even an irregular surface uniformly abrupt or broken is
but another variation of the same deformity. In picturesque
ground, the surface, must either be rising, falling, or irregular:
in the rising surface, the breaks and abrupt ascents must suc-
ceed each other, or be interposed so as, standing below and

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 367

looking upwards, they may seem to favour the general ten-
dency to rise; and standing above and looking down, they
may appear in unison with the nature of the declivity. A hol-
low without an outlet, or a circular mound without a continu-
ation of swell, are alike unnatural and disagreeable.

These remarks are chiefly intended for grounds which may
be managed by the operations of husbandry; but the same ge-
neral principles will apply to hills and mountains, which can
only be improved by wood, or sometimes perhaps by build-
ings. Wood, indeed, is a material which will operate power-
fully on every species of ground where it can be reared. It
may render undulating surfaces more characteristic, by being
planted on the eminences; may give expression and effect to
tame formless hills, by judicious disposition upon their sides,
so as to vary both their surface and sky outline, and may even
render an uninteresting common intricate and varied. A few
trees falling down a declivity or precipice increase the appear-
ance of steepness; and a wood covering the base, and creeping
up to various heights on the side of a hill, adds greatly to its
apparent height and grandeur. A surface full of deformities,
either hollows, pits, or unconnected excrescences, may by a ju-
dicious distribution of wood be rendered highly picturesque.
Solitary hills formal^ placed upon a level surface, which on
a small scale must be connected by adding earth to the angle

368 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

formed by the junction of its base with the general surface, may,
by placing wood in the junction, be completely united with
every thing around. Accident has produced this effect on one
part of North Berwicklaw, a conical hill which rises abruptly
from the surface of a level or gently varied country. Agreeably
to my directions given in with the designs for forming the Re-
sidence of North Berwick, the greater part of the base of the
hill, and the lower parts of its sides are to be planted for the
same purpose. But the effect of wood in changing the appear-
ance of ground, though striking upon a large scale, is no less
important in smaller variations of surface. A few barrow loads
of earth on a knoll, or a continuation of swell on each side of a
walk or foreground, will make some difference, even though
clothed only With pasture ; but if planted with trees, they pro-
duce shade and character immediately ; they may conceal de-
formities in the distance — serve as a frame or foreground to dis-
tant beauties which might pass unperceived — or they may
give importance to the scene itself from other points of view.

Rocks. — Though in reality these can neither be created, in-
creased, nor taken away, yet several operations may be effected
with them apparently of the same nature, and consequently of
very great importance in landscape. They may be shezvn,
concealed, or rendered more characteristic. Rocks ma}' be
shewn by removing earth, and forming breaks and abruptnesses

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 36'9

in the surface. This may be done in several ways ; but those are
to be preferred which shew a perpendicular surface, or upright
front of rock. This is not only the grandest manner in which
rocks can be seen, but it is also the most economical and con-
sistent with good husbandry ; no horizontal surface, whether of
wood, or pasture, being destroyed. Many examples of this kind
occur in different parts of the ground of Barnbarrow ; that shewn
in Plate XIV. is worthy of notice, especially when contrasted
with Plate XIII., which is the house and scenery exactly as
they appeared in 1804, before my operations commenced. In
this plate the trees ai'e delineated exactly as they were at that
time; in the other, several trees which are now planted nearly
of the size there shewn are introduced, and also several shrubs
and bushes; in this plate also, the effect is given as if the whole
had been executed three years. These particulars are candidly
mentioned, that none may impute to the author the slightest
degree of deception : for there are some situations where trees
of this size could riot be transplanted with safety: but the soil
and shelter at that part of Barnbarrow are fully adequate to
every purpose of this kind ; and indeed, if care be taken, a
few large trees may be moved near the house in almost any
situation.

Rocks may also be shewn, by removing wood, either alone,
or in connexion with ground. This practice would often have

3 B

3/0 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

an excellent effect on the sides of hills, mountains, steeps, and
banks of rivers or lakes; and in this last case would frequently
be assisted in connexion with the removal of water, which can
frequently be effected with ease: as for example, when a lake
has an outlet, or when the channel of a river has considerable
declivity. In every case where rocks are to be shewn, it is pre-
ferable to shew perpendicular, projecting, or at least nearly up-

r

right surfaces — any other kind never occurs in nature, except
under the surface of water or in barren deserts; for though they
may have been left altogether naked at the deluge, or immedi-
ately after convulsions or earthquakes, yet the weather, time,
and vegetation, continually operate upon the upper surface of
mineral bodies until they are clothed with earth and vegetables.
The rocks in Plate XXXI. are supposed to be shewn entirely
by the removal of wood. Rocks may be concealed either
partially or completely, and by either or all of the materials
which may shew them. Partial concealment is best effected
by wood ; and if the form of the part or parts which appear, be
in the grand style, and the concealment judiciously effected,
the imagination, ever ready to magnify the extent or powers of
indistinct objects, will conceive the rest to be much more no-
ble than if they had been of forms capable of being advan-
tageously disclosed. Partial concealment may sometimes be
effected by earth or water, and even by buildings: in all, the
general principles are the same.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 371

Complete concealment is seldom desirable, except when the
rocks are of the barren or disagreeable kind ; such as a naked
surface of rocks, or small naked angular fragments staring
through ground of uniform or simple surface. In cases of the
first kind, the rock should be covered with earth; and in the
second, blown out with gunpowder, or eradicated by the spade
and mattock. The first case occurred with me at Castlewig,
and both cases occurred at Barnbarrow. The fragments scat-
tered in front of Downton Castle are of the same class as the
second kind; they appear quite unconnected with each other, .
and have no natural relation to the ground, which is nearly of
a level surface with a meagre soil covered with bad grasses.
They are therefore deformities which should be removed. All
general observers, and even enthusiasts in scenery who had not
previously been informed of their intentions, would instantly
ask what they were put there for : and whenever this is the
case, it is a sufficient condemnation. Nature, either real, or
judiciously imitated, if she do not charm common observers,
never excites enquiries of this kind*.

In rendering rocks more characteristic, the first requisite is to

* I have taken the liberty of giving my opinion freely in this case, because the
acknowledged good taste of the proprietor, both in his writings and rural improve-
ments in general, may have some influence on those who are more led by others
than guided by their own judgments ; and also because I have in so many parts of
this volume taken occasion to shew my high approbation of " The Landscape.'1'

372 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

attend to their characters: these may be either grand, terri-
fic, fanciful, or romantic and picturesque. Grandeur consists
commonly in the breadth of light and shade and height of the
masses; and may be heightened by increasing these, either by
removing small parts of the rock itself, or clearing away ap-
pendages which tend to conceal or injure the principal masses.
Romantic or terrific rocks may sometimes be improved by con-
cealment or disclosure, but seldom by increasing their cha-
racter. Rocks of picturesque beauty may be frequently ope-
rated upon with success; either by giving more breadth, vari-
ety, or intricacy to the rock itself, or by covering it with
vegetation, or planting trees before it, to effect variety or
harmony; or bushes and creepers above it, to hang over and
produce shade and intricacy. An excess of intricacy, however,
is dangerous, and tends more than any other quality to make
a rock trifling. Crags are frequently trifling on this account;
many of the admired rocks at Plympton, from the intricacy of
their broken surface, and the fragile nature of the stone, are
little better than large coal cinders. The management of rocks
is very little, if at all, understood. In many parts of England
I have seen them shewn, but in such a way as that they ap-
peared little better than upright masses of red earth. This
may be observed at some seats in Cumberland and Shropshire;
but without referring to these, which is always a painful
task when the artist or designd is alive, I may just hint

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 57$

that the same kind of errors may be seen at the town of
Briderenorth.

Stones. — These are intimately connected with rocks, and
have been partly treated of above, under concealment. The
grandest forms of stones are those which present most breadth
and effect, which are generally such as are most cubical. Their
uses are various and not unimportant. They are desirable in
picturesque foregrounds, among wild scenery, near natural paths,
and among rough thickets. In brooks and rills their use is most
important. There, by contrast with water and vegetation, they
give spirit and force, and by appearing above the surface of
various heights and different shapes, by catching and reflecting
lights, throwing shadows, and by changing their apparent dis-
position at every movement of the spectator, they produce a
playfulness, intricacy, and cheerfulness, which in this kind of
water no other appendage can communicate. Their absence
both in natural rills, brooks, and ponds, produces a melan-
choly, solitary, and sombre appearance : this may be admirably
exemplified in the river x\lmond; and the former can never be
more strikingly shewn, than on the North Esk, and particularly
at Roslin Castle, Hawthornden, and Polton*. Rivers may be
highly useful without stones, as is the Thames, the Isis, 01

* All near Edinburgh

374 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

Avon, &c. ; but their beauty, even in fertile level countries, is
always less than it might be when these appendages are
wanting.

Wood. — The formation and management of this material is
so important, both in picturesque improvement and husban-
dry, that with a reference to both these sciences I have discussed
it in the next part- Here I may observe, that dead trunks, old
roots, or decayed branches of trees have frequently an excellent
effect in connexion with stones, either as appendages to water,
or as the joint materials of a picturesque or wild fore-ground.

Plants and grasses and low or shrubby growths
enter into the composition of every rural landscape. They are
used chiefly for two purposes ; either to clothe the surface of
ground ; or to enrich, vary, or give intricacy to fore-grounds,
abruptnesses, broken ground, or picturesque parts of a scene.

1. Such as are used for clothing the surface are chiefly the
grasses and succulent plants used in agriculture. Occasionally,
in landscape, others may be introduced, to give character or
variety. Thus in wild scenes the juncus, jjalustris and effusus, the
carcxes,fragaria vesca, thymus montana, gallium montanum, bellis
■perrene, and a great many other plants, may either be encou-
raged if already there, or introduced, to give wildness, and take

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 375

away from the idea of culture. The effect of wild strawberries,
violets, and primroses, on the sides of some Welch hills, and the
effect of the alchemella alpina, thymus saaifraga oppositifolia,
and others upon many hills in the highlands of Scotland,
are singularly fine, and cannot well be conceived by those who
have always been accustomed to see the surface covered with a
carpet of rye-grass, or poa trivialis. It may be necessary to ob-
serve, that variations of the general clothing of the surface can
seldom be introduced, except where the wild, the romantic, or
the picturesque prevails in all the other parts of the scene.
Level meadows, lawns, or fertile open parks, can never be suc-
cessfully varied in this way ; as in those places such plants
would be both useless and incongruous. In all romantic or hilly
countries, however, there are banks, steeps, or rocky abrupt-
nesses, where variations of this kind are frequently found in
nature, and may often be heightened, or even sometimes intro-
duced, by art. Many examples of the effect of this kind of
improvement may be found on the high banks of dells or
bottoms containing brooks or rivers. There are several fine
instances on the Dove, near Matlock ; and at Melville
Castle, on the Esk, the cerastium and stellaria, under a wood,
form varied and beautiful carpetings upon irregular declivities;
at Mevisbank, the ajuga impurples the surface ; and on the
steep wooded banks which surround a secluded glen between
Leith and Colington, the primrose and hyacinth in spring com-

376 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

municate a gaiety analogous to the season ; and in the begin-
ning of autumn the leaves of the large wood strawberry and
beds of wild thyme redden the surface, and give a warmth and
rich appearance to the scene, which, in connexion with several
other more important circumstances, render it by far the most
enchanting in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. Though this
little sequestered valley occupies more than two acres of sur-
face, and though a considerable brook runs through it, yet no
appendage of greatness can ever disturb its quiet. The sur-
rounding rocks forbid the approach of every kind of carriage,
and of almost every animal, except sheep, goats, and asses.
These may sometimes be seen browsing in the wood, or cropping
the green meadow in the centre : hares and game indeed are in
abundance, and sport themselves secure from the huntsman, as
do the trout in the river unalarmed by anglers. The groves, and
hanging thickets on the surrounding banks resound with the notes
of the thrush and the woodlark, varied at intervals by the note
of the cushat dove ; and close upon the ear the hum of the wild
bee, in its flight from flower to flower, completes a harmony no
less in unison with every thing around, than with the emotions
ever felt in such scenes by minds susceptible of feeling the
beauties of nature. Fortunately, this scene is little frequented
because known to few. Even its proprietor who lives beside
it, and has retained it for upwards of fifty years, told me, that
as it did not bring in much rent he had only seen it once in his

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 377

life-time. I will not assume the merit of discovering this virgin
scene; it was shewn me by a virtuous and amiable mother, who
often used to retire thither to mourn the loss of a much-loved
daughter, and who felt herself consoled by its effects.

2. Plants, grasses, and low growths, which may be used to give'
intricacy to fore-grounds, broken ground, margins of zoater, or
abruptnesses ; or to give wildness to parks, thickets, &c. are va-
rious. They may be divided into three classes, those for po-
lished ground, those for water, and those for rough ground. —
1. Those proper for producing intricacy, for broken ground or
margins of water in polished scenery where no cattle are admitted,
may often, and should generally be, exotic shrubs, flowers, and
creepers, such as rhododendron, rosa, arbutus phyleria, rheum
solidago, &c. of different species for the larger sorts; vinca,
cistus, andromeda, erica, &c. (properly shrubs) for smaller
sorts ; while the cherianthus, Valeriana, iris, aster, orobus, and
many others, form every intermediate gradation in shape, mag-
nitude, colour, and time of flowering, &c. and answer every
soil, from the antirhinum major and wall-flower, which suit de-
caying ruins, to the iris, pecud acorus, or the camarum palustre,
which grows in the softest marshes or watery meadows. 2. Those
which naturally grow in water, are numerous, and suited to
the character which the water assumes, its depth, quality of
the soil, &c. Several species of the pontamogetons, water par-

3 c

378 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

snip, &c. suit a running stream and clear bottom : the typha,
bull-rush, &c. deep still Avater, with a rocky bottom : the hip-
puris, morsus rana, ziziana*, fresh water soldier, &c. suit shal-
low and still water; the water lily, alisma, &c. a medium
between the shallow and deep. In nature, every collection of
water, as well as earth, has its peculiar plants, from the algce
in the sea, to the caltriche on the surface of the least pools.
Hence the propriety of imitating the beauties of nature in
these respects as well as in others. No one can dispute the su-
periority of this practice to the present total neglect of it, at
least none of my readers will, whose opinions are important
in works of taste. — 3. Those proper for wild scenery, where
cattle are admitted. I may observe here, in the first place,
that if goats abound in scenery, scarcely any plant will escape
their ravages, as they devour even the cicnta virosa ; but as
deer, horses, asses, horned cattle, and sheep, are the com-
mon inhabitants of park scenery, a considerable number of
plants may be fixed on, which they either never use, or eat
only in cases of great distress for want of more agreeable food.
Of those kinds which they never eat are, the beautiful tribe of
the ferns as well as arum, scandex odorata, digitalis, briar, sloe-

* The effect of this valuable exotic in the lakes and stagnated waters at Braham
Castle passes description for singularity and beauty. It should be very generally
introduced in all lakes, as it may probably become as useful at some future period
in this country as it is now in America. — See the Linnaean Society's Transactions,
Vol. VII. p. 264.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 379

thorn, genista, bramble, and several others. Of those kinds sel-
dom eaten are, the acanthus, Valeriana doica, centauria cynapium,
epilobium, and lythyrus, (which form a most beautiful class of
wild flowers) the torgylium astrantia, ulex, spartium, vaccinium,
common whin, genista anglica, salix lapponica,repens, and sericeum,
and a great variety of others. The plants of both those classes
related above, independent of many more which are less gene-
rally known, or abound only in rare parts of natural scenery,
would, if introduced into the picturesque grounds of a residence,
have a most enchanting effect; whether on the margin of water,
in water itself, in dells, vallies, or bottoms, or in park scenery.
Even ferns, the creeping rose, brambles, briars, low spreading
thorns, furze, heath, and digitalis, give an appearance of wild-
ness and beauty to a park, which no disposition of trees upon a
smooth surface can ever produce. Wherever a park is exten-
sive, or where the ground is irregular and the character of a park
is intended to be given, this wildness appears to me one of
its greatest beauties. Tame parks, consisting of wood, lawn,
and naked water, abound every where ; but such as have a
forest and original park appearance, are only found in those
happy spots where nature is untouched, where time has
triumphed over tasteless art, or where the rage of art for
smoothness and unbroken verdure, is continually counteracted
by a vigorous vegetation. Some such places actually exist,
from these causes, at Dalkeith, Hamilton, and Dunkeld ; and

380 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

sonic by the efforts of art and genuine taste, at Foxley, Down-
ton, and Yoxal Lodge. These may give an idea of what is in-
tended by the use of wild plants and roughnesses ; and the
charming forest of Needwood *, which, far superior to

" the flowery walks of art,

" Which lull but not transport the heart,"

exhibits an example both of wildness and utility, which it would
require all the hardened obstinacy or jaundiced taste of mo-
dern landscape gardeners to view without rapture ; and which
none, whose minds were capable of relishing any thing more
than the varied, the pretty, or the merely useful, or who were
not previously blinded by fashion, or shackled by ignorance,
could ever think of degrading by a comparison with modern
park scenery.

Water is allowed by all to be one of the loveliest materials
of landscape. In regard to utility, its dispersion by means of
oceans, rivers, brooks, rills, springs, and vapour, is as neces-
sary to the existence of vegetable bodies, as the circulation of
the blood is essential to animal life ; and whether we look at the
blooming country girl, the tawny gipsey, or the delicate hue of
the amiable nymph of the drawing-room, still it is blood which

* Celebrated in a beautiful poem, entitled, " Needwood Forest," by Mr.
Mundey ; and also by Mr. Gisborne, in his " Walks in a Forest."

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 381

animates their frames, no less than beautifies their counte-
nances. Without the existence of this element, no species of
soil, or country, can be productive ; deprived of its view, no
road in Great Britain, nor in any other country, can give plea-
sure to the tasteful traveller ; for still as it occurs in springy
banks, purling rills, or winding brooks, it is interesting and
beautiful : and while in the distance we perceive the sinuous
course of the navigable river, the glassy surface of the lake,
the green expanse of distant ocean lost in ethereal blue, the
mind is exalted and ennobled, filled with astonishment, or
wrapt in sublime contemplation. Turning from public paths
to secluded scenes of romantic or picturesque beauty, the
effects of water are no less varied and pleasing, whether
it be the roar of the cataract amid huge cliffs and savage
mountains of rocks, the foam and din of the lesser cascade, the
melancholy of the standing pool shaded by impending boughs
" stooping as if to drink," or the melody of the crystal brook,
which,

" running along the snow-white pebble stones,

" Mourning doth murmur joys commixt with moans."

ADAMSON.

Much having been written upon this interesting material
by Mr. Price and Mr. Knight, and their excellent writings
being generally known and approved among men of taste, I

382 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

shall be the more concise in what I am here to offer. I must
remark, however, that the works alluded to, though they have
effected (except among landscape gardeners) a general revolu-
tion of opinion, have hitherto made no difference in practice ;
which is not surprizing when all tasteless professors are against
their improvements, and when no examples* of artificial
water rendered picturesque have yet been shewn to the pub-
lic. On the contrary, some eminent practitioners, as Mr.
Marshall and Mr. Repton, have written decidedly in opposition
to Mr. Price's ideas on the subject. Mr. Repton in particular,
an artist who modestly claims to himself the honour of " guid-
ing the taste and improving the scenery of his country," I am
sorry to find strenuously defends the practice in his publica-
tions by several lame apologies for shaving, and also by nu-
merous drawings of naked and tame rivers executed from his
designs. We may judge of his practice from the water at
Donnington, Corsham, Thoresby, Wentworth, &c. which,
whether in regard to situation, general form, or accompaniments,
are equally formal with any of Mr. Brown's works. Not con-
tented with forming artificial water contrary to every prin-
ciple of good taste and nature, at Valleyfield, the barbarities
committed upon a natural brook are almost incredible, and
seem as if made by Mr. Repton on purpose to appropriate the

* With some exceptions at Foxley.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 383

spirited censures of Mr. Knight*. It would be endless indeed
to mention the numerous and diverse absurdities either com-,
mitted upon natural brooks, or realized in artificial pieces of
water, in every part of the country. No disinterested person
of taste and discernment, who has viewed such scenes, can be
insensible of the difference between natural and made pieces of
water; and when we reflect that this material is capable of
forming the most interesting and enlivening effects in every
species of landscape, and yet in so many scenes is at present
the most formal and disgusting — the consideration excites the
deepest regret. He who can tamely submit to such depraved

v * " Shaved to the brink, our brooks are taught to flow

Where no obtruding leaves or branches grow ;
While clumps of shrubs bespot each winding vale,
Open alike to every gleam and gale ;
Each secret haunt, and deep recess display'd,
And intricacy banished with its shade.

"Hence, hence! thou haggard fiend, however call'd,
Thin meagre genius of the bare and bald ;
Thy spade and mattock here at length lay down,
And follow to the tomb thy favourite Brown :
Thy favourite Brown, whose innovating hand
First dealt thy curses o'er this fertile land ;
First taught the walk in spiral forms to move,
And from their haunts the secret Dryads drove ;
With clumps bespotted o'er the mountain's side,
And bade the stream 'twixt banks close-shaven glide ;
Banish'd the thickets of high tow'ring wood,
Which hung, reflected, o'er the glassy flood."

" The Landscape" p. 25, sec. edit.

384 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

ideas, who can expend immense sums in deforming nature,
and effecting what every enlightened general observer must
despise, and from which he himself can never experience last-
ing pleasure — gives a greater proof of his patience than of his
intellectual refinement, and may command attention by his
display of wealth ; but will never call forth admiration for his
judgment in matters of taste, or excite sympathy for his sense
of the real beauties of nature. If, however, there be any reader
of total indifference — or who is still infected with

that strange disease

Which gives deformity the power to please ;

to him I have nothing to say ; he can neither feel nor enjoy
nature, and arguments from her effects would be lost on him ; —
whatever is most general or fashionable will best suit his pur-
pose, and therefore let him not think of adopting any innova-
tions upon general practices.

The remarks which I purpose offering on the subject of water
will be included under these heads : — 1. The situation ; 2. The
general form or shape ; 3. The margin and accompaniments ;
4. Cascades and waterfalls; 5. The picturesque improvement
of artificial pieces of water already existing ; 6. The manage-
ment of natural pieces of water, when they come within the
province of picturesque improvement; and, 7- The expence

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 385

attending the formation or management of artificial pieces of
water.

1. The situation. — In treating this subject, collections of
water may be divided into two kinds : those intended to be
seen in a general view, and in connection with the adjacent
scenery ; and those only to be seen when near. Of the former
class are lakes, rivers, ponds, &c. ; and of the latter springs,
rills, rivulets, cascades, &c. There is scarcely any situation
in which springs, rivulets, &c. may not be placed. We find
rills, in nature, deep sunk in dells, as in cases where they run
down the sides of hills, or pass through a sandy soil. Should
they pass through a fertile or level meadow or vale, their course
is commonly very irregular ; and when they are found in hol-
lows, it is nearly straight, &c. The situation of rivers, lakes, and
ponds, is invariably in the lowest parts of the surface. It is, in-
deed, impossible that it could be otherwise. Water, whenever
it occurs, is always a striking feature, and thus has always its
peculiar situation : when that situation is changed, every other
feature is perverted — truth, nature, and harmony are set at de-
fiance, and the most glaring discord substituted in their room.
Striking instances of this gross error occur at Donnington,
Wertworth Castle, and Hawkstone *. An instance may also

* Mr. Repton, who seems never at a loss for argument, observes, that he has
" frequently advised that pools so unnaturally placed should be retained," not only

3 D

386 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

be seen in Plate XVI. fig. 1., but which is at present altering,
from my suggestions.

2. The general shape. — This depends upon the character to
be created. Whatever be the magnitude of lakes or ponds, they
should be of irregular shape, more or less wooded and never en-
tirely naked ; always disguised by prominences and masses ;
and as often as occasion serves further varied by islands simi-
larly managed. The form and direction of a river must de-
pend upon its size and the kind of country that it is to pass
through. Large rivers in fertile plains are generally much less
varied in direction than small ones ; and both are much less so,
than those which pursue their course through a hilly surface or
rocky soil. Large rivers can never be imitated where there does
not exist a very considerable stream ; because without this suf-
ficient motion can never be communicated ; but the course of
natural rivers may frequently be altered, improved, or divided ;
and in such cases these remarks will apply. A branch might
be taken off from the river in front of Warwick Castle with
immense advantage; so there might at Netherby, Scone, Fluers,

" in compliance with that general satisfaction which the eye derives from the glitter
of water, however absurd its situation," but also from the consideration " that al-
though water on a hill is generally deemed unnatural, yet all rivers derive their
sources from hills, and the highest mountains are known to have lakes or pools of
water near their summits." Those who can be convinced by this kind of reason-
ing well deserve the punishment of having such pieces of water in their grounds.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 38?

and many other places ; and much might be done at Alnwick.
If those who have had an opportunity of viewing the grounds
in front of Fluers Castle will only recollect the effect of the two
branches of the Tweed, and the junction of the other river im-
mediately above Kelso Bridge, no hesitation will be made as to
the grandeur of such improvements. The only doubts that can
occur will be respecting their propriety and utility, which must
depend entirely upon the will and taste of the proprietor : —
Whether hebe content to give up a considerable portion of useful
surface, for grandeur of effect and the creation of magnificent
scenery. In such instances as Scone and Netherby, the fears
of some would be alarmed for the safety of the mansion in
times of high floods ; but in all cases where alterations of this
kind were made, and especially where the water was brought
so near to buildings, gardens, or other fixed objects, a floodgate
can easily be made where the new branch joins the principal
course of the river; and, as every person accustomed to live near
rivers is aware of floods before they happen, these gates could
easily be shut in proper time to exclude any extraordinary
quantity from entering branches of this kind. This could be
effectually accomplished if a cottage and cottager were placed
near the floodgate. But even though the water were admitted
in times of high floods, if proper precautions were taken to pre-
vent it from attacking particular spots, it would only improve
the picturesque beauty of the banks ; and this is easily done by

388 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

placing piers or buttresses in proper situations. Sometimes the
course of a river may be entirely changed, from a distant, to a
near and more interesting situation* : and then there will be
no loss of ground, nor any occasion for floodgates. Examples
of imitations of rivers abound in almost every made place of
any consequence, and to them applies every objection which I
have mentioned or may afterwards advance. In form, direc-
tion, margin, and accompaniments, they are, without one sin-
gle exception as far as I have seen, altogether unnatural, and
undeserving particular criticism. With regard to situation, a
few may be excepted, as those at Oatlands and Llanarth ; the
last of which is shewn in Plate XV. but in every other respect
they are as absurd as any. The form and direction of this river
in Plate XV. fig. 1., as well as the margin and accompani-
ments, are at present altering from my plans and directions ;
and the object of the alteration is, to give it the effect of fig. 2.
It is partly a natural river; but has been much injured by art,
as is evident from fig. 1.

3. The margin and accompaniments. — There are two argu-
ments, which clearly shew that the margins of every piece of
water, whatever may be its character, ought to be broken and
diversified. The first is, that thereby intricacy, variety, and

* See Embanking, page 214.

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PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 389

harmony in form, colour, and disposition*, are produced, in
place of monotony or discord : the second is, that this mode
prevails in nature. Intricacy, variety, and harmony, are pro-
duced in the outline by making the small parts irregular ; con-
siderably so in some places, and less so in others, according to
the kind of water — in the ground, by producing breaks close to
and also at some distance from the water — by shewing the
naked or various coloured earth and gravel interspersed among
abruptnesses, smooth slopes, levels, and by every form and dis-
position of surface ; it is farther heightened by the introduction
of stones of different shapes, and placed in varied or intricate
disposition — and also by roots, decaying trunks, or branches of
trees. Another fruitful source of these beauties is plants,
grasses, low growths, shrubs, and trees. Plants and grasses
may be used both for clothing such parts of the surface as are
smooth, for varying others, and assisting disposition. Shrubs

* When I mention any of these or the other terms used in the essay on Taste,
I always suppose that the reader has attended to that essay, and consequently that
he considers that these words are used technically, and with a determinate meaning,
in opposition to the common vague manner of using all words significant of the
beauty of objects. Superficial readers, and those who have not considered taste or
its objects in that comprehensive and abstract view, will derive little advantage from
that essay ; but those who are conversant with the subject will probably view it as
not the least important part of this volume ; for nothing has occasioned so much
confusion, or has so much retarded the progress of art, as the erroneous applica-
tion of the terms there explained. Unless that essay be attended to, some parts of
this work will appear obscure, and the full force of others will not be perceived.

390 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

and trees may be used for the last purposes upon a larger
scale. Plants, grasses, and low growths give intricacy and
shade to small breaks, and the interstices among stones, &c.
Shrubs and trees give intricacy to large recesses, either of sim-
ple margin, or containing these lesser enrichments, which,
shaded by trees, will be heightened in effect. All this we see
accomplished in nature in such a beautiful manner as passes
all description : it may be admired by persons of feeling alone,
without much judgment, or knowledge of the principles by
which it pleases or produces the effect mentioned ; but this
kind of knowledge and judgment is highly useful in directing
what to copy from nature, and how to apply it to artificial
pieces of water. Without it, men may argue either for copy-
ing the deformities or singularities of nature*, or for misapply-
ing them when copied. There is a difference of character in
the margin and accompaniments of a lake, river, and brook,
though each is varied or harmonious. Each differs also accord-
ing to the style of country or soil which they may pass through.
Loch Catherine, Loch Duddingston, Grassmere, Wastwater,
and the beautiful lake at Clonyards, are very different lakes ;

* Thus Mr. Marshall argues for tame monotonous water, from the beautiful lake
of Grassmere ; and Mr. Repton would dissuade gentlemen from planting near water,
because as the trees must be inclosed with a fence, that fence will be doubled by
reflection. Such arguments may please the tasteless or superficial ; but they will
arouse very different emotions in the minds of men of feeling and judgment.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 391

and Thames, Dove, Tay, and Tweed, are very different rivers.
Breadth and stillness, the general expression of lakes, and pro-
gress and continuity, the general characteristic of rivers, belong
to each of those mentioned ; but there are particular differences
in the banks, adjacent grounds, and accompaniments, which
give an interesting variation of character to each.

To illustrate this, as well as the preceding sections, I shall
explain Plates XV. and XVI. The subject of Plate XV. is a
tame river, placed in the most uninteresting situation in which
it could well be conceived ; with few circumstances in the
grounds that oan be taken advantage of to improve it.
Fig. 1. represents it in the state it was in, in September 1805,
before I gave in the design for widening it, simplifying its
direction, varying its margin, and adding trees ; Figure 2.
shews the effect intended to be produced. Owing to the small-
ness of the scale, and the nature of the alterations, which are
chiefly upon the margin, the difference is perhaps less striking
than could occur in any case ; but this is purposely intended,
in order to give a proper test to the improvements proposed.
The subject of Plate XVI. is three pieces of water in three dif-
ferent levels, made to imitate two rivers. The one river is
supposed to come from the left, and is represented in Fig. 1.
by the two small ponds placed on different levels. The other
river is the large sweep in the lowest part of the ground

3Q2 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

in the same figure. Scarcely any thing can be more ridiculous
than the first attempt ; the other is less so, but still despicable
with regard to taste or nature. Fig. 2. shews the ground plan
of part of the large river — the dotted lines representing the
alterations which I proposed and marked out upon the ground.
Fig. 3. is intended to give some idea of the effect of these alter-
ations, which will be, to give the lower river the character of a
lake, and to plant with wood the ponds intended for the other
river*. Those alterations were marked out on the grounds at
Harewood Hall, and highly approved of: owing to some very
extensive operations of a similar kind now carrying on by the
proprietor, they cannot be put into practice at present; but
there cannot be a doubt that this will soon be done.

There are other kinds of appendages which are occasionally
placed near water: — these are buildings. No building can be
a greater ornament to a river than a bridge, and few objects are
so generally pleasing, because few more useful. This idea has
been taken advantage of by improvers ; but in general very in-
judiciously. Their bridges are always formal, and uncon-

* And probably retained by Mr. Repton (who was employed there) in confor-
mity to his arguments respecting ponds on hills and mountains : see pages 385,
386, of this work, and page 44 of Mr. Repton's, where the difficulty of uniting
these pieces of water is avowed, and some expedients proposed which shall be no-
ticed in the Appendix.

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PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 3Q$

nected with the scenery, either by their unsuitable magnitude,
or by the loftiness of their arches straddling across a shallow
stagnated river*. They want that beautiful simplicity, con-
nexion, and picturesque effect, which may be seen in many
highway bridges across streams or rivers, and which is pro-
duced there by necessity and time. Thus the arches are made
low when the banks on each side are tame and level, because
otherwise carts and carriages would have greater difficulty in
ascending them. The architecture is simple, because in ge-
neral the builders were not allowed to incur the expence of
ornaments. The plants, ivy bushes, and trees which group
with them, have sprung up in the course" of time, but may be
speedily imitated by art. The broken parapets, piers, or
arches, supplied by open railing or a few pales, are the effects
of time, or accident, and in some cases are worth imitating
in the scenery of a residence. These circumstances mi»ht
easily be copied in ornamental scenery, and if judiciously ap-
plied, will invariably succeed in producing a good effect-
Foot bridges of planks or rude boles and trunks of trees, suit
with many scenes. They have frequently been attempted,
but seldom with complete success, owing to the tastelessness of
the contrivers.

* As at Wentwortli Castle, Keddleston, Duddingston, Sion, and numerous other
places.

8 E

394 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

Other buildings, designed for the purpose of ornamenting
water, have seldom either picturesque effect or use; such as
aquatic temples, statues, river gods, and similar absurdities or
false decorations. Boat-houses, however, of simple construc-
tion, and in general all useful buildings, may frequently be in-
troduced with good effect and propriety. The Persian wheel
at Blair Drummond, the forcing wheel at Heythorpe, the corn-
mill at Downton and Warwick, and a small building which
may be perceived on the margin of the water in Plate VIII.,
are excellent proofs of this. The water-wheel and corn-mill at
Warwick Castle is perhaps the grandest appendage to that
noble building; whether in respect to the train of ideas which
it awakens in the mind respecting its former, compared with
its present use, &c. or its effect in connexion with the cas-
cade, for which it forms an excellent apology. And though
cascades of this kind be formal of themselves, yet the idea of
their utility compensates in a considerable degree for the want
of picturesque grandeur; and still the roar meets the ear
through woods or distance with the same force as in those
which are natural.

4. Cascades and waterfalls. — These epithets denote different
characters : — those where the water falls over a ridge of rock
in one or move- sheets, and which are properly called waterfalls;
and those where it is broken and interrupted by the irregula-
rity of the ridge, and by other fragments of rock, and stones,

pi xm

■■ fbtonwarXow.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 395

which are properly cascades. Both kinds may be imitated in
improved scenery, though hitherto this has seldom been well
done, owing either to the limited practical knowledge of per-
sons of taste — or the limited or vitiated taste or want of judg-
ment in those who have had the requisite practical knowledge.

1. Waterfalls may either be imitated directty, by being copied
from nature; or indirectly, by the introduction of weirs for the
use of water-mills, as mentioned toward the end of the last
sub-section. In imitating nature, the strength and durability
of the whole must be taken into consideration, no less than its
beauty. Strength depends upon the general form of the ag-
gregate of materials, which ought to be nearly that of Plate
XVII. fig. 2. a a a. Durability depends chiefly upon the foun-
dation ; which ought in every case, upon a great scale, to be
the natural rock; and upon a small scale, the most secure
causeway, fixed by oak piles and cross planks; — it depends
also upon the quality of the masonry, which ought to be ex-
ecuted with accuracy and care *.

* No kind of mortar should be used, but what is capable of resisting water. The
best for this purpose is common lime-stone used immediately after being burned ;
which, as Dr. Anderson has shewn, will harden instantly, and remain so as well,
or better, under water than in any other situation ; but where unburnt lime cannot
conveniently be had, or where, from deficiency of good workmen, or other circum-
stances, it could not be well burned, melted, and poured into the walls on the spot,
— there are other compositions which, thougli much more expensive, may be used
in its stead. See embanking.

39t) PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

There is one variety of waterfall which may occasionally be
seen in nature, and is well worthy of imitation; though, so far
as I know, it has never yet been attempted. It is where a small
rivulet or rill, at its junction with a river or brook, falls over a
rock in one small sheet. At Matlock Bath, the noise of a small
waterfall of this kind forms one of the finest circumstances of
the scenery about that place; — borne upon the breeze, its grate-
ful harmony meets the ear in almost ever}' part of the adjacent
scenerv, in murmurs as varied as their passages through woods
and open glades, along the surface of the Dove, under the echo-
ing cliffs of the Tor, or ascending the heights of Abram. This
remarkable effect, produced by such a small quantity of water,
ought to be the greatest encouragement to such as possess brooks
or rivulets, as few cases can occur where it may not be imi-
tated ; not indeed with such remarkable success, because the sur-
rounding scenery may not be so varied, but still with such an
effect as would amply compensate for the expence, which in
every case could be but trifling. At Machany I propose to
introduce one, which will have no inconsiderable murmur; and
at Barnbarrow one will be seen from the portico (shewn in Plate
XIV.) falling over a high rock, on the top of which stands an old
ivied tower — its murmurs will resound through the woods, and
even the apartments of the house, and give an air of enchant-
ment to that fine old place, of which no drawing or description
can give an adequate idea.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. o[)7

How a waterfall of this kind may be designed will appear
from Plate XVII. fig. 1. Suppose a b a brook or river, and that c
is the spot where a fall from one of the banks was desirable.
All that is necessary is, to take the levels from that point up
the river or brook to where the horizontal line intersects the
present surface of the water. Suppose this to take place at d;
all that is necessary is, to make a cut from d to c either open
or covered, and either crooked and nearly parallel to the river,
or in a straight line, as economy and the nature of the ground
may direct.

Waterfalls for driving machinery are generally understood;
and as no disguise in the masonry is necessary, but art is in ge-
neral to appear, the principles of strength and durability already
noticed are what chiefly demand attention. I must remark on
this part of the subject, that it is to be regretted that so few
who have rivers take advantage of it, and that so many make
cascades equally formal and unnatural without any real use,
and with little beauty either of character in themselves, or
adaption and connexion with the sceneiy.

2. Cascades. — The general remarks respecting the formation
of waterfalls will apply to cascades. When upon a small scale,
and where a plenteous current of water subsists at all seasons
of the year, the same form may be built, with the same care in

;*98 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. ROOK I.

regard to foundation, solidity, and mortar; and then it may be
disguised by rocks of different sizes, as represented by fig. 3.,
Plate XVII. Where the brook or river is of considerable mag-
nitude, or where the stream is inconstant, then the masonry
should be built after the manner of fig. 4., the spaces seen as
retaining the rocks (which serve to disguise it) against the vio-
lence of the large brook or river, will in the case of an incon-
stant stream retain the water also: which, if the whole angle
under the cascade were filled up with loose rocks, as in fig. 3.
would disappear entirely. The ground plan of these three sec-
tions may either be directly across the river, which is least na-
tural; diagonally, which is more so; or irregularly, as we most
frequently observe takes place both in waterfalls and cascades.
Fig. 5. shews four different plans of waterfalls and cascades.
a is suited to such a cascade as fig. 4. ; b for a violent natural
waterfall ; c for one less so, to be viewed chiefly from the sides
of the river; d for one of the commonest kinds. Each of these
must be totally disguised by rock, as shewn on these plans by
lines representing the situations of different sized fragments.
The same general principles in regard to form will apply
to all kinds of heads, fishponds, &c; only there the mate-
rials are commonly earth, clay, or gravel; which last should
be well puddled with clay or stiff loam on the side next the
water. In designing waterfalls and cascades, one princi-
pal consideration is, to adapt them properly to the see-

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPUOVEMEXT. 399

ncry. In some cases they are quite inadmissible, as in all
rivers or brooks without stones or rocks in their beds or mar-
gins* ; and in others where these are few, or where the ground
on each side is level, they can never be made of great magni-
tude. An attention to nature, however, is sufficient to guide
us in this, as in every thing else relating to the subject; — a sub-
ject which is so highly interesting and comprehensive, that to
treat it with much amplification would far exceed the limits to
which I am confined in this Work.

5. The picturesque improvement of pieces of water already ex-
isting.— This will certainly be attended to by all who at pre-
sent have artificial waters, whether in imitation of rivers, lakes,
ponds, or brooks, and who are in the habit of making pictu-
resque improvements upon their grounds. Such proprietors may
be assured, that no part can stand in greater need of alteration
than made water; and should they go on with others (except
planting, which however is commonly grown up in such places
as I allude to) to the neglect of this, they will certainly not
merit the approbation of men of taste; for taste always prefers

* The grounds of Thoresby, near Worksop, are of this description ; but mark
the ingenuity of Mr. Repton's argument : " The violence done to nature by the in-
troduction of rock scenery at Thoresby is the more allowable, since it is within a
short distance of Derbyshire, the most romantic county in England ; while from
the awful and picturesque scenery of Creswell Craigs such strata and ledges of stone,
coverechwith their natural vegetation, may be transported thither, that no eye
can discover the fraud" ! This short distance is nearly thirty miles ! !

40D PICTURESQUE 1 M PKO\ J. M I. N T. BOOK f.

excellence to quantity. If any proprietor hesitate to alter a
piece of water which he has long been accustomed to see with-
out being sensible perhaps of any great deformity*, if he look
from his windows to a serpentine river winding among smooth
naked turf, with only here and there a few clumps placed at
some distance from its margin; if the water presents one uni-
form glare of light, clear blue, or dull green, and seldom varied
by any shadows or reflections but those of clumps and sky,
(which last Mr. Repton is willing to shew) let him, before he
decides in favour of the tame river, imagine that in place of
this a broad irregular lake forming bays and recesses, retiring
among thick woods, and with its margin in some places abrupt,
broken, and varied by stones, plants, and creepers, in one place
smooth, sloping, and covered with grass, and in another clothed
with shrubs, trees, and low-growths; then let him imagine that
he sees these trees, woods, and the different coloured earths and
stones of the banks, reflected upon the still surface of the
water, which in some places was covered with dark shadows
from the wood, and in others was bright and clear as the hea-

* Custom will reconcile mankind to every thing, and even make them fond of de-
formity ; but then it is from secondary associations, which can onlv be felt by the
person subject to them. An active desire of improvement in excellence is equally
necessary both in the moral and material world, and consequently is essential to
the propagation of taste, and to the progress of civilization in society. There
is nothing in nature fixed and immutable ; of course every thing must be in a pro-
gressive state either of amelioration or deterioration. It is the part of judgment to
pursue the former in order to avoid the latter.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 401

vens : — let him consider how interesting this would appear, even
at a distance, and how long he might be employed in tracing
with the eye the various recesses, dark places, and reflections
— while still much Temained indistinct or unseen, and there-
fore either employed the imagination in completing it accord-
ing to its own ideas, or awakened curiosity to walk down and
examine it minutely, by tracing (as far as could be done for
thickets and briars) the various windings and intricate margin
of the whole. Let him only contrast this with the effect of the
piece of water already there, which he can see and know as
completely by a single glance as if he viewed it an hour;
and could examine the two extremities, (which are all that
could be discovered by walking down to it,) as completely in a
few minutes, as if he were to encompass it a whole day. If
the contrast does not strike him, he certainly, as far as regards
his own taste, is justified in preserving his water as it is; but if
otherwise, he ought to commence improvement immediately :
not only in gratification of his own sentiments, but also in jus-
tice to every attempt to promote and introduce good taste in
a country where he is a proprietor, and among a people upon
whom he is dependent for his rank and affluence. Different
styles of improvement may be ornamental and admired while
they are in fashion ; but it is only such as this, which are pic-
turesque (or natural) that can stand the test of time.

3 P

402 PICTURESQUE IMi'limtMKN'T. BOOK I

In altering artificial water, the first thing is to consider the
character which ought to be adopted, and in the next place to
execute that character in the best manner and with least ex-
pence. The first particular has been treated of under site/Mien,
margin, &e. and the last will be chiefly considered under the
7th Section, and that part of Book II. which relates to execu-
tion. In many cases, however, the alteration is so very simple,
as to require little art either in design or practice. At Ma-
chany a beautiful natural brook was some years ago formed into
one of the most disgusting kinds of serpentine ponds. The
improvement which I advised there was just to take away part
of the head, and the first winter's flood would do all the rest.
A large lake at Barnbarrow, the continuation of which is shewn
in front of the house (Plate XIV.), will be produced by little
more than forming the head, which will completely drown the
small serpentine rivulet that is shewn in the plate which repre-
sents the former appearance of that scene. Many like cases
occur. Fig. 6. Plate XVII. shews a plan given in by a modern
improver, for making another piece of water at Barnbarrow: it
was, however, rejected by the good taste of the proprietor; in-
stead of it, I propose little more than erecting a head, and vary-
ing the margin after the water has found its level, e represents
the circular form of a small pond at Castlewig, varied by trees,
&c. which was proposed to be altered and made in the shape of

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 40o

f: but agreeably to nvy advice it is now to remain untouched ;
that is, having the appearance of e. These three figures in
this plate are carefully reduced from the original plans which
are in the possession of the respective proprietors.

6. The management of natural pieces of water, where they come
within the province of picturesque improvement, consists in ren-
dering them more characteristic, and by sometimes introducing
occasional effects. The leading principles of accomplishing the
first improvements are obvious. The second is derived from
what takes place in nature: thus I have already mentioned a
variety of waterfall which is sometimes seen: there are similar
cascades, springs, and drooping banks or rocks*, on the mar-
gins of large brooks or rivers, which may all be imitated. In
rills, and smaller streams, there are dank pools, ponds, and lit-
tle lakes, which frequently occur in their course; these are
highly worthy of imitation, for their intrinsic beaut}', their con-
trast with the narrow rills, and their use in landscape. A great
advantage of such pools, or little lakes, is, that they may be
made and appear natural where no other variety of still water
could be attempted. In nature we find them on the sides of
declivities, where they are generally covered with wood, and
seen only on a near view. In level places, or such surfaces as

* There is a very remarkable dropping rock at Knaresborough, from which ex-
cellent units may be taken.

404 1'ICTURESQCE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

are not strikingly inclined, they are or may be opened in some
places, for the purpose of being seen from distant parts of the
grounds. This is done at Foxley in an admirable manner, and
from the surrounding woods gives a brilliancy to scenery which
would otherwise perhaps be rather dark and gloomy; wood
and ground being almost the only materials visible there before
Mr. Price began his improvements.

Islands are another species of occasional appearance, and are
well deserving of imitation, especially in lakes and ponds.
But even in large rivers or brooks they frequently have a good
effect. In large rivers they are long and narrow, as at Bolton
Abbey and Corby Castle, which are noble examples. In
brooks they are often so large as to be altogether out of pro-
portion to the stream, and may contain several poles of sur-
face; sometimes they are very small, and only contain a bush,
or a few trees, or a few stones and plants; both cases may
be seen in almost every brook, and both deserve imitation.
Islands in ponds should rather be numerous and close together,
than large and distant, and placed rather near the shore than
the middle. The apparent magnitude of a piece of water
may be greatly heightened from the principal point of view, by
placing most of the largest islands next the eye, as well as by
the mode of planting them. With respect to planting islands, in
general they should be wooded, but not wholly, and never in such

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 405

a way as to exclude the appearance of surface, broken ground,
rocks, roots, and stones, which are more natural to islands than
to shores, because it must always be supposed that it has been
some of these materials which have either occasioned the accu-
mulation of the island, or have prevented it from being washed
away.

7- The expense attending the formation of artificial water. —
Every one knows, that according to the present mode this is
enormous, and sometimes has occasioned the ruin of an indivi-
dual. By the mode proposed, it will in every case be much
cheaper, and often remarkably so. This will appear if we con-
sider the different operations of their formation according to
both modes. These are, excavating the bed of the proposed
water, forming the head, spreading the earth taken out, and
managing the surrounding surface.

.1. Excavation and forming of the head. — The chief reason why
this is so expensive is, that a river is commonly imitated ; which,
owing to the natural slope of all grounds, requires not only
larger heads, but a considerable number of them. By imi-
tating chiefly lakes, one head is generally all that is requisite ;
and this often of a much smaller size than those of rivers.
Hence a material difference of expense in this article alone.

40(5 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

2. Spreading the earth and managing the surrounding surface. —
In modern landscape gardening, whatever be the natural cha-
racter or tendency of the surrounding surface, it is reduced, by
levelling, to smooth lawn or pasture, sloping gradually from the
margin of the water. This occasions a prodigious expense;
and what is worse, it is commonly uncertain, and only to be
calculated after the whole is finished. The number of cubical
yards to be removed in excavation may be calculated within a
few pence of certainty; but the operations of levelling are in-
tricate, tedious, and extensive; and hence it is commonly in
this particular that the expense of made water exceeds calcu-
lation.

If an}7 one plan ever had the advantage over another, cer-
tainly picturesque or natural pieces of water have the complete
superiority over those alluded to with regard to expense. In
them the natural character of the ground is preserved, or only
improved, and consequently no expense of levelling is incur-
red; and the superfluous earth arising from the excavation is
formed into irregular inequalities, or distributed along the
banks in such a way as to increase their character and pictu-
resqueness. Numerous striking instances of unnecessary ex-
pense being incurred, and little beauty produced, could be
given from all parts of the island: that at Donnington might
have been much more picturesque — presented a larger sur-

TART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 40/

face of water — and have cost little more than one-half the
expense.

Buildings are a class of materials on which several remarks
have occasionally been made in the course of this work. With
regard to visual effect, they serve to give force and spirit; and in
respect of intellectual pleasure they communicate ideas of the
cheerfulness or industry of the inhabitants of a country ; or in
ruins recal to mind ages that are past ; they occasionally serve
to characterize landscape, and often to heighten the expression
indicated by nature. In all cultivated, verdant, and cheerful
scenery, their occasional appearance is necessary either in the
foreground or distance. In scenes of tranquillity and seclusion,
romantic beauty, or natural grandeur, their abundance is
highly disadvantageous, and their total absence is most com-
monly preferable. Wherever they are introduced, their design,
execution, character, and number, must never deviate from
propriety and use. The different kinds may be included under
the necessary, the convenient, the appropriate, and the acci-
dental. The necessary, or such as are requisite for the purposes
of utility, when suitably dignified in a proper style of architec-
ture, and placed in situations combining effect with use, should
(in place of being concealed) always appear in the general
view. They will never displease, and often prove sources of

408 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

character and beauty*. The convenient are such as are erected
chiefly for pleasure, as covered seats, retreats, &c. As already
observed f , these should be introduced with great caution, and
should rather appear deficient, as supernumerary. In character
they must correspond with the scenery in which they are intro-
duced : a hut constructed of branches of trees, not affectedly,
but simply, and covered with heath or thatch, forms a proper
shelter in a woody dell, as at Dunglass ; in one abounding with
rocks, it majr often be more convenient to take advantage of some
natural projection by increasing its depth, &c. and placing seats
under it, as at the mountain dingle at Cames Eskan : in more
elegant and magnificent walks, pieces of classical or scientific
architecture are equally proper, so long as the proper object and
use is kept in view ; but when this is deviated from, and such co-
vered seats introduced as are to be seen at Dunkeld, Stow, Hag-
ley, Envile, and most English residences, the chastity and natural
beauty (so to speak) of the whole scenery is destroyed. Arti-
ficial covered seats, however, are not often necessary. In most
seasons, both of the year and day, in which walks are fre-
quented in our humid climate, the shade of a tree is much
more agreeable ; and a few seats or stools, placed in different
spots under these, better preserve the pleasing character of na-
ture, which in those scenes that come under picturesque im-

* See Architecture, and Plates VII. VIII. XXX. and XXXI.

t See Ornamental Gardening.

PART VII. PICTUIM-.SQUE IMPROVEMENT- 409

provement, with some exceptions, is much better than heighten-
ing it by art. Spirit and force, which it is allowed buildings give
to scenery, can generally be communicated by walks, broken
ground, stones, trunks of trees, rocks, and such materials. The
appropriate may either be convenient or ornamental ; but they
are always peculiar to, or characteristic] of certain scenes, or
strong characters of themselves. Thus a bridge is applied only
to Avater, a prospect tower to an eminence, and a mausoleum
is an impressive object of itself, &c. This class forms some of
the noblest buildings belonging to a residence ; a bridge, where
it is really useful, is always striking and beautiful, whether it-
be the romantic Swiss foot-path across dells or dingles, or the
more stately arch of masonry over brooks or rivers. Mausoleums
not obtruded on the view, as at Castle Howard, but placed so
as to be seen only occasional^, may afford solemn instruction
to all, and may inspire the noblest sentiments in the descen-
dants of ancient and honourable families. Prospect towers
have a grand and imposing effect when judiciously placed in a
woody eminence, or on the top of a rocky mountain. Very
seldom, however, are they built in a suitable style of architec-
ture : they are either of the most vulgar and common-place
forms, as at Blaize Castle, Shooter's Hill, &c. or gaudy and af-
fectedly uncommon, as at Clytho, Shuckborough, and number-
less other places. These towers should always be designed in
a style analogous to their situation : where that is broad and ir-

3 o

410 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

regular, they should have something of that appearance ; where
high and narrow, or pointed, a single tower of considerable
height is proper. In the designs, treatise, and models, given
in by me for forming a residence at North Berwick, the hill of
that name is intended to be included in the park : it is of a re-
gular conical shape, of considerable height, and fertile to the
top. I proposed to place an open circular Doric portico upon
its summit, which it is presumed will have an excellent effect
from all the surrounding country, and serve the chief purpose
of such buildings in a very uncommon degree; that is, it will
shew a most extensive prospect.

By accidental buildings, I mean chiefly ruins, which I sup-
pose either to exist as such already, or to be produced from
some building no longer necessary or proper in the situation.
The formation of artificial ruins* I have never been able to
reconcile with propriety and good taste : when real, they are
a most beautiful, characteristic, and accommodating class
of buildings, and are therefore highly valuable wherever they
exist. They may often be improved by the addition of wood ;
either trees and shrubs, to unite and effect breadth and sim-

* If artificial ruins are admitted, they should always be placed in such a situa-
tion as to be inaccessible to the passing spectator ; otherwise, on the discovery of
the deception, disgust will succeed, and totally obliterate all his previous emotions
of pleasure.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 411

plicity; creepers, to add intricacy and variety; or by judi-
cious breaks or openings* in the masonry, for the same pur-
pose. In some cases they may even be improved by slight addi-
tions of masonry, in the same style, or by adding small towers or
turrets, battlements, or similar parts. Both modes of improve-
ment have come under my practice at North Berwick Abbey,
and Machany. Buildings no longer necessary, as old mansions,
cottages, offices of any kind, and even garden walls or gate-
ways, may often form ruins which, if not always highly inte-
resting in an intellectual or historical point of view, yet serve
one of the grand purposes of buildings, by giving spirit and
effect to verdant scenery. Such objects should never, as is
commonly the case, be removed without mature thought; for
to the picturesque improver no artificial circumstance can be
so fortunate, or furnish so many hints for interesting com-
positions.

At Luss there are the remains of an old garden which for many
years has been in a state of general neglect; the surrounding
Avails are of considerable height, and formed of stone masonry;
they are partly covered with ivy and trees, which have sprung

* An abortive attempt of this kind has been made at Collington House, from the
suggestions of a drawing-master in Edinburgh; but from endeavouring to effect
too much, the subject operated upon is rendered worse than before it was altered.

3g2

412 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. ROOK I.

up from seeds deposited in their crevices, and partly rent or
broken down by the increase of the roots of those trees; one
of which, upon an alcove in the corner of the garden, has ar-
rived to considerable height, and cleft the wall to the founda-
tion. The compartments of the garden are subdivided by grass
walks, some of which are still kept mown ; but the borders and
parterres can only be distinguished by the wild luxuriance of
the shrubs, flowers, and fruit-trees, by the flights of steps which
connect different terraces and hanging slopes, or the ruins of urns,
dials, or artificial ponds. When viewing that place, I could
not help admiring this old garden as one of the most interest-
ing things about it; but my guide, apparently Avondering at my
delay in such a scene, apologized for its appearance by observ-
ing, that as soon as the new garden was finished, this one would
be removed, and the whole thrown open and joined to the
lawn!! At Ingleston, the same thing has lately been done;
not only with the garden, but also with an old mansion and
tower ! ! Had part of the garden walls and these old ruins
been allowed to remain, and been properly connected and va-
ried, the place would have been rendered highly interesting
at a small expence. But every thing has been cleared and
levelled — new plantations formed, to clump up groups and
open groves, or counteract the natural character of the ground;
and huge masses of masonry are erecting with rapidity ; but,
alas ! the characteristic beauties of the place are destroyed —

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 413

beauties which cannot be recreated in a life-time, and which
cannot be equalled by any power of art ; — while in their room
nothing appears but a tasteless display of wealth. Several
thousand pounds have been expended in really deforming
this place. Indeed scarcely an instance occurs of a new place
being formed, or improved, but the same thing is done, in a
greater or less degree.

A variety of buildings which may be classed along with ruins
are those temples, covered seats, castles, &c. which have been
purposely erected as ornamental to a residence. After they
have been raised at considerable expense, it will often be cruel
to destroy them entirely; they may therefore either be con-
cealed by trees and creepers, and rendered less imposing; or by
those who have courage and decided taste, the structure itself
may be broken and diversified by mechanical force, and further
varied by vegetation as before. By these means, jointly used,
most ridiculous ornamental buildings, as towers, temples, &c.
may be varied and rendered agreeable, for age, intricacy, and
picturesque beauty, which may thus be produced or increased,
and are always harmonious and interesting.

414 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK f

SECT. 2. OF THE OCCASIONAL OR APPROPRIATE MATE-
\

RIALS OF LANDSCAPE.

These are roads, walks, and fences of different kinds.

Roads and walks have partly one of the effects of build-
ings; that is, of giving spirit and force to scenes of verdure and
cultivation. Conveniency and propriety dictate their direc-
tion, and utility their width. Their margin, and the surface
and colour of the materials, are what chiefly concern pictu-
resque effect. Where the scene is avowedly artificial, the mar-
gins must be parallel to each other, and accurately defined ;
as in that part of the approach road which comes within the
parapet or fence that incloses the mansion, or in those walks
which are within the bounds of either the ornamental or useful
garden. Where the road or walk is not in these scenes, but is
either in picturesque or natural pleasure-ground, pasture fields,
park, forest, or dingle, the edges must be irregular, and more
or less rough or smooth, blending or ragged, as we see takes
place in paths through similar scenery in wild nature. Where
trees and bushes are loosely scattered over a lawn, the sweeps
or turns of the walk should be comparatively abrupt, and its

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 415

breadth may vary in a considerable degree. A group of shrubs,
or a single tree, ma}' sometimes divide it, and there the breadth
must be separated, and, each narrow course taking nearly the
same direction, in a short time they may meet in one track; and
assume the former width. Some beautiful examples of this
kind of walk we find in woody banks or commons. In thickets
or woods, whether of natural trees and undergrowth, or of
exotics, as in the full grown shrubbery, the edge of the path
should often be totally annihilated on both sides, and bounded
only by the irregularity of the lowest growths. In walks, the
excellent effects and superior economy resulting from these
principles is excellently illustrated at Foxley and Dunglass ;
and in roads it may be seen in those parts of much frequented
approaches which it is not judged necessary to subject to the
paring-irons and formal trimming of gardeners.

The formal, stiff, and harsh edges of made roads and walks,
is one of the most striking deformities in picturesque scenery.
Though every other part of the scene should be perfect, or
though they lead through a natural copse or an unfrequented
dell, their edginess and formal manner powerfully distract
the eye of the spectator, and frustrate the genuine effect of the
scenery. Indeed, the wilder or more natural the ground which
the walk passes through, the more anxious is the gardener to
shew his labours, either by the frequent addition of fresh gravel,

4]6 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I

when mosses, wcatherstains, or any such picturesque appen-
dages begin to appear ; or with the scythe and paring-irons
divesting their edges of the intricacy which vegetation, during
a slight relief from his operations, has a continual tendency to
produce.

Fences are sometimes useful in picturesque scenery, on the
same principles as roads ; that is, to give spirit and variety : as
in walls or park pales varied by recesses and bushes, or open
rustic paling partially concealed by trees, or inequalities of
ground. But they are chiefly requisite for harmonizing or
uniting landscape; and in this case they are concealed as much
as possible. Of unseen fences there are various kinds, from the
slender wire painted of what is called invisible green, which
serves to exclude sheep, to the formidable sunk fence, which
when six or eight feet deep, and twelve or fifteen wide, is a
barrier to every species of animals kept in this country. The
slender wire fence may be increased in strength and height so
as to exclude deer ; in which case it may frequently be appli-
cable to level lawns, as at Trentham. An open iron rail may
sometimes be used for the same purpose in like cases, as at
Donnington. An excavation, with a rail at the bottom or on
one side, may be used in varied or irregular ground, or when
at some distance from the mansion, as at Esher and numberless
places ; and the well-known sunk fence, or ha ! ha ! may be

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 417

applied in many other instances. Almost every thing depends
upon their application to the variations of ground, and their
concealment by trees and bushes : when this is judiciously
done, either of these kinds may be made sufficiently invisible ;
though it must be observed, that this is very seldom the case.
The sunk fence, which abounds most in ornamental scenery, is
only unseen when approached at nearly right angles from one
side. If there are any curvatures in its direction, or inequali-
ties in the surface of the ground, the upright wall always meets
the eye, and occasions a disagreeable surprize. What is a great
additional defect of this fence, and indeed of all those which
have been mentioned, is their confinement of the human spe-
cies. Grounds where they occur always appear on a con-
tracted scale, and a disagreeable restraint is necessarily imposed
on the spectator wherever he goes. Should he leave the walk
and saunter over the lawn, or take a direct road to an}r object
in the park, he is either suddenly intercepted by this invincible
barrier, or perpetually pained by the idea of meeting with it ;
and wherever it obtrudes itself, he must return and walk in the
gravelled path, where, if he has any curiosity at all, he must, to
use a cant phrase, be " ill at ease." From experiencing this, it
naturally occurred to me* that an iron rail, such as is used for

* I should not again repeat that this fence, and also the next described, were
solely invented by me, were it not that some persons have suspected the contrary.

3 H

418 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

inclosing sunk areas, or indeed any common wooden rail, as
fig. 1., Plate XVIII., if placed overan excavation two or three
feet deep, or even less, would at once be a harrier against all
sorts of cattle, freely admit the human species to pass over it,
and at the same time be more completely unseen than any
fence hitherto used. It was first erected at Kingswood Lodge
in 1803-4, to separate a sheep pasture from that used for
cattle and horses; it completely answered my expectations, and
continues to effect all the purposes mentioned above. It is
erected on a smooth declivity* in the room partly of the sunk
fence and hedge, the former of which appears in Plate XXIV.;
and in Plate XXV. a slight shade is made, only to shew the
direction of this fence; for at such a distance it is quite invi-
sible. It may be proper to remark here, that two or three
trees are supposed to be removed from the valley between the
foreground and the fence, in order to render its situation more
conspicuous, the chief design of this plate being to shew the
effect of this fence.

The whole process of constructing the in visible fence may
be learned from Plate XVIII.— Fig. 1. is the form of the rail
when made of Avood, which ought to be that of larch or oak:
the former, if young and with the bark on, would be much the
cheapest and most durable. The ends of the rails are made
round or blunt, in place of being pointed, lest cattle should

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PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 419

by any means stumble into the margin of the excavation; for
the same reason the two bearing longitudinal rails are placed
near the middle of the cross ones. Fig. 2. represents the appear-
ance that this fence has when nearly viewed: the light ground
on each side represents the close bitten or mown pasture; the
dark ground among the rails the uncropped grass which
springs up from the bottom of the excavation, and, partially
covering the rails, tends to render the whole invisible, more
especially if the rail be painted green. Fig. 3. is a section of
the fence when thus placed, shewing the width of the excava-
tion, which, where sheep, cattle, &c. only are to be excluded,
as at Kingswood Lodge, need not be above four feet and a half
wide and twenty inches deep; but where deer are kept, the
width should be from six to ten feet, and the depth at least of
the margins from twenty inches to three feet. The two posts
which support the longitudinal bearers of the rail, the proper
shape of the bottom of the excavation, and the grass which
springs up from it, are also seen in this section. The grass*
when it becomes too long, may be cropped with a scythe; for
it may be observed here, that the cattle will not eat it, from
an instinctive timidity at rails or palings, or even open gates,
when laid along the surface. Fig. 4. shews the manner in
which this fence may be placed upright in times of snow, when
cattle might otherwise be in danger of walking over it. A si-
milar purpose might be effected by other means; as by having

420 PICTURESQUE IM PHOVEM F.NT. BOOK I.

the bearing posts placed nearer each other, and then the weight
of cattle on either end of the cross rails would weigh them
down and be frightened away, while the fence would fall down
in its former position. It is scarcely necessary to add, that
both for this and the former purpose, the fence would have to
be divided into lengths — and that for this last purpose (at least
in cases where the excavation was deep) it would be proper to
have two fixed rails, or one narrow deal, between each division
for ladies to walk over*.

Another species of invisible fence, also invented by me, and
which has most of the advantages of the preceding one, may be
formed by making the excavation somewhat deeper, and sowing
furze or planting thorns in it, and mowing them when they grow
higher than the surface of the surrounding pasture. A section
of such a fence is shewn Plate XVIII. , fig. 5. In order to admit

* The only objections that can be made to this fence are those which were
made by writers unexperienced in rural affairs when I first announced it *. The sum
of their arguments is, that during night cattle may stumble on it and break their legs,
and during day they may walk across it. Independently of the success of the trial
at Kingswood Lodge, I have to offer, against the first argument, that in fields con-
taining uninclosed pits or quarries, cattle are seldom or never known to fall into
them ; some striking instances of which there are in Derbyshire, and many parts of
Scotland: and in respect to walking across this fence, it is well known that cattle
will not, unless forcibly driven, and scarcely then, leap over a common rail or gate
laid flat upon the surface of a grass field: rails and gates are much narrower than
this fence, and have no excavation under them.

* In Observations on Planting, Landscape Gardening, &c. published 1804.

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PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 421

people to pass over such, a few planks could be painted green
and laid across here and there, and they would soon be par-
tially concealed by the thorns. The very great economy and
simplicity in the formation of this and the former fence must
be considerably in their favour.

Many sorts of ornamental or concealed fences may be made;
walls may be partially covered with shrubs, creepers, and trees,
as at Croome; hedges or palings by different sorts of these, as
is beautifully exemplified at Monrith and White Knights; and
sunk fences, having the wall ivied, as at Bellvue; and the ex-
cavation covered with thorns or shrubs, either wholly or parti-
ally, as in fig. 6., Plate XVIII. In many cases, artificial din-
gles may be advantageously used in place of a fence, and thus
an excellent shady walk would be obtained at the same time.
Many others might be mentioned. In altering or improving
residences, the great art will generally consist in disguising or
improving such as are already there; which, applied to every
thing else, is in general a much better practice, than first to
destroy or erase, and then create anew, what would have been
proper originally.

422 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

SECT. III. OF THE FLEETING OR ACCIDENTAL MATERIALS

OF LANDSCAPE.

These are numerous, varied, and interesting, though not often
within the controul of the improver. They may be included
under animated nature, moving objects, and changing ele-
ments. Even the larger classes of animals have each their ap-
propriate scenery. Deer suit the extensive mountain, and fo-
rest-like park; horses the sweeping and extensive plain; sheep
the rich lawn; cattle the meadow; asses the forest dingle;
goats the rocky steep, Sec. The hare suits best the sequestered
glade, and the rabbit the naked or broken surface. — The shining
trout, the clear rill; the pike, the dark and deep pool; and
the eel, the muddy bottom. Even the different species of the
winged tribe frequent each its peculiar scene or style of coun-
try, and has each its peculiar food*, from the eagle of Glencoe
and Inverary, to the large raven of Gleneagles; the linnet of
the furzy hills of Braid, to the woodlark of Levensgrove, or the
heavenly nightingale of Persfield. Every species of singing bird,
and all sorts of game, ought to be encouraged as much as pos-
sible about a residence, by planting such trees, shrubs, or

* See Introduction to Agriculture ; article, Animated Nature.

I'AKT VII. PICTCRESQUE IMI'KOVE.MENT. 423

plants, as they are peculiarly fond of; as the mountain ash,
barberry, &c. for the thrush; the ulex for the linnet; the plan-
tago, or polygonum, for the finch; the chervil, parsley, &c. as
well as low bushes, for the pheasant and partridge; and the
typha, iris, or phalaris, for the coot, wild duck, swan, or
goose. Other birds or quadrupeds, pernicious to these, should be
partially destroyed, as the magpie, hawk, squirrel, woodcat, &c.

Moving objects in the country have always a cheerful, and
sometimes a grand effect. The shipping at Mount Edgecombe
and North Berwick add highly to the interest of both those
places. Even fishing-boats in lakes, barges in canals, wag-
gons, carts, &c. have all their uses, and may all on occasion
be made subservient to picturesque improvement. The smoke
at Carron, when the sun by setting behind it throws a deep
shadow in the Firth, is often as truly sublime, as when in a dark
night its flames burst forth in spiral columns, and give the
sea and the sky a fiery aspect in the same moment. Cole-
brook Dale is more varied and interesting, and during night
more terrific; but from the want of accompaniments — of
mountains, plains, and sea, it is less sublime. But even the
smoke of cities and villages is of immense importance in real
as well as imitated landscape : it gives consequence to a scene
otherwise barren and uninteresting: even single cottages on
the grounds of a residence often, by the ascent of their curling

4'J4 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

volume of grey, vary a uniform bank or a monotonous outline.
In the distant scenery especially, they may often be introduced
with this effect, where perhaps, from the nature of the country,
or the interference of other property, no other improvement
could be adopted. This is no where better illustrated than at
Hopton Court, where a bleak monotonous outline in the mid-
dle distance, and about a mile from the mansion, is not only
improved, but even rendered interesting, by the smoke ascend-
ing from groups of cottages introduced in proper places. An
attentive observer will see similar effects every where. Even
the smoke of offices, farm buildings, hot-house fires, &c. may
often prove of great service in the fore-grounds of a residence,
by producing variety, increasing tranquillity in a moving scene,
or promoting the idea of comfort and population in a dreary
one. Witness the village of Dunkeld, the hot-houses at Havod,
or the cottages at Foxley and the Holme.

The changes in the elements which constitute the seasons of the
year, or the different periods of the day, are productive of in-
finite beauty in landscape; and often a scene, which has no-
thing intrinsic to recommend it, may, by the influence of a ri-
sing or setting sun, a dark cloud, a fog, or numberless other
circumstances, be rendered so interesting as to engage the
pencil of the painter. Every variety of storm, whether of rain,
hail, snow, frost, or thunder, is highly interesting. The enliven-

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 4(25

ing influence of a fresh shower in the spring or summer months,
in vivifying the singing birds, expanding the leaves of trees,
sending; forth the fragrance of vegetation, as well as rendering
them more delightful to the eye, cannot have passed unnoticed
by those who feel the force of rural scenes. The glittering dew
on the gossamer of grass or shrubs — the morning vapour as-
cending from the circuitous brook, or collected hovering over
the valley — the light summer clouds which denote great drought
— the relaxing heat of noon, and the grandeur of the evening sky,
need only be mentioned, to be deeply felt by all those who are

" True to each rural sight, true to each rural sound."

These and a thousand other beauties belong to the country,
which happily art can neither create, deform, nor annihilate,
and which may be enjoyed by the peasant on his native moun-
tains, as completely as by the wealthy and noble in all the
splendour of artificial magnificence. Such pleasure-creating
scenes indeed deserve particular attention in a work like the
present ; as those who cannot enjoy them need not expect to
be gratified with any sort of improvement or work of taste,
further than as it corresponds with the fashion of the day*.

* Nature, thy charms let other men forego ;

Thy paths of peace, enamel'd all with flowers ;
Thy greenwoods gay, where sweetest warblings flow ;
Thy wild walks, where the misty mountain towers ;

3 I

426 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK 1.

And hie to where the cloud of battle lowers,
And Havoc, purple wing'd, o'ershades the path :

In Glory's wild pursuit strain all their powers,
And chase the phantom to the gates of Death ;
What time Ambition pours the vial of her wrath :

For me — when I this primrose path resign,

Round which the balmy-breathing south wind plays ;
Where the wild bees their honied sweets refine,

And murmur soft their little fairy lays :

When with a lover's eye I cease to gaze
On Nature's charms, though rob'd in simple stole,

For Pomp, for Honour's meretricious blaze
May Joy desert the Seasons as they roll,
And Pleasure ever be a stranger to my soul !

O ! is there, Nature, in thy widest range,

That boasts the breath of life from gracious Heav'n,
And man's similitude, that would exchange

Thy pure delights, for all that wealth has given ?

From the bright train that gems the brow of even,
His gaze averting, far away could start,

To watch and worship by wild passions driven,
Their image glittering near a villain's heart,
And tread, with such, the rounds of infamy and art ?

Carey's Pleasures of Nature

PAItT Vll. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 42?

CHAPTER III.

OF THE UNION OF THE MATERIALS OF LANDS6APE IN
FORMING PICTURESQUE COMPOSITIONS.

Hitherto I have treated chiefly of managing the materials
of landscape, so as each of them may form agreeable composi-
tions, whether near or distant from the eye, and whether alone
or in union with other materials. I come now to offer a few
hints on composition, and which are generally applicable to the
whole. Whatever be the nature of a pleasing landscape,
whether grand, beautiful, romantic, extensive, or confined,
whether it consist of only one, two, or all of the materials, three
marked distances always appear: nor can the eye dwell with
pleasure on any scene where this is not the case*. Of these
three distances, that which is nearest the eye, or the foreground,.

* Component parts in all the eye requires :
One formal mass for ever palls and tires.
To make the landscape grateful to the sight,
Three points of distance always should unite ;
And howsoe'er the view may be confined,
Three mark'd divisions we shall always find.

Knight's Landscape.

428 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

is ever the most important; and as it is always within the ope-
rations of the improver, it can be disposed at pleasure. The
disposition of the foreground ought to be more particularly at-
tended to at the mansion, and all buildings, seats, and walks,
whither the spectator is generally conducted, and where he natu-
rally expects the best compositions or views. The operations
upon the foreground depend upon two things — its own natural
character, and that of the distances : and the general principle,
in guiding these operations, is, that the whole should harmonize.
Thus if the middle distance be entirely covered with wood, a
foreground of ground only is unsuitable ; a few trees must be
added, not only to strengthen the distinction between these
component parts, but to unite them in character, and thus to
strengthen the effect of the whole composition. These trees
should even bear some relation in form and mode of growth to
the distant wood or grove with which they are to assimilate :
sl foreground of poplars, or weeping birch, would ill suit a mid-
dle distance evidently of oaks, elms, or firs ; that is, if these
trees were so near the eye, as evidently to shew their charac-
teristics. It is true, we frequently meet with this incongruity
in the country ; but then it is the effect of cultivation, or par-
ticular nature, and is to be rejected because inconsistent with
her fundamental laws.

The middle distances of many views come within the province

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 429

of the improver ; and in managing them the same general prin-
ciple is to be attended to. What is middle distance to one
view, will often be foreground or back ground to another ; and
therefore, before any alterations are made, the whole must be
well considered from every point of view ; otherwise incon-
gruities will inevitably be produced. The same remarks will
apply to the background ; which, except in recluse scenery, is
commonly without the immediate province of the improver.
There are such abundant resources, however, that even the
most distant scenery may be varied or harmonized, either by
improvements upon itself, or by diversifying it by means of
objects in the foreground or middle distance ; and these ob-
jects, as we have seen in the last chapter, may either be the
permanent, accidental, or fleeting materials of landscape. In
general, it will be found, that by disposing the materials of land-
scape in every part of the picturesque scenery of a residence,
under the leading principle of unity in the whole, and connexion
N in the parts, or harmony, which is the same thing, proper fore-
grounds, middle distance, and backgrounds, will present them-
selves everywhere without much trouble : and wherever these
appear in some respects deficient ; where the foreground is
crowded or incongruous ; the middle distance too near, or not
sufficiently marked, the judicious improver will perceive it at
first sight, and may easily alter it agreeably to the principles of
painting ; and I may add, that without a knowledge of these

450 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. liOOK I.

principles any directions on this head would avail little, and
even be liable to censure as too speculative. The man of im-
proved taste, and who possesses a competent knowledge of the
principles of painting, Avill think otherwise, and have little need
of minute directions; for

" 'Tis still one principle through all extends,
And leads by different ways to different ends."

CHAPTER IV.

OF THE SUBJECTS OR PECULIAR SCENES OF PICTURESQUE

IMPROVEMENT.

These are generally included under pleasure grounds and
park scenery ; but mere nominal distinctions are of little im-
portance ; the truth is, that as picturesque beauty is the most
exquisite of rural nature,' it ought to be more or less attended
to in all parts of a residence, the mere internal arrangement of
a kitchen garden or farm excluded ; though even in these it
may often be attended to in some degree, with no great disad-
vantage in regard to utility. Still, however, the wild deer
park, or forest scenery, and those parts of the pleasure ground

l*ART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 431

where ornamental gardening does not prevail, are its peculiar
provinces.

Parks, I conceive, ought to be of two kinds. 1. Parks of a
small residence, where regard is had chiefly to the value of the
pasture, and where the pasturing animals are horses, cattle,
sheep, Sec. : There the surface must be unbroken, clothed and
varied, or characterized, chiefly by trees ; unless we admit a
i'c^.v shrubs or lower growths near the mansion or walks of
the pleasure or more ornamental parts. The apparent ex-
tent of this kind of parks depends' more upon the variety
of the grounds, and the manner in which the trees and shrubs
are planted, than upon the number of acres. A level or
uniform surface, spotted by circular, oval, or even angular
el Limps, and surrounded by a compact serpentine belt, as at
Duddingston or Blenheim, can never appear extensive ; but a
very few acres of varied ground, sprinkled over with light groups,
thorns, and hollies, appear boundless. In such a park, every
step presents a new composition, arising from the varied h rds
of cattle intermingling with the trees, &e. and always changing
their position : and as there is no permanent mark by which we
can distinguish one scene from another, so as to. know it again;
a person might wander up and down the extent of a few acres for
several days, without being able to say whether he was not tra-
versing a park of several square miles. This is the case in na-
tural forests from the same principles.

432 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK r~

l2. Parks where grandeur of character is the chief object.
Nothing can contribute so much to this effect as the wild,
forest style of breaking the ground and planting trees, shrubs,
low growths, furze, bramble, plants, ferns, &c. and shew-
ing roots, decayed trunks, rocks, or stones, when they may
appear with propriety and apparent fortuitousness. The animals
grazed should be chiefly deer, wild cattle, and horses. Parks
are the prominent features of all extensive residences ; and
were this appearance of wildness and forest scenery given to
them, words could not convey an adequate idea of the beauty
and grandeur that would be communicated to them and to the
country at large. I have already offered a few hints on this
subject under low growths, wild plants, &c. and shall add a few
more under planting ; these being the chief materials by which
the effect is produced. But nothing can give an idea of what
these effects might be, except looking at the finest passages of
forest scenery, few of which now exist in the country. In New
Forest, and that of Needwood, there are still select passages
which every true admirer of nature will view with rapture and
enthusiastic delight, and which no picturesque improver can
examine without reflecting, or exclaiming, " What beauties
would not be added to the already beautiful park of Donning-
ton, to that of Blenheim, Croome, Dunkeld, Barnbugle, and, in
a word, to all those esteemed the finest parks of the kingdom, by
imitating such scenery \" The cold inquirer will say, Would

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 433

not the utility of such parks be injured ? So it would, in some
degree ; but is not beauty or grandeur of character one of the
chief objects of such scenes ? if not, why change the common
character of the country, why make the interesting variety of
corn fields, farms, cottages, hedges, coppices, give way to one
dull vapid monotonous surface of green, as insipidly varied by
trees, — where one might wander an age without seeing any
thing else than their naked stems and clump-like heads? No-
thing can be grand or sublime, but as it soars above the com-
mon appearances of the like things. Now in a fertile and cul-
tivated country, what can be more truly uncommon with regard
to the surface, than making it assume the wild irregularity and
excesses of nature, leaving flocks and herds to roam at pleasure,
and despising the teeming abundance of cultivation, and the
grosser ideas of mere profit or use * ?

* It is not meant by this to affirm, that there would be much real difference in
the annual profit of a park so laid out, when compared with one in the modern
taste. What was not occupied with pasture would be covered with wood ; which,
whether as undergrowth, or timber produce, is highly valuable, and often produces
as much profit as either pasture or aration — and in many scenes highly suitable for
parks, more so, as will appear under planting; besides the abundance of every
species of game which this would produce, as well as the encouragement it would
give to a beautiful class of singing birds. This being the case, and it being taken
into view that deer are not grazed for pecuniary advantage, I cannot see that there
would be any real disadvantage in point of profit by adopting this mode ; and hence
I should wish it in some degree attended to, even in parks of the smallest size,
where cattle and sheep are grazed. In this age of refinement and universal culti-
vation, wildness and native simplicity have charms which are highly interesting to

3 K

434 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

The pleasure ground may consist of scenes of different
expressions of avowed art, as those of gardening ; and of nature,
as those of picturesque improvement, such as tranquil or se-
questered glades, romantic glens, flowery meads, furzy heaths*,
tangled dingles, wooded dells, rocky steeps, and numberless
others which are to be met with in a varied or picturesque coun-
try, and are either to be heightened in effect, or preserved from
cultivation, by the improver. Wherever the pleasure ground
is not under some of the particular scenes of ornamental gar-
dening, it should be fed, at least by sheep, and often by horses,
cattle, &c. which should be allowed to come close to the terrace
wall that separates the lawn from the mansion. The same ought
to take place in the park front of the mansion ; for what can be
more dull and unnatural, than the modern method of surround-
ing a house by a naked lawn totally destitute of animation?

all those not absorbed in the vortex of fashion ; the votaries of which pass through
life tickled or amused, so to speak, but never enjoying any real pleasure, and to-
tally dead to what in a wild country, among simple peasantry " All things give

and all express,

" Content and rural happiness."

* In a design which I made for increasing the pleasure-ground or picturesque
scenery at Ashton, I proposed preserving upwards of two acres of a rocky heathy
common in its then state, and to be surrounded by irregular groups and masses of
Scotch firs, thorns, and furze. This scheme met the approbation of the proprietor,
and is, I suppose, carrying into execution. A wild heath was deemed by Lord Bacon
one of the requisites of a perfect garden ; and this, no doubt, from feeling the ex-
quisite effect of wildness. The remains of this heath still exist at his seat near
St. Alban's.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROV EMENT. 435

A hollow winding dell, or dingle, containing a brook or
rill overhung with wood, and its banks diversified by broken
ground presenting various coloured earths, and among the
low growths old trunks of trees, roots, and stones, — or, dells
of a grander character, containing bold, perpendicular project-
ing or irregular massive rocks, overhung with huge trees, bushes,
ferns and creepers, grouped and combined in an infinite diver-
sity of ways — the stream interrupted by the rocks tumbling
over in roaring cataract's, foaming cascades, or interrupted only
by gentle falls, — and perhaps in some places (where the dell
widens into a valley), spreading itself into a crystal lake, varied
by little islands and woody projections, all heightened by the
usual appendages of animation, the singing of birds, the fra-
grance of flowers, form what I consider to be among the
most enchanting kinds of recluse pleasure-ground scenery.
AVhen a place is fortunate enough to have such a romantic
chain of picturesque beauty as this, it should seldom be touched
by the hand of art. It may happen, that some improvement
may be made, by shewing, in a partial manner, rocks, roots, or
stones, that are perhaps totally concealed ; by augmenting a
natural cascade, or by supplying ivy, or some other creepers
or evergreens, &c. ; but in general little more can be attempted
with propriety. The principal operation that in any case can
be undertaken in such a scene, is where it may be requisite to
lead through a walk, or road, either to observe its beauties, or

436 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK 1.

as an approach to some other part of the residence. The dif-
ficulty of executing either of these will be great to those who
think of nothing but undulating sweeps, shaven lawns, and ser-
pentine gravel walks ; but by those accustomed to admire this
kind of scenery, the operation will easily be accomplished*.

Many dells of the most exquisite kind occur in Scotland and
Wales. At Valleyfield, one of the finest sort, and in the
grandest style, was treated lately in a manner which will hardly
be credited by those who have not seen it. The occasion of
this barbarous treatment was, that the approach to the house
should be conducted through it: which might have been done
by forming a good gravel road, and leaving every thing else in
its natural state? but, in place of a natural or irregular margined
road, the most formal, high-finished narrow gravel walk that can
be imagined was carried stiffly along its banks, while all the
wood was thinned — all the undergrowth, creepers, ferns, &c.
were cut down, and every broken or abrupt part of the surface
was taken away. Even some noble perpendicular rocks, over-
hung with large trees, with their edges varied by roots, bushes,
and other intricate concealments, were totally bared, and the
line of separation everywhere defined by a cut edge of turf-
work, upon their tops and sides, exactly similar to that of the

* The walks at Piercefield, Havod, Birchhill, Dunglass, &.c. afford examples
in proof of this.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 437

gravel walk : all the old surface of the rocks, which were beau-
tifully varied by mosses, weatherstains, and plants springing
from their crevices, was hewn off. This fresh, even surface,
destroyed all the intricate concealments, crevices, lichens,
and ferns, and every circumstance corresponding with their
character and situation ; while the ground in front of it, and
all around, was neatly laid with turf, and made smooth and
even. Thus, the grandeur and picturesqueness of these rocks
were totally destroyed, and the whole mass made little better,
in appearance, than an upright bank of red-coloured earth.
The stream, too, which runs in this dell, was deprived of almost
every beauty, particularly that of intricacy and shade, by re-
ducing its edges to regular curves, and sloping the banks ; and
in places intended to be most seen, it was turfed neatly down
to the brink of the water.

" Shav'd to the brink our brooks are taught to flow,
" Where no obtruding forms or rushes grow."

Every thing being smoothed and levelled, and the approach
formed and covered with red ashes, which are still more glaring
than gravel*, tender shrubs, larches and flowers, were planted

* Not only is breadth of glaring colours to be avoided in such scenery, but even
smooth forms should not prevail. The gravel here used should have been coarse
and of a dark colour ; which not only would have better accorded with the pro-
per visible effect, but in walking or driving over it the sensations produced upon
the body would have been analogous to the impressions of roughness or picturesque
beauty. Every one must have felt the difference between driving over smooth un-

438 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

in clumps and patches, where the natural growths had been
just rooted up, and (child-like) a number of fantastical-looking
stones, were brought from the sea-shore and regularly distri-
buted (for to group them was a thing they had no idea of) in
the most conspicuous places along the sides of the road, and
particularly along three (otherwise proper enough) bridges by
way of parapet.

This dell, at present, has an appearance which may give a
fertile imagination some idea of what it has once been ; but,
had the reader seen it previously to the commencement of these
operations, about five years ago, it would probably fill him
with the deepest regret to see it at present*, fresh from
the improver's desolating hand.

The flower-garden, a right-lined canal, which its contriver
endeavours to defend from the principles of contrast, and al-
most every other operation of art at this place, in which effect
is the principal consideration, is equally unnatural, misplaced,
or out of character. The proprietor has thrown away an im-
mense sum of money in counteracting nature, and deforming
his grounds : and as all this is finished from the plan and red-

dulations of pasture in a park, and across stony brooks or rough lanes in forest or
wild scenery. Those who have had the pleasure of walking through the dell at
Cames-Kskan, or the woods at Rhydal, will recollect the grateful harmony produced
by the same circumstances accidentally existing in these paths.
* In 1S04, when this was first written.

PART VII. PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. 439

book of Mr. Repton, and approved of by him in a late work,
it confirms me in my opinion of landscape gardening, and its
champion and defender against the introduction of the pic-
turesque*.

Far hence! let Repton, Brown, and Eames,

Zig-zag their walks, and torture streams ;

But let them not my dells profane,

Or violate my Naiad train ;

Nor let their arrogance inrade

My meanest Dryad's secret shade,

And with fantastic knots disgrace

The native honours of the place;

Making the vet'ran oak give way,

Some spruce exotic to display.

Their petty labour's be defy'd

Who taste and nature would divide.

Lines which were left written on a seat at Havod.

Mr. Graham, in his " Birds of Scotland," has several excellent
remarks on the absurdity of modern landscape gardening. After
ridiculing the display of " a sea of lawn," and the destruction
of avenues, old trees, and those beautiful lowgrowths, tufts, and
wild plants, which so much encourage his favourite birds, he
concludes —

* Mr. Repton observes in a note, that " this approach remains a specimen of
the powers of landscape gardening in that part of Scotland" (Perthshire) ! ! ! — I
hope the proprietors of that lovely country will never again admit such a formi-
dable foe. If they do, I conjure all my countrymen to unite in declaiming against
their taste ; and if they will not then refrain, let the poets enrol their names among
the enemies of nature ; let them

" Stamp their stigma deep eternal infamy."

440 PICTURESQUE IMPROVEMENT. BOOK I.

it gut should the tasteful power

Pragmatic, which presides with pencilling hand,
And striding compasses, o'er all this change,
Get in his thrall some hapless stream that lurks
Wimpling through hazelly shaw and broomy glen,
Instant the axe resounds through all the dale,
And many a pair unhoused hovering lament
The barbarous devastation : all is smoothed,
Save here and there a tree; the hawthorn, briar,
The hazel bush, the bramble, and the broom,
The sloethorn, scotias, myrtle, all are gone;
And on the well-sloped bank arise trim clumps,
Some round and some oblong, of shrubs exotic,
A wilderness of poisons, precious deemed
In due proportion to their ugliness.1'

The kind of scenery destroyed, to give way to this mode of
improvement, may be conceived from the following passage :

" What though fair Scotland's vallies rarely vaunt

The oak majestical, whose aged boughs

Darken a road breadth ! yet no where is seen

More beauteously profuse wild underwood ;

No where ; 'tis seen more beauteously profuse,

Than on thy tangling banks, well wooded Esk,

And Borthwick thine, above that fairy nook

Formed by your blending streams. The hawthorn there

With moss and lichen grey, dies of old age,

No steel profane permitted to intrude :

Up to the topmost branches climbs the rose,

And mingles with the fading blooms of May ;

While round the briar th'e honeysuckle wreathes

Entwine, and with their sweet perfume embalm

The dying rose : a never-failing blow,

From spring to fall expands ; the sloethorn white

As if a flakey shower the leafless sprays

Had hung : the hawthorn, May's fair diadem ;

The whin's rich die ; the bonny broom ; the rasp

Erect ; the rose, red, white, and faintest pink ;

And long extending brambles flowery shoots.

Graham's Birds of Scotland, page 24.

441

BOOK I.

PART VIII.

THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF

USEFUL AND PICTURESQUE PLANTATIONS,

I

INTRODUCTION.

Various are the vegetable productions which this earth af-
fords. Blades of grass spring up every where, and clothe the
surface with pasture ; groups of shrubs arise in some places,
and diversify this uniform covering; but trees are the most
striking objects that adorn the face of inanimate nature. If
we could imagine for a moment that the surface of Europe
were totally divested of wood, what would be our sensations on
viewing its appearance ? Without this accompaniment, hills
and vallies, rivers and lakes, rocks and cataracts, though in
themselves the most perfect that could be imagined, would be
comparatively bleak and uninteresting. A lake, whose surface

3 L

442 OX USEFUL AND BOOK I.

has nothing to reflect but the sky, has a meagre and dreary as-
pect. A solitary cataract, though it may strike the beholder
at first sight, yet being deficient in that variety and intricacy
which trees alone can produce, soon ceases to be pleasing. Very
different is the effect of a country interspersed with wood,
where " hill is united to hill with sweeping train of forest and
prodigality of shade;" where the streams are diversified by
trees, or concealed by bushes ; and where the lakes reflect with
additional lustre the beauteous tints and varied forms of the
woody scenery by which they are surrounded.

Few can have overlooked this difference, in comparing the
northern with the southern parts of the island. Some of the
northern counties are nearly destitute of trees: there the tra-
veller comprehends the whole horizon before him with a single
glance of the eye, which in vain roams over it in quest of an
object on which it may repose. The powers of vision being
thus unsolicited become unemployed, and leave the mind va-
cant: or should the effort be renewed, under the fancied ad-
vantage of a new station, the consequence will only be weari-
ness and fatigue. But in Herefordshire, and Monmouthshire,
the beauties of a hilly and wooded country are united; there
the eye is continually feasted with scenes of grandeur and
beauty, ever varying, and ever filling the mind with the most
pleasing and enrapturing sensations. Even in countries less

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 443

varied in surface, and presenting few masses of wood, trees,
though scattered with a sparing hand, and with no regard to
beauty, have an excellent effect. Whatever formality or same-
ness there may be in the distance, the foreground trees disguise
it, and form between their stems and spreading branches num-
berless combinations, or pictures, which meet the eye succes-
sively in passing along. This powerful effect, which every one
must have observed, and to which few can be insensible, is of-
ten produced unintentionally, by the simplest means; merely
by hedge-row trees.

Trees indeed, wherever they are introduced, seldom or never
displease. There is no other material of landscape so powerful
in producing variety and intricacy, those " nourishers of curio-
sity" which attract the attention, and by which we are inte-
rested long after the first impressions are effaced. They group
with rocks, ruins, buildings, animals, and whatever they are
near; and, by partially concealing them, produce the most in-
teresting combination : these are continually varying, as the
spectator changes his place; and every variation has the charm
of novelty and beauty.

Leaving the stud}' of trees in combination with other objects,
if we attend to the different species individually, a new source
of beauty and character presents itself, which is no less interest-

444 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

ing. On naming the oak, the willow, the cedar, the pine, the
cypress, &c. their peculiar form, tints, and modes of growth,
successively present themselves to the imagination, each tree
forms distinct character, highly pleasing and interesting^
Again, if we examine any of these trees by itself, the
number and diversity of boughs, spray, and leaves of which it
is composed, its varied and rich masses, their different tints,
and the various effects which they are capable of receiving from
light or shade, the breeze or the storm, is wonderful; and com-
paring it with the works of art, we are astonished that such a
collection of separate, and apparently discordant parts, should
produce such an excellent and harmonious whole.

Numerous are the pleasing effects, independent of utility,
that result from a wooded country, compared with a naked
one. The different seasons are more strikingly characterized;
the sounds of waterfalls, the murmur of the breeze, and the
bleating of cattle, have each their charms greatly heightened
by passing through trees: deprived of them, we should lose
what adds to the pleasure resulting from viewing the finest
landscape, the melody of singing birds; and let me observe,
that those who live in naked countries, though they may pos-
sess the lark and the linnet, can have no just idea of the effects-
of many other birds peculiar to woody scenes*.
* See Graham's " Birds of Scotland.''''

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 445

But wood is not only the greatest ornament on the face of
our globe; it is also the most essential requisite for the accom-
modation of civilized society. The implements of agriculture,
the machinery of manufactories, and the vehicles of commercial
intercourse, are almost wholly made of timber; and there is
scarcely an edifice or superstructure of any denomination, of
which this material does not form a principal part. Wood is
more particularly valuable in Great Britain, where the prospe-
rity, nay the very existence of the empire depends upon the
support of its numerous ships, emphatically called its " wooden
walls."

From the extensive utility and unrivalled beauty of wood, it
may reasonably be supposed to have been assiduously culti-
vated in all improved countries ; and, accordingly, we find
that trees have been planted, and the growth of timber encou-
raged, by every polished nation. To this subject, as to all
other parts of rural economy, the Romans paid great attention;
and the writings of some of their most celebrated authors
contain many excellent observations and precepts, on the
culture and management of timber and ornamental trees.
This island has long been more indebted to natural forests
than artificial plantations; though for above two centuries
past planting has been more or less a prime object. But till

446 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

the improvements in agriculture and the arts, the increase of
our shipping, and the more general introduction of luxuries,
took place, there was no immediate inducement to plant for
profit ; nor was knowledge or taste in the art of planting by
any means extensive. In consequence of the increasing con-
sumption of the navy, the value of timber was enhanced; and
as the natural forests were suffered to decline, and the number
of acres planted did not keep pace with the number annually
cut down, a proper supply of this article for the market was
not to be had, and the defect still exists. Timber of all kinds
is daily advancing in price ; and, from the great numbers of
Kino's ships*, merchantmen, and other craft, that have lately
been built, in connexion with the wretched management of the
royal forests, oak-timber fit for the purposes of naval architec-
ture is now alarmingly scarce; and should Great Britain be-
come dependent on other powers for the means of supporting

* " A seventy-four gun ship (we speak from good authority) swallows up 3000
loads of oak timber. A load of timber is 50 cubical feet ; a ton 40 feet ; conse-
quently, a seventy-four gun ship takes 2000 large well grown timber-trees; namely,
trees of nearly two tons each!

" The distance recommended by authors for planting trees in a wood, in which
underwood is also, propagated, is thirty feet or upwards. Supposing trees to stand
at two roods (33 feet, the distance we recommend they should stand at, in such a
plantation) each statute acre would contain 40 trees; consequently, the building of

a seventv-four gun ship, wdl clear of such woodland, the timber of 50 acres."

Planting and Rural Ornament, 3d. edit. vol. 1. p. 111.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 447

her navy, her consequence as a nation will certainly be in
danger*.

Besides the intrinsic value of timber, there is another way in
which wood is very profitable ; that is, by affording shelter to
exposed lands. In many places, strips of wood alone, with
little or no culture bestowed on the soil, have rendered pastu-
rage of threefold its former value. In the north of Scotland,
belts, and even single rows of larches, have operated so rapidly
and powerfully in this way, that their effects are hardly credi-
ble by any but those who have been eye-witnesses. Even on
estates where plantations are unfit for cutting down either as
timber or copse, or though they should be so young as to afford
no shelter, still they are valuable when we look forward to fu-
turity; and the planter, should he be disposed to sell his
estate, is sure of being handsomely rewarded for his trouble.
" Thus supposing the half-grown timber on an estate to be va-
lued at ten thousand pounds on the day of sale, instances are
not wanting where twenty, nay, twenty -five thousand have
been given over and above the value of the land-j-."

* See the Report given in by the Commissioners appointed by Parliament, some
years ago, to inquire into the state of the Royal Forests.
+ Practical Planter, p. 341.

448 ON USEFUL AND BOOK ft.

The beauty of wood on individual estates is too obvious to
require illustration. Although every one cannot analyse its
effects, all mankind can relish them. The noble grandeur and
rich beauty of a hanging wood, in autumnal colouring, seen
from below, cannot be unknown ; and the fine effect of a dark
green tree, or group of trees, backed by the splendour of a
morning or the glow of an evening sky, cannot be unfelt
by any mind, awake to the finest feelings of our nature. It
is in the arrangement and management of trees and shrubs
that picturesque improvement almost wholly consists : all the
other materials of landscape are commonly beyond our con-
troul. Earth and rocks are in general too ponderous to con-
tend with, — buildings are often too expensive, — and water is
only to be met with in certain situations and circumstances;
but we rarely find a spot where trees cannot be planted, and
we can hardly conceive one where they will not greatly add to
the beauty and variety of natural scenery.

But, independently of the beauty and profit of wood, the
pleasure attending the formation and management of planta-
tions, will be a considerable inducement to every virtuous mind.
^Ye look upon our young trees as our offspring ; and nothing
of inanimate nature can be more gratifying than to see them
grow and prosper under our care and attention ; nothing more

PAIIT VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 449

interesting than to examine their progress, and mark their se-
veral peculiarities. In their progress from plants to trees, they
every year unfold more characteristic marks of their ultimate
beauty; which not only compensates for past cares and trouble,
but, like the returns of gratitude, raise a most agreeable train
of sensations in the mind ; so innocent and rational, that they
may justly rank with the most exquisite of human enjoyments.

" Happy the man possessed of ancient groves ;
Happier who plants his trees : while time improves
And forms their beauties to reward his care,
He, like great Cyrus, cries, « I placed them there'."

But, as the most powerful motives to planting are those
which address themselves to the interest of the individual, I
proceed to consider it more particularly in this point of view.
The great profits which arise from planting, have been taken
notice of by many writers*; and if we look into their works,

* See Du HamePs Works ; Mr. A. Young's Tours ; Hunter's Evelyn's Sylva ;
Agricola on Timber Trees ; and a great many other authors. It is not affirmed,
that the above profits are what commonly attend planting ; or, even what might
uniformly attend it, supposing ljooJ management : they are only mentioned here to
shew what has been done in particular situations. I have judged it necessary to re-
mind the reader of this ; because, in the Monthly Review for May 1S06, it is stated,
that I affirm planting to be abundantly more profitable than agriculture : which is
far from being the case, as will appear in the next page. The truth is, that the re-
view of my work in that publication consists in an entire misrepresentation of my sen-
timents on planting and improvement; while the author of it does not shew the least

3 M

450 ON USEFUL AND BOOK 1.

we shall find, of clear profit, in particular instances, all the inter-
mediate sums between forty shillings and three hundred pounds
sterling an acre yearly; and this annual return commences,
in some kinds of plantations, the second or third year after
planting (such as osier plantations, which in many places
yield from 15 to 30/. per annum ;) or in ten, fifteen, or twenty
years, as coppices or fir groves, which are very lucrative
plantations ; but the highest sums can only be expected to
commence thirty or forty years, or more, after planting ; and
even then, the value of other products is included in connection
with the timber, as the resin of the pine and fir tribe, the bark
of the oak, the sugar of the maple, &c. In general, however,
it may be safely asserted, that no kind of plantation, if properly
made and kept, will be longer than ten years before it yield re-
turns; and that some annual profit will be obtained more or
less afterwards, from the thinnings and primings, until the
trees shall be finally cut down. From the various authors that
have made these measurements and calculations, and also
from a number of places both in England and Scotland, there
is the most conclusive evidence, that planting is equally profit-
able with agriculture, except perhaps in particular circum-

degree of knowledge of the subject himself — While noticing this, however, I can-
not avoid acknowledging my obligations to all the other reviewers for their candour
and liberality. See the Farmer's Magazine, Imperial, Critical, Anti-jacobin, and
Annual Reviews. The in stance alluded to is a contrast ; and all contrasts afford
exercise to the mind — sometimes instructive— often agreeable; and always amusing.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 451

stances. But what is of great importance is, that it is often
most profitable in lands not adapted to the general purposes
of husbandry, such as dells, steep banks, rocky precipices*;
for deep rich soils, however favourable to other vegetables, are
not the best for producing timber; and it deserves to be re-
marked, that so long as ground of the former kind remains im-
planted, little or no rich arable land should be covered with
trees. But I wish it to be understood here, that such profits,
arising from plantations, as have been mentioned, only take
place when proper management is bestowed upon them. In
the instances authenticated by these authors, many of which
may still be seen in different parts of the country, the soil was
most commonly prepared, the plants always carefully inserted,
protected from cattle, cultivated, trained, and thinned; and
hence the result: — but this is by no means the case Avith the
plantations that are generally made; and, of course, they give
but a faint idea of the profits arising from planting.

Upon the whole, noblemen and gentlemen are presented with
the most powerful motives, both of a public and private nature,
to induce them to plant. Trees are beautiful objects, the great-

* At Dunkeld, Tay mouth, Blair in Athol, and many other places in the north of
Scotland, there are larches growing in such situations, from forty to fifty years old;
which, if cut down now, would pay at the rate qfSOl. or upwards each acre per an-
num since they were planted. See Planting and Rural Ornament, Vol. I. page 180,
3d edition.

452 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

est ornament to individual places, and the noblest improve-
ment of a country. Timber is a valuable article; as it affords
great gain to the individual proprietor, while it is the source
and support of the naval character and dignity of the British
Empire.

As wood is productive both of beauty in landscape, and of
utility to the landed proprietor, it naturally follows, that he
who would direct the forming of plantations should be well
acquainted with trees, as far as they can operate in these
particulars. In this comprehensive point of view, I have
considered the subject, both in theory and practice ; and
the following pages contain the leading particulars of improved
practice; most of which appear to be too little attended to,
and some of them are not generally understood. In these ob-
servations I have omitted altogether one division of the sub-
ject, viz. the formation and management of the nursery; it be-
ing not only better known than the others, but less connected
with the purposes of this work. The rest is thus subdivided :
l.The objects of planting; 2. The materials and means for ac-
complishing these objects (Chap. II. and III.); 3. The subjects
or different kinds of plantations (Chap. IV.); 4. The prac-
tice of forming plantations (Chap. V.); and 5. Their future
management (Chap. VI.).

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTIN6. 453

CHAPTER I.

OF THE OBJECTS OF PLANTING.

1 he different purposes for which plantations are made may
be comprehended in two general divisions, ornament and

UTILITY.

Wherever ornament is the principal consideration, there
must be a particular effect, or union of qualities or character,
which the artist intends to produce. As in this material of
landscape I consider ornament to consist in natural beauty (and
not in the appearance of art, either in the form or disposition of
trees) ; so these effects will generally be a beautiful variety, or
a picturesque variety, in small plantations — A degree of gran-
deur or sublimity in woods, forests, or such as are of consi-
derable extent: and particular character, contrast, or intricacy
in single trees.

It will naturally occur to every one who has attended to the
Essay on Taste in this work, that where a beautiful variety is to
be produced, the most graceful and delicate forms, the most
pleasing colours, and the most fragrant smells, must be col-
lected and arranged together, according to the principles of

this expression*.

* See Part I. Chap. III.

454 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

Where picturesque variety is to be produced, the forms col-
lected should be the most irregular that can be found; and
these should be disposed in a manner still more so. The co-
lours should be forcible and striking; and so contrasted, as
to prevent monotony, without destroying harmony. The fra-
grance also should be of a corresponding nature. — It will be
thought by some, that these distinctions are too nice; but those
who are conversant in trees and shrubs will allow, that a neat
gravel walk, winding easily through a smooth turf, among va-
ried groups of such trees and shrubs as the willow, lime, acacia,
arbutus, lilac, jasmine, honej^suckle, rose, &c. will have quite a
different effect, and smell, from those of a path in a rugged
dell, forcing itself through irregular groups and thickets of
oak, elm, thorns, bramble, elder, dogwood, spurge, &c; and,
if we were to add appropriate plants and grasses to each
scene, their effects, particularly as to smells, Avould be much
stronger.

Where a degree of grandeur or sublimit)/ is to .be produced,
the effect will generally depend more upon the outline and ex-
tent of the plantation, than on the kind of trees planted. But
oaks, chesnuts, and pines, are in their very conformation grand
and impressive; they have besides solemn and gloomy colours ;
and, when collected together, are better suited to this purpose
than others of more light and airy shapes and gayer tints.

PAHT VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 455

These three characters may produce others by being mingled
in different degrees. By attending to trees individually, in con-
nection with the principles of taste, numerous expressions may
be produced, as gaiety, melancholy, elegance, &c. The separate
effects mentioned, however, are sufficient to suggest what may
be accomplished, if the operator possess a competent know-
ledge of the different species of trees.

Utility includes two objects; profit or value, and shelter or
shade. Where profit or value is the prime object in view, there
will necessarily be a particular product to be grown, from which
it is to be derived. This product may consist of all, or of any
of the different parts of a tree ; as the roots, trunk, branches,
bark, &c. or of the essence of any of these parts, as the sap, re-
sin, gums, tar, pitch, &c. Timber and bark, however, are the
products most commonly raised; and these and their properties
var}r infinitely in different degrees. The timber of some is brit-
tle, of others tough, of some hard, and of others soft: — and the
bark is of different degrees of astringency, sweetness, or acri-
tude. These qualities and parts of trees are all adapted to dif-
ferent purposes in the arts; and which of them it is most desi-
rable to raise, must depend entirely upon the probable con-
sumption, the soil, situation, and other circumstances. AVhere-
ever profit is the principal consideration, the products most
in demand in the given situation should be known; and
the trees most productive of these, must alone be planted..

450' ON USEFUL AND

BOOK I.

This may point out the necessity of attending to the natural
soils and situations of trees and shrubs, the qualities of their
products, their uses in the arts, and their relative value.

Where shelter or shade is the principal consideration, the qua-
lities of each require to be investigated, and those forms used
which are best adapted to that purpose. The object of shelter
is to produce heat; and to protect cattle and pasture from the
inclemency of the weather. Hence, the trees used for this
purpose should be clothed with branches and foliage from the
ground upwards. The foliage should be perpetual, and, if
possible, so compact upon the spray and branches as not to be
easily permeable by the wind, such as is that of the resinous
tribe of evergreens. This may be thought too nice a distinc-
tion; but any person would be sensible of the difference, if in
a windy day he were to stand alternately under the shelter of a
group of hollies and spruce firs, of equal magnitude.

The object of shade is to produce cold ; that men or cattle may
enjoy the cool refreshing breeze unmolested by the mid-day sun.
For this purpose, it is essentially necessary that the stems of
the trees be free from branches to a considerable height, in or-
der to promote the free circulation of the air. It is true, most
trees may be trained in this form; but the operation would in-
jure the character or use of some kinds, whilst others are greatly
improved by pruning. The shade of some trees, as the walnut,

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 457

is pernicious, and should he guarded against; others are so
thin of boughs and leaves, that the rajs of the sun will pierce
through the interstices; and these also must be rejected. This
may shew the necessity of attending to the nature and kinds
of trees that are planted for either of these purposes.

It is the intention of this Chapter to shew, how essentially
necessary it is for the planter to be intimately acquainted with
the characteristic distinctions, and particular properties, of
trees and shrubs. He should not rest satisfied either with a
mere botanical, or a slight general knowledge; he should have
in his mind a clear and distinct picture of the character, pro-
perties, and peculiarities of every individual species; that,
whenever a tree shall be wanted, that kind may instantly pre-
sent itself which is best fitted for his purpose. This injunction
will not be considered as too severe, when it is recollected that
almost every visual or picturesque effect in rural improvement
is produced by planting.

458 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

CHAPTER II.

OF TREES AND SHRUBS ; THE MATERIALS WITH WHICH THE OBJECTS
OF PLANTING ARE TO BE ACCOMPLISHED.

SECT. I. OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF TREES, ACCORDING
TO THEIR VISIBLE CHARACTERISTIC DISTINCTIONS AND
USEFUL PROPERTIES.

It seems almost needless to mention, that a botanical know-
ledge of every tree and shrub is essentially necessary for the
planter ; but it is not by minute botanical distinctions that
these must be arranged in artificial scenery. The general mag-
nitude, form, and colour, are what more immediately strike the
eye ; and the effect of trees consists not more in their relation
to the surface than in their agreement in these characteristics.
But in plantations where profit is the sole object, the principal
things to be attended to are the particular properties by which
they are adapted for particular soils, situations, and uses. These
are so intimately connected with their distinctions in regard to
beauty, that in prosecuting this subject, with a view both to
use and picturesque effect, it seems necessary to treat of them
together under the following heads: — 1. Magnitude. 2. Form.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 459

3. Texture. 4. Colour. 5. Mode of Growth. 6. Smells.
7. Bark. 8. Buds. 9- Leaves. 10. Flowers. 11. Fruit.
12. Roots. 13. Propagation. 14. Soils. 15. Situation. 16. Cul-
ture. 17- Pruning. 18. Transplanting. 19. Products.
20. Uses. 21. Relative Value. 22, Natural Character.
23. Accidental Character.

1. With respect to magnitude, trees and shrubs are either very
high, as the horse-chesnut and the larch, the cornelian cherry,
and the snowdrop tree ; or very low, as the mountain ash and
hemlock fir, the Scotch rose and the butcher's broom. Some
trees are very broad, in proportion to their height, as the oak
and the Spanish chesnut ; others are very narrow, as the larch
and the spruce fir. There is a medium between all these ex-
tremes, as the ash-leaved maple and the evergreen oak, the Vir-
ginian raspberry, and the Guelder rose.

2. With respect to form, the different varieties may be in-
cluded under the following heads: — Apparently solid, being
thick with branches and foliage, as the horse-chesnut and the
English elm, the lilac and the syringo ; — light and airy, thin of
boughs and leaves, as the ash and the hoary poplar, the bird
cherry and the Canadian mespilus. There is a medial degree
between these two extremes, in the broad-leaved euonymus and

460 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

the ash-leaAred maple. .They may next be divided into those
-whose branches begin from the ground, as the fir tribe and most
shrubs ; or those which snoot up into a stem before their
branches begin, as the mountain ash and the althdd frutex. Of
those whose branches begin from the ground, some rise in an
elegant cone, as the larch and the holly ; others in a cone whose
base is very broad, as the cedar; or whose base is very small,
as the upright cypress. Some swell out in the middle of their
growth, and diminish at both ends, as the Weymouth pine ; and
some are broadest at the top, as the raspberry and the Alpine
honey-suckle ; some are irregular and bushy throughout, as the
evergreen oak, and the snowball tree. Of those which shoot
up into a stem before their branches begin, some are slender
cones, as the deciduous cypress ; others are broad cones, as the
balsam poplar. Some assume a globular form, as the moun-
tain ash ; and many are irregular throughout, as the Scotch elm
and the acacia.

3. With regard to texture, some trees and shrubs have a soft,
smooth appearance, as the lime and the scorpion senna; others
have a rough, firm appearance, as the evergreen oak, and the
holly. Some have a smooth, silky appearance, as the tama-
risk; others have a downy, woolly appearance, as the hoary
poplar. Some appear totally covered with thorns, as the furze

I'ART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 46l

and the hedgehog holly; others appear wholly composed of
thready shoots, as the Portugal broom.

4. Colour in trees or shrubs is either accidental or permanent.
Permanent colours include all the different shades of green in
the summer months ; accidental colours the tints of red and
yellow that are peculiar to autumn and spring. Some perma-
nent colours are of a dark green, as those of the horse-chesnut
and the yew ; some are of a light green, as those of the ash and
the common laurel ; some are of a bluish green, as those of the
Scotch fir and the bladder senna. Some trees are of a arcen,
tinged with brown, as the Virginian cedar; others of a green,
tinged with white, as the abele and the Lapland willow. Some
greens are tinged with yellow, as the ash-leaved maple and the
Chinese arbor vita; ; some are tinged with red, as the scarlet
maple; others are tinged with purple, as the purple beech.
Some greens are spotted with white, yellow, and red, as the va-
riegated holly, privet, sycamore, box, and many others. Ac-
cidental colours are infinite in number, and each kind is liable
to much variation. In autumn, however, it will generally be
found that the wild cherry assumes a bright red, the birch a
deep red, the beech a brownish red, the scarlet oak a deep scar-
let, the hornbeam a russet colour, the sugar-maple a rich yel-
low, the oak a reddish yellow, the lime and ash a straw colour,
the balsam poplar black, the sycamore of a dark brown, &c.

46"'2 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

5. The modes of growth are veiy different in trees and shrubs.
Some send out their branches horizontally, as the oak ; in
others, they tend upwards, as in the Huntingdon willow; in
others, they fall, as in the lime, and the acacia. In some, they
incline obliquely, as in the Scotch fir ; in some, they recline,
and then rise up, as in the larch ; in others, they hang directly
down, as in the weeping ash and weeping willow. Some shrubs
creep along the ground, as the periwinkle ; others clasp them-
selves to trees, as the passion-flower ; others fix themselves to
buildings, as the ivy. Some trees in whatever way they may be
placed or pruned, constantly assume one principal stem, from
which all the branches proceed as rays from a centre, as in the
fir tribe; in others, the trunk divides itself into arms, which
send out branches irregularly, as the oak, &c. Some shrubs
have only a single stem, as the althaea ; others constantly
spread along the ground, sending up more, as the hypericum.

6. With respect to smells, some trees and shrubs have scarcely
any, as the evergreen oak and the plat anus; others have a most
grateful fragrance, as the birch and the sweetbriar. Some have
a luscious smell, as the mezerion ; others a disagreeable smell,
as the elder ; and the smell of some is deleterious, as that of the
walnut and the artemisia. The fragrance of some is greatest
when the plant is in blossom, as the hawthorn ; in some, it is
confined entirely to the blossom, as the lilac; in others, it is

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 463

equally diffused throughout the whole plant, as in the sweet-
briar, and several others. These are the general characteristics
of trees and shrubs ; but there are many other peculiarities
which present themselves, upon a more minute examination,
which, where ornament is attended to, deserve also the notice
of the planter. Some of these I shall advert to in treating of
the bark, buds, leaves, flowers, and fruit.

7. With respect to the bark of trees and shrubs, in some it is
of a red colour, as in the dogwood ; in some white, as the
birch ; in others black, as the oak ; in some brown, as the
Guelder rose ; in others green, as the holly. The texture of the
bark of some trees is firm, as the oak ; of others spungy, as the
cork tree. The bark of some is very thin, as the beech ; of
others very thick, as the Scotch fir. Of some it is brittle, as
the hornbeam ; of others glutinous, as the holly ; of others
thready, as the lime and the elm. The duration of bark varies.
Some trees throw off annually their outer coat, as the arbutus
and the birch ; but most trees constantly retain it. The pro-
perties of some barks are astringent, as those of the oak
and the bramble ; of others sweet, as of the lime ; of others
bitter, as of the abele ; of others resinous, as of most of the fir
tribe.

8. With respect to buds, some trees have no buds at all, as the
pine tribe, and most evergreens ; in others they are very large,

404 ON USEFUL AXD BOOK 1.

as the horse-chesnut; in others very small, as in the willow. In
some they are covered with a coat of glutinous matter, as those
of the horse-chesnut ; in others with a dry tegument, as those
of the beech. Some buds are of a red colour, as those of the
lime ; others are yellow, as those of the willow ; others black,
as those of the ash : brown, as in the beech ; or red and green,
as those of the common sycamore.

9. There is an almost infinite variety in the leaves of trees
and shrubs. Some are very broad, as the common laurel ;
others very narrow, as the larch. There is a medium between
these two extremes in the willow and the almond. Some leaves
are entire, as the bay ; others serrated, as the cherry ; pinna-
tifid, as the acacia, &c. Some leaves arc covered with down,
as the sea buckthorn; others with wool, as the hoary popjar ;
others with prickles, as the holly ; others with a glutinous sub-
stance, as the gum cistus, &c. Leaves are of all the different
shades of green in the summer months ; and of all the different
tints of red and yellow in autumn and spring. Some trees re-
tain their leaves and colour throughout the whole year, as the
pine tribe ; others lose their green colour in autumn, yet retain
their leaves all winter, as the beech and the hornbeam in some
circumstances. The elm, the ash, and most other trees, drop
their leaves in autumn, and are naked all winter. Leaves have,
in general, the same properties as the bark, only in a fainter
degree. These are of considerable importance. Those of the

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 46*5

alder and box are refused by cattle ; those of the elm are
greedily devoured ; those of the fir are obnoxious to many in-
sects which infest hot-houses, &c.

10. The flowers of trees vary almost as much as the leaves.
Those of some are large and showy, as the rose and the honey-
suckle ; in others they are small and obscure, as in the alatcr-
nus. The flowers of some cover the whole plant, and soon
fade, as those of the hawthorn; in others, they are thinly dis-
tributed, and continue a long time, as those of the passion-
flower. Some come into blossom very early, as those of the
mezerion ; others very late, as those of the sweet chesnut, and
the althtea frutex. Some trees and shrubs cease flowering before
their leaves expand, as the almond ; the blossom of others
makes its appearance only when the leaves fall off, as that of
the hazel.

11. The fruits or seeds of trees vary considerably. Some are
brilliantly coloured and showy in appearance, as the clustered
berries of the mountain ash ; in others, the seed is very obscure,
as in the willow. Upon some trees the seeds remain two or more
years, as the cones on the fir tribe; in others but a few weeks,
as the capsules of the elm. Some fruits or seeds are used for
culinary purposes, and contribute to enrich our desserts, as the
apple and the walnut; others for fattening the inferior animals,

3 o

466' ox useful and book i.

as the acorn and the beech-mast ; some again are poisonous,
as the berries of the deadly nightshade, and those of the meze-
rion. The observations which follow, along with characteristic
distinctions, comprise what may be called particular properties
of trees.

12. The roots of trees are as much varied below ground, as
the stems and branches are above the surface. Some spread
themselves horizontally, as those of the pine and the fir tribe ;
others send down perpendicular roots to a great depth, as those
of the oak and the chesnut. There is a medium between these
two extremes, in those of the lime and the beech.

13. The modes of propagating trees and shrubs are various.
Some are raised from seeds, as most forest trees, such as the
oak, ash, elm, larch, &c. ; others from layers, as the lime, pla-
tanus, rose, and most shrubs ; others from cuttings, as the pop-
lar, willow, honeysuckle, &c. ; others from suckers, as the abele,
gale spii-ea, &c. Others are propagated by ingrafting, as the
weeping ash, &c. others by inoculation, as the double-blos-
somed almond, and the weeping cherry. And some kinds are,
or may be, propagated from the roots, as the thorn, meze«-
rion, &c.

14. With respect to the natural soils of trees:, some love a

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 46?

deep, strong soil, as the oak ; some a dry, gravelly soil, as the
beech ; some a deep, moist soil, as the poplar ; others a peat-
earth soil, as the erica, &c. ; others, again, love a wet soil, as the
alder. Some trees will grow in almost any soil, as the Scotch
fir; others will scarcely grow in any but their natural soil, as
the rhododendron and the andromcda. Some hardly require
the aid of soil, as the ivy ; others are parasites, as the
misletoe.

15. The situations that trees naturally affect, are various.
Some will endure exposure of almost every kind, except a
strong sea breeze, as the larch, Scotch fir, and mountain ash ;
some endure the Seabreeze much better than others, as the sy-
camore, ash, service, and elder ; some will not prosper except
in a low, sheltered situation, as the black spruce, and most
American plants ; some will grow under the drip and shade of
others, as the Scotch elm, Norway maple, hemlock spruce, dog-
wood and box ; others would die in that situation, as the larch,
the pine, and the willow.

16. Trees and shrubs, especially when young, require not
only a soil and situation, but a culture, suited to their respec-
tive natures. Some require the earth to be frequently stirred
about their roots, as the lime and the lilac ; others will make
equal progress, if the surface be kept free of other vegetables,

468 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

as the oak and the chesnut ; others thrive best when the surface
is covered with mosses, as the rhododendron and the erica.

17. With respect to pruning, there are some trees that will
not bear the knife, as the cherry : the wood of others is often
hurt by it, as the pine and fir tribe. Some, again, will bear it
to any degree, as the thorn and the crab-apple. These peculiari-
ties apply to trees of some height. Most trees, when very
young, will bear pruning ; and many require it, to train them to
single stems. The silver fir, when in the nursery, requires its
side shoots to be shortened ; and young oaks, some }rears after
they are finally transplanted, should be cut over by the surface.

18. Most trees require to be transplanted in the nursery-
oround the first or second year from the seed ; and re-trans-
planted from the nursery into plantations, when under four
feet high. Some are little hurt by this removal, as the elm ;
others sometimes die after it, as the spruce and the Weymouth
pine. Some trees die when transplanted after they are eight or
ten feet high, as the pine and fir tribe ; others may be trans-
planted at even double that age, as the lime, the elm, the syca-
more, and many other deciduous trees ; but a year or two pre-
vious to removal, their roots must be cut, and their tops pruned,
&c. ; a most important precaution, that should never be neg-
lected in removing trees above ten feet high.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 469

19. Though shrubs are commonly planted for ornament, and
trees to produce timber ; yet there are other products by which
they are occasionally rendered valuable. The leaves of some
kinds are used, as those of the mulberry ; the bark of others, as
that of the oak and the holly ; the flowers of others, as those of
the rose and the syringo ; the seeds or fruits of others, as those
of the beech and the apple, &c.

20. The different products of trees are used by various artists
and professions. The chemist uses the bark of some for bird-
lime, as that of the holly; the bark of others is used by the ma-
nufacturer of mats, as that of the lime and the elm. The silk
growers use the leaves of some, as those of the mulberry. The
apothecary uses the blossoms of some, as those of the rose ; the
confectioner the blossoms of others, as those of the syringo.
Bread is made of some seeds, as those of the beech. The fruits
of others, as those of the pear, plum, &c. are in general estima-
tion. Shipbuilders use some kinds of wood in particular, as
the oak. The larch might also be trained for this purpose, by
bending down the stem when twenty feet high, fixing it in that
position, and rebending it again some years afterwards, leaving
the trunk in a serpentine form, as will be elsewhere explained.
House-carpenters use the fir and pine ; mill-wrights the crab-
tree ; plough-Wrights the ash ; cabinet-makers, the beech, wal-
nut, cherry, plum, box, holly, yew. The carver uses the lime;
the turner the sycamore; the mathematical instrument-maker

4/0 OX USEFUL A&D 1S00K I.

the box and holly ; the last and heelmaker the alder and birch.
Iron-founders use charcoal of any kind. Gunpowder-makers
use that of the dogwood, sallow, alder, and hazel. Turpentine
and its oil are extracted from the larch and the silver fir. Resin,
tar, pitch, and lamp- black, from the spruce and the pine tribe.
Potash may be extracted from any wood, but principally from
the beech, ash, and elm. Wine may be made of the sap of
some trees, as the birch ; sugar of the sap of others, as the
sugar-maple, &c.

21. The relative value of timber depends almost entirely upon
local circumstances. Oak and elm proper for ship-building,
growing in the neighbourhood of a dry -dock, will be more va-
luable than if it were a hundred miles up the country. Under-
growth of dogwood, sallow, and alder, in the neighbourhood of
a gunpowder manufactory, is of great value: but, at a distance,
it can be used only as fuel, &c. There are, however, some
kinds of wood that, from their universal application, are valu-
able everywhere ; such as the oak, the elm, the ash, the beech,
and to which may be added, as the most valuable, the larch.
There are other kinds which, from their scarcity, are valuable
everywhere, as the box, the holly, and the yew. The lighter
products, such as birdlime, potash, turpentine, pitch, &c.
may be reckoned equally valuable everywhere. The tree that
would be most valuable in a particular situation, may not there

PART VIII. PICTURKSQUE PLANTING. 471

find a soil that accords with its nature. In this case, the tree
that will come to the greatest perfection in that soil, will gene-
rally be found the most valuable. A wood, not valuable from
local circumstances, may, by manufacturing it on the spot,
in order to render carriage less expensive, be rendered much
more valuable. From the general introduction of good roads
and canals, and the spirit for increasing these, there can hardly
be a situation, in which plantations will not be valuable for
timber ; and it is impossible to conceive one where the other
products will not be of great value. — " Every person who
can measure timber thinks himself qualified to value stand-
ing trees ; but such men are often deceived in their esti-
mates. It is the perfect knowledge of the application of the
different shaped trees that enables a man to be correct in his
valuation. A foot of wood may be of little value to one trade,
but of great value to another. This is the grand secret which
enriches the purchasers of standing timber*."

22. Every tree or shrub when full grown, is possessed of a num-
ber of qualities that produce similar emotions, and hence their
expression or character. Thus, the cypress is of a uniform, un-
changeable shape, and constantly of a dark green colour. It has a
still, solemn appearance; and hence it has obtained the character

* Hunter's Evelyn's Sylva, p. 112.

472 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

of melancholy. There is a similar train of emotions, but in a
fainter degree, produced in the mind by the falling branches,
drooping spray, and yellow colour of the weeping willow. It
suits with scenes of solitude, and leads to meditation. There
is a degree of cheerfulness in the light, airy form of the ash,
and the bright white of the variegated holly ; ease and grace-
fulness in the festoons of virgins' bower ; delicacy in the myrtle;
and a peculiar elegance in the sweep of the stem and curve of
the branches of the larch. The oak and the chesnut possess
forms which have long been associated with grandeur and sub-
limity. These and many other trees are remarkably expressive
of certain known characters. This arises partly from the nature
of the trees, andpartly from secondary associations. The cypress
and the yew have been planted on burial places ; the weeping
willow to shade urns ; the Romans crowned their warriors with
laurels ; and the chesnut was introduced into the landscapes of
Salvator Rosa.

23. Accidental expression in trees or shrubs depends gene-
rally upon their rarity or singularity of form. Thus exotics,
when first introduced among indigenous trees, are easily distin-
guished from them, and are commonly denominated elegant,
fanciful, strange, or novel ; as was the Lombardy poplar and
the larch, and as is now the China rose and the Acuba japo-
nica. Some trees partly retain this character from their com-

PART VIII.

PICTURESQUE PLANTING.

4?S

parative rarity and very uncommon shape, as the creeping ash
and the stone pine. Others have the character of elegance and
novelty in a less degree, as the cedar of Libanus and the cy-
press ; the hemlock spruce and the scarlet oak.

It deserves to be remarked, that accidental characters de-
pend entirely upon novelty and rarity. Some trees, common
in England, are seldom observed in the north of Scotland, and
would there be denominated highty elegant, as the weeping
willow, the narrow-leaved elm, or the accacia ; others common
and unnoticed there are esteemed highly elegant in England,
as the arbutus, uva ursi, the erica alles, and even the moun-
tain ash.

r

3 p

4?4 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

SECT. II. SOME TREES AND SHRUBS HAVING PROPERTIES
DESERVING THE MORE PARTICULAR ATTENTION OF
PLANTERS OF THE PRESENT DAY.

The general history and culture of the following trees and
shrubs being well known, I shall only add some facts which
have lately come under my own observation or experience*.

1. The ash.— The timber of this tree is chiefly used for the
implements of husbandry, and in most places is next in value
to the oak. It is, however, at present too much neglected
everywhere. Those who now make plantations of this tree may
reasonably calculate upon great profits at a future period, as
no other species of timber can fully supply its place. As an
ornamental tree, its nakedness in autumn and spring are against
it; otherwise, in the summer months it is the most elegant and
beautiful that adorns the verdant landscape.

* For an elegant and accurate description of the characters and uses of the
various trees commonly cultivated in Britain, see " The Forest Walk, a Poem."
This little work is excellently calculated for informing young people at a period of
life in which attention and observation are most natural, and which thence indicates
the proper mode of education. One acknowledged defect of modern tuition is,
that at this period the mind is either stored with matter uninteresting to it, or
directed to studies which require abstraction and reflection ; while the open volume
of nature is entirely neglected.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 4?.5

2. The Beech. — This tree is remarkable for its thickness of
branches and foliage, which it throws out generally in great
abundance from the ground upwards, even though crowded
among other trees. This, and its quality of retaining its leaves
all the winter, makes it particularly valuable in narrow planta-
tions, for thickening woods, or concealing offensive objects.

5. The hoese-chesnut will grow freely in a poor sandy
soil, and exposed to the sea breeze ; as may be seen at Tyn-
ningham and T3rnefield. It will bear transplanting at al-
most any age. Its chief beauty consists in the recumbency of
its lower branches as it grows old, and its conical clusters of
white blossoms early in summer. Its fruit is excellent food
for milch cows.

4. The larch. — Although much has been already said
about this tree, it can scarcely be too much recommended for
its utility, not merely as timber, but in every stage of its
growth. At Kersehall, in the grounds of the author's father,
a fence was made seven years ago of dead young larches, which
had been rooted out of a plantation the year before. The main
stems of the trees were not above an inch in diameter at the
surface; but still the fence, including every little twig of these
trees, remains at this day apparently as fresh as when it was
put up.

4?6' ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

Sir John Maxwell Heron informed me, that thirty )rears ago
a barn at Spriogkell was roofed with larch wood, which is still
perfectly fresh. The doors were also made of it, without being-
painted. Not long after they were made, a substance began
to exude from them, which soon covered all their surface and
closed up the joints. At present these doors present a brown
mass apparently of one piece of wood, and so hard that a mus-
ket ball fired against it from a few yards distance does not make
the least impression. A similar effect is said to take place with
the roofs which are made of deal in North America*. An in-
sect, the coccus larixea, made its appearance on the larch in the
northern counties some years ago, and proved very pernicious
in several instances. The tree has since been too much neg-
lected ; but as the plantations injured have now recovered, and
are thriving well, it is to be hoped that this tree will soon re-
sume its proper place in the estimation of Planters.

The qualities of the larch suitable for ship-building, as its
resistance of fire and decay, its not being apt to splinter, &c.
have been noticed by several writers. The form of the larch,
however, is unsuitable for some of the purposes of naval archi-
tecture. To render it more suitable, pruning has been recom-
mended by some ; and, what is still less practicable, shading

* See Agricola's Observations on Timber Trees.

I .1

/>Mi,J*J Jlp .,, ,f,.f hlm„„a,JIur,1 .«*,, torn ./;,,,„ „.,..„ A,„

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING, 477

it, by others; but if we advert to its mode of growth (see
page 44), we shall find that either of these methods would
prove ineffectual. Pruning could not succeed, because in the
larch and fir tribe. one stem constantly takes the lead ; and in
this stem alone is contained the timber. Shade might produce
a crooked enough stem ; but in regard to strength, or timber
produce, it would evidently be so deficient as to be totally
unfit for naval architecture. I have recommended bending
as preferable to every other practice : and as this may per-
haps, at some future period, be deemed of public importance,
I shall add a few remarks respecting the mode that I think
ought to be adopted.

In the first place, suppose a plantation planted in regular
rows, fifteen feet apart, and the same distance in the row; and
grown from fifteen to twenty years. In bending them, begin with
the first row, and let every other tree be bent down in different
degrees, and tied to the intermediate one which remains erect,
or to the ground, as shewn in Plate XIX. fig. 1. After having
grown in that situation seven or eight years longer, it may be
bent backwards, and either tied to itself, as in the middle tree
of fig. 3, or to the tree on the other side, or to any of the trees
around it, as may be found necessary. After the rope has held
the tree in that situation for a few years longer, it will have an
appearance something like fig. 2. ; a form that will afford knee-

478 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

pieces, Sec. which are of great use in ship-building, and al-
ways bear a higher price than any other form of oak timber.
But every tree need not be bent exactly alike. Some need
only be bent gently to one side ; others more so, as fig. 4.
This variation in the inclination of the trees, with those which
should be left erect, would serve to produce proper shelter for
the Avhole plantation, a section of which might appear as fig. 5.
according to the purposes for which they are intended, or to
the form most in demand. This experiment is certainly worth
trying; and there is no great reason to doubt its success ; for
practice of bending trees is not new ; it was recommended by
Evelyn, and practised by the Romans in Virgil's time. — See
Hunter's Evelyn's Sylva, p. 48. and Georgic n.

In planting the larch, for this, or any other purpose, the ut-
most care must be taken to choose a suitable soil, otherwise (as
will appear in next section) the most dangerous consequences
may ensue. But this tree, even when in a soil not too rich,
grows to a large size, and soon arrives at maturity, and it is
evident, that if the above method were adopted, the timber
would be fit for building the largest ships fifty years after it
was planted, and for building smaller vessels much sooner.
There is abundant evidence, that it would grow to a sufficient
size for this purpose in all the mountainous parts of the island;
and Mr. Knight's experiments on the sap and wood of trees, as

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 479

well as common observation, prove, that the circumstance of
bending, especially in an open exposure, would produce a much
thicker trunk and a larger quantity of timber, in a given time,
than a straight tree. These circumstances, in connexion with
the valuable qualities of this tree as ship timber*, and the
scarcity of that article in this country, lead me to suggest

* " The larch does not fly in splinters by the impulse of a ball in any engage-
ment ; no force of heat makes it flame ; but when thrown into a strong fire it con-
sumes imperceptibly. How many accidents then might be prevented by a greater
use of this timber, if applied in ships. Many lives are lost by the splinters of oak
in naval warfare : all these would be saved to the state by having the planks of war
ships made of it. Decks of the same materials would resist fire, either accidental or
designed ; for, although burning materials in time will force their way through a
plank of larch, yet it never would spread to the adjoining plank. To be in a ship
on fire at sea, is certainly the most dreadful situation in which any person can be
placed ; every exertion, therefore, to prevent such calamity, is the duty of all well-
wishers of their country. Beside these advantages arising from the use of the
larch, there is another of no small importance to a warlike and commercial nation,
the saving of expense in ship-building ; as by experience it is found that it lasts
longer than oak under water, and worms will not touch it*. In place of renewing
ships of war every twenty or thirty years, their existence may be lengthened to
thrice that time."

See Anderson's Catalogue of Trees, page 6.

The following quotation from Vitruvius demands the particular attention of
those concerned in naval as well as in civil architecture :

" The larch tree, which is unknown except to the inhabitants about the Po, and
the shore of the Adriatic sea, is not only preserved from the rot and worms by an
excessively bitter juice, but is also secure from fire ; for it will not flame, but will

* Sailors put larch chips among their clothes ; which has been found by experience to pre-
vent vermin, mould, &c.

480 ON USEFUL AND BOOK 1.

the propriety of devoting a few hundred acres of the na-
tional forests to the cultivation of the larch, either bent

only consume to a calx, as stones, &c. in the furnace, by the means of other
wood ; nor will it even then burn and become as a coal, but slowly and after a long
time will be consumed. The reason is, because it has in its substance very little of
the elements of fire and air ; but with water and earth it is replete ; and it has no
pores by which the fire may enter to dissolve its texture. This wood will not soon
decay ; and on account of its ponderosity water cannot sustain it ; so that when it
is to be transported, it is placed either in vessels or on rafts of fir. The first dis-
covery of this timber happened thus : When the army of the deified Caesar was
near the Alps, he commanded the inhabitants to shew him a safe passage and to
conduct him over those mountains ; there was a fortified castle, called Larignum ;
and those that were therein, confiding in its natural strength, refused to obey his
command. The emperor, therefore, ordered it to be attacked. Before the gate
of the castle was a tower, constructed, like a funeral pile, with beams of this wood
placed alternately transverse ; from the top of which they annoyed the assailants
with stakes and stones. When it was observed, that they had no other weapons
than wooden darts, and that they could not throw them far from the walls by reason
of their weight, orders were given to approach with faggots and burning fascines,
and pile them against the tower. The soldiers quickly obeyed ; and the flames
from the faggots ascending to a great height round the tower made it believed,
that the whole mass was consumed ; but when the fire abated and was extinguished,
the tower appeared unhurt. Caesar, struck with admiration, then ordered it to be
assaulted with the missile engines ; upon which the country people, being affrighted,
surrendered. It was then demanded of them, where this timber, which remained
unhurt by fire, grew; and they shewed these trees, of which in that place there is
great abundance. From the castle of Larignum, therefore, this tree takes its name.
This timber is brought by the river Po to Ravenna, to supply the colonies of
Fano, Pesaro, Ancona, and the other municipal cities in that district : if it could
conveniently be brought to Rome, it would be of great utility in building ; for in
case it could not be used in all parts, at least it might be disposed in the projec-
tions about the eaves of the insular buildings, and thereby greatly contribute to
secure them from the danger of fire ; for this wood will neither flame, nor will it
burn like a coal." Newton's Vitruvius, page 40.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 481

in different ways, or even allowed to take its natural form.
The original expense of planting and inclosing five hundred
acres would not exceed a thousand pounds, and the annual
expense afterwards would be but a trifle. The culture of
the oak ought not to be in the least degree neglected ; but
when it is considered that this tree takes two or three hun-
dred years to come to perfection, and the larch not above half
a century, adverting at the same time to the approaching scar-
city of oak timber fit for the navy, these remarks surely merit
attention from the legislature. — See the Reports of the Com-
missioners, &c. page 21. — See also Emerich's Culture of
Forests.

5. The laburnum. — It is a fact not sufficiently attended
to in practice, that nurserymen possess two species of this tree.
They are both in common use, but so much alike when young,

The excellencies of the larch have been more fully noticed than that of other
valuable trees ; not only from their superiority, but also because an insect, which
for some years past lias infested this tree, has greatly limited the quantity annually
planted in Scotland and Wales. But those planted from thirty to fifty years ago
have in every situation grown to large timber trees, hundreds of which may be seen
in manv parts of the country, from one to four feet diameter. This shews that the
soil and climate suit the tree, and that the insects have been produced from some
other cause (probably from the alternate wet and dry years, and prevailing east
winds which in 1800-1 and 2 at least greatly increased them). Atany rate, no acci-
dental evil, for defect it cannot be called, ought to lessen the attention to, or pre-
vent the universal culture of, this tree.

3 Q

482 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

that the}' are not generally distinguished. The difference is ob-
vious when the foliage and small twigs or spray are compared ;
that of the English laburnum being much smaller and more
delicate than the Scotch *, and hence it is in general more fit
for shrubberies. The Scotch is of very large growth, and excel-
lently calculated for poor gravelly soil, rocky banks, or rocky
margins of water. In the two last situations they may be seen
in considerable perfection at Southwick.

6". The Norway maple grows freely under the shade and
drip of other trees. In autumn it assumes a beautiful yellow
colour. It is altogether a much more graceful tree than the
common .sycamore ; and in most cases, particularly where or-
nament is a consideration, it ought to supersede the planting of
that tree. Exemplified at Foxley, Scone, and Croome Park.

7. Poplars. — The Lombardy poplar is esteemed the most
profitable tree that can be planted in several parts of the west
of England ; particularly in Shropshire, where it is erroneously
called the Italian poplar. When introduced sparingly, and in
particular circumstances and situations, as near buildings, or
backed by other trees, it is highly ornamental. When opposed
to the sky, it has commonly a meagre effect. The peculiarity

* See Hanbury.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 483

of its shape may be varied at pleasure, by placing scandent
plants or creepers near it, which may climb up among its
branches, and hang round it in irregular masses. At Foxley,
several of these trees may be seen varied in this way with an
excellent effect. The Carolina, Canadian, and Hoary poplars,
are trees of very agreeable forms. In a tolerably good soil,
they grow with great rapidity ; frequently upwards of six feet
in a season, and seldom less than three or four feet, until they
become twelve or fourteen years of age. In forming a resi-
dence, they may in most cases be used with great advantage ;
as they will not*only shelter the other sorts of trees, but give
the whole estate or park a wooded appearance within a year or
two after planting. See Plate XXX., the trees in which, near
the house, are chiefly poplars. The hoary poplar, in this respect,
is particularly to be recommended. Its effect may be seen to
advantage in some small places near Edinburgh, though it has
not been long known. The Canadian may be seen at Foxley,
and the Carolina at Ludlow in Shropshire. I have taken ad-
vantage of these facts, in rather singular circumstances, at
Barnbarrow and Machany.

8. The Scotch elm (nlmus campestrisj, in most parts of
England called the witch elm. — This tree deserves a place in
almost every wood where ornament is any object; besides
being nearly as valuable as the ash. It grows freely under the

484 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

shade and drip of other trees; and though it does not produce
large and thick masses of foliage, yet it shoots its twisted side-
branches horizontally across the naked stems of others — groups
with them, and destroys their formality. What adds greatly to
the effect of the Scotch elm, when in these circumstances, is a
species of black moss which infests its branches in almost every
situation, but here with great luxuriance favoured by the shade
and drip of the other trees. These remarks are strikingly
exemplified at Heckfall, near Rippon ; at Foxley ; Loudon
Castle, and many other places.

9. The elder, is propagated in a similar manner with the
willow, and with equal ease. It will thrive on the tops of moun-
tains *, or endure the most severe sea breeze ; as may be seen
all along the east coast of Scotland. At the villages of North
Berwick and Preston Pans are excellent elder hedges, from four
to ten feet high, within a few feet of high-water mark. This is
a fact of great importance to those who have doums, or tracts of
barren sand near the sea ; for, being in possession of this fact,
they may inclose and shelter them with little expense. Many
acres of this kind of ground exist along the coast in every quar-

* There is a signal station on the summit of North Berwick Law, which is 800
feet above the level of the sea. The keeper, from the shelter of an elder hedge, has
made for himself a small but prolific kitchen garden, where before stood only a few
elder bushes, stunted and almost destroyed by sheep.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 485

ter of the island. Near Dunbar are several thousand acres ;

and there, at Linkhouse, advantage was taken of this fact un-
der my direction in 1804. Several long lines of hedges were
planted, by simply inserting elder cuttings along the edge of a
ditch fence. "Where an elder fence is to be made round a oar-
den near the sea, ivy may be planted along with it ; which will
make a very thick evergreen hedge, as may be seen in the gar-
den of New Passage Inn, Monmouthshire.

10. Evergreens. — Most places are deficient in this species
of trees and shrubs, which deserve to be very generally planted,
both for their uncommon beauty in winter, and for their con-
trast with the yellow and russet tints of deciduous trees in au-
tumn and spring. They ought generally to be the prevailing
trees near buildings, and particularly the mansion ; both for-
th e reasons given above, and because they conceal a part or
parts of the edifice, disguise the real extent, and thus blend
them at all seasons with the surrounding scenery. The supe-
riority of their shelter and shade is another argument in their
favour.

11. The Scotch fir deserves to be ranked among the first
evergreens, from its uncommon picturesqueness, and the ease
with which it may be grown in almost ai^ situation. No tree,
however, has been more spoken against by several writers ; but
any person who has seen the old Scotch firs at Thrickleby and.

486 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

Langhangles, and the young trees of the same species at South-
wick and Blair Drummond, will fully agree with these remarks.
The truth is, that the objections made to it have not arisen
from the tree itself, but from improper management, and chiefly
from the neglect of thinning. In these circumstances, it " in
murky file rears" an " inglorious head, and blots the fair hori-
zon." Where ornament is an object, the operation of thinning
ought to commence when they are very young, and be carried
on freely until they are twenty or thirty years old. The farther
apart these trees are removed from each other, so much more
picturesque will be the forms which they will assume. It is an
admirable tree for planting near ruins, castles, and all gothic
and irregular buildings ; as may be seen at Warwick Castle ;
where, as also at Clermont and Corby Castles, it mixes beauti-
fully with exotic evergreens, as laurel, box, privet, holly, and
arbutus, which, when the trees are sufficiently thin, grow freely
under their shade.

12. The cedar of Lebanus. — In England this tree ought
to be planted as universally as possible, and particularly near
Grecian buildings, with which it accords better than almost
any other evergreen: for the stone and cluster pine do not in
general live long in this country, as may be seen at Welbeck
and several other places. It delights in a moist soil. — See
Pallas' Travels in Siberia.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 48?

13. The hemlock spruce, like several others already men-
tioned, grows perfectly well under the drip and shade of other
trees, and preserves its recumbent branches to the ground. It
is, therefore, of great value in ornamental scenery ; as when rich-
ness and massiveness are required in a narrow strip of planting*.

14. The cypress is too seldom planted, and particularly
near buildings, to which it gives a rich classical appearance ;
as may be seen at Foxley and Yoxal Lodge.

15. The holly ought to be more planted than any other
shrub ; for no other is capable of producing such an excellent
and diversified effect in woody scenery ; as in Needwood
Forest.

16". Evergreen oaks are commonly propagated by graft-
ing on the common oak. Hence young oaks, or part of any
oak copse in woods, might be headed down and grafted with
them, which would make a beautiful species of undergrowth.
This was suggested to me by Mr. Price, who intends to put it
in practice next season at Foxley.

17. The ivy deserves to be more frequently grown for three
purposes: 1. For varying the stems of single trees and small

* For the character, uses, and culture of upwards of thirty species of pines,,
well deserving attention, see Mr. Lambert's elegant work ou the genus Pinus.

488 ON USEFUL AXD BOOK I.

groups ; for giving effect to an old decaying tree ; for render-
ing an ugly tree interesting, and such-like purposes. Where a
number of trees of the same kind, and very much alike, are in
a foreground, one or more of them may be varied by ivy, per-
haps with as good an effect as by pruning, and better than with
any species of deciduous climbers.

2. For varying, but not entirely concealing, cottages, ruins,
and irregular buildings, whether new built or antiquated.
Many old houses, the external appearance of which it might be
too expensive or difficult to new model or decorate in masoniy,
might be highly and richly decorated by simply planting ivy,
and training it to cover in different places. The expense of
building would frequently be much less, if the external appear-
ance were contrived to admit of ivy ; which would not only
vary the general mass, but might sometimes supply the place of
window labels, string courses, cornices, and even of projections,
towers, turrets, and buttresses. This last remark is exemplified
at Wallace's Tower, Ludlow Castle, Downton Castle, Storton
Castle, and several old ruins in Wales and Scotland. See also
Plate VIII.

3. To the third purpose I would beg the particular attention
of proprietors in the north. It is, to plant ivy against stone
walls, dykes, or sunk fences between fields ; which it will not
only render highly ornamental, by chequering their sides with

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 489

shades of green, and little ribs or columns, like the spandrils in
gothic architecture, and richly mantling their tops ; but will
also contribute materially to their durability. Walls built with-
out mortar would be strengthened by the ivy passing through
the crevices and clasping the stones on all sides ; as may be seen
■at Barnbarrow and Castlewig ; and in mortar Avails, by its pre-
venting; the action of the weather, the same effect would follow.
The advantage of ivy in this respect I observed lately at Lud-
low Castle ; where part of the surface of a large tower, from
which the ivy had lately been cut down, appeared in so much
better preservation than the other parts of the castle, that it
seemed comparatively a" piece of modern masonry. That it will
have the same effect upon mortar walls in fields, may be seen
on a wall by the side of the road between Chepstow and New
Passage. At Belvue and Roslin Castle, near Edinburgh, it is
exemplified on sunk fences, and other low walls in moist
places.

Almost the whole of Scotland, and particularly the western
counties, would be greatly improved in beauty and shelter by
thus using the ivy. There is no exposure nor any soil in which
it will not grow and prosper, if carefully planted: but a good
deal depends upon this operation ; most people stick in a small
branch possessing only the fibres by which it fastens itself to
other bodies ; but in clayey or wet soils this method will not

3 R

490 ON USEFUL AN/) BOOK I.

succeed : the plants ought to be gathered, well rooted, from
moist ground in woods, where it is frequently found creeping
on the surface ; or seedlings should be procured or raised, which
will thrive better than any other mode. When it is intended
that ivy should grow upon the trunks of trees exposed to cattle,
the plants should be obtained of considerable length from woods.
When planted, it should be twisted round the stem of the tree
and tied to it. In one season it will have an effect. Cattle
will not eat it ; and no fence will be requisite, unless there are
so few trees in the inclosure as to endanger their rubbing
against it. In particular situations the ivy may be used to
thicken hedges. — See Elder.

18. Shrubs. — As the mind, after contemplating a whole,
recurs to the parts, and examines them in order to find a con-
tinuation of pleasure ; so after having taken a general view of
a place, and explored most of the compositions or remarkable
views, the female spectator or visitant at last amuses herself
chiefly with the beauty of the shrubs and flowers near the
house. For the truth of thft remark, which to some will per-
haps appear rather problematical, I need only appeal to the
feelings of those ladies who live most of the year at their coun-
try seats. The weather is not always suitable for taking an ex-
tensive ride or drive to examine landscapes ; but few days oc-
cur in which an excursion is not made to the shrubbery, the

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 491

American ground, or the flower garden. Hence the invention
of pleasure gardens, the attention paid to them, and the origin of
the conservatory. One of the most effectual ways of rendering
these scenes still more interesting than they generally are, is by
introducing a greater variety of shrubs ; many beautiful sorts of
which are frequently unknown to those who order from the nur-
sery ; and hence, not unfrequently, either the most common sorts
only are planted, or others not suitable to the situation, soil, or
climate. It is not to be supposed, that beautiful specimens of each
kind of shrub are to be met with at any single place. But from
different places, in various quarters of the island, there is abun-
dant evidence that the whole list, to be had in this country, will
prosper in our climate, and assume very fine forms, which from
their variety are valuable and interesting. But while I thus re-
commend the introduction of shrubs into certain kinds of plea-
sure grounds, let me caution the gardener against planting them
in the usual manner ; viz. by mixing all the sorts indiscri-
minately together in every part of the scene*.

* Nothing can display a greater want of judgment than the practice of those
gentlemen who get only a general plan from a professional person, and then send
for a nursery-man to fill up the plantations or shrubberies with trees. How is it
possible that any plan can be executed agreeably to the artist's ideas by such a
practice? Yet this always takes place where artists, ignorant of trees, give in ideas
for improvement: such as drawing-masters, painters, architects, and such profes-
sors of art as Mr. Repton.

492 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

SECT. III. OF THE EFFECTS OF CULTURE ON TREES, IN
REGARD TO CHARACTERISTIC BEAUTY AND TIMBER
PRODUCE.

It is remarkable, that this subject has never specifically en-
gaged the attention of those who have written on planting.
The effects of culture on other vegetables is so great, as always
to change their appearance, and often in a considerable degree
to alter their nature. The common culinary vegetables, and cul-
tivated grasses, assume so different an appearance, in our fields
and gardens, from what they do in a state of wild nature, that
even a botanist might easily be deceived in regard to the spe-
cies. The same general laws operate upon the whole kingdom
of vegetables ; and thence it is plain, that the effects of culture
upon trees, though different in degree, must be analogous in
their nature. It is true, that we are as yet possessed of no great
number, either of experiments or observations, to enable us to
determine, with minute accuracy, the precise extent of these ef-
fects ; but still a person practically conversant with the subject,
who shall pay attention to what he may observe taking place
in different parts of the country, and who possesses a sufficient
knowledge of the vegetable kingdom and physiology to reason

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 493

from analogy, may deduce such general consequences as will
suggest important practical rules.

It may be proper to observe, that by culture I do not mean
merely the operations upon the soil, or even on the form of
the tree; but every thing that tends to remove it from its
natural state in order to accelerate vegetation. I consider
also, that a tree is in a natural state wherever it has sprung
up fortuitously and propagates itself without aid from man;
whether it is in crowded forests, woody wastes, or in scattered
groups on hills or commons*. Now it is known to every one
in the least conversant with the vegetable economy, that in all
herbaceous vegetables, and even shrubs of considerable size,
the effect of removal to an improved soil, climate, and situa-
tion, is to expand the parts of the whole vegetable; that the
effect of removing or cutting off part of the vegetable above

* Some trees and other vegetables may be said to be naturalized to situations,,
which, but for art, they probably never would have grown upon. Thus we some-
times find mountain plants common in plains, and even meadows ; and alpine
trees which disseminate themselves in level and warmer parts of the country :
but then the botanist, by comparing the effects of these different situations on
the vegetable, always knows to select as general nature that which perfects all the
parts, and where the soil and situation are best suited for the reproduction of the
species, and the prolongation of individual life. These rules are founded in na-
ture. For example: no person, judging from them, could mistake a warm Eng-
lish common as the natural soil and situation of Scotch firs, though they frequently
disseminate themselves there.

494 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

ground is to expand those parts which remain : that the effect
of removing any of the parts under ground, or, of removing the
whole vegetable into a colder climate and a less congenial soil
and situation, is to contract or consolidate the whole. This,
were it necessary, could be illustrated in a thousand instances
from the commonest vegetables : but I only notice further at
present, that this takes place more or less in a degree corre-
sponding with the rapidity of the growth of the vegetable, and
ts duration. Thus all the annual grasses are much further re-
moved from a state of nature by culture than the perennial
>nes. So are the annual garden vegetables, as cabbages, le-
gumes, and spinach, in opposition to strawberries, asparagus,
&c. Quick growing trees or shrubs, as willows, raspberries, &c.
are also much easier removed from their natural state, than
such as oaks, thorns, hollies, and heaths, which grow much
slower.

If the foregoing remarks are just, which I think none will
ieny, it must follow, that the same general effects take place
more or less on all trees ; that when they are removed into a
colder climate, or have part of their roots cut off, it will in some
degree contract the fibre of the wood, and render it of a more
solid and hard texture ; and that when they are removed into
a warmer climate, have most of their branches taken off, or are
placed in a better state, it must, by accelerating their growth,

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 495

tend to expand the fibre of the wood, and of course render the
wood softer and more liable to suffer by the actfon of the com-
mon elements when the tree is cut down and applied to use.
That this does really take place, will, I believe, be gathered
from the following detached facts which have come to my
knowledge, and to which every practical and unprejudiced
reader, who has visited different parts of the kingdom, will be
able to add many others from his particular observation.

1. Every hedger and forester knows, that furze, and thorns,
which have been cultivated in fields or hedges, are of a much
softer or wider grain, and are much easier cut over with the
hedge-bill, than such as spring up from seed in wild scenery,
and never undergo pruning or any species of culture. They
know also, that in a common to be cleared of furze or thorns, or
in a hedge to be cut over, there are some parts which require a
much slighter stroke of the hedge-bill than others ; and that
those parts easiest to cut are uniformly those where the plants
have grown quickest — Gardeners experience the same thing in
pruning or cutting over fruit-trees or shrubs *. In all these
cases, the stems of both are supposed alike in diameter and
cleanness, or absence of knots ; though the same thing would

* The difference between the texture of the cultivated and the wild raspberry
is striking, though the stem of the one is near double the thickness of the other.

496 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

take place in a considerable degree even if the stem of the cul-
tivated or quick growing one were thicker than that of the
other in the wild state. Supposing that we had no other proofs,
this clearly shews that cultivation, or whatever tends to increase
the growth of a tree, tends also to expand the vegetable fibre.
But there are other concurring proofs, which demonstrate this,
and at the same time shew, what few I suppose will doubt, that
when the vegetable fibre is expanded, or when the annual ring-
lets or circles of wood, produced by a tree, are soft and larger
than the general annual increase of such tree, the timber must
be less hard, and more permeable by air, water, heat, &c.

2. It is well known, that the common oak in Italy, where it
grows faster than in Britain, is comparatively of short duration.
And that the oak which grows on the mountains, in the High-
lands of Scotland, is much harder and closer than any produced
in England ; though on these mountains it seldom attains one-
tenth part of the size of English trees. Every country carpen-
ter in Scotland knows the extreme difference between the dura-
tion of Highland and English oak for spokes to wheels. Many
hedge carpenters in both countries know the relative duration
of transplanted or plantation oaks (that is, young oaks thinned
from thriving plantations) and those from natural forests, when
employed as posts for railing. From different observations
which I have made in Monmouthshire and Herefordshire, the

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 497

duration of the oak in these countries, is much inferior to what
it is in Cumberland and Yorkshire ; I think I do not exaggerate
when I say that the difference is as eight to ten. I know some
timber-dealers who in purchasing pay attention to the difference
of soil and situation even in the same wood. When they can
find oak in exposed situations and on deep clay soil, and ash
on rocky steeps, they always give them the preference.

3. I shall state a known fact, which I request the reader to
contrast with what I have stated in the preceding section re-
specting the larch. It is of such importance, that, I trust, if it
does not satisfy every unprejudiced mind respecting the truth
of the general principles which I wish to explain, it will at least
arrest the attention of all Avho are interested in the quality as
well as the mere bulk of timber : and this may lead to more
extensive observations, and perhaps more favourable con-
clusions.

The plantations of the late Sir David Carnagie, at Kinnaird
Castle (made 1770 — 90) are well known in the north of Scotland.
They were chiefly of deciduous trees, among which were gene-
rally introduced larches for shelter. These larches in some places
grew with astonishing rapidity. On many slopes where the
surface soil was good, though not deep, and the subsoil a sandy
gravel, they advanced upwards of five feet a year, for the first

3 s

498 ON USEFUL AND BOOK 1.

six or eight years after planting. As they overtopped and
crowded the deciduous trees, they were gradually felled ; and,
as much had been said about the durability of larch wood, the
first trees that were cut down were sawn up, and applied to a
purpose, which was perhaps one of the best tests of their dura-
ble properties. This purpose was the footpaths of peach-houses
and vineries, where they are exposed to alternate drought and
moisture, heat and cold, and where common deal and other
kinds of wood had repeatedly failed. The larch deal of these
trees was applied in the same way as the others, and in less than
two years was completely rotten !

It may be alleged by some, that this could only hold true with
the sap or last formed wood : but the heart or red central wood
which was present, though it lasted longer, did not endure three
years ! ! The immense number of these trees annually taken
down, were after this chiefly used for fuel. Vitruvius and
other authors inform us, that the wood will not flame, but will
only consume by the assistance of other wood. Here it did not
flame violently ; but it burned by itself, without any care or
attention, and with no assistance from other timber, and pro-
duced sufficient fires for the ordinary purposes of near thirty
labourers' families, on Sir David's farms and in the woods. In
preparing these trees for the fires, the workmen found it so
brittle, that they often could break a tree of a foot diameter

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 499

with the greatest ease, by giving it two or three blows with the
back of the hatchet. Their tops and side branches, were also
remarkably brittle, and light*.

These are facts which deserve a very serious attention, and
lead to very important conclusions, respecting the cultivation
of this tree in Great Britain. They are not solitary ; for though,
as yet, sufficient time has not elapsed for a fair trial of this wood
in different soils and situations, yet some have found it much
less durable than others ; and an attentive observer will per-
ceive larch trees in some rich warm situations in a decaying
state (as at Barnbarrow, Croome, &c.) ; and others growing so
rapidly, or so much pruned (as at Woburn), as to suggest
doubts, whether their duration will be much longer than those
of Kinnaird Castle.

4. In Scotland, the difference of durability between common
fir wood, which has been of slow growth, and that which has
been forced (as they call it) either by shelter, advantageous soil,
situation, or climate, or by lopping off the side branches, is
known to every carpenter in the northern parts of it, particu-

* These facts are known to many gentlemen in the neighbourhood of Montrose.
In London they are perfectly known to A. B. Lambert, Esq. Vice-President of the
Linnaean Society. Mr. George Jackson, his librarian, indeed, was eye-witness to
them in 1T99.

500 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

larly in Perthshire, Stirlingshire, and Argyleshire. There,
" they distinguish the wood cut in the native forests, from that
obtained in plantations, by calling the former highland fir, and
the latter park fir. The highland fir is most esteemed on account
of its greater durability, being frequently found undecayed in
ancient buildings when the other sort is entirely wasted *."
This may be daily seen in Aberdeenshire, Bamfshire, <Scc. dur-
ing the removal of old farm-houses and cottages ; wherever a
piece of the highland fir appears, it is always of a much deeper
yellow than the park or low country fir. At Gogar some large
fir trees were taken down in 1795: they grew upon a deep cold
loam ; the wood was sawn up, and was found of excellent qua-
lity. About a mile from this, at Lenny park, a dry bank is co-
vered with fir trees of greater age than those at Gogar, some of
them have been taken down at different periods before and
after that time, and have uniformly been found of inferior
quality. In 1804 a number of fir trees were taken down from

* I am happy in being able here to quote my sentiments from the highest au-
thority, viz. " Lambert on the Genus Pinus," page S4. In the same page it is
said, that " this striking difference," between the highland and park fir, " is pro-
bably to be attributed to the mountainous and rocky situations in which the native
timber is found, and where, the trees being of slower growth, the wood is conse-
quently of a harder texture." Mr. Lambert is of opinion, that few species of pines
will endure more than forty years in the soils in which they are commonly planted
in England. Indeed, there are many proofs of this from Croome, Kew, and other
places ; though there are some excellent fir trees at Langhangles, where the soil
is deep and cold, that are much older than that period.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 501

the rocky banks of the Almond between Craigie Hall and
Cramond House ; and they were found of excellent quality.
At Bevelaw there are extensive plantations of fir trees, which
have been often thinned ; but the trees have grown so fast, and
have been so much pruned, that they never last long as paling.
All these cases have come under my particular notice and that
of a relation of mine, Robert Karlaw, Esq. who, being highly
interested in the value of park fir, has paid a more than com-
mon attention to the subject. Numberless instances* might be
added to the above, but I trust it is needless. Any person who
shall take the trouble to examine the fir woods at Gordon
Castle, and contrast them with others in Perthshire and those
in England, will unquestionably come to these conclusions :
thut slow growth is essentially necessary to the durability of fir tim-
ber ; and that 'wherever the accumulation of wood has been accele-
rated by culture of the soil, improvement of the climate, or by
pruning, it is injured in quality in proportion to the ratio in which
these agents have been employed. I do not say, that no branches
should ever be cut from fir trees; but I am certain that judg-
ment will direct to cut off generally only such as indicate that
they are no longer of much use, which is easily discovered by
marks of approaching decay.

* By comparing the wood of the common crab (the father of our orchards)
with that of the cultivated apple, what I am endeavouring to prove in this section
will be evident to every candid mind.

502 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

5. Though a great deal more might be added from known
facts which have come under my own observation, or which I
have collected from several parts of the country, I shall only
offer, in connexion with the above, a few remarks on the effects
of pruning on trees. The general effects I have already stated
to be of a corresponding nature with culture ; that is, to in-
crease the quantity of timber produce. The particular manner
in which it does this, is by directing the greater part of the sap,
which generally spreads itself in side branches, into the princi-
pal stem. This must consequently enlarge that stem in a more
than ordinary degree, by increasing the annual circles of wood.
Now if the tree be in a worse soil and climate than those which
are natural to it, this will be of some advantage, as the extra
increase of timber will still be of a quality not inferior to what
would take place in its natural state ; or in other words it will
correspond with that degree of quality and quantity of timber
which the nature of the species of tree admits of being pro-
duced. If the tree be in its natural state, the annual increase
of timber occasioned by pruning must necessarily injure its
quality, in a degree corresponding with the increased quantity.
If the tree be in a better climate and soil than that which is
natural to it, and at the same time the annual increase of wood
be promoted by pruning, it is evident that such wood must be
of a very different quality from that produced in its natural
state.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 503

Now though it might be shewn in some degree from vege-
table anatomy, and analogy from what takes place in herba-
ceous vegetables, I prefer deducing from the facts already stated
this proposition : that whatever tends to increase the wood
in a greater degree than what is natural to the species when in
its natural state, must injure the quality of timber. Pruning
tends to increase this in a considerable degree ; and therefore
it must be a pernicious practice in so far as it is used in these
cases *.

6. Mr. Knight f has shewn in a very striking manner, that tim-
ber is produced, or rather that the alburnum or sap-wood is ren-
dered ligneous, by the motion of the tree during the descent of
the true sap. It is also sufficiently known to all who have at-
tended to the physiology of vegetables, and greatly confirmed
by some experiments recently read to the Royal Society $, that

* In this Section I never consider pruning in regard to eradicating diseases, pre-
venting injuries, or increasing the natural character and tendency of trees. For
these purposes it is of great advantage.

f See Phil. Trans, for 1803—4. MirBell's Anatomie ct Physiologie Vege-
tales. Tom. I. art- 6.

% These experiments were also made by Mr. Knight. I hope they have con-
vinced that ingenious philosopher of an erroneous supposition in his Remarks on
Fruit Trees, published some years ago ; which is, that the tree produced by a
graft taken from one in a state of decay will live no longer than the parent plant. If
in these last experiments Mr. K. could reason by analogy from potatoe plants to fir
trees, certainly reasoning of the same nature from the propagation of decaying
carnations, rockets, wallflowers, &c. by layers and cuttings, to the propagation
of decaying fruit trees by grafts, is equally fair. We are certain that the former
live long after the parent plants, why not also the latter ?

504 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

the solid texture of the wood greatly depends upon the quantity
of sap, which must necessarily descend, and also on the slowness
of its descent. Now both these requisites are materially in-
creased by side branches, which retain a large quantity of sap,
and by their junction with the stem occasion a contraction and
twisted direction of the vessels, which obstructs the progress of
the juice. That this is true in fact, is well known to those accus-
tomed to make wine from maple or birch trees ; for in this bu-
siness it is found that those trees whichhave fewest side branches
bleed more freely than the others, but during a much shorter
space. These hints, therefore, afford additional evidence against
pruning, and particularly against pruning fir-trees, which, as
Mr. Knight justly observes, have larger vessels than most others;
and therefore, when in an improved soil and climate, side
branches for the purposes above mentioned are essentially neces-
sary,if solid, resinous, and durable timber be the object in view.

From the foregoing remarks, I think, the following conclu-
sions may be drawn respecting the management of trees :

1. That trees should be planted as much as possible in soils,
situations, and climates, analogous to those of their natural
state : and that it is chiefly in this state or where there are
some defects relative to it, that pruning and culture can be
exercised with advantage.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 505

'2. That in proportion to the superiority of the soil, &c. in

which trees are placed, over the natural soil of these trees ; in

the same proportion pruning and cultivating the soil ought to
be avoided, and thinning encouraged.

3. That particular regard should be had to the soil and situ-
ation, where either larches, or any of the pine tribe, are planted
to remain as the final crop : for as the roots of these chiefly
run along the surface, and as in them the great current of the
sap is chiefly confined to one channel, that is, the trunk, con-
sequently that tribe of trees is peculiarly liable to change
when subjected to unnatural agency.

4. That the only way in which oak timber of safe quality can
be provided for the British navy is by inclosing, preserving from
cattle, and properly managing, those royal forests where oak is
the natural produce of the soil. — Alas ! there is reason to fear,
that on some future day the neglect of this advice will be re-
gretted. Park oak is very frequently much inferior to forest
oak in durability.

5. That as the practice recommended tends to render trees
characteristical of their peculiar species, it must consequently
be the most agreeable to ornament, or the principles of natural,
taste.

3 T

o06 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

If I have been more diffuse in this Section than the general
way in which I have all along treated my subjects will justify,
it is because this branch of planting appears to me to have been
entirely overlooked by practical men, who seem in general to
consider culture and pruning with no other reference than to
the increase which it produces in the quantity of timber. It is
far from my intention to discard either of these practices (and
not in the least pruning for the removal of diseases, accidents,
injuries, the increase of character, or when the trees are young,
as will appear in the succeeding chapters) ; but if solid and dura-
ble timber be the object, it ought to be practised with caution
and discrimination. I consider it particularly necessary to offer
these considerations at present, as some proprietors and writers,
are patronizing a practice which I am fully persuaded, if per-
sisted in, will be attended with bad consequences. Every attempt
to rouse the attention of this country to the propagation and im-
proved management of such an important article as timber, is
highly commendable; but an indiscriminate universal recom-
mendation of any practice, without a full consideration of its
effects, is highly unphilosophical ; and in the case of pruning,
which is particularly alluded to here, is likely to be attended
with consequences the more dangerous, as they cannot easily
discover themselves until it be too late to apply a remedy.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 507

CHAPTER III.

OF THE PRINCIPLES OF OPERATING WITH TREES SO AS TO EFFECT THE

OBJECTS IN VIEW.

SECT. I. OF THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND DISPOSITION, SO AS
TO PRODUCE VARIETY OF FORM.

The intention of the preceding Chapter was, to shew that
there is an inexhaustible fund of variety in trees and shrubs,
both with regard to beauty and use: I shall now make some
observations lespecting their arrangement in artificial scenery.
And it may be premised here, that those who understand the
general arrangement of vegetables in nature, will easily discern
and follow the proper mode ; but, on the contrary, those who
are ignorant of these principles, although they may know every
tree and shrub, will wander in darkness, and produce confusion
and incongruity.

All ornamental plantations may be divided into two kinds;
those where grandeur is the effect to be produced, and those

508 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

where variety, or beauty, is the principal object. As grandeur
depends more upon the whole than upon the parts, it may be
produced where only one kind of tree is used ; but as variety
depends upon the parts alone, many different kinds are ne-
cessary. This has given rise to a most erroneous opinion
and very pernicious practice among landscape gardeners and
planters. Imagining that variety is produced by mixture,
their rule is, to " mix as many kinds together as they possibly
can, and never to let two trees of the same species be seen at
once." This is their recipe for variety in plantations; which
they follow as far as possible, in every arrangement of vegeta-
bles, from the parterre to the forest. But does it produce va-
riety ? No : on the contrary, it produces the most distracting in-
congruity. The eye, in examining the parts, finds no connexion
— no harmony — no relief — no repose of effect — no difference of
composition, nor change of character: or, if from a distance
we look upon the surface of such a wood, it is, from the indis-
criminate mixture of forms, more dull and monotonous than if
only one species of tree had been used. Its outline against
the sky is a mere unvaried zig-zag line; which, except in arti-
ficial plantations, is not to be found in the whole range of na-
ture.

This mixture is evidently produced by their ignorance of that
which constitutes variety ; for it does not, as they imagine,

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 509

consist in the diversity of separate parts, but " in the diversity
of their effects when combined together; in a difference of com-
position and character*:" very different from the other is the
effect of such a variety; it relieves the eye, and interests the
mind, without fatiguing either.

In forming a plantation with a view to variety, instead of
selecting such trees and shrubs as are of opposite character,
those differing in the slightest degree are in general much bet-
ter adapted to the purpose.

The upright, spiry form of the larch, mixes very ill with the
round head of the oak. But by chusing trees of intermediate
forms, and placing them in the interval between these ex-
tremes, a natural connexion and gradation will be produced.
By this means, with the store of trees and shrubs which we pos-
sess, an endless source of variety in woody scenery may be had
from the forms of trees and their modes of growth, indepen-
dently of any other material of landscape.

There is another source of variety which arises from group-
ing, or the manner in which trees are disposed, more than from
the number of distinct species.

* Price's Essays.

510 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

This is chiefly applicable to extensive plantations, where the
general character is grandeur; as woods, groves, and forests.
It is produced by mixing together tall and low growths; plant-
ing irregularly, sometimes very close, at other times very wide;
— by pruning so as to expose trunks, stems, or branches, in
some places, and to conceal them in others, &c. Much of the
effect also depends on the diversity of age in the low growths,
as well as the difference of magnitude and accidental form of
the trees.

This kind of variety exists in the greatest perfection in natural
forests; and the true way to study its principles is, to observe
in them the effects of time, accident, the browsing of cattle, the
felling of timber, and other circumstances. By this means we
shall be enabled to transfer the same effects, sometimes by diffe-
rent, and sometimes by similar methods, to artificial plantations.
Natural forests cannot be too strongly recommended to the ex-
amination of the ornamental planter. Almost every other ope-
ration'of planting is mechanical; it is in this mode of grouping,
and following the principles of nature; that the man of taste will
be distinguished from the mere gardener. The effect of putting
in practice the principles to be derived from such a study may
be seen in Mr. Price's woods at Foxley, which no man of taste
ever saw without being filled with wonder and delight.

PART VIII. riCTURESQUE PLANTING. 511

SECT. II. OF THEIR ARRANGEMENT SO AS TO PRODUCE HAR-
MONIOUS AND VARIED COLOURING.

Another source of variety, which is independent of the modes
of growth or the manner of disposition, is colour. Hence, to
assist in the arrangement of a numerous collection of trees and
shrubs, a knowledge of the harmony of tints is essentially ne-
cessary to the planter. The subject, indeed, more properly be-
longs to painting; but a few remarks here may tend to shew
its importance. It may.be thought, that the different tints of
green in trees are distinctions too minute to be attended to ;
but reflection and experience shew that they are of material
consequence in scenery. Imagine two woods of equal and
considerable extent, — the one composed of the yellow green of
the weeping willow, the other of the dark green of the oak:
how different must be the impressions received from each,
though the general form and composition of both, at a distance,
would appear the same! It is evident, that the effect of the
different greens must be much more conspicuous in scenes in-
tended to be more minutely examined by the eye: — how dif-
ferent even the green of the gooseberry bush and currant tree
when opposed to each other!

512 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

The tints of trees may be considered with respect to their
harmony with one another — with external scenery — their gra-
dation— and their particular effects. The harmony of tints, in
general, is derived from known laws in optics, by which certain
colours, as red and green, yellow and purple, blue and orange,
agree with one another respectively ; and certain other colours,
as ?ef/and orange, yellow and green, blue and purple, disagree with
each other respectively: and again, certain colours, as green,
purple, and orange, when mixed together, destroy each other.
These harmonies, discords, and privations, will remain true,
although the colours should not be bright. The slightest tinge
will have the effect. When weak colours that agree are placed
adjoining, they support and give spirit to each other. A haw-
thorn hedge, among the green of pasture fields, has the same
dull, green appearance; but when opposed to the brown of a
ploughed field, it appears with peculiar spirit and force. Again,
the ploughed field, were it not contrasted with the hedge or
some object of a similar colour, would appear dark and co-
lourless; opposed to the hedge, it appears of a rich brown. —
A Huntingdon willow, observed alone, appears green, like any
other tree; but, contrasted with an oak or a chesnut, it ap-
proaches to white; and the oak again, by the contrast, appears
much darker than before. If plantations were arranged agree-
ably to these principles, the colours would at all times appear
striking aild forcible ; but from the opposite conduct, that of.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 513

mixing all colours together, they are annihilated, and their sepa-
rate effects destroyed. In consequence of this, it is frequently
said, that trees have no colour but green, except in autumn; and
that attention to these principles in their arrangement is frivo-
lous. But nothing can shew greater ignorance of nature.
Green is indeed the predominant colour of trees; but it is only
in one or two of the summer months that it nearly absorbs
ever}' other colour. All trees have their peculiar autumn and
spring tints, which in midsummer are only weakened, not de-
stroyed: and, whether it be not of greater importance to at-
tend to the harmony of these tints, than to neglect it altoge-
ther, because the effect would be in some degree lost during
a month or six weeks in summer, I leave every man of taste or
sense to judge. It is evident, that the harmony of wood with
landscape must depend upon the general principles that have
been already mentioned. One principle of harmony is, that
the general appearance of the wood planted about a mansion
should correspond with the general appearance of the wood in
the surrounding country: if otherwise, the space so planted
will appear a formal spot in the general view. The same prin-
ciple requires also, that in a scene where water is a prominent
part, and has a tendency to make the landscape too cold;
trees of warm tints (by no means evergreens) should be princi-
pally planted adjoining to it. On the contrary, where build-
ings make the landscape too warm, cool tints, such as ever-

3 u

514 ON USEFUL AND BOOK i.

greens, should be planted, to counteract that tendenc}\ Some
objects in landscape require to be relieved, and set off with
spirit ; others require to be kept under, or prevented from be-
coming principal. These, and a great number of other impor-
tant particulars, are effected by the colouring of trees and
shrubs.

If we operate with the permanent dark and light greens,
as with light and shade in landscape painting, we may
produce many of the effects of aerial perspective. The imagi-
nary height of a hill may be increased, by placing dark co-
loured trees at the base and lighter kinds toward the summit:
so may the apparent breadth of a lake, by planting trees of a
dark green on the side nearest the eye, and others of a lighter
tinge on the opposite side: in the same manner, bays or re-
cesses may be apparently deepened, by placing the light-co-
loured greens on the prominences. This mode of operating
with the colours of trees will only be deemed unimportant by
the ignorant or unexperienced.

Though the harmony of tints produces a pleasing scene, their
disagreement, on the other hand, may produce a striking effect*.
An outline, which cannot be varied in form, may be broken by
the opposition of its tints, or by masses of dark and light green.
Two or three trees together, that form a striking contrast with

* Whately.

i'ART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 515

all around, may attract the eye, and fix it so, as either to in-
duce it to admire some object, as a building ; or prevent it
from viewing something disagreeable, or less noble, in the scene.
Trees of a reddish tint, or evergreens, have the power of attract-
ing the eye in an astonishing degree : and in many places,
where the former have been planted at random among other
trees, they distract the whole scenery in the autumnal months.

SECT. III. OF THEIR ARRANGEMENT SO AS TO UNITE BEAUTY

WITH UTILITY.

It is allowed by all, that beauty is most to be admired when
combined with utility; and nature, whose economy is ever beau-
tiful and instructive, in none of her works performs this with
greater simplicity, than in her arrangement of the common ve-
getables of a country. Thus if we enter a forest or woody waste,
which are perhaps as near or nearer nature than any other spe-
cies of the scenery of this country, we may by observation, com-
parison, and reflection, discover the indications of every valua-
ble practice in useful or picturesque planting. But let us first
see what utility dictates with regard to an arrangement where
that is kept chiefly in view. As every tree hath a certain soil and
situation (those in which it will prosper better than in any other,
that is, produce timber in the greatest quantity and best quality) ;

516' ON USEFUL AND BOOK i.

and as this tree will generally pay better than more valuable
kinds that would not thrive, or would grow too quick there; it
follows, that, in the formation of useful plantations, one great
object should be, to accommodate the trees to these circum-
stances. Now, as the properties of soils and situations are va-
rious, this naturally leads to a corresponding variation of the
species of tree also; and this variation at once produces ornament
and utility. Now, in natural forests, such an arrangement ac-
tually takes place. Thus in one part, we find the oak as the prin-
cipal tree; the hazel the principal undergrowth; the cowslip the
principal plant; the poa nemoralis the principal grass; and the
hypnum the principal moss. Farther on, a few beeches mingle
with the oaks; proceeding onward, beech becomes the principal
tree. The undergrowths changing in the same way, we there
find the thorn, the violet, the poa trivialis, and the bryum. The
ground becomes moist, and the birch gradually appears; the
moisture increases — and, as the birch retires, the alder succeeds
— each with appropriate undergrowths, or ever-varying glades of
pasture*. The arrangement goes on thus throughout the whole
forest; and if the soil were examined, it would be found to
vary correspondently with the trees. Where the oak abounds,
it will be found deep and good ; dry where the beech prospers,
and moist where the alder prevails. An adequate idea is sel-
dom formed of the eifects and advantages that might be pro-
duced by adopting this mode of arranging vegetables in arti-

* See Gilpin's Forest Scenery. — Walks in. a Forest, &c.

PART YLII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 517

ficial scenery, whether we regard the first expence of planting,
the future beauty, or the ultimate utility. None but those who
unite a knowledge of botany with painting can conceive the
variety and perpetual interest that would thus be created in a
place even of the smallest extent, and with the least natural ad-
vantages. At present, all improved places have the same ge-
neral appearance; because composed of the same kind of
mixture. A shrubbery in one estate, is precisely the same with
one at a hundred miles distance; and a few square yards of
either is a pattern of all the shrubberies in Britain. But, were
nature followed in this respect, the variety would be endless.
Nothing could then be more interesting than to walk or ride
through a place, thus laid out; to view the trees, shrubs,
plants, and even the grasses and ferns; the infinite diversity of
shapes, colouring, and composition of the trees and shrubs ;
and the ever-varying openings and intricate recesses between
them — again varied with groups and turfs of flowering plants
and ferns, spreading among the grass, in every direction; — and
all this independently of every other object, — such as build-
ings, rocks, water, animals, distant prospect, and even variety
in the grounds. So that, by this mode of planting, a situation,
naturally the most dull and insipid, may be made infinitely va-
ried and interesting. And I repeat, that this mode of arrange-
ment is not more beautiful in shrubberies, flower-gardens, and
green-houses, than it is profitable in extensive plantations.

518 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

SECT. IV. OF THE DISPOSITION OF WOOD, WITH RESPECT TO
THE SURFACE OF THE GROUNDS OF A RESIDENCE, AND
THE GENERAL SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY.

The form of surface most desirable to be planted with wood,
in the grounds immediately adjoining a gentleman's seat, must
be chiefly determined by the character which the place is to
assume. In a situation where the grounds are of an even or
level surface, there can be nothing to interfere with this rule;
but when the surface is varied with swells, hollows, and abrupt-
nesses, the great art is, to combine the natural character of the
place with the character to be created ; and Avhen these are un-
derstood by the designer, the best effect will be produced. In-
dependently, however, of artificial characters, nature always
points out rising grounds for plantations. Wood placed on
knolls or swells heightens their effect, and gives spirit, force, and
intricacy to a scene, otherwise tame and monotonous. On the
contrary, wood placed in the hollows only, or in the hollows
and eminences indiscriminately, destroys all the expression or
natural features of the surface, and often produces deformities.
Nothing is more noble than a steep hill clothed with wood:
but, imagine this hill perfectly bare, while the surrounding
country is wooded, and it becomes a deformity in the general
view. To plant the hollows, and leave bare the eminences, is,

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 519

in almost every situation, counteracting nature. Even in plea-
sure grounds or parks, a group of shrubs, or a few trees, placed
upon a rise, however gentle, set off the scene, as it were, at
once: but, plant them only in the low places, and they will re-
main until full grown before they have much effect; and at that
time, though the residence may have the appearance of wood
at a distance, yet, when it is examined particularly, the features
of the grounds are totally destroyed. There are many country
seats, that have a sufficient quantity of old wood, which, if it had
been planted with a proper regard to the natural variety of the
grounds, would have made them as superior to their present
state as that is now to such as are totally destitute of trees. It
is not meant, however, that no low situation should be planted,
or that trees should be placed formally on the summit of every
eminence; on the contrary, dells, dingles, and such romantic
places, should be shaded with wood; and not a group nor a
single tree should exist, but what appears connected with other
trees, as well as Avith the grounds. Taking the country in a
general point of view, the hills should be wooded ; the rising
grounds between the hills and the vallies diversified with gen-
tlemen's seats, pasture lands, and some corn fields; and the
lowest parts kept in a state of almost perpetual aration. Most
of these vallies, to prevent the stagnation of the air, and to suit
the particular mode of farming for which they are adapted,
should be free from plantations, and sometimes even from

520 OX USEFUL AND BOOK I.

hedges. Viewed from rising grounds in autumn, they should
present broad flat shades of rich yellows, interspersed with farm
houses, and relieved by roads, canals, or rivers. The Carse of
Gowrie, a fertile and beautiful valley watered by theTay, and -
bounded on each side by ranges of hills and mountains, affords
an excellent example in illustration of this remark. There, in
sailing from Dundee towards Perth the general foreground on
each side is a level country covered with corn; the middle dis-
tance rising grounds and hills chiefly under pasturage varied by
wood, enlivened by castles, mansions, and villages. Behind these
arise a chain of stupendous mountains, the craggy summits of
which are covered with snow, or lost in white clouds, or some-
times obscured by the distant thunder-storm.

There is nothing of so great importance as the situation of
wood, whether we look to the general appearance of a country
and the improvement of its climate, or to the beauty and value
of individual estates. All other operations that can be effected
about a mansion are, comparatively, of little importance. It is
the wood, like the shades in a picture, that gives the effect; and
as it is by the situation and relative connexion of these shades,
that an expressive or unmeaning picture is produced by the
painter; so, by the site and connexion of plantations, a place
is either deformed or beautified by the planter. Even small
groups and detached trees, like the last touches in a picture,

jPART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 521

are of the utmost consequence; and every painter knows,
that, when these are laid on by an unskilful hand, they never
fail to spoil the whole. It is lamentable to see the* planta-
tions that are daily making at a considerable expense, without
any regard to this principle. In the level country of England,
it may be thought of less consequence; but in Scotland
and Wales, where the grounds are strikingly varied by nature,
it is of the utmost importance. In less than half a century,
wood will completely change the appearance of gentlemens'
seats, and of the whole country ; and those who understand
the subject will allow, that there is some danger of the change
producing a bad effect.

Scotland, for example, is at present an interesting country,,
as expressive of a peculiar character, the wild, naked, and ro-
mantic. If that character be partially changed, the effect
will be displeasing; a few clumps and belts seen here and
there will only make us regret the want of more extensive
woods; but, change it completely, and the expression will be
superior to its present state, and much more rich and noble
than England, and perhaps most countries. That range of
mountains called Pentland Hills, in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, reflect a bleak and savage character upon all the
surrounding country in its present comparatively naked state.
In the progress of improvement, the first change of character

3 x

322 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

will take place when the young trees now planting about
gentlemens' seats, and those in the hedgerows, are grown up.
Then the surrounding country will have a wooded appearance ;
and instead of the present effect, which, though bleak, is har-
monious, there will be a strong incongruity, arising from the
opposite expressions of richness, and bleak sterility. The next
change will be when these mountains are varied by wood;
then the separate effects will become blended instead of being
opposed, and in their room will be produced one harmonious
composition of richness, intricacy, and grandeur.

SECT. V. OF THE DISPOSITION OF WOOD ON A RESIDENCE
WITH RESPECT TO QUANTITY.

The wood surrounding a gentleman's seat should either be dis-
posed in groups, so close together as, at a small distance, to
appear a connected mass ; or one or more large irregular
masses must be planted, to which all the groups and single
trees should seem to belong.

The former method will have a good effect when the surface
is unvaried ; but can only be adopted with propriety, where

PA11T VIII. PICTUIIESQUE PLANTING. 525

the site of the house is elevated or on a declivity, where
moisture or stagnation of air will not prove pernicious*.
But the latter method may be adopted in every case. In
levels, the principal mass or masses may be placed at some dis-
tance from the house ; which may still be connected with
them by intervening groups judiciously placed for this purpose.
On irregular surfaces and hilly situations the same mode may
be successfully adopted. The masses may generally be placed
upon the hills, while the connecting chain of thickets and
straggling groups descend into the valley, and embrace the house.
These groups should never be large ; three or four trees together
will generally be sufficient ; their effect depends not upon the
magnitude of the group, but upon their number and apparent
connexion. This object is attained by making the groups loose
and open, and by scattering single trees among them ; and again,
by grouping these single trees, and even many of the groups
and thickets, with lowgrowths, as hollies, thorns, honeysuckles,
ivy, &c. to takeaway from the formality of solitary and naked
stems rising from smooth turf. The common method of scat-
tering single trees here and there, and always at some distance
from one another, gives a formal stemmy appearance to a lawn
or park, which is never seen in naturef. Foxley is an excellent

* Saughtonhall and Lanhangles are examples, where the effect is given almost
entirely by groups and single trees.

f Examples of this may be found every where — See Wimpole, Eaton Hall,
Pinchea, Oakhampton, Sampford, Eaby Park, Thorndon Hall, Tilney Hall,

524 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

instance of the former mode. There the surface consists of one
large valley, surrounded by a varied chain of hills, which are
almost entirely covered with wood. The valley, which contains
upwards of two thousand acres, is partly under aration, and
partly in lawn and park. The former part of it is joined and
connected to the clothed hills by wooded dingles, orchards,
and trees in the hedge-rows ; and the latter part, comprizing
the park, lawn, and mansion, is united to them by thickets con-
taining the gardens and offices, by numbers of groups connect-
ing the mansion with these thickets, and by other woodinesses
fringing the margins of rills, or encircling little lakes and con-
necting them with the rest of the parts so as to form a complete
whole.

The happy manner in which beauty and utility are combined
in this disposition of wood is admirable ; particularly near the
mansion, where the offices and gardens are so connected as,
with comparatively very few trees, to produce the general effect
of massiveness and grandeur, and, when examined, so much
intricacy and variety, that on a first view of the place no stran-
ger would expect to find, besides all the necessary appendages,
a beautiful flower-garden, conservatory, winter garden, and
aviary, all within less than a minute's walk of the drawing-room.

Luton Park, Kimbolton, Beverley, Rainham Hall, Althorpe Park, Exton Park,
E.nmore, Ickworth, Hurst Park, Margan Park. See also all those places referred
to by Mr. Repton as illustrative of his " Observations on Landscape Gardening."

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 525

CHAPTER IV.

OF THE SUBJECTS OF PLANTING, OR DIFFERENT KINDS OF

PLANTATIONS.

1

These may be reduced to — 1. A grove, or a collection of trees
without undergrowth ; 2. A wood or forest, or a collection of
trees with undergrowth ; 3. Copsewood, or undergrowth alone.
4. Groups, composed of never fewer than two trees, or a tree
and a shrub ; and 5. Avenues, or single rows of trees in diffe-
rent directions, and for different purposes of fancy or use.

r

1. Groves are of two kinds. The first is generally made for
ornament in parks. They are uninclosed; admit the pasture
to grow below them ; and appear, when we are walking-
through them, as a large collection of single trees. The se-
cond kind is composed of the pine or fir tribe. These are com-
\ monly planted on hills, moors, or commons ; they are thicker
than the former ; they effectually prevent the growth of pas-
ture ; and are for the most part enclosed. The character of
the former is generally solemnity and beauty ; of the latter
chiefly picturesqueness. Groves are at first planted equally

526 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

thick with other plantations. As they grow, they are gradually
thinned out, until the trees left standing are able to defend
themselves from cattle. The fence is then removed or de-
stroyed, the outline varied, and the spaces between the trees
sown with grass seeds. Fir groves are often allowed to remain
without thinning, until they are fifteen or twenty years old ;
and then they are considered as a full crop, and cut regu-
larly over.

2. A wood is well adapted both for ornament and utility. It
is formed, at first, by planting timber-trees at such distances as
would form a grove, and filling up the interstices with the kinds
intended for undergrowth. This is the most generally appli-
cable kind of plantation, and commonly the most profitable,
particularly in strips and belts. There, the undergrowth thrives
best; thickens the strip below; completes the shelter; and,
by concealing the real breadth, gives a massiveness and gran-
deur to narrow plantations, which they can never have, if
planted in the grove style. Oak undergrowth is generally the
most proper ; and, if its worth were fully known, many planta-
tions might be made of double their present value, have a much
better effect, and afford better shelter. Most plantations (par-
ticularly in Scotland), though they generally go under the name
of woods, are in reality of the grove kind. AVe find none of the
trees kept decidedly under the rest, cut over, and allowed to

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 52?

spring up again, while a certain number, from fifteen to thirty
feet distance, are preserved until their timber be full grown ;
but the trees, being once planted, are allowed to grow up to-
gether, only a few being thinned out where they are too much
crowded, and even this is little attended to. Those removed
are either cut over, or grubbed out by the roots, as is found
most convenient, without any regard to propriety. In con*-
sequence of this management, a few bushes of undergrowth are
found in some places, and the rest of the ground, if not shaded
too much by the crowded trees, is covered with pasture ; and
neither the pasture, nor the undergrowth, from being inter-
mixed, can be turned to the advantage of the proprietor.
There are other plantations where undergrowth exists among
timber-trees in a more general way, but of kinds which are of
little or no use, except for fuel ; and this is by no means a pro-
fitable article, particularly in a coal country. But, on the other
hand, there are woods in some places where both timber and
undergrowth are cultivated ; and it is from seeing the great
profits obtained by the proprietors of these, that I make the
following observations on the advantage of raising oak under-
growth in woods. The high price given for oak bark is gene-
rally known ; and the sum given for an acre of oaks, from
twelve to twenty-five years old, valuable for the bark alone, is
very considerable. Among the instances that occur to me at
present, the Duke of Athol's woods at Dunkeld appear the most

528 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

proper to be mentioned. There, on land worth little or nothing
in aration or pasture, are oak woods, principally natural, the
undergrowth of which is sold every twenty-five years, at the rate
of £35. or £60. per acre* ; the purchaser being at all expence
of cutting, carriage, &c. This is from 25s. to 48 s. per acre an-
nually, independently of the value of the timber-trees left,
fifty of which usually remain on each acre. If the soil and
exposure of these woods be taken into consideration, the growth
of the trees will appear considerable. But I have observed
that oaks do not grow half so fast at Dunkeld, as they do in the
low and comparatively sheltered grounds of the Lowlands of
Scotland, or England ; and I am confident, that if oak woods
were planted (or at least undergrowths of oak, in woods of any
other deciduous tree) in these districts, it would afford at least
double the profit that it does in the Highlands: it would grow
equal in size to Dunkeld undergrowth in twelve or thirteen
years, and afford two cuttings instead of one. Many places in
the woods of Dunkeld are too thin, and others are covered with
birches ; but where artificial plantations are to be made, the
plants could be placed regularly thick ; which of course would
produce a much more uniform crop, and also make a surface of
the same extent more profitable. Lest, however, I should be
thought in any degree to make oak undergrowth appear more.

* The statute acre is understood here.

PART VIII. PICTBRXSQCTB PLAXTINC. 529

profitable than it really is, I shall only further observe, that,
in most cold, hilly situations in Scotland and Wales, it will
produce upwards of £ 2., and in more favourable situations up-
wards of £3. each statute acre annually * ; and I do not hesitate
to add, that the profit would exceed these sums in both cases,
were proper attention given to the plants when young. This
profit is independent of that of the timber-trees ; and if we
suppose fifty, or even forty only, are cut every fifty years from
each acre, at ^1. 5s. each, this is £ 1. more, or in all from £3. to
£5. each acre annually for oak woods ; and I believe no one
acquainted with the subject will allege that these calculations
are over-rated. Another consideration which ought to operate
as some inducement to plant oaks, is the easy charge with
which it may be accomplished, at least in very extensive plan-
tations. From the plantations at Welbeck, and the writings of
Mr. Marshall and Colonel Emerich, and the remarks in
Sect. 3. Chap. II., it is evidently the best method to raise
oaks from the acorn -f-, by sowing them where they are

- At Moccas Court, in Herefordshire, the seat of Sir George Cornewall, Bart,
it affords upwards of two guineas annually each English acre.

t An acre of oaks affords a greater quantity of vegetable product than the same
space occupied with any other tree. This is owing to the tap-root of the oak pe-
netrating many feet below the surface, and deriving the principal part of its nou-
rishment in the bowels of the earth, where no other tree can reach. It is from the
tap-root principally that this tree increases in size, although it will live many years
with horizontal roots only. These facts deserve the attention of planters. — See
Miller's Diet. art. Suercus. See also Hunter's Georgieal Essays, Vol. VL
p. 442, &c.

3 Y

530 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

finally to remain. Now, two or three bushels are fully suf-
ficient for an acre, which, at 8s. or 9s. a bushel, is much below
the price of only one thousand transplanted trees of the
cheapest sort, and which would not plant above a quarter of an
acre. Transplanted oaks, which would cost nearly double the
price of the acorns, would, in the space of four years, be at least
the growth of three seasons behind them in point of size, both
being put in the ground at the same time. Supposing the
ground, then, on which an oak wood was to be raised, sum-
mer-fallowed and trench-ploughed at £% each acre, and sown
broad-cast before the last ploughing with acorns ; the total ex-
pense (making an ordinary allowance for the proportion of
the expense of enclosing) would be only £3. 5s. or £3. 10s.
each acre. Or, if it were desirable to have the undergrowth of
oak only, and the timber-trees of some other kinds, then 250
ash, beech, or elm, on each acre, (which would afford a distance
of more than twenty feet between each tree) could be planted
immediately after the acorns were ploughed in, at an expense
not exceeding 10s. each acre more, or £ 3. 15s. or £<&. each acre
in the whole. I appeal to every one, whether plantations, with
the soil thus prepared and planted, for £4>. 10s., would not far
exceed in growth those where the soil is uncultivated, but
where the ground is pitted and planted with transplanted oaks,
at the rate of <=c8. or o£l0. each acre.

Indeed, where extensive plantations of deciduous trees are

PART VIII. PICTUKESQUE PLANTING. 531

to be made, sowing will generally be found the most profitable
mode ; and there are many cases (as in old moory pastures)
where a single furrow would be abundantly sufficient to pre-
pare the soil for this purpose. If acorns were to be sown, they
might be ploughed in ; or ash, beech, &c. might be sown im-
mediately after the ploughing, and then harrowed in. Thus,
thousands of acres might be planted under the expense of 20s.
per acre, that would prosper better than those which cost half
as many pounds*. — These remarks shew the superior advan-
tages of Avoods to other kinds of plantations.

It is not my intention, however, to recommend the forma-
tion of them, exclusively of groves or coppices ; on the con-
trary, there are thin soils, with bad under-strata, where fir
groves are more profitable than any other kind of plantation :
and there are steeps and rocky banks, where no tree can be so
advantageously cultivated as the common ash ; and rich moist
places, where no plantation will turn out so profitable as osiers.
But, generally speaking, it may be safely asserted, that woods
are the kind of plantation that ought to be most generally
formed ; and that though the kind of timber grown in these
woods must vary according to the consumption of different
places, yet that oak will be found the best and most profitable-

undergrowth.

* See Emericfcs Culture of Forests.

532 OX USEFUL AND BOOK 1.

5. Copsewood alone is seldom desirable in point of character,
though, in many places, it is the most profitable kind of plan-
tation. Its formation is simple : when of a proper size it is cut
down ; after which, the stools spring up ; and this operation is
repeated periodically. Copsewoods, however, are in general
wretchedly managed, particularly in England.

4, 5. Groups, Avenues, and rows of trees, whether in
hedges which divide fields, or in the ancient style of garden-
ing, require no definition or description.

Wherever a plantation is to be made, it is of great consequence
to fix upon the proper kind. In determining this, the kinds of
woods, and species of trees in the surrounding country — the mar-
ket— the presentor probable expense of carriage by land orwater
— and a variety of other circumstances, are to be considered ; and
that kind fixed upon which shall in the end turn out the most
profitable. The plantation being made, the particular kind
should be held strictly in view in their after-management. A
collection of oaks intended for a grove, if not gradually thinned
out as they grow up, will never succeed ; but if the same collec-
tion were intended for a wood, thinning them out, in place of
cutting over, would lessen the crop of undergrowth. No mode
of management will make a collection of firs a wood ; nor can a
collection of hazels, or lowgrowths, erroneously planted to rear

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 533

a grove, ever be made to assume that character. The idea of
forming and preserving a distinct character in plantations is
never attended to by planters — a certain space is to be planted,
and it is filled up with trees at random. From this neglect
alone, independently of all others, (such as preparing the soil
previously to planting, cultivating it afterwards, training, thin-
ning, &c), few plantations yield one -third of the profit which
they might do. But were the kind of plantation to be formed
previously fixed upon, a proprietor intending to lay out money
in planting might proeeed with a degree of certainty un-
practised at present. In planting a wood, he might calculate
upon the first cost — the period when it would make the first re-
turn of undergrowth — the distance of time between the periodi-
cal returns of the same — the number and value of the timber-
trees upon each acre — and finally, the expenses and profit of
the whole.

In planting coppices or groves, the same general ideas of
original expense, commencement of profit, increase of value,
and final advantage, may easily be obtained by first determining
on the kind of plantation. But, in place of this, if all these
different kinds of plantations, and the species of tree suitable
to each, are mixed together, as is always done, no calculation
approaching to any degree of certainty can be made. Who

334 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

can predict the future expense of such a plantation ? Or to
what advantage can it be turned ? The proprietor must feel
great difficulty in directing their general management, and
great uncertainty as to what they ought to produce ; nor has he
any kind of check upon either the manager, the buyer, or the
seller of his timber. But, by the mode recommended, he has a
certain object in view in every plantation — in every hedgerow
or single tree which he plants or may possess ; and all his ope-
rations tend to promote this object: in this way he acts,
though not with an absolute certainty of the profit and loss,
yet with such clear ideas, that he can never be at a loss
how to proceed, nor ever be greatly disappointed in his ex-
pectations.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 535

CHAPTER V.

OF THE FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS.

SECT. I. OF THE OUTLINE OF PLANTATIONS.

The outline or boundary of plantations must be determined
by the character which they are to assume. A tree being a
picturesque object, all wood is consequently so ; and as the
addition of wood to ground is always an addition of pic-
turesqueness, (though often mixed with grandeur or beauty,)
hence the propriety of an irregular or picturesque outline in
every kind of plantation. When the character to be produced
is grandeur, the bounding line should consist of bold, angular
prominences, succeeded by deep incisions, forming large bays
and promontories ; and to give these still greater effect, and
vary their outline against the sky, they should be adapted to
the variations of the ground, the bays being in the hollows, and
the promontories on the eminences. In this mixture of curves
and straight lines, the former should generally be obtuse and
convex, and the latter of considerable length. All should ap-

536 ON USEFUL AND BOOK 1.

pear ' irregularly great.' Plantations made on hills ought al-
ways to assume the character of grandeur. Those introduced
among cultivated fields, and bounded by straight lines, may
have a very grand effect, if due regard be had to vary their out-
line, by attending to the angular insertions of hedgerows or
belts ; though, in this case, it is impossible to avoid a degree of
formality which is always connected with cultivation, and
which, being essential to it, cannot be considered as a defor-
mitv. When a plantation is to be made of a size which does
not assume the character of grandeur, the outline should be
composed of such a mixture of straight and curved lines as will
relieve each other, produce variety and intricacy, and corre-
spond with the surface of the ground. Nothing can be more un-
natural or insipid, than a serpentine line, or one wholly com-
posed of curves, as the boundary of a plantation : it is totally
void of variety and intricacy, and destitute of force and spirit,
which are some of the great objects obtained by planting, and
which it is the peculiar property of irregular or picturesque
forms to confer. The outline, where ornament is a principal
consideration, should be broken by single trees and groups, so
dispersed, as to increase its irregularity, and take away from
that formality and sameness which lines- of every kind have,
when viewed alone. Those who attempt this, without under-
standing effect, clog up the bays and recesses, in place of mak-
ing them appear deeper and more intricate ; and thus they do

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 53~{

much more harm than good. The outline is also greatly
varied, and much improved, by mixing low growths with lim-
ber trees along the boundary of the plantation ; and afterwards
by taking away the fence, and making partial inroads or re-
cesses of different forms and degrees of depth. In open groves,
where the trees stand single, and have no fence, the outline is
easily varied, and with great effect. The different forms, co-
lours,'and shades of green, when no other mode is applicable,
may often have a surprising effect, in apparently varying the
boundary of a plantation. At Keddleston, near the house, is a
straight line which forms the boundary of an oak wood; but
near to one end are three larches, which bend forward from the
other trees, and so far diversify the outline as to take away
every appearance of formality. Groups and thickets, when
planted in place of a circular fence, like a clump, should al-
ways have the most irregular outline. This irregularity is ap-
parently increased, by mixing low with tall growths at plant-
ing ; by removing the fence when these are grown to a certain
height; and by judicious thinning. The great beauty of small
groups and single trees, arises from their connexion*, and the

* ' In the Liber Vtritatis, consisting of above three hundred drawings by
Claude, I believe there are not more than three single trees. This is one strong
proof (and I imagine the works of other painters would fully confirni-it) that those
who most studied the effect of visible objects, attended infinitely more to connexion
than to separate forms. The practice of improvers is directly the reverse.' —
Prices Essays, Vol. I. p. 321.

3 z

538 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

. bends and inclinations of their stems. This may be produced,
by planting two or more trees or shrubs in one hole, of different
kinds, or the same kinds of different sizes, &c. and connect-
ing these by others straggling round them. The most beauti-
ful examples for this work are to be found in natural forests, or
in woody banks and commons, where trees have sprung up
accidentally.

Plate XX. is intended to shew the manner in which small
masses and groups of trees may be grown, without giving a
clump-like appearance to the inclosure. The general forms of
the masses in fig. 1. may be infinitely varied on a level surface:
on an irregular one, they should bear a correspondency to it,
as there shewn. These forms are copied from the working-plan
for planting Barnbarrow, and upon the grounds have an intri-
cate appearance, and considerable effect even from the fences
and the young trees already planted. On all level surfaces the
same thing may be done with equal ease, as I have proved at
Mountwhannie and other parts of Barnbarrow. It must be
evident, indeed, to every one, that the principle is universally
applicable, and consequently there never can be the smallest
apology for the clump. Fig. 1. represents the manner in which
I construct a working-plan for forming plantations, and by
means of which no gardener can go wrong with regard to the
species of tree. Fig. 2. shews the effect of the improvements :

The nutted i'n wtach H.ufijn.t plant for forming plmtatum* may f>f constructed— h> tin* example the object i* variety j ■; .<■ s represent those fhccs which
,'r? dkitjtj/ tor/mam * .■•An. arc introduced to aw* th<-tbi /,• dis net mid are mostly t,* be removed m .1 tew yean* - .v $Sct* art to be the wideratotethe
In i.tt.jf ■plantatume theprmcqrles <>r canetntetoty \earUny plan* -//■•■ thr came t"it m them much Icm nicety is required.

/'<•;! /'fir trarkma Flan tht figure* representing th* emtedton ofeJarVrenl kind* of tree* a* eaploaud below*

1 Oak

2 Beech

3 Jjh ■'• Scotch Fir 7 JJbUy 9 Horn

4. Jiirch i' (bnxtnorx Willow 8 Sazcl 10 Berberries

Fig'Z . Vertical prairie ••r the tffect tt> be produced w&en the fences (1uiB be taken away .n„l tne whale property thinned ■

e2\ameetcS*w-

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 539

there these fences are removed, and the masses are thinned out
into groups and scattered bushes and trees. I wish it particu-
larly to be observed, that all theground within the fences in
fio-. 1. is not planted up ; but several vacant spots are left which
will farther vary the whole, even before the final thinning — the
grass which grows on these spots can easily be mown and given
to cattle, so that it can never occasion any loss of ground.

How different from all this are the circular clumps, the ser-
pentine belts, and the dotting of single trees by landscape gar-
deners! From their formal outlines and equidistant mode of
planting, more than from any other error, arises that distinct-
ness and monotony, which is so disgusting in made places, and
which will ever distinguish a tree, or a collection of trees,
planted by them, from the same tree or trees in natural scenery.
" It is most amusing to see the number of days occupied, and the
labour and difficulty they have in marking out the serpentine

i

sweeps of a plantation of two or three acres ; which, if nature
were followed, might be traced by the plough, after the foot-
steps of a judicious designer, in two or three hours."

The above paragraph I certainly would have expunged in this
second edition, had I not lately observed the practice there con-
demned still continued ; which, after the publication of Mr.

540 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I,

Price's Essays, I should have thought would not have been the
case. I lately saw at various places beautiful natural groups
changed into circular clumps by planting a mass of young trees
around them, as at Ditchley ; or changed into solitary trees by
clearing away all the lesser growths, as at Ingleston, Valley-
field, and several other places.

SECT- II. OF INCLOSING, AND OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF

FENCES.

However well the ground may be prepared, and the trees in-
serted, in the first instance, unless it be well inclosed it cannot
be expected to prosper. It is too common, not only to fence
plantations at first in an insufficient manner ; but to pay no
attention to them afterwards : a mode of management at once
irrational and unprofitable. There are a great many different
modes of inclosing suited to different situations and circum-
stances. That mode should always be adopted, which can suf-
ficiently accomplish the end at the least expense, unless orna-
ment be a consideration ; and then, a sunk fence, an open wire
rail, or some of the sorts mentioned in the former part of this
work, may sometimes be found preferable.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 541

Useful fences are chiefly of three kinds ; zzalls, hedges,
and ditches.

With respect to hedges, hawthorn, either raised from haws,
or the root *, (which last method succeeds perfectly either with
thorns or crab) is preferable, particularly if the soil be good.
Crab tree approaches nearest to it, and will grow in a drier
soil. Beech, hornbeam, berberry, &c. may be adopted where
the soil is too dry or thin for the hawthorn ; elder, birch, pop-
lar, alder, &c. where it is too moist for any of the above. Be-
fore a hedge is planted, the ground should be well cleaned and
pulverized. A strip six or eight feet broad may be fallowed
and trench-ploughed the preceding summer. "When the soil is
naturally good and deep, the thorns may be planted along the
centre of the strip ; or, if it be thin and too moist, it may be
planted on double earth, which is accomplished by forming a
ditch of depth and width according to the water it is to con-
tain, or the nature of the cattle from whom the hedge is to be
defended. Every hedge should be well cleaned and defended
for five or six years after it is planted ; and in the mean time,
its sides should be trained in a tapering form with the hedge-
knife. The great art of preserving hedges fencible, after they
are raised, consists in keeping them three or four times broader

* This may be practised with several other trees, as the crab, sloethorn, ber-
berry, cherry, &c.

54'2 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

at the bottom than at the top. By this means, every part has
the full advantage of the sun, air, and rain : it grows equally
thick throughout, and particularly below, where it is most ne-
cessary. But when a hedge is trained broader at top, or even
perpendicular, that half of it nearest the ground is under the
drip of the rest ; and, deprived of sun and rain, it sickens, pro-
duces feAv or no young shoots — the sap is attracted to the top
of the hedge — it becomes quite bare below ; and is soon unfit
for a fence. Every accurate observer will allow that this is the
case, more or less, in the greater part of what are generally con-
sidered as the best kept hedges, such as those that surround
the market gardens in the neighbourhood of London and Edin-
burgh, which, though they are annually cleaned and shorn with
great care, are commonly so naked below, as to give easy ac-
cess to hares, dogs, swine, &c. In pruning a hedge, the bill
or knife should be used, as being preferable to the shears. The
latter bruise off, rather than cut over, the twigs : and hence,
every shorn hedge throws out a great number of small shoots
from this surface of bruised twigs, which in time forms a kind
of coating or net-work all over the hedge, inclosing the naked
stems within, and by excluding the air from them ruins the
hedge. But the knife cuts off the twigs clean and smooth.
By this means, they throw out fewer shoots, but those are of
greater strength ; and the hedge is equally thick in every part,
without being crowded. This excellent mode of pruning hedges

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 543

is practised in Berwickshire and East Lothian, where it is pro-
ductive of many other advantages.

Walls are generally formed of earth or stone. Some are made
of stone alone; others of stone and lime; others of tuif, or of
turf and stone in alternate layers. Some are erected upon the
surface, as all common walls ; others are sunk into the ground,
as the ha' ha', or sunk fence, &c. &c. When lime is employed
in walls, if, in place of slacking it, and letting it lie to mellow
or sour for some weeks, no more were slacked and made ready
for use than what was worked up the same day ; — if the sand
were clean and rough, and well incorporated with the lime, and
were the coping put carefully on, these walls would last an in-
conceivable length of time. Lime used in this way binds im-
mediately ; and the longer it stands the harder it becomes. The
surface of such walls would acquire a coating of mosses which
would add greatly to their beauty, and prevent decay. Our
ancestors used lime in this way ; and their buildings, both wall
fences and houses, though under every disadvantage, remain as
monuments of their superior knowledge in this particular. But
modern builders in general destroy their mortar before they use
it ; it is saturated with fixed air, or, in common language, has lost
band before it is put in the walls : hence the weakness*, and

* In autumn 1804, during a windy night, a house in Duke-street, Edinburgh,
fell down ; partly occasioned by the wind, but chiefly from the moisture of the

544 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

speedy decay, of modern buildings, those of rubble work in par-
ticular. A proper idea of the importance of this hint is too
seldom formed. Let me ask, Whether it is most desirable to
build walls that will stand for centuries with little or no repair,
or to build them in the common way, when, if they stand half
a century, they have to be pointed or rough cast every eight or
ten years ; while both modes cost nearly the same original
expense ? An example of a wall built as described may be
seen at Gosford, the noble proprietor of which has built ex-
tensively, and always in the same manner. All the eminent ar-
chitects in London follow the same practice. Robert Liston,
Esq. in building his mansion at Milburn, tried the same method,
from these hints ; and I have the satisfaction to be informed by
that gentleman, that it succeeds beyond his expectations.
Barnbarrow House was built in this way thirty years ago.

Ditches are generally made in conjunction with the above
kinds; as the ditch hedge and paling ; the sunk fence and hedge ;
and the ditch and hedge with top dike. This last sort is the best,
the most ceconomical, and the most generally applicable to

weather preventing the lime from taking band, or rather hardening, which can
only take place with soured lime. True band, like the sudden congelation of fluid
minerals, takes place almost instantaneously, and better in a moist than a dry at-
mosphere. See an excellent Paper od this subject in the Farmer's Magazine for
August, 1805.

CART VI II. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 545

plantations. A small dike of stones, turfs, or any other rude
materials, is raised on the top of the earth dug out of the
ditch. The medium size of this wall is twenty inches wide at
bottom, thirty inches in height, and fifteen inches broad
at top*. Any of the foregoing may be made ornamental fences :
the walls may be covered with shrubs, creeping plants, or ivy ;
the hedges interspersed with roses, briars, honeysuckles, and
other shrubs or trees, and never shorn ; and the palings maj
support the climbing plants, shrubs, or brambles -j-. A num-
ber of other fences might be mentioned, which are particularly
applicable to ornamental sceneiy ; but these may be found
under Picturesque Improvement.

Fences, or guards for single trees and small groups, are of va-
rious sorts. Where the trees to be fenced are single, and eight
or ten inches diameter, pieces of lath, or bark of trees, may be
neatly placed on, and tied close round the stem. The height of
the lath or pieces of bark may be more or less, according to
the cattle from which they are to be defended. As the tree
advances in size, the laths will require to be untied, and an ad-
ditional piece put in, to enlarge their circumference. Where
a group of trees, of three or four inches diameter each, is to be
defended from both cattle and sheep, a couple of rails fixed to.

* Nicol's Practical Planter, p. 362, first edition.

t No plant gives a more natural appearance to park scenery than the bramble ;
as at St. Mary's Isle, Bolton Abbey, &c.

4 A

546 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

posts, the lowest three feet from the surface, and the other two
feet higher, may surround the whole ; and each particular tree
in the group may be defended with lath, bark, or furze, for
thirty or forty inches high. This will completely exclude the
, larger cattle, aiid admit the sheep only to pasture in the group.
Such a group, with the outer fence painted of a dull green, and
the inner ones made of bark, something near the colour of the
trees, and the sheep pasturing among their stems, would not be
known, at a very small distance, to be fenced at all. Single
trees, or two or three planted in one hole, may be guarded from
cattle and sheep by a triangular fence, composed of three up-
right posts, and a number of short horizontal pieces fixed to it,
inclosing the tree in the centre. When trees are planted of a
very small size, the guard should be made of considerable
width, so that the cattle may not reach over, and crop their
tops. These forms of fences may be combined and varied in
many different ways. Hints may be taken from them, and
new kinds composed, suited to every situation and cir-
cumstance.

Whatever gives the idea of restraint in landscape should be
carefully avoided ; for this reason, all fences must be managed
in a manner analogous to what is called keeping under in paint-
ing. If they must appear, let their colour be such as will not
attract the eye: when paint is bestowed on them, let it be al-

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 547

ways brown or grey. The British invisible green is composed
of both pitch and paint ; and it is excellently adapted for coat-
ing wood or iron, and preserving fences from distracting the
eye in scenery. Where a fence cannot possibly be taken away,
it may often be so much hidden or broken, as not to offend the
eye. This may be accomplished by introducing trees or
shrubs, — or in small residences perhaps by party colours ; so
that, in some parts, the rails may appear distinct and clear,
succeeded by parts indistinct and hardly visible. The imagi-
nary extent of some small places or scenes where they are ab-
solutely requisite might perhaps be increased, by making a
proper gradation from bright to dull colours in the fences.

SECT. III. OF THE PREPARATION OF THE SOIL PREVIOUSLY

TO PLANTING.

Notwithstanding all that has been written upon this sub-
ject, and the many facts brought forward to prove the pro-
priety and ultimate economy of preparing the soil previously
to planting; the operations of most gentlemen shew that they
are doubtful on the subject, or unaware of its importance. I
shall not therefore add much to what has already been writ-
ten ; for all who reflect on the subject will allow it is unreason-

j48 on useful and book I.

able to suppose that a square yard of earth, matted and conso-
lidated with the roots of heath or grass, can be penetrated by
the delicate fibres of a young plant just brought from the nur-
sery; or to imagine that it can find sufficient nourishment in
the compass of the pit in which it has been planted. In plan-
tations made by pitting and planting, whatever be the nature
of the soil, it will frequently be found, that to supply the defi-
ciencies occasioned by death for two or three years after plant-
ing, will require a sum equal to that which would have pre-
pared the soil ; while those that survive are so choked with
grasses or heath, and become so coated with moss, as to make
no progress*. The pine and fir tribe, it is true, are less liable
to this than others, as they soon cover the surface, and destroy
all vegetation ; but I apprehend that the deciduous kinds are
more checked by it than most people imagine. Where the
soil is prepared, the plants rush up with rapidity and vigour,
and soon require no other assistance than thinning. Nor is
the additional expense of preparing the soil considerable; in
some cases -j-, it will be more than repaid by the green crops, as
potatoes, turnips, &c. which -may be raised on it for two or
three years after planting ; and where no green crop can be

* At Scone this occurred in 1802 and 3, when the Earl of Mansfield was in the
habit of planting extensively without preparing the soil. The plantations since
made have been prepared agreeably to my directions, and the success has been
equal to every expectation.

f As occurred at Leughie, under my direction, in 1803, 4, and 5.

I'AKT VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 549

raised, the saving in plants and planting (as few or none will
require to be replaced) will entirely or nearly defray the ex-
pense of preparation. Thus, independently of timber-pro-
duce, it appears, that the additional expense of preparing the
soil will generally be repaid the second or third year after
planting; if not positively, by crops of vegetable produce; at
least negatively, by preventing further expenses. But when
the returns in timber produce arc considered, it may appear
astonishing that any gentlemen should be so forgetful of their
own interest as to neglect the preparation of the soil. If we
suppose that, during the first ten years, trees grow only twice
as fast where the soil is prepared, as where it is not, then
a plantation worth o£l00. in fifty years, had the soil been
prepared, would have been worth ^QOO. in the same time. But
every one will allow that many kinds of deciduous trees will
grow three, four, and often ten times, faster in prepared, than
in unprepared ground; and, of course, the return of profits
will be correspondent.

The ground being drained and cleared, as far as neces-
sary, of surface incumbrances, the mode of preparing the soil
will vary according to circumstances. Where a considerable
extent is to be planted, the ground should, if possible,
be prepared by the plough; by autumn or summer fallowing;
or, in very rough moors, &c. by fallowing two seasons; and
trench-ploughing should be added to the faliowing wherever it

550 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

can be accomplished. This mode decomposes the organic
matter, and pulverizes the soil much more completely than
trenching with the spade, while it will not cost above one third
the expense. In places inaccessible to the plough, the ground
should be prepared with the spade, either by digging or trench-
ing. In steep banks, or places much covered with stones, or
other impediments to digging or trenching, or where there may
be danger of the winter rains carrying away loose soil, pits
should be made the summer previously to the planting season.
— One pit being opened, the earth of the next should be thrown
into it, with the surface undermost. By the time the pit is re-
opened, the sward will be rotted, and should be incorporated
with the rest of the soil in putting in the plant. Other places
still more difficult may be planted by slits; or by putting in
acorns, ash keys, or other tree seeds; many of which will grow
in crevices of rocks and precipices, where little or no earth can
be seen. Where oaks alone are to be planted or sown, no
other preparation than pitting is necessary; as they depend
more upon the nourishment derived from their tap root, which
penetrates in a perpendicular direction, than from their hori-
zontal fibres. Pitting, or slit-planting, are also the only modes
that can be adopted with safety in places where the wind or
rain are apt to carry off the soil. A case of the former kind
came under my practice at Linkhouse, and of the latter at
Cowper's Hill.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 551

SECT. IV. OF THE SIZE OF THE PLANTS, AND MODE OF
PLANTING OR SOWING.

Experience has shewn, that where there is any degree of na-
tural shelter, and especially where the soil has been prepared,
plants that have been transplanted in the nursery, and that are
from eighteen inches to three feet high, are the most proper to
be chosen. In planting, they ought to be placed from four to
six feet asunder, irregularly. In exposed places, where shelter
is to be obtained only by planting thick, or by planting nurses,
transplanted plants, under eighteen inches high, should be
chosen, and planted from thirty inches to four feet asunder.
The distance between the plants, in both these cases, will vary
much, according to soil and other circumstances. The mar-
gins of extensive plantations, and narrow strips or patches,
should be thicker planted than the inside of a great extent,
though in the same exposure ; on the other hand, where the
soil is a deep loam, they may be placed wider than where it is'
thin and gravelly. In very extensive plantations, it becomes
an object to plant in rows; as thus the trees may be more ea-
sily cultivated. In many cases, this may be done to great ad-
vantage with the plough and horse-hoe ; and often, particularly
in England, vegetables might be introduced between the rows

552 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

with great propriety. In all ordinary plantations, the plants
should be put in irregularly ; and wherever ornament is in the
least degree attended to, irregularly irregular; they should be
grouped, or, to speak in language which a planter will easily
comprehend, planted just as if they had grown up by chance
from the seed ; or as we see in natural forests, where in some
places perhaps two or three trees appear to spring from one
root, and in others quite thin and more detached. This pro-
duces an endless variety of composition, and at the same time
as much timber-produce, as the same would do if planted at
regular distances*.

The different modes of inserting the plants, are, either by pit-
ting or slit-planting, which are the best; or by dibbling, which,
however, can seldom be practised with propriety. Planting the
pine and fir tribe, I consider as more economical and expedi-
tious than sowing; but where extensive forests are to be raised,
most of the deciduous trees, and particularly the oak and ash

* Witness the common mode of thinning fields of young turnips that have not
sprung sufficiently thick. Some of the plants may stand at two feet, others not
above two inches separate ; but where two are close together, by being unencum-
bered all around, they grow more vigorously than the others;, and as the bulk
swells, push each other asunder; so that in a short time the whole surface of the
field is covered. The same thing takes place in natural woods. Suppose two spaces,
containing twenty square yards each, and in each space two trees; but in one, the
trees to be planted three feet asunder, and the other three yards : when ten years
grown, the bulk and height produced on each of the spaces would be exactly alike.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 533

(which ought to be the deciduous sorts most generally grown),
should be raised from the seed, where they are finally to re-
main. An acorn put in the ground at the same time with an
oak five or six years old, will overtop it in seven years*, and
often sooner; and Miller says, that they last much longer, and
produce more valuable timber-f-. Wherever the soil is pre-

* " We have known an instance of transplanted oaks remaining upon the
ground so long as eight years, before they began to move." — Marshall's Planting,
Vol. I. p. 122, third edition.

t " When oak trees are cultivated with a view to profit, acorns should be sown
where the trees are designed to grow; for those which are transplanted will never
arrive to the size of those which stand where they are sown, nor will they last near
so long. For in some places where these high trees have been transplanted with
the greatest care, they have grown very fast for several years after ; yet are now-
decaying; while those which remain in the places where they came up from the
acorns are still very thriving, and have not the least sign of decay. Therefore who-
ever designs to cultivate these trees for timber, should never think of transplanting
them, but sow the acorns on the same ground where they are to grow; for, timber
of all those trees which are transplanted is not near so valuable as that of the trees
from acorns." — Miller's Diet. art. Quercus.

This passage should be understood in a limited sense. It has been used, to shew
that no oaks ought, on any account, to be transplanted. In my opinion, however,
it amounts only to this — that oaks should not be removed at such an age that they
cannot, nor upon a soil where they will not, push down tap-roots ; for upon these
two things depend the quantity and quality of the timber. Without a tap-root, an
oak may live a long time, but will not increase in size. — See, as a proof of this, an
excellent paper in Dr. Hunter's Georgical Essays, Vol. VI. p. 442.

All transplanted oaks under seven years old, when finally removed, should be cut
over by the surface, in the second or third year after they have taken with the soil.

At Foxley, Mr. Price some years ago transplanted oaks when nearly one foot di-
ameter, which are in as thriving a state as any can possibly be which have been
raised from the acorn. The success is chiefly to be attributed to the soil and the
moist climate of Herefordshire, both of which are highly favourable to the oak.

4 B

554 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

pared, and it is desirable to raise oaks, it will be found prefer-
able to sow acorns; which may be done at one fifth the ex-
pense of planting; and they will turn to advantage, either as
timber or undergrowth, much sooner. As oak is a peculiarly
valuable tree, both for its bark and timber, it should be uni-
versally planted ; and were this mode attended to, it would be
a saving, even in the first instance, of from <£3. to <£6. each
acre, which, to gentlemen who plant extensively, would be of
considerable importance.

With respect to the mode of performing the operation, acorns
should be sown either in drills or broadcast, and in autumn.
Where any other species is intended to be grown among them,
they may be ploughed in, or, if these are the ash, beech, or
elm, they should be sown the following spring. In small
plantations, where the plough cannot be used in sowing, tree-
seeds may be inserted either with a spade, hoe, or planting in-
strument. Acorns, and other tree-seeds, as ash and maple
keys, beech mast, and Scotch fir seed, have been sown or
planted where they were finally to remain, under my direc-
tion, at Scone, Bargany, Leughie, Mountwhannie, Linkhouse,
Prinknash, and several other places.

IJART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 555

SECT. V. OF SHELTERING YOUNG PLANTATIONS.

shelter is a most powerful promoter of the growth of vege-
tables: it is peculiarly necessary for many kinds of young
trees in all exposed situations; and as there are some kinds
that will endure the most severe exposure, the tenderer kinds
are sheltered by intermixing some of these hardier sorts among
them as 7iurses. A nurse plant should be of a quick growth,
especially when young, and endure the particular exposure in
which it is to be planted, better than the tree that is finally to
become the principal. We have several quick-growing kinds
adapted for all the different degrees of exposure, from the sea-
shore to the tops of the highest hills*; and those undoubtedly
are the best that can be employed for this purpose. The pro-
portion of nurses planted, to the principal trees, must vary ac-
cording to the exposure, and the degree of shelter necessary:
in some cases, they may be equal in quantity with the princi-
pal tree; and in others, not above a twentieth part of their
number. It may sometimes happen, that more than one half
are nurses ; and in that case, as the whole grow up, a few of
them should be removed, and more of the principal tree

* See Chap. II. Sect. 1.

556' ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

planted in their room; especially if the plantation be intended
for a wood : but this case can rarely occur, except in situa-
tions near the sea; for the larch is at once the most valuable
tree, and the one that will endure the most severe inland expo-
sure. Nurse plants have long been introduced into planta-
tions; and although they have, in almost every instance, ten-
ded to suffocate and overpower the principal trees, rather than
promote their growth, the object is good ; the bad consequences
resulting from the practice have arisen from improper manage-
ment. At all times, however, they have a tendency to exhaust
the soil, and deprive the principal tree of its proper nourish-
ment. For this reason, they should be planted with great cau-
tion. In most situations, the principal trees, if planted suffi-
ciently thick, Avill shelter one another ; they may not indeed be
so tall at the end of a certain period of time, as if they had been
" drawn up" by nurses; but they will be much more strong and
hardy, and better calculated to produce durable timber, and
resist the weather ever afterwards. Where ornament is an ob-
ject of consideration, this mode should almost always be fol-
lowed ; for the incongruity produced by mixing nurse trees,
which are generally of spiry forms, with other round-headed
trees, is quite incompatible with picturesque beauty or va-
riety. Such plantations, from their spiry outline, though old,
always appear young, without giving any of those ideas of

FART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING- 557

3routh and beauty, which young plantations, composed of kinds
varied, but not mixed, or even young trees simply considered,
never fail to communicate.

CHAPTER VI.

OF THE MANAGEMENT OF PLANTATIONS.
SECT. I. OF CULTIVATING THE SOIL.

To pulverize the soil, or at least to keep it free from extra-
neous vegetables, is of material consequence in promoting the
growth of those intended to be cultivated. "When this is not
attended to in plantations, the young trees are often more liable
to be choked by grasses or plants, than if the soil had not been
prepared. The cause is evident; for if the soil, by prepara-
tion, be better adapted to the growth of trees which are fo-
reign to it, it must be much better adapted to the growth of
the plants that it produces naturally in abundance. To check
these, then, so that the roots of the trees may range at liberty,
and enjoy the full strength of the soil, must be an object ot
considerable importance to the planter. The kind of culture

55S ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

most proper to be followed, will vary according to the nature
of the plantation. Wherever the ground, will produce vege-
tables, as potatoes, turnips, beans, &c. a few of them may be
planted or sown in the centre of the intervals (where the roots
of the trees do not reach,) for a year or two after planting.
This necessarily supposes that the whole will be dug and
cleaned annually during that time; and afterwards it may be
hoed, two or three times a year, until the trees cover the sur-
face, which will generally be the fourth or fifth year after
planting. In extensive plantations, all this may be performed
by the plough and horse-hoe ; except perhaps a little hand-
hoeing round the stems of the plants, where it would be dan-
gerous to let the other instruments approach too near. In
plantations where, from different circumstances, it may be
found impracticable to introduce the plough, the spade and
hand-hoe naturally present themselves. In cases where the
soil will not produce vegetables, or at least where it may not
be thought adviseable to cultivate them, the ground should be
kept clear of weeds by hoeing only ; or by digging or ploughing
a year or two at first, and afterwards by hoeing. Whenever
trees cover the surface of the ground, there is no further need
of culture; the soil afterwards is kept abundantly porous, and
the surface sufficiently free from weeds, by the shade of the
trees and the falling of the leaves annually. This is particu-
larly the case in woods and groves of resinous trees. It is the

PART VIM. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 559

peculiar property of deciduous groves, that the surface among
them is covered with pasture, the seeds of which should be
sown when the trees are about nine inches or one foot diame-
ter. Prior to sowing, they should be kept free from weeds.

SECT. II. OF PRUNING PLANTATIONS.

■i runing, though not so important in plantations as thinning,
is of considerable use. It corrects the extravagancies of trees,
lops off their redundancies, and directs their produce into a pro-
per channel. Two trees of the same kind planted in similar
soils and situations, the one pruned, and the other left to na-
ture, may produce in an equal number of years the same
weight of timber : but the tree that was pruned would contain
the greater part of that timber in an erect stem; while the
other, left to nature, would contain great part of it in arms and
side branches. Hence, if the object were ship-building, as is
most likely, the natural one was preferable; but if it were
wainscotting, the other was undoubtedly the most profitable
tree. But the larch, without any pruning, is the best for the
purpose of wainscotting; and the oak, without any pruning, is
the most proper for ship-timber. This, and other instances
that might be given, would seem to point out that trees, both
as to the cmality of their wood, and their mode of growth, are

5(30 ON USEFUL AND BOOK r.

by nature fitted for certain purposes in the arts of life ; and
this again tends to prove that pruning is unnatural and often
unnecessary. From different circumstances, however, it fre-
quently becomes necessary to use trees for purposes which
they are not naturally designed for. Before the larch was in-
troduced into this country, and in places where it could not
be obtained, it might be necessary to train the oak for wain-
scotting; and where the larch alone will grow, and ship-timber
is requisite, it may prove advantageous to prune or bend it to the
form that will suit the ship-carpenter, as is explained in Chap. II.
Sect. 2. The ash, the elm, and the beech, planted in soil
that accords with their respective natures, are, without pruning
or culture, wonderfully adapted to the various useful purposes
to which they are applied. But, reverse or intermingle their
applications, and pruning then becomes necessary.

In performing this operation, two things require to be at-
tended to; first, the general principles of vegetation*; and,
second, the purposes for which the timber is to be ap-
plied. In artificial plantations, however, a good general rule
may be, to consider pruning as the means of throwing more
timber into the trunk or principal stem, whatever direction
that may have assumed by nature. Pruning, when requi-
site for these purposes, should commence after the trees have

* See Mirbefs Work ; Knight's Experiments; and also Chap. II. Sect. 2.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 56l

been five or six years planted, and continue until they are
nearlv full grown. In general, no tree should be divested of all
its side branches. A sufficient number of small ones should
always be left to circulate the sap through the tree. The
branches of resinous trees never attain a timber size, which
shews that their chief use is to serve this purpose. In the fir
and pine tribe their number and importance may be accounted
for, from the sudden ascent of the sap, and the singular largeness
of the alburnous vessels in these trees. Hence in this tribe no
side branches should be removed, until they shew evident marks
of decay.

Where pruning is attended to, it is most commonly overdone,
which I have formerly endeavoured to shew must materially
injure the timber, as well as the characteristic beauty of the tree.
The happy medium, either in books or practice, is seldom
fixed on ; and trees are too often either left to contend with
whatever injuries or diseases may come in their way, or so mu-
tilated and deformed by the forest primer as to be unfit to per-
form their proper functions: the consequence of the first is
unsound timber; of the second, timber of bad quality, and perpe-
tual deformity of shape. Better proof cannot be given than the
tall, naked elms, pollard oaks, and naked fir woods, that prevail
in many parts of England, and frequently disfigure whole dis-
tricts of the country. The timber of those species of treesr

4 c

563 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

as every one knows, is, where properly treated, the most valu-
able of any; but after this kind of management its quality
and quantity are much injured, and, being rendered unfit for
every valuable purpose, it is often used as fuel.

In managing wood with a view to ornament, pruning serves
important purposes. Individual trees, on the lawn, or near
the house, of heavy inelegant forms, may be lightened and
reduced to more agreeable shapes; either by cutting out
branches, or by incision in the bark and outer layers of wood,
to make young shoots spring out. The stems of single trees
may be shewn to advantage, or disguised where too formal.
Small groups may be improved in the same manner. In
connexion with the knife, cords and weights may frequently
be made use of. By this means branches may be more
gracefully bent by hanging stones near their extremities; or
their position may be altered, by fixing them with cords either
to other branches, or the trunk of the main tree, or to posts
driven into the ground for that purpose. In this way mis-
shapen trees, that could ill afford to be thinned, may be balanced,
without cutting off any of their branches. A close formal tree
may be rendered irregular by separating its boughs. Stems
may be moulded into more agreeable curves in scenes of beauty;
or rift, shattered, or broken, in scenes grotesque or romantic.
The sky line of a plantation, too insipid from being deficient

PART VIII. PICTUKKSQUE PLANTING. o63

in variety, may be rendered interesting; or one composed of
firs, displeasing from the formality of their conic tops, may be
changed by taking away some trees entirely, and cutting the
tops from others. The last operation may also be applied to
conic trees when they are too prevalent upon a lawn or in a
park, or where they do not group well with buildings. It is true,
this is destroying the natural character of the tree. But the
conical form of the fir is a singular character in trees; and in
harmonizing scenery we must chiefly attend to her general
excellencies. Many of these operations are performed with ex-
cellent effect at Foxley. Under my direction, by this mode
of pruning, considerable effects were produced at Kingswood
Lodge. The formality of trees not pruned at all, and of others
pruned only to a certain height by cattle, were also disguised
under my inspection at Barnbarrow, Castlewigg, and Drum--
mond Castle.

SECT. III. OF THINNING PLANTATIONS.

Thinning is an operation of much more importance than
pruning; and on it, more than on any other point of after-
management, depends the quantity and modification of timber
produce. This operation has been so generally neglected in

564 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

Great Britain, that few plantations contain one half, and many
not one fifth, of the timber they would have contained, had
they been properly thinned. The produce of some natural
forests that have never been thinned, might be brought in oppo-
sition to this affirmation; but, on the contrary, from these may
be drawn the strongest arguments for thinning; so that even
for this apparently unnatural operation, there may be found a
precedent in nature. Natural woods, sown by birds or the
winds upon different kinds of surface and various sorts of soil,
spring up at different times, and of different degrees of thick-
ness and vigour. Hence it is easy to conceive, that those in
favourable circumstances will soon overtop the rest; and, if
they do not kill, will at least weaken them so much as not to be
affected by them, until at last the strongest trees find sufficient
room. Thus, though nature be slow in her operations, yet she
accomplishes her purpose in the most complete manner. Arti-
ficial thinning is only assisting nature; hence leaving even na-
tural woods to be thinned by time, would not be economical;
and those who argue from the effects produced by time in na-
tural forests against thinning artificial plantations, do not con-
sider the difference between them, and forget that counteracting
or forcing nature is very different from gently assisting her in
her operations. Let me remark to such, that in artificial plan-
tations the soil is equally cultivated, and the plants are put in
the ground much about the same size, and at the same time.
Hence, they rush up together all of the same height, producing

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 565

neither beauty nor timber; and none being found so strong as to
take the lead and destroy the rest, they grow in this manner until
they are so crowded as to exclude air and moisture. Then, unless
previous aid has been given, the whole plantation dies toge-
ther. Instances to corroborate this will be seen in several parts
of Perthshire and Yorkshire, and near the road between Glas-
gow and Hamilton. In most plantations the fir tribe has been
introduced either for ornament or shelter. Where thinning is
practised, too large a proportion of these firs are left. Hence,
from their comparatively quick growth, such plantations have
a disagreeable sameness throughout; and as most of them are
made in the same manner, this appearance extends over the
whole island. The plantations where thinning is principally
requisite are those intended for groves. In woods and copses,
none require to be taken out but the nurse plants, where any
have been planted. Plantations of the fir tribe should be gra-
dually thinned, beginning after they have been five or six years
planted, and continuing for ten or twelve years; after that time
thinning becomes pernicious. The trees thinned out should
always be grubbed up by the roots; for when these are al-
lowed to remain, they check the progress of the remaining
trees. Plantations of firs are sometimes, and very properly,
left without thinning, and cut wholly down as a crop when fif-
teen or twenty years old. This is generally the most profitable
mode of planting on thin, bare soils in the neighbourhood of

566 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

mines, where wood of this kind is much wanted by the miners
for supporting the superstrata. Where the fir tribe have been
planted as nurses, they should be grubbed out gradually as
they begin to injure the principal trees. Groves of deciduous
trees should be thinned out after the same manner ; only, the
operation may go on until the trees have arrived at nearly their
full size. Woods (where undergrowth is always intended if
they are properly planted) require no thinning, except when
nurses are planted, or when the timber trees are too much
crowded by the low growths : the whole should grow for twelve
or fifteen years, until it is proper to cut over the undergrowth;
and at that time the strongest trees should be pitched upon,
and left as standards. Copsewoods grow a certain length, ac-
cording to their kind, and then are cut wholly over by the sur-
face; of course, they require less thinning, unless nurses have
been planted among them; and both in woods and copses,
these, as they are removed, should be replaced with the prin-
cipal tree. Whenever ornament is in any degree considered,
the trees or copse left should not be equidistant from one
another, but, as formerly mentioned, in groups of irregular
thickness. Indeed, this mode may be adopted even in woods
where utility is the chief consideration; as it will make no ma-
terial difference in the produce of timber, and is so much more
natural. In every part of planting, beauty and utility may be
combined*

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 56?

SECT. IV. OF THE MANAGEMENT OF NEGLECTED PLANTA-
TIONS, WITH A VIEW TO RECLAIM THEM.

From all that I have seen of plantations, I apprehend that
there are few in our island which may not be classed under this
Section. Many gentlemen, who are very careful in the first
forming of plantations, never think of their future management.
Some, from erroneous ideas, contend for leaving them after-
wards entirely to nature; while others argue, that nothing
should be done in the way of thinning or pruning, for a consi-
derable number of years after planting. Neglect of the fences,
and a general carelessness, ruin many others; and a great num-
ber are wilfully neglected, from the contracted idea of incur-
ring expenses which will not produce immediate returns of
profit. These, and many other causes, have contributed to the
neglect of most of the plantations of this island, to the incalcu-
lable loss of the proprietors, and the nation in general. Nor
need it appear wonderful that this is the case; for there are so
few examples of well-managed plantations, that gentlemen who
plant have no proper examples to imitate ; and though much
has been written on this subject, yet, until good precepts are
exemplified by some individuals, no real improvement can be
expected in the general plantations of the country. But when

568 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

here and there a gentleman, previously to planting, prepares
the soil, then inserts the plants judiciously, — encloses his plan-
tation,— cultivates, trains, and thins it with propriety; — when,
in consequence of this, his trees are outgrowing those planted
many years before, and yielding more than woods of three times
their age — the neighbouring gentlemen take the hint, and
adopt the practice — it spreads around, and in a short time it is
followed throughout the whole country. This was precisely
the case with farming. The most approved systems of agricul-
ture and rural economy, which are followed at the present day,
were long since described by the ancients, and more recently
detailed in numerous publications by the moderns; but until
a few spirited and liberal-minded men set the example, and
proved, by their superior crops, the advantages of the new sys-
tem, nothing was done. But this being now accomplished,
good husbandry is spreading wider and wider, and gentlemen,
no less than farmers, feel the good consequences.

In bringing a neglected plantation under proper management,
the first thing to be considered is, the kind of plantation which
ought to ha e been made there ; whether an open grove, thick
wood, or copse only. It is then to be considered by what means
it may be reduced to the proper character, or to which cha-
racter it can most easily be changed; for cases will often occur*
where the originally proper character must not be attempted.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 569

but that which is already produced must be rendered more
characteristic. In proceeding to accomplish this purpose, all
plantations will be found to consist oHiardwood alone; resinous
trees alone ; or hardwood and resinous trees mixed together.

Hardwood.— Where a plantation of hardwood is to be re-
duced to a wood (that is, to timber trees and undergrowth), and
the undergrowth is to be used for fuel only, then good trees, of
kinds suited to the soil and the probable demand, &c. must be
pitched upon, and left as standards ; while all the rest are cut
over by the surface, that they may become stools for producing
undergrowth. The ground should then be dugT trenched, or
hoed, according to circumstances; though, from the crowded
state in which the trees may have previously been, these opera-
tions will generally be rendered unnecessary. But in place of
common undergrowth, suppose that of oak were desirable;
then, after having fixed upon the proper standards to be re-
tained, all the rest must be grubbed out by the roots, the
ground dug or trenched, and acorns planted ; and again, when
these are grown, they must be kept free from weeds for two or
three years, to promote their progress. Suppose it were desire-
able to reduce the whole to copsewood. If for fuel only, then
cut over the whole by the surface; if for bark, root out the
whole, reserving all the oaks, and plant with acorns, &c. as be-
fore. Or if it were desirable to reduce a neglected plantation

4 D

5?0 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

of this kind to a grove, then the most suitable trees are to be
reserved at proper distances, and the rest grubbed out by the
roots : afterwards, the ground should have the necessary de-
gree of cultivation, until the trees can defend themselves from
cattle; when the whole may be sown with grass seeds.

Resinous trees. — When an artificial plantation of the fir
tribe has remained without thinning for twenty years, the case
is frequently irremediable: about that age they are generally so
overpowered with one another, that they stop growing; and
whenever one is thinned out, all around it die. The best way
is to grub them all out by the roots, and replant, after the soil
is properly prepared by summer-fallow, or two or three corn
crops. Natural plantations of resinous trees, under twenty,
and artificial ones under ten years old, may most commonly be
much improved by thinning. In reclaiming plantations of re-
sinous trees, it is unnecessary to cultivate the soil, as their
shade destroys almost every other plant: often, indeed, culti-
vating the soil becomes hurtful to them, as their roots run so
near the surface, that they are liable to be much injured by the
operation.

Hardwood and resinous trees mixed together. —
Few artificial plantations are entirely without resinous trees.
Here I refer to those where the number is so great, that they

PART VIH. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 571

cannot be brought under the management recommended in the
first head, and at the same time are not sufficient to warrant the
management recommended for resinous trees alone. Planta-
tions of this sort can be reduced to the grove kind only; or, if
the resinous trees be unequally distributed, to the grove in
some places, and the wood in others; the methods of accom-
plishing which have been already noticed. Under each of these
heads, cases will frequently occur, where the tree or trees which
are most profitable in that part of the country are deficient, or
totally wanting, (at least to a great degree) in the plantation to
be reclaimed. In this case, it may be grubbed up and re-
planted; taking care to leave a sufficient number of trees either
scattered throughout, or in narrow strips, to shelter the young
plants or seeds.

In reclaiming every kind of neglected plantation in a moist soil,
recourse must be had to draining. When it is omitted, every
other operation, however well performed, will in the end prove
unsuccessful.. The damage that many plantations suffer for want
of draining, particularly all the Royal forests, is incalculable.
Many thousands of acres would, by this operation alone, be
rendered of twenty times their present value*. As all planta-

* See the Reports of the different counties given in to the Board of Agriculture.
The Bishop of Landaff's Observations, &c. The most striking instance which oc-
curred to me, in the course of my practice, was at Schawpark, near Alloa.

,372 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I,

tions may be drained by open cuts, the necessary expense is
very trifling, compared with the drainage of arable grounds.
It is almost unnecessary to mention, that in reclaiming neg-
lected plantations, the fences are always supposed to be kept
in proper repair, a neglect of which is often the complete ruin
of numberless acres.

Thinning old or neglected plantations should always be
performed gradually, and with a due regard to the age and
kinds of tree, the soil, situation, and other circumstances. The
margin should generally be left thicker than the inside; and
that place where the soil is thin, should not be left so thick of
trees as where it is deep and good.

Pruning, also, should accompany these operations, accord-
ing to the age and size of the plants, the particular species, and
the purpose in view.

Let me urge those who have neglected or badly managed
plantations to reclaim them without delay. Forming young
plantations will prove highly advantageous to posterity. But
improving those already grown, by a judicious reformation in
the system of management, is a certain gain to the present
proprietor, and a benefit to the age in which he lives.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. .5? 3

SECT. V. OP HEDGE-ROW TIMBER.

Although a few trees growing in a hedge, when considered
singly, may have little effect, and be of no great value; yet a
number of hedgerows, all properly interspersed with timber
trees, will completely. change the appearance of a hilly coun-
try, improve its climate, and yield a considerable quantity of
timber to the proprietors of the lands. The consideration of
this subject, then, must be of great importance to the landed
interest in the northern or mountainous districts of this island.
The few hints that I shall give, will be included under the fol-
lowing heads: 1. The lands where hedgerow timber may be
p lanted, without injuring the farmer; and, 2. The species of tret
most proper to be planted. With respect to the farmers interest,
the lands most obviously adapted for hedgerow timber are those
which are much exposed, and kept principally under pasturage;
and with respect to the beauty of a country, the improvement of
its climate, and the health of its inhabitants, the rising grounds
alone should be planted; except a few in the vallies, by the
sides of public roads or rivers, to form foregrounds to the rest
of the country; and a few near houses or villages, to group with
them, and enrich their appearance. Low rich vallies between
mountains, that are kept in perpetual aration, should not be
planted with hedgerow timber (see Chap. III. Sect. 4.). But

574 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

a country wholly level, as many counties in England are, may
sometimes be partially planted without doing much injury to
the farmer; while, if properly managed, it will vary the coun-
try, and improve its climate. In such levels, the hedges should
be kept very low, and the trees trained erect, with single stems
and few lateral arms near the surface ; or, as is done in some
places, the width of an ordinary ridge on each side of the
hedge may be kept in perpetual pasture, which prevents the
corn from being so much injured by the trees, and is a great
ornament to a farm. But if the whole farm be kept in perpe-
tual pasture, the trees may often be allowed to extend their
branches, and the hedges may be kept high or low, at pleasure.
Moist or argillaceous soils, under perpetual aration, should
never be planted with hedgerow trees : and, indeed, before they
are planted any where, a due estimate should be made of their
effect on the annual rent of the land — on their intrinsic value —
on the climate — and on the appearance of the country.

The species of trees which are most proper for hedgerows are,,
in good deep soil, the oak and Scotch elm ; in stony soil, the
ash; in poorer soil, the beech, sycamore, and. birch; in the
case of a moist soil, as meadow, &c. the Lombardy poplar,
which, besides its timber produce, forms, when in rows, a close,,
erect, narrow hedge, fifty or sixty feet high, in a few years. The
oak and the Scotch elm prosper better in hedgerows than in.
any other situation; their roots have a free range in the adjoin-

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 575

mg enclosures, while their tops shoot out vigorously on every
side, thus producing excellent ship-timber. — See Kent's Hints,
Marshall's Planting, &c.

The beech is peculiarly adapted for thin soils and exposed
situations. When planted about ten or twelve feet asunder, it
produces excellent shelter, and at the same time a very consi-
derable quantity of timber. The ash and sycamore will grow
erect in the most exposed upland situations, or near the sea.
When planted in good soil, they should generally be trained to
single stems; in which state, their timber produce is most valu-
able. The timber of the ash, as I have already observed, is be-
coming very scarce, in consequence of the tree being too much
neglected by planters*. In the cyder counties of England,
fruit trees are frequently introduced in the hedgerows; this prac-
tice might be advantageously adopted in many other counties,
and in several parts of Scotland. The resinous tribe, and the
evergreen sorts of trees, are generally improper for planting in
hedgerows. In many places, where hedgerow timber often
exists, the situation is improper, and the management wretch-
edly bad. Hence it has become an injury to the farmer, with-
out yielding any advantage to the proprietor. Two more gla-
ring instances of this cannot be given than in the tall, naked

* See some Observations by the author on Hedges and Hedgerow Timber, in the
Outleman's Magazine for January 1804.

57b ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

elms, and pollard oaks which prevail in many places in the
south; the former, by improper pruning, are worth nothing ;
and the latter, by being cut over at the height of eight or ten
feet, form ugly clump-headed bushes, which do great in-
jury to the farmer, and yield nothing to the landlord. In de-
fence of these practices, it may be said, that fuel alone is the
intended produce; but certainly it would be much the best
way to allot a space by itself for raising fuel, and devote the
hedgerows to the more important purpose of producing tim-
ber. The fuel plantation might be rented by the farmer, and
the hedgerows would belong exclusively to the proprietor. —
Keeping each species of plantation strictly characteristic of
its kind, is as beneficial in planting, as the division of labour is
in political economy. There are a number of places in Scot-
land, and the northern counties of England, where hedgerow
timber might be planted, to the advantage of both landlord,
and tenant, and the great ornament of the country. Suppose
an estate of two thousand acres, divided into fields of ten acres
each, and the hedgerows planted with trees at fifteen feet apart;
this would be above the rate of eight trees upon each acre, or
sixteen thousand trees in the hedges only. At the end of thirty
years, if well managed, they would be worth from twenty to
forty shillings each, say only thirty shillings each; this is sixteen
thousand pounds. A very considerable sum for a proprietor of
only two thousand acres to receive every thirty years, above the
annual rent of his estate.

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 577

SECT. VI. OF FELLING WOOD.

In trees, as in the human species, there are three stages; youth,
manhood, and old age. In the period of youth, the growth is
rapid; in manhood, that growth is matured; and in old age it
begins to decay.

The most profitable season for felling timber, is at what may
thus be termed the beginning of manhood. After that time,
though the tree may appear sound and healthy, its annual in-
crease is so little, that it would be more profitable to cut it
down and replant. The number of years that a tree may stand,
before it arrives at this period, must vary in different soils and
situations ; but the period itself may easily be ascertained — by
the annual shoots — the state of the bark — and by taking the
circumference of the tree at the same place for two or three
successive seasons, and comparing the difference. In the view
of profiting from timber produce, it is of great consequence to
cut down plantations at maturity*. 'Many trees will stand

* " It should be in the vigour and perfection of trees (which, for the oak, I take
to be about the age of fifty, or betwixt that and sixty years of growth, where the
soil is natural) that a felling should be celebrated." — Hunter's Evelyn's Sylva,
p 508.

4 E

57S ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

half, others a whole century, after they are full grown, — ap-
pear quite healthy, — and, at the same time, make little or
no increase of timber. But there are particular cases, arising
from the nature and state of the markets, where it may even be
more profitable to cut timber before it is arrived at a full growth.

Undergrowth is always cut in what may be termed the stage
of youth, sooner or later, according to the kind of tree, and the
purpose for which it is raised. It may be difficult to say when
timber, which is principally planted for ornament, should be
cut down. A tree, when young and fresh, is beautiful; when
middle-aged, it is more or less picturesque; when in old age,
strikingly so, with a degree of grandeur ; and its greatest height
of picturesqueness and sublimity is when decaying under the
pressure of age. Hence, if ornament (or expression, which is
a better term) were the sole object in view, trees need never be
eut down. But most men have a feeling of what is beautiful ;
and, though all may be struck with grandeur or sublimity, few
have so much enthusiasm as to sacrifice the profit of valuable
timber, for the pleasure of enjoying either of those characters.

The modes of felling timber ought to be different, according
to the kind of plantation. In deciduous groves, the trees
must be gradually thinned out as they arrive at maturity : if
the grove is to be continued, they should be cut over by the

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 579

surface, and each stool inclosed with a fence, which, defending
it from cattle, may produce a new tree. They should be
rooted out at once, when it is not intended to be continued.
Pine or fir groves, or any fir tree whatever, that is felled, should
be taken out by the roots at once. In woods, the undergrowth
should be cut over within three or four inches of the surface,
reserving always a good sapling to succeed any timber tree
which may be cut down. The proper time and manner of fell-
ing timber and undergrowth are of great importance. " A tim-
bered estate (says Mr. Marshall) should frequently be gone
over by some person of judgment, who, let the price and de-
mand for timber be what they may, ought to mark every tree
which wears the appearance of decay. If the demand be brisk,
and the price high, he ought to go two steps further, and mark
not only such as are full grown, but such also as are near per-
fection; for the interest of the money, the disincumbrance
of the neighbouring young timbers, and the comparative ad-
vantages of a good market, are not to be bartered for any in-
crease of timber which can reasonably be expected from trees
in the last stage of their growth.

" There are men in this kingdom, who, from mismanagement
of their timber, are now losing, annually, very handsome in-
comes. The loss of price which generally follows the refusal of
a high offer, the certain loss of interest, the decay of timber,

580 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

and the injuries arising from the incumbrance of full grown
trees, are irretrievable losses, which those who have the care and
management of timber should studiously endeavour to avoid.
But while we thus hold out the disadvantages of suffering tim-
ber to stand until it be overgrown, it is far from our intention
to' recommend, or even countenance, a premature felling*."

" There are many very judicious observations made on this
subject by the Bishop of Landaff, in the Introduction to the
Report of the County of Westmoreland, which merit the par-
ticular attention of those who are cultivators of oak timber.
4 If profit be considered' (his Lordship says), ' every tree ought
to be cut down and sold, when the annual increase in value of
the tree by its growth, is less than the annual interest of
the money it would sell for. This being admitted, we have
only to inquire into the annual increase in the value of oaks of
different ages.' After various statements, his Lordship fixes
upon thirty shillings each as the price of trees which should be
cut down ; as, if they be cut before they arrive at that value, or
if they be allowed to remain till they will sell for a much higher
price, the proprietor of the soil on which they grow will be a.
loser. He also mentions its being the general opinion, ' that
it is more profitable to fell oak wood at fifty or sixty year*

* Planting and Rural Ornament, Vol. II. p. 98.

>

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 581

growth, than to let it stand tor navy timber to eighty or a hun-
dred, owing to the low price that is now paid for oak trees of
large dimensions, either by the Navy Board or the East India
Company.' For this reason, he recommends the making a
much greater than ordinary increase of price on timber of a
large scantling, viz. that 'in place of four or five pounds per
foad, if they would give eight or nine pounds per load for trees-
containing each one hundred cubic feet and upwards, every
man in the kingdom would have a reasonable motive for letting
his timber stand till it became of a size lit for the use of the
navy; whereas, according to the present established price, it is
every man's interest to cut down his trees before they arrive at
a proper size to be useful as navy timber.' This points out, in
the strongest manner, the necessity of attending to the Royal
forests ; for, unless this be done, or such a price given for large
timber as his Lordship mentions, it is evident that oak proper
for ship-building, which is already very scarce, will be com-
pletely exhausted in a very short time*." — And perhaps it
may be an additional incitement to try the mode recommended
for cultivating the larch in the royal forests, and training it for
ship timber. See Chap. II. Sect. 2.

* Donaldson's Modern Agriculture, Vol. IV. p. 23.

58'J ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

CONCLUSION.

In concluding these remarks, I beg to refer such of my
readers as may Avish for more information on the subject, to the
many very good Treatises on Planting which are already pub-
lished. Something useful will be found in every one of them.
Some contain minute practical directions for performing the
operations of planting ; others treat of the various soils conge-
nial to the different kinds of trees, and the various modes by
which they are propagated ; others have embraced the subject
in a more general way, and treated of both trees and planta-
tions. But it appears to me (and, I doubt not, it will occur to
every one who is in any degree conversant with planters, or
books on planting), that none have hitherto considered wood
in an ornamental point of view, and in connection with the ac-
tual formation and management of young plantations; two
things so intimately connected, that I do not conceive how
they can be separated from each other with propriety. For
though a tree be the most beautiful and the most useful of in-
animate objects, yet, from ignorance of one or other of these
properties, we daily see gardeners forming plantations that hurt
the appearance of the country and particular places, or such as

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 583

will not turn out one half, frequently not one fourth, so pro-
fitable or beautiful as they might.

A judicious attention to the preparation of the soil previously
to planting, to the culture of it, and to training and thinning
the trees afterwards, is of more consequence to the prosperity
of the plantation, than most men imagine. The progress which
trees have made under the management of some gentlemen
who have attended to these circumstances, is hardly credible*.
But there are very few indeed who attend to these particulars;
and hence few experience that success which results from pro-
per planting. Some prepare the soil before planting, and in-
close well ; but when this is over, imagine all is done, and pay
no attention to training and thinning, though, the more thriv-
ing the plantation, the more this operation becomes necessary.
Others plant in rough, uncultivated ground, where many of the
trees very soon die; and the rest, perhaps scarcely alive, re-
main for a great many years, until at last they overcome the
natural rubbish ; and then probably some attention is paid to
thinning and pruning them ; or perhaps these operations are

*I allude to their progress the first eight or ten years after planting, which is ge-
nerally the period wherein plantations make least progress. Let it he remembered,
that when advising culture of the soil, I always suppose the tree planted as much
as is practicable in its natural state, or in a more unfavourable one. Such culture
will never injure the quality of the wood, since, soon after the trees cover the sur-
face, they are in the same state as if no culture had been given. The effects of too
much shelter and of pruning are very different. — See Chap. II. Sect. 2..

584 OX USEFUL AND BOOK I,

overdone, and the trees are trained up like so many may-poles,
or lopped over as pollards. Trees and undergrowth, in many
places, are cut down before they arrive at a proper size. On the
other hand, many gentlemen, having formed mistaken ideas re-
specting the annual increase of timber in full grown trees, suf-
fer them to remain until they give evident signs of decay ; thus
losing both the trees, the interest of their value, and the rent
of the surface which they stand upon. But it deserves particu-
larly to be remarked, that in each of these ways there is some-
thing that is either good, singular, or recommended by some
author, which makes them pass with superficial observers for
rational management

The direction of plantations, I am afraid, is too generally
submitted to gardeners and foresters, who, though highly pro-
per in their own place, cannot be expected to have a sufficiently
comprehensive view of the subject. But supposing that they
had, these men are so frequently changed from one place to
another, that the one often, unknowingly, undoes or counter-
acts the labours of his predecessor. This consideration obliges
me to confess, that I am not so sanguine as may be imagined
in my expectations of the good which will result from these
hints. The following mode, or something similar, appears to
several planters and authors, as well as myself, to be the
most complete that can be adopted by noblemen and gen-

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 585

men and gentlemen with their estates. Every proprietor, who
does not completely understand the subject of* planting himself,
should commit the formation and general management of his
plantations to some persons of known abilities, who shall give
all the leading directions and proper examples respecting plant-
ing, cultivating, pruning, thinning the trees, and felling and
selling the timber — inspect them occasionally as these opera-
tions are going on, — and give in a report of the condition of all
the plantations and trees on the estate, and, when necessary, a
report of the value of the timber. A person thus employed in
different parts of the kingdom, would soon acquire an accurate
idea respecting the kind and quantity of wood in the country ;
by which he could discern the most economical methods and
kinds of trees for each particular place, both in respect to the
growth of trees and the value of timber. His attention should
not be directed merely to the extensive plantations, — he should
examine every hedgerow and single tree ; nor should he con-
fine himself to the trees that already exist, but examine every
farm — every hedge — every vacant spot, or spare corner, — and
observe whether trees might not be planted in some, or all of
these, with advantage. A place once fully examined by this
inspector, might be managed afterwards with a few visits every
year ; and of course his salary would be but a trifling object.
It is presumed that an estate, though there were little more

4 F

586 ON USEFUL AND BOOK I.

room for wood on it than the hedgerows, would soon be greatly
heightened in value by a practice of this kind. And if such a
general inspector of wood were considered as equally essential
to an estate with a steward, I am persuaded it would remove
bad planting and bad management, and prove of very great
advantage to the landed interest and the nation at large.

It may be thought by some, that a common steward is suffi-
cient for these purposes ; but this is viewing the subject very
superficially. Few stewards know much about the value of
timber ; and scarcely any understand the formation and ma-
nagement of plantations. If gentlemen were to be guided by
their stewards in every thing, their estates would perhaps cost
them little thought ; for all would go on easily and apparently
very well. But a landed proprietor, alive to his own inte-
rest, considers that there are many other things from which
he may derive profit, besides the mere rent of arable land.
He considers the interior parts of the earth in a mineralogical
point of view ; his lakes for fisheries ; his rivers or brooks for
driving machinery, and his hedgerows and barren spots for
valuable plantations, &c. ; — perhaps he has an idea of adding
to the extent of his property, by gaining land from the sea ;
or if he cannot encroach upon this powerful element, he may
strew the shore with stones, and thus ensure himself valuable

PART VIII. PICTURESQUE PLANTING. 587

crops of kelp*. The true way of rendering an estate of the
greatest value is, in connection with good general management,
to take advantage of all particular improvements. This alone
is good husbandry.

* See the Transactions of the Highland Society of Edinburgh, Vol. I,

589

BOOK I.
PART IX.

CONVENIENCES PECULIAR TO A COUNTRY RESIDENCE.

The design of these depends upon the general principles of
utility and convenience, which it is unnecessary here to enume-
rate. Their adaptation to the ground, and their situation
in regard to the mansion, must be regulated chiefly by
their particular use, in connexion with the principles of pic-
turesque improvement. In all of them, the useful may be
mingled with the agreeable ; but as both these, in each parti-
cular case that may occur, depend upon a thousand variations
of use, extent, and relative beauty, as well as the peculiar
fancy, wishes, or wealth of the proprietor, little more can be

590 OF CONVENIENCES PECULIAR TO BOOK I.

done (without being insufferably tedious), after referring to prin-
ciples already treated of, than to mention the names of, and
perhaps a few leading particulars respecting, such as are neces-
sary to every complete country residence.

The Approach to the mansion is a variety of road peculiar
to a house in the country. In direction it should, on the
one hand, neither be affectedly graceful or waving, and studi-
ously intercepted by trees ; nor, on the other, vulgarly recti-
lineal, direct, or abrupt. There is a dignity, propriety, and
ingenuity, requisite in an approach, analogous to that of ad-
dressing a great man to whom we are unknown. In given cir-
cumstances it easily presents itself to the mind ; and from the
simplicity of the whole operations, both of conceiving and
designing an approach, it is easily marked out on the ground —
easily improved upon — and the execution is mere road making*.
What regards accompaniments to roads or approaches, has been
already treated of under Picturesque Improvement. Ave-
nues have been reckoned the only proper approaches to castles ;
but there seems no reason in nature for such a rule ; and argu-
ments from antiquity are certainly insufficient to justify their
constant reintroduction in such cases. Wherever they exist
with good effect, as at Taymouth, they ought to be carefully

* See Agriculture.

PART IX. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 5.91

preserved ; and even, in some situations, avenues to mansions,
as at Fonthill, or straight private roads through monotonous
cultivated countries, as near "Wi in pole and W ilton, or public
ones passing along eminences, as at Callender, may be created
with great advantage. The new approach which I designed
for North Berwick will pass through a straight level avenue
one mile in length, already formed, and containing as its
termination North Berwick Law. At the end of this avenue
the road enters a winding valley, with the law or mountain
close on the right, shewing a towering cone of wood,
rock, and pasture; and on the left the irregular boundary
of a plantation in the forest style. It winds in this valley
sometimes under perpendicular rocks at the base of the law ;
at other times through a smooth surface of verdure ; sometimes
the wood descends to the road, and appears to stretch across
the valley ; and at other times it retires into dark recesses :
every where it is broken by thickets of thorns and hollies,
mingled with forest trees; which, with the rocks and cattle, form
new combinations on every movement of the spectator. This
style will continue another mile, until, entering a thick wood,
and crossing a brook, it will ascend to the intended mansion.
The west and north approaches are shorter and widely different,
but equally interesting. One of these passes along high
grounds, and exhibits extensive prospects of the sea, Edinburgh,
the noble view of Dirleton Castle, and the opposite coast of the
Forth : another passes through the marine village of North

592 OF CONVENIENCES PECULIAR TO BOOK I.

Berwick, and ascends into the park near the ruins of a fine old
abbey. And the last proceeds from the shore, through a hol-
low wooded dell, which bursts into a level valley at the rocky
base of the steepest side of the mountain. Nothing can con-
vey an adequate idea of these approaches but a model of the
whole residence; a mode which 1 took advantage of on this
occasion, in order to communicate my ideas with the requisite
clearness.

The Drive is another variety of road ; the intention of which
being to shew the beauties of an extensive residence, or of the
surrounding country, nothing can be easier than to contrive it.
The chief art is, to shew only one species of rural character at
a time. The drive designed for North Berwick first shews a
magnificent forest-like park ; then enters a dell, and suddenly
bursts out of it to a naked, rocky, abrupt sea-shore : along this
it proceeds some miles, without shewing any thing except the
sea ; it then turns into a fertile corn country, next enters the
woods of Leughie, whence carriages may either return by the
approach above described, or proceed to make a more exten-
sive tour of the country.

Lodges are necessary both for approaches and drives. Those
for the approach should be designed in a character analogous
to that of the mansion ; those for the drives should seldom be
more than improved cottages, unless the situation suggest some

PART IX. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 593

remarkable form. The idea of appropriating a country by
stamping all such buildings, as well as others, with something
which shall denote the continuation of the' proprietor's estate,
is only calculated to gratify vanity and ostentation. The truly
great need nothing to make them appear so, and in the country
will ever be more assiduous to render themselves agreeable to
their neighbours, than to shew the unsociable disposition of
monopolizing territory. With regard to their grounds, they
will be ready with Marlborough, Argyle, Howard, and other
noble proprietors of grand residences, to say with the Marquis
of Ermeonville, " This (the farm) only is shut up ; the three
others (the wood, the forest, and the meadow) are open to every
body ; and I only wish that they should think themselves as
much at home as if they belonged to them."

Gates are requisite both for entrances and other purposes;
and to them are applicable the same general principles that have
been submitted with regard to lodges. Both present ample
scope for invention, which has been productive of two evils.
The first, that too many designs have been published ; and the
second, that proprietorshave copied and executed these without
any regard to natural situation, or the character of the mansion
and residence. No one will require proofs of this, who has seen
any thing of the country. With regard to economy and utility,
Mr. Parker's remarks on gates are well deserving attention.

4 G

594 ON CONVENIENCES PECULIAR TO BOOK I.

The family offices, and those of the farm, as well as the
farm itself, have been already mentioned. See Architec-
ture and Agriculture.

The wash-house and drying-rooms are frequently sepa-
rated from the other offices for conveniency of water. Among
the most complete hitherto erected, is that at Dalkeith : the
drying-room is heated by metallic flues, which succeed much
better than the iron cylinders used at Dunse Castle and seve-
ral other places*.

The dairy is always a pleasing object, and should therefore
be designed in a form, and placed in a situation which will
have some effect, and at the same time where it will not be in-
jured by the extremes of temperature. Dr. Anderson's plan of
having double walls and roofs will answer this purpose in the
completest manner. Hollow walls, or walls having a vacuity
between the lath and plaster eight or ten inches wide, will an-
swer the same purposes sufficiently well for ordinary cases. If
a spring, fountain, ox jet d'eau, can be contrived to burst forth

* A washing-machine on a new plan is at present constructing by a friend of mine
for the Society of Arts, which it is hoped will prove much superior to any yet de-
vised, and which will certainly alleviate the most laborious parts of female domestic
labour.

PART IX. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 595

in the centre of the principal apartment, it will prove highly
serviceable to the dairy-maid.

Cowhouses, &c. are often kept separate from the other
offices, and erected at no great distance from the dairy. Placed
within a grass paddock, and grouped with stacks of hay or
straw, and some trees, they often form interesting combi-
nations.

The poultry-houses require some attention from the de-
signer in laying out a residence. Their site should be naturally
warm, and well sheltered by high walls, near the yard, and
wood* at some distance. The apartments for the more delicate
birds should be heated by flues.

The pheasantry should be constructed near abundance of
woody cover, which should be inclosed by a high fence, and the

* There are many mistaken ideas extant respecting shelter. Wood and trees
break the violence of storms, either of wind or snow : but after rain, or the melting
of frost or snow, they really produce cold, from the evaporation which of necessity
takes place on the leaves. All moist surfaces do this on the same principles. Per-
haps the best trees for shelter are spruce firs, which from the resinous quality as
well as linear form, of their leaves, do not retain much moisture. Hence when it
rains on them, the water falls to the ground, and sinks through the decayed leaves
on its surface into the soil, and consequently little evaporation takes place. Perhaps
from this may be deduced the chief reason why the spruce delights in a moist soil.

596 ON CONVENIENCES PECULIAR TO BOOK 1.

young may be soon allowed to run at pleasure through this in-
closure, as at Foxley, Hulne Abbey, &c.

The aviary may be placed near the mansion. A wire net-
ting should always inclose a large space (perhaps near a quarter
of an acre) containing water, lawn, trees, shrubs, plants, &c.
and connected with a glass-house. This glass-house may con-
tain the exotic birds and fishes: part of the others may be
placed in cages, and hung on different trees or bushes ; and the
rest may fly throughout at pleasure. The aviary of Rousseau,
as described in his Eloisa, deserves attention in many cases.

The apiary naturally belongs to the flower-garden. The
well-known plan of glass hives, and Mr. Bonar's new improve-
ments in their general management, are interesting, and merit
attention.

The pigeon-house, an ancient appendage to nobility and
grandeur, may often form an interesting object, and should al-
ways be of an elegant form, and kept clean and secure from
vermin, in order to ensure the abode and prosperity of the in-
habitants.

Fish-ponds in inland countries can only be made of fresh
water : they are of several kinds ; as those for breeding, rearing.

PART tX. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 597

feeding ; and those for such fish as devour others, as pike, &c.
Often, and generally, these ponds may be rendered picturesque
objects*.

Fish-ponds of salt water are chiefly for the purpose of pre-
serving fish alive until wanted. They are easily formed by
making a deep excavation on the shore, and inclosing it on the
side next the sea. They should be so deep, as that durino-
the ebbing of the tide they may still contain a considerable
quantity of water, which will be renewed during every influx
of the tide. Such a pond, used for this purpose with excellent
effect, may be seen at Laggan. The idea was suggested there
by a natural hollow, and improved on by the ingenuity of the
proprietor.

Every useful building is always an apology to the improver
for finding a picturesque object or composition. Even dog-
kennels will effect this purpose. They should always be
placed distant from the mansion, as well as excluded from the
most exquisite passages of scenery. Those at Belvoir are ex-
cellent ; but their situation will probably be regretted by some,
who can look forward to an obvious and grand improvement
which might be effected in the valley wherein they are placed.

* For a full treatise on this subject, see Bradley's Husbandry, and Marshall's
Kitchen Gardener.

598 ON CONVENIENCIES, &C. BOOK 1.

The ice-house should be formed in a dry knoll near water,
with double or very thick walls, a well at bottom, and a drain
on the principle of the syphon, which, while it admits the water
to escape, does not admit air to enter. It should have double
doors, and both must be closely fitted. The earth over it
should be of considerable thickness, and should be planted
with lowgrowths and shrubs, either with or without trees. The
lowgrowths alone on the very top of the ice-house are prefer-
able, as their roots do not penetrate the masonry, and as their
tops, by forming a close covering upon the surface, stagnate
the air, and prevent the access of heat, better than trees alone,
which leave the surface of the ground in a naked state.

Tennis-courts, and bowling-greens, are more properly
included under the conveniencies of a residence, than under
gardening, or picturesque improvement. Their formation is
simple, and their effects sometimes interesting, as at Dundas
Castle, Woburn, &c. See Switzer's Ichnographia Rustica.

Some other buildings might be mentioned ; but none of any
importance are omitted, except cottages, and some other build-
ing, which, as not being properly the conveniencies peculiar to
a residence, are already treated of, either under Architecture or
some of the branches of Husbandry.

599

BOOK II.

PART I.

THE

PRACTICE OF FORMING A COUNTRY RESIDENCE,

OR IMPROVING SUCH AS ALREADY EXIST.
INTRODUCTION.

Having treated separately of what may be called the ele-
mentary sciences, or theory of forming a residence, 1 next pro-
ceed to the union of these sciences in the mind of an artist; or,
in other words, to the practice of designing and executing ru-
ral improvements. From the unlimited variety of natural situ-
ations, and the great diversity in their use and object, accord-
ing to the views of the proprietor, the application of these sci-
ences is unlimited. All that can be done, therefore, in a work
of this nature, is, to lay down general principles, and apply
them to the most striking examples; whence the reader may
be enabled to judge of their application in every case that can

600 PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

occur. The remarks offered shall be included under the fol-
lowing heads: 1. The leading principles of union. 2. Of form-
ing the design, or general plan of improvement. 3. Of forming
an estimate of the expenses. 4. Of execution.

CHAPTER I.

OF THE LEADING PRINCIPLES OF UNION.

We have seen, in Book I., how each component part of a resi-
dence may be designed and executed ; we have there also seen
how component parts are united into a whole ; so that it may al-
most seem superfluous to repeat that the same leading principles
are to be combined, as in forming a residence — these principles
are unity in the whole, and connection between the parts. Every
whole, whatever be its nature, must be formed upon these prin-
ciples, and upon these alone. It is true, this has seldom or
never been properly practised, because not hitherto understood.
The intricate operation of forming a country residence has
been supposed to be guided by many different principles. Mr.
Repton observes, "the perfection of landscape gardening (under
which he seems to include every thing relating to this subject)

PART I. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 601

consists in the fullest attention to utility, proportion, and unity,
or harmony of parts to a whole." Such confusion and redun-
dancy of terms convey no ideas to the mind, and leave the au-
thor at liberty to adapt his practice to his principles, which are
applicable to every thing or nothing. After mentioning Mr.
Repton, the only landscape gardener by profession who has
written on the subject, it is unnecessary to speak of many of
his cotemporaries, who in all probability are still less able to
define their ideas. From this reason, none of them can expect
to put their notions in practice with the same effect in real
nature, as is done in the imitative arts. In poetry, painting,
architecture, music, no less than in the finest natural scenery,
there are characteristic ideas which present themselves on the
first inspection of any part. Thus the first ornaments, columns
or battlements, which we see in a house; the first verse in a
poem; the first glance at a picture; the first bar of a piece of
music; or the first movement of a dance; all communicate
ideas of what is to follow, by the parts indicating a relation
among themselves, and uniting in expressing one particular
sentiment, or raising one kind of emotion. This has never
been attended to in laying out a country residence — though it
is striking in some scenes of nature, and perhaps on no resi-
dences more so than at Foxley and Havod, if the improper
situation and form of the buildings at both places did not in-
terfere with the ideas. No plan is perfect, however, or is ca-

4 ii

602 PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

pable of being ranked as a composition of the polite arts, till
such ideas be raised : however great may be its " utility, or
proportion, or scale*."

There can be no doubt that words alone will ever fail of
making an artist master of this essential excellence; because
without much study, and perhaps what is called natural ge-
nius, words will ever fail of making a good poet, painter, or
musician ; but still, to shew the man of taste how it can be
done generally, I proceed to offer a few remarks on applying
the leading principles to different natural situations which are
to be heightened in effect, and some also which are to be coun-
teracted.

1. Suppose a situation by nature grand or sublime. This
estate is very extensive. The surface of the ground intended
for park, does not consist so much of undulations or abrupt-
nesses, as of large plains, broad swells, and wide vallies. It is
bounded, on one side, by a range of immense mountains ; and,
on the other, washed by the irregular shore of the ocean.
Every natural feature being grand, the operations of art must
bear a correspondency in manner. The principal materials
for improvement are wood and buildings. Near the centre,
in the most striking site, let a palace or castle be built, of
large dimensions, with an extensive front looking towards the
* The principles which Mr. Repton assumes.

PART I. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 603

sea. Place the wood, not in small groups and single trees, but
in massy thickets and dark forests, — not bounded by a line of
insipid curves, but by bold projections, and deep obtuse an-
gular recesses, forming large bays, and broad irregular promi-
nences. The predominant trees in those masses must not be
poplar or willow, but the more noble oak, elm, and chesnut.
"While some of the mountains, partly bare, shew immense per-
pendicular rocks, towering from dark woody chasms; let others
be totally clothed with wood; and, throughout the whole range,
as far as may be practicable, let " hill be united to hill, with
sweeping train of forest, and prodigality of shade." To cor-
respond with these general features, every part, as the offices,
gardens, farm, roads, &c. must have a greatness of manner and
dimension corresponding with the general character of the
whole, and a connection suitable to the uses and relative
beauty of each part. Thus : at the extremity of the estate,
on the side of the highway, let two lodges be placed, of con-
siderable dimensions, and at a proper distance from each other.
Let the gate between them be of ample size; and from thence
let a broad road or approach proceed, in great irregular sweeps,
sometimes through forest scenery, and at other times through
open park or pasture, until, at last, it begins to ascend from
the vale, and, bursting from a thicket, the castle itself appears
to view, embosomed in wood and backed by the amphitheatre
of mountains.

604 PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

2. Suppose a situation, the natural character of which is-
chiefly beauty. This estate, not very large, is situated on a
small eminence, sloping with gentle undulations toward the
south. The surface in general is smooth, beautifully waved,
and clothed with a carpet of the freshest verdure. It is sur-
rounded by a country abounding in little hills and lakes; — the
former varied by pasture, cattle, corn-fields, and villages; and
the latter by islands and fishing-boats. The natural character
of this place, then, is beauty, in the limited sense of the word;
that is, beauty with the least mixture of the sublime and the
romantic. It is to be improved by the addition of wood, to
give intricacy; and with beautiful buildings, for character, or-
nament, and utility. Upon a convenient swell, backed by a
little hill, build an elegant Grecian villa. Clothe the hill be-
hind it with wood, and vary the park with light and airy groups
of ash, beech, and lime, gliding into each other, and connected
by thickets covering the eminences and swells. Let honey-
suckle and virgins'-bower twine round the stems of the more
detached trees, or hang in graceful festoons from their branches.
Let the pasture be cropt by horses and cows, and kept smooth
by the bite of sheep and lambs: all of which intermingling
among their stems will form groups expressive of rural gaiety
and beauty. Vary the kept ground with the most elegant
shrubs and flowers. Lead one of the springs in a murmuring
rill to a little valley, and there let it spread into a crystal lake,

PART I. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 605

the banks of which shall be beautifully fringed with luxuriant
vegetation, and varied with roots, stones, and harmonious tints
of soil. Every other part of this place must be easy, graceful,
and natural, not forced and laboured; in every operation keep-
ing it strictly in view to form the most pleasing combination of
beauty and picturesqueness, in which the emotions excited by
beauty or loveliness shall predominate.

3. Suppose a situation, the natural character of which is ro-
m antic. This estate, which is more extensive than the last,
is occupied partly by a hollow, and partly by the surrounding
hills and mountains, which, with hanging rocks and craggy
cliffs, are greatly diversified in figure and appearance. It is in-
terspersed in many places with rivulets, which tumble down
the sides of the mountains in hollow rocky dingles to a consi-
derable river, whose smooth stream meanders slowly through
the lowest part of the grounds. From the irregularity of the
surface, the rocks, stones, and diversity of soil, the whole estate
assumes a somewhat clothed and picturesque appearance,
even with the little wood naturally there; and it is easy to con-
ceive, that this may be made a singularly delightful residence,
by following out that which nature has begun. But though
this residence should be covered principally with wood in pine
groves, rough thickets, groups, and tufts of wild lowgrowths,
yet huge masses of rock will be seen rearing their heads on the

606 PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

sides of the wooded hills, imbedded on the sides of the dingles;
and scattered fragments, partially covered with mosses and low-
growths, will enrich the banks of the water courses ; the broken
surface of the ground will shew the different tints of earth,
overhung by various wild plants, ferns, and creepers; while
deer, goats, wild horses and asses, will be seen sauntering in
the woods, skulking among the thickets and bushes, or grazing
in the winding glades of forest scenery. In connection with
this general style, carry through one of the wooded dells a shady
road, which shall ascend to some striking site, where the man-
sion is to be erected in a style of architecture analogous to the
surrounding scenery. Though the general appearance of the
whole, and the design of every part, should be romantic, yet in
some of the scenes, utility, and in others, beauty, should be the
prevailing ideas: the farm, kitchen garden, 8cc. should still be
useful, though tinctured as it were with the romantic; and the
parterre, though more elegant and beautiful than any other
part, should still retain so much of the general expression as to
remind us of the character of the residence. The beauty that
it presents will be a sufficient contrast to the rest of the place,
and will consequently strengthen its effects without being it-
self an incongruity. It will be to the whole a contrast, but not
a contrary or opposite.

In the foregoing situations, it is supposed that the wishes and

PART I. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 607

property of the proprietor permit the full expression of the na-
tural characters, and also that these characters which nature
presents are agreeable of themselves ; but there may be situa-
tions where the reverse of this is the case ; and some of those
shall next be noticed.

1. Suppose a situation where the soil is good, but the surface
a perfect flat, and expressive of nothing but mere extent.
This is certainly not a favourable situation, especially if water
be absent; but still it is capable of immense improvement;
and the character of beauty or grandeur may be raised by
wood* and buildings placed in a manner corresponding with

* The reader will always recollect, that when I mention woods, or the character
which may be communicated to landscape by trees, nothing is further from my
view than the general insipid and monotonous mode of planting. On the contrary,
I always consider trees as capable of producing character in two ways : first, from
the particular kinds employed ; and, secondly, from the usual disposition of trees in
general. I hesitate not to say, that neither modes are understood by improvers.
How different the character of a park on a perfect fiat, where common trees, as
oak, elm, &c. and undergrowth of thorns, briar, furze, is disposed in the forest style,
from that of modern clumps, open groups, and dotting ! But how much superior,
even to this, must be a park where not only the trees are disposed in the forest
style, but these trees themselves are singular characters, such as cedars, pines, cy-
presses, and the undergrowth junipers, savin, arbor vitae, arbutus, &c. By this
mode the most insipid flat would be rendered superior to the finest park in England.

While mentioning this subject, it is with pleasure that I express my general ap-
probation of the mode of planting adopted at Fonthill : a situation which, without
doubt, is capable of being made one of the finest residences in England. I must
remark, however, that there are certain littlenesses— rock-works, collections of roses,
flower knots, dug patches, &c. creeping into the general scheme, which, unless

608 PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

■>

those ideas; or, that of surprize and wonder may be excited
by the appearance of art, by avenues, terraces, ponds, statues,
buildings, &c. but this last expression can only be desirable in
the immediate vicinity of great towns or cities, where the im-
mense concourse of spectators will correspond with these ap-
pearances, and prevent the proprietor from becoming weary of
them. Such is the case in many French gardens, and such a
scheme might be carried into execution at London, Edinburgh,
or many of the great towns of Britain, where the proprietor was
willing either to throw his grounds open to the public, or con-
tinually to see company. In any other situation, or upon any
other principle, such works of art should not be attempted in
an improved and highly cultivated country, because they would
soon cease to please and become disgusting. In general, there-
fore, in flat situations, art should imitate nature in producing
the desired character, either of beauty or grandeur ; at least as far
as regards the materials which she can command. See the ma-
nagement of all these materials and component parts in Book I.

either totally eradicated, kept under, or removed to appropriate situations, will very
materially injure the effect of the whole, and will degrade it to the rank of Stow,
Hagley, and the Leasowes. I trust, however, that these, and many other things,
will be improved on, and especially the water, which is capable of unlimited beauty.
I» is impossible for me not to feel a high degree of interest in the success of that
place, which, when finished, will probably contribute more to the establishment of
my ideas of Picturesque Improvement, than any thing that I can write. It will at
least be an exquisite model to shew what may be effected, where taste is made to
triumph over fashion and system.

PART I. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 6"09

2. Suppose a situation absolutely disagreeable, from the
surface being sterile, full of bogs or morasses, which send out
deleterious exhalations ; and with regard to visible beauty, just
so uneven as not to be denominated level, but at the same time
with these unevennesses not so marked as to entitle them to the
appellation of variations. Such a situation, strange as it may
seem, is commonly capable of being rendered a more character-
istic residence than the former. Draining, and agricultural
improvement, will destroy every thing noxious to health; and
visible beauty and character may be restored by humouring or
heightening the natural surface of the ground, and by the judi-
cious disposition of wood, buildings, &c. Several situations of
this kind occur in the low country of Scotland. The Whim is
an example, which was improved in regard to utility by the
late owner; but it is still deficient in picturesque beauty, un-
less meagre belts and clumps of fir, and a red clump of masonry
used as a mansion, be considered as in good taste.

3. Suppose a situation of an unsuitable character: per-
haps one naturally grand and extensive, but where a small
family wishes to retire to an humble cottage, and chooses
to purchase only a small part of the natural situation. Here
the hints for forming a beautiful residence must be applied, to
counteract the tendency to grandeur. At the same time, the
diminutive size of this beautified spot will not often injure
the character of the whole in the general prospect of it.

4 i

(J10 PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

Thus, a cottage on the brink of an immense precipice, or a
farm-house on the margin of the ocean, partake of the subli-
mity of their situations. But, should every other object seen
from these be shut out with trees, and on entering this woody
thicket the cottage or farm-house were viewed by itself, their
original characters would be fully preserved, although, in a
prospect or bird's-eye view of the country, the mass of wood on
the precipice containing a cottage, and the thicket by the sea-
shore containing a farm-house, would retain the previous cha-
racter of sublimity.

There are, however, great men that can retire to an hum-
ble retreat in the most sublime situations, and with the grand-
est objects in nature continually in view, which would only sti-
mulate them to analogous exertions*, either of intellect or heroic
worth. And, there are some minds not already fully formed,
which the constant view of grand objects, and the contempla-
tion of the heroism of their ancestors, will incite to noble ac-
tions. But there are others exhausted by misfortune, and so habi-
tuated to melancholy, as to be prompted to diminish their own
appearance in the scale of existence. In a sublime habitation,

* Since writing the above, I have found the following observation of the French
legislator Cnitze de Lesser, in his Tour in Italy : speaking of the passage into
Savoy at Beauvoisin he observes, " Peu de spectacles sunt plus imposants que cette
entree de montagnes, sur-tout pour quelqu'un qui n'en a pas encore vu. Void le
pays des gvandes pensees et des sensation profondes, et il y a bien loin d' ici a Baga-
telle et a l'Opera-comique."

PART I. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 6*1 1

such persons feel their own disproportion to every thing around
them, and thence degenerate into incurable despondency*.

It is almost unnecessary to add, that a situation naturally
beautiful can be rendered comparatively grand, where this
character is suited to the wishes and property of the proprietor;
or, that a situation partly picturesque and partly beautiful can
have either of the characters heightened. A cheerful place, on
the same principles, can be made more solitary, a wild one more
cultivated, or the contrary. The whole is easily done by a va-
ried application of the principles which constitute these dif-
ferences of expression.

These general hints are equally applicable to the design of
principal, summer, or occasional residences, in these situations;
to the princely palace, the baronial castle, the elegant villa,
or the humble cottage. To treat of the particulars of each of
these, would be to repeat much of what has been said in the
former book. The purpose in view, will ever be a sufficient
guide for a designer to make any little variation in the parts ne-
cessary to promote these ends.

* " An air of greatness has always something melancholy in it (says Rousseau);
it leads us to consider the wretchedness of those who affect it. In the midst of these
grass plats and fine walks, the little individual does not grow greater; a tree twenty
feet high will shelter him as well as one of sixty ; he never occupies a space of more
than three feet, and in the midst of his immense possessions is lost like a poor worm."

Julia, or the JVew Eloisa, 317.

612 PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

CHAPTER II.

OF FORMING THE DESIGN, OR GENERAL PLAN, WHETHER FOR
THE ENTIRE FORMATION, OR FARTHER IMPROVEMENT, OF
A COUNTRY RESIDENCE.

Before any thing is fixed upon, relative either to the forma-
tion or improvement of a rural residence, or any of its parts,
principal or complex, a plan or ideal scheme of the whole
should be previously formed in the mind of the artist, and em-
bodied on paper for the inspection or mature consideration of
the proprietor and his friends. For this purpose, the situation
should be fully examined with respect to soil, visible beauty,
and prospect, and also the relative advantages and disadvan-
tages of climate, &c. The best method of acquiring such
knowledge is, to visit the place at different seasons, before
completing the design. In this manner, observation may em-
brace and reflection digest the emotions excited in the mind of
the artist by its diverse qualities.

The ichnography, and bird's-eye views, of the present state
of the whole must first of all be delineated, and geometrical
sections made, where water, or similar works, may be sug-

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jb !;i iii ;ii r; hi

/

til in

m in

Elevation of die tront<k end of Jiambarrow House asthey appeared in xSoS .

The drttrd lines tn this elevation shew the additions to be made : the crosses -\those parts ft» be ooruealed or rettwved -

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Elevation ft' me 6\nit X- aid of Barnb.uTO'r Houst as alterant aijreenbhi Ti> funue 3 ■

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Pubiulud ttwi/'i... hi>;..:;.u„.i,l iluirt X<Y-..li*t,„.- ttnenw.--i.-rJi.-i>

PART I. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 613

gcsted. Upon these, especially the ground plan, the designer
may slightly sketch with red, or any striking colour, the
proposed improvements, as is done in Plate XVI. fig. 2., by
the dotted lines upon the ichnography of figure 1.; or, as
is done on buildings, in the elevation fig. 3. Plate XXI. After
this he should make out a plan, bird's-eye views, sections,
elevations, &c. shewing what will be the effect of the pro-
posed improvements at a certain future period, suppose three
or seven years, after they have been executed. This, should
be accompanied by perspective views of the most interesting-
passages of the scenery, or of buildings in their present state;
and by other sketches, shewing the effect of improving them,
as is exemplified in Plates XIII., XIV., XV., XVI., &c. and
in elevations of buildings in Plate XXI. and in the perspec-
tives of them, in Plates XXIX. and XXX. &c. The whole,
except the larger ground plans (which may generally be fixed
on canvass and rollers), should be incorporated with a manu-
script volume, giving some account of the present state of the
place (which will always be interesting after the alterations are
made), and mentioning the leading reasons for proposing the
improvements, and the general directions for executing them.
Either here, or more properly in a detached appendix, should
be given an estimate of the expense of the whole. In con-
nection with these plans, &c. I have found it of great ad-
vantage, in very irregular situations, to construct models both

6l4 PRACTICE OF FORMING

BOOK II.

of the present state and proposed improvements; and not only
of the buildings (as is also done by some architects), but also
of the ground surface, the water, gardens, hothouses*, and
villages, both in their present and improved state. I quote
below-f a concise account which was given of the models of

* Five different kinds of models in wood, of the principal improvements which
I have introduced into hothouses, are sold at Mr. Dalziel's, cabinet-maker, Cha-
pel-street, Bedford- row, London; and at Messrs. Dickson and Shade's seed-ware-
room, Edinburgh. They have proved of great service to gentlemen, by enabling
their workmen to construct these useful improvements with ease and certainty.

f " We understand that Mr. Loudon, the author of ' Observations on Planting,'
&c. has just invented a very ingenious method of modelling estates, which will be
of immense advantage to landed proprietors, particularly those intending to im-
prove, decorate, or build. The variation of the surface is shewn exactly as it is in
reality; and all the trees, hedges, roads, rivers, buildings, &c. are accurately raised
on it, agreeable to a certain scale; and, afterwards, the whole is coloured from na-
ture. A manuscript volume of references, contains the names of the different farms
and fields, the contents of each, and the nature of its soil, &c. with every other re-
quisite information. Mr. L. has also a curious composition, which may be used
without any previous preparation, and by which any gentleman may try, upon the
model, the effect of any proposed alteration or improvement: and also a small wire
net, each mesh of which is equal to an acre, by which the contents of any part may
be instantly known, by applying it, and numbering the meshes which cover the
field or space to be measured. From the nature of the model, any changes which
may afterwards be made in the ground, can be inserted without injuring the piece;
and hence no estate will ever require to be remodelled. Remarkable objects upon
an estate, such as the Mansion-house, &c. can also, to give a clearer view of them,
be modelled separately, upon a larger scale than the general plan.

At first sight, the unwieldiness and bulk of a model would seem an inconvenience;
but by dividing it into separate parts (which parts are kept in a small chest or box,
and may be taken out and fitted together in a few seconds,) it occupies little more
room than a plan.

TART 1. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. (j>15

North Berwick in the Farmer's Magazine for 1805. I have
since made several improvements in the method of construct-

" The advantages which Mr. Loudon thinks will attend this mode of imitating
estates, are the following, (viz.)

" 1. A proprietor will see a correct imitation or miniature of his estate, in the
clearest manner, and without the risk of being misled or deceived by a plan.

" 2. Every proposed alteration or improvement, of whatever kind, will be clearly
understood, and may be so pointed out to workmen as that they will execute it
with superior ease and certainty. In planting and forming country seats, this will
be of immense advantage ; and, as a further assistance to it, Mr. L. has also invented
a kind of working plan, which will enable workmen to execute exactly the arrange-
ment of trees, shrubs, and flowers, about any place, agreeable to the principles ex-
plained in ' Observations.' (See Part VIII. of this Work.) Those who understand
the mode of arrangement alluded to, and can compare it with the common mode
of mixing all sorts of trees indiscriminately, will be convinced that this improve-
ment is of great utility.

" 3. The effect of every alteration proposed may be clearly seen before it is ex-
ecuted ; whether it be the effect that changing the lines of fences, roads, &c. will
have in altering the contents of the adjoining enclosures (and this can be instantly
found by using the wire netting) ; or the effect of the addition of wood or buildings,
whether useful or ornamental. It is needless to add, that the scheme of improve-
ment can be altered and varied upon the model, until the best effect shall be pro-
duced, which effect may afterwards be exactly imitated upon the grounds. Mak-
ing trials, on the model, of the effect of alterations, will form a very instructive and
rational amusement for proprietors.

" We have seen, at Mr. Loudon's, two models of the North Berwick estate ; one
shewing the present appearance and contents of the estate in general ; and the other
showing the effect of an intended new place of residence for the proprietor (Sir
Hugh Hamilton Dalrymple). In addition to this last model, an elegant manu-
script volume, illustrated by drawings and sketches containing Mr. Loudon's ideas
of the situation ; his reasons for proposing the improvements, and practical directions
for executing them ; accompanied with working plans, a large vertical profile shew-
ing the effect of the whole, and a general estimate of the expense, &c."

See the Farmer's Magazine for February, 1805.

6l6 PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

ing them ; so that ten thousand acres of surface may be mo-
delled on a sufficiently large scale, and the weight of the model
will not exceed five pounds, nor be in the least danger of being
broken or tarnished: and, what certainly deserves the consider-
ation of the landed interest, estates may be modelled in this
way for little more than the expense of a common survey. On
this, however, I shall offer more on some future occasion.

The neglect of improvers, in not pre-conceiving a plan of
the whole before proceeding to operate upon the parts, has of-
ten occasioned them much useless expense and trouble, of
which they are commonly not aware until it be too late. So
many instances of this occur in every part of the country, that
it is astonishing they should not be more cautious in embarking
in such extensive undertakings without a much greater certainty
of success. Even some who have formed and arranged a plan
in their minds previously to proceeding, have misconceived
effects from deficiency in practical knowledge; and have often
gone farther wrong than the others, from a false estimate of their
own powers. The neglect of having a plan from an artist,
which will at least always furnish some hints, is generally ad-
verse to the real interest of the proprietor; as could easily be
proved, were it not that the whole of this part of the work is
too nearly allied to the most disagreeable species of egotism to
admit of much amplification. Mr. Lugar very justly remarks,

PART I. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 6lJ

in his introduction to Architectural Designs, that gentlemen
who consult their own interest will consider it just as necessary
to have the opinion of an artist before they begin to improve, as
to consult a lawyer or a physician on the requisite occasions.

•secure in all,

Taste, wisely judging, often saves expense.

CHAPTER III.

OF FORMING AN ESTIMATE OF THE EXPENSES.

In conceiving the design, the artist must accommodate its ex-
tent and cost to the wealth of the proprietor, or the sum al-
lowed for the purpose of improvement; and after he has formed
the plan of the whole, he must proceed to make a general and
accurate estimate of the expenses that will attend its execution.
This is too much neglected, and is alwa}fs productive of the
worst consequences : it too often disgusts gentlemen with rural
improvements where artists have been employed, and fre-
quently occasions them to be left unfinished.

In making an estimate before the plan is marked out upon
the grounds, or made public, the artist must depend upon his

4 K

618 THE PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

own practical knowledge, in conjunction with that of practical
men who live at the place. But after the design of improve-
ment is sanctioned by the approbation of the proprietor, such
parts as are to be executed by estimate should be marked out
on the spot, and then the respective mechanics and artisans ad-
vertised for, in order that each may give in his estimate and
proposals. By this means, whether in building, planting, form-
ing water, roads, or fences, if the estimates of honest and duly-
informed men be taken, the proprietor will get the work done
in the most economical manner. But whether a proprietor
ought to adopt this mode, or see the whole done under his own
directions, and by day-labourers, must depend upon circum-
stances. In general, I may remark, that where he is to be fre-
quently or totally absent from the estate, there can be no doubt
which is the proper mode. When present, he will generally
find it preferable to undertake large and small jobs at his own
risk and by day-labourers, and to have middling ones done by
estimate. The reasons are obvious: small jobs are trifling, and
are not worth the attention of an undertaker who lives at some
distance, unless he be paid extra charges: and for very large
ones, the proprietor forms an establishment on purpose, upon
the same principles as practical men do, and thus he may be
said to get the work done at the trade price. By a very large
job in building, I mean a mansion, or a number of buildings to
be erected at the same time, which may be estimated at upwards
of ^Cl.0,000. Here the architect, or designer, should send a

PARTI. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 6\9

superintendant to conduct the whole, agreeably to the ap-
proved plans ; to take in the estimates of workmen for small
jobs, as quarrying, hewing, furnishing materials, &c. and to
make stated reports of the progress and expenses to the propri-
etor's steward or attorney; from whom he receives money to
make the requisite weekly or monthly payments. A large job
in planting is when upwards of five hundred acres are to be
planted or sown ; and here the proprietor should engage a per-
son well acquainted with the nursery business, who shall form
a nursery, and every year plant so many acres, until he has
completed the whole. From what I have seen and experi-
enced, I have every reason to believe that these principles are
well founded.

Nothing can be a more profitable and agreeable recreation,
than for a proprietor in person to be inspecting, and occasionally
making enquiries into, the business going on at his residence,
whether in extensive works executing by estimate, or in larger
ones done on a grand scale. And nothing will contribute so
much to health and good spirits, as designing and directing
the execution of small jobs by his own labourers. These jobs,
gradually completing under his auspicious eye, from rough
outlines, become finished pieces. A general outline laid down,
and gradually filled up, in this, no less than in every other
condition of human life, is one of the most permanent sources
of heartfelt satisfaction and rational entertainment.

O'JO THE PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK IT.

CHAPTER IV.

OF MARKING OUT IMPROVEMENTS ON THE GROUND, AND
OF SOME PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF EXECUTION.

The first thing necessary, in proceeding to execute any part
of a plan, is to mark it out upon the grounds. The judicious
and true performance of this depends upon an experienced eye,
and a knowledge of practical mathematics, especially geome-
try in its various branches. The rules for marking out the
ground plan of a building, garden, or any object containing
many regular figures, are perfectly simple ; they are deduced
from two well known problems, viz. " Three points not in a
straight line being given, to find the centre of a circle which
shall pass through them," from which every thing relating to the
protraction of circles, ovals, and ellipses, may be deduced ;
and " the erection of a line perpendicular to any given one,"
to which may be reduced every thing relating to straight lines,
squares, and angular forms. The execution of these problems,
and every variety between them, is simple*, and needs no com-

* Those who wish for more ample information on this point, will find it in
Switzer's and Le Blond's Treatises on Gardening.

PART I. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 621

ment. The methods of taking the levels of irregular ground,
so as to calculate with certainty upon the removal of earth in
the formation of terraces, gardens, or roads, is equally simple ;
and may either be performed by a mason's plummet and
straight edged mason's rule, or by a small pocket spirit level.
The method of proving the effect of buildings by skeletons of
boards — of trees by flag-posts — of water by linen extended
upon the ground — of cutting avenues through woods by lanterns,
and many such things, are either sufficiently known, or are of use
only to the artist, and therefore do not require to be mentioned.
Modern improvers would do well to revise their geometrical
knowledge ; for now, that the formation of platforms and artifi-
cial mounts, &c. is grown out of fashion, the art of accurately
measuring and calculating upon the removal of earth is forgot-
ten or neglected, and disorder, absurdities, and much useless
expense, are too frequently the consequences. Were it not in-
vidious, I could refer to striking instances in different parts of
the country of England.

After these hints I offer a few remarks on some general
operations of execution, which are brought in here with more
propriety than under any of the separate elementary branches
of the art of forming a residence.

Ground may either be removed by manual labour alone,

622 THE PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

combined with that of horses, or by the artificial application of
mechanical powers. Manual labour, that is, with the spade and
wheelbarrow, is proper on small or confined spots ; and in
others where the distance that the earth is to be wheeled is not
above fifteen or twenty yards, or when it is to be moved down
a sudden declivity. Combined labour is proper in other more ex-
tensive cases ; as, in laying land level, or smoothing ridges by
the new machine*; or merely by repeated ploughings and
harrowings, which answer the same purpose, and might often
save much expense. The application of mechanical powers is
either by means of gunpowder, which may soften or disperse
hard stony knolls or excrescences, which it is desirable to re-
move, or alter in form; or by directing a current of water
against softer soils. This last mode will produce wonderful ef-
fects, as has long been demonstrated at Blair Drummond, and
was some years ago shewn at Netherby, where the water of a
small rill was collected in a pond, and always, when full, let
out in a small rapid stream against a knoll ; which was thus
entirely removed, at little expense, and in a short time-f-. In
every case of the removal of earth, care should be taken not to
have it to move a second time ; and also, in depositing it, al-
ways to keep the best soil uppermost ; and though dispersing

* See Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine.

f See Gilpin's Tour to the Lakes for a full account of this operation.

PART I. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 623

it with a view to beauty does not belong to this part of the
work, yet it may not be amiss to remind the improver, that a
very few cartfuls of earth will turn a considerable extent of the
most beautiful surface into an ugly one, by distributing it in
the concavities ; and, on the contrary, a very few cartfuls taken
from the concavities of an ugly surface, and judiciously spread
upon the eminences or convexities, will restore beauty. Ground-
workers, who are ignorant of this, never fail, in removing earth,
to spread it in the hollows ; or, if they have no hollows to fill
up, nor undulations to round off (as they term it), their next step
is to la}r it down in heaps here and there, and form these into
little round bumps, which are the most disgusting kind of de-
formities. When these bumps are large, they stick a clump on
the top of each ; when small, a single tree.

In forming heads for pieces of water, the materials
should be as ponderous as can be conveniently found ; and if
not of a nature to prevent that element from oozing through,
a wall of clay should be carried up the centre of the head.
All water on gravelly soil should be puddled with clay, chalk,
adhesive loam, or common earth, well comminuted and incor-
porated with water in Brindley's manner. Upon this reten-
tive stratum should be laid a covering of earth or gravel,
to preserve it from being injured by cattle or other accidents.

()24 THE PRACTICE OF FORMING BOOK II.

For more particulars respecting the preservation of water, see
Marshall's Rural (Economy of Yorkshire, Le Blond on Gar-
dens, and " The Art of Fountains, by F. J. Francois*."

* This author recommends boring for the discovery of springs, and probably
suggested the first hints of Elkington's Mode of Draining.

625

BOOK II.

PART II.

PRESERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF
COUNTRY RESIDENCES.

It may be premised here, that in treating this subject I do
not mean to include the management of landed property in
general; excepting wood. This material, as it is in every
part of an estate not only valuable but highly beautiful, whe-
ther as standing groves or woods of timber, or young planta-
tions, I propose to come under the same manager as the tim-
ber of that part of an estate which surrounds the mansion.
Neither do I consider it necessary to offer any thing respecting
the general management of a household, or of game, fishery,
&c. nor to interfere with the duties of land-stewards : all these

4 L

626 OF THE PRESERVATION, &C. BOOK II.

being foreign to my purpose here, which chiefly relates to the
proper preservation of the beauty and use of that part of an
estate adopted as a residence, and of such other woody scenes
as are natural, or have been formed upon just principles. Ac-
cording to this idea, the management of an extensive country
residence may be divided into-the following heads: 1. The
Kitchen Garden and Orchard : 2. The Farm, Pasture, and Live
Stock. 3. The Ornamental and Picturesque Scenery. 4. The
Woods *.

1. The kitchen garden and orchard. — These, from
their obvious connection with regard to use and situation,
should be under the general management of one person. His
business consists of three parts.

1. The first is, to provide wholesome fruits and vegetables for
the family, of the kinds, and during the seasons in which it may
require them; whether this be accomplished by simple culti-
vation, forcing, or artificial preservation.

2. The second is to keep every thing under his care in pro-
per order and elegant neatness ; so that every part may please
the eye when examined, whatever may be the time, place, or

* It is almost unnecessary to observe, that smaller residences may be managed
on a much more limited scale, according to their extent and beauty.

FART II. OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES.

mi

season of the year. Thus walks must always be kept free
from weeds, moss, worm-castings, roughnesses, earthy places,,
decayed leaves, &c— their edges preserved regular and uni-
form ; and the borders on each side well cultivated according
to their natures, whether they contain culinary vegetables,
fruits, shrubs, or flowering plants. Trees, whether placed against
walls, or espaliers, or as standards in the quarters of the garden,
must be regularly trained and pruned at the proper seasons.
The ground must be kept free from large weeds, decayed leaves
or roots, and should also be regularly cropped according to a
fixed rotation. Hothouses should be preserved clean, whole-
some, and free from insects, &c.

3. The third business of a kitchen gardener is, to renew, or
provide for the renewal of such parts as become useless, whether
from age or accidental circumstances, and to place proper
substitutes in the room of such things as become useless from
change of taste or fashion in the proprietor. Thus he is to
renew the gravel of the walks, the espalier rails, the paint
of the hothouses, the tools or implements of cultivation, and
those fruit trees which are no longer capable of bearing ; and
when one sort of fruit is in disrepute, he is to place others
in their stead, by ingrafting, or total removal, and the
introduction of new plants, &c. This branch of a gar-
dener's duty is much neglected ; as appears from the slightest

()28 OF THE PRESERVATION, &C. BOOK II.

observation : a misfortune which may be attributed to the fre-
quency of change in this class of servants. A gardener capa-
ble of doing his duty properly should be well versed in his
profession, docile, and intelligent. He should have under him
three sub-foremen ; one for the culinary vegetables, another for
the fruits and orchard, and a third for the hothouses and hotbeds.
He should have occasional opportunities of seeing other gar-
dens, that by viewing and comparing the practices of others, he
may improve his own, and thus become emulous, industrious,
and of increasing service to his employer.

2. The farm, pasture, and live stock. — The duties of
a bailiff, or gentleman's farmer, may be divided similarly to
those of a kitchen gardener ; viz. to provide the necessaries
which constitute the utility of his province ; to make this pro-
vince agreeable to the view and examination of his proprietor,
according to its capacity of producing beauty, and the nature
of the pleasures which it is calculated to raise ; and to renew or
preserve it when decay, accident, change of taste, profit, or
other circumstances dictate. His duties are less intricate than
those of the gardener, but more important.

1. He must provide every requisite variety, and the proper
quantity of farm produce, whether grain, legumes, roots, her-
bage, &c. or cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, &c.

PART II. OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES. o'2<)

C. He must preserve propriety and decorum in every part
of the farm, whether in the fields, offices, barns, rick-yards,
dung-courts, or in the ordering of the different periodical la-
bours ; such as seed-time, hay-time, harvest, &c.

3. He must keep machinery, implements, buildings, Avails,
hedges, drains, &c. in repair ; renew aged cattle or horses, and
improve breeds of sheep, or dispose of them to the best advan-
tage when not wanted for family consumption. For these and
other purposes, he should have under him ahedger, or manager
of the drains and fences; an overseer of the farm-yard and live
stock not at pasture ; and in extensive farms, a principal team
and ploughman; but as the diversity of the kinds of farms is
great, these will vary in different circumstances and situations.
A judicious bailiff will not overlook the practice of the neigh-
bouring farmers — will study that of those under like circum-
stances with himself, attend fairs and markets, whether for the
purchase or sale of stock, or for regulating the value of labour ;
preserving all the while sobriety, honest}', steadiness; increas-
ing in intelligence and knowledge of his profession, and conse-
quently becoming better fitted to discharge the duties of his
situation, and ensure the approbation of his employer.

3. The ornamental and picturesque scenery, un-
der which I include the ornamental gardens, green-houses,

fj0Q OF THE PRESERVaTIOX. ScC. BOOK II.

exotic stoves, and every thins commonly included under the
name of Pleasure Ground, whether near the house, or in dis-
tant parts of the Park. These ought all to be under the gene-
ral superintendance of one person, who in residences where
something of this kind occurs is commonly denominated the
Flower or Pleasure Gardener. His duty is,

1. To provide flowers and flowering shrubs (either to be re-
moved to the drawing-room in pots, or to be cut at all the re-
quisite seasons) of the kinds which are most beautiful, or
desirable by the proprietor, and in quantities suited to his
demands.

2. He must preserve the proper character and beauty of
everv scene under his management : as the greenhouse,
exotic stove, conservatory, &c. which he must have in pro-
per order, and appropriately decorated at all seasons. The
flower gardens, according to their different kinds and uses,
must be constantly attended to, and a thousand little opera-
tions performed which it would be trifling to mention. Green
lawns near the mansion must be kept mown : flowery lawnsf
kept from becoming too wild, and the groups of flowers
and shrubs kept properly guarded from the sheep in other

* See pages 3!6, 317, of Ornamental Gardening.

II. OF COL NTT. V RLSIDLNCI . -

places. The shrubbery must not only be cultivated during a
certain period, but musl also be thinned, and in some - -
preserved agreeably to the principle? of picturesque improve-
ment. Water must be preserved in character, sometimes by
emptying and clearing, at other times by improving the ban/ .
thinning the bushes or aquatics, depositing gravel where it has
become covered with pasture, and many other -. Vic

through trees must be | d of proper form, so as to shew

the distant scenery to the best advantage. Thus the fore-
ground trees require to be pruned with a picturesque eye;
otherwise the finest views are often lost or materially injured.
1 ks, j tones, roots, water. >5cc. in dells and dingles, require to
be shewn or concealed with the same care, and upon the same
principles, in ordei to produce beauties of the same order.
Every scene where vegetation is concerned is annuallv chang-
ing, and every change which takes place must either injure or
improve it. H mce the necessity of a very assiduous attention
to this part of a gardener's duty, which is so important, and
requires such a nice taste, that unless the proprietor himself
has attended to the subject, the special directions of the pic-
turesque improver (unfortunately for such scenery, few will
be willing to adopt this practice1 v.-ili be occasionally nee-.--
sary to have the work done with the proper effect. One
great advantage that will result from calling in an improver,
independently of professional knowledge, is, that having be

632 OF THE PRESERVATION, &C. BOOK II,

absent from the residence for some time, and being in the
habit of comparing, he will be better able to judge of the
alterations occasioned by the progress of vegetation ; for as
these are always slow and almost imperceptible, daily spec-
tators are gradually deceived, and are thence scarcely sensible
of beauties, deformities, or changes, which will forcibly affect a
stranger.

3. The next duty of the Pleasure Gardener is to provide for
the effects of decay, accident, age, and other circumstances. He
must propagate rare plants, flowers, and shrubs, preserve im-
plements, and attend to the reparation of hothouses, seats, and
such other buildings as may be within his province. To enable
him to accomplish all these purposes upon an extensive scale,
he must have a foreman for the hothouses, one for the parterres
and flower-garden, and one for the general operations of the
pleasure-ground. In regard to the culture of flowers or
exotics, he will derive information from comparing the ope-
rations and success of other gardeners ; but he cannot readily,
in regard to picturesque decoration, as nothing is more
opposite to nature or the picturesque, than the common
mode of managing scenery. To send him to wild nature
would confound him, by discomposing long-received notions,
to give place to others widely different; or if he derived
only a certain degree of improvement, he would be more

PART II. OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES. 033

dangerous than ever*; and if he were fully enlightened, he
would no longer remain in the situation. The mode suggested
above is plainly the most advantageous for both parties. But
where a proprietor does not care much for having his orna-
mental scenery in good taste, it is easy to reject these hints,
and go on in the beaten track.

4. TheWoods. — Theduty of a forester, like that of the others,
consists in preserving order and beauty, furnishing timber or
copse, and providing a succession of young trees for falls of
timber, additional plantations, other uses, or decay or accident
in any part under his charge

1. Young plantations must be properly formed, cultivated,
trained, and thinned, and the inclosure fence kept in repair.
Groves must be thinned as the trees advance ; woods, coppices,
willow beds, plantations for hop-poles, &c. must be properly
attended to, according to the peculiar culture of each. Hedge-
row timber, single trees, and even groups, must be pruned and
guarded from cattle as highly valuable trees ; for it is in these
situations that timber usually gains its greatest size. In
winter, all open drains must be kept clean, and all fences

* A little learning is a dangerous thing, &c.

POFE.
4 M

634 OF THE PRESERVATION, &C. BOOK II.

repaired ; and in spring, all the walks, roads, avenues, and
other openings, cleared from wood or rubbish, which may
have been unavoidably laid on them during the fall of tim-
ber, in order that now they may be used as walks or drives
of pleasure.

2. Timber and copse must be provided, not only for the
use of the residence, and in some cases the tenantry of the
estate; but as wood includes all the distant plantations, the
management of that to be sold comes equally within the pro-
vince of the forester. He must be able to ascertain the proper
age for felling, the measurement, the value, whether of wood
or bark, whether of particular trees, or parts of a tree, or of
timber and bark in general.

&v

3. He must form a nursery of young trees, and for this purpose
must collect their seeds at the proper seasons. When a new plan-
tation is to be formed, or an old one repaired, he can have re-
course to this nursery, which ought to contain chiefly trees of
such sorts as are much wanted, and these of many different sizes;
so as when trees are required to plant in the fields or hedgerows
they may be supplied of such a size as will be entirely out of the
reach of the cattle. He must, in connection with this, attend
to the preservation of implements, roads, &c. though the num-
ber of these under his care are comparatively few. A forester

PART II. OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES. 635

above all husbandmen should be well-informed in his profession,
and assiduous in his duty ; for in his province trifles neglected
soon amount to immense sums. A plantation, by being neg-
lected, or improperly thinned, may turn out to be of scarcely any
value but as fuel, which, had it been properly attended to, might
have doubled the fee simple of the ground. Suppose a forester
to neglect every year planting a hundred trees which ought to
have been planted — in twenty or thirty years afterwards this
would be a loss of two hundred pounds annually, besides the
interest of that sum. Many things equally striking, both in
the rearing and sale of timber, might be brought to shew the
importance of the forester's office. These facts, together with
what I have seen at every place where timber is grown, and
heard from men of the greatest experience on the subject, con-
vince me of the importance of having a general inspector of
plantations and trees, such as I have mentioned in the Conclu-
sion to Planting : and as the preservation of a country resi-
dence, in regard to beauty, is intimately connected with this ;
and as it appears to me that every other part of a rural abode
requires, and would be highly improved, both in beauty and
use, by such a general yearly or occasional inspector, it in-
duces me, though with considerable reluctance, to give it as
my decided opinion, " that every extensive country residence,
where the proprietor is not fully adequate to judge of these

636" OF THE PRESERVATION, &C. BOOK II.

things himself, should be occasionally, say once or twice a year,
inspected by a designer, Avhose province should be every thing
relating to planting, gardening, and picturesque improvement."
This I consider just as necessary to the proper preservation of
a country residence, as a land-steward is to an estate ; and I
am fully persuaded that the advantages which would result
from it, not only in stimulating sub-managers, as gardeners,
foresters, &c. to their duty, but also in shewing them more
clearly what that duty is, and pointing out errors committed,
or new improvements which might be adopted, or are adopted
in other places (and which the designer has the best opportuni-
ties of seeing), would far more than compensate the additional
expense. That gentlemen neglect this, while they carefully
provide themselves with land-stewards, can only be ac-
counted for by reflecting that the extensive culture and great
value of timber is of modern date, and that in those parts of
an estate appropriated to a rural residence the beauties of
nature are just beginning to be substituted for those of art.
And as these, when once made, were easily comprehended by
gardeners (for what could be easier than to trim hedges, prune
avenues, form straight or circular walks, or mow slopes, &c),
consequently they required no real taste, or diversified applica-
tion of principle, to preserve them, as the beauties of nature do,
when thus mingled with utility.

PART II. OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES. 637

This proposal is not made from theory alone. It was prac-
tised in Scotland by the late Mr. Mawer, a respectable designer,
with great advantage to several proprietors. It would be un-
pardonable egotism, and to some appear like self-interest, to
offer as further proof instances from my own practice. I shall
only observe, generally, that on several estates I have acted in
this capacity for some time past ; and from only visiting them
once a year, such advantages have already arisen, as are highly
gratifying to me and advantageous to my friends.

639

BOOK II

PART III.

DIFFERENT STYLES OF FORMING A COUNTRY
RESIDENCE CHARACTERIZED,

AND COMPARED WITH THE MODE PROPOSED IN THIS WORK.

I have observed in the general introduction to this volume,
that two distinct styles or manners of forming a country resi-
dence have existed : the one avowedly formal, and the other
affectedly graceful. I now proceed to compare these two
styles with that which I propose to introduce, or rather (to
avoid a term which may have the appearance of indicating
too great a love of system,) with the free manner which I pro-

640 DIFFERENT STYLES OF FORMING BOOK II.

pose, of being confined to no style or mode, but of introducing
beauties and effects suitable to the scene or situation, whatever
age or country they may be borrowed from, or by whatever
epithets they may be denominated.

CHAPTER I.

PART OF AN ESTATE TO BE FORMED INTO A RESIDENCE.

Plate XXV. fig. 1. represents a piece of ground which we may
suppose to contain from 400 to 500 acres, and of which up-
wards of 300 are to be formed into a residence. A brook may
be seen to pass through it, partly among meadows, or wastes of
copse and pasture, and partly along the hedge fences. Two
farm-houses, some cottages, and belts of planting, also appear,
which it is unnecessary to describe : suffice it to observe, that
the farm-house in the centre is on the highest ground, which
descends in varied and gentle slopes on every side to the mar-
gin of the brook, except toward the cluster of cottages upon
its banks, where it terminates abruptly in a wooded precipice
of rocks or gravel, &c.

PART III. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE;, &C. 0'4l

CHAPTER II.

THE FORMAL OR ANCIENT GEOMETRICAL STYLE OF FORMING
A COUNTRY RESIDENCE.

Figure 2. represents the method in which a residence would
have been formed on such a situation a century ago by London,
Wise, Switzer, &c. Their first operations were, to clear away
every cottage, hedge, and tree. Then they levelled down the
precipice and every irregularity. Next, they formed it into
square fields and avenues, planting belts of trees between them.
Two small woods were placed on each side of the house, and
one large one near the garden. The water of the brook was
introduced, through a conduit, to an oblong canal ; from that,
to two round basins in the central garden ; thence to another
oblong canal corresponding with the first. From that, under
ground, as before, to two ponds in the large wood ; and then it
was carried by the side of the outer strip of plantation, until it
rejoined its former channel. The plan itself shews the rest.
I only observe farther, that nothing is done to the surrounding
fields, except the removal of the cottages and of the belt, which

4 N

642 DIFFERENT STYLES OF FORMING BOOK II.

would otherwise have closed the view from the avenue. The
three shortest of these avenues are in appearance continued
through the fields by means of single rows of trees.

CHAPTER III.

THE AFFECTEDLY GRACEFUL, OR MODERN STYLE OF
FORMING A RESIDENCE.

Figure 3. represents the manner in which the same piece of
ground would have been laid out by Mr. Brown, or his fol-
lowers. In the first place, it is cleared, levelled, and smoothed
equally with the former, except one small cottage, which will
be sufficiently hidden by the belt. The house is built on the
highest part of the ground. All the offices are sunk under it, ex-
cept the stables ; and the visible part of the house, in the form
of a cube, with an extensive front seen only from the approach
side. The brook is elevated upon the side of the rising ground,
and formed into a still river, with cascades and islands, which
may be seen from the house all round. The park being sur-
rounded with a belt, inclosing a ride or drive ; within this the

I'l.l ■

.

/-/./ I . . .

! :

PART III. A COUNTRY RESIDENCE, &C. 643

whole is diversified with clumps of different sizes, but for the
most part of the same shape. The park is fed with deer, sheep,
and cattle, and the large spaces in the drive, and all the plea-
sure ground, is regularly mown. Buildings are introduced at
different places both in the drives and park. The approach
walks, pleasure-ground, and a large kitchen garden, are formed,
as shewn in the plan. From all the drives, approach walks, and
pleasure ground, the objects of view are either the ornamental
buildings or the mansion, vistas being made in all places from
the one to the other; the belt excludes all the distant country,
from the lower parts of the ground, and the clumps exclude it
from the higher parts, and from the house. It remains only to
be observed, that nothing is done to the surrounding country,
except that in the room of the cottages removed, a formal street,
under the name of an improved village, is erected at a proper
distance from the mansion and the approach. Duddingston,
near Edinburgh, is laid out almost exactly the same as this
plan. Hundreds of other places, in both England and Scot-
land, come very near it ; and the general features, the belt, the
clump, the tame and still river *, abound in both countries, and

* Jt is with pleasure I observe, that though Mr. Repton strenuously defends
Mr. Brown, whom he styles his great self-taught predecessor, yet he disapproves
in most cases of the belt. I am sorry to add however, that Mr. Repton's pieces of
water, whether in his published works, or where executed, are equally to be
condemned with Mr. Brown's. The disapprobation of the belt, too, is merely

6'44 OF THE PRESERVATION, &C. BOOK II.

still continue to be formed in the same manner, whatever may
be the natural character of the situation. Plate XXII. is a
general view of a residence laid out in this style in 1804-5.
Plates XV. fig. 1. XVI. fig. 1. and Plates XXIV. XXVII.
and XXIX. represent smaller parts, or landscapes from real
scenery, laid out in this style.

CHAPTER IV.

THE CHARACTERISTIC* OR NATURAL STYLE RECOMMENDED
IN THIS WORK, AND ADOPTED BY THE AUTHOR IN
HIS PRACTICE.

Figure IV. represents the mode in which I should wish such
a situation as fig. 1. formed into a residence. The house is
placed on the abrupt termination of the rising grounds — all the

verbal ; for in all the places where Mr. Repton's plans have been followed, it is quite
impossible to distinguish his operations from those of Mr. Brown's. — See Woo-
burn, Thoresby, &c. and also Appendix, No. II.

* I call it characteristic, because its leading principle is to create or heighten
natural character. The other styles effect directly the reverse — they produce a
monotony of artificial character.

PART III. OF A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 645

offices are brought into view — all the buildings are made low,
irregular, and suited to the ground. The brook is rendered
more characteristic, as such, by forming little aits and islands,
as at A ; and pools, or stagnated places, as at B ; and at other
places under the shade of the grove where it is not seen. In
the hollow near the house, it is spread out into a lake, varied
by prominences, islands, and wood. The stable offices C, the
kitchen garden D, and the farm E, are all placed near each
other, and near the mansion. The wood appears in one extensive
irregular mass, crowning the large eminence, and connecting it
with the lower grounds in which the brook runs. In place of
surrounding the whole with a belt, the margin of the park every
where blends irregularly with the country ; in some places a
hedge only, in others a sunk fence, in others open paling, sepa-
rate it from corn fields ; and in several places large portions of
the park are united to the country by the use of hurdle fences;
by which means more or less of it can be inclosed and let out
to tenantry, at pleasure. The wood, by this plan, does not
abruptly terminate with the park, but loses itself in scattered
trees, hedgerows, and occasional strips, among the corn fields
of the neighbouring farms. Hence the beauty of the views in
walking round the margin of the park. An irregular village is
formed by scattered cottages, wood, and pasture, and from this
the approach is led to the house, with a branch to the offices
and garden — the farm road is not seen in the plan. The lines

646 OF THE PRESERVATION, &C. BOOK II.

representing walks are seen in different parts of the grounds. —
Those for morning and evening are extensive and open; those
for noon are entirely under the wood. Both contain consider-
able variety, whether we regard the beauty and wildness of the
park, the views of the distant corn-fields and hedgerows, the
village, the brook, the lake, or the different picturesque compo-
sitions formed by the house and offices ; to say nothing of dis-
tant prospect, which in the modern practice is very frequently
hidden by the belt, and at all events is ever prevented from
harmonizing with the park by that opaque distinct boundary.
F represents a fence to guard the cattle from the front of the
mansion ; G a rail, net, or unseen fence, to preserve a space
along the margin and rivulet as pleasure ground, in which exo-
tic shrubs and flowers are to be distributed in natural like
groups and thickets. All the rest of the grounds are fed with
deer, horses, cattle, sheep, &c. The kitchen garden is here
made small, because many of the culinary vegetables will be
cultivated in the fields ; and no orchard is seen, as a sufficient
number of fruit-trees are introduced in the groups and plea-
sure-ground scenery. Other particulars wherein it is different
from the two former do not require to be mentioned. A drive
may be made through the park at pleasure, arid through the
counrty according to circumstances. The trees and masses of
wood in the park shew that it abounds with low growths and
wildnesses. The general appearance of this scheme in fig. 4.

*

^

-
sj g

y

^

In. &

1

SK

^

XN

Is

PART III. OF A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 647

shews the difference between it and figures 2. and S., in regard
to connection with the country.

Mountwhannie, Barnbarrow, Hopton Court, and Farnley
flail, are improving according to this principle. Plates XXIII.
and XXIV. shew the difference in general effect between the
two schemes, and shew also that the mode disapproved of is
fully practised even at the present day; Farnley Hall, the sub-
ject of Plate XXIV. being laid out in 1804-5. Plates XV.
fig. 2. XVI. fig. 2. and Plates VII. VIII. XXV. and XXVIII.
shew the effect of this mode of forming a residence, in regard
to small scenes or landscapes. Plates XXXI. and XXXII. are
designs for improving the general view of two residences of
singular characters*, and are introduced to shew that the same

'©*

* May bo (PI. XXXI.) is situated near Dumfries : it consists entirely of fertile hills
and mountains, chiefly clothed with wood, but containing a considerable quantity of
excellent pasture, in glades and fields on their sides, and good meadows in the
vallies. It abounds with rills, and has some natural waterfalls. The lake shewn
in this plate will be formed at the mere expense of a head, and the cascade
by altering the direction of one rill, and uniting it with another already there.
At the same time this alteration will be highly useful., by affording an opportunity
of irrigating near fifty acres of pasture, which are on a declivity not seen in this
view. The rocks here shewn are at present too much concealed by wood. The
distant hill has only been a few years planted, and of course the trees scarcely clothe
the surface. The one with pointed tops of trees is covered with a plantation of firs,
which, notwithstanding their formal shapes, have, from the uncommon variety of
the surface, an excellent effect. The effect of a low waterfall, and also of the ait
or little island, are conspicuous near the approach in the foreground. The ap-
proach winds round the lake, and passes through the gate of the cottage on its

648 OF THE PRESERVATION, &C. BOOK II.

general principles which I have endeavoured to illustrate
throughout the whole of this work, will never give the least de-
gree of sameness to scenery ; for sometimes a residence will as-
sume one character, as that of Farnley Hall (Plate XXIII.)
sometimes another of a different kind, as does Maybo (Plate
XXX.). This is exactly what we find in natural scenery.

In these three plans, Plate XV. figures 2, 3, and 4. all the
trees are represented as thinned out ; had the case been other-
wise, the clumps would have appeared much more formal ; but
there would not have been much difference in the general ap-
pearance of fig. 4. It is easy to conceive where the line of
fence would have been applied in it — the small groups would

opposite banks ; from thence, it passes under the cascade — then through a romantic
dell here unseen ; thence it ascends through a wood into a little field containing the
plain cottage shewn in the distance — on the hill opposite to this cottage appears the
ruins of Maybo Castle, which form a large and grand mass. To have put any
other building in competition with it, would have been too extensive for the pro-
prietor's views — a simple low cottage therefore is all the mansion that, with those
other improvements, was proposed by me. These cottages, and this kind of
scenery, are excellent for shewing the effects of smoke in landscape, and the
forms of the hills and rocks give a thousand modulations to the sound of the water-
falls heard from different positions. Unfortunately for the execution of my ideas,
the proprietor now proposes to sell the place. Those wishing to unite grandeur,
use, beauty, and singularity, for a moderate sum, may here find an opportunity
which may not again occur during centuries. The wood is chiefly young ; but in
a few years will redeem the price of the estate. This view gives but a very imperfect
idea of the beauties which it might contain, it being done from an almost oblite^-
rated sketch taken a considerable time ago.

PART III. , OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES. ()'49

soon have been transplanted from the masses, and sheltered from
cattle by the lowgrowths, as furze, holly, sloes, thorns. As some
may in part object to these different landscapes, from being
chosen where trees can be transplanted of considerable size, I
have introduced Plate XXX., which shews how Plate XXIX.
may be improved by young trees alone, and chiefly Carolina
and Canadian poplars*, oaks, elms, and such sorts, being intro-
duced among them, to succeed the others when of a proper size.
The house is improved at a small expense, by raising a parapet
to conceal the roof, and by adding two towers, the one to the
principal body of the house, to contain a larger drawing-room
and bed-rooms ; the other above the kitchen, as sleeping apart-
ments for servants. The whole will not amount to X 4000.
Besides being varied by trees, it may be assisted in picturesque
effect, at least until these grow of a proper magnitude, by
training quick-growing creepers on it, as shewn in the view :
these may be the rosa arvensis and sempervirens, and the clymatis,
which will cover it as much as here shewn, in three years, and
sooner if some of them are placed in pots or boxes above the
roof. Ivy, however, must be planted to succeed these; which,
like the oaks, elms, &c. planted among the poplars and limes,
has a superior effect.

The trees near the house in Plates XXV. and XXVIII. are

* See Planting, Chap. II. Section 2.
4 O

650 OF THE PRESERVATION, &C. BOOK II.

large ones, three 3rears removed ; and there are very few, if any,
situations where this plan cannot be adopted, if proper me-
thods be taken to remove the trees. In Plate XXV. the im-
provements are chiefly effected by young trees ; the house and
offices in that Plate being improved before I was consulted.

CHAPTER V.

THE LEADING DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN THE AFFECTEDLY
GRACEFUL SYSTEM OF BROWN AND REPTON, AND THE
CHARACTERISTIC STYLE OF THE AUTHOR.

1. In regard to the whole, the modem system is to render a resi-
dence separate from the country. The characteristic style of
forming, and the improvements proposed in residences already
formed on bad principles, tend to harmonize it. In regard to
the parts, modern gardening forms and places every thing
distinctly and alone ; this groups and connects them with each
other and with the whole.

PART III. OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES. 651

2. In regard to wood, the vulgar practice is to shut out the
country by a belt, and to vary the space within by clumps. The
style proposed tends to increase the expression and character of
the situation, whatever part of the grounds that may direct to
be wooded, whether in the middle or the boundaries ; and in
place of shutting out the country, the wood diverges gradually
into hedgerows, in order as much as possible to unite and har-
monize it with the residence.

3. In regard to buildings, the common way is to conceal
every thing except the mansion. This shews every building,
not as single objects, but as component parts of the scenery.

4. In regard to water, the old plan is to produce quantity or
extent of surface, and render it as conspicuous as possible.
The style proposed is to produce natural character.

5. In regard to ground, the modern system is to smooth and
form undulating: surfaces : this attends to character.

*»

6. In regard to parks, modern landscape gardening makes
them smooth and destitute of under-growths, ferns, and other
plants. This, by introducing hollies, thorns, briars, ferns,
and sometimes furze, broom, and brambles, gives them a wild
forest character which is the grand object of their formation.

6'52 OF THE PRESERVATION, &C. BOOK II.

7- In regard to pleasure grounds, the common mode form:-,
many acres of lawn, which have to be kept in preservation at a
great expense, while they produce nothing. The plan here pro-
posed admits of more or less, according to circumstances and
situation ; and generally forms little that is not grazed by
sheep or covered by low flowers ; so that extensive mowing is
never requisite ; and generally it permits the cattle to come
within a few yards of the house *.

8. In regard to kitchen gardens, the modern system is
to have them large, and kept at enormous expense ; this gene-
rally approves of them small, and cultivates the greatest quan-
tity of culinary vegetables in the farm.

9- The difference of expense has all along been noticed in
the course of this work ; whether it relates to mansions, build-
ings, planting, water, gardens, farms, or pleasure-ground.
That it will be very considerable, must be evident from the ge-
neral consideration of the difference between assisting what
nature has already begun, and counteracting nature altogether.
I refer to the several parts of Book I.

10. Several other less striking differences in each of these

* Green pasture, whether in pleasure-ground or park scenery, is always void of
energy or strength of expression, unless when grazed by cattle.

PART III. OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES. 6'5S

heads, and differences in many other topics not here mentioned,
are to be found in the body of the work. A number of these
ideas of improvement, separately considered, are accidentally
scattered in different books, residences, or passages of country ;
but few or none of them have been put in practice by profes-
sional men ; and their union in the mind of one proprietor or
artist, in such a way as to produce a distinct style of forming
a country residence, has not hitherto taken place.

655

BOOK III.

PART I.

CHOICE OF A SITUATION FOR A COUNTRY

RESIDENCE.

In choosing a situation to be formed into a country residence,
according either to the ancient or modern style of art, all the
particulars that the purchaser need attend to are, the soil, expo-
sure, and climate, as they regard vegetation and shelter. The
choice in regard to any thing else is of little consequence;
for whatever may be the natural character or appearance of the
situation, the same style of improvement is universally adopted;
and hence that sameness of appearance among residences
which renders them uninteresting to all but their owners; who,
in general, seldom visit them but for a few months in a year, and
even that arises more from necessity than preference, because
they are always found more useful than beautiful or interesting.
Supposing it allowed to be advisable to introduce more of na-

6j6 the choice of a situation book hi.

tural character into the scenery of a residence, still it may be
observed by some, that to attempt to direct men in their choice
is useless; either, say they, because nothing can be done but
picturing out the most perfect situation, and advising all to
choose that which is simply impossible; or, because few have
it in their power to make any choice at all, and consequently
directions might only excite regret: — and lastly, because most
men act from feeling, or accidental concurrence of circum-
stances, in this matter. A very slight reflection, however, will
convince a thinking mind that these arguments are all equally
distant from truth. Nothing can be more evident, than that
the beauty, excellence, or perfection of a situation, is relative,
and depends entirely upon the mind, intention, and fortune of
the intended purchaser; and every attentive observer knows,
that there is as great a variety of character in men as there is
in natural scenery. But as we often find that in neither is the
character indicated, so marked or expressive, as to render it
striking ; hence such men cannot be expected to know them-
selves, and of course are incapable of judging truly of their
own dislike or approbation of situations, any more than of
their opinions of individuals of their own species. When
scenery is not expressive, the unexperienced in it, though
they may know their own minds in other things, are yet incapa-
ble of discerning whether a situation has, or is capable of having,
such an analogy as will continue to satisfy and please their taste.
When the mind is not fully formed, or when a man is not con-

PART I. FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 657

versant with his own character, though he may have a know-
ledge of the expressions of scenery ; yet, from being unable to
trace the analogy between it and his own mind, he is not quali-
fied to choose a situation which he will continue to admire.

That there is an analogy between the minds of men, and
the surrounding objects with which they have been chiefly
conversant in their younger years, admits of no doubt; that
the habitual tendency of the mind is to reflect on such
scenery, is certain, both from reason and experience; though
this bias is, perhaps, more or less great, in proportion as the
scenery is decisively characteristic or insipid. We see it always
happen, however, with those travellers or adventurers who go
abroad from romantic or strikingly characteristic countries.
This is particularly evinced by the natives of the Alps, the Ap-
penines, and the Pyrenees. Even gentlemen who have gone
from Scotland and Wales, and remained long in warmer cli-
mates, where they have accumulated fortunes, always return
to their native countries, and there fix, not upon plains or un-
interesting places, but upon hills or mountains, or near the sea.
For the same reason, those who go from England, which is
comparatively an uninteresting country, do not so frequently
return ; but when they do, they more commonly form a resi-
dence in the neighbourhood of London, or other great cities,
than any where else; these being the most striking features

4p

658 THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION BOOK III.

in their country*, unless they have gone from some compara-
tively romantic part of it, whither, if they can, they frequently

* Hence the poverty and circumscribed ideas of such English landscape painters
as have not devoted great part of their time to the study of Cumberland, Scotland,
or Wales. Hence also the style of modern gardening, which could never have
been introduced by a person whose imagination was stored with images from pic-
turesque scenery. To the same cause may be traced the want of national music in
England, and the inferiority of such descriptive poets as have not passed great part
of their time (as did Spenser) in other countries. And how can it be otherwise?
for what are poetry or painting, but the offspring of impressions? — and impressions
can never be good where there are few good objects to convey them. I have_fre-
quently found, that even such English authors as from their opportunities or pro-
fession should be remarkably conversant with scenery, are yet, from the daily habit
of seeing nothing but tameness and insipidity, so forcibly struck with occasional
views of the grand or romantic, that their descriptions approach to bombast. Even
Mr. Whately is to blame in this respect. And what shall I say of Mr. Repton,
who seems to consider himself as the centre of all good taste in scenery ? I shall
quote, from his " Enquiry into the Changes of Taste in Gardening ," what he
would wish his readers to mistake for the vale of Downton ; but which only con-
vinces me that he has neither an " eye to see, nor a heart to feel nature."

" Downton Vale, near Ludlow," (is) " one of the most beautiful and romantic
valleys that imagination can conceive. It is impossible by description to convey
an idea of its natural charms, or to do justice to that taste which has displayed those
charms to the greatest advantage, ' with art clandestine and concealed design'." —
So much by way of contrast, before proceeding to the description ; and so much
for the objects to be described, which the reader will perceive are " its natural
charms," and the manner in " which taste has displayed them." — He proceeds thus :
"A narrow, wild, and natural path, sometimes creeps under the beetling rock close
by the margin of a mountain stream. It sometimes ascends to an awful precipice,
from whence the foaming waters are heard roaring in the dark abyss below, or seen
wildly dashing against its opposite banks; while, in other places, the course of the
river Teme being impeded by natural ledges of rock, the vale presents a calm
glossy mirror that reflects the surrounding foliage. The path in various places
crosses the water by bridges of the most romantic and contrasted forms; and,
brandling in various directions, including some miles in length, is occasionally va-

PART I. FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 659

return. The reason of this is obvious; the natives of both
kingdoms, when abroad, and reflecting upon their native
countries, naturally picture to themselves its most striking
features, which in Scotland and Wales are hills and mountains,
and in England generally large towns and cities; and as both
have been accustomed, in contemplating their native scenes, to

lied and enriched by caves and cells, hovels, and covered seats, or other buildings
in perfect harmony with the wild but pleasing horrors of the scene." Now I beg
that the reader, who has not seen Downton, will endeavour to conceive an idea of
this scene in his mind. If he abide by this description, as this author is pleased to
call it, I know not what he will conceive of it; certain it is, no painter could ever
make a drawing from any one part of it, which would be recognized as in the faint-
est degree like Downton. I will not carp at the epithets bestowed, such as " the
most beautiful, &c. which can be conceived," though it is far inferior to hundreds of
others; nor shall I notice equal errors in the choice of words in the description, be.
cause I am aware that in this respect I may have frequently erred myself in the
course of this volume; I object only to the want of those great features which cha-
racterize Downton Vale, and distinguish it from most others in England. These are,
a continuation of steep mountains on oneside; the abrupt termination of irregularly
level grounds on the other ; and , what we have not the smallest idea of from the
above sentences, a rich canopy of old wood which covers both the banks ! ! What
could a painter have done without this mountain and these woods?

What better are Mr. Repton's sketches in his " Hints" and " Observations?"
what do they display, but " a kind of superficial ingenuity, well calculated to take
the lead in drawing-schools and academies, which, assuming all the airs of genius,
often passes for that quality among inaccurate observers; a glittering tinsel kind of
talent, which rarely attains to eminence; which belongs more to the hand than to
the head; and most commonly ends in a manufacture of mannered insipidity, and
unfeeling mechanism* ." Witness Mr. R.'s foreground trees, which are neither
imitative of general nor individual nature; and most of them are such as could
not possibly exist at all. See his Views of Welbeck in " Hints and Sketches."

* Shee's Rhymes on Art, p. 25, first edition.

660 THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION BOOK III.

extend their imagination, and grasp the idea of them as it were1
across the ocean, so both are desirous when returned of being
near it, or at least having a distant prospect from their dwelling,
in order to give exercise to the same habits. I have generally
found in almost every case, that gentlemen, when retiring from
a city life in their own country, and wishing to choose a coun-
try residence, have preferred those situations which had most
analogy with the scenes rendered familiar to them by habit in
their younger days.

Similar sentiments indeed exist in every mind, though sel-
dom with the same energy, and often warped by the pernicious
effects of commerce, or the long habit* of living in great cities.

* The anecdote of a marine officer, who at his villa erected a building in imita-
tion of the quarter-deck of a ship, and the greatest part of his time used to walk in
it alone, is sufficiently known. Most sailors indeed, when on shore, seldom make
long excursions, but generally walk backwards and forwards upon the same spot.
Wherever we are placed, we become in time habituated to certain objects, the ab-
sence of which gives us pain, in proportion as those objects have been analogous to
the mind, and according to the length of time that we have been habituated to them.
To this source the reader may trace an endless diversity of pleasures and dislikes,
which he will perceive take place in others upon the presence or absence of things
to him perhaps uninteresting. It is this which gives the chief interest to the house
in which we were born, the school in which we were taught to read, the dress of
our youth, and thousands of other recollections of departed joys; which, as a great
poet observes, arc remembered with a painful pleasure. As a contrast to the ge-
neral remark of sailors never making long excursions, I may add, that those who
have been long abroad almost constantly delight in extensive prospects; perhaps
from the coincidence of all their past lives having been spent in the prospect of
more complete happiness at a future period. For illustrations of these observations,
see a beautiful little poem on " The Influence of Local Attachment."

FART I, FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 66 1

To assist such persons to discover the real tendency of their
sentiments in this respect, and to enable them to choose situa-
tions analogous to their own minds, or to the objects which
they have in view, is the purpose of the following remarks;
which I am led to make, not merely from reflection on the
subject, but also from having often observed some who, having
made choice of situations highly excellent in themselves, but
not calculated to promote the recurrence of those ideas which
had become necessary to their happiness, have thereby, in some
of the finest residences which the country affords, been com-
pletely miserable. There is a small residence in Surry, within
thirty miles of London, which possesses, I believe, more advan-
tages, both in regard to beauty and profit, than any other
■within that distance of the metropolis. It contains the most
recluse and sequestered scenes, and at the same time commands
the most extensive prospects, containing London, Windsor, the
Thames, and many other striking objects. The purchaser
having left London, and taken possession, after staying a few
months found himself dissatisfied, and began to make altera-
tions and improvements. These finished, he was equally un-
solaced with his situation; though unable to make any parti-
cular objection to it, yet continually indicating a want of
something further. A friend of mine, having occasion to spend
several days with this gentleman, soon discovered the grand
Teason; which is simply this, that the house is upwards of a

6'O'J THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION BOOK III.

mile from the turnpike-road. Another residence I know in
Scotland, in the immediate neighbourhood of a large town. It
is highly romantic, though close to the post road. The house
is good ; but, being hidden in a hollow among trees, is from no
quarter seen till the visitor is close upon it. The proprietor
purchased this place, as being by common consent a very fine
one; but he having made his fortune by merchandize in the
town was (laudably) desirous to have other people know it (in
order perhaps to stimulate them to do likewise); and conse-
quently this recluse situation, both of the house and of his new
improvements, gives him continual pain, because he neither
sees nor is seen ; and, however astonishing it may appear to some,
who do not make allowance for diversity of taste, he has begun
to build another house close by the margin of the public road.
I only mention these things with a view to shew, that had both
proprietors been duly aware of the object they had in view
when they proposed purchasing a residence, they might easily
have saved themselves no inconsiderable expense and anxiety,
and much discontentment; tempers of mind which when united
form the greatest of all human evils.

Beside the foregoing reasons which induce me to make some
remarks on the choice of a country residence, and which refer
chiefly to the happiness of the individual, there are others
which concern the beauty of the country in general, and the

PART I. FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. GO'.'}

improved application of taste to landscape. The wealthy
merchant, by not fully considering the objects in view, often
purchases estates replete with beauties to which he is either
quite insensible, or attaches no value; and therefore he often
destroys them, to give place either to mere utility, or to that
kind of taste which indulges in the fanciful decorations com-
mon at Vauxhall, Ranelagh, Kew Gardens, and in most villas
near London. These may be applied much easier to places of
little natural beauty ; and consequently less expense would be
incurred, not only in purchasing such, but also in erasing wild
scenery, to give place to these more polished and artificial de-
corations. And where utility is the chief object in view, a
purchase can always be made to most advantage where natu-
ral beauty does not exist, and where the other kind has never
been attended to. Fine slopes and levels, and good fences and
roads, suit this object, and are easily met with in every part of
England.

The consequence of a proper attention to these hints would
be, that purchasers would get what they wanted at the least
expense; and that those who had landed property to dispose
of, would sell it at its greatest value. The following reasons
shew how this might be accomplished.

1. A proprietor about to sell, by advertising the true cha-

664 THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION BOOK III,

racter of his ground, would excite the attention of all those
whose object in view was such a character; consequently a
more violent competition would take place than when the in-
tended purchasers were mixed; some wishing to have it; others
indifferent, and many attending only with a view to purchase
in case of its appearing a bargain.

2. A gentleman wishing to make a purchase would attend
only to such estates or situations as suited his particular object
in view; and though he purchased these at a somewhat higher
rate than usual, yet having less to expend in counteracting
either nature or the operations of the former proprietor, it be-
comes in the end the cheapest bargain ; and, as the character is
just such as he wanted, it is also the most pleasant one.

I am far from supposing that ever any thing of this kind will
take place upon a large scale, and in a suitableness to the dif-
ferent class of purchasers which are to be taken notice of; but
I have been induced to offer these hints, from often observing
with deep regret, that some of the finest scenery in the united
kingdom falls into the hands of purchasers, to whom it not only
appears of no value above the ordinary appearance of nature,
but who hate, and consequently as far as in their power destroy,
what they can neither enjoy nor turn to profit. I could illus-
trate this by referring to three of the finest estates in the west

PART I. FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 66^

of Scotland. Had some such plan as the above been adopted,
these estates (not to mention the many hundreds of others
which are occasionally falling a prey in the same manner)
would have been gladly purchased by gentlemen eager to pos-
sess a naturally grand and romantic situation: — either a situ-
ation which they might have purchased and improved with
comparatively little expense: or, one where much improvement
might have taken place with excellent effect, and which would
have been applied had it fallen, into the hands of a suitable
proprietor. But by the present mode the finest scenery is
grasped by a contracted mercenary person, who perhaps not
i only offends taste by his whimsical improvements, but who by
neglecting his own real interest injures that of the community.
Such unfortunate occurrences are shocking to those who view
the country, not merely as it is, but as it might be, and are
highly adverse to the progress of taste. Those who do not
understand these matters themselves, if they value their own
interest and happiness, and the improved beauty of the coun-
try, should not fail to consult others, previously to purchasing
landed property.

After these general remarks, which are designed to shew the
propriety of attending to the object in view in purchasing land
to form a residence, I proceed to discriminate, in few words.

4 Q

666 THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION BOOK III.

some of those objects or intentions which are most prevalent
among citizens and wealthy gentlemen.

I. Health. The lowest object that any citizen can have in
view, in wishing a country-house, is to promote the health of
his family. This is commonly done; and few evils in regard
to taste result from misunderstanding either in the physician or
the merchant himself. I shall only remark, that if besides a
mere house, a small garden were always procured, or formed, an
hour or two of labour in it every day, whether to ladies or gen-
tlemen, (for there is employment in a garden suited to every sex
and age, from the tying up of flowers, hoeing, pulling weeds, &c.
to digging or trenching) would tend much more to their health
than- the pernicious custom of sea-bathing; a practice which
when often used, is, independent of the dangerous influence to
morals from herding together at watering places, so strikingly
unnatural, so seldom performed by other land animals, and so
pernicious to vegetables*, that it is astonishing it does not
strike every one accustomed to reflect on the deaths which

* In this I do not allude to vegetables which grow in our atmosphere, where the
temperature of the water and the vegetables are the same ; in that case, it would do
no harm to man ; and if higher than the medium of his temperature, or if his tem-
perature were too high, bathing would do good ; but I refer to plants in hothouses
being often drenched with cold water, which always brings on an incurable anasarca,
a tabes, or general debility.

PARTI. FOB A COUNTRY RESIDENCE-. (56/

take place at, and shortly after returning from, bathing-places.
In the self-practice of medicine, perhaps, more than in any
other science, mankind are blindly led by those who are no less
truly blind themselves*.

2. Profit is the next object that may induce some to retire
to the country. They should choose a farm, either near or dis-
tant from the metropolis, according to the manner in which
they mean to turn it to profit; whether alone, in which case
they should generally move to some considerable distance from
town; or in connection with some other art or profession, or
some particular mode of disposing of produce, and in such cases
they should remain as near it as possible.

* Were it not interfering with the province of the divine and the physician, 1
should ask, whether the fashionable custom of attending bathing-places be more
injurious to the health or the morals of the middle ranks of society ? If my obser-
vations be not correct, they injure no one; if they are just, (and it is for those inte-
rested to prove them not so) I hope they will not be without their effect. It cannot
however be cont'overted, that the frequency of indiscriminate bathings, often within
either the view or the hearing of different sexes, has contributed gradually to un-
dermine the ramparts of public decorum, has given existence to a general laxity of
principle approaching impurity of mind and sentiment, and has left us too much
reason to fear that not only modesty, but chastity, have suffered by our continental
neighbours; and that the disgraceful manners of the reign of Charles II. also im-
ported from France, are about to be revived ! The attentive observer of men and
n iners, and the real patriot, will see much to lament in such practices; as he well
1- '.vs, that dissolute manners are always the forerunner of those horrors which at-
i i i the subversion of religion, laws, liberty, and perhaps even our enviable con-
stitution.

668 T"E CHOICE OF A SITUATION BOOK III.

3. The display of wealth is a very common object in
view, whether we look at the petty villa or white box of the
tradesman ; the fanciful cottage, decorated villa, and gothic
(in the original sense of the word) lodges of the merchant or
banker; or the more extensive elevations, deer park, and large
garden, of the wealthy and independent gentleman. In all
cases, the site should be as conspicuous as circumstances will
permit. On a small scale, this may be done by choosing a situ-
ation near town, and close by the highway; in more enlarged
plans, by fixing on naked hills or parks, and cutting down such
trees as hinder them from being well seen from the road. The
house should always be made as large as possible, and in par-
ticular should have an extensive front; it should be very high,
and either coloured bright red, pure white, or yellow, or painted
of various colours, good examples of which may be seen in
many of the fancy villas around London*. The form should
be singular as well as the colour; hence every device which
can be fallen upon to invent and execute fanciful cottages,
gates, or lodges, is entitled to praise ; and hence also a house,
or even the offices of different kinds, may be made to assume
the appearance of gothic churches, towers, or castles, or of
Chinese pagodas, or moresque temples or refectories, &c; they
may even be painted in the style of ruins, and some of the glass
of the windows broke, and some cracks made in the walls and

* See the description of Confucio's palace, in Cowfer's Letters on Taste.

PART I. FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 66'9

doors, to make the whole still more rural* and natural. In
extensive residences, that grand or rather sublime invention
of Mr. Repton's, of placing the family arms on " the milestones"
or on " stones with distances," and also appropriation by temples
and porticos may be very properly adopted; and when the
plan is finished, painted and lettered boards must be fixed
up in proper public places, warning vagrants to beware of
walking in the grounds, to take care of spring guns, &c. and
offering a very large reward to those who shall discover offen-
ders. Many other things may be done in a corresponding
style with these, which it is not necessary to mention here, as
they will be understood from this specimen.

4. A very common object in view, in choosing a situation for
a country residence, is to increase the circle of amuse-
ments. The chief thing requisite here is, to fix upon a good
neighbourhood where there are always a great number of
visiters. The grounds should be extensive, and, if possible, they
should in general be laid out in the fashionable taste, and every
beautiful, new, or proposed fashion should be adopted as soon as
developed : this is sure to attract company and admiration.

5. Frequently, when a person of obscure birth has made an
immense fortune, he is desirous of laying the foundation of

* See Bradley's Husbandry; also " The Connoisseur," by Mr. Town.

0*70 THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION BOOK III.

what may be called a family name. This laudable desire* is
commonly best accomplished by the performance of great and
generous actions, or by heroic worth ; but it may also be done
by the formation of an extensive and noble residence; espe-
cially if in a comparatively wild and uninhabited country. A
proper choice may be found in Wales, the north of England,
amid the mountainous scenery of Scotland, or in Ireland.
Every thing should be done in the grand manner; but all the
while under the modest and worthy intention of encouraging
art. The mansion should be in the castle or abbey style — the
establishment extensive; the new-acquired family arms should
in some cases be emblazoned on proper parts of the building,
both externally and within ; extensive improvement, and ame-
lioration of the surrounding peasantry, should be a chief ob-
ject of the proprietor. By this and by generous deeds he will
gain extensive reverence and esteem; he will pass through life
with respect from the already great families; and the succeed-
ing heirs will reap the benefit of his exertions and pa-
tience, by being recognized as of the same rank and worth. An
opposite conduct will produce very bad consetpjences to the
proprietor in his own life time, and will much disturb the feli-
city of his descendants.

6. The improvement of the country; whether in regard

* See some excellent remarks on this subject in Mr. Roscbe's Lorenzo de Medici.

PART I. FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 671

to husbandry, taste, or the comfort of the inhabitants, is a
noble object, and will be more universally approved of, by
both present and future generations, than any other species of
worth, whether heroic, political, or literary. Mankind in ge-
neral look to such persons as to a common father and pro-
tector; and the most enlightened philosophers justly consider
them as among the true promoters of human happiness.. Nume-
rous and excellent situations may be found in every quarter of
the country; but the mountainous parts of it, and such as are
inferior in regard to culture, will produce the greatest benefit
to society, and most fame to the benevolent proprietor . There
he may clothe the rocky mountains with wood, the heaths and
moors with corn-fields and pasture, and the morasses with lakes
and meadows; — there he may erect villages, churches, far-
meries, and cottages, and every thing which may diffuse around
universal content; — there undisturbed by political factions,
cruel enemies, or deceitful friends; he may live beloved and
reverenced, by his dependants and neighbours.

7- The choice of a situation, in order to gratify a natural
taste for the country and rural life, requires little discussion.
Those Avho have this in view should previously endeavour to
distinguish the peculiar turn of their sentiments. They may
then either choose a grand, romantic, cheerful, gay. solitary,

672 THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION BOOK III.

wild, or cultivated situation, as tVie result of their enquiry
dictates.

8. Some retire to the country merely through disgust at
public life. These should choose a solitary situation, or at
least one distant from the capital, of a character and in a coun-
try and neighbourhood analogous to their intention; where
they mean to close their life " amid books and solitude,'' amuse
themselves by the pursuit of rural science or rural sports and
amusements, or engage in the improvement of their estate;
and by promoting the comforts of the neighbouring peasantry
ensure their gratitude, and the name of " poor man's friend."
This practice will amply compensate the lost friendship or ill
usage of " that sea of sin, a wicked world."

9. There are a few who retire to the country to indulge in
grief for past misfortunes. It is true, the reverse of this prac-
tice commonly takes place; yet there are some pure and vir-
tuous minds that even the present age cannot vitiate. Those,
when under affliction, can find no solace in flattery, corruption,
or a vortex of amusements, which may dissipate the time of the
idle, but never touch the soul of the truly good. There can be
no true solace in the hour of keen affliction, but by reposing in
the Deity, or contemplating his attributes and laws in the works
of nature; — but nature, either in man or in material objects^ is

TART I. FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. ()73

not to be found in towns; he therefore flies to unfrequented
places in the country, lives in the company of truth, and con-
verses with birds and flowers. His friends ought to choose a
cottage, or a comfortable apartment in a decaying castle, situ-
ated among woody scenery or copse, and intermingled with
lawn, rivulets, and old gardens or orchards which have long-
been neglected, and through all which he may wander unmo-
lested by care, and undisturbed by any other society than that
of a faithful domestic. This domestic may by degrees intro-
duce sensitive plants and tamed animals to him, as mimosa noli
vie tatigere, asses, cows, lambs, at first; and afterwards birds,
leverets, dogs, and horses. The first class of these, by amusing
or becoming attached to him, will excite his attention or love
in return; the second, by indicating cheerfulness, vigour, and
animation, will by s}7mpathy excite similar feelings and ex-
ertions ; and thus by degrees restore him to health, and fit him
for the active duties of life.

10. The last purpose that I shall take notice of is, where a
person has in view to feel and enjoy all the appear-
ances of nature. He requires few directions; his habita-
tion, whatever it be of itself, whether an obscure cottage or vil-
lage garret, will be a situation^ if possible, where " nature, un-
confined, displays all her graces." His property is all nature;
and, knowing no bounds to his estate, he may therefore change

4 R

6/4 THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION BOOK III.

his residence at pleasure. Content to receive from man only
what are called the necessaries of life, he is sure of enjoying the
most sublime mental luxuries which heaven and earth afford:
— and whether he opens his eyes and beholds the rising sun
dispersing the clouds which empurple the distant horizon, or
shutting them contemplates that variegated circle of colours
which is formed by the compression of the eyelids — whether he
remarks the " green blade which twinkles in the sun," or " the
huge oak which in the forest grows,", his soul is alike exalted
in the discovery of divinity.

" He looks abroad into the varied field

Of nature; and though poor, perhaps, compared

With those whose mansions glitter in his sight,

Calls the delightful scenery all his own.

His are the mountains, and the vallies his,

And the resplendent rivers. His t'enjoy

With a propriety that none can feel,

But who, with filial confidence inspired,

Can lift to heaven an unpresumptuous eye,

And smiling say, ' My father made them all'."

COWPER.

I shall close this part of the work by addressing a few cursory
remarks to those interested in a country life; which, like the
foregoing, are the result of observation on the actual state of
civil society.

1. A person sensible of having a bad situation, without the

PART I. FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 675

power of changing it, need not despair of rendering it interest-
ing. Nature has beauties suitable to every style of country,
even the most indifferent: if these be transplanted with taste,
they will always please; and the most insipid situation that
can be conceived may, by introducing and cherishing natural
beauties, be rendered much superior to the greater number of
what are in the present day called fine places, where all is art
and ostentation. Even country residences which have faults
that offend at first, such as where the house is much exposed,
the climate moist, the prospect dreary, &c. will, after a little
habit, not only become agreeable, but more interesting to the
proprietor, than one comparatively mild, and more attractive
to the first view *.

2. In order to become enamoured with a situation, persons
should be carried to it in fine weather, and if possible when
the heart is mild, unprepossessed, and susceptible of whatever

* There is an error, both in contemplating the choice of a residence, and of a
partner for life, which is generally prevalent. Most men picture such objects as are
mild and pleasing to the view, and free from faults or singularities; and then ima-
gine that if they could possess such, they would be happy. But this is a mistake:
mere negative goodness, whether in women, men, or situations, soon cloys and
palls upon the mind, without the animating influence of faults and singularities.
Domestic jarring is often the soul of domestic happiness, by exciting at other times
more strong emotions of reciprocal affection. A journey made free from accidents,
narrow escapes, and singular occurrences, is so uninteresting as soon to be forgotten
by the traveller; and even the period of life itself, if it were possible for it to pass
without these, would be a mere blank in the memory. Every thing in nature is
affected by the principles of contrast.

6'?6 THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION BOOK III.

impressions may be made on it. Much, if not the greater part,
depends upon these circumstances at our first view of a place;
and the impression then made is generally so strong, that it is
difficult to remove it, even when afterwards convinced by rea-
son or experience that it was wrong. This every traveller must
have felt; and it accounts for the different opinions which
tourists have given of the same place. It teaches the great
propriety of bringing up in the country all children who are to
inherit, or who may probably become able to purchase, landed
property : and of introducing an heir, who has never seen his
inheritance, under the most favourable circumstances possible.
It shews also the great importance of educating the heirs of
entailed residences upon these estates; that Avhen they become
possessors, they may discharge what propriety and duty re-
quires with pleasure to themselves and advantage to all their
dependents. This is commonly neglected at present; and too
much power is left to stewards, who soon become haughty and
petulant, and materially injure both landholders and tenants.
Every trifle of this kind deserves attention — From the slightest
causes often result great effects; and every thing which tends
to reconcile or excite landed proprietors to live more upon
their estates, and to encourage rural industry, and promote the
introduction of good taste, is worthy the attention of either a
refined or benevolent mind.

3. A proprietor ought generally to retain the same residence

PART 1. FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE. 677

or residences all his life. This will prove an interesting source
of pleasure and instruction in old age. At that period of man's
life, memory is often incapable of retaining the operations of a
week or a day ; while the actions of former years, and especially
of youth, remain indelible on the mind. Hence, by the assistance
of the eye — by looking upon what he accomplished many years
ago, the trees that he planted, or the fields that he improved,
or by frequenting the scenes of infancy, the most lively pic-
tures are realized, and are sure to entertain, where those of the
greatest painter or writer that ever lived would have no effect.
I may add, that a virtuous mind, taking into view the good
which he has done to society in these periods, will look back
on the past with complacency, and forward to the future with
hope. Unfortunately, there are few in high life who have it in
their power to experience these pleasures, which are without
doubt the greatest that old age can enjoy: yet still there are
some who, from sympathy, as well as a general knowledge of
human nature, can appreciate such pure enjoyments.

4. Man is an animal formed for society; and whatever be his
love of nature, or whatever kind of her productions he most ad-
mires, unless an enthusiastic connoisseur in one class of objects
only (and then he ceases to be a man of general taste) he will
never find his happiness complete without domestic enjoyments.
This may seem rather trifling to be mentioned here; but it

678 THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION, &C. BOOK III.

is too much neglected, and has a bad tendency on the indi-
vidual, and on society at large, in several points of view. Let
the reader recollect what Shenstone suffered on this account*.

Lastly, it may be observed, that unless true religion and ex-
tensive moral reflections enter into all our studies of nature,
persons of delicate taste and uncorrupted minds will never
enjoy true happiness, even in a country residence. There is an
intellectual repose and refined mental pleasure, which arises
from the relative contemplation of all nature — from the dis-
covery and contemplation of the links of that endless chain by
which every thing is connected, and by the perception of that
wonderful expression or mind which pervades the whole
universe. There is as great a difference perceived in nature by
studying it in parts, either as a painter, sculptor, or botanist,
and studying it in this way, as there is between the expression
of a marble statue, and that of a graceful woman. The one
mode of study has no necessary connection with the moral ac-
tions of men ; the other tends to regulate and harmonize them f.
The one contracts the mind ; the other contributes to the ful-
lest developement of the human faculties, which is, without

doubt, TO ANSWER THE END OF OUR EXISTENCE.

* " Domestic life in rural leisure past!

Few know thy value, and few taste thy sweets."

t See Hartley on Man, Bates's Rural Philosophy, SCc.

679

BOOK III.

PART II.

SOME CONSIDERATIONS WITH

A VIEW TO PROMOTE RURAL IMPROVEMENT,

AND

PARTICULARLY THE IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENCES.

Perhaps I may be here allowed to mention a few induce-
ments to rural improvement, in addition to some which have
occasionally been suggested in the foregoing pages. Man, in
whatever stage of society he may be placed, is a social and de-
pendent being: the lower classes look to the wealthy and pow-
erful for protection; while the wealthy, in return, derive
their dignity and consequence from the lower classes. In con-
sequence of this relation, there are certain duties that belong-
to each party, which are to be reciprocally performed, and are
enforced by certain motives peculiar to each. The duties of
both would proceed from necessity or attachment in the first;

680 0>f RURAL IMPROVEMENT, AND BOOK III.

instances; but as society improves, and public bodies or com-
munities agree to submit to certain laws and regulations, the
duties of the poor, from being the result of mere necessity or
attachment, become such as, if neglected, are punishable by the
laws of their country, as a violation of order; while many of the
duties of the wealthy, in place of being dictated by the prin-
ciple of self-defence or aggrandizement, in consequence of a
superiority in mental energies, flow from the more noble prin-
ciples of benevolence to all around, love of country, and national
improvement. If at any time they seem to forget the impor-
tant duties of their stations, they are recalled to them, not by
laws of compulsion, but by awakening their natural sense of
honour and virtue; and in this case, the literary men of the
age never fail to effect for the general good what the clergy
do for individual happiness: the former appeal to humanity
and justice, the latter to religion and piety; and the utility
of both to society is perhaps seldom sufficiently known or
appreciated.

1. In the first place, rural improvement demands attention
from its general influence on society. As it comprehends
the introduction both of beauty and utility, this is effected in
several ways. By the cultivation of what has been hitherto
neglected, and by the superior management of the whole, an
increase of produce and national riches takes place. The late
years of scarcity have shewn the importance of attending to

PART II. IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENCES. 681

this particular; and when we consider that the real wealth, pros-
perity, and population of a country depend ultimately upon
the improvement and cultivation of the soil (as all political
economists confess), this will appear a most important consi-
deration. 2. By the more extensive and vigorous employ-
ment* of the lower classes, they will be enabled to subsist
more comfortably ; they will thence be incited more generally
to the married state, and that also at an earlier age, and conse-
quently the population will be increased in a great degree.
This effect is just a consequence of the former, and is of the
last importance. 3. The influence of good taste and beauty
in rural scenery, upon the lower classes, may at first view appear
unworthy of notice; but a little reflection will convince us of
the contrary. The very lowest classes of the peasantry are in-
fluenced by itf. In naked, unvaried, inhospitable, and bar-
ren countries, such as immense tracks of heath, moss, or sand,
they will be destitute of strong passions, incapable of lasting

* All good plans for ameliorating the condition of the lower classes will terminate
ultimately in giving the peasant an opportunity of bringing his labour to a free
market, and in introducing benefit societies for the aged and helpless. Destroy the
poor rates, public charities, and servitudes, and introduce benefit societies, though
only in a few places — they will soon become general — the poor will be more em-
ployed by the rich than they are at present, and will soon arise from penury and
dejection to spirit and independence.

f For many important particulars belonging to this subject, I refer to Faulkener's
" Effects of Climate and Country upon Society;" and Home's " Elements of
Criticism," and " Sketches of the History of Man," also " Montesque's Essays."

4 s

682 ON RURAL IMPROVEMENT, AND BOOK III.

attachments; and will make indifferent soldiers or servants. In
the same kind of surface under cultivation, but without any
display of rural beauty, they will be coarse in address, cruel to
their families, and jealous of strangers; as in several parts of Ire-
land, France, and China. Even in England, those cottagers in
countries uninteresting though well cultivated, as Devonshire
and Wiltshire, are in general, rude and barbarous, compared
with those in the same counties near gentlemens' seats, or beau-
tiful scenery; and far inferior in respect both of cleanliness and
elegance of mind to those in Hertford and Surrey. Neither
however have much of that kind of attachment to native coun-
try, and even to situation, which the peasantry of Cumberland,
Scotland, and many parts of Ireland, have. Born amid moun-
tains and rocky scenery, such objects make strong impres-
sions, which commence in infancy, and, increasing as they ap-
proach to manhood, became indelible. From the nature of the
human mind, every thing connected with these objects, whether
relations or employers, is drawn into the same vortex of asso-
ciation; and hence, whether such peasantry are allowed to
remain in their own country, or are impelled to go abroad,
their native mountains every where present themselves to the
imagination, and with them their parents, relations, beloved
females, neighbours, or landed gentlemen.

All these effects belong to objects of taste, and shew that it

PART II. IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENCES. 6'83

may have influence on even the lowest of mankind. With re-
spect to the tradesman, and all between him and the man of pro-
pert}', or, in common language, the independent, its influence
cannot be doubted, in civilizing, improving, and refining their
manners*; in rendering them docile, tractable, and in every re-
spect better members of society. Many other arguments might
be added to prove this, but certainly it is not necessary.

"When we consider how much the existence, prosperity, and
internal peace of a state, depends upon these qualities in the
lower and middling classes, the importance of a general intro-
duction of taste in scenery will appear. What might not be
done in Ireland, in the civilization and improvement of the
lower orders, by the introduction of taste among the higher and
middling classes? The arts illuminated Greece in the midst of
universal gloom ! What has freed Britain from the slavery of an
all-grasping clergy, or the feudal institution of a turbulent no-
bility, but the general introduction of better taste, both in senti-
ment and the arts ? It is chiefly owing to the liberty enjoyed in
this kingdom, that modern gardening was so soon adopted, and
spread so generally over ever}7 part of the country. Even this
alone strikingly proves the universal influence of general taste.

* I do not speak of towns and cities, where, by rendering artisans too rich, it
very frequently introduces corruption and vicious habits. Nor do I speak of the
fuvj aftsj^which I consider to be far inferior in their effects upon the generality of
men, to rural beaut)', because less calculated to sooth and harmonize. See Bates's
Reflections.

(J84 ON RURAL IMPROVEMENT, AND BOOK III.

2. Let the landed proprietor and the independent consider
the effects of rural improvement upon their estates, them-
selves, and families. Their estates are greatly increased in
value, either by being productive of mere annual rent for a
given surface, by containing a greater quantity of woods or
young plantations, or by being more admired as a residence,
and consequently capable of producing a larger sum if brought
to the market as such. It is true, this last particular does not
hold in entailed estates; but it may be observed that there are
few of the ornamental parts of a residence but what are valu-
able even to life-renters — thus lawn is excellent pasture; trees
in every form or situation are highly valuable; rocks seldom oc-
cupy any space of horizontal surface, being always found more
or less perpendicular; water is valuable for the purposes of irri-
gation, horticulture, rearing fish, or driving machinery; and few
or no buildings ouo-ht to be erected but what are of real use.

The effects of the objects of taste upon the human mind are
extensive, and are calculated greatly to enlarge the sphere of
enjoyment, and to increase real happiness. The most exalted
pleasure consists in the exercise of the social affections and of
the imagination*. These a taste for rural scenery has a direct
tendency to produce; for in admiring or contemplating na-

* Paley, in his essays on Human Happiness, places it, 1 . In the exercise of the
social affections; 2. In the exercise of the faculties, either of body or mind, in the
pursuit of some engaging end; 3. In the proper constitution of our habits; and
lastly, the enjoyment of health.

PART IE. IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENCES. 685

ture, we find an order, harmony, and beauty, which captivate
the soul and expand the faculties of mind, coincide with and
promote the love of virtue, and check the selfish passions; while,
b}r storing the mind with the most pleasing, varied, and sublime
images, the imagination is thence enabled to select, combine,
and, if not to "body forth the forms of things unseen," at least
to conceive abundance of pleasing imagery, wherever we may
be placed. Thus no vacuum in life ever need occur, no mo-
ments which we arc at a loss how to spend, nor any spent which
will not afford pleasure in future contemplation — whatever cir-
cumstances we may be placed in, whether in liberty or confine-
ment, abroad or at home, in the gaiety of youth or the serenity
of age, still we can draw upon the endless sources of the ima-
gination for a supply of ideas suited to circumstances which
ma}' pass across our minds, or which we may wish to converse
or reflect upon. Scenery or the objects of taste, used in any
other way — mere feeling, without judgment or discrimination,
either in reading poetry, viewing nature, or examining pictures,
may serve very well as pastime while youth and vigour last;
but when these fail, our pleasure or amusement in such sub-
jects will be curtailed in proportion to our want of knowledge
or judgment. The progress of human happiness is from the
pleasures of sense to those of pure intellect.

With respect to the influence of rural improvement on our
families, the difference between children, especially females,

086 ON RURAL IMPROVEMENT, AND BOOK III.

educated in the country by private tuition, and those sent to
public schools and colleges* in towns, is so great, and the
effects which would result from it are so extensive, that, were
this alone attended to, it would in thirty years effect a revolu-
tion in the manners of the higher classes; — a revolution highly
advantageous for the state, honourable to the subjects of it, and
conducive to the immediate happiness of parents, no less than
to the future welfare of their children. The present system of
female education and manners is every thing that it ought not
to be, the latter counteracts the indications of natural charac-
ter by habitual dissimulation ; and the former prevents all
mental energy by centring every thing in a few superficial ac-
complishments.

3. Let the wealthy man consider the consequent effects of a
contrary practice to that which has been recommended —
either of living in the country without doing good— or squan-
dering immense sums of money in town. By the former prac-
tice, the improvement of property is neglected ; hence both the
public and the proprietor suffer loss. Life passes away with-
out being interesting to the possessor, while its approaching
termination gives inward pleasure to the neglected peasantry,
whose comforts it was his duty to promote. Old age ap-
proaches; he is a burthen to himself; death comes and rids

* This is not meant to apply to all our seminaries of education, many of which
are unexceptionably disciplined.

PART II. IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENCES. 687

the country of an incumbrance ; the stately hearse enters the
church-yard, — he is deposited, and for ever forgotten : — there
is a secret rejoicing in the village, from the hopeful qualities
of the young heir.

An occasional or annual visit and stay in town, may with
some have a good effect, by way of contrast to the coun-
try*, and is perhaps essential to the promotion of that com-
merce which is so advantageous to this kingdom. But let me
not be thought meddling with matters foreign to this work,
when I mention that the major part of a yearly income squan-
dered there, on modern entertainments, is pernicious both to
those who indulge in them, and to the community. With re-
spect to those who indulge in them, it must have one of these
two effects upon their minds — either these things prove cum-
bersome and disagreeable — or produce happiness. If the
latter, then it must follow, that when in the country they
receive pleasure from it only as variety of company makes it
approach to the nature of a city life. But the variety of the
country can never equal the diversity of city amusements: on
the contrary, it has a continual tendency to produce an oppo-

* " It is the privilege of the man who has opened to his mind, by observation
and study, all the springs of pleasant association, to delight by turns in the rudeness
of solitary woods, in the cheerfulness of spreading plains, in the decorations of re-
fined art, in the magnificence of luxurious wealth, in the activity of crowded ports,
the industry of cities, the pomp of spectacles, the pageantry of festivals."

Edinburgh Review, No. XIV. page 315.

688 ON RURAL IMPROVEMENT, AND BOOK III.

site effect, and to awaken that which the other entirely pre-
vented— reflection : hence it is plain, and no votary for these
things can deny it, that such as are remarkable for indulging
in city entertainments one half the year, are miserable the other
half*.

The effects of rural scenery are every where, upon all its ad-
mirers, and at all times, the same; they bring every noble
principle of the mind into action, and allay the vicious or selfish
passions and inclinations, by promoting good nature, and every
social virtue : thus the pleasures of the country elevate man
to his proper dignity, while by continued beneficence to man-
kind he enjoys and diffuses universal happiness.

The effect of indulging in city amusements tends to the de-
struction of property, either by requiring the whole or more than
the annual income, or, even if less than that be applied, it tends

* In youth, from natural gaiety and levity, a city life may amuse ; but what must
be the feelings of an aged votary to such things ? Supposing that from fortune and
tolerable health he is still able to witness them, yet what entertainment can he have
from pleasures in which he is unable to partake, and enjoyments which serve only
to remind him of his age and condition. — But what must be the state of those whom
these things have left in poverty, disease, and involuntary retirement ? The old
age and grey hairs of such are never venerable, but always despised, even by those
equally devoted, and speedily approaching to the same end. View either the aged
and healthy or the aged and infirm votaries to these pursuits in a relative capacity
as a parent, husband, friend; view his children, his wife, their society, manners,
and practices ! !

PART II. IMPROVEMENT OP RESIDENCES. 6'89

to ruin, by never making any return of interest, as does pro-
perty expended in the country. By leading to an increased
establishment and expenditure, it often ultimately, either in
the present or succeeding generation, ends in disgrace, penury,
and total extinction of name. The effects of this mode of life
upon mankind and the state are dangerous, by increasing the
wealth and wickedness of cities, promoting effeminacy, extra-
vagance, and luxury, in the sons of the wealthy ; which, if
brought up in the country, or in comparative simplicity, might
have proved more serviceable to it, as proprietors, representa-
tives, or soldiers*. Add to this the number of male servants
kept, which of all other classes of servants are the most cor-
rupted, and which greatly contaminate the simplicity and com-
parative innocence of country peasantry. From these pernici-
ous wretches, otherwise employed, the country might derive
considerable advantage, either in agriculture or national
defence.

4. If wealth, power, and distinctions, be bestowed upon
some individuals for the general good, how shall they an-

* " How, in the name of soldiership and sense,

Should England prosper, when such things, as smooth
And tender as a girl, all essenced o'er
With odours, and as profligate as sweet,
Who sell their laurels for a myrtle wreath,
And love when they should fight?" &c.

4 T

690 ON RURAL IMPROVEMENT, AND 1300K III.

swcr for using them in such a way as tends to the general
wreck of nations, the corruption of society, or the distresses of

the poor ? How shall those excuse themselves, who in one

night's entertainment, or gambling, have squandered as many
thousands as would have rendered hundreds of their fellow-
creatures comfortable for life ? — perhaps too the widows or
orphans of those very men whose united exertions constitute
their wealth and security are in want and misery ! If spent in
the country, in judicious improvements, such sums would have
produced an increasing ratio of advantages, which would have
continually accumulated, from the present time to the termi-
nation of our existence as a nation. Spent in this way, it is
a momentary flash, which dazzles only to increase the effect of
the succeeding obscurity.

5. There is a laudable vanity inherent in the human mind,
which prompts us to many actions from the love of praise,
admiration, or gratitude. — These rewards all persons may
easily attain, from the most retired lady or gentleman, who
can only act as a village physician, to the wealthy peer or
prince, who ameliorates the condition of a whole district. The
pleasure and satisfaction which results from doing good to the
poor of the country, even in curing diseases, is so great, that
I would advise those who prefer a country life, and have not
an opportunity of engaging in extensive improvements, to pay

I'ART Ii. IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENCES. 691

some attention to the study of medicine. Every benefit, of
whatever kind, properly bestowed upon the deserving of the
lower classes, is sure of producing unfeigned gratitude and at-
tachment from individuals, and praise and esteem from the
country-folks in general*.

Every good improver is not only rendered conspicuous
among his neighbours, but is admired by society at large, and
valued by all wise statesmen, as of real benefit to society.
The authors of great and extensive improvements not only ob-
tain the approbation and praise of the present age, but are
handed down to futurity with a lustre which never can be sul-
lied by changes of government or society ; and it deserves to
be remarked, that both the praise and utility of military or
political worth is confined either to the period of its actual
existence, or afterwards chiefly to one nation ; while that of
him who promotes the arts of peace and rural improvements
spreads into all countries, and passes with increasing power
through successive ages-f.

* No pleasure is equal to that of true and unfeigned gratitude ; it is so great
as even to be desired by Divinity ; for what is divine worship but the expressions
of gratitude ?

t If I may judge from the general taste for drawing among the higher classes,
perhaps the duties of a country life may yet have sufficient charms. If to the study
of drawing, that of botany, and in particular of trees, were added, it could scarcely
fail of rendering verdant scenery and horticulture peculiarly interesting.

6Q2 OX RURAL IMPROVEMENT, AND BOOK III.

6. The glory of national character is a motive which
will have considerable influence with every patriotic mind,
whether that glory respects the heroic or the polite arts. One
great branch of what I have been endeavouring to recommend
for the encouragement and protection of the wealthy originated
in, and is almost peculiar to, this country: I mean the pic-
turesque improvement of rural scenery. Here then is
a source of national fame which every patriot should be eager
to advance; and which of itself, if carried to that pitch of per-
fection of which it is capable, will rank Great Britain with
Greece and Rome in an infinitely more noble and original man-
ner, than ever can be done by the mere imitation of arts in
which the nations of those countries excelled. Here is an art
of our own invention, and one the subjects of which ever
have been, and ever will be, the admiration of all mankind!
Let us cultivate this art with vigour, let' us render our coun-
try not only conspicuous for giving birth to it, but for bring-
ing it to perfection !

Surely if any motive can influence the patriotic, it must
be this ; especially as, unlike poetry or painting, picturesque
improvement is so nearly connected with the interest and
riches of the individual ; not to say that it far exceeds these
sister arts in conferring happiness on all who are engaged
in it. I trust there are still many ready to patronize the

PART II. IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENCES. 693

arts in this kingdom. As a British subject, though less able
to accomplish, yet no less eager in the desire of her glory,
let me entreat all such to evince their patriotism by reform-
ing the style of the pleasing and useful art of forming coun-
try residences. If what I propose as additional improve-
ments are not so, then let them be rejected, and their author
neglected ; but if they are considered as otherwise, let the great
and the wealthy encourage their introduction by their protec-
tion and influence ; and the whole country Avill soon see their
excellence, and be induced to adopt them, not less from the
common principle of imitation or fashion, than from conviction
of their intrinsic worth.

Though I am aware that the habit of studying one particu-
lar subject may give it a more than just importance in the
general scale of moral agency, yet I think I have expressed
myself with abundant moderation. I am perfectly willing to
leave every thing to the cool reflection of the reader. I only
offer these imperfect sketches to excite more forcibly his at-
tention to what passes in his own mind.

Lastly, To shew in one point of view what may be the in-
fluence of all those motives on an individual, let us suppose
the representative of an ancient and noble family arriv-
ing in his native country after a long absence, engaged in its

694 ON RURAL IMPROVEMENT, AND BOOK III.

defence, — or from resigning the cares and toils of a political life
in the capital, retiring to his paternal inheritance ; let us sup-
pose that, impelled by a love of country, a sense of duty, gene-
ral benevolence, the prosperity of his family, and a desire of
transmitting the name of his ancestors unsullied to posterity, he
proceeds to improve his estate. Those hireling managers, and
injurious usurpers of authority, who corrupt the poor, and do
justice only to favourites, fly before his presence. His tenants
and peasantry, before overburthened and sunk in misery, sloth,
and ignorance, sufficient to incur the dislike of those who look
only at effects without considering causes, now rise into their
proper situation, fulfil their duties, and gain the approbation of
their landlord. Improved cultivation is introduced, and by
this example diffuses itself over the most distant parts of the
estate, producing the smiles of plenty and content, in the room
of want and wretchedness. On his own residence, see barren
mountains become clothed with wood; and on their bleak sides,
which formerly produced only heath or moss, now cattle and
sheep crop the sheltered glades of pasture ; or the furrows of
golden ridges appear in wavy parallels across the declivities. In
a mountain recess thus surrounded, see the ancient castle arise
on an abrupt eminence, which shoots forward from the larger
and wooded hills. Near it flows a rapid stream, which has its
source amid the distant mountains. From them it flows in a
romantic glen, beneath canopies of wood and impending rocks,

PART II. IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENCES. 69!)

until, washing the adamantine base of the castle, it bursts into
liberty, and forms an ample lake, encircled by the park or
forest, and beyond that on one side a fertile plain : all which,
from the lake, forms a noble foreground to the distant woods
and mountains. On one of the islands in this lake is placed the
parish church and burying-ground ; conspicuous at a distance,
they seem, by being debarred from common access, more
forcibly to excite the piety, reverence, and frequent attendance,
of the simple country folks. In the still clear morning of '• the
hallowed day," the rural nymphs and swains, in gay simplicity
of dress, meeting the eye in variegated clusters, glide over the
resplendent waters in little boats and gallies, directing their
progress from different shores to the heaven-pointing spire in
the island of pines and cypress. Thence, when the hymn of
praise, borne on breezes over the waters, and echoed from the
cliffs of the neighbouring islands, has ascended into air, and
mingled with the songs of birds and angels, they retire to simple
fare in cleanly cottages, sheltered by woods, and decorated
with gardens and woodbines. Among those cottages, which
are judiciously scattered at different parts of the grounds, that
their possessors may cultivate and guard plantations, preserve
fences, or herd flocks, or that the smoke from the chimney of
the deserving widow may enliven the side of a woody hill or soli-
tary glen, the worthy proprietor takes delight to walk, to view
the progress of his trees, and hear the little histories and ac-

Qg(y ON RURAL IMPROVEMENT, AND BOOK III.

counts of the progress made in their several occupations. They
all view him with an eye of reverence and esteem as their kind
father and protector.

Ashe advances in life, he carries with him his son, who is to
succeed to a populous and enriched estate. He bestows his
best advice with all the affection of an aged father, and all the
wisdom of a man who has studied human life in every stage,
visited different countries, and had more than a common share
of knowledge and experience. He recounts the condition in
which he found the estate that he is about to leave, mentions
the general plan of improvements that he adopted, and the
ample success which followed it. He advises him to tread in
the same footsteps, if, like him, he wishes to approach to old
age with respect and esteem, and look forward to futurity
with hope and confidence. He recommends to him a country
life, and the constant study of the comfort of all his depen-
dants, as the true way of being happy himself. He then
commits to him the particular care of some veterans who had
been his faithful companions in battle, whose old age he had
undertaken to provide for, and who were likely to survive him.
Soon after this he quietly expires* on a seat in the Saxon

* Some perhaps may think this rather an unpleasant circumstance to introduce
here. I have heard of a gentleman who was content to lose the view of a distant
prospect from his library , (after a drawing had been made out, shewing what would

PART II. IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENCES. 6'97

alcove at the end of the western terrace, where in an evening
of September he had sat down with his family to admire the
splendour of the sky, the gloom of the distant mountains,
the reflection of the evening sun, and the lengthened shadow
of the islands upon the still expanse of the lake. A few
da}rs afterwards, about the same hour in the evening, his
remains were conveyed over these waters, and interred in
the family vault of the burying-ground, in the presence
and amid the praises and tears of every individual upon
his estate ; for all were present, men, women, and chil-
dren, even infants upon their mothers' breasts wept aloud
from the general sympathy: — all were deeply affected, that all
might ever remember their father and friend — he that freed
them from villany and oppression — and rendered their lives
comfortable and happy*.

be the excellent effects of removing a high wall), merely because a celebrated land-
scape gardener suggested, by a sketch upon this drawing, that it was possible for a
hearse to be seen on a public road which happened to be in the middle distance of
the scene. Such weak ideas only excite contempt. Such a proprietor as I am de-
scribing above, has answered the end of his mental existence here, by cultivating his
intellectual powers, and doing good to mankind. What should he fear in yielding
to general laws, which as they are natural and inevitable, so they must be necessary
for accomplishing the purposes of our creation — the progress of mind. Even in
the soil, what remains of man performs a requisite part in the general agency,
and, moved by the grand system of action and reaction, contributes to the beautiful
economy and endless appearances of nature.

* As a proof that the lower classes really do feel in this way, when they aiv
convinced of the good intentions of their benefactors, I might refer to some estates

4 U

(>'98 ON RURAL IMPROVEMENT, AND BOOK III.

Perhaps this is a picture of rural felicity, rather as it might be>
than as it is ; but there can be no conclusive arguments against
presenting such pictures ; on the contrary, they have an im-
portant application — they shew what man may attain to, per-
haps with greater ease than he can accomplish any important
purpose of common life ; for such a life may be spent, similar
effects produced, and similar happiness enjoyed, in every
country, and by every one who is enabled to purchase a small
estate, or a very few acres. Possession being taken, he has only
to give his mind to it — if he has turned his thoughts to the sub-
ject before, he will take care to increase its beauties by attending
to character, use, and economy : and will most probably have
purchased in the most romantic parts of the country. A sum
of money necessary for purchasing, in a smaller or larger degree,
may be attained by every industrious citizen — expended in this
way, the pursuit of it is worthy of commercial engagements
even in the Indies — children, strongly impressed with this end

with which I am acquainted, in England, Wales, and Scotland ; but I rather men-
tion a different instance, which will shew the same thing perhaps more strikingly.
In the low country of Scotland, the reaping is chiefly performed by men and wo-
men from the Highlands. All these, from different roads and parts of the coun-
try, necessarily meet on one road before they embark at North Queensferry to cross
the river Forth to Mid Lothian. A gentleman in Edinburgh, remarkable for his
benevolence, annually presents every individual from the Highlands with a loaf
and tankard of ale just before they embark. For this they are so grateful, that the
name, abode, and good deeds of that gentleman are spread through every part of
the west Highlands of Scotland. I myself have heard them mention the circum-
stance with tears of thankfulness in their eyes ; evidently not for the value of the
donation, but the benevolence and consideration displayed by thedonor.

L'ART II. IMPROVEMENT OF RESIDENCES. 6'99

of commerce, and view of a country dwelling, would imbibe
ideas which, being so congenial to nature, would remain with
them through life — would tend to make them sober, industrious,
and frugal, whether abroad or at home ; and after spending
their youth in the toils and fatigues of commerce — after being
thus versed in human life, they would be duly prepared for a
life of retirement and domestic happiness in the country.

700

CONCLUSION OF THE WHOLE.

In every part of this work I have had two objects in view ; in
the first place, to lay down rational principles of action ; in the
second place, to apply these principles to the practical pur-
poses of forming and improving residences. If I have suc-
ceeded so as to make myself understood, the reader will per-
ceive that this art, which has no other foundation among its
professors than whim, caprice, or fashion (and in which one of
them (Mr.Repton), who has attempted to discover fixed princi-
ples, has displayed only confusion and incongruity in the at-
tempt), is founded in beauty., use, and adaption to the proprietor ;
which, applied to a residence as a whole, may be comprehended
in one epithet, unity of character*. If, in treating of any
part of this whole, it appear that I have failed in the application
of general principles, the blame must be attributed to the author,
and not to these principles. I flatter myself, however, from

* Thus the principles of taste, and of all the polite arts, are ultimately resolved
into those of common sense ; for what is character or expression, (the end of all
these arts,) but just objects appearing to be what they really are.

CONCLUSION. 701

their simplicity, that few errors of this kind have been com-
mitted. But still, as in residences formed agreeably to these
laws, the effects to be produced do not depend upon minutiae —
the course of a walk, the slope of a lawn, or the situation of
any single object, — but in the general propriety and suitable-
ness of parts, the principal masses and grouping of wood, build-
ings, &c. : so the utility of the principles detailed in this work
does not depend upon the trifling exceptions which might be
made to their universal application ; or the inadvertencies
which an author may unavoidably commit in detailing their
effects. All nature has irregularities, and even peculiarities;
and as the painter, in rejecting the last, still adheres to her
essential laws and general appearances, so if the reader con-
ceives that I am right upon the whole, let him proceed in the
same manner in forming his judgment of the foregoing pages.

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APPENDIX.

STRICTURES ON ME. REPTON S MODE OF USING SLIDES AND
SKETCHES, AND ON HIS MANNER OF OPERATING WITH
THE PRINCIPAL MATERIALS OF LANDSCAPE.

INTRODUCTION.

In the foregoing Work, I have occasionally offered some remarks both on
Mr. Repton's writings and his alterations upon Residences. In this Ap-
pendix I do not propose to enter into a minute examination of the latter ;
but merely to point out what appears to me to be the grand errors
in that author's practice and directions. In making these observations
I have advanced nothing in opposition to candour and truth. At
the same time, as Mr. Repton in his writings displays the highest
opinion of his own merits, and an unfair contempt for his cotemporary
professors of modern landscape gardening; as he arrogates unmerited
distinction as an artist, and claims the important right of " guiding
the taste and improving the scenery of his country" * ; and as I consider
this taste in many things as false judgment, I consequently have been
more particular in my criticisms, and more decided in my conclusions re-

* " And while you studied to raise the glory, and secure the best interests, of the
country ; I was content to guide its taste and improve its scenery."

" Odd Whims and Miscellanies," Dedication to Mr. Windham, paged.

704 APPENDIX.

specting the practices of such a professor, than I should otherwise have
been. Unfortunately for truth and good taste, Mr. Repton's writings are
so expensive as to come into the hands of few ; otherwise this unpleasant
task would probably not have been requisite in this work. Had Mr.
Repton submitted his writings to the public with that deference which
every one equally confused in his notions of theory, and ignorant of the
different branches of husbandry, ought to have done, I should never have
opposed either his opinions or practices in any other way than by stating to
the world what I conceived to be good taste in my art, leaving every one to
draw the inference, or make the application, according to his own ideas.
But it is otherwise ; and Mr. Repton's manner of writing, and his authority
with one class of the public, more than even the errors which exist in al-
most every page of his folios, have drawn from me these strictures. I do not
hesitate to say, that Mr. Repton has a considerable share of what may
be called tinsel ability in his art, and, compared with his cotemporary
followers of Mr. Brown, he is perhaps deservedly at the head of his profes-
sion. At the same time I am of opinion, that the want of practical know-
ledge, and the study of nature, will ever prevent, him from blending beauty
with utility and economy in such a way as to make any considerable ad-
vances in the art. This will appear evident to every man of good taste,
from that sameness and tameness of manner which certainly must be
allowed to prevail in his red-books, published works, drawings, and
especially the residences which have been improved under his directions.

Avoiding an analysis of this Gentleman's writings, as unsuitable to my
design, I seize only on what appear to me the errors most inimical
to good taste, and the true interest of proprietors. These divide them-
selves into —

1 . Mr. Repton's mode of using slides and sketches ; and,

2. His mode of operating with the principal materials of landscape.

705

APPENDIX. No. I.

An Inquiry into the Merits of Mr. Repton's Manner of using Slides with
Sketches, as displayed in his published Works* and private Red-books,
or MSS.—(See Plate XXXII.)

I do not question Mr. Repton's right to the merit of having first applied
slides, or folding slips of paper, to sketches for improving landscape scenery ;
though I deny what he affirms in several parts of his works, that he is
the inventor of them. Slides upon a similar plan have long been iu use
for various purposes, and were employed by the late Mr. Walker, of
Edinburgh, in teaching astronomy upwards of thirty years ago. My
business, however, is to inquire into their merits, which will be easily dis-
covered when their intended use is explained. The only avowed purpose
for which these can be used is to save the expense or trouble of making
two landscapes where it is thought one and a half, or less, may suffice.
Thus, where one landscape is made to shew the present, state of the
grounds or scenery, as Plate XXIX. ; and another to shew the effect of
the intended improvements, as Plate XXX. ; the slide, or slip of paper,
as in Plate XXXII., supersedes the use of the first ; by containing on it
all those parts of the ground whereon the alterations are made. Now the
question is, whether this is equally candid, and gives the same degree of

* These works are : " Hints and Sketches on Landscape Gardening," published
1794; and, " Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening," &c.
published 1805-0.

4 X

;06 APPENDIX, XO. 1.

advantage to both landscapes, as the other method, viz. XXIX. and XXX. ?
I am decidedly of opinion that it is not, and for the following reasons :

1. Supposing the objects drawn upon the upper slip of paper to be ex-
actlv the same as those on the under one — equally well executed, and
equally aereeable subjects : the upper one would never please so much as
the one under it, because the line which marks the boundary if the slip
disturbs the harmony of the one composition, while by contrast the other is
improved.

■2. The active princ:ple of curiosity inherent in the human mind will
ever prevent full satisfaction from Sowing from that whereof the slip forms
a part ; for while we know that the slip is capable of being lifted up, the
mind will be in anxiety till that be effected. This would be strikingly
proved, if the best subject were placed upon the slip, and the landscape
in its present state placed under it. Reason might convince a scientific
person that the upper one was preferable ; but those who judge chiefly from
feeling, and from what strikes the eye, would, unless there was a very ma-
nifest difference of character between the two, be best pleased with the
one under.

3. Bv having the two states of the landscape so connected in represen-
tations, it becomes impossible to give them a fair comparison. Every
time that we compare any object in the upper one, or on part of the slip,
with the same object improved in the under one, we discompose the slip,
which, while it increases our dislike of the upper scene, adds to our preju-
d ce for the secure and permanent effect of the one below. This of itself
is so powerful a reason against slips, that no one devoid of prejudice can
ever decide in their favour.

These are reasons to shew the inutility of this contrivance, which are valid,
though perfect justice were done to both drawings. I shall next shew.

APPENDIX, NO. I. ?07

that the artist, by the slightest difference in execution, may render the
one disagreeable, and the other highly beautiful, though the subject of
both were equally good. This will form another striking argument against
the application of slips ; especially when I remark, that this is universally
the practice of Mr. Repton. And if this has been done by their supposed
inventor and recommender, what may we not expect from imitators,
should any such appear ?

1. The mere execution of either the draughtsman or engraver may ren-
der the one decidedly superior to the other. Now, from the difficulty of
comparison mentioned above (3), this is not easily discovered, especially
by those unacquainted with the principles of art, to whom such slides and
sketches have been addressed, and by whom alone they have been ap-
proved of. In proof of this, see Plate XXXII. which is introduced
chiefly to shew to those readers who have not seen Mr. Repton's work,
what slides are.

2. The distribution of light may effect the same purpose still more
strongly ; and in buildings, those which in the reality would be disagree-
able, may in the picture appear remarkably beautiful.

3. Colour may effect the same thing in a still more powerful manner than
either light or execution ; as Mr. Repton's works strikingly evince. In
sketches for the improvement of grounds, colour should seldom be made
use of, except for particular objects ; forms are what deserve attention ;
and in rural improvement it is chiefly in the disposition or modification of
them that real and permanent beauty can be produced. In sketches, co-
lour on trees and ground may effect any emotion in the superficial observer ;
they may render him in love with the most disagreeable forms and
grouping, and disgusted with the best.

It would have been easy to have illustrated all these arguments against

708 APPENDIX, NO. 1.

slides ; but the, whole is evidently a mere piece of quackery, as must,
from what has been said, appear to every one. He that alters grounds or
buildings from such deceptive schemes, proceeds on a basiss too precarious
for any but those who care not about spending money to no purpose, or
who have minds incapable of discerning what is really beautiful.

From these brief observations two things result :

1. That slides, though used with the utmost possible accuracy and
fairness, are still liable to deceive ; and, in point of doing justice to the
present and improved state of the subjects, are much inferior to separate
landscapes.

2. That the artist, if so inclined, has by this mode a much better op-
portunity of deceiving in the execution than by the other ; and to these I
might add, for the consideration of Mr. Repton and his admirers, that in
every slide, in his two large works on Landscape Gardening, this unfair
practice is adopted ; for the truth of which I need only appeal to those who
are in possession of his works. In all Mr. Repton's Red-books that I have
seen, this practice is carried still further ; but as these are private property,
I avoid referring to particular instances.

709

APPENDIX. No. II.

Strictures on Mr. Reptok's published Works* on Landscape Gardening ;
and chiefly on his Mode of operating with water and wood, the two
principal Materials of Landscape.

1 he art of forming Country Residences may be divided into two parts ;
that which relates chiefly to beauty, or visible effect; and that which re-
lates chiefly to utility and convenience. Laying aside all metaphysical dif-
ferences about abstract principles,the practical directions or operations which
relate chiefly to beauty, or visible effect, may be included under ground,
rocks, buildings, water, and wood. The first two deserve little consi-
deration here, because whatever may be an author's principles or opinions
concerning them, it is certain that no wise man will ever attempt any ex-
tensive operations upon either. The effect of buildings is certainly of con-
siderable importance; but any remarks which occur in Mr. Repton's
writings respecting them are too trifling to deserve attention. The temples,
covered seats, bridges, and such decorative edifices as occur in the plates
which accompany these works, are similar to those commonly to be met

* To the two works mentioned in the last article, I may here add, " An Inquiry into
the Changes of Taste in Landscape Gardening ; and, " A Letter to Uvedale Price, Esq."
published together in 1S06.

710 APPENDIX, NO. II.

with in improved places, and are now justly rejected by men of taste, as
gaudy, affected, and useless. I refer to plates III. VI. VII. XIV., &c. of
" Hints and Sketches," and plates V. IX. XIII. XVI. XXV. and
XXVII. of " Observations."

With respect to ground, the author observes, "It is always with reluctance
that I advise much alteration in the surface of ground ; because, however
great the labour, or expensive the process, it is a part of the art from which
the professor can derive but little credit; since his greatest praise must be,
that the ground looks, when finished, as if art had never interfered." One
would imagine that nothing could be a greater credit to the professor than
to have his zcorks of art mistaken for those of nature. This is, however,
not the author's opinion: he has recommended occasionally the removal
of hills, or their creation ; sometimes a road must ostentatiously be carried
round a hill, to display property; at another time a tunnel must be cut
through it, to display the art of the professor : I refer to Mulgrave Castle,
Michelgrove, &c.

But water and wood are the grand materials of landscape gardening.
All improvement of grounds may be said to depend on their management ;
and therefore it is on the author's remarks upon them, that I propose to
offer some strictures, in addition to those made in the foregoing parts of
this work which treat on these subjects.

The subject of water is treated at the greatest length in " Observa-
tions." The contents of Chap. III. are, Water — it may be too naked
or too much clothed — example from West Wycombe. Digression concern-
ing the approach — motion of water — example at Adlestrop. Art must
deceive to imitate nature — cascade at Thorescy. The rivulet — water at
Wentworth described — A river easier to imitate than a lake — A bubblins
spring may be imitated — A ferry-boat at Holkham — A rocky channel at
Harewood.

APPENDIX, NO. II. 711

As Mr. Price has written a long chapter in the second volume of the
" Essays on the Picturesque," on the subject of forming pieces of water,
upon principles directly opposite to those of Mr. Brown or Mr. Etepton,
it may be expected that the latter will here offer something in defence of
his own practice, and that of his predecessor. He shrinks, however, from
the full extent of the controversy, apparently sensible that he could not
lay down any fixed principles for this part of his practice. He offers only
a very few hints, of which the reader shall be enabled to judge by
quotations.

" The observations in the preceding chapter, concerning the reflection
of sky on the surface of water*, will account for that brilliant and cheerful
effect produced by a small pool, frequently placed near the house, although
in direct violation of nature; for since the ground ought to slope, and ge-
nerally does slope, from a house, the water very near it must be on the
side of a hill, and of course artificial. Although I have never proposed a
piece of water to be made in such a situation, I have frequently advised
that small pools so unnaturally placed should be retained, in compliance
with that, general satisfaction which the eye derives from the glitter of
water, however absurd its situation. It requires a degree of refinement in
taste bordering on fastidiousness, to remove what is cheerful and pleasing to
the eye, merely because it cannot be accounted for by the common laws of
nature ; I was not sorry, however, to discover some plea for my compliance,
by considering, that although water on a hill is generally deemed unnatu-
ral, yet all rivers derive their sources from hills, and the highest mountains
are known to have lakes or pools of water near their summits." — In this

* " In artificial rivers, the quiet surface doubles every object on its shores ; and fur
this reason, I have frequently found that the surface could be increased in appearance by
sloping its banks; not only that which actually concealed part of the water, but also the
opposite bank ; because it increased the quantity of sky reflected on the surface." 1 his
is illustrated by a drawing ! ! Besides the bad taste displayed in this passage, it shews that
the author's object in forming pieces of water is just the same as Mr. Brown's ; that is, to
display quantity, not character.

712 APPENDIX, NO. II.

manner, no circumstance, however adverse to nature or propriety, can
ever occur, which may not be argued into good taste ; and no deformity
will ever exist, for which we may not discover " some plea by consi-
dering" different parts of nature. This is embracing an error which Sir
Joshua Reynolds was so anxious to guard against, that of copying pecu-
liarities for general nature.

In the next sentence, the author affirms that " baldness in artificial
pools is pleasing to the less accurate observer," and that such " delight in
a broad expanse of light on the smooth surface reflecting a brilliant sky."
lean only conceive this to hold true of those whose understandings would
be satisfied with Mr. Repton's mode of arguing the subject; for I can
scarcely conceive any one satisfied with baldness, or the mere reflection
of a sky, when trees, broken banks, stones, and varied tints of soil, could
be reflected in connection.

A few trees were cut down in an island at West Wycombe, to shew a
better view of the house, which thus forms the example of icater being
too much clothed! ! ! A sketch is introduced with a slide, to shew this !
while the author adds in a note, that " Mr. Brown has been accused of
cutting down large old trees, and afterwards planting small ones on the
same spot ; the annexed plate may serve to vindicate the propriety of his
advice." This and the drawing shew that the water is now reclothed,t\\ai
the trees were cut down in order to shew the house from the approach, and of
course that it is no example at all. Mr. Repton proposes to introduce a
rocky brook which may be seen from the house, and a cascade, at
Thoresby; because, as it is so near Derbyshire, (only thirty miles distant ! ')
" the violence done to nature by the introduction of rock scenery is
allowable." The former attempt is unworthy of notice; on this last I have
already made some remarks in the foregoing work, page 399- Mere I have
only to state another argument for this practice. " Having condemned,"
Mr. Repton observes, " the ill-judged interference of art in the disposition of
the ground and water at Thoresby, it may perhaps be objected, that I now

Aiu'Kxnix. 713

recommend an artificial management not less extravagant ; because I pre-
sume to introduce some appearance of rock scenery in a soil where no
rock naturally exists; but" (mark the ingenuity of the argument) " tb<»
same objection might be made with equal propriety to the Ma*^j^tiCtion of
an artificial lake in a scene where no lake before ex'**^ |»_suc|, reasoning
deserves no remark.

Arguments of a like nature are introduced to shew, that at Wentworth it
is much easier " to imitate one large river, than several small lakes ; espe-
cially as it is much easier to produce the appearance of continuity, than of
such vast expanse as a lake requires." If a vast expanse be the charac-
teristic of a lake, and still continuity that of a river, then this may be
true ; but while from nature we can place breadth, and progress, in the room
of these epithets, we may reject the reasoning as no less false than the
water at Wentworth is displeasing. I have elsewhere disapproved of the
water at that, residence ; and on a future occasion shall give some views
from it, and contrast them with others, shewing what it might have been,
or may still be made, at much less expence than has been incurred in
forming Mr. Repton's river. Mr. Repton, however, assumes it as a prin-
ciple, that a " river is much easier to imitate than a lake ;" so that we may
thence bid adieu to all character in pieces of water formed by him or his
followers. Is it extraordinary, that a person who thus overlooks the cha-
racters of nature should be bewildered on every occasion ?

A ferry-boat is proposed for Holkham, which is here said to be of a
" novel construction :" and in Hints and Sketches is called an " Invention."
(By the way, Mr. Repton does not say an invention of his own.) The direc-
tions for using it, however, chiefly attract notice : " the surface or deck of
this boat may be covered with gravel and cement, having a hand-rail on each
side ; thus it will in a manner become a moveable part of the gravel walk."
This is a puerile conceit, which will please children. In a philosophical
point of view, it. tends to destroy the characteristic difference between

4 Y

714 APPENDIX.

sailing and walking. A true disciple of nature, or an improver of good
taste, will preserve the character of every circumstance of this kind with
the utmost care, as tending to render scenery striking and interesting, to
mark particular scenes, and to make lasting impressions on the memory.
In every excursion among scenery (and indeed in every thing in life) they
are the little contrasts of this kind that fix themselves upon the memory ;
and on future recollections such ideas, being always the first which are pre-
sented to the mind, lead to the whole chain of relative circumstances by a
beautiful order and connection.

The boat alluded to, may be useful in crossing a narrow ferry, where mere
utility is kept in view: but, in picturesque scenery, good taste will avoid
such incongruities. It is of a piece with the rest of Mr. Repton's im-
provements, they tend to prettyness, which, Mke puns in conversation, may
produce momentary amusement.

The following passage concludes the observations on water : it is to jus-
tify the retaining of two small ponds which are upwards of a hundred
feet above the level of a serpentine river; all which are seen adjoining each
other from the windows in the garden front of Harewood Hall. See
Plate XVI. fig. 1.

" Where two pieces of water are at some distance from each other, and
of such different levels that they cannot easily be made to unite in one
sheet ; if there be a sufficient supply to furnish a continual stream, or only
an occasional redundance in winter, the most picturesque mode of uniting
the two is by imitating a common process of nature in mountainous coun-
tries, where we often see the water in its progress from one lake to another
dashing among broken fragments, or gently gliding over ledges of rock,
which form the bottom of the channel : this may be accomplished at Hare-
wood." In description, the impressions from which are often very different
from those of real nature, this might have some plausibility j for certainly

APPENDIX. 715

water tumbling down a rocky steep, and uniting itself with a rapid stream,
(as is further shewn in the drawing to illustrate this subject,) is very pic-
turesque ; but at Harewood, where not one drop of water flows from these
upper ponds, proposed to be thus united with the lower river, except in
great rains, or in time of high floods in winter, and where, in place of a
rapid stream below, we have a serpentine river, as still and tame as that
of "NVentworth ; how is it possible to make the application ? Fortunately,
the good taste of the proprietor triumphed over such reasoning; and, as I
have formerly mentioned, and suggested by a plate, the upper ponds are
to be planted, and the lower river changed into a lake.

Before I leave Mr. Repton's chapter on Water, I beg to refer the reader
to his remarks on the same subject in " Hints and Sketches," Chap. IV. or
to the " Enquiry into the changes of Taste," page 90 to 95; which contain
some remarks, mostly taken from the Hints and Sketches, less erro-
neous than those in that work, but still true indications of Mr. Repton's
manner of arguing and false practical taste. I must confess that
I never read these passages without being astonished that any man could
submit them to the world. If any reader does not feel similar sensa-
tions to mine in perusing them, it can only be accounted for, by reflect-
ing that the effects of description on the mind are often very different from
those subjects of real nature which gave rise to them ; and that the gene-
rality of readers, and even judges, not having beheld the scenery alluded to,
are not competent to separate the impressions, or judge of their difference.
Had I not seen the water at Harewood, I should probably, from the same
causes, have passed over the above quotation altogether, from not strongly
feeling the misapplication of the reasoning.

From these extracts, either alone, or in connection with those pieces of
water which have been formed under Mr. Repton's direction, the reader will
perceive,

1st, That the author has no general or fixed principles upon which he
proceeds.

716 APPENDIX.

2d, That his precepts, reasoning, and practice, are in direct violation
of natural taste; and,

3d, As a consequence, that there is no absurdity in regard to effect
which he may not produce, and no limits, or certain data, in regard to the
expense, in which those who follow his directions may not be plunged.

Wood, the next, and by far the most important material, is described in
Chapters IV. and V. Every reader must be aware, that almost the whole
art of picturesque improvement, consists in planting and the management
of wood; and also, that this material, being highly profitable, affords an
excellent opportunity of blending utility with beauty, and, of course, of
rendering the most pleasing scenery of a residence highly profitable.
When an author like Mr. Repton, of so much " experience," who has dis-
tributed his opinions in " nearly two hundred red books," who has " guided
the taste and improved the scenery of his country" for nearly twenty
years, and who now sits down to deliver the result of his experience, in
order to " establish fixed principles in an art which he elevated to dig-
nity," and in which he alone " united theory with practice," it may rea-
sonably be supposed, that some very important particulars and excellent
principles would be developed for the instruction of mankind. In no to-
pic of rural affairs could instructions be so well received, because in no ma-
terial of landscape is the proprietor of landed property so much interested,
whether we regard the beauty or value of his estate. But. Mr. Repton
dismisses the subject of planting in less than ten pages, without the least
hint of any general rule or principle, without a single new idea, or any
practical directions which could convey instruction either to the designer
or the practical planter ! ! The management of wood in Chap. V. contains
little more than a long quotation from Whately, and a tedious description
of a drive at Bulstrode. Nothing is said on either subject in " hints and
sketches !" In the " Enquiry into the changes of taste, &c." a few hints
are given, in pages 2 1 , 2, 3 and 4 ; but they are either absolutely erroneous,
or contradictory to experience, as the following paragraphs will shew.

APPENDIX. 717

" The last fashion of drive which Mr. Brown never made is an open drive,

so wide that it never goes near the trees, and which admits such a current,

of air, that the front trees are generally the worst in the plantation ,• add

to this, that two narrow slips of planting will neither grow so well, nor be

such effectual harbours for game, as deeper masses, especially when the

game are liable to be disturbed by a drive between them. The belt may

be useful as a screen ; but, nnless very deep, it should never be used as a

drive, at least till after the trees have acquired their growth, when a drive

may be cut through the wood to advantage." The first passage in italics, is

directly contrary to what takes place in experience; for in a wide drive, as

well as on the outer margin of a wood or grove, the trees are uniformly the

largest and most beautifully shaped. Every woodman knows, and any

one may observe, that the second practice would inevitably produce zvind

shakes, as may be seen in all parts of the island, from the openings lately

made in the platoons in Kensington Gardens, to the public roads cut

through the Scotch fir woods in Perthshire.

"It is not only the line of the modern belt and drive that is objection-
able, but also the manner in which the plantations are made, by the in-
discriminate mixture of every kind of tree. In this system of planting,
all variety is destroyed by the excess of variety, whether it is adopted in
belts or clumps, as they have been technically called;" (This idea is taken
from Mr. Price's Essays; but Mr. Repton, not knowing how to reduce it
to practice, would thus proceed: he says,) " for example, if ten clumps be
composed of ten different sorts of trees in each, they become so many
things exactly similar ; but if each clump consist of the same sort of
trees" (that is, if one clump were of larches, another of Scotch firs, a third
of beeches, a fourth of oaks, a fifth of chesnuts, a sixth of thorns, and so on)
they become ten different things, of which one may hereafter furnish a
group of oaks, another of elms, another of chesnuts or of thorns, &c."
Clumps of mixed kinds are bad ; but this mode would produce a dis-
tinctness and incongruity which would be incomparably worse. By such
a practice, unity, connection, and variety, would be set at defiance.

718 APPENDIX.

" 77 is difficult to lay dozen rules for any system of planting, which may
ultimately be useful to this purpose ; time, neglect, and accident, will often
produce unexpected beauties! The gardener or nurseryman makes his
holes at equal distance, and generally in straight rows ; he then fills the
holes with plants, and carefully avoids putting two of the same sort near
each other ; nor is it very easy to make him ever put two or more trees
into the same hole, or within a yard of each other: he considers them as
cabbages or turnips, which will rob each other's growth, unless placed at
equal distances ;" page 23. The first sentence in italics I positively deny;
and though I could refer to my own practice in several instances, both in
extensive plantations and shrubberies, where the same general principles
are followed, I rather refer to Fonthill, where this, as far as regards Mr.
Repton's argument, is done in the most complete manner. I also refer to
the practice of a planter whose writings, as they are well known, may pro-
bably be in the author's possession; I mean Marshall's Planting and
Rural Ornament, third edition, minute 8th, pages 351 and 352. What
can we learn from the rest of the sentence, but that things are in a bad
state, and that there is no help for it — We must just continue to have our
trees planted " as cabbages or turnips*." The above quotations are the
only passages in the whole of Mr. Repton's writings which, in my opinion,
have the least pretence to scientific directions for planting ; and I am sure
they are such as never were, nor ever will be, followed either with success,
or effects agreeable to good taste and utility.

But I have only enumerated the general heads of Chapters IV. and V.
of "Observations, &c.;" and therefore, in justice to Mr. Repton, I shall
particularize them (in italics), and add under each head a remark or two.

* I have lately had an opportunity of examining the red book from which the author
takes these remarks ; which, if possible, more fully convinces me that he neither compre-
hends Mr. Price's ideas on the subject, nor understands the mode of putting any plan
•f this kind into practice.

APPENDIX. 719

" Chapter iv. Of planting for immediate and for future effect.'''
This is to shew, that Mr. Brown planted clumps with a view of producing
future groups; hut, had this been the case, Mr. Brown would have studied
connection and general effect in these clumps relatively. " Clumps, groups,
and masses." "We are shewn what these are on a plate; the one of arti-
ficial scenery, the other natural ; the last is of ugly nature, and contains
two compact lumpish masses which every man of taste would avoid looking
at, which no- painter would co^y, nor any picturesque improver wish to
introduce into scenery; it is obviously an indirect attempt to shew that
clumps are not unnatural, in the same way as the view of the Thames from
Purley (given in " Observations,") is probably selected out of many other pre-
ferable views, to shew that even serpentine rivers sometimes exist in nature.
" New modes of planting wastes and commons" This is merely using
deciduous trees and thorns in place of firs, and planting them large and
irregularly ; the difference of effect is shewn on two views, and the inven-
tion ascribed to Robert Marsham, Esq. ofStratton. " The browsing line
described ; example, Milton Abbey." This is merely the line formed by
cattle cropping the lower branches of trees. " Combination of masses to
produce great -woods ; example, Coombe Lodge." A long desultory quo-
tation from the red book of Coombe Lodge is introduced ; the whole
amounts to nothing, unless it be that a hill at that place could not be
wholly covered with wood, which would have the best effect ; but as the
land cannot be spared, the spectator must be content to admire the beau-
ties of intricacy in place of breadth, which " would prompt the necessity of
planting the whole of the hill behind the house!!" page 56. "Character
and shape of ground to be studied." This is a pompous introduction of the
well known quotation from Mason, where he directs " with sweeping train
of forest, hill to hill unite," &c. " Outline of neiv plantations ." It is cu-
rious to observe how Mr. Repton gets over any difficult part of his subject ;
the mode of copying from his " red books" (or MS. in the possession of
gentlemen who have been his employers) is admirably adapted to it. After
observing that the outline of plantations in a naked country will appear hard
and artificial for a few years, and that it is difficult to point out the precise

720 APPENDIX.

period when the trees may be thinned and groups " brought forward,"
he does not say how this may be avoided generally — he does not offer any
general principles; but very ingeniously states, " so rich is the ground in
which plantations were made at Aston about ten years since, that this
management has already been adopted with effect." What tendency
have instances of this kind to establish fixed principles? which is the
avowed object of Mr. Repton in his writings.

Chapter v. Woods. — " JVheatlei/s Remarks exemplified at Shardelloes."
Here is first introduced a long quotation ; and then some remarks made,
which shew anything but Mr. Repton's knowledge of the subject. In
woods, he says, " pecuniary advantage and ornament are seldom
strictly compatible with each other;" this, I beg leave to observers an
affirmation directly contrary to truth; and, to prove it, I need only refer to
Marshall's " Planting and Rural Ornament," or to the subject as treated in
this Work, Part VIII. " Wood and laivn are the natural features of Buck-
inghamshire s" to appropriate these woods to the magnificence of Shar-
delloes, the author proposes some artificial objects, and points out a knoll
where he clears away some wood and places a pavilion ; all which is illus-
trated by a plate. A much nobler way of appropriation, or harmonizing
a residence with the country, would have been to have had no pavilion;
and then all Buckinghamshire might apparently have belonged to Shar-
delloes. The introduction of this pavilion brings to my recollection a
plan of Mr. Repton's at Harewood; which was, to introduce a building in
the middle of a solemn and venerable oak wood ; it was to be placed over
the drive, in such a way as that carriages might pass under it — the inten-
tion was to produce more cheerfulness and variety! ! — This is characteris-
tic of Mr. Repton's manner of improvement. " A drive at Bulstrode
traced, ivith reasons for its course" — These reasons are few, and merely
refer to the particular scenery through which it passes. " Further examples
from Hkathfield Park." This is equally tiresome, and void of instruc-
tion. A belt j this is said to be preferred by modern improvers, from a love

APPENDIX. 721

of extent more than of beauty." " On thinning rcoods." The author
first shews at some length, that he does not understand the mode in
which beauty and profit can be united ; and then observes, as an apology
for any thing further, that " to give such general rules for thinning woods
as might be understood by those who have never attentively and scientifi-
cally considered the subject, would be like attempting to direct a man who
had never used a pencil to imitate the groups of a Claude or a Poussin."'
It requires little penetration to discover the reason why Mr. Repton has
recourse to this kind of apology ; nor need the scientific reader be told,
after giving these quotations, that their author does not understand even
the nomenclature of trees, much less their characterislical distinctions,
properties, culture, and uses. No wonder then that he afterwards states,
" On this head I have frequently found my instructions opposed, and
my reasons unintelligible."

Leaving groups, opening a lawn in great woods ; example, Cashiobury.
The author has " occasionally been required to fell great quantities of
timber, from other motives than merely to improve the landscape;" in
some instances it " produced fortunate improvements," — as at Cashio-
bury.

We have now examined the author's ideas on this important subject;
and certainly they justify me in affirming, that he is uninformed in even/
thing relating to planting. "Whether we compare what he has said with
truth, or with what he might have advanced had he been well acquainted
with trees, it is alike evident that he is not guided by ,//. red principles him-
self, and of course when writing for the benefit of others he must frequently
err; for in every art the practical experience of men ignorant of principles
and particulars, and incapable of reasoning from nature and practice, can
never tend to improvement. Such persons may practise all their lives
without ever discovering a single useful fact. To be able to profit by
observation or experience in trees, a previous knowledge of their physio-

4 z

722 APPENDIX.

logy, culture, and nomenclature, are absolutely necessary. But of all these
this author knows little or nothing.

In every art the want of fixed principles leads to arbitrary practice ;
and we have only to consider for a moment the powers of trees, in regard
to the beauty of the country, the profits of individual proprietors, and
what is a more magnificent concern, the naval character of the British na-
tion, to foreknow the dangerous and ruinous consequences of following
such directions as those which have been laid down by Mr. Repton.

Utility and convenience, it was observed, form the second part of the
art of forming residences. It may be included under the farm, kitchen
garden, mansion, and the conveniences peculiar to country seats : on all
these this author has said little, and what he has said is at variance with
good taste. In Chapter VII. it is roundly stated, that an ornamented
farm is a contradiction in terms. But that this is not the case any one
may be convinced, who will allow that a hedge mingled with woodbine,
briar, honeysuckles, hazel, &c. or a wall varied by ivy or scattered bushes,
is more beautiful than a mere row of thorns, or a naked line of stones. In
numerous parts of the foregoing work, I have shewn how beauty and use
may be united, both in what regards agriculture and the formation of
farms. I only add here, that those who have seen the farm at Milburn
laying out by the proprietor, or^iave witnessed the order, beauty, and
economy, displayed in that at Lesbury, near Alnwick*, will certainly
reject the dogmatic decision of this author. Are none to enjoy beauty
but those who can purchase an extensive country and throw it into a park?

On kitchen gardens nothing is advanced. The hints on hot houses and

* In addition to several farms laid out by me, and referred to in former parts of the work,
I might also add those at Kingswood Lodge and Egham Park, chiefly of pasture: though I
am sorry that I cannot approve of some recent additions made to the former resilience, by
the proprietor ; I mean the kitchen garden.

APPENDIX. 723

offices are few, and undeserving of attention. I therefore pass them over,
as well as all the other parts of Mr. Repton's writings. It is true, the
want of utility and convenience are serious defects in a country residence ;
but as they are soon felt by all proprietors, they speedily effect their own
remedy.

All the other opinions and directions in this author's works, as well
as his practice, though alike unfounded on fixed general principles, are
far less dangerous than his directions respecting wood and water. As
already observed, the management of them comprehends almost every thing
in the improvement of landscape, whether in regard to present expenses,
future effects, future profits, or national character. Hence I have been led
to make these remarks upon opinions and directions which ever since
Mr. Brown's time have retarded the progress of taste, materially in-
jured* the value of property, and sometimes ruined individuals f; and
which, sanctioned by time, and propagated by an artist of long estab-
lishment and unquestioned pre-eminence, may still continue to produce the
same bad effects, unless those effects are pointed out, and a practice
founded on rational principles proposed in their room.

* See Kent's Hints on Landed Property, page 161, edit. 1799.
f See Covvper's Task.

INDEX.

«3"

The numeral Letters refer to the Second Volume.

Arlaqueation in gardening, 269

Affectedly graceful style, of forming resi-
dences, 642. ii.

Age and ruin, in regard to the faculty of
taste, 41

Agriculture, 187

Amusement, the object of some in retiring
to the country, 669. ii.

Animal kingdom, 192

Animals breeding, rearing, fattening, &c. 242

Anticnt British garden, 341, 342

Antient style of forming residences, 641. ii.

Apiary, 596. ii.

Approaches to mansions, 591. ii.

Arches or gateways, 329

Architecture, 67

Arrangement of ornamental gardens, 330

Association of ideas in regard to taste, 49

Ash trees, 474. ii.

Autumn garden, 3 10

Beauty, supreme, 38
-^— — relative, 38

■ picturesque, 40

sculpturesque, 40

antique, 40

romantic, 40

in architecture, 71, 78

in planting, 453. ii. 515. ii.

combined with utility in planting,

515. ii.
Beautiful situations for country seats, 604. ii.
Beech trees, 475. ii,

Beasts of labour, 325
Borderingsin gardens, 333
Botanic gardening, 314

parterre or garden, 343

Bowling-greens, 598. ii.

Breeding of animals, 343

Bridges, 122

Brown and Repton, their style of forming:

residences, 650. ii.
Buildings, 328. 407. ii.

Canal making, 231

Cascades, 397. ii.

Cedar of Lebanus, 486. ii.

Changes in the elements in regard to effect,

425. ii.
Characteristic style of forming residences,

644. ii.
Characters in relation to taste, 35

to architecture, 78

■ to picturesque improve-

ment, 359. ii.
Chinese garden, 312

Choice of situations for country seats, 655. ii.
Churches, 120
Cities and towns, 146

City amusements, thei r effects, 689. ii. '
Clearing grounds in agriculture, 225
Cold and heat in regard to the faculty of

taste, 26
Colouring in painting, 56
Colours in regard to the faculty of taste, 25
Confusion in relation to taste, 32

INDEX.

Conformity or symmetry in relation to taste,

30
Connection in picturesque improvement, 361.

ii.
Conservatories, 34-6
Contrast in relation to taste, 33
Convenience in architecture, 69
Conveniences of a residence, 589. ii.
Cottages, 12 +

, ornaments in, 133

, fire-places of, 137

, improved and decorated, 141

Covered seats, 328
Country-houses, their situations, 157
■ ■ adaption to, 161

union with the grounds, 170

Cow-houses, 595. ii.

Cucumbers and melons, their culture, 2SI

Cultivation in general, 232

■ of garden soil, 256

Culture, 236

■ , its effects on trees, 492. ii.

of grain or corns, 237

of grasses, 237

of roots, leaves, &c. 240

of particular crops, 21-0

of herbaceous vegetables, 269

of garden crops, 270

of wall fruits, 272

of espaliers, 275

of staudards, 275

of small fruits or fruit shrubs, 277

— — — of culinary exotics, 277

of the vine, 278

of melons and cucumbers, 281

Cypress trees, 487. ii.

Dairy, 594. ii.
Degrees of beauty, 28
Deformity, 39
Delicacy, 38
Dells or dingles, 435. ii.

Design, 54

Design in architecture, 119

in forming residences, 612. ii.

Destruction of weeds, 233, 261

Display of wealth in regard to the country,

668. ii.
Disposition, 54
of forms, 23

of wood, 507. ii. 518. ii.

Ditches and drains as fences, 5-14. ii.
Dog kennels, 597. ii.

Draining, 200. 577. ii.

Drawing and perspective, 55

Dress of females, 23

Drives, 592. ii.

Drying-rooms and wash-house, 594. ii.

Durability of timber, 500. ii.

Dutch flower-gardens, 342

Duties of a kitchen gardener, 627. ii.

flower or ornamental gardener,

629. ii.

forester, 632. ii.
farmer or bailiff, 634. ii.

Effects of scenery, 17
Elder trees, 484. ii.
Elegance in regard to taste, 42
Elm trees, 483. ii.
Embanking, 203
Embankments, their failure, 205

natural, their strength, 20S

, their preservation, 213

, materials of, 215

, expenses of, 218

, advantages of, 223

Espalier trees, their culture, &c. 275 '
Evergreens, 485. ii.

oaks, 487. ii.

Expense of forming residences, 617. ii.

pieces of water, 405. ii. 623. ii.

Expression in regard to taste, 35
to painting, 57

INDEX.

Expressions in regard to trees, 471. ii. 472. ii.

Family offices, 594. ii.

name, the foundation of, 669. ii.

Farms, their size, formation, and manage-
ment, 245

■ , arable, 248

, pasture, 249

, mixed, 249

for private families, 249

Fattening animals, 242
Felling wood, 577. ii.
Fences, 227

for plantations, 540. ii.

Fire-places of cottages, 137
Fish-ponds, 596. ii.
Fitness in regard to taste, 30

architecture, 79

Flooding, 238

Flowering and botanic plants, 319
Flower gardens, 338
Forcing vegetables, 2S3
Formation of farms, 247

kitchen gardens, 304

1 flower-gardens, 338. 43S. ii

Forms in regard to taste, 22

, their disposition, 23
French parterres and gardens, 342
Fruit-rooms, 300

Gaiety, 42, 72 x

Garden crops, their culture, 270
Gardening useful, 253

, ornamental, 314

, nursery, 253

Gates, 593. ii.

General flower-garden, 238

plan for residences, 612. ii.

Geometrical style of residences, 641. ii.
Gothic architecture, 97

Grandeur in architecture, 78
Grandeur in planting, 454. ii.

Grapes, their culture, 237
Gravel and sand, 317
Gravity in relation to taste, 27
Grecian architecture, 83

flower-garden, 342

Grecian painting, 58
Groves, 525. ii.

Ground, 363. ii. 602. ii. 621. ii.
Grouping in regard to taste, 35. 532. ii.
Groups of trees, 532. ii.
shrubs and flowers, 335, 349

Habitations of the husbandmen, 152

of the wealthy and noble, 155

Hardness of bodies in regard to the faculty

of taste, 34
Harmony in relation to taste, 34

to wood, 511. ii.

Heads for containing water, 623. ii.
Health in regard to a rural residence, 666. ii.
Heat and cold in relation to the faculty of

taste, 26
Hedgerow timber, 228. 573. ii.
Hemlock spruce, 487. ii.
Herbaceous vegetables, their culture, 269
Holly trees, 487. ii.
Horse-chesnut, 475. ii.
Hotbeds, 299
Hothouses, 296, 343
Hotwalls, 299
Husbandly, 187

Icehouse, 598. ii.
Imagination, 48
Implements of agriculture, 232
Improvement of soils, 200, 225

its principle, 358. ii.

— picturesque scenery, 358. ii.

Inclosing, 225

plantations, 540. ii.

Intricacy in relation to taste, 13

' architecture, 75

INDEX.

Inscriptions, 325
Invisible fence, 418. ii.
Ivy, its importance, 487. ii.

Keeping in painting, 56
Kitchen gardening, 253

garden buildings, 300

Laburnums, 481. ii.

Landscape, the materials of, 363. ii. 422. ii.

Landscape gardening, 355. ii.

— husbandly, 355. ii.

Larches, 475. ii.

Lawn, 316

Light in painting, 54

Lodges, 592. ii.

Lowgrcwths in parks, 363. ii.

Management of land gai ned from the sea, 2 1 9

. of farms, 251

of country residences, 625. ii.

Manufactories, 118
Manures, 235

Marking out improvements on country resi-
dences, 620. ii.
Materials of ornamental gardening, 316

of landscape, their union, 427. ii.

Mechanical powers, 195
Melancholy, 41

— in architecture, 79

Melons and cucumbers, their culture, 281

Memory in regard to taste, 48

Middle distances of landscapes, 428. ii.

Mineral kingdom, 195

Modifications of matter, 22

Modern flower-gardens, 342

Modern style of forming residences, 642. ii.

Monuments, 325

Moving objects in landscape, 423. ii.

Mulberry trees, 304

Mushroom-houses, 299

National character and glory, 692. ii.
Natural taste, its gratification in the country,

671. ii.
Neglected plantations, their management,

567. ii.
Norway maple, 4S2. ii.
Novelty, 42
Nursery gardening, 253

Odours in regard to the faculty of taste, 25

Orchards, their formation, 302.

Order, in relation to the faculty of taste, 32

architecture, 75

Ornament in cottages, 133

• country houses, 175

— planting, 453. ii.

Ornamental gardening, 314

Painting, its principles, &c. 58
Paring and burning, 225
Parks, 431. ii.
Parterre gardening, 314
Parterres, 337

Perspective and drawing, 55
Pheasantry, 595. ii.
Picturesque beauty, 40

improvement, 355. ii.

composition, 427. ii.

variety, 454. ii.

Piers or projections for preserving the banks

of rivers, 213
Pigeon-house, 596. ii.
Pits, their construction, 297
Plantations, their different kinds, 525. ii.

of hard wood, 569. ii.

resinous trees, 510. ii.

mixed trees, 519. ii.

, their outlines, 535. ii.

Planting, 441. ii.

. , the object of, 551. ii.

Pleasure-ground, 434. ii.

INDEX.

Pleasing combinations of the modifications
of matter, 28

Poplars, 482. ii.

Practice of forming residences, 599. ii.

Proportion or fitr.esss in relation to the fa-
culty of taste, 30

Private buildings, 124

Pruning garden vegetables, 263

Principles of ornamental gardening, 340

Pruning, the effects of, 495, 559, 572. ii.

Preservation of country residences, 625. ii.

kitchen gardens and or-

chards, 626. ii.

~ farms, 628. ii.

• ornamental and picturesque

scenery, 631. ii.

-woods, 633. ii.

Profit the object of some in retiring to the

country, 667. ii.
Public buildings, 119
Pulverization, 233

Quadrangular style of Gothic mansions, 109

Rearing animals, 242
Ridicule in regard to taste, 43
Resting or refreshing garden soil, 257
Retreats in gardens, 300
Reclaiming plantations, 567. ii.
Repton and Brown's style of forming resi-
dences, 650. ii.

Roads, their direction, 230

formation, 231

management, 231

and walks, 414. ii.

Romantic beauty, 40

in architecture, 79

in situations, 605. ii.

Roman and Italian gardens, 342

Rocks, 368. ii.

Rotation of crops in gardens, 258

Roughness in regard to taste, 24

Rural in. | rovement, its fnfluence <>n socii Ij

680. ii.

Salt, as a manure, 236
Scotch fir, 4S5. ii.

elm, 4S3. ii.

Sculpturesque beauty, 40

Senses in regard to the faculty of taste, 20, 48

Sea-bathing, its influence on morals, 667. ii.

Sensations of taste, 20

Seed-room, 300

Shade in painting, 56

Sheltering exposed grounds, 228

Shelter for a garden, 305

voung plantations, 555. ii.

in general cases, 595. ii.

Shrubs, 223

Shrubbery gardening, 314
Shrubberies, 352. ii.
Size of farms, 245
Situations for gardens, 305

. residences, 602, 609. ii.

Smoothness, in relation to the faculty of

taste, 24
Spandrils in Gothic architecture, 101
Softness, 24

Sowing tree seeds, 541. ii.
Soil for gardens, 306, 317.
plantations, 547. ii.

Spring flower-gardens, 340

Styles of architecture, 79, 83

Stones, 319, 373. ii.

Statues, urns, &c. 325

Stoves for plants, 344

Sublimity, 37

in architecture, 78

Supreme beauty, 14, 3S

Symmetry, in conformity, in relation to taste,

50
, architecture, 74

Taste, or intellectual feeling, 17
Tasting, the sense of, 20

5 A

INDEX.

Tennis-courts, 598. ii.

Thinning plantations, 563, 572. ii.

Timber, causes of its durability, 500. ii.

Training garden trees, 265

Towns and cities, 146

Trees, their classification, 45

' arrangement, 507. ii.

■ —- — disposition, 517. ii.
Tranquillity in regard to taste, 41
Truth or nature, 29

Unity in relation to taste, 30

— — ^^— — — — architecture, 75

Uniformity in relation to taste, 30

■ ■ architecture, 74
Unsuitable situations, their improvement,

609. ii.
Urns, 325

Variety, in relation to the faculty of taste, 33

— — — architecture, 75

■ planting, 455, 515. ii.

Vines, their culture, 278
Villages, 143
Vegetable kingdom, 188

Walls for gardens, 308

fences, 543. ii.

Walks and roads, 414. ii.
Wash-house, and drying-rooms
Water for gardens, 262, 318

farms, 238

Waterfalls, 395. ii.
Warping, 225

Wildness in regard to taste, 40
Winter garden, 339
Wood, 374, 526. ii.

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

Place Plate Place Plate

1 facing Page 107 17 lacing Page 305

2 109 18 418

3 Ill 19 477

4 112 20 538

5 137 21 013

6 plate 5 22 647

7 page 178 23 plate 22

S 179 , 24 page 421

9 201 25 plate 24

10 205 26 642&3

11 295 27 1 to be placed facing C between con-

12 vol. ii. 37! 28) each other ) <-'usion 702

fto be placed facing each other 29 1 to be placed facing j and ap-

\ at the end of vol. i. that is 30 j each other (pendix ...703
* [ afterpage 354 31 649

15 vol. ii. 389 32 (with slide) 705

16 392

The Binder will take particular care to place those plates, which represent the same sub-
ject, under different styles of improvement (as 29, 30, &c.) facing each other, so as both
of them may read from the left. Thus the facility of comparison will be increased.

ERRATA.

contents. Page 1 of Contents, for Part I. read Book I.

for Book 1. read Part I.
Part IV. Chap. III. of Contents, 9th line from the bottom, for creation read nrl:ci.
Page 13, for Kowdry read Co:i<dray.

13 for Fenchnrcb read Kentihurch.

128 line 22 for above read alone.

232 6 — of the cultivation read of cultivation.

305 IS — but hoar read but where friar.

324 15 — absmthides read absinthoia'es.

>»— 327 20 dele on reading.

377 (vol.ii.) 20 for pecud-acorus read pseud-acorns.

- 434 7th line from the bottom, for Ashlon read Woollon.

473 line 1 1 for alles read ulba.

647 lines 4, 5, & 9, for Plates XXIII. and XXIV. read Plates XXII. and XXIII.

648 6 for Plate XXX. read Plate XXXI.

675 28 (Note) for affected read effected.

C WH1TI 1XOH AM, Printer, I)e;m Street. Idler lane

tf» In the ensuing Spring will be published, as the Sequel to Part III. Book I.
written by the same Author, " The Theory of Taste, chiefly in regard to the
Material World, with an Application of its Principles to the Internal Ar-
rangement, Characters, and Finishing of Apartments, and the different
Kinds of Furniture, Furnishing, Decorations, #V."

-IAU

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