TRINIDAD":

Its Geography, Natural Resources, Administration,
Present Condition, and Prospects.

L. A. A. DE 'VERTEUIl/, M.D.P.,

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE CENTRAL SOCIETY OP AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE
(MEMBRE CORRESPONDANT DE LA SOCIETE CENTRALE D' AGRICULTURE).

"The softness and purity of the climate, and the verdure, freshness, and sweetness
of the country, appeared to Columbus to equal the delights of early spring in the
beautiful province of Valencia, in Spain." — Washington Irving, book x., ch. 2.

(o<)So?
\ "x o 0 0

SECOND EDITION. | O • of •

CA-SSELL & COMPANY, Limited:

LONDON, PARIS & NEW YORK.

1884.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Dedication v

Preface ............. vii

Introduction 1

Chapter I. — Geographical Description— Position and Area ... 36

Chapter II. — Geological View — Mineral Springs, Pitch Deposits — Soil

and Vegetation 54

Chapter III. — Natural History — Vegetable Kingdom: Timber Woods,
Useful and Poisonous Plants — Animal Kingdom : Mammifers, Birds,
Keptiles, Fish and Insects, viz., those which merit attention from
their utility as food, their singular habits, or noxious and destructive
propensities ... ... ... 70

Chapter IV. — Climate — Temperature — Rains — Diseases . . . .117

Chapter V. — Population — Ethnography — Religion — Education — Crime . 153

Chapter VI. — General Administration — Government — Civil, Judiciary,

Ecclesiastical, and Financial Departments — Means of Communication 188

Chapter VII.— Productive Industry — Agriculture — Exportable Articles :
Sugar, Cacao, Coffee, &c. — Alimentary Articles : Live Stock, Vege-
tables, Plantain, Maize, Rice, Manioc, Yams, &c. — Fruits— Commerce 220

Chapter VIII. — Topography — Northern Division : Counties of St. George,

St. David, St. Andrew, and Caroni ....... 269

Chapter IX. — Topography — Southern Division : Counties of Victoria,

St. Patrick, Mayaro, and Nariva 301

Chapter X. — Prospects of Trinidad — Suggestions 334

IV CONTENTS.

PAGK

Chapter XI.— Natural History of Trinidad— Zoology— Botany . . 358

Mammalia 358

Birds. — An Essay on the Ornithology of Trinidad. By Antoine

Leotaud, M.D.P 365

Reptiles 381

Fishes 388

Botany. — Outline of the Flora of Trinidad. By Herman Criiger . 395

Chapter XII. — Historical Outline 421

APPENDIX.

Suggestions for Organizing a Central Agricultural Committee,

and Establishing Model Farms in the Island of Trinidad . 470

Mineral Coals 481

DEDICATION

TO THE NATIVES OF TRINIDAD.

In dedicating this production to you, my countrymen, I can truly
say with Montaigne — " C'est icy un livre de bonne f oy, lecteur/'
I am, therefore, anxious that you should find it truthful, if not
as interesting or valuable as it might, under other auspices, have
been. And yet, it cannot be reasonably expected that, in
treating so many and such various subjects, no errors should have
crept in ; this much, however, I can say — they are not wilful
errors.

With all the drawbacks, however — for which I crave your
indulgence — I am confident you will find in the work itself
material evidences of the great importance of Trinidad in an
agricultural as well as a commercial point of view. Numberless,
varied, and more than competent are its resources, but they
remain undeveloped still ; and it assuredly, in a great measure,
depends on you to render them available, by cheerfully and un-
hesitatingly throwing off the lethargy of inaction, by resolutely
girding yourselves for the arduous enterprise, and by putting forth,
in unity of faith and purpose, the collected might, the energy,
the perseverance, of a people resolved to yield to no obstacles, and
to halt at no issue short of complete and triumphant success.

That many obstacles naturally exist, that not a few have
been cast in the way, I have admitted and shown; I have

VI DEDICATION.

also endeavoured to point out such as can be traced to the influ-
ence of former social institutions. Nevertheless, on a careful
review of our present social condition, you have no cause for
despondency; but let my earnest advice prevail with you to
sever all connection with the past by a steady advance in moral
and industrial improvement ; or if the events of the past cannot
but be reverted to, if its trials and struggles, its sufferings and
humiliations will, of necessity, intrude — let them rather serve as
beacons by which to avoid the shoals, and to steer onward in the
current of the future, than as provocations to disunion, or pre-
cedents for error.

In conclusion, my opinion on many topics I give up to
discussion, but I ask and expect a fair and impartial discussion.

Your friend and devoted servant,

L. A. A. de Yerteuil.

Pokt-of-Spaix, May, 1856.

PREFACE

It is to me somewhat surprising that geographical works, in
general, should contain so many and such glaring errors, even
respecting countries which certainly ought to be better known.
Not to deviate from the subject in hand, and selecting Trinidad
as a case in point, I may remark that such errors are of frequent
occurrence in some of the best works that have made mention
of the island, and also in books of very recent publication.

Adrien Balbi, speaking of Trinidad, has only these few
words: — " Spanish Town (jadis Puerto Espana), ville for iifiee et
commercante, avec un port et peut-etre 10,000 habitants; Saint-
Joseph d'Orufia, autrefois capitale : Char agar amus, importante
par son beau port, et les chantiers que les Anglais y ont Habits."

Thus Balbi alters the name of the modern capital from Pori-
of- Spain to Spanish Town ; he terms it fortified, whilst it is an
open, unprotected town ; also, instead of Chagtiaramas, he writes
Charagaramus — a misnomer, adopted by all the French geo-
graphers— making it, besides, an important place " on account of
the docks therein established by the English."

In Mr. Montgomery Martin's book, " The British Colonies/'
and the volume on the West Indies, published as late as 1854,
I find the following erroneous statements : — " The chief ports
resorted to, on the Trinidad side (of the Gulf of Paria), are :
Chaguaramas Bay, where the extremity of the north-western
peninsula, Gaspar Grande, and other islets, form an immense
natural dock, sheltered from all weathers and all winds, and

Vlll PREFACE.

Port-of -Spain, on whose shores stands the capital of the island."
Mr. Martin, therefore, classes as one of the chief ports resorted
to, in the Gulf of Paria, Chaguaramas Bay, whereas vessels
never resort thither, except at intervals, to take in ballast. Let
me remark here again that Port-of-Spain is the name of the
town, and not of a port. Mr. Martin is likewise committing a
glaring error when he says that from Mount Tamana "the
lovely and fertile valleys of Maraccas and Las Cuevas extend
themselves before the eye/' for this good reason, that, between
Tamana and those valleys, the northern range rises nearly
1,400 feet above the former. Again, never was Bio Grande a
good roadstead — the only safe harbours, on the whole northern
coast, being Las Cuevas and Maraccas Bay, which are not even
mentioned in Mr. Martin's work.

In preparing the following pages, my anxious desire has
mainly been to make Trinidad better known to the British public
in general, and to its own inhabitants in particular. It is really
surprising how uninformed even Trinidadians are regarding their
own country. Our best schoolboys are able to give the names
of the chief rivers, and the position of the principal towns in
Great Britain, France, and even in Russia and China ; but they
are ignorant, perhaps, of the names of the Guataro and Oropuche,
or through what county the Caroni has its course. They know
that San Fernando exists, but may not be able to say whether it
is on the eastern or the western side of the island ; they can give
the principal boundaries and dimensions of Europe, and its larger
kingdoms, but are ignorant of those of their own island-home ;
they can enumerate the chief productions of England and France,
but they do not know what are the agricultural products of their
own country.

Not only is such ignorance discreditable, but its effects cannot
but be prejudicial to the best interests, and consequently to the
advancement, of the colony.

With this view of being serviceable, particularly to my own
countrymen, I have entered into details which might otherwise

PREFACE. IX

have been overlooked. Being also under the conviction that
statistical facts and comparisons make a deeper and more lasting
impression on the mind than mere statements, I have taken
great pains in preparing a few tables which, I hope, will prove
useful in drawing and fixing the attention of those who can
judge for themselves, and in circulating correct notions regarding
the commercial and agricultural capabilities of Trinidad. I
hope that those among us who have fallen from comparative
affluence into poverty, will find in this sketch sufficient reasons to
encourage them to exertion.

It now remains for me to give a few explanations, and to
accomplish a pleasant duty, in tendering my acknowledgments
to those who have supplied me with materials for, or have other-
wise aided me in, the completion of this work.

During the eight years Lord Harris governed Trinidad, his
Lordship invariably manifested the liveliest interest in the
welfare of the island, not only as to the development of its
natural resources, but also in regard to the intellectual and moral
improvement of its inhabitants; and that interest he evinced
in various ways, but particularly by directly encouraging useful
information, and the diffusion of knowledge among all classes.

After awarding a very liberal prize to the best Essay on the
Cultivation of the Sugar-cane and the Manufacture of Sugar,
his Lordship proposed for public competition another Essay on
the Vegetable and Mineral Resources of Trinidad. Various
reasons then prevented me from writing on the subject ; the pro-
posals, however, aroused in my mind a strong desire to bring
under public notice the natural resources of this important, but
comparatively unknown and much neglected, colony ; and to that
circumstance may be traced the origin of the present work.

My personal knowledge of the topography of the island being
somewhat limited, I have availed myself of information drawn
from publications on the subject, and especially from the valuable
survey made by Captain Columbine of the northern and southern
coasts of the island; from the Geological Survey of Messrs.

X PREFACE.

Wall and Sawkins I have also obtained the elevation of our
mountains and a few remarkable spots ; from many kind friends
I have received most useful and interesting contributions, and,
from some, material aid. To these gentlemen, too numerous to
be individually mentioned, I offer my most grateful acknow-
ledgments ; they are, however, especially due to Mr. John
Thatcher. I also acknowledge with pleasure that the Report of
MM. Wall and Sawkins on the Geology of Trinidad has
greatly assisted me in improving this second edition, by affording
most valuable information on the economic geology of the island.

The zoological part of this work is very incomplete ; but not
only did I not possess the necessary facilities for writing very
comprehensively on the subject, but my intention has merely
been to give some short descriptive details of those animals which
do not exist in the other Antilles, or which deserve peculiar
notice (as I have elsewhere stated) either on account of their
prominent utility in the way of food, &c, their singular habits,
or their noxious qualities and destructive propensities. I hope,
therefore, the reader will make allowance for the little informa-
tion afforded under this head. The botanical part will be found
much more complete.

My friend, Dr. Leotaud, has contributed a very interesting
memoir on the ornithology of the island. To him also I am
indebted for the catalogue of our fishes. The assistance of my
friend, Dr. Court, has enabled me to give a pretty complete
account of our most remarkable reptiles ; and another friend,
Mr. Herman Cruger, has kindly furnished a very talented and
valuable sketch of the flora of Trinidad.

In the application of names, I have adopted those which I
consider as sanctioned by the common consent and usage of the
inhabitants, or which were originally given to certain localities.
Captain Columbine, in his report, had mistaken a few names :
for instance, he writes Les Couvas and Patter a instead of Las
Cuevas * and Matura. I would have given preference to Guataro
* las Cucvaa, a Spanish name signifying The Caves.

PREFACE. XI

instead of Ortoire, the former being more in unison with the
names of the other rivers of the island, which are in general of
Indian derivation; but Ortoire is more familiar. The northern
point of the north-west peninsula of Trinidad had, apparently,
no known designation ; I suggested for its distinction that of
Point Mono, from its proximity to the islet of the same name.

As to the introduction, it contains my personal views and
opinions on the future prospects of the Columbian archipelago,
and the line of policy which might be adopted for effecting an
amelioration in the condition, and a security to the welfare, of its
numerous islands. I anticipate that both those views and
opinions will meet with opposition ; but provided they are not
regarded as prejudiced or unreasonable, I shall feel satisfied, at
least, in not having been misunderstood ; for my utmost endea-
vours throughout have aimed at being strictly impartial as well
as practical.

In the collection and arrangement of the materials of this
work, I have encountered more difficulties, labour, and anxiety
than I had anticipated. My resources were confined within the
narrow limits of local information, and I had, in addition, to
contend with an imperfect knowledge of the tongue in which I
ventured to write.

Again, being unknown, I have thought it necessary to seek
for my opinions the support of those who, from their social
position or special knowledge, may be regarded as authorities ;
hence the cause that so many extracts will be found transcribed
in these pages.

TRINIDAD.

INTRODUCTION.

Of the numerous groups of islands which stud the surface of
the deep, none is of more intrinsic importance than the Western
or Caribbean Archipelago; and it may be questioned whether
even the Eastern or Indian Archipelago, which alone can stand
in comparison, really does equal it in the totality of its local and
relative advantages.

In point of fertility of soil, agricultural productions, similarity
of climate, and geographical position, they bear a great resem-
blance to each other, though they are, of course, not without
their individual peculiarities. As a consequence, they may be
said to have been always antagonistic in interest, and to have
progressed in as constant an opposition.

At one period, the Western Archipelago seemed to have
gained the ascendancy ; but that ascendancy has been gradually
transferred to the East, in proportion as European interest, power,
and patronage have been extending in that quarter, and, more
particularly, since the abolition of slavery in the West Indies.

The isles of the East certainly do possess many advantages
over those of the West ; they have greater agricultural and
mineral wealth. Gold is found in almost every part, but particu-
larly in Borneo and Sumatra, and no country produces better tin
than Banca. Copper and iron are not uncommon, sulphur exists
pretty generally, and diamonds are found in Borneo. Copper,
only, it seems, is abundant in the Western Archipelago, though
traces of gold have been found in Cuba and Hayti; sulphur
however, is not scarce, and salt is plentiful and of excellent
quality.

Sugar, coffee, cotton, indigo, and tobacco are products of both
archipelagos ; cotton and indigo of the Eastern particularly ;
tobacco of the Western. Cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, and black
pepper are indigenous to the East ; vanilla, cacao, cochineal,
and pimento to the West. Rice forms the basis of the agri-

2 TRINIDAD.

cultural economy of the Eastern, Indian corn of the Western,
Archipelago.

The isles of the East do not import food, but manufactured
goods only ; Java even exports rice. The isles of the West, on
the contrary, import an immense quantity of alimentary articles.
This is, again, an advantage the former enjoy over the latter.
The evils arising from such an anomalous position will not be felt
so long as the population remains scant or limited, and high
money- wages are afforded; but should it become more dense, and
the same plan be persisted in, the most distressing results may be
predicted — amongst others, starvation and its concomitant miseries
will be the consequence, unless the cultivation of the " ground-
provisions" be pursued on a sufficiently extensive scale.

The Eastern Archipelago lies within the tropics, between 19°
N. and 11° S. latitude, and between 95° and 135° E. longitude.
Its area maybe estimated at about 392,000 square miles; that of
the Western at about 105,000. The islands of the East, such as
Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Celebes, Luzon, are generally of larger
dimensions than those of the West.

The total population of the Eastern Archipelago may be com-
puted at 23,000,000 inhabitants, or at the rate of 58' 67 to the
square mile ; that of the Western, at about 3,113,000, or 31'13 to
the square mile. Several races inhabit the Eastern Archipelago,
viz., the Javano-Malayan and the Hindoo, both of which are
again subdivided into many tribes ; the Chinese, and also a few
Arabians. The prevailing religion is Mahommedan; large numbers
of Christians, however, are found in the Spanish, Portuguese,
Dutch, and, latterly, the British colonies. The Chinese and
Hindoos still adhere to Buddhism and Brahminism. Not exactly
slavery, but serfdom exists everywhere, the seigneurial rights of
all territory being vested in the sovereigns or hereditary chiefs,
and despotism is the only prevailing form of government.

The Western Archipelago is, at present, inhabited by two
races, the aborigines or Indian stock being almost entirely extinct.
Those two races are the European and the African ; widely dif-
ferent in origin, external appearance, and also in habits and pre-
judices. The representatives of the former are immigrants from
Europe ; the latter, imported labourers from Africa. The Afri-
cans, whilst Europeans continued to be slaveholders, were, for a
long time, degraded under the worst form of slavery; but, at the
present period, unconditional freedom, and such as was never
known to exist in any Asiatic kingdom, practically exists in nearly
all the Western isles, and Christianity may be said to form the
sole prevailing religion.

In proportion as the natural resources of the Eastern islands
become more accessible, a vast aggregate of industrious immi-

INTRODUCTION. 3

grants are within hail, and at their beck — nay, at their very doors
— ready to avail themselves of any inducement afforded. China
is the grand source from which population will flow into Luzon,
Borneo, Celebes, Java, and Sumatra. The Hindoo race will, in
preference, seek a home in Ceylon and the peninsula beyond the
Ganges.

From what quarter will emigration issue to stock the Carib-
bean Archipelago ? The United States are, probably, the source
from which the African race will, by degrees, drain off into the
Western isles, there to form free communities under the joint pro-
tection of Europe and America, or to become naturalised subjects
of the various governments to which those possessions at present
respectively belong. But this is a question which requires mature
consideration, and which I shall afterwards more fully examine.

The present condition of the Eastern Archipelago is cheering
and highly encouraging; its prospects are those of prosperity and
peaceful progress. The present condition of the Western Archi-
pelago is one of hard struggle, and discouraging in the extreme,
whilst its prospects are still veiled in obscurity.

The Indian Archipelago is on the highway from Europe to
China and Japan, by the Cape of Good Hope and the Suez
Canal, and lies between the southern kingdoms of Asia and
Australia. Those kingdoms produce similar articles of food and
commerce, viz., rice, sugar, cotton, and indigo ; Australia, wheat,
wool, and gold. But the latter is also capable of producing cotton,
indigo, and sugar. However, New Zealand, Van Diemen's Land,
and the southorn colonies of New Holland, may be regarded as
growing and highly promising markets for the Eastern isles.

The Western Archipelago is on the track from Europe,
through Central America, to Japan, China, Australasia, and the
western coast of America; stretching between the southern States
of the great American Republic and the northern shores of
South America; and lying opposite the rich countries of Mexico,
Guatimala, Nicaragua, &c. The different regions which are in
the vicinity of the Western Archipelago produce, or are capable
of producing, the same staples which form the basis of its ex-
ports ; and, most unfortunately, negro slavery is still in those
regions the agent of that production. But, as a compensation
for all these disadvantages, there is the geographical position of
the Archipelago, its proximity to Europe and the rising countries
of North America; also, the greater fertility of its islands,
whether arising from the composition of the soil, or from the
greatest part of their surface being still covered with virgin
forests.

The Caribbean isles are in general fertile, some of them
remarkably so, and they can be made to yield all intertropical

4 TRINIDAD.

productions, such as sugar, coffee, cotton, indigo, cacao, spices,
rice, and the best tobacco in the world. They can also produce,
for the support of their own population, an abundance of ali-
mentary substances, particularly plantains, corn, rice, cassada,
and other farinaceous roots, with all sorts of vegetables and fruits;
also poultry, hogs, and oxen. Some of them abound in beautiful
cabinet-woods, and the most durable timber. Their numerous
harbours and ports are capable of accommodating vast fleets of
merchantmen, and of affording anchorage to the united navies of
the entire world. Cuba, alone, possesses, besides many bays and
havens, at least a dozen first-class seaports ; and the Gulf of Paria,
between Trinidad and the province of Cum ana, in Venezuela,
may be regarded as a truly magnificent harbour, closely and
securely sheltered from all winds and weathers. In no part of
the world is navigation more easy and safe than in the Caribbean
Sea; it is, however, visited, at intervals, by hurricanes, which
spread ruin and devastation wherever they are felt. The Antilles
are also subject to earthquakes, of which sad records are written
in the annals of some of the islands. The climate is generally
unhealthy on the seaboard, remittent and intermittent fevers
being prevalent ; dysentery and yellow fever may also be said to
be endemic.

The proximity of the Western isles to Europe, the great capa-
bilities of their soil for producing the tropical staples and other
articles of commerce, formerly rendered them of great impor-
tance; and, for many years, their possession was warmly disputed
by the European powers. For a long period they enjoyed the
privilege of supplying Europe with colonial products, and the
French colony of St. Domingo then ranked as a queen amongst
her sister isles : but after passing through alternations of pros-
perity and depression, these islands have at length approached a
most eventful crisis, and those amongst them that still retain some-
thing of their pristine eminence — it grieves me to say — are those
which have not abjured the wholesale abominations of slavery.
The time, however, has arrived when they, too, must yield and
submit to the fiat of public opinion.

These islands were, therefore, at a bygone epoch, rich and
flourishing ; but they were then cursed with the loathsome lepra
of slavery; nearly all are now free, but many of them fast
verging on ruin. By contrasting their present with their
former social condition, the philanthropist has reason to rejoice ;
but, on the other hand, the comparison of their actual state of
industrial depression with their past prosperity, cannot but be a
subject of anxious reflection to the statesman and philosopher.
It behoves these parties, therefore — whether as leaders in the
senate, or as deep searchers into the nature of things — to consider

INTRODUCTION. 5

it both a profitable and incumbent duty to institute a diligent
and persevering inquiry into the various causes which have induced
such results, and into the best means for remedying' the same, and
improving the condition of the emancipated colonies. For these
colonies are, by the progression of modern navigation, brought
nearer to Europe than they ever were, whilst contiguous to them
new markets are rising, viz., the United States, Canada, Nova
Scotia, and New Brunswick ; they still possess their fertile soils,
and their productive capabilities are unimpaired. When the great
Columbus sailed from Palos in search of the golden regions of
India and Cathay, he met them on his way ; and surely their
geographical position has not changed in our days. Ere many
years have elapsed, the land section of the great commercial
highway to Japan, China, and Australasia; to Oregon, California,
and the western shores of Mexico and Central America ; to
Ecuador, Peru, and Chili, will have been completed — thus
establishing a communication between the Pacific and that great
Mediterranean Sea of the New World which lies almost within
the lap of the Antilles.

The numerous islands which form the Western Archipelago,
classed as the Great and Lesser Antilles, are scattered in the form
of a horse-shoe, along an arched line running eastward and
E.S.E., from the entrance of the Gulf of Mexico, and then
curving southward to the mouth of the Orinoco, whence they
stretch westward along the northern coast of Venezuela, to the
eastern extremity of the Gulf of Maracaibo ; they lie between
10° and 27° N. latitude, and 60° and 85° W. longitude— the
greatest distance between any adjacent two of them being about
100 miles.

By drawing a line from the Bay of Apalache, through Elorida,
to Point Galera in Trinidad, and another from Tampico in the
Gulf of Mexico, through Yucatan and the Mosquito country, to
the mouth of the Atrato, it is found that these two lines run very
nearly parallel, and that together with the southern coast of the
United States and the northern coast of South America — which
also end in a nearly parallel direction, they form an oblong,
which comprises within its limits the great Mediterranean Sea of
the West. This sea is completely land-locked on the N.W. and
S., whilst being bounded on the E. by the chain of the Antilles;
a great many outlets are left between these islands, extending as
they do over a space of 17° of latitude, or 1,200 miles.

This vast inlet of the Atlantic consists of two distinct basins,
viz., the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The former is
nearly of a circular form, being shaped on the N.E. by the
western coast of Florida ; on the N. by the coasts of Alabama,
Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, in the United States; on the W.

6 TRINIDAD.

by those of Mexico, from the mouth of the "Rio Grande to Vera-
Cruz, whence it is rounded on the S. and S.E. to Cape Catoche
in Yucatan, which stretches northwards towards Cape Sable in
the extreme S. of Florida. Into the entrance thus narrowed by
the approach of these points, Cuba advances so as to hold the key
of that most important basin — the Gulf of Mexico, important as
being* the outlet of the great valley of the West, and of the
commercial road from the Pacific through the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec.

The Caribbean Sea is more irregular in its formation, and is
bounded on the W. by Central America and the Isthmus of
Panama; on the S. by New Granada and Venezuela; on the
N. by Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico ; on the E. by the Lesser
Antilles, from the Virgin Islands down to Trinidad, which holds
the key of the rich and extensive basin of the Orinoco, as does
Cuba that of the Gulf of Mexico. This basin is the outlet of the
following important rivers : — the San Juan, the Atrato, the
Magdalena, and the Orinoco ; likewise of the commercial roads
from the Pacific through the territory of Nicaragua and the
Isthmus of Panama. Lake Maracaibo is also an inlet of its
waters.

Lieutenant Maury, speaking of the Gulf of Mexico and the
Caribbean Sea, says in rather enthusiastic language, but which is
well adapted to my object : — " Nature has scooped out the land
in Central America, and cut the Continent nearly in two there,
that she might plant between the mouth of the ' King of Rivers''
and the ( Father of Waters ' an arm of the sea, capable of
receiving the surplus produce which the two grandest river-basins
on the face of the earth are, some day, to pour out into the Gulf
of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. These two sheets of water form
the great commercial lap of the south. This sea and gulf receive
the drainage of all the rivers of note in both Continents, except
La Plata on the south, and Columbia on the west; the St. Lawrence,
and those of the Atlantic seaboard on the east.

"The Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico are twin basins.
They are seas Mesopotamian, and wholly American. The great
equatorial current having its genesis in the Indian Ocean, and
doubling the Cape of Good Hope, sweeps by the mouth of the
Amazon : and, after traversing both the Caribbean Sea and the
Gulf of Mexico, meets with the gulf-stream and places the
commercial outlet of that river almost as much in the Florida
Pass as in the mouth of the Mississippi itself.

' ' These twin basins are destined by nature to be the greatest
commercial receptacles in the world. No age, clime, nor quarter
of the globe affords any parallel, or any conditions of the least
resemblance, to those which we find in this sea or gulf.

INTRODUCTION. 7

"What other arm of the ocean is between two Continents
with opposite seasons? Where is there another gulf-stream,
uniting the waters of an Amazon with the waters of a Mississippi,
an extra-tropical with an inter-tropical river? Where, in the
wide ocean, or the wider world, is there another Mesopotamian
sea, that is the natural outlet for a system of river-basins draining
an extent of arable and fertile lands greater than the Continent
of Europe can contain, that yield all the productions of the torrid
and the temperate zones ?

" From the Gulf of Mexico, all the great commercial markets
of the world are down hill. A vessel bound from the gulf to
Europe, places herself in the current of the great stream, and
drifts along with it at the rate, for part of the way, of 80 or 100
miles a day.

" And when there shall be established a commercial thorough-
fare across the isthmus, the trade-winds of the Pacific will place
China, India, New Holland, and all the islands of that ocean
down hill also, from this sea of ours. In that case, all Europe
must pass by at our very doors on the great highway to the
markets both of the East and West Indies.

" This beautiful Mesopotamian sea is in a position to occupy
the summit level of navigation, and to become the great com-
mercial receptacle of the world. Our rivers run into it, and float
down with their currents the surplus articles of merchandise that
are produced upon their banks. Arrived with them upon the
bosom of this grand marine basin, there are the currents of the
sea and the winds of heaven so arranged by nature, that they
drift it and waft it down hill, and down stream, to the great
market-places of the world."

This is a spirited, and, to the reflective statesman, a true
picture of this Mesopotamian sea, as the talented writer calls it.
But the Antilles form its Eastern limits, and, therefore, must
evidently participate in its importance.

How is it that these islands, once so eagerly coveted, are,
in our days, virtually neglected and disregarded ? The present
state of depression of the emancipated colonies is evidently the
main cause of their being neglected. Capital does not venture
where there is little profit to expect, and only precarious security.

The abolition of slavery was one of the most extraordinary
social changes recorded in the history of the human race. It
will be conceded that the natural and immediate results must
have been a greater or less revolution in the relations of the
different classes which then constituted colonial society : and I
take it for granted that such disorganisation must have influenced
temporarily, at least, the welfare of the community.

The revolution produced was instantly felt in the labour

8 TRINIDAD.

market, the available amount being either directed into new
channels, rendered unsteady, or permanently reduced. The
amount of labour diverted into new channels was not exactly
lost, but was, in many cases, such an exchange as tended to the
detriment of all classes, as shown by the disproportionate number
of carpenters, masons, and other tradesmen, tailors, petty shop-
keepers, as compared with the tillers of the soil, etc. The
permanent reduction for agricultural purposes was, on the
contrary, a real loss to the colonies, since the cultivation of
staples is the only foundation of their commerce and of their
prosperity.

One of the greatest difficulties with which the colonists had
to contend was the unsettled state of the labour market. For
whenever, as in the case of cane cultivation, continuous labour is
required and cannot be obtained, the whole system of agricultural
economy suffers thereby ; in fact, when the available labour is
not proportionate to the demand, agricultural interests are
imperilled ; and such was the position of nearly all the emanci-
pated colonies, whether Danish, French, or British, excepting
Barbadoes and Antigua, where nearly the whole of the land was
under cultivation. Demerara and Trinidad, however, might be
pointed out as exceptions, since their exports have been steadily
increasing for the last fifteen or twenty years ; and yet their
example is highly confirmatory of what I have alleged. The
introduction of Asiatics and other labourers has alone prevented
a proportionate decrease or total abandonment of sugar manu-
facture in those two colonies ; and that, so far only as those
labourers were placed under indenture, and their labour thus
rendered regularly available.

It is admitted, as an axiom, that free is cheaper than slave
labour, because, it is said, the freeman finds, in a strong desire
to improve his condition, a stimulus to exertion, which the slave
has not. As a general principle, the admission is correct ; but
this, as all other rules, has its exceptions. Undoubtedly, the
freeman ought to be more active and more industrious than the
slave. But indolence and prejudice may prove the deadliest
paralysers of energy in improving any one's condition. To
assert that hired is cheaper than slave labour becomes a paradox,
if taken in an absolute sense; and the best proof of this is the
extension of agriculture in Cuba and Brazil, as compared with
the similar interest in the emancipated colonies. Wherever free
labour is abundant, it is cheaper, as in Hindostan ; but wherever
population is scanty and labour not easily procurable, slave
labour then becomes decidedly the cheapest and more gainful,
for this simple reason — it can be concentrated within given
limits and arbitrarily directed, in all cases of emergency and at

INTEODUCTION. 9

the most suitable juncture, to the production of the contemplated
results.

I only contend that, as certain effects flow from certain
causes, so certain results ought naturally to have succeeded the
abolition of slavery; and that these results had necessarily a
great influence on the conditions under which the social economy
of the West Indies was constituted. In my opinion, measures
might have been adopted to counteract some of those results, and
to render the Act of Emancipation a boon to the slave-holder as
well as to the slave himself.

It was eight years only after the abolition of slavery that the
Equalisation Act of 1846 was passed; so that only eight years
had been allowed, both to the planters and the emancipated class,
for recovering from the shock of a great social revolution, and
for settling down from the violent oscillation which had been
imparted to the entire social body in the colonies. These eight
years, besides, had been a period of unceasing contention and of
growing bewilderment.

The planter had to be taught by experience, and by experience
only, a totally new system of property management ; the emanci-
pated had to be taught that freedom imposed on them new duties
and new obligations ; that it behove them to become industrious,
to obey the laws and submit to prescriptions of which, as slaves,
they had no idea. And whatever may have been said to the
contrary, both planters and emancipated did prove themselves
equal to all reasonable expectations. For who, with the slightest
knowledge of human nature, could possibly have expected that
the one party would never commit disorders in practice, nor the
other be guilty of errors in judgment.

During the time of slavery, free labour, when procurable, was
paid at a very high rate ; immediately after emancipation, the
labouring population considered themselves as entitled to, and
actually received, the same high wages ; and through fear that
the labourers would altogether retire from the cane field, the
planter readily paid the amount demanded, in order to keep his
property under cultivation, till better days should come. The
scarcity of labour in the colonies, and the high price of sugar in
the home market, seemed to concur in justifying both the
unreasonable demands of the labourers and the imprudent offers
of the planters. Things were carried a stage further: the
planter, instead of showing himself provident and calculating,
began to create a competition in the labour market, by offering
enhanced wages to the labourer. Led on by reckless impro-
vidence, and deceived by fallacious appearances, he at once sought
to extend his cultures at a moment when the labour market was
under a severe strain, and offered the most exorbitant wages for

] 0 TIIIXIPAD.

daily task-work. The labourer, seeing his employer yielding at
discretion, wantonly indulged in idleness and revelry, or squan-
dered his time in wandering over the country, from place to
place, being always certain of procnring shelter and work where-
ever he preferred remaining, even for a few days.

I have already proved that slave countries can produce sugar
and other articles at a cheaper rate than could be effected in the
emancipated colonies. As a consequence of the Equalisation
Act of 1846 Cuba, Porto-Rico, Brazil, the United States,
Mauritius, and the East Indies enormously increased their
production ; whilst that of the emancipated colonies was retro-
grading, with the exception of Mauritius, which had been
allowed to import labour from India.

Emancipation was not only a political, it was, above all, a
philanthropical act ; an act of reparation, intended as the means
of the regeneration of the oppressed race. As such it ought to
have had its consequences ; and one of these results surely was
to extend its benefits, as far as possible, to the whole African
race, by discouraging negro slavery in all countries where it
actually existed. The reverse, however, may be said to have at
first practically ensued; for, at the very time in which the
British money was employed in checking the slave trade on the
coasts of Africa, the British Parliament was passing measures
which, indirectly but most effectively, favoured that trade, by
tendering a premium to slave produce. Certainly it is difficult
to say what would have occurred had the British market been
closed against slave-growing sugar, or a differential duty been
established; but I am justified in concluding, from what has
taken place, that such a measure would have been the death-
blow of the slave trade, both in Cuba and Brazil.

It has been stated that the "ci-devant slave proprietors were,
in most instances, impoverished, in many ruined/' With regard
to Trinidad, the fact was this : by far the greatest part of the
compensation grant (£1,390,000) had been applied in liquidating
the mortgage and other debts of the planters, so that the
majority of them began the new era free from liabilities, many
with reserve funds. However, they were soon afterwards
involved in fresh difficulties, owing to the exorbitant wages
they were compelled to pay, in order to obtain a mere modicum
of labour, and to the usurious rates of interest paid on capital
advanced by merchants and others residing in Great Britain. " I
could quote to your lordship/' wrote Lord Harris to Earl Grey,
in April, 1848, " I could quote estates, so far as their soil is
concerned, of great value, and giving previously to emancipation a
large income, on which the whole of the redemption money was
expended in improvements ; which were entirely free from debt

INTRODUCTION. 11

at the time, and which are now mortgaged to their full value ;
and their proprietors, resident Creoles too, from being in good
circumstances, reduced to the last extremities. In those cases,
the want of labour at a fair rate has been the chief cause of
their embarrassments ; they surely have some claims for assis-
tance from the mother country/''

Every one plainly foresaw that the immediate result of
emancipation would be a complete disturbance of the labour
market, and consequently a paralysis — at least momentary — of
the productive powers of these islands. That a fair remunera-
tion would operate as an inducement to exertion was true, but
superficial was the mind that would have trusted to that agency
alone to continue the active industry of the emancipated. The
much misunderstood, because distrusted, planter, coveted not —
thought not of the renewal of any law unjust or unfair to the
labourer ; he called for the interposition of legislative authority
to complete the work of emancipation, to exercise a parental
interest in the welfare of those who had been snatched from the
fetters of slavery to be delivered to the grievous thraldom of
their own ignorant and improvident habits. Certainly the
planters contemplated a benefit to themselves. And what was
that benefit ? That the emancipated should continue to labour
according to God's divine commands ; to labour for their own
advantage, by maintaining the agricultural prosperity of the
country of which they were resident inhabitants ; to labour
consequently for the general prosperity of the country with
whose progress or decline their own well-being or misery was
inseparably interwoven.

There is no doubt that had cane cultivation been discon-
tinued in the West Indies, they would have suffered still more ;
for, as judiciously observed by the Governor of Jamaica, "the
progress and prospects of civilisation in these islands are closely
interwoven with the continuation of a branch of industry to
which European capital and skill have, from the earliest period
of its history, been mainly devoted, and because it seems clear
that the same economical conditions required to restore a fair
ratio of profit to sugar-planting would be necessary to render
any other species of cultivation whatever remunerative." And
I will add, because cane cultivation is, from its very nature,
better calculated than any other agricultural pursuit in this
climate to induce industry and create habits of steadiness, as
well as to keep up regular and profitable commercial intercourse
with those countries, the influence of which all sensible men
must concede is, and will for a long period be, necessary to the
development of civilisation in these islands.

After what I have said of the dispositions of the emancipated

12 TRINIDAD.

slaves, it remains for me to add a few remarks on the character
of the African race as exhibited in these islands.

Be it the result of slavery or of natural disposition, or of
both, the African does not seem to understand the motives and
the object of legislation. He would not decide a case on
principle, but on circumstantial considerations. Whenever he is
wronged, he finds that the law is not severe enough ; but, as the
offending party, he is amazed at its severity. In his own
favour he wishes it to exert a spirit of revenge, and does not
seem fully to understand that, in its application, it must be
impartial and governed by fixed principles. Should justice be
done him, he is unsatisfied and unconvinced, because that justice
was not awarded according to his own views ; to realise his
ideas, the law must avenge him to the utmost extent and
independently of all extenuation. So predominant is this
peculiar disposition of the African character, that nearly all the
heinous crimes he commits have no other cause or source than
his misconception of justice. An African labourer who may
have received an offensive epithet from his employer, or some
other trifling injury, will satiate his revengeful passion by firing
a megass or curing-house, or perhaps the dwelling of the
offender. It would be unjust to pretend that this is a distinc-
tive characteristic of the African, for it is still more strongly
delineated in the Javanese race, and the more civilised in-
habitants of Corsica and Italy generally ; with this difference,
however, that the African aims more at the property, the others
mainly at the person. Arson is in the hands of the negro a
weapon as redoubtable as it is treacherous.

He seems to nourish a great dread of the watchful eye of a
protecting law, and, as a consequence, has the greatest re-
luctance to aid in the discovery of crime, unless he has very
strong personal motives for so doing; it does not concern him.
He has besides a sort of supernatural fear of a daring criminal,
and the more dangerous to society, the more certain is the
culprit of escaping detection and punishment. The fact is this :
the African is wanting in moral courage ; and he willingly
submits to the chance of being deprived of the blessings of
civilisation provided he be not required to fulfil the obligations
it imposes.

Considered in domestic life he has many defects, and not
a few capital faults. Since emancipation, marriages are much
more frequent among all classes than they were during the
period of slavery ; an increased desire exists of engaging in its
bonds, for marriage is regarded as a claim to respectability.
The respect manifested towards this rite is, so far, a good
symptom; but let it be added that in no part of the world

INTRODUCTION. 13

perhaps are the obligations of marriage less binding, since a
husband and wife very commonly, and too often, by tacit con-
sent, live unblushingly in adulterous intercourse. I need not
point out the pernicious consequences which such want of prin-
ciples must necessarily involve. Whenever domestic associations
are not framed on a Christian basis, society is sapped to its very
foundations ; strife and hatred ensue, children are disowned and
abandoned, industry and economy are out of the question, whilst
ignorance, vice, and poverty are the inevitable results.

The African is exceedingly — indeed blindly — attached to his
offspring; and yet he cannot be said to be a good parent,
inasmuch as he is governed by mere caprice — at times indulging
and spoiling his child beyond all measure, or, in rage approaching
madness, punishing him with the most savage brutality. Should
any interference take place, he objects that his child is his own,
and he can do with him as he pleases. He is withal exceedingly
jealous of his paternal authority, and, of course, feels highly
offended should his child be chastised, or even reprimanded, by
those who have the authority to do so. Negro children are, as a
consequence, self-willed, impudent, and most disobedient. As
soon as a youth or this class is able to provide for his own wants,
he generally abandons the paternal home, considering himself
free from all filial obligations. I must acknowledge, however,
that there is of late years a marked improvement in these respects,
the relations of children and parents being more cordial. The
latter are evidently more anxious about the education of their
children, and more cautious in their treatment of them ; the
former, on the other hand, are more ready to please and assist
their parents. This is mostly apparent in the families of small
cottagers who attend to their religious duties.

There is another salient defect in the emancipated class, and
which became particularly manifest during the prevalence of
cholera. Though very punctilious on the score of respectability,
the negro is nevertheless exceedingly indolent, and the moment
he can rely on the aid of others, will not even endeavour to exert
himself. This is to a certain extent common to all Creoles. A
strong inclination also exists on the part of the negro to consider
all acts of benevolence exercised towards him as his due, and not
in the light of a favour. I have known individuals of this class
who, during the cholera epidemic of 1852, with their small
apartments prettily furnished, or receiving abundant aid from
their employers, would yet regularly apply for their meals at the
charitable soup kitchens established for the relief of the destitute ;
not that they really required them, but only because they " would
have their share " Nor did persons of the same class blush to
say, " Since one must die a day, he better die now, as there is

14 TUINIDAD.

no payment asked for either medical attendance, medicines, coffin,
grave, or funeral."

Slavery, with its degrading influence, I readily concede, must
have contributed largely to the implanting of the above-men-
tioned defects in the negro character. During slavery marriage
was not exactly discouraged ; but, as it was generally allowed
only between individuals belonging to the same estate, the con-
sequence was that marriages were the rare exceptions and concu-
binage the general rule. In addition to that, the slave possessing
no civil right had no interest, as he had no benefit, in any civil
contract; and it is well known that habits contracted during
ages cannot be uprooted in a few years. Again, the slave had
very little authority over his children, the care of them being
left to him only in their infant state ; these children, on the
other hand, being bound to obey and serve the master, were
actually led to cast aside the respect and attention due to the
parents. Slavery had, in this as in other cases, a fatal tendency
to relax the natural as well as the civil ties, and it is not sur-
prising that its effects are still felt even after forty years of
freedom.

I think it therefore due to the negro to say that those vicious
features of his character which I have portrayed are more the
offspring of ignorance and the consequence of a protracted state
of debasing bondage than the effects of a wicked and perverse
nature; for, however prominent their faults and, at times,
heinous their offences, it is notorious that they do not approach
to that degree of moral turpitude which characterises those of
the same class in Europe. The crimes committed by the negroes
generally spring from sudden impulse and ungovernable passions,
and are not the result of base and selfish calculations. Seldom
have we heard of life violated for the acquisition of money in
Trinidad. They are, besides, charitably disposed, and ever
ready to assist the destitute. But if their vices do not assume
as dark a shade of moral perversity as those of some Europeans,
doubtless their qualities, in regard to all the degrees of social
obligations, are far inferior to theirs. Such is my conscientious
appreciation of the merits and demerits of the negroes as they are
exhibited in these islands. He is and must be responsible to a
great extent for his faults, but more responsible still should be
those institutions which necessarily tend to debase the human
mind. A healthy and highly encouraging change has already
taken place since he has been admitted to the enjoyment of those
rights which for so many years were the exclusive advantage of
a few.

In 1858, when I first published this book, I could say indeed
that the West Indian planters had been in general most unmer-

INTRODUCTION. 1 5

cifully treated, and without regard to the peculiarities of their
position by those who had written or spoken on the subject.
They were then so recently slave-holders, and must bear the con-
sequences of an unenviable position indeed, and endure the odium
attached to the institution. I am ready to recognise that the
situation is now different, and that public opinion has undergone
a change; yet I believe that the time has not come yet when
we should consider as buried in oblivion the many accusations
which were heaped on us, especially as there still exists a tendency
occasionally to revive them in one shape or the other. I trust,
therefore, that I will be excused for insisting in this new edition
on what took place as a consequence of the abolition of slavery,
and the causes that brought on the ruin of so many families.
We are but too easily inclined to judge of the present by what
we actually see, without reference to the past, or without taking
into account grave difficulties which may no more exist, but
which, whilst prevailing, had their effects.

When the West Indians were judged as agriculturists, for
instance, neither the climate nor the conditions of inter-tropical
agriculture were ever taken into consideration. Their system
was weighed according to the rules which were found most
applicable to European tillage; and yet the climate and the
very nature of inter-tropical cultivation have a very great influ-
ence on the most superior methods of conducting agricultural
operations.

The almost uncontrollable luxuriance of vegetation within
the torrid zone renders it necessary to have labourers constantly
engaged in field-work, whilst under temperate zones vegetation
is dormant for four or five months in the year, during which
recess the labourer may be employed under shelter, and in
various occupations. Moreover, under our zone heavy rains or
extreme droughts act as an obstacle to certain agricultural
operations. Again, nearly all our crops require weedings, an
operation which is but seldom performed in Europe, for the cereals,
which form the basis of European agriculture, once sown are
allowed to grow and arrive at maturity undisturbed; so that
the same extent of land requires in these colonies more constant
care and attention than, for instance, in England or France.
Nearly all our cultivated plants are perennial, which makes it
very difficult — if not impossible — to establish a system of rota-
tion of crops, as where annuals are raised. Some of our plants
even, such as the cacao and coffee, do not begin to yield a
regular crop except after a term of five or eight years'' growth ;
so that, even should an agricultural article become almost value-
less in the market, the planter is still under the obligation of
continuing its cultivation. And with regard to a sugar estate,

16 TRINIDAD.

its management resembles more that of a manufactory than of a
farm, and field operations are suspended more or less for four or
five months, in order to manufacture the juice of the cane into
sugar. Thus the sugar-planter is subject, at the same time, to
all the casualties attendant on the pursuits, both of the manufac-
turer and the agriculturist. These may be said to be natural
conditions which cannot be changed ; but there were others of
an # artificial kind against which the planter had incessantly to
struggle.

Under the system of slavery man was regarded and employed
as a mere mechanical agent ; and the planter who, immediately
after emancipation, required skill in the tillage of the soil, and
intelligent labourers who could understand and profitably adopt
improved and efficient methods, was compelled to rest satisfied
with the mechanical aid of the very class he had kept in a state
of ignorance and serfdom ; and where initiated, active, and
willing agents were necessary, he found obtuse, indolent, and,
above all, capricious instruments. Of course, this was perhaps
the greatest difficulty with which the West Indian planter had
to contend, the undesirable bequest of slavery.

Again, on what terms were proprietors compelled to employ
those agents ? It may be said that during the existence of slavery
there were but two distinct classes in the colonies, the slaveholders
and the slaves; for many who were not owners of land were
nevertheless owners of slaves. Many of the labourers, soon after
obtaining their liberty, left their masters' property and began to
erect small cottages on unoccupied lands or on small lots pur-
chased by themselves ; the majority, however, continued to live
on the estates, actually occupying houses and lands free from
all rent, and yet exacting from their masters whatever wages
they thought proper, the greatest number of them receiving
from forty to fifty cents (Is. 8d. to 2s. Id.) per measured task
of field-work.

The task system which had been adopted in Trinidad on
nearly all cacao, and on several sugar plantations, during the
period of slavery, was almost immediately afterwards enforced
on all other estates ; and in few cases only did an able labourer
take more than four hours to perform the allotment, some of
them perfecting two to two tasks and a half per day. In nearly
all the colonies, the planters were necessitated to submit to the
terms of the labourers. The consequence was that the greater
number of planters who had been extricated from their liabilities
by the compensation grant became soon involved to very large
amounts, especially those who had attempted the introduction of
improvements. On several estates the labourers lost their
wages, their employers having been utterly ruined ; and let me

INTRODUCTION. 17

record it here, under those trying* circumstances the labouring
class, generally, behaved very generously, many of them con-
tinuing to work for several months without exacting wages.
Lest they should soon be placed in the same position, the other
employers, compelled by necessity, began to give less wages and
to exact more work ; the labourers became dissatisfied, and the
emancipated population began gradually to retire from estate
field-work. It was about this period, and consequent on this
movement, that they were ejected from the houses and land
they occupied on estates, and their provision grounds destroyed.

"During the last two years/'' said Lord Harris, "great
exertions have been used by sugar-growers here to lower the
cost of production through a diminished rate of wages, and by
getting more work performed ; this has caused dissatisfaction
among the labourers, and increased their migratory and idle
inclinations, which has resulted in visible inattention to their
provision grounds — an evil of serious import, operating un-
favourably against reduced cost of production by rendering the
labourer totally dependent upon high money wages to pay for
imported articles of consumption j an alarming position to be
in, with the prospect of curtailed employment, through sugar
cultivation being diminished.

' ' The general excuse offered by the labourers for their inat-
tention to raising provisions, is that they are liable to be robbed,
and turned off estates. True, this is the case; but the latter is
invariably caused by their own fickleness and pervert acts."
(Lord Harris to Earl Grey, April, 1846.)

Could the planters exercise any control over such circum-
stances ? They did struggle to the utmost of their power, and,
as a class, they are more worthy of praise than of blame.

Increased labour is required in the West Indies, whatever
may be said to the contrary, and their deficiency in this respect
is certainly the greatest obstacle to their progress. Listen to
the words of the Governor of Jamaica : " Let us remove all
obstacles to their recruiting the ranks of their labourers from
other countries ; let us go further indeed, and take active steps
to set on an immigration of the negro population of the United
States at the public expense.-"

I will quote Governor Barkly once more, for all he says
concerning Jamaica is applicable to the other islands : — " Far
from deserving the imputation of supineness, and ignorance of
their business, which it has been too much the fashion to lavish
upon them, I found the planters of Jamaica as eager to intro-
duce new machinery and to adopt new processes of manufacture
as any of their competitors, British or foreign, and I have had
more opportunities than most persons of observing both; and
c

18 TRINIDAD.

this, at least, I can safely undertake to assert, that if they fail,
it will not, in the majority of instances, be for want of exertions

on their part I derive no small hope for the future from

the spirit of enterprise and intelligence in which the sugar plan-
tations that remain are carried on."

This assertion of one who has had, as he says, " more oppor-
tunities than most persons n of observing the earnestness of the
colonists to introduce new machinery and to improve manufac-
ture, must have, in the eyes of impartial judges, more weight
than the allegations of those who prefer to echo the accusa-
tion brought against us, of " wanting the spirit of progress and
improvement/' instead of examining into the merits of the case.

Undoubtedly " skill and capital are needed to render the
West Indies a remunerative field of production." Skill, I dare
say, we will always be able to procure ; but how can we expect
to allure capital to these islands when our staple produce has
become a drug in the market ? when we are compelled to com-
pete with countries which actually do grant protection to their
own article, and are admitted into the British market on terms
of equality with us ? when these islands are pointed out as pre-
carious and worthless fields ? Let those who take an interest in
these colonies and their inhabitants listen to the disinterested
appeal of the noble Governor of Jamaica : — " Be it their task to
encourage our efforts by every means legislation can present, and
to smoothe, as far as lies in their power, the inevitable difficulties
of a competition which, aggravated as it unfortunately is at the
moment by extraneous circumstances, threatens to prove more
formidable than could have been previously anticipated/'

The present difficulties, created by unfair European competi-
tion, are greater, and our position more precarious, than they
were forty years ago, unless the British Government consent to
interfere ; and the only interference we solicit is this : — That
foreign sugar be not admitted to compete with our own produce
on terms which are not equal, on account of the protection which
it receives in the shape of bounties or drawbacks on exportation.
The effect of such protection — but too real, though indirect — is
to depress the value of colonial sugar to an unremunerative level,
that, as we believe, would not exist under the conditions of fair
international free trade. Bounties are granted in France,
Belgium, Prussia, Austria, Hungary, Russia, and Holland.
These drawbacks are supposed to represent the rates levied on
the beetroots or the juice ; but as the quantity of sugar extracted
from the roots is actually larger than the quantity assessed, any
sniping thus obtained is a clear profit to the exporters.

All persons interested in the production and the commerce of
cane-sugar have energetically remonstrated against this bounty

INTRODUCTION. 19

system ; a remedy has become urgent, for, under such conditions,
we must succumb in the unequal struggle, and leave an undis-
puted field to the beet growers. If it be intended to give us any
relief, let it be afforded immediately, or it may come too late.
Let us all join in the prayer of the West India Committee, and
demand that the British West India colonies may not look in
vain for redress to Her Majesty's Government. These colonies,
in their painful efforts to restore themselves by means of free
labour, and their long-continued struggle to hold their own
against the slave system of Cuba and Brazil, possess, we con-
ceive, a strong claim for consideration. This is not asking for
protection for ourselves, but simply objecting to protection being
allowed to our antagonists.

I cannot say what may be the position of the sugar-planters
in the other colonies ; but I can affirm, as regards Trinidad, that
the following estimates are correct : — The expenses for carrying
on a sugar estate making 500 hogsheads, or 900,000 lbs. net, of
muscovado sugar, may be calculated at £5,500 sterling ; value
of the estate, £1 2,000 sterling; at 18s. the hundredweight — the
actual price of the article in the home market — £7,231 the 500
hogsheads. I do not reckon molasses, which generally go to
pay interests, land-taxes, &c. Deduct £5,500 from these £7,231
sterling, there remains a sum of £1,731 ; interest on the value
of the property, £1,000; amount available for contingencies,
improvements, &c, £731.

Now, as a sugar-planter cannot turn his estate into a cacao
or other plantation without great loss, he must struggle on,
hoping even against hope, till ruin overwhelms him ; the estate
is then in an abandoned state. This process, which has been
going on in Jamaica, Dominica, &c, and which has rendered these
colonies nearly worthless, must, I fear, commence in Trinidad
and Demerara, for sugar selling at 2 dollars 50 cents the cwt.,
here, as elsewhere, the result must be the same. Let me, there-
fore, state, in the words of the Economist, that u it is clearly not
the interest, even of the consumer, that prices should be lower
than the fair relation of supply and demand justifies, inasmuch
as such a state of the market would discourage those necessary
supplies which may be hereafter required.-'''

The condition of the sugar-market in the United Kingdom
is far from encouraging ; we cannot go on long producing sugar
at the actual low price. The danger is different from what it
was thirty years ago, but it is as great. Now, should our ruin
be achieved, will not the consumer be exposed to deception, and
suffer in turn ?

Can we expect that Parliament will ever agree to imposing
a counteracting duty on sugars imported into the United King-

20 TRINIDAD.

dom and which enjoy artificial advantages in the shape of
bounty ? And yet this would be the most effectual, perhaps the
sole, remedy. Of course, whilst crying for help, we should put
our shoulders to the wheel ; and we are ready to do so.

Various plans may be devised for the encouragement of
agriculture. As a general rule, let all financial enactments, be
they in the shape of direct or indirect taxation, bear as lightly
as possible on land owners ; let agricultural implements of every
description be admitted duty free, as also draught animals or
those of burden; afford effective protection to the growth of
staple and other marketable produce, by strictly enforcing the
law with respect to the stealing and destruction of agricultural
products and cultivated plants ; and assist in the diffusion of
agricultural knowledge, by establishing experimental farms.
In Germany and in France, Agronomic stations have largely con-
tributed to the improvement of agriculture, and the cultivation
of the beetroot plant particularly. Let us not forget that
though our population is purely agricultural, yet the labouring
classes, in their ignorance, are prejudiced against field occupa-
tions ; that, with the exception of a minority of the planters, no
others possess even the most elementary notions of agricultural
economy. No capital, in my opinion, could be better invested
than in the formation and the maintenance of one or two such
experimental farms. In the management of these farms, not
only should improved methods of cultivation be adopted and
chemical researches instituted, but new cultures might also be
experimented ; for no one will dare to pretend that everything
concerning cultural development is known in these islands. Not
only the production of arrowroot, tuluman, starch, tobacco, and
rice might be encouraged, but the cultivation of vanilla, an
indigenous plant, of spices and exportable fruits, might be tried
on a large scale. Success at the experimental farm would, no
doubt, act as an encouragement to others to embark in the same
pursuits.

Besides these measures for the direct encouragement of
agriculture, others might be introduced which would exert an
indirect influence on the agricultural interests and the general
prosperity of the island.

From causes already stated, the emancipated classes felt a
strong inclination to retire from field labour and to congregate in
towns and villages, where they engaged in petty trade or adopted
some handicraft. The number of shopkeepers, tailors, carpenters,
etc., became, consequently, out of proportion, compared with the
requirements of the country, and almost every small tenement in
towns and villages was occupied by some retailer of fruits,
charcoal, etc. The stock in trade (?), displayed in trays before

INTRODUCTION. 21

their doors, or on stands as apologies for counters, was really
ridiculous ; and I have no doubt that, had an inventory of
articles been taken, in nine cases out of ten, the value of property
thus exhibited could not have amounted to ten shillings. Some
fruits, a few pounds of charcoal, peas, and plantains, constituted
generally the whole stock, and in a large majority of cases the
vendor barely managed to eke out a most precarious livelihood :
but he was no more a labourer ; he was a shopkeeper.

Every individual, I contend, ought to pay for the protection
afforded by civil institutions. All pay indirect taxes, thus con-
tributing to uphold the protection afforded to the person of the
subject. Those who are owners of property are generally made
to pay direct taxes for the security extended to property, or for
any other advantages they may derive from the public institu-
tions of the country. Why not make traders pay a small direct
tax for the protection extended to their property ? A licence I
regard as just, and the principle here advocated is partially
carried into effect by the licensing of hucksters, carters, boatmen,
etc. Such a tax, moreover, would be most opportune in the
colonies, since it would have for effect to diminish that enormous
number of would-be shopkeepers and irregular dealers of all
kinds and grades, who frequently wind up after a few months,
by being indebted to the merchants who have supplied them, or
to the poor cultivator whom they have gulled. The public,
evidently, would not suffer from the adoption of such a measure.
The competition now existing must be a ruinous one to the bona
fide grocer, who otherwise might be better stocked, and could
more extensively and cheaply meet the demands of customers,
were he protected against the idle and dishonest swarm which
generally form the bulk of under-sellers in the country districts.

I must acknowledge, however, that in this, as in some other
important respects, a change has lately taken place, and the
disproportion which so largely existed has a tendency to become
more normal. It seems that not a few have been taught by
observation and experience that there are more guarantees of
success in agricultural than in any other pursuits ; and greater
security to a steady and industrious family.

I have now come to a most important, to a vital, question —
that of immigration. Every facility should be afforded for the
acquisition of agricultural labour, by removing all difficulties in
the way of immigration from the East ; in fact, by opening up
every channel through which population may flow, in a con-
tinuous stream, into these islands. Excepting two or three
which have a comparatively large population, and may therefore
rely upon a steady supply of labour, the outcry for an increase
of hands has been loud and general from the emancipated

22

TRINIDAD.

colonies ; and the only ones that have not succumbed are those
which have been able, in some measure, to provide for immigra-
tion— viz., Mauritius, British Guiana, and Trinidad.

A comparison of the imports and exports of these three
colonies with those of Jamaica, St. Christopher, and Grenada
may prove interesting" : —

1871
1880

1871
1880

Mauritius: population in 1881, 360,847.

IMPORTS. EXPORTS.

£1,807,000 ... £3.053,050

2,169,673 ... 3,634,787

British Guiana: population, 252,186.

IMPORTS. EXPORTS.

1,898,124 ... 2,748,770

2,008,694 ... 2,617,624

Trinidad: population, 153,128.

IMPORTS. EXPORTS.

1871 1,218,024 ... 1,492,811

1880 2,382,268 ... 2,186,512

Jamaica : population, 580,853.

imports. exports.

1871 1,331,185 ... 1,196,531

1880 1,475,197 ... 1,512,978

St. Christopher : population, 29,169.

IMPORTS. EXPORTS.

1871 211,370 ... 283,285

1880 177,245 ... 176,224

Grenada : population, 42,403.

IMPORTS. EXPORTS.

1871 132,466 ... 153,920

1880 138,619 ... 171,727

These figures may be made to show, for each of the above-
named colonies, the proportion per individual of imports and
exports : —

IMPORTS.

EXPORTS

Mauritius

... £5-01

... £8-47

British Guiana

7-52

... 10-89

Trinidad

... 15-55 .

... 14-28

Jamaica

2-98

2-91

St. Christopher

6-04

6 05

Grenada

4-05

3-26

They are also, if I am not mistaken, a practical evidence in
favour of immigration, and an answer to those who attempt an
argument to the contrary ; indeed, it would be a work of super-
erogation to insist upon the necessity of immigration to these
colonies.

The class of people we mainly require are agricultural

INTRODUCTION. 23

labourers ; skilful mechanics we shall always be able to procure
whenever we stand in need of their service. European labourers
might find employment in the curing-house or on cacao planta-
tions in healthy localities, in the care of stock or the cultivation
of vegetables ; but they will never be able to undergo any hard
or exposed work, more especially field work, in our climate. The
only class of labourers that will ever suit our requirements are
Africans and Asiatics. I must declare here once and for ever, that
I am decidedly opposed to the importation of Africans direct
from Africa — at least, in any numbers — because the natives of
that continent, ranking no higher than semi-barbarians, require
a great deal of care and attention to effect their civilisation, par-
ticularly as, from past circumstances, they have every reason to
distrust the Backras, or white people. They are besides inclined
to retain and propagate their superstitious devices and heathenish
practices.

The fate of the White and the Black man is intimately con-
nected, and in these islands, where slavery no more exists, they
must rise or fall together. Highly mistaken are those who think
that the emancipated Africans are able to carve out their onward
destinies by their own unaided efforts, and that the presence of
the White man on the same spot with them is an obstacle to
their advancement.

The vast and overcrowded peninsula of India teems with an
intellectual, mild, and industrious population ; but that popula-
tion is crushed under the tyranny of castes, and is in its native
condition most miserable, and no better in a moral point of view,
as exhibited in the picture which Sir Emerson Tennent draws of
the Tamils of Ceylon : u Their households exhibit none of the
endearments and comforts which constitute the charms and
attractions of a home. Sensuality and gain are the two passions
of their existence, and in the pursuit of them they exhibit a
licentiousness so shocking, and practices so inconceivably vile, as
would scarcely obtain credence from those who are familiar with
the aspects and usages of civilised life even in its lowest and
least attractive forms." He is deceitful, and always prepared to
take advantage of the unaware.

The Hindoo race is a branch of the great Aryan stock ; and
the Coolies who have been brought to Mauritius, British Guiana,
and Trinidad have been instrumental in saving these valuable
possessions from ruin. They have their faults undoubtedly, and
are especially confirmed liars. The new comers, who belong to
the lowest castes, are filthy in their habits, lazy, and addicted to
pilfering. As a class, however, they have proved obedient
subalterns, industrious, and steady ; and, so far as my personal
opinion is concerned, I would say that, though they are not so

24 TRINIDAD.

robust as the negroes, they nevertheless are preferable to all
other immigrants, as they have little to learn and nothing to
forget or to forgive. It is much to be regretted that one of the
conditions imposed on us is to send back the immigrant to his
country after he has completed his industrial residence in the
colony ; that is to say, after he has become acclimatised and has
just begun to become imbued with notions of a civilised life. Is
the Coolie better off in his own country ? No ; reliable reports
speak to the contrary; and are there not millions of people in India
who are kept under such servile and galling degradation, through
the prejudices of caste, as absolutely to constitute them the most
miserable race of beings under the sun? Encourage by all
means the emigration of these poor creatures to a land of freedom
and Christianity, where their social and moral condition becomes
vastly improved. The British Government cannot reasonably
demur to the immigration of these people ; for, allowing that
2,000,000 should leave India for our shores, can it be said that
the country would suffer thereby ? Certainly not. And, on the
other hand, hundreds of thousands who periodically perish
through the joint agencies of famine and hardships would thus
be saved.

Several schemes in succession have been adopted and Ordi-
nances passed for the promotion of paid immigration. Our
Ordinance on the subject is comprehensive enough, and fully
protects the rights of the immigrants. The expenses of their
recruiting in India and their passage to Trinidad are defrayed
from a common fund. To that fund the Government ' contri-
butes three-tenths and the planters seven-tenths, by paying
indenture fees and an export duty on sugar, molasses, rum,
cacao, and coffee. The indenture fees are paid by those who
engage the immigrants. This I consider a fair arrangement.
However, the question arises whether the Government ought
not to pay for the fixed establishment, which costs the sum of
£3,612, or the sum of £8,412, including the salaries of the
district medical officers, amounting to the sum of £4,800. They
are not appointed exclusively to attend the immigrants on
estates, as they act as visitors of the poor and paupers, of the
police, and in other capacities; in fact, in the interest of the
public generally.

A liberal system of public instruction based on sound
principles is, I believe, the most powerful instrument for good
which any Government can use. Primary instruction should be
offered to all. I have heard many persons object to this plan,
on the ground that instruction tends to create, in the lower
classes, a desire to retire from menial and prsedial occupations,
and an aspiration to pursuits above their condition. This

INTRODUCTION. 25

objection, I confess, is plausible enough, but it will retain its
plausibility so long only as the larger mass of the people
remain in their present state of ignorance. The knowledge of
reading, writing, and arithmetic confers a privilege only in those
countries where there exists an unqualified mental darkness.
On the other hand, it cannot be denied that the lowest primary
instruction is the first step to religious and industrial teaching ;
that this instruction is the more essential in those countries
where it is absolutely necessary to impart to the people both
religious and social ideas and habits. But I, at the same time,
contend that man has, besides the brain in his head, a heart in
his breast ; besides an intellect to develop, morals to improve.
To this end education must be religious as well as secular ; and
the state, to be impartial, must leave the former entirely to the
clergy, though not without aiding, whenever practicable, in the
combination of both. Whatever scheme is adopted^ I have
come to the conclusion — not without experience founded on
diligent observation — that a purely secular education must
necessarily conduce to complete indifference in matters of
religion, and subsequently to infidelity.

The system of primary schools established by Lord Harris
was exclusively secular; ministers of religion were even for-
bidden the entrance of the schoolroom to impart religious
instruction. Such a system could bring forth only poisonous
fruits.

In the year 1838 Governor Keate, the successor of Lord
Harris, succeeded, against the strong opposition of the Catholic
community, in establishing, on the same principle, the Queen's
Collegiate School.

In the year 1870 Sir Arthur Gordon made material changes
in the scheme of Lord Harris and the arrangements of Governor
Keate. Those changes were borrowed from the Irish National
System. Government aid was granted, and two classes of
schools were formed : (1) Those under the exclusive control of,
and entirely supported by, the Government ; (2) those assisted
by the Government, but under the control of local managers.
Religious instruction became permissive in the school premises
at certain fixed hours.

Denominational schools of secondary instruction were invited
to become affiliated, under certain conditions, to the Queen's
Collegiate School, the name of which was changed to that of
the Royal College, which, however, remained a purely secular
institution with only day pupils. The Catholic school then
existing became affiliated, the principal receiving £500, and
£500 more being set aside to pay results'' fees at the end of
each year.

26 TRINIDAD.

In the year 1875 Sir Henry Irving made further changes,
and schools of primary instruction became entitled to the
advantages which Sir Arthur Gordon had granted to secondary
schools. Private individuals may, if they choose, establish
schools of primary instruction, provided these schools are placed
under the control of local managers, are open at all times to
inspection by officers appointed by Government, and the average
daily attendance during the scholastic year is not less than twenty-
five. The aid to which they become entitled consists of a
capitation grant, (a) for every scholar present on the day of
examination who is above the age of five years and under
the age of seven years, who has made no less than 200 atten-
dances at the school in the course of the school year, the sum of
ten shillings ; or, if taught as a separate department, the sum of
fifteen shillings ; (b) for every scholar above the age of seven
years, present on the day of examination, who has made no less
than 200 attendances at the school in the course of the school
year, and who passes the inspector's examination satisfactorily,
the sum of twenty-five shillings; {c) and in addition, where
plain needlework is regularly taught to the girls in a satisfac-
tory manner, for every girl above the age of five years, who has
made 200 attendances, the sum of two shillings.

This system, though taxing to the utmost private resources,
has nevertheless been received with approbation, as the most
impartial that could be devised. Wards or Government schools
are continued wherever they have not been superseded by
voluntary or free schools.

It may be truly said that wherever Christianity has obtained
an ascendancy, there civilisation has penetrated together with
all its blessings ; for it seems that Christianity alone holds the
secret of man's destinies ; and it is remarkable that the civilising
influence of religious institutions is in proportion to their
accordance with the Christian doctrine. It is the privilege of
Christianity to educe civilisation from any material : it is the
grand and tried agent which can, with certainty, be brought
into operation in all cases and under any form of government.

It may be well for those who have imbibed the truths of the
Gospel, who bask in the sunshine of Christian civilisation, and
who relish the savoury fruits of the tree planted by their fore-
fathers, to pretend or assume that Christianity has done its
work, and must now give precedence to other systems or institu-
tions resulting from, and better adapted to, the progress of ages ;
but those who pause to consider the progress of humanity in
general under the reign of Paganism and Idolatry, or even of
Islamism, who witness the supernatural results of Christianity,
particularly in its taming and civilising influence on the wildest

INTRODUCTION. 27

and most ignorant tribes, are induced to regard it as the chief,
because the most powerful and the surest, agent in procuring
tranquillity for nations, and rendering them prosperous and
happy. I am bound to say that all the agencies which impart
life and grandeur to the social agglomerations of modern times,
natural justice, mutual assistance, equality in the advantages
and burdens of civil society, individual freedom, the steady
progress of man, &c. — all are the fruits of Christianity. For it
cannot be denied that Christianity has snatched the world from
under the baneful yoke of paganism wherever its action has not
been forcibly checked ; and that the worship of one Holy God,
Creator, Saviour, and Sanctifier, with all its rational conse-
quences, all its beneficial emanations, all its social applications,
has become, through the teaching of the Gospel, a practical
science for all indistinctively, the Vulgate of all nations. It is
also certain that wherever Christianity has not yet penetrated,
the same frightful superstition and gross idolatry, which in for-
mer ages overspread the entire world, are still prevailing ; that
countries once enlightened by the Christian doctrine, and which,
under its influence, shone with all the brightness of intellectual
greatness and practical virtues, have since, by repudiating its
dictates, sunk into the abjection of degeneracy, and have re-
mained in the darkness which ensued on their extinction of the
lamp of Christianity. Asia and Africa will supply many
examples of this.

During the period of slavery no sort of religious instruction
was afforded to the slaves ; and the little they ever learned of
Christianity was derived from the prayers taught them by their
masters, or the sermons — few and far between — addressed to
them on occasional Sundays by the ministers of religion ; but
even those small crumbs fallen from the table of Christianity
have nourished and improved the minds of the wild Africans to
the extent we see. And let me remark that those who have
received more direct and constant lessons have shown themselves
by no means unworthy of their high and holy privileges ; whilst,
on the contrary, those who have been deprived of these means of
instruction have evidently been declining in the scale of morality,
civilisation, and comfort. Such being the case, ought not the
local authorities and home government aid those who have the
peculiar charge of preaching evangelic morality and Scripture
truths ? Not only will they thus indirectly lead the people to
be peaceable, but they will also, by teaching them their duties,
contribute to form, of not inapt materials, useful members of
society, faithful subjects of the crown, industrious and thrifty
communities. Now the question is, how can the Government
co-operate in the diffusion of Christianity and aid its ministers ?

28 TRINIDAD.

Simply by being impartial, and by (< rendering to Caesar the
things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are
God's ; u that is to say, by granting full liberty to the
ministers of religion in everything pertaining to religion, and
by placing at the disposal of the tax-payers, for ecclesiastical
purposes, their full share of the funds they may contribute to
the general revenue of the country.

I do not wish to enter into an examination of the merits and
demerits of Church establishments, but I dare conscientiously
affirm that in comparatively newly settled countries, and par-
ticularly in small communities like ours — impoverished as they
are, and struggling for their very existence — State Churches are
an invidious and impolitic institution. If tax-payers are entitled
to a share of the funds contributed by them, it is to such
portion as is applicable to the provision of such wants which are
most essential, and to the furtherance of those interests which
are dearest to human nature.

I am aware that some would prefer the system of voluntary
contribution, and do away with all aid from the State. But not
only are we not ripe for the voluntary system, but the inha-
bitants of these dependencies are in too precarious a position to
be able to maintain, unaided, a respectable and efficient clergy.
The voluntary system has also, in my opinion, the very great
inconvenience of placing the minister of religion at the mercy of
his flock, and rendering him, to a certain extent, subject to, and
dependent on, their pleasure, even in things pertaining to
religion.

At the capitulation of the island, the Catholic Church was
the only establishment recognised and supported by the State ;
the Governor had the title and exercised the prerogatives of
patron. Sir Ralph Woodford, among others, not only readily
accepted the title, but actually performed the obligations of the
office. At a later period the Church of England became the
State Church, and as such secured all the advantages derivable
from the circumstance ; it appropriated the largest share of the
Ecclesiastical Fund, though the Catholics formed the great
majority of the people. They had always protested against this
partial arrangement. They naturally enough gave their full
support to the measures proposed by Sir Arthur Gordon, with
the object of securing equality for all denominations. State aid
was proffered to all indistinctively, but was accepted only by the
Wesleyan body ; and the Ecclesiastical Fund is at present dis-
tributed among the Church of England, the Roman Catholic
Church, and the Wesleyan body, according to the number of
their adherents, as manifested by the census of 1861.

Just at the time emancipation was proclaimed in the British

INTRODUCTION. 29

West Indies a new commercial policy was inaugurated — highly
favourable, I consider, to the British consumers, but no less
antagonistic to the agricultural interests of these dependencies.

On the other hand, the changes effected in the social con-
dition of these islands required corresponding changes in their
general constitution, so as to bring them more closely under the
control of the mother country.

As matters now stand, the British West India Islands form six
distinct governments, viz., the Bahamas; Jamaica; the Leeward
Islands, comprising Antigua, the Virgin Islands, Saint Chris-
topher, Nevis, Montserrat, and Dominica, as a federation ; the
Windward Islands, viz., Barbadoes, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent,
Grenada, and Tobago ; the Island of Trinidad ; and the colony
of British Guiana. All these colonies are independent one of the
other, and have their respective constitutions, varying in each ;
and not only does each colony differ in method of government,
laws, &c, but each has its Governor, or Lieutenant-Governor, and
a wholesale staff of public officers. The public establishments of
some of these colonies are evidently disproportionate to their
resources ; and it is morally impossible, besides, that, from their
scanty population, men can be selected really capable of framing
salutary laws, or acting in other respects as legislators. And so
limited are their resources that they cannot expect to command
the services of competent persons.

So foreign and remote are the relations existing between the
different colonies that the inhabitants of Trinidad are better
acquainted with events in Europe, and even in China, than those
in Jamaica and the Bahamas. Again, so diversified and dis-
similar are their laws in general, and the regulations of their
courts of justice in particular, that a barrister of good repute in
Trinidad would be obliged to undergo a fresh training before
practising in the neighbouring colony of Grenada. And yet the
interests of these different islands are nearly identical. They
must rise or fall together. It is, therefore, highly essential that
these different dependencies should be homogenised, as far as
possible — that they should be brought into mutual relations and
contact, so that the least advanced may profit by the experience
of those that are more precocious — that their natural resources
should become known, and their individual wrongs be felt and
acknowledged as the wrongs of all : thus, and thus only, will
they be able to afford each other aid and support in difficulties
and distress. This, however, can be done only by forming a
political union of the scattered colonies, with a Federal Colonial
Assembly.

I have come to this conclusion after mature reflection, and I
am fully convinced that the proposed change would be for the

30 TRINIDAD.

benefit of the colonies, both in a financial and administrative point
of view. The general Assembly or Parliament should consist
of representatives from all the different islands. These deputies
might be elected either by the local legislatures, or by a board
of electors holding high elective qualifications. The members of
the Federal Assembly would be entitled to a daily allowance, to
be contributed by each colony respectively during the whole
period of the session ; each session to be limited to a certain
duration. These sessions should be held on the most central or
the most important island, and the deputies should deliberate
and decide only on general matters, each colony preserving com-
plete freedom and full right to decide on all local or municipal
matters. One of the first acts of the Federal Assembly should
be the appointment of commissioners to revise the laws of all the
colonies, and to condense them into a general code for the
government of the confederacy — each colony, however, retaining
full power and authority for local administration, particularly as
regards finance and taxation, police regulations, &c. This con-
federation would absolutely require the appointment of a
Governor- General, with a responsible Council. There should be
instituted a High Court of Justice, which would constitute a
Court of Appeal from the different tribunals, this Court to be
supported from a common fund, to be furnished by the colonies
jointly, according to their respective population. Lastly, a
central lunatic asylum would be established, also a penitentiary
for juvenile offenders.

These are my views on the constitutional changes which
might be made in these islands ; and I am convinced that, by
the adoption of some such plan, not only would a regeneration
be effected in the general system of government, but an im-
provement also in their local administration. The most essential
laws being framed by an assembly composed of members chosen
from among the ablest men in each colony would undoubtedly
be better and more closely adapted to the circumstances of all ;
nor, as at present, would legislation be hurried through, and
a fresh Ordinance required for each contingency. The office
and duties of the local legislators being circumscribed within
naiTower and more practical limits, they would devote more
attention to the internal administration of each colony, and but
little ground would be left vacant for party discussions. A
more extended field being also open to men of talent, they
would the more likely aspire to becoming members of the
Federal Assembly; and complaints which, preferred by the
inhabitants of Tobago, Trinidad, Nevis, &c, at present are dis-
regarded, would likely receive some share of attention when
urged by a Colonial Parliament.

INTRODUCTION. 31

This suggestion, made in 1858, was partially carried into
effect in 1871. By an Act passed in August of that year, the
Leeward Islands were united under one Government with a
" General Legislative Council/' composed of ten elective and ten
non-elective members. Curious enough, this Act actually revived
the old constitution of the Leeward Islands.

The Governor may, with the consent of the Council, make
laws for the dependencies comprising the federation : he may, in
like manner, make, with the consent of the Legislative body of
any island, laws for the peace, order, and good government
thereof.

I must say, however, that, from one reason or the other, this
arrangement has not worked so satisfactorily as was anticipated.

In the year 1876 an attempt was made to form a second
confederation of the Windward Islands, comprising Barbados,
St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada, and Tobago. Barbados, how-
ever, manifested such a determined opposition that the Govern-
ment was obliged to desist.

The prospects of any country depend mainly on its internal
resources, its geographical position, and means of communica-
tion; finally, upon the dispositions of its inhabitants. The
West India islands being small in size, inland communication is
neither distant nor on an extensive scale ; but, as they are
generally rugged, and occasionally mountainous, travelling and
cartage are often difficult. I have already mentioned their
capabilities as agricultural countries, and given a sufficient
estimate of the character of their inhabitants. I shall only add
that, by the natural agency of social intercourse and commercial
communications, the character of the population would rapidly
improve, and a spirit of industry be created ; I even consider
this result as the necessary consequence of the onward march of
events.

Several of the West India islands may be regarded, both
from their size and configuration, as unimportant; such, for
instance, are all the islands of the Bahama and Virgin groups,
Montserrat, Nevis, Tobago, etc. ; others, on the contrary, are,
either from their size, position, and fertility, of an importance
which cannot be underrated; and a few of them, though at
present more or less disregarded, must, by force of circumstances,
and in the mere progress of time, rise from their present
depressed condition to comparative prosperity and wealth. This
may be easily predicted of Cuba, Porto Rico, Jamaica, Hayti,
and Trinidad.

Cuba never will, never can, become Africanized, as the
Americans would say, whether it continues a dependency of the
crown of Spain, or be annexed to the States.

32 TRINIDAD.

Less important than Cuba, Porto Rico is safe enough, since
the slave population and the African race do not form the
majority of its inhabitants, nor even of the labouring class,
more than two-thirds of the field-labourers being freemen.

The condition of Jamaica, though still rather precarious, has
nevertheless improved of late years. It is on the route from the
United States and Europe to the Pacific ; to Japan, China, and
the isles of the East, through Central America by the Isthmus
of Panama, the Lake of Nicaragua, or even the Isthmus of
Tehuantapec.

Trinidad is second, in positional importance, to Cuba alone.
From its situation, it commands the country drained by the
Orinoco and its affluents, of which immense and teeming basin
the Gulf of Paria is the natural outlet. Irrespective of this, its
own soil is richly fertile ; and by far the largest extent of the
island is still covered with virgin forests.

Hayti is divided into two independent states — the negro
republic of Hayti to the West, and the mixed republic of Santo
Domingo to the East. This island is scarcely second to Cuba in
size and fertility, and must, sooner or later, attract European
commerce and enterprise.

Of the smaller islands I say nothing, because, though each
has its own status, and may exercise a certain limited share of
influence, they must all follow the general fate of the larger.

Ere the lapse of ten years, the great commercial thorough-
fare from Europe and the shores of the Atlantic to the regions
bathed by the Pacific, from Chili to the Strait of Behring,
and from New Zealand to Japan, an immense extent of rich and
populous countries, will be through Central America. The
Western Archipelago has been placed by nature on this inter-
national highway. These islands must, of necessity, become
more and more civilised, either from the direct or indirect inter-
vention of the great commercial nations of the world : the great
obstacle of slavery has been removed at last ; the foundation has
been laid; it now remains to raise the superstructure.

From the preceding postulates it does not appear unreasonable
to expect that, in a given time, the Western Archipelago will
recover the high position which it once occupied, and which, by
nature, it must eventually reoccupy. If, as we may reasonably
foresee, the now insignificant West India islands become well
settled, they will supply the manufactures of colder climates
with raw materials and tropical products, receiving from them,
in return, their supply of manufactured goods. " We advise the
inhabitants of Cuba/' says Ramon de la Sagra, "to increase, by
all possible means, the industrious white population ; for such
may be, some day to come, the commercial and political prepon-

INTRODUCTION. 33

derance of the most important of the Antilles — lying1 at the
entrance of the Gulf of Mexico — that it will change the future
destinies of the other islands, by exercising over all a favourable
reaction by the combined influence of a well cultivated soil, and
the superiority of intelligence of its population of European
origin.'" Such is the encouragement held out to the Cubans by
a man of some reputation, and who had spent twelve years of
his laborious life in their island.

The change which Ramon de la Sagra expected could have
been worked by the Cubans, and the influence of a well culti-
vated soil, has been partially anticipated in the French colonies
of Martinique and Guadeloupe by improved manufacture and
the establishment of central usines ; and I am glad to say that
the example set forth has not been altogether forsaken by
Demerara and Trinidad. And it is to be hoped that, ere many
years have elapsed, improved manufacture on private estates
and central factories, combined with intensive and rational
culture, will have changed the destinies of the. West India
Islands.

The establishment of central factories will encourage the
formation of a middle-class, by affording to small proprietors
the means of manufacturing into sugar whatever quantity of
canes they may plant. I have always been convinced that the
existence of such a body is a necessary element in the welfare
of all communities, but particularly of those which are chiefly
or solely addicted to agricultural pursuits. Wherever such a
class does not exist there is an immense gap left open, which
the lower classes will invariably attempt to fill up, either by
forcing themselves through or dragging the higher classes into
the same, thus creating permanent danger to the social institu-
tions. This danger is greatly mitigated, if not entirely obviated,
when there is a gradation established from the lowest up to the
highest. Those who start from below and above to meet
midway must interchange ideas in their progress upwards and
downwards, and form as an intermediate link between the two
extremities of the social scale. The formation of a class of
industrious small proprietors was therefore desirable, and ought
to have been encouraged, not by granting privileges, as I have
heard it contended, but by removing, instead of throwing,
obstacles in the way. Such a policy I regard as particularly
opportune in countries where, and at a period when, ' by the
progress of events, many families have sunk from comparative
affluence into the lowest state of misery. At the time emanci-
pation was proclaimed, it was thought prudent not to open the
public lands for competition. The adoption of such a plan
was not perhaps unreasonable or impolitic, since it had for

D

34 TRINIDAD.

its object the protection of cane and other staple cultivation.
I would not like to affirm that it succeeded, though it was
effective in checking the increase of small proprietors. The
crown lands of the colony are now offered for sale under certain
restrictions. To the foresight of Sir Arthur Gordon — to his
judicious arrangements — we owe the change.

Societies, in their normal evolutions, must pass through
certain stages or phases, and wisdom consists not in opposing
those natural changes, but in checking and preventing deflec-
tions, and in restraining them within certain limits.

One of the phases of this evolution in the West Indian
freed communities was evidently the formation of a class of
small proprietors, or the aggregation of a certain number of
families to that class where it already existed. The inclination
to become freeholders must have been particularly strong in the
emancipated labourers, both on account of their long dependence
and the influence of climate. The desire to become cotters has
been well manifested in the great number of squatters formerly
occupying crown land, and who, since the Government has
taken cognisance of their occupancy, have, by the payment of a
certain amount, become entitled to and actual owners of the
lands which their industry had brought under cultivation. As
agriculturists, however, the emancipated slaves may be said
to exhibit a partiality for the culture of certain plants — viz.,
of such which do not require much exertion or unremitting
attention; of such as arrive most rapidly to maturity; or of
those the product of which does not demand much preparation
to render them merchantable, nor the same amount of care in
their cultivation, as our more delicate vegetables, for instance.
As to those plants which require a large and constant amount of
labour to render them exportable, they will cultivate such only
when directly compelled by legal enactments, or indirectly by
circumstances. This is proved, I believe, not only by the
history of the West Indies since emancipation, but also by that
of all other inter-tropical countries. And this is, perhaps, the
main point from which cane cultivation has received such a
check in the emancipated colonies ; for it has been kept up or
increased only where circumstances compelled the people to
work for a livelihood, or where indenture bound them to the
sugar estates.

There is no inducement, at present, to increase the pro-
duction of sugar. If, however, an increased demand should call
for increased production, industrious cotters will probably be
the principal agents of that production, by adopting the division
of labour system, and by the establishment of central factories.
The system of central factories I consider as the most rational

INTRODUCTION. 35

and also the most beneficial to all parties ; and yet I apprehend
that its advantages are not fully appreciated, perhaps because it
necessitates from the planter immediate sacrifices which he feels
disinclined to make, though they must be followed by sub-
sequent advantages.

Here let me conclude this rather lengthy introduction to
a mere sketch of the Island of Trinidad. But the fate of my
native land being more or less intimately connected with that of
the other Antilles, I thought it necessary to offer a few remarks
on the natural resources, present condition, and general impor-
tance of the isles of which it forms a not inconsiderable unit.

CHAPTER I.

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION — POSITION AND AREA.

The Island of Trinidad is situated between 10° 3' and 10° 50'
latitude Nv and between 60° 54' and 61° 56' longitude W. of
Greenwich ; it is separated from the province of Cumana, in the
republic of Venezuela, by the Gulf of Paria, together with the
Dragon's and Serpent's Mouths. In figure it is an oblong, or of
a rectangular shape, with promontories at its four angles — viz.,
Galera and Galeota to the eastward, and Mono and Icacos to the
westward ; these two latter stretching for several miles towards
the opposite shores of Venezuela, and thus contributing to the
formation of the northern and southern boundaries of the Gulf
of Paria.

According to Captain Columbine, its principal dimensions
are as follows : —

The north side, from Point Galera to Point Mono, 53J miles.

The eastern side, from Point Galera to Point Galeota, 48 J
miles.

The south side, from Point Galeota to Point Icacos, 65 miles.

The western side from Point Icacos to Point Mono, 49 £
miles.

The greatest length of the island, from N. to S., is, from
Grand Matelot to Casa Cruz, 50 miles; average length, 48
miles. Greatest breadth, from Galeota to Icacos, 65 miles;
average breadth, 35 miles only. The superficial extent or area,
according to MM. Wall and Sawkins, is not more than 1,754J
square miles, or 1,122,880 acres.

Trinidad is bounded on the N. by the Caribbean Sea, on the
S. by the channel which separates it from the Delta and Canos
of the Orinoco, on the E. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the
W. by the Gulf of Paria.

Physical Aspect. — The general aspect of Trinidad is that of

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 37

a level country, bearing" no resemblance to the other Antilles.
Its mountains have not the towering majesty which distinguishes
those of St. Vincent, Dominica, Cuba, &c. ; they do not present
separate summits, cone-shaped, steep, and rugged, but form
three ranges running in a parallel line from E. to W., separated
by two large valleys or river-basins, and being clothed from their
base to their utmost summits with stately forests. The central
and southern ranges are accessible on all sides; the northern
range, which is abrupt on the sea side, slopes gradually towards
the intervening valley; it may be ascended, however, along the
ridges or crests which separate the water-courses.

The mountains trending along the whole northern border of
the island are in a style of eminent grandeur, stretching south-
ward to the plain, and, in many places, along the gulf, down to
the sea ; whilst the forms of the hills are strikingly varied by
the intersections of the valleys and gullies in opposite directions.
The valleys in this range are few, open generally to the south,
and transversal. These valleys also present a great uniformity in
their general configuration, being contracted in the middle by
the convergence of the ridges, and expanding at each extremity.
They are level, branching off into smaller vales, and each watered
by a stream, from which it commonly takes its name. Such are
the valleys of Cuesa or Carenage, Diego- Martin, and Maraval,
westward of Port of Spain ; the beautiful and rich valley of
Santa Cruz to the eastward, as also those of Maraccas and Caura.
These latter are shut in, as it were, by the rise of the land at
their entrance. This is still more strongly exhibited at the Valley
of Arouca, which is blocked up for several miles by high hills,
the river flowing between precipitous slopes. Beyond Arouca
the valleys are contracted to a very small span — in fact, to mere
gorges. There are also, on the north coast, three or four glens,
viz. : — Maraccas, Las Cuevas, Chupara, and Rio Grande. The
Maraccas Bay Valley, as it is called, to distinguish it from the
Valley of Maraccas, is a small semi-circular plain, bounded on
almost every side by steep hills, with a stream of fine water ; the
valley of Las Cuevas is extensive, with a copious stream of water
running through it, but completely barred up at its mouth ; it
is the Quebrada-de-Hierro, or the Iron Ravine, of the old
Spanish settlers. Chupara is contracted to a mere gorge by the
surrounding mountains ; whilst at Rio Grande the land is undu-

38 TRINIDAD.

lating, and a considerable part of it flat. It does not appear
that any other valleys than the above-mentioned are known,
except the Valley of Labranche and that of Guaracara, in the
central range.

Trinidad, being a comparatively newly-settled island, presents
in many parts the appearance of a wild unreclaimed country. It
is covered with dense and lofty forests, the heavy appearance of
an endless woodland being only broken here and there by vast
savannahs, or by the efforts of agricultural industry, — except,
perhaps, at the Naparimas, where an extensive district is under
uninterrupted cultivation. Even where cacao and coffee are cul-
tivated, the country still preserves the appearance of forest-land,
since those plants are protected by the shade of the " Bois Im-
mortel/'' a tree which attains a considerable size.

A cacao plantation forms of itself a most charming prospect.
The trees are planted at twelve or fifteen feet apart, and range
from about twenty-five to thirty-five feet in height. The leaves
are large and, when young, of a violet-red hue; whilst from
the larger branches and the stem hang red, yellow, green, or
dark crimson pods, — the " Immortel M itself forming a striking
feature . in the scenery. In January and February the latter
exchanges its leaves for a thick covering of bright red blossoms,
the ground underneath being literally carpeted with flowers,
whilst birds of various species, and of the most brilliant plumage,
join in gay concert above. Several other trees become, at certain
periods, like the "Immortel/' a regular mass of flowers. Those
of the Poui are of a brilliant yellow ; of the Roble, an orange
colour, and with the f ragrancy of the wall-flower ; others, again,
are white, pink, or violaceous.

The bamboo grows in clusters of hollow jointed reeds, and
forms, as it were, an immense sheaf, about fifty feet high, from
six to ten feet in diameter, and containing above one hundred
stems, surmounted by a foliage resembling an assemblage of
waving plumes. Sometimes they grow on each side of a river
for several miles, their feathery summits uniting overhead at
intervals, in immense arches.

From some of the hills the view is often most beautiful. At
the foot of the hill extensive cane-fields ; a little further, that red
tract marks out a cacao plantation, beyond which is the Caroni
savannah ; and further yet, the expanse of the placid gulf, with

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 39

the merchantmen lying at anchor in the roadstead, or beating up
for the port.

A person visiting the island would meet with but very few
neat, or even comfortable, residences in the country districts, the
dwellings of the planter's looking rather primitive, whilst the
labourers' cottages, or rather cabins, and other estate-buildings,
do not contribute to make the aspect of a plantation a very
pleasing one. Although nature has liberally supplied a very fine
growth of fruit trees, yet the island cannot boast of even a re-
semblance to an orchard, except at Dr. de. Boissiere's residence,
Maraval, and at the Government Gardens, to the northward of
the town. Several country residences can bear comparison with
English and French villas — viz., that of the late Mr. Burnley,
Tacarigua; of Mr. L. Agostini, Saint Ann; Zurcher, Dr. de
Boissiere, and Cipriani, in the neighbourhood of Port of Spain ;
and several others in the country.

Coasts. — The coasts of Trinidad are bold on the N., bluff on
the S., and generally low and flat on the E. and W., where the
water also is very shallow.

The north coast is rock-bound, with serried mountains thickly
wooded from their summits to the very verge of the sea,. which
breaks in a heavy surf along the whole extent, and renders landing
impossible, except at a few shelving spots ; its bearing is W. by
S. Passing from E. to W., we may notice the following points
or promontories : — Arecife or Reef's Point, Toco, Sanssouci, Rio
Grande, Petit and Grand Matelot, Chupara, Pointe-a-Vache,
Saut-d'-Eau, and Maqueripe.

The south coast extends from Point Galeota on the E. to
Point Icacos on the W. From Galeota to Casa Cruz — a dis-
tance of twelve miles and a half — it takes a south-western direc-
tion, and then runs due W. Between Points Galeota and Casa
Cruz are Grand Cayo and Tablas ; and westward of Casa Cruz
are the following promontories : — Canary, Pelican, Moruga, La
Ceyba, Curao, Negra, Siparia, Roja, Chagonaray, Taparo, Erin,
Islote, Galfat, and Quemada.

The eastern coast stretches from Point Galera on the N. to
Point Galeota on the S., and appears by nature to be divided
into four sections, which respectively bear the names of Cumana,
Matura, Cocal, and Mayaro. The first section extends from
Galera to Point Salibea — a distance of thirteen miles ; it has a

40 TRINIDAD.

south-western direction, and terminates the northern range on
the E. Point Galera is low and rocky, with a constant heavy-
surf breaking on it ; from Galera to Cumana the coast is very
rocky and wild, with only one landing-place — within Forest
Point. Along the Cumana section are the following promon-
tories : — Forest, Cumana, Balandra, Salibea, Paloma, Pointe
Noire, and Matura. Ten miles southward of Cumana Point is
Point Manzanilla, presenting high cliffs towards the sea, and
trending suddenly westward by S. for about two miles. The
line of coast from Cumana to Manzanilla is a sandy beach,
running S. by E. From Manzanilla to Point Mayaro — a dis-
tance of twelve miles — the whole extent consists of a low sandy
beach, running S. by E. This section is separated from Mayaro
by a lofty promontory, or small peninsula, called Point Radix.
It is about two miles in extent, hilly, presenting everywhere to
the seaboard high perpendicular cliffs, terminating in two lesser
points, viz. : Point Guataro on the N., and Point Mayaro on the
S. From Mayaro to Galeota the distance is fourteen miles.
Here again the coast is a sandy beach, rising gradually towards
Galeota ; at a short distance from the sea the ground rises into
sloping hillocks. Cape Galeota is a high, rocky promontory,
running S.E., and then trending N. by W., so as to form a small
peninsula, sloping towards the northern or land side. It is con-
nected with the mainland by a neck of only one mile in breadth,
partly covered with mangroves.

The western coast forms a nearly semi-circular curve. The
north-western angle of Trinidad, it would seem, has no name :
as a suggestion, it may be called Point Mono. It rises in a lofty
promontory, about two miles and a half in breadth, with two
points encircling a small cove ; the northernmost might bear the
name of Mono, the southern retaining that of Current Point.
From the latter to the town of Port-of-Spain the coast runs E.
by S. for about twelve miles, and terminates the western ex-
tremity of the northern range. From Port-of-Spain to the
mouth of the Guaracara — a stretch of twenty-five miles — it takes
a southerly direction, the ground being low, and in many places
swampy, and covered with mangroves. From the mouth of the
Guaracara to the lagoon of Oropuche — a distance of nearly nine
miles — its bearing is S. by W., and from Oropuche to Cape La
Brea — a further distance of five miles — it stretches nearly due

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 41

W. ; from Point La Brea to Point Icacos it runs W. J S. for
nearly twenty-four miles. Besides Point Mono and Current
Point already mentioned, we meet, westward of Port of Spain,
with Punta Gorda, or Big Point, formed of compact limestone,
and which divides the port of Chaguaramas from that of Carenage.
Southward of Port-of- Spain are the following points or land-
marks : — Large Point, Chaguanas, Cascajal, Cangrejos, and
Savanetta — all very flat and muddy ; Lisas and Pointe-a-Pierres,
or Stony Point ; south of San Fernando, Sandy Point, very low ;
Cape La Brea, which succeeds, is formed of hardened pitch, or
bitumen. Between La Brea and Icacos we meet with the follow-
ing points: — Guapo or Fortin, Ligoure, Pointe Noire or Grande-
ville, Pointe Rouge, Cedros, and Los Gallos, or The Cocks.
Icacos, the south-western angle of Trinidad, is a low, sandy
peninsula, intersected by several lagoons.

The northern, southern, and eastern coasts are nearly destitute
of harbours. " Between the Bocas and Chupara/'' says Captain
Columbine, " there are some large bays, but so much swell sets
into them, and the wind is so uncertain and light, close in shore,
that it is dangerous to anchor a ship in them, except in those of
Maraccas and Las Cuevas.

u Maqueripe is a cove at the northern extremity of the valley
of Cuesa ; Saut-d'-Eau is a very small sandy cove ; Las Cuevas
is a sandy bay ; the sandy shore on the eastern side of it is richly
wooded, almost close to the sea, interrupted by several breaks of
the woods filled by long winding slips of sand, and varied by
high rocks and smaller rivulets mingling fancifully amongst
them. A mile to leeward of Las Cuevas is the deep bay of
Maraccas, open to the north, but affording more shelter than any
other on this part of the coast. From Las Cuevas to Toco the
coast is chiefly rocky and high, with a few sandy bays which
generally contain a small river; but the surf is so heavy that
these bays are scarcely more accessible than the rocks ; the only
places which we could find were at Rio Grande, Petit Matelot,
Trou Bouilli, and Paria Bay. There is also a very small circular
cove about half a mile to the N.E. of Madamas, where a drogher
might lie in smooth water with the greatest security, being
within the breakers. It is closed round with steep rocky cliffs,
and did not appear to have any communication with the sur-
rounding country. It is very difficult to land at Rio Grande

42 TRINIDAD.

Bay ; the early part of the morning is the best time, before the
sea-breeze sets in. A heavy sea breaks all along the shore,
from Rio Grande to Toco, the few landing places being only
small openings amongst the breakers; and even these are not
practicable at all times. The Bay of Toco is safe, with good
landing."

During the prevalence of the northerly winds, from Novem-
ber to May, a heavy surf breaks constantly along this coast,
and it becomes difficult, and even dangerous, to attempt
landing, except at Maraccas Bay, and then only in canoes ;
vessels also that anchor in the bay will often find it a
hazardous task to leave their anchorage, the wind being right
ahead and the entrance narrow. The depth of water along
the northern coast varies from three to twenty-five fathoms,
with a good bottom.

The eastern coast is very shallow, with a heavy surf through-
out, but particularly at Matura and the Cocal, the depth of water
varying from three to ten fathoms. The only anchorages and
landing-places are at Forest Point, Cumana, three miles and a
half from Point Galera, and in Balandra and Salibea Bays. The
former of these two bays is small but safe, and the water bold
enough to receive trading schooners and droghers; the latter
hardly merits the term of bay, but a vessel might find tolerable
shelter within it under cover of a small rocky island. To the S.
of Point Manzanilla is a small harbour, completely rock-bound,
with a good landing at the mouth of the Lebranche river. This
harbour, formed by rocky islets, is of sufficient depth for any
vessel not drawing more than nine feet of water ; and, although
very small, it is the best on the east coast, and, with some little
improvement, would afford an available anchorage to droghers.
Off Point Manzanilla is a sunken rock called the Carpenter, upon
which a slaver struck and was wrecked in the year 1802. Some
years ago a sunken rock was discovered by the French steamer
"Darien," coming from Cayenne. It is about twenty-three
miles off the coast of Matura, due E. of Pointe Noire. There is
also a pretty good landing-place to the N. of Point Radix, at
the mouth of the river Guataro, called la Chaussee, a well-
known place for turtle. The surf, although still very heavy
along the sea-board of Mayaro, does not impede the landing on
part of the coast — especially under the lee-side of Point Mayaro

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 43

— when proper precautions are taken, and strong boats used for
the purpose.

The southern coast is generally bluff, and the sea shallow
throughout the channel, the depth of water varying from three
to twenty-seven fathoms, with excellent bottom. From April to
October — during the overflow of the mighty river Orinoco, which
discharges part of its waters into the channel — strong currents
prevail, bearing westward. Besides the following landing-places,
viz. : Moruga, Erin, and Quemada — there is on this coast the
small port of Guayaguayare, at the S.E. extremity of the
southern coast, between Galeota and Grand Cayo or Pointe
Taillee. This latter is a high bluff promontory, forming the
western limit of the bay or port of Guayaguayare, whilst Point
Galeota forms its eastern boundary. It has a pebbly bar across
its entrance, extending from Grand Cayo to Galeota, and is open
to the S.S.E. It may, however, be considered a safe harbour,
though it cannot admit vessels of above fifty tons, the depth of
water being from two to four and a half fathoms only.

The soundings along the western coast are generally very
shallow, with exceptions, however, of considerable depth, in a few
places, particularly at Chaguaramas, Carenage, and opposite the
village of Cocorite, to the westward of Port-of-Spain ; also at
Pointe -a-Pierres and La Brea. Chaguaramas is a land-locked
harbour at the N.W. extremity of the island, extending between
Current Point and Punta Gorda. The islet of Gasparil, which
stretches nearly from Punta Gorda beyond Current Point, con-
tributes to its formation and protection on the S. There are two
entrances to the Bay of Chaguaramas ; the north-eastern is shel-
tered by a small islet called Diego Island ; the western entrance
is likewise protected by a rock called Little Gasparil, which
divides the same into two channels, the one between Little
Gasparil and Gasparil Grande affording a passage for large
vessels, and the other for smaller craft only. The port of
Chaguaramas is perfectly safe at all times, and the water bold.
Separated from Chaguaramas by the small rocky peninsula of
Punta Gorda is the port of Carenage, well inclosed and as safe
as the former. Captain Columbine has the following remarks on
Carenage and Chaguaramas : —

" The want of a sufficient depth of water in the Carenage
renders it useless for men-of-war.

44 TRINIDAD.

"The harbour of Chaguaramas is very spacious; but, in
case the enemy should have such temporary superiority by sea
as to enable him to attack this island, our ships could not be
protected here, as the mountainous nature of the country could
afford him many points from whence he might easily destroy
them.

u The situation which presents itself as the most proper to
place naval magazines, with the probability of their being effec-
tually defended, without any extensive works, is the island of
Gasparil Grande. It has two principal hills, one to the east
end, the other near the middle, affording powerful means of
defence. On the south side there is a cove large enough for
the purpose of repairing and heaving down a ship of the line,
where store-houses to any extent might be erected, covered
from the view, though not from the shells, of a besieging
enemy. With respect to the security of our fleet, the only
place, in my opinion, capable of affording it, is the south side
of this island. Westward from the above cove the shore is
quite bold, and it should be proper to anchor close to it, in order
to cover the ships from hot shots, which the enemy might throw
from the outer point of Diego's Isle, a spot which he would
occupy with that intent, unless we had works on Chaguaramas
heights."

In addition to these two lesser ports, the Gulf of Paria forms
one extensive harbour, in which vessels may anchor, from three
to twenty fathoms, on a bottom of gravel and mud; in fact,
vessels coming to Port-of-Spain very often run into the soft
mud, in order to gain a nearer approach to the wharves. Captain
Columbine again remarks regarding Port-of-Spain : — " The water
in the road of Port-of-Spain is very shallow ; a mile and a half off
there are only three fathoms ; it is extremely foul and muddy
there, and near the shore it is proportionally more filthy. The
course of the tides, both ebb and flood, being checked by an op-
posite shore, in the corner where the town stands, they naturally
must deposit there much of the mud which they carry along with
them : the obvious result is that, in process of time, Port-of-
Spain will be an inland town. This operation of nature appears
to be going on fast, and to be without remedy."

The Gulf of Paria may be considered as a sort of salt lake,
being shut in on the eastward by the island of Trinidad, which

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 45

thereby breaks the roll of the Atlantic ; on the westward by the
adjoining part of the province of Cumana ; on the northward by
the Peninsula of Paria, the north-western angle of Trinidad, and
a few intervening islets ; on the southward by the corresponding
portion of the Delta of the Orinoco, the south-western angle of
Trinidad, and some interposed rocks. Passages are formed on
the N. and S. between the islets ; also between the latter and
Trinidad at one extremity, and Venezuela at the other. The
northern passages are known as the Bocas del Dragon, or the
Dragon's Mouths ; the southern as the Bocas de la Sierpe, or
the Serpent's Mouths.

The islet nearest to Trinidad, in the formation of the Dragon's
Mouths, is Monos, or Apes' Islet ; the next Huevos, or Eggs' ;
and lastly, Chacachacarreo. These islets present precipitous
cliffs to the N., and can be approached only on the gulf side.
The different passages or channels known as the Dragon's
Mouths bear the respective names of Monos, between the main-
land and Monos ; Huevos, between Monos and Huevos ; Navios,
or Ships' Passage, between Huevos and Chacachacarreo ; and the
Boca Grande, or Grand Mouth or Passage, between Chacacha-
carreo and Cape Pena, which is the easternmost extremity of the
Peninsula of Paria. The Monos Channel gives admittance only
to sloops and schooners, or steamers ; the depth of water is from
ten to twenty fathoms, but the channel is very narrow. Huevos
Passage allows entrance to vessels bound inward ; the water is
very deep and bold — from ten to forty fathoms. The islet of
Monos, being very elevated (1,000 feet), shelters the passage
from the easterly winds, so that vessels entering run the risk of
being becalmed if much in shore of the islet. Boca de Navios,
or Ships' Mouth, between Huevos and Chacachacarreo, has a
north-western direction, and is the outward-bound passage. The
Grande Boca is about twelve miles in breadth ; it is the safest pas-
sage for vessels bound both inward and outward, and is that
which, although more to the leeward of Port of Spain, is chosen
by men-of-war and the larger class of merchantmen.

The ebb or flow of the tide determines the direction inward or
outward of strong currents in the Dragon's Mouths, and vessels
becalmed in the Huevos and Navios passages may be drifted on
the rocky sides of either island and wrecked. The southern en-
trance of the Gulf of Paria is divided into several passages by

46 TRINIDAD.

rocks ; those nearest to Point Icacos are known as Los Lobos, or
the Wolves ; and abont the middle of the strait is El Soldado, or
the Soldier Rock ; the four channels formed by them and the
mainland are called the Serpent's Mouths. The former is be-
tween Point Icacos and the Wolves; the second between the
Wolves and a three-fathoms bank ; the third, or middle channel,
between the latter and the Soldier; the fourth between the
Soldier and the mainland. The main depth in the two first
channels is about five fathoms, six in the middle channel, and
fifteen in the fourth. Strong currents prevail in the southern as
well as in the northern passages.

Mountains. — The island of Trinidad is divided in an E. and
W. direction into two basins or drainage- valleys, by three ranges
of mountains or high hills, varying from 600 to 3,100 feet above
the level of the sea. The northern range is the most elevated,
and stretches along the northern shore from Point Galera to
Point Mono. This range possesses a breadth of nearly seven
miles, occupying an area of 358 square miles. It is divided into
two ridges, the subordinate one rising immediately from the sea,
and attaining an average elevation of 800 feet ; and the main
ridge, which varies from 1,600 to 2,000 feet. Several high
peaks arise from this ridge — the Tucuche (3,012 feet) in the
western section, and the Cerro de Arijpo (2,740 feet) in the
eastern. " The purity of the air/' say Messrs. Wall and Saw-
kins, " the coolness of the nights, and the beauty of the scenery,
combine to make this the most agreeable portion of the island.
The elevation at which the temperate climate commences under
the same parallel on the adjacent continent is stated by Codazzi
at 1,925 feet/'' A temperate climate, therefore, we may enjoy
in the northern mountains. There, and especially between the
two ridges, where the ground is not so abrupt and rugged, it
would be possible to cultivate the more delicate vegetables of
Europe ; and I have no doubt that habitation in those mountains
would prove perfectly healthy.

The southern range seems to be less elevated than the other
two, particularly to the westward, where it gradually declines,
and terminates in the low sandy point of Icacos. This range
does not form a continuous system, but may be considered as
commencing at Point Gran Cayo, extending to Canary, from
whence its elevation goes on decreasing to the depressions formed

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 47

by the river Moruga. It rises again after that river, lowering-
after wards to the gently undulating land of Siparia. The
maximum elevation appears to be at the back of Punta Tablas,
where are to be found the Three Sisters — those very moun-
tains which were seen from Columbus's vessel on the 31st
July, 1498, as united into one. The appearance struck the
great navigator as a singular coincidence, and he gave to the
island the name it bears. The highest peak was measured,
and ascertained to be 718 feet. The hilly surface may be
calculated at 555 square miles. The northern and southern
ranges are parallel.

The middle or central range runs W.S.W. from Point Man-
zanilla to Pointe-a-Pierres. This range measures about thirty-
five miles from E. to W., on an average breadth of three and a
half miles, its area being represented by 122 square miles. The
highest peaks are Tamana, nearly in the centre of the island
(1,025 feet) ; Maharabe, to the westward (952 feet) ; Mount
Harris (903 feet) ; Lebranche, to the eastward (718 feet) ; and
Carata (532 feet). "The view from Tamana/'' say Messrs.
Wall and Sawkins, " possesses a peculiar charm ; it is by far the
most comprehensive in the island. The eye luxuriates in every
shade of the richest greens. A vast extent of woodlands, from
eastern to western sea, from northern to southern hills, without
the slightest perceptible trace of cultivation, save where the
scarlet flowers of the ' Madre del Cacao ' mark the winding
course of the Caroni, testifies the supremacy of nature. Scenery
more sublime may be readily obtainable ; but for loveliness of
hues, for exuberance of vegetation, this is a prospect which can
scarcely be surpassed."

The distance which separates the northern from the central
range is about twelve miles. That tract is flat and rather low
to the W. ; to the E. it is undulating. From the central to the
southern range the distance is eighteen miles, and the inter-
vening country may be described as highly undulating, sometimes
cut by precipitous ravines.

Between these three ranges are comprised two basins or
drained tracts, extending from E. to W., and which may be
denominated the northern and southern basins; the former is
generally more level than the latter. Each of these superior
basins is by nature subdivided into two secondary basins or plains

48 TEINIDAD.

by a plateau or table-land. The two subdivisions of the northern
plain may be called the Oropuche Basin on the E., and the Caroni
on the W. : the two sections of the southern plain may likewise
be termed the Guataro basin on the E., and the Great Lagoon
on the W. To these four basins may be added the following1 :
the Lebranche at the eastern, and the Guaracara basin at the
western extremity of the central range. These are two valleys
formed by a bifurcation of that range.

Rivers. — These plains are watered and drained by a number
of rivers and rivulets, and the flanks of the mountains deeply
rent and furrowed by innumerable ravines. Proceeding eastward
from Port-of- Spain, we meet in the northern division with the
following perennial water-courses : the Aricagua, or San Juan's ;
the St. Joseph's, the Tacarigua, Arauca, Oropuna, Mujico, Arima,
Maturita, Guanape, Mamo, Aripo, and Valencia. All these
streams have their sources in the northern range. After receiving
the Valencia on the left and the Mamo on the right, as also the
Cumuto, from the Tamana ridge, the Aripo river unites with the
Guanape, to form the Caroni, of which the Aripo may be regarded
as the true origin. The Maturita and Arima are affluents of the
Guanape ; the other named rivers discharge their waters into the
Caroni. The Aripo takes a southerly direction, with a bend to
the W. ; the course of the Caroni is very nearly due W., and it
has its embouchure in the gulf about two miles S. of Port-of -
Spain. Besides the above tributaries, the Caroni receives the
Tumpuna and Arena from Tamana. It flows through a low and
partly swampy district, and has a very winding course. Its
banks are high and steep in the former part of its course, and the
water shallow. Approaching the swamps the banks are on a
level with the adjoining lands ; its bed deepens to several feet,
and it may be ascended for several miles by the flats of vessels
loading or discharging in the harbour.

Proceeding eastward, we meet with the following streams : —
The Cuare, with the Turure and La Ceyba, its tributaries ; the
Oropuche, which receives the Cuare on the right, and the Rio
Grande on the left side. They all rise in the northern range, and
run in a southerly direction, curving to the E. The Oropuche
receives from the central range the Cunapo and its affluent the
Guayco ; also the Sangre Grande and Sangre Chiquito, which
are themselves formed by the aggregation of a number of small

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 49

ravines. The Oropuche has its outlet nearly in the centre of the
Matura coast.

It becomes evident from this description that the dividing
table-land lies between Valencia and Cuare, and extends south-
ward to the central range, dividing the waters of the Cumuto
from those of the Guayco and Cunapo. It is 219 feet above the
level of the sea, and distant thirteen miles from the eastern, and
twenty-one miles from the western coast. The greatest elevation
of this water-shed, between the affluents of the Ortoire and the
Great Lagoon of Oropuche, should be sought at Savannah Grande ;
it is 230 feet. The distance to the eastern coast is twenty-six
miles, and only seven miles to the western. Besides the Oro-
puche and its affluents, we meet farther eastward with the
Matura, Salibea, and Tumpire, which have their mouths in
Matura, Salibea, and Cumana bays respectively. The Matura is
the largest of these currents, the other two being mere mountain
streams. -

In addition to the Caroni and its affluents, there are in the
Caroni basin several other water-courses worth mentioning, some
of them being natural canals or outlets for the waters of the ex*
tensive swamp, which forms, as it were, a Delta to the Caroni ;
such are Blue River and Chaguanas, or Madame Espagnole. The
Capparo River, which seems to rise in that part of the central
range connecting Tamana and Montserrat, has first a north-
westerly course, and discharges its waters into the gulf. Next
come the Arena and Couva, both having their sources in the
central range, and their outlet in the gulf.

The southern plain is watered by a number of small streams,
and a principal river called the Guataro. In the Lagoon basin
the following water-courses are worth noticing : — The Cipero,
southward of the town of San Fernando, flows from the district
of Savannah Grande, and drains part of that of Naparima ; about
one mile and a half from its mouth is a shipping place, whither
flats are sent to take off produce. Eastward of La Brea are the
Aripero, the Silver-stream, and the Roussillac ; southward, the
Bravo or Vossini River, the Guapo, and Capdeville, with a num-
ber of smaller ravines. All these water-courses spring from the
high land of the interior, and form separate streams which flow
into the gulf. Between the Cipero and Aripero, however, lies
the Oropuche or Grand Lagoon, which may be considered as the

E

50 TRINIDAD.

great drain o£ the lagoon basin. It is an extensive swamp,
studded with mounds of a black soil, clothed with rank vegetation,
and intersected by channels, expanding at intervals into ponds,
covered with reeds, rushes, and other aquatic plants or trees. A
great number of streams, flowing from the surrounding undu-
lating districts, supply it with much more water than might be
at first imagined. The Lagoon discharges its waters into the
gulf by two principal outlets — Mosquito Creek or Blazini's River,
and Godineau's River.

The eastern division of the southern plain is drained by the
largest river in the colony — the Guataro or Ortoire. Its course
is imperfectly known; it may, however, be traced from the
Montserrat heights, running southward, then eastward, and its
mouth opens on the eastern coast, immediately northward of
Point Guataro. Its tributaries are partly from the central range,
the principal being the Pure, Bell's Creek, Guanapure, Laranache,
Anapa, Guarapiche, and a number of small ravines, and partly
from the high lands to the south. The river Guataro is made on
Mallett's map to communicate with the Nariva by means of
navigable canals, but no such communication exists.

The Lebranche valley is watered by the Lebranche and a few
ravines ; the Lebranche itself has its source in the group of the
same name, and its mouth to the southward of Manzanilla Point.
The Guaracara valley is watered by the Guaracara, which descends
from the Montserrat Range, and discharges itself into the gulf
southward of Point-a-Pierre.

Between Manzanilla and Mayaro, at the basis of the Lebranche
group, and parallel with the Cocal, is an extensive swampy tract,
cut up by several canals, which concur in the formation of the
Nariva. This river, or rather natural canal, runs northward, and
nearly parallel with the shore, till it meets with the high land of
Morne Calabash, when it curves in an opposite direction south-
ward, to discharge itself nearly in the centre of the Cocal ; hence
its name of Mitan, or Middle River. The Nariva cannot be said
to have any current, since the flow is upwards at high tide, and
downwards at low tide only. It is very deep and wide near i
mouth, and receives all its waters from the central range.

The rivers on the N. and S. coasts may be regarded in gene
as unimportant. They are, on the N., Rio Grande, Tiburo
Madamas, Paria, Macapou, Chupara, Las Cuevas, and Maraccas

ind

I

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 51

on the S. the Lizards and Pilot rivers discharge their waters into
the Bay of Guayaguayare ; they are both tidal streams. Between
Points Canary and Pelican are three small rivers ; then comes the
Moruga, westward of Point Moruga — a tidal stream also, and the
largest of all ; and, in succession, La Ceyba, Curao, Siparia, and
Erin, to the leeward of the corresponding promontories.

The different water-courses above mentioned present a few
general characteristics which require notice. Those that take
their rise in the northern range have clear and limpid waters,
running over pebbly beds ; those from the central range flow
between steep banks and over muddy bottoms, their waters being
turbid and yellow — as, for instance, the Cumuto and Tumpuno,
the Cunapo, Sangre-Chiquito, &c. Several of these streams, but
especially those which take their rise in, or only flow through,
swampy districts, have dark-coloured waters ; such as the Nariva,
Mosquito Creek, the Godineau, &c. The water, however, though
dark, is perfectly clear, the discoloration arising from the long
maceration of leaves, bark, and other vegetable debris in water
almost stagnant.

Rivers falling into the gulf, particularly the Caroni and
Couva, are obstructed at their mouth by basses or shallows. The
shallow at the entrance of the Caroni extends upwards of a mile
into the gulf, and presents somewhat of an impediment to the
coastwise navigation. More than once vessels beating up for
Port-of-Spain have run aground on its mud-bank. These shal-
lows are formed by the gradual accumulation of stumps, branches,
and even entire trees, carried down the stream during the rainy
season, and which, sticking in the soft ground, remain to form an
embankment with the alluvial deposits ; such accumulation and
deposits are greatly aided by the nearly constant direction of the
prevailing winds, there being no surf at all along the western
coast to disturb the formation of such deposits. On the other
hand, to the eastward, where a heavy surf incessantly rolls over
the beach, also to the northward and southward, where the coast
is generally bluff and the shores steep, all the rivers, with the
exception of the Lebranche, which empties itself under the cover
of a rocky hill, have across their mouths bars of sand, resulting
from the antagonism of the waves and the currents of the streams.
The consequence is that such of our rivers as are of a depth suf-
ficient to admit small craft can be entered only at high tide, when

52 TRINIDAD.

there is a sufficiency of water on the bars and shallows to allow
of their being crossed. During the dry season some of the rivers
thus obstructed by bars become lost in the sandy beach, and may
be said to ooze into the sea. Of this the Oropuche is an instance.
The shallow at the mouth of the Caroni sometimes forms a species
of dyke from one to two feet high. The beds of many of these
rivers are so much beneath the level of the sea through the greater
part of their courses that in the dry months they are quite salt ;
in the wet season, however, the torrents of rain pouring into
them force out the salt water, and they become perfectly fresh.
The Guataro is said to be salt during the dry season for eighteen
miles upwards.

The above brief and general view of the geography of Trinidad
shows that the island is of a nearly rectangular form, and that it
is divided by nature into two great valleys running east and west,
and of almost the same form and extent. As a result of the
direction of the middle range, the northern valley is more con-
tracted at its eastern, and the southern at its western, extremity.
Each of these two valleys is subdivided into two secondary basins
of unequal areas, the Caroni basin being more extensive than
that of Oropuche, and the Guataro basin than that of the Great
Lagoon.

Well marked is the contrast between these two portions of
Trinidad. The northern division is more mountainous, the range
in that direction attaining an elevation of two and three thousand
feet. The ground rises gradually from each extremity towards
the centre, and from the depth of the valley on each side towards
the ridges. The southern portion is less mountainous, the
middle and southern ranges reaching the height of about 700
feet, whilst intermediately the country exhibits more or less
of gradation, a uniformly undulating surface being succeeded
on the N. and S.E. by a hilly and, in some parts, a broken
region.

In the northern section the rivers are, generally speaking,
larger — such as the Matura and Oropuche, to the eastward ; the
Caroni, Chaguanas, and Couva, to the westward ; the only large
river in the southern section is the Guataro. Nevertheless, the
rivers, which from the southern range flow in a southerly direction,
are larger and more numerous than those which from the northei
range have a northerly course. The Caroni swamp, in tl

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 53

northern, is corresponded to by the Nariva Lagoon in the
southern section; but the Oropuche or Grand Lagoon has not
its counterpart in the northern section, unless Oropuche be taken
as such.

There are no ports on the eastern coast ; but, as a compen-
sation, easy communication may be established with the gulf by
means of wheel or even tram-roads ; so that the produce from
eastern and intervening districts may be easily brought to the
shores of the gulf. It was once in project to connect the Oro-
puche with the Caroni by means of a canal. I fear, however*
that canal communications will not answer in a country like ours,
where there exist no considerable water-courses, and where the
rains are so heavy at one season as to cause partial inundations,
and the drought so protracted at another as to dry up the ravines
and even portions of the larger streams for several weeks at a
time. Under such circumstances, tram-roads deserve a decided
preference.

None of the other islands, I believe, offer such advantages as
Trinidad in an agricultural point of view. Even its highest
summits are not inaccessible to beasts of burden, and there the
soil is commonly of excellent quality. The area of the island is
about 1,755 square miles, or 1,020,000 acres. Of this quantity
not more than 326,597 are appropriated, of which about 100,000
acres only are under cultivation, the rest still belonging to the
Crown.

Monotony may be said to be the characteristic feature of the
country ; and this tameness of scenery arises not so much from a
general evenness of surface as from the vast and almost unbroken
series of virgin forests which still cover nearly the whole of its
extent; and thus this beautiful and fertile colony, capable of
supporting, according to a most moderate calculation, 1,000,000
inhabitants, at present maintains the unimportant aggregate of
153,118 individuals.

CHAPTER II.

GEOLOGICAL YIEW — MINERAL SPRINGS, PITCH DEPOSITS — SOIL AND VEGETATION.

The island of Trinidad has evidently been detached from the
adjacent peninsula of Paria. Of this we find numerous proofs
in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, as also in the geological
structure of the island ; and this must be evident even to the
least initiated.

In the animal kingdom we find the following objects for
comparison : — The Howling Monkey and Weeping Ape, among
quadrumana ; the Tiger-cat, or Ocelot, the Gato-melao, or Taira,
and the Otter, amongst carnivora ; the Lapa among rodentia ;
the Tatou, or Cachicame, with the great and small Sloths,
among edentata ; the Guazoupita amongst ruminantia ; and the
Pecari among pachydermata. In the feather tribe, I may
mention, among numerous species, the vultures Papa and
Urubu; the Crested Gavilan {Spizaetus ornatus),th.e Campanero,
and the Yacou, with several pigeons ; the Macaw, the Guacharo,
the Kamichi, and Red Ibis ; also several ducks, &c. The tribe
of reptiles supplies the following identical species : — The Mo-
rocoy, or land Tortoise, the Galapa, or river Tortoise, among
chelonians ; the Mapipire and Coral Snakes, the Macaouel and
Huillia (boas) , among ophidians ; the Pipa and Paradoxal frogs
amongst batrachians ; the Mato (Salvator Merianai), and a few
others. "We have also several fresh- water fish, which are found
on the neighbouring main, viz. : the Cascaradura and Guabine ;
as also some kinds of insects which are not inhabitants of the
other Antilles — among them the Lanthorn and the Parasol-ants.

The analogy between our Flora and that of the peninsula of
Paria is also well defined. The stately Moriche Palm, the useful
Timite and Carata, adorn the savannahs and woodlands alike of
Trinidad and of Venezuela ; the Mora Tree forms here, as it
does there, immense forests; the Poui, the Cyp, Roble, and

GEOLOGICAL VIEW. 55

Copaiba may be reckoned among our timber ; among our lianes,
the Bauhinia and Bambusa (Chusquea), with many Orchids.

The resemblance between the island and the continent, how-
ever, becomes more striking still, when we come to consider the
geological structure, and consequent surface disposition of the
country. We can follow the direction of the mountains of Paria
to Cape Galera, through the Dragon's Mouths : the islets which
contribute to the formation of the passages representing so
many peaks which, having resisted the convulsions of nature,
and remained above the waters when the lower parts were sub-
merged, are to us as so many witnesses of a past cataclysm :
just as the highest summits between Diego-Martin and Cuesa,
and those to the westward of the latter, might probably become
if the valley they form were sunk and invaded by the sea. All
our valleys are transversal to the northern ridge and directed
southward — only a few insignificant glens opening to the north,
exactly as in the peninsula of Paria.

" The chain of calcareous mountains of the Brigantine and
Cocollar," says Baron von Humboldt, u sends off a considerable
branch to the north, which joins the primitive mountains of the
coast. This branch bears the name of Sierra de Meapire.

" When standing on the summit of the Cerro de Meapire,
we see the mountain currents flow on one side to the Gulf of
Paria, and on the other to the Gulf of Carriaco ; east and west
of the ridge there are low marshy grounds, spreading out with-
out interruption; and if it be admitted that both gulfs owe
their origin to the sinking of the earth, and to rents caused by
earthquakes, we must suppose that the Cerro de Meapire has
resisted the convulsive movements of the globe, and hindered
the waters of the Gulf of Paria from uniting with those of the
Gulf of Carriaco. But for this rocky dyke, the isthmus itself,
in all probability, would have had no existence ; and from the
Castle of Araya, as far as the Cape of Paria, the whole mass of
the mountains of the coast would have formed a narrow island
parallel to the island of Margarita/'

No such dyke existing where the mountains were rent in for-
mation of the Bocas, Trinidad was thus and then severed from
the continent; and even at the epoch of its discovery by
Columbus, the Indians entertained the opinion that the catas-
trophe had taken place at a not very remote period. Previous

56 TE1NIDAD.

to that event, the Gulf of Paria was, in all probability, a lagoon,
or lake, formed in the delta of the Orinoco.

At present, and by the gradual accumulation of deposits
from the low plains of the Tigre and the vicinity, the waters of
the gulf are receding ; " and/' according to Baron von Hum-
boldt, "if the level of the soil seems to indicate that the two
gulfs of Carriaco and Paria formerly occupied a much more con-
siderable space, we cannot doubt that, at present, the land is
progressively extending. "

The presence of bitumen on the mainland, in the Gulf of
Carriaco, and at El Buen Pastor, near the Rio Areo, as also its
existence in the Gulf of Paria, and throughout the southern
division of the island, is another proof of the geological connec-
tion existing between the two countries; and that connection
may be traced across the gulf, by drawing a line from La Brea
to El Buen Pastor — a distance of 105 miles.

At Manzanilla, between the Point and Oropuche, muriati-
f erous clay is met with ; it is of a smoke-gray colour, like that
of Araya, and apparently lies on sandstone. Not only was
Captain Columbine deceived during his survey of the eastern
coast, but several others have been bitterly disappointed at
finding salt rills where they expected fresh water to quench
their thirst. M On our first attempt/' says Captain Columbine,
" to reach the Oropuche, Ave perceived a few small drains of
water on the sides of earthy cliffs along the shore, perfectly
salt, although far within the range of the sea, and at least
twenty and thirty feet above high- water mark ; but three or
four days afterwards, rain having fallen, they were found to
be fresh.'"

Baron von Humboldt considers the Brigantine and Cocollar
as being of Alpine formation. He says: " Three great parallel
chains extend from east to west ; the two most northerly chains
are primitive, and contain the mica-slate of Mucanao and the
San Juan valley, of Maniquarez and of Chaparipari. These we
shall distinguish by the names of Cordillera of the island of
Margarita, and cordillera of Araya. The third chain, the most
southerly of the whole, the cordillera of the Brigantine and of
the Cocollar, contains rocks only of secondary formation; and
what is remarkable enough, though analogous to the geo-
logical constitution of the Alps westward of St. Gothard, the

GEOLOGICAL VIEW. 57

primitive chain is much less elevated than that which was com-
posed of secondary rocks." It is evident that our mountains
also belong to the same formation.

Excepting Mr. C. Deville, who made bat a short stay in
Trinidad, no professional geologist has ever visited this island ;
but that gentleman's work on the Antilles is still in print, and
part of it only has yet been published, so that it is rather
difficult for me to give any account or comprehensive view of
the geology of Trinidad.

Since writing this in 1857, two competent explorers — Mr.
Wall, from the Government School of Mines, and Mr. Sawkins,
geologist — were appointed to undertake a general survey of the
economic geology of Trinidad, an undertaking which they
executed with credit to themselves and to the satisfaction, I
believe, of the governments which employed them. I am there-
fore in a position to make this new edition of my book more
comprehensive and interesting.

When Messrs. Wall and Sawkins began their survey, not
even one-fourth of the island had been recovered from its virgin
state, and the uncontrolled luxuriance of the forest vegetation
presented an almost impenetrable barrier to their exploration.
Many and various were the difficulties they had to contend with.
The allowance of £1 a day to cover personal and travelling
expenses was barely sufficient for the purpose. They had been
at work for two years, and yet they required twelve months
more to perfect their work ; they were particularly anxious to
explore more minutely the coal formation of the island, and to
follow up the seams at different places in the coal district. To
do this, they required men, not only to carry personal luggage
and provisions, but also tools, through the entangled forest ;
men to build their huts and assist in digging where required.
This being hard and unpleasant work, the men asked for high
pay, and, upon calculation, Messrs. Wall and Sawkins found
that they could not carry on the survey without further assis-
tance ; and that assistance was refused, so that the work was not
brought to the perfection these gentlemen had contemplated.

In accordance with the principle generally accepted, of
naming geological formations which are examined or described
for the first time, after the localities where they occur, Messrs.
Wall and Sawkins propose to name Caribbean group that series

58 TRINIDAD.

of micaceous slates, sandstones, limestones, and slates, which are
the constituent strata of the northern littoral range.

They propose to describe as Older Parian an indurated for-
mation of lower cretaceous age, occurring in the central range.

They designate as Newer Parian that series of tertiary strata
which comprises the whole of the southern division of the island.

The most prevalent beds of the Caribbean group consist of
mica slates with layers of quartzose matter, at Saint Ann, for
instance. There is a considerable variety of sandstones. Cal-
careous rocks are represented by two varieties in this group,
viz. : crystalline limestones, contained in the slates, and alter-
nating with same, as at Monos, for instance ; and compact lime-
stones, either completely unconnected with the schistose group,
or only associated with its upper strata. The former sometimes
occur in massive beds, varying from white to blue in colour.
The compact limestones form a portion of the Laventille hills
and several of the islands in the gulf. Point Gourde is entirely
formed of that variety. It occurs again at Oropuche, at an
elevation of 2,000 feet.

The Older Parian group consists mainly of a great variety
of sandstones ; of strata composed of an argillaceous base with
equivalents of free silica. When combined with a given pro-
portion of silica, it represents a certain degree of hardness, and
forms a species of clay rock, which may be termed Argiline.
This substance is extensively quarried at the Naparima hill, and
is used, under the name of gravel, to make up the roads in
Naparima and some neighbouring districts.

The Newer Parian group may be said to reach, northward,
the rivers Caroni and Oropuche ; it occupies the whole of the
southern division of the island — more than two-thirds of its
entire surface. It comprises a succession of clays, shales, loose
sand, limestones, calcareous sandstones, and marls.

For facility of study, this group has been divided by Messrs.
Wall and Sawkins into five series, viz. : (1) ,the Caroni, or Carbona-
ceous series, which extends from Pointe Noire, on the eastern
coast, to the gulf. The tract it represents is but slightly
elevated above the sea near the gulf.

2nd. The Naparima Marl. This series is formed of strata
composed of clay, marls, and calcareous sands. A considerable
and the best portion of the cultivated district of Naparima

GEOLOGICAL VIEW. 59

belongs to this formation ; it also contributes to form the best
soil of Oropuche. The series extends from west to east very
nearly to the Ortoire, on a breadth of from two to four
miles.

3rd. Tamana or Calcareous Series. The limestones of this
series — viz., of Montserrat, Tamana, and Lebranche — vary from
granular to crystalline in texture, and form, with sandstone, cal-
careous sandstones pretty common. The stratum can be traced
from Cedar Hill Estate, Savanetta, to Manzanilla, eastern
shore. Messrs. Wall and Sawkins are of opinion that the thick-
ness of these strata cannot be less than several hundred feet.

4th. The Nariva Series consists of ferruginous clays, form-
ing the substratum of the well-known red soil, stiff and retentive,
and particularly observable in the county of Victoria.

5th. The Moruga or Arenaceous Series may be followed up
from the southern coast to the Ortoire and the Oropuche lagoon,
and from Mayaro, eastern coast, to Guapo and Cedros, western
coast. The strata in this series are more or less of light sand ;
calcareous sandstones, however, are not deficient. This admix-
ture of the calcareous element accounts for the quality of the
soil where it exists in certain proportion, as at Guayaguayare,
Moruga, Erin, and Cedros, where cacao and the sugar-cane are
cultivated to advantage. Asphaltum is extensively disseminated
in this series ; lignite is found on the southern coast. We
should also look for mud volcanoes or salses in this series.

I may be permitted to add a few particulars. Transition
limestone prevails not only at La Ventille and the islets in the
gulf, but is also met with in the mountains which border our
valleys, between Diego-Martin and Cuesa ; in the valley of
Maraval, particularly on the Moka Estate ; between Santa Cruz
and Maracas Valley; between the sources of Arima and Oro-
puche, and more eastward still. At the head of the rivers Aripo
and Oropuche there are some caves beautifully ornamented with
stalactites and stalagmites; they are haunted by Guacharos,
which breed therein. Our limestone is, in general, compact, of
a bluish-gray colour, destitute of organic remains, and traversed
by veins of calcareous spar. Small crevices occur in the calca-
reous rocks, lined with a beautiful crystallisation of carbonate of
lime of a topaz colour.

Gypsum is not uncommon, and there is a quarry of it near

60 TRINIDAD.

the town of Saint Joseph, at the foot of the mountain, and
adjoining the royal road ; this gypsum is very white, containing
native sulphur, and perfectly resembling that of Guiria, on the
opposite coast of the gulf. There exists another deposit at La
Ventille, at a short distance from the town. Lamellar gypsum
is found in many places in the southern division, as also
granular, and a bank of grayish earthy sulphate of lime is
known on the Brechin Castle Estate, ward of Savanetta, within
a short distance of Cangrejos Bay.

Sandstone is also abundant, and is exhibited in the limestone
formation, as, for instance, near Port-of- Spain, at Maraval,
Pointe-a-Pierres, Manzanilla, duemada, &c. Between Guanape
and Aripo, at the foot of the mountains, the soil is composed
altogether of silicious pebbles, imbedded in a coarse reddish clay.
Blocks of milky quartz, and crystals of hyaline quartz, are found
in many parts of the mountainous region, and at the bases of the
mountains. " However extraordinary this mixture of sandstone
and compact limestone may appear/' says Baron von Humboldt,
" we cannot doubt that these strata belong to one and the same
formation. "

The slate, or schistose formation, is also very apparent in the
hills forming the valleys of St. Ann and Maraval. Mica slate,
taleky and mica schists, are particularly common ; the latter
sometimes contains garnets, generally of a small size. The
admixture of sandstone, schistose and limestone rocks, is well
marked at Monos ; some of the projections are formed of lime-
stone, others of large slabs of schistose rocks ; and mica schists
are observed in many localities, as also quartz rocks. In our
valleys and the beds of rivers rounded pebbles of quartz-stone,
some very large, are found, together with a small flat stone of a
bluish soft talc ; this is particularly apparent after some of those
mountain torrents, swollen by heavy rains, have furrowed the
neighbouring ridges. The softer rocks, however, soon disinte-
grate, and the silicious pebbles alone resist the action of atmos-
pheric agents, and thus predominate in the valleys and beds of
rivers.

Lignite has been found to the westward of the river Moruga,
near Erin, and apparently occurs in seams, not only in that
locality, but in several places also throughout the southern
division. A substance nearly allied to lignite has also been

PITCH DEPOSITS. 61

found at Savanetta ; it is compact, and of a dead, dark fracture;
it burns with difficulty, and could not be used as fuel, unless
mixed with some other substance.

Bitumen, or fossil pitch, another member of the carboniferous
system, exists in inexhaustible abundance throughout the whole
extent of the southern division. Point la Brea, in the county
of St. Patrick, is formed altogether of hardened pitch, which
extends into the gulf. The Pitch Lake, near the village of La
Brea, in the same locality, is the great natural curiosity of
Trinidad, and is really worth visiting. Soft bitumen also exists
within the site of the town of San Fernando, and between
Moruga and Guayaguayare ; the latter is known by the appella-
tion of u Lagon Bouf/'' from the peculiar noise produced by the
bubbling of the soft bitumen. At Oropuche, Guapo, and
Quemada, are likewise small craters of the same substance.
About two miles from the Yaro, in the spring of the year, a
periodical but brief submarine eruption occurs, throwing up
quantities of pitch, with which the beach is afterwards strewn.
Many of these bitumen craters exist at the bottom of the gulf,
along the line of coast from San Fernando to Irois ; their
eruptions occasionally agitate the waves, and eject considerable
quantities of petroleum. The pitch cast up on the beach is
generally in the form of lumps or cakes.

It is to me evident that our pitch deposits must have a sub-
marine communication with those of El Buen Pastor, in the
canton of Maturin. " These springs/'' says Baron von Humboldt,
" proceed, probably, from the beds of limestone which form the
Brigantine and Cocollar."

There exist, in different parts of the island, what we term
natural savannas, to distinguish them from artificial savannas,
or pasture grounds laid out for stock. They exhibit a peculiar
vegetation, characterised by a growth of coarse graminacese,
cyperoids and other plants, studded with stunted dwarf trees,
mainly the Chapara {Curate lid) and Bois-sang (Vismia). The
surface of these savannas is usually sandy and very poor. Some
of them are situated on the flanks and even summits of the
mountains; others on low, flat lands. The former may be
observed in the northern range, from St. Joseph to Arima ; the
soil is formed of coarse quartzose gravel and very poor. They
are dotted over with blocks of milky quartz, which from a

6& TRINIDAD.

distance appear as so many white sheep or cattle grazing in the
pasture.

The soil of the savannas O'Mara and Piarquito, in the ward
of Arima, of Arouca and Piarco, in the ward of Arouca, is a
coarse, unproductive clay, with a layer of white sand ; that of
Aripo, Couva, and Savanetta light and poor — that of Aripo,
however, rather swampy; the savannas of Erin and Icacos are
sandy, but not altogether deficient in organic matter ; they
produce an abundance of Guinea Grass and another panicum
called Caricio. The Caroni savanna, and that at the back of
the Cocal, Nariva, differ from those already mentioned, not only
because they are partly under water during the wet season, but
because their soil being formed, to a great extent, of sedimentary
matter, supports a more varied and richer vegetation. These
savannas being rather level are very subject to become miry and
swampy under the prevalence of the periodical rains, whilst
during the dry months of the year they become indurated and
everywhere rent into ruts or chasms several feet in depth. It is
customary to fire these miniature prairies during the dry season,
in order to destroy the rank vegetation which had sprung up
during the rains, and thereby induce a fresh and tender growth
for the benefit of the stock which is sent to graze therein.

The Caroni and Cocal savannas may be ranged among those
swamps which occupy more than one-seventeenth of the area of
the island. They are tracts of perfectly plane ground bordering
the sea, and extending more or less towards the interior. The
section adjacent to the shore is usually flooded by the tide, and
thickly overgrown by mangroves ; the portion towards the in-
terior is covered with a thick vegetation of graminacese, cyperacese,
and vines. The soil may be considered as made up of vegetable
debris in situ and sedimentary matter washed down by heavy
rains and periodical floods.

Soil and Vegetation. — In its geological formation Trinidad
displays much variety. Volcanic rocks, however, are entirely
wanting. The soils of the island are generally in accordance
with the strata on which they rest, and are formed by the dis-
integration of those strata. Changes occur in the qualities of
our soils to such an extent as to have attracted the attention of
the least observant. The character of these soils being very
similar over one and the same formation will allow their classifi-

SOIL AND VEGETATION. 63

cation according to their productive capabilities. I should
remark here that, notwithstanding- the rich vegetation generally-
prevailing, and the excess of forests, none of the soils really
abound in vegetable matter. On the whole, however, they may
be rated as of average fertility, and several districts might sus-
tain comparison with the best soils of Cuba and Hayti, whilst
a few tracts bear the characteristics of irretrievable barrenness.

There is a great variety of soils in the Caribbean group, but
the quality cannot be described as generally good. These soils
consist of a variable mixture of clay and sand, or gravel : they
are of a better quality when mixed with calcareous matter ; the
cerros of Aripo and Oropuche are illustrations of this fact, as also
the vegas of Oropuche, Tompuna, Coumuto, and Cunapo. Where
sand prevails, the land is very poor. The soil may be said to be
of average quality in the counties of St. George and Caroni,
and in part of those of St. David and St. Andrew. From
Arouca to Guanape it becomes unproductive, being a cold,
reddish clay, or poor silicious land, whilst from Guanape to
La Ceyba it is a retentive, whitish clay, or a poor sand, sup-
porting a languishing vegetation of ferns, sclerias, cocorits,
and bromelias. The whole of this tract may be considered as
the worst land in the colony, and not worth the labour of culti-
vation. On the banks of the Oropuche and Matura the land
is excellent ; a tract between Oropuche and Manzanilla, known
as the Caratal, is equal to any in the colony. Chaguanas, Cara-
pichaima, and Couva, under intelligent tillage, can give remu-
nerative crops of sugar. The total extent represented by these
soils is 342 J miles.

In the Older Parian, soil generally poor; absence of cal-
careous matter. Mount Harris and Mount Carata in this group
are formed of hard sandstone, and the surrounding tracts are
sterile. Area 97 square miles.

In the Newer Parian group the Nariva series is composed of
stiff ferruginous clay (red soil), not very fertile. In Naparima
it is associated with the marl formation, presenting frequent
alternations with the same ; it is under cane cultivation, less on
account of its agricultural capabilities than its close proximity
to the black soil.

The Naparima marl series affords soils of excellent quality,
friable, and usually black, or of chocolate colour — the tierra

64 TRINIDAD.

mulata of Cuba. The great fertility of these soils is undoubtedly
attributable to the presence of a large proportion of carbonate of
lime with an admixture of carbonate of magnesia. I have not
the slightest doubt that the addition, especially of the white
marl, to the red soil would materially improve its properties ;
and since on many estates it is within proximity, it would not
cost much to try some essays, especially as there cannot be any
apprehension of a bad result. The area occupied by the marl
series may be calculated at 75 square miles.

Not inferior to the marl series is the calcareous or Tamana
series. This region is imperfectly known, being cultivated only
on a small scale, viz., at Manzanilla on the eastward, and at
Montserrat on the west. The soil is of excellent quality, of a
brownish colour, and friable. All sorts of provisions, particularly
roots, grow to perfection; cacao culture is extending in the
Montserrat district, and the plant is highly prolific and the
produce of as good a quality as anywhere else in the colony.
Where not too hilly, as between Montserrat and Tamana, the
soil would be well adapted to the cultivation of the sugar-cane.
The area may be taken at 86 square miles.

The Caroni series occupies a large surface from east to west,
and displays a variety of soils : good, adjacent to the Tamana
series ; sandy as we approach the Caroni and Oropuche ; argilla-
ceous when we approach nearer ; then the vegas, formed of
sedimentary matter. On the eastern coast, and near the Oro-
puche, we meet better soil, owing to a fair admixture of calca-
reous drift from the Lebranche and Oropuche elevations. The
extent of this series may be calculated at 318 square miles.

In the Moruga, or arenaceous series, the soil may be said to
be sandy and yet not unproductive, especially where it is
modified by the occurrence of interstratified shales, as at
Moruga, Guayaguayare, Erin; or of calcareous sandstone, as at
Quemada and part of Cedros. This section occupies more than
one fourth of the total area of the island — 492 square miles.
Cacao and the sugar-cane have been cultivated with some
success at Mayaro, Moruga, and Cedros ; provisions thrive at
Guayaguayare as well as anywhere else in the colony; but this
section seems to be well adapted to the culture of cotton anc
tobacco ; also to that of coffee.

The soils of our swamps may be ranged as sedimentai

SOIL AND VEGETATION. 65

alluvials with, a large admixture of vegetable debris. To become
tillable, they should be empoldered and drained ; this has already
been attempted with some success, and I have no doubt that a
good portion of them may be recovered for agriculture. They
would then become adaptable to the cultivation of the sugar-
cane, but especially to the production of rice. The Caroni and
Nariva swamps might be turned into pasturage. The area of the
principal swamp tracts maybe estimated asfollows: Nariva, 34,5 60
acres; Caroni, 20,480 acres; Oropuche (west coast), 8,960 acres.

The beaches of Mayaro, Nariva, and Icacos are lined with
tracts of blown sand, in which the coco-nut palm thrives
admirably.

"The great diversity of soil," observe Messrs. Wall and
Sawkins, "from the heaviest (red soil of Naparima) to the
lightest (siparia, Erin) ; from the richest (Naparima marl,
Tamana), to the most unpromising (Valencia, Turure), seems to
indicate that the country, limited in extent as it may be, is
calculated to become the home of a highly varied agriculture.
However strong the temptation may be to spread the sugar
cultivation into every corner of the island, it should be remem-
bered that a country which is dependent on several staples is
infinitely more secure than another which relies on one only."
This is a sensible remark, and I shall add that, though in the
estimation of certain people it may be a matter of regret that
there do exist in the colony such extensive tracts of barren land,
I nevertheless consider this, to a certain extent, as a relative
advantage, since the chances are that these tracts will never be
brought under cultivation ; and we shall have thus in store fuel,
and even timber, for building purposes; a good area besides
remaining covered with forest, we shall not be exposed to suffer
from drought, as is the case in some of the older islands.

Mineral Springs. — Two mineral springs only have been
hitherto discovered in the island ; one of these is in the valley of
Maraccas, at the foot of a high hill, and nearly in the bed of the
St. Joseph or Maraccas river; it is a cold spring. According
to Dr. T. Davy, " it has a strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen,
and there is a disengagement of gas in bubbles at its surface."
From an examination of a portion which he took with him, he
found it to contain the following ingredients, viz., " carbonate and
sulphate of lime, carbonate of potash, common salt, and traces oi

66 TRINIDAD.

silica, and to be impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, and
that pretty strongly, and with carbonic acid gas : its specific
gravity is 1-0016."

The Maraccas spring may be considered as having a rather
powerful action on the human frame, since a febrile condition
has been invariably produced after a few days' bathing in its
waters ; such baths, however, have proved very advantageous in
several instances, and this spring might be resorted to in many
cases of chronic disease.

The other mineral spring is also cold; it has not been
analysed hy the learned doctor, but Messrs. Criiger and Leotaud,
who examined it, found therein the following ingredients to
sixteen ounces : —

Grs.

Muriate of soda 2*349

Sulphate of soda ..... 3#471

Sulphate of lime 6-776

Sulphate of magnesia . . . . 6-417
Oxide of iron 6-231

The metallic taste is so strong that it is almost impossible to
swallow any quantity of the water : this spring is in the ward
of Pointe-a-Pierres, on a small property belonging to M.
Desanclos. In the same locality, on the Plaisance Estate, are
three springs, one nearly cold, another warm, which is used for
bathing, and a third unbearably hot. Dr. Davy found that the
hot springs were "slightly impregnated with sulphuretted
hydrogen and carbonic acid gas, and contained minute quantities
of carbonate of potash, lime, and magnesia, and of silica, with a
trace of phosphate of lime ; so dilute are they, that their specific
gravity does not exceed 1'0003." And yet their medicinal
virtues, particularly in cases of rheumatism and nervous debility,
have been strikingly displayed in more than one case.

Dr. Davy remarks, besides, that the mud volcanoes may be
considered as mineral springs : — " The water, muddy as it is, in
its ordinary state, from clay suspended in it, when filtered
becomes perfectly clear and transparent. A portion so treated,
procured from Cedros, was of specific gravity 1*0147, had a
faint bituminous smell, and slight pure saline taste. Its chief
ingredient was common salt; it contained, besides, a notabl
proportion of iodine, probably in the form of hydriodate of soc
and carbonate of lime. A specimen of muddy water from tl

SOIL AND VEGETATION. 67

mud volcano in Savanna Grande afforded, on examination,
results very similar to the preceding, seeming- to indicate a
common source and origin. What is worthy of note in the
waters of the mud eruptions," adds the Doctor, " is the presence
of iodine, a substance of high medicinal powers. Containing it,
they may be deserving of trial, and may prove efficacious in all
those ailments in the treatment of which iodine has been found
to be beneficial."

The vegetation of wild plants furnishes a good criterion
whereby to judge of the various degrees of fertility or barren-
ness of soils. The single family of palms affords sufficient
accurate indications of the quality of the land and of its adapta-
bility, or otherwise, to the growth of our various staples : as
instances — the Carat is indicative of the best soil, and of its
suitableness for the production of sugar ; the Mountain-cabbage
is a sure characteristic of good land, adapted to the cultivation
of cacao and coffee ; the Attalea speciosa, of a light rich loam,
particularly well suited to the production of " ground-provi-
sions ; " the Groo-groo, on the other hand, grows in dry silicious
lands ; the Timite generally in low sandy tracts ; the Cocorite
and Palma Real in the worst soils. Any land producing the
Carat (Coper moid) and Mountain-cabbage (Oreodoxa) Palms,
the Wild Fig-tree (Ficus), Wild Plum-tree (Spondias), the Cedar
(Cedrela), Balizier (Heliconia), Sand-box tree (Hura), &c,
may be pronounced good. Wherever these plants grow in
abundance, the soil is very fertile ; the Carat, wild Fig-tree,
and Cedar, however, are particularly characteristic of superior
lands. The soil is of excellent quality where the Fig-tree,
Mountain-cabbage, Plum-tree, Cedar, and Baliziers are plentiful;
it may also be considered good whenever any one of the above
species is not wanting. On the contrary, wherever the Cocorite,
Manaco, Timite, and Groo-groo (Palms), the Mulatto-tree
(Cassia), Bois-sang (Fismia), the Fox-tail grass, Cortaderas
(Scleria), Caratas, Pine-apple, and Melastomaceous plants grow
in abundance, the soil may be pronounced poor and unproduc-
tive. The Poui (Tecoma) Balata (Ackras), Carapa, or Crapaud
(Carapa), and Guatecaro (Levy this) thrive both in good and bad
lands; the two former, however, arrive at superior growth in
poor sandy soils, the two latter in damp clay-lands.

The vegetation of Trinidad, like that of all inter- tropical

68 TRINIDAD.

climates, is dense and luxuriant. Some trees attain the loftiest
heights, and display the most majestic forms. In the palm
family, the Moriche (Manritia) and Mountain-cabbage (Oreodoxa)
grow perfectly straight like columns, supporting a tuft of fan-like
and pinnated leaves : over its humble associates towers the giant
Cedar, whilst the noble Balata rears its magnificent trunk, ex-
panding above in vigorous branches clothed with a dark green
foliage. The Poui and Bois Immortel periodically change their
verdant foliage — the former for a thick covering of pure yellow,
the latter of brilliant crimson blossoms; and, in like manner
also, the flowering Roble assumes its orange-coloured garment,
and spreads far around a delicious perfume. The Ceyba, the
Sand-box, and Wild Plum-trees display, on their branches and
along their trunks, a thick vegetation of Epidendra and Til-
landsias. The underbrush, in some parts, is so thick that a
passage must be effected with the cutlass. Bauhinias, Bignonias,
and other lianes, are everywhere seen climbing up the trunks of
the loftiest trees, whilst from the branches of others depend the
twining roots of the Mamure (Carludovicia) and the Seguine
(Philodendrum). The vigorous Matapalo (Ulusia), accidentally
implanted on some tree, sends down into the soil its cable-like
root, meanwhile encircling its supporter with an inextricable net-
work of pliant root-stems, which, by a gradual yet rapid growth,
eventually stifle and destroy the most luxuriant tree. In copses
are met the more humble individuals of the vegetable kingdom —
the beautiful Passiflora, the delicate Convolvulus, the more robust
Bignonia, and the useful Guaco and Pareira Brava. Poisonous
as well as wholesome medicinal plants grow everywhere; and
from our forests we may draw an almost inexhaustible supply of
valuable timber, as well as cabinet and other woods, applicable
to all descriptions of useful purposes.

The culture of only a few of our indigenous vegetables has,
as yet, been attempted, though many more might perhaps be
cultivated to advantage. Those, however, which — whether indi-
genous or exotic — form the basis of our agriculture, exhibit the
same luxuriance of growth as the spontaneous vegetation.

The sugar-cane, when cultivated in virgin and congenial soils,
displays a vigour such as to call forth the admiration even of the
casual observer, and how much more to elate the rational
hopes of the interested planter. The cacao-tree reaches, in our

SOIL AND VEGETATION. 69

vegas, the height of thirty feet, and yields a successive produce
throughout the year; the coffee, as well as the cotton and castor-
oil plants, attains the proportion of copse-wood; rice grows to the
height of six and seven, maize to that of eighteen, and even
twenty, feet; the farinaceous roots of the Manioc, and the
tubercles of the Yam mature, in proper localities, to enormous
sizes ; Plantains furnish, with but little trouble, an abundance
of alimentary provision, whilst in rich sandy loams, Pumpkins
and Water-melons are reproduced on the same spot for years,
without the slightest care. Fruit-trees, when planted, are usually
left to their own un tended growth and development, unaided
even by the pruning-knife ; but they fail not, in due season, to
pour forth the exuberance of their luscious treasures; the Nutmeg
and Cinnamon trees also grow to the fullest perfection. Yet
man — neglectful man — satisfied with Nature's proceedings, at-
tempts but feebly to turn to advantage the gratuities of a boun-
tiful Providence.

Earthquakes. — Although there exists no authentic record of
Trinidad having ever suffered, to any great extent, from earth-
quakes, yet the island is not unfrequently visited by those subter-
ranean convulsions ; and a year seldom passes away without the
recurrence of one or more of such, visitations. They were rather
numerous during the prevalence of the long and severe drought
of the year 1846, when as many as seven shocks were felt in the
month of September alone. In October, 1761, the island suffered
from a rather severe earthquake, and the mountain to the N.E. of
St. Joseph, known by the name of "Cerro de Don Pedro Indio,"
was rent to a large extent, the fissure or chasm remaining open
for a long period. For many years, and until lately, a mass in
honour of " Nuestra Sefiora de la Guadalupe"" was celebrated in
St. Joseph on the date, and in commemoration, of that event.
In September, 1825, the steeple of Trinity Church was thrown
down, and the walls of several houses in Port of Spain were
dangerously cracked during one of the severest shocks within the
memory of the inhabitants.

It has been remarked that earthquakes are more prevalent
during the hottest months, namely, in August, September, and
October. Their movement is either from S.S.W. to N.N.E., or
from E. to W., that is to say, in the direction of the Antillan
range, or the Grand Cordillera of Venezuela.

CHAPTER III.

NATURAL HISTORY — VEGETABLE KINGDOM, TIMBER WOODS, USEFUL AND POISONOU8
PLANTS — ANIMAL KINGDOM, MAMMIFERS, BIRDS, REPTILES, FISH, AND INSECTS,
VIZ., THOSE "WHICH MERIT ATTENTION FROM THEIR UTILITY AS FOOD, THEIR
SINGULAR HABITS, OR NOXIOUS AND DESTRUCTIVE PROPENSITIES.

The all-bountiful Creator has everywhere made an abundant
provision for the wants of His creatures ; and whithersoever man
directs his steps in search of a home, he is certain to find food
for his sustenance, materials for his clothing and lodging, as also
products naturally suited, or artificially adaptable, to commercial
purposes. Yet, wherever civilised man migrates and settles, he
carries with him, as a matter of necessity, not only those imple-
ments and conveniences which an advanced state of civilisation
has invented, but likewise those animals he has domesticated,
those plants or seeds he has reclaimed from nature, and which he
knows will be useful in contributing either to his support or com-
fort. Thus, the ox, the horse, the sheep, swine, and poultry, were
introduced and naturalised in the West Indies ; and the sugar-
cane, coffee, rice, and other growths, imported and propagated into
staples. But in these islands were also found building materials,
as well as articles of food and commerce. I have, in the preceding
chapter, mentioned the mineral productions which may be, or are
already, turned to useful purposes ; I shall hereafter fully notice
those which the vegetable kingdom supplies for trade and general
aliment ; but at present I only wish to point out those indigenous
plants and animals which have been rendered subservient to our
wants, together with those of the former which deserve peculiar
mention on account of their noxious or curative properties ; and
those of the latter which merit attention, either from their singular
habits, or destructive propensities and venomous attributes.

Vegetable Kingdom. — Under this division, such plants onl
will form the objects of notice as serve for building purposes,

TIMBER WOODS. 71

cabinet-work, &c. ; for medicinal purposes, or such as are to be
avoided on account of their deleterious properties.

Balata (Mimusops globosa, Goertner). — The Balata, or Bullet-
wood, is one of our best and most useful timbers. Though a
hard wood, Balata is not, however, iron-hard, as are the Poui
and a few others : owing to its regularity of grain and freedom
from knots, it is easily sawn, and still more so split ; and work-
men, in general, prefer working it to many others of even less
solidity. It is excellent in many respects, but mainly as house-
posts and plates, joists or floor-beams and runners, as also for
fence-posts, spokes, and even shingles — the latter remarkably
durable. The Balata grows to very large sizes, some measuring
five and six feet in diameter, whilst the unbranched shaft often
rises from fifty to sixty feet.

Poui {Tecoma serratifolia, Donal.). — There are three varieties
of the Poui, characterised by the colour chiefly, viz., the white,
the green, and the black Poui ; of these the green is accounted
the superior quality. Poui is, unquestionably, our hardest
timber, and the Swedish axe alone is fully equal to the task of
felling it ; it also contains a sort of gummo-resinous substance
which, particularly in the black kind, impedes the free action of
the saw. The usages to which Poui is applicable are not so
numerous as those of Balata ; it is mainly employed for ground-
posts and other beams in heavy buildings, and is, for such pur-
poses, considered by many as superior to the former : though
growing to large sizes, it never attains the proportions of the
Balata.

Acoma, or Mastic {Sideroxylon mastichodendron, Jacquin). —
Between this wood and the Balata there exists the greatest
analogy, with the exception of colour — the former being of a light
straw, whilst the latter is of a dark red tinge : it possesses a very
fine and close, but also a very hard, grain, and may be said to
combine the qualities of the two foregoing timbers. It is
adapted to almost all purposes, even to the handling and boxing
of carpenters' tools, and is, in these respects, perhaps our most
available timber. It thrives, generally, in mountainous districts,
and attains large dimensions.

Yoke (Piptademia peregrina, Bentham). — Very common, and
an excellent wood — not so hard and heavy as the preceding
ones, but equally durable. It is applicable to all building pur-

72 TRINIDAD.

poses, and can also be wrought into handsome furniture; its
colour is not so dark as that of the mahogany, but is, perhaps,
more beautifully variegated. Yoke may be said to be imperish-
able in the ground : it grows to a large size.

Bois-lezard, Bois-fidele, or, by corruption, Fiddle-wood ( Vitez
divaricata, Swartz) . — This again is an excellent wood, neither
too heavy nor too hard, and is employed only for building pur-
poses, as ground and house-posts, plates, joists, rafters, &c. It
grows ordinarily to about twelve or eighteen inches, but often
much more in diameter; when large, however, it is commonly
found to be hollow within.

Epineux Jaune — Yellow Sanders [Xanthoxyloz clava Her-
culis) — which ought not to be confounded with Epineux Blanc,
bears a very close resemblance to the Acoma, and is available
for the same purposes : it is also valuable to the wheelwright.
It is the Satin-wood of the West Indies. Diameter, from
twenty-four to thirty inches.

Guatequen, Guatacare (Lecythis idatimon). — Very common
in damp clay lands, is of intricate grain, very tough, and is
available for house-posts, joists, rafters, and even ground-posts,
though in the latter it is apt to rot at the surface-line of the
earth, especially in damp soils. It is, however, particularly in
use for cart-shafts, and generally wherever the quality of tough-
ness is required. Diameter, from two to three feet.

Savonette Jaune (Sapindus saponaria). — Though not used
as extensively perhaps as it ought to be, the Savonette Jaune is
undoubtedly one of our best woods : it is tough, grows to pretty
good sizes, and might be employed in all house constructions, as
posts, beams, rafters, &c. Its qualities also fit it for felloes and
mill -frames. It is very common.

Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle). — This wood, though
not equal to any of the former, is nevertheless used for building
purposes, and chiefly for beams and joists : it entered into the
construction of many houses in Port of Spain. The same
remark is applicable to the Bois-rouge and Contre-vent : the
latter may be said to be peculiar to the northern mountains, and
is of large size ; the two former belong to salt swamps and low
lands. They are generally warped in growth.

Fustic, or Bois d'Orange [Madeira xantoxytlori) , is we]
known as a dye-wood, and is besides an excellent timber, H

TIMBER WOODS. 73

lasts a very long time in the ground, but unfortunately does not
grow to any very large size, which is an obstacle to its being in
more extensive demand : it is, however, invaluable to the wheel-
wright for naves and felloes, and I have no doubt fine furniture
might also be wrought from it. Though in some parts rare, it
would appear to be in great abundance all along the southern
coast, and in the interior of some of the south-eastern dis-
tricts.

Angelim {Andira inermis). — There exist here at least two
different species of Angelim, growing almost everywhere, and of
Avhich one is less in bulk than the other : the former furnishes
very superior cart-naves ; and the larger species, when sawn into
boards and planks, makes excellent flooring : it is also valuable
for mill -frames.

Tapana {Richeria grandis) grows to a very large size, and is
well suited to all building purposes : it is a strong tough wood,
and may be sawn into boards for flooring and boat-building ; it
is, however, chiefly used by wheelwrights for felloes.

Roble {Platymisciumplatystachium^ejit.) . — The Roble grows
in great abundance in some parts of the country, and com-
monly in good soils, where it attains large dimensions. Though
not in very extensive use, it is yet an excellent timber —
of a dark orange colour, not over hard, and easily sawn into
boards and scantling; it can be employed in almost any erection,
and furnishes remarkably good and lasting ground-posts. It
possesses, when newly wrought, a very agreeable odour, which it
preserves indefinitely, and is of sufficiently fine grain and polish
to serve for furniture ; in fact, where Locust is scarce, the Roble
is used as a very efficient substitute.

Carapa, or, by corruption, Crapaud [Carapa guianensis). —
Besides the oil which is extracted from the seeds of the Carapa,
the tree itself supplies excellent timber. There are two distinct
varieties ; both may be sawn into scantling, boards, and planks ;
they are also split into shingles and staves. The Carapa is very
extensively used as beams and rafters, and the lighter coloured
species, when well polished, makes fine furniture. Diameter,
from two to three feet.

Copaiba (Copaifera officinalis) very much resembles the
European walnut, and may be applied to the same uses, but
is not, perhaps, as much employed as it ought to be. It is an

74 TEINIDAD.

excellent timber, of very large size, and may serve the purposes
of the builder, wheelwright, turner, and cabinet-maker.

Locust, or Courbaril {Hymenaa courbaril). — This is one of
our most valuable woods, and might be used for all building pur-
poses, but mainly in ornamental work; it is, however, almost
exclusively used for furniture — such as presses, bedsteads, side-
boards, tables, &c, and by wheelwrights for carriage naves.
Diameter, five to six feet, and very lofty.

Purple-heart, or Sapatero (Copaifera pubiflora) . — The Purple-
heart is an excellent timber, and may serve in building as beams
and rafters ; but, from its rich dark colour, it is especially used
by cabinet-makers for facing and other ornamentation in the
choicer kinds of furniture. The heart- wood is as hard as the
Poui itself, whilst the sap, or outer wood, is of a light colour,
rather soft, and not durable.

Mora {Mora excelsa). — The Mora and Mangrove may be said
to be our only social trees, and the former is, perhaps, the most
abundant of all our timber woods. It is one of the loftiest
and largest inhabitants of our forests, but when of any large
proportions, is in general hollow, or, at least unsound, in the
centre. The Mora has never been much employed, and is not,
therefore, in great demand. It is objected that it does not last
in the ground beyond three or four years, and on that account
has not hitherto been ranked among the valuable timbers. If
not recommendable, however, for ground-posts, it is certainly
available in some other respects. I have no doubt that it would
answer well for the flooring of stables, and in the construction
of bridges. One of our Mora forests has been felled (by order of
his Excellency the Governor), and the timber brought into
notice. I must say that it has not answered expectations,
and is now completely neglected. The Mora is not a hard
wood, but very much resembles the Angelim both in colour and
grain.

Cedar, or Acajou (Cedrela odorata). — For all building pur-
poses, except ground-posts, Cedar is, unquestionably, our most
valuable wood. It is light, easily wrought, and yet very lasting;
also, from its pungent odour and acrid taste, it is generally exempl
from the attacks of insects. Cedar is commonly sawn into boarc
and scantlings, and used for plates and rafters, flooring anc
wainscoting, inside fittings and outside boarding; for panel-

TIMBER WOODS. 75

doors and windows, mouldings, and most of the ornamental parts
of buildings; it is also split into light, but durable shingles,
and wrought up into ordinary furniture. The side-roots or spurs,
springing from the trunk, are finely grained, and sometimes
richly knotted and variegated — so much so, in fact, as to furnish
beautiful slabs, hardly inferior in appearance to mahogany, and
wrhich are wrought into the most elegant furniture. It is par-
ticularly durable in water, and may be used in boat-building;
handsome and valuable canoes are also hollowed from the largest
specimens. Cedar thrives in the best soils, and is pretty abund-
ant throughout the island. Diameter, five to ten feet, and in
height perhaps the loftiest of our trees.

Black and White Cyp (Cordia Gerascanthns, Jacq.), (Cordia
sulcata, De C). — The Cyp is not so light as the Cedar, nor is
it so variously employed ; it, is, however, extensively used for
rafters and flooring-boards, and is, with reason, regarded as one
of our best woods ; it generally grows in the mountainous
districts, and does not attain very large proportions.

Laurier, or Laurel-Cyp (Oreodaphne strumosa, Griesb.). —
The Laurier-Cyp grows only in the mountain districts ; it does
not last in the ground, but may be sawn into boards and scant-
lings : it is light and very durable — in fact, quite equal to the
Cyp itself. Diameter, from two to three feet, lofty, and as
straight as a palm tree.

Olivier (C/mncoa obovata) generally thrives in poor land, and
is plentiful between Arauca and Aripo, as also at Guapo and
Irois : it is not so valuable as the Laurier-Cyp, but can be used
for the same purposes — though rather heavy, and with a great
tendency to rive. The Olivier grows to a large size, but is then
invariably hollow : it is most available when of only twenty-
four to thirty-six inches in diameter.

Couroucay or Incense-tree (Idea Heptajphylla, Aublet). —
Scarce, but valuable for building purposes, besides the gum or
gum-resin it contains in great abundance ; so are also the Bois-
tan or Surette (Byrsonima spicata, Rich.), and the Bois-sang or
Blood- wood ( Fismia) ; they never attain a very large size, but
may be used for rafters.

Aguatapana (Rhopala Montana) . — An excellent timber, grow-
ing in the mountains, but never reaching a large bulk : it re-
sembles rose-wood, and might be turned to useful purposes by

76 TRINIDAD.

the cabinet-maker. It is called Beef-wood, on account of its
resemblance to a piece of salt beef.

Gasparil (Esenbeckia). — Very tougb and lasting, and bearing
the closest resemblance to box-wood, but, like it, unfortunately of
small size ; when large enough, it is used for posts in house-
building.

Yoke-savanne [Mimosa). — Very valuable to the wheelwright.

Calabash [Crescentia Cujete). — Light and very tough ; excel-
lent in boat-building — particularly as ribs — and in the framework
of agricultural implements ; useful also to coachmakers.

Tendre Acajou [Mimosa arborea). — A soft and yet very du-
rable wood, adapted to all building purposes.

Moussara, or Bread-nut (Artocarpus incisa, var. Mucifera). —
Its seeds are eatable, much resembling the chestnut, when roasted ;
the wood is scarcely fit for furniture and building : it attains
large dimensions, and is pretty abundant.

Galba (Calophyllum galaba, Jacq.) is one of our finest
forest trees, and when of large size is principally used for the
fabric of canoes ; though it may also be sawn into scantling,
boards, and planks, and is then applicable to all sorts of construc-
tions. It, however, contains a sort of gum-resin, which materi-
ally impedes the free action of the saw. When set in rows, the
Galba grows thick, and forms excellent hedge fences, which are
easily kept down by periodical prunings.

Sand-box Tree (Hura crepitans). — The Sand-box tree matures
to proportions equal to those of the Ceyba and Cedar : it thrives
in the best soils, and near the sea-shore. This wood is only used,
as far as I am aware, for canoe-hulls, which are hollowed out
according to the dimensions of the trunk or block ; but, as it is
light and durable, it might also be rendered serviceable in other
respects. The Mora, Cedar, Galba, and Sand-box are possessed,
in all probability, of the qualities required in ship-building, and,
on this account alone, may be reckoned as very valuable.

Manchoneel [Hippomane mancinilla) . — It is well known that
the Manchoneel-tree is a deadly poison : it would also appear t(
preserve its poisonous qualities for an indefinite period. I kno^
of an instance in which a planter having found, lying on the beach,
a Manchoneel tree which, from all appearances, had been thei
for years, thought he should be able to make it of service in some
way or other; but he was soon obliged to desist. The Manchoneel

TIMBER WOODS. 77

wood is, otherwise, a valuable timber, and might be used in
building and ornamental works.

Beside the hitherto enumerated forest trees, there are others
which are, or might be, turned to advantage. From the Moricyp,
Genipa, Moripa, Caracoli, and Pois-doux (Inga fceculifera), also
from the Land-grape, Carapa, and even Cedar, are prepared ex-
cellent staves; the latter, however, ought to be discarded in this
respect on account of its bitter taste and discolouring properties.
The Mirobolant {Hernandia) , Chestnut-tree (Carolinea), Mombin,
or Wild Plum (Spondias), and other soft woods, supply good,
cheap, and easily procured headings for hogsheads.

Many other plants are similarly brought into practical and
every-day utility, and among them several palms. When arrived
at full maturity, the Carat (Copernicici) makes very good ground-
posts: its leaves, as also those of theTimite (Manicaria saccifera)
and Cocorite (Maximiliana Caribea, Attalea regia), supply a
cheap and durable thatch — the two former especially — and are
extensively used whenever procurable. It is observable, however,
that they are rarely found together in the same parts ; and
according to their respective prevalence is the distinctive cover-
ing of the cottage roofs to be known. The Mountain-cabbage,
the Manaco, Groo-groo, Palma Real, and Cocorite, are split into
rounded boards, which are employed by the poor for the outer
boarding and even flooring of their cottages, and may also be
used for inclosing poultry houses and yards, sheep-folds, stable-
boarding, &c. : they are cheaper and more durable than White
Pine boards. Cortaderas, or Sword Grass, Cane-tops, and Fox-
tail Grass (Pennisetum setosum, Rich.) are also used in thatching.

The black and white Roseau (Bactris and Gyneriuni) are made
use of as laths for the laying on for thatch ; the former also in
wattling or forming the framework of tapia — a species of very
coarse stucco made of grass and clay — whilst the leafy top of the
latter, though not so generally employed as it might be, supplies
a most excellent thatch-covering, being thick and very durable.
The Bamboo {Nastus Borbonicus) is extensively used as fuel in
lieu of megass in those districts where it is plentiful ; for that
purpose, it is cut about four feet long, and then split or
bruised, to allow a free escape of the air contained in the inter-
nodes, lest its expansion should occasion explosions, and thereby
damage the furnaces and flues. The Bamboo is also employed as

78 TRINIDAD.

plantings for quickset hedges, and as rods for temporary fences ;
in the latter by being attached to the posts with some pliant lianes
or withes : baskets and fish-nets are commonly made from the
stem of this plant, in which branch of industry the Chinese im-
migrants excel. Its foliage supplies a rich fodder. A vine-like
palm (Desmoncus) is employed for securing the rods in field-
fencing, and might also serve in the manufacture of baskets :
the Carib basket — water-tight when well woven — is made of a
species of Calathea-Ahoman or Aruma. The fact is, it is a
sort of double basket, the leaves of the Cachibou (Calathea)
being inserted between two coatings of wicker-work. With the
twiny roots of the Seguine (Philodendrum) are made neat hand-
baskets ; and the Mamure, split into small strips, serves the pur-
pose of binding the leaves of the Carat and Timite-thatch to the
Roseau laths.

From the two plants of the genera Bauhinia and Brownea,
viz., Pata de Vaca [Bauhinia megalandra, Griesb.) and Palo-
Rosa, superior hoops have been obtained ; and I have no doubt
some of our Bignonias, and the indigenous or prickly Bamboo
(Bambusa) might answer a similar purpose.

The Bois Immortel (Erythrina) is invaluable as affording
shade and protection to the Cacao, on which account it has been
called by the Spaniards " Madre del Cacao/' " Mother of the
Cacao/'' There are two species of the Erythrina, the coccinea,
or Anauco ; and the umbrosa, or Bucare. The former is a very
soft, light wood, rather brittle, and perfectly useless as timber or
fuel ; the latter is not exactly so soft or brittle : they are propa-
gated by slips or cuttings or from seedlings.

The family of Graminacese furnishes excellent fodder, and
various species from the genera Paspalum (Herbe-lancette), so
called from the form of its leaves, which resemble the blade of a
lancet. Panicum (Herbe-fine), Andropogon (Couch-grass),
Cynodon (Bahama-grass), Oplismenus, Pennisetum, &c, form, in
a great measure, the basis of our pasture-grounds. The Guinea-
grass, Bamboo, and Guinea-corn, are excellent fodder for all sorts
of cattle; cows thrive well on the Cow-grass (Alternant Aera) .
and the Liane-douce (Convolvulus) — the latter eagerly sought bj
swine; to which may be added the Herbe-grasse (Commelync
vulgaris), and several plants of the Amarantaceaa family.

From the fibres of the Mahoe (Sterculia) , Carata (Bromelic

PLANTS USEFUL AND POISONOUS. 79

carata), and Agave are made excellent ropes ; and I have no
doubt very useful textile fibres would be procured from various
Apocynaceae and Asclepiadacese, among others, from the Asclepias
Curassavica, and also from the Balais, or Broom-plant (Sida), and
the Mallow (Malachra) ; they should be thickly sown in a good
soil, so as to prevent their growth into branches.

Many of our plants are of a poisonous nature, whilst others
furnish useful medicinal matters : of those belonging to these
two latter classes I have but a limited knowledge.

Poisonous Plants. — The Brinvilliers, or Pink-root (Shigella
anthelmia), is a small plant, very common, and generally growing
in newly-cleared lands : it is fatal to animals as well as man ;
and yet it is a powerful vermifuge, when administered with
caution : the Yongue, or Stramony, and several other Daturas,
are strong narcotics. The seeds of several Euphorbiacece, viz., of
the Croton, Sand-box tree, and the Medicinier or Physic-nut
(Iatropha Curcas) are violent emeto-cathartics : the fruit of the
Manchoneel and the roots of the Manioc {Iatropha Manihot) are
acrid and stupef active poisons. A species of Seguine (Caladium
Seguinum, vulg., the Devil seguine, which grows in damp places;
is strongly caustic, and, wherever applied, causes a violent
inflammation, and even ulcers difficult of cure. Several Apocyna,
Asclepias, and Bryonies are poisonous emeto-cathartics ; the
Ha?ne Ha, 'as well as the bulbs of a few Amaryllides,are also poisons.

The catalogue of useful medicinal plants is, nevertheless,
much larger than the above. Among emollients may be
numbered the following : Herbe-grasse, Prickly-pear (Tuna),
and the mucilaginous part of the common Aloe; the buds,
flowers, and young fruits of the Ochro (Hibiscus esculentus) ,
the leaves of the Gigiree (Sesamum Orientate), the liber, or inner
bark of the Bois d'Orme (Guazuma ulmifolia), the Balais-doux
(Scoparia dulcis), the flowers and roots of our Mallow, the
young pods of the Cacao : as external applications, the Aloe,
Prickly-pear, and Ochro, the young leaves of the Medicinier,
Coco-nut oil, and Cacao-fat, Manioc, Corn-meal, and Rice, in
the preparation of emollient poultices.

Lime and sour Orange juices, as also the fruits and young
leaves of the Tamarind, serve to prepare very agreeable lemon-
ades; the liquor of the Coco-nut is likewise a pleasant and
refreshing drink.

80 TRINIDAD.

The Canne-de-riviere, or River-cane (Costus), Herbe-
couresse, or wild Cress (Peperomia), Couch-grass, and the
flowers and roots of a few amarantaceous herbs are excellent
diuretics.

The Lemon-grass (Andropogon Schcenanthus), Guerit-tout
(Pluchea), Chardon-benit (Eryngium fatidum), Cariaquite (Lan-
tana) and warm lemonade, may be regarded as excellent dia-
phoretics.

The Herbe-a-charpentiers, or Carpenter's Grass (Justicia
pectoralis) } several species of ferns, known here by the name of
Capillaire (Adiantum), and Hart's Tongue (Scolopendrium) , the
Dorstenia, Ceriman (Monster a) , the bud of the Trumpet-tree
(Cecropia peltata), and Macornette (Borreria-suaveolens), the
flowers of the Pigeon-pea and Pumpkin, as also a syrup prepared
from the Calabash and the pod of a species of Cassia, are used
as pectorals.

The following are regarded as excellent astringents, viz., the
inner bark of the Wild Plum, Cashew, Cachiman (Anona reticu-
lata) , and Mangrove, the green fruit of the Guava (Psidium),
the buds and leaves of the Guava, Trumpet-wood, Pigeon-pea,
and the flowers of the Palo-rosa, the sap of the Blood-wood
[Croton gossypifolium) and the Liane-tasajo (Bauhinia). The
Belle-de-nuit (Mirabilis Jalapa) applied in a bruised state, in
cases of sprains, has a powerful healing action. To the above
may be added, as excellent vulneraries, the Herbe-a-charpentiers,
the Aloe, Herbe-a-pino (Eupatorium), Hebeclinium macrophyllum,
and a Jussieua, which grows in great abundance in all damp
localities. These are also used, together with the pulp of the
Tamarind and sour Orange, the Agave, the Pied-poule (Bleusine
Indica), and even the leaves of the Sand-box tree, as effective
detergents.

The following are good hydragogues, viz. : the juice of the
Banana tree and the decoction made of its bulbs, the bark of the
Petit Branda (Chioccoca racemosa), also a bryony, which is rather
irritating, and the coffee prepared with the parched seeds of the
Stinking- weed (Cassia Occident alis) .

The leaves of the Sour-sop (Anona muricata) and other
Anonse, I regard as valuable anti-spasmodics, and far superior to
the lime flowers. As emmenagogues, the syrup made from the
Carata and green Pine-apples, the roots of several AristolochiaceaB,

PLANTS USEFUL AND POISONOUS. 81

and of the stinking- weed, are accounted excellent : the Pop-bark,
or Poque (Phy sails), I consider as highly recommendable in the
cure of Leucorrhcea.

In dysentery the following are extensively used as astringents :
The liber of the Cashew, wild Plum, and Mangrove; green
Guavas and Liane Tasajo ; as sedatives and emollients, Lemon-
ade, the Cashew-apple and Mango, the Prickly-pear, Aloe,
Balais-doux, Bois d'Orme, and, almost as a specific, the Toco
(Cratceva Tapia) ; from the berries of the Hamelia also is pre-
pared a syrup of excellent effect.

The Bitter-ash (Quassia amara), Herbe-eguilles (Rolandra
argentea), Herbe-a-pique (Calea-lobata) , Grand Trefle (Aristo-
lochia), Pruta de burro (Uvaria), Quinquina-pays (Portlandia
hexandra) are good febrifuges. To these may be added, as excel-
lent stomachics, and very valuable in cases of indigestion, the
Secua or Nhandiroba (Feuillea scandens), and the Guaco (Mikania
Guaco) ; as also the leaves of the Aguacate, or Avocado, and
Aya-pana, and the seeds of the Guatamare (Myrosjoermum) .

The Brinvilliers, and the inner bark of the Angelim (Andira
inermis), are powerful but rather dangerous anthelmintics, as
they have a strong stupefactive action on the brain. The
Worm-bush (Chenopodium ambrosioides) and the Liane-a-1'ail
(Bignonia alliacea) are excellent and safe vermifuges. Some
persons are prejudiced against the administering of the Cow-
hage (Mucuna) as an anthelmintic : I have, however, prescribed
it on several occasions, not only without the slightest ill effect
or inconvenience, but with remarkable success. I even urge it
as the best remedy against Lumbrics. It ought to be given
either in thick syrup, in honey, or well enveloped in some soft
substance.

The action and uses of Balsam Capivi are too well known to
require any comment : the Liane-paques (Securidaca), Lignum-
vitse, and the roots of the Agave, are administered as anti-
venereals ; and I have invariably found the root of the Pareira-
brava (Cissampelos) valuable in chronic inflammation of the
urinary organs.

Some of the above plants, viz., the Guaco, Secua, Grand-

trefle, as also the musk Ochro (Hibiscus Abelmoschus), and the

roots of the Manaco, are regarded as excellent antidotes to the

bite of serpents and venomous insects, such as scorpions, spiders,

G

82 TRINIDAD.

and centipedes. They are generally given in some spirit ; but,
under pressure of necessity, they may be bruised, and the simple
juice taken — as in the case of the Guaco and Manaco — the resi-
duum being applied to the wound ; or the seeds can be masti-
cated and swallowed, as is practised with the Musk-ochro and
Secua. There are, in addition to those already mentioned, many
other plants successfully employed in like circumstances ; even
Lime-juice, both internally and externally, is highly beneficial.

The juice of the root of Yuquilla is an excellent remedy for
the cure of chronic ophthalmia ; but .when used in the acute
stage, increases the inflammation : it is the Bignonia ophthalmica
of Dr. Chisholm. Carapa-oil used in friction is an infallible
cure for ticks.

The indigenous trees and plants hitherto enumerated, and of
which I now close the catalogue, are those which are ordinarily
used in building, in mill, wheel, and cabinet works, as also for
medicinal and other purposes. Some of them are met with
almost everywhere, and in great abundance ; others, as I have
already stated, are scarce, and thrive only in certain localities.
The Mora and Mangrove, as also the Timite, Carat, and Sword-
grass are perhaps the only indigenous plants which grow grega-
riously : the Cedar thrives in the best lands, whether level or
mountainous ; the Guatacare and Carapa in damp clay soils; the
Cyp and Laurier-cyp in the mountain districts.

Durability is the main characteristic of nearly all our timber-
woods : a few only are light and soft, the generality solid and
heavy; the hardest of all is the Poui, as also the heaviest.
These qualities of extreme solidity and weight are, to a certain
extent, a defect ; because they exact a larger amount of labour
to render the timbers marketable, or even render them unfit for
indiscriminate use in ordinary buildings, and for certain purposes
in many constructions, such as the lighter roof-work.

Generally speaking, popular opinion and practice do not dis-
tinguish or prescribe any fitness or unfitness of seasons for the
felling of timber-trees : this I pronounce to be a very serious
error. In Europe and other temperate climates, trees are felled
in autumn, when the sap is deficient or dormant. It cannot be
said that such a season really prevails in tropical regions : there
is, however, a period during which vegetative life in general may
be said to be at a minimum, particularly in certain trees : the

PLANTS USEFUL AND POISONOUS. 83

cedar, for instance, remains for several months completely-
denuded, and the pom and roble lose their foliage immediately
before flowering. After the dry season has set in the vegetation
becomes everywhere more or less languid for the space of two
months, or two months and a half, thus showing a deficiency of
sap in vegetable organs : this period commonly embraces a part
of February, the months of March and April, with part of May,
but is more or less extended, according as the dry season itself
is more or less protracted. This is the proper time, in fact the
only season, in which trees can advantageously be felled for
industrial purposes. Any wood thrown down during the rainy
season, but especially during June, July, and August, when
there is a renewed vigour in the vegetation, becomes liable to
rot, or to the ravages of insects, viz., the termite or white ant,
and the beetle.

There exists a popular opinion that the phases of the moon
exercise a marked influence on the durability, if not of the harder
timber, at least of the softer wood and thatch covering. Ac-
cording to that opinion, wood cut during the crescent of the moon
does not last so long, and becomes liable to. the attacks of insects
and the dry rot. Whenever, on the contrary, it is felled during
the wane, and especially from the last quarter to two or three
days before the new moon, it preserves all its best qualities in
durable perfection.

This opinion respecting the influence of the moon at stated
periods on the quality of felled timbers has already been the
subject of much and varied discussion, but cannot hitherto be
considered as fully determined, particularly as regards our
climate, where so few, or no scientific experiments have yet been
made. It may, however, be mentioned, that this view of the
question of lunar control over vegetation is, in a great measure,
supported by the celebrated French astronomer Arago ; and I
must candidly acknowledge that I feel inclined to lean towards
the popular opinion, and to admit the reality of that influence
within certain limits. Where hard wood is concerned, it is only
by many years of observation, and renewed comparative experi-
ments, that it would be possible to arrive at any safe conclusions
on the subject ; but in the case of soft woods, as the bamboo, for
instance, or the timite and carat, that influence becomes per-
ceptible. Bamboo, cut in proper season, and under favourable

84 TRINIDAD.

lunar conditions, lasts for several months, and is scarcely touched
by insects ; but whenever cut during the crescent of the moon it
soon crumbles into dust under their attacks : the same remark is
applicable to the timite and carat.

The following considerations may supply, at least, a plausible
explanation of the above-mentioned phenomena. When a tree is
felled during the active circulation of the sap, it becomes more
liable to rot : this is a general and unexceptionable fact, being
founded on actual experience. Now, the question is this : Is not
the quantity of the sap greater during the increase of the moon,
and particularly at the full, when the quantity of light is greater
throughout the twenty-four hours, than at any other period ?
This could be ascertained by experiments. And should the sup-
position prove correct, the influence of the lunar phases would no
longer meet with opposition or ridicule from the incredulous, and
the fact once ascertained would be the means of establishing some
beneficial principles and rules of guidance in the felling of trees,
and concerning other agricultural operations. I may conclude
this subject by remarking that, whatever may be the diversity
of opinions or of doubts among the scientific and the educated
classes generally, this idea of lunar influence, not only on woods,
but on the process of planting, weeding, pruning, reaping, &c,
is held as an undoubted article of credence by the small pro-
prietors and cottagers; and, what is more to the point, this
belief is successfully carried out in the management of their
cultivations.

The inexcusable waste of our best timber-woods is really
something much to be regretted. Whenever a clearance is made
for the purpose of cultivation the under-brush is cut first, and
then the larger trees; after a few weeks, the whole mass of
vegetation is destroyed by fire, the most valuable timber often
becoming the prey of that wholesale destruction. I wish,
therefore, to repeat what I have already advised in my essay on
the cultivation of the sugar-cane, viz., that proper precautions
should be taken for the preservation of the best forest- woods,
either by allowing them to stand over, or by felling them after
the clearance has been made by fire, the timber being afterwards
removed to some safe place for use or sale, as opportunity may
offer, or occasion demand.

Animal Kingdom. — It is not my intention to give here a

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 85

detailed account of the various species which the animal kingdom
of Trinidad embraces, but only to notice such as deserve attention
for their utility, their peculiar habits, or destructive propensities.

Mammals — Quadrumana. — Two species: the red or howling
Monkey {Mycetes barbatus), and the Sapajou (Cebus). The
former is a large species, and very common, but extremely shy
and untameable. Even when taken young they refuse food, and
continue moaning day and night till they die of inanition. The
red monkey has a sort of deep resounding yell (hence the term
howling) , which it emits particularly previous to and during rain
and thunderstorms ; it is eaten in default of better game, and is
even relished by the mixed-breed Indian and Spanish hunters,
and the conuqueros, who often smoke-dry the flesh entire, as is
their custom with other game.

The Sapajou is a small whitish ape, very common in the
eastern and southern districts. It is very inquisitive, and not
only does not flee at the approach of man, but will remain and
examine him with apparent curiosity ; its cries, however, prove
that it is really alarmed at his presence. Like all other sapajous
it has a soft plaintive tone, which has gained for it the name of
the weeping monkey; contrary to the howling species, it can be
rendered remarkably tame, and becomes domesticated in a few
days.

Cheiroptera. — Bats may be said literally to swarm in Trinidad,
both in town and country; sometimes an immense number of
them take their lodgings in the hollow of some large tree, from
which they are seen issuing by hundreds to venture on depredatory
excursions. Many live on fruits, and some others by sucking the
blood, not only of animals, but of man ; they are so numerous in
some parts, that instances of persons having been bitten several
times in the same night are not rare. Although they cut out a
portion of the skin in their bite, no pain is occasioned ; the only
protection against their attacks is light. The loss of blood from
numerous or repeated bitings is, at times, so great, that large
animals, such as oxen, become immediately enfeebled, and may
die within two or three weeks ; this, however, happens only at
intervals of several years, when great loss in live-stock is oc-
casioned to proprietors of estates. They attack also swine, and
even fowls. These vampires are from three genera: Molossi,
Noctilion, and Phyllostoma.

86 TRINIDAD.

Carnivora — Bigitigrada. — Tiger-cat or Ocelot (Felis Par-
tialis).— This is one of the most beautiful of the feline tribe;
when full-grown, it is nearly four times as large as the domestic
cat. One was killed in the ward of Guanape weighing thirty-
three pounds. The ocelot preys upon all sorts of small animals,
is particularly fond of poultry, and, in one night, may destroy a
dozen or more. It climbs the highest trees, but, when hunted
down, or hard pressed by dogs, it backs against the trunk of
some tree, and keeps its enemies at bay with its powerful
paws.

Gato-Melao, or Wood-dog — Caira {Mustela barbara). — This
animal is not common, and its habits are imperfectly known.
Like the ocelot, it can ascend the loftiest trees, invariably descend-
ing head downwards : it lives upon honey, birds' eggs, &c, and
makes terrible havoc amongst fowls ; when attacked by dogs, it
defends itself fiercely.

Marsupialia. — Opossum, or Manicou {Bidelphis) . — The
Opossum is very common here, and feeds upon fruits, birds,
and carcases; it is also a great destroyer of poultry, creeps
into the roosts at night, and ventures even into towns on its
depredations. The Manicou is generally very fat, and its flesh
tender, but is not prized as food, except by the lower classes,
by whom it is considered rather a delicacy.

Rodentia. — Squirrel (Scitirus) very common, and a great
enemy to corn, and particularly to the cacao, of which it is very
fond : it devours the bean of the latter, which it abstracts after
having gnawed a hole in the pod.

Rats (Mus). — Multitudes of both rats and mice are met
with in all parts of the island. The former, however, are not,
as in the older colonies, a pest to the cane-fields ; but a peculiar
species of a dark colour is a great destroyer of cacao, and also
of root-provisions, such as sweet potatoes and yams.

Agouti {Chloromys acuti). — Very common, well known, and
easily domesticated. The Agouti feeds principally upon seeds and
roots, and is partial to corn, the manioc or bitter cassada, and yam.
This animal does not of itself burrow, but lives in the hollows of
fallen timber, or in the holes at the root of standing trees, particu-
larly the Balata ; in dispositions and habits, as well as in the
quality of its flesh, it resembles the rabbit; as food, however, it
is not much esteemed, being dry and always requiring mucl

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 87

seasoning to render it savoury. An exception, notwithstanding,
may be made in favour of the Agoutis of our northern valleys.

Lapa, or Lape {Cavia Paca). — The Lape is not so common
as the Agouti, and seems to prefer the high woods in the vicinity
of plantations. It lives upon seeds and fruits, is particularly
fond of corn, and, in order to get to the ear, brings down the
stalk by gnawing it near the roots. Besides its burrow, which
it prepares amongst the roots of some large tree or in hollows
under ground, the Lape may be said to have also a place of
refuge on the margin of a neighbouring ravine or river ; this
shelter is, commonly, under the roots of trees forming a sort of
vault. When pressed by the dogs the Lape resorts to this
stronghold, and, in extremity, to the water itself, from either of
which retreats it is sometimes difficult to dislodge it. It has been
said that the Lape is amphibious : this is not the case ; for, when
apparently under water, though the body is completely hidden,
the snout is held above the surface for the purpose of breathing.
Though capable of being domesticated, the Lape nevertheless
seems always to preserve a strong predilection for the haunts and
freedom of the wild forest, to which it soon returns if left at
liberty. It may be regarded as one of the richest and most
delicate dishes in the shape of game, its flesh partaking of the
qualities of veal and pork.

Edentata. — Cachicame, Armadillo, or Tatou {Dasypus). —
The Tatou haunts the high woods, and subsists partly on vege-
tables, partly on insects; it burrows, closes the entrance of its
burrow with leaves, and ventures out at night. Though not very
fleet, the Cachicame is not easily caught by dogs on account of its
hard shell. When tastily prepared, it forms a very delicate dish.

Great Ant-eater, or Mataperro (Mgrmecojphaga tridac-
tyla). — It lives in the high woods, sleeping the day out in the
hollows of fallen or in the foliage of green trees, and crawls
about at night in search of food, in obtaining which it insinuates
its long filiform tongue into the nests of ants ; the insects be-
coming entangled in the viscid saliva which covers the tongue
are then swallowed in a mass ; they also lay their tongue on the
track of the Parasol-ants, and devour immense numbers of them.
The great Ant-eater moves very slowly, and whenever aware of
any danger, quickly throws itself on its back, and, in that
posture, awaits the attack of its assailant, which it seizes with its

88 TRINIDAD.

powerful arms and fearful claws : these it plunges into the body
of its enemy, gradually thrusting more and more deeply until
death ensues. Its hold is so tenacious that dogs cannot dis-
engage themselves from the murderous embrace, and must perish
unless promptly relieved ; hence its Spanish name of Mataperro,
or the " Dog-killer ; " it is also called the " Sloth/" or, again,
the ' ' Poor-me-one/' from its mournful night-cry, which the fancy
of the peasant has assimilated to the sound of those syllables. In
connection with this animal, the following anecdote was related
to me : — An African labourer meeting with a Mataperro in the
act of crossing the high road, and mistaking it for an opossum,
eagerly seized it by the tail and swung it over his shoulder, con-
gratulating himself on his good fortune ; but he had " reckoned
without his host/-' and was compelled to call for immediate
assistance, being almost deprived of breath from the embrace of
his pseudo-captive.

Pachydermata. — Wild Hog, Cuenco, or Pccari (Dycotiles). —
There are, it appears, two distinct species of Cuencos : one rather
larger than the other. They range in small bands of five or
eight, or in larger, of fifty and above ; they haunt the high woods,
and the smaller species is particularly common towards the eastern
coast. When started by the dogs the Pecari takes to flight, but
is soon brought to bay against a tree, or in some hollow, or other
shelter, where it makes a formidable and often a successful
defence with its tusks — frequently wounding, maiming, or killing
such as venture within its reach. When in force, and very
numerous, they even give chase to the dogs, and the hunters
themselves may be compelled to seek refuge in the branches of
some tree. This animal, notwithstanding, is easily domesticated,
and becomes much attached to its master. When young, and
in good season and condition, the Cuenco is most delicate
eating.

Ruminantia. — Deer (Cervus simplicicornis) . — The Deer is
very common in all parts of the island, but particularly in the
neighbourhood of plantations, where it browses on pease, young
maize, the stems and leaves of the manioc, sweet potato, and
yam, as also of young cacao plants. The Deer bears in appearance,
size, and habits, the greatest resemblance to the roebuck. When
captured young it is easily domesticated, and may be seen tamely
following those persons who have the care of it. The flesh of

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 89

this animal very much resembles that of the European deer. It
is either shot from an ambuscade, or hunted down by hounds.

Lamantin, or Manati (Trickecus Manatus), is scarce, and
found only in the rivers of the east and south coasts ; it grows
to a very large size, and may be regarded as excellent eating.

Cetacea. — Whale or Rorqual [Balcenoptera Boops). — The
Razor-back is not scarce in the gulf from February to May, and
is eagerly pursued for the sake of its blubber.

Birds. — The feathered tribes are very numerous in Trinidad,
and many birds of different sizes and varied plumage, from the
minute crested Humming-bird to the Kamichi and the King of
the Vultures, inhabit the forests and swamps of the island; a
few only will be mentioned.

Rapaces. — Vultures (Vultur). — The King of the Corbeaux
(Vultur Papa) is a noble and most beautiful specimen; it is met
with in the high woods, and does not approach towns or villages.

The Turkey Buzzard ( Cathartes aura) , called by the natives
the " Governor " of the corbeaux, is black, with a red head and
a strong beak. It inhabits the high woods, and is particularly
fond of snakes; it may be said to be always on the wing, though
seldom flying very high, but rather skimming along with a
gliding movement over the tops of the forest trees.

Carrion-crow, or Corbeau [Cathartes f ceteris). — Colour and
head black, bill less strong than that of the former ; gregarious,
and very common, but principally in the neighbourhood of
towns and plantations, where they congregate in large numbers
to feed on the carcases of unburied animals, the offal from
slaughter-houses, and other putrid matters. They have been found
so useful in cleansing the towns from filth and putridity as to be
considered in the light of gratuitous scavengers, and hence are
tacitly exempted from being killed ; in fact, under the govern-
ment of Sir Thomas Picton and Sir Ralph Woodford, such an act
was punishable by fine. They, however, sometimes prove a great
nuisance from the offensive smell which exhales from the localities
in which they have established their abodes. They dispose of a
dead rat, fowl, or other small animal, in the space of a few
minutes ; of a dog or cat in a few hours, and, in the country,
where animals dying on estates are left exposed, they will consume
the carcase of an ox or a horse in less than a week. It is really
wonderful how these birds become aware of the presence of

90 TRINIDAD.

carrion. It miy be that not one single vulture has been seen
for weeks in a locality, but no sooner is an animal dead, even a
cat or rat, than some corbeau is seen wheeling in the air above ;
all on a sudden it sweeps down with a peculiar hissing sound,
and, after describing a rapid circle, promptly alights on its prey;
others follow, and in a few hours a host of them are collected on
the spot. Sometimes the corbeaux, as by some common accord,
start in a body to parade (to use the local expression), when
numbers of them are seen rising in the air and describing spirals,
till they become nearly imperceptible ; then one takes the lead,
and the others follow in a line, until they arrive at some place
of rest or of prey. The Carrion-crow is so familiar that it mixes
in the market-places of Port of Spain with the vendors, and
sometimes carries away from an incautious seller a piece of fish
or flesh.

The Papa, Aura, and Fcetens Vultures, build their nests on
the ground, generally near or between the roots of some tree ; at
each incubation they produce but a pair, which, in their un-
fledged state, are covered with a purely white down.

Falcons (Falco). — There are several species of the Falcon
family in Trinidad ; they are called here Gavilans. The Crested
Gavilan (Spizactus ornatus) is a large bird, grey in colour, with
a large head and an occipital tuft; the tarsi are strong and
feathered throughout. This bird is most ferocious, and will pick
up a fowl in the poultry-yard and carry it off, even within sight
and cry of persons in the neighbourhood. The White Gavilan
is somewhat smaller than the crested ; it is a great destroyer of
chickens, as is also the speckled species, which is still smaller.
This latter is very fond of snakes ; it always seizes them by the
head with the bill, and by the body with the claws, so as neither
to be bitten nor infolded ; the snake, however, sometimes
succeeds in enveloping its enemy within its coils, and thus
vanquishes it : this may happen even in the air, as I have myself
witnessed. The Black Gavilan lives principally on fish. The
Fork- tailed Kite, or Ciseaux (Falco furcatus) , may be said to be
gregarious, as from five to twelve and fifteen are commonly seen
together; they are also migratory, being never seen except
during a short interval in the rainy season.

Passeres. — The number of passerinse is very great in Trinidad,
but I shall notice a few only. The Tyrants are remarkable for

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 91

their indomitable courage, and even the Gavilans and Corbeaux
yield to their repeated attacks ; also, minute and apparently frail
as it is, the Humming-bird attacks all other birds, and ultimately
succeeds in driving them away from the tree whereon it has
built its nest. Our Tanagers are not only conspicuous for their
gorgeous plumage, but several of them are excellent warblers ; a
wren (Troglodytes eudon) is known here as the Rossignol, or
Nightingale, on account of its note; it is very familiar, and
frequently builds under the eaves of houses. The Averano, or
Campanero (Cotinga variegata), has a very remarkable cry, as
being of a purely metallic sound; hence its Spanish appellation of
Campanero , or Bell-ringer, and its equally common name, among
the peasantry, of the Blacksmith. The French call it Capucin,
from a number of dark capillary appendages which hang from
the throat of the male, and bear some resemblance to a beard.
One of our Cassiques has gained the name of the Mocking-bird,
which it really deserves, as it imitates the songs of many of the
feathered tribes, and even the sounds made by other animals.
Several species are gregarious, and one (Cassicus cristatus) par-
ticularly so, numbers of the latter constructing their nests close
together ; these are in the form of long cylindrical bags, made of
thready fibres, which the birds generally procure from the balisier.
The upper extremity of the nest is formed first, the threads
being, meanwhile, allowed to remain pendent; the architect,
from within, then draws them up and interweaves them, so as
to form a very close and strong shelter, the lower extremity
being hemispherical, and thicker than the other parts. It is a
curious sight to observe some forty or fifty of these aerial con-
structions hanging at the extremity of the branches of a large
tree, and swinging to and fro with each undulation of the breeze*
Several of our Creepers, or Grimpereaux, are remarkable for
their brilliant colours, and out of nineteen species of Humming-
birds, not a few exhibit the most dazzling plumage. They extract
the nectar from the flowers of the highest trees — the Erythrina,
the Inga, and others — or are seen culling their honeyed food
from the Curassavica, or the blossoms of our garden-plants ; but
the habits and beauty of the Humming-birds are too well known
to require any further illustration. Amongst several species of
Picucules (Dendrocolaptes) , one is known by the name of Cacao-
eater. With its long and strong bill, it pierces a hole in the

92 TRINIDAD.

ripe pod, apparently to suck the sweet mucilage that covers the
beans within; and each pod thus attacked, together with its con-
tents, rots on the tree, so that these not uncommonly wholesale
depredations often occasion great loss to the cacao planter. The
Merle Cavalier, or Black Corn-bird (Cassicus Ater), sometimes
makes great havoc in the corn-fields, by removing with its bill
the husk of the ear ; and although it eats but a few grains, the
mutilated ear invariably rots from being exposed to the rain or
heavy dews.

Very few individuals of the Passerine order are useful as
articles of food ; though in this respect they are chiefly neglected
on account of their small size. The following are occasionally
served on our tables, viz.: Longue-queue (Tyrannus Savanna) f
the Campanero, several Tanagers and Thrushes ; also a Goat-
sucker (Caprimulgus Caripensis) — Guacharo or Diablotin. Of
the latter, the young only are acceptable, and they are caught
in the nest during February and March : the fledged bird is not
eatable. Nevertheless all the Passeres have their utility, in
destroying an immense number of insects, which otherwise
would become an intolerable pest ; even the Merle Cavalier and
the Merle Corbeau (Crotopkaga ani) are of notable assistance in
clearing the blood-thirsty tick from the hides of oxen, horses,
and mules, in the Estates' -pastures.

Syndactyles. — To this order belong the Voutou or Mot-mot
(Prionites Brasiliensis), the Jacamar (Galbula Paradisea) — of a
beautiful metallic colour — the Ani and Toucan (Ramphastos) ;
the latter is very common in the high woods ; the Voutou and
Toucan serve as food. Trinidad harbours several varieties of
Parrots, and among them two Aras or Macaws ; they are met
with only in the high woods, where they generally perch on
the highest trees. There are also two kinds of Parrots proper
(Psittacus) in the island ; they are gregarious, and prefer unfre-
quented places, though sometimes met with in cacao plantations,
whither they resort to eat the green fruit of the Erythrina
coccinea. Generally speaking, they fly about during the day
in search of food, and return in the evening to some favourite
spot to sleep ; in this they show a preference for the mangroves,
and when assembled in some such locality, their loud chattering
is absolutely deafening. The Paroquets (Psittacula) are mostly
found in inhabited localities, and live chiefly on the fruits of the

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 93

Ingas. Although gregarious, they are much attached indi-
vidually, and when one of a pair has been killed, the other will,
for several days, haunt the neighbourhood — perching on the
summit of some tree — and almost incessantly call for its departed
mate. Another kind, known as the seven-coloured Paroquet
(Psittacula Batavica), is met with everywhere in the island : it
lives upon insects and the fruits of the Clusia, generally builds
in the nests of the Termites, and lays from six to ten eggs.
This beautiful bird has never been tamed so as to live in a cage ;
when taken it refuses food, and consequently dies in a few days.
The Ara, though tough, and therefore discarded from the table,
is prized as a domestic favourite for its gorgeous plumage ; but
the Parrot and Paroquet, when young, are much esteemed for
the delicacy of their flesh.

Gallinacece. — This order is remarkable for furnishing man,
here as in other countries, with an abundance of excellent game.
At their head is to be placed the Pauji or Yacou (Penelope), as
the largest gallinacean to be found in Trinidad ; it is of the size
of a large domestic fowl, and is very choice fare. It lives gene-
rally upon berries, and is very stupid; so much so that, if several
are met with together, they can be shot in succession, as they do
not fly, even after their companions have been killed. They are
easily tamed.

Next to the Yacou come the Speckled Ramier (Columba
speciosa), and the Mangrove Ramier (Columba rufina), both of
the size of a pigeon. The latter generally seeks its food in the
fruits of shrubs, and often on the ground; the other on larger
trees, and seldom alights lower. Next to these may be men-
tioned eight kinds of doves, of which four only are known here
as such, whilst the others are designated by the names of par-
tridge and ortolans : the former are chiefly distinguished from
the latter by their superior size. In general they prefer cool
localities, such as the banks of rivers, particularly as they are
fond of bathing, and of drinking pure limpid water. The
ortolans are smaller, and their habits somewhat different. The
Blue Ortolan (Perhtera cinered) is a beautiful bird, of an ashy
blue colour, spotted with black : it is not so common as the
other, and prefers the high woods. The Red Ortolan, or Ground
Dove (Ckamapelia rufipennis), is of a reddish-brown colour,
barred with black ; another species is the smallest, and is found

94- TRINIDAD.

only, it appears, at the Bocas' Islets and at Cedros — it is of a
lighter colour. The partridge is, in size, intermediate between
the dove and the ortolan. The habits of the blue ortolan are
but imperfectly known, from its being so excessively shy ; the
red ortolan, on the contrary, is familiar and gregarious, and
troops of forty and sixty alight at times in the rice-fields, or
among the maize-stubble ; the smallest species are always seen
in pairs, the male and female seeking their food side by side.
These doves, particularly the red ortolan, are easily tamed.

A species of Tinamoo (Tinamus sovi) is also very common
here. It is about the size of a partridge, and is met with almost
everywhere in the colony ; it seems to prefer copses or under-
brush, on the borders of the high woods. The Tinamoo is
known here by the appellation of caille, or quail. It is a very
difficult shot, unless seen feeding on the ground, as it starts up
in flight quite suddenly, and alights at a very short distance;
it also runs very rapidly through the underwood. The Tinamoo
lays two eggs, of a most beautiful violet colour, and sits with
such fondness on them as, in that state, to be easily caught
with the hand. This bird has a peculiar tremulous and prolonged
whistle, the note of the male being different from that of the
female ; they are heard early in the morning, at sunset, and also
at mid-day, and midnight; and so regularly are their notes
timed in general, that they serve as the peasant's chronometer.
As I have already stated, all the above gallinaceans are delicate
and excellent game ; and the ramiers and doves are at times
offered for sale in our markets.

Grallatorice. — Many species of the Grallatoriae order are
either permanent inhabitants of the island, or visit it at regular
intervals. The former consist of herons, known here by the
name of Crabiers, or Crab-eaters, and Egrets ; several of them
are regarded as very good eating, particularly the mountain crab-
eater (Ardea liniata). The egrets assemble in large flocks in
the marshes of the island, and, at certain periods of the year,
numbers of them can be seen on the basses, or mud-banks of the
Caroni and Couva rivers. The mountain crab-eater and the
soldado {Tantalus loculator) are scarce. The golden (Charadrius
Wilsonii) and ring plovers (Charadrius Virginiacus) visit the
island during September, together with hosts of chevaliers, sand-
pipers, curlews, and even snipes (Scolopax Gallinago), as also

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 95

the surgeon (Jacana). The Flamingo, or red Ibis (Ibis rubra),
and Spoon-bill (Platalea Aiaia) are habitual residents, or oc-
casional visitors. They are all of excellent flavour, but some of
them, particularly the chevaliers and sandpipers, are little sought
after, on account of their diminutive size. Though very common,
particularly the wood-hen (Rail us longirostris), our Rails are
seldom served on table ; the same remark is applicable to our
water-hens (Gallinula chloropus and Porphirio Tavoua).

Palmipedes. — Ten different species of ducks are met with in
the island, all of them deserving the reputation of being delicate
eating : the largest of all is the common duck of the country, or
the Musk Duck (Anas moschata), commonly, but improperly
called the Muscovy Duck : it is a native of Trinidad, as are also
the Vingeon (Anas Dominica), Ouikiki (Anas autumnalis, A.
viduata), and the Teal (Anas discors) ; in November and De-
cember, other species make their appearance — viz., the Poachard,
the Shoveler (Anas clypeata) ; and the Jensen (Anas Americana).
Shooting, in our climate, is an occupation less exciting and
much more fatiguing than in Europe, though, however, marsh-
fowling bears some resemblance in both latitudes. Here is, cer-
tainly, no extensive field or meadow through which one can
stroll quietly, in company of an intelligent pointer, which has
also its share in the sport ; no clear wood which one can thread
at ease ; no park intersected with alleys, in which one can ride
or drive. Forests intricated with lianes, " crocs-chien/'' " devil's
guts/' or <e sword-grass ; " marshes and lagoons, overgrown with
mangroves, reeds, or rushes, and teeming with mosquitos ; mud-
banks, deep ponds, and malaria. Such are the attendant diffi-
culties which the sportsman has to encounter and overcome ; in
addition to which, he must himself go in search of his game,
and collect it when killed. Ramier-shooting, however, may be
said to be free from all these drawbacks ; the sportsman generally
awaits them under some tree — the Gommier, or the Surette, for
instance — whither they flock to feed, in the afternoon or early
in the morning ; there he stands in keen look-out, for this sport
requires a keen eye and a steady aim. The birds alight, shots
are poured in, and after each, the frightened Ramiers take to
flight, but soon to return, again and again, as long as they have
not satisfied their craving appetite. They are also looked for,
during the heat of the day, in the shade, that is to say, in some

96 TRINIDAD.

thick part of the forest, near a rivulet, whither they resort,
apparently to enjoy the cool, and it would almost appear, to
take their siesta. Being now full, from their morning's feed,
after each discharge they flutter to some near tree, where they
are easily discovered and followed. The doves are generally
killed when feeding on the ground, or on call, in such spots as
they frequent for water ; the ortolans in rice-fields, or in some
copse-wood wherein they assemble. Parrots and paroquets
are watched at some tree on which they alight to feed — the
former, however, especially in their sleeping-places — where a
good number may be shot in a short time.

Marsh-fowling is, on the other hand, irksome and harassing.
The crabiers and egrets choosing, generally, some mud-bank, and
the fastness of some mangrove swamp, as their habitual haunt,
cannot be approached with facility, both because they can dis-
cover the enemy at a distance, and take to flight in time to
escape, and because it is always difficult, if not impossible, to
wade through the mud to get a nearer approach. The red ibis
and spoon-bill are sought after in the midst of damp natural
savannahs, or in lagoons, where they keep along the border of
ponds and rivers, always on the look-out, and ready to take
wing; but as they are very heavy in their flight, they are easily
shot, whenever within range. Of all our birds, however, the
ducks are the most difficult shot, for they are very cunning and
extremely fleet, the teal especially. They commonly alight in
troops in some secluded pond, in the midst of damp localities or
lagoons; and to approach them it is necessary to walk knee-deep
in the mud and waist-deep in the water, or, again, to paddle with
the greatest precaution in some light canoe. If fortunate enough
to come within range, the sportsman has the chance of firing on
them while still floating on the water, and again on their starting,
so that, as many as from ten to twenty may be brought down at
this double shot. Plovers, sandpipers, and other smaller species,
are generally killed on the wing; the plovers, seeking damp
pasture-grounds and ploughed lands, are easily approached.

At the conquest of the island — a period when the population
was scanty, and all sorts of game in great abundance — several
emigres from the French colonies, whom I could name, drew a
subsistence from the return of their chase, some from the sale of
ramiers, others of ducks. Every day they would send to market

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 97

a few dozen ramiers or ouikikis, which fetched at the rate of
sixty cents, or 2s. 6d. per pair. The number of those birds has
decreased to such an extent since, that any one now choosing
such a orecarious occupation as the chase for a maintenance
would inevitably starve.

Reptiles. — Numerous as reptiles are in Trinidad, a few only
will be mentioned as deserving notice, either on account of their
utility, or of their venomous characteristics. Besides the turtle,
both the land and fresh-water tortoises are eaten, and when in
good season and condition are not to be despised ; the liver of
the morocoy (Testudo tabulata) is as delicate, or even much
richer and choicer than the foie gras; it requires the condiments
of lime-juice, salt, and pepper, and must be dressed in the frying-
pan. Morocoys are sometimes kept in pens, and fattened upon
ripe plantains, guavas, &c, for the table. By far the greater
number of sea and land tortoises exposed for sale in our markets
come from the Main.

The common Iguana [Iguana tuherculata), but particularly
the Mato [Salvator Meriante), are not to be rejected from the
table ; the flesh of the latter, both in appearance and taste, very
much resembles that of a tender fowl. Some persons are also
very fond of iguana eggs : they are nearly cylindrical, with
rounded extremities.

The supply of food derived from the great class of reptiles is
much greater than is, perhaps, at first thought. From the
Spanish Main alone, the town of Port of Spain receives, on an
average, 4,000 pounds of turtle per annum, to which we may
safely add 4,000 pounds more, as representing the quantity
supplied to all other parts, including, however, a quota from the
island itself ; thus the whole quantity of turtle consumed in the
island would amount to 8,000 pounds; if to this we add 1,000
pounds more for morocoys, lizards, matos, we shall then have a
grand total of from 9,000 to 10,000 pounds of flesh supplied
from the grand class of reptiles.

Although venomous serpents are numerous and common in
Trinidad, accidents arising from their bite are of rare occurrence,
either because the Mapepire and Cascabel (Crotalus mutus, and
Trigonocephalus jararaca) , being very sluggish, are easily avoided,
or even do not attack or inflict wounds, except on their being
disturbed in the enjoyment of repose; or again, because those

98 TRINIDAD.

who are more exposed to their encounter, such as sportsmen, are
in the possession of good antidotes. The guaco, however, and the
roots of the manaco palm — both rather common plants — are the
favourite remedy for the bite of serpents. Dogs, in the woods,
as also horses and mules, in the underbrush, are common victims
of the Cascabel and Mapepire. Casualties from the bite of the
Coral snake (Elaps corallinus) must be very rare, since many
persons even regard it as perfectly innocuous : this opinion I
myself entertained for a long time, and until I had too convincing
a proof of the contrary in the death, within a few hours, of two
robust African labourers, under the following circumstances.
These two men were at work in a cane-field, on "La Marguerite"
Estate, in the ward of St. Joseph; having discovered a coral
snake, they laid hold of it by way of amusement. Of the
warning given by their fellow-labourers they took no notice,
but, on the contrary, continued to tease the reptile, and even put
its head into their mouths. They were both bitten, one on the
lip, and the other on the tongue ; this happened about 1 p.m.
The one who had apparently most irritated the snake, soon began
to reel about like a drunken man, and was next taken with
convulsions ; he died about eight o' clock, and the other about
nine, the same day. This coral has been preserved by Dr. Court,
and measures four feet and a half.

The Clibo or Cribo [Coluber variabilis) haunts inhabited
places, and is occasionally seen in houses, where, however, it
ought to be welcome as a destroyer of rats. It is asserted that
this Cribo is the enemy of the poisonous serpents, which it would
fight successfully. Some years ago, Mr. Robert Mitchell, now
Protector of Immigrants in Demerara, but then Sub-Intendant
of Crown Lands, on his way to Blanchisseuse, through the high
woods, met with a black Cribo, called by the peones, " Vidua,"
and was preparing to dispatch it, when he was entreated by a
peon who accompanied him not to kill the innocuous beast, as
it was a deadly enemy of the venomous snakes, which it would
fight and kill. Mr. Mitchell desisted, though not quite satisfied
with the assertion of his companion. A short time after, hir
view was arrested by the curious appearance of two snakes en-
twined in a fierce struggle. On a nearer approach, he found
that one of the snakes had taken hold of the other by the head,
and was in the act of swallowing its antagonist. The peon

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 99

pointed out that it was a " Vidua" swallowing a Cascabel {Irigo-
nocephalus jararaca). Mr. Mitchell would not lose such an
occasion, and killed the adder, which had already swallowed lip
nearly twelve inches of its enemy. He passed a rope round to
keep them together, and brought them to town, where I saw
them thus tied. As far as I know, they were sent to the British
Museum, where, of course, they must have attracted attention.
This coluber is very determined, particularly the black kind, and
it has been known to give battle, and even chase, to man. When
a child, I was once pursued by a clibo, and I also distinctly
remember having witnessed one in combat with a gentleman, on
which occasion it would stand erect on its tail, and bite at the
garments, meanwhile hissing and inflating its neck : the clibo,
like the mapepire, also produces a rattling noise by the rapid
motion of its tail. The Macajuel [Boa constrictor), whenever
irritated, inflates its body, and then loudly emits a fetid and
sickening breath, which causes a sort of fainting sensation.

Those who have had an opportunity of observing snakes
cannot but admit what has been said of their power of fascination.
Do they exercise that power under all circumstances ? This I do
not believe. Can this power be considered as a sort of magnetic
emanation from the serpent, which subdues the victim, and as
distinct from the indescribable terror with which it inspires the
smaller animals ? This again I very much doubt. Be it what
it may, that power of fascination is exercised both by venomous
and non-venomous serpents, and apparently through the instru-
mentality of the eye : for during the whole time that the victim
remains under the influence of the charm, the serpent's eyes are
intently fixed on the helpless creature, following all and each of
its movements. In relation to this subject I may, perhaps,
mention the following cases which were reported to me by trust-
worthy witnesses. Being struck by the distressing cries proceed-
ing from a bird on a tree, Mr. , on examination, perceived

the poor little creature, leaping from branch to branch, in a state
of apparent agony, and uttering incessant plaints ; not far from
it was a clibo, following all the agitations of the victim by a slow
motion of the head, and with fixed and glistening eyes ; the bird
was so much fascinated, that from leap to leap, it came within
reach of the clibo, nearly into its jaw, and was swallowed ; on
another similar occasion, the charm was broken by striking the

100 TRINIDAD.

clibo, and the bird escaped. The next case is that of a Mapepire
and Squirrel. A troop of squirrels was met with in a copse, one
of them manifesting all the symptoms of anxious distress, as if
actually riveted to the branch to which it clung — there screaming,
trembling, and stretching in agony, as if apparently trying to
get a firmer hold of the branch, but all to no purpose, for it soon
dropped, and on -the party approaching, a mapepire was dis-
covered beneath, with the squirrel in its maw.

Ameivas are useful in gardens, when they destroy numbers of
mole-crickets. During the whole rainy season, and also after
heavy showers, toads of all kinds and sizes unite their varied
croakings in discordant concerts — from the most acute falsetto to
the gravest bass, occasionally drowned by the accompaniment of
a chorus from our larger species ; they are generally assisted, in
the minor notes, by frogs. Hearken ! the loud croak from this
cluster of bamboos by the bank of the river, and in the still of
the night, is the harsh and solemn " frog — frog — frog " of one
of our hylas ; another species is often met with in some obscure
corner of a house, where its croaking is a sure announcement of
coming rain. If placed in a bottle with water, it generally
keeps motionless at the bottom during dry weather, but rises to
the surface and commences its croak on the slightest indication
of a shower.

Fishes. — Out of about fifteen different species of fresh- water
fish, only a few are eaten, the others being neglected, from their
small size. The largest of those eaten is the guabine (ErytJiri-
nus), which is regarded by some as a great treat ; but, in reality,
it is neither a savoury nor a delicate fish, as it never loses a
certain taste of mud, and is besides difficult to eat, owing to its
flesh being crowded with small bones exactly resembling the
letter y. The yarrao, which resembles the guabine very much
in form, is smaller in size, but has riot the same quantity of
bones, and on the whole may be said to be delicate eating.
Next come a fine little pike (Gerres) and barbel (Mysus), also
the Anne-Marie (Hyposlomus) . Our fresh- water sardines (Hydro-
cyon) are neglected on account of their small size, but, when
properly dressed, would bear comparison with the gudgeon.
None, however, is so much prized as the cascaradura (Callic-
thys), and it really is delicate eating. Cascaraduras are offered
for sale in country and town during the dry season, at which

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 101

time an enormous ■ quantity is procured from the ponds in the
Grand Savannah. The following saying may be noted as ex-
pressive of the high opinion the natives entertain of this fish :
" He who has eaten eascaraduras must die in the country/'' It
ought not to be confounded with the chat or cat-fish (Callicthys),
which is not commonly eaten.

Of our salt-water fish, the following are the most common : —
The carangue, the Spanish mackerel or carite, the king-fish or
tassard, the gar-fish or orphie, and a smaller species called the
Balaou (Hemiramphus) , the barracuta ; of these, the king-fish
and " carangue grasse " are the best. Under the general deno-
mination of red fish are sold several species of snappers, red-
mouths, and sardes, all very good and delicate. To the above
may be added the gruper (Mesqprion and Clinus) , the lebranche
and mullets (Mugil), the dories or lunes {Vomer and Zeus), the
crapaud, rays, and the conger-eel; a species of caranx, of the
size of a sardine, and called here the anchovy ; of the last, an
immense quantity is taken in the Gulf during July; they are
migratory, and disappear in two or three weeks. The zapatero,
salmon (Ototythus), and cod-fish (Elacates) , are sold occasionally
in our markets, as they keep but for a short time. The dog-
headed eel {Synbranclius), though, in my opinion, delicate eating,
is rejected from the table on account of its resemblance to a
snake. I confess, however, that the French proverb, " La sauce
fait manger le poisson" is applicable to a number of our fresh
and salt-water fishes ; Madeira or Bordeaux wine, for instance,
is the best sauce for crapaud and gruper ; king-fish and snappers
are served either boiled or stewed ; the dories fried mainly, as
also the mullet; the lebranche roasted, with the addition of
lime-juice and Cayenne pepper.

The variety of our fishes is very great, and yet fish of good
quality is rather scarce ; the principal reason is, the impossibility
of keeping it fresh for more than a few hours; in fact, the
change produced in the quality of the fish is something remark-
able, and can be appreciated only by those who have had an
opportunity of procuring it just after its capture. The salmon
and mullets particularly do not keep long ; those which stand
better are the king-fish, Spanish mackerel, sardes, snappers, and
gruper, also the carangues.

Crustacea. — Crabs, cray-fish, shrimps, and lobsters are com-

102 TRINIDAD.

mon. Besides the sea-crabs, there are in the island two land
or fresh- water species — one about the size of a dollar, and of a
red colour ; it is to be met with only at the beginning of the
wet season, at which time it comes forth to breed ; it is not
eaten, and the Negroes are under an impression that any one
eating it will certainly " turn crazy. " The other land species is
as large as the common crab, and of a dark brown colour ; it is
called the " mountain crab/'' from being found on the hills, also
along the banks, and even in the beds of rivers and brooks ; it
is by some much esteemed as an article of food. Among the
sea-crabs two kinds are eaten — the blue, which burrows in low
lands along the sea-board, and the brown, which lives amidst the
rocks. The blue crabs are in such prodigious numbers in some
places that the soil is literally furrowed by them ; in September
they leave their recesses, and betake themselves to the sea, there
to deposit their spawn.

The island lobsters, cray-fishes, and shrimps, are much like
those of Europe ; excellent and very beautiful cray-fish are taken
in the Caroni and other rivers, in nets. Both the sea and land
crabs are occasionally hurtful, probably from feeding on poisonous
substances, more especially the fruits of the Manchoneel tree.

Arachnida. — Spiders are numerous, and some of them of very
large size ; several kinds frequent the dwellings in towns and
villages, spreading their webs almost everywhere in houses, where
they are useful in destroying cockroaches and other vermin.
Two species are venomous, and one particularly so, viz., the crab-
spider [Aranea avicularia) ; it bites most severely — swelling of
the part and fever for about twenty-four hours being the result.

There are two species or varieties of scorpions, known as the
grey and the black; they are both venomous, yet very seldom
does death follow their sting. A few cases, however, have been
known of infants having died from exhaustion occasioned by the
violent retching produced by the sting of scorpions ; and even
adults have been severely affected and weakened. The accidents
arising from the bite or sting of scorpions depend evidently upon
various causes, and particularly, it would seem, upon the part
into which the virus has been instilled, and its more or less
complete absorption ; it may also vary in effect according to the
age, the sex, or other circumstances connected with the animal
itself.

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 103

Myriapocla. — The mainland, and particularly the islets at the
Bocas, have gained a notoriety for the immense size of their
centipedes, some of them being more than twelve inches long ;
the centipedes bite severely, and are venomous, but never to the
extent of the scorpions, though the pain is locally more acute.
The congori [lulus) is perfectly innocuous to man, but injures
fruits and flowers. Ammonia, lime-juice, and the musk-ochro,
are excellent remedies for accidents arising from the virus of the
above insects, but the guaco is by far the best : the part must
be well rubbed with the extract or tincture, and some taken
internally. When the plant itself is within reach, let it be
pounded or bruised previous to its application to the part
affected, the juice being also taken internally at the same time.

Insecta. — The bete-rouge is very troublesome from the itching
it causes ; thousands of them sometimes collect on the heads of
horses and other animals.

Ticks (Bicinus). — These are very troublesome insects : there
are two distinct species^ — the tick and the garrapato. The tick
is larger, of the size, colour, and appearance of the castor-oil
seed; whence its zoological name Ricinus. It adheres to the
hide of animals, particularly to the inside of the ears, and other
denuded parts. The garrapato is smaller, flat, and of a brown
colour; it is particularly common in underbrush and the high
woods. It sticks to animals exactly like the tick, but its hold
is firmer, and when efforts are made to tear it away, it breaks,
and its sucker, remaining fixed in the skin, causes an intolerable
itching for weeks and months. Ticks and garrapatos sometimes
collect by hundreds on the animals allowed to pasture in the
natural savannahs ; they particularly follow horned cattle, horses,
mules, and dogs. Some of these animals may be said to contract
at times a tick-disease, hundreds of them being found sticking
to the hide a few days after as many had been removed. The
best remedy against these insect-pests is the carapa-oil : they die
within one or two days after its having been applied.

Chigoes {Pulex penetrans) are very common ; however, they
prefer dry, dusty localities, and multiply particularly where
animals herd together for rest : the numbers bred in such spots
at certain seasons are sometimes enormous. The chigo is not
only troublesome on account of the itching and pain it occasions,
but may become, from neglect and uncleanly habits, the cause of

104 TRINIDAD.

dangerous sores, particularly on the toes and soles of the
feet.

Of the coleoptera a few only will be mentioned, viz., the
cabbage-palm (Curculio), called here the Groo-groo Worm, of
which the larvae are much esteemed by our gourmets; and a
longicorn, that lays on young cacao-trees its larvae, which, by
devouring its inner bark, cause the plant to die. Some insects
of the weevil genus also occasion great damage in the corn, rice,
and even in the corn-meal and flour of provision-stores : another
species of the same genus attacks books and papers, and renders
it an arduous task to keep them in proper order. The bamboo,
which is much used for fences and other purposes, is liable to
the ravages of coleoptera, and crumbles to dust in a short time
under their attacks. The fig-tree, which otherwise grows and
thrives well in the colony, is also attacked by another coleop-
terous insect, the larva of which is about one inch long, and very
much like a caterpillar : it perforates the wood, and takes its
lodging in the pith ; if not assiduously watched, the tree soon
becomes enfeebled, and yields but scanty and insipid fruit.
Other insects deposit their larvae in many of our fruits, such as
the guava, the lemon-apple, the sapodilla, the star-apple, sour-
sop, sugar-apple, &c. ; but they show a decided preference for
the guava, so much so, that seldom is a ripe guava without
worms. Some of our vegetables, and particularly the cajan, or
pigeon-pea, are also attacked by an insect, the larvae of which
eat into the pod and destroy the bean. I should not pass un-
noticed the Cane Borers. Insects belonging to various genera
go by that name of cane borer, which should be taken as a
generic designation for such larvae as actually pierce or bore the
canes. Among Coleoptera I may mention a Calandra [Calandra
sacchari) and a chrysomelida. I have had the opportunity of
particularly observing two borers : one, evidently a Hymenop-
tera, which is, I believe, the most common, but not the most
destructive. It commonly bores a small hole near a node in the
lower portion of a cane, and deepens a furrow which may extend
through several internodes. The plant thus bored does not
suffer to any great extent : and yet when many canes are thus
perforated in a field, the damage done becomes perceptible. The
other borer which I have observed is a Lepidoptera, probably a
Cosstts, perhaps a Pyrale (Diatrcea sacchari ?) . It attacks the

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 105

young and soft plants, and apparently lays its eggs at the basis
of the tender leaves : the caterpillar, which is of good size, eats
up the substance of the young sprout, which withers and dies. I
have seen whole fields of young canes destroyed by this vermin :
it is by far the most destructive of all cane-borers.

Without dwelling on the many kinds of cockroaches, blattse,
or butterflies, which are all numerous and common, it may be
stated here that the Fulgora laternaria has been found in the
island. There are also two kinds of grasshopper or cicada : one
smaller, with a gay, thrilling chirp ; the other larger, with a
tremulous, graduated, and prolonged whistle : the former gaily
celebrates the arrival of the dry season, the other is the as melan-
choly foreteller of heat and rain. Locusts visit the shores at
long intervals, and make ravages similar to those of other
countries ; caterpillars also swarm over some parts of the island
at periodical intervals of eight or nine years, laying waste por-
tions of pastures and corn-fields. With regard to these visita-
tions, it has been remarked that both locusts and caterpillars
make their appearance after long periods of drought. In the
year 1846, caterpillars visited Mayaro and Couva; and in the
year 1855 they were depredating Couva and Savanetta. How-
ever, the cane-fields thus traversed by these insects have not
apparently suffered from such molestations. Butterflies are
numerous, and amongst them a few beautiful kinds. It may as
well be mentioned here, that there exist in the island two species
of caterpillars, the larvae probably of moths, which, whenever
placed in contact with the skin, instantly raise a blister, causing
a horrible burning sensation, like that of a hot iron : they are
one inch long, and covered with long hairs of a fawn colour.

Mosquitoes (Cidex) and sand-flies abound in the low marshy
parts of the country, particularly near the sea. In some parts of
the interior, at Arouca, Arima, and Guanape, they are only seen
occasionally, and mosquito nettings to the beds may be dispensed
with. There are two distinct species of sand-flies; one very
small, of a grey colour ; the other nearly double in size, and
entirely black : the former is an inhabitant of the sea-shore par-
ticularly, the other of the interior. The black sand-fly becomes
common at certain periods only : it generally attacks the legs,
seldom the face or hands, and its bite occasions an itching sensa-
tion, but no bulla, the place being marked by a very small black

10G • TRINIDAD.

spot, formed by coagulated blood. The grey sand-fly is by far
the most troublesome of all insects : when in swarms they attack
men or animals, and, small as they are, cause extreme irritation,
whilst the spot bitten swells immediately into a bulla resembling
nettle-rash ; they creep into the sleeves, penetrate even into the
ears and nostrils, animals becoming sometimes unmanageable
under their attacks.

Three kinds of breezes, or gad-flies, are found in the islands,
and commonly known as horse-flies. One is somewhat smaller
than the common fly, and of a grey colour ; it bites severely,
and is exceedingly numerous during the summer months ; it is
met with everywhere, especially in towns, and on estates. The
second species is of the size of a bee, and of greenish-yellow
colour ; it is found in the country and on the skirts of the high
woods, and comes out generally between four o'clock and sunset ;
its bite is severe, and sometimes blood trickles in drops from the
wound. The third species is larger, of a light brown colour,
with large green eyes ; its habits are very much like those of the
green breeze, or gad-fly.

It will, however, suffice to mention only two kinds of flies
which appear to be of the same genus, and even of the same
species, as those of Europe, viz., the blue flesh-fly (Musca vomi-
toria) and the viviparous grey fly (Musca carnaria). The blue
fly, it seems, more especially haunts inhabited places. The grey
fly is met with in the high forest, and they must, indeed, be
numerous there, for let any putrid substance be exposed, and it
is immediately covered with swarms of those flies. These insects
are a source of loss to the planters, and an incessant cause of
annoyance even to individuals ; for the moment an animal pre-
sents a raw surface on its hide, however small it may be, they
are sure to deposit their larvae on the spot ; they act similarly on
the wounds or sores of incautious persons. I remember the case
of a man who had some sore in one of his nostrils, and lived near
a slaughter-house ; being a confirmed drunkard, he one day fell
asleep in the open air in front of his dwelling ; a few days after
he was taken with intense headache, and soon after with hemor-
rhage from the nose. On examination, it was found that the
evil was caused by two or three dozen worms, arising from the
above-mentioned fly. They are also invariably deposited on the
navel, and not unfrequently on the very lips and gums, of newly-

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 107

dropped calves, so that the most watchful attendance is required
for several days after birth.

Several applications are used in the extirpatiou of these
troublesome insects, such as tobacco, the grated rind of the green
bitter orange, and sabadilla ; but this latter is by far the surest
and best remedy. After the worms have been killed, the part
must be protected by turpentine or carapa oil, which is applied
once or twice a day till the wound or sore is perfectly healed.

Another injurious insect is the oestrus ; it deposits its larvae
in the bodies of animals, and even of human beings. It is known
here by the name of Ver-maringouin, or Mosquito-worm — the
people being under the impression that the larva is that of a
large mosquito ; but the fact is, that no one here has ever seen the
mother-insect. The larva of the oestrus has its head at a small
aperture immediately under the skin, probably for the purpose
of breathing, as it dies within an hour or less if the access of
air be efficiently checked. This is done by covering the part
with a piece of sticking-plaster.

Of bees, or honey- flies, there are four species : three black,
of which one is smaller than the common fly, another larger than
the common bee, and the third of an intermediate size. The
smaller species build generally in walls, and the other in the
hollows of trees. Their honey is very good, and the wax soft
and black. The fourth kind, of a light brown colour, and the
size of the European bee, has the habits of the two larger black
species ; none of them sting.

Six or seven species of wasps exist in the island, some of
them building very ingenious nests, and several stinging very
severely, viz., the common brown wasp, locally called " Jack
Spaniard," which builds in houses, and the species called here
the Tatou wasp (Polistes), from the resemblance of its nest to
the barred shell of the armadillo. Of this wasp there are two
species ; they build their nests against the trunk or the larger
branches of trees, with an entrance-hole at the lower extremity.
The smaller species of the tatou wasp is more than half an inch
long; the larger above one inch. They are of a bluish colour,
and fever is generally brought on by their sting.

Termites, or wood-lice (Termes devastans). — The wood-lice,
or termites, are too well known to require any extended notice ;
I will only remark that the nymphs, not the grown insect, are

108 TKINIDAD.

destructive. The nymph is of a whitish colour, and without
wings. The males and females are provided with very long
wings, of a dark-blue colour, and the insects themselves are of a
light brown hue, with a brownish dark head ; the wings are very
readily detached, which operation the animal itself performs with
its legs. During, or after, heavy rains, they issue, as it were,
from every comer, literally clouding the air, where they become
the prey, of swallows and other birds. This remark does not
apply to the termites only, for cockroaches, ants, and other
insects are observed to rush out of retreats, or to abandon their
nests in heavy rains, some in a state of visible anxiety, as the
cockroaches, for instance, which are seen running or flying in
all directions. How to account for this influence of rain?
Really, I cannot discover any satisfactory explanation : they are
not forced out by inundations, since many live in houses ; they
do not come forth in search of food, not even, I think, with
a view to breeding. The wood-lice are certainly very destruc-
tive, but their ravages here are not, by any means, to be com-
pared with those of the white ant in Africa, and southern Asia,
particularly. They build their nests in trees, or in houses on
the beams and rafters, with covered galleries for communication
from one point to another ; but they more commonly take their
lodging within the wood itself, which they gradually destroy,
and that in a very short time, by forming longitudinal excava-
tions throughout the interior. Scantling, boards, &c, thus
eaten away, become a mere shell, and break down, though to all
external appearance entire and sound. They attack, in pre-
ference, the softer woods, and are very partial to white pine, and
other foreign timber : but they rarely invade the country
growths, and especially our hard woods ; hence the inappreciable
advantage of the latter for building purposes. I am not aware
that the termites of the island ever raise such pyramidal earth-
structures as the white ants of Africa and Asia do.

Ants. — Few countries can be said to harbour so many species
of ants, and in such numbers, as Trinidad. Although it is not
pretended that a description of all can be given, above twenty
distinct species are, however, well known. Of these, several
tribes inhabit the high woods, and are never seen in towns or
dwelling-houses ; while others seem to prefer the haunts of man,
where they find an abundance of food. They vary in length from

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 109

one-twelfth to about three-quarters of an inch ; some bite, others

sting ; several have a very strong and unpleasant odour ; some

raise their hillocks from under ground, others build in decayed,

a few in the hollows of living trees, as, for instance, in the

interior of the soft trumpet-tree, which they pierce in order to

effect a lodging in its internodes ; others build a regular kind of

mortared nest against the trunk or larger branches of trees, in

a manner similar to the wasps or termites. Several of the kinds

inhabiting houses deserve a few words of notice. Of these, the

stinging black ants are met with almost everywhere ; they form

their nests underground, or at the roots of plants, particularly of

those upon which the " pucerons " feed ; they carry numbers of

the latter to the plant, and build along the stems and twigs

covered galleries, besides which they devour the bark of the

roots or stem, so that the plant, both from the attacks of the

" pucerons" and their own devastation, soon perishes. The black

ants sting very severely, and, when disturbed, they rush out in

numbers, and most fiercely. There are two species of the red

stinging ant, one of which, called the sugar-ant, seems to be the

smallest of all the kinds here ; they both sting, particularly the

smaller one, and the burning and itching sensation they cause

lasts more than half an hour. They are very fond of sweets and

olive oil, so that it is always necessary to place those articles out

of their reach. The black and red ants move slowly. The

<e crazy ant" is black, and is about one-eighth of an inch in

length ; it always seems to be in a hurry, moving very rapidly

backwards, forwards, and sideways, as if it were mad ; hence its

sobriquet. These ants are particularly fond of syrup and sugar;

they are also carnivorous, and nothing is more amusing than to

observe thousands of them carrying along large cockroaches,

worms, or other dead irj sects. If they encounter a crawling

worm, immediate notice is circulated among the tribe, and, in a

short time, hundreds of them march to the attack ; their huge

adversary rolls and contracts in self-defence, but, although tossed

about, the ants hold fast, fresh recruits come to the rescue, and,

after a struggle of more than half an hour, the giant is subdued ,

and carried to the nest, part of the host pulling forwards, and

part raising up, so as to lighten the draft. Once arrived at the

entrance to the nest, which is generally small, and cannot admit

the booty, the ants cut their prey into small pieces, which they

1 1 0 TRINIDAD.

carry down ; one only, or a dozen or more, taking charge of
each piece, according to the size. The crazy ants neither bite
nor sting.

The hunter and parasol ants deserve peculiar notice. The
former, or visiting ant, called also Fourmi ckasseuse, is not, I
conceive, the Atta cephalotes of Fabricius, because the head is not
comparatively large ; it is of a brown colour, but the abdomen of
a lighter hue than the thorax and head ; when full grown it is
about one- third of an inch long. This ant is very active and
quick in its movements, stings most severely, and may be said to
be excessively fierce in its attack. It is exclusively carnivorous,
and, after killing its prey, divides it into portions, each ant carry-
ing its share of the spoil. The hunter ants do not build nests, but
choose recesses in some decayed tree, or among dry leaves, forming
a sort of mass, sometimes two feet in diameter, where they con-
gregate during the dry months ; in fact, they are nomadic, being
always engaged in some predatory excursions, and preferring the
wet to the dry seasons for their expeditions; they carry with
them their larvse close to the body. The army, or tribe, on
starting, marches on a frontage of from about five to six feet, by
ten feet deep ; then follow three or four columns, which after-
wards are formed into two, and sometimes only a single section,
this rearguard being sometimes half a mile from the expeditionary
corps actually engaged in spoliation. The latter beats up the
ground, climbing the smaller trees, groping into every hole,
under every leaf, and leaving nothing unvisited. Not only
insects and the smaller animals fiy in every direction, but even
the larger species are compelled to give way ; for the hunter ants
kill every living thing in the way of their march, young birds in
their nests, animals too young or too weak to escape, cock-
roaches, scorpions, crickets, &c, and carry away the larva? of
insects and their nymphs; they dare not penetrate, however,
into the nests of the parasol ants, which defend their townships
bravely. The hunters are generally accompanied by anis,
thrushes, and other birds which feed on insects ; and during the
bustle of their ravages, there is a sort of crackling, occasioned not
only by the movements of the ants themselves, but also by the
frightened insects that flee in all directions. The hunter ants
sometimes visit houses, where they destroy an immense quantity
of vermin ; rats, mice, cockroaches, centipedes, scorpions,

ANIMAL KINGDOM. Ill

become their prey, or are obliged to abandon the house. It is
well, then, to protect oneself and the young of the domestic
animals from their attacks ; in fact, the inhabitants sometimes
find it the wisest plan to surrender at discretion, evacuate the
premises, and leave them to the salutary plundering of these
marauders, who, after making a thorough clearance of all vermin,
beat an orderly retreat ; after this, the inmates may safely re-
enter, and for some time will be freed from their former insect
annoyances. When the hunter ants meet with a hollow, or a
rillet of water, which affords the primary element of a bridge in
a blade of grass, or any other slip, they immediately contrive a
construction to cross the same in the following manner : — A few
of them take a strong hold on the bank ; others come forward,
and are firmly held by the former by the hind legs ; fresh volun-
teers are attached in like manner by the latter, until a sufficient
number has formed a kind of chain or suspension bridge, so as to
reach the opposite bank. As, however, this living bridge may
have swerved from its direct course, or be slack, those which have
reached the other side give a tight strain, so as to restore the
original line, and render it a level floor; the bridge is also
rendered stronger by fresh ants forming, as it were, two or three
floorings, one over the other. It would seem that they manage,
by regular reinforcements, to relieve those that have been
primarily engaged in forming the bridge, without interfering
with its solidity. When the whole tribe has crossed over, the
bridge is broken up by a process the reverse to that which had
prevailed in its formation.

The parasol ants are very common in the island, and in such
numbers in some districts as to discourage cultivators. Is the
parasol ant the Alt a cephalotes of Fabricius ? I am inclined to
admit this ; however, it does not sting, but has strong serrated
mandibles. There are three distinct species, one very small,
which deserves no peculiar notice, and two others, which may be
called the dark and the red ; and not only do they differ in
colour, but in size, their habits also being somewhat different.
; The dark parasol-ant is smaller, particularly the female ; it prefers
inhabited places, and builds its nest in walls, under the roots of
| trees, and among rubbish; these nests are never very large.
They do not venture out, generally, during the day, but after
sunset. With great apparent cunning, when aware of any

112 TRINIDAD.

danger, they remain quite still, and sometimes drop down
motionless; they seem also to be more delicate as regards the
choice of their food. The red parasol ants are larger in size ;
they never build in walls, but in the high forest, and particularly
in the neighbourhood of plantations : their nests look like so
many mounds, some being from two to three feet high, and from
twenty to thirty feet in diameter. When they have once settled
in a locality they never remove, unless compelled: the nest or
township is gradually increased from two or three feet, on the
first settlement, to thirty feet in diameter. The parasol ant
shows a great deal of discrimination in the selection of a spot
wherein to build its nest ; generally, it is on a gentle slope, or
near the bank of some brook. The nest is composed, according
to the extent of the township, of a greater or lesser number of
spherical excavations, each of them being, in general, traversed
or crossed by a tree-rootlet : they are separated from each other
by a rather thick wall, and communication is effected between
the different excavations or chambers by passages cut through
the walls ; these have access also to a larger public passage,
which opens out at the lower part of the nest on the declivity.
The earth dug from the excavations is accumulated on the nest,
so as to give it the mound-like form already mentioned. In
each of the chambers are deposited the larvae and nymphs, in a
soft, light substance of a whitish colour ; this sort of bed is
moulded on the excavation, and is generally laid around the root,
which was probably preserved for the purpose. The female ants
are also lodged in the same substance, and fresh leaves are
therein deposited, undoubtedly for food for the larvae and
nymphs, and also for the females. I suppose they suck the juice
of the leaves, the parenchymatous part being left to be prepared
into the white substance above mentioned. Several highways
diverge from the nest, branching off afterwards in the various
directions which lead to the trees or localities whence they
procure their food. Their dwellings are kept perfectly clean, all
rubbish and dry leaves being carried away, every day, to a place
of deposit, through the common passage already noticed, whi<
may be considered as the main sewer of the township ; it
about one inch high by three or four inches wide. Not far frc
the place of deposit is what may be termed the cemetery,
which all dead and enfeebled ants are carried and there deposit

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 113

From these details, which are too incomplete, perhaps, but which
are strictly true, it is easily seen that the nests of the parasol-
ants are constructed on a well-devised plan. Not only is the
spherical form adopted in their underground architecture the best
adapted to resist pressure, but thick walls are left between the
chambers ; a communication, as has been observed, is also
established between them, with a common passage or outlet,
which serves mainly for the discharge of all impurities, and so
constructed as not to interfere with the regular operations of the
township, or be a nuisance to the population ; in case of inunda-
tion, likewise, the water is drained off through the same sewer.
So much for the ingenuity and industry of the parasol-ants.

The females are nearly three-quarters of an inch long in the
larger species ; the labourers vary in size, from one-eighth to
two-thirds of an inch. The larger ants seldom go out to forage,
and in all such cases never carry their share of the provender, but
they seem to act as inspectors to enforce order and rebuke lazi-
ness : their principal office, however, seems to be the protection
of the township ; for the moment any stranger disturbs the forti-
fication, these garrison soldiers come out in large numbers, with
their mandibles open, and ready for action.

The parasol-ants do not sting, but bite ; their mandibles are

like two small saws ending in a sharp point, and which serve to

Icut or carve out small portions of the leaves which constitute

|their food ; in the same manner they incise the skin, so as to

jdraw blood. These ants venture out after sunset, generally,

[although during rainy days they come out earlier, and in the

morning also, keeping in their nest during the heat of the day.

{The roads which lead from the nest to the plants they attack are

from four to six inches wide ; all grasses are cut close to the

ground, and every particle of vegetation, as also small gravel, is

j'emoved, so that the road remains clear, and perfectly free from

itll obstacles. Myriads of the parasol-ants traverse these roads

lit night in search of food ; two or more trees may be attacked

Lt the same time, and a branch-road leads to each. The parasol-

j.nts feed in preference on certain particular plants — as the

range-tree, the manioc, the yam, the young cacao — and gene-

ially are found to select the most delicate herbage : they feed

evertheless on almost any others, whenever those they prefer are

jot within reach — excepting, however, strongly aromatic plants,

114 TRINIDAD.

such as the pimento, the cinnamon, &c. ; they also select soft
rather than coriaceous leaves, and climb to the top of high trees
to get at the young and tender leaflets. When arrived at an
eligible spot for foraging, they set to work immediately, each ant
selecting the margin of a leaf wheref rom to cut a portion ; this
it does with its mandibles, by the movement of the head, the
body being motionless, so that the cut is circular. When the
portion is nearly separated, it is grasped by the two first legs,
and once cut out, the insect elevates it between the mandibles lyr
one extremity, so that the whole weight of the severed leaf bears
backwards, and thus proceeds with its burden homewards.
Some of these cuttings are sometimes half an inch in diameter,
and when, as is generally the case, in large bands, they present a
most singular appearance, each insect seeming gravely to march
under shelter of a parasol ; hence their name of parasol-ants. A
great many of the youngest ants accompany the labourers, and
as many as seven I have seen clinging to the cutting of a leaf,
in which manner they are carried home by their elders. In
severing the leaves, many pieces are dropped from the tree, and
taken up by those that are at the foot. After they have stripped
a tree or plant bare, they proceed to another ; but as soon as the
plant first attacked begins to send forth new shoots they return
to it, so that after it has been thus deprived of its foliage two or
three times, it withers away, or becomes so much enfeebled as to
be altogether unproductive. In one single night the parasol-
ants will bare a tree of its foliage ; and the damage they occa-
sion is such, in some localities, as greatly to discourage the
culture of yams, manioc, and other of their favourite plants.
The town of Port of Spain may be said to be infested with the
dark parasol-ants, and it is only by constant watchfulness and
unceasing exertions that roses, vines, &c, can be preserved from
their attacks ; it is sometimes even difficult to reach them so as
to insure their destruction, for they often nest in walls, and the
very walls of the houses.

Various methods have been tried for destroying these enemies : :
poisons, fumigations, and lastly water, by way of submerging
their abodes, and drowning them. Arsenic, corrosive sublimate,
mixed up with cassada-meal, orange-rind, &c, have been used as
agents in their eradication: for one or two days they readily
carry the poisonous substance to the nest, and from the effects of

ANI3HAL KINGDOM. 115

which many die ; but they soon detect the mistake, and never
touch it again. Fumigations with sulphur, or with sulphur and
nitre, are perhaps the simplest means of destroying the parasol-
ants. For this purpose, a sort of small furnace is prepared — an
old iron kettle being the best : a hole is made at the bottom, and
the kettle turned upside down on one of the passages or openings
of the township. Sulphur alone, or sulphur mixed with nitre,
is placed in it with coals below, and a pair of bellows adapted for
keeping up combustion : every aperture or fissure through which
the smoke may escape is cemented with clay, and the fumigation
then commences : it must continue at intervals for two or three
days before there can be an assurance of success. The most
certain means perhaps is to dig up the nest to the foundation,
and, by pouring on water, to form with the clay a batter of
mortar, in which the ants are stifled and buried ; but, in this
case, the first requisite is a good supply of water ; and to dig up
a large ants' nest is not a trifle, particularly as the ants become
wild when disturbed, and bite unmercifully.

Annelida. — A species of leech has been found here in ponds
and brooks : it is of a dark colour, and bears a very great resem-
blance to the horse-leech.

Testacese. — It will only be necessary to mention those which
are used as food, and a few terrestrial or fluviatile conchiferae.
Of the former class are oysters, mussels, and two small bivalves
called here Palourdes, or cockles, and Chip-chips. Oysters are
generally met with in abundance, adhering to the roots of the
mangrove trees, either in small bays, or at the outlets of rivers
and creeks : those taken in Scotland Bay, in the first Boca, and
at the Rivers Moruga and Guataro, are much esteemed, some of
them being very large ; but they become sweetish during the
rainy season, at which time a large proportion of fresh water
is mixed with the salt. Mussels are very large, and are dug
from the sand or mud along the sea-shore, as also the Palourdes
jor cockles, and the chip-chips — the latter a roseate triangular
bivalve.

Amongst our terrestrial gasteropoda is a very large helix,
about the size of a goose's egg : there are also several fluviatile
ni valve conchiferae.

It may perhaps happen that the above details on the animals
of Trinidad will be deemed by some tedious and of no practical

116 TRINIDAD.

use, while others will undoubtedly consider them as insignifi-
cant, and of no scientific value. To the former I answer, that
such details must tend to rouse curiosity in the minds of those
who may read this sketch. The latter I refer to the Appendix,
where they will find a more extended notice of the grand class of
Vertebrata.

CHAPTER IV.

CLIMATE — TEMPERATURE — RAINS — DISEASES.

For a long period Trinidad has been, and is still, regarded as
very unhealthy; but it is really less so than many other
countries similarly situated. For instance, the rate of mortality
in this island is one per thirty inhabitants, being less than that
of several large towns in Europe, viz., Madrid, Palermo, Naples,
Rome, and Vienna. But the rate of mortality is not perhaps a
correct criterion of the salubrity of a country; and the greater
or less prevalence of ordinary maladies, together with the pro-
portion of the diseased to the total population, ought also to be
taken into account. Now, if the salubrity of Trinidad is to be
determined by this test, it must be confessed that the island
stands lower than several places in which the rate of mortality
is actually greater.

The climate of Trinidad is almost identical with that of the
other Antilles. It is an inter- tropical, and, at the same time, an
insular climate; that is to say, it is cooler than a continental
country under the same latitude and of the same altitude, and
its temperature more equal. It, however, presents the following
peculiarities, when compared with the sister islands : a total
exemption from hurricanes, a greater regularity in the periodical
returns of seasons, and its being but little subject to the incon-
veniences arising from droughts and blighting winds ; the
contrast between the temperature of the day and night is also,
perhaps, greater — the latter being deliciously cool from Decem-
ber to April.

In Trinidad, as in other tropical climates, there are only two
seasons — the dry, and the wet or rainy. The dry season may be
said to commence with January and end with May — five months ;
while the rainy season sets in with June, and lasts to the middle
of December. February, March, and April are the driest months

118 TRINIDAD.

of the year. The heat of the sun is then scorching. The grass
becomes parched, the leaves of plants wither, and the smaller
streams are dried up ; but after the first showers at the end of
May or the beginning of June, the face of the country is com-
pletely altered in an incredibly short time, and the vegetation
looks everywhere green and luxuriant. There is seldom a sudden
alteration from dry to wet, or from wet to dry. The change
from the dry to the rainy season is generally characterised by a
calm and close atmosphere, with occasional showers, from the
middle of May to the 10th of June, at which time dark clouds
begin to stretch along the horizon, accompanied by remote
thunder, and soon followed by heavy rains. In July and August
the rain falls in torrents ; and the soil being soon saturated to the
utmost, the rivers are everywhere overflowed, ravines rush foa:
ing down the hills, the roads are in many localities aim
impassable, and even plantations are frequently damaged by i
violence. The rain often continues to pour for hours, whilst
crash of electricity is incessant, and almost deafening. Showi
are still frequent in September, but not heavy; and from t'
end of that month to the 20th of October, there are genera
very tine days — that short period of dry weather being called
the fall, or Michaelmas summer. At the end of October showers
become more frequent, and, although not of daily occurrence, are
very heavy in November. The northerly wind, which com-
mences ordinarily in October, becomes steadier in December,
veering to the east-north-east, with occasional squalls during the
day, and the skies clearing almost immediately after. This
change marks the transition from the wet to the dry season.

The prevailing winds, from January to June, are from east,
veering to north-north-east, after sunset ; and to east- south-east
quarter south after nine o'clock p.m. From June to October,
the winds are variable, blowing, however, from south- south- west
and west-north-west. Southerly winds are always accompanied
by heavy rain. In October, the wind shows a tendency to
change to east and north-east, to settle at the north-north-east
in November and December, and then to veer round to east-
south-east.

By climate, I do not mean any astronomically defined zone
or region, but the combined action of all the changes which may
take place in the atmosphere and at the surface of the soil, and

CLIMATE. 119

which actually produce, or are capable of producing, in our
organs certain permanent or only transient modifications : such
as light, the amount of electric tension and barometrical pres-
sure, the temperature resulting from the geographical position,
as also humidity, and those emanations or exhalations which
are designated by the names of effluvia, miasma, or malaria.

Of light, I will say nothing, except that it has a powerful
influence on the healthy development of vegetable and animal
life, on the greater or less amount of colouring matter in the
leaves of plants, and in the complexion of man.

The appreciation of the influence of electric tension on the
human body is a matter of greater difficulty ; but its indirect
action must be powerful, since it is evidently connected with
all atmospherical phenomena.

The variations of the barometrical pressure being indicative
of the density of the air, and, consequently, of the mass of
respirable principle therein contained, are an important element
in the appreciation of climatic influence. On this point, I may
remark that, between the tropics, the horary oscillations of the
barometer are very regular, and present two maxima — at 9 or
9 J a.m., and at 10 J or 10| p.m. ; and two minima — at 4 and
4i p.m., and 4 a.m. " Their regularity is so great/' says Baron
von Humboldt, " that in the day-time especially the hour may
be ascertained from the height of the mercurial column, without
an error, on the average, of more than fifteen or seventeen
minutes. I have found the regularity of the ebb and flow
of the aerial ocean undisturbed by storms, hurricanes, rain, and
earthquakes ."

Amongst the various and numerous causes which modify the

mean annual temperature of the island, and all tending to its

j depression, the following may be taken into consideration : its

i insular position, its peculiar disposition into two grand sectional

valleys, running east and west, between three almost parallel

I ridges ; and the extensive woods, which covering nearly the

I whole of its surface, influence the temperature by acting as

a shield against the direct bearing of the sun's rays by radiation,

: and even by augmenting the atmospherical humidity.

Three series of thermometrical observations, made at different
periods and localities, give 80 *7 3° as the mean temperature of
Trinidad. Two of those series comprise a period of five years

120

TRINIDAD.

each; the third period, extending from 1870 to 1880, comprises
ten years. In Captain TulloclVs " Statistical Reports/'' &c, I
have found the first series of observations ; they were probably
taken at St. James's Barracks. The others were taken at the
Royal Gaol, Port-of- Spain, and the Botanic Gardens, St. Ann.

AVERAGE OF FIVE

YEARS.

AVERAGE

OF FIVE YEARS.

Capt. Tulloch

Royal Gaol

Months.

Max.

Med.

Min.

Max.

Med.

Min.

January . . .

85-50

78-50

71

86

81-80

74-40

February

86

79

71

86-60

82-40

73

March

87

79

70

89

83

77-60

April . .

88

80

71-50

91

84-40

79-60

May . .

87-50

80

73

93-20

85-60

79-20

June . .

87

81

75

90

84-60

79

July . .

84

79

74-50

89-60

84-60

80

August .

84-50

79-50

74

91-60

84-60

80

September

85

79-50

73

92

85

80-40

October .

84-50

79

73 *

90 60

85

79-60

November

84

78-50

72-50

89-40

84

79

December

82

77

72-50

87*80

83

76-40

Botanic Gardens, Saint Ann. Ten years (1870-1880).

Months.

Maximum.

Mean.

Minimum.

January ....

80-73

79-24

64-7

February

87*4

79-8

63-8

March .

87-9

80-5

65-1

April .

89-1

82-0

66-1

May .

89-9

82-7

67-8

June .

87-9

81-0

68-8

July .

88-3

81-0

69-2

August

88-4

81-0

69-3

September

88-4

81-6

69-2

October

89-5

81-8

68-8

November

88-3

81-1

68-3

December

86-5

80-0

66-6

The mean yearly temperature, according to the first series, is
79°; and 84° according to the second; third series, 80'97y.
The second series of observations was made in town, at the
Royal Gaol, and may be said to give the temperature of
Port-of- Spain, not of the country generally. The maxima are

TEMPERATURE.

121

88°, 93°, and 95*5° ; and the minima, 70°, 73°, and 601°, for
the three periods respectively. The greatest daily variations
were 17°, 14°, and 30*9°, corresponding to the months of
March, May, and April. The highest temperature was 95*5°
in April, 1878 ; lowest, 60*1Q in January, 1878. The mean
annual temperature of the neighbouring region of Venezuela
varies, according to Codazzi, from 70*90° to 81*14°.

In the first period, the hottest months are June, May,
and April; in the second, May, September, and October; in
the third, March, April, and May. The months which exhibit
a maximum of temperature are April, May, and March; those
showing a minimum are January, February, and December.
The coldest months are, in the first period, December, November,
and January ; in the second, January, February, March, and
December; in the third, January, December, and February.
The temperature of June and July is more uniform; and that
greater uniformity is a consequence of the heavy rains which
fall during those months and produce a refreshing action on
the atmosphere, whilst the bright sun and parching breezes of
March, April, and even May, have for result an increase of
temperature during the day.

There is also a maximum and minimum of daily temperature ;
and the following table shows their daily variations, at the
Royal Gaol, for a term of two years.

Months.

Hours.

6 a.m.

9 a.m.

12 a.m.

3 p.m.

6 p.m.

January . . .

78-40

82

84

82

80

February-

78

84

85

85

80-60

March .

79

83

85

85-50

81

April .

81

84

87

87-70

82

May . .

82

86

88

87-50

82-40

June

79

86

87

87

82

July .

82

82-60

86

87

82-30

August

82

85

86

86-60

82-20

September

82

85

87-50

88

82-75

October

81

85-50

87

87

82

November

81

85

86

84

82

December

80

84

85

85

81

Average

80-45

84-32

86-12

86-00

81-69

122 TRINIDAD.

By comparing the figures of this table, it will be found that
the hour which exhibits the minimum temperature is 6 a.m., and
that which presents the maximum is 3 p.m. Now, although the
temperature is two degrees lower at 9 a.m. than at noon and
3 p.m., it may yet be affirmed that the heat is excessive from
that hour to 4 p.m. The above table shows also that the
increase is more gradual than the decrease of temperature — the
former being 5*67°, within six hours, viz., from 6 in the
morning to 12 noon; and the latter 4 '31° within three hours,
viz., from 3 to 6 p.m. The mean temperature, in the sun, may
be estimated at 124° Farenheit.

The thermometer gives neither a fair indication of the
sensation felt by, nor of the impression made upon, the human
frame by a high temperature. They both depend greatly on
the rarefaction of the air and the hygrometric state of the
atmosphere ; so that the sensation of oppression, and the general
prostration caused by a high temperature, are increased by
sultry weather, and rendered more painful than when the air is
comparatively dry, pure, and agitated. The influence of winds
in connection with the temperature is very remarkable. The
northerly wind, even when light, being comparatively cold,
produces an unpleasant feeling of chill, whereas the easterly
breeze, however strong, never produces that sensation; on the
contrary, it is agreeable, cool, and refreshing, and may be said to
be bracing.

The southerly wind has a depressing effect; still more so
the westerly.

Humidity. — The influence of atmospheric moisture on
vegetable life is too well known to require any comment.
Its influence on our own organs is, perhaps, as powerful,
though less apparent. Temperature, atmospheric pressure, the
prevailing winds, and the condition of a country, whether as
cultivated or still covered with forests — all these greatly
influence the actual quantity of moisture contained in the
atmosphere.

I am not in possession of such hygrometric observations
as would enable me to give any definite information on the
subject ; but the quantity of rain which falls throughout the
year may serve as a test for appreciating the humidity of
our climate. It will be seen, from the following returns, that

RAINS. 123

such quantity may be estimated at 66 inches 28 hundredths
per annum.

Petit Morne Estate (Naparima)

, 3 years (71— 73)

... 71-73

Corynth Estate „

5 years (68—72)

... 68-75

Williamsville Estate , ,

>) >> • • •

... 67-09

Taruba Estate ,,

»> >> *••

... 65-19

Les Efforts Estate ,,

>> j> •• •

... 63-36

Union Hall Estate ,,

... 67-70

El Socorro Estate (Cimaronero)

5> J)

... 57-69

Endeavour Estate (Chaguanas),

11 years (68—79)

... 69-74

Botanic Gardens (Saint Ann),

15 years (62—76)

... 65-25

General Average

... 66-28

In the first edition of this book, I had given such quantity
as 70*30 inches. It was compiled from observations published
by Captain Tulloch in his " Statistical Report '' for the years
1825, 1826, 1827; from those of Dr. J. Davy, in his work on
the West Indies, from the years 1847 to 1852 inclusive, and
taken at the St. James's Barracks ; also from observations made
at the Royal Gaol, from 1850 to 1854 inclusive.

The months which exhibit a minimum of rain are April,
March, and February ; and those wherein the maximum quantity
falls are August, July, and September. It would appear, from six
years' observation by Ramon de la Sagra, that the mean annual
quantity of rain which falls at Havanna is 109 inches; it is
72 inches on the north coast of Venezuela (Codazzi) ; from
118 to 128 in Hindustan, near the coast (Humboldt) ; 90*75
inches in Ceylon (western coast). In Paris it was found by
Arago to be 20 inches ; in London, by Howard, 25 inches ;
in Geneva, 30*50 inches (Humboldt).

By taking separately the first five months of the year
allotted to the dry season, and the seven last months which
comprise the wet, we have the following results : 1*98 inch
per month for the first five months; 7*78 inches during the last
seven months. We may, therefore, conclude that June, July,
August, September, October, November, and December are very
humid, and the climate generally damp. The greatest quantity
of rain which fell during any month, pending the period of
fifteen years, was 15*18 inches, viz., in August, 1876; in
the same month of 1851, the quantity reached 16*81 inches.
No rain, by the rain-gauge, in January, 1862, and May, 1873 ;
only 4 hundredths in April, 1864; and 7 hundredths in Feb-
ruary, 1872.

124 TRINIDAD.

Average quantity of rainfall in Demerara (5 years), 75*62 ;
Berbice, 70-53; St. Vincent (8 years), 99*36 ; St. Christopher
(13 years), 5223; Barbadoes (26 years), 57*74.

I have already stated that the aforesaid physical agencies-
but particularly light, heat, and humidity — exercised the greater
influence on animal as well as vegetable life ; I will now briefb
examine their influences on our own organs.

Heat. — Besides its well-known debilitating effect on th(
human body, a high temperature seems to have a powerfi
action in modifying certain functions. Under such temperature,
the cerebral activity is diminished, as well as the muscuh
power, and the digestive organs are greatly enfeebled. Cutaneoi
exhalation is much increased, and becomes apparent under the
form of perspiration; in fact, it is brought to its summum in
a warm and damp atmosphere. Perspiration has, for effect, a
diminution of the quantity of heat produced in the human body
by natural processes — nor does it act as a debilitating cause, to
the extent that is generally supposed ; for prostration of strength
is relieved by an abundant natural perspiration, and its increase,
when the air is not too damp, results in a counteraction of the
effects of a high temperature. I may adduce, as a proof of
what I advance, that individuals in robust health are generally
those who perspire the most. It is a principle in physiology,
that the greater the activity of an organ the more liable it
becomes to disease ; and, as a consequence, cutaneous affec-
tions must be more frequent and serious in a warm than in a
temperate climate.

Humidity. — Warm air contains, even when comparatively
dry, a larger contingent of water than cold damp air. This
aqueous admixture increases the volume of air, and diminishes
its specific gravity ; as an inference, warm damp air contains
less of the respirable element than any other. The warmer the
atmosphere the larger the quantity of water which it can hold
in suspension. A damp atmosphere — the temperature being
equal, or even greater — produces a peculiar feeling of chill,
widely differing from the bracing effect caused by a cold, dry
air. The sensation produced by the former is keener, and seems
to penetrate the whole system, thereby producing chilliness and
involuntary shivering from within, with a bluish paleness
externally ; in fact, a damp atmosphere acts by diminishing the

TEMPERATURE. 125

power o£ producing heat, and the symptoms evinced very much
resemble those of an incipient attack of intermittent fever.

The influence of a damp, warm atmosphere on the various
functions is still more distinctly observable than that of a dry,
warm air. The proportion of the colouring matter decreases in
the blood, thereby showing that hematosis is modified by
humidity. As a result of these modifications of the blood, the
different organs are variously affected, and, among others,
the stomach : its digestive power is weakened, and, generally, a
lesser proportion of food is required to satisfy the appetite —
gentle stimulants and tonics then become necessary.

The hepatic secretion is much diminished, and the quantity
of bile secreted may not only become insufficient for the process
of healthy digestion, but even its very quality may become
so much altered as to constitute a pathological state. As a
consequence of the alterations caused in hematosis, and the
digestive functions, nutrition becomes impaired.

The glandular system is, also, particularly modified; its
activity is much increased, and individuals, having lived for
a certain period in a damp locality, may be said to be placed
under the same conditions as those who are of a lymphatic
temperament. If, together with these natural coincidents, are
combined those of insufficient non-animal diet, bad lodgings, and
the appurtenances of filth, the consequences speedily become
apparent : inflammation of the lymphatic glands and vessels,
ulcers, chronic eczema, and even leprosy, according to individual
constitution, must be the deplorable results.

Light. — It is not very easy to obtain practical information
as to the influence on man of this physical agent, when con-
sidered separately from air and heat ; but we are warranted in
concluding, analogically, from its effects on the healthy growth
of plants, and the metamorphoses of batracians, that it must
materially influence certain functions. I do not, therefore,
hesitate to affirm, that the evil effects of confinement in dark
rooms or dwellings must be partly attributed to the absence or
want of light ; whilst to the presence of that agent may be
partly traced the beneficial results of exercise in the open air,
particularly in the case of those who have the misfortune of
being born with a lymphatic temperament.

Besides the general influence exercised on the human frame

126 TRINIDAD.

by a high temperature combined with humidity, there may exist
in the air certain substances which, in the form of miasmatic
emanations, become a most material element in the development
of maladies, and the sanitary condition of a country.

A warm, damp atmosphere is the condition naturally most
favourable to the decomposition of organic substances, either
animal or vegetable ; and as the gaseous exhalations evolved
from such decompositions are more readily held in suspension in
such an atmosphere, it may be considered, where suitable
affinities exist, as highly predisposing to very serious diseases,
and especially to the almost innumerable series of periodical
affections.

Emanations arising from the decomposition of vegetable
matters are particularly noxious; and yet, when they are
allowed to decay in a dry air, they do not disengage any
deleterious principles. In order to generate those principles,
they must undergo the process of decay in stagnant water,
thus forming swamps. Swamp-water is, generally, fetid; but
fetidity is no positive mark of the deleterious qualities of a
swamp.

Swamps or marshes are created by collections of standing
water, either fresh or salt ; it may be said, however, that purely
salt-water marshes do not exist, since they are almost invariably
formed by an admixture of fresh with salt-water. The latter
are much more dangerous than merely fresh or salt-water
swamps, whereas this admixture has for result to aid in the
decomposition of the organic matter contained in both.

The following are the conditions necessary for the formation
of swamp effluvia : a damp, warm air, the ground neither too
dry nor too deeply covered with water. Hence the atmosphere
of these watery tracts always contains more or less of moisture,
but more during the night than the day; it also holds in
suspension during the former period certain substances which
do not seem to exist therein during the latter, so that the
disengagement, or at least the condensation, of marsh emana-
tions is less during the day, and greater at night, but particularly
at sunset and sunrise. Their chemical nature has not yet been
ascertained by analysis ; however, they have been found to
contain ammoniacal components, and, therefore, must be of an
organic or vegeto-animal nature. No doubt their mode of

TEMPERATURE. 127

operating is complex ; but in order to account for the identical
effects produced by the atmosphere of swampy places, and from
the consideration of the processes of vegeto-animal decay which
are uninterruptedly going on in such localities, we are led to
admit that they give rise to certain noxious principles, which we
call effluvia, miasma, and malaria. Now, are these substances
the elements of the noxious influence of swamps ? This would
appear to be highly probable.

The specific gravity of effluvia seems to be greater than that
of pure air, for they do not spread beyond a certain height. It
would seem, also, that they are soluble in the globular moisture,
actually saturating the air, so that they become condensated by
the coolness of the night, and fall with the dew — the popular
dread of dew-damps being proved thereby to be well founded.

Local circumstances may greatly influence the condensation
of effluvia; for instance, whenever a swamp exists in a deep
valley, abuts on a hill or mountain, or is skirted by forests, the
miasmas evolving therefrom are likely to accumulate in the
locality. The direction of variable or prevailing winds, also,
aids materially in the spreading of malaria, and may thus
modify the salubrity of a whole district.

Hills, mountains, and forests may therefore act as a protec-
tion against, or, on the contrary, as an aggravation of the
noxious influence of a swamp, according as it is situated to the
leeward or windward of the tract. In fact, it often happens
that the miasmatic influence is almost null in the locality of the
swamp itself, whilst it becomes very noxious at a certain distance,
particularly whenever any barrier obtrudes, in the shape of hills
and mountains to the leeward. Localities to the windward are
comparatively exempt and safe.

The formation of effluvia is more abundant when a larger
section of a marsh remains uncovered, or exposed to the direct
action of the solar rays ; so that, in our island, the deleterious
influence of most of our swamps is materially tempered during
the rainy season, when their ground surface is overflowed by
pluvial waters.

We are naturally induced to admit the existence of telluric
effluvia, as manifested by the prevalence of remittent and
intermittent fever, when forest and brush lands are brought
under tillage, and deeply furrowed by the plough.

)se

128 TEINIDAD.

Nearly the whole surface of Trinidad may be said to be
covered with virgin forests ; many swamps, formed by an ad-
mixture of fresh with salt water, exist all along the island
shores, particularly on the western coast. The average quantity
of rain which falls throughout the year may be estimated at
70 inches; the mean annual temperature 81°. The climate
may thus be classed as at the same time humid and warm, and,
consequently, highly debilitating ; certain precautions, therefore,
become necessary to counteract the effects of such a temperature
on the general constitution.

Persons coming to Trinidad may avoid, to a certain extent,
the diseases resulting from the climate, and become acclimatised
or seasoned, as it is said, by submitting to a few rules deducible
from the foregoing considerations. The climate being both
warm and humid, such rules must be a combination of those
which are respectively applicable to a warm, and to a hum
climate.

Diet. — It is, in my opinion, of great importance that
preconceived system with respect to diet should be assumed
enforced ; and I regard as a great mistake the adoption of, and
submission to, certain theoretical dietetic prescriptions, without
due preparation or gradual transition. The best plan is, as far
as practicable, to follow one's previous regimen, if found to have
agreed with the constitution, and, by degrees, to substitute those
changes or modifications which observation may suggest, or
experience sanction.

The almost exclusive use of vegetable food is, by some
hygienists, strongly recommended to persons inhabiting a warm
climate. Such a diet may suit an exclusively warm climate, and
be acceptable to those individuals who spend their time in the dolce
far niente, and enjoy a long siesta during the mid-day heat ; but
individuals living in damp localities, and leading an active life,
would soon become enfeebled and invalided by indulging in a
purely vegetable diet. In such a climate, and with such habits,
I consider the use of animal food, and particularly of fresh meal
as even amounting to a necessity. This observation is al
applicable to the inconsiderate use of fruits, encouraged by t
same parties. Not that I consider fruits, in their own nat
unwholesome ; for the poorest classes here, at certain seasons
the year, live almost exclusively on mangoes, avocado pea:

DIET. 129

oranges, and cashews ; and that, at least, without apparent ill
effects. I am, on the contrary, therefore, inclined to encourage
the moderate use of the cooling produce of the orchard, when
maturely ripened. But the indiscriminate and immoderate use
of fruits would soon produce its debilitating effects on the
digestive organs. Neither should the use of spices be indulged
in habitually, except, perhaps, that of black pepper in swampy
localities.

Whenever wholesome spring water can be got, it is by far
the best drink ; but this, as also rain water, ought always to be
filtered, and the latter rendered more digestible by the addition
of a little wine or spirit. Generally speaking, water only, or
wine and water, ought to form the basis of common drink ; pure
wine or spirit is to be allowed only in exceptional cases, and
when the body has been chilled by exposure to wet or cold
damps. Beer and porter, however, form a wholesome beverage,
particularly in swampy places. As a general rule, no fermented
liquors should be taken in the intervals of meals ; and the
custom of passing wine after dinner ought to be discountenanced
by all persons having pretensions to sobriety. I may boldly
decry this as a faulty habit, inasmuch as it tends to accustom
individuals to the immoderate use of fermented liquors. By the
abuse or even the incautious use of such, the digestive organs,
and the stomach especially, soon become deranged; a craving
for drink, and repugnance to food, are the first symptoms;
disturbed sleep and retching in the morning soon follow, as also
general dyspepsia. Meanwhile, the liver becomes affected,
together with the nervous system — a step further, delirium
tremens supervenes as a complication, and, as a sequel, intel-
lectual prostration and moral degradation ; finally, a miserable
! death closes the scene.

Violent exercise immediately before meals is injurious;
muscular action causing a diversion of the blood and nervous
| energy to the limbs and the surface generally. If any quantity of
food be received ere equilibrium be restored, the stomach is then
taken at a disadvantage; as a rule, therefore, at least half an
hour's rest should be allowed before partaking of food. Again,
immediately after meals, the digestive functions are in the
highest degree of activity ; all perturbing causes should then be
arefully avoided, and only gentle exercise indulged in.

130 TRINIDAD.

Fatigue of whatever kind, and especially from 10 a.m. to
3 p.m., is injurious, and may bring on fever, which generally
takes the adynamic form ; but regular exercise is absolutely
necessary. Persons who lead a life of general physical inaction
soon find that their appetite decreases, whilst their sensibility
increases to a morbid extent; they become debilitated, and
subject to nervous affections, and, if otherwise of a nervous
temperament, highly excitable, and even hypochondriacal. When
these individuals come to the determination of regularly taking
foot or horse exercise, they gain by degrees a better and more
regular appetite ; the nervous symptoms subside, ultimately to
disappear.

Moderation in eating, drinking (as also in the use of stimu-
lants), and exercise, form the great secret for preserving health
in Trinidad. Two meals per diem are sufficient ; something,
however, must be taken early in the morning, such as chocola
tea, or coffee, particularly in marshy localities ; neither woul
object to chocolate or tea at night after an early dinner. Re
larity in the hours of meals is also of paramount importance.

Attention ought likewise to be paid to clothing, in the
materials of » which thick cotton should be preferred to linen ; it
answers admirably as an under-shirt. Cotton is no good
conductor of caloric, and is particularly useful in retaining per-
spiration within proper limits ; it is also preferable to flannel,
which is heavy, and irritates the skin. In our climate, indeed,
cotton is fully as good a protective as woollens, since in the
system is required not so much the preservation of warmth as
the prevention of cold ; for it is most essential that perspiration
should not be checked.

The cold bath has for effect to diminish the temperature
of the body by a merely physical action; but it is also one
of the best cooling agents, as it, at the same time, diminishes
the power productive of heat. Cold bathing, therefore, must be
nighty beneficial ; but it ought to be of short duration — a few
minutes only ; and persons who are in a position to do so should
bathe every day, since experience has proved that such practice
is an almost sure guarantee of sound good health.

During sleep perspiration is augmented, though, at the sanu
time, the power of producing heat is diminished ; as a conse
quence, there is less reaction against physical agents, and i

s

DIET. 131

greater risk of being assailed by disease. It is, therefore, very
imprudent to sleep with open windows, or, at least, with such as
admit a current of air to pass over the sleeping body. And yet
this is a practice generally followed, with a view to enjoying the
cool of the night. Sleeping in the open air has not the same
ill effects.

Besides these general rules, there are others which are
specially applicable to persons living within the limits of marshy
places. The effluvia arising from such localities exercise their
influence on the natives as well as strangers ; and the suggestions
I am about to offer are intended for both classes of persons.

Any individual dwelling near a marsh ought to make use of
animal food, drink beer and porter, or spirits and water in the
proportion of one pint of the former and thirty of the latter :
the water should be filtered through charcoal. If engaged in
rural avocations, before going out in the morning he should
take some strong coffee, chocolate, or tea, with a little bread ; in
fact, he ought never to commence his labours with an empty
stomach. Again, he should not venture out at an early hour
when the dew is still abundant on the field, or during rain,
unless dressed in coarse woollen garments — say serge trousers
and a flannel jacket : both should be made large. He should
not follow the practice of wearing socks, and, on coming home —

j even for a short time — he should change his wet for dry shoes.

I If possible, he should avoid exposure to the action of effluvia
either at sunrise or sunset, as they condense at night and seem

! to evolve or disperse with renewed energy in the morning ; and,
as the human frame is more liable to be acted upon during
slumber, all outer entrances to dwellings ought to be closed
before sunset, and re-opened some time after sunrise — particu-
larly those of the sleeping-room; screens made of canvas, or
metallic sheets, should be also placed at the draughts of doors
and windows, as a protection against the introduction of
miasma.

Individuals should be very careful in protecting themselves
against humidity, for I have come to the conclusion that this is
one of the most active causes of disease. It is humidity, and
not heat, which may be said to be productive of fever. Yellow
fever may arise during the rainy season, as also dysentery.
Many localities, under the same latitude, which enjoy the

132 TRINIDAD.

privilege of a dry atmosphere, are salubrious. Such are, for
instance, Cumana and the Island of Margarita, both of which
enjoy a very dry though warm climate ; such are, also, the
islets in the Gulf of Paria. The Portuguese, and other white
immigrants, have no objection to field-work during the heat of
the day ; but they have much dread of rain, and of humidity
generally. They all agree in saying, "that the sun will not
cause fever, whilst rain invariably does so."

In order, therefore, to allow of a free and speedy drainage,
houses should be built on a gentle elevation ; whilst carefully-
made and well-paved gutters should carry off the surplus water.
Dwelling-houses should be raised on brick or stone pillars, to
give free access to a current of air beneath the flooring, and
means of ventilation provided by a sufficient number of windows
and of ventilators in the upper part of the apartments. The
sleeping-rooms should be as large as possible ; and, finally, it is
very important that houses should be protected on the marsh
side by a plantation of trees, always, however, at a certain
distance from the dwellings : bamboos would answer admirabl

As may have been anticipated from the above remar
Trinidad is mainly subject to those diseases which belong to a
warm damp climate, viz., to fevers and dysenteries. These are,
in fact, the most prevalent maladies ; and the observation made
by Annesley, that two-thirds of the deaths in tropical regions
are caused by the effects of marsh effluvia, is fully borne out in
Trinidad.

Remittent and intermittent fevers attack all classes; the
female sex and the aged, however, are less subject to them.
They are particularly prevalent amongst children — convulsions
being one of the most common symptoms in severe cases.

Europeans and unacclimatised persons, as well as children,
are commonly attacked with the remittent, and native adults
with the intermittent type. Congestions of the different organs,
but mainly abdominal plethora, accompany remittent fevers.
These may under unfavourable conditions terminate in black
vomit ; thus showing the great analogy, almost the identity of
nature, in the remittent and yellow fevers. And though
Trinidad is, perhaps, more subject to remittent fever than the
Great Antilles, Vera Cruz, and New Orleans, yet yellow fever —
that plague of the west, which may be said to be endemic in

'i

DISEASES. 133

some of the above-mentioned places — visits our shores only at
long intervals, and with little effect. The mortality from that
cause has been particularly insignificant among seamen. The
most frequent types of the remittent fevers are the bilious, double
quotidian, and double tertian, which latter often terminates in
the intermittent.

The most common types of intermittent fevers are the quo-
tidian, double tertian, and tertian ; the quartan is of very rare
occurrence, but the octan and the quinquedecimal forms are
rather frequent. The return of the latter types coinciding
generally with certain changes of the moon, many have been
induced to ascribe an influence to that planet as connected with
the return of this fever.

Periodical fevers, either remittent or intermittent, are in
certain places endemic throughout the whole year; regular
epidemical recrudescences, however, occur at certain periods —
generally at a change of season. The localities most liable to
fever are those skirting the sea, or lying to the leeward of
swamps ; the interior districts may be said to enjoy comparative
immunity from periodical fevers, and the occasional cases which
there occur may, in general, be traced to some direct cause.
Though the harbour of Port-of- Spain is to the leeward of the
great Caroni swamp, the shipping, nevertheless, is almost exempt
from fever. This is attributable to the fact, that no barrier
exists to leeward in the shape of land, either level or elevated ;
and the effluvia are thus carried away several miles westward
before any such obstruction intervenes.

Individuals inhabiting a salubrious locality are almost
certainly attacked with remittent fever by resorting, even for a
short period, to a swampy spot ; should they stay there a few
I days only, fever will often declare itself even after a return to
their former place of residence. It then, generally, terminates
in the octan or quinquedecimal form, and may last for months.
A change of air and sea-bathing are, sometimes, the only
remedies.

Persons living in marshy districts are very liable to an attack
of remittent fever by removal to a healthier locality. Intermit-
tent, but remittent fevers particularly, when not attended to in
time, or not properly treated, may end in malignant fever,
generally in the apoplectic or algid form; this commonly

134 TRINIDAD.

happens from the third to the fifth day. It sometimes, how-
ever, exhibits the malignant character at the very first onset.
Intermittent fever is often mashed, — the neuralgic form being
the most frequent. The appearance of pain — sometimes very
severe — in a limb, or any other part of the body, preceded
or accompanied by cold hands and feet, or even by regular ague,
and followed by either a gentle or profuse perspiration — after
three, six, twelve, or more hours' duration — and a complete
remission of the predominant symptoms, are sure indications of
the nature of the complaint. Quinine is the surest, if not the
sole remedy. It has been said of verminous affections, that they
are Proteus-like ; but remittent and intermittent fevers are the
real Protean malady.

Dysentery. — Next to fever, dysentery is the most prevalent
disease in Trinidad ; it is even endemic in a few localities whicl
are otherwise regarded as healthy. Every ten or twelve yeai
however, there are returns of epidemic dysentery. The diseas
commonly begins at the commencement of the wet season, viz.
in July and August, and lasts for several months ; so thai
atmospheric moisture seems to have an undeniable influence on
the production of dysentery.

It has also been remarked that, in those localities wherein
dysentery is endemic, there is always a coincidence between the
breaking out of the distemper and the overflow of rivers after
the first heavy showers. This is mainly apparent in our valleys
and such other districts as are covered with high woods.

Dysentery may appear under four different forms, consti-
tuting, as it were, four distinct species, and having different
seats : — The mucous or gastric, in which the stomach, and the
bilious or hepatic, in which the liver, evidently participates ; the
inflammatory, which seems to attack the whole of the intestinal
tube ; and the putrid, or adynamic, known here by the name of
Bicho, which has its seat in the rectum and descending colon.
Each variety of this malady requires a different treatment.
Chronic dysentery also is not unfrequent.

Dysentery attacks all classes and ages; the Europeans and
the foreign whites are, however, far less subject to it than the
natives and the coloured class. This may be attributed to the
different mode of living of the two classes. Europeans and
other whites generally enjoy more comforts, are better lodged

DISEASES. 135

and fed, and more cleanly in their habits ; besides which, they
are not so much exposed as the coloured people.

Eruptive fevers. — Measles, small-pox, and scarlatina reign
epidemically every ten or twelve years ; scarlatina less frequently
than small-pox, and small-pox less again than measles. Measles
and scarlatina are not so dangerous as in Europe, the conva-
lescence particularly requiring less attention and caution. Small-
pox has proved very fatal on various occasions. Vaccination
may not infallibly act as a preservative, but it invariably
modifies the characteristics of the eruption to such an extent as
to render it comparatively harmless. Lately vaccination has
been made compulsory, and vaccinators appointed to the dif-
ferent districts of the colony ; re-vaccination is also encouraged.

Hooping-cough is of frequent occurrence, but not dangerous,
except when altogether neglected, or accompanied with bronchitis.
The latter affection, but particularly tracheitis and laryngitis,
become very common during the season in which the chill
northerly winds prevail. Croup, or angina membranacea, is of very
rare occurrence, for what is termed here croup is either angina
stridulosa or angina cedematosa, both of which simulate croup.
Angina cedematosa almost invariably commences under the form
of an inflammation of the pharynx, which afterwards extends to
the glottis.

Sore-throat is one of the most frequent, and may be also
reckoned one of the most serious, diseases which prevail in
Trinidad. The cedematous variety is rather common, and by
the extension of the sedema to the glottis may prove fatal in a
few hours.

Diphtheria, almost unknown in the island for a long period,
has for the last ten years prevailed epidemically on several
occasions, and with disastrous results. There exists also a
peculiar form of sore-throat, or pharyngitis, which may be
termed remittent pharyngitis. The sufferer feels comparatively
easy during the day, but an exacerbation invariably takes place
in the evening, most distressing at about ten or eleven o'clock.
If overlooked, or not properly treated, it may terminate fatally,
especially in young children. Quinine is the remedy, and to it
the disease yields very readily.

Uneumonia andpleuritis are of comparatively rare occurrence,
and exposure to a draught of air, or cold bathing, the body being

136 TRINIDAD.

warm, will rather cause an attack of bilious remittent fever than
an inflammation of either the lungs or pleura. Consumption is
no uncommon malady; it comes to a fatal termination with
great rapidity.

Ophthalmia, and the inflammation of the cornea especially, is
rather frequent; its apparent cause is cold, as it generally
occurs during the dry season, and consequent on exposure to
chill and damp of night.

Hepatitis, and other complaints of the liver, are rather pre-
vailing, and abscesses of that organ are often the consequence.
Dr. Clark, an army surgeon, and a resident for many years in
the different West India Islands, told me that he found inflam-
mation of the liver more prevalent in Trinidad than in any othei
of the islands. A sort of atrophy of that organ is also a com-
mon disease ; the result is a diminution in the quantity, with
alteration of the quality, of the bile, and a consequent diarrheas
which may be said to be incurable. Chronic ulcerative enter ith
is not unfrequent, and generally proves very dangerous.

Of all inflammations, however, the most common is that
the lymphatic glands and vessels ; it often terminates in suppu-
ration or in elephantiasis.

Ulcers, particularly of the legs and feet, are a disgustingly
common sight. They attack almost exclusively those wl
travel or labour, as many of the poorer classes do, with bare f e(
or legs ; but they may also generally and justly be considered
the consequence, of neglect and filthiness. They are also fre
quently caused by certain insects, viz., chigoes and betes-rouges.
The latter, almost invisibly small, attack the legs, producing
much itching and cutaneous irritation ; the former penetral
into the toes, heels, and soles of the feet, causing also an itching
sensation, and, if not extracted in time, produce first a very
small ulcer, which soon increases by its own extension, or the
formation of fresh ones, so as almost to honeycomb the edges
and surface of the soles. By constant irritation and exposure
they assume an unhealthy appearance, the bones by degrees
become diseased, whilst the inflammation sometimes extends to
the whole foot; at this stage amputation is found to be the
only remedy. Newly arrived Africans and Coolies, and even
native labourers, are particularly liable to these ulcers.

Leprosy is, unfortunately, very prevalent, and of late years

DISEASES. 137

appears to be on the increase. There are two forms of that
cruel and loathsome malady — the anaesthetic, or dry form, and
the tubercular.

The primary apparent symptom of anesthetic leprosy is a
weakness of the extensor muscles of both the upper and lower
extremities; as a consequence, a feebleness in walking" is or-
dinarily experienced in one foot ; sometimes in both. The
fingers gradually curve in the palms of the hands. Any indi-
vidual exhibiting these symptoms may be said to be doomed.

The first symptom of the tubercular form is a discoloration
of the skin, together with the appearance on the loins and
posterior part of the thighs of blotches ; these are soon followed
by the swelling of the fingers and the development of tubercles
on the face and other parts.

Both forms of leprosy are, in my opinion, but a peculiar
modality of scrofulose. Not only is leprosy hereditary, but, like
consumption, it may be said to be incurable. The remark has
also been made that seldom are there not instances of consump-
tion in those families in which cases of leprosy have occurred.
It is a popular opinion that venereal affections may have an
influence in developing leprosy; and let me say that such
opinion is rational, since those affections are well known to have
a marked action on the glandular, osseous, and cutaneous
systems.

It is much to be apprehended that the malady will continue
to spread, and thereby entail an increasing amount of misery.
Parents should, therefore, be awakened to the necessity of
checking all predispositions to the lymphatic temperament by
strict attention to food, habitation, cleanliness, and exercise in
the open air.

An asylum was established under the government of Sir
Henry McLeod, and is still maintained at the public expense,
for the reception of lepers who are not in a position to support
themselves. But as it is left to their option to enter the asylum
or not, those only who make application are admitted, and of
course lepers who prefer a mendicant life are seen going their
rounds and begging, not only on the highways, but in the very
streets of Port-of-Spain. Surely this ought not to be tolerated.

I say that lepers should not be allowed to be at large, at
least such as are not in a position to maintain themselves.

138 TRINIDAD.

The contagiousness of leprosy is at this present moment
warmly discussed, and though generally decided in the negative,
is nevertheless one of those points which should not be regarded
as settled. Aclhuc sub judice Us est. There are facts, few in
number it may be, but there are facts which militate in favour of
contagion ; also parallel facts which seem to prove that segrega-
tion is a sure barrier against the propagation of the disease.
But the important point is not whether leprosy is contagious, but
under what condition it is propagated. There is no doubt that
its propagation may be traced to the following causes or circum-
stances : 1st, Intermarriages of or with leprous persons ; 2nd,
Hereditary transmission; and 3rd, Co-habitation.

We find in the report of Dr. Tilbury Fox and T. Farquhar
the following statements : f ' We have no doubt," they say,
" that in Syria the leprosy is mainly propagated by the inter-
marriage of the leprous or those hereditarily tainted. Of 623
cases to which reference is made in the leprosy report of the
College of Physicians, 287 were known to be hereditary; and it
is no doubt probable that this is not a correct proportion, since
leprous taints in families are as much as possible concealed."
Dr. Davidson, speaking of leprosy in Madagascar, remarks, " It
certainly deserves notice that, while the laws of Madagascar
excluded leprous persons from society, the disease was kept
within bounds, but after this law was permitted to fall into
disuse, it has spread to an almost incredible degree. This is,
no doubt, due in part to lepers being allowed to marry without
hindrance ; but the natives are also strongly impressed with the
conviction that the disease is inoculable.'" But the series of
facts reported by Dr. Hillebrand is more striking still. Leprosy
was thought to be unknown in the Sandwich Islands till 1859,
and cannot be traced back further than the year 1852, or at the
earliest 1848. Dr. Hillebrand has been at Honolulu since 1851.
As it appears, the disease was imported by the Chinese ; in 1848
and in 1853 there existed only one single leper in Honolulu; in
1864 the number had increased to 250 ; within a period of ten years
1,570 lepers had been admitted into the asylum. In the year
1873 the total number amounted to 1,750. Dr. Hillebrand
observes that " the natives are of a very social disposition, much
given to visiting each other, and that hospitality is considered as
a sacred duty by them. . . About one-fourth avow contact

DISEASES. 139

with other lepers as a cause/'' The reporters remark on this
subject : " The disease arises in a clean nation, is unnoticed at
first, and spreads slowly. . . It so happens that the hygienic
state of the natives and the colony has improved, and not dete-
riorated. Animal food is within the reach of all ; labour is in
great demand and well paid for. The natives are clad now like
Europeans ; formerly scantily, if at all. The climate is, perhaps,
the finest in the world ; taxation is light. Yet, notwithstanding,
leprosy spreads, and has spread, from and around known
lepers as from centres of contagion." They wind up with the
following remark : " It appears, then, that in searching for the
cause of leprosy, we must make allowance for a large amount of
propagated disease through intermarriage, hereditary transmis-
sion, and contact with the affected — for, in fact, disease propa-
gated from individual to indiviual." Nothing, as it appears,
has been attempted to check the spreading of the disease, and it
has spread fearfully.

Let us |now turn to some other places where measures more
or less stringent have been enforced, and let us compare the
result. In New Brunswick the disease made its first appearance
about the year 1815 ; in 1844 twenty- two persons afflicted with
leprosy were found out, and most stringent measures immediately
adopted. "Within the last ten or twelve years/-' says Dr.
Gordon, "the disease has decreased, owing to the greater care
and attention taken in separating the lepers. In 1863 the total
number was twenty-two, and now cannot be more than forty."

In Curacao most stringent measures have been enforced for
the last forty years, and the number of lepers in that island has
for the last twenty years varied between ten and thirteen.

In another Dutch colony, Surinam, the adoption of similar
measures had the same beneficial results, and the number of
lepers is smaller there than it is in French or British Guiana.

Lepers, from the very nature of their malady, are shunned
by those amongst whom they live, and cannot find employment ;
except such as have personal resources, they must become men-
dicants. There is no doubt that a country where leprosy
prevails to any extent is more or less dreaded as a resorting place.
I have, therefore, come to the conclusion that lepers should be
sequestered and admitted into proper asylums, where they would
be well housed, properly fed, and kindly nursed.

] 40 TRINIDAD.

I will conclude with another quotation from Drs. Fox and
Farquhar's report : " The presence of the disease (in Europe) was
clearly in greatest part, if not entirely, to be accounted for by
its introduction through the Crusaders from the East, and its
propagation by intercommunication of the leprous with the
healthy. The extinction of leprosy was effected, we believe, in
all probability by the enforced segregation of lepers so sedu-
lously ensured by the Church and State.-"

Yaws, Plans, Frambcesia. — This is another skin disease to which
I am anxious to call the earnest attention of the Government.

Yaws is a disease sui generis, which is propagated by con-
tagion, and has a tendency to spread among the people of the
same locality, and may easily extend to remote districts by
intercommunication. It is peculiar to the African race, anc
may be said to be an importation from Africa, where it wideb
prevails. The duration of the disease generally extends ovt
several years, and I even doubt very much whether its cure
ever spontaneous. When properly treated it lasts from two
four months. People suffering from yaws do not exactly become
disabled, but the disease tells sorely on their constitution, ai
they become enfeebled and apathetic ; intercourse with them
carefully avoided by prudent persons. I am, therefore, led
advocate, with regard to yaws, the adoption of the same stringent
measures which I have suggested with regard to leprosy. People
suffering from yaws should be forcibly sent to hospitals or
asylums, there to be treated. Except in a few exceptional cases,
this measure should not be extended to persons in good circum-
stances, as they are anxious to be cured. As a rule, confinement
could not be protracted beyond two or four months, after which
time the patients would be restored to their families and occupa-
tions ; and the far greater number of yaws patients being under
the age of fifteen, sequestration could not be regarded by them as
a very great hardship, especially in view of the great benefit
conferred and the advantages resulting to the whole community.
Lunacy prevails to a very great extent. There were on the
31st December, 1878, in the Lunatic Asylum 182 unfortunate
subjects, 94 males, 88 females; under care during the same
year, 266 ; in 1880, 229.

For many years we had no asylum for the reception of
lunatics, and those considered as dangerous were confined in a

DISEASES. 141

separate ward in the Royal Gaol. A colonial asylum, however,
was established in 1858, and the lunatics removed thereto. In
the year 1876 a comprehensive ordinance was passed, and pro-
visions were made for the care and custody of all classes of lunatics.
I will conclude this notice of the principal diseases of the
island by the following" remark. Nearly all the diseases in
Trinidad — no matter what may be the nature of the complaint —
have a tendency to assume the remittent or intermittent form,
as a complication.

Intermittent sore-throat and dysentery are very common,
and remittent pneumonia is not rare. An individual accidentally
confined to the sick room — for instance, from a broken leg or
any other cause — is almost certain to get an attack of intermittent
fever after having been laid up for two or three weeks. Quinine,
combined with some other co-efficient medicines, is a certain cure.
I may say, in addition, that sporadic cases of disease are the
exception, whilst the epidemic form the rule. It is evident that
the latter type is determined by the existence of certain condi-
tions which we cannot always discover or fully appreciate ; but
which, nevertheless, become apparent in the uniformity of their
pathological effects. These conditions may subsist for a shorter
or longer period; but, during the whole time of their persis-
tence, prevalent diseases undergo some uniform modification, and
also exhibit a few characteristic and identical symptoms which
cause them to bear a sort of resemblance to each other, and for
the cure of which the same treatment is generally successful,
although otherwise the diseases may be of a different nature.
And not only do these conditions vary at long intervals, but
sometimes more than once in the same year ; so that the treat-
ment which has been most successful against fever in the com-
mencement of the year, will not be so effectual at a later period.
The pathological phenomena exhibited in Trinidad are highly
illustrative of the doctrine of medical constitutions, so admirably
advocated by Hippocrates among the ancients, and by Sydenham,
as well as others, among the moderns.

Immediately after, and on several occasions since emancipa-
tion, attempts were made for securing medical aid to the class
of artisans in towns, of labourers located on estates, and of small
settlers generally, on their contributing the small sum of ten
cents per week for each working person — children and old people

142 TRINIDAD.

being attended gratuitously ; incredible, however, as it may-
appear, these attempts have invariably failed. After a few-
weeks, or two or three months at the utmost, such of the sub-
scribers who had not been subject to any attack during that
period withdrew their subscription, on the pretext that it was
not fair they should pay for the doctor while they enjoyed good
health. But these very people, when ailing, are unwilling, and
in most cases unable, to pay the fee ; and they then throw
themselves into the hands of male and female quacks, or obeah
practisers, who bleed, cup, prescribe nostrums, and give their own
personal attendance, exacting more or less from their dupes,
according to their own status or reputation in quackery or
obeahism. They are punctually paid — chiefly from a super-
stitious dread infused into the minds of their patients — but
always retire in time from any unprofitable field. How manj
accidents occur, how many lives are lost, in consequence of thi
perverse neglect ! As regards midwives, matters are still worse
for not only do they indulge in the most silly and disgusting
manoeuvres in ordinary instances, but they have recourse to mos
abominable practices — (such as flogging, suspension, &c),
protracted cases of accouchement, the child or mother, or botl
being but too often the untimely victims of these self-confidei
commeres. Their directions regarding the management
infants, are barbarous in the extreme.

There is a provision in the Medical Ordinance, that no 01
shall practise as a midwife in Port-of- Spain without a licens
granted by the Medical Board ; and, in the rural districts, with-
out a certificate signed by the medical practitioner of the
locality ; but as the enforcement of the law is left to the mid-
wives already licensed, and to the members of the profession,
with the view only of affording them an opportunity of pro-
tecting their own interest, that wise proviso remains unexecuted.
Surely the Government ought to interfere, if merely for the
sake of the public welfare.

A ward of six beds for accouchement might be set aside at
the Colonial Hospital ; all women or young girls desirous of
practising as midwives could be admitted as pupils and act as
assistants. Lectures would be delivered to them, on regular
days, and after a certain time they would be admitted to ex-
amination, and, if found qualified, would receive their license to

DISEASES. 143

practise in the colony. I once made the suggestion; it was
received with approbation, but nothing has been done yet.

There are now in the island two hospitals, one in Port-of-
Spain, equal, I believe, to any in the West Indies, and the other
in San Fernando. They were built for the accommodation of
250 patients ; it is seldom, however, when that number is not ex-
ceeded. There were in the Colonial Hospital, 31st December,
1877, 276 patients, and 105 in the San Fernando Hospital.
Daily average in 1880, 433 ; San Fernando, 130. The Colonial
Hospital staff consists of a resident surgeon, with two assistants,
two dispensers, a consulting physician, and a consulting surgeon.
At San Fernando, there are a resident surgeon, an assistant, and a
dispenser.

No patients are admitted into the hospitals unless some party
be responsible for the sum of one shilling a day, which is
charged for every poor patient; two shillings are exacted for
sailors, who are not considered as poor persons.

It was once proposed that each ward should have its own
hospital ; and this is still considered as feasible. Such proposi-
tion must have emanated from, and it can only be entertained
by, persons who never reflected on the necessary expenses conse-
quent on the establishment of a hospital, on however limited a
scale. Besides bedsteads, bedding, cloth, and other requisites, a
large annual sum is required for defraying the salaries of the
medical attendant, superintendent, and dispensers ; also the hire
of a cook, washerwoman, and at least one nurse. Neither should
it be overlooked that the smaller the establishment the larger
the proportionate expenses. One hospital for each county is
just the utmost required and possible. Numerous facts and
extensive observations having proved the great influence that
extraneous causes may exercise on the salubrity of towns and
country districts generally, the importance of sanitary measures
was at once rendered palpable ; and, in our days, it is regarded
as almost a necessity that a Board of Health consisting of special
men should be established in all well-organised communities, for
the purpose of watching over the public health. The general
Board of Health of the island consists of eleven members, with
the Governor as president. There are two sanitary inspectors
appointed for the boroughs of Port-of- Spain and San Fernando :
wardens are sanitary inspectors in their respective wards.

144

TRINIDAD.

rib

35
2.-

5 B

If

(O US O)

■* co ©

CO CO CO OS CO CM

lOooncoH^Mn

O T|( iO ■* »

oocooocscococoio

COCOCOTHOt^-^lOCO

r* O CO O t- *«• t—

(NOOt^»OOOCOOI>.COOOii-l(M

0iO<Mrt(<MKO«0000i(NOC0i-Ht^»O

o o t- o r- <n

©i-li-HtOkaCNlCNlM

OOOSTj<U3<©OI>tOQOOOt^-*C<lTtl^H CO t^»

1

-*

CO
CM

>o

CM
CM

o

**

co

CO

t^

OS
CO

CO

«*l

: o

CO

CO

00

CO

o

i

a

-

-

CO

CO

IH

CM

■*

^

co

CO

: cn

CM

CO

CM

CO

fr- F-H lH

l^-*<CO©^COO5"*00WCOCO
rj<00CM*^"*00*~O5CO»Ot>-

CO

,_|

CO

o

,_,

CO

CM

co

CO

10

t-

i©

CN

C5

CO

co

o>

>o

CO CO CO

kO) KO CO CM CO

CM CM CM

CM CO rH

CM CO

CO CO
00 00

^ lO (B N 00
CO CO CO CO CD
CO CO 00 00 CO O0 00

*- *^ t^

* U5 (O
t» t» fr»

00 CO CO 00 00

CM CM

>><n CO

IS s

RAINFALL.

145

1

V

to

o

CO

W3

,_,

CO

CO

CO

rH

rt

.

CN

CO

<J|

CN

CD

CD

vo

vo

VO

©

CN

0

1>
>

CN

rH

rH

CN

U5

t^

CO

CN

t^

1^

CD

©

©

& <4

-'

t^

O

t^

OS

rfj

OS

CO

OS

vo

CN

t^

^

CO

2

CO

rjl

eo

OS

rH

*-

CO

o

CO

CO

E

CN

CN

rH

CN

<*

CO

CO

CN

i>-

t^

CO

t^

CO

-*

rH

©

»rs

CO

rH

CO

O

o

o

r~

!>.

,_,

CO

CN

eo

©

CO

o

.CO

OS

eo

t^

rH

OS

©

vo

S

o

CN

o

©

CO

rH

co

"<*

t^

CO

TH

©

CO

,H

■-'

©

CN

O

CO

CO

o

o

CN

8

vo

CO

ff*

CO

CO

CN

CN

CO

CD

"*

Tt<

t^

CN

■<

o

rH

CN

rH

CO

CO

VO

©

CD

o

OS

CO

©

O

"*

^

©

<

lO

vO

CO

v©

CO

co

VO

©

o

o

rH

9*

©

CO

CO

CN

CN

©

rH

©

VO

rH

CO
CN

CO

rH

■^

vo

CD

©

OS

rH

©
©

©

CD

OS

OS

CO

VO

rH

,_,

VO

o

o

vo

©

©

r—

t-

co

CO

CO

rH

VO

■«*

VO

VO

CN

CO

CM

o

o

**■

vo

CN

CO

OS

s

OS

VO

VO

rH

CN

rt

t^.

CO

CO

CO

OS

CN

vo

eo

o

©

CN

t^

CN

CN

t^

rH

<— 1

o

■Jl

rH

TH

x*

VO

t~

00

CO

'-,

*"'

CO

VO

CO

OS

CO

VO

Jr^

rH

rH

t^

«

' ,_,

©

CN

OS

rH

CO

CO

eo

o

CO

■*

rH

CN

2

CN

CO

CO

CO

CO

o

vo

OS

CO

o

©

!j

CO

rH

rH

CN

CO

CO

OS

o

1^

t^

t^

vo

,-1

1-1

t^

l^

vO

rH

O

ir^

CO

t—

o

rH

CN

CO

CN

CN

t-

CN

CO

O

OS

CN

CN

OS

CO

OS

CO

©

<—i

00

rH

CN

CN

CN

rH

CD

r*

vO

CO

VO

VO

©

CO

VO

rH

O

*^

r—

CO

CO

CO

,_,

o

t~

OS

rH

rH

In

rH

t^

CO

o

CN

eo

VO

CO

CD

rt"

CO

CO

>H

M

M

o

o

vO

E

o

CO

vo

o

o

©

©

*^

o

CN

t^

VO

OS

**

CN

o

t—

■*

VO

CN

O

©

OS

CO

OS

co

CO

VO

CN

t^

vo

OS

©

CO

j

00
rH

CN

o

o

CO

CO

CO

OS

CO

t^

t^

VO

CN

eo

Sj

t-~

2

«s

o

o

o

o

Hi

o

CO

T*

VO

,_,

©

CO

a

m

n
i

1

©

©

CN
CN

OS
CN

©

OS

CO
CO

CO

CO

©

CN

vo

o

vp

o

CN

vb

©
©

H

1-1

rH

rH

t^

©

OS

t^

CN

CD

CO

00

CO

CO

CO

©

©

©

OO

1

©

©

CO

CN

rH

VO

eo

rH

CN

CO

CD

©

CN

5|

CO

CN

o

CN

CO

CD

r*

o

rH

vo

CO

t^.

rH

^

1-1

t^

OQ

rH

CO

rH

CN

t^

,_,

r*

CN

OS

CD

t^

©

CN

00

vO

vo

VO

CO

OS

OS

CO

CD

CO

CO

CO

t^

rH

vO

o

r_l

rH

rH

eo

o

rH

CN

OS

CO

eo

©

1-1

©

vO

»0

vo

©

VO

CO

o

o

CO

©

©

,_,

00

rjl

©

r*

CN

VO

CO

CO

t^

CO

i^

CN

rH

©

CN

o

o

O

CO

CO

*~

rH

CO

OS

rH

vo

fc*

1-1

vo

CN

vO

vO

CN

o

00

CN

OS

T*1

•paijroads ^ou fluf ^^uoj\[

1-1

©

,_,

CO

o

!>.

vo

CN

•*

vo

©

CO

OS

OS

CN

eo

OS

CO

CO

CO

CO

©

00

CN

vO

CO

r~

CO

t^

t^

CO

CO

vo

CN

©

I

o

P

s

1-5

|

eS

<

1

1

Ha

■4J
OQ

1

p
•4

i

1

CO

S3

1

1

o

i

1

<D
r>

o

1
i

0)

p

146

TEINIDAD.

TEMPERATURE.
Temperature at the Botanic Gardens, St. Ann.

Thermometers.

Monthly Means.

Extreme.

Dry-bulb.

Maximum.

Minimum.

Maximum.

Minimum.

1880.

9.30 a.m.

3.30 p.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

June

79-5

80-1

82-8

69-7

86-3

67-0

May

80-8

81*0

84-2

69-7

88-0

67-0

April

80-1

80-5

83-9

68-5

86-0

65-3

March

79-0

79-8

83-2

67-9

86-3

63-7

February

76-7

77-9

80-6

67-0

85-7

607

January ...
1879.

76-7

77-3

80-1

67-6

83-6

623

86-0

65 2

December...

78-3

78-0

82-3

68-0

84-7

66-3

November

80-1

80-6

83-8

69-6

88-1

67-7

October

81-5

81-6

85-6

71-1

88-4

67-3

September

80-9

79-7

84-6

70-3

88-2

67-0

August

80-0

80-1

83-3

69-8

87-0

67-3

July

79-7

79-4

82-7

65-7

86-4

66-2

June

79-7

80-4

83-6

70-3

87-3

68-5

May

82-7

84-5

87-8

69-9

89-9

62-2

April

82-3

83-2

86-6

68-8

88-9

66-7

March

79-9

80-9

85-0

68-0

88-2

64-5

February ...

79-6

815

84-7

66-8

88-5

64-0

January

Mean Maximum ")
Average ... )

Mean Minimum )
Average ... )

78-9

80-7

84-8

68-3

87-2

65-8

87-7

66-1

88-1

67-2

1878.

December

80-5

82-0

85-4

69-8

87-4

65-3

November.

81-7

81-8

85-9

70-2

88-0

67-6

October ...

83-0

81-5

87-7

71-4

89-9

68-0

September

82-2

82-8

87-3

71-4

91-3

68-7

August

80-7

80-1

84-4

70-8

87-0

69-0

July

80-3

81-4

84-4

71-2

88-3

68-2

June

82-0

81-9

85-0

711

88-5

68-7

May

83-3

83-9

87-2

72-2

91-9

67-7

April

85-2

86-5

90-5

73-0

95-5

64-6

March

84-6

85-6

90-3

68-4

93-8

64-6

February

82-3

83-9

88-4

67-5

90-7

64-7

January

80-7

82-1

85-5

67-3

88-0

60-1

90-0

66-4

1

TEMPERATURE.

147

Temperature at the Botanic Gardens, St. Ann. — continued.

Monthly Means.

EXTBEME.

Thekmometebs.

Dry-bulb.

Maximum.

Minimum.

Maximum.

Minimum.

1877.

9.30 a.m.

3.30 p.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

December ...

81-1

80-7

84-9

70-2

87*6

67*6

November

82-5

81-7

86-7

71-1

88*8

68*9

October ...

83-0

82-0

87-0

71-3

89*9

69*4

September

83-0

82-7

87-6

71-5

90*1

67*0

August

83-3

82-6

86-7

70-8

88*9

67*4

July

82-5

81-7

85-7

71-1

88-7

691

June

81-8

81-7

86-3

71-7

90*7

67*5

May

84-7

84-2

88-6

71-8

92-0

68-3

April

83-0

83-0

87-6

70-0

90-4

66*7

March

81-7

81-4

86-5

68*0

90*7

61*0

February ...

81-1

82-6

86-3

65-3

89-0

60*3

January

1876.

79-6

80-0

85-0

66-6

86*9

61*1

89*5

66-2

December...

80-3

80.9

85-7

67-8

87*3

64*9

November.

83-1

83-0

86-8

72-3

89*1

69*8

October ...

81-2

82-2

85-9

71-6

88*4

67-0

September

80-6

81-9

85-6

72-7

88*9

71'0

August

79-9

81-0

84-7

71-5

88*0

69-9

July

80-5

81-5

84-8

72-0

87*2

70*5

June

79-7

81-2

84-3

72-5

89-6

69*5

May

80-7

83-5

85-6

72-1

89*0

69*5

April

80-6

83-0

85-6

70-2

89*0

67*9

March

78-5

80-9

83-7

70-1

87-0

66*3

February ...

78-1

80-6

83-1

68-3

86*2

63*7

January

1875.

78-9

80-3

83-3

71-Q

85-3

69*3

87*9

68*3

December

78-4

80-8

84-2

70-0

86*3

67*6

November

79-7

81-3

86*2

70-8

88-0

68*3

October ...

79-5

81-4

85*4

71-4

88*4

69*7

September

80-0

81-6

85'8

71-7

89*1

69*3

August

80-7

82-4

86*3

72-0

88*5

69*9

July

79-9

81-5

84*8

71*9

88*9

69*4

June

80-6

83-1

85-9

71*7

88-3

69*3

May

80-0

83-0

86-0

70*9

88*4

68*0

April

80-7

82-9

85-4

69*1

88*7

65-0

March

78-3

80-6

83-7

68*4

86*3

64*9

February ...

78-2

80-1

82-7

67*0

84*8

61*7

January

77-6

79*6

82-8

68*7

85*9

65*2

87*7

67*4

148

TRINIDAD.

Temperature at the Botanic Gardens, St. Ann. — continued.

Thermometers.

Monthly Means.

Extreme.

Dry-bulb.

Maximum.

Minimum.

Maximum.

Minimum.

1874.

9.30 a.m.

3.30 p.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

December

79-0

80-5

84-1

70-0

87*2

68-3

November.

80-0

81-7

85-4

71-2

88*4

68'3

October

81'0

82-2

86-2

72-5

89-3

69-3

September

80-5

81-0

85-8

72-5

88-3

70*5

August

80-1

81-6

85-2

72-2

88-3

70-2

July

80-5

80-9

84-5

72-0

88-3

70-0

June

80-1

81-1

84-5

71*8

88-3

68-3

May

81-0

83-5

86-1

71*3

89-0

68-3

April

79-4

80-9

84-1

70-4

87*1

67-4

March

78-9

81-1

84-1

70-0

86-3

65-9

February

78-3

80-9

84-0

69-6

86-4

65-9

January ...
1873.

78-1

80-4

83-7

86-3

65-9

87-7

68-2

1

December ...

79-0

81-0

84-3

70-3

87-9

63-8

November...

80-0

81-8

85-5

71-3

88-4

68-0

October

80-8

82-9

85-9

72-3

89-9

70-2

September

81-5

82-9

86-7

72-5

89-4

70-1

August

81*3

82-6

86-0

72-1

89-0

70-1

July

81-0

83-0

86-2

72-3

89-4

70-3

June

81-3

83-1

86-6

72-3

89-4

69-9

May

83-3

85-7

89-2

71-6

91'2

67-4

April

80-2

83-2

86-6

69-3

89-9

65-3

March

78-3

80-9

83-7

68-2

87-3

62-5

February

76-9

79-8

83-0

67*3

86-2

64-3

January

1872.

77*0

80-6

83-1

68-7

87-2

64-6

87-9

67'2

December

79-7

79-4

83-2

70-1

87*4

64-8

November.

79-6

81-0

84-3

74-9

87-7

67-4

October ...

81-5

84-1

87'3

72-9

90-1

69-8

September

81-4

83-4

87'5

73-3

90-0

71-2

August

80-1

81*2

85-3

72-3

88-7

69-0

July

80-5

82-7

86-0

72-2

88-8

68-8

June

79-8

81-8

84-2

72-4

88-1

69-3

May

82-4

83-7

86-8

71-8

91-6

69-7

April

80-2

83-3

86-2

69-9

88-7

65-2

March

79-6

82-8

85-5

69-3

87-9

67'2

February

79-0

82-6

85-1

69-1

88-9

64-5

January

77-2

80'5

83-6

69-1

85-9

65-0

88-6

67-7

TEMPERATURE.

149

Tempebature at the Botantc Gardens, St. Ann. — continued.

Monthly Means.

Extreme.

Thermometers.

Dry-bulb.

Maximum.

Minimum.

Maximum.

Minimum.

1871.

9.30 a.m.

3.30 p.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

December

78-4

80-4

83-7

70-3

86*2

67-3

November...

79-9

81-5

85-4

71-2

88-7

67-7

October ...

81-7

83-2

86-2

73-5

89-3

69-8

September

80-7

81-7

85-6

72-6

89-0

69-8

August

80-7

81-7

86-1

73-5

89-0

70-9

July

79-7

81-2

84-6

72-1

88-2

70-2

June

80-9

82-5

85-7

73-2

89-5

70-7

May

82-1

84-6

87-6

71-3

90-1

69-3

April

80-4

83-4

86-2

70-1

89-6

67-0

March

78-6

81-6

84-6

69-7

88-3

63-1

February ...

77-2

80-4

83-1

69-5

85-9

65-5

January

1870.

78-6

80-1

83-1

70-9

85-5

68-5

88-3

68*3

December ...

77-8

80-1

83-5

70-5

86-6

66-2

November...

80-6

81-9

85-8

71-7

88-7

70-2

October

81-2

81-9

86-0

72-6

91-0

70-0

September

82-9

82-3

83-7

71-1

88-7

67-8

August

80-3

81*1

84-3

73-0

90-6

70-0

July

79-8

81-3

83-5

72-4

86-4

70-2

June

79-1

80-3

83-3

72-4

86-2

69-3

May

80-7

82-7

85-0

72-8

87'5

70-2

April

79-9

82-5

84-9

69-8

87-1

65-7

March

78-4

80-0

82-6

70-1

85-6

67'5

February ...

78-0

79-8

83-2

70-1

86-7

66-9

January

1869.

77-2

79-3

81-9

70-5

83-9

64-2

87-4

68-2

December ...

78-6

80-5

82-9

71-7

86-1

68-6

November...

80-0

81-5

84-0

73-0

87-2

70-2

October ...

80-9

82-4

84-8

73-9

87'5

68-3

September

81-1

81-8

84-9

73-8

87*9

70-3

August

80-5

81-6

84-1

73-6

87-3

71-5

July

80-8

82-4

84-7

73-9

87*4

71*8

June

81-7

82-6

85-6

74-8

89-2

72-0

May

83-4

86-7

88-7

74-2

90-8

68-6

April

82-1

86-1

88-0

72-6

90-1

68-0

March

79-2

81-7

83-8

70-3

85-6

67'6

February

79-3

82-0

84-1

69-4

87-2

65-4

January

78-5

81-0

83-3

70-1

85-8

66'5

80-5

82-5

84-9

71-8

86-8

69-1

150

TRINIDAD.

Temperature at the Botanic Gardens, St. Ann. — continued.

Thermometers.

Monthly Means.

Extreme.

Dry-bulb.

Maximum.

Minimum.

Maximum.

Minimum.

1868.

9.30 a.m.

3.30 p.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

December

79-0

81-6

84-2

71-1

85'9

67-1

November...

81'4

82-2

84-9

73-3

86-7

70-6

October

80-9

82-6

85-2

73-7

89-8

71-1

September

81-3

82-5

85-3

74-7

87-1

70-3

August

80-8

82-4

84-7

73-6

86-9

70-8

July

79-9

80-8

83-3

76-3

85-9

70-6

June

80-4

81-5

84-2

73-8

87-3

69-0

May

80-4

82-8

84-8

72-3

86-5

69-6

April

80-2

82-9

84-8

70-7

87*1

67*8

March

78-9

81-0

83-1

71-1

85-5

67*0

February ...

77-4

80-1

81-6

69-0

85-0

64-4

January

1867.

78-2

80'2

81-8

71-1

85-3

67'8

79-1

81-7

83-9

72-5

86-6

68-8

December

79-5

81-3

83-1

71-7

84-8

69-2

November

80-6

82-8

84-7

74-6

86-2

68-9

October

80-6

82-2

84-4

73-3

85-7

70-2

September

81-2

81-9

84-3

74-3

86-4

71-8

August

80-3

85-3

83-8

73-2

86-3

71-0

July

80-5

81-3

83-8

75-9

85-7

71-2

June

80-6

82-9

84-9

73-9

87-2

71*0

May

82-5

84-6

86-5

74-2

89-7

71'5

April

80-3

83-4

84-8

71-7

87*8

69-3

March

78-2

81-3

82-6

70-8

85-9

67-8

February ...

77'8

79-3

81-5

71-5

84-3

68-4

January ...
1866.

77-7

80-3

82-1

70-0

84-1

66-3

79-5

82-2

83-9

72-7

87-0

69-7

December

79-2

80-0

82-1

72-9

83-9

68-3

November

80-2

81-2

83-4

72-7

85-6

68-9

October

80-1

82-0

83-9

74-2

86-1

70-0

September

81-4

82*6

84-6

75-1

86-7

68-3

August

79-9

81-5

83-4

73-5

86-4

71-6

July

80-3

81-6

83-6

73-2

85-7

70-8

June

80-4

82-1

84-0

74-0

86-7

71-8

May

81-6

83-9

85-8

73-5

89-0

68-7

April

80-5

82-2

83-8

72-6

86-2

69-1

March

78-6

80-1

81-7

71-2

84-5

65-0

February

76-9

78-9

80-4

71-0

82*8

67-5

January

77-8

79-7

81-2

70-8

83-3

67'1

79-7

81-4

83-1

72-9

86-0

68-9

TEMPERATURE.

151

Temperature at the Botanic Gardens, St. Ann.— continued.

Monthly

Means.

Extreme.

Thermometers.

Dry-bulb.

Maximum.

Minimum.

Maximum.

Minimum.

1865.

9.30 a.m.

3.30 p.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

December ...

78-8

80-3

82-0

71-5

84-4

66-3

November.

79-6

81-2

83-4

72-8

85-9

70-8

October ...

79-9

81-0

83*0

73-0

85-4

70-7

September

80-9

81-7

83-9

74-0

87-4

72-1

August

80*7

81-5

84-1

73-9

87-1

71-7

July

80-1

81'4

83-6

72-6

86-8

71-8

June

81-0

82-5

84-3

74-3

86-0

72-0

May

81-6

83-6

84-8

74-6

86-6

72-6

April

79-7

81-2

83-7

73-7

85-5

71*0

March

78-7

80-8

82-0

72-0

86-7

67'5

February ...

77-6

80-5

82-0

71-1

86-4

65-6

January ...
1864.

77-7

80-5

82-4

71*1

84-3

68-0

79-7

81-3

83-2

72-9

86-1

70-0

December ...

79-0

80-0

82-1

72-9

84-4

69-3

November...

80-6

81-7

83-8

73-4

86-3

71'0

October ...

81-3

82-9

84-7

73-7

87-3

68-0

September

81-5

81-7

84-7

74-8

86-4

71-4

August

79-6

80-5

82-7

73-5

85-5

71'3

July

79-4

80-7

83-1

73-5

85-9

71-0

June

79-9

81-7

83-6

74-4

86-0

71'0

May

81-8

84-4

86-0

74-2

89-0

70-3

April

80-3

83-7

85-1

71'6

88-0

68-7

March

78-0

81-6

82-7

68-8

86-2

67'1

February

75-8

79-4

80-3

69-5

82-5

66-8

January

1863.

76-1

79-5

80-1

70-6

82-2

68-0

79-5

80-7

83-7

72-7

85-8

69-5

December ...

77-1

79-4

80-7

71-7

83-9

69-0

November...

79-2

80-8

82-9

73-3

85-1

71*3

October

80-5

81-3

83-5

74-1

86-5

71-3

September

79-7

81-2

83-2

73-7

87-2

71*2

August

79-4

80-9

82-9

73-7

85-0

71-6

July

78-8

80-3

81-9

73-1

85-0

70-8

June

80-2

81-5

83-7

74-0

87'5

70-3

May

81-3

83-4

84-9

73-1

87-5

70-0

April

79-3

81*9

83-1

71-5

86-0

68-8

March

77-7

80-3

81-3

70-9

84-2

68-5

February

77-0

79-5

80-7

71-7

83-1

68-3

January ...

76-3

78-9

80-0

71-1

82-2

67-0

78-8

80-8

80-7

72-6

85-2

69-8

152

TRINIDAD.

Temperature at the Botanic Gardens, St. Ann. — continued.

Thermometers.

Monthly Means.

Extreme.

Dry-bulb.

Maximum.

Minimum.

Maximum.

Minimum.

1862.

9.30 a.m.

3.30 p.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

9.30 a.m.

December

78-0

80-2

81-9

72-3

83-4

67*0

November...

78-8

80-0

82-1

73-7

85-5

70-3

October ...

80-2

81-3

83-4

74-8

85-4

72-2

September

80-4

81-2

83-3

74-5

86-2

73-3

August

79-2

80-2

82-2

74-8

84-7

73-0

July

79-8

81-0

82-6

74-9

85-3

72-5

June

79-9

81-7

83-0

74-2

86-0

72-0

May

82-4

84-5

85-9

75-2

88-5

72-0

April

79-9

82-3

83-2

71-8

86-2

69-0

March

78-4

81-0

82-3

71-2

85-0

69-0

February ...

76-8

79-9

81-0

71-8

84-5

67-5

January ...

—

—

—

—

—

—

79-4

82-1

82-8

73-6

85-5

70-7

1

CHAPTER V.

POPULATION — ETHNOGRAPHY — RELIGION — EDUCATION — CRIME.

The history of the population of a country is at all times an
interesting topic, but it becomes particularly so under certain
circumstances. In this respect, a descriptive outline, or general
view of the early settlement of Trinidad, and the gradual de-
velopment of its population, is replete with interest, though, at
the same time, involving a complicated problem which cannot
be easily solved, from want of precise data and unprejudiced
observation. I can, therefore, present only partial results; but
such as they are, I hope they may prove useful and acceptable.

During the time of slavery, the records of births and deaths
were kept with accuracy ; but, immediately after emancipation,
everything was neglected in this as in some other essentials.
In the year 1847, however, an ordinance was passed for regis-
tering births and deaths, and a registrar-general appointed, as
also local registrars. The provisions of the ordinance were
made neither sufficiently comprehensive nor stringent, particu-
larly as regards the registering of births ; so that the ratio is
not exactly what it appears to be in the yearly returns, the
number of births particularly being in reality greater than that
recorded. Neither is there any provision for distinguishing
legitimate from illegitimate children — a classification most essen-
tial, in so far as it affords the means of testing the progress of
I a people in morals ; for the proportionate number of marriages
I is, to a certain extent, one undoubted criterion of the morality
I of a population.

When first discovered by Columbus, Trinidad was apparently
\ well populated, being then inhabited by various tribes of the
; Carib-Tamanaco family — Yaos, Salivas, Cumanagotos, Chaymas, / j g|/
Tamanacos, and others. These tribes did not receive from the / /
invaders a much better usage than their unfortunate brethren of I

1 54 TRINIDAD.

the other islands and the neighbouring continent. At a later
period, however, their remnant groups were formed into several
missions throughout the island — namely, at Tacarigua, Arouca,
Caura, Cumana, Siparia, Montserrat, Savanna Grande, Arima,
and Toco. But in Trinidad, as in other parts of the New World,
the poor Indians have resisted the pressure of civilisation, and
finally sunk under the ascendancy of a more intelligent race.
In the year 1783, the indigenous population amounted to 2,032
souls, who, at the capitulation of the island, had declined,
according to official returns, to 1,082 individuals. In the year
1830 there still existed 689 survivors of that race, the ratio of
mortality being, among them, in the same year, 3*49, and that
of births 3*75 per cent. At present there cannot be above fifty
to one hundred Indians in the colony; so that the aborigines
may be said to be almost extinct. The natural inquiry arises,
what were the causes productive of this general decrease ? Dk
they emigrate to the neighbouring continent, or did they
away in the island ? It is highly probable that many did s<

^ a refuge and a home in the virgin forests of Venezuela ; but
also coincide in opinion with some judicious observers, who tn
this extinction of our Indian population partly to the preferenc

*S manifested by the Indian women towards the whites and tl
negroes, by whom they were kindly treated, whilst they were
regarded by their husbands, of kindred race, more as slaves and
beasts of burden than as equals or companions. As a conse-
quence of those connections, there exists at present in the island
a certain number of individuals of Indian descent, but of mixed
blood.

I have already mentioned that it was only from the granting
of the second cedula by the Spanish Government, in the year
1783, that Trinidad may date any ostensible settlement. En-
couraged by the liberal offers made under that cedula, colonists
began to throng from Grenada, St. Vincent, and the French
islands, succeeded by a few refugees from San Domingo, with
some emigres from France, and even from Canada. Their ;
example was followed by many respectable coloured families from
the above-mentioned islands, who gladly availed themselves of
the protection afforded, and the opportunity offered of bettering
their condition, by becoming landowners in Trinidad ; and as late
as the year 1829, if my information is correct, there were

y/

POPULATION. 155

scarcely more than six or eight white proprietors in Naparima,
whilst nearly two-thirds of. Port-of- Spain belonged to the
coloured class.

A few thousand Africans only had been directly introduced
by slavers, the great majority of the labouring class having either
accompanied their masters, or been clandestinely introduced by
them, from the neighbouring islands. About 4,000 Africans,
liberated from slavers, had been added to that class since eman-
cipation; 24,280 Asiatics, East Indian Coolies and Chinese,
formed part, in 1871, of our permanent population. The total
population may be estimated at present at 154,000 souls. S

The population of Trinidad, therefore, consists of a motley
aggregation of Africans, Asiatics, Europeans, and a few indi-
viduals of American blood, together with their mixed descendants.
By Africans, I mean not only those born in Africa, and intro-
duced here as slaves or indentured labourers, together with the
emigrants from the sister islands and the United States, but
also those born in the island of African parents, and usually
called Creole Negroes. The European section is formed of
British (particularly Scotch), of French, Spaniards, a few Ger-
mans, and some Portuguese from Madeira, with the respective
descendants of those various people. The Asiatics consist of
Hindoos and Chinese, introduced partly at the public expense,
as agricultural labourers, for the cultivation of staples, and espe-
cially of the sugar cane.

Heterogeneous as this population is, and has always been,
the greatest harmony long prevailed among the different sections
of which it was composed — a result which should be attributed
to the liberal policy of the local government, and which, if it did
not originate at the Colonial Office, was certainly sanctioned
there. Equal protection was afforded to all, and all were con-
tent to live under what they considered to be really and truly a
paternal rule. No distinction was drawn between those who
were of foreign origin and those of British birth or descent ; and
I daresay no essential difference of feeling prevailed.

But there always had existed in the colony a party desirous
to upset this state of things, and to establish a purely British
— i. c, Protestant — ascendancy. They were, for many years, too
much in a minority to cause any uneasiness.

A variety of circumstances, however, at length combined to

om

5

156 TRINIDAD.

strengthen that party, which was led by men who knew how to
turn every event to the best advantage. General embarrass-
ment, if not utter ruin, had resulted from the emancipation of
the slaves ; and the Creole proprietors found themselves either
deprived of their estates, or suffered nominally to retain them as
the mortgagees of capitalists in Great Britain, who, with scarcely
an exception, were Protestants. In either case, the prestige
and influence of the class were utterly lost.

The first overt act of those who longed for a change was the
introduction, under the government of Sir Henry McLeod, of
Ordinance No. 6, 1844, known as the "Ecclesiastical Ordi-
nance." By this ordinance, the laws, ordinances, and canons
ecclesiastical of England were declared to be in force in the
colony; and the Church of England became the Established
Church of Trinidad, in defiance of the long- established custom
which tacitly admitted the Roman Catholic Church as t
Church of the island, it being that of the immense majori
Trinidad was then placed under the spiritual charge of the Bisb
of Barbadoes.

In 1855, Sir Charles Elliott, the then Governor of the colony,
went a step further, and did not hesitate to show unmistakable
signs of active hostility towards the Catholics, nearly all of whom
were of foreign descent.

He was succeeded by Governor Keate, who held on the same
course ; and their narrow and most injudicious policy produced
much social as well as political disunion.

Fortunately for Trinidad, that policy, which had been par-
tially modified by the late Lord Canterbury, was completely
reversed by Sir Arthur Gordon, his successor, and the feeling of
antagonism which it had created almost immediately dis-
appeared.

But I regret to be obliged to remark that there appears to be
a tendency in certain quarters to revive, in its most mischievous
form, the policy inaugurated under Sir Henry McLeod, and
which we hoped had been crushed by Sir Arthur Gordon.

That such should be the case is deeply to be regretted.
a colony like Trinidad diversity of races will probably continue
to exist for many years — a contingency which some may deplore,
but which should not disturb their equanimity. In fact, it
would be a most suicidal policy on the part of the Government to

nd

ETHNOGRAPHY. 157

allow, much less to encourage, any one class of colonist to arro-
gate to itself a superiority over the rest. Mere difference of
origin, or religion, or of social habits, should not be permitted to
raise barriers between different sections of the community ; still
less should they form an excuse for hedging in a few as a
superior caste.

No matter whence their ancestors came (and many of them
can point to most respectable connections in the Old World), the
descendants of the first settlers in Trinidad cannot forget that
their fathers were the pioneers of civilisation in the island ;
that the dense wild forest was first cleared by their energy and
perseverance ; and that there was a time when they had their
full share of influence in the affairs of the colony. They form,
even now, the great majority of the resident proprietary body,
and as such have every claim to be treated with consideration,
instead of being looked down upon by those who, at least, are
but transient residents.

It is not, perhaps, unnatural that those who consider them-
selves as the English par excellence should deem ascendancy and
the largest share of the loaves and fishes their birthright ; but it
does not by any means follow that they are right in their pre-
tensions. They should do well to remember what has occurred
in other dependencies of Great Britain which once owed alle-
giance to other flags.

Whenever an attempt has been made to establish a spurious
aristocracy of nationality, the result has invariably been disunion,
jealousy, and disappointment. But should they rest content
with the traditions of our own colony, they may find that even
in their own days such attempt, though successful for a time,
was eventually defeated, although carried on by men superior to
them in position, in talent, and, above all, in personal influence.
Let us toil together in peace, and side by side ; it will be for the
advantage of all.

The entire population of the island, according to the census
taken on the first of April, 1881, was estimated at 153,128 ^
souls, of which 83,716 were males and 69,412 females. It was
classed as follows : Under ten years, 32,724; from ten to twenty,
27,717; twenty to forty, 59,994; forty to sixty, 25,673; sixty
to upwards, 5,577 ; not described, 1,443.

In 1871 the population amounted to 109,638, of which \y

158 TftlNIDAD.

60,405 were males and 49,233 females : 1861, 84,438— males
46,074, females 38,364.

The national distribution was as below : —

1881

1871

Sativ

es of Trinidad '.

.. 82,553

. 56,692

, Africa ...

.. 3,035

4,250

, Asia

.. 37,280

. 24,280

y British Colonies

.. 24,047 )

, Venezuela

.. 2,277 (

30,259

, Other parts

.. 2,873 (

, United Kingdom

1,06 )

.

If we add to Asiatics the children born in the colony of Indian
parents, and who are classed as natives, we shall have a grand
total of 5 0,00 (fin this class.

The increase of Asiatics may be calculated, in round numbers,
at 13,000 ; that of emigrants from other parts, especially the
British Colonies, is about 10,240.

The few aborigines yet remaining in the colony are leadin
an isolated life in the forests, depending for their subsistence
upon hunting and fishing — in short, retaining their ancestral
habits. A few families of Indian descent are still, however, to
be met with in different parts of the island, all speaking the
Spanish language, and having preserved Spanish habits — fond of
smoking, dancing, and all kinds of amusements, but, above all, of
the dolcefar niente. They are, generally, owners of conucos, that
is to say, of a few acres of land, which they cultivate in provi-
sions and coffee, but particularly in cacao.

Newly imported Africans are, generally speaking, industrious
and laborious, but avaricious, passionate, prejudiced, suspicious,
many of them still adhering to heathenish practices. The
Yarrihas or Yarrabas deserve a particular notice. They are a
fine race, tall and well proportioned; some of them with fine
features, intelligent, reflective, and can appreciate the benefits of
civilisation and Christianity. They are laborious, usually work-
ing for day-wages on estates, but preferring job-work. The
women are mostly occupied in petty trade and huckstering ;
some also in the culture of ground provisions : their houses are
comfortable, and kept in perfect order within. In character
they are generally honest, and in disposition proud, and even
haughty ; so that the cases are rare where a Yarraba is brought
before the magistrate for theft, breach of contract, or other
misdemeanour. They are besides guided, in a marked degree,

ETHNOGRAPHY.

159

by the sense of association; and the principle of combination
for the common weal has been fully sustained wherever they
have settled in any numbers ; in fact, the whole Yarraba family
in the colony may be said to form a sort of social league for
mutual support and protection.

The emancipated class and their descendants bear the dis-
tinctive characteristics of the three European nations with which
they were more intimately connected ; and these characteristics
are, to a certain extent, borne out by the external appearance
and deportment of the three specimens : the French negro
resembling in these respects a French European ; the Spanish, a
Spaniard ; and the English negro, an Englishman. There are,
however, some general traits which may be taken as an index to
the distinctive peculiarities in the character of the emancipated
class.

For too many years the recollections of slavery seemed to
have acted on their faculties as an incubus, and for many years
they remained, in general, averse to predial occupations, and to
the hired labour of the cane fields especially. Lately, however,
there has been an improvement in this respect : they no more
nourish a sort of repugnance to all kinds of agricultural pur-
suits, giving preference and precedence to any petty trade and
pedling occupation or handicraft. This improvement I mainly
attribute to the example set by labourers from the sister colonies,
I who come here every year to assist in taking up the crop ; also
I by the class of small proprietors, who cultivate their own grounds
J and can show their profits. They begin to understand that
agricultural occupations are not degrading whilst they can be
made profitable.

Excessively fond of display and of appearing to the best
advantage in dress, they mistake vanity for that rational pride
j which ought to govern human actions. Singularly improvident,
they do not seem to think for a moment of the necessity of
I economy, in order to meet and alleviate cases of sickness, acci-
dents, or other contingencies of the future. They are indolent,
and great amateurs of amusements ; pleasure is apparently their
main affair, for which they will neglect more serious occupations ;
nd yet it cannot be said that the negro is lazy, as he can and
loes work hard at times. He is generally of gay disposition,
*)ut highly sensitive, and will raise quarrels for a trifle, especially

Kf

0$Al

160

TUINIDAD.

y

f

"

if incited by friends. He is capable of gratitude and self-devo-
tion ; capable also, when required, ol: generous efforts. Being
robust and abstemious, be can endure privations and climatic
exposure, I will not say with fortitude, but with an apathy that
is almost inconceivable. I could say, with some reason, in the
year 1856, that few individuals among the emancipated had
sensibly progressed; but I can now record that a marked change
has been worked since, and if the lowest among them may be
said to be still grossly ignorant in respect of their social and
religious duties, even of their own true interest, I gladly recog-
nise that for the last twenty years the emancipated, as a class,
have progressed most satisfactorily. Though inconstant and
inconsistent, the African is, nevertheless, susceptible of improve-
ment to an extent which, perhaps, has not been fairly tested.
He is, I consider, a being of pre-eminently religious feelings ;
though defective in the powers of reflection, he is possessed o:
quick intelligence.

The descendants of the emancipated, and young men of
colour in general, manifest a strong desire to gain public estima-
tion, and look anxiously to social advancement. They are am-
bitious of success, and have proved that they can attain it. Not
a few occupy respectable positions in the public service. They
are particularly anxious to become enlisted in the liberal profes-
sions ; and the white Creoles should look to them as not un-
worthy antagonists in the field of competition.

Immigrant Asiatics at present form the great body of our
available agricultural population, and are almost the sole resident
labourers on sugar and cacao estates.

The Chinese are few in number — about 500. Of them, as far
as observation goes, it may be said that they are stubborn, and
prone to suicide ; but they are highly intelligent and discerning,
steady labourers, and well versed in the tillage of the soil ; in
fact, they may be considered as the best gardeners in the colony.
They are those who supply our markets with vegetables.

The Hindoos, such as I have been able to observe them in
the colony, are a mild and timid race, obsequious, wanting in
firmness and perseverance, more prudent and wily than energetic:
and straightforward. They are intelligent, rather industrious
and saving ; more manageable and steady, they are not so robust
as the Africans. They have no dislike to agriculture. A dis-

ETHNOGRAPHY.

161

tinctive trait in the character of the Coolie is insincerity ; one
cannot depend upon what he says. The private life of those who
have not yet been influenced by civilisation is, generally, de-
praved and disgusting. It is highly encouraging, however, to
find that not a few among those who have settled in the island
have adopted a better mode of living ; the change is especially
remarkable among the women. In fact, the contrast between
the new and the old Coolies is very striking in many respects.
They are much attached to their cattle, especially the cows, and
from them mainly the public get their supply of milk. A Coolie
will never sell any of his cattle to the butcher for slaughter.

The Hindoos of the Mahometan faith have been found, on
the whole, more intelligent, active, and industrious and orderly
than those of the Gentoo and other castes of India. Many
among them can read and write. These Asiatics still adhere to
their own peculiar creeds and habits ; they even continue, with
rare exceptions, to wear their country costume, and but few have
become converts to Christianity, or have persevered in the new
faith. Sometimes they ask to be baptized, with a view to secure i
some worldly advantages, and persevere in their old practices. J
This may be attributed partly to the unfortunate arrangement
which insures their return to India after a term of ten years'
residence in the colony. They are thus naturally led to retain
most of those habits which they expect to resume in full force
on revisiting their native land. The Coolies seem disinclined to
send their children to the public schools, except they are esta-
blished purposely for them.

Notwithstanding the surrounding influences of civilisation,
the belief in sorcery is generally and strongly entertained among
the more ignorant classes of the population, either Asiatics or
Africans. This is a fact which is deplorable indeed, but which
I should not let pass unnoticed. Obeahism, or witchcraft, is
still practised by many unprincipled individuals of both sexes
who know that they will acquire influence and derive undu
advantage by inspiring the poor, the ignorant, and the credulous
with a dread of their practices, however disgusting or foolish.
Sir Emerson Tennent had the opportunity of observing, in
Ceylon, the same practices ; and I believe that I cannot do
better, with reference to this painful subject, than to quote what
he relates in his book on that island : — " The professors of
sorcery/' he remarks, " turn the practice of witchcraft and

L

£d

W

162 TRINIDAD.

charms to lucrative account, pandering to the worst passions of
degraded humanity, by the secret exercise of pretended arts and
the performance of revolting ceremonies.

" In December, 1848, the police vidahn of Vannerpoone, in
the suburbs of Jaffna, came to the magistrate in much mental
agitation and distress, to complain that the remains of his son, a
boy of about eight years of age, which had been buried the day
before, had been disinterred during the night, and that the head had
been severed from the body, to be used for the purposes of witch-
craft. Suspicion fell on a native doctor of the village, who was exten-
sively consulted as an adept in the occult sciences ; but no evidence
could be produced sufficient to connect him with the transaction.

" The vidahn stated to the magistrate that a general belief
existed among the Tamils in the fatal effects of a ceremony per-
formed with the skull of a child, with the design of producing the
death of an individual against whom the incantation was directe(

" In this instance a watch was kept upon the proceedings
the suspected doctor, and it was ascertained that he and hi
family were engaged in the most infamous practices. His soi
were his assistants in operations similar to that which has
described, and in the preparation of philters to facilitate seduc-
tions, and medicines for procuring abortion The skulls of

infants were applied, as occasion required, for the composition of
love potions and the performance of incantations.

" In the course of the following month, a second complaint
against the same individual was brought before the magistrate of
Jaffna, to the effect that, on a stated morning, he had murdered
an infant, in order to possess himself of his head, and that at the
moment of bringing the charge a second child was detained in
his dwelling, and destined for a similar fate Unfortu-
nately the criminal was permitted to escape. His papers were
seized by a magistrate, among which was a volume of recipes
for compounding nefarious preparations and poisons ; and along
with these a manuscript book containing the necessary diagrams
and forms of invocations to f Siva the Destroyer/ for every
imaginable purpose : ' to seduce the affections of a female/ to
effect a separation between a husband and wife, to procure abor-
tion, to possess with a devil, to afflict with sickness, and innu-
merable directions for procuring the death of an enemy. In
this remarkable treatise on domestic medicine there was not
one single recipe for the cure of disease amongst the numerous

ETHNOGRAPHY. 163

formulas for its infliction; not one instruction for effecting a
harmless or benevolent purpose, amidst diagrams and directions
for gratifying the depraved passions, and encouraging the fiendish
designs of the author's dupes.""

To seduce the affections of a female, to effect a separation
between a husband and wife, to possess with a devil, to afflict with
sickness, to procure the ruin or the death of an enemy — such
are the objects of Obeahism in Trinidad, as they are of sorcery
in Ceylon. The practices are not so vile and monstrous here as
in Ceylon; but they may be said to be highly foolish and absurd.
There are, unfortunately, many who actually believe in the effi-
cacy of the incantations performed. Such efficacy, as we must
suppose, results from natural, but most nefarious, practices.
Poison — in most instances vegetable — is administered to the
party whom they wish to get rid of. The health is destroyed,
and death may ensue. If the object is the ruin of an enemy,
poison is given to his fowls, to his cow, or donkey. Of cours 3
the poor man becomes nervous and discouraged at his loss, and
abandons his holding, or sells it at a loss. It is only natural
that practices of Obeah should inspire the most ignorant people
with dread ; and such dread will always act as an obstacle to
discovering and bringing to punishment the impostors. And
yet, though thus dreaded, they are held in contempt, and
shunned by the people generally. Some pretend to cure dis-
eases ; they invariably declare that such diseases are produced by
wicked practices, and, of course, can be cured only by the adminis-
tration of medicines aided by incantations ; and such incantations
are accordingly performed, with the accompaniment of cabalistic
words and signs. The medicines are prepared beforehand, and
administered in secret — sometimes in a dark room — when the
poor deluded victim will be made to cast up centipedes, scor-
pions, spiders, pins, &c, to the great amazement of those present,
and the entire satisfaction of the poor dupe. Some of those
quack doctors and Obeah practisers have a wide reputation, and
practise extensively ; they are generally negroes from Africa.

The least that I can say of such people is this : they are im-
postors of the worst kind, having mainly one object in view —
obtaining money under false pretences. Some even will not
recoil from administering poisons to satisfy their hatred, or
with the view of proving their power, I contend that, in
general, the magistracy makes too light of Obeahism,

164

TRINIDAD.

A

J

//

The Europeans and their descendants do not offer any peculiar
traits beyond those which prevail among the nations of their
respective ancestries. In the mass, however, Creoles may be
characterised as improvident, fickle, and by no means exempt
from the censure I have attached to the emancipated class — that
of disliking agriculture, and other occupations which require
exertion and steadiness of purpose.

It is impossible correctly to trace the progress of population
in Trinidad, from the capitulation to the present day; and I
have no documents wherefrom to ascertain even the increase of
that population by natural causes. Captain Mallet's official
return states the population to have been inCl792y 17,718 ; viz.,
2,151 whites, 4,476 free coloured, 10^009 slaves, and 1,082
Indians. Previous to the cedula of(T783j)it was 2,763 : whites,
126: free people of colour, 295; slaves, 310; Indians, 2,032. Ii
T79(5jt had increased to a total jpf 10,422. I find in Alcedo's
dictionary that, in the year (180 5yit amounted to 25,245 souls
divided as follows : whites, 2,261 ; people of colour, 3,275
slaves, 19,709. It appears also that in the year(1825/t
increased to 43,262 inhabitants.

The census of (T8j51valthough incorrect in several minoi
respects, may be regarded, however, as containing a fair reti
of the population of the island, which then amounted to 69,6(
souls. Ratio of births, 3*50 per cent., or one birth for evei
2,850 inhabitants. Population, according to census of
84,438 ; (1871^)09,638 ^1881^153,1 28.

The following Tables show the number of births in the islam
for two periods, from 1848 to 1853, and from 1870 to 1879, for
each quarter in every year, and the ratio of males to females.

Table of Births, 1848—1853.

Males

Females

Years.

Registered Quarter ending

Quar-
terly
Totals.

Registered Quarter ending

Quar-
terly-
Totals.

Yearly
Totals.

Mar. 1 June

Sept.

Dec.

Mar.

June

Sept.

Dec.

1848

148

256

280

274

958

124

256

277

273

930

1,888

1849

266

289

294

304

1,153

279

253

309

307

1,148

2,301

1850

245

315

315

270

1,145

305

271

270

236

1,082

2,227

1851

308

310

301

308

1,227

294

309

341

270

1,214

2,441

1852

292

290

316

303

1,201

260

256

312'

306

1,134

2,335

1853
1854

309

289

312

304

1,214

268

314

353

278

1,213

2,427
2,828

Grand
Totals

1,568

1,749

1,818

1,763

6,898

1,530

1,659

1,862

1,670

6,721

16,447

POPULATION.

165

«*

cm

o

t^

CO

CO

©

©

^

CM

©

3

o

-*

©

t^

CO

OS

©

©

©

00

9

CO

CO

CO

°1

OS

©^

to

"^i.

a*

©

o

©

CO

CO

-*

"*"

CO

*l

■*

-^"

"*"

3

,_,

o

CM

cm

00

OS

-*

CO

f.

CM

©

CM

CM

CO

CM

t".

©

CO

CM

oo

CO

bo

0)

O

o

OS

©^

©^

CM

co_

B

■

<

i

PI

® r

ft

»-H

©

o

CO

1—1

CM

CM

»r0

CO

CO

©

©

-t-S

•*

CO

VO

to

1^

to

<x>

to

00

o

CO

&§

ID

00

00

OS

©^

OS

OS

©^

1—1

©

©^

1-H

©^

©"

0

<S +J

1— '

§

£3

-*

,_,

o

o

CM

to

,

©

^

t^

©

.2 »

©

OS

CM

OS

o

t~

to

CO

©

-*

8

^«

t^

©

©_

**,

©^

©^

^

>-^

tO^

&

•
9

1-5

©"

<

^

GO

'3)

>d

3*

1—1

CM

rH

*

©

©

r- 1

to

-*

paf

CD

o

CO

CO

1— 1

CO

OS

CM

1— 1

to

i>.

Ph

E

9

!>•

o

OS

o

o

©^

°i

CM

©

■

1-1

©"

f~

CO

OS

to

I_l

»--

to

t-

00

©

©

3

i

©

©

CO

o

CM

CO

©

00

©

CM

©

CO

OS

o

©

CO

CM

-*

t~

fH

CM

CM

CM

CM

CM

cm"

C

bp

d

©

t~

to

CO

OS

-*

©

to

^

©

CM

q

CM

CO

CM

©

CM

T*<

©

©

a

A

©

ie

«*

to

to

«*

©

©

to

©

m

u

©"

u

-»j

©

©

"*

to

o

©

t^

©

t^

t>.

©

oo

&

CO

00

OS

CM

to

to

CO

©

©

s

B

CO

CO

m

to

#

■^

to

to

to

©

So

pq

.2*

d

o

■*

rmi

CO

to

^

©

©

TH

©

©

CO

^H

to

CO

CO

00

©

to

■*

©

©

CO

"*

to

to

to

^

to

to

to

©

i— i

2

©

1

*3>

4

t^

o

OS

CO

l»

CM

00

©

©

t^

CM

H

i

o

CM

©

t-

©

to

©

tH

©

•*

to

to

T*

©

to

to

©

©"

t—

CO

.

CM

to

©

^

©

CO

CM

©

3

o

o

CO

to

*^

t^

t^

CM

*»

©

t~

°t

°v

CM.

°1

©^

CM

CO

CM

©

to

H

*"" '

1-1

cm"

of

cm"

CM

CM

CM

CM

CM

60

d

to

CO

t^

©■

OS

to

£

00

CO

CM

©

■

0)

OS

o

CO

to

CM

00

©

00

©

CM

"3

Q

"*

©

Tt<

to

to

to

to

©

to

t-

*°L.

a

h

©"

«J

o

to

CM

CO

CM

CM

00

t-

©

CM

©

§1
I1

.2 »
2

Pw

CO

M<

CO

CM

CM

©

©

CO

^t<

CM

05

w

Hi

i

^

TH

#

to

to

to

to

to

to

©

©"

j

m

i-s

■*

t^

OS

CM

*-*•

•*

r— 1

CO

©

i— I

©

t^

CO

co

CO

to

CM

00

©

©

-*

©

CO

*#■

to

to

to

to

to

©

to

©

co^
to"

■

1

jj

t—

i— 1

CO

00

t--

00

CO

_,

©

t^

©

s-

fr»

t^

CO

CO

t»

CM

©

00

-^

©

©

1

co

©

T*

to

to

to

to

to

©

©

©"

01

d

o

,_,

CM

CO

-*

to

©

t—

©

©

1

1

t-

t^-

t^

1>.

*^

t*-

1—

t^

t^

t^

co

00

CO

CO

00

CO

00

00

©

©

H

h

166 TRINIDAD.

By adding the totals of these two periods we have, for six-
teen years, 55,239 births. By referring to the above tables, we
find that out of a grand total of 55,239 births, there are 26,993
males and 27,446 females; so that the males are to the females
as 100*68. Huf eland pretends that the ratio of the sexes for
the whole world is as 21 males to 20 females, or as 105 and 100.
The result in Trinidad is somewhat contrary to what has been
observed elsewhere ; the number of males being always greater
than that of females.

By reference to the above tables we have the number of
births per quarter, and therefore can ascertain the months
wherein a larger average of births takes place.

Thus we have 13,769 for the first quarter ending 31st March;
14,223 for the second quarter; 13,706 for the third quarter
and 14,563 for the fourth quarter.

The months showing a majority of births are therefoi
October, November, and December; July, August, an(
September.

Marriages.

Table showing the number of marriages throughout the
period : —

1848.

1849.

1850.

1851.

1852.

1853.

1854.

364

324

358

391

382

329

1,625

Table showing the number of marriages during the seconc
period : —

1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 188
369 416 477 453 391 449 437 465 436 585 632 55J

Average for the twelve years, 472. The average of six years
for the first period was 360. I have not included in my calcu-
lation the year 1854, which exhibits 1,625 marriages, a very
startling result if it could not be easily accounted for. But in
this memorably calamitous year (1854), cholera raged in the
colony for about four months, and not only were several persons
married in articulo mortis, but the terror created by hourly im-
pending danger of almost sudden death induced many who
were living in concubinage to submit to the holy rite; hence
the disproportionate number of marriages in that year. The
population being 109,638 in 1871, and the number of marriages

POPULATION.

167

416, we have one marriage per 263 inhabitants. In England
the ratio is 1 per 134. The number of marriages being 632 the
year preceding the census, we have 3*96 per 1,000.

Mortality. — This is a subject of the greatest importance,
and for the analyses of which we fortunately possess correct and
precise data.

,

Table showing the Number of Deaths Quarterly, for both Sexes,
over a Period of Six Years.

Males

Females

Years.

Registered Quarter ending

Quar-
terly

Registered Quarter ending

Quar-
terly-

Yearly
Totals.

Totals.

Totals.

Mar.

June

Sept.

Dec.

Mar.

June

Sept.

Dec.

1848

275

324

314

303

1,216

159

214

264

206

843

2,059

1849

327

303

340

271

1,241

221

189

233

191

834

2,075

1850

322

328

375

321

1,346

263

236

307

208

1,014

2,360

1851

285

397

414

308

1,404

245

321

405

204

1,175

2,579

1852

269

379

358

263

1,269

193

224

263

214

894

2,162

1853

322

382

573

381

1,598

229

244

337

264

1,074

2,672

Grand
Totals.

1,800

2,113

2,374

1,847

8,074

1,310

1,428

1,809

1,287

5,834

13,907

^y

Table showing number of deaths for ten years (1870 to 1879):

1870.

1871.

1872.

1873.

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877.

1878.

1879.

3,085

3,370

6,366

3,311

3,449

3,745

3,972

3,792

3,964

3,738

Adding the totals of the two periods (sixteen years), we have
52,700 deaths, or a yearly average of 3,293*75; 2,318 in the
first period, and 3,879 in the second period. If we take the
mortality in 1871 (the year of the census), we have one death in
30*73 inhabitants, or again 30*73 per 1,000. If I omit the mor-
tality of the year 1872, during which a most severe epidemic of
small-pox prevailed, we have for the nine years an average of
3,615 deaths. If we take the mortality in 1880 (the year pre-
ceding the census), we have the proportion of 2*55 per cent.
Dr. Gavin, in his " Report on the Sanitary Measures necessary to
be taken in the Colony of Trinidad," June, 1852, states that the
mortality among children under five and ten years is the true
cause of the excessive mortality of Port-of- Spain, it being one in
every 17*10. " However, when further inquiries are made/" says
the learned inspector, " it is found that the mortality in Port-of-

168

TRINIDAD.

Spain among adults is not very dissimilar to the mortality of
London ."

If we take the mortality of 1871 (the year of the census),
we have rural districts'' population, 81,067, Port-of-Spain and
San Fernando, 28,566, or 2,491 for the rural districts and 868
for the two towns.

As regards the influence of months on the general mortality,
we have the following results: First quarter, 10,147; second
quarter, 8,304; third quarter, 10,143; fourth quarter, 9,578;
so that the months of the first quarter, or January, February,
and March, present a greater mortality; the lesser mortality
would be in April, May, and June.

With regard to sexes, the number of deaths in the ten years
is: Males, 22,447; females, 16,345; yearly average, 2,244*70,
and 1,634-50.

The following Table will show the influence of age on th(
mortality :

Port-of-Spain and San Fernando.

Periods.

Under 10

years.

10 to 20.

20 to 30.

30 to 40.

40 to 50.

Above 50.

Yearly
Totals.

1848
1849
1850
1851
1852

270
224
286
506
234

69
89
91
64
62

152
168
138
116
126

133
137
110
122
126

152

118

104

97

91

204
128
125
142
166

980
864
854
1,047
805

Grand
Totals

1,520

375

700

628

562

765

4,550

Out of a grand total of 4,541 deaths, 1,520 took place und(
ten years, which gives the ratio of 33*47 per cent., or one-third;
from ten to twenty, 366 or 8*05; from twenty to thirty, 700, or
15'41, nearly double; between thirty and forty, 625, or 13'38.
The greatest mortality is under ten years; then, succesively,
between twenty and thirty, thirty and forty ; least between ten
and twenty. These results coincide pretty exactly with those
obtained in Europe, Cuba, New York, and Baltimore. Here, as
in those places, the period between twenty and thirty is that of
the passions and adventurous life.

The following Table, drawn up by the Registrar-General,

POPULATION.

169

shows the rate of mortality from birth to the age of ten
years :

Periods.

Under

One

Month.

lto3.

3 to 6.

6 to 12.

lto5

Years.

5 to 10.

Yearly-
Totals.

1848
1849
1850
1851
1852

58

37
52
45

61

8
11
13
20
10

19
19
30
30
18

25

27
38
51
38

72
107
118
294

99

18
33
35
65
25

200
234
286
605
251

Totals of
Ages

253

62

116

179

690

176

1,476

Thus, of the grand total of 1,476 deaths, 610 took place
under twelve months, which gives the rate of one death per 2*42
— that is to say, that of 242 deaths which took place from birth
to ten years, 100 occurred between the ages of one and twelve
months. The rate is very moderate between one and three, and
also between three and six months, but very great between one
and five years, this being not only the period of weaning, but
also that wherein children are subject to the many diseases inci-
dent to infancy and early youth.

When seeking to establish a comparison between the number
of births and deaths, we come to the following results : —

Births (10 years)
Deaths „

Difference

42,220
38,792

3,428

The difference, 3,428, is in favour of births — that is to say,

that within ten years the population has increased from natural

causes by nearly 343 every year. It may be remarked, that in

i the year 1872 the mortality was double that of the other years ;

■ in that year, 1872, the colony suffered severely from an epidemic

I of small-pox.

I wish now particularly to call attention to a few conclusions
which naturally flow from the above statistical facts.

The number of females being in the whole island 69,413, and
that of males 83,716, it is evident that, cceteris paribus, the ratio
o! births must be smaller in Trinidad than in other countries
where the sexes are equal, or nearly so. In the year 1881, the

1 70 TRINIDAD.

population was distributed as follows in the counties : — St.
George, 43,559 males, 38,156 females ; Victoria, 22,446 males,
16,887 females ; Caroni, 13,946 males, 9,533 females.

A rather interesting fact is the great overplus of females
residing in town as compared with the number of males. The
towns of Port-of-Spain and San Fernando exhibit the follow-
ing figures: — Males, 18,443; females, 19,750; rural districts —
males, 65,273; females, 49,662; the proportion being 106
females to 100 males in the towns, and 100 males to 76*08
females in the rural districts. For the year 1851, the proportion
was, in towns, 100 females to about 74 males; and in the rural
districts, 100 males to about 75 females. This disproportion
between males and females I consider to be very deplorable, both
in a moral and social point of view.

The gathering of females in towns may be explained by the
following considerations: — Females are customarily more em-
ployed as household servants than males, as they are satisfied
with lesser wages, and indoor occupations being more in accord-
ance with the habits of their sex, they not only prefer that
service, but are more at home, as it were, in the performance of
its duties. There is, in addition to these, a very large proportion
of washerwomen, seamstresses, hucksters, cigar makers, and
petty traffickers, who more than compensate for the number of
tailors, shoemakers, and other artisans of the male sex. On the
other hand, it cannot be denied that many of the female sex
resort to towns for the purpose of either private or public pros-
titution.

The larger number of males in the rural districts evidently
results from the disproportion of sexes among the imported
immigrants,

I beg to be allowed to borrow from the Reports of the late
Protector of Immigrants, Dr. Mitchell, some very interesting
facts in connection with the mortality of our Indian labourers : —
In 1872, the mortality was 302 on a total of 7,949 under
original contract, or 3*8 per cent. Total average death-rate on
contract servants of all classes, 380 on 11,017'02, or 3*2 per cent.
Death-rate on children, 1*9 — on boys, 2*2 ; on girls, 1*6.

1872-1873: Death-rate, 3'17. Children, 2'05 : boys, 2'3 ;
girls, 1*8; percentage of five years for both sexes, 1*94. It J
would seem that, in the Ward of Tacarigua (a healthy district),

POPULATION. 171

the comparative mortality among Coolies and Creoles would be
10 adult Creoles to 3 adult Coolies; 9 Creole children to 1 Coolie
child ; 8*33 Creole infants to 1 Coolie infant.

1873-1874: Mean death-rate :— Adults, 3'7; children, H-
The total mortality of the 22,000 Indians resident on estates
maybe calculated at 2 per cent. 1878-1879: 163 deaths on
8,384 contract servants, or 1*34 per cent of the adults. On 52
estates out of 105, the death-rate was only 0*5 per cent.

If we take the quinquennial period terminating on 30th
September, 1879, we have the following results : —

Year.

Immigrants. Deaths.

Percents

1875

10,155 ... 296

2-90

1876

9,422 ... 289

3-06

1877

9,020 ... 270

2-99

1878

8,515 ... 201

2'36

1879

8,384 ... 163

1-94

Mean rate for the five years ...

2-65

Average

of eight years

2-72

I unhesitatingly endorse the remark of Dr. Gavin, that the
mortality (5* 5 8 per cent.) among children under five and ten
years is the true cause of the excessive mortality of Port-of-
Spain; but the remark is evidently not applicable to Indian
children, the mortality among them being only 1*94 per cent.

Let me observe, in explanation, that the Coolies located on
estates receive regular medical attendance, and the required medi-
cines and food when sick. Young children are placed under the
care of some nurse when their mothers are at work ; they are
allowed to suck as long as they please. Their usual food is
cow's milk and rice — not highly nutritious, perhaps, but well
adapted to delicate digestive organs. Their parents at all times
take good care of them.

Ou the other hand, the Creoles, in general, have only pre-
carious medical attendance, because of their own unwillingness to
remunerate a regular practitioner ; in lieu of this, they prefer the
assistance of a class of impostors, both male and female, who
unite the practice of Obeahism and quackery, exact little from
their patients, but are commonly satisfied with the amount and
mode of remuneration tendered for the nostrums they administer
nul the incantations they perform. When sick, very many of
the labouring class are, solely through previous improvidence,
in need of almost everything. The ohildren, generally speaking,

172 TRINIDAD.

receive only coarse food, and are much neglected in every other
respect.

Religion. — Although Christianity is the professed religion
of the people, yet immigration has been instrumental in intro-
ducing Mahometans, Gentoos, and other heathen sects. In this
respect the religious community may be divided as follows : —

Census, 1871.

Heathen Gentoos and others 27,000

Christians 80,300

There were in the colony at the time of the last census, 188
37,280 Coolies and Chinese. I do not believe that, out of these,
more than 3,000 had become Christians, leaving as heathens
34,280.

The census of 1861 had given the following numbers : —
Christians, 65,053; Mahometans and heathens, 4,547.

Catholicism may be said to be the religion of the majority of
the people, since Trinidad having been settled by Spaniards and
French, they brought up their slaves in the religion which they
themselves professed.

Episcopalians and Dissenters came in after the capitulation
of the island ; but it is since emancipation that their number has
increased, by the influx of immigrants from the other colonies*
as well as from North America, Great Britain, and Madeira — the
immigrants from the latter country being, in fact, refugees, in
consequence of a change of religion.

For some years the Church of England enjoyed all the privi-
leges of an Established Church ; it was, however, disestablished
in the year 1868, and the various Christian communities existing
in the island placed on the same footing. The Anglican and
the Catholic clergy had always been paid a stipend from the
Treasury. In the year 1869 the sum thus paid was consolidated
into an Ecclesiastical Fund, from which are now paid the
Anglican and Catholic clergy, also the Wesleyan ministers,
according to the numbers of their congregation. The Presby- '
terians and Baptists declined the aid offered.

The Episcopalian establishment consists, locally, of a bishop,
an archdeacon, four rectors, and three island curates ; one assis- 1
tant curate.

The Roman Catholic establishment consists of one arch-

RELIGION — EDUCATION. 173

bishop, a coadjutor bishop, a vicar-general, twenty-one cures or
parish priests, and seven assistant cures.

Some of these parishes are extensive; and yet, in many cases,
so difficult is the communication between their different parts*
that it is a matter of impossibility for the most zealous and
robust clergyman fully to attend to the multifarious duties of his
charge. As a consequence, not only is religious instruction
almost utterly, because unavoidably, neglected, but it may be
said that too many in those districts live and die like heathens.

Education. — During the period of slavery, a few private
teachers of the lowest standard, in point of qualification, were
employed in instructing the children of the free classes. After the
passing of the Act of Emancipation in the year 1834, schools were
established in several districts with the aid of funds bequeathed
by Lady Mico for educational purposes ; but they were soon after-
wards broken up. Other schools were then projected in connection
with the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches, and under the
auspices of the local government ; but the system of tuition not
being based upon any comprehensive or systematic plan, and
being conducted, with few exceptions, by incompetent persons,
proved very inefficient. The adoption of a general and liberal
system of primary instruction had become necessary after eman-
cipation, not only to eradicate the ignorance so deeply rooted in
the soil of slavery, but also to impart a knowledge of the
English language to a population of foreign origin. This Lord
Harris perceived at once, and in the year 1851 the following
resolutions were, on his proposition, adopted in a committee of
the Board of Council for the establishment of schools throughout
the island.

First. A Board of Education to be formed, consisting of the
Governor, with such members of the legislative council of
government and other persons, being laymen, as may be ap-
pointed, from time to time, by the Governor.

Second. An inspector of schools to be appointed, with a
alary.

Third. A training school, with a master and mistress, to be

established for the educational training of teachers ; the expense

pi maintaining such school, with suitable accommodation for the

eachers, to be defrayed from the public funds of the colony.

Fourth. Public schools to be established at once in each ward

CO

174 TRINIDAD.

of the colony, and at such places most suitable for the con-
venience of the population.

Fifth. The training and primary schools to be under the
control of the Board of Education, and subject to the supervision
of the inspector.

Sixth. The expenses of erecting and maintaining the school-
houses, with1 suitable accommodation for teachers, and the
salaries, to be defrayed from the funds of the wards.

Seventh. No person to be appointed master or mistress
unless such person has produced a certificate of good character
to the satisfaction of the Board of Education, and until such
person has undergone an examination by the Board, and has
received a certificate of efficiency.

Eighth. At the primary schools instruction to be provided
for day scholars, and for evening and adult classes.

Ninth. Admission to the primary schools to be gratuitous.

Eleventh. Instruction to be given at the training and primary
schools to be secular, and without direct religious or doctrinal
teaching.

These "resolutions formed the basis of the system proposed by

J his Excellency Lord Harris. This system was strongly objected

to, on acccount of the resolution which made the instruction

/ purely secular ; and experience has proved, I apprehend, that it

was neither intrinsically the best, nor the most suitable to the

I requirements of the population.

Two training or normal schools were established, one for j
males and another for females, and to each was attached a model
school.

In the year 1863 Mr. Keate, the then Governor of the
colony, established the Queen's Collegiate School, for secondary
education, on the plan of the Queen's Colleges in Ireland.

Sir Arthur Gordon, finding that the system of primary
education established by Lord Harris in 3 851 had only partially
effected the object for which it was designed, proposed for the,
adoption of the Legislative Council certain important modifications.

Schools established by private persons became entitled to
receive aid from the Government, on compliance with the fol-
lowing conditions : —

First. That the property and control of the schools is vestec
in a local manager, or managers, having the power (A) U

A-

EDUCATION. 175

appoint the teacher, provided he or she be one duly certificated
by the Board of Eduction ; (C) to make use of the schoolhouse
for any lawful purpose, before and after school hours ; (D) to
grant holidays and vacations, provided the school be kept open
not less than 200 days annually.

Third. That the teacher of the school is one duly licensed by
the Board of Education.

Fourth. That the school is open to all children, without
distinction of religion or race.

Fifth. That no child receives any religious instruction ob-
jected to by the parent or guardian of such child ; or is present
whilst such instruction is given.

Sixth. That free access is given, under regulations approved
by the Board of Education, to all ministers of religion who may
desire to afford religious instruction to children of their own
persuasion being pupils in such schools.

Seventh. That the school is, at all times, open to inspection.

Tenth. That the rules and books of secular education are
subject to the approval of the Board of Education.

Eleventh. That the aid to which such schools are to be en-
titled shall consist of : —

1st. Provision for the remuneration of teachers, by (a) a
fixed salary dependent upon the possession of a first, second,
or third class certificate, obtainable by examination ; (b) a capi-
tation grant, paid proportionately to the educational results
certified annually by the inspector of schools ; (c) a capitation
grant paid proportionately to the attendance of pupils, certified
quarterly by the local manager or managers.

2nd. Grants in aid of the erection of buildings and supply of ^V
necessaries proportionate to the amount obtained from private
sources.

7th. That reformatory and industrial schools for criminal
and vagrant children be established at the cost of the colony.

Though more in accordance with the general feelings of the
population, this modified system cannot be said to have answered
the expectations of the introducer.

Further and more important modifications were, therefore,
introduced in our system of primary education by our last
Governor, Sir Henry Irving. He caused an ordinance to be
passed in 1875, by which schools of primary education became

3

V

and
hird

176 TRINIDAD.

entitled to receive aid from the public funds of the colony on the
following conditions : —

First. That provision, to the satisfaction of the Board of
Education, be made for the control and management of the
schools by a local manager or managers.

Second. That the school be open at all times to inspection or
examination by the inspector of schools, or by any officer
appointed by Government for the purpose.

Third. That the average daily attendance at the school, com-
puted on a period of a year, be not less than twenty-five.

Subject to the provisions of the ordinance, the aid to which
any school becomes entitled consists of a certain annual capita-
tion grant, according to the results of an annual examination of
the school in secular instruction by an inspector of schools, such
annual capitation grant being at the rate of : —

(1) One pound sterling for each pupil passed in the First
Second Standards.

(2) Twenty-five shillings for each pupil passed in the Thii
and Fourth Standards.

(3) Thirty shillings for each pupil passed in the Fifth and
Sixth Standards.

Governor Irving' s system of primary education is, in my
opinion, an improvement upon the systems of Lord Harris and Sir
Arthur Gordon, inasmuch as it does not interfere with the
religious feelings of the people, and gives facilities for the
establishment of purely denominational schools; and tends to
create a wholesome spirit of emulation among the different
religious communities existing in the island. Anybody may,
on complying with the provisions of the ordinance, establish a
school, and become entitled to receive aid from the funds of the
colony. Under this new system the number of schools has
increased, as also the attendance of children.

Sir Arthur Gordon had not rested satisfied with the changes
which he had introduced into the system of primary education
established by Lord Harris ; and in 1870 he had an ordinance
passed changing the name of the " Queen's Collegiate School "
to that of the t( Royal College of Trinidad." The college was
placed under the management of a council ; and it was made
lawful for the college council to declare any school of secondary;
education to be a school in connection with the Royal College,.

EDUCATION. 177

on compliance with the provisions of the ordinance. And the
pupils of every affiliated school became students of the Royal
College, it being1 made optional for them to be relieved from the
obligation of attending the classes of instruction, provided they
can show to the satisfaction of the committee that they receive
sufficient instruction in classics, mathematics, natural science, and
modern languages, in the school which the student is attending.

Any school in connection with the Royal College becomes
entitled, from year to year, to aid from the funds of the colony,
to consist of : (1) A fixed salary to the principal, or head, of the
school; (2) Of a capitation grant for each student over nine
years who has received from the principal of the Royal College
a certificate of having given, during the preceding twelve
months, a fixed number of attendances; (3) Of a capitation
grant on the results of an annual examination, at the college,
of the pupils of the affiliated schools. Four exhibitions are
granted to the students of the Royal College who pass with
honours the Cambridge local examinations.

Free admissions are annually granted to six pupils of the
primary schools receiving Government aid who pass the best
competitive examination, provided such pupils are at the time of
such- examination under fourteen years of age.

As may be seen from the above sketch, our system of
education, both primary and secondary, rests on a sound
foundation, and may be said to be very liberal.

The number of schools in operation at the end of 1880 was
as follows : —

Secondary Education 3

Normal with Model Schools 2

Primary Education, Government Schools 52^

„ „ Assisted Schools 39 V

96 J
Total number of children on the rolls : —

Secondary — Royal College 80

„ College of Imm. Conception ... 142

„ Convent Girls 110

332

Primary — Model and Normal Schools ... ... ... 408

District or Government Schools, including the San

Fernando School 3,964

Assisted Schools 3,807

Estates Schools (mainly Coolies) 590

Orphan Asylums 119

Males, 4,906 ; Females, 4,001 - 8,907.

M

S

178

TRINIDAD.

The report of the inspector of schools for 1878-79 afforc
the following information : —

Years.
1868
1877
1879 (6 months)

No. of

Schools.

35

72

No. of
Pupils.
2,836
5,801
6,290

Net expenditure by Government in 1878 : —

Government Schools
San Fernando Schools
Assisted Schools ...
Royal College
Affiliated Schools ...
Education Department
Examinations, &c.

Average
Attendance.
1,333
3,695
4.228

£6,913

221

769

2,160

1,000

1,035

208

£12,306

Taking the population at the end of 1880 at 145,000,
have 4*48 pupils per 1,000 inhabitants.

Assisted Schools.
Expenditure

Income ... ...

Contributed by the Managers

£2,961
2,689

272

There are, in addition to the above public establishmen
several private institutions, in which is afforded educati
superior to that which is imparted at the public schools. Th
may be said to be schools where infants of the better classes
trained for a higher course of instruction.

I should be allowed to say a few words respecting t
Seminary of Saint Joseph, known here as the " Convent."
was established here in the year 1836, for the education
young ladies, by the Congregation of Saint Joseph de Cluny
religious sisterhood originating in France not many years ago
for the special purpose of diffusing instruction throughout the
colonies. The Seminary of Saint Joseph has a complete appoint-
ment of nuns for the different branches in the education of
youth. The English and French languages are taught therein
together with sacred and profane history, geography,
arithmetic. Needle and fancy work also form an essential pa
of the training. Music and drawing constitute separate branches,
as accomplishments. The pupils are boarded, or received as day
scholars. The boarded pupils are divided into two classes:
those who are found in all necessaries by the establishment, and

I

irt

EDUCATION — CRIME. 179

those who are dieted by their parents. The average charges for
the former may be estimated at 200 dols., and for the latter at
120 dols., a year. Day scholars pay from three to four dollars
per month.

The Seminary of Saint Joseph may be regarded as a blessing
to the colony, and certainly is an institution unique in the British
West Indies. Unaided as it is, it supplies gratuitous education —
consisting of reading, writing, Scripture history, the four rules
of arithmetic, needlework, and the Church catechism — to more
than 300 poor girls yearly. The Saint Joseph nuns, at present,
keep six girls' assisted schools.

Connected with the subject of education, I should mention
here the " Public Library/'' formed in the year 1851. It is
supported by the Colonial Government and private subscriptions.
The terms are moderate, the subscription being only £1 sterling
per annum.

The library is under the control of a Committee of Manage-
ment, chosen by the Governor and the subscribers, in the propor-
tion of one member to every £50 of contribution. The stock of
books consists of 10,500 volumes, English and French. There
are besides a few Spanish works, also maps, periodicals, and
reviews. In the year 1856, the stock of books consisted of 2,887
volumes; increase in twenty-three years, 7,613.

The library is open from seven to ten in the morning, and
rom eleven to six o'clock in the evening. The regulations may
considered as very liberal.

Of the " press " I have very little to say. There are at
resent published in the colony, besides " The Royal Gazette/'
ve weekly papers: "The Port-of-Spain Gazette/' "The San Fer-
ando Gazette/' " The New Era," " The Palladium," and "The
Fair Play " ; bi-weekly paper, « The Chronicle." " The San-
jFernando Gazette " is issued in that town ; the others in Port-of-
ppain. The Trinidad " Official and Commercial Register and
Mmanac," which is published yearly, is a very useful and credit-
able compilation.

Chime.— This is a subject the examination of which is of
;*reat importance, and particularly so in an island wherein is con-
gregated such an admixture of so many different races, and in
yhich there exists such a diversity of religious creeds. But this
xamination is, at the same time, replete with difficulty, inasmuch

180

TRINIDAD.

as comprehensive details are wanting in order to a thorough
investigation of the subject. Such as I have been able to
obtain, however, will lead to some interesting conclusions.

The following is a return of persons committed to the Royal
Gaol of Port-of- Spain, from the 1st of January, 1872, to the
31st December, 1878, with particulars of sexes, country, and
religion : —

Tears.

Males.

Females.

Total.

1872

1,923

208

2,131

1873

2,239

265

2,504

1874

—

—

2,092

1875

—

—

2,764

1876

2,061

396

2,457

1877

2,072

435

2,507

1878

2,483
Grand Total .

460

2,943

17,398

-

In this grand total are not comprised adjourned cases, debtors,
Annual average number, 2,424.

If we take the total of the five years, 1873, 1874, 1875,
1876, and 1877, we have, after deducting as above, adjourned
cases and debts, 12,950 persons committed, and these may be
classed as follows : —

1873.

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877.

Felons

. 128 .

. 159 .

120 .

.. 123 .

135

Misdemeanants .

. 2,002 .

.. 2,933 .

.. 2,644 .

.. 2,334 .

.. 2,372

With respect to felony and misdemeanour, we find, during the
whole period, 42 commitments for murder and manslaughter,
viz., 3 in 1873, 9 in 1875, 5 in 1876, 8 in 1877, and so many as
17 in 1874 ; 5 commitments for arson ; 10 for burglary; 111 for
cutting and wounding; 251 for receiving stolen property; and for
obtaining money under false pretences, 66. Of lighter offences
we have : Assaults and battery, 1,117 ; drunk and disorderly,
726; fighting, 1,039; larceny, 2,136; violent and obscene
language, 483 ; riotous and disorderly conduct, 598.

Murder and manslaughter are generally the results of
revenge. The cases are very rare where a man is murdered with
the view of appropriating money. Wife murder is a crime very
common among the Coolies; any wife forsaking her husband
may be said to do so at the risk of her life. The crime of arson \
is of very frequent occurrence : megass houses, in which tht
cane refuse or megass is stored as fuel, are generally selected a*

CRIME. 181

being the more easily fired. It is with the greatest difficulty
that the perpetrators can be discovered or apprehended. There
were, in the period recorded, an annual average of 22 cases of
cutting and wounding, and how many more were and are never
brought before the magistrate? For the negro very much
resembles the schoolboy, who prefers silently to suffer rather than
call for the interference of the master. The weapon most com-
monly used in such cases is the cutlass — an agricultural tool which
the peasant generally carries about with him, and, in case of any
quarrel, is too often turned iuto a deadly weapon. The negro is
irritable and obstinate, and whenever his passions have been
roused by contention or stubborn opposition, he becomes unman-
| ageable, and strikes his opponent with whatever weapon he can
l grasp. We have also 1,117 cases of assault and battery; 1,039
I cases of fighting, or an average of 431 cases a year. We record
I 2,136 cases of larceny ; 251 for receiving stolen goods, and 66
I cases for obtaining money under false pretences ; altogether
2,453 cases, or a yearly average of 490, showing to what an
extent tne practice of stealing is carried. But in how many
cases is information not lodged on the offended party recovering
| the stolen goods? or how many more are disposed of by the injured
I party's summary procedure of inflicting corporal punishment on
the thief ? " Taking is not stealing/-' is a common saying
among all classes of servants ; that is to say, carrying off that
which may be left within reach, is not larceny in the opinion of
'those people.

There appear on the list 752 cases of drunkenness, and 598
of riotous and disorderly conduct, or a yearly average of 275.
Obscene and violent language, 483 cases. The individuals com-
jmitted for riotous and disorderly conduct are generally members
of those societies which are a regular pest. If we deduct from
jthe number of offences committed by Asiatics those which may
|be regarded as breaches of the immigration regulations, we shall
jthen have about 3,300 cases of ordinary offences.

The interval between the present year and the year 1871,
when the census of the colony was taken, is too great to allow
me to establish by comparison the proportionate number of
•ffenders belonging to each country which sends us emigrants.
1, nevertheless, can say this, and I say it with regret, Trinidad
•ccupies a very unenviable position as compared with the year

182 TRINIDAD.

1851. Number of natives then, 40,584 ; average annual number
of offences, 156 : for the five years I have recorded it is 625.
Surely the native population has not increased fourfold : it has
not even doubled.

If we take the religion of the offenders as a starting point
for comparison, we arrive at the following results : —

Non-Christians 6,693

Christians —

Anglicans ... ... ... ... ... 3,565

Roman Catholics ... ... 3,829

Other Christian Communities ... ... 94

7.488

I wish to call special attention to the following facts,
the large increase of female and of juvenile offenders. The
years 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, had given an average oi
104 female offenders; the five years 1872, 1873, 1876, 187^
1878 give an average of 353, more than treble that of tl
first period. Again, the number of female offenders, which
1873 was only 208, had swelled up to 460 in 1878.

The number of juvenile offenders, which in 1873 was 5"
had increased to 84 in 1877. This is, indeed, a sad progression.

I cannot do better than quote here some passages of tl
reports of the Inspector of Prisons for 1874 and 1877 ; and I
so the more readily as I entirely concur in whatever he says
this subject and on prison discipline generally.

"The question of female crime/'' he remarks, "is a vei
serious one ; and when it is considered that by far the great
number of our female prisoners are committed for riotous
haviour, obscene language, drunkenness, and other offences
that type, I cannot but think that it would be worth while
consider whether women of this class should not be treat*
somewhat in the same way as juvenile offenders, and sent to
penitentiary for a term of years, instead of being allowed to
spend their lives in alternative short spells of libert}7 and im-
prisonment.

"These short periods are, in reality, nothing more than
intervals of rest, during which the female convicts gather health
and strength at the public expense, and come out with renewed
energies to recommence the same round of vice and debauchery.
It is painful to be obliged to make such an assertion ; but I am
bound to state that each succeeding year shows a rapid spread

CRIME. 183

of prostitution, and no one can pass through the streets of our
towns without having ample evidence of the utter degradation
of our lower class females/''

With reference to juvenile offenders the inspector remarks :
" I regret to have to report a very large increase under this head,
there having been sixty-two boys and twenty-two girls com-
mitted in 1877, as against thirty-five boys and eleven girls
in 1876.

u I had entertained sanguine hopes that the commencement
of this year would have seen the opening of the much-needed
reformatory and industrial schools ; but I regret that objections
raised by one or two individuals against the proposed site have
caused the whole question to be indefinitely postponed.

" In the meantime the evil is increasing and developing, and
before long we shall reap the bitter fruits of this procrastination.

" A very large proportion of our criminals here are not of
what, in England, is called the criminal class. I do not mean
to assert that there is no such class here ; unfortunately, one of
the results of our increasing civilisation and prosperity is, that*
such a class is rapidly increasing ; but we even yet have neither
a distinctly criminal class any more than a thieves' quarter.

" There is no shame here attached to the fact of having been
an inmate of a criminal prison ; and so long as this will be the
case, it is vain to hope that the gaol will have much reformatory
effect.

" The labourer in these colonies, whether African, Creole, or
Asiatic, works as little and sleeps or idles as much as he can,
and his ordinary food consists of plantains, corn-meal, salt fish,
and rice, washed down with rum when he can get it.

" He lives on, or near, an estate, in a hut, and neither his
employer nor any one else cares much if he lives or dies, unless,
indeed, he be an indentured immigrant.

" If such a man commits a crime, and is sent to gaol for
twelve months, can it be contended that, physically, he is worse
off than when working on the estate ?

" In the gaol he is well lodged and fed at the public expense,
with food identical with that which he consumes when at liberty,
and clothed (also at the public expense) in a way which, to a
labourer in the old country, would be a mark of disgrace, but
which to him conveys no such feeling. He has medical at-

184 TRINIDAD.

tendance when ill, and what to the Creole and Asiatic is an
immense enjoyment, he can sleep from 6 p.m. to 5 a.m. next
morning.

" The labour to which he is put is not more severe than that
to which he has been accustomed on the estate or roads of the
island, and certainly can in no case be considered penal, or even
in the light of a punishment. What, then, does such a prisoner
suffer by imprisonment ? " Let me add that you can hear that
class of people declare that they are quite content to be sent to
gaol, as they are better off there than they can be when at
liberty.

The inspector again remarks that "imprisonment in tht
gaol, when accompanied by hard labour, is not looked upon as
disgrace ; and a convict who comes out of prison after one oi
two years of penal servitude, resumes his place in society witl
no more difficulty than if he had been absent for the same perioc
in a neighbouring colony "

The remark is unfortunately but too well justified by facts
" Of course/'' adds the inspector, " in such a state of things thei
is one advantage — the facility which a discharged prisoner hj
here of obtaining work on his release. "Whereas, in the ok
countries, the reverse has been one of the greatest difficulty
with which those anxious for the future well-being of the mai
have had to contend ; but this advantage, great though it b
cannot compensate for the fact that no sense of moral degradatio
attaches here to the prison dress, or even to the fact of havi
been an inmate of the gaol/''

Generally, when such prisoners as are members of the societies
or bands alluded to are discharged from the gaol, they are met at
the gate by friends, male and female, and received with demon-
strations of joy, but with not the faintest exhibition of shame ;
and they are accompanied home with triumph. When taken to
gaol, they had been escorted by a retinue of followers. For the
last two years, however, they have been conveyed to the prison
in a closed van. Yet it is really painful to hear them — the
female prisoners especially — singing at the top of their voices,
as if in defiance of the law and of all decency. It cannot be
surprising that the conduct, in prison, of creatures so callous to
any feeling of shame is extremely bad, and that " a fearful
amount of depravity is practised between them when in an un-

CRIME. 185

watched association." Are they not, in the majority of cases,
members of bands notoriously formed for immoral purposes, and
there practically taught to scorn all that society respects and
appreciates, and to indulge in unbridled licentiousness ?

Of course, I cannot pretend, in a book like this, to suggest
any definite remedy ; but I may be pardoned for quoting from
the report of the inspector the words of Sir Joshua Jebb : —
" The deterring elements of punishment are hard labour, hard
fare, and a hard bed ; and, for the lowest class of prisoners, these
elements should be applied, as far as they can consistently, with
a view to deter men from crime. " Let hard labour, therefore,
be enforced.

I shall again say, in the words of the inspector : " As for
females undergoing short sentences, nothing but severe punish-
ment will have the slightest effect upon them.

" The present hard labour (?) , which consists of sewing and
washing, can have no terrors for women who have utterly lost all

sense of shame, and who glory in their degradation I

certainly recommend complete separation, by night and by day,
work in association, but perfect silence/''

The first step, however, to be adopted, and the most im-
portant, is to have a separate prison for females ; and we may
reasonably expect that, when the new lunatic asylum has been
built, and the lunatics transferred there, the present buildings
will be adapted to the reception of our female criminals.

As to the juvenile offenders, there are but poor chances of
obtaining their reformation, unless industrial schools are founded
for their reception. In the year 1876 an ordinance was passed
for the establishment and regulation of industrial schools.
Such schools may be established either by Government or by
private individuals. As this is a question in which I took some
interest, and had opportunities to talk over the matter with
Governors Sir James Longden and Sir Henry Irving, I trust
that I shall be excused for saying a few words on the subject.

Governor Irving was fully alive to the great difficulties that
must attend the creation and management of a Government
reformatory school. In his opinion, the only chance of success
lay in the foundation by religious communities of such re-
formatories.

He, therefore, felt some anxiety in having two such schools

186 TRINIDAD.

simultaneously established by the Protestant and the Catholic
communities. By the ordinance of 1876, it had been made
lawful for the Governor to order payment to the managers of the
schools of a capitation fee, not exceeding £10, for each child
sent thereto. It was also agreed that funds would be advanced
by the Government in aid of the establishment of the schools,
such advance to be reimbursed within a fixed period.

The Catholics succeeded in obtaining the co-operation of a
religious body, had found a suitable site, and were prepared to
begin at once ; but the Anglican bishop and clergy having
declared that they were not ready yet to start their school, th(
whole affair was dropped— but not for ever, as I sincerely hope
and desire.

Offences, as it appears, are not so common in those counti(
where the number of small proprietors is larger; and this
easily accounted for. The social condition of individuals mi
have its influence, and that a powerful one, on the perpetratioi
of crime, particularly of offences against property. It is, henc(
undeniable that the small cottager who can live independently
by cultivating his own land is less exposed to the commission ol
crime than the day labourers, who live in a crowded state on
sugar estate, and are wholly dependent upon money wages, pai
weekly or fortnightly, for their subsistence. It may be objecte
that the estate labourer is, in more than one respect, more com-
fortable, generally speaking, than the cottager ; his lodging is
free, and he neither pays taxes nor is burdened with house repairs ;
whereas, on the other hand, the cottager, though conscious that
the pressure of these very burdens should urge him to increased
exertion, does not seek to realise his independence by cultivating
his land to the degree he might and ought.

Evidently, however, this cannot invalidate the principle I
have laid down ; and I have no doubt that, were it practicable
to induce the labourers located on estates to cultivate their own
small patches of garden-land, the number of offences would
greatly decrease in the rural districts.

I cannot conclude this chapter without giving again expres-
sion to a regret that there is not, in connection with the Royal
Gaol, a house of correction for young offenders, or, what would
be better still, a penitentiary farm, where they would receive
primary instruction, religious education, and industrial training ;

CRIME.

187

also a reformatory for female criminals. I must, however, in
justice, say that the gaol of Port-of- Spain is conducted on excel-
lent principles.

The majority of the male prisoners are employed on public
works, to the great benefit of the country and of their own health,
as shown by the low rate of mortality of prisoners. The expen-
diture of the gaols (salaries included) for 1877 amounted to the
sum of <£8,340; valuation of labour performed, £5,731. The
expenditure in 1876 was £7,920; value of labour, £5,788.
Expenditure for 1878, £8,947 ; labour, £5,953.

The following Table, showing the proportion and the particu-
lars of the principal offences for which prisoners were committed
during the five years already mentioned, will prove interesting
to the reader : —

Offences.

1873.

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877.

Arson

1

2

3

5

Assault and Battery-

158

207

267

220

265

Burglary and Breaking i

12

9

7

10

5

into Houses ... j

Cutting and Wounding

28

12

30

15

26

Drunkenness

102

155

159

156

189

Besisting and Assault- )
ing Police ... )

52

66

25

48

35

Murder and Manslaughter

3

18

10

5

8

Biotous and Disorderly J
Conduct ... J

3

2

1

1

2

Exposure and Indecent )
Behaviour ... \

44

67

33

32

54

Larceny ...

343

436

440

440

477

Embezzlement ...

2

5

7

10

5

Obtaining Money under )
False Pretences \

17

12

13

16

10

Fighting ...

141

207

200

166

215

Vagrancy

37

108

75

69

41

CHAPTER VI.

GENERAL ADMINISTRATION — GOVERNMENT— CIVIL, JUDICIARY, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND
FINANCIAL DEPARTMENTS.

Under the Spanish dominion, Trinidad was a dependency of the
" Capitania- General de Caracas/ ' and was administered by
Governor, assisted by the " illustrious cabildo " — a kind of muni-
cipal corporation, vested with extensive powers, and enjoying
great privileges.

This corporation was a self -elected body, exercising jurisdi(
tion partly general, partly municipal and judiciary. It consistec
of the Governor, as president, and twelve members — two of
whom were elected " alcaldes " of the first and second election^
or " alcaldes " in ordinary. It was lawful for the cabildo to levy
duties and impose taxes, but their municipal jurisdiction did not
extend beyond the limits of Port-of-Spain. The town had beei
divided into four "barrios" or wards, and an "alcalde de barrio"
was appointed to each by the cabildo. Their functions were
similar to those of the commandant, which I will define here-
after. The " alcaldes " in ordinary had special charge of the
streets and markets. The alcaldes in ordinary exercised their
judicial powers in criminal as well as in civil matters, assisted by
a Spanish lawyer, actiug as assessor or adviser ; and for nearly
eight years — from 1808 to 1814 — they held both the civil and
criminal sessions. No case, however, involving forfeiture of life
was ever decided by these judges after the island became a
British possession.

Don Jose Maria de Chacon — the last Governor under the
Spanish rule — had divided the island into numerous small dis-
tricts called "quarters;" to each was appointed "a comman-
dante " as chief and sole magistrate ; for he was, at the same
time, police magistrate, justice of the peace, and administrator of
his district, charged with the return of population and property,

GENERAL ADMINISTRATION. 189

and the collection of taxes. They held petty sessions, and had
the power of fining and condemning to prison ; they acted also
as coroners. All judicial summonses and citations were sent
from the supreme courts in Port-of- Spain to these officers, whose
certificate was a sufficient proof of service. These important
functionaries were allowed an "alguazil/' or constable, as an
executive officer, who was paid a small salary, raised by an
alguazil-tax levied on every estate. The commandant was always
one of the most respectable inhabitants of the quarter, and his
office purely honorary.

Colonel Picton, on taking charge of the island after its capitu-
lation, made no alteration in that administrative arrangement, but
chose, in addition, from amongst the most influential inhabitants,
u assessors/'' who formed a ' ' council of advice/'' which may be
regarded as the origin and foundation of the ' ' Council of Govern-
ment " which succeeded, and was afterwards changed into the
present " Legislative Council.""

The powers and duties of the ' ' illustrious cabildo M and
*■' commandants of quarters " were gradually modified, until they
became extinct in the years 1840 and 1849, by the adoption of
the ordinance constituting the " Town Council of Port-of- Spain/''
and of the territorial or wardens' ordinance.

The " Court of Alcaldes in Ordinary >J was abolished in the
year 1823, and the judicial jurisdiction of the cabildo became
extinct. In the year 1840 an ordinance was passed for " regu-
lating the powers and constitution, and settling the mode of
election of the members of the corporate body called the ' Illus-
trious Cabildo ' of the town of Port-of- Spain, and changing the
name thereof to that of the Town Council of Port-of- Spain.-"
The qualifications for electors were, residence in or within three
miles of Port-of- Spain, and the payment of an annual house-rent
to the amount of ninety-six dollars ; in addition to which, coun-
cillors were to be worth .£500 free of all debts. The council was
thus rendered elective ; but the Governor still retained the presi-
dency over, and an absolute veto on, the proceedings of the town
council. In the year 1852, a petition was addressed by the town
councillors to the Governor in council, praying for a new consti-
tution based on the same principles as those embodied in the
Municipal Act of England. The prayer was granted, and the
name of the " Town Council " changed into that of the

190 TRINIDAD.

" Borough Council of Port-of- Spain. " The franchise, at pre-
sent, is, for electors, the occupancy of a house within the
borough, rated to the house-tax at an annual rental of not less
than twenty pounds sterling ; for councillors and auditors, to be
on the burgess list, and to be possessed, as absolute owners or
tenants for life, of some household or other estate or freehold of
real property assessed to the house-tax at an annual value of no
less than £50, or at a rental of no less than £75 per annum.
The council is presided over by a mayor. It appears, from this
statement, that the town of Port-of- Spain has been in the enjoy-
ment of municipal institutions since before the conquest of th<
island by the British forces. Similar privileges were granted
San Fernando in the year 1840. The qualifications for burgesses
are the same as in Port-of-Spain ; for councillors and auditoi
they are £30 and £40, instead of £50 and £75.

When protectors of slaves were appointed, a part of the powei
of the commandants was transferred to those officers; in the
year 1834 the stipendiary magistrate superseded them in thei
judiciary functions ; the appointment of commissioners of roads
in 1846, contracted their jurisdiction within still narrowei
limits ; and, finally, the ' c quarters " having been consolidatec
into wards, in the year 1849, the functions of the commandant
ceased entirely; and, let it be remarked, without the slightest
compliment on, or remuneration for, their services, althougl
several of them had performed their gratuitous, onerous, an(
multifarious duties for upwards of twenty years, and had ex-
pended much of their private funds in the service of the
colony.

At present the government is somewhat differently consti-
tuted from what it was under our first Governors ; and the
changes introduced are chiefly due to Sir Henry MacLeod, and
to his successor, the Right Honourable Lord Harris.

Trinidad is a "crown colony," under the control of the
Colonial Office, the government of which is administered, locally,
through a resident Governor, assisted by an island executive, and
a legislative council. On several previous occasions attempts had
been made to obtain a representative form of government ; and,
for the last time, in the year 1853, but without success; they
were opposed both here and at the Colonial Office.

Executive Council. — It consists of the Colonial Secretary, the

GENERAL ADMINISTRATION. 191

Attorney- General, and the Commander of the Forces, under the
presidency of the Governor. It is a mere consultative body,
which the Governor calls together on important occasions, in
order to have their opinion, which he may follow or not, as he
pleases.

Legislative Council. — This council consists of the Governor,
as president, and fourteen members, of whom six are " official "
and eight " non-official." The official members are the Colonial
Secretary, the Chief Judge, the Attorney-General, the Solicitor-
General, the Receiver- General, and the Protector of Immigrants.
The non-official members must be British-born usbjects ; they
are nominees of the Crown, and chosen from among the most
respectable inhabitants of the colony.

The position of the chief judge, as a member of the legislative
council, is a rather delicate one, since he may be called upon to
give at the board his opinion on matters which will have after-
wards to be decided on the bench.

The legislative council discusses and adopts such ordinances
and measures as are introduced or proposed by the Governor, or
any member of the council. To become law, all measures passed
by the council must receive Her Majesty's sanction. Ordinances
which have been neither disapproved, nor formally approved
within two years of their having been passed, become void and
null. Generally, whenever any member proposes a legislative
measure, he must himself prepare it in a legal shape — an objec-
tionable course, in my opinion, because it is almost impossible
that, under such circumstances, errors should not creep in and
render the law defective. It may also happen that such a
measure, though passed in council, is not transmitted home for
confirmation, and thus becomes null after two years. This was
the case with the ordinance establishing vestries for the Roman
Catholic churches in this island. And yet it was seriously stated
that it was the fault of the Roman Catholics, since they ought
to have asked for its transmission home, and for its confirmation.

The legislative council discusses also and votes the estimates
for each following year. The items may be ranged under two
heads, viz., the fixed and the unfixed establishments. The esti-
: mates, as regards the fixed establishment, are laid before the
board as a mere matter of form, and are not submitted for
discussion. Members, however, may propose alterations in the

■

192 TRINIDAD.

shape o£ resolutions, which are transmitted to the Colonial Office
for consideration. The unfixed establishment is regulated every
year. All motions for money must come through the Governor.
There are regular meetings of the board on the first day of each
month, or on the day following, should the first be a Sunday,
and at any other time the Governor may think proper to call the
members specially together ; and the board is to sit from day to
day until the standing business is disposed of; the president
and eight members to form a quorum. In the absence of his
Excellency, the senior member presides. The sittings are public,
and the proceedings reported in the newspapers of the colony.

It is before this board, then presided over by the chief judge,
or, in his absence, by the senior member of the council, that each
new Governor takes the oath previous to entering into office.

The Governor is vested with extensive powers ; and, as
has the uncontrolled appointment of all officers who are not
the fixed establishment, he can suspend and dismiss them wit
out referring to the Colonial Office. All others he can suspend
from office — even the members of council — until her Majesty's
pleasure is made known. He may require the attendance at the
council-board of all the members, and exact that of the official
section. The chief judge being by position the only independent
member of this section, the Governor may be said to have the
command of the votes of the officials ; and he can, with a little
stratagem and his own casting vote, form a majority on any
important question he wishes to carry or oppose. He has also
the control of the public funds ; and the receiver-general, it
seems, is justified in paying out any sum of money on the
Governor's warrant. By royal instructions he is not authorised
— except in urgent cases — to order the payment of any sum of
money above £200, without special authority from the secretary
of state, and previous sanction by the board. He can also veto
any measure passed by the legislative council.

General Administration. — This may be considered under
five different heads : Administrative, civil, judicial, ecclesiastical,
and financial.

Administrative Section. — As I have already stated, Lord
Harris introduced in the year 1849 a new territorial division of
the island, which was accordingly partitioned into two grand
sections, the northern and the southern, each being sub-divided

GENERAL ADMINISTRATION. 193

into four counties, each county into two districts, and each
district into wards, according to their population.

The common boundary, of the two grand divisions is formed
by a line running from Point Manzanilla westward, and follow-
ing the course of the River Lebranche ; then along the summits
of the Middle Range to Mount Tamana ; thence, west-south-
west to Montserrat ; and from that point due west to the Gulf
of Paria, south of Point Savanetta.

The four counties in the northern section are St. George and
Caroni, St. David and St. Andrew.

The four counties in the southern section are Victoria and
St. Patrick, Mayaro and Nariva.

There exist at present forty-one wards, viz., twenty-six in
the northern, and fifteen in the southern section. The county of
St. George comprises the larger number of wards, viz., eighteen;
Caroni, five ; St. David and St. Andrew, two each ; Victoria
and St. Patrick, six each ; Nariva and Mayaro, one each.

Before leaving the colony, Lord Harris had admitted, in
a review of the various acts of his administration, that the
wardens' ordinance had, on the whole, worked satisfactorily, but
that it required amendments — such amendments as experience
had suggested. What amendments his Excellency would have
introduced it is difficult to say. Changes, however, have been
made, first by Sir Charles Elliott, and later by Governor Sir
Henry Irving, radically altering the scheme of Lord Harris.

In 1854 Sir Charles Elliott had an ordinance passed
(< making certain amendments and alterations in the wardens'
ordinance, and making it lawful for the Governor to form such
and so many wards as he shall see fit into ward unions, and to
appoint one warden for the several wards comprised in each union."

The Governor accordingly ordered the distribution of the
several wards of the colony into the following unions, viz. : —

Diego Martin Union, comprising the wards of Chayuarasmos,
Chacachacare, Carenage, Diego Martin, Mucurapo, and Morraval.

Saint Ann Union, comprising the wards of Saint Arm,
Laventille, Cemaronero, Aricagua, and Santa Cruz.

Tacarigua Union, comprising the wards of Saint Joseph,
Maracas, Tacarigua, Caura, and Lower Caroni.

Arima Union, comprising the wards of Arima, Upper Caroni,
Guanape, Turrure, and Manzanilla.

194 TRINIDAD.

Mayaro Union, consisting of the two wards of Mayaro and
Nariva.

Toco Union, formed of the wards of Toco and Blanchisseuse.

Couva Union, comprising the wards of Chaguanas, Cara-
pichaima, Couva, Savonetta, and Point-a-Pierres.

North Naparima Union, extending over the wards of Napa-
rima, Savanna Grande (northern and southern) .

South Naparima Union, comprising the South Naparima
eastern and South Naparima western wards, also the ward of
Oropuche.

Cedros Union, including the wards of La Brea, Guapo, Irois,
Cedros, and Erin.

In the year 1878 an ordinance was introduced by Sir Hem
Irving " for further amending the law with regard to wardens."
The ordinance makes it lawful for the Governor to form
many unions as he thinks fit into provinces, and to appoint
commissioner for each province ; the commissioners having, eacl
in his province, all the powers and authorities granted by tl
previous ordinances to wardens ; he can also appoint assistant
wardens.

The different ward unions of the colony have accordingly
been formed into two provinces, the Northen and Southeri
corresponding to the northern and southern divisions of Loi
Harris, and two commissioners appointed, with a salary of <£80(
and j£100 for travelling expenses. Salary of the assistant
wardens, £260 to £360, and £50 allowances.

The Governor made another and more important change.
The assessment of five shillings an acre on cultivated, and three
pence an acre on uncultivated land, has been converted into a
uniform tax of one shilling an acre, whether cultivated or uncul-
tivated. Houses of which the annual value does not exceed £6
are rated at four shillings; and houses of which the annual
value exceeds £6 are rated at £7 10s. for every .£00. Barracks
occupied by immigrants or other labourers are assessed at the
rate of four shillings for each separate apartment.

Previous to the passing of the ordinance of 1879, the
monies belonging to the wards were paid over to the Colonial
Treasury, and carried by the treasurer to the credit of each
ward. At present, all monies collected by the wardens are
merged into the general funds of the colony, and the ward's

GENERAL ADMINISTRATION. 195

expenses defrayed from those funds. They are, however, charged
separately for constables, paupers, medicines, and other sundries,
to the amount of about £5,220, as appears by the estimates for
1880. The principal sources of revenue are : Land tax, £14,500;
house tax, £10,230; spirit and wine licences, £8,860. Total
local revenues, £35,000.

The duties of the wardens have also been contracted into
narrower limits. On this subject Sir Henry Irving remarks, in
his message of 22nd January, 1878 : " In 1854 it was found
necessary to employ salaried officers as wardens ... a salaried
warden being appointed to each union. A radical change was
thus introduced into the scheme of Lord Harris ; but no corres-
ponding adequate change made in its administration. With the
exception of their being paid instead of unpaid, the position and
the duties of the wardens remained unchanged. They were still
regarded as local officers. . . . The appointments were left to be
filled up locally by gentlemen who were left without guidance
or control by superior authority, to perform, in respect of large
populous districts, the multifarious duties which, under the
original scheme, were to be performed on a comparatively trifling
scale and within a limited area. . . . The interior administra-
tion of the country became dependent on the ability of fourteen
gentlemen to discharge successfully the whole range of executive
duties — from supervising excise, for example, to civil engineer-
ing. It is not surprising that a system, dependent for its success
on impossible conditions, should have proved a comparative
failure."" The duties of the wardens are now limited to those
which properly attach to a revenue officer, their duties of road
officers having been transferred to the public works depart-
ment.

The Governor, in his message of 3rd November, 1879, com-
mented thus on the changes which he had effected : ' ( The system
of assessment has acted as a discouragement to cultivation. It
has been a fruitful source of error, inequality, evasion, and
fraud. By the conversion of the assessment into a uniform
acreage rate, a system of taxation will be substituted which will
encourage the acquisition of land and stimulate its cultivation,
; which will minimise error and inequality, and render evasion and
fraud impossible. This reform of system would, however, be
incomplete were it not to be accompanied by a change also in

196 TRINIDAD.

the method heretofore in force for the recovery of taxes on real
property. That method has hitherto been regulated by the
warden's ordinances of 185£ and 1854, which provide that,
where default is made in payment of the ward rates, the warden
shall proceed against the defaulter by distress ; and in case of
there being no sufficient levy to meet the distress, shall return
the warrant to the secretary of the intendant, by whom, after
advertisement, the property is sold at auction. Practically, no
attempts have been made to levy under these warrants of
distress ; or if made, have been evaded by the ratepayer by the
temporary concealment of his property. The issue of the
warrant, and the return to it of no sufficient levy, have become
to be regarded as mere matter of form ; and the collection of sc
much of the rates as are not voluntarily paid to the wardens has
been left to the secretary of the intendant, to be recovered by
him under the pressure of an immediate and peremptory sale.
By the great bulk of the ratepayers this system has been under-
stood, and has by many of them been taken advantage of
postpone payment of their rates till the last moment ; but ii
individual cases it has resulted in gross illegality and wrong,
and its general effect has been to depreciate the security of r<
property. It is not surprising that a mode of procedure, whicl
was based on trickery and evasion on the part of the smaller
ratepayers, and on the acquiescence on the part of the wardens ii
a sort of chartered perjury on the part of their bailiffs, shouk
have yielded its fruit in malpractices, which have culminatec
finally in frauds such as those which have recently been brought
before the Supreme Criminal Court of the colony. By th<
public land charges' ordinance recently passed, the root
of these abominations will be cut away. The wardens will
be compelled to collect their revenues, instead of handing
this over to be effected by a Government auctioneer of real
property."

I unreservedly concur in the above remarks and criticisms.
In my review of the Territorial Ordinance (first edition of this
work, 1858), I had expressed similar views, and suggested
changes which I am glad to see have been introduced since. I
only find excessive the percentage exacted in cases of non-pay-
ment of the ward rates.

The towns of Port-of- Spain and San Fernando are adminis-

REVENUE.

197

tered by elected councillors,
affairs stood as follow : —

At the end of 1878 their financial

Pokt-of-Spain.

Expenditure.

Street Scavenging

Kepairs

Charity — Asylum

Lighting and Watering

Markets

Gutters (Town)

Cemetery

Salaries

Purchase of Property . .
Miscellaneous

Expenditure.

Streets

Tramroad

Charities

Horses and Carts

Markets

Cemetery

Salaries

Schools

Tramroad Wharf Water Dues
Miscellaneous

Dollars.
11,131

9,627

7,905

1,275

2,368

9,583

2,272

5,228

4,816

4,352

58,557

San Fernando.

Eeceipts.

House Tax

Markets

Eeal Property

Licences

Improvement (Town) ... .

Miscellaneous

Balance from previous Year.

Dollars.
5,384
1,134
1,289
1,594
506
665
1,898
1,226
2,724
2,056

Receipts.

House Rate ...

Licences

Markets

Wharf Dues ...

Tramroad

Cemetery Building Lots

Miscellaneous

Dollars.

29,559

13,107
4,603
3,729
7,206
1,759

16,950

76,913

Dollars.

10,877
1,772
1,310
5,604
888
1,031
1,640

18,476 23,122

At the end of 1878 the borough of San Fernando had
become largely indebted to the Colonial Government in respect
of debentures issued for the construction of a branch tramroad to
Cipero, which they were even unable to maintain in proper
repair. An amicable arrangement was entered into by which
the Government took over the tramroad, assuming at the same
time the liabilities incurred by the borough on that account ; so
that at present the borough has no interest in the tramroad, and
part of the wharf dues is retained in reduction of the debt — a
very fair arrangement, as I believe.

Civil Establishments. — His Excellency the Governor,
£5,000 ; private secretary, £300 : total £5,300.

Colonial Secretary, £1,000; provisional and personal, £200
chief clerk and clerk of council, £600 ; second clerk, £300
third clerk, £200 ; fourth clerk, £140 ; two messengers, £220
allowances, £65; contingencies, viz., postage and telegrams,
£150 : total, £2,875.

198 TRINIDAD.

Receiver-General. — Receiver-General, £800 ; provisional,
£175 : total, £975. Chief clerk and accountant, £360 ; second
clerk and cashier, £340; three clerks, £530; two messengers,
£110; allowance to cashier, £40; excise officer, £229 19s. 2d.;
lockers, £140 ; San Fernando sub-receiver, £450 ; clerk, £200.
Excise : locker and extra clerk, £220 ; allowance to cashier £10;
supervisors, £100; contingencies, labour at bonding warehouses,
£142 10s. : total, £3,847 9s. 2d.

Immigration. — Protector of immigrants, including travelling
expenses and personal, £1,000; inspector, £500; sub-inspector
and assistant inspector, £400 ; five clerks, £1,060; interpreters,
£385 ; messenger, £40 ; travelling allowances to inspector and
sub-inspector, £250 : total, £3,637.

Auditor-General. — For many years the Colonial Secretary
had also the title of Auditor of Public Accounts. Some years
ago, however, an audit office was organised, and the staff no^
consists of an Auditor-General, with a salary of £700 ; chiel
clerk, £450; clerks, £1,450; messengers, £70: total, £2,670.

Registrar- General. — This office was established by Or-
dinance 12, 1847. The Registrar- General is mainly registrar oi
deeds. A fee of ten shillings to twenty shillings is exacted foi
the registration of deeds, and from twenty shillings to tw(
shillings for that of wills, probate, and letters of administration
also a fee of one shilling for office copies of any deed, will, oi
other document ; from twenty shillings to five shillings for certi-
ficates, and one shilling for examining any deed, will, or other
document. There is also a registrar of births, deaths, and
marriages for the towns of Port-of-Spain and San Fernando,
and for each ward respectively ; these are paid from the funds of
the two boroughs and the wards — a sum of one shilling for each
registry of birth and death. In case such registration has not
been made in due time, the party in default pays a fine not ex-
ceeding £5. Registrar-General, £500 ; chief clerk, £300 ; clerk,
£50; pay of copying clerks, local newspapers, £115 : total,
£965.

Public Works and Survey. — An office of public works had
been established in the year 1845. Previous to its formation,
the Surveyor- General had the superintendence of all the public
works. The engineer officer of the garrison, however, was occa-
sionally employed ; and he was particularly so engaged in super-

CIVIL DEPARTMENT. 199

intending the construction of the Government and Court houses.
It became necessary, on the introduction of railways in the island,
to re-model the department. On the resignation of the late super-
intendent, in 1875, the entire staff of the establishment consisted
of a superintendent, an assistant superintendent, a draughtsman,
and a clerk — a staff quite insufficient and inadequate to the work.
The title of superintendent was changed to that of Director of
Public Works, and the department now comprises the following
branches : Railways, public works, including buildings and
ordinary roads ; surveys. The staff of the department consists
of the following officers and subordinate employes : Director of
Public Works, £1,200 ; assistant director, £800 ; first assistant
engineer, £500 ; second assistant (temporary), £500; accountant,
£250; clerk to director, £200; financial assistant, extra assis-
tant engineer, draughtsman, storekeeper, &c, twelve employes
altogether, £2,802 10s. These appointments are provisional —
four road officers, £700 ; messenger, £37. Allowances : Director
of Public Works, £200 ; assistant engineers, £500 ; road officers,
£200 ; paymaster, San Fernando, £70. Total, £7,959.

Survey Department. — Engineer in charge of surveys, £500;
two assistants, £900 ; draughtsman, £120 ; allowance, £400 :
total, £1,920.

Superintendent of transport train, £350; steam tug, £375;
dredger and five barges, £570 ; water- works and sewerage,
£573 10s. ; saw-mill, £302; keeper of buildings, £100: total,
£2,270 10s.

Total Public Works, £12,129.

Customs. — Port-of-Spain : Collector, £700; chief clerk,
£450 ; three other clerks, £480. Landing waiters, lockers, and
tide surveyors : principal, £300 ; other waiters, two surveyors,
&c, £2,090 ; boatmen and porters, £559 ; allowance to cashier,
£25: total £4,606. San Fernando: Landing waiter, £170:
total, San Fernando, £170. Contingencies, viz. : Repairs of
boats, boatmen's clothing, &c, £180. Total Customs, £4,956.

Post-Offices. — It was under the government of Lord
Harris" that a regular postal communication was established
between the different parts of the island. The mails are made
up for certain districts every day except Sundays and public
holidays ; for others, two or three times a week, and only once a
week for the remotest parts. The General Post-Office in Port-

200 TRINIDAD.

of-Spain is open from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m., and 7 to 8 a.m. on Sundays
and public holidays. Our present postmaster has had pillar-
boxes put up in different parts of the town ; they are cleared
daily at 6 a.m., 10 a.m., and 3 p.m., except on Sundays. All
letters must be posted with stamps. There is but one district —
the chief town — where letters are delivered by letter carriers ; in
the other districts the parties must send for them to the different
post-offices. Trinidad is comprised within the general postal
union.

Postmaster- General, £600; postmaster, San Fernando, £270 ;
chief clerk, £250; second clerk, £150; two additional clerks,
sorters, letter carriers, &c, £835 ; contingencies, viz., extra
labour, lighting, &c, £175; district postmasters, £415 ; clerk,
San Fernando, £100; total, £2,795. Harbour-master of the
island, £500 ; assistant, £250; harbour, San Fernando, £100;
signalmen, £320 ; allowances, £70 ; contingencies, viz., buoys,
lighthouse, &c, £575 ; steam launch, £332 : total, £2,147.

Crown Lands Department. — Both under the Spanish an<
British Government, the Governor of the island acted as inten-
dant of crown lands.

Under the Spanish rule, there existed the Court of Intendant,
consisting of the Governor as Intendant, his assessor — a lawyer,
and a secretary, or escribano. The court sat in two capacities —
as guardian and judge of crown lands ; and in all mattei
relative to land sales, quit-rents, the Queen's revenue, &c. All
petitions for lands, all claims, &c, were sent and submitted to
the assessor by the escribano. He examined into the matters
referred to him, heard the parties, and issued his orders; he, how-
ever, occasionally consulted with the Governor previous to issuing
final orders. All such orders were transmitted by the escribano
to the parties concerned. There existed also the office of " Sur-
veyor-General and Commissary of Population/'' All Govern-
ment surveys were made by the Surveyor-General, or by his
orders.

The whole system was remodelled some years ago ; there is
no such thing now as a Court of Intendant ; and the office of
Surveyor-General, such as it existed, has been done away with.

The Governor, however, is still intendant of crown lands ;
but a new department has been formed, consisting of a sub-
intendant, a secretary, and clerks. Rules have been adopted

CIVIL DEPARTMENT. 201

for the survey and sale of crown lands. The following are the
most important : —

No person can survey, or begin to survey, any crown lands
without being directed by the Governor to do so.

No block is to be measured out unless it bounds on lands
already estimated.

All measurements are to be made in chains and links, with
what is known as the Gunter's chain of 6Q feet, or 100 links in
length, a standard of which is fixed at the Government House.

Proper boundary marks — such as stones, pieces of iron, or
other lasting objects, with broken bottles buried underfoot — are
to be placed at the corners of every block.

The surveyors must give the petitioners due notice of the
date of survey, and that their presence will be required at it.

Parties wishing to become purchasers of crown lands will
apply to the commissioner of the province, at his office, where
the necessary forms of petition can be supplied and filled up, the
petitioner giving the boundaries and his address.

Petitions for less than ten acres are not received, except
under special circumstances.

Each petition must be accompanied by a deposit of the upset
price of the land prayed for, together with the fees payable for
its survey and grant.

Every petition shall be reported on by the warden, or assis-
tant warden, of the ward in which the land is situated ; and the
commissioner shall certify his approval or disapproval of the
petition.

If disapproved, he will submit the same to the intendant for
his instructions, stating his reasons for disapproval.

If approved, the petition is transmitted to the Surveyor-
General.

It will be the duty of the Surveyor- General to cause the
boundaries given in the petition to be certified, referring the
petition back to the commissioner should material alterations be
found necessary.

The petition must be submitted to the intendant for ap-
proval.

If disallowed by the intendant, it will be returned to the
commissioner, who will prepare a referred warrant for the de-
posit money.

202 TRINIDAD.

If approved by the intendant, an order for survey is issued.

Sales of crown lands are held at the office of the sub-
intendant, at Port-of- Spain, on the first Tuesday of every
month, or at such times as his Excellency the Governor may
direct.

The sub-intendant shall, at least twenty-one days before
any sale of crown lands, publicly advertise and post up in his
office a list of the lands to be offered for sale on each day, and
shall also notify the applicants.

All crown lands petitioned for, where the petition has been
approved, the survey duly executed, and due notice of sale given,
are offered at such sale for public competition, and disposed of to
the highest bidder for cash. When the highest bidder for am
land fails to pay the amount of his bid immediately after th(
sale, the next higher bidder, on paying the amount of his bid,
becomes the purchaser. The upset price for ordinary crowi
lands is £1 per acre. The Governor may fix the upset price
any specially-designated crown lands at any higher rate thai
£1 per acre, and for any swamp lands at a rate not less thai
10s. per acre. Village lots are sold under separate and speck
regulations.

When land applied for by one person is purchased by anothei
the whole of the money deposited by the original applicant
returned to him.

Sub-intendant and commissioner of Northern Province
£800 ; secretary to intendant, .£500 ; four clerks, £960 ; porter
and messenger, £75 ; allowance to sub-intendant for travelling
expenses, £200 ; total, £2,235.

Wardens and Supervisors. — Northern Province : four war-
dens, £3,050; three assistant wardens, £900. Southern Pro-
vince : Commissioner and warden of Naparima, £800 ; three
assistant wardens, £950 ; clerk to commissioner, £180 ; travelling
allowance, £100 ; to assistant wardens, £150 : total, £6,130.

Colonial Storekeeper. — Storekeeper, £450 ; clerk and
porter, &c, £65 : total, £515.

Botanic Garden. — This garden was laid out under Sir
Ralph Woodford, at the Governor's residence, St. Ann, mainly
with the object of encouraging the propagation of spice-trees.
Well selected as forming part of the Governor's ground, and for
its proximity to Port-of- Spain, this spot is in other respects ill-

JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 203

adapted to its destination, the soil being poor and barren and
the supply of water scanty.

Flowers and ornamental shrubs are extensively cultivated;
and lately, I am glad to say, the cultivation and amelioration
of fruit-trees by selection and grafting has been successfully
attempted. Nurseries have been established of coffee and lime
plants, also of several varieties of sugar-cane; the latter, however,
with only partial success, on account of the poverty of the soil.
I must, in fairness, acknowledge that our present botanist,
Mr. Prestoe, has turned to the best account the scanty resources
thus afforded. I am under the impression that by damming one
or two small gullies in the grounds, a sufficient supply of water
could be obtained for gardening and other agricultural pur-
poses.

Botanist, £300 ; clerk and two gardeners, £455 : total £755.
Examiner of animals, £450.

Printing. — Printer, £400 ; foreman, £200 ; compositors,
binders, £505; other employes, £772; binding, repairs, &c,
£200: total, £2,077.

Judicial Department. — I have already stated that the
"illustrious cabildo/' or, more properly speaking, the "alcades
in ordinary/'' were vested with judiciary powers, which they
exercised with the assistance of a lawyer, and within very
narrow limits, since the majority of cases were decided by
arbitration, each party choosing a friend as arbitrator ; in case
these did not come to an agreement, they chose an umpire, who
sided with either one or the other.

Immediately after the capture of the island, Mr. J. Nihell, a
resident, was appointed Chief Justice, deciding all cases according
to his conscience. In 1800, Governor Picton established the
"Court of Consulado ; " in 1807, Governor Hislop abolished
this court and re-appointed Mr. J. Nihell chief judge. In 1808,
however, the Colonial Office sent out Judge Smith to Trinidad,
with authority over all the tribunals of the island ; he was also
empowered to hear appeals from his own decisions.

In the year 1814, John Bigge, Esq., Barrister-at-Law, arrived
in Trinidad as Chief Justice in both civil and criminal matters,
and associated to himself in criminal matters Dr. Bamon Garcia,
the assessor to their honours the alcades. Appeals were allowed
from his decisions to the Governor, as judge of the Court of

204 TRINIDAD.

Appeals. The alcades in ordinary, however, continued to
entertain actions in civil matters until the year 1828, when the
" Court of Alcades in Ordinary w was abolished by an Order in
Council of September, 1822.

By this and another order of the same date beneficial altera-
tions were made in the judicial administration of the colony.
The powers united in the decision of civil and criminal cases were
separated ; " Courts of Criminal Trials " and " First Instance
of Civil Jurisdiction " were established, and a judge of " Criminal
Enquiry n appointed. A " Court of Appeal," both in criminal
and civil matters, was organised, with the Governor as judge,
assisted by an assessor, who acted also as assistant to the
chief judge in the " Court of Criminal Trial " and that of " First
Instance of Civil Jurisdiction."

Judge Bigge was succeeded in the year 1820 by Ashtoi
Warner, Esq., of the Middle Temple; he died in September
1830, much esteemed and universally regretted, both as a jud^
and gentleman. His successor (in 1832) was his Honour Geor^
George Scotland, of the Middle Temple, a talented barristt
who retired from the colony in the year 1849 on a pensioi
leaving as his successor George William Knox, barrister, a
native of the island, a scholar, and a highly-respected judge.
Our present Chief Justice is Sir Joseph Needham; there are
besides the Chief Justice two puisne judges — their Honours
Horace Fitzgerald and Henry Court.

The English practice and the English laws were gradually
introduced into the colony. In the year 1844 the criminal law
of England and trial by jury were adopted; trial by jury in
civil cases was adopted in 1848.

The Judicature Act was introduced, with some modifications,
in the year 1879. Our present judicial establishment now
consists of the Supreme Court, which is a court of record ; it
has the same jurisdiction within the colony as the High Court
of Justice has in England, except in admiralty and divorce and
matrimonial causes.

The Supreme Court. — Jurisdiction in all cases of lunacy
and bankruptcy ; it has an appellate jurisdiction, both in civil
and criminal cases, from the decision of a single judge, whether
sitting in court or in chambers ; also from the decisions of
stipendiary or other justices of the peace where the penaltic

JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 205

imposed by such stipendiary justices amount to or exceed £5 ;
or where imprisonment, even for a week, is imposed.

This court is presided over by the Chief Justice of the colony,
assisted by the two puisne judges.

The {t Supreme Court n has a primary jurisdiction in all
cases where the subject matter does not exceed £200, or in actions
for the recovery of the possession of lands where the annual rent
or value does not exceed the sum of £20.

This court is held every fortnight in Port- of- Spain, and once
a month in the town of San Fernando. It is presided over by
one of the judges, and is governed by the same rules, with some
slight modifications, as the " Supreme Court."

The ' ' Supreme Court " sits five times a year for the disposal
of criminal matters and gaol delivery, and every fortnight for
the disposal of cases not triable by jury.

Jurors are empanelled to try all criminal and civil cases
pending before the " Supreme Court." In the summary juris-
diction of this court any judge has the power to order a jury of
five to be empanelled in any case pending before such court.

The " Supreme Court " has power to sit at any time
except during the long vacation, which commences on the 26th
of June, and ends on the 3rd of October in each year.

Appeals to Her Majesty in her Privy Council lie in all cases
in the " Supreme Court " where the claim exceeds £500 sterling.

Court of Vice-Admiralty. — This court is presided over by the
Chief Justice of the colony, and derives its jurisdiction and
powers under the 2nd William IV., entitled " An Act to regulate
the practice and fees in the Vice- Admiralty Courts abroad, and
to obviate doubts as to their jurisdiction."

Petty Civil Court. — This is a court having a summary juris-
diction in all pleas of personal actions, both in the town of Port-
of-Spain and the rural districts, where the debt or damage
claimed does not exceed £10 sterling. This court has no juris-
diction in ejectment, or where the title to land arises, or as to
the validity of any devise, bequest, or limitation under any will,
or in cases of trover, or in any action of tort. In the town of
Port-of-Spain it is presided over by a commissioner, and in the
town of San Fernando and the rural districts by the stipendiary
justices of San Fernando and such rural districts. No appeal
lies from the decisions of the Petty Civil Court of Port-of-Spain,

206 TRINIDAD.

or of the stipendiary justices in their respective districts ; but by
a recent ordinance in Judicature Act of 1879, the Supreme
Court has power, on the motion of the Attorney- General, to
order all proceedings from inferior courts to be sent up to it
there to be reviewed.

Rural Districts Courts. — There are in the island seven of
these courts, presided over by stipendiary justices, who reside in
their respective districts.

Every stipendiary justice has jurisdiction over the whole
island.

The Rural Districts Courts have a summary jurisdiction in
all cases of a criminal or quasi-criminal nature, where the offence
committed is not of an indictable nature. When the offen<
committed is of an indictable nature, the stipendiary justice
take preliminary depositions, and forward the same to the
Attorney-General, who determines whether the party charges
should be indicted or not.

The power of imprisonment by a stipendiary justice is limite
to six months, with or without hard labour.

A court of similar jurisdiction to those of rural districts sit
daily in Port-of-Spain. It is presided over by the stipendiai
justice of the western district of the county of St. George ane
the town of Port-of-Spain.

The important duties of .coroner are performed by the stipen-
diary justices. The verdict of the jury must be unanimous, 01
the jurors are confined for several hours, until they concur in a
final agreement, or are dismissed on some good ground.

As there are many foreigners in the island — Spaniards,
.French, Portuguese, Hindoos, Chinese — there are interpreters
attached to the different courts.

Executions take place within the precincts of the Royal Gaol,
in the presence of all the prisoners assembled, and a certain
number of the public admitted for the purpose.

Chief Justice, £1,800; first puisne judge and commis-
sioner of Petty Civil Court, Port-of-Spain, £1,200; second
puisne judge, £1,000 ; clerk to the judges, £200 ; messengers,
porter, £145 ; allowance and contingencies, £130 : total,
£4,475.

Registrar of the Courts. — Registrar, £600 ; four clerks, £455 :
total, £1,055.

JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 207

Attorney-General. — Attorney-General, £1,000 ; clerical assis-
tance, £300 : total, £1,300.

Solicitor-General. — Solicitor-General, £200.

Crown Solicitor. — Crown solicitor, £300.

Marshal. — In lieu of fees in criminal processes, £200.

Petty Civil Court. — Judge of Petty Civil Court, first puisne
judge; clerical assistance, £330.

Complaint Court, San Fernando. — Clerk, £50 ; registrar in
bankruptcy (provisional) £300.

Magistracy. — Stipendiary justice of the western district,
county of St. George, and magistrate of Port-of- Spain, £700 *
eastern district, £600. Stipendiary justice, San Fernando,
£600 ; county of Caroni, £600 ; Savannah Grande, Oropuche,
&c, £600 ; Cedros, £500 ; two other magistrates, £600. Total
magistracy, £4,200.

Clerks of the Peace, £2,325; bailiffs, £1,457; interpreters,
£480 ; pound keep and office keeper of courts, £138 10s. ;
travelling allowance to magistrates, £477 : total, £4,877 10s.
Grand total of judicial establishment, £16,105 10s.

Education. — For many years, and until the changes intro-
duced by Sir Henry Irving, the Government contributions towards
education were confined to the salaries of the inspectors of schools,
of the superintendent, and the teacher of the boys' and girls'
model schools, and the secretary of the Board of Education — alto-
gether a sum of £1,150. The primary schools were maintained
out of local funds. At present, the expenses of public education,
either secondary or primary, are altogether or partly defrayed
from the general funds of the colony. I need not point out the
many advantages of this system.

Secondary Education. — Royal College : Principal, £700 ;
house-rent, £100 ; masters, £1,350 ; professor of chemistry and
Government analyst, £500 ; principal, affiliated school, £500 ;
porter, £90; contingencies, viz., prizes, books, stationery,
repairs, &c, £300 : total, £3,340.

Primary Education. — Superintendent of boys' model school^
£300; of girls' model school, £250 ; district masters, £2,755 ;
inspector of schools, £500 ; travelling expenses, £200 : total,
LJ1,005. Expenses exclusive of establishments, £10,900. Total
primary education, £14,905.

Medical Department. — This may be said to be a newly-

208 TRINIDAD.

constituted department, organised with the object of affording
medical assistance to the poor in the rural districts, and securing
effective attendance to the indentured immigrants. It consists
of a surgeon-general and twenty- four Government medical
officers. The medical staff of the Colonial Hospital consists of
a resident-surgeon and three assistant-surgeons. To the San
Fernando Hospital there is only one resident-surgeon attached ;
there should be at least one assistant. There is also to each
hospital a consulting surgeon.

I must say that, to my view, the present arrangement is
open to serious objections. In general, the house-surgeon and
his assistants are young men, some fresh from the medical
schools, more or less ignorant of the diseases of the country, an(
quite inexperienced in their treatment. They may be clever an(
willing, and good operators ; but they have not yet acquired thai
experience which is gained only by several years' practice. Ii
my opinion there should be appointed to each hospital a visiting-
surgeon and a visiting-physician, who have been some years ii
the island, and who would have the greatest share of responsi-
bility, and a sufficient number of resident surgeons and physi-
cians, who would act under the control and direction of the
visiting practitioners. All young men coming to the colonj
should, before obtaining employment under the Governmenl
pass through the colonial hospitals. Many appointments are
only temporary, and the district medical officers may be remove
at will. My objection to this is, that the medical officer cannot
take an interest in the district to which he is temporarily ap-
pointed, nor has he the opportunity of becoming acquainted with
the people he is called to serve. As a rule, all appointments
should be made permanent, unless the occupant asks for a change
in case of any vacancy.

The district medical officers are expected to attend at certain
places, on regular days and hours, to prescribe for persons apply-
ing for medical advice — a very humane provision.

Paupers producing a certificate of pauperism from the
warden or assistant-warden of the district are prescribed for
gratuitously, and the medicines ordered furnished free of
charge.

Applicants producing a certificate of poverty, signed by a
burgess or a respectable ratepayer, are prescribed for on pre-

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 209

payment of a shilling ; and the medicine ordered can be procured
at certain appointed shops at a reduced rate.

Persons applying for advice without certificate are regarded
as private patients.

In the case of paupers and others unable to pay, the medical
officer will visit on the order in writing of the warden, and will
be entitled to payment from the ward funds of a single fee of
4s. per visit, with Is. mileage allowance.

He is responsible for attending, whether prepaid or not, in
any case of extreme urgency, or on the summons of any warden,
magistrate, or police officer.

Similar provisions have been made for the boroughs of Port-
of-Spain and San Fernando. Let me observe that the certificate
from the warden is not always easily obtainable, as he may reside
several miles from the patient's residence ; and many find it too
inconvenient or too tiresome to walk several miles to obtain the
necessary document. Thus the good intentions of the Govern-
ment may be defeated. The only remedy that I can discover is
the following : — Let a list of all the paupers in each ward be
prepared, and left at the different places appointed for giving
advice ; the list should be revised every year. There cannot be
much difficulty in doing this. I would also suggest the forma-
tion of categories, in which to include all those who might be
considered as poor — for instance, of people residing on estates, or
day labourers, assistant masons and carpenters, &c.

Surgeon-General, £1,000 ; twenty-three medical officers, £300
each : £6,900 ; three supernumeraries, £900. Resident-surgeon,
Colonial Hospital, £200 ; senior assistant, £50. Resident-
surgeon, San Fernando Hospital, £200. Medical officer of ship-
ping, &c, £150. Medical officer, lunatic asylum and gaol,
£200. Medical officer, leper asylum, £150. Consulting surgeon,
San Fernando Hospital, £100. Surgeon to Chaguanas depot,
£50. Total, £1,100. For several medical officers for residence
and houses, £1,925. Personal allowance to seven medical offi-
cers, as compensation, £950. Total, £12,175.

Hospitals. — Colonial Hospital : dispenser, £200 ; assistant,
£100 ; clerk, £200 ; assistant, £50 ; stewards and issuer, £195 ;
matron, £150; superintendent of nurses, £248 15s.; sixteen
nurses, £680 10s. lid. ; six supernumerary, £195 ; other inferior
'employes, £742 : total, £2,761.
o

210 TRINIDAD.

San Fernando Hospital. — Dispenser, £150; clerk, £50;
steward and issuer, £105 ; head nurse and matron, £115 ; nurses,
£312 10s.; two supernumerary, £70 ; wardsmen, &c, £255; St.
Joseph Infirmary, £80 : total, £1,107 10s.

Leper Asylum. — Resident superintendent, £200 ; dispenser,
£75 ; five nurses, £150 ; wardsmen, cook, baker, laundress, &c,
£262 10s. : total, £687. The Leper Asylum is placed under the
care of Dominican nurses.

Lunatic Asylum. — Head attendant, £17 5; assistant, £52 10s.;
teacher and clerk, £200; dispenser and steward, £62 10s.; six
male attendants, £286 ; four probationary, £150; three female
attendants, £142 10s.; two probationary, £75 ; cook, laundress,
&c, £297 10s. : total, £1,402 10s.

House of Refuge. — The House of Refuge was established
purposely for the reception of paupers and infirm persons in the
rural districts, the Borough Council of Port-of- Spain having
their own asylum for the poor of the town.

Public Health Department. — Port-of-Spain : Sanitary
inspector, £250 ; four assistants, £345 ; two district medical
officers, £100; San Fernando sanitary inspector, £100; assistant,
£75 ; district medical officer, £50 : total, £920.

Surgeon-General. — Chief clerk, £220 ; other clerks and
employes, £400 : total, £620.

Police and Gaols. — The general police force consists at
present of an inspector commandant, two inspectors, two sergeant-
majors, superintendent staff clerk, superintendent sergeant,
instructors, &c. ; twenty-five sergeants, twenty-five corporals,
twenty-five lance corporals, two hundred and fifty constables,
captain volunteer fire brigade, and eight firemen. There is,
besides the police force, a certain number of rural con-
stables.

Inspector commandant, £700 ; inspector northern division,
£370; inspector southern division, £450; superintendent staff
clerk, £200 ; sergeant-major northern division, £200 ; sergeant-
major southern division, £140 ; sergeant-inspector, £140 ; two
sergeant-superintendents, quarter-master, and armourer, £610;
twenty-five corporals, £2,062; twenty-five sergeants, £2,737;
twenty-five lance-corporals, £1,487 ; two hundred and fifty
constables, £14,250 ; captain volunteer fire brigade, £200 ;
eight firemen, £456 ; female teacher, £20 ; allowances, house-

EOYAL GAOL. 211

rent for inspectors, &c., £558 ; clerical assistance, £30 : total
police force, £24,630.

Royal Gaol. — The Royal Gaol is not on the separate
system. Separation by night is carried ont as far as the cell
accommodation permits. By day all male prisoners work in
association; the females are, in great measure, separated from
each other. All prisoners in association by day are under the
constant supervision of warders. There are in the Royal Gaol
126 separate cells : wards and cells in association, 37. At the
Royal Gaol religious service is performed every Sunday, and
religious instruction given on one evening in each week by the
chaplains. A schoolmaster attends four evenings a week to give
instruction to male prisoners who are sentenced to twelve months
and upwards ; also to juveniles.

Besides the Royal Gaol there are two convict depots, where
male prisoners, under hard labour, are sent ; one at Chaguanas at
the entrance of an extensive forest. Separate cells at the
depot, 126.

The prisoners are there employed in carrying railway sleepers,
hauling logs, cutting wood, cutting traces through the forest,
and cultivating provisions. Carrera's Island is a small calcareous
islet at the entrance of the Bay of Chaguaramas, where prisoners
are employed in quarrying stones and breaking road metal.
Separate cells, 56.

All the Royal Gaol male prisoners are utilised in quarrying
stones and breaking road metal at the Government quarries,
keeping the grounds of Government institutions in order,
working at trades within the prison walls ; female prisoners in
needlework, washing clothes, and breaking stones.

Inspector of prisons, £100 ; superintendents, £400 ; clerk and
teacher, £50 ; overseer, £170 : £720 ; eighteen warders, £1,220 ;
hospital attendant, matron, messenger, £320 : total Royal Gaol,
£2,260. Chaguanas convict depot : superintendent, £300 ;
I ten warders, watchmen, £740 : total, £1,040. Carrera's Island :
Five warders, £370; allowances, inspector of prisons, and keeper
of gaol for travelling expenses, £100 ; warders for quarters,
|£400 : total, gaol and depots, £4,170.

Railways. — This section belongs to the Public Works
Department. So far back as the time of Lord Harris, a company
had been formed in England with the object of constructing, in

212 TRINIDAD.

Trinidad, a regular network of railways, under the condition that
the colony would grant the company, on each side of the line,
where traversing crown property, a certain extent of land pro-
portionate to the extent of miles constructed; also that the
colony should guarantee to the shareholders a minimum interest
of six per cent. This was found to be a much too onerous
condition, and the scheme, besides, was deemed much too compre-
hensive. The matter dropped in consequence.

At a later period, another company suggested the adoption of
a more restricted scheme, but under conditions pretty similar to
those which had been formerly rejected. The offer was declined.

Sir Arthur Gordon, whilst administering the Government,
had recognised the great difficulty of constructing roads and
maintaining them in good condition, on account of the nature of
our soil and the difficulty of procuring good road materials, and
come to the conclusion that, after all, railways might prove cheap
means of communication. He had not time, however, to initiate
the measure, but when in London mooted the question.

His successor, Sir James Longden, had the good fortune of
beginning the work — viz., the construction, eastward, of the line
to Arima, a distance of sixteen miles ; but it devolved on Sir
Henry Irving to complete this our first railway. It succeeded
beyond all expectations ; and it was decided almost immediately
to extend the line from St. Joseph southward to Couva, and
later on to San Fernando, a distance of about twenty-five miles,
thus connecting the southern and northern divisions of the
island and its two principal towns.

Passenger fares. — First class, eight cents a mile ; second
class, four cents a mile ; third class, two cents a mile ; children
under twelve years, half-price ; goods, according to classes, from
half a cent to two cents per 100 lbs., or portion of 100 lbs., per
mile. Sugar, molasses, cocoa, rum, and coffee, are carried under
special arrangements.

General superintendent, £300 ; clerk to superintendent, £250;
messenger, £37 10s. : £587 10s. ; lithographic press printer, &c,
£256.

Traffic Department. — Traffic manager, £450 ; assistant, £250;
clerks, collector, head guards, under guards, police, gatekeepers,
signalman, porters, £2,257 : total, £3,017.

Stations. — San Juan, collector, porter, £108; St. Joseph,

i

ECCLESIASTICAL DEPARTMENT. 213

£226 8s. 4d. ; Tunapuna, £185 18s.; Tacarigua, £107 16s.;
Arouca, £183 16s.; D'Abadie, £88; Arima, £256 16s.; Caroni,
£98 ; Conupia, £88 ; Chaguanas, £286 8s. 4d. ; Carapichaima,
£126 ; Couva, £456 0s. 4d. : total, £3,052.

Locomotive Department. — Locomotive superintendent, £450 ;
drivers, firemen, cleaners, shedmen ; clerk, storekeeper, coalmen,
watermen, turner, fitter, blacksmith, £4,070 5s. : total, £4,521 5s.

Carriage and Waggon Department. — Cleaners and greasers,
£382 12s.

Engineering and Maintenance Department. — Engineer, £250 ;
two foremen, eight gaugers, thirty-two platelayers, weeders,
£3,035 : total railway, £14,259.

Ecclesiastical. — Grant to Church of England, £3,770 ; to
Roman Catholic Church, £6,500; to Wesleyan body, £500:
total, £10,770. This grant will be ultimately reduced to
£10,435.

Expenditure, exclusive of establishments, — Administration of
justice : Expenses of Solicitor-General, advocates, witnesses,
medical practitioners giving evidence in criminal cases, &c, £3,000.

Registration fees to registrars, £320.

Education. — Normal schools ; districts and assisted schools,
result fees, exhibitions, &c, £10,900.

Police. — Clothing, horses, and mules, £3,720 ; lighting police
barracks and station, travelling allowance, stores, necessaries,
&c, £2,375.

Gaols. — Royal Gaol : Eood, clothing, &c, for about 350
prisoners, £3,325. Chaguanas and Carrera depots : Food, clothing,
&c, for 180 prisoners, £1,710. Total police and gaols, £11,130.

Hospitals. — Provisions, stimulants, medicines, clothing, &c,
£21,400 ; vaccination, £600. Grand total, £22,000.

Convict Depot, Chaguanas. — Railway and tram-roads charges,
&c, £677 10s.; Carrera, £72 10s. Total depot, £750.

Rents. — Police stations, district schools, bonding ware-
houses, Port-of-Spain and San Fernando post-offices, £2,891 5s.

Contract Gulf steamer, £3,000 ; transport of public officers
and special services, £200 ; local mails, £650 : total, £3,650.

Postage. — Share of postage payable to Imperial Government,
£1,200 ; commission on sale of stamps, £200 : total, £1,400.

Immigration. — Cost of introducing 2,400 immigrants,
£24,000; surgeon fees, £2,800; return ship, £5,500; district

214

TRINIDAD.

medical officers, £4,800 ; collecting 2,400 immigrants, £9,600 ;
salary and travelling expenses of agents in India, £2,000 ; cap-
tains'* and officers' gratuities, orphan homes, hospital and house
of refuge, medical inspectors, expenses at depot, pay of cooks,
&c, grant of £5 instead of return passage, £1,000. Total of
immigration, £55,091.

Miscellaneous services. — Allowance for maintenance of Govern-
ment House and grounds, furniture, grant to library, &c, £2,221.

Interest on Savings Bank deposits, £1,100.

Drawbacks and refund of duties, £3,500.

Interest on debentures, £855; redemption of debentures,
£5,150 : total, £6,005.

Railway Working Expenses. — Arima, Couva, £11,000; in-
terest and sinking fund, £15,000.

Telegraph. — Subsidy to West Indies and Panama Telegraph
Company, £2,500 ; local telegraph, £300 : total, £2,800.

Stationery, £2,300.

Botanic Garden. — Maintenance of garden and plantatioi
£1,350.

Census expenses, £1,000.

Roads and bridges, £34,000 ; road extension and improve-
ment, £14,000; works and buildings, £13,300; miscellaneous
£3,700. Grand total, £55,000.

Ward Unions. — Arima, £486 6s. 8d. ; Chaguam
£292 14s. 2d. ; Couva, £322 Is. 8d. ; Diego Martin, £328 16s.
Mayaro,£206 5s.; Montserrat, £180 16s.; St. Ann, £583 6s. 8d.,
Tacarigua, £719 lis. 8d. ; Toco, £179 3s. 4d. ; Naparims
£989 lis. 8d. ; Cedros, £328 2s. 6d. Total Wards, £4,616 15s.

The following Table exhibits the Receipts and Expenditure
the colony for a series of years, and at different periods : —

Year.

Kevenue.

Expenditure

1850

£88,084

£77,362

1860

184,861

187,220

1870

233,585

241,148

1871

264,352

234,170

1872

281,570

285,384

1873

296,060

326,282

1874

376,320

365,760

1875

341,619

352,488

1876

316,070

311,508

1877

310,338

318,586

1878

346,997

343,400

1879

419,885

375,986

1880

430,583

443,824

1881

419,999

414,598

FINANCIAL DEPARTMENT. 215

If we take the three periods, 1850, 1860, 1870, we have —
Revenue, £506,530 ; expenditure, £505,730 — nearly equal. The
nine years, from 1871 to 1880 exclusive, give the following
results:— Revenue, £2,888,836; expenditure, £2,820,650; leaving
a balance of £68,186 in favour of revenue.

The colony has contracted a heavy debt for the construction
of railways— say £400,000— viz. : £150,000, 1874, at 5 per
cent., for the construction of the railway from Port-of- Spain to
Arima; £100,000, in 1878, at 5 per cent., for extending the
railway to Couva ; a further sum, in 1880, of £150,000, at
4 per cent., for further extension to San Fernando. Amount
repaid on the loan of 1874, £5,840. Total debt now due for
railways, £392,380. To this debt should be added the following
sums, for which the colony is responsible, viz. : £12,800, residue
of a sum of £86,510, borrowed at 6 per cent., 1856-65, for the
formation of tram-roads ; £1,600, also residue of a sum of £7,000
taken at 6 per cent., in 1860-61, for the repair of roads in South
Naparima ; £7,500, balance due on £15,000, borrowed for the
construction of a tram-road at San Fernando. Total amount
due, or guaranteed by the colony, £414,280. This debt is
repayable as follows : —

Loan of 1874, by half-yearly appropriation out of the
general revenue equal to 3 per cent, on the total nominal value
of all debentures previously issued.

Loan of 1878, by half-yearly appropriations out of general
revenue for payment of interest, and one-half per cent, on total
nominal value of all debentures issued on account of their re-
demption.

Loan of 1880. Half-yearly appropriations out of general
revenue for payment of interest, and one-half per cent, on total
nominal value of all debentures issued on account of the re-
demption.

Loan of 1856-65. Yearly payments by estates deriving
benefit from the undertakings, to meet interest and redemption.

Loan of 1860-61. Yearly payments bytheestates in the locality.

Loan of 1864-65. Annual payments by the Borough Council
for interest, and £600 for redemption. The balance of the loan
(£7,600) has been taken over by the Government, together with
the tram-road, in the expectation of being reimbursed from the
profits of the undertakings.

216 TRINIDAD.

The capital account of the two railways (about forty-two
miles) may be said to stand at £392,300. Working expenses
estimated at £11,000 ; interest and sinking-fund, £15,000 :
total, £26,000 — a sum which it is reasonable to expect the receipts
will amply repay. They were, in 1878, £22,036; in 1879,
£25,085. Working expenses, in 1878, £12,421; in 1879,
£13,925, leaving a net revenue of £9,614 for the former year,
and of £11,089 for the latter. The receipts for the last ten
months of the present year (1880) are highly encouraging. Total
debt of the colony on 31st December, 1882, £591,760. Rail-
ways : debt, £585,360.

By published returns of available assets and immediate lia-
bilities of the Colonial Government, on the 31st December, 1879,
the financial position of the colony appears to stand as follows : —

£ s. d.
Cash in hands of Custodes on Deposit Accounts ... 55,000 0 0

„ ,, Receiver-General 2,890 4 10

„ „ Suh-Receiver ..' 1,380 3 4

Crown Agents 10,170 2 0

Investment in Port-of-Spain Improvement De-) . r^ 0 0

bentures ) '

Advances to Sundry Pensions 30 0 0

,, on Account of Couva Railway 3,000 0 0

,, ,, Guaracara Tram-road ... 8,034 3 11

,, ,, San Fernando Tram-road 248 11 4

,, ,, the Arima, Couva, and) s7q9Ur „

San Fernando Railway j 57,925 15 3

Due by Couva Extension Railway for Sleepers I . nnf, n n

and Transfer Entries \ 4'UUU U °

' By Borough Council of Port-of-Spain for Hospital j l g- „ Q Q
dues ... ... ... ... ... ) '

Borough Council for Education and Metal from ) , „„ ,, 0

Gaol j 1'b7b ld 2

Sundry Persons for Hospital Dues and Establish- ) „ QAn , K .

ments { 2'847 15 4

Arrears of Water Rates 998 6 7

Police Superannuation Fund 31210 0

Liabilities.

Deposits

Due to Borough Council of Port-of-Spain for

Coffins, Rent, &c

Balance on Immigration Account ...

£72,981 7 2
Balance in favour of the Colony £81,905 18 7

This is, undoubtedly, a very satisfactory financial conditioi
especially when it is considered with reference to the general pro-
gress of the colony. The amount of specie in circulation in the

£154,887 5

9

£ s.
. 69,225 12

d.
5

958 4

7

. 2,799 10

4

BANKING MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 217

colony is taken in the Blue Book of 1879 at £50,000— evidently
mere guess than from any accurate information. The amount of
paper currency was estimated in previous years at £50,000,
which is probably very much below the mark. If under this
head be included promissory notes discounted by the bank, the
amount may be roughly estimated at between £300,000 and
£400,000 sterling.

The accounts are kept by the merchants and the bank in
dollars and cents ; by the public departments in sterling.

The only silver coin in circulation is the English coin.
Besides the English gold coin, United States and Spanish gold
are received in payments by merchants at their value. The par
of exchange, however, has been fixed by Order in Council at
$480 per £100. Gold coins: sovereigns, $4*80; half-ditto,
$2-40; United States eagle ($10), £2 Is.; half-eagle ($5),
£1 0s. 6d. Silver coins : half-crown, 60 cents ; florin, 48 cents ;
shilling, 24 cents ; dollar, 4s. 2d.

Sterling money was rendered the standard coin in the year
1845, previously to which period the Spanish or Mexican medium
had prevailed. This consisted of the dollar and its subdivisions.
There was also for several years in circulation a colonial coin —
viz., the quarter dollar and its subdivisions, the smaller of which
was equal to six cents and a half. The gold coin long continued
to be purely Spanish or Hispano- American — viz., the doubloon,
or $16 piece, the 8, the 4, and 2 dollar pieces.

Banking. — The Colonial Bank is the only establishment of
the kind transacting business here, and, as I believe, a very
profitable business. The exchange varies from 470 to 480
dollars, allowance being made for time and amount; deposits
taken at three per cent. ; money discounted at eight per cent.
Rate of interest, 8 and 10 per cent, on good security; small
sums, however, are often borrowed, on note, at 15, 20, and even
30 and 40 per cent.

Means of Communication — Roads and Bridges. — It cannot
be expected that a country but recently settled — only a bit along
the sea-shore under cultivation — should possess a superiority of
internal communication; and this is precisely the case with
regard to Trinidad. Moreover, materials for making roads and
keeping them in repair are not only scarce, but the metal being
in general limestone, is not very durable, and is procurable only

218 TRINIDAD.

from a few localities. The very nature of the soil itself— it
being, in many places, clay or clay-loam — is, when coupled with
our heavy rains, a very great obstacle to the formation of good roads.

During the prevalence of slavery, the commandants had the
charge of making, repairing, and keeping in repair the roads ;
the construction of bridges was out of the question. The free
inhabitants of each quarter were compelled by law to keep the
roads, in their respective districts, in good order, and for that
purpose a certain amount of days' labour was exacted, according
to their amount of property ; the commandant made an estimate
of the number of days necessary for the repairs, and summoned
each proprietor to furnish his quota, the roads being partitioned
among the different individuals, and, as a rule, the portion
nearest to each individual's estate allotted to him as his share ;
the work was afterwards inspected, and if not properly executed,
was required to be perfected.

Immediately after emancipation, it became necessary to
change that system, and no less than four ordinances were
enacted between the months of October, 1839, and March, 1844.
In the year 1846, however, an ordinance was passed providing
for the making and repairing, and keeping in repair, the roads,
bridges, and fences in the island of Trinidad. This ordinance
was made very comprehensive, and fully entered into the details
of the subject. The colony was divided into twenty-nine road
districts, and commissioners were appointed who had the manage-
ment and care of the roads in their respective districts, with
authority to regulate the roads already laid out; to alter or even
discontinue those they might regard as useless ; to ascertain and
define others. A portion of the roads was allotted to each
commissioner, and funds assigned.

Bridges were to be kept in repair by joint contributions from
adjoining districts. Although very comprehensive, this ordi-
nance never worked well ; nevertheless, it was changed only and
consequent on the new territorial division in the year 1849.

The new enactment divided the roads of the colony into
royal and ward roads. The roads termed royal were five in
number. They were placed under the superintendence of
surveyors and inspectors appointed by the Governor, while the
wardens of the several wards were charged with the superinten-
dence and keeping in repair of all other public thoroughfares not

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 219

being royal roads. The expenses of the ward roads were defrayed
from the ward funds, and those of the royal roads partly from the
ward funds and partly from the general revenue.

This ordinance was partly repealed by the Act of 1854; at
present all the roads of the colony are placed under the manage-
ment of the Public Works Department, and the expenses
defrayed from the public funds.

The frequent alterations of our roads' ordinances, the
apparent uncertainty which so long governed this most important
branch of the public service, must be a subject of surprise, and
nevertheless are easily accounted for, when matters are duly
considered. Laws may appear unexceptionable on paper, but
their execution may be so full of difficulties as to render them
null and nugatory. It would seem, on reading our road
ordinances, that provision is made for everything, except what is
most essential — viz., persons qualified to determine, direct, and
superintend the making and repairing of the roads. The wardens
had each in his district the charge of the roads and bridges ; and
yet many before their appointment had been merchants, clerks,
or planters at the best ; in fact, anything but fit agents for this
special duty. I must acknowledge, however, that it was a
prevailing opinion in the colony that any individual might be
turned into a good road officer — a great mistake, as I think.
The making and repairing of roads, especially the construction of
bridges, should be entrusted to persons having special knowledge.
The Public Works Department has lately been remodelled,
and a staff of competent engineers appointed ; yet I apprehend
that the department has not been properly organised in all its
details, a great deal being still left to untaught subaltern officers.
We should not lose sight of this ; a small portion of our roads
only is as yet macadamised or even properly drained; not a
few are mere bridle paths, and bridges generally are very
primitive structures. It will require time and money before our
highways are put in proper order. As I conceive matters, an
bngineer should be appointed to each province, and take charge
oi the roads of his province, especially of the main roads. The

ocal Road Boards should have the superintendence of the local or
ward roads, under the control and guidance of the engineer of

he province, it being their interest to have them in good condi-

ion. They might be of invaluable service.

CHAPTER VII.

PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY — AGRICULTURE — EXPORTABLE ARTICLES '. SUGAR, CACAO,
COFFEE, ETC. — ALIMENTARY ARTICLES : LIVE-STOCK, 'VEGETABLES, PLAN-
TAIN, MAIZE, RICE, MANIOC, YAMS, ETC. — FRUITS — COMMERCE.

This subject, from its importance, will be noted as fully as
possible under the two following heads — 1st, Agriculture ; 2nd,
Commerce.

Agriculture. — Trinidad is an exclusively agricultural country,
and such it must continue to be for an unlimited period, inas-
much as its prosperity entirely depends on the cultivation of the
soil and the exportation of colonial produce.

Agriculture, therefore, is of vital importance to the island,
and ought to be encouraged, and even aided at any expense.
This has already been done within certain limits. The immigra-
tion ordinance and the exemption from duty of machinery and
implements of husbandry are measures calculated to benefit the
agricultural interest. To these I may add the trespass ordinance,
and the clause of the law which makes the stealing of sugar-
canes or provisions an offence punishable by a heavy fine or
imprisonment.

The sugar interest being, by far, the most important, is
entitled to, and ought to receive, the largest share of protection ;
not, however, to the extent and the form it was once granted,
when all other cultures were made subordinate to that sole
branch.

The territorial ordinance was passed avowedly with the
object of penning up the labouring class on the existing planta-
tions. But instead of locating on, or returning to, sugar and
cacao estates, the emancipated bondsmen gave themselves up to
petty traffic, and devoted their children likewise to mechanical
trades ; or, again, took illegal possession of the public lands. The
towns and villages became crowded with a swarm of idlers and

IMPERFECT CULTIVATION. 221

swindlers ; and avenues to honest industry were obstructed by
those who, abandoning field occupations, originated a ruinous
competition in the various crafts to which they resorted. Hence
arose at the same time a scarcity of labour, not only in carrying
on the cultivation of our staples, but even the production of
alimentary articles.

Setting aside the discouragement created by the heavy
charges which, for so many years, weighed upon landed property,
there was, as there is still, a dislike among all classes to agricul-
tural pursuits. On the part of the emancipated, this was too
natural to be blamed, however much to be regretted. In their
estimation, slavery had stamped field labour with infamy, so much
so that servile in-door occupations were deemed more respectable
than any field work. On the other hand, agricultural pursuits
are disliked by the educated, both on account of the precarious
nature of the crops, and the difficulty of procuring continuous
labour ; also, because such pursuits require unremitting attention
and application. In fact, I really know of no occupation more
laborious than that of an overseer during the crop season.

The tiller of the soil is, however, more independent, and his
occupation less precarious, than that of a clerk, or even of a
mechanic, carpenter, mason, or any other; these latter are
entirely dependent on chance openings in their respective callings,
whereas the former is always certain of obtaining employment
and remuneration proportionate to his exertions.

" 0 fortunatos nimium sua si bona n6rint ! "

These are causes which have hitherto acted, and still continue
to act, in fomenting a prejudice against the sole branch of

Fdustry which we can follow here, and which may be regarded
the only foundation of our prosperity. For commerce itself
pntirely depends on agriculture ; and the consumption of imported
irticles of manufacture is in direct ratio with the prosperous or
[ldverse condition of the agriculturists.

I must acknowledge, however, that things, as they existed in
IS56, have been modified, and important changes introduced,
list by Sir Arthur Gordon, and more recently by Sir Henry
iug. Governor Gordon opened the crown lands to competi-
ng and, as a parallel measure, issued stringent measures against
squatters or illegal occupiers of crown lands. At present, land

222 TRINIDAD.

may be purchased at a comparatively low price, say £1 an acre,
exclusive of expenses for survey and registration. By an
ordinance introduced by Sir Henry Irving in 1879, the tax has
been rendered uniform on all lands, whether cultivated or uncul-
tivated, and at present no houses or buildings are exempted from
taxation. An impetus has thus been given to the cultivation
of the soil, and industrious habits fostered.

Agriculture, nevertheless, may be said to be very backward.
Not only are agricultural operations difficult in lands newly
cleared, and full of stumps and roots, but the classes connected
with agriculture are not, generally, guided by any method, and
the most primitive routine is the sole guide of the great majority
of husbandmen. The emancipated negro and the Indian immi-
grant may be said to be ignorant, as they were always employed
as mere mechanical agents, and had, besides, no interest to become
skilful. The great majority of the planters themselves may be
said to be unskilled. During the time of slavery, there was no
necessity for the display of agricultural skill ; and since emanci-
pation they have been so incessantly engaged in struggling for
their daily bread, as to have had but little time to devote to its
acquisition, either in theory or as a practical study.

What I have stated concerning agriculture is, a fortiori,
applicable to manufacture. Improvements in the manufacture
of sugar required expensive and complicated machinery ; means
and skill to work the same ; and, consequently, a large outlay of
capital, which the sugar planters had not, and could not procure
under difficult circumstances.

On the other hand, the cacao planter could scarcely eke out
a livelihood, even with the utmost exertions ; he dared not
improve his article, since he might not have found, on the spot,
purchasers ready to pay a higher price for a more costly article ;
nor would he run the risk of shipping any quantity on advance
of money, lest he should, at a future reckoning, be liable to a
reimbursement.

However, for some years past, great attention has been given
to the preparation of cacao, and little remains to be achieved
under this head. Except, perhaps, the conuqueros, or small
cottagers, cacao growers devote great care to the curing of the
seeds ; sweating or fermenting rooms are built, in which they are
almost hermetically heaped and allowed to undergo a thorough

IMPERFECT CULTIVATION. 223

process of fermentation ; proper houses are erected for trie recep-
tion and drying of the article on its being removed from the
sweating room. As a consequence, Trinidad cacao is well received
on the markets of Europe and the United States. It is generally
shipped by the proprietors to agents in Europe, the inferior
article only being sold in the colony.

Besides the two species or varieties — the Cacao Criollo and the
Forastero — there are not a few other sub-varieties exhibiting
distinct qualities, and, in my opinion, selection should be attended
to in the formation of any new plantation.

For many years drainage had been completely disregarded ;
lately, however, it has been found not only useful, but absolutely
necessary in certain localities ; and, where resorted to, the results
have been most remarkable.

At one time, and that of not a far back date, the cacao
plantations were negligently weeded with the cutlass twice a year,
mainly to facilitate the gathering of the crop. They were not
methodically pruned, nor cleared of parasites, mosses, and lichens.
I have often thought that the horse-hoe might be employed in
the cacao walks with advantage. Generally speaking, the weeds
to be found on cacao plantations are soft and not very deep-
rooted, whilst the mould being deep, there would be very little
obstruction to the working of that instrument. The work done
I by the horse-hoe would certainly be better and cheaper also, I
believe, than that performed with the cutlass; for, with the
latter, the grass and weeds are only cut at from one to two
inches above the ground, the surface not being even scratched ;
whereas, with the former, there would be a thorough deep
weeding. But the horse-hoe could not be used in old-established
cacao estates, where the roots of the " Bois Immortel 3> and those
of the cacao trees themselves form an inextricable network of
[impediment to a surface action. Such practice should be resorted
ito primarily in young plantations, and then might be continued
las they advanced in growth ; this I throw out as a suggestion to
iany enterprising cacao planters. The common hand-hoe, how-
ever, ought to be used immediately around each plant. This is,
also, as far as I know, the practice on the Spanish main, where
the cultivation of the cacao plant is better understood than in
liny other country. A friend of mine tried the fork in his cacao
tlantation, and with very beneficial results, as he informed me.

224 TRINIDAD.

Sugar is found in many plants ; but it is mainly manufactured
from the sugar-cane and beet-root. The sugar industry has, of
late years, made rapid and signal progress ; the beet-root has, by
careful cultivation, and scientific appliances to the manufacture
of sugar, become the source from which is obtained nearly one-
half of the whole quantity of sugar produced in our days, so
much so that the chances are that we will succumb in the com-
petition, unless we pay greater attention to the culture of the
cane and the manufacture of sugar. Our sugar industry, I
grieve to say, is going to ruin on account of the imperfect
methods followed. The time has arrived which imperatively
calls for a change of system.

The science of husbandry is no longer that confused congeries
of incoherent precepts, which for so long a period formed its
fundamental structure. Taught by chemistry and meteorological
observations, it has, by degrees, assumed among the other
sciences the high position to which it is eminently entitled.
But the precepts of that science vary in their application with
the climate, the soil, and the different properties of the plants
themselves; so that methods of culture, though based on
uniform principles, are but the digested result of a series of
individual observations, made under the same climate and in
various localities, not only respecting tillage, manuring, plant-
ing, drainage, &c, but also regarding the economical manage-
ment of properties. Hence the great utility of agricultural
societies, of agronomic stations, or at least of occasional agricul-
tural meetings, at which any member possessing aught of
interest to communicate might contribute his quota of informa-
tion to the general stock. I am sorry to say, however, that the
proceedings of our planters are generally governed by egotistical
individualism. Instead of widening the circle of his observa-
tions, each individual seems satisfied with contracting it within
the bounds of the estate which he manages. Further still, not
a few conceal from their nearer neighbours their success as well
as their failures ; for they are under the impression that their :
knowledge is more enlarged, their experience more sound, and
their system superior; some even refrain from friendly inter-
course, lest they should be taken by surprise, and thereby
disclose some important secret, of which each conceives himseli
the sole possessor. But let those who imagine they have little

SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. 225

or nothing to learn from others, or believe themselves in possession
of secrets, be at once undeceived, for this is the sure symptom of
an ignorance blind to its own errors and defects, or of a vanity
which dreads being eclipsed by contact with a superior intelli-
gence. It is an undoubted fact that the most skilful and best-
informed can, and do at times, derive profit from the experience
of others, even of the most ignorant. For, in agriculture, the
field of observation is unlimited, and what had escaped the
attention of the most superior mind, may have been remarked by
one vastly inferior in intellect ; or that which was but superficially
observed by one individual, may have been deeply examined by
another.

I readily acknowledge that the cultivation of the sugar-cane
has made some progress ; that inquiries have been instituted ;
but a great deal more remains undone. We should follow the
example set us by the beet growers. Selection is now considered
as a necessary ingredient in the successful cultivation of plants.

There are, as I think, several species, and many more than
twenty varieties, of cane, each having its peculiarities — some
growing better in poor soils, and resisting better the effects of
droughts ; others thriving in stiff lands : some richer in sugar ;
others containing a larger proportion of foreign matter; and
yet I am not aware that any series of experiments have been
instituted with the object of obtaining reliable data on the
subject.

The Tahitee cane is universally held as the best for all pur-
poses, so much so that by many inquiries are considered as
futile ; but comparative experiments would either corroborate
■ the general opinion, or might show that, under peculiar circum-
stances, some other variety should obtain preference, and the
matter would then be finally settled. It has been ascertained
that the cane not only grows better and more vigorous in soils
rich in lime salts, but yields a juice which is more easily mani-
pulated. The composition of the sugar-cane is pretty well
known at present, and that composition is far from being
uniform; in this respect, the variety cultivated has its influ-
ence ; the component parts of the juice vary not only in the
different varieties, but in the same variety, according to circum-
stances. Our knowledge of the general composition of the cane
should teach us the manure most suitable to its perfect growth.

226 TRINIDAD.

On every estate, therefore, there should be kept a book showing
the composition of the different cane-fields — such knowledge
being, in my opinion, the only rational means of determining
the best manure applicable to each field.

I would urge, in order to obtain the best results, the necessity
of co-ordinately performing agricultural operations. It is very
generally assumed that it suffices, for securing success, to perfect
one of those important operations which modern agricultural
science counsels, the others being neglected. This is a great
mistake. Those various operations — viz., drainage, manuring,
the pulverisation of the soil by the means of implements, &c. —
however important they are, may signally fail if performed
singly ; or, at least, they will not produce permanent and com-
plete results. For instance, we do not derive from drainage all
the benefits we should expect if the ground has not been pre-
liminarily well prepared. Hence the great utility of modifying
the physical properties of the soil by the means of correctives,
and the addition of proper manures ; by deep ploughing, disin-
tegration of the subsoil, and by irrigation. Equally so with the
uses of the plough ; performed singly, and without the aid of
correctives, manures, &c, ploughing ultimately impoverishes the
land. On the other hand, manuring has not its full effect if
other circumstances do not favour vegetation ; in fact, manures
may then turn waste agents.

It is, therefore, most important that all agricultural meliora-
tions should be performed concurrently and in unison.

But it is only by adopting the system of intensive culture
that we can expect to carry out the above suggestions. On the
other hand, the adoption of the intensive system pre-supposes
the disjunction of agriculture and manufacture. In fact, they
are two distinct branches ; and it is not entirely due to the agri-
culturist that the beet-root has been able successfully to compete
with the sugar-cane ; a great deal of that success is attributable
to the assistance of chemistry and chemists, which taught the
beet growers the most scientific and most profitable method of
working. We know how to obtain the best sugar. Improve-
ments, however, should begin in the field, and planters should
look to one ton and a half, and even two tons, per acre, as an
average.

Alimentary Articles. — Cerealia. — Indian corn or maize

MAIZE. 227

(Zea mats). Inferior to wheat only, in point of nutritive quali-
ties, the Indian corn is one of the most nourishing grains, and
superior to rice, rye, barley, or potatoes : the proportion of starch
is 67 '55 per cent.; of gluten and other azotised substances,
12*50 ; of fatty matter, 8*80 ; whereas that of bran is only 5' 90.
— (Payen). It has been ascertained that individuals subsisting
on this grain are, in general, stronger and more robust than
those using either rice, barley, or potatoes. Indian corn is also
a very wholesome aliment, and forms the principal article of food
of nearly one half of the southern population of Europe, of a
very large proportion of that of Asia and Africa, of nearly the
whole population of South America, and of a great part of North
America. Maize grows well in Trinidad, and thrives remarkably
in good soils : the average yield per acre is from twelve to
fifteen barrels in ears ; its price varies from 80 cents to 2 dollars
per barrel, and the cost of raising the crop per acre from the seed
is about 8 dollars — under our present imperfect system of culture.
Corn is raised either in high or low lands ; when in the former,
it is planted at the commencement of the wet season, and in the
latter part of May; in low lands, in January or February — so
that two crops may be commanded every year. It is planted in
holes of slight depth, being made with the point of a cutlass or
a sharp-pointed stake, at a distance of four feet apart, from three
to five grains being cast into each hole. When at about three
weeks' growth, it is well hoed, and weeded once more when two
months old : it comes to maturity within four or four and a half
months. During the wet season the plant is bent, so that the
ripe ear hangs downwards, and thus the infiltration of rain-water
within the husk is obviated. The maize of Trinidad is different
from that cultivated in the United States and Europe ; it grows
here from eight to ten feet high ; the grain is smaller, less flat,
and of a deep yellow hue. As an article of food, it is preferred
both by man and animals, the latter seeming to fatten much more
solidly and readily on it. With all these advantages, maize
is but sparingly cultivated, mostly on account of the difficulty
of protecting the grain against the ravages of the cereal beetle,
that spoils it in a very short time.

True, no method has yet been adopted for its preservation.
Both the grain and meal are imported annually from the United
States of America and Venezuela. Corn-meal is imported to the

228 TEINIDAD.

amount of 8,988 bushels, value £5,906 sterling. The price of
United States corn varies from 1 dollar 80 cents to 3 dollars per
bag of two bushels, and that of meal from 4 dollars to 6 dollars
per barrel.

In the present position of the colony, and with a very scanty
agricultural population, it cannot be expected that corn should
be cultivated for exportation ; but it certainly might and ought
to be produced in a sufficient quantity for home consumption.

Rice (Oryza sativa). — This grain grows very well in Trinidad*
and yields from six to seven barrels per acre. The culture of rice,
as conducted here, does not require any great amount of labour
or care ; whereas, the land should be well and thoroughly pre-
pared before the seed is committed to the soil. Rice is either
sown or planted : planting is a more tedious but much more
profitable operation. It should be planted at intervals of eight
inches, from three to five grains being put in each hole. Trans-
planting is unknown. Rice is sown or planted at the beginning
of the wet season, and may grow without the aid of artificial
irrigation. It is cultivated either in high or low grounds ; in
the latter it grows more vigorous, and is very prolific. There
are two distinct varieties of rice cultivated here. The one (nelou
kar, Ind.) is of a reddish colour, and small in size ; it seems to
be hardier than the other sort, but is not so prolific, and grows
in the worst soil, provided the latter has been thoroughly
burned. The other species (nelou samba) is more vigorous, but
requires a better soil, and thrives in low lands, where it shoots
up, at times, to the height of from five to six feet ; its grain is
as large and white as that of the Carolinas.

Rice comes to maturity within three months and a half;
heavy showers prostrate it to the ground, and, in that state, if
not cut within a few days, it germinates.

The inhabitants cultivate this grain generally for their own
use ; they reap and preserve it in the straw till required for
use, and then bruise it in a wooden mortar to separate the grains
from the husk — a very tedious, imperfect, and consequently, a
very expensive process.

The proportion of starch in prepared rice is 89*15 per cent.;
of gluten and other nitrogenous substances, 7*05; of fatty
matter, 0*80; bran, only 1*10 — (Payen) — and yet it forms the
basis of the alimentary diet of the eastern populations. We

RICE — GUINEA CORN — MUSACEJ3 PLANTAIN. 229

import annually 15,899,319 lbs. of rice, value £132,543; duty
paid in 1879, £17,224. The importation from the East Indies
has greatly increased with the immigration of labourers from
that country ; the quantity imported in 1879 was 14,762,749 lbs.
Rice might be produced here in sufficient quantity for the
island consumption, without any danger to the public health;
and large tracts of land, which now lie comparatively waste,
either from their infertility or from the difficulty and consequent
expense of draining the soil, might be thus rendered highly
productive.

We cannot, however, hope for such a desirable consumma-
tion unless some person undertakes the cultivation of rice on a
certain scale ; or, again, several persons might join in the under-
taking, and import at the same time the necessary machines for
the thrashing and cleaning of the grain. A gentleman recently
imported one such machine, in the hope that he might obtain
from Coolies a sufficient quantity of rice in husk to make a fair
experiment, either by buying from them, or by inducing them
to send their rice to be cleaned. I am under an impression
that he has not yet had the opportunity of making a trial. I
wish him God speed.

Guinea Corn (Andropogon sorghum and Andropogon sacchara-
tus) .-—Two species are cultivated here to a very slight extent,
and that not as an aliment, but rather as fodder ; they are very
prolific, and might be raised as a supply of grain for poultry.
Indian corn, however, will always be preferred.

Musacea. — Plantain (Musa paradisiac a). — Like all cultivated
plants, the plantain has many varieties : there exist, however,
three distinct species. The Horn plantain (Musa paradisiaca) —
from the resemblance the fruit bears to the horn of a young
bull ; the French and the Dominica plantain (Musa regia) ;
Bananas (Musa sapientum). The Horn plantain is more exten-
sively cultivated than the other species, being hardier and not
requiring frequent replanting; but though the fruit is much
larger, whence it also obtains the sobriquet of Horse plantain, its
bunch is not so well supplied, having ordinarily but twenty-five,
and often fewer, plantains or fingers to the bunch ; as an edible,
it is also much coarser than the other species. French or Maid
plantain : the body of this plant is of a dark violet colour, as
also the nerves of the leaves ; the fruit is smaller than that of

230 TRINIDAD.

the former, but the bunch is supplied with a much greater
number of plantain-fingers, averaging about sixty and eighty,
but sometimes from one hundred to one hundred and thirty.
This species is regarded as more delicate than the others, par-
ticularly when ripe. Dominica plantain : this is a variety of the
latter ; though the body is exactly like that of the Horn plan-
tain, the bunch, however, resembles that of the French ; but the
fruit is somewhat shorter and plumper. The plantain is exten-
sively used in Trinidad, and on the neighbouring continent : it
is a cheap, wholesome, and nutritious diet, and perhaps the most
productive of all alimentary plants — in fact, field labourers
contend that it is better suited to the support of their strength,
in manual labour, than bread — at any rate, it forms the staff of
life to the generality of Creoles. Its nutritive value has not
yet been ascertained, but Boussingault considers it superior to
that of potatoes ; it is also superior, in general opinion, to that
of cassava and rice : it may rank as a farinaceous aliment, con-
taining albumen and gum. The plantain is used either in the
ripe or green state : in the former it is eaten either as a fruit, or
prepared in various ways with sugar and spices, as confectionery.
When green, it is either roasted, dressed with meat, or simply
boiled, and afterwards crushed in a mortar, so as to form a thick
paste, which is used instead of bread. Plantain may be regarded
as the most productive of all alimentary plants; the yielding
per acre is, according to Humboldt, 155,000 pounds; and 125,000
pounds, according to Boussingault. The plantain requires a
good deep soil and a sheltered position, being easily prostrated
by strong winds. It is propagated by sprouts (improperly called
slips) which are planted at ten feet apart. From five to seven
of these young shoots or suckers spring out of and around the
parent stem. The fruit, or rather the bunch of fruits, makes its
appearance between eight, nine, and twelve months. The young
shoots then give their fruit in succession, for two, three, or even
many years, according to the climate, fertility of the soil, and
the caie bestowed on them. A plantain walk requires only occa-
sional weeding and pruning. We import from Venezuela about
7,000,000 plantains annually — value, 53,000 dollars.

Bread-fruit (Artocarpus incisa). — Artocarpacea. — The bread-
fruit, so invaluable to the inhabitants of the Polynesian Islands,
is perhaps too much neglected in the western archipelago ; for, I

BREAD-FRUIT — YAM. 231

although little nourishing-, it is a wholesome aliment. A few-
trees only are met with in the island, and yet it would form an
invaluable resource for the poor ; or, at least, it might serve to
feed or fatten swine. The bread-fruit tree thrives in good or
even poor soils, and requires very little or no attention. It is
very prolific — each tree bearing, every season, from seventy-five
to one hundred and sixty pods, and each pod affording sufficient
for a meal for two persons. They sell at about two cents each.
It is propagated by cuttings from the roots ; the root is severed
from the tree, and raised from under the ground ; after about
three weeks, buds begin to appear on the part thus raised ; it is
then taken up and separately planted. Incredible as it may
appear, the poorer classes profess a great contempt for this
article of food : it is only good, they say, for pigs ; and cooks in
respectable houses object to buying bread-fruits at the markets ;
it is a vulgar vegetable.

Tubercles (Dioscoreacece) . — Yam {Dioscorea). — This is the
most important of colonial tubercles. It is farinaceous and
wholesome, containing, according to Payen, twenty-seven per
cent, of nitrogenous principles. It may be used as a substitute
for bread, either boiled or pounded after boiling, or dressed with
meat : another advantage is that it keeps for several months,
provided it be laid. up in some dry place. There are two species
of Yams — Dioscorea Triphylla, and Sativa, the hard and the
soft leaved. Amongst the former, the Portuguese and Guinea
Yams are the best varieties, and most farinaceous. The Guinea
Yam gives the best and quickest return, but it germinates early
in March. The Portuguese sort comes in later and preserves
better, but does not give so good a return. Both varieties also
resist the attacks of the parasol-ants much better than any other
kinds.

The different varieties of water yams, or the soft-leaved
species, are more prolific but not so delicate : they come in later,
and keep until the middle or end of July. With proper care and
attention yams grow well in any land, but they thrive best in
good soils, particularly in loam and on hills. The soil must be
well prepared for the reception of plants ; generally, large holes
or trenches from eighteen to twenty-four inches deep and two
feet in diameter are dug, and filled with decaying vegetable
matter, or trash, then covered with earth and the plant placed

232 TRINIDAD.

below in the hole, or trench. Some people are content with
raising mounds about two feet high, in which they lay the
plants ; they are commonly set at four feet apart with a prop
stuck in the central interval of every four plants, to serve as a
support to the vine. Yams are generally laid in when they ask
to be planted, to use a local expression — that is, when they send
forth shoots, which they infallibly do, however dry may be the
place where they have been kept. The tubercles may be dug up
in December, or after nine months ; they weigh from twelve to
twenty-five pounds ; and an acre of land, well prepared and
properly attended to, may yield from 7,000 to 9,000 pounds.
The outlay may be calculated at from sixty to seventy dollars
per acre. Yams commonly sell at three dollars per 100
pounds.

Cush-cush (Dioscorea alata). — The cush-cush is very different
from the yam, and is perhaps the most delicate of all known
tubercles ; but, with the drawback of not keeping beyond a few
days, it cannot be expected that it will ever be cultivated to any
great extent. The tubercles weigh from two to four pounds, and
a single plant may give from forty to sixty pounds. The cush-
cush requires a good light soil, and the same care as the yam ;
it grows from tubercles which must be planted immediately after
being dug. The crop is from February to May.

Euphorbiacece. — Manioc or Cassava root (Jatropha manihot).
— This is divided into bitter and sweet cassava; the latter of
which is an edible root, very farinaceous, and may be used either
boiled or roasted. The bitter cassava is poisonous, and must
undergo certain processes before it can serve for food ; there are
three varieties of the bitter kind. From the roots are prepared
flat cakes called cassava bread, and also a coarse meal known as
farine, or manioc meal ; both of these are extensively used as a
substitute for bread, especially the farine, which keeps a long
time when properly stored. From the same part of the plant is
also prepared a fine starch, which is in great request among
washerwomen.

To be made into these various preparations the roots are first
scraped clean, then washed, and grated ; after this, the pulp is
pressed so as to extract nearly all the juice it may contain.
When the pulp is to be made into cakes, it is laid on an iron
plate over a fire, and baked to the required point ; when to be

CASSAVA EOOT — SWEET POTATO. 233

converted into meal, it is placed in a sort of large pan, or on a
similar plate with a low rim, and stirred backwards and forwards,
as well to favour the regular diffusion of heat throughout the
mass, as to prevent its burning or uniting in lumps. The juice
is allowed to subside for two or three days, and then drawn off,
when a fine starch is found deposited in the vessel. From this
juice is also prepared a pungent sweetish sauce called cassaripe,
which is much esteemed by the natives, and also highly relished
by Europeans. The bitter cassava is highly poisonous, and no
culinary process will deprive the pulp of its deleterious proper-
ties, unless the juice be previously expressed. All kinds of
animals as well' as man are poisoned by eating the roots, but
particularly by drinking the juice of the bitter cassava. Agoutis,
however, lapas, and even pigs, may and do feed on the roots
fresh in the soil, and when covered with earth, without apparent
injury. Pigeons have been seen to drop dead, without even
tasting it, from merely perching on the margin of the vessel
containing the juice. The active principle, or poisonous agent
of the bitter cassava is hydrocyanic acid, which is distinctly per-
ceptible from its strong smell. The best counterpoison, perhaps,
is salt water. Sweet cassava comes to maturity within six or
nine months, bitter cassava within ten or fourteen months ; the
latter may also be allowed to stand over for two years and above,
when planted in a well-drained soil. The cassava may be grown
in soils of moderate fertility; it however thrives best in clay
loam, and an exposed situation, as on the slope of hills. It is
propagated by cuttings, which must be planted in the driest
season — in March, for instance. The soil having been well pre-
pared, holes are dug about six inches deep, and the cuttings
thrust in. The yield in good soil is from fifteen to twenty
barrels an acre. Cassava does not keep more than two or three
days, and must be manufactured into cakes and meal as soon as
possible. A large quantity of the starch is imported from the
Main, particularly from Maturin.

Convolvulacece. — Sweet potato {Batatas edulis, Ipomea ba-
tatas).— This is a very delicate and wholesome tubercle, which is
very extensively cultivated in some of the old islands ; but in
Trinidad it is raised on a very small scale, although it thrives
well in the light loams of the colony. Barbadoes, St. Kitts,
Grenada, and St. Vincent have the privilege of supplying the

234 TRINIDAD.

market of Trinidad with yams and sweet potatoes to the amount
of nearly £1,200 sterling yearly.

Aracete — Tanias (Caladium esculentum and Colocasia anti-
quorum). — Several species of caladium are cultivated in Trinidad ;
some of them, as the plantain tania (so called from its size and
form), grow very large, and are an excellent food. The tania
may be ranked amongst farinaceous substances, and is very
wholesome : the part used is the rhizoma, or underground stem,
which is generally boiled.

Vegetables. — Most of the vegetables of temperate climates
may be grown in Trinidad, from December to May or June ;
but during the rainy months they suffer from excessive humidity,
and are liable to rot ; native vegetables, on the contrary, thrive
well during the wet season. Good carrots and turnips are
grown, as also excellent cabbages, though small. Three different
beans, being species of Phaseolus, are cultivated here — the
French, the red or dwarf, and the black bean ; the latter is very
prolific, but on account of the dark colour of the husk, is com-
monly prepared as French beans, or as salad ; it is particularly
abundant during the wet season. Together with these may be
classed several species of peas (Lolichos) — of which three different
kinds are much used ; they are known by the French under the
respective names of pois-souche or the stump pea, the black-eyed,
and pois chiches, all of which, with the pigeon or angola pea
(Cytisus cajanus), are commonly sold in our markets. It is to be
regretted that more attention is not paid to the cultivation of the
latter pea.

The Cajan is a shrub which may be planted on the borders
of cane-fields, or of any other cultivation, so as to have the
benefit of the tillage necessary for the growth of more important
plants. It is a very good vegetable when dressed soon after
being gathered. The pigeon pea is also excellent for restoring
the fertility of fallow lands.

The Ochro {Hibiscus esculentus) is abundant ; tomatoes
{Solanum ly coper sicum) and melongens {Solanum melongena) are \
plentiful, and require but little attention. Pumpkins and
squashes {Cucurbita maxima and melopepo), as also the christo-
phine or chouchow {Sechium edule) require no other trouble than
that of planting. Jerusalem artichokes (Heliantkus tuberosus),
cucumbers (Cucumis vulgaris), and radishes (Raplianus saliva)

I

VEGETABLES — ANIMAL FOOD. 235

are likewise brought to market, together with the following
culinary herbs : — Lettuce, parsley, thyme, and water-cresses ;
onions and shallots [Allium ascalonicum) , spinach (Spinacia
oleracea), goment (Solatium morella), and the foliage of tanias.

We import annually a large quantity of vegetables, either as
preserves or fresh. Preserves are imported mainly from France.
The total quantity imported may be estimated at £31,975 sterling
— from France, £3,374; Portugal (potatoes and onions), £3,711 ;
United States (potatoes, cabbages, beet-root, &c), £8,183;
British West Indies (yams, sweet potatoes), £5,304; Venezuela
(plantains, peas), £7,217.

Animal Food. — The animal food of the population consists
of salt provisions and fresh meat, including game of all kinds.

Salt Provisions. — We import from the British Colonies of
North America and the United States, besides cod or salt fish
(local term), mackerel, herrings, and salmon, to the amount of
about one million two hundred thousand pounds — value £60,713,
of which £40,623 is imported from British North America. Salt
fish may be said to be the staple of the animal diet of the popula-
tion ; the richest as well as the poorest inhabitant of Trinidad
must have his salt fish at breakfast, and many use it at dinner
also. So constant and extensive is its use in the rural districts,
that it has long borne the flattering designation of " Planter's
Ham."

Salt beef, pork, and hams are imported from the British Isles
and the United States ; corned fish, salted hog, and tasajo or
jerked beef, from Venezuela. We import of meats (salted and
dried), 8,085,036 lbs. — value £45,353. We get our supplies of
butter from France and the United States mainly (483,781 lbs.
and 98,600 lbs.) ; total quantity imported, 619,949 lbs. — value,
£25,170 ; total quantity of lard imported, 610,686 lbs., of which
540,432 lbs. are from the United States— value, £10,163. Olive
oil, 34,668 bottles — value, £11,256, of which quantity France
sends us 31,690 bottles.

Live Stock and Fresh Meat. — Except poultry, the island rears
almost no animal food — nearly every ox slaughtered in the colony
being imported from Venezuela. The beef is not of the best
quality, as the animals, on arrival, are generally wild and lean ;
it sells at from 20 to 24 cents per pound. About 4,305 oxen are
imported annually, of which 3,652 come from Venezuela — value,

236 TTtlNIDAD.

£55,302. To these should be added 14,466 heads of other
animals (pigs, sheep, and calves) — value, £12,616. The cattle,
however, from the mainland, may be considered as an exchange for
goods, most of them being imported as remittances. Veal is very
scarce, and sells at 20 cents per pound. Goats and swine are
imported chiefly from Margarita and the province of Maturin ;
they sell at 20 cents ; sheep from the United States, Cariacou
(one of the Grenadines), and some of the old islands; mutton
may be said to be scarce and of average quality, except American
mutton; it sells at 30 cents, and even 35 cents. Except in a
few privileged localities, such as Icacos, Mayaro, and the Cocal,
sheep do not thrive in Trinidad. Swine succeed very well,
indeed, and can be easily fattened ; but people seem to find the
rearing too troublesome.

Poultry. — Although poultry is bred abundantly, particularly
on cacao, coffee, and provision estates, yet a large quantity is
imported from Margarita, and even from Grenada. Chickens are
subject to yaws (local term), and a very severe catarrh, or c/iack,
both of which destroy a great number at certain seasons ; it is
almost impossible to preserve young turkeys from the attacks of
the former distemper. Ducks are much less liable to disease, but
the breed is confined mainty to the musk species (Anas moschata),
though a few of the European species are here and there to be
met with. The opossum, the tiger-cat, and a large species of
falcon or hawk are great enemies to grown fowls, and a large
lizard, the mato (local), to young ones; alligators, also, some-
times make havoc among ducks. However, except turkeys, the
island produces poultry in nearly sufficient quantity for its own
consumption.

Pigeons are scarce, and are seldom sold in the markets. The
price for a pair is 50 cents ; for a fowl, from 50 to 70 ; for
a capon, from 80 cents to 1 dollar; ducks (a pair), 1 dollar to
1 dollar 50 cents; turkeys (a pair), from 2 dollars 50 cents to
3 dollars 50 cents ; the latter are mostly from the Main, and
sold on board of the launches from 1 dollar 60 cents to 2 dolla
Guinea birds, from 1 dollar 50 cents to 2 dollars per pair.

Fish. — The market is tolerably well supplied with the folio
ing, viz., snappers, king-fish, groupers, mullets, baracout
and lebranches. A species of carangue, known here by the
name of anchovy, is very abundant from the end of June to the

to

FISH — MILK — FRUITS. 237

middle of July. During the dry weather, the cascaradura (a
pond fish) is also sold in the markets ; it is much esteemed by
the natives.

There is, in addition to the above, a good supply of turtle,
principally from the Main ; morocoys, or land tortoises, are also
sold during Lent, and at other seasons.

Crustacea and Mollusca. — The following are in great and
general use : — Sea and land crabs, cray-fish, shrimps, lobsters,
palourdes, or mussels, cockles, and chipchips ; oysters, although
good and plentiful, are seldom offered for sale in the market.

Milk is not so plentiful as it ought to be ; but it may be had,
of good quality, for ten cents a quart bottle.

Fruits. — In Trinidad are found all those fruits which are the
produce of tropical climates : — Bananas (Musa sapientum) , five or
six varieties; mangoes (Mangifera indica), in abundance; for
the last few years grafted trees have been introduced from
Martinique and Cayenne — viz., Heine Amelia, Mangue Divine,
sans parielle, Mangue d'or, and Julie (the best of all) ; also from
India, the Gordon, the Peter, and the Bombay ; excellent oranges
{Citrus aurantium) , five or six varieties; Malacca apples {Eugenia) ;
pine apples (Ananassa sativa) ; mammee apples (Mammea Ameri-
cana) ; four or five varieties of sapodillas {Achras sapodilla) ;
Chili and Governor's plums (Spondias and Flacourtia) ; grana-
dillas and water-lemons (Passiflora Alata, P. laurifolia) ; sugar
apple, soursops, custard apples (Anona squamosa, A. muricata,A.
reticulata) ; three varieties of caimit (Chrysophyllum Caimito) ;
musk melons and water-melons (Cucumis melo, Cucurbita ci-
trullus) , the former scarce, the latter abundant ; pomegranates
(Picnica granatum) ; papaws (Carica Papaya) ; cashews (Ana-
car dium occidentale) ; Pommecy there (local), or cytherine apple
(Spondias cytherea) ; and several other sorts of tropical fruits.

Avogado Pear (Persea gratissima). — The avogado or aguacate
pear — the latter being preferable as the original Carib designa-
tion— is extensively used ; hardly, however, as a fruit, but rather
as a sort of vegetable marrow, which term has not inaptly been
applied to it. From it may also be extracted an oily substance,
which might be brought to serve for various purposes. The flesh
of the aguacate pear, when ripe, is remarkably soft, and forms an
excellent salad. The process of boiling, however, seems to develop
in it a bitter principle, which renders the oil prepared by ebulli-

238 TRINIDAD.

tion unfit for culinary purposes. It is presumable, however, that
this oil, when cold drawn, might be used at table as a condiment •
Such of it as has been obtained is limpid, of a greenish colour,
and has answered very well for burning in lamps. The pulp
contains from fifteen to sixteen per cent, of oil ; but only eleven
per cent, has yet been extracted. Although the aguacate tree
thrives best in good land, yet it grows in almost any soil ; it
requires very little care, and yields well. It begins to bear at
between five and six years, and continues in full bearing for
about twenty or thirty years. The fruit weighs from one pound
to a pound and a half. I have seen some weighing as much as
three pounds two ounces.

Grapes and European figs are very scantily cultivated ; prob-
ably on account of the parasol-ants, which are particularly fond
of the vine, and of an insect which attacks the fig-tree. Limes
and lemons {Citrus vulgaris, Citrus limonum) are very common j
the balata fruit (Mimusops globosa) is also sold in town and
country.

Exportable Articles. — The principal and almost sole articles
of export are sugar, molasses, and rum ; cacao, coffee, and coco-
nut oil. The cotton, hides, &c, exported from Trinidad, come
from the neighbouring cantons of G-uiria and Maturin, though
some of the former is cultivated in the island.

Sugar is, by far, the most important article of exportation ;
it is, in general, of inferior quality. For the last six or eight
years the vacuum pan has been adopted on several estates; on
Sevilla and Frederick estates, belonging to Messrs. Gr. Turn-
bull & Co., on Waterloo, the property of Mr. J. Cumming; and
a usine has been established on the Saint Madeleine estate by tl
Colonial Company, capable of manufacturing 5,000 tons of whit
crystallised sugar. It is calculated that this year (1881) thej
will manufacture from 9,000 to 10,000 tons. A good deal of the
susrar thus manufactured is consumed in the island. The toi
quantity of sugar exported in the year 1879 was equal to 66,811
tons. Trinidad has a large extent of good sugar land ; there
are now 52,163 acres under cultivation. Average yield per acre,
2,600 lbs. ; maximum, 5,000 lbs.

In good soil canes ratoon — 4.e.f are reproduced from the
original stools without replanting — for seven or eight years ; in
superior virgin land, newly cleared, for fifteen years and upwards.

EXPORTS— SUGAR. 239

Canes are cut at a growth of between twelve and fifteen months.
The crop commences as soon as the weather permits — say, in the
beginning of January, and continues till June, when the rainy
season sets in. Advantage is also taken of good weather towards
the end of the year — in the fall, as it is called — viz., in October
and November.

A system of culture had obtained in Trinidad during the time
of slavery, the apparent advantages of which are, in my opinion,
more than counterbalanced by its disadvantages ; it is known as
the stand-over system. Canes, though ripe, are allowed to stand
over for the next crop, at which time they are from twenty to
twenty-two months old. This system was mainly followed in
the Naparimas, and it is only there that some of its advantages
become apparent ; the yield per acre is undoubtedly better, but
the canes have been left growing for, at least, eighteen or twenty
months, instead of being cut at twelve and fifteen months ; and
a larger acreage should be kept under cultivation. The system
shows its advantages only where the soil is clayed, as in the
Naparimas, for instance ; but canes do not stand over in light
soils, even of the best quality ; they dry up or decay before they
can be cut, as has been experienced in Tacarigua, St. Joseph,
and Chaguanas.

It is only lately that the plough has passed into general use ;

for many years only a few planters would employ it ; even now

some object to its adoption. The pretext for retaining the hoe

was the nature of the soil, in some districts it being clayey and

the ground undulating, also the damage caused by the heavy

showers which prevail during the planting season, by which the

loosened soil is washed down the slopes. The steam plough has

been introduced, and is worked with marked advantage in flat

districts. Another useful instrument is the fork ; it is especially

, employed in turning up clods in the cane pieces, where other

I implements could not be worked without injuring the growing

I crop; also in hurrying the cane tracts. The horse-hoe and

cultivator are used for weeding the young plants. So far, much

progress may be said to have been achieved during the last

fifteen or twenty years.

There are two planting seasons — from May to the end of July ;
the practice should be followed only on those estates where soil
is gravel or sandy, as by February the plants are strong enough

240 TEINIDAD.

to resist the droughts of March, April, and May ; but, on the other
hand, they are not fit for cutting in the following year. The
best planting season is from October to January. During the
dry months planting may be experimented in the low damp
localities.

I have said that Trinidad sugar is of inferior quality ; and
yet, unless we improve that quality, we cannot expect to obtain
remunerative prices. The adoption of improved apparatuses and
methods is, by far, the safest plan. But improved apparatuses
are costly, and a series of unfavourable years and unremunerative
prices have had the effect of impoverishing the planters, who,
however willing they may be to introduce improvements, find it
impossible to do so; nor can they expect, under the circum-
stance, assistance from capitalists. They should not despair,
however, and relinquish all hope. Let them try the possible.
In Barbadoes, and Porto Rico, in Brazil, they do manufacture,
with a common set of coppers, moscovado, which sells readily and
with profit. What can prevent us doing the same ? I see no
reason why, with care and attention, we should not obtain
similar results.

If we could obtain from the cane a juice composed solely of
water and sugar, how easily could we, with the aid of heat,
eliminate the former to obtain the latter ! Unfortunately, cane
juice is not so simple in its composition, as it contains, in a
greater or less proportion, all the matters which its organs require
for their development and healthy growth — those which its
apparatuses needed for the normal performance of their functions;
those generated during the process of vegetation. Not only those
substances may vary with the different varieties of the plant, with
cane grown in different soils and under different atmospheric
influences, but they may also vary in the same cane, as is easily
ascertained by analysis. The unripe part of a cane — the top, for
instance, differs in many respects from the lower or ripe part ;
it contains those bodies which are found in young or unripe cai
And one may form an idea of that different composition
referring to the analysis made by Payen : —

Ripe cane — water, 71*04; sugar, 18*00; alluminous ai
other azotised substances, 0*55 ; salts, 0*28 ; other matters, 0*37.

Unripe cane — water, 79*70 ; sugar, 9*06, or 50 percent, less ;
azotised substances, 1*17, or more than 50 per cent. ; salts, 1*95 ;

SUGAR — MOLASSES — RUM — CACAO. 241

other matter, 1*09. Thus not only the unripe cane, say the top,
contains 50 per cent, less sugar, but the proportion of foreign
and fermentable matters is much larger. The unripe portions
of the cane yield only a poor juice, and difficult to operate upon,
and give sugar of inferior quality. Again, in canes which have
suffered injury, there are found anormal matters more or less
injurious. The cane juice is a liquor easily affected by external
influences, and quickly undergoes chemical changes, especially
under the action of heat. Planters, therefore, should be ex-
tremely careful to avoid anything which may bring such changes;
they should, without hesitation, cast out all injured canes and
unripe portions of healthy ones ; as little trash as possible should
be allowed to pass through the mill. The greatest cleanliness
should be enforced in every department of manufacture — from
grinding to potting ; all utensils used in the manufacture should
be washed several times in the day ; also the gutters and coppers
well, so as to prevent fermentation and the formation of acids
and inverted sugar. It will be objected that such minute pre-
cautions will entail trouble and expense. Undoubtedly ; but the
question is, whether a better article and more remunerative prices
would not be obtained. Of this, again, I have no doubt.

There are but few water-mills in the island ; no wind-mills ;
steam-engines are preferred, some turning twelve to eighteen
hogsheads a day, the majority from six to ten. The sugar is
put up in hogsheads, tierces, and barrels.

The quantity of molasses shipped in 1879 amounted to
1,777,540 gallons, of which 727,418 gallons were shipped to the
United Kingdom; 548,465 to British North America ; 314,506
to the United States ; and 116,100 to the French West Indies.

The Trinidad rum has been much improved lately, owing to
the introduction of the most approved stills. The quantity
exported in 1879 was 73,892 gallons, which, however, might be
much increased.

Cacao * (Tkeobroma cacao) is the article which ranks next
in importance to sugar. Quantity exported in 1879, 11,614,170
lbs., of which 7,646,878 lbs. went to the United Kingdom ;
3,283,460 lbs. to France, and 660,690 lbs. to the United States.

From its first settlement, Trinidad exported cacao ; and that

* " Cacao, not Cocoa," as remarked by Professor Lindley, " ought to be the
name for the Tkeobroma."

242 TEINIDAD.

cacao soon gained a reputation on account of its delicious aroma.
According to Gumilla, it was superior to that of Caracas and
other places, so much so, that the crops were bought and paid
for beforehand. In the year 1727, however, a terrible epidemic
spread in the cacao plantations. The trees were apparently
healthy and vigorous; the flowering abundant, giving fruits;
but none of them came to maturity, as the young pods dried up
before full growth. Cacao being the only article of export, the
commerce of the colony was crippled at once, complete and
irretrievable ruin soon following. The ruined and starving
colonists were compelled to seek refuge on the neighbouring
continent, taking with them their slaves, plate, and jewellery ;
the population was reduced, exclusive of the Indians, to the
scanty number of 162 adults ; the public revenue fell to the
derisory sum of 231 francs. Thirty years later, some Aragonese
Capuchin fathers were successful in their attempt to revive the
culture of the cacao in the island. They imported from the
continent a new species, the Cacao forastero, which, though
giving a produce of inferior quality, was, nevertheless, promptly
propagated as being hardier ; that is the cacao at present culti-
vated in the island.

Here, as in Venezuela, growers admit two distinct species or
varieties; they are the Creole cacao [Cacao criollo), and the
foreign cacao [Cacao forastero). Whether distinct species or
mere varieties, they have distinct characteristics. The former
produces the best specimens, and is extensively cultivated in the
province of Caracas. It is somewhat more delicate than the
Forastero, requires the best soil, and does not bear so abundantly.
It is otherwise pretty healthy and fruitful ; the pod is in shape
roundish, the shell thinner, the beans plumper and larger, from
twenty-five to thirty in number in each pod ; the mucilaginous
covering of the seeds less abundant, so much so, that two days
sweating will suffice to deprive it of such, whilst two days, or
two days and a half exposure to the sun will dry the beans ;
kernels of a cinnamon tint, light.

Cacao Forastero. — The tree is hardier, more robust, and
yields more abundantly ; the pod is elongated, the beans smaller
and flattened, of a darker colour inside, exhibiting a somewhat
astringent taste, whilst that of the Criollo is soft.

There evidently exist several species of Theobromas. Martius,

cacao. 243

in his monography, mentions the following : The Guayanense
(Aublet), the Bicolor (Bompland) , the Ovalifalium (De Cand.) —
this Theobroma, according to some, is the celebrated Soconusco —
Th. speciosum (Wildenow), Th. sylvestre, Th. microcarpum, Th.
glaucum, and Th. cacao (Linnaeus). This la/tter, according to
most botanists, supplies the cacao exported to the European and
American markets. It should be considered as the parent stock
of the numerous varieties now cultivated, all of which are the
products of hybridism.

As remarked by Mr. Prestoe : " Under the proceeds of cultiva-
tion, no matter how rude, for a very long period, the different
species having been brought together, an interminable inter-
marriage has been set up, and of course sustained to the present
day, in which we have varieties, not one of which is so constant,
that one can take the seed and be perfectly certain that the
progeny will be like the parent/'' This is the popular impression,
and growers of cacao will tell you that it matters not much whether
you select for propagation an apparently fine variety, as the
progeny is not invariably like the parent. Yet I think it a sound
practice to look for those varieties which are deemed the best. I
S may mention, in connection with this subject, that a friend
reported to me that he once planted some seeds of the beautiful
Sangre Toro ; out of many plants, one gave yellow pods, these
being, however, in every other respect, shape, seeds, &c, similar
I to the parent fruit. I may as well remark here that the red
i cacao often turns yellow.

" There are/'' adds our botanist, " various names uttered in
reference to various kinds of cacao ; but I do not find, even with
persons who seem to be able to understand that there are different
varieties of cacao, that the few names made use of are uniformly
applied; but with the majority of growers, there are neither

! different varieties nor names to distinguish such, beyond, perhaps,
'red cacao'' and ' yellow cacao/ As to cacao criollo, it is
■either one of the twenty-two varieties known to me."

Of those many varieties he has eliminated a few, the most

minent characteristics of which he briefly notes as follows : —

1st. (Forastero). Pods, ten ribbed or ten grooved, restricted

base ; colour, generally red ; beans oblong in the long section

nd round in short section.

2nd. (Colorado). Pods, five ribbed or grooved, more or less

244 TRINIDAD.

ovate and cordate ; colour, red ; beans, as foregoing, but some-
what irregular and elliptical in cross section.

3rd. (Cayenne). Very long and pointed pods; very rugose;
ten grooved ; beans, roundish ; pods' tissue ligneous.

4th. (Verdecico, or smooth pale green). Pods, five grooved,
thick pod substance ; colour, glaucous unripe : yellow ripe ;
beans, small rounded.

5th. [Reticulate, or Yellotv Criollo). Pods, obovate, five
grooved, reticulated ; beans, angular, flattish ; colour, pale green :
yellow, ripe.

6th. (Calabacillo). Pods, rounded, five grooved, shell ligneous;
beans, very angular and flat ; yellow when ripe.

In the race No. 1 is included the beautiful bright red cacao,
I take to be true Cundinamarca variety. Touched with No. 2, it
has a shorter pod with a fine bean. It is this variety which
gives the high characters to San Antonio ; touched with No. 5,
it gives the feature in the Torrecilla cacao.

No. 2 includes the big fleshy podded " Sangre Toro " (Bull
Blood).

I may well remark that Calabacillo is discarded by all careful
planters. Verdeeico I hold as identic with Truxillano ; this latter
is cultivated in preference along the Gulf, more particularly at
Yrapa and Yaguaraparro ; also Cundiamor. It would appear that
the five-grooved pods are more common in the best races, a
character easily recognisable.

The quantity of land under cultivation for the cacao is about
22,000 acres; in 1856 it was only 7,000 acres. Cacao thrives
in rich deep light soil, such as valleys and the banks of rivers.
Heat and also shade are necessary for its healthy growth. The
mean yearly temperature should be 27*50 centig., and trees must
be planted at intervals in the cacao walks, to afford protection
against the sun and strong breezes. Again, cacao plantations
prosper mainly in virgin lands, and should not be made to succeed
any other cultivation, if possible.

After the land has been cleared, it is picketted off at a
distance of twelve or fifteen feet ; the beans are then planted by
the pickets at twelve inches apart, and covered with plantain or
balisier leaves, which are removed so soon as the seed has germi-
nated. If the two plants succeed, one is removed altogether, or
for supplying a failure elsewhere — this being done at a growth of

cacao. 245

between twelve and eighteen months. The planting- season is in
July ; the seeds should be taken fresh from a ripe pod. A nursery-
is, at the same time, formed for the future supply of those plants
which may have not succeeded.

Previous to the laying-out of a cacao walk, plantain shoots
are set throughout, for the benefit of their shade to the young
plants ; a crop of maize is also raised, which, with the plantains,
assists in defraying the expenses of the first two or three years.
Some growers plant the slips of manioc round the young plants ;
they afford shade for a year or eighteen months, when the roots
are manufactured into cassada cakes, or meal. Slips, or better,
seedlings of bois mortel are also planted for the protection of
the more mature plants in future years. There are two species
of bois mortel, or Madre cle Cacao: the anauco {Erythrina
velutina) and the bucare {Erythrina umbrosa) . The Erythrina
umbrosa is harder and has a denser foliage than the E. velutina,
but the latter is preferred. However, the Umbrosa is preferable
wherever the soil is not of the best quality. The cacao tree
grows from twenty to thirty feet high ; it begins to bear a few
straggling fruits between three and four years, is in full bearing
at twelve, and continues to give good returns for a duration of
thirty years, after which period it declines. The cacao plant is
very delicate, and has, besides, many enemies. The north wind,
as also the irregular showers that may fall during the dry season,
are injurious to the tree itself, but chiefly to the blossoms and
young fruits, which they blight. The healthy growth of the
young plants may be arrested by the parasol-ants devouring the
tender leaves, or the deer nipping the terminal bud, and even
twisting the young tree. It has also an enemy in an insect of
the genus Prionites, which lays its eggs on the inner bark,
where the larva feeds, destroying the cambium. A species of
woodpecker {Bendrocolaptes) , as well as squirrels and surmulots,
destroy a large number of pods annually in search of insects, or
to feed either upon the sweet acidulated pulp which covers the
beans, or upon the beans themselves. The cacao tree is also very
liable to become covered with parasites, mosses, and lichens.

The average yield per acre throughout the island is 600 lbs.,
or about % lbs. per tree, the maximum being as much as
1,080 lbs. per acre, or little more than 3 lbs. per tree. There
may be said that there are two regular crops or pickings in

246 TRINIDAD.

the year, viz., the June and the December crops, extending
over two months ; there are, however, partial pickings in the
intervals. The pods come to maturity within three months and
a half, rain hastening ripening. They are detached from the
tree with a knife or with a blade of peculiar form, attached to
the end of a long pole, so as to reach the highest branches.
They are afterwards gathered into heaps, and each pod is opened
with a strong knife or short "cutlass. The beans are then taken
out, put into baskets, and carried to the curing-house, there to be
cured and dried. Different methods may be adopted for curing
and drying cacao for the market. According to one method, the
beans are immediately spread out in large flat boxes or trays, or
on an earthen floor, left exposed to the action of the sun, put
under shelter for the night, to be spread out again the next day ;
this is repeated till they are sufficiently dried to be packed into
bags.

The cacao thus prepared is of a red colour, flinty, heavy, and
bitter ; in fact, the worst sample from which to prepare chocolate,
but by far the best to bear adulteration, by admixture with
amylaceous substances.

The beans (when recently taken from the pods) are covered
with a sort of sweetish acidulated pulp, which it is necessary to
destroy ; this is done by submitting them to fermentation ; in
fact, no cacao can be pronounced a good marketable article
which has not undergone the process of fermentation or sweating.
With this object in view, the seeds are gathered in heaps, and
covered with plantains or balisier leaves, or blankets, and left in
that condition for four, five, six, or even seven or eight days,
according as the prevailing weather is dry or not. When they have
gone through a thorough process of sweating, they are spread
for a few hours, put in heaps again, and allowed a few hours'
more fermentation, say eighteen hours. They are then spread
on a drying earthen floor, and left exposed to the sun for a
shorter or longer period. This is the plan preferred on the Main,
and it is undoubtedly the best when there is fair weather and no
danger of rain ; but in no place, as I believe, is cacao buried as
a preparative for drying. When dried in trays or on a plank
floor, the beans are sometimes sprinkled with finely-pulverised
earth, when still damp from the sweating heaps. The plan
adopted in Trinidad is the following: — One or more curing-

CACAO. 247

houses are erected, according to the extent of the estate. A
curing-house consists of a floor, generally twenty-five or thirty
feet long, by fifteen or twenty feet wide, elevated three or twelve
feet from the ground ; two running roofs of thirty or thirty-five
feet long are made to run in opposite directions on rafters sup-
ported on pillars or wood posts. Under the floor, or by the side
of the curing-house, is a sweating-room, more or less spacious ;
it is so made as to close hermetically, with a lattice bottom
through which the juice or acidulated liquor from the fermenting
mass is allowed to run off and escape outside. When the cacao
has fermented a sufficient time, it is taken from the sweating-
room and spread on the floor; the roofing is then run off, to
allow the direct action of the sun ; it is put in heaps at night;
and spread again next morning, and so on for three, four, or five
days or more, till the beans are sufficiently dried ; they are then
put in bags and sent to the town.

Cacao has been analysed by several well-known chemists,
and we may say that it contains, as essential components, 1st,
a fatty substance — cacao fat — ranging from 36 to 46 per cent. ;
fecula, from 6 to 14 per cent. ; nitrogenous compounds, about
12 per cent.; Theobromine, 1 to 2 per cent. Theobromine is an
alkaloid characteristic of cacao, as Cafeine and Theine are
characteristic of coffee and tea, and yet very similar in their
properties.

" When we see," says Payen, u that the cacao bean, in its
composition, presents more nitrogenous matter than wheat ;
about twenty times as much of fatty substance, a notable propor-
tion of fecula, and a pleasant aroma which stimulates appetite,
we are inclined to admit that such substance must be eminently
nourishing. Experience has proved that it is really so. In fact,
cacao, intimately mixed with equal quantity or two- thirds of
sugar, to form the well-known beverage, chocolate, is a substan-
tial aliment under all circumstances, and capable of supporting
human strength during travelling/'

Trinidad cacao now sells from 70 to 90 shillings, the best
marks as high as 110 shillings per cwt. During the revolutionary
war of the Spanish colonies, the best Trinidad cacao sold for 28
dollars a fanega of 110 lbs., and continued to sell at a high price
—from fourteen to sixteen dollars — for several years. The
price began then to decline till, in 1827, it fell as low as three

248 TRINIDAD.

dollars, planters not taking the trouble of gathering their crops
the expenses of attendance thereon being greater than the price
offered. This falling off in the price of Trinidad cacao may
be attributed to various causes, general or local. The European
and British markets especially became glutted with importations
from Brazil and Guayaquil ; Spain, then at peace with her old
colonies, began to import cacao from Venezuela and Nueva
Grenada, so that the article became a mere drug, except the best
Caracas cacao. Unscrupulous speculators in the island also re-
sorted to most nefarious practices to defraud purchasers, not only
by the admixture of damaged and inferior with good cacao, but
by the addition of weighty substances; remunerative prices being
paid by them for the heaviest sort, the production of a bad article
was thereby encouraged, the Trinidad cacao gradually lost its re-
putation, and the producers were ruined.

Encouraged by the example of the late Mr. Charles Maingot,
the generality of planters have tried their best to improve the
quality of the article. Undoubtedly that quality has been and
may be still further improved by proper care and attention being
paid both to selection and the process of curing the seeds. But,
with all possible improvements, it seems a mistaken idea to expect
that, under present circumstances, " Trinidad might supply cacao
equal to anything produced in the best markets of the Magda-
lena, Soconusco, and of other places on the Spanish Main/' as
assumed by Dr. Lindley in his lecture " On Substances used as
Food, illustrated by the Great Exhibition." " Cocoa, or cacao,
as we should call it," says the learned professor, " is an article
of very large consumption. Enormous quantities of it are now
used in the navy, and every one knows how much it is employed
daily in private life. It is, moreover, the basis of chocolate ; but
we have evidence that we never get good cacao in this country.
The consequence is, that all the best chocolate is made in Spain,
in France, and in countries where the fine description of cocoa
goes. We get a cocoa which is unripe, flinty, and bitter, having
undergone changes that cause it to bear a very low price in the
market." This may have been true at the time Professor Lindley
delivered his lecture; and let me add that this " unripe, flinty*
and bitter cocoa " was the one prepared for the British markt
The English consumer did not know then the difference betw(
good and bad cacao : not the case now, however.

CACAO — COFFEE. 249

Undoubtedly Dr. Lindley is fully aware that if proper atten-
tion to culture and preparation can improve the quality of cacao,
there exist also local conditions — that is to say, u the temperature,
the soil, the exposure, and other circumstances " — which have
their share in modifying the quality. There are, moreover,
several varieties of the Theobroma, and the plain fact is that,
although Trinidad cacao may be classed next to that of Caracas,
it cannot bear comparison with cacao from Orituco, Guigue,
Cupira, &c, in the province of Caracas, or from Pedraza, in the
province of Varinas, and Rio Chico, in the province of Mara-
caybo, much less with that of Soconusco, which, during the
Spanish dominion, was exclusively reserved for the use of the
royal family.

Coffee [Coffea Arahica). — As Trinidad has never exported
much coffee, that which is grown in the island has not yet
acquired any repute. Nevertheless, very good coffee might
be produced here, and in abundance ; the coffee plant thrives on
our hills, at Saint Ann, Diego Martin, Laventille, and along
the southern coast, at Erin, and Moruga. If the culture of
coffee ever extend in Trinidad, the valleys of Caura and the
heights of Arima, Guanape, Aripo, and Oropuche will afford
a magnificent field for its cultivation. The coffee, like the
cacao tree, requires shade and protection, and the bois mortel or
the pois-doux {Inga) is planted along with the seedlings, as also
plantain shoots. The quantity of coffee exported in 1879 was
not more than 14,605 lbs., and the quantity imported equal
to 178,163 lbs., of which 146,243 lbs. were from Venezuela.
Trinidad, therefore, would not produce enough coffee for its own
consumption. Few of us, I expect, were prepared for this conclu-
sion. The price varies from fifteen to twenty cents a pound. The
cultivation of coffee may be carried on without much outlay, but
a large number of hands becomes necessary in crop time for the
gathering in of the berries, as they come to maturity all together
and germinate very quickly when they are left on the ground.
Women and children may be employed in picking and 'gathering
the crops. The berries are made to pass through the coffee-mill
to separate the seeds from the soft outer husk; they are
afterwards washed and dried, and made again to go through
the mill to be winnowed from the inner husk or parchment,
before being packed for exportation. These are operations too

250 TRINIDAD.

numerous and troublesome to leave any fair hope for the
extension of coffee cultivation in Trinidad — at least, with
its present scanty agricultural population. The Asiatic islands
and Brazil will, therefore, probably long enjoy the privilege
they have gained of supplying the markets of the world with
coffee. We should aspire to this at least, to producing sufficient
for our own consumption.

The coffee plant is subject to diseases which, in certain
localities, have proved most destructive. The fine coffee groves
of Martinique, Guadeloupe, and other West India islands
were thus completely destroyed ; and occasional attempts
to revive coffee cultivation have failed. At present the fine
coffee plantations of Ceylon suffer extensively from the leaf
disease.

For the last few years there has been a disposition to
cultivate coffee in the colony, a few persons trying the
experiment on a rather large scale with varieties supplied
from the Botanic Gardens mostly. Those varieties are the
following, as characterised by Mr. Prestoe : —

Liberian (Coffea Liberica). — "This extraordinary coffee has
become generally known to colonists from the accounts given
of it in the newspapers; the large size of the beans, and the
high price realised for this coffee, having first attracted the
attention of persons desirous of promoting coffee cultivation
in the British tropical colonies.

" It is indigenous to the West Coast of Africa, about Sierra
Leone and Liberia, where it appears to be almost the only
kind cultivated, and with much success, in hot and moist
lowlands, or hills of no great altitude. . . . This kind
of coffee may be regarded as a perfectly safe and most
valuable introduction to this island.

" The soil in which the plants in the Botanic Gardens have
thriven, is the ordinary red gravelly loam or clay-like deposit
found associated with quartz and schists throughout the
northern parts of the island.

" A glance at the Liberian coffee plant impresses one
with the great difference in the character of the plant
and that of the common or Creole coffee, and suggests
method of culture somewhat different. . . . With a sh
and general robustness of habit at least three times tl

COFFEE. 251

of the ordinary coffee, it assumes the character of a small tree
much more distinctly than any other of the better known
varieties. Its first branches and leaves are few and gross,
becoming smaller and more numerous and dense with age.
These peculiarities indicate that a system of rather wide
planting must be resorted to, and such treatment in pruning
as will induce a lateral development, viz., topping the leaders
permanently at seven feet, and the leading branches first at
three feet from the stem, and subsequently at one and two
feet at subsequent toppings, when the growth does not promise
to be sufficiently dense/'' Mr. Prestoe recommends planting
at a distance of sixteen feet, and interlocating the common
Creole coffee; these intermediate to be removed at a later
j)eriod, when the ground will have become completely covered.

"The narrow-leaved, from the Java Botanic Gardens,
probably quite as new to western cultivation as the Liberian.

"A species eminently adapted for cultivation in poor,
rocky, or gravelly soils. Resist droughts that would prove
fatal to the ordinary Creole coffee ; remarkably prolific, the
size of beans only second to that of the Liberian.

" The foliage is remarkable from being spare and drooping,
the leaf being much longer, but only one quarter the width
of an ordinary Creole coffee leaf, and of very leathery texture.
It is adapted for resisting the attacks of fungoid and insect
blight to which the moka and common coffees seem becoming
more and more liable.

" Sou/Here Coffee." — This coffee has been so named from
the district in which it was found growing in Dominica.
I My attention/' says Mr. Prestoe, " was attracted from a
distance to trees of this kind in the Soufriere hills by their
uniform fruitfulness and health, whilst being surrounded by
trees of Creole and moka coffee, all more or less affected with
blight, and impoverished by drought and barren soil. On examin-
ing the trees, I found they were quite distinct from any other
variety I had yet seen, in the general sturdiness of habit,
distinctly pendulous branch, deep green of the foliage, and
the leathery texture of leaf. Moreover, the trees were evidently
proof against insect attacks. The size of the bean of this
variety is unusually large, nearly equalling that of the
narrow-leaved coffee.

252 TRINIDA.D.

"This variety is eminently adapted for cultivation on
steep and barren hillsides, where it will develop much more
quickly and thrive when the Creole coffee would fail.

"Moka — varieties, Major and Minor. The variety dis-
tinguished as Minor is inferior in robustness of habit and size of
beans. The rate of growth of the former (Major) is much
faster, and it is also more prolific"

Mr. Prestoe adds : " It does not appear to be generally known
that the moka coffee is rendered more prolific by scorching sun-
heat up to a point of making the trees lose their leaves to some
extent, and thus it is that in the East the operation of gathering
is often effected by drawing the branches through the hand — not
picking the berries off the branches. Moka coffee-trees in this
island are often seen in the leafless condition alluded to laden with
fruit."

There is no doubt that high-price coffee can be produced in
Trinidad, all along the northern range, also at Erin and Moruga,
where the plant thrives and fruits to perfection. For some years,
in the beginning of the age, beautiful coffee plantations flourished
on the Laventille hills, but the insalubrity of the locality caused
their abandonment. The different degrees of excellence in quality
depend mainly on variety. It is important, however, to take into
consideration the conditions of soil and altitude.

I should recommend the cultivation of the Liberian variety in
our lowlands, of the Java narrow leaved, the Soufriere and the
major moka varieties on our hills, as they seem to be less liable
to disease, hardier, and more prolific.

Cotton (Gossgpium herbaceum). — Cotton was once extensively
cultivated in Trinidad — viz., at Mayaro, Chacachacareo, and
Guayaguayare ; and a few individuals made their fortunes by
its growth and exportation. This cultivation, however, was after-
wards abandoned for the more lucrative production of sugar.
Whatever cotton is now exported from the colony is the product
of "Venezuela. The soil and climate of Trinidad, though rather
damp, seem to be well adapted to the growth of cotton of the
best quality ; but the scarcity of manual labour and competition
with countries better situated in that respect, will, for a long
time, if not for ever, prevent the restoration of that cultivation
here.

Coco-nuts [Cocos nucifera). — The coco-palm thrives rema:

.

COCO-NUTS. 253

ably in Trinidad, and is cultivated to advantage in several dis-
tricts, either for sale in the nut, or for the manufacture of oil.
In a green state, the nut affords a pleasant cooling beverage, and
is sold at the rate of five cents for three nuts ; and at the rate of
one dollar per hundred in the dry state. The price of the oil
ranges between $1 to $1 50 c. per gallon. The quantity of
oil manufactured in the island had greatly diminished lately,
in consequence of large importations from the United Kingdom ;
but the price being unremunerative, the importation has decreased,
or even ceased, to a great extent, and there is now a tendency to
a rise in the price.

The coco-palm grows best along the sea-shore, in the blown
sand, especially where it is mixed with vegetable debris; salt and
a saline atmosphere are necessary for its healthy growth and full
development. The cultivation of the coco-palm has been in pro-
gress lately, and new walks have been formed at Irois and
Guapo, at Oropuche and elsewhere. The whole of the eastern
coast, Guayaguayare and Jicaeos are lined with groves of coco-
palms. The plantation now existing between the mouths of the
Lebranche and the Ortoire, known as the cocal, was primarily
formed accidentally by nuts being washed on shore from the
wreck of some vessel. The finest specimens, however, are to be
found along the Mayaro beach, some of the trees being seen to
flower at the early age of three years, which is very unusual
indeed, this palm beginning to bear fruit generally at five or six
years. The period of full bearing is at eight years and upwards,
when it brings forth a bunch of flowers every month, each bunch
having nine nuts on an average, some as many as twenty. Every
tree is calculated to yield at least one dollar net every year from
the sale of the nuts. Coco-palms are planted at twenty-four feet
apart, and require very little or no care, except when they are
quite young. When arrived at maturity a cocal, or coco-nut
grove, forms an' excellent pasture-ground for sheep, cattle, or
other grazing animals ; poultry, pigs, &c, also fatten very readily
on the coco-nut meal after the oil has been expressed. The almond,
or pulp, contains, according to Brande, 25 per cent, of oil, and
the shell 26 per cent, of the pulp. It is calculated here that
thirty-three nuts give one gallon of oil. The plan generally
adopted here is the following : — Any person undertaking to
manufacture oil, gives a gallon for sixty nuts.

254 TRINIDAD.

The cultivation of the coco-palm evidently suits our people, as
it requires little labour and attention. There are many varieties
of the coco-palm, some giving rather small nuts, others very
large ones ; some more robust, others more delicate. The larger
nuts are naturally preferred by the buyer, and sell more readily.
I would advise those who wish to engage in the cultivation of the
coco-palm to select the best varieties, and avoid the indiscrimi-
nate planting of indifferent kinds. We may estimate at 250,000
the number of trees existing in the island; in 1881 we exported
4,227,276 nuts, worth £13,278.

There exist in Pulo Pinang, Ceylon, and other places in the
East, fine coco-palm plantations, or, as they are termed here,
coco- walks. These are formed, according to S. Itier, in the
following manner : the nuts required for plants are selected from
healthy full-grown trees ; they are laid in the ground in a shaded
place, and barely covered with fine earth : as soon as the leaves
become pinnated and the roots begin to appear out of the husk,
they are removed and planted at intervals of from 33 to 40
feet. The young trees are manured with stale fish, guano, or
compost containing a certain proportion of salt. On the coast of
Coromandel, they place a handful of salt in each hole. In the
best localities, the coco-tree begins to bear at between six and
seven years' growth ; and it is calculated that each tree yields
annually eighty nuts, which generally sell at the rate of 1 dol. 50 c.
per hundred on an average : 5,000 trees would therefore give
400,000 nuts, yielding about 13,700 gallons of oil, or at the
rate of one gallon for thirty nuts, each tree yielding three gallons.
The price being 42 cents per gallon, each tree would then give a
gross revenue of 1 dollar 26 c, or a net return of 84 cents per
annum, allowing 33 per cent, for expenses. The chief enemy of
the coco-tree is a species of coleoptera, which fixes its abode at
the base of the leaves, and, by degrees, penetrates into the
central bud and the very heart of the palm. If not promptly
removed, the tree soon withers and dies. So destructive wei
the ravages of this insect at Singapore, that the inhabitants wc
thereby compelled to abandon the cultivation of the coco-pal
It is destroyed either by using an iron rod, hooked at
extremity, and by which the hole bored by the insect is thorougl
probed, or by pouring a strong solution of salt into the tuft
leaves.

TOBACCO. 255

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). — Trinidad tobacco, from the
district of Siparia, was judged at the Exhibition as inferior only
to the Havanna, and yet its cultivation is limited to a few acres
of land, and the quantity thus raised is consumed on the spot
where it is grown, whilst a sufficiency might be easily raised for
the entire island consumption. The annual quantity of tobacco
imported is 318,300 pounds, equal to £10,000 sterling. The
tobacco-plant requires a light, dry, and rich soil ; it is sown in
September, and the young plants transplanted when about six or
seven weeks old : they are generally planted two by four feet
apart. When five feet high, the upper bud is cut off, as also the
young shoots which spring from the axilla of the leaves : from
seventeen to twenty of the latter are preserved, and, as they
gradually arrive at maturity, are picked off, successively, to
undergo the process of curing. This process, although most
essential to the good quality of the article, is very carelessly
performed here. The soil and climate of Venezuela being very
similar to that of Trinidad, it will not be amiss to furnish such
information on the culture of this plant there, as may prove
acceptable to tobacco growers in this island. The seeds are
sown in very rich and deep soil, and after forty or fifty days the
plants are taken up and transplanted at about two feet apart, and
in rows of nearly four feet interval ; from ten to fifteen leaves
only are left on each plant, in order to obtain tobacco of a superior
quality. When a space of dark blue shows itself near the
pedicle, the leaves are sufficiently mature to be plucked, and are
carried under sheds, where they are spread out in layers, on
hurdles ready for the purpose. The tobacco now becomes yellow,
and quite soft ; the stems of the leaves are then removed, the
leaves themselves twisted together, and put up in bundles of
seventy-five or one hundred pounds. These bundles are next
placed on a larger heap, made of damaged tobacco leaves, and the
stems stripped off; the whole heap is then covered over and
allowed to ferment for forty-eight hours, the leaves being
sprinkled with water, should the tobacco become too dry. After
the twists have undergone sufficient fermentation, they are un-
folded, and the leaves hung up under the shed, in order to
promote the evaporation of any superfluous humidity. If the
tobacco is found to possess the requisite qualities, it is then made
into manojos, or small packages of five pounds each. In case the

256 TRINIDAD.

fermentation lias not been sufficient, it is caused to undergo a
second process of the kind. Although proper attention to the
cultivation and curing of tobacco greatly improves its value, yet
it is incontrovertible that climate exercises the main influence as
regards the quality of the artiele, which is particularly good in
those localities where the temperature is not beneath 75°. In
Venezuela, they calculate that eight plants yield two pounds. It
is to be regretted that sufficient attention has not yet been
directed to the cultivation of tobacco in Trinidad, and particularly
in Siparia, where the soil seems to be admirably adapted to its
growth.

Indigo (Indigqfera tinctoria J. anil) . — No indigo is at present
manufactured in the island, although that plant grows wild
almost everywhere along the road-sides, and might, therefore, be
cultivated with success ; in all probability, however, years will
elapse ere the production of indigo is attempted in Trinidad ; it
is, therefore, unnecessary to offer any remarks on that branch of
agricultural economy.

Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) and touloman, or tulema,
Canna coccinea, or, according to Dr. Lindley, Canna acliiras. —
From the roots, or rkizomas, of these two plants is extracted a
large quantity of nutritious starch, extensively used as food for
young children, and particularly for convalescents and persons of
irritable stomachs. Arrowroot and tulema are, in medical opinion
generally, preferable to sago and tapioca, and may be used in
the preparation of blanc-mange and other dishes. Arrowroot is
a much smaller plant than the tulema, and thrives only in very
good moist soil ; it is generally planted two feet apart, and each
plant or stool must be carefully moulded in order to a good
return. The tulema, on the contrary, grows almost in any soil,
provided it is properly planted and due attention paid to its
cultivation. The plants are laid in rows, and at three feet
distance. The flowers of the tulema are of a brilliant crimson^
those of the arrowroot, white. This plant is usually called t( tous
les mois ; " but this is a misappellation, and touloman — the carib
term for the " balisier " — is its true name. At whatever time
touloman and arrowroot are planted, they yield their starch only
in the dry season. The planting season is generally in May :
one acre gives from 2,500 to 3,600 pounds. Touloman gives no
trouble in its culture ; but the parasol-ants are very partial to it.

CASTOft-OIL SEED — CATIAPA OTL. 257

Castor-oil seed (Ricinus communis) . — In the climate and soil
of Trinidad the castor-oil plant grows to the height of twelve and
twenty feet. There are two varieties, the reel and the white,
distinguishable not only by the colour of the plant and its
pedicles, which is violet in the one and whitish green in the
other, but by several other characteristics. The red castor-oil
plant is more vigorous, its seeds larger, and of a darker hue : the
seeds of the white, though smaller, are in general more plump,
and also contain, as is asserted, more oil. The castor-oil plant is
not cultivated here with a view to commerce, but many poor
people have two or three trees near their houses from which to
prepare their own oil. In this preparation they follow the old
system : — The seeds are grilled, then crushed and formed into a
paste, which is afterwards boiled in water ; this mixture is allowed
to cool, the oil skimmed off, and again boiled. Oil obtained by
this process is of a dark colour, has a strong scent and taste, and,
as a purgative, is somewhat irritating. The best plan, certainly,
is to crush the seeds and express the oil from the paste by means
of a screw-press; but an improvement on the former plan,
although not rendering it equal to the latter, would be to crush
the seeds without grilling, and then boil the paste, as already
mentioned. The seeds of the castor-oil plant might be exported
to England with advantage, for it is very prolific, requires but
little or no attention, and the gathering of the seed is a most
simple task.

Carapa oil, yielded by Carapa Guianensis, and C. Touloucouna.
—The carapas are lofty forest and timber trees, bearing pods as
large as a husked coco-nut, and containing from twelve to
fourteen seeds of the size of the walnut. The seeds are gathered
in June and July, boiled for about six hours, then laid in heaps
for eight or ten days, during which time they undergo a sort of
fermentation ; they are then broken, and the pulp they contain
carefully taken out and kneaded into lumps of thick paste, each
about fifteen pounds. This paste is laid on boards slightly
incurvated and inclined, and placed in a sheltered place, when
the oil oozes through the mass, and runs into a vessel placed for
its reception. The paste is carefully remoulded every morning
and evening, so as to favour the disengagement of the oil. After
twelve days, boiling water is poured on the mass, and a fresh
quantity of oil of inferior quality is thereby obtained. One

258 TRINIDAD.

barrel of seeds gives about twelve bottles, or about 264 ounces
of oil. Carapa oil is thick, excessively bitter, and keeps a long
time. It is especially used in destroying insects, and particularly
tics j which are at times very troublesome to animals, hundreds
of them sticking to the hides of mules and oxen in the pastures
on estates. This oil is also applied by friction, as a remedy in
rheumatism. It has been remarked, as a singular effect, that
whenever animals that have been rubbed with carapa oil are
exposed to rain, the rubbed part becomes swollen. The agouti
and lapa are very fond of the carapa seeds.

Sesame (Sesamum orientate). — Although sesame, or Gigeree
as it is called by Creoles, is cultivated here only by a few Africans
for its oily seeds, yet it is well known that large quantities of it
are imported into France — particularly from Egypt and the
East. The sesame oil is sweet, pleasant, and keeps a long time ;
it will even bear comparison with the best olive oil, and as a
substitute for the latter may be used for culinary purposes ; in
fact, Thunberg says that in Japan it replaces butter and lard.
The people here use it in preparing their food : they first heat,
then bruise it, and in that state mix it with their food. Sesame
grows in almost any soil ; it is planted in the beginning of the
wet season, and comes to maturity within four months or four
months and a half; for its reception the land must be well
prepared and thoroughly cleared of weeds. As the fruits or
capsules ripen gradually, and grow along the upper part of the
stem, the latter is cut as soon as the lower capsules are ripe ;
otherwise these split when dry, and the seeds are then lost.
When reaped they are tied in bundles, so as to keep the capsules
together and prevent their splitting ; they are then stored up in
some cool place. The seeds are very small and flat, and are
separated by merely beating or rubbing the bundles with the
hand. It is stated that sesame contains as much as 50 per cent,
of oil ; and there is no doubt it might be cultivated here
to advantage — if not for exportation, at least for culinary
purposes.

Spices — nutmegs (Myristica moschata). — The nutmeg may
be said to be perfectly acclimatised in the colony, and it yields
nuts as good and fine as any which can be imported from the
Asiatic Islands ; it has not yet, however, been cultivated with a
view to commerce. The nutmeg tree requires a good moist soil

spices. 259

and plenty of shade ; it grows particularly well under protection
of the saman-tree. At St. Ann's government-gardens it yields
about 15 pounds per tree. Nutmegs sell here at 60 to 80 cents
(2s. 6d. to 2s. lOd.) per pound.

Cloves [Caryophyllus aromaticus). — The clove has also been
naturalised, and thrives well ; it requires a good, but rather dry
soil, and, contrary to the nutmeg, is injured by too much shade ;
it is very scantily cultivated.

Cinnamon {Cinnamomum zeylanicum and C. cassia). — The
latter species, or variety, is cultivated here by several persons,
but a few only prepare cinnamon from it. There are to be found
at St. Ann's a few plants of the Cinnamomum zeylanicum ; they
look very healthy, although planted in rather poor soil, and yield
excellent cinnamon.

Pimento [Eugenia pimento). — Though not indigenous to the
island, the pimento thrives admirably ; there are two distinct
species or varieties here. Pimento is largely exported from
Jamaica, and such might be the case with Trinidad also ; yet it
is only cultivated for its leaves or berries, which are used in
culinary or confectionery preparations.

Black pepper {Piper nigrum) thrives very well indeed, but is
cultivated by a few individuals only, and more as an object of
curiosity than utility.

Cayenne pepper {Capsicum annuum). — All sorts of capsicums,
and the bird -pepper {Capsicum baccatum) especially, are so com-
j J mon here, that the people take no care in preparing them for
preservation as a condiment.

Vanilla [Vanilla planif alia). — The vanilla grows wild in our
forests, but it is not the best kind. There are, it seems, two
distinct species distinguishable, not only by the size of the fruit,
but also by its fragrance ; the larger species is more fragrant, and
also more common. The vanilla grows on those trees which do
not shed their bark, generally creeping along the trunk in a
straight line, the extremity and divisions hanging downwards.
Rats, oppossums, and squirrels are very fond of the vanilla, and
it is difficult to save it from their attacks, as they eat it as soon
as it arrives at maturity. The vanilla might be cultivated here
to advantage, although it eventually causes the death of those
trees to which it adheres.

Ginger [Zingiber officinarum) , Turmeric [Curcuma longa),

260 TRINIDAD.

Guinea pepper (Amomum granum Paradisi). — These plants are
only cultivated for domestic purposes, not for exportation ; but
they succeed very well. To the above catalogue of useful
plants might be added as great a number ; such as the musk
ochro {Hibiscus abelmoscAus), which grows wild here, and the
seeds of which are extensively used for perfuming in France,
under the name of "Ambrette;" the senna plant [Cassia
obovata), which is cultivated by the inhabitants of Mayaro,
Erin, and some other places, for their own use ; the noyau
(Primus), the seeds and leaves of which might replace, for
distillation, the cherry laurel. Many others might be given,
but their enumeration would swell this sketch to too large
a volume.

The following dye-woods may, however, be mentioned, viz.,
log-wood {PLamatoxylon campechianum) ; this is not indigenous
to the island, but grows very well in dry spots. Arnotto (Bixa
orellana) ; the arnotto is indigenous, and thrives best in good
soils and cool localities ; it is very prolific, but is used here only
as a condiment. Fustic (Broussonetia tinctorid) is indigenous,
and thrives best in good soils and hilly districts ; it is used here
in wheelwork, especially for naves.

Commerce. — The commercial movement consists mainly, if not
entirely, of imports and exports. In the year 1713, the whole
trade of the island was carried in a vessel of 150 tons, a little
cacao and indigo being bartered for some coarse cloth and other
necessaries. In 1797, fourteen years after the granting of the
second cedula by Charles III., the colony exported 7,800 hogs-
heads of sugar (1,000 lbs. to 1,200 lbs. each) ; 330,000 lbs. of
coffee, 96,000 lbs. of cacao, and 224,000 lbs. of cotton— the
produce of 159 sugar plantations, 130 coffee, six cacao, and
103 cotton farms. In 1802, the number of sugar plantations
had increased to 192, producing 15,461 hogsheads; quantity of
coffee exported, 358,000 lbs; of cotton, 263,000 lbs.; of cacao,
97,000 lbs. ; tonnage, 15,000. In 1809, the exports had in-
creased to 18,235 hogsheads of sugar; 460 gallons of rum, and:
100,000 gallons of molasses: quantity of coffee, 500,000 lbs. ;
of cacao, 358,000 lbs. ; of cotton, 800,000 lbs. 1819.— Exports :
30,205,724 lbs. of sugar; 534,626 gallons of rum; 545,401!
gallons of molasses; 1,205,445 lbs. of cacao; 258,220 lbs. ol
coffee, and 131,990 lbs. of cotton. 1829—59,089,421 lbs. oi

COMMERCE EXPORTS.

261

sugar, 400,321 gallons of rum ; 1,362,605 gallons of molasses,
2,206,467 lbs. of cacao; 226,123 lbs. of coffee; 25,203 lbs. of
cotton. Increase : sugar, molasses, and cacao. Decrease :
rum, coffee, and cotton. Quantity exported of the latter
article, 25,203 lbs., instead of 800,009 lbs. in 1809. From
1839, the quantity of sugar was reckoned in hogsheads instead
of pounds, and molasses and rum in puncheons instead of
gallons : —

Years.

Sugar.

Molasses.

Rum.

Cacao.

hhds.

punchs.

punchs.

lbs.

1839

21,422

18,051

112

2,914,068

1849

30,579

13,151

718

4,378,186

1850

26,075

9,884

273

3,816,728

1851

30,407

10,792

628

6,008,920

1852

35,220

12,077

817

4,216,851

1853

33,835

13,306

216

3,757,352

1854

37,746

11,748

267

6,427,354

1855

31,548

6,316

3,733

4,842,076

1860

34,284

6,541

1,353

3,733,621

lbs.

galls.

galls.

1865

62,718,710

1,000,633

85,583

6,760,287

1870

91,732,830

1,459,247

6,219

7,176,588

1871

120,046,000

2,159,206

36,341

6,422,038

1872

103,092,200

1,716,930

20,806

6,985,904

1873

133,489,078

1,621,998

16,644

7,482,091

1874

99,739,550

1,697,131

39,761

9,396,531

1875

129,801,172

2,423,049

62,162

6,272,540

1876

114,921,284

2,004,508

13,400

9,477,123

1877

102,713,036

1,464,472

1,775

9,726,742

1878

116,587,351

2,184,918

7,264

9,911,366

1879

149,674,017

1,777,540

73,892

11,641,170

The hogshead maybe taken as weighing 1,800 lbs. net; the pun-
cheon of molasses as containing 110 gallons, and the puncheon
of rum as containing 100 gallons. In 1839, the year imme-
diately following emancipation, the quantity of sugar was
only 21,422 hogsheads, or about 38,559,000 lbs; in 1829, ten
years previously, it was 50,089,221 lbs. It seems that the
proportion of molasses ought to correspond to the quantity of
sugar. Such, however, is not the case, as may be ascertained by
reference to the above table, the quantity drained from the
muscovado varying each year, being larger or lesser, according
to the condition of the canes.

262

TRINIDAD.

Table showing the value of exports and imports for a period
of fifteen years : —

Years.

Imports.

Exports.

£

£

1850

476,000

319,394

1860

829,304

714,603

1867

859,389

1,086,901

1868

987,796

1,116,198

1869

920,607

1,118,695

1870

1,042,678

1,227,574

1871

1,213,024

1,492,811

1872

1,233,771

1,439,904

1873

1,324,432

1,733,615

1874

1,342,992

1,412,260

1875

1,507,794

1,625,082

1876

1,666,268

1,636,618

1877

1,708,457

2,093,650

1878

1,901,401

1,839,067

1879

2,223,952

2,264,744

19,237,865

21,121,116

Bala

rice in favour of Export

s, £1,883,251.

Thus within ten years the imports and exports have doubled —
imports 2*40, exports 2*02.

Our exports consist mainly of sugar, molasses, rum, and cacao,
as they represent a gross amount of £1,304,824, the other
articles representing the comparatively low figure of £142,887,
in which are included £23,560, value of 25,938 tons of asphal-
tum, and £25,191, value of 5,039,070 coco-nuts, and 4,880 lbs.
of coco-nut fibre.

Table showing imports, exports, and re-exports : —

Years.

Countries.

Imports.

Exports.

Re-exports.

£

£

£

1875

United Kingdom

531,612

1,220,446

\

5>

British East Indies . . .

France

United States

91,133

86,738

278,209

nil

63,946
107,926

Venezuela

311,887

129,992

>>

Other Countries
Recapitulation.

209,215

102,774

S 605,455

>>

United Kingdom

531,612

—

British Colonies

251,923

—

>>

Foreign Countries ...

724,259

—

I

!

COMMERCE.

263

Imports, Exports, and Re-exports — continued.

Years.

Countries.

Imports.

Exports.

Ee-exports.

£

£

£

1876

United Kingdom

571,720

1,248,367 '

V

? »

British East Indies . . .

83,942

741

>>

France

97,720

88,674

j>

United States

301,783

86,881

ii

Venezuela

Re c apitul ati on.

374,573

122,479

661,289

> >

United Kingdom

571,720

—

British Colonies

251,023

—

»>

Foreign Countries . . .

843,525

—

/

1877

United Kingdom

492,769

1,416,592

\

ii

British East Indies . . .

77,644

1,100

France

88,853

117,027

United States

360,350

196,441

ii

Venezuela

405,750

252,690

>»

All other Countries . . .
Recapitulation.

282,981

I 741,929

j»

United Kingdom

492,769

—

British Colonies

289,927

—

>>

Foreign Countries ...

925,761

—

/

1878

United Kingdom

643,543

1,246,567

\

}J

British East Indies . . .

116,038

1,672

5 J

France

70,679

105,865

II

United States

341,560

168,804

II

Venezuela

449,000

—

All other Countries . . .
Recapitulation.

603,182

> 156,812

J»

United Kingdom

643,543

—

||

British Colonies

201,808

—

>>

Foreign Countries . . .

1,378,601

—

/

1879

United Kingdom

773,849

1,180,944

ii

British East Indies . . .

129,609

nil

British North America

80,213

23,487

225

i »

France

155,483

126,602

155,907

ii

United States...

367,774

79,291

24,258

)>

Venezuela

525,508

4,178

331,149

>>

All other Countries . . .
Recapitulation.

891,516

391,424

£902,963

>>

United Kingdom

773,849

—

) >

British Colonies

331,367

—

>>

Foreign Countries . . .

1,118,736

—

264

TRINIDAD.

Exports of Cacao.

Tears.

United Kingdom.

France.

United States.

N. American
Colonies.

Other Parts.

1876
1876
1877
1878
1879

lbs.
3,746,353
6,043,518
5,516,205
7,283,510
7,646,878

lbs.
1,585,977
707,767
3,387,747
1,073,981
3,283,460

lbs.
670,783
128,560
690,147
831,670
660,669

lbs.
160

1,950
16,694

lbs.

4,320
18,919

4,863
10,423

Total quantity of exports, and value in pounds sterling —
1875, 6,003,278 lbs., value £159,602; 1876, 6,884,165 lbs.,
value £259,480; 1877,9,613,018 lbs., value £281,252; 1878,
9,195,974 lbs., value £336,074; 1879, 11,618,124 lbs., value
£490,490.

The following Table of imports for the year 1879 shows the
nature and quantities of the articles imported, also the countries
whence imported : —

1879. — Articles Imported.

Bread Flour, 93,357 brls. ; Eice, 15,899,319 lbs £254,773

Live Stock, 21,366 heads 118,616

Fish (dried and pickled) 60,713

Meats (salted and dried) 3,085,036 lbs 45,353

Vegetable Products 31,975

Olive Oil, 34,668 gals. ; Butter, Lard, Cheese, l,416,1471bs. 54,300

Malt, 79,518 sals., 97,054 quarts 43,350

Wines, 267,647 gals. 45,751

Spirits, 78,913 gals 30,474

Sugar (refined) 673,599 lbs 11,226

Timber (shooks, shingles, staves, &c.) 22,550

Lumber ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 78,675

Cottons, Linens, Silks ... 261,543

Hardware, Machinery 99,580

Bricks and Tiles, 2,087,519 (no Lime) 10,846

Tobacco (manufactured and unmanufactured), 363,1171bs. 19,696

£1,189.421

In this Table I have included only the principal articl
of import, leaving aside the least important. Value of
mentary articles imported, £574,300; of building materia
£89,500.

I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Norman, the harboi

COMMERCE — IMPORTS.

265

master, for the following return of articles imported from
Venezuela during the year 1880

Horses

Mules

Asses

Oxen

Sheep

Goats

Pigs

Turkeys

Plantains

Coco-nuts

Cacao

Corn
Tobacco

Starch

Coffee

Hides

Tannias

Stuffed Birds' Skins

Hummocks

105

48

705

3,618

63

829

1,826

826

7,172,160

587,000

5,870 bags

685 barrels
6,265 bales
20,714 packages
2,351 bags
2,558

2,629 barrels
24 packages
50

The cacao imported is for exportation, especially to France ;
the hides and coco-nuts are likewise re-exported. Our Venezuelan
trade is chiefly with Bolivar and Barancas, or Puerto Jablas on
the Orinoco ; with Guiria and Maturin within the gulf, and the
Island of Margarita. This trade might be greatly augmented by
the adoption of a more liberal tariff and a less selfish policy on
the part of the Venezuelan Government.

By seeking to establish a comparison between imports and
exports from and to different countries, we are led to the follow-
ing conclusions : —

United Kingdom — Average of Five Years.

Imports £602,698 | Exports £1,262,683

Difference— Favour Exports ... £659,885.

British Colonies.
Imports .£277,209 | Exports £129

United States.

Imports £349,923 | Exports £127,876

Difference— Favour Exports ... £222,047.

France.

Imports £99,696 | Exports £114,423

Difference — Favour Exports ... £14,729.

Venezuela.

Imports £413,343 | Exports (three years) £168,353

Difference — Favour of Exports (approximately) d£132,755.

'ZQ6

TRINIDAD.

Thus the only countries to which we sent more than we
received are the United Kingdom and France. As to our other
commercial connections, taken collectively, the foregoing" com-
parison shows that we really disburse in their favour, and that
in hard cash, a yearly average (more or less) of £630,000. Our
trade with the United Kingdom would certainly seem to be the
most advantageous, since the colony apparently receives, as
annual remittances, the sum of £659,885. But this advantage is
only apparent, as proved by a close examination ; for the greater
part of that sum remains in Great Britain, either as an income
to absentee proprietors, or in payment of the interest and capital
money advanced. A return of the total value, in pounds sterling,
of the imports and exports of the colony of Trinidad in the year
1880, has just been published, which I beg partly to transfer to
these pages.

British,

Countries.

Total Import
therefrom.

Produce and
Manufacture
of the Colony.

Foreign, and
other Colonial

Produce and
Manufactures

Total

Export.

£

£

£

£

Total United Kingdom

830,799

944,760

219,030

1,163,791

British East Indies

112,525

9

9

British North America . . .

80,358

47,126

93

47,219

British West Indies

72,286

3,191

19,419

22,610

All other British Colonies
Total British Colonies

20,643

3,194

4,587

7,781
77,621

285,814

53,512

24,108

France ...

176,135

86,793

223,945

310,738

Germany ...

20,175

9,932

13,028

22,960

Spain, including Colonies

18,614

341

971

1,312

Portugal,including Colonies

2,497

6,661

—

6,661

U. S. America

408,145

223,649

38,267

261,917

Danish West Indies

718

1,399

—

1,399

French West Indies

56,298

8,988

7,815

16,803

Spanish West Indies

11,836

—

31-

31

South America

3,445

2,338

20

2,358

Venezuela ...

Total Foreign Countries

568,099

1,906

317,754

319,660

1,266,019

342,265

601,833

944,099

Grand Total

2,382,632

1,340,538

844,973

2,185,512

I have left aside some figures which cause the grand total cop
from the return not to agree exactly with the total put down
me, the difference between the two not being over £10,000.

s

COMMERCE — EXPORTS— SHIPPING.

267

Balance in favour of imports, £197,120; a result less favour-
able, in my opinion, than that of the preceding years.

This return shows correctly, I believe, the value of re-exports,
amounting to the large sum of £844,973. The export of produce
and manufactures of the colony is shown in the following Table : —

Exports.

Produce of the Cane (Sugar, Molasses, Rum) ... ... £905,448

Cacao 321,906

Coco-nuts and Coco-fibre ... 14,231

Asphaltum 25,314

Total £1,266,899

Shipping

—1879.

Tons — Entered
,, Cleared

British.

Foreign.

Total.

276,174

272,877

128,663
130,349

404,837
403,226

The following Table of comparative imports and exports may
prove interesting : —

1879.

Trinidad.

Barbadoes.

British Guayana

Jamaica.

Imports ...
Exports ...

2,223,271
2,264,744

1,023,397
1,259,158

2,065,045
2,715,535

1,347,342
1,357,671

Population of Trinidad in 1881, 153,128. Estimated popula-
tion at the end of 1880, of Barbadoes, 180,000 ; of Guayana,
248,110; of Jamaica, 560,000.

Proportion of imports and exports to each inhabitant : —

Imports . . .
Exports . . .

Trinidad.

Barbadoes.

British Guayana

Jamaica.

14-10
14-78

5-69
6-99

8-32
10-94

2-49
2-51

Average ratio (per inhabitant) of imports — Trinidad, £14 Is. ;
Barbadoes, £5 10s.; British Guiana, £8 7s.; Jamaica, £2 10s.
Exports — Trinidad, £14 15s.; Barbadoes, £7; British Guiana,

268 TRINIDAD.

£10 10s. ; Jamaica, £2 10s. Thus, taking into account the
number of inhabitants, we import nearly three times as much as
Barbadoes, nearly double the quantity imported by British
Guiana, and six times as much as Jamaica ; we export exactly
twice as much as Barbadoes ; twenty per cent, more than British
Guiana ; and six times more than Jamaica.

This shows the importance of Trinidad in a commercial point
of view. In fact, its proximity to Venezuela will ever make it
one of the most valuable possessions of the British empire in
these seas.

Note. — Justified by etymological and botanical analogy,
encouraged also by Dr. Lindley's example, I have, throughout,
made use of the word cacao instead of cocoa, to designate the
Theobroma cacao ; and of the term coco instead of cocoa-nut, to
distinguish the cocos — the botanical name of the coco-nut palm.
Moreover, it is impossible that the application of the same term
to two plants so widely different in all respects as the cacao-tre
and cocos-palm should not create confusion in the mind.

CHAPTER VIII.

TOPOGRAPHY — NORTHERN DIVISION : COUNTIES OF ST. GEORGE, ST. DAVID,
ST. ANDREW, AND CARONI.

1. County of St. George. — This county is bounded on the
east by the rivers Aripo and Madamas, and a line connecting
the same across the mountains ; south, by Aripo and Caroni,
and by the Gulf of Paria, from the mouth of the Caroni down
to the Dragon's Mouths ; and north by the sea, from the river
Madamas to the Boca Grande. It is divided into eighteen
wards.

Port-of- Spain, the chief town of Trinidad, is situated in this
county, just at the angle formed by the junction of the north-
west prolongation of the island with its main land, and about
two miles northward of the mouth of the Caroni river, at the
corner of a small semi-circular plain encircled by two spurs
running from the northern range towards the sea. It is from
two to two and a-half miles wide and nearly four miles in
length, along the sea-shore, towards which it declines in a
gradual slope of about fifty feet per mile. The St. Ann and
Marava valleys open on this plain.

The town is well laid out, its streets running due E. and
W. and due N. and S., thus intersecting at right angles.
They are thirty to thirty-five feet wide, with paved gutters at
the sides, the centre being macadamised and gravelled.

There are in Port- of- Spain but few places of general
resort. Brunswick Square, between Abercrombie and Frederick
Streets, is a pleasant promenade, surrounded by an iron railing
and planted with large trees, such as poui, roble, angelim,
and other densely foliaged trees or shrubs. It has nine
entrances, with corresponding alleys. There is in the centre of
the square a fountain with a bronze group, the gift of the late
Mr. Gregor Turnbull.

The promenade between King Street and Marine Square

270 TRINIDAD.

is a fine walk, also planted with rows of large trees. It is
abont a hundred feet wide, and extends from the Saint Vin-
cent or Queen's Wharf to the Dry river, eastward of the
Catholic cathedral, running parallel to the sea. A square has
been lately formed at its eastern extremity, with the statue of
Christopher Columbus in the centre, placed on a high pedestal
in an ornamental fountain. The statue is the gift of Mr.
Hippolyte Borde, a native of the island. The promenade is
divided nearly in the middle by an open plot, which is used as
a cart-stand. There is in the centre a fountain, ornamented with
a diminutive group — a child holding a swan by the neck.
From the cart-stand the Almond Walk — an alley planted with
almond trees (Terminalia catalpd) — leads to the South Quay
and the old jetty, or King's Wharf, whilst Frederick Street runs
up in an opposite direction to the Circular Road, a distance
of more than a mile in a straight line. To the eastward of the
town, between George and Nelson Streets, is the market-place,
which was, for a long time, appropriated to the sale of vege-
tables, but has been since formed into an open square. A1
the north end of the town, an open space — Belliard's Orchard-
has likewise been laid out as a square.

To the north of Port-of- Spain, and forming part of the town;
is a fine extent of level pasture or meadow land, called th<
Queen's Park, well fenced in with hard wood posts and iron
bars ; it is used as a grazing ground, for milch cows particularly ;
though other animals are admitted at a monthly fee. It forms
one of the finest race-courses in the West Indies ; the great
defect is the want of a sufficient number of trees for shelter to
the animals pastured there.

Between the Queen's Park and the town there are two other
plots of land enclosed by iron railings and separated by the
avenue leading to the Circular Road ; the one bordering on the
St. Ann's Road is designated as the Small Savanna; on the
other is constructed the Prince's Building, an unsightly
structure, which is used by the pupils of the Royal College.

Westward of Brunswick Square, between St. Vincent and
Abercrombie Streets, stand the Government and Court-houses —
two massive edifices on the same line and set due north and
south. In point of architecture and solidity, they are far from
being creditable to the architect, and can never, by any con-

POItT-OF-SPAIN. 271

trivance, be made an ornament to the town. The bonding
warehouse on the south quay is a low building, but shows a
very good appearance. A custom-house has been lately erected
on the south quay. The buildings connected with the railway
cover a large space between the Dry river and the prolongation
of the Almond Walk. The gaol, at the north end of the town,
between Clarence and Kent Streets, is a massive, ugly con-
struction, well adapted, however, for its object. The market-
house, between George and Charlotte or St. Ann's Streets, is
a good-looking building, consisting of a stone pavilion, a large
central and two smaller lateral sheds, imported from Great
Britain.

The finest erections, however, in Port-of- Spain, are the
Roman Catholic cathedral, Trinity Church, the police barrack,
and the colonial hospital. The police barrack is situated
in St. Vincent Street, south of the Court-house ; it is a lofty
substantial structure, with arched openings, a tower and clock,
railed in on two sides. Attached to the building are the
police-court and the dwelling of the inspector commandant ;
it abuts upon streets on three sides. The colonial hospital,
constructed by Mr. Samuel, a native of the island, is perhaps
the finest structure in Port- of- Spain. It stands in a large
open ground eastward of the St. Ann's Road ; the grounds in
front are well kept, and the building shows a fine facade.
It is a two-storied house, neat and substantial; but its in-
ternal distribution might have been made more suitable to
its destination. It is now found to be too small for the
number of patients who apply for admittance. Two additional
wings, or separate buildings, might be constructed to accommo-
date a double number of patients.

The Catholic cathedral stands at the eastern end of the
Marine Square promenade, at one of the angles of the town,
and is, consequently, very inconveniently situated ; but it is a
large, substantially-built temple, in the form of a cross, with
a nave and two aisles ; also two small towers in front. The
wood materials are of the best country timber — cedar, balata,
purple-heart, &c. Trinity Church is a very neat edifice, built
of stone and the hard wood of the country, with a fine square
tower on the north, surmounted by a spire with a gilt cross ;
it has no aisles. It is situated south of Brunswick Square,

272 TRINIDAD.

in a spacious yard inclosed within a handsome iron railing,
and having a broad pavement of slab stone, leading from the
great western entrance to the street. In addition to these
two cathedrals, I may mention the following chapels or places
of worship : — The Parochial Chapel of the Rosary ; the Chapel
of the Sacred Heart, not yet completed ; the Church of St.
Patrick, New Town; the Chapels of St. Joseph and the
Immaculate Conception — all Roman Catholic; All Saints'
Chapel of Ease (Church of England) ; the Wesleyan, the
Baptist, and Portuguese Chapels ; and the Scotch or Presby-
terian Kirk.

The quays of Port-of-Spain are good, solid constructions,
being built of heavy blocks of stone strongly united by
clamps. There are two jetties : one on iron pillars, projecting
into the sea to a distance of 600 feet ; it is 30 feet wide. The
other is not more than 150 feet, and is used mostly as a landing
place for boats.

With three or four exceptions, all the houses in Port-of-
Spain are one or two stories high. In the lower or commercial
part of the town they are pretty regularly and closely built ;
they are more scattered in the upper part, many houses having
large lots attached, which are planted with trees and flowers.
These dwellings being generally low and almost hidden amidst
the foliage, the town assumes a peculiar and, in some parts, a
rather rural aspect. The view of Port-of-Spain from the
harbour is not imposing, as the ground on which it stands is,
on an average, not more than 30 or 40 feet above the level of the
sea. Vessels anchor from half a mile to one mile and a half and
even two miles from the shore; goods are landed in flats, and
so smooth is the water that all kinds of lumber are made into
rafts and towed to the wharves.

To the west of the town, between the St. James's Road and
the sea, is the public cemetery, divided into two sections — the
Catholic and Protestant. This cemetery is the property of the
corporation, and placed under its exclusive control.

Port-of-Spain is built on a light soil, which permits a quid
and easy filtration of the surface water to the sea, whenever it has
not been carried off by the surface drains. The lower or southern
part of the town consists of land which has been made or
claimed from the sea within the last forty years. Grumblers

he

ck

PORT-OF-SPAIN. 273

did not fail, at the time, to sneer at the folly and extravagance
of the Government, though the work was avowedly commenced
with the object of filling up and doing away with a long
swampy belt, which extended from the tolls-gate to the
Almond Walk, a distance of nearly half a mile, and which
was a permanent source of insalubrity; and had not the
work been completed, it is difficult to say where and how we
could have established the railway terminus in Port-of-Spain.

The town is effectually protected to the eastward against the
effluvia of the great Caroni swamp by the hills forming the
eastern spur. Bordering on these hills is the Dry river — a
deep ravine almost always dry, except during some heavy
showers in the rainy season. The Ariapita or St. Ann's river
had primitively its course through the town, about where
Brunswick Square and Trinity Church now stand. In the
year 1787 it was diverted to its present bed by order of
G overnor Chacon, with a view to improve the town. It may
be said, however, that the object he had in view was not attained,
since the Dry river may, in our days, be regarded as an almost
irremediable source of noxious effluvia ; it is a receptacle for
filth. Nevertheless, Port-of-Spain and its harbour may be
considered as healthy. Seven bridges establish a communication
across the Dry river with the neighbouring districts.

The town of Port-of-Spain was divided, in the year 1853,
into five wards, each electing three councillors to form, together
with two auditors for the whole, the council of the borough
of Port-of-Spain. Every male person of full age, occupying a
house rated to the house-tax at a rental of not less than £ZQ
sterling within the borough is a qualified elector; and every
elector paying a house-rent of £75, or being possessed of an
annual fixed revenue — household or landed — of £50 sterling, is
eligible to the office of councillor. The revenue of the town
consists of the house-tax, market dues, revenues from real
property, and licences ; total, in 1880-81, 74,427 dollars. The
annual expenditure is for salaries of officers, streets, charities,
hospital dues, lighting the town, &c. ; total, 74,271 dollars.
The councillors elect the mayor every year, on the 3rd of
November.

Port-of-Spain is supplied with water from the St. Ann's and
Maraval rivers. Three reservoirs have been constructed in the

274 TRINIDAD.

latter valley at about three miles from town, and a main pipe
of 12 inches bore, reduced to 10 inches, brings the water to the
lowest end of the town and the wharves. It is then distributed
through every street by sub-main and branch pipes, varying
from six to two inches in diameter; hydrants are also disposed at
every 500 feet, more or less, for protection against fire. There
are 276 such hydrants, and they can be made to throw water
over the highest houses. The local supply is calculated at
2,500,000 imperial gallons per day, or 77 gallons per individual,
the population being 31,858 inhabitants. There are, at present,
3,802 service pipes, supplying about 3,700 houses. The length
of line from the reservoirs to the town is three miles ; general
fall, 122 feet. A dam and a reservoir have also been built at
the entrance of the Fonds Amandes glen, with the object of pro-
curing for the town a further supply of water from the St. Ann's
valley. The pipe is eight inches in diameter, reduced to six, and
supplies water to several private residences in the ward, to
three public fountains, to two tanks in the Government pastures,
to the Governor's residence, to the lunatic asylum, and to
several houses along the Circular Road. The main pipes from
the two reservoirs are made to communicate by a connecting
pipe through the small savanna. General supply from St. Ann's
about 300,000 gallons.

The colonial hospital, a wash-house with 137 troughs, and
two large public bath-houses are supplied with water from the
water-works. When constructed, they were intended to afford
a continuous supply to the inhabitants; large baths were
erected in several private lots, also jets d'eau; from these
causes, and mainly from the carelessness of the people, the waste
is very great indeed, and the more to be regretted, as, in case
of fire, the water may fail — not an improbable occurrence, as
already proved.

Port-of -Spain became the capital of the island in the year
1783; to that time San Jose de Oruna was the seat of the
Government. In 1757, Governor Don Jose de la Moneda,
finding it impossible to procure a house in San Jose, removed to
Port-of- Spain, which, from that date, virtually became the chief
town; it was in 1783, however, that Governor Chacon pro-
claimed it the capital of the island. On the 24th of March,
1808, under the government of Sir Thomas Hislop, it was

PORT-OF-SPAIN. 275

almost entirely destroyed by fire. The loss was estimated at
,£500,000 sterling. The town was rebuilt on a better plan, and
much improved by Sir Ralph Woodford, who made regulations
to prevent wooden constructions ; which were unfortunately
overlooked by his successors. Population of the town according
to census of 1881, 31,858 : males, 15,324; females, 16,534.

To the north of the Queen's Park, and bordering on the
Circular Road, stands the Governor's residence, or St. Ann's
House. It is built of the limestone of the island properly
dressed, with a square tower above the grand staircase. The
house may be said to be distributed into two distinct sets of
apartments : one for public receptions on the lower storey,
consisting of a large hall, followed by a splendid dancing-room,
and a fine cool dining-room facing the last; a billiard and
several sleeping rooms ; galleries on the east and south. The
upper storey is occupied by the Governor's private apartments.
The pleasure-grounds are well laid out ; forming part of these
grounds are the Botanic Gardens, where are cultivated some
rare and useful plants, such as several varieties of coffee, the
cinnamon, nutmeg, clove, vanilla, specimens of the sugar-cane,
&c, &c.

Ward of St. Ann. — This ward is comparatively well popu-
lated, and possesses several neat country houses. It is inhabited
by many small proprietors, who cultivate ground provisions and
vegetables ; fruit-trees are plentiful ; a few acres planted in
coffee and cacao. The soil is generally good, but nearly the
whole ward is mountainous or hilly, the highest summit being
2,140 feet. Good timber was, for a number of years, cut in
the mountainous part, viz., poui, cyp, cedar. The ward of St.
Ann is formed of three small glens, each having its stream.
Roads, practicable partly for carts and partly suited only to
horse or mule passage, lead to the head of the glens.

Some forty years ago, the river St. Ann had, even during
the dry season, a sufficiency of water for washing purposes.
The river is now, and has been for some years past, dried up, in
consequence of the destruction of timber on the ridges. I had
suggested to Governor Sir Arthur Gordon the feasibility of
making, with the proprietors on the heights of St. Ann, an
exchange of their lands against double the quantity of crown
land in any district they might prefer. Under proper regula-

276 TRINIDAD.

tions and strict surveillance, these lands would soon become
sufficiently wooded so as to afford an increased supply — an object
the more desirable, as the St. Ann's water does not appear to
possess the incrusting properties of the Maraval water. Of
course it is difficult to say whether the offer would have been
accepted; I nevertheless regret that it was never made.
Successive and superlaying reservoirs might be formed in the
glens, even at Cascade, with the object of collecting water for
the supply of the town. St. Ann's is a Roman Catholic parish
—population, 1881,872; 1871, 808.

Westward of Port-of-Spain is the ward of Mucurapo — flat,
with a light soil of average quality. There is at present only
one sugar estate in this ward, viz., Woodbrook estate. The
St. Clair estate has been lately bought by the Government, with
the object of parcelling it into building lots, and preventing its
occupation by the coolies and the poorer classes. This ward is
traversed by the western Royal Road and the Maraval river.
On the right bank of the Mucurapo, or Maraval river, between
the Royal Road and the entrance of the Maraval valley, are
the St. James's Barracks, about two miles from Port-of-Spain.
These fine barracks stand on a flat, permeable ground, with
underground sewerage to the bed of the river, just opposite the
opening of the Maraval valley, and are, consequently, exposed to
the direct action of the northerly wind, which, as is well known,
is dangerous. To this injudicious position is mainly attribut-
able the much-talked-of unhealthiness of these barracks. The
selection, I must say, was an unfortunate one, both in site and
proximity to the town. Let me recall here the opinion of
Captain Tulloch : — "The mortality (in Trinidad) is under the
average of the whole command (Barbadoes), being only about
60 per 1,000, or 1 per 16-66." Population, 1881, 2,789.

Westward of Mucurapo is the ward of Cocorite — mainly
hilly, and soil generally bad ; a few acres planted in pro-
visions and guinea-grass. A large conical-shaped hill (1,830
feet), called Fort George Mountain, seems to tower over the
whole ward; on a summit somewhat lower (1,120 feet) is the
fort of the same name, as also the signal-post, which corres-
ponds with a similar post (740 feet) on the north side of
Diego Martin, and, by notice from the latter, signals the arrival
of vessels long before they enter the gulf. At the base of Fort

COUNTY OP ST. GEORGE. 277

George is the hamlet of Cocorite, which occupies a small portion
of this plain towards the sea-side, and is traversed by the Royal
Road. At the back of the village, some extensive buildings,
formerly occupied by the Ordnance department, are now used as
a leper asylum. The number of inmates at present in the asylum
is 133. A female quarter, quite distinct and completely sepa-
rated from the male quarters, has been built lately. The
establishment is altogether under the management of European
Dominican nuns, and admirably conducted ; the poor patients
are tended and nursed by the good nuns with maternal solicitude.
Both Mucurapo and Cocorite are subject to intermittent fever.
The village is flanked on the west by an extensive swamp ; it
is, however, to a certain extent, protected from malarial effluvia
by a spur of the Fort George Mountain.

Northward of Mucurapo and Cocorite are the two wards of
Maraval and Diego Martin, and westward of Diego Martin,
Carenage and Chaguaramas. The three wards of Maraval,
Diego Martin and Carenage have the same general aspect, being
formed respectively of the three valleys of the same name, with
their intervening hills ; they are therefore partly flat and partly
hilly — highest peak 1,830 feet. The soil is light in the valleys,
loamy on the hills, and, in general, fertile ; the soil of the valley
of Maraval, however, is not so good as that of Diego Martin and
Carenage. Sandstone, slate, and limestone are met with in the
ridges, which also grow valuable timber — such as poui, cip,
cedar, &c. There is, in the Maraval ward, one small sugar estate,
and one in Diego Martin. Diego Martin was one of the first
districts of the colony in which the cane was cultivated. Coffee,
cacao, and provisions are grown in the hilly parts of the three
wards. A good ward-road branches off from the Circular Road,
and leads up the valley to the Moka estate. There the ridge,
separating Maraval from Santa Cruz, becomes rather lower at
the place called La Silla, or the Saddle. At this point the
road crosses over to Santa Cruz. The dam and the reservoir
forming part of the Port-of-Spain water-works are built near
the road on the right bank of the river, about two miles and a
half from the town. Another road follows up the ridge be-
tween Maraval and Diego Martin to the north coast, near Sant
d'Eau, sending a branch to Diego Martin ; these are mere bridle-
paths.

278 TRINIDAD.

The ward-road of Diego Martin is a good carriage-road. At
the extremity of the valley a signal-post has been established,
which corresponds with that of Fort George. Since emancipa-
pation, a free village has been formed in the ward of Diego
Martin, and a school established in 1853.

The ward of Carenage extends to the sea on the south. Be-
sides the small river of Cuesa, which traverses the valley from
one end to the other, another mountain torrent descends the
hills, not far from the mouth of the Diego Martin. There are
coco-palm plantations along the beach, and a village has been
formed in the neighbourhood of the Catholic church, which is
a neat stone building, and on which the inhabitants of that im-
poverished district have spent in labour above 3,000 dollars.

Our enterprising townsman, Mr. William Tucker, has pur-
chased the whole valley of Cuesa, where once flourished four
sugar estates, and has commenced there the formation of an
extensive cacao estate, the belt along the bay being planted in
coco-nut palms. On the north coast, and corresponding to the
valley, is the bay of Maqueripe, where has been landed the tele-
graphic cable connecting Trinidad with the other Antilles and
North America.

The port of Carenage belongs to this ward. Population,
1881, 1,329.

The district is unhealthy, as also the ward of Chaguaramas.
This latter consists of the extremity of the north-western penin-
sula, together with the islands of Monos and Gasparillo, and a
few other diminutive islets. It is entirely hilly, scantily in-
habited, and more scantily cultivated. Chaguaramas is, as
already stated, a fine land-locked port with bold water. A
stream of pure, never-failing water runs down the hill into the
bay. This latter is separated from Carenage by a limestone
promontory, connected with the mainland by a mere neck,
2,000 feet wide, through which a canal has been cut for small
boats.

The islet of Gasparillo, or Gaspar Grande, is well known,
account of its extensive caves, which are haunted by vampires
and countless bats. The islet is of limestone formation, and
the soil good; but vegetation suffers part of the year from
scarcity of water. Carrera's Island, lying at the entrance of
the bay of Chaguaramas, has been turned into a convicts' depot,

=

CHACACHACAREO — WHALE-FISHING. 279

the prisoners being employed in quarrying and breaking stones.
Monos belongs to the borough of Port-of- Spain, as also Huevos
and Pato. Monos has several wells of wholesome water ; it is
a place of resort for sea-bathing. The population consists chiefly
of fishermen. Nothing can be cultivated there except during the
wet season, and even then it is with the greatest difficulty that
one can grow provisions, on account of the ravages of the
parasol-ants or Bachacos.

The ward of Chacachacareo consists of the islands of Pato
and Huevos — uninhabited — and Chacachacareo. The latter island
may be said to be formed of two smaller islets or ridges, con-
verging towards the north till they meet, being there connected
by a neck of land a few yards in breadth, and a few feet above
the level of the sea — a fine little cove, with deep water, being
formed between the two ridges. Chacachacareo is well popu-
lated, fertile, and once produced fine cotton ; it is now cultivated
in vegetables and fruits, and is noted for its fine sugar-apples
and melons. Guinea-grass grows in luxuriance, and is used by
the residents for thatching their cottages. Alum has been
found both there and at Huevos. On the south side of Chaca-
chacareo is a large pond of salt-water, which might be advan-
tageously made to yield a home supply of salt. A small Catholic
chapel had been erected by the inhabitants in a commanding
position, and a few houses scattered around form a kind of
hamlet. There was also at Chacachacareo a whaling establish-
ment. There were, not many years ago, four such establishments
on the Bocas islands. The species of whale caught in the Gulf
is a balaenoptera (razor-back) . Whales arrive in December, but
they are then so wild that they cannot be easily approached : the
whaling season was from February to May, at which time the
balaenoptera leave these shores for other climates. In taking
the whale, peculiar boats only are used, so that the whalers do
not venture beyond the placid waters of the Gulf. The method
followed here is the same as that pursued on the ocean ; but, no
large vessels being engaged in the pursuit, when the animal has
been killed it is towed to the establishment by the boats : this is
a very tedious mode of procedure, and should the wind and tide
be against the boatmen, it often occupies twenty-four hours.
The animal is brought as near the shore as possible, the blubber
cut into long slices and carried to the boilers ; even this, how-

280 TRINIDAD.

ever, is not accomplished without much trouble. Very often
immense troops of sharks attack the carcase of the whale, and
devour part of it before it can be removed to the establishment ;
but they particularly swarm around when the operation of slicing
is commenced, from 1,500 to 3,000 sharks sometimes collecting
in an incredibly short time, so that some of the men are then em-
ployed in killing them with harpoons and hatchets. Great waste
often takes place from imperfect resources ; one-fourth of the
available parts of the animal being sometimes left on the spot.
The number of whales caught annually was from twenty-five to
thirty; quantity of oil, about 20,000 gallons. Sometimes whales
come in accompanied by their young, and as the female is very
fond of its offspring, the whaler aims at wounding the calf with
the least possible injury. The mother, in this case, never
abandons her young, but continues swimming round, so as to be
easily approached and harpooned.

Huevos is uninhabited, on account of the immense number
of rats which have made it their abode. On the north side of
the islet is a cave, the resort of guacharos.

At Monos, Huevos, and Chacachacareo grows the
vltae (Guayacum officinale), and, what is locally called h
country bark (Portlandia Aexandra), an emeto-cathartic, used
the cure of fevers. These islets, as well as Pato, are noted for
their centipedes, some of them being from eight to ten inches
long.

Proceeding eastward from Port-of -Spain are the following
wards : — Laventille ; this is immediately contiguous to the town,
partly hilly, partly swampy, sloping down towards the Eastern
Royal Road and the Caroni river. Soil, generally good ; a few
cacao and coffee plantations, with provision-grounds and an
abundance of fruit trees. The hills are of limestone, which pro-
trudes in several parts, of a bluish colour, with veins of pure
carbonate. From these hills are- quarried stones for building
purposes, and for macadamising the streets of the town and the
roads adjoining; excellent lime is also manufactured from the
same. Fine gypsum may be procured at the foot of the hills.
Several fresh-water springs are found in this ward. Laventille
has gained the well-merited reputation of being one of the most
unhealthy districts of Trinidad, which it owes to its proximity
to an extensive mangrove swamp; the most elevated part of it,

=•

[in

CIMARONERO— -ARICAGUA — ST. JOSEPH. 281

however, is less unhealthy. No whites can live there; the
coloured people suffer much, and Africans and Chinese are the
only people who enjoy comparatively good health. It is
assumed that a white man who sleeps one night on the
Laventiile heights must necessarily get fever. If correctly
informed, a certain number of white families from Dominica
and St. Lucia were induced by Sir Ralph Woodford to settle on
the Laventiile hills and establish coffee estates. In less than
eight years they were mowed down by fever, and coffee culti-
vation was abandoned. Population, 1881, 4,472; in 1871,
1,775.

Next to Laventiile comes the ward of Cimaronero, very much
resembling the former in general position and unhealthiness ;
however, it is not placed so much within the reach of the
malaria, and its soil, near the Aricagua river, is of a better
quality.

The ward of Aricagua, which follows, is partly hilly, partly
flat, and very much resembling the preceding one. The Aricagua
river has its outlet into the Caroni. On the right bank of the
Caroni, and extending into the Cimaronero ward, is a natural
savanna, called Bordonal ; it is under water for a certain part
of the year. The small village of San Juan stands on a high
ground, northward of the Royal Road, about 200 yards from the
river Aricagua, and is traversed by a ward-road conducting into
the valley of Santa Cruz. It is a miserable-looking village,
with a stone-built Catholic church, and a cure attached.-
Besides San Juan, there are two small hamlets along the
Royal Road, opposite to the Aranguez and Le Vivier estates ; an
Anglican chapel has lately been built at the latter, and a curate
appointed.

The ward of St. Joseph, which comprises the small town of
St. Joseph, with a population of eight hundred and eighty-eight
inhabitants, together with the quarter of the same name, comes
next ; it is partly hilly and partly flat ; soil very much resembling
that of Aricagua, and very fertile along the banks of the St.
Joseph river. On the flanks of the hills are several natural
savannas, looking at a distance like prairies, and which can be
seen from the harbour of Port-of-Spain. Large blocks of milky
quartz are scattered all over these savannas, which stretch, at
intervals, along the ridges to the river Arima. The small town

282 TRINIDAD.

of St. Joseph was founded towards the year 1577, and was for a
long time the chief town of Trinidad. It stands on a narrow
eminence at the entrance of the Maraccas valley, has some few
neat and comfortable houses, and is mainly inhabited by Spanish
families, descendants of the former possessors of the island.
Two streets, pretty steep, lead from the Royal Road into the in-
terior of the town. At the north end of St. Joseph's were once
barracks, in which was generally stationed a company of white
troops ; in 1838, however, they were occupied by a corps of
blacks, recently formed of Africans liberated from slavers. On
the night of the 17th of June, 1838, these savages revolted,
fired on their officers, and part of them succeeded in making their
way eastward, in march, as they fancied, to their native country.
They were met at Arima by an armed militia force, and several
were killed ; in fact, this attempt at rebellion ended in the death
of forty of those deluded men, of whom three prisoners under-
went military execution.

In 1595, Sir Walter Raleigh having entered the Gulf of
Paria, sent some of his boats up the river Caroni, from which
passed into the St. Joseph tributary, and, having landed his m
near the town, captured and burnt it. St. Joseph is a Cathol
parish, with a neat stone-built church, from the tower of whic
one has the command of a most extensive view. The Maraccas
ward-road joins the town near the barracks.

The hilly parts of the above wards are inhabited by small
proprietors, the majority of them being emancipated labourers ;
they cultivate provisions, some coffee and cacao, and generally
work out on hire. The plains are cultivated in canes ; and in
Laventille is found one sugar estate ; in Cimaronero two estates ;
two in Aricagua, on one of which is a water-mill; six in St.
Joseph. A quarry of excellent building-stone has been lately
discovered in the ward of Aricagua, and supplies macadam for the
adjoining portion of the Royal Road ; very pure gypsum may
also be obtained from the hills near St. Joseph, and a snow-white
clay, at the foot of the high ground on which the town is built.
This latter is used for whitewashing.

Northward of the above wards are the following : — Santa
Cruz, Maraccas, and Las Cuevas — the latter stretching along the
sea-shore, and bounded on the south by Santa Cruz and Marac-
cas. They bear the greatest resemblance to each other in every

or

MAEACCAS — LAS CUEVAS. 283

respect, and are for the most part hilly — Maraccas and Las
Cuevas especially. The soil is in general of the best quality —
light and sandy in the valleys, and a clayey loam resting on
schists and limestone on the hills ; these are generally steep, and
the valleys rather damp and warm. The valley of Santa Cruz —
in all respects the richest, and also the largest, in Trinidad — is
entirely cultivated in cacao, and contains some of the finest cacao
estates to be found in the island. They were once exclusively
owned by the Spaniards — the first settlers and proprietors of the
island — but the greater number have changed hands within the
last twenty years. Coffee and provisions are cultivated on the
hills. The valley of Santa Cruz branches off into several smaller
glens, each being irrigated by its respective stream, which carries
off its water to the Aricagua river. The road to Santa Cruz
once traversed the village of San Juan. Its direction has been
altered, and it now runs up along the right side of the stream to
the head of the valley. A branch road establishes a communica-
tion over the saddle with Maraval, while another section crosses
the mountains at the end of the Gasparillo glen to Maraccas bay,
in the ward of Las Cuevas ; it is but a mere path through the
high woods. Population, 1881, 2,191 ; 1871, 2,252.

The valley of Maraccas extends northward of the town of St.
Joseph, from which it is separated by an elevation of the land ; it
is much more contracted than Santa Cruz, and the surrounding
ridges are higher, particularly at its extremity. Cacao, coffee,
and provisions are the only cultivations. The vale of Acono is
a dependency, or branch, of the Maraccas valley.

Las Cuevas is still more hilly than Maraccas, and does not
contain above 800 acres of flat land : these form the two estates
of Maraccas and Las Cuevas, situated respectively on the bays of
the same name, and separated by a steep ridge. These two
estates are cacao plantations, drained by the two streams of
Maraccas and Quebrada de Hierro, or the iron ravine. Produce
from Las Cuevas is conveyed to town in small sloops ; that from
Maraccas bay is carried through to Santa Cruz on mule-back, and
from thence carted to town.

The highest mountain of the colony is situated between Las
Cuevas and the extremity of Maraccas valley ; it is called Las
Cuevas, or el Tocuche, and is 3,100 feet high. At the bottom of
Maraccas valley is a waterfall, from a height of about 340 feet,

284 TRINIDAD.

and remarkable for the nearly perpendicular cliff of the moun-
tain from which it descends ; this may be regarded as the source
of the St. Joseph river. About one mile and a half from the
cascade, on the right bank of the river, almost within its bed,
and at the foot of a high hill, is the mineral spring of Maraccas ;
it contains a small proportion of sulphuretted hydrogen gas,
epsom salts, &c. These mineral waters have not yet been tested
to an extent sufficient to warrant a decision on their medicinal
properties ; but they have been used in a few cases of nervous
debility, and have proved efficacious ; this spring, therefore, will
be found of great advantage to invalids. It is in that part of
the mountains, stretching between Santa Cruz and Maraccas
bay, that Galena was found, as pretended, by Mr. Darmany.
Very valuable timber abounds in these wards.

Tacarigua, to the eastward of St. Joseph, is, in general, more
level than the latter ward, a small section only to the north being
hilly; the plain slopes very gradually towards the Caroni. The
banks of this river are somewhat higher than the adjacent plain,
which, being in some parts of a retentive nature, is not easil
drained. The soil of the ward is, in general, light — too mu
so in a few spots.

Tacarigua, strictly so called, is more fertile than Arouca.
is here proper to remark that the quality of the land gradually
improves from Port-of-Spain to St. Joseph ; but from St. Joseph,
eastward, it becomes gradually poorer, until we reach the table-
land between Aripo and Cuare. Eastward of Cuare, it again
improves, until meeting the fertile districts of Oropouche and
Manzanilla. The hilly parts of Tacarigua, and also portions of
the plain, are cultivated in provisions, the rest in canes, there
being eleven sugar estates in this ward. The river Tacarigua
traverses this ward, flowing from the valley of Caura. On the
left bank of the river, and immeditely southward of the Royal
Road, is the parish church of St. Mary, not far from which is the
country seat of the late Mr. Burnley. Between St. Joseph and
the Tacarigua river, houses scattered on each side of the ro;
form a rude village. Another village, on a more regular pi a
is situated opposite the Orange Grove and Dinsley estates, on
lands of the Paradise estate. Two miles further eastward is the
village of Arauca, with a Catholic church and a Presbyterian
chapel.

:

:i

ARIMA. — GUANAPE. 285

Next to Tacarigua are Arima and Guanape, very much re-
sembling each other in point of soil and general features. Of
these wards, a small part only is hilly, the greater portion being
flat ; the soil is in general very poor, except on the hills and along
the rivers — such as those of Arima and Guanape — where there is
a belt of alluvium, very rich and well adapted to the cultivation
of the cacao. The soil of the plain consists, in most parts, of a
coarse> yellow clay, very retentive, and consequently cold ; corta-
deras, melastomacese, and timites grow in abundance, as also fine
poui and balata timber. Between the Guanape and Aripo, the
soil is of the worst description ; wild pine-apples, cortaderas, and
timites are particularly abundant — some of the timitales, or
timite-groves, resembling marshes. A small section of Guanape
is covered over with silicious pebbles and a meagre vegetation.
Arima and Guanape are almost exclusively cultivated in cacao ;
they also produce some coffee; but the growth of provisions is
much neglected, though maize, plantains, yams, manioc, &c,
grow to perfection in the best tracts. There is also a great abun-
dance of good timber, such as carapa, yoke, olivier, and tapana,
besides poui and balata, already mentioned. These two wards are
sparingly cultivated, and the population scanty, on account of
their bad soil. Guanape, Arima, and Tacarigua form, perhaps,
the most healthy districts of Trinidad, and newly-arrived Euro-
peans are not therein subject to the usual country fevers, unless
imprudent or addicted to intemperance. Several natural savan-
nas are found in the ward of Arima — viz., Piarco, Piarquito,
Arima, and CVMara ; they produce but a coarse grass, upon which
animals do not thrive. The village of Arima, situated at the foot
of the northern range, on the right bank of the river Arima, and
at the head of an extensive plain, sixteen miles from Port-of-
Spain, is well laid out ; its streets are wide, and intersect each
other at right angles, with a large square in the centre of the
village. It has its police-station ; and at the eastern side of the
square stands the Catholic church, built of mason work.

The village of Arima was for a long time an Indian mission.
Soon after the settlement of the island by the conquerors, the
Indians, with the consent of the Government, had been drawn to-
gether by the Capuchin monks, mainly with the object of bring-
ing them under the civilising influence of Christianity, also of
protecting them against the exactions of the colonists. Four such

286 TRINIDAD.

missions were formed at Tacarigua, Caura, Arouca, and Arima ;
but as the establishment of ingenios, or sugar estates, was
carried eastward, the Indians located at the above places were re-
moved to Arima, where one thousand quarrees of land had been
reserved on the right side of the river as their full and inalienable
property. The present village of Arima owes its origin to the
mission. This was settled and governed on the same plan as all
such establishments in the Spanish colonies. These Indians had
their own municipal government, the first and second Alcades
being chosen from among themselves, but under the control of the
missionary priest. At the conquest of the island, and subsequent
to the death of the padre, or missionary priest, a corregidor was
appointed, as also a protectory to whom the Indians would appeal
against any arbitrary act of the corregidor. All able-bodied
Indians were obliged to work two days in the week, for the sup-
port of the aggregate members of the community, who, in
general, were employed in keeping the village clean and culti-
vating the land in common, the proceeds being distributed to each
house or family equally ; each head of a family had, besides, his
own allotment, or conuco, which he cultivated for his own private
benefit and advantage. They were not, strictly speaking, subject
to taxation, but were bound to assist in performing any public
work within the limits of the mission, when ordered by the cor-
regidor ; they had also to accompany him whenever required, on
wages. The Indians were considered in the light of minors, and
could not sell or otherwise dispose of their property, which, how-
ever, descended to their natural heirs : a very wise provision
indeed, since the moment they became emancipated, they sold
what property they had for a mere trifle. Once every year they
elected, with the sanction of the corregidor, a king and queen to
preside over their festivities, and to act as their principals on
solemn occasions. In 1834, when a stipendiary magistrate was
appointed, the Indians were brought under the common law, and
the corregidorship was abolished. In 1849, after the passing of
the territorial ordinance, the lots in the village were put up for i
sale at an upset price — a measure the legality of which is highly
questionable, as far as the Indians were concerned, since the lands
and lots in the mission had been granted to them as compensation
for property of which they had been deprived. The Indians of
Arima called themselves Calif ournans ; some twenty- five years

287

ago a few of them were still alive. I knew then the one which
could be called the patriarch (about one hundred years old), and
his wife ; they were good specimens of the race, or tribe. The
old man was short and square-built, with high cheek-bones, good
eyes, and straight, white hair. His wife bore a similar
appearance, and was borne down by the weight of years. Pas-
cual was always gay, and apparently satisfied with his lot ; he
was fond of spirits, and became drunk whenever an opportunity
was afforded. He was otherwise most honest and peaceable.
The old man had sold his conuco, and depended upon the padre,
or parish priest, for his maintenance. Two schools — one for boys
and another for girls — were once maintained for Indian children,
but the attendance was always very scanty.

The village of Arima was formerly, and remained for a long
time, celebrated for its festival of Santa Rosa, the patron saint of
the mission. On that day the Indians elected their king and
queen — in general, a young man and young girl — and all
appeared in their best apparel and most gaudy ornaments. The
interior of the church was hung with the produce of their in-
dustry— bunches of plantains, cassava cakes, and the fruits of the
season ; game of various descriptions, coincos, lapas, parrots, &c,
and draperied with the graceful leaves of the palm-tree. After
mass they performed ceremonial dances in the church, and then
proceeded to the Casa real, or royal house, to pay their compli-
ments to the corregidor, who gave the signal for dancing and
various sports — among others that of archery — in which the men
exercised themselves until a prize was adjudged to the best marks-
man. People from all parts of the country would resort to Arima
for the purpose of witnessing the festivities, which were in-
variably attended by the Governor and staff. Sir Ralph Wood-
ford, in particular, always took the greatest interest in the
mission, and every year would distribute prizes to the children of
both sexes who deserved them by their good behaviour, and their
improvement at school. Santa Rosa's day was really a gay anni-
versary, at which the poor Indians, the simple children of yore,
were, for the time, the principal actors, and during which they
forgot both the loss of their heritage and their own individual
serfdom.

The 30th of August is a holiday still, but bears quite a dif-
ferent character. People still crowd to the village from different

288 TRINIDAD.

parts of the island, but there are no more Indians, neither are
their oblations to be seen adorning the church ; their sports and
their dances have passed away with the actors therein, and, in
their stead, quadrilles, waltzes, races, and blind-hookey are the
present amusements of the village.

Arima is sixteen miles distant from Port-of- Spain. Since
the year 1879 it has become the terminus of a railway from that
town ; three passenger trains each day ; transit, one hour. Arima
will ultimately become an important centre of population and
commerce. Produce from the adjoining mountains will find its
way to Arima, to be transported afterwards to town. All the
cacao from Cumuto, Tumpuna, Cunape, and even Oropuche must
be carted there, until, at least, the projected tramway along the
left bank of the Caroni is fairly established, when the inhabitants
of those localities will find it more advantageous to use the tram-
way. Population of the ward in 1871, 3,295; houses, 1,883.
Population in 1881, 4,687.

Northward of Tacarigua, Arima and Guanape, are the wards
of Caura and Blanchisseuse. They are hilly, but the soil is, in
general, very fertile — particularly that of the valley of Caura.
This valley, which is watered and drained by the river Tacarigua,
is considered as the most picturesque spot in the whole island —
in fact, it is described by visitors as a perfect paradise. It is
cultivated in cacao, coffee, and provisions ; the inhabitants are
mostly of Spanish descent, and the Spanish language is univer-
sally spoken. Blanchisseuse stretches along the sea, and is
entirely hilly. The ward-road of Caura has been lately extended
to that ward, but it is barely more than a bridle-path. Blanchis-
seuse communicates with Port-of-Spain by sea, or by Santa Cruz,
through Las Cuevas and Maraccas ; a bridle-path across the moun-
tains connects it with Arima. When this path has been con-
verted into a regular road, Blanchisseuse will send its produce to
Arima.

It may be seen from the above description that the county of
St. George is, for the most part, hilly ; the soil excellent in some
parts, and altogether barren in others. Cacao is the chief produce,
and is cultivated in the valleys and the river-hollows ; the roads
are generally good. Population in 1871, 39,659; in 1881,
80,761; increase, 41,102.

2. County of St. David. — Only two wards have been formed in

COUNTY OF ST. DAVID. 289

this county, one in the north and the other in the southern divi-
sion ; the district itself is but imperfectly known, as the greater
part of it is still covered with high virgin forests. It is in general
hilly, and the high-lands would appear to be very fertile, whilst
the level are of the worst description ; but a tract of undulating
land, near the river Oropuche, is of the best quality. The ward
of Toco, in the northern division, extends along the sea-shore ;
this ward is entirely hilly and uneven, some of the hills being
500, 850, and 1,230 feet high, the depressions between being
well sheltered and cool. This ward is particularly well adapted
to the cultivation of cacao, coffee, and provisions. The cultiva-
tion of coco-nuts should be tried along the shore, and on those
localities most exposed to the sea-breeze. The soil near Rio
Grande and along Tumpire is of the best quality. There was
formerly at Toco bay a sugar estate, which was abandoned soon
after emancipation. The want of proper harbours and the diffi-
culties of communication with the bay and Port-of-Spain will
be felt for a long time as a serious obstacle to the progress of this
ward, which otherwise would soon rise in importance as a cacao and
provision-growing district. Great progress, however, has been
made within the last few years, and the crops are larger than they
were. Governor Gordon, always alive to the best interests of the
colony, had encouraged steam communication around the island.
I must say, however, that he failed in his endeavour to benefit this
remote district. The inhabitants would not improve the oppor-
tunity afforded under very frivolous pretexts. They would not
make any previous arrangements, but would complain that the
steamer would not wait for their convenience. I think that they
are sensible of their mistake, and would now prove wiser and
more discreet. Means of communication, however, should be im-
proved by the formation of good roads in the district, one
especially from Rio Grande to Sans Souci, and another one to the,
bay of Cumana. A contract for steam communication between
Port-of-Spain and the eastern coast has been advertised, touching
at Toco, Manzanilla, Mayaro, &c. I hope that the contract will
be taken up by some enterprising person, and I have no doubt
that it will prove remunerative. I would suggest the necessity
of touching at Cumana, Balandra Bay, or Salibia. There exists
at present a land communication between Toco and Port-of-Spain
along the sea-shore, and across Tumpire, Matura, and Oropuche ;

T

290 TRINIDAD.

but it is a mere track, and scarcely fit for mule traverse. The
ward of Toco abounds in excellent timber, and cedar-boards are a
regular trade commodity. Population, 1881, Toco and Blanchis-
seuse, 2,025; 1871, 1,278.

The ward of Turure, in the southern district of this county,
is partly hilly, partly level ; the settlements of Cuare, Turure,
and La Ceyba, with a few plantations along the banks of the
Matura and Oropuche were for many years the only inhabited
parts of this ward, its central part, traversed by the eastern road,
being highly infertile. Lately, however, many acres have been
bought from the Government along the road towards Sangre
Chiquito and Morne Calabash; also on the banks of Sangre
Grande, Cunape, and Upper Cumuto. The soil along Cunape
and Upper Cumuto may be pronounced of the best quality, and
cacao cultivation is fast gaining ground in those localities, almost
to the foot of Tamana. This district may before long become
one of importance. I have said that the central part of Turure
is highly infertile ; nothing, in fact, can be worse than the
tract lying between Aripo and La Ceyba.

The settlements of Cuare, Turure, and La Ceyba were formed,
in the year 1816, of disbanded soldiers from the 1st West India
Regiment. These settlements or villages ranged along the banks
of the rivers bearing their respective names ; and the soldiers
were located thereon with a grant of sixteen acres of land to
each man. They were placed, to a certain extent, under the
supervision of their sergeants, who were allowed a larger and
more commodious house, on condition of admitting travellers to
a temporary lodging when requested so to do. Sergeant Brooks
had, for many years, the privilege of entertaining travellers to
Bande de I' Est. Some of the locations also bordered on the
road, with the object, it seems, to keep that road in good repair ;
also to place labour within the reach of neighbouring proprietors.
The experiment proved a complete failure, the King's men, as
they called themselves, being too proud to work as day-labourers.
In the year 1849, after the passing of the territorial ordinance,
the lands of these and other settlers were surveyed, and fifteen
acres granted free to each settler or his descendants; but the
lands of Cuare, La Ceyba, and Turure being of the very worst
description, the occupants gradually gave up their grants for
better land elsewhere.

COUNTY OF ST. ANDREW. 291

Cacao, a little coffee, and provisions, are the only productions.
The cacao plantations are on the banks of the rivers Oropuche
and Matura, and have lately been extended to Cumuto and
Cunape. Produce is brought to Arima on mules. The Oropuche
is a fine stream, receiving, on the right, Cuare, with its effluents
Turure, La Ceyba and Guayco, Cunape, Sangre Grande, and
Sangre Chiquito ; on the left, Melao and Rio Grande. It
is not, however, accessible to crafts, in consequence of the
bar at its mouth and the heavy surf along the Matura shore.
This river is also noted for the large number of Huillias, or
water boas, which find shelter there. Population, 1881, 956 ;
1871, 599.

The county of St. David, as may be inferred from the above
sketch, is thinly populated and scantily cultivated. The hills
and undulating parts of this county are fertile, but the plain is
desperately barren, consisting of a variable mixture of clay and
sand, and stratified detritus containing an excess of quartz.
One single ward-road, or rather trace, branching off the eastern
road between Valencia and Aripo, connects Matura and Oropuche
with Arima; from the village of Matura it follows an easterly
direction to the bay of Salibia, and thence, across the hills, leads
to Toco. Population of the county, by last census, 2,025 ; in
1871, 1,877.

3. County of St. Andrew. — Only one ward has been formed
out of this county, viz., that of Manzanilla, including Morne
Calabash. These were once settlements like those of Cuare,
Turure, and La Ceyba, formed of disbanded black soldiers, on the
same plan and with the same views ; they were brought under the
common law in the year 1849, fifteen acres being granted to
each settler or his descendants. For many years, the settlers of
St. Andrew had as their superintendent a medical man. They
were on half-pay, and every month a drogher was despatched
from Port-of- Spain with provisions for the settlement, and, in
return, took the produce to town, the owners of the articles
travelling generally by land.

The ward of Manzanilla, and the county of St. Andrew
in general, are fertile ; in fact, Manzanilla and Morne Calabash
may be classed among the best districts of Trinidad. " Plant
a stampee" — the smallest silver coin — "and a doubloon will
grow/' was a common saying of the inhabitants, whereby to

292 TRINIDAD.

express their opinion of the fertility of the soil. And really
the whole tract bordering on the sea, and from about six to
eight miles inland, including the Lebranche hills, is of the best
description. The surface is undulating, and the district lavishly
produces those natural indexes of fertility — carats, cedars, wild
fig-trees, balisiers, &c. This section of the island would now be
densely populated were it not for the great difficulty of convey-
ing the produce to market, since, except the small harbour under
Point Manzanilla, there is no shipping-place along the whole
line of coast. At one time it was in contemplation to cut a
canal of communication between the rivers Oropuche and
Caroni; the survey was actually made, in 1804, by Colonel
Rutherford. The projected canal was made to start from the
junction of the Sangre Chiquito with the Oropuche, and reach
the mouth of the Cumuto ; then following the left bank of the
Caroni to its junction with the Arouca. Such canal would have
afforded the advantage of draining the country which it
traversed; but I doubt very much whether, during the dry
season, it would have had sufficient water to be of any utility in
the way of transport. A tram-road would be by far the most
advantageous medium of connecting the counties of St. Andrew
and St. David with the Gulf of Paria. Population, 1881, 570 ;
in 1871, 350.

All that has been said of Manzanilla is pretty applicable to
the greatest part of the county in general. The part contiguous
to St. George and Caroni is generally poor ; but from the river
Cunape eastward, the quality of the soil improves from a deep
clay to a black loam, near Morne Calabash, where, as already
stated, it becomes of a very superior, and even of first-rate
quality. The land in the whole county is undulating, or gener-
ally hilly. It is traversed by the high road leading from the
capital to the eastern coast ; at Morne Calabash it branches off
in two directions — to Manzanilla on the north-east, and to the
beach on the east, thus establishing a communication along the
sea-shore with Mayaro.

It is in this ward, at Pointe Noire, that the coal formation
of the island was first traced by Messrs. Wall and Sawkins.
There are, as it appears, three series . of beds exhibited in the
cliffs, commencing one and a quarter mile south of the mouth
of the river Oropuche, and proceeding to the south, and

COUNTY OF CARONI. 293

separated by spaces of low and swampy land. It has been
ascertained that this coal formation extends to the Gulf
of Paria, constituting what Messrs. Wall and Sawkins term
the Caroni or carbonaceous series.

4. County of Caroni. — This county has been divided into
seven wards : Upper and Lower Caroni, Chaguanas, Cara-
pichaima, Savanetta, Couva, and the ward of Montserrat.
Upper Caroni possesses a great variety of soils, from the worst
to the best; the level section is, at times, a poor sandy soil,
sometimes argillaceous; the vegas, or river hollows, and the
undulating land towards the east and the south are excellent.
Maize and cacao are almost the sole cultivations ; plantains
also thrive in the vegas, but are not extensively grown. The
parts under culture are along the banks of the rivers, such as the
Tumpuna and Caroni, or in their immediate vicinity. The
produce was taken down the river to town, or brought to
Arima on mules. For many years all the properties in this
ward were owned by the mixed descendants of Indians and
Spaniards, many being emigrants from Venezuela ; and little
or none but the Spanish language was spoken throughout
this district. Of late years many have changed hands, and
become the property of usurers. The parasol-ants, or Bachacos,
are there a regular pest. This ward abounds in good timber,
and there are groves of cedars towards the upper course of
the Tumpuna. Cacao yields more abundantly in this ward than,
perhaps, in any other part of the island. I know an instance of
1,000 trees, about 18 years old, yielding 32 fanagas, or
3,500 lbs., whilst the average returns, in other parts, for the
same number of trees, is about 1,500 lbs. only. Maize is
cultivated during the dry season.

Three roads connect this ward with the Royal Road : one from
the junction of the Guanape and Aripo, which reaches Royal
Road just at the south-eastern boundary of the Arima village —
this is the Cocorite Road ; another runs a little westward
of Tumpuna, meets the Arima railway station, and crosses
the O'Mara savanna — it is known by the name of O'Mara
Road; the third leads from the mouth of the Maujico to
d'Abadie's village, and by another branch through the Piarquito
savanna to the village of Arouca. For years the Caroni river
was the real highway to Port-of- Spain. It is in this ward

294 TRINIDAD.

that the Guanape and Aripo join to form the Caroni; half
a mile lower down it receives the Tumpuna. The banks of the
Caroni are high and steep; its course extremely winding.
After its junction with Tumpuna, the depth of water varies
from one to three feet down to the point reached by the
tidal flow, and from four to twelve feet below that point
to its outlet. The shallow mud bar at its mouth can be
crossed only at high tide. The mean time descending in a corial
from Tumpuna to the sea is eight hours; but going up, or
against the current, is very tedious, as the canoe is pushed
up by the means of a long pole.

During the wet season, after any heavy showers, the
Caroni and its effluents overflow their banks, inundating the
country around for many hours, and leaving, on retiring, a
fertilising deposit. Between the left bank of the Caroni
and the undulating ground to the eastward, there is a
hollow, which serves as a recipient for the surplus water of
the Caroni and surface water of the surrounding country.
This is the Guaymare, which runs parallel to the river in
the direction of the Grand Savanna. When the water of the
Guaymare and Conupia — a stream which runs from the
Montserrat hills — meet together, they cover for several miles
the flat lands adjoining the Caroni savanna, and have more
than once already put to a severe test the solidity of the
railway between the Caroni and Conupia stations. Population
in 1881, 1,326; in 1871, 668.

The Cbaguanas and Lower Caroni wards may be said
to be entirely level, a great part of their extent being occupied
by what is called the Grand Savanna, and an extensive
mangrove swamp, which forms, as it were, the Delta of the
Caroni. The eastern part of the Lower Caroni ward is under
cultivation, cacao and sugar being the staple productions.
The estates generally are situated on or near the banks of
the Caroni. The soil is partly light and partly clayey, and tl
district rather damp. Presently nearly the whole produce wi
be conveyed to town by railway. There are, in Chaguanas,
both sides of the river Capparo, a fine cacao estate and sevei
sugar plantations.

A convict depot has been formed in this ward for some years
past, at the entrance of the extensive forest extending to

THE GRAND SAVANNAH. 295

the Montserrat hills. The prisoners are employed in cutting
wood, hauling timber, and conveying logs to the railway
station. A tramway, about six miles long, from the depot
to the sea, has been established, and is maintained partly by the
Government and partly by the planters, for the transport of
timber, supplies to the estates, and produce. Chaguanas owes
its prosperity — nay, its very existence as an agricultural district —
to this tramway. Cartage by the road during the wet
season was simply impossible. There is a station at Chaguanas,
seventeen miles from town.

From the south-eastern boundary of Port-of- Spain to the
ward of Chaguanas included, for about eleven miles along the
sea- shore, and from three to five miles in depth, extends an
immense mangrove swamp, and further inland the Grand
Savanna. This latter covers an area of several miles, say 20,000
acres. It is more or less completely submerged during the rainy
season, and to such an extent at times as to preclude communica-
tion across. Some portions are boggy, so that a sort of undu-
lating movement is communicated to the entire surface by a
person walking or even treading on the treacherous crust. The
savanna may be said to commence a few hundred yards from the
river Caroni.

About two miles south of the river is a large pond of fresh
water, called the Bejucal ; this pond swarmed with fish, and
immense quantities of Cascarduras (Callichthys) were taken in it
annually. The quantity has lately greatly diminished, the
coolies damming out or even poisoning the streams for the
purpose of securing even the smallest fry. The manner adopted
for fishing in the Bejucal was as follows : The fisherman made
a sort of raft of rushes, and then anchored out in the deep
water, throwing his cast-net, which he generally withdrew fully
laden with fish. It is from the Bejucal that Dr. Court procured
the two specimens of the Pipafrog, which can be seen at the
council-room. Westward of the Bejucal is the Cascarduras
hole, in the centre of a bog.

The savanna extends westward to the river Chaguanas, or
Madame Espagnole. Westward of the savanna, and along the
sea-board, is that extensive mangrove swamp, already mentioned,
dotted over with ponds of salt or brackish water — some of them
pretty large — and cut up by a network of canals. Cipriani's canal

296 TRINIDAD.

was opened by the proprietor of the Felicite estate to carry his
produce to the Chaguanas river for shipment to town.

The Caroni, or Grand Savanna, was for many years regarded
as a public pasture-ground, to which cattle were sent from
various estates for the advantage of grazing out of crop. It
may be said that at present it is not used for the purpose, and
the Government is now prepared to parcel it out and sell the land
to public competition. Every year in March (or sooner or later,
according to the dryness of the season) fire is set to the rank
grass, which bums readily. The fire sometimes keeps alive for
weeks, the dark, dense smoke spreading and hanging at the
horizon like an immense cloud.

It has been observed, as the beneficial result of this yearly
burning, that the quality of the grass improves, and the shade-
trees grow more thickly. When the colony was first settled, the
Grand Savanna was renowned for the immense quantity of aquatic
game and parrots which thronged there, and which were eagerly
hunted for sport or profit by the inhabitants.

Some of the white settlers and French emigres made a livi
from their chase. Ducks, teals, herons, flamingos {Red Ibis),
then swarmed in the ponds; the mangroves and guava trees
were literally covered with ramiers and parrots. The quantity,
however, has diminished in an incredible degree, particularly
since the firing of the long grass, which afforded shelter to the
feathered and other game. From the mangroves along the
Caroni, Port-of-Spain gets a good supply of fuel. Lower Caroni
and Chaguanas : population in 1881, 7,118 ; in 1871, 4,046.

Wards of Carapichaima, Couva, and Savanetta. — Next to
Chaguanas lies the ward of Carapichaima, and in succession,
southward, Couva and Savanetta ; these wards are bounded on
the north by Chaguanas, on the south by Pointe-a-Pierre, on the
east by the ward of Montserrat and undefined crown lands, on
the west by the Gulf. These wards very much resemble each
other in point of soil and general disposition, and may be said
to form a perfect level, except towards the interior. The soil
not of the best description, being generally sandy, except on t
banks of the rivers, where it is pretty rich alluvial ; also near t
sea-shore. The soil of Couva is considered, on the whole,
being of a better quality; also the lower part of Savanett
Carapichaima is the worst, being a poor stratified detritus.

:ny

!

is ;

CARAPICHAIMA — COUVA — SAVANETTA. 297

These wards, being flat, may be considered as damp, at least
during part of the year ; they are partly still in high woods or
brush woods. The water is very shallow along the whole length
of coast, and mangrove swamps occur at frequent intervals ; as
a necessary consequence, malarial fevers are rather prevalent.

During the last few years cane cultivation has been increased
in these wards, and much improved. Steam-ploughs have been
used apparently with signal advantage, inasmuch as the average
yield per acre has been increased, and the cost of cultivation
diminished. But the soil, as a rule, is sadly deficient in lime salts.

The first vacuum pan and turbines ever worked in Trinidad
were put up on the Brechin Castle estate (Savanetta) , and with
good results to the proprietor, I assume, since he has been
induced to repeat the experiment on the bank of the Caroni.
These two factories, as compared with our ordinary establish-
ments, are undoubtedly great improvements; not such, however,
as I would like to see permanently adopted.

Mr. J. Cumming has erected on the Waterloo estate, in
Carapichaima, an improved manufactory, capable of turning out
more than 5,000 tons of white crystallised sugar.

Indeed, this is a progress which we should hail with deep
satisfaction. Carapichaima, Couva, and Savanetta : population,
1881, 11,305; 1871, 7,477.

Ward of Montserrat. — This is a newly-constituted ward, the
limits of which are not yet well defined, at least on the north
and east. As the formation of this ward is intimately connected
with the suppression of squatting in the island, I beg to enter
into some details on the subject.

Not many years ago, the district or quarter of Montserrat
was mostly, if not entirely, occupied by individuals of Spanish
descent — peones of the best class — who had been allured thereto
by the fertility of the soil, and the facility of getting land. Not
ten could show any title to the land they occupied. They were
therefore squatters, but squatters of the good sort, who aimed at
becoming proprietors and permanent settlers. They cultivated
provisions, cacao, and coffee. This class, numbering at least
four hundred, comprised, besides the Spanish peones already
mentioned, a few descendants of persons who were free before
emancipation — amongst them some tradesmen, especially car-
penters.

298 TRINIDAD.

When they became aware of the determination of the
Government to check squatting, they sent to the acting
Governor, Mr. Rush worth, a memorial, in which they represented
their case fairly enough, alleging that they had had the undis-
turbed enjoyment for many years of their holdings, acquired in
some instances by inheritance or by purchase from former occu-
piers, pleading long occupation and the payment of ward rates
for a number of years, as some justification for their belief
that they were in legal possession. While declaring their
inability to pay the whole amount of the value of the lands
occupied by them, they expressed their readiness to pay for
the same by annual instalments, to extend over a period of
four years, under such restrictions as might be imposed upon
them.

After some hesitation, the following arrangements were
made : — In justice to the bond fide occupiers, the holdings were
not put up for competition. To those who preferred to pay by
four equal instalments, the land was sold at £2 per acre ; those
who were prepared to pay cash, or within the year, were allowed
to purchase at the rate of £1 an acre.

Such among the squatters as had cacao plantations were
entirely dependent for the necessary supplies for the support of
themselves and families on merchants in the town, who made
advances against the coming crop. This incident greatly aided
in settling the question. Those merchants and others who had
advanced money, finding that the Government was prepared to
make arrangements with the squatters, readily advanced the
purchase-money, in order to secure their debt and prevent the
holdings passing into other hands.

Many actually occupied a larger extent of land than they
had declared; so that the Government judged it necessary
to have nearly all the lots re-surveyed. The whole affair was
conducted with prudence, firmness, and forbearance; and great
indulgence shown throughout to the squatters, especially to
those who had families, and evinced their readiness to comply
with the law. In less than five years, the whole district was
formed into a prosperous ward. Only two persons, having
declined to comply with the orders of the Government, were
ejected from their holdings.

The success which accompanied the measures enforced at

MONTSERRAT. 299

Montserrat made it an easy task to deal with squatting in other
parts, as proved by subsequent proceedings against that class of
offenders.

However, to carry out those measures, the Governor required
the co-operation of active, intelligent officers ; and such officers, I
dare say, he found out in Mr. Robert Mitchell (afterwards immi-
gration agent in Calcutta for many years), and in his successor,
Mr. St. Luce d'Abadie. They were appointed to act as wardens
and commissioners of crown lands in the district. Both these
gentlemen had the advantage of understanding and speaking,
besides the English idiom, the French and Spanish languages.
In addition, Mr. d'Abadie had surveyed most of the lots in
Montserrat, and thus was well acquainted with the district;
and to the squatters he was not altogether unknown. The
matter was thus settled, not only to the satisfaction of the
Government, but also to the ultimate advantage of the settlers
themselves : their titles to their holdings were legalised, roads
were made where none existed previously, and new and exten-
sive sales of crown land continued to be effected. Seven coolie
settlements have been formed in the district, comprising nearly
3,000 acres. The number of grants made in 1879 amounted to
63, and the number of acres granted to 1,090. Population in
1871, 3,388; in 1881, 7,354— more than double; number of
Indians, 1,738.

The Aragonese Franciscan fathers had selected Montserrat as
a proper site for the establishment of an Indian mission. The
village of San Jose was accordingly laid out, near the river
Mayo, where the present village of Mayo now stands. This
mission was broken up about the year 1824, when the Indians
dispersed in the neighbouring districts.

The evils arising from the illegal and indiscriminate occu-
pancy of public land are self-evident, especially with a popula-
tion as that of this colony. Of those evils, the loss of crown
property revenue is the least ; while lawless habits, and the
tendency to deviate from the paths of civilisation, are the
greatest. By many the suppression of squatting was regarded
as almost impossible ; but it always was my opinion that this
could be easily effected. Under a system of Laissez faire and
Laissez alter, many violate the law who submit when it is
firmly and considerately enforced, as proved by the Montserrat

300 TRINIDAD.

experience, where the Government had to deal with not a few,
but with more than four hundred, squatters.

The land in Montserrat may be said to be of the best quality.
It belongs to the Tamana series, the limestone producing a
reddish brown to a dark brown loam, and the calcareous sands
affording a loose, generally blackish, soil. It is particularly well
adapted to the cultivation of cacao and coffee ; provisions of all
kinds thrive well, especially tanias.

The wards of Carapichaima, Couva, Savanetta, and Montserrat
still abound in good timber — balata, poui, copaiba, carapa, cedar.
They are drained by the following water-courses : the Arena and
Couva, which latter separates the ward of Couva from Sava-
netta. It is the largest river of the whole district, and has for
its principal tributary the Savanetta brook : they flow from the
adjoining hills.

On the southern sloping of the Montserrat hills there is
a spot of highly sandy and sterile land, designated as the
" white land," on account of the colour of the soil. Here has
been discovered a bed of beautiful glance pitch, which might be
worked to advantage when the means of communication are im-
proved and the facilities of transport increased.

Several villages have sprung up in the above wards since
emancipation — among which, Camden and California villages.
The Royal Road from Port-of-Spain to San Fernando traverses
these wards, running parallel to, and about one mile and a half
from, the sea-shore. From this main road branch off several ward-
roads, viz., those of Upper Couva and Montserrat. The railway
from St. Joseph to San Fernando runs nearly parallel to the
Royal Road; there are four stations, viz., at Carapichaima,
Camden village, California village, and Claxton bay.

The county of Caroni is generally level, and even flat. The
quality of the soil is very varied, being, in general, a light
sandy loam, resting on a substratum of clay ; as a whole, it is
not considered as very rich, except towards the interior, where
the land is undulating. The vegas, or river hollows, are also of
excellent quality. Cane, cacao, and provisions are pretty gener-
ally cultivated. There are, perhaps, more Spanish families of
mixed blood in this county than in any other. Population,
according to the last census, 25,777; population in 1871,
14,911.

CHAPTER IX.

TOPOGRAPHY — SOUTHERN DIVISION : COUNTIES OF VICTORIA, ST. PATRICK,
MAYARO, AND NARIVA.

The southern division comprises four counties, viz., Victoria,
St. Patrick, Mayaro, and Nariva.

1. County of Victoria. — Bounded on the N. by the county of
Caroni ; on the S. by a line running E.N.E. from Siparia, and
intersecting the Guataro or Ortoire at about 10° 13' ; on the E.
by a line drawn from the latter point to Mount Tamana ; and
on the W. by the sea and part of the south-western side of the
lagoon of Oropuche. This county is naturally divided into four
sections : the section of Pointe-a-Pierre, N. of the Guaracara ;
that of N. Naparima, N. of the river Cipero ; that of S.
Naparima, S. of the same river; and the district of Savanna
Grande, to the eastward of the Naparimas.

The section of Point- a-Pierre is bounded on the N. by the
ward of Savanetta ; on the S. by the river Guaracara ; on the
W. by the Gulf ; and on the E. by Montserrat. This district is
level or gently undulating on the S.W., and hilly on the N.N.E.,
towards the Montserrat hills. The soil is generally gravelly, or
a light loam, with the exception of some veins which are clay,
and not very productive ; the soil in this ward is derived from
the older Parian, which nowhere presents very encouraging
evidence of fertility. However, its quality improves, and it is
very productive along the banks of the Guaracara. The prin-
cipal productions are sugar and ground provisions. Population,
1881,4,393; in 1871, 2,756.

The river Guaracara rises, as previously stated, in the Mont-
serrat hills, between two spurs, one of which terminates at
Pointe-a- Pierre on the N., and the other at the Naparima hill
on the S. ; it is a tidal stream, with a bar at its mouth, and yet
navigable a short distance for flats and boats.

On the Plaisance estate and in its vicinity are to be found the

302 TRINIDAD.

thermal and chalybeate springs I have already mentioned. After
Port-of-Spain had been almost entirely destroyed by fire, in the
year 1808, it was in contemplation to erect a new capital at
Pointe-a-Pierre, on the La Carriere estate, both on account of
the depth of water and the direct line of its position, S. and N.
with the Bocas or Dragon's Mouths. If this district and the
adjoining country ever become thoroughly settled, a town built
in that locality would possess advantages, of which San Fer-
nando must for ever be deprived, viz., a good port, excellent
building materials, and the proximity of good water.

The railway to San Fernando is carried through the ward of
Pointe-a-Pierre, at a short distance from the sea. Would it not
be possible, and even advantageous, to have a landing-place at
Bon Accord or La Carriere ? and would the building of a quay
and jetty there be in any way injurious to the interests of San
Fernando ? I do not believe that it would, if liberal arrange-
ments were made for the transport by rail of goods from and to
the landing-place. The merchants might have offices on the
spot, and continue to carry on business at San Fernando.
Captains of vessels, I presume, would prefer to land at Pointe-
a-Pierre instead of San Fernando. The sea-wall once built, the
gravelly soil could be easily made to fall in, to form the plat-
form. Produce from the southern part of Montserrat, even
from Savanna Grande, the Guaracara valley, also from part of
Savanetta and Naparima, would find their way to this port,
where vessels, on account of the depth of water, would have
every facility for loading and unloading, the flats being able
to approach the wharf at all times.

North Naparima. — This section is bounded on the N. by the
Guaracara; on the S. by the South Naparima eastern road;
on the W. by the Gulf; and on the E. by Savanna Grande.
It comprises the only ward of N. Naparima. This ward pre-
sents everywhere an undulating surface, and is traversed, from
the Naparima hill to Savanna Grande, in a N.E. direction,
by a ridge which declines towards the Cipero on the S., and ;
towards the Guaracara on the N. ; it is easy, therefore, to trace
the connection of the Naparima hill with the central range.
The soil of this district is, in general, clayey, of a good quality,
and of a blackish colour towards the Cipero; towards tl
Guaracara, it is of a reddish appearance and retentive, not so pi

SA.N FERNANDO. 303

ductive as the marl soil of S. Naparima and Savanna Grande.
In some spots, the soil seems to be superposed by layers, and
after heavy showers or continued rain, it is not rare to see
patches of the upper layer, from two to three feet in thickness,
and several yards in extent, slide down the flanks of the undula-
tions with the canes they support. These are the land-slips so
detrimental to roads and cultivations. The Guaracara river and
several ravines drain the northern division of this section, and
the Cipero the southern portion. Very little or no cacao is
cultivated in this district, and but few ground provisions raised ;
it may be said that cane only is cultivated.

The Naparima mountain or hill is nearly insulated, sloping
down towards the E.N.E., and, though only 600 feet high,
remarkably conspicuous. It is entirely formed, according to all
probabilities, of silicate of alumina, covered with a fine vegetable
mould. At its foot stands San Fernando, the chief town of the
southern division of the island. It is partly built in a sort of
small recess, formed by two spurs stretching from the hill
towards the sea, and partly round the basis of the hill. Houses,
generally poor and miserable, are scattered over this site of* the
town, except, however, along the principal street, which leads
from the wharf to the foot of the hill ; it has a rather winding
direction. To the southward is a high ground, upon which
stand the Roman Catholic church, the hospital, the town-hall,
and the court-house. An alley planted with trees forms a
promenade ; the promenade was projected by Lord Harris, and
bears his name. This part is the most pleasant section of the
town, as it commands an extensive view of the harbour and
adjacent country. A pier of 300 feet, built of hard-wood, with
a flooring of carapa and cedar planks, had been erected by a
private company, for the convenience of passengers by the
steamer ; it has become public property, the Government having
paid money compensation to the said company. Though the
soil is of a retentive nature, San Fernando is, nevertheless, easily
drained, on account of the peculiar disposition of the ground ;
the ravines which traverse the town may, by proper precautions
and gradual improvements, be made useful sewers; whereas if
due attention be not pau to their banking and cleansing, they
must be to San Fernando what the Dry river is to Port-of-
Spain — an intolerable nuisance.

304 TRINIDAD.

The soil in the town and at the base of the hill is strongly
impregnated with bitumen, which oozes out in several places,
and forms between St. James and San Fernando streets a small
pool ; the bituminous nature of the substratum prevents the
sinking of wells, since the water becomes so strongly impreg-
nated with bitumen as to be unfit for use. Lately wells have
been sunk at the base of the hill, and an adit carried some
distance, with the object of procuring water for the use of the
inhabitants ; thirty-seven public fountains or dippers have been
established, at which the people can get water. The supply is
intermittent : main pipe, six inches ; thirty-four hydrants ; four-
teen stop-cocks. The total quantity thus supplied may be
calculated at 18,000 gallons per day. The wells are made to
communicate; the water is pumped up by machinery and sent to
a reservoir, from which it is conducted to the fountains. When
pumped up from the wells, this water has a marked smell and a
faint taste of bitumen, which, however, disappears when it has
been kept for some time in the reservoir. The water flowing
from the adit has a similar taste and smell, and that of sulphur
besides, which is found deposited in a very thin layer. The
water has been analysed, and found to contain a large proportion
of bitumen, also of sulphur, it being thereby rendered more or
less unfit for drinking and domestic purposes. It should be for-
bidden, by all means, to denude the hill and establish cultiva-
tion on its flanks. This is a subject fully worth the attention of
the Borough Council.

This question of supplying San Fernando with water is one
of great importance, also beset with difficulties, and which is not
solved yet. For it is evident that the present supply is not only
inadequate, but is of very bad quality — in fact, unfit for ordinary
domestic purposes. But wherefrom to get the required supply ?
From Montserrat? The distance (twelve miles), and serious
difficulties to be surmounted, and the consequent large outlay,
without a corresponding return, are, in my opinion, an insuperable
obstacle. From Pointe-a -Pierre? It would then become necessary
to construct collecting reservoirs, and to make use of machines
for forcing the water up to the town.

But there are at several places round the San Fernando hill
wells with springs, and gullies which might be dammed and
turned into reservoirs. " It has been supposed," says Mr. Wall,

SAN FERNANDO. 305

"that a reservoir might be formed by embanking the open
extremity of the Coulee ravine, and thus collecting a considerable
amount of spring and surface water. The feasibility of this
plan is an engineering question ; but it may be remarked that
the porous nature of the subjacent gravel would render careful,
perhaps expensive, cementing necessary to prevent leakage.-"
I am far from pretending any engineering knowledge, but I have
always been under the impression that the gullies around the
San Fernando hill might be embanked, and thus made into
reservoirs. I deeply regret that the experiment has not been
made at the Coulee ravine : had it been successful, how easy to
supply San Fernando with water ! Some of the gullies opening
at the base of the hill might be embanked in succession, and the
springs and wells there existing properly controlled, so as to give
a sufficient supply of wholesome water, and, as I imagine, at a
reasonable cost. It is objected that the porous nature of the
gravel would render the undertaking nugatory; but careful
cementing would act as a remedy. I am very much mistaken
if they will not be compelled ultimately to adopt the plan here
suggested.

A tramway having been established between the Mission or
Princestown and the Cipero landing-place, the Borough Council
of San Fernando thought it a profitable undertaking to connect
the tramway with the wharf, through the town. Unfortunately,
the work was conducted by incompetent persons, and turned out
an unpaying concern. The deep trench they were obliged to cut
through the borough has, ever since, been a source of anxiety
respecting the safety of adjoining buildings, and will, in the
future, I fear, give occasion to repeated expenses, unless measures
are adopted to prevent the impending evils. The Government
has been induced to take over the San Fernando tramway, in the
expectation of being able to work it to advantage in connection
with the railway, which has just been opened to the public. The
terminus is on the wharf.

San Fernando is about thirty-two miles south of Port-of-
Spain ; a daily communication, excepting Sunday, exists between
both towns by means of a small steamer ; the passage is three
hours ; the cabin fare one dollar ; steerage passengers pay fifty
cents. The sea is very shallow off the town, as also along the
neighbouring coast, except at Pointe-a-Pierre, and vessels are
u

30 G TKINIDAD.

compelled to anchor at two or two and a half miles from the
shore. San Fernando was founded as early as the commencement
of 1786, but has obtained only lately the municipal privileges of
a council and mayor. Population in 1881, 6,335 : males, 3,119 ;
females, 3,216, of which 873 are Indians. Population in 1871,
5,006. There are two suburbs attached to the borough : the
Cafe, on the North Naparima road, and Bushy Park, on the
South Naparima road.

From San Fernando three main roads lead respectively north-
ward to Pointe-a-Pierre, southward to Mosquito Creek and
Oropuche, and eastward to Savanna Grande or Princestown.
From these main roads branch off several ward-roads, leading to
the east and south-east, and affording means of communication
between the estates and the different landing-places ; also two
main bridle-paths to Mayaro on the east, and Moruga on the
south. The South Naparima eastern ward marks the limit be-
tween the districts of North and South Naparima. Population
in 1881, 4,824; in 1871, 3,305.

South Naparima. — This section is divided into two wards,
viz., South Naparima eastern and South Naparima western
wards. It is bounded on the N. by the district of North
Naparima; on the S. by the Oropuche lagoon; on the E,
by Savanna Grande; on the W. by the Gulf. It is gently
undulating, and the whole of it may be said to be under cane
cultivation. If not the largest, at least the best, sugar estates of
the colony are to be found in this district. Maize, rice, and
edible roots, such as tanias, yams, and sweet cassada, thrive
remarkably well, but are very scantily cultivated.

The soil in this district may be classed under three heads —
black, or jiguier soil ; dark brown, or zapatero ; and white, or
marly. The black soil is called jiguier on account of the large
number of the figuiers, or wild fig-trees which grow therein ; and
the dark brown, zapatero, because the zapatero tree is there found
in great abundance. The Jiguier soil is of the very best descrip-
tion, and of lasting fertility ; it extends, in the form of a zone or
belt, from the sea-board and the lagoon, along the river Cipero,
to Savanna Grande, and in a nearly due east direction, to the
mouth of the Guataro or Ortoire. It varies in breadth from
four to five miles. Not only do the canes ratoon in this soil for
many years, but it does not seem to be favourable to the growth

SOUTH NAPAUTMA. 307

of rank weeds ; from three to four annual weedings only are
required to keep the cane-fields clean and in good condition. The
canes generally do not grow to a very large size ; but from
twenty to thirty shoots from the same stool ; and the richness of
the juice varies from sixteen to twenty-two per cent, of sugar.
The zapatero soil, though good, is not of the same extreme
fertility. The white soil forms, in a manner, the substratum of
the whole district ; it is a magnesian marl. Wherever it pre-
dominates, the canes are liable to wither from drought during
the dry season, but they grow and thrive during the rainy
weather. The principal defect of this soil seems to result from
its colour, which acts in checking the free absorption of heat,
while its power of reflection acts injuriously on the foliage of the
cane. Stable manure is the best corrective of this defect. That
the magnesian marl forms the substratum of a large tract
becomes evident wherever the superstratum has been removed by
one cause or another. Patches of this substance are met with
both on the brown and black soil.

The river Cipero, which may be taken as the natural boun-
dary between North and South Naparima, is a small brook, muddy
and dried up during part of the year; it is formed by the
accumulation of waters that collect in the depressions of the
undulating land on both sides ; its bed is deep and the bottom
muddy. It is a tidal stream and, at high water, becomes navi-
gable for canoes and flats for about a mile from its entrance. It
has its outlet a little southward of San Fernando. The e?nharca-
dere, or shipping-place, is at the extreme end of the navigable
part, with storehouses for receiving the sugars from many estates
in the interior, ready for shipment. There are, besides this, two
other shipping-places which can also be approached at high tide,
viz., Aly's Creek on the Bel-air estate, at the mouth of a small
ravine; and Mosquito Creek, at the northern entrance of the
Oropuche lagoon. This lagoon — known also by the name of the
Great Lagoon — may be considered, as I have already stated, as
the main draining reservoir of the western division of the
southern basin. Many small streams bring down, from the
adjoining districts, the tribute of their water to the lagoon ; part
of this flows from the hills in the vicinity of Savanna Grande,
and part from the district of Siparia and the southern range.
The lagoon is about twelve miles in length, from east to west,

308 TRINIDAD.

and from a half to three and even four miles in breadth. Its
ground surface swells up at intervals into mounds, which form so
many islets with which the lagoon is studded. They are covered
with a rich vegetation. The largest among them are cultivated
in provisions. They are separated by natural channels and a
labyrinth of ponds covered with rushes, reeds, and other aquatic
plants : four or five larger canals meander amidst this intrication
of islets, and ponds, serving as outlets to the water which
accumulates in the lagoon. Near the sea-shore, and even in the
interior, mangroves grow in great abundance. During the dry
season, that portion of the lagoon lying to the eastward remains
dry. The land adjoining the lagoon, and such parts of it as
remain uncovered at low tide, are of the same black colour as the
figuier soil of South Naparima. It is, therefore, probable that,
in the course of years, and by the slow but regular process of
natural agencies, fresh alluvia will be gradually added to those
already deposited, and new land be formed, whilst the waters
will collect into some main channel, and form a river, it may be
of considerable size.

At present two principal outlets carry off the waters of tl
lagoon to the sea, viz., Mosquito creek or Blazini's river, on tl
Naparima side, and Godineau's river on the Oropuche side — ty
far the most important of the two. M. Godineau was a Frencl
colonist who had formed a settlement at Oropuche, immediately
adjoining the lagoon. He first opened a canal, by which to
transport his canes to the mill in punts, and afterwards cut
through a small neck of land, which acted as an embankment, in
order to procure a water communication with the sea, and a freer
discharge of the waters of the lagoon. The enterprising Frencl
man was unfortunately ruined in an undertaking too arduous fc
his resources, but which, under favourable auspices, might ha>
terminated successfully, and which would, undoubtedly, have
proved of incalculable benefit to the adjoining districts, not only
as conducive to their salubrity, but in regard to facility of
transport and other advantages. Such as it is, however, the
Godineau is a pretty large stream, and the principal outlet of
the lagoon.

The area of the Oropuche lagoon or swamp may be estimated
at fourteen square miles.

In the year 1852, a corduroy road was laid out across the

eer

THE GREAT LAGOON. 309

lagoon, closely parallel with the sea-shore. It is two miles long,
and cost the sum of £1,855 sterling. Two bridges have been
thrown over the Blazini and Godineau rivers, the latter a fine
iron structure ; also many culverts along the line. This corduroy
road is a necessary connecting link between the Naparimas,
Oropuche, La Brea, and Cedros, and yet it is not sufficiently
wide ; and, as an embankment, is not very solidly laid.

The lagoon is frequented at certain seasons by large numbers
of water-game — white and gray herons, crimson spatulas, red
ibis, teals, ducks, water-fowls, &c. The mangrove ramiers and
flocks of parrots resort to the islets and the mangroves as their
places of rest; and at such times the chattering of the latter is
really deafening. The lagoon is also inhabited by alligators;
mangrove dogs are not uncommon. Large oysters are found in
some of the channels, sticking to the roots of the mangrove
trees.

The Oropuche lagoon is an inexhaustible source of malaria,
which spreads over the neighbouring districts and renders them
very unhealthy, especially that part of the ward of Oropuche
which stretches along the coast. Intermittent and remittent
fevers are endemic in those localities. Population of the two
wards of S. Naparima, 1881, 10,057 ; in 1871, 8,787.

Savanna Grande. — To the east of the wards of North and
South Naparima is the district of Savanna Grande, divided into
two wards. It is bounded on the W. by the Naparimas, and on
all other sides by Crown lands. The ground in this district is
highly undulating, rising into hillocks near the Mission. The
Mission and the settlements around extend over the table land
which stretches to the S.E., and, after skirting the head of the
lagoon, join the southern range, so as to form, in a manner, a
dividing ridge between the Ortoire and the Oropuche lagoon.
This section is, in general, fertile, and tracts of it may bear com-
parison with the best soils of Naparima — in fact, the zone of the
figuier soil may be traced to some of the sugar estates of this
district, which are considered as equal to any in the colony. In
several places are found beds of marl, containing hard nodules,
with infusoria and bivalve shells. In the eastern ward are the
mud volcanoes, or salses, which I have already mentioned.
Sugar and provisions are the principal, not to say the sole,
products.

310 TRINIDAD.

There are in this district, besides the Mission — now Princes-
town, with a population of 3,991 — two settlements, formed
about the year 1817 by the location of some hundred American
black and coloured people, captured during the last war, and
brought to Trinidad by Admiral Sir A. J. Cochrane. A few
acres of land were allotted to each individual, in fee, on paying a
quit-rent. In the year 1848, these allotments were re-surveyed,
and each settler was granted six acres of land, in full property,
subject to the ward rates. These settlements, I must confess,
have not answered the object for which they were intended ; and
to these American settlers may be addressed the same reproach
which I have attached to the disbanded soldiers located at Man-
zanilla and Turure. They cultivate some provisions, it is true,
and occasionally employ themselves as jobbers on estates, mainly
as axe-men, cane-cutters, and trenchers ; but their principal
occupation is the chase, their hunting ground extending froi
Tamana to Moruga, and from the Mission to Mayaro. The]
generally belong to the Baptist persuasion.

Savanna Grande communicates with San Fernando by meai
of a main road which follows the winding of the ridge extendii
from the Naparima mountain to the Mission. It is seven mih
long, without a bridge; and this same ridge continues to n
nearly due east for ten miles further, without a gap or ravin(
A track, or bridle-path, through the virgin forest leads south-
ward to Moruga ; and another one eastward to Mayaro.

Population of the two wards, 1881, 11,765 ; 1871, 8,974.

The county of Victoria, though second in population to thj
of St. George, may be regarded as the most important, in
agricultural point of view. Its surface is uniformly undulating
gradually rising from the sea-shore southward of San Fernando
and from the lagoon, in an E.N.E. direction, for about sixteei
miles, with a few hillocks here and there above the general leve
of the country. Every ridge sends its streamlet down hills to
the right and left, and small brooks or ravines collect the dimi-
nutive tributaries from every depression. On the N., the water-
courses bend towards the valley of the Guaracara ; on the S.S.E.
towards the lagoon, and contribute to the formation of the
Cipero in the centre. Those parts which are not under cultiva-
tion abound in cedars, robles, savanettas, &c, and the carat
palm, for thatching. There is also a great abundance of cabbage

COUNTY OF VICTORIA. 311

palms; many are preserved in the cane-fields, sending forth
their column-like stems, surmounted by a crest or crown of
undulating foliage.

With fortunately but few exceptions, the soil is excellent
throughout the whole extent of the county, and is well suited
to the growth of almost every product — provisions, cacao, and
sugar ; but it seems particularly well adapted to the production
of the latter article. If it ever be the good fortune of Trinidad
to extend its cane cultivation, new sugar estates will decidedly
be established in the county of Victoria. The only drawbacks
against this district are the difficulty of establishing good roads,
and of keeping them in proper repair. The roads now existing
are pretty good ; but for many years it was nearly impossible,
during the rainy season, to cart one single barrel of flour to any
distance; even an empty cart could not, in the Wet weather,
force its way through the deep and adhesive mud of most of
the roads ; and it often became necessary to pack the flour in
small parcels of forty or fifty pounds, each parcel being then
carried by a labourer to the estate. It was not unusual to see
carts left lying, or rather sticking, in the mire on the high road,
from the sheer impossibility of taking them back to the estate.
This soil, which becomes so soft and adhesive when saturated
with water, is of brick-like consistency when exposed for some
weeks to the action of the sun and the wind, and, by the gradual
process of evaporation, breaks into deep fissures in all directions,
and becomes dangerous to man and beast. In consequence of
this property in the soil of the Naparimas and Savanna Grande,
there is no good pasturage in these districts ; and, in former
times, the loss of animals was very great — nearly 20 per cent,
per annum. It has, however, materially decreased since the
planters have adopted the plan of hand-feeding their stock in
stables during part of the day.

Nearly the whole tract westward of Savanna Grande is under
cultivation. From some of the elevated spots, the aspect of the
country is enchanting. All around cane-fields are seen waving
under the gentle influence of the breeze, surmounted by their
beautiful panicles of flowers, and concealing the saccharine
treasures which the industry of man will soon make available
for freighting the vessels awaiting in the placid gulf their annual
cargo of sweets. Lo ! on whatever side the observer turns, the

312 TEINIDAD.

black, curly smoke escaping from the lofty chimneys, and carriec
away by the evening breeze, is an indication that the manufac-
ture of sugar is going on throughout the whole district ; and
whithersoever he bends his steps, the wholesome balsamic odour
of new-made sugar is wafted in a tide of perfume towards the
spectator.

In the year 1876 a usine was established on the Sainte
Madeleine estate, capable of manufacturing 5,000 tons of white
and crystallised sugar — a beautiful establishment, formed under
somewhat difficult circumstances, but which is, nevertheless,
prosperous.

Since emancipation, several villages have sprung up in this
district, viz., Victoria village, on the Cipero river, and on the
South Naparima eastern road ; Bamboo, or Canaan, at the head
of Ally's creek, and on South Naparima main road; Boui
Mulatresse, or Rambert, on the South Naparima central road
the village of St. Joseph, on the Pointe-a- Pierre's road; thos
of Sainte Madeleine and St. John, in North Naparima, and
Monkey Town in Savanna Grande.

Population of the county in 1881, 36,474 : males, 20,39:
females, 16,983. Indians and children, 18,351.

2. County of St. Patrick. — Bounded on the N. by Victor
county and the Gulf; S. by the sea; E. by a line running
from the Ortoire, down and along the river Moruga, to the sea ;
W. by the Gulf. This county has been divided into six wards,
viz., Oropuche, La Brea and Guapo, Irois, Cedros, Erin, and
Moruga.

The ward of Oropuche, which comprises the quarter of
Oropuche and the Mission of Siparia, is bounded on the N. by
the Gulf and the lagoon; on the S. by crown lands; on the
E. by the lagoon and crown lands ; on the W. by La Brea,
from which it is separated by the Boussillac.

The surface of this ward is highly undulating, rapidly elevat-
ing towards the east. In no part of the colony, perhaps, is the
quality of the land more variable ; veins of the figuier soil or
Naparima marl are met with in tracts of a coarse clay, or of a
poor sandy soil. It is, on the whole, more retentive than that
of Naparima and Savanna Grande. Towards Siparia, it is a light
sandy soil of average quality, being well adapted to the growt
of cacao, coffee, plantains, and all sort of ground provisions ;

:

OROPUCHE. 313

also of tobacco, which, when properly prepared, is of excellent
quality. The tract of land between Oropuche and Siparia is very
much broken up by ravines, which have their courses through
thick Timitales. The principal productions are, in Oropuche,
sugar and provisions ; lately, they have commenced planting
coco-nuts ; in Siparia, a little cacao, coffee, tobacco, and pro-
visions. The cane cultivation extends along the sea-shore, from
Godineau to the Aripero river, and not further than two miles
inland. Besides the Godineau river, the ward of Oropuche is
drained by the Aripero, or silver stream, and the Eoussillac,
which receives the waters of a considerable hollow or depression,
known as the Roussillac swamp, between Oropuche and La Brea.
The Aripero is a tidal stream, and admits of the entrance of flats
to unload estates' supplies and take off produce. Between the
mouths of the Godineau and Aripero rivers lies a shallow bank,
formed by the washings of the lagoon and surrounding
district. At the fall of the spring tide, this bank extends
upwards of a mile out to sea, impeding the approach of the
smallest boat. The Rio Perro and the Negro discharge their
waters into the lagoon, as also the San Francisco, which may be
regarded as the outlet of the Bertrand lagoon. Just at the foot
of the Siparia table-land, there is a small streamlet called lava-
pies. They all flow from S.S.E.

The quarter of Oropuche is very unhealthy, not only on
account of its proximity to the lagoon, but also in consequence
of the prevalence of mangrove swamps all along the line of
coast.

The village of St. Mary stands on a small natural savanna,
between the Bellevue and the Otaheite estates, about a mile from
the Godineau river, and a mile and a-half from the sea. It is
well laid out, but the constructions are miserable ; the ground
upon which it stands is rather sandy. Besides this village, there
are a few isolated settlements, viz., at Freeman's Bay, the public
landing place ; the Yarraba village, the Krooman village, the
Avoca, and the Fyzabad — the latter a Coolie settlement. In all
these nooks and corners are herded together bands of immigrants
imported into the colony, particularly Congoes and Kroomen.
In fact, the population of Trinidad may be characterised as a
heterogeneous collection of inhabitants of different countries —
Congoes, Yarrabas, and Kroomen from Africa; Coolies and

314 TRINIDAD.

Chinese from Asia ; Americans from the United States ; Spaniards
from Venezuela ; emigrants from the British and French colonies,
with a limited number of natives of Trinidad. Not many years
ago, the population of Oropuche was a pretty fair representation
of the worst class of squatters. Scattered far and wide, through-
out the vast extent of the district, removed from the influence
of civilising institutions, and left to the unfettered indulgence
of a half savage life, moral depravity and ignorance of all social
responsibility formed their chief characteristics. Bound together
by the ties of nationality, or tribeship, they generally banded in
distinct settlements, where nought was to be found beyond the
primary elements of social aggregation. Many were squatters?
regarding with suspicion and as intruders those who entered their
settlements. On more than one occasion they behaved riotously,
and even tried to resist the agents of the Government. Things,
however, are now very much altered ; the population of Oropuche
has become more steady and more industrious. The proportion
of Asiatics has very much increased — from 348 in 1871 to 560
in 1881.

The Mission of Siparia is situated on a table-land, about
seven miles and a half eastward of St. Mary's village, with a
descending slope of about 200 feet on all sides. The village
is 235 feet above the level of the sea. The Mission of Siparia
had been established about the year 1758 by the Aragonese
Capuchin fathers, under the name or vocable of " La Divina
Pastora." The capabilities of the soil, the abundant natural
resources of the locality, the beauty of the scenery, had attracted
the attention of Sir Ralph Woodford, who attempted the re-
organisation of the Mission by locating therein royalist emigrants
from the Spanish colonies of South America. After the war of
independence, its population received new accessions, and finally
rose to nearly 500 souls. They had then a resident padre or
priest, a corregidor, and a schoolmaster. The present condition
of the Mission is far from affording the same pleasant aspect, its
population being reduced, cultivation neglected, houses in a
dilapidated state ; no school, no resident priest : Siparia is now
completely neglected. The retired position of Siparia and bad
roads are the great obstacles to the progress of this district.
Lately, however, the road to Oropuche has been improved ; but
it may be said to be still a mere bridle-path. Siparia, from its

LA BREA. 315

elevation and inland position, is cool and very healthy. Popula-
tion of Oropuche and Siparia in 1881, 4,393 ; 1871, 1,646.

The ward of La Brea, which comprises the quarters of La
Brea and Guapo, is bounded on the N. by the Gulf; on the
S. by crown lands; on the E. by the ward of Oropuche; on
the W. by Irois. The surface of this ward bears some resem-
blance to that of Oropuche — undulating towards the coast, and
swelling into elevations towards the interior, where it meets
Morne l'Enfer, 327 feet high. From Pointe La Brea eastward,
the ground rises into a sort of dividing ridge, expanding towards
Siparia on the E., and towards Guapo on the W. The waters
thus separated contribute to form, on the N.N.E., the Roussillac
and Silver Stream, and on the W.S.W. the Vessini or
Bravo river, and the Guapo. In the vicinity of and skirt-
ing the Roussillac exists an extensive marshy plain, or hollow,
which, in the wet season, becomes flooded to the depth of
nearly four feet. The whole line of coast, extending between
the mouth of the Roussillac and Pointe d'Or, is thickly studded
with mangroves. The soil is not of very good quality, being
an admixture of reddish retentive clay, or unproductive sand,
with asphaltum, very poor in organic matter, and therefore
easily exhausted. It improves towards the interior; but even
there the abundance of timites shows that it is still rather
infertile. La Brea is distinguished for its fine and delicious pine
apples. Guapo very much resembles La Brea ; the soil, however,
may be rated as of better quality, particularly on the slopes
towards the rivers. Besides the Vessini, or Bravo, and Guapo
rivers, there are two or three smaller brooks. Once flourishing
districts, La Brea and Guapo began to decline shortly after
emancipation, and may be considered now as almost abandoned.
In 1840, there were in the district of La Brea seven sugar estates
and eleven in Guapo, all under the management of their resident
proprietors ; now only provisions are cultivated, and even these
on a very reduced scale. Lately, however, abandoned tracts have
been purchased, with the object of forming coco-nut plantations.
The inhabitants of the ward are generally poor, but moral and
peaceable. The population of La Brea and Guapo, which

I amounted to 439 inhabitants in 1871, is now 621, with only two

\ Indians.

The quarter of La Brea, which owes its name to the large

316 TRINIDAD.

quantity of asphaltum, or pitch — brea, in Spanish; brai, in
French — which is found everywhere in this district, and forms
the Pitch lake, is, on this account, one of the most interesting
districts of the island. Every stranger who can spend a few days
in Trinidad will do well to pay a short visit to this great natural
curiosity of the country. A steamer which plies between Port-of-
Spain and Cedros, stopping at San Fernando, touches three times
a week at La Brea, viz., every Monday, Thursday, and Saturday,
on its way to Cedros, so that there is sufficient time to visit the
lake during the interval of its return. The early morning, how-
ever, is the best time for visiting the lake, as the heat on its
surface becomes almost insufferable after nine o'clock. The best
plan, perhaps, would be to sleep at San Fernando, and start early
next morning for La Brea in a boat. This might be attempted
on one of the three days that the steamer goes to Cedros, so as to
catch it on its return.

The lake and its scenery have already been described by so
many persons, that it would be a work of supererogation to enter
into many details here. I shall, therefore, limit myself to
offering only a few remarks. The Pitch lake, or great asphal turn
deposit of Trinidad, is situated at Pointe La Brea, at about one
mile from the sea, and at an elevation of 138 feet ; it covers an
area of about 100 acres. The road to the lake is the ward-road
of the quarter.

The appearance of the lake is that of a dull, still, dark waste
— atra regna. It is irregularly circular, and its surface percep-
tibly convex, being more elevated in the centre, and thence
insensibly declining on all sides. In the centre also the asphal-
tum is quite soft, in fact, semi-fluid ; but it becomes more and
more hardened as it approaches the circumference. Excepting
the soft central parts, the surface is intersected in all directions
by numerous fissures or chasms, varying in breadth from two to
twelve feet, and from a foot to five feet in depth. The sides of
these fissures are slanting downwards, thus forming inverted
angles; these crevices are at all times filled with rain water.
The insulated spaces between the chasms exhibit a slight curva-
ture, of which the apex occupies the centre. Here and there,
where the asphaltum is mixed with earthy matters, grow lichens
and mosses, with a few coarse grasses {graminea and cyperaceai),
whilst stunted jicacos, some annonacese, etc., and caratas

I THE PITCH LAKE OF LA BREA. 317

rm clusters, either completely or partially surrounded by
water.

The centre of the lake — the pitch-pot, or cauldron, as it is
called — is at all times so soft, that any person remaining on it
would run the risk of sinking, more or less, in the thick sub-
stance. There a slow but constant bubbling and puffing is per-
ceptible, accompanied by the emissions of gaseous substances,
and the throwing up of a yellowish mud, quite cold and of an
acrid saltness. Over the entire extent, the degree of hardness
varies with the intensity of the solar rays, at early morn the
whole surface, excepting at the centre, is hard ; whilst, at mid-
day, it becomes so much softened that it retains the stamp of
the lightest impress.

Whenever any quantity of bitumen has been dug and taken
up from the lake, the excavation soon fills up, and a perfect level
is restored within a short time. The deeper the digging, the
quicker the restoration. In the centre trees or branches are
sometimes seen emerging to the surface, to be submerged soon
afterwards. Casks placed near the spot to receive bitumen have
also disappeared.

It is evident, from the above observations, that the operation
going on in the Pitch lake may be ascribed to a revolving
motion, a sort of ebullition which continually presses up the
asphaltum from the centre to the surface. There is no difficulty
in admitting this process, as the mass thus thrown up is semi-
fluid, owing to an admixture of an oily substance. It has been
noted that the surface of the lake is divided into a number of
small bituminous areas, each owing its existence, undoubtedly,
to a centre of emission from which the asphaltum has been
pressed up. On reaching the surface, it spreads slowly ; the
oily substance gradually evaporates on exposure to the direct
action of the sun, the outer portion becomes harder and less
fluent than the inner, which continues to ascend — to "roll
under," as expressed by Mr. Manross — thus giving to the sides
of the chasms their curved forms. Messrs. Wall and Sawkins,
however, do not admit that explanation ; but they suggest that
" when two adjacent masses come in contact, and are not suffi-
ciently plastic to unite or join together, they leave a division,
which originates the depression in question."

The Pitch lake is not the only spot where bitumen exists in

318 TRINIDAD.

Trinidad. I may mention asphaltic deposits as existing at
Montserrat, on the southern side of the hills, at Naparima,
Oropuche, especially on the Aripero estate and Pointe d'Or : it
abounds everywhere in the wards of La Brea and Guapo, where
springs of semi-liquid asphaltum or petroleum occur in the high
woods. We meet with bitumen at Quemada, Moruga, Guaya-
guayare, where the tourist will do well to pay a visit to Lagon
Bouff. There are also at times regular eruptions of liquid
bitumen in the Gulf, opposite Guapo, at Guayaguayare, and even
in the bay of Mayaro, on the eastern coast. The places where
it issues are indicated by the oily part floating on the surface
of the water, and a very strong odour of asphaltum. After
such eruptions, lumps or cakes of this substance are washed on
to the beach. It is highly probable that bitumen is disseminated
in seams or veins throughout the whole southern division of the
island.

Now, what is the origin of the asphaltic deposits at Trinidad ?
The same as that of coal and peat. It has been remarked that,
where exist lignite and brown coal, there the sources of asphalte
are more abundant. Such is the case in Trinidad. Vegetable
debris are the only substances containing carbon and hydrogen
in sufficient quantity to form asphalte ; and this formation takes
place by a process of conversion. " The first department of the
process," say Messrs. Wall and Sawkins, " consists in the forma-
tion of a black oily substance, and has been termed asphaltic
oil. . . The residue, after the separation of this material,
consists of the ordinary asphalte, usually containing the oils in
sufficient quantity to render it highly plastic. The purer
varieties — such as approach, or are identical with, asphaltum
glance — have been observed in isolated masses. In this case no
displacement from the original position has ensued, and conse-
quently the material is free from earthy impurities/''

Three principal varieties of asphaltum are found here —
asphaltum glance, the purest of all, hard and brittle ; ordinary
asphaltum, by far the most common ; and asphaltic oil or petro-
leum. This is not so common as the ordinary asphaltum ; it
generally rises to the surface through cones having orifices in
centre.

The Pitch lake, however, ought not to be regarded solely
curiosity ; it may turn out a permanent source of profit to

irojs. 319

island. Numerous attempts have been made to utilise our
asphalte locally, but without any marked success. For one reason
or another, it has not succeeded as a suitable material for pave-
ment or for flooring. Until further researches are made, I
deprecate its use for such purposes. The fact is that it con-
tracts or shrinks, and after a time the layer becomes uneven,
or even breaks when exposed to the rays of the sun. It has
given some satisfaction, however, when used together with
megass as a fuel. Oils of different consistency, and for
various adaptations, can be extracted from our asphaltum,
especially for lubricating purposes. Asphaltum glance is a more
valuable material; mixed with turpentine oil, it gives a fine
black varnish. Asphaltum is exported either as a raw material
or as epure.

Quantity exported in 1879 : —

Eaw 17,416 tons

Epure :t, ... 6,144 „

23,560 tons

of which 4,396 raw and 3,021 epure went to the United
Kingdom, 9,565 raw to the United States, and %}6Z6 epure to
Germany. Value in sterling £25,938.

Ward of Irois. — This ward bears, in point of soil and general
aspect, the closest resemblance to that of La Brea ; it is highly
undulating, particularly towards the interior. The soil is deep,
but generally poor, being sandy, and in some places of a reddish
colour, deficient in organic matters. Nearly the whole of this
ward is crown property, and scanty crops of ground provisions
only are cultivated by a few scattered settlers ; it nevertheless
once could boast of its sugar plantations, among which La Paix
was the largest and most productive. An extensive forest of
mora trees lines the course of the river Irois, and probably
spreads out in the interior to a great distance ; there are besides
a few locust, carapa, guatecare, and olivier trees. This forest of
moras had attracted the attention of Sir Ralph Woodford ; it
was, however, eventually lost sight of, and it may be said, in
some measure, to have been discovered anew by Mr. Purdie,
Government botanist. Governor Elliott decided at once on
taking advantage of this natural wood-yard, and turning the
mora and other timbers to useful purposes. A penal depot was

320 TRINIDAD.

formed on the right bank of the river, on an elevation at a few
yards' distance from the sea. The labour exacted from the con-
victs was the felling and preparing the timber for water transport
to the capital. The mora is a social plant, and grows in great
numbers on the same spot; whilst the young plants are as
thickly set under the grown-up trees as in a well-supplied
nursery. The trees were felled and cut into logs, the larger
sized being squared on the spot; they were then formed into
rafts and towed to Port-of-Spain, a distance of forty miles. It
was contemplated to erect a saw-mill at the depot, but the plan
was left unexecuted.

This ward is watered by several small streams, among them
the Capdeville, which is the largest, the Irois and Cimetierre, all
having their rise in the high lands of the interior, and pursuing
a northerly course. The steamer from Port-of- Spain, on its way
to Cedros, lands and takes passengers at Capdeville. A road to
Erin, called Chatham Road, has also its terminus at Capdeville
That road is an important one, as it establishes a communicati
between the ward of Erin and the Gulf, and must greatly faci
tate intercourse between these two points. Population of
Brea, Guapa, and Irois, 1881, 621 ; 1871, 439.

Ward of Cedros. — This ward is bounded on the N., S., and
W. by the sea, on the E. by the ward of Irois, and may be said
to occupy the whole of the south-western peninsula of the
island, It comprises the three quarters of Cedros to the north,
Quemada to the south, and Icacos to the west. In general
features and disposition this ward is nearly similar to the pre-
ceding, except in possessing the advantage of greater fertility.
The ground is chiefly waving, and the surface rather broken,
particularly towards Point Cedros and the east ; but it becomes
more even as the quarter of Icacos is approached ; the latter is a
dead level. The soil is everywhere deep but light. Quemada
is, however, very fertile, its soil, though light, being at certain
spots somewhat similar to the black soil of Naparima. I/Envieuse,
Beaulieu and Columbia estates in Quemada, and Loch Maben in
Cedros, are equal to any in the colony. The soil of Icacos is a
light sandy loam, containing a very large admixture of organic
matters. It is very fertile, but vegetation suffers to a great
extent whenever any drought is prevailing. However, all sorts
of ground provisions thrive admirably. The coco-palm

L1C.

ion

t

CEDEOS. 321

beautifully and yields large crops ; for the last few years many
acres have been brought under cultivation, and the number
of trees may be calculated at some fifty thousand. The whole of
Icaeos might also form an excellent sheep-run, or can be con-
verted into a hato; or stock farm, though still continued as a
coco-walk. The breeding of swine would, I imagine, be very
profitable. Icaeos is obliquely traversed from E.S.E. to W.N.W.
by several lagoons, which would supply water for the animals at
graze ; these lagoons might also be partially drained, and turned
into meadow lands ; one of them — the largest — opens into the
sea to the leeward of Los Gallos, and is known by the name of
the Los Gallos lagoon; the others discharge their superfluous
waters in the Bay of Quemada. A natural savanna stretches
between two of these lagoons.

On the PEnvieuse estate there is a pitch or petroleum cone ;
and I have observed in the pasture several blocks of sandstone
protruding in several places. On the Columbia estate are to be
seen the mud volcanoes or salses which I have already mentioned.
They are on an elevated spot, in all probability raised gradually
by the agency of the self-same volcanoes. The area is limited,
and within it, here and there, small conical mounds are formed,
from the centre of which oozes or bubbles forth a greyish mud ;
it is quite salt, and spreads around in a thin layer, which is
traversed in all directions by irregular cracks. It is said that
there are, at certain periods, regular eruptions of this mud ; but
I could not see any symptoms of this ; the ground bordering the
base of the mounds can be trodden with perfect safety.

The ward of Cedros is nearly all private property ; the cane,
coco-nut trees, and provisions are the only cultivations. There
is no river in this ward ; but fresh water can be easily procured
by the sinking of wells, even to the high- water mark. Besides
the lagoons at Icaeos, several others of diminutive dimensions
are met with at different places, some of which might be drained,
and the salubrity of the district thereby improved. I should
mention the shallow marsh to the eastward of Saint Mary estate.
The sea is shallow all along the coast, except round Point Icaeos,
where the water is sufficiently bold to afford anchorage to large
vessels within hail of the shore. This, however, does by no
means render it a safe harbourage, owing to the existence of
very strong currents. A heavy surf breaks along, from Point
v

322 TRINIDAD.

Icacos to Point Cedros, during the prevalence of the northerly
winds, rendering landing rather difficult, and menacing, at any
moment, the drifting of the craft. Point Icacos had been
denominated by Columbus Punta Arenal (Sandy Point). It
was at this point that the admiral lost an anchor ; that anchor
was found, some years ago, buried in the sand on Constance
estate, and exhibited at the last Paris Exhibition.

There is at Cedros but one village between the Perseverance
and Loch Maben estates, though a few scattered houses at
Granville, and on the lands of Saint Mary estate, are honoured —
I must say most undeservedly — with the name of villages.

A steam communication exists between Cedros and Port-of-
Spain, the steamer leaving town every Monday, Thursday, and
Saturday, at seven o'clock in the morning, touching, on its way,
at Couva, Naparima, La Brea, and Irois, and arriving at Cedros
about two p.m. ; it then leaves at three for Port-of- Spain, where
it arrives at about seven in the evening. There is also a land
communication, partly along the beach and partly through the
forest, over some of the points which project into the sea; this
road is a mere bridle-path, and the traveller must always ti
his journey with the ebb of the tide, unless he should pref
being exposed to be drenched by the waves at the flow, or ev
prevented altogether from proceeding. Population in 188
3,420; in 1871, 3,802.

Wards of Erin and Moruga. — These two wards extend along
the sea-shore, Erin being bounded on the W. by Cedros ; on the
E. by Moruga ; on the N. by Guapo and Irois. Moruga, on
the W. by Erin ; on the E. by Guayaguayare ; on the N.
by undefined crown lands ; and both wards on the S. by the
sea. The surface of these two wards is very uneven, particularly
towards the interior. The soil is, generally, light, too much so
to be considered as of average fertility, except where interstratified
shales and calcareous sandstone occur; such tracts are very
fertile, though liable to suffer from any prolonged drought.
Only a narrow belt, along the sea, is under cultivation. Erin
was once pretty extensively cultivated — sugar, cacao, coffee, and
provisions being the staple production ; the Erin coffee is still
regarded as equal to any grown in the colony. Some of the
estates have been abandoned, owing mainly to a want of easy
communication with the town; the comparative unhealthiness

his

COUNTY OF ST. PATRICK. 323

of the district is also a serious drawback. Dwelling-houses
should be built more in the interior. At present cacao and
provisions may be said to be the only articles cultivated ; lately
they have commenced planting coco-nuts, which thrive admirably.
Moruga is still more scantily inhabited, and produces only a little
cacao and provisions.

Colonel Hamilton once attempted, under the Government of
Sir Ralph Woodford, the establishment of a hato, or stock-farm,
principally for the breeding of horned cattle and horses, in the
natural savanna of Erin; the farm did not succeed, if public
rumour is to be believed, owing to the ravages among the
animals of bats (vampires) and ticks; it is, however, very
probable that the whole concern was ill managed. Seams of
lignite exist along the south coast, from Cedros to Guayaguayare,
the extent of which has never been ascertained. Near Moruga?
it occurs in layers ; the beds at Erin contain the carbonaceous
matter diffused throughout their whole extent.

Produce is brought to town by droghers or pirogues, after
rounding Point Icacos — a tedious, expensive voyage. A path
through the Virgin Forest leads from Moruga to the Mission of
Savanna Grande, or Princestown. The telegraphic wire, con-
necting Trinidad with Demerara, is laid along this track. I
have already mentioned Chatham Road; it is highly desirable
that it should be, as soon as possible, transformed into a good
cart road. I have no doubt that, when this road is completed,
and the contemplated steam communication round the island is
established, many applications will be made for crown land in
this district.

The above two wards abound in excellent timber, particularly
fustic and cedar. They are drained by several small streams, and,
among others, the Erin, La Ceiba, Siparia, Luna, and Moruga ;
the latter, a tidal stream. They have all a southerly course.
Population in 1881, 1,573; 1871, 396.

The county of Saint Patrick consists partly of waving
and partly of hilly lands, being traversed from E. to W. by the
southern range. The greatest part of it is crown property.
Except at Oropuche and Cedros, the population has rather
decreased than increased. As regards the soil, it may be divided
into two zones : from La Brea to Cedros it is generally
light, poor in organic matter, as shown by the extensive

324 TRINIDAD.

timitales, or timite groves, abounding at Guapo and Irois ;
from Point Luna, its eastern boundary, to Quemada, along the
sea, it is either a light or clayey loam, generally fertile. This is
evidenced by an abundance of a species of palm (AUalea
speciosa) , its presence being a sign of a rich, light soil ; and by
the successful cultivation of cacao, and the natural growth of
carats and cedars. This county, notwithstanding its relative
disadvantages, is highly interesting, as being the grand receptacle
of our bitumen deposits and lignite formation.

The great obstacle to the development of this county is the
want of facilities for land communication. It is only quite
lately that the Government has undertaken the formation of
cart roads between Oropuche and La Brea and at Cedros. A few
villages have arisen in the county of St. Patrick, viz., at
Oropuche, Guapo, and Cedros ; the Missions of Siparia and
Erin have a nominal existence. Siparia, however, may be said
to be a resort for pilgrims. Population of the county in 1881,
7,209 : males 4,350, females 2,859 ; increase on last census,
2,635.

3. County of Mayaro. — Bounded on the N. by the river Or-
toire; on the S. and E. by the sea; and on the W. by the counties
of Victoria and St. Patrick. It comprises two wards — that of
Moruga, which I have already described, and that of Mayaro,
which comprises the quarters of Mayaro and Guayaguayare, ex-
tending along 'the eastern and southern coasts from Point
Mayaro to Point Casa Cruz. Only a part of the county — a
long, narrow belt — is cultivated, and it is very thinly inhabited.
Mayaro preserves a level all along the sea-shore from Point
Mayaro to Lagon-doux, but runs into waving land in the in-
terior. The level tract along the beach is a light sandy loam,
of excellent quality, compounded largely of organic matter,
with a goodly proportion of comminuted marine shells; the
undulating tract is a brown clayey loam, resembling the Napa-
rima Zapatero soil. The sugar-cane, rice, plantains, and roots
succeed admirably, and yield abundant returns ; sweet potatoes also |
and yams are of particularly fine growth and of excellent quality.
The coco-palm thrives better along the Mayaro beach than any-
where else, perhaps, in the island. Cotton was once extensively cul-
tivated, but the high price of sugar, coupled with the depredations
of caterpillars and locusts, induced the proprietors to abandon its

COUNTY OP MAYARO. 325

cultivation for that of the cane. Six sugar estates were then
settled in the quarter. Immediately after emancipation, how-
ever, a large number of the emancipated labourers abandoned
the cane-fields for other pursuits, the planters being thereby com-
pelled to make the most urgent sacrifices to procure immigrants.
But the difficulties of communication with Port-of- Spain, and
the high freight paid for the carriage of produce thither, as well
as for articles of food therefrom, influenced, or rather necessitated,
the labourers to retire from the quarter ; in fact, they were some-
times left without salt provisions, or even flour, for weeks. The
remoteness of Mayaro from a proper market, therefore, was the
chief cause of its utter ruin, all the sugar estates having in
succession gone out of cultivation. The plantation of coco-
palms, however, has extended, and is still extending, to the
advantage of the proprietors and the prosperity of the ward.
The quarter of Guayaguayare has progressed in the same ratio,
and the number of coco-nut trees may be estimated at 60,000.

During the time of slavery, cotton only and provisions were
cultivated at Guayaguayare. The soil is of excellent quality,
being a light loam ; and it may be said that no part of the
island has been found better adapted to the growth of corn,
plantains, and other articles of food, than this quarter. Guaya-
guayare, moreover, is well watered, an advantage of which
Mayaro, Nariva, and Manzanilla are deprived. When Guaya-
guayare becomes a productive district, there will be no difficulty
in taking whatever it produces to Port-of-Spain by droghers;
for the anchorage under the lee side of Point Galeota is safe
enough. It is much to be regretted that the name of Point
Galeota has been substituted for that of Point Galera, as deno-
minated by Columbus when he discovered the island, as this
change may induce people to believe that Columbus first sighted
the N.E. point of Trinidad, whilst it was the S.E. point. It
cannot be easily explained how this change of designation was
accomplished. I fear, however, that there is no remedy, since
in all the maps of Trinidad the N.E. cape is marked Galera, and
the S.E. cape Galeota.

I have already mentioned the two rivers which discharge
their waters into the bay of Guayaguayare, viz., Lizard and
Pilot rivers; they are tidal creeks, with mangroves at their
outlets. A few diminutive brooks course through the undulating

326 TRINIDAD.

ground of Mayaro, and, owing to their being regularly dyked
by the sand thrown up by the surf, expand at their mouth into
small lagoons ; of these only one is worth notice — the Lagon-
doux.

I must now say a few words of the Guataro or Ortoire. My
information is drawn partly from Captain Columbine's survey,
and partly from reliable private sources. The Ortoire has its
mouth to the northward of Point Radiz, after rounding which
point it runs for some miles in the rear of Mayaro, and thence
takes a W.N.W. direction. Its lower course winds in the most
eccentric manner, particularly towards its mouth, where the
country is very flat. Its banks are low, and the bed muddy ;
but the former rise proportionately with the elevation of the
adjacent lands. The Ortoire is navigable for large canoes f<
eighteen miles. Captain Columbine surveyed it for twelve mil
upwards, and, at that distance, found it thirty feet wide an
eighteen deep. It does not seem that the Ortoire receives an
considerable affluent from the south ; the great body of i
water descends from the central range, between Tamana an
Montserrat; its tributaries in that direction being Pure (n
Poole) or Upper Ortoire, Guarapiche, Guanapure, Anapa, an
Caranache.

Moras grow abundantly in the low lands along the Ortoire ;
the best tracts, cedars and robles. Should this part of the islam
ever become settled, a village might be formed at the head of th
river navigation, and a tram-road laid down from that point
La Brea, or rather to Pointe-a-Pierres. Or, again, produce mig
be carried down to the landing-place at Mayaro, since a distan
of only 1,270 yards across the Mayaro estate separates the rive
Ortoire from the beach ; a tram-road should then be laid dow
as a connecting-link between the river and the sea, thereb
avoiding the difficulties, not to say the impossibility, of entering
the Ortoire, and the dangers of a navigation to the north wa
of Point Radiz.

Except a narrow belt along the shore, the entire county o
Mayaro is crown property; its surface, to all appearances, is
uneven, rising into hillocks towards the S. and S.E ; it is said to
be rugged, and everywhere cut up by deep ravines, especially to
the rearward of the Mayaro ward and the three sisters.

The two counties of St. Patrick and Mayaro belong to the

!

ORTOIRE. 327

Newer Parian group, as termed by Messrs. Wall and Sawkins ;
and to the Moruga or Arenaceous series. " From the S. coast
to the valley of the Ortoire," say these gentlemen, " and even
further N., an extensive series of strata, usually of a loose sandy
nature, are observed. These are well exposed in cliffs all along
the southern shore. Thick strata of massive sand, generally
loose and pulverulent, are the most prevalent beds ; and, indeed,
sand may be said to be in great excess.

u Shales are numerous, but clays are of rarer occurrence.

11 Calcareous sandstone is extensively diffused in beds, not ex-
ceeding six to eight feet thick, and often only a few inches.
There is, at the sources of the Moruga river, an isolated tract of
the Naparima marl."

The geological formation of the southern range is evidently
different from that of the northern and middle range. Shales,
sandstone, and calcareous sandstone are the materials of which
the southern range is formed. The nucleus of Point Mayaro seems
to be of sandstone, with an admixture of limestone; and the entire
promontory represents a rather peculiar disposition, being an
insulated headland, bounded on the N. and W. by the river
Ortoire ; whilst the ground is so low southward that it cannot
be more than thirty or forty feet above the level of the bay or
river. Point Mayaro is very rugged, being rent in all directions
by ravines, though the soil is a loam of excellent quality. Its
connection with the ridge followed by Mr. d'Abadie, when
cutting the Mayaro track, can be easily traced. The disposition
of Point Galeota is very similar to that of Point Mayaro, and
its geological formation probably identical. It is in the quarter
of Guayaguayare, longitude of Casa Cruz, N. of the three
sisters, that the pitch deposits and salses called " Lagon Bouff n
and " Terre Bouillante " are to be found. The three sisters are
the three summits of the mountains sighted from the Pint a.

The surface of the Moruga series occupies more than one-
fourth of the total area of the colony ; and " it is essential,"
say Messrs. Wall and Sawkins, " to arrive at some understanding
as to what productions would be best suited for it. After full
consideration, it seems that many, if not all, the natural condi-
tions requisite for the growth of cotton are present. The surface
is dry, the soil light and sandy, and the district not characterised
by an excess of moisture. This production of the tropics and

328 TRINIDAD.

sub-tropical regions is more in demand than any other at tl
present time, and the consumption is likely to continue equal to
the supply. Should the time arrive when this staple can possibly
be raised to advantage in this colony, experiments in the district
would be advisable, as affording the best chances of success.

" Tobacco has succeeded in Siparia, the quality produced
there being regarded as superior.

<( There is abundance of analogous soil, and this article
might doubtless be advantageously cultivated on a more extended
scale.

" If the uneven country, and that adjacent to the coast,
should be devoted to the above staples, the interior districts
might be found adapted for cacao ; and the level and richer valley
of the Ortoire even for sugar, as the extent to which that fine
river is navigable would afford the means of readily transporting
the produce raised along its course. The districts adjacent to tl
Ortoire seemed amongst the finest in the island, and it was
matter of regret that time did not permit their more comph
exploration.''''

Population of the county, 2,006 : males 1,075, females 93"
increase on 1871, 1,669.

4. County of Nariva. — Bounded on the N. by the county of
St. Andrew, on the S. by that of Mayaro, E. by the sea, and
W. by the county of Victoria. Although one of the most ex-
tensive, this county is the least populated, and consequently the
least cultivated of all the island divisions. The only inhabited
part is the Cocal or coco-walk, a very narrow belt along the
sea, planted in coco-nut palms, and which constitutes the ward
of Nariva. The whole, or nearly the whole, of this county is
crown property, except the Cocal, which belongs to the Borough
Council of Port-of- Spain, and nothing is cultivated in the county
but coco-palms and some provisions.

This coco-palm plantation, extending from the mouth of the
L6branche to that of the Ortoire, was, as it appears, accidentally
formed years ago. Among the many traditional accounts
that event, the following bears a very plausible aspect : it is
the effect that a schooner, laden with coco-nuts, was wrecked
the coast, and the nuts washed ashore by the surf. The localil
being favourable, they sprouted, grew np, and spontaneous!
propagated to a large extent. Whatever its origin , the Co(

COUNTY OF NARIVA. 329

consists of about 60,000 coco-nut trees, more or less, some of
them very old, others quite young, and a great many in full
bearing.

A manufactory has been erected about midway between the
rivers Lebranche and Mitan, so that the carriage of nuts across
the Mitan, from near the Ortoire, to the establishment, is a
tedious affair. It is worked by a steam-engine of six-horse
power. The kernel extracted from the shell is bruised by means
of grooved rollers, then reduced to a pulp by a mill-stone ; the
pulp is next placed in double-bottomed pans, heated by steam,
which process has for result the evaporation of a certain propor-
tion of water, and the coagulation of the albuminous ingredients
of the pulp. The mass is then submitted to the action of an
hydraulic press, and the oil allowed to run off ; it is finally
drawn off into casks, carted to the landing-place at the mouth
of the Lebranche, and put on board of vessels anchored
under lee of Point Manzanilla, for transport to Port-of-
Spain.

The sea has a tendency to encroach upon the land at the
Cocal, while the Mitan is gradually eroding southward to a con-
siderable extent ; the destruction of a good number of coco-
trees is the result of this process. The plantation, however, may
not only be preserved in its natural area, but it might be ex-
tended by steady planting, when two establishments might be
maintained — one as at present existing, and the other between
the Mitan and the Ortoire. The Cocal is leased for a term of
years, at the annual rate of 2,000 dols.

The county of Nariva may be said to consist altogether of
virgin land ; it is partly level and swampy, partly undulating and
hilly towards the central range. Both the level and hilly tracts
are very imperfectly known. I may say, however, that this
county is most varied in its geological formation. E. of Tamana,
S. of Lebranche, and in the ward of Manzanilla, we meet with
tracts of the Tamana calcareous soil ; a long belt of the Napa-
rima marl, extending from the Guarapiche to a few miles from
the beach ; a tract of stiff ferruginous clays, lying between
Tamana and Manzanilla, and between the Upper Ortoire and the
swamp, affording soils of a more or less red colour, not very
productive ; a tract of low land of good quality along the left
bank of the Ortoire j and the swamp, which might be made pro-

330 TRINIDAD.

ductive by drainage — not an easy task, I admit. This swamp
may be estimated at 34,560 acres.

Several streams originating in the central range have their
course towards the swamp ; the principal of these, pretty large,
bears the name of Nariva.

The swampy part of Nariva presents, from the sea, a striking
appearance, it being a perfect level from the beach to the foot of
the Lebranche ridge; and, though covered with a luxuriant
vegetation, it looks like a still waste, with the mountain-cabbage
towering above the tall grasses and the copse- woods around;
close to the beach, mangroves and balatas grow in clusters. The
vapours which rise early in the morning, forming long hovering
streaks of wreathy mist, indicate the locale of the swamps which
intersect these lowlands in all directions, whilst in the back-
ground, the Lebranche hills seem to emerge abruptly from the
plain. In front, the Nariva or Mitan stretches along the beach,
immediately beyond the Cocal, for several miles. It is a fine
deep sheet of dark water, expanding near its mouth into a sort
of basin. The Nariva, as I have already stated, takes a northerly
course until it meets the southern spur of the valley of Le-
branche, when it turns nearly abruptly southward ; it is formed
by the accumulation of the waters which descend the Lebranche
group, from Morne Calabash to Tamana. They collect first in
swamps and canals communicating with each other, ultimately to
unite in one stream. There is, besides the Nariva, the Jean Paul,
or Doubloon river ; it owes its existence and names to the follow-
ing circumstance : Mr. Carter, the lessee of the Cocal, finding
that, during the rainy season, the quantity of water received by
the Nariva was disproportionately large, came to the determina-
tion of opening a new channel for the surplus waters, and made
an arrangement with a man of the name of Jean Paul to cut a
canal through the sandy beach, for which he paid him a doubloon ;
hence the names of Jean Paul and Doubloon given to that canal,
which may be said to form, at present, a second mouth to the
Nariva.

In the year 1849, Messrs. M. Sorzano, surveyor-general,
L. d'Abadie, also a land-survej^or, received instructions from
Lord Harris to cut a track from Tamana to the Cocal. They
began their survey on the 15th of April, and reached the beach
on the 2nd of May. This track is a straight line, its direction

tie

SURVEYS. 331

being E. J S., and its entire length fourteen miles. For nearly
four miles from Tamana, the country is undulating, the super-
stratum resting on limestone. The lower portion is seven miles
in length, and varies alternately from gently waving to flat ; the
last three miles present a marshy plain. In this section, man-
groves were observed first, then, in succession, a dry savanna, a
tract of very rich land, of about one mile and a half in breadth,
covered with carats and wild plum-trees; next, an extensive
savanna, with clusters of the moriche-palm ; several mangrove
swamps, separated by dry savannas and belts of dry land ; a fine
dry savanna, swamps, and mangroves ; again, a small savanna ;
and finally, cabbage-trees and balatas bordering on the Cocal.
The track opened on the beach about midway between the Nariva
and the Ortoire.

All the water-courses met with during the survey, had a
northerly or north-easterly direction. Four of them only bear
names, viz., the Cunape, about one mile and three-quarters, and
the Canque, five miles from Tamana ; the Carapa, one mile and a
quarter, westward of the first savanna, and the Caratal immedi-
ately after the same. About six miles from the starting-point,
Messrs. Sorzano and d'Abadie met with a low wet tract ; and,
soon after, with an impassable swamp, which compelled them to
alter their line by nearly a mile to the southward. These gentle-
men observed, on their route, several cacao-trees : were they acci-
dentally planted, or are they the natural growth of the country ?
They fell in also with brush- wood, and a few lime-trees ; such
being evidence that, during slavery, the maroons or fugitive
slaves resorted to that spot, as to a fastness.

In the following year, Mr. d'Abadie received further instruc-
tions to find a more direct road to the eastern coast, from
Savanna Grande to the Cocal, or to Mayaro. He started from
i Monkey Town on the 19th of March, 1850, but completed his
j survey only the following year, when he reached the Cocal one
| mile northward of the mouth of the Ortoire — the whole length
: of the track being twenty-six miles. He followed, as far as
| possible, the direction of ridges, in order to avoid the low
: swampy grounds. For seventeen miles all the water-courses
| had their flow southward towards the Ortoire. The principal
were the following : Guanapure, three miles from the starting-
! point ; this river ought to be regarded as the true origin of the

332 TRINIDAD.

Ortoire — not only because it is the first important stream which
occurs on the track, but its position corresponds better to the
range of that river as marked down on Mallet's map than
to that of his Moura. Next to the Guanapure, and within a
range of three miles, came in succession the following water-
courses : Pure, the Poui, the Guarapiche, and the Guanapure — the
Carib name Guarapiche induces me to admit the existence of
bitumen in the neighbourhood. The Guanapure corresponds
pretty well, in position, to the Moura of Mallet. Two and a
half miles from the Guanapure flows the Caranache; about
three miles from the Caranache, the Anapo ; one mile and a half
further eastward, the Agua-Clara ; and, for about three miles, a
series of smaller ravines or rivulets. Except the Guanapure,
which has a gravelly bed, all these streams are muddy. For
about six miles, a number of small brooks have their course to
the northward, and a few to the southward, the road there
following the dividing range. Among the former are the
Guatecaro, about five miles, and the Cascaradura, about one mile
and a half from the shore.

Mr. d'Abadie having received new orders to connect the
Tamana with the Mayaro track, left the latter about eighteen
miles from Monkey Town, and, after a run of little more than
four miles in a northerly direction, met the former between the
two first savannas, at that tract of rich land already mentioned.
He encountered several water-courses, having an easterly direc-
tion, a swamp, and a tract of land partly level and partly waving,
with a forest of moras ; the ground bordering on the savanna
was, in general, soft, and intersected with swamps. At a later
period Mr. d'Abadie opened another track, about four miles from
the beach, connecting the Mayaro path directly with the ward of
Mayaro.

I have entered into these details, in order to indicate the real
disposition of that extensive tract of low country stretching sea-
ward of the Cocal, between the Lebranche and the Ortoire, and
I have come to the following conclusions : From Tamana, a ridge
extends in a south-easterly direction towards Point Radix, divid-
ing the basin of the Ortoire from that of the Nariva; there
exists no water communication between the two rivers — a fact
which had already been ascertained by Captain Columbine and
by Mr. J. Carter. The natural slope of the country is evidently

COUNTY OF NARIVA. 333

from the S.S.W. to the N.N.E., as proved by the fact that all
the water-courses — and mainly the Carapa and the Caratal — have
their course in the latter direction, and that the swamps predo-
minate towards the north, and the dry land towards the south.
Moreover, Mr. Carter had already discovered that the upper
stream of the Nariva tended northwards, and then, by an abrupt
bend, inclined towards the south. The numerous lagoons which
exist throughout the whole extent of that low tract evidently
owe their origin to the accumulation of waters flowing partly
from the Lebranche, and partly from the Tamana ridge.

Report fixes the soil of Nariva as generally good — and even,
in some parts, of the best quality. The district also abounds in
excellent timber. The cultivation of the coco-palm might be
extended over all those localities which are within tidal influ-
ence ; and the natural savannas might be turned to excellent
account in rearing and feeding horned and other stock; also,
with the refuse from the mills, swine might be fed in great
numbers. Mr. Carter has tried the experiment, and succeeded
sufficiently well to prove that, with good management, the
rearing of animals might here become very profitable.

Population of the county, 1881, 274 : males 156, females
118; decrease as compared with 1871, 18.

CHAPTER X.

PROSPECTS OF TRINIDAD — SUGGESTIONS.

To judge fairly of the prospects of Trinidad, we should take into
account its geographical position and its many natural resources ;
we should not forget that it has already passed through periods
of prosperity and great depression. Not later than the year
1848, Lord Harris wrote as follows to Earl Grey : —

" It is sad and painful to behold men expecting ruin quickly
to overcome them ; it is, perhaps, sadder and more painful to see
them struggling and toiling against adversity, but with their
energies dulled and their arms palsied from their knowledge that
their labours must be unremunerative, and that failure can be
the sole result ; it is most distressing to witness this, and, at the
same time, to be aware that much of the misery from which they
are suffering, and which awaits them, is of a nature which they
are unable to avert by any acts of their own.

" It is pitiable to witness a fine colony daily deteriorating — a
land enjoying every blessing under heaven — suffering from a
shock from which it does not rally. Did I not see a prospect —
I think a better one than in any of the West Indies — of getting
this colony through the present crisis, I should not venture to
propose that advances should be made; but, looking at the
fertility of the soil, and the almost certainty of favourable
seasons, I believe that, with assistance, there can be little doubt
of its ultimate success/'

Not through advances, but with the assistance afforded by the
Indian immigration, the colony was enabled to get over the
crisis, and to attain a certain amount of prosperity; and yet its
position, in consequence of the depreciation of its staple produce,
may be said to be precarious. Trinidad, nevertheless, possesses
many natural resources: what they are I have already stated;
only remains for me to add a few remarks.

RELATIVE POSITION. 335

The island of Trinidad may be considered as consisting of two
great valleys, formed by three mountain ranges of various
elevation. The middle and southern ranges are accessible on all
sides, and might be passed over at many points by carriage
roads. The northern range is accessible only on the south or
land side, there being but a few landing-places on the sea-coast.
The two valleys might be easily run through from E. to W. by
tram-roads or railways, which would afford every facility for
internal communication and for the transport of goods to our
great sea-port, the Gulf of Paria.

On the hills, coffee, cacao, cotton, and spices might be
cultivated with advantage, as exportable articles ; plantains, corn,
ground provisions, and the more delicate vegetables, for home
consumption. The hills are generally healthy and cool, and
might be settled and cultivated by a white population, and others,
with a small capital. The plain might be reserved for the
cultivation of the cane mainly; the cultivation of cacao and
tobacco should be carried on in the vegas or hollows of river valleys,
the low swamps and less fertile tracts might be planted or sown
in rice. In the case of some other cultures being introduced,
as indigo, sesame, the castor-oil plant, these could be tried in
inferior lands.

Tramways might be laid down between the Oropuche river
and Port-of- Spain in the northern basin ; and between the
Ortoire and La Brea, or Naparima, in the southern basin. Those
are the local or intrinsic capabilities of Trinidad, but are not
its sole advantages. Its geographical position, adjacent to
the continent and the republic of Venezuela, almost at the mouth
of the Orinoco, renders it, in a commercial and political point of
view, as important as Cuba. Wherefore, though the fate of
Trinidad be intimately connected with that of the other British
colonies, yet her prospects may be greatly affected by extraneous
influences ; for they, in a great measure, depend upon the fate of
the neighbouring republic of Venezuela. If ever Venezuela
becomes tranquil and prosperous, Trinidad will share in that
prosperity ; for the magnificent Gulf of Paria is a vast harbour
common to both : in fact, it is or can easily be rendered the
great seaport of the rich and extensive basin of the Orinoco, as
may be ascertained by glancing at the map of Venezuela.

The Andes form, southward of Popayan, and about the second

336 TRINIDAD.

degree of north latitude, a trif urcation known by the name of
the Cordilleras of Nueva Granada. The easternmost chain is
the Cordillera of Venezuela, which traverses that republic from
S.S.W. to E.N.E., from Almaguer to cape Pena, or even
Point Galera, the north-eastern point of Trinidad. It runs, at
first N.N.E. from San Miguel de Mocoa to Valencia;
Pamplona, Merida, Truxillo, Barquisimeto, and even Valencia
being left on the northern or sea-coast side, and San Juan de los
Remedios, Casanare, with Varinas on the southern or Orinoco
side of the chain. From Valencia, the Cordillera runs due east,
and so close to the Caribbean sea that its very base is washed by
the surf — Maracaybo, Puerto Cabello, Caracas, Barcelona, and
Cumana being thereby separated by rugged mountains and high
table lands from the basin of the Orinoco.

That immense basin extends from the Andes, eastward, to the
mountains of Pari ma and the Atlantic ; and southward, from the
same Cordillera to the Rio Negro. Besides a number of less
important streams, it is drained by the following large navigable
rivers, viz., — the Guarico, the Portuguesa, the Apure, Arouca,
the Meta, the Vichada, and the Guaviare, all coming down from
the Cordilleras ; and by the Ventuari, the Caura, and the Caroni,
which have their sources in the Parima system of mountains ; all
are tributaries of the mighty river.

This short description shows that the Cordillera of Venezuela
has been thrown up by nature, as an unsurmountable barrier to
commercial communication between the basin of the Orinoco and
the Caribbean sea, so that either Angostura or Port-of-Spain
must become the great emporium of Venezuela, and the Orinoco
or the Gulf of Paria the outlet of the interior basin.

Angostura — now Bolivar — is a fine river-port with deep water,
but about 300 miles from the Atlantic; the temperature
there is oppressive, though the climate cannot be said to be
unhealthy. The navigation against the stream is, however, very
tedious, principally during the overflow of the river, viz., from
April to October, when the currents are very strong ; whilst the
marsh effluvia, all along its banks, are very deleterious, par-
ticularly during the low- water season. There are, at the mouth
of the river, low islands'and sand-banks or shoals, which also
render the navigation intricate and even dangerous ; so much so,
that large vessels would not find it safe to venture, without

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT. 337

skilful pilots, through its many channels. To remove or even
permanently to remedy those obstacles cannot be regarded as an
easy undertaking. On the other hand, the Gulf of Paria is not
only one of the safest harbours known, but is fully capable of
sheltering the united fleets of the world ; hurricanes are unknown
here, and ground swells are felt but very seldom, and that,
within a line drawn from the first Boca to Point la Brea ; in
fact, the navigation of the Gulf is, at all times, safe and easy;
whilst dangers, if there be any, attending the passage of the
smaller Bocas, or entrance mouths, can easily be avoided by
passing through the largest, or Grand Boca.

The Gulf is considered healthy, and even the yellow fever, in
its occasional and rare visitations, has made but a few victims
among the shipping. There is a never-failing and plentiful
supply of excellent spring and river water in the island, and fresh
meat can be procured from the provinces of Guiana and
Barcelona; dry docks might also be constructed at the Gasparil
Islet, and warehouses erected there for ship stores.

The Gulf communicates with the Orinoco by means of
the Cafios, or channels, of Pedernaies, Manamo, and Macareo.
Small crafts bound to Trinidad from Bolivar pass generally
through Cafio Pedernaies ; the steamers, at present, take in pre-
ference Cano Macareo. These, or at least one of these natural
| channels might be rendered navigable for large steamers and
J other vessels, which would carry the produce of the immense and
i fertile basin into the Gulf, for the lading of vessels awaiting
their cargo ; or they might be tugged to Barrancas. The atten-
tion of his Excellency Lord Harris had been attracted to the
subject, as proved by the following extract : " I have already, on
several occasions, pointed out to your lordship the very great
benefits which would accrue to this island if a more liberal policy
could be adopted respecting the trade with other countries, more
| especially with France and Spain ; a still greater one would be
(gained if the neighbouring republic of Venezuela could be
induced to modify its Customs'' duties.

" Should the steam communication between Port-of-Spain and

Maturin — which I have shown every inclination to support — be

| established, it would prove very beneficial; but I am more

! anxious to see a similar one, only on a larger scale, set on foot

' between this and the City of Bolivar. There are many reasons

w

338 TEINIDAD.

for hoping that Port-of-Spain may eventually become the recep-
tacle of the trade of that vast tract of country from which the
Orinoco draws its waters. A steamer passing by the Caho
Macareo could reach Bolivar in seventy hours and return in fifty,
whereas merchant vessels take from five to twenty days to ascend
to that place from the chief mouth of the river. An American
company has already entered into contract with the Venezuelan
Government to navigate the Orinoco, from Bolivar upwards, for
a distance of 700 miles by steamer. It only requires, therefore,
to connect Trinidad and Bolivar by similar means — only I hope
by an English company — and the interior of the western part of
that vast continent would be opened to enterprise, and an invalu-
able impulse given to the commerce of this island/'' (Lord Harris
to Earl Grey, 21st February, 1848.) That connection has been
established for the last eight or ten years, two trips monthly to
and from Bolivar corresponding with the arrival of the English
mail. Great, therefore, not to say unlimited, are the advantages
enjoyed by Trinidad. How long will they remain only partially
developed, God only knows ! for numerous are the obstacles to
be overcome. We have to deal with jealous neighbours, more
or less prejudiced against foreigners, with a Government blind
to its best interests ; and yet, " under the fostering care of Great
Britain (if she will foster it), this colony may become, not only
prosperous, but may prove of vast importance in assisting to
civilise the fine and extensive continent in its vicinity." (Lord
Harris to Earl Grey.) It is, therefore, our duty to prepare our-
selves for any favourable contingency which may arise, by
adopting such measures as may improve our condition, and
render this island a desirable home for all who may choose to
bring hither their capital and industry.

Trinidad is a newly-settled country, with a scanty population,
and imperfect means of communication; it is, therefore, most
important that we should establish good roads where required.
Without such, entire districts must remain altogether unde-
veloped or stationary. The perfection of means of communica-
tion does not, however, depend on the proper construction of
roads, but also on the facility of procuring fit materials for their
repair and maintenance. In our best agricultural districts, the
ground is far from affording facilities for the formation and
preservation of public ways, it being generally clayey and defi-

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT. 339

cient in suitable material for road-making". On that plea, some
persons are of opinion that it would be better to lay tramways
rather than construct new roads and have them properly macadam-
ised at an enormous cost. They contend that such tramroads
would ultimately prove cheaper, inasmuch as they might be
made to yield revenue, instead of being, as at present, a perma-
nent cause of expenditure. That might be so, but the first
outlay will always act as a serious obstacle to their establish-
ment.

The staff of road engineers now in the colony is, I think, equal
to all requirements. Far from me the pretention of suggesting
what duties should be imposed upon them, or how they ought to
proceed ; but this I do not hesitate to say, too much of latitude
is left to the inferior officers, and the principals are not seen on
the highways as often as they should. The island has been
formed into two principal divisions for administrative purposes —
the northern and the southern. An engineer should be appointed
to each division, and made responsible to the Director of Public
Works, as head of the department. He should regularly visit
and inspect the roads in his division, prepare estimates for their
repair and the construction of bridges. He would determine
whether any new roads were required, trace them, and superin-
tend their formation. No bridge should be built in his division,
except under his personal superintendence ; he should regularly
send reports, showing the conditions of the roads within his
district, with such suggestions as he would consider useful. A
code of rules and instructions should be prepared for the manage-
ment of the public ways, which all inferior officers should be
compelled to obey.

We have no fair chance of progressing unless we establish
roads throughout the country ; but we particularly need popula-
tion, and to us immigration has become a matter of vital im-
portance. The introduction of immigrants, immediately after
emancipation, saved the colony from immediate ruin; and we
must look up to immigration, and the introduction of field-
labourers, if we are determined not to retrograde. But as the
people so introduced gradually retire from field labour, either by
leaving the island to return home, or by adopting other occupa-
tions, or by becoming land-owners, we must make provision for a
continuous influx of immigrants, lest the cultivation of our

340 TRINIDAD.

staple articles should become restricted, or should even cease
altogether.

This question of immigration is of such paramount impor-
tance, that I will be pardoned, I hope, for taking a short retro-
spective review of its history in Trinidad. Immediately after
emancipation, so pressing had become the demand for agricul-
tural labourers, in consequence of our scanty population and the
preposterously high wages demanded for field labour — so
palpable, so imminent had become the danger of ruin — that it
was at once and almost instinctively resolved to call in immi-
grants by every mode of inducement. Labourers from the
neighbouring colonies, attracted hither by the prospect of higher
wages, began to immigrate to the island at their own cost. It
was soon discovered that a regular current of immigration would
set in if sufficient encouragement were afforded. The planters
at once manifested their readiness to advance the passage-money,
provided the immigrants would engage their services as a com-
pensation.

On the other hand, a bounty was offered to those captains of
small trading vessels who would introduce them, on condition
they would use their influence to secure the services of the
immigrants to the party paying the bounty. Several planters,
themselves owners of vessels, despatched them to Grenada, St.
Christopher, or Nevis, to bring over labourers for the crop
season, and on many occasions undertook to send them back to
their native island after their term of service. Moreover, money
was invariably advanced to the immigrants, on the pretext that
they required articles of food or clothing. But as there was no
legal provision specifying the conditions of contract, or binding
the immigrants and employer to their observance, many of the
immigrants actually left, or were enticed to leave, the estates to
which they were attached, the planters who had paid for their
passage and made advances thus losing a part, or even the whole,
of the money advanced. The planters had thus amply proved
their readiness and determination to help themselves; but so
defective was the system adopted, that they were compelled to
desist. The Legislative Council was, under the circumstance,
induced to make the introduction of labourers a public enter-
prise; and a "regular trade in immigrants " was established
between Trinidad and the neighbouring islands, but especially

IMMIGRATION. 341

with Grenada, Nevis, Montserrat, and St. Christopher. The
captains who introduced them being entitled to a bounty,
managed to bring over as many as possible ; and, in order to
keep up the trade, they would take back the very same people
for whom they had received a premium on some former voyage,
in order to have the opportunity of re-introducing them a second,
or even a third and fourth time, thus converting the same indi-
viduals into an ad libitum bounty. This discreditable practice was
carried on until, being discovered, the bounty system was discon-
tinued. Thus ended the ill-contrived and injudiciously-managed
intercolonial immigration.

The demand for labour, however, was still pressing. Immi-
grants came from Havre, Madeira, and the United States.
Those from France were engaged either as house-servants or
field-labourers. The former, after their term of service had ex-
pired, preferred a livelihood as shopkeepers, carters, or petty
traffickers ; only a very few succeeded. The latter were carried
oft' by fever. The immigrants from the States did not succeed
any better, inasmuch as being generally carpenters, bricklayers,
&c, they had to compete with the same class of tradesmen,
already too numerous in the colony. Immigrants from Madeira
were more successful. The two sources, however, from which we
have received the largest accession of labourers are Africa and
Hindostan.

The Home Government having decided that the Africans
liberated from the captured slavers would be sent to the West
India colonies, Trinidad received a good share. A few hundred
voluntary immigrants also came from the Kroo coast. It soon,
however, became evident that we could not depend for any length
of time on a supply of labourers from this source ; and it was
decided to follow the example of Mauritius, and to introduce
Coolies from Hindostan. Accordingly the Fatel Rosack left
Calcutta with a first cargo of Coolies, and anchored in the har-
bour on the 30th May, 1845. The pressure must have been
great indeed to compel the colonists to seek labour from the far
East ; and such a determination certainly argues much in favour
of their energy. Other vessels followed in regular succession ;
and in May, 1848, 5,162 immigrants from India had been landed
in the island. The two or three first draughts answered the
expectations which had been formed ; but the others did not.

342 TRINIDAD.

They had not been judiciously selected. Their introduction
was a mere experiment, and as such surrounded with many
difficulties. Again, the Coolies were perfect strangers in the
island, and the relations in which they were placed with regard
to the emancipated blacks quite novel. But no class of
labourers has given more satisfaction than those subsequently
introduced under a well-regulated system of immigration. The
manner of dealing with that class of immigrants is now regu-
lated by law, and in several respects very different from what it
was at the commencement ; added to which, their own country-
people are here to advise, and to initiate them in the customs
and occupations of the inhabitants ; in fact, they are much less
hampered in their habits and their own peculiar ideas. They,
in consequence, work more successfully, because they fully under-
stand their duties and their rights. When the Coolies were first
introduced, it was found advisable to appoint a special magistrate
for their protection. Major Fagan, who was acquainted with
the language and customs of the people of India, was selected
for the post. When the major arrived in Trinidad only a few
inoperative regulations existed concerning immigrants of all
classes ; and it was consequent to that want of proper regulations
that so much suffering was undergone by " those unfortunate
people, in the shape of disease, starvation, and ultimate death,"
as expressed by Mr. Montgomery Martin ; but not because, as
stated by him, "the treatment of immigrants generally, and
especially of the East Indian Coolies, had been most discredit-
able." This will become apparent on perusal of Lord Harris's
despatches.

The Africans liberated from slavers had been appointed to
the planters under certain conditions, viz., that they should
work for a stated number of hours every day, on being provided
with lodging, food, clothing, and medical attendance. They,
however, did not consider themselves as party to the contract —
the obligations of which they did not understand — and deter-
minedly refused to work, and absconded into the woods, prowli
about in the neighbourhood of plantations, on which they ve
tured, at night, for plunder. Others attempted to retrace th
steps to their country, as they imagined, by travelling eastwa
Not only did they avoid inhabited localities, but when they d
encounter any of the inhabitants, being ignorant of the language

THE IMMIGRATION ORDINANCE. 343

spoken in the island, they could neither understand them nor
make themselves understood. The Coolies, who had been landed
in the interval, soon availed themselves of the bad example set to
them, and of the laxity of the law. The contracts made were
broken, first by the indentured labourer, and most willingly
afterwards by their employers, who could in no wise consider
themselves bound when the immigrant had freed himself from
all obligations. Lord Harris having fully treated this subject in
his correspondence with Lord Grey, I prefer giving his opinions
in his own words to offering mine on the matter : —

"My desire has been impartially to study the interest of
both parties, at the same time never to lose sight of the fact
that the Coolies were placed here under peculiar circumstances,
as utter strangers in a foreign land, and therefore requiring the
zealous and increasing care of Government ; that they are also
far from being the best class of the Indian labouring population,
are naturally dissolute and depraved in their habits if left to
themselves, and much inclined to fall into habits of drinking
and of wandering idly about the country, and therefore require
the close supervision of Government, in order to correct, if
possible — but, at all events, to prevent — any evident cases of
vagabondage and licentiousness/'' (Lord Harris to Mr. Glad-
stone, July, 1846.)

"After having given my best consideration to the sub- "\
ject, it appears to me that, in the first place, the immigrants I
must pass through an initiatory process ; they are not, neither /
Africans nor Coolies, fit to be placed in a position which the j S
labourers of civilised countries may at once occupy. They /
must be treated like children — and wayward ones, too — the [
former, from the utterly savage state in which they arrive ; the J
latter, from their habits and religion/'' (Lord Harris to Earl
Grey, 1848.)

Lord Harris, therefore, had, with the aid of Major Fagan,
the Coolie magistrate, prepared a code of regulations, which was
published in 1846. A great outcry was raised here and in
Great Britain against these regulations, some of which, on the
assumption of his lordship himself, were " stringent/' These
regulations were disallowed by the Secretary of State for the
Colonies, Lord Grey, not only because, in his lordship's opinion,
" they had no legal validity/'' but also on the strong and not

344 TE1NIDAD.

very judicious representations of the Anti-Slavery Society, so
that the system of laissez alter was once more preferred to a
more restrictive, but surely — as proved by the result — a more
beneficial and more humane policy. However, certain heads
were at the same time sent out by Lord Grey, which were
digested into an ordinance for the encouragement of immigra-
tion, and made law in 1847.

With reference to the withdrawal of the regulations pre-
pared by Major Fagan, Lord Harris observes : " Your lordship
will remember that the withdrawal of some rules which I had
established respecting the management of the Coolies was
required by despatch dated 16th September, 1846, and they
were accordingly cancelled on the 17th October following.

" Doubtless there were numerous faults in these rules. From
the circumstance of the case, they had been drawn up at a very
short notice; but all will allow, who had the opportunity of
judging, that, during their operation, the Coolies were W(
clothed, healthy, generally contented, and improving daily
habits of industry.

" On the withdrawal of those rules, they returned to the
habits which are natural to them : they left the estates, and were
to be seen wandering about in the country in bands, and by the
time that the immigration ordinance came into force, but few
were remaining on the properties on which they had been generally
located. "

As to the ordinance of 1847, Lord Harris states : — " I cannot
say that the ordinance No. 9 of 1847, for the encouragement of
immigration, has succeeded to my satisfaction. The cause of its
failure I attribute partly to the very depressed circumstances of
the planters at the time of its being brought into force, and the
general conviction that the Coolies would not remain on the
estates, consequently inducing a small demand for the Coolies,
and partly to its want of adaptation to the localities, and the
population with which it was intended to deal.

" Many of the Coolies left the estates within a week of enter-
ing into contract, but no pains were taken to give the Govern-
ment any information of it. Want of means was one cause wl
contracts were not generally entered into by the planters.

" But there was also a general feeling that the provisions
the ordinance were not sufficiently stringent to warrant thei

or

IMMIGRATION. 345

advancing the sum required. That such has turned out to be the
case there can be no doubt. I shall proceed to explain why it
appears to rne that it was likely to happen.

" On entering into contract, the Coolies were liable, on break-
ing their engagements, to certain penalties. In order to enforce
these it was necessary, first, that the delinquents should be
caught, and then brought before a justice of the peace. Now,
the great difficulty is, in this country, to get such penalties at all
to bear upon the delinquents.

"The result has been that I know only of one instance in
which the proprietor has attempted to recover the Coolies.

"The consequence of their readoption of their wandering
habits has been most distressing. I was induced, from numbers
being found destitute, sick, and starving in the roads, to establish
two hospitals for their reception/'' (Lord Harris, February,
1848.)

In these words and observations of Lord Harris, we have the
proof that it was not the fault of the planters if the first at-
tempts at establishing and regulating a fair system of assisted
immigration remained ineffectual. In this opinion Earl Grey
seems to have concurred, for he says in his despatches to the
Governor of Trinidad : —

"It is possible, indeed, that the code of Coolie regulations pro-
posed by you might have been more successful than ordinance No. 9
of 1847 ; and the primary objections that I took to it, namely,
that it had no legal validity, might have been obviated by the
enactment of an ordinance. Such rules could not be enforced
without a violation of the principles on which free labour is
ordinarily regulated, nor without running the risk of great
abuses. It is possible that the abuses would have occurred but
seldom, and that they would have been a far less evil than the
vice and suffering on the part of the Coolies, to which their
unrestrained condition has given birth ; but we have to bear in
mind the sentiments to which the exposure of even one gross
example of abuse might give occasion here, and the obstruction
to all immigration, which might be the consequence, not only in
Trinidad, but throughout the sugar colonies ; and I doubt not
that your lordship will perceive the serious difficulties under
which we labour in the treatment of immigrants belonging to
savage or half-civilised races, whose unfitness for unrestrained

346 TRINIDAD.

liberty is not generally understood or acknowledged in this
country."" (Earl Grey to Lord Harris, 15th April, 1848.)

Earl Grey writes again : — " It is exceedingly painful to
me to learn that the immigration ordinance, though seconded
by your lordship's zealous efforts, and by the order for the pre-
vention of vagrancy, passed by her Majesty in council on the
7th of September, 1838, and the proclamation for the prevention
of squatting, issued by you on 22nd June, 1847, has been
ineffectual, and has not succeeded in preventing the Coolies from
falling into fatal and dissolute ways of life ; so that great
numbers of them have ended by dying in the public hospitals,
and not a few by the waysides and in the woods." (Earl Grey
to Lord Harris, 15th April, 1848.)

The Secretary of State had laid down the principle that it
should be sought "to place the immigrants in a situation in
which they might be acted upon by the same motives by which
men are compelled to labour in industrious countries."" In
answer, Lord Harris offers the following very judicious remarks : —

" I have great doubts whether the Coolie and African are
morally or mentally capable of being acted upon by the sai
motives in this island, on their first arrival, as labourers are
more civilised countries

" The only independence which they would desire is idleness,
according to their different tastes in the enjoyment of it ; and
then the higher motives which actuate the European labourer
(and we must remember the vast difference there is even in
Europe with respect to the industry of various races), which are
above and beyond circumstances, irrespective of mere self-
interest, which he has received as his patrimony from pre-
vious generations, and which, I believe, even in this age, are still
to be found prevailing amongst them — viz., that to be indus-
trious is a duty and a virtue ; that to be independent in circum-
stances, whatever his station, raises a man in the moral scale
amongst his race ; and that his ability to perform his duties as a
citizen, and, we may add, as a Christian, is increased by it.
These, and such motives as these, are unknown to the fatalist
worshippers of Mahomet and Brahma, and to the savages who
go by the names of Liberated Africans."

The immigration ordinance of 1849 has been since amended
on several occasions, and, though still amendable in some minor

are

IMMIGRATION. 347

points, may be said to afford full protection and to give satis-
faction to the immigrants. I dare say that under the operation
of the present ordinance the immigrants are u healthy, well
clothed, and contented, and improving in habits of industry.'''

The Coolie on his arrival is to undergo the ordeal of acclimati-
sation. Those who are weak, or belong to the inferior castes,
may suffer from the change ; but those who are of good consti-
tution, and disposed to toil, soon become inured, and work
readily. Anemia and ulcers are their prevalent ailments ; and
these complaints are generally the result of improper food and
filthy habits, seldom of protracted fevers. The mortality of
Coolie children is less than of Creoles. Few Coolies have adopted
the costume or mode of living of the country. They are,
however, generally clean, and their dresses made of good
materials — very different, in this respect, from their newly-
arrived countrymen. How different, again, the low obsequious-
ness of the recently -landed Hindoo from the manly deportment
of his compatriot after a few years'' residence in the' colony !
Those who are ragged and filthy may be pronounced at once to
be worthless fellows. That they are not overworked is proved
by the fact that many re-engage for one year's further industrial
residence on receiving a bounty of ten dollars; that they are
contented is proved by their disposition to remain in the colony
after they have completed their term of industrial residence.
Many are shop-keepers, and a still larger number are licensed
to sell spirits and other drinks. Others go about in the rural
districts buying fruits and provisions, which they afterwards
retail in towns and villages. Not a few have become land-
owners by purchase or by grants from the crown. Let me
reiterate, therefore, that Coolie immigration, properly conducted,
may yet aid in saving such of the West India colonies as have
fertile lands ; nay, may be the foundation, in this Archipelago,
of industrious, peaceful, and happy communities.

We had also received, some time in the year 1853, a few
hundred Chinese ; but unfortunately they were the refuse of sea-
ports, were unaccompanied by interpreters, and were in conse-
quence exposed to many hardships, from their inability to
understand or make themselves understood by their employers.
Hence, incapable of making known any objections they would
think reasonable, or any wish they might form, or of asking

348 TRINIDAD.

redress for any real or imaginary wrong they might have
suffered, they on many occasions — and doubtless through igno-
rance— resisted the just claims of their employers. Some of the
indolent among them would simulate illness in order to escape
the necessity of labour, and yet would exact or expect the full
allowance of food to which they were entitled in health. If I
may judge of the Chinese from the few hundreds introduced
here, I must say that they are proud, stubborn, and deceitful,
bearing rebuke with impatience, and prone to revenge and
suicide ; they are also much addicted to stealing. On the other
hand, when so disposed they worked hard, steadily, and well ; in
fact, they understand the tillage of the soil better than any
other class of labourers we ever had ; and they avail themselves
of the smallest spot allowed them on estates to cultivate provi-
sions. They are highly praised by some of the planters as even
the best class of labourers, and are easily acclimatised. But it
cannot be denied that the first importation of the Chinese did
not, at the outset at least, succeed well, not being, I think, car
fully selected; and we had, during the first months of th
introduction, a repetition of the same difficulties which attend
the initiation of the first imported Coolies.

I am aware that paid immigration is denounced by so
persons as an artificial system, which, as such, should be discon
fcinued. Undoubtedly paid immigration is an artificial means of
supplying labour where population is scarce, but recourse has
always been had to that system with a view to developing the
resources of a new country. It has its drawbacks, but it has
also its advantages, in which the immigrant shares as well as
his employer. The great drawback is the temporary alienation
by the immigrant of a portion of his freedom, inasmuch as he
is bound to reside on some estate, and to do a certain amount of
work, for which, however, he receives fair wages. On the other
hand, his employer is bound to supply him with proper lodgings,
and to take care of him and his children, both in sickness and
health. After a term of industrial residence, he recovers his full
freedom, and can adopt such course as he may consider more
profitable and congenial to his taste. He has a right to a return
passage home, but here in Trinidad can commute his return
passage for £5 in money and five acres of land. Not a few
make money during their indenture; and as long as the immi-

iid

I

IMMIGRATION. 349

grant remains in the colony, he enjoys all the privileges of a
British subject, and is, at all times, fully protected by the law.
Of course under that system immigrants can be brought only
from over-populated countries, such as India and China ; the
people are there more or less exposed to periodical famine and its
consequent evils — starvation and epidemic diseases.

Intending immigrants from India to these colonies, as a rule,
are sunk in the deepest misery, with not the slightest chance of
bettering their condition. Again, the immigrant is transferred
from a land where heathenism and despotism have full sway
to a land of Christianity and civilisation — not a small advantage,
at least in the eyes of reflecting men. Can it be said that such
immigration would act as a drain on the country from which it
flows ? It should be rather considered in the light of a relief.
For instance, what can be to India, teeming with millions of
inhabitants, the abstraction, let us say, of 20,000 souls every
year ? Again, let it not be forgotten that paid immigration has
been set on foot, and is continued to the present day, mainly
with the object of averting complete ruin. " There can be no
doubt/'' said Lord Harris, " that the prosperity, nay, the exis-
tence, of these colonies, depends on a cheap and steady supply of
labour ; the favourable solution of free against slave labour must
depend on it ; every means ought to be tried, more especially on
the part of the mother country, to obtain it on as cheap terms as
possible." There is this fact — the only sugar colonies of Great
Britain that are still extant, as such, are Barbadoes, Mauritius,
Demerara, and Trinidad — Barbadoes, on account of its large
native labouring population ; Mauritius, Demerara, and Trinidad,
thanks to Indian immigration.

To keep up the production of our staple articles, to increase
them, we must keep up a regular influx of labourers ; we should
even increase their number. If, therefore, the British Govern-
ment considers it worth while to retain its colonies in this part of
the world, as useful dependencies, it should not hesitate to fostf r
immigration to these islands.

The Coolies are, 1 have said, entitled to a free return passage
after ten years' residence in- the colony, an arrangement which
fully proves the interest the Indian Government takes in their
subjects; but an arrangement much to be regretted, inasmuch
as we are pledged to send back to their country the very

350

TltlNlDAD.

v^

^

people for the introduction of whom such heavy sacrifices have
been made, and whose labour we urgently require. This is an
evil to which we must submit.

The only reasonable pledge the colony should be expected to
take is this : whenever a sufficient number of immigrants are
found willing and ready to return home, to procure for them a
vessel and a passage on the same terms as those on which they
were introduced. We have tried to remedy this evil to a certain
extent, by granting to the immigrants, instead of a free return
passage, £5 in cash and five acres of land. Many have already
availed themselves of the offer, and have thus become permanent
settlers. At first they were granted 10 acres of land, worth £10,
considered as equivalent to the passage-money. As a rule, a locality
is selected, surveyed in lots of five acres, and a settlement is thus
formed of Indian immigrants only ; and an Indian name is given
to the settlement. Thus we have the Calcutta, the Madras, the
Barrackpoor, and the Fyzabad settlements. The immigrants are
thus encouraged to form small communities, speaking the same
language, and having the same habits and ways. Of course
such arrangements must be received with favour by the Coolies ;
but this system is not without its inconveniences — the Coolies
being more or less excluded from intimate intercourse with the
Creoles will be more apt to retain their ways and superstitions,
and less inclined to initiate themselves into our habits and civili-
sation.

I must add that, as a class, the Coolies have not proved very
intelligent tillers of the soil. Generally they are satisfied with
cultivating provisions — corn, rice, and tanias being the favourite
articles. Corn and rice are exhaustive plants, and whenever
they have been cultivated on the same spot for successive years,
the land becomes impoverished, and remains unprofitable for
some time ; it must then be allowed to remain fallow for several
years. The Coolie generally prefers to sell off, instead of waiting,
with the object of buying new land somewhere else ; or betakes
himself to other pursuits. Of course our schools are open to
Coolie children ; but very few only attend, either because they
reluctantly mix with the Creole children, or because their parents
do not seem to appreciate the advantages of primary instructs
An American Missionary Society has, nevertheless, established
estates, and on several Coolie blocks, special schools for th<

SQUATTING. 351

instruction ; these schools are better attended. I will here
remark that the Hindoos seem to be highly indifferent in matters
of religion, and, from sheer habit probably, steadily adhere to
their pagan tenets and practices. Only an imperceptible minority
have become converts, and I say with regret that little reliance
can be placed on these converts.

For too many years the illegal occupation of crown lands, or
squatting, had been regarded as an evil which was incurable. It
may be considered now, I hope, as effectually suppressed by the
enforcement of the wise measures adopted by Governor Gordon ;
and there is no fear of its recurrence, if the Government only
manifests common vigilance. The opening of the crown lands
at an upset price of £1 per acre, in paying the survey fees and
grant, was, in my opinion, one of those wise measures. But no
method seems to have guided the surveying and laying out of
lots. Petitions were sent for the grant of lands in any part of
the colony, and were received favourably. The form of the lots
was not regulated, so that in certain districts, where good land
was to be looked for, along the rivers, a string of lots (if I may
use the expression) were surveyed and granted of every shape.
It is inutile to point to the great inconveniences of such a prac-
tice; they are obvious even to the least observant. I would
therefore, presume to suggest a more comprehensive, and, to my
view, a more perfect plan. The island has been divided into
eight counties, and each county is divisible into wards. The
wards as at present formed are, some, very small — too small in
fact — such as Mucurapo, Cocorite, and Cimaronero ; others are
left undefined, such as, for instance, the wards of Turure and
Montserrat. What I propose is this, to have some of the
counties — say Caroni, for instance, Victoria, St. George, and St.
Andrew — at once surveyed and laid out into wards ; and only part
of St. Patrick, of Mayaro and St. David, all along the sea-side,
for example. The wards should be of four or six miles square,
or less, according to the extent and peculiar configuration of the
country. The bounds of the different wards should be marked
at the corners, and at every mile with worked stones or small iron
pillars. Each ward should be laid out in sections of a square
mile, containing 640 acres; and these, when required, into
quarters, half-quarters, and even smaller divisions, to suit pur-
chasers. As far as feasible, all lines should be run Noith and

P'

352 TRINIDAD.

South, and East and West, and should commence or start from
the sea-side ; all divisions to be rectangular.

I cannot see any serious objections to the plan I here suggest;
even that of expense, I must say, does not strike me as insur-
mountable. In fact, I consider that the Government is bound
to lay out and fix the limits of new wards, as the sale of crown
lands progresses. Outline maps of the county might be pre-
pared ; there cannot be any difficulty in this. Now, on these
maps the wards might be provisionally marked out. Wards and
sections once laid out, subsequent surveys will become much
easier ; also the sub-divisions of the sections and the disposal of
the crown lands. The sub-intendant or commissioners and
principal surveyor will be able, on looking to the county maps,
to know exactly the position of the land petitioned for. As an
essay, the plan which I suggest might be experimented in the
counties of Caroni and St. George, where large tracts have
already been granted. As a matter of detail, I would propose
that the wards be named after the rivers running through, or the
mountains standing within, their limits.

The question naturally suggests itself whether it would not be
wise and prudent to reserve, in certain wards, a few sections
which afterwards might be bought entire to form sugar estates
or central usines.

I grant that prospects, in this peculiar branch of agriculture,
are not very encouraging ; and yet who can positively say that
the cultivation of the sugar-cane will be ultimately abandoned
and cease altogether in these parts ?

There are certain measures, the adoption of which I consider
not only as beneficial but as absolutely essential, either as
preventive enactments, or with a view to the correction of
certain existing evils ; amongst others, a stringent vagrant act
and provisions for its enforcement. The order in council of
September, 1838, may be said to be a dead letter : it should be
revived and rigidly enforced.

In civilized societies all men are bound to contribute their
quota to the necessities of the state, in order to enable the
Government to afford that protection which civil and social
institutions demand ; the man of capital, his resources ; the man
of art, his skill ; the owner of the soil, his produce ; the tiller of
the ground, his labour. In addition, all are bound so to emplc

VAGRANCY. 353

their faculties and exert their energies, that they do neither
become a helpless charge on the State, a burden to their fellow
citizens, indolently and criminally live at the expense of the
commonwealth. The man who possesses not an income, an
independent freehold or a rent-roll, must labour, in accordance
with his ordinary vocation. The artisan must work, the tiller
of the soil must toil : if he works not, if he toils not, want and
distress must inevitably be his companions. Food he must
have : true, he may obtain it on credit, but with a detriment to
the community by non-payments : if not attainable in this wise,
he must steal.

To what cause, principally, is to be ascribed the neglect of,
and even aversion to, the growth of provisions ? To the system
of plunder which is carried on in the rural districts. And by
whom ? By the far niente class of vagrants. In a country like
ours, with an heterogeneous population and scattered cultivation,
agricultural interests can be protected only by stringent laws.

Corn and plantain are carried off ere ripe ; yams, potatoes
and other edible roots are artfully dug out during the night,
fowls are picked up with audacity. As a consequence the
cultivation of provisions is neglected, as also the rearing of
fowls. The stealing of cacao has lately become a most common
offence. The marauder stealthily comes during the night with
his bag, approaches the pile of fruits which has been made the
day previous in the cacao walk, breaks the pods, and carries off
his booty, which consists of the fresh beans, which, however, are
marketable only after they have been cured and dried : this the
depredator has seldom the opportunity to do, as he would run
the risk of being detected. It is therefore admissible that he
secures beforehand the connivance of some compeer who receives
this cacao, and cures it for the market. He is, as a rule, a
shopkeeper in the vicinity. Both have their profit in the
transaction. All this is well known, but the difficulty is to trace
the felony. I may as well mention that, in one of the cacao
districts of the East, the cacao growers suffered this year from
repeated depredations : fresh as well as cured cacao was
audaciously stolen, either from the field or the curing houses.
On enquiring, the people remained convinced that this was done
by a band of marauders, who took their spoil to a man who
himself is owner of a small cacao plantation : his average crop
x

354 TEINIDAD.

is about 50 bags, and yet he ships nearly 100, some of which
may have been purchased, the balance being stolen goods : but
how to obtain a conviction, when you are asked, for instance, to
identify the article as yours ? As easy to identify cacao beans as
to identify grains of corn or oats.

It is clear that, under such circumstances, some stringent
and comprehensive measure ought to be adopted, and rigidly
enforced, and some scheme devised for the more easy discovery
of the offenders. The cacao planters are unanimous in re-
commending the adoption of the following plan as a remedy : all
cacao dealers, especially the shopkeepers in the country and
villages, should be bound to keep books in which they would
enter the name of the vendor, the date of the purchase, the
condition of the article when received, whether cured or uncured;
the name, or designation of the property. This would afford the
means, in case of need, to trace the origin of all cacao in stores.
The matter is, at least worth the consideration of the legislature ;
agriculture is the mainstay, the foundation of our social fabric,
and therefore calls for the fostering care and protection of the
State. Mechanics'' institutions are supported by the public for
the instruction and improvement of artisans : apprenticeship
laws are enforced for securing competent masons, carpenters,
shoemakers, and other tradesmen : and why, in a country
strictly agricultural, should not public establishments be formed
with a view to teaching the elements of agricultural science,
together with the art of husbandry ? The tillage of the soil is
generally regarded as the province of the ignorant. This is a
prejudice, and one which must have an injurious reaction on the
success of agricultural pursuits. To be well conducted, no
operation, perhaps, requires more practical knowledge or greater
proficiency, to be improved. This prejudice probably owes its
origin to the following circumstance : the growth of plants is
the result of the combined actions of natural agents and not of
any mechanical appliances. If the intervention of man had not
for effect to favour the action of those agents, then the ignorant,
matter-of-fact ploughman would evidently be as good a hus-
bandman as the well-informed and skilful agronomist, and of
all occupations agriculture would be the simplest and easiest.
But this is not the case : for agriculture consists in combining a
series of operations, so as to obtain from a given quantity of

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 355

land the largest possible return at the lowest possible cost. I
would call planting the mere procedure of replacing by useful
vegetables the natural growth of wild plants, the word planter
expressing, in the case, pretty exactly the state of agriculture in
these colonies. The sugar planter commonly possesses a certain
amount of information : the provision grower is, in the majority
of cases, an ignorant labourer ; he cuts down the high wood or
copse at a certain period, cleans the land by burning, and then
plants the seed of his corn in holes made with the point of
his cutlass or lays his manioc cuttings or plantain shoots in
openings made by one or more strokes of the hoe. The provision
ground is weeded once or twice, and in time, under God's
providence, the crop arrives at maturity; if a good crop be
obtained, he is considered skilful, if not, the fault is that of the
weather or the land. And yet it is well known that an acre of
indifferent land, properly and carefully cultivated will yield as
much as 15,000 lbs. of yams, whilst the same extent of good soil
slovenly planted and ill-managed, will yield perhaps but one-half
of that quantity. Of this, however, the great majority of
cultivators are not convinced, because, in their opinion, Nature is
the sole agent of production ; and unless they have tangible
proofs that care, skill and industry can effectually aid and
second Nature in her operations, they will never give to the
cultivation of their properties that attention and perseverance
which are the instruments of success. Now, in case his land has
been under cultivation for years, and has become exhausted, the
provision grower gets but a miserable return : but he knows of
only one method for restoring to his fields some of its former
fertility, and even this for a short period only — to leave it
fallow. Did he possess experience and theoretical knowledge, he
could obtain from his land, by proper management, all sorts and
successions of crops in greater or less abundance.

In agriculture, as in commerce, skill and industry are capital
vested at a high rate of interest ; but in agriculture as in com-
merce, none become skilful except by proper training. In both
teaching is necessary ; and in both the result of teaching is too
apparent to be denied. Exhausted land, judiciously treated, may
give as good — nay, better — returns and larger profits than virgin
soil thriftlessly laboured ; whilst under injudicious management
the richest soil may soon become impoverished. Any measure,

356 TRINIDAD.

therefore, that would tend to afford practical experience and
theoretical knowledge must be beneficial. This object, in my
opinion, will be obtained mostly, if not wholly, by the establish-
ment of model farms or estates, whereon cultivation, not only of
the staples, but of all the alimentary articles, would be con-
ducted according* to the most approved methods. It is more
than probable that many who now hesitate to devote time and
attention to the culture of provisions, or who consider such occu-
pation as unremunerative, and therefore not worth the attempt,
would gladly resort to the same if it were satisfactorily proved
by authentic data that the raising of provisions is as profitable —
perhaps more so — on a proportionately smaller scale than the
cultivation of the grand staples. Any risks, at least, would be
greatly lessened. I have no doubt that all the branches of our
agricultural industry would benefit by the establishment of
model farms.

We might, besides establishing model farms, found here at
once an Agronomic Station. Such stations exist in Germany, in
France, and elsewhere in Europe; they were founded mainly for
the benefit of the best growers, who, in a great part owe to them
their success and the supremacy they have obtained in the
markets of the world. Our agronomic station ought to be con-
nected with the Botanic Gardens, and should be organised on a
plan somewhat different from the one adopted in Europe. It
should be established for the advantage of the whole colony.
Cane, cacao, coffee and spices should be experimentally culti-
vated ; also rice, tobacco, and sesamum. We can fortunately
dispose of part of the St. Clair estate, recently bought by the
Government ; the portion on the north, along the river Maraval,
might be set apart, and turned into an experimental farm. It
would be within proximity of the town ; and the prisoners,
especially the juvenile offenders, might be employed for all cul-
tural purposes. The cultivation of the best varieties of the sugar-
cane might be experimented there with different manures, after
the soil had been carefully analysed. When ripe, the canes
should be analysed, with a view to ascertaining the proportion of
sugar, albuminous matter and salts in reference to the manure
supplied. The best varieties of cacao and coffee should also be
cultivated, and different manures tested. A fair trial should
be given to the cultivation of tobacco and rice. We import

VARIETY OF PRODUCTION. 357

annually 462,000 lbs. of tobacco, worth £12,600 sterling j and
15,900,000 lbs. of rice, worth £132,550 sterling. Nobody has
yet made a decisive attempt at the growth of these two articles —
no doubt because the attention of the people has not been
directed to them ; nor are there sufficient data by which their
efforts can be guided.

I will only remark that Creole rice, as an article of food,
is preferred — except, however, by the Coolies, who give pre-
cedence to their own grain. If the quality depend upon the
variety cultivated, how easily can seeds be imported from India ;
if from the method followed in its preparation, how easily
again can we adopt the method. The cultivation of tobacco has
not yet been made an object of speculation, simply because, as I
fear, its preparation or curing requires a certain degree of prac-
tical knowledge in which we are wanting. We should encourage,
as they have done in Jamaica, the importation of skilful
labourers in that branch, by assisting the immigration here of
some hands from Cuba. The agronomic station should be placed
under the direction of the Government botanist, assisted by the
professor of chemistry.

To the agricultural establishment of Hoffwil, formed and
conducted for a number of years by that distinguished philan-
thropist, the late Mr. De Fellenberg, Switzerland owes its pro-
gress in the art of husbandry. To the model farms of: Roville
and Grignon, France is greatly indebted for the advance she has
lately made, and the position she now occupies as an agricultural
country. I have known young gentlemen of rank, fortune and
education, spending months at Roville, under the tuition of Mr.
Mathieu de Dombasle, in order to acquire sound information on
agricultural chemistry, and a practical knowledge of farming
operations, which they afterwards successfully applied in the
conduct of their own properties. Our model estates might be
based on a plan submitted by me to His Excellency Lord Harris,
in the year 1849, and the details of which are exposed in the
Appendix.

The tillage of the soil ought to receive the larger share of
encouragement. To this subject I cannot too often return;
for, excepting the cultivation of the sugar-cane, all other
growths are neglected. And yet upon the success of agricultural
pursuits depends the prosperity of all classes — not of the hired

358 TRINIDAD.

labourer only, but of the artisan, of professional men, and of the
mercantile body. Their profits must be in proportion with those
of the cultivators of the soil. Encouragements given to the
growths of provisions and minor staples would tend to retain in
the colony a large amount of specie. Under present circum-
stances we must encourage the production of articles other than
sugar, inasmuch as, if we direct all our energy to the production
of one, or even two, articles, and they should become valueless,
the whole community must participate in the ruin of the planters.

I may add besides, in the words of Lord Harris, that " In-
attention to raising provisions is an evil of serious import,
operating unfavourably against reduced cost of production, by
rendering the labourers totally dependent upon high money-
wages to pay for imported articles of consumption/'' Agaii
the provision grower, the small proprietor, must of necessit
become a fixture in the island, there accumulating his saving
and concentrating his affections. Such a class will consist
those already possessed of a small capital, those who emigrate
the island at their own expense, and, finally, of imported imi
grants, who may have made money by persevering industry,
obtain grants in lieu of return passage.

The geographical position of Trinidad and its natural
sources are, as I have elsewhere observed, surpassed only by those
of Cuba. Trinidad is a new country, laid open to successful
enterprise. Squatting has been rooted out of the land. Crown
land is offered for sale at a reasonable price, even in small
parcels ; our means of communication are being steadily and
energetically developed ; paid immigration is encouraged, and
the colony is open to voluntary immigrants; education, both
primary and secondary, is placed within reach of the people ; we
have perfect freedom of religion. Let us now have agricultural
reformatories and model farms; let us have a modicum of
representative government, at least in matters of taxation, and
we may then look with some confidence to the future.

CHAPTER XL

NATURAL HISTORY — ZOOLOGY — BOTANY.

MAMMALIA.

Trinidad fully realises what has been said of tropical regions in
general ; organic life is there at its summum, and some specimen
of existence is everywhere to be found. Not only is the surface of
the ground covered with some plant or other — here shrubs, there
gigantic trees ; here grasses, there lianes — but in every pool, in
the running stream, some alga is to be picked : the trunks and
branches of trees not only support lichens and mosses, but also
bromelias, epidendrons, ferns, and caladiums. Under the bark of
living and decaying trees, in the calices of flowers, on the stems
and leaves, are to be observed hosts of insects ; they are met with
again at the surface of the soil, and on turning up the vegetable
debris which contribute to form its rich superstratum of mould,
hundreds of the Entomological tribes are discovered. In the
copses and the recesses of forests, quadrupeds — above in the
dense foliage, birds — representatives of nearly all the genera of
their classes, are to be found : reptiles are to be seen coiled up, or
motionless on the watch, or stealthily gliding away. Not only
do our rivers, lagoons, ponds, and pools swarm with fish, alligators,
snakes, batrachians, and even chelonians, but they also afford a
receptacle for myriads of the larvae of mosquitoes and libellulse,
as well as of other insects and tadpoles. In the atmosphere, and
buzzing around, are heard coleoptera, hemiptera, hymenoptera,
and diptera, whilst beautiful lepidoptera are everywhere in quest
of flowers wherein to plunge their long spring-like suckers, and
arachnidans in constant ambush within their subtle web works.

Evidently it would require many years of the lives of several
individuals to give an accurate and complete description of the

360

TRINIDAD.

numerous and various creations which thus animate our island;
nor can I have the presumption or pretension to offer within
the following" narrow compass, other than an imperfect summary
of our J^auna and Flora. I only wish to show how rich is this
small spot in objects of Natural History, and how much allied,
in this respect, to the neighbouring" continent.

Vertebrata.

class I.

Within the limits of Trinidad are to be found the following mammifers,
or Mammalia: —

Order II. — Quadrtjmana.

Howling- monkey,

Singe-rouge Mycetes. 1 species.
Mycetes Barbatus.

Sapajou or Grey-
monkey, Singe-
blanc .... Gebus. 1 species.

Order III. — Carnaria.

Bats . . Cheiroptera. 4 genera.

Molossi

Noctilions.

Noctilio leporinus.

Phyllostoma.

Mormops.
Oarnivora Plantigrada.

Racoon, or
Mangrove-
dog . . . Procyon.

Procyon cancrivorus.

Glutton . . Gulo.

Gato-Melao,

or Ta'ira . Mustela Barbara.
Chien-bois, or

wood dog . Viverra vittata. (?)
Digitigrada.
Otter, or

Loutre . Lutra.

Lutra insularis.
Cat ... Felih.
Tiger-cat, or

Chat-tigre. Felis Pardalis.

Order IV. — Marsupialia.

Opossums or

Manicous . Didelphys. 3 species.
Dldelphys Opossum.
„ Gayopollin.
Order V. — Rodentia.
Squirrel . Sciurus. 1 species.

Rat .

Mm.

Echymys. 2 species.
Echymys chrysuros.
„ rufus. (?)

Rats, properly

so-called . Mus. Several species.
Porcupine . Sy nether es.
Porcupine, or

Coendou . Synetheres prehensiles.
Agouti . . Chloromys.

Chloromys Acuti.
Lape,orlapa Coelogenys.

Gavia Paca.

Order VI. — Edentata.
Armadillo or

Tatou . Dasypus.
Cachicame . Cachicamus novem-
cinctus.
„ septemcinctu8.
Ant-eater . Myrmecophaga.
Great Ant-
eater, or

Sloth . . Myrmecophaga
dactyla.
Small Ant-
eater, or
Sloth . . „ didactyl

HAUNTS AND HABITS OP THE FAUNA.

361

Order VII. — Pachydermata.

Cuenco, or

Pecari . Bicotyles.

Collared Cu-
enco . . Bicotyles Torquntus.

Red Cuenco „ Labiatus.

Order VIII. — Ruminantia.
Deer or Biche Cervus.

Cervus simplicicornis,
or Guazoupita.

Order IX. — Cetacea.
Herbivora.
Manati, or La-

mantin . . Trichecus Manatus.

Carnivora.

Balaznoptera.
Whale, or

Baleine . Balcena Bo ops.

These are the mammif ers which are known to exist in Trinidad.
Of several of them there are varieties : for instance, two agoutis,
distinguishable by their colour, one being much darker than the
other, and perhaps smaller in size ; two lapas, likewise differing
in colour, one being fawn, and the other brown coloured ; the
former also with whitish feet, and of a larger size. There are,
again, two varieties or even species of the guazoupita, one larger, of
a darker colour, with antlers covered with a soft skin, and having
habits somewhat dissimilar from those of the more common kind ;
it is apparently more solitary, and when chased by dogs, starts
off at once in a straightforward direction : albinos are not rare
among the guazoupitas.

The habits, aliments, and resorts of these mammif ers are varied.
The opossum, agouti, and deer seem to prefer the neighbourhood
of plantations, where they find an abundance of food — viz., the
opossum, fruits and fowls ; the agouti, fruits and roots ; and the
deer, maize, peas, manioc, &c. In the same localities squirrels,
lapas, and tatous are met with ; the squirrel chiefly infesting
cacao plantations, in which it sometimes commits great ravages.
The pecari is always found in the high forests, where it feeds
upon roots, fruits, and leaves, and even upon snakes and reptiles.
The tiger-cat, taira, great and small ant-eaters, and the tatou,
also haunt the high woods — the latter preferring, generally, low
and soft ground, where it can grub in search of worms, which form
its principal food. The racoon does not venture out of the man-
grove swamps, where it finds an inexhaustible supply of crabs.
The otter is found in ravines, where it can easily seize the fish
upon which it preys. Both the howling and weeping monkeys
shun the presence of man ; the latter may be said to abound
principally in the south-eastern part of the island, whilst the
former is often heard in Cimaronero, and the northern mountains

362 TRINIDAD.

at Carenage and Diego-Martin. The echymys is met in the
vicinity of cacao plantations and provision grounds. The whale
frequents the Gulf from January to May, and, as far as I am
aware, the manati has been seen only in the Guataro, which it
ascends for a certain distance in search of food.

The agouti, pecari, racoon, and monkeys, are accustomed to
seek their sustenance during the day, and particularly in the
morning and towards evening. The deer, lapa, cachicame,
tiger-cat, and great ant-eater, roam about during the night,
leaving their recesses or the woods about one or two hours after
sunset. Similarly timed is the opossum, and particularly on fine
moonlights, which afford the best opportunities for taking them,
as several may be surprised on some fruit-tree, and their retreai
being cut off they are easily shot. From six in the evenin
to eight and ten at night, are also very favourable hours f
watching the deer in their feeding grounds.

Nearly all these animals produce but one at a birth — viz
monkeys, the deer, lapa, and pecari : the agouti in general brin,
forth two ; the cachicame, from four to five ; and the opossu
from five to seven. The monkeys and opossum carry th
offspring about ; and should the mother be killed, the youn
continue to cling to the parent corpse, and are thus easily
captured. Like other ruminantia, the deer conceals its fawn
in some thicket, but runs to its succour when called upon by its
distressed bleating ; and though ordinarily proverbial for timidity,
it has been known, in some cases, to give battle to the aggressor.
It is particularly attached to its male offspring.

The agouti and lapa are easily tamed ; they^ however, always
retain something of their natural wild dispositions, particularly the
latter, which remains concealed in some corner of the house
during the day, and only ventures out after sunset; they are
never very pleasant guests, as they gnaw everything which comes
within their reach, such as furniture, wainscoting, &c. The
deer, pecari, and mangrove dog, particularly the two latter, are
easily domesticated, and become as tractable as dogs. Althou
perfectly docile, however, and even much attached to its mast
and the household, the pecari rushes fiercely on strangers, a:
is, in fact, an admirable watch. The racoon becomes so famili
as to be troublesome from its caresses. The deer is likewise
annoying favourite, as, besides destroying garden-plants, it

ire

I

GAME, AND MODE OF PRESERVING. 363

nibbles books, cloth, &c. I know an instance of a female deer,
which grew so tame, that it was allowed to roam at large about
the neighbouring plantations, and became large with young;
it was unfortunately shot one night, and, being dangerously
wounded, ran to its mistress as for aid and protection ; but it
died a few days after, bitterly regretted by the young lady, who
had taken great pains in rearing it. The squirrel can be easily
tamed also, but it will carry off anything it can lay hold of
to some hiding-place, and on one occasion the first part of the
" Gazza ladra" was realised in a respectable house in the colony.
A servant had been severely reprimanded on account of some
missing plate, and even her reputation for honesty called in
question ; the articles were, however, found a few months after,
in some holes, where a squirrel had concealed them.

The deer, agouti, pecari, lapa, and cachicame, the two latter
particularly, are very fine game. The flesh of the deer is rather
dry, except, however, when the animal is young and fat, par-
ticularly the doe. The agouti may be said to be flavourless, and
never fat. The pecari, when young and fat, is an excellent dish,
as is also the cachicame : the manati is excellent eating, either
salted or fresh.

As it is difficult to preserve meat for any length of time in
our climate, those who make hunting an occupation adopt the
following plan. The bones of the animal are disjointed, the
flesh deeply incised, and sprinkled with salt ; the flesh is next
laid on a boucan — a sort of stage made of green sticks, resting on
four posts about three feet above the ground ; a slow fire is then
kindled beneath, and the carcase thoroughly smoked; the flesh
thus prepared is dry, tough, and unsavoury ; though that of the
lapa and cuenco are, in this state, sold at high rates. The taste
is not very unlike that of hung beef.

Tatous and lapas are taken in traps, the latter more frequently,
as they generally follow the same beaten track to get at their food.
This track once discovered, a falling trap, composed of heavy
logs, is carefully disposed along the passage, and rarely fails to
crush or retain the animal. Another very dangerous method is
the following : a gun is set — as it is said — by being fixed on a
couple of rests, and a twine attached to the trigger, also con-
nected with a bait at the muzzle, commonly an ear of maize ;
when the lapa, or any other animal, attempts to gnaw or disen-

364 TRINIDAD.

gage the corn, it necessarily pulls the trigger, and generally
receives the contents in the head. Not a year passes during
which some person is not dangerously wounded, and sometimes
killed, from the setting of such unlawful snares. The most
common method, however, is the chase, in which the best dogs
for tatous and lapas are the pointer, the terrier, and our com-
mon breed, some of which are capital hunters, especially those
crossed with the Guamuno races. I have no doubt, however,
that the basset would prove superior. Whenever the lapa has
a long run to its retreat, or, more generally to the river, whither
it invariably resorts for safety, it may be caught by fleet dogs ;
otherwise it is killed in its own fastness, which is commonly a
hollow tree, or a cave in the midst of a labyrinth of roots, or
under the bank of some stream — the two latter with several
outlets. The tatou is always killed in its burrow, and it
necessary to dig or smoke it out when there is too great a di
culty in reaching it. The agouti is either shot, when pursued
by dogs, or on the watch ; sometimes also in its retreat — almo
invariably the hollows of the decayed interior of some fall
timber, or beneath the roots of trees.

The chase of the pecari resembles, on a small scale, that
the wild boar in Europe. When in numbers, the pecaris not
only show fight to the dogs, but sometimes give them chase,
should the latter be few and of small size; several of these
animals may be shot, when met in a band ; but they are gener-
ally killed with the spear or cutlass when at bay, seldom with
the fowling-piece. The most pleasant sport, however, is deer-
hunting, for which the best dogs are unquestionably hounds.
The deer behaves, when chased, exactly like the roebuck : after
an hour or more of chase, it returns, by a circuit, to the very spot
whence it was started, and then makes a dart in a straight line.
If within the proximity of a river, it crosses the stream several
times; or, if shallow, walks down the bed, probably with a
view, by checking the scent, to set the hounds at fault, or to
divert the pursuer from the track ; if on the sea-board, it gener-
ally seeks refuge in the water, and sometimes swims out for
more than a mile ; it is nevertheless easily caught, if a canoe be
at hand, as in that element it is slow in its movements; or it
may be turned, and again compelled to seek the land. The deer
is also very commonly shot on the watch, particularly during the

:

ORNITHOLOGICAL CHANGES. 365

full moon ; and this method is preferred by the peons, as they
find the chase of this animal very trying to their dogs. The
manati is, in a like manner, shot whilst at graze : but if only
wounded, it rushes to the water, and thus escapes ; it is some-
times watched at the mouth of the Guataroand speared with the
harpoon.

BIRDS.

AN ESSAY ON THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRINIDAD,
By Antoine Leotaud, M.D.P.

The study of the birds of Trinidad is far from being devoid of
interest. The number of genera to be found in the island is
sufficiently large to render the correct determination of species a
service to ornithological science. Respecting nearly 300 species
which have fallen under my observation, there are errors to cor-
rect, and facts to record, such as to constitute these researches
a matter of no idle curiosity.

We lie so contiguous to the southern continent, that our
ornithology must necessarily differ from that of the other West
India islands. This is a point of geographical distribution
which has its importance, both as regards the science in general,
and in questions of pure locality. So luxuriant and varied is our
vegetation, so extensive our forests, so numerous our insects, and
the disposition of the country is itself so far from being uniform,
that the vastness of our ornithological treasures cannot form a
matter of surprise ; and should I but enumerate the species, that
alone would be to register facts which, at a remote period,
may acquire an immense local interest. Our vegetation will
change, our soil become impoverished, our forests will diminish
in extent, as they yield to the axe ; our marshes will disappear,
and our insects cease to swarm in such numbers as at present,
and, as a consequence, the ornithology of the island will then
present in its aspect a change which is even already perceptible.

But this is a range which I am far from proposing to
bring within the limits I have prescribed to myself. I must,
therefore, confine my remarks to a few general considerations
and some restricted details.

366

TRINIDAD.

Taking Cuvier as a guide, the following are the genera and sub -genera
I have observed here : —

FaLCONID.33.

Falcons (properly so-called). Two species.

Falco Bidentatus.
Goshawk-Eagle (Morphnus). One species.

Spizaetos Ornatus.
Cymindis Two species.

u

o

I

ft

1

=

p

Goshawks (^Is^wr)

Kite (JtfiZv us)

if

£

ii (

Yulturid^:

Strigid^i : Owls {Strix)
Sparrow- owls (Scops)

/ Shrikes (Lanius)

Shrike (properly so-called)

Becarde (Psaris)

Fly-c tchers (Muscicapa)
Tyrants (Tyrannus) . .

Fly-catchers (Muscicapa)
Platyrhyneos . . . .

Muscicapida . .
Tersine (Tersina)

Five species.
Astur Plumbea.
Falco Melanops.
One species.
Falco Furcutus. (a)

Three species.
Vultur Papa, (b)
Vultur TJrubu. (c)
Vultur Catus.

One species, (d)
Three species.

Strix Nudipes. (e)

Many species.
Thamnophilus Major.
Thamnophilus Doliatus.
One species.
Lanius Cajanus.

Several species.
Lanius Pitanga. (g)
Tyrannus Per ox. (h)
Tyrannus Solitarius. (i)
Tyrannus Savanna, (j)
Several species.
Muscicapa Buticilla. (k)
One species.

Platyrhyncus Cancromus.
Several species.
One species.
Tersina Ccerulea. (1)

(a) Excepting a kite and a sparrow-hawk, known here respectively as the
scissors-tail and the Gri-gn, all our falcons bear the name of Gavilans, viz., the
speckled, the white, the black Gavilan, &c.

(b) The King of the Corbeaux.

(c) Common Corbeaux ; one with a red head is called the Governor of tl
Corbeaux.

(d) Cent-coups de couteau.

(e) A large owl inhabiting churches and other large solitary buildings.

(f ) Wood-Pintade, or Carate-bird.

(g) Qu'est-ce-qui-dit.
(h) Pipiri.
(i) Id.

( j) Longue-queue, or long-tail,
(k) Officer. (1) Cutinga.

OENITHOLOGY.

3G7

r

Procnias One species.

Ampelis Carunculata. (a)

Averano (Casmarhynchos). .

Tanagers (Tanagra).
Tanagers euphonious.

Tanagers (properly so-called).

Cardinal Tanagers.

Rhamphoceline Tanagers . .

Blackbirds or Merles (Tnrdus)

One species.

Ampelis Variegata. (b)

Tanagra Violacea. (c)

Tanagra Mexicana. (d)

Tanagra Gyrola. (e)
Many species.
Tanagra Nigerrima. (f)
Tanagra Bubra.,(g)
Tanagra Episcopus. (h)
Tanagra Jacapa. (i)

Blackbirds (properly)

Ant-catchers (Myothera)
Warblers.
Fauvettes (Curruca)

Four species.
Turdus Flavipes. (j)
Two species.

Wrens (Troglodytes)

Several species.
Sylvia 2E4iva. (k)
Sylvia Torquata. (1)
Two species.
Troglodytes Eudon. (m)
Troglodytes Butilus. (n)

Titlarks (Anthus) One species.

Manakins (Pipra) Two species.

Pipra Gutturalis. (o)

Swallows and Martins (Hirundo)
Goat- suckers (Caprimulgus) . .

Grosbeaks (Coccothraustes) .

Pipra Erythrocephala. (p)
Several species.
Four species.
Caprimulgus Caripensis. (q)

Several species.
Coccothraustes Rujiventris. (r)
Loxia Minuta. (r)
Loxia Jacarini. (s)

(a) Capucin.

(b) Campanero.

(c) Louis-d'or.

(d) Diable-enrhume.

(e) Vert-vert tete cacao, or brown-beaded.

(f) Pere-noir, or black father.

(g) Cardinal.

(h) Oiseau bleu, or blue bird.

(i) Bec-d'argent, or silver-bill.

(j) Black thrush; the other species being also known by the name of thrush

(k) Canary, or serin.

(1) Mountain sucrier.

(m) Rossignol, or nightingale.

(n) Bush nightingale.

(o) Casse-noisette.

(p) Manakin-a-t^te-jaune, or yellow-headed.

(q) Guacharro, or diablotin

(r) Cicis. (s) Sauteur, or jumper.

368

TRINIDAD.

Bullfinch (Pyrrhula)
Cassicans (Cassicus) .

( *-<

£
1

5
O

Ph

r.

o
u

Carouges (Icterus)

Starling (Sturnus)
Nuthatches (Sitta)

Anabates
Sinallaxis

Picucule (Dondrocolaptes)
Creepers (Certhia) . .

Colibeis and Humming-birds

Colibris (Trochilus).
Humming-birds (Orthorhynchus).

One species.

Three species.

Cassicus Cristatus. (a)

Cassicus Icteronotus. (b)

Cassicus Ater. (c)

Three species.

Oriolus Xanthornus. (d)

Oriolus Icterocephalus. (e)

One species.

Oriolus Ruber.

One species.

Neops Ruficauda.

Several species.

One species.

Sinallaxis Muficapilla.

Four species, (f)

Several species (remarkable

for their brilliant colours).
Certhia Cyanea. (g)
Certhia Ccerulea. (h)
Certhia Atricapilla. (i)
Eighteen species (some

them with the most

zling plumage).

Trochilus
Trochilus
Trochilus
Trochilus
Trochilus
Trochilus
Trochilus
Trochilus
Trochilus
Trochilus
Trochilus
Trochilus

Superciliosus. (j
Pectoralis. (k)
Viridis. (1)
Uirsutus (m)
Mango, (n)
Leucogaster.
Ornatus. (o)
Mellivorus. (p)
Longirostris. ((
Moschitus. (r)
Bicolor. (s)
Amethystinu8.

a; Merle-a-queue-jaune, or yellow-tailed corn-bird.

b) Merle moqueur, or mocking merle.

c) Merle cavalier, or black corn-bird.

(d) Cassique.

(e) Merle-a-tete-jaune, or yellow-headed merle.

(f) Mangeur de cacao, or cacao-eater.

(g) Grimpereau pieds-rose, or pink-footed grimpereau.
(h) Vert-de-gris.

(i) Vert-vert-a-tete-noire, or black-headed vert-vert.

(j) Supercilious humming-bird, or brin-blanc.

(k) Hausse-colvert, or green humming-bird.

(1) Vert-pre.

(m) Colibri balisiers, or hirsute humming-bird.

(n) Plastron, or mango.

p) Huppe-col, or tufted-necked.

p) Jacobine.
(q) Carmine.

(r) Rubis-topaze, or ruby-crested.
(b) Sapphire-emerald. (t) Amethystine.

02

ORNITHOLOGY. 369

/ Mot-Mot (Prionites) One species.

Prionites Brasiliensis. (a)
King-Fishers (Alcedo) .... Two species.

Alcedo Alcyon.

Alcedo Americana.
Jacamars (Galbula) One species.

Galbula Paradisea. (b)
Wood-Peckers (Picus) .... Five species.
Cuckoos (Cuculus) Four species.

Cuculus Cayanensis. (c)

Cuculus Cayanus. (d)

Cuculus Naevius. (e)
Couroucoui (Trogon) .... Three species.

Trogon Viridis. (f )

Trogon Collaris. (g)
Anis (Crotophaga) Two species.

Crotophaga Major.

Crotophaga Ani. (h)
Toucan (Bamphastus) .... One species.

Maccaws (Aras) Two species, (i)

Parrots (Psittacus) Two species.

V Paroquets (Comurus) .... Two species, (j)

Yacou (Penelope) One species.

Penelope Pipile. (k)

| / Tinamoo (Tinamus) One species. (1)

2 \ Pigeons (Columba) Ten species.

^ Columba Speciosat (m)

(5 I Columba Cinerea. (n)

/ ©
' -§ f Plovers (Charadrius) .... Two species.

Charad/rius Pluvialis (o)
Charadrius Hiaticula. (p)
'§ / 2 I Savacoo (Cancrowia) .... One species.
~g \ P-i \^ Cancroma Cochlearia. (q)

&
'J

Courlan (-dlrdea) One species.

Ardea Scolopacea. (r)

S /

V ^

o \

(a) Youtou.

(b) Jacamar.

(c) Petit coucou manioc, or small manioc cuckoo.

(d) Grand coucou manioc.

(e) Trinite, from its note.

(f) Couroucou ventre- jaune, or yellow-bellied cuckoo.

(g) Couroucou ventre-rose, or pink-bellied cuckoo.
(k) Merle corbeau, or tick -bird.

(i) Blue maccaw and red maccaw.

(j) Blue-headed paroquet' and perruche-aux-sept-couleurs, or the seven-
:oloured paroquet.

(k) Pajui, sometimes called the wild turkey.

(1) Quail.

(m) Kamier ginga, or speckled ramier.

(n) Ortolan bleu. Our pigeons are divided here into ramiers (2 spec.) ; doves,
)r wood-pigeons (5 spec.) ; and ortolans, or ground-doves (3 spec).

(o) Golden plover. (p) Eing plover. (q) Boat-bill. (r) Croja.

Y

370

TRINIDAD.

I

'S

S

Is

Herons (^Irdea) Mne species.

Ardea Major, (a)

./irdea Egretta. (b)

-4rdea Garzetta. (c)

Ardea Leucogaster (d)

Ardea Tigrina.

Ardea Lineata. (e)
/•S \ Ardea Nycticorax.

Ardea Sexcetacea (f )
q „4rc2ea Agami. (g)

"Wood-Pelican (Tantalus) . . . One species.

Tantalus Loculator. (h)
Spoonbill (Platalea) One species.

Platalea Ajaja. (i)
Ibis (Ibis) One species.

Scolopax Rubra, (j)
Curlews (J/'umeniMs) .... Two species.

Scolopax Armata. (k)

Scolopax Phajcopus. (1)
Snipe [Scolopax) One species.

Scolopax Gallinago (m)

Godwit (Limosa) One species.

Sandpipers (Galidris) .... Five species.
Sanderling (Arenaria) .... One species.

Charadrius Galidris.
Turnstones Two species.

Tringa Interpres. (n)
Chevaliers (Totanus) .... Six species.

Totanus semi-palmatus.
\ Grallus One species.

Hemantopus Charadrii
I Jacana (Jacana) One species.

Parra Jacana. (p)
I Kamichi (Palamedea) .... One species.
Rails (Rallus) Eight species.

Rallus Longirostris. (q)

Rallus Stolidus. (r)
"Water-hens (Fulica) .... Two species.

Gallinula Chloropus. (s)

Porphyrio Tavoua. (s)
Grebe (Podiceps) One species.

Podiceps Garolinensis.

(a) Aileronne. (b) Garce. (o)# Tufted egret. (d) Blue egret.

(e) Crabier de montagne, or mountain crab-eater.

(f) Crescent crab-eater.

(g) Agami.

(h) Soldat, or soldier.

(i) Boseate spatula.

(j) Flamant, or flamingo.

(k) Crooked-bill.

(1) Becard.

(m) This snipe is identical with that of Europe.

(n) Sea plover.

(o) Aile-blanche, or white-wing.

(p) Surgeon.

(q) Poule-de-bois, or wood-hen.

(r) Several species, called here poules savanne, or savannah hens.

(a) Seal water-hens.

ORNITHOLOGY.

371

60 ,
© /

1/

Coot (Podoa) One species.

.8*

/So

5

i;

Sea-swallows (Sterna)
Scissor-bill (Bhynchops)

Three species.
One species.
Bhynchojps Nigra, (a)

Pelicans (Pelecanus)
Cormorant (Halieus)

Man-of- war-bird (Tachypetes)

One species.
One species*
Halieus Carbo.
One species.
Pelecanus Aquilus.

Booby (Sula) One species.

Pelecanus Sula.

Darter (Plotus) One species.

Plotus Anhinga.
Ten species.

Ducks (Anas) Anas Clypeata. (b)

Anas Americana (c)
Anas Marila. (d)
Anas Dominica, (e)
Anas Moschata. (f )
Anas Autumnalis. (g)
Anas Viduata (h)
Anas Discors. (i)

(a) Bec-en-ciseaux, or scissors-bill.

(b) Shoveller, the same as in Europe.

(c) Jensen.

(d) Millouin.

(e) Vingeon.

(f) Musk-duck, but commonly and erroneously termed Muscovy-duck.

(g) White-winged ouikiki, or vicissi.
Hi) Ouikiki bouriqui.

(i) Crescent-teal.

In glancing- over this catalogue, it will be observed that the
raptorial order is largely represented, in proportion to the extent
of the island ; for, not only is the number of species not incon-
siderable, but one of them, the Spizaetus Ornatus, is of a pretty
large size : the fact of their number is undoubtedly a consequence
of the facility afforded these birds in the procuring of food. They
prey upon the smaller species which abound in the island, and
feed upon their young or their eggs. Bats, which are far from
being scarce, supply food to one of our falcons, and a few species
feed upon reptiles and our largest insects : the black-backed
goshawk is constantly on the watch, along the sea-shore and the
banks of rivers, ready to seize upon the fish which form its main
aliment.

The insectivorous tribes, however, are the true representatives
of our ornithology, as regards number. There are so many species
which feed upon insects and their larvae, that it may be asked,

372 TEINIDAD.

with much reason, what would become of our vegetation, of our-
selves, should these insect-destroyers disappear? Everywhere
may be perceived one or other of these insectivora in pursuit or
seizure of its prey, either on the wing, or on the trunks of
trees ; in the coverts of thickets, or in the calices of flowers.
Whenever called to witness one of the frequent migrations
from one point to another so often practised by ants, not only
can the Dendrocolaptes be seen following the moving trail, and
preying on the eggs and the ants themselves, but even the
Tanagra Nigerrima abandons his usual fruits for this more
tempting delicacy. Our frugivorous and baccivorous genera are
also pretty numerous, and most of them are so fond of insect
food, that they unite, as occasion offers, with the insectivorous
tribes.

Marsh birds (Grallatoria) are remarkable, not only for their
number, but also for their large size ; the kamichi is the size of
a turkey ; the heron {Ardea Americana) stands more than four
feet when erect ; the great egret [Ardea major) is as tall, and
the tantal, of the same height, is larger in body.

As to the granivora, the number of species is scarce ; and it
cannot be otherwise, when the nature of our vegetation is taken
into consideration.

We have eighteen species of humming-birds ; and this large
variety of these charming creatures which draw from the calices
of flowers the honey-dew which affords their sustenance, proves
that the country is not altogether destitute of flowers. They
also share in the prey of the insectivora, and whilst sucking their
nectareous aliment, they swallow together with it the small
insects that have been entangled in the viscous liquor which, by
agglutinating their wings, has rendered their escape impossible.
It is scarcely probable that these insects are found accidentally
in the digestive tube of humming-birds, as those have thought
who would have their sole food to consist of the juice of flowers:
on the contrary, they would appear to constitute the essential
part of their alimentary diet. On opening the crop of a :
humming-bird, one is struck with the large quantity of small
flies which it contains ; they are met with also, and in as great a
number, in the stomach of the nestlings that are wholly fed by
the parent bird. Besides, are there really in the juice of flowers
all the organic and inorganic elements which are indispensable

FOOD OF THE HUMMING-BIRD. 373

in restoring the losses of organism ? Doubtless the insects must
contain those elements as a supply for the bird. The juice of
flowers would then be a purely respiratory aliment ; and there is
no ground for wonder at the large consumption of this aliment
by the humming-bird ; for it spends in some measure the greatest
portion of its existence in the open atmosphere. Almost ever on
the wing, and moving with that quick motion which renders it
almost invisible, it repairs from flower to flower ; and whilst
apparently most stationary during the suction of its food, the
motion is in reality the most excessively rapid. Such short
incessant strokes of the wing on the air must necessarily cause
a more rapid circulation of the blood, a more active respiration,
and, as a consequence, must require a larger amount of materials
suited to combustion.

It has been pretended that these birds hover about spiders'
webs with a view to despoil them of the insects entangled
therein. I have often witnessed humming-birds thus manoeuvr-
ing, but never observed them seizing insects; they were only
purloining a few threads wherewith to aid in the weaving of their
nests.

On reflecting on the circumstances which thus regulate the
alimentation of our birds, we are led to a first inference, viz.,
that this colony being still new, and subject therefore to the
changes which time may produce, our ornithology will hereafter
lose its present characteristics. Not only will the number of
species diminish in proportion to the reduction of alimentary
resources, but new species will perhaps be naturalised, as new
cultures are introduced. A species of grosbeak seems already to
have become one of our guests, since the cultivation of rice has
been introduced.

A second consequence, arising from the preceding, is that
many genera cannot of necessity observe any permanency as
regards their habitat. Frugivorous and baccivorous are met with
wherever fruits and berries may answer their requirements.
Hence, one of the means employed by the sportsman for pro-
curing certain species : knowing that, at such periods, and at
such spots, certain trees will attract certain species, he resorts
thither for the purpose of shooting them ; of these trees are the
Gommier, the haunt of ramiers, and the Pois-doux {Inga), of
paroquets, &c.

374 TRINIDAD.

The insectivorous tribes are likewise largely distributed ; but
as fruits and certain berries are rarely found but in the neigh-
bourhood of inhabited places ; as insects seem even to swarm in
greater abundance in the skirtings of wood-lands, never will the
chirpings and twitterings which announce the coming dawn be
heard amidst the density of the forests. At all times there
reigns in those solitudes a stillness which one would be far from
expecting.

There is more, however, to be considered in this flitting life,
on the one hand, and in this attachment to cultivations on the
other, than the mere support of existence. Certain species,
though frugivorous or baccivorous, are not met with except in
very remote and wooded localities; they never approach our
abodes. If some species seem to shun the solitude of the wood-
lands, and do not dread the neighbourhood of man, it is quite
the reverse with others, though belonging to the same genus.
The Liable enrliume {Tanagra Mexicana), the brown-headed Vert-
Vert (Tanagra gyrola) are met in the fruit and berry trees
which grow near our clearings ; whilst another tanager (Arrivant)
flies to conceal its beautiful plumage in the depths of forests.
One of our blackbirds enlivens our copses, whilst another (Tardus
flavipes) seems to avoid our abodes.

The Troglodytes eudon is so much attached to the society of
man, that it never deserts him, and it is even under his roof that
it establishes its nest. Never does its note salute the ear of the
wanderer in the forest. More than once, after a long jaunt, and
thinking myself still near the starting point, I have been quite
surprised at finding myself approaching the end of my journey —
the song of a wren being a sure sign I was in the proximity of
some inhabited place. And yet the other species is met with
everywhere.

Certain flowers which are eagerly sought by some species of
humming-birds are far from being scarce in those localities
which suit their growth : and yet it is well known that, in order
to procure these humming-birds, the naturalist must seek them
in other and well-determined spots.

The black-headed Urubu is found in all parts, whilst the red-
headed species is never seen in towns, but is met with only at a
distance in the country. The former may be said to be mainly
urban, and the latter rustic ; still, their habits are the same ; and

N1D1FICATI0N. 375

if I can depend on information which has been furnished me,
there are parts of the neighbouring continent, in the towns of
which none but the red-headed urubu is to be seen. The former
swarm in Port-of- Spain, and, from the tops of houses, they are
constantly on the watch for the smallest prey which may fall in
the streets ; but never is there seen among- them a red-headed
urubu. Whenever, in the country, some dead animal attracts
the vultures, both species assemble in a band, and seem to act on
good terms.

The habitat of birds, therefore, is not determined by the
alimentary substances which suit them : there are other secondary
but indispensable conditions which escape observation.

NlDIFICATION.

The study of the constructive instinct in birds would un-
doubtedly afford much gratification to any one who might
devote attention to the subject; but nothing is more difficult
than an investigation of that which refers to this part of
Ornithology. The luxuriance of our vegetation is such that,
wherever forest-trees have yielded to brushwood and its accom-
panying variety of plants, the foliage forms a dense screen,
impervious to the sight, and concealing within its recesses every
possible object ; in fact, it is by mere chance that even a close
scrutiny can discover the fabrics which so many species repair
thither to construct, and dispose with such artistic skill and care.
Even when they are built on large trees, the foliage invariably
shrouds them from the eye. There are, however, a few species,
such as the carouge and the cassique, which seem to avoid those
retreats, and, in preference, append their nests to the extremity
of branches, and in the full glitter of the sunbeams. Many pairs
of the above congregate at the season of laying, and make choice
of the same tree. They give /to their nests the shape of an
elongated pear, or rather of a long pouch, the smaller end hanging
from the branch by means of a few threads from the tissue of
the nest itself. The entrance is lateral, and a little beneath
the point of attachment ; the whole being light and graceful, and
recalling to the mind that admirable instinct of the feathered
tribe, which we cannot but admire in such constructions.
Nothing, however, equals the effect which the assemblage of
those pendent nests produces, forming, as they do, to the tree

376 TRINIDAD.

another sort of covering, which is as agreeably striking as the
foliage itself.

As to the humming-bird s' nests, they are perfect miniatures ;
the frame-work is of dry grass-blades, bound together by spiders'
threads; there is but little variation in their configuration — the
minuteness of the fabric and the perfection of the workmanship
alone calling for deserved admiration.

There is a bird — the Sinallaxis ruficapilla, only four inches
long, that constructs a nest which, if differently shaped, might
accommodate a lodger of twenty times its size. It is difficult to
conceive how so small a creature can carry the twigs which serve
in the construction, they being several lines in diameter; and
what is still more striking, these twigs hold together by mere
interweaving; no bond unites them, and yet they are twisted
into a shape which reminds one of a gourd — there being left
lateral and upper opening, which is another marvel in tl
astonishing construction. The sinallaxis begins by the fram(
work, and the framework alone constitutes the whole nes
What an amount of instinct must the bird develop in order
attain its object, particularly in laying down and fitting togetl
the first pieces of its edifice !

Many nests, instead of being laid on the bifurcation of
branches, are hung in a manner as light and as frail as the sword
of Damocles. Undoubtedly this is a precaution taken with a
view to protect the young against snakes, in the same manner
as the nests buried in bushes and the dense foliage of trees escape
the eye of the birds of prey. I do not, however, understand how
birds can protect their nestlings against ants ; for so large is the
number of: these insects in our climes, that it would seem as if
everything must become their prey.

Migration.

All our birds do not make a permanent stay in the island ;
and, as regards certain species, there are two very distinct annual
migrations. When the wet season has fairly commenced,
following alight on our shores : sandpipers, knots, plovers, &c.
they are emigrants from South America. These birds swarm
the extensive llanos, or plains, which skirt the Orinoco; as sc
as these become inundated, their inhabitants are compelled
depart elsewhere in search of food. Several species of duel

GAME. 377

follow the example of those Grallatoriae. After the rainy season
is over, all return to the continent, save a few individuals which
continue to frequent our marshes.

In November, other species appear. These are principally
ducks, viz., the poachard, shoveller, jansen, &c, that seek a
shelter against the cold of North America.

There are other species whose migrations cannot be accounted
for in the same satisfactory manner. In July, the Tyrannus
savanna arrives here from Venezuela, in immense flocks, and
leaves us in October. These birds feed on insects only, and
surely such a prey cannot be wanting on the continent. Similar
is the case of the speckled ramier, which comes in and returns
at the same periods ; and yet the berries on which it feeds
must also be abundant on the mainland.

Game.

As an article of food, our birds exhibit one main characteristic
— they are utterly deficient in flavour. The ramier, dove, quail,
and parrot, which are occasionally served on our tables, do not in
any way recall to one's mind the flavour of the partridge ; and
the amateur must forget that ordinary stimulant of appetite, in
order to relish that something which makes a young parrot a
delicious dish. The speckled ramier is much prized, and with
good reason ; and the ortolan is also very acceptable to the
epicure : as far as these are concerned, however, we yield the
palm to Europe, to claim it, notwithstanding, for our ducks.
The individuals which come from South America particularly
leave nothing more exquisite to be desired ; those which migrate
from North America are not all so excellent ; such as they are,
nevertheless, they are far superior to those of the old continent.

Among the smaller species, several have been remarked by
connoisseurs : the Tyr annus savanna is a ball of fat, and a
brochette of these small birds yields, in no one particular, to the
becafico of Europe. Some of our merles, when feeding upon
aromatic berries, possess a gout which is not inferior to the flavour
in which they are deficient.

I ought not to pass unnoticed the guacharo (Caprimulgus
caripensis) . The young ones, which are literally a mass of fat,
are highly praised and relished by amateurs. I have on several
occasions partaken of them, but must candidly confess that, in

378 TIUNIDAD.

consequence of a certain cockroachy flavour, which is the reverse
of tempting, I have, for a long time, discarded that dish.

There is, however, in this island a bird which verifies the
proverb, u All is good that is rare "^this is the yacou, or pajui.
With all the good qualities of the pheasant, it possesses besides
the advantage of being far more juicy ; and any one who has
once been treated to this truly recherche gallinacean, only regrets
that it is not more plentiful. Thus, some species cause us to
unmindful of that in which they are all deficient, viz., flavour
Whatever be their defects, however, the main deficiency is ths
they are not prepared by some Vatel ; for, when in Europe th(
praise the snipe, they really mean that they have good cooks.

Note and Song.

It is well known that song is the heritage of the birds of the
north ; whilst under our brazen sky, the beauty and richness of
plumage replace the melodious notes of the nightingale. True,
the ear is not greeted by notes warbled in simple trills, or in f ul
toned cadences : but the eye cannot be satiated with admiri
those colours, the variety of which can alone vie with their vivi
ness. The form itself seems to have been sacrificed, and Nature
efforts concentrated in painting the plumage of our birds with
the prism's hues. None of them possess the slimness of the
wagtail, the fairiness of the titmouse, or the grace of the f auvette ;
there is no charm in their movement, none in their flight : and
nothing in them recalls to the mind the skylark hovering on
high above its nest. Every gift has been lavished on the
gorgeous attire, the brilliant plumes of which often add som
what more of distinctiveness to our birds. The tufted hummin
bird, besides the tuft, wears on each side of the head slende
feathers, maculated at their extremity with spangles of the
brightest emerald. The heron-agami can, at pleasure, erect its
long neck so as to display those fine, long, and narrow blue
feathers which, in their crescent-like layers, present an admirable
ensemble. Even when we direct our attention to the bin
inhabiting Asia, Africa, or Australia, and which unite singulari
to their richness of plumage, we find that ours have somethi
markedly distinctive, whenever a comparison is instituted betw
them and birds of metallic hue. Everywhere else there is so
really metallic reflection of the plumage, whilst here there is

le,

i

er
he
its
ue
ible

i

>me

NOTE AND SONG OF THE BIRDS. 379

nothing more dazzling than our ruby-crested humming-bird. On
the one hand the metal, on the other the gem, reflects the light.

Let us acknowledge, nevertheless, that this luxuriousness
does not speak to the imagination, does not reach the heart,
does not move it. Our admiration is kept alive, but we yet
commune with this world, which it is so sweet to forget in the
forest recess whilst the ear imbibes the plaintive notes of the
nightingale !

Our forests are not, however, altogether silent, nor our copses
either. Often in the depth of our woods our attention is
awakened by sounds which remind us of those of a bell. Hark !
those two or three notes, loudly and several times repeated, are
those of the averano, calling forth its mate from the summit of
some tree towering to the clouds. The metallic tone, and the
fulness of the bird's call, produce a complete illusion; it re-
sembles the toll of a far-ringing bell ; wherefore, the Spaniards
have given it the name of campanero, or bell-ringer. It perches
chiefly on trees which clothe the mountain sides, and the sounds
of its voice, re-echoed by the adjoining mountains, so intermingle,
that it becomes difficult to find out precisely the spot occupied
by the bird itself. This, though a purely physical effect, the
vulgar assign to the instinct of the averano, which thus modifies
its note in order the better to conceal its retreat.

Here, as elsewhere, our doves pour forth their tender moan,
thus rendering still more melancholy the stillness of our woods :
one of them particularly, the partridge, imparts to its cooing the
impress of sadness ; it resembles the complaint of suffering
humanity, so complete is the illusion.

The early morn is welcomed by the qu'est-ce-qui-dit {Tyr an-
nus pitanga), whose song, or rather cry, though containing
nothing of melody, yet rings in sounds of pleasantness around
our dwellings. The cry is clear, and is answered by the voices
of several others of these birds, which are the better heard, as
they perch at the extremity of some branch. Sometimes the
united notes become a regular uproar, though far from being
unpleasant. We hear, without attending to them, the twittering
of other smaller birds that also welcome the dawning light. But
our attention is still attracted by the gay tumult of the qu'est-
ce-qui-dit : there is a cheerfulness in their cry, and man is never
more disposed to be cheerful than in the morning.

tere

380 TRINIDAD.

In the woods, curiosity alone will impel one to ascertain the
cause of a singular noise, which can be ascribed to a bird only
on sight ; it is made by the casse-noisette , or nut-cracker (Pipra
gutturalis). These small manikins, crowded on a shrub, are
continually on leap from the branches to the ground, and from
the ground to the branches. During these short passages of a
few feet they emit the noise, which is a short and sharp rolling
produced with the aid of their bills. So great an uproar on the
part of such small birds is not easily understood, and less so their
end in producing it ; for the ordinary note or call uttered by
them under all other circumstances has in it nothing particular.
At those periods, when joy alone seems to move them, they
remove from the ground everything which lies on it, so as to
make a perfect clearance of a small spot, which is always circular.
This is again an enigma ; and yet this manoeuvre they will co
tinue for hours entire.

There is a bird, the song of which announces man's dwelli
viz., the Troglodytes euclon, which is a wren, but is called he:
rossignol. Though no rival of the European night songster, yet
it is the only one among our birds that may induce one to think
there must be a charm in listening to a bird pouring forth the
harmony of its notes. However, it is respected much less for
its melody than for its habits, which attach it to our dwellings :
a sort of veneration is even felt for the little creature, which is
shown by its very popular name, for it is called " Oiseau du Bon-
Dieu/' or God's bird. Several nocturnal birds of prey disturb
the stillness of night by their shrieks, and in those shrieks there
is here, as everywhere else, something so dismally lugubrious, as
to cause the unfortunate to shudder in his hut ; for, to him they
are ominous of death. But it is rather curious that a diurnal
bird, the trinite (Cuculus naevius), sometimes makes its cry to
be heard during the night : whilst its companions of the day are
in deep repose, it wakes on the branch, and each hour gives forth
its notes, which night renders querulous, but which in turn make
night more mournful still.

Some other particulars may be remarked in the call of our
birds ; but as a characteristic of this point of Ornithology, they
may be said to whistle rather than sing, whilst some of them
produce with their bill singular noises. Thus our cassique,
rapidly moving its bill along the quills of its wing-feathers, p:

EEPTILES.

381

duces a noise which must strike any one who hears it for the first
time ; this it repeats frequently. Whenever perched on a branch,
it indulges in a chattering which imitates, even to deception, the
mewing of a cat, the light laughter of children, the cackling of
hens, the whistling of man, &c. It is a treat, surrounded by a
few of these birds, to listen to the different modulations into
which they are capable of inflecting their voice.

EEPTILES.

The four grand divisions of reptiles have their representatives in
the island, viz., the chelonia, the sauria, the ophidia, and the
batrachians. Of these a few are to be met with in the other
West India Islands, whilst many are common to Trinidad and
the neighbouring continent, but none seem to be peculiar to this
island alone.

Catalogcb op Rbptileb.
By Dr. J. Court.

Order I. — Chelonia.

Family I.

Land Tortoises —

Testudo. 2 species.
Testudo Tabulata. (a)
„ Carbonaria. (a)

Family II.

Fresh- water Tortoises —

Emys. 2 species, (b)

Family III.

Sea Tortoises —

Chelonia. 3 species.
Testudo My das. (c)
Testudo Marina, (d)
Testudo Imbricata. (e)

Order II.— Sauria.
Family I.

Crocodilians —

Alligator. 1 species.
Alligator Sclerops. (f)

Family II.

Lacertidae —

Geckos. 2 species.

Platydactylus Theco-

nyx. (g)
Eemidactylus Ma-
buia. (h)
Iguanidai. 4 species.
Polychrus Marmo-

ratus. (i)
Anolius Alligator, (j )

(a) The land tortoises are known here hy the name of morocoy, and (h) fresh-
rater tortoises by that of galapa.

(c) Common turtle. (d) Caouane. (e) Caret, or tortoise.

(f) Alligator, or babiche.

(g) Plantain Mabuia, or mabouia des bananiers.
(h) Wall Mabuia, or mabouia des murailles.

(i) (j) Generally considered here as chameleons.

382

TRINIDAD.

Family II. — continued.

Iquana Tuberculata.

(a)
Hypsibatus Agamoi-
des. (b)
Salvator. 1 species.

Salvator MeriancB. (c)
Ameiva. 2 species.
Ameiva Vulgaris, (d)
Ameiva Major, (d)
Chalcides. 2 species.
Amphisbaina Fuligi-

nosa. (e)
Amphisbaina Alba, (e)
Scincoidece. 1 species.
Eumeces Spixii. (f)

Order III. — Batrachians.

Raniforms. 1 species.

Pseudis Meriance. (g)
Hyl&forms. Several
species.
Hyla Viridis. (h)
Bufoniforms. Several
species.
Bufo Strumosus. (i)

Order III. — continued.

Pipaiforms. 1 species.
Pipa Americana, (j)

Order IY. — Ophidia.

Non- venomous. Several species.
Tortrix. 1 species.

Tortrix Scytale. (k)
J?oa. 2 species.

Boa Constrictor. (1)
5oa Murina. (m)
Coluber. Several species.
Coluber Variabilis. (n)
Dendrophis. 2 species.
Dendrophis Liocer-

cus. (o)
Dendrophis Aurata. (p)
Yenomous. Several species.
Elaps. 1 species.

Elaps Corallinus.
Trigonocephaly. 1 sj
cies.
Trigonocephaly
raraca. (r)
Crotalus. 1 species.
Crotalus Mutus.

(a) Common guana, or lesard.

(b) A lizard, remarkable for an inflated head and spinous or pencilled-like
groups on the vicinity of the ear.

(c) Mato, or mate. (d) Ground anolis, or lizards.

(e) Double-headed serpent, or serpent-a-deux-t6tes.

(f) A pretty sleek little lizard, to be seen on trees, of a brown colour on the
back, and greenish below ; also with blackish points scattered along the back,
and a brown band on each side, imperfectly terminated.

(g) Frog-fish, paradoxal-frog.

(h) A beautiful frog of rather large size, green above, and a light pink beneath.

(i) Our common crapaud.

(j) A large ugly frog, caught in the Bejucal.

(k) Rouleau.

(1) Macajuel.

(m) Huillia.

(n) Clibo, or cribo noir.

(o) Ash-coloured horse-whip, or rigoise-argentee.

(p) Green horse-whip, or rigoise-verte.

(q) Coral-snake, or serpent-corail.

(r) Cascabel.

The reptiles mentioned in the above catalogue are not m
with in all parts of the country indifferently. A few seem to
prefer the vicinity of man's habitation — such as the ameivas,
geckos, lizards ; the clibo, toads, and some tree-frogs ; also the
mato or safeguard, and smalkr lizards. Others, as the land and

.

HABITATS 01 THE REPTILES. 383

fluviatile tortoises, are encountered in the high woods ; and some
are almost universal, of which are the frogs, alligators, iguanas,
boas, crotals, and other serpents, provided, however, the locality
suits them. The alligator, for instance, shows a preference
wherever there are pools of stagnant or dormant waters ; they
are, nevertheless, particularly numerous at Mayaro, and in the
county of Caroni. The iguana generally delights in the
vicinity of the sea-shore, and sandy spots, where it can deposit
its eggs in safety ; and large numbers of them are met with on
the Bocas islets, and at the mouths of rivers, particularly along
the eastern coasts. The boa constrictor, or macajuel, seems to
prefer low damp places, and the boa-murina, or huillia, never
strays far from the river or pond which it has selected as its
abode. They are specially plentiful in the Oropuche river, and
its affluents, viz., the Cunapo, Sangre-grande, and Sangre-
chiquito ; nor are they scarce at Cedros. The mute crotal, or
mapepire, shows a predilection for high grounds, whilst the
cascabel, or trigonocephalus, is commonly met with in damp, low
lands. The only specimen of pipa which I have seen came
from the Caroni Savannah, and that of the paradoxal-frog from
Cedros.

The sea-tortoises, or turtles, deserve no peculiar notice. The
morocoy and galapa live on soft plants, fruits, and insects ; the
morocoy seems to be particularly partial to the wild plum, which
it swallows entire ; during the ripening season, several of them
may be met with under one tree. Being very slow in their
movements, the morocoy and galapa are easily caught ; if near a
pond or river, however, the galapa at once dives and escapes
under water. Dogs often detect the morocoy by barking at it ;
also when coupling they emit a peculiar grunt, which likewise
serves to discover them. I may here mention a few particulars
regarding the capture of turtle. They are caught either in nets,
or on the beach when crawling ashore to deposit their eggs. For
this purpose they come forth at night, and are watched by the
catchers. As soon as a turtle is aware of any danger it imme-
diately takes to the sea. The safest plan in that case is to gain
the seaward of the animal, and seize it by the fore-flaps ; it then
continues to urge against the catcher, and is, with its own aid,
easily turned up. If approached and held by the side, it makes
a powerful resistance, and in the struggle throws up a cloud of

I

384 TRINIDAD.

fine sand, which, almost blinding its antagonist, causes him to
lose his hold. A very ingenious contrivance is sometimes
adopted to bring a turtle of the largest size from a distance.
One of the fore-flaps is secured to the carapace, or shell, with a
line, and the animal placed in the sea, the bound flipper shore-
ward, so that it is thus easily led along the beach to any dis-
tance. The turtle may also be harpooned whilst rising to, or
lying on, the surface, and sometimes it may even be taken asleep
in that position.

The common iguana, but particularly the mato, are not to be
rejected from the table. Iguanas are either shot on trees, or
caught when laying; their fore and hind feet are then tied
behind, so that they cannot move ; they can live many days
without food. Matos are hunted down with dogs, and taken
either in holes, or in some hollow tree, wherein they seek a tern
porary refuge ; the best mode, however, is shooting them ; tb
are then watched about mid-day in some copse or bushy sp
whither hens are accustomed to lead their broods, or, during t
dry season, along the dried beds of ravines, where they lurk for
fish. The iguana lives on insects, eggs — those of the tortoise
principally — young birds, and the tender buds of plants; the
mato is exclusively carnivorous, and fish, young birds, mice,
insects, eggs, and even small snakes become its prey ; it generally
lays in the nests of termites. Both these saurians are excellent
divers, and can remain for a long time under water.

Some of our serpents attain very large dimensions. Tho boa-
constrictor may reach the length of twenty-two feet, and will
swallow agoutis, lapas, and young deer ; a huillia killed in the
river Cunapo measured seventeen feet eleven inches ; it, however,
attains to twenty and even twenty-four feet. The clibo, or
cribo, reaches from ten to twelve feet ; and a mute crotal, or
mapepire, killed at Couva, and now in the possession of Dr.
Court, measures eleven feet. These are the largest species.

It is well known that snakes live upon such animals as they
are enabled to seize ; this prey — generally taken by surprise —
consists of small quadrupeds, birds, and even other reptiles.
liats and opossums are the great treat of the macajuel ; and as
many as seven of the latter were once found in the stomach of a
boa-constrictor. The huillia preys on even larger game — such as
the lapa, young deer, &c. A gentleman being once engaged in

FOOD OF SNAKES. 385

the chase, near the river Oropuche, a young deer was started,
and its distressed bleating soon proved it was caught. On ap-
proaching to the river, whence the cries arose, he saw the animal
struggling in the water, and at first was unable to account for
its movements ; but, on a nearer view, he ascertained that it was
held in the folds of a young huillia ; both animals were killed,
and the serpent was found to measure only seven feet and a few
inches.

The rigoise, or horse-whip snake, is generally met in thick
copses or under brush, and may be seen gliding along the tops
of the crowded and interlaced plants. The cascabel is found
in low, damp localities, and along river borders, where it selects
its abode among the clumps of bamboos. The mapepire shows a
preference for high grounds, and is very common in Mayaro, as
also between Caroni and Tamana, near the river Tumpuna. It
is often found together with the lapa in the same hole ; and, in
certain localities, hunters are obliged to act with great caution, in
order to protect their dogs or themselves from its poison fangs.
There is, I believe, no authentic record of a lapa having ever
been found killed in its recess by a mapepire.

These serpents, as well as the coral snake, are highly venom-
ous ; in fact, the mapepire is quite as formidable as the rattle-
snake. The description given of the habits and exterior ap-
pearances of the Crotalus mutus, by Schlegel, and of the Lachesis
mutuSy by Dumcril, accurately corresponds to our mapepire ;
and the Trigonocephalies jararaca, and the Bothrops jararaca, by
the same authors, to our cascabel. Dr. Court possesses three
specimens of the Trigonocephalus lanceolatus, or the Martinico's
fer-de-lance, and of the Trinidad cascabel and mapepire, respec-
tively— in which the characteristic differences of these three
serpents are very well delineated. The scales of the mapepire
are oval, and carinated as those of the others, but they are not
so flat, and there is besides on each a prominence, giving it the
appearance of a pine-apple eye; hence its local name of "Mape-
pire Ananas;" head triangular and thick. The head of the
fer-de-lance, or lance-headed trigonocephalus, is more elongated ;
and that of the cascabel more so, particularly the muzzle. The
mapepire may almost be said to be torpid, or at least so sluggish
and indolent as to require provocation before it acts on the offen-
sive ; but once roused, it is very fierce, and will spring on, or
z

386 TEINIDAD.

even pursue, its enemy. This serpent generally warns by a
peculiar rattling sound, caused by the rapid movements of its
tail — probably against the dry leaves, as it has no articulated
rattle, like that of the Crotalus horridus, but only a white horny
spur, and may be considered as establishing a link between the
trigonocephalus and the crotalus. The mapepire is much more
dreaded than the cascabel. Though very sluggish, this latter
serpent shows occasionally much determination, and after in-
flicting a first wound, it sometimes immediately recoils for
another attack. The ground-colour of the cascabel is brown,
with deep transversal stripes ; the belly has a tesselated appear-
ance, black squares symmetrically alternating with others of a
lighter colour.

I may repeat here, what Prince de Neuwied says of the coral
snake — that it can be taken and handled without any danger,
children very often playing with this viper, encircling it round
the neck. I have myself, more than once, carried about corals,
not suspecting they were venomous. The apparent innocuity
of the coral arises from the peculiar conformation of its head and
mouth ; the head is of the same growth with the body, and not
separated by a distinct neck ; nor can it, on account of its
anatomical organisation, open its jaws sufficiently to seize and
bite any bulky body. It is nevertheless highly poisonous. The
clibo and rigoise are very common ; of the former, there are
three species or varieties — the black or speckled, the yellow-
bellied, and the yellow-tailed ; the first is of a glossy lead colour,
and the under parts of a light yellow, with dark stripes ; the
second, of a deep lead colour above, and a fine yellow beneath ;
the body of the third is also of a lead colour, and the belly,
together with the tail, of an orange tinge ; they generally attain
the same dimensions, though the last may be found of a some-
what larger size.

The rigoise, or whip-snake, would appear to pertain to the
tribe of poisonous serpents, but its bite would not be deadly ; it
is called rigoise or korse-wMp, not only on account of its long
slender form, but also from the current belief among the negroes
that it uses its tail as an instrument for flogging its antagonist.

Besides the above-mentioned, and well-known serpents, there
are several others which we have not been able to classify, from
the many difficulties which attend the study — among others, the

POISON SERPENTS. 387

mangrove-caseabel, or dormilon; it bears the greatest resemblance
to the true cascabel, but, on all accounts, is not poisonous ; it
is very common all along the lower Caroni, and may often be
seen sluggishly extended on some branch that stretches over the
river. A small serpent, from twelve to sixteen inches in length,
is met with occasionally in courtyards, and among rubbish, also
in pasture-grounds ; it is called the ground-snake, and is probably
a coeeilia ; another smaller one, provided with a sting at the end
of the tail, may possibly be the Stenostoma albifrons of Dumeril.
The Cuaima is reported as being a deadly viper ; I have never
seen it, and only mention it on hearsay.

Besides the toad here mentioned, there are several other
species, differing not only in size, but in general configuration.
Of real frogs I know but one, the paradoxal or fish-frog, so
remarkable for the large size of the tadpole, which is several
inches long, and has some resemblance to the cascaradura ; its
body — which is smooth and not scaly — exhibiting oblique bands
exactly like those of that fish. It still retains the tail some time
after the four limbs have grown, which gives it the grotesque
appearance of a fish provided with a toad's feet ; hence the erro-
neous impression among the vulgar, that the cascaradura is ulti-
j mately metamorphosed into a toad. There exist in the colony
many tree-frogs, or hylse-forms ; besides the one already men-
| tioned, I know a very small one, of a brown colour above and
i grey beneath ; another, of nearly the same colour, but much
larger, and found in cacao plantations, generally sticking on the
| under surface of some leaf (Hyla xerophylla ?) ; a third, of a
I milky colour {Hyla lactea ?) .

The pipa is a large batrachian, very remarkable on account of
I its singular form, but more, and chiefly so, from its mode of
generation. The female carries on its back the eggs or semina
which the male has placed there ; a sort of inflammation is the
consequence of such application, and each egg becomes as im-
| prisoned in a cell, which gradually increases in size, so as to
accommodate the growth of the semen. When hatched, the
young escape from the cells, the back of the mother remaining
for some time as if honey-combed.

A pretty little lizard, about four inches long, which we have
not been able to determine, is very common in town, along fence-
walls, in the crevices of which it dwells. It is easily distin-

TRINIDAD.

guishable by its large lustrous eyes, and a bright white streak
extending from the point of the muzzle to the extremity of the
tail ; also by the lighter colour of the neck and head, as com-
pared with the body.

I have also seen a curious little animal resembling an
amphisbsena, but having four limbs ; it is probably a ceps.

FISHES.

The great class of fishes supplies many individuals remarkable
for their varied forms, their beautiful colours, their habitat, and
the benefits which are derived from them as articles of food. I
found it impossible to make a detailed list of all the species
which inhabit our seas, streams, and ponds ; the following
catalogue, however, compiled by my friend Dr. Leotaud, exhibits
nearly all the genera which may be said to belong to the
island : —

Order I.— Acanthopterygians.
Family I.

species.
TJndeci-

Percoides —

Centropomus. 1

Centropomus
malis. (a)
Mesoprion. 2 species, (b)
Bypticus. 1 species.

Anthias Saponarius. (c)
Priacanthus. 1 species.
Polynemus. 1 species, (d)
Sphyrcena. 2 species.

Sphyrcena Barracuda.

(e)
JJpeneus.

Family II.
Mailed Cheeks —

Prionotus. 1 species.
Dactylopterus. 1 species.(f )

(a) Pike, or brochet.

(b) Gruper, or vieille.

(c) Soapwort, or savonette.

(d) Paradise-fish.

(e) Barracuta, or becune.

(f) Flying-fish. (g) Vingt-quatre-heures.
(h) Salmon, or saumon. (i) Sea-horse.

(j) Red- mouth or gueule-rouge. (k) Pagres.

(1) Fresh- water pike, or brochet. (m) Horseman.

Family II. — continued.
Scorpozna. 1 species, (g)

Family III.
Scienoides —

Otolithus. 1 species, (h)
Eques. 1 species, (i)
Haemulon. Several spe-
cies, (j)

Family IV.
Sparoides —

Pagrus. Several species, (k)

Family Y.
Menides —

Gerres. 1 species. (1)

Family YI.
Squammipennes —

Cho3todon. 2 species.
Ephippus. 1 species, (m)

ICHTHYOLOGY.

389

Family VI. — continued.

Holacanthus. 1 species.
Psettus. 1 species.

Family VII.

Scomberoid.es —

Auxis. 2 species, (a)
Cybium. Several species.
Xiphias. 1 species.

Xiphias Gladius. (b)
Istiophorus. 1 species (c)
JElacate. 1 species, (d)
Trichiurus. 1 species, (e)
Temnodon. 1 species.

Chilodipterus Hepta-
canthus.
Caranx. 5 species.

Scomber Carangus. (f )
Vomer. 1 species, (g)
Zeus. 2 species, (g)

Family IX.
| Theutyes —

Acanthurus, 1 species, (h)

Family XI.

| Mugiloides —

Mugil. 3 species, (i)
Atherina. 1 species.

Family XII.
Gobioides —

Family XII.— continued.
Gobius.

Gobioides. 1 species.
Family XIII.
Pediculated Pectorals —
Antennarius.
Malthacus.
Batrachus. (k)
Family XIV.
Labroides —

Labrus. 1 species. (1)
Lachnolaimus. 1 spe-
cies, (m)
Scarus. 1 species, (n)

Family XV.
Flute -mouth —

Fistularia. 1 species, (o)

Order II. — Malacopterygians.

Family I.
Cyprinoides —

Anableps. 1 species.

Cobitis Anableps. (p)
Pcecilia. 2 species, (q)
Family II.

Esoces—

Siluroides-

Belone. 1 species, (r)
Hemiramphus. 1 s]

cies. (s)
Family III.

Mystus. 2 species, (t

Clinus. 1 species, (j)
Opisthognatus.

(a) King-fish, or tassard, and Spanish mackerel, or carite.

(b) Espadon, or saw-fish.

(c) Maman-balaou.

(d) Cod-fish, or morue.

(e) A fish found in ponds and ravines, resembling the lamprey ; hence its
name of cutlass-fish, or coutelas.

(f) Carangues : the common carangue (Scomber Carangus), is the largest and
i most abundant : the carangue grasse is not so large, but more delicate, as are

also the two others ; a fifth species is our anchovy, or anchois.

(g) Dories, or lunes.
(h) Surgeon.

(i) Lebranche, large and common mullet.

(j) Gruper, very large, found in rocky places.

(k) Crapaud, or toad-fish. The three genera of this family are known by
the name of anglers.

(1) Lippe.

(m) Captain.

(n) Parrot, or paroquet.

(o) Trumpet-fish, or poisson-trompette.

(p) Large-eyed fish, or gros-yeux.

(q) A small fish found in rivulets, and even in wells, in Port-of-Spain.

(r) Gar-fish. (s) Balaou.

(t) The common cat-fish, or machoiran, and the barbe, an inhabitant of our
rivers.

390

TRINIDAD.

Family III. — continued.

Callichthys. 2 species, (a)
Hypostomus. 1 species,
(b)

Family IV.
Salmonides —

Hydrocyon. 2 species.

(c)
Saurus. 1 species.

Family V.
Clupes9 —

Clupea. 1 species, (d)

Odontognathus. 1 spe-
cies.

Engraulis. Several spe-
cies, (e)

Butyrinus. 1 species.
Butyrinus Banana.ii)

Erythrinus. 2 species,
(g)

Family VI.
Sub-brachians —

Flat fishes.

(a) Cascaradura, and a small fish found in clear streams.

(b) Anne-Marie.

(c) Fresh- water sardines.

(d) Cailleu-tassart.

(e) Anchovies.

(f) Banana, or banane.

(g) Guabine and yarrao, two fresh-water fishes ; the former very common in
ponds, ravines, and rivers ; the latter found only in clear rivulets.

(h) Sole,
i) Pilot-fish.

Family VI.— continued.
Solea. 1 species, (h)
Echeneis. 1 species, (i)

Order III. — Apodal - Malaco-

PTERYGIANS.

Anguilliforcns —

Murcena. 1 species, (j)
Symbranchus. 1 species.
(k)
Order IV.— Lophobranchii.
Syngnathus. 1 species.
Hippocampus. 1 spe*
cies. (1)

Order V. — Plectognathi.
Family I.
Gymnodontes —

Diodon. 1 species, (m)
Tetrodon. Several spe-
cies, (n)

Family II.
Sclerodermes —

Batistes. 1 species.
Ostracion. 1 species.

j) Conger-eel, or congre.

(k) Dog-headed eel, or anguille-tete-chien, abundant in ponds and ravines.

(1) Hippocamp.

(m) Mailed-fish, or poisson-arme. (n) Chouf-chouf , poisonous.

There are, besides the above-mentioned genera, several others
which have not yet been ascertained ; they must, however, be
few. I will say nothing of the varied forms of our fishes,
because it would be but to mutilate what has been written in
professional works on the subject. Their habitat, utility, and
the noxious properties of a few, are nevertheless matters of
interest, and which require some elucidation.

As to habitat, I will separate the fresh-water from the salt-
water fishes. The former are few in number ; they are the pike
(Gerres), the cutlass (Trichiurus) , poecilia, barbe {Mgstus), casca-
raduras [Calliclithyi),. Anne-Marie (Hypostomus) , sardines (Hy-
drocyon), guabine and yarrao (Erythrinus), dog-headed eel

FRESH- WATER FISHES. 391

\{Synbranchus). Besides the above, there are the common eel
(Anguilla) and the Coscorob, very common in ponds and rivers,
the cats [Callichthys ?). I have also been told that a trout is not
scarce in our mountain streams ; this fact I have not been able
to ascertain.

Except the pcecilias and cats, together with a very small cal-
lichthys, all our fresh-water fishes are used as food. The river
pike attains about eight inches, is met with in clear limpid water,
and is generally caught with the hook. The cutlass fish — about
twelve inches in length — inhabits muddy ravines, and is caught
in nets, or, during the dry seasons, in isolated pools formed by
the partial drying up of ravines ; it is indifferent eating. The
barbe is generally taken in nets, but also with the hook — it is a
good fish ; also the Anne-Marie, about eight inches long, and
scaly, very common in clear streams. The sardines are of small
size, resembling the European sardine in form, but more com-
pressed ; the smaller sized is so familiar, as sometimes to attack
the legs of persons standing in the water, or bathing ; they are
found in the clear and shallow streams of our valleys, and are
generally caught by means of cast-nets; for which purpose a
handful of manioc-meal is thrown into the water, and the
sardines rush in shoals to the bait. The guabine is the largest of
our fresh-water fishes, measuring from twelve to twenty inches
in length ; it is very voracious, and bites severely. As already
stated, the guabine is found in rivers and deep ponds, particularly
in the Bejucal, and other ponds in the neighbourhood of Caroni,
and the Cocal. It seems that the spawning season is about the
month of July ; they then creep into all the small rills of water
which have a communication with the ravines and rivers, and are
easily caught. They nibble at the hook, or are caught m fish-
pots ; the latter are long, conical net or basket works, made of
roseau or bamboo, which are let down into the centre of the
current of some stream, a regular dam being otherwise formed
across, by which the fish are forced, in their passage down the
stream, into the only opening afforded by the entrance of the
pot ; and having once entered, egress is impossible. The yarrao
resembles the guabine in form, but is smaller in size. The dog-
; headed eel is caught in nets, in which it entangles itself in pursuit
i of other fish ; for the guabine is, perhaps, the only adversary it
; does not overcome : it attains from three to four feet. The bait

392 TEINIDAD.

placed in the nets is generally the manioc root ; several intoxi-
cating plants are also used to poison fish in pools and ponds.
But, of all our fresh- water fish, the cascaradura is, by far, the
most noted. Its length is from six to ten inches; the body
nearly prismatic, and covered with very hard horny scales —
whence its name. The flesh is of an orange colour, and very
delicate ; it ought not to be confounded with the cat-fish, which
resembles it very much, but the flesh of which is white and un-
savoury. The cascaraduras are found in immense numbers in
nearly all our large ponds, but particularly those in the Caroni
savannah, and the marshy parts of Nariva, where even a small
ravine bears the name of Cascaradura.

Our salt-water fishes are far more numerous, and of much
greater importance, on account of their 'paramount utility as
articles of food; there are also among them several which are
naturally, or may accidentally become, poisonous. Some of the
are caught in the open sea, others near the shore, and at tl
mouths of rivers or creeks, and a few in rocky localities,
king-fish and Spanish mackerel are taken with tan-lines, eithe
in the Gulf, or outside, along the north coast ; they are caugl
chiefly during boisterous weather. The anchovy (Caranx)
caught in the harbour ; it is of the size of a sardine ; an
mense quantity is taken every year during the month of July
but they are migratory, and disappear in about three weeks. The
pike (Centropomus) , salmon (Otolythus) , and codfish (Ulacates) are
also taken in the open sea. The lebranche, mullets ; the balaou,
gar-fish, crapaud, and rays are caught near the shore — the former
at the mouths of rivers and estuaries or small creeks, which
they ascend with the flow, and generally retire from with the
ebb ; drag-nets are then laid at the entrance, and the lebranche
easily caught; the mullets are taken with the cast-net. The
balaou and gar-fish are commonly caught at night by torch-light,
or with the seine ; carangues also, sometimes in enormous quanti-
ties, with the same ; they are easily announced by their gambols
at the surface of the water, and not unfrequently quite close in
shore, so as to be then easily surrounded and dragged to land.
It is not, perhaps, amiss to mention here a case, wherein about
3,000 carangues were thus made prisoners and secured in a net :
about 500 were sent to the markets the first day, and from 300
to 400 each subsequent day. One of our grupers (Alesoprion)

SALT-WATER FISHES. 393

haunts, in preference, the mouth of our larger rivers — the
Caroni, the Guataro, &c. ; it comes to a very large size, weigh-
ing above four hundred pounds; another species (Clinus) — the
largest of all — is fond of rocky places, where it hides in some
hole ; the third species (Mesoprion) is also found in such locali-
ties. The crapaud (Batrachus) — a very ugly-looking fish, particu-
larly about the head, whence its name — is found imbedded in the
mud-flats, or under large stones, where it is taken at low water.
The red-mouths or crocros (Haemulon) are caught in weirs all
along the coast ; the snappers are hooked from the sandy
banks about the bocas, as also the sardes — all excellent fish.
The barracuta (Sphyraena) and conger-eel {Muraend) generally
choose some haunt in the middle of rocky points, and there
watch for their prey. The barracuta, when grown to a large
size, is nearly as ferocious and voracious as the shark itself ; it
attains to seven or eight feet in length, and is abundant all
along our shores. There is, on the eastern coast, a rocky point
called ' ' Barracuta Point," or ' ' Pointe Becunes," on account of
the large number of sphyraenas which are there found; they
are reported to be more voracious than in any other place, and it
is said there are but poor chances for any one falling overboard
in that locality ; he is soon devoured by these shark-like fishes.
The dorie or lune, the parrot, and paradise fishes, together with
a few others, are caught only by chance. The gros-yeux [Colitis
anableps) is a small fish, about eight inches; they may be seen
leaping in shoals above the surface of the water, in the shallows
quite close to the shore, with quick successive jerks ; they are
then easily shot, and picked up when dead. The rays are
plentiful, but seldom offered for sale; poor people, and the
Coolies especially, feed upon the young sharks. Besides the
fishes above enumerated, there are three or four others of unde-
termined genera, viz., the Paoua, rather common, but not gener-
ally eaten — except by the poorer classes ; the Aileronde, met
with at Mayaro chiefly ; it is about the size of a sole, but
resembling the dorie in flesh, and is, perhaps, our most delicate
fish ; the Zapatero is also of good quality ; the Grande-ecaille is
common but neglected. Another large fish — weighing upwards
I of 100 lbs. when of full size — is common in estuaries, on the
northern and eastern coasts ; it is called by the Spanish peons
Bagre-sapo, or toad-pagre, and is excellent eating.

394 TRINIDAD.

Some of our fishes deserve peculiar notice on account of
their poisonous nature, or from their sometimes dangerous and
even fatal encounter with man ; I have already mentioned the
barracuta; the sharks are too well known to deserve any lengthened
notice. The fishes of the above description to be met in the
Gulf, and on the coast, are the common shark (Carcharias) , the
pantoufflier {Zygaena), and the rays. The number of sharks in
the Gulf is surprising, particularly during the whaling season ;
and they, at times, occasion great loss to the fishers, as many as
several hundreds being said to prey on a dead whale, so that
people are specially employed in killing them ; this is done with
a hatchet, or a sort of sharp spade, by which means the spine is
divided at one single blow; large numbers are thus despatched.
The armed, or sting-ray, is often the cause of serious accidents
The barracuta and a small fish called coulirou are occasionally
poisonous; but the only evil effects brought on are vomitii
and purging, accompanied with urticaria, and which easily yiel
to proper treatment. The scorpaena, or " Vingt-quatre-heures,
is also considered a dangerous fish, and is much dreaded
account of the accidents it causes. Dr. Leotaud was twk
wounded by the scorpaena, and thus describes the symptoms
felt : " on the first occasion, when wounded in the toe, the pj
was at first very severe locally, but soon retired to seize on the
ankle-joint, then the knee, the hip, and the shoulder, in succes-
sion— the pain gradually dislodging from the parts primarily
affected. From the shoulder, it extended to the corresponding
side of the chest, at which period the respiration became
laboured, the pulmonary functions apparently ceased, and I
fainted. A fever followed that lasted twelve hours, after which
health was restored by the entire cessation of the pain, which
disappeared in like manner as on its access, though following an
inverse course/'' On the next occasion, the scorpaena being of a
very small size, the symptoms were similar in kind, but much
less in intensity.

The accidents brought on by the tetraodon, or "Chouf-
chouf," are of a different nature ; the flesh itself is poisonous, as
proved by the following facts : a large tetraodon having been
boiled, in order to get the skeleton, the flesh was thrown away
in the courtyard, and two cats, as many ducks and pigs, on
accidentally eating of the same, died from its effects. Again,

POISON FISHES. 395

sometime in the year 1854, two young children died, within a
few hours, after having partaken of the liver of a tetraodon. It
is rather remarkable that the voracious corbeau, as if warned by
instinct of its poisonous nature, will not touch that fish.

The gar-fish, or orphie, though neither voracious nor
poisonous, may be accidentally the cause of very serious suffer-
ings. When disturbed, the orphies dart out of the water with
great force, and should their course happen to be across or in
the direction of a canoe, may come into contact with one of the
persons therein. The snout of this fish, being long and serrated,
pierces deeply into the part they hit ; it then generally breaks,
a bony fragment remaining in the flesh, or even in the plank of
the boat : several accidents of this kind have been known, and in
such cases it became necessary to make a deep incision, in order
to extract the fragment broken in the flesh.

Short and concise as is the above sketch, I yet hope that but
few genera have been omitted of the great and remarkable class
of vertebrated animals. It is true that but few species have
been determined, an act of prudence, on account of the great
difficulty in procuring objects of comparison, and of distinguish-
ing the sexes and ages, among birds. How many errors have
arisen from the latter cause ! for, sometimes the female is more
different from the male, and the young from the parent bird of
the same species, than is genus from genus. From the above,
also, the naturalist may form a pretty good opinion of our
zoological riches, whilst some of the details into which I have
entered may prove entertaining to the general reader.

One remark more ; many of our animals (whether quadru-
peds, birds, reptiles, or fishes) have no local English designations,
and all the names are either Spanish or French, some Indian ;
so that I have been induced to use such terms as I know to
prevail, either in the above languages, or in the English.

BOTANY.

OUTLINE OF THE FLORA OF TRINIDAD.
By Herman Criiger.

Trinidad exhibits — if not on a grand scale, at least within
striking and well defined limits — the distinctive characteristics

396 TRINIDAD.

of an intertropical American country. The variety of its soil
and formations, the abundant supply of water with which it is
blessed, give to the vegetable covering of this island the glowing
colours, the richness and grandeur of forms which astonish and
charm the admirer and lover of Nature, and invite the thoughtful
and scientific mind to study and meditation. No wonder that
the grateful Indian called this spot a paradise, swinging away
his eventless life in the chinchorro, whilst below and around the
teeming soil spontaneously afforded him not only the necessaries,
but even the luxuries, of life.

" Mollia securse peragebant otia gentes ;
Ipsa quoque immunis, rastroque intacta, nee ullis
Saucia vomeribus, per se dabat omnia, tellus."

Ovid i. 12.

u The character of a population depends greatly, though no
solely, on the aspect of the vegetable world of a country/' say
Von Humboldt, in his " Views of Nature." Were I possessed o
the pen or pencil of a Humboldt, I would essay to place in thei
mutual relation the luxuriance and grandeur of our forest- woods
with the careless though amiable character of the Trinidadian ;
but this is hardly within the scope of these pages. I may here,
however, as well enregister my conviction that Trinidad — like
other fertile tropical countries — will, from its own boundless
luxuriance, never nourish a very industrious population.

The general character of our flora approaches that of Guiana ;
partaking, however, more or less, of that of the West India
islands in general, as will appear hereafter. The botanic:
traveller will therefore find the works of Aublet as useful an
necessary to him in his researches as those of Swartz, Bonpland
and Kunth. This is, however, not to be understood in the sense
that we have absolutely the same species of plants that grow in
and characterise Guiana and the Antilles, for I have found this
to be true in respect of genera only; but as genera, in most
cases, exhibit the same vegetative characteristics in all, or most
of their species, this is quite sufficient to demonstrate and explain
the similarity of general aspect between our island, its con-
tinental neighbour, and the sister-islands.

With regard to species, I must say that of them I have not
been able to determine a great number, and have, therefore,

1a
al

X

BOTANY. 397

limited myself to giving- in the annexed catalogue the names of
genera only. Species can only be determined with absolute
accuracy in large cities, where collections of plants, and libraries
of reference, can supply all comparative information. I could
give only approximate determinations, which would prove of no
real use ; I have, therefore, preferred giving none.

The lists of species which I have seen of other islands, such
as Barbadoes and St. Thomas, fully corroborate the truth of what
I assert ; for they are replete with errors of all sorts, merely
because the writers thought it incumbent on them to particularise
the species.

Forest-growths take the most predominant place in our
vegetation; and that which at once strikes the European on
reaching our shores is the multiplied variety of forms and
foliage they present. A large number of families contribute
their quota to these formations ; among which may be
mentioned Palms and Lauraceae, Rubiacese and Apocynaceae,
Verbenaceae and Cordiaceae, Myrsinacese and Sapotacese ; as also
Ebenaceae, Myristicaceae and Anonaceae, Capparidaceae, Mal-
vaceae, and Sterculiaceae ; with Tiliacese, Ternstromiaceae and
ClusiaceaB, Meliaceae and Cedrelaceae, Malpighiaeeae and Sapin-
daceae, Euphorbiaceae and Burseraceae, Simarubaceae and
Diosmeae, Melastomaceae and Myrtaceae, ChrysobalanaceaD, and,
lastly, perhaps the richest family, Leguminosae, or Fabaceae,
including Swartzieae, and Mimoseae. A glance at this list of
families shows at once the difference which exists between these
forests and those of higher latitudes, where, not only a few
families, but also a few species, form the whole woodland
vegetation. Nor ought it to be believed that only a paucity of
the above families is met with in each forest, for the aggregate
is almost everywhere of the same variety, whilst the species, and
genera, perhaps, are different. In plains, with a fertile soil, for
instance, certain forms predominate, without altogether exclud-
ing others ; and the like arrangement occurs in other localities.
A rich soil is generally indicated by the cabbage-palm (Areca
oleracea), and the carat (Coper nicia) ; whereas, the timit
(Manicaria) grows in light sandy soils, generally in company
of a variety of trees of the myrtle tribe. In general, palms are
indicative of the quality of the soil, and of the respective
productions which can be raised on a given spot.

398 TRINIDAD.

The northern chain of mountains, covered nearly everywhere
with dense forests, is intersected at various angles by numbers of
valleys presenting the most lovely character. Generally each
valley is watered by a silvery stream, tumbling here and there
over rocks and natural dams, ministering in a continuous rain to
the strange-looking river-canes, dumb-canes, and balisiers, that
voluptuously bend their heads to the drizzly shower which plays
incessantly on their glistening leaves, off which the globules roll
in a thousand pearls, as from the glossy plumage of the stately
swan. Amid such Dryad-haunts as these, well might the poet
realise the myth of the bathing nymph, and gloating Pan behind
some broad-leafed fern concealed, with all the emotions of the
Satyr-God !

One of these falls deserves particular notice — the Cascade of
Maraccas — in the valley of that name. The high-road leads up
the valley a few miles, over hills, and along the windings of the
river, exhibiting the varying scenery of our mountain district in
the fairest style. There, on the river side, you may admire
gigantic pepper trees, or the silvery leaves of the Calathea, the
lofty bamboo, inclosing, perhaps, as in a leafy frame, a group of
girls bathing beneath its many-stemmed shade, or the fragrant
Pothos, the curious Cyclanthes, or frowning nettles, some of the
latter from ten to twelve feet high. But how describe the num-
berless treasures which everywhere strike the eye of the wander-
ing naturalist? Here, on the steep hill-side, the hut of the
Conuquero emerges from a few fruit trees, such as the orange,
lime, mangoe, and avocado ; and, if he be a Spaniard, you may
perceive him sitting on a bench before his door, near a rose or
other flower-tree, meditating on better, bygone times, or
saddened by the untimely death of a favourite game-cock.

To reach the Cliorro, or cascade, you strike to the right into
a " path " that brings you first to a cacao plantation, through a
few rice or maize fields, and then you enter the shade of the
virgin forest. Thousands of interesting objects now attract your
attention : here, the wonderful Norantia, or the resplendent
Calycophyllum, a Taberntemontana, or a Faramea, filling the air
afar off with a fragrance of their blossoms ; there, a graceful
Heliconia winking at you from out some dark ravine. At the
margin of the latter let us take our seat, and, after having had a
draught of the crystal element, I will tell you, during our rest,

ASCENT OF THE TOCUCHE. 399

the names of the fairy forms that surround us ; whilst a host of
crickets and lizards chirp and whistle under concealment of the
decaying- leaves, making- holyday the whole year round. That
shrubbery above is composed of a species otBakmeria, or Ardisia,
and that scarlet flower belongs to our native Aphelandra. In the
rear, there are one or two Philodendrons — disagreeable guests ;
for their smell is bad enough, and they blister when imprudently
touched. There also you may see a tree-fern, though a small
one. Nearer to us, and low down, below our feet, that rich
panicle of flowers belongs to a Begonia ; and here, also, is an
assemblage of ferns of the genera Asplenium, Hymenophyllum
and Tric/wmanes, as well as of Hepatica and mosses. But, what
are those yellow and purple flowers hanging above our heads ? —
They are Bignonias and Mucunas — creepers straying from afar,
and having selected this spot, where they may, under the influence
of the sun's beams, propagate their race. Those chain-like, fan-
tastic, strange-looking lianes, resembling a family of boas, are
Baukinias ; and beyond, through the opening, you see in the
abandoned ground of some squatter's garden the trumpet-tree
{Cecropia), and the groo-groo, the characteristic plants of the
rastrajo.

Now, let us proceed on our walk ; we are near the cascade : —
Here it is opposite you, a grand spectacle, indeed ! From a
perpendicular wall of solid rock, of more than thirty-three feet,
down rushes a stream of water splitting in the air and producing
a constant shower, which renders this lovely spot singularly and
deliciously cool. Nearly the whole extent of this natural wall is
covered with plants, among which you can easily discern numbers
of ferns and mosses, two species of Pitcairnia, with beautiful
red flowers, some aroids, various nettles, and, here and there, a
Begonia. How different such a spot would look in cold Europe I
Below, in the midst of a never-failing drizzle, grow luxuriant
ardisias, aroids, ferns, costus, heliconias, centropogons, hydro-
cotyles, cyperoids, and grasses of various genera — tradescantias
and commelynas, billbergias, and, occasionally, a few small
rubiacesB and melastomacese.

From near this spot we may start to ascend the Tocuche, our
highest mountain — it is about 3,100 feet. There I shall be af-
forded another opportunity of pointing out some natural beauties.
Through dense forests — composed of some of our choicest timbers,

400 TEINIDAD.

such as the locust, poui, and cedar, with here and there a wild
plum tree or a sterculia, and in which the under-wood is made
up of melastomaceae (Clidemia and Miconia), rubiacese, peppers,
grasses, and cyperacea? — you reach, about 1,500 feet higher up,
a region where the aspect of the woods begins to change.
Winds must blow here with great violence, at times, since the
ground is strewed with small branches; humidity also is
greater, as indicated by the number of mosses and ferns that
clothe the trunks of the trees. Here is a kind of bamboo
(Chusquea) , a climbing plant which is not to be met with in the
lower parts, and also very rarely on other mountains. The
growth and size of the trees decrease as we gradually ascend
higher and higher until we reach the summit, where they become
stunted and scarce, being replaced by a small palm (Geonoma).
Here occurs a new and interesting vegetation, which exhibits
some of the characters of the mountain districts of South
America, as described by Humboldt and others ; here, also, we
meet with one or two tree-ferns of a goodly size, a Thibaudia)
and the beautiful Utricularia montana, growing on trees like
other parasites. Nearly all the stems are covered with junger-
mannias and mosses, ferns and small orchids ; some spots are
covered, exclusive of all other plants, with another bambusaceous
grass, viz., the Platonia elata.

As has already been remarked, the woods of the plains do
not differ very materially from those of the lower mountains.
There are only two species of our forest trees that are gregarious
in growth, and that may be termed social — the Mora, which
covers extensive tracts of land in different parts of the island ;
and the mangrove {Rhizojohora) , which grows in the saline
swamps that border the sea ; the rhizophora is, however, gener-
ally accompanied by the other species of mangrove, viz., the
Avicennia and the Conocarpus. The conocarpus appears to be a
salt-plant, for I also found it near the mud-volcanoes, together
with a few other shrubs, and amarantaceous plants which thrive
near the sea-shore.

Next to our forests, our so-called " natural savannah
deserve notice. Four different classes may be distinguished, all
more or less denuded of trees and shrubs. The first class is the
periodically inundated savannahs of the coast, immediately in the
rear of the mangrove forests of Caroni and Chaguanas. Coarse

ive

FLORA OF THE SAVANNAHS. 401

grasses and cyperoids, together with a slight sprinkling of con-
volvuli, hibisci, sesbanise, echites, and a few others, characterise
these tracts ; as they stretch towards the interior and the high
woods, these plants become mixed up with grasses of a finer kind
— an Ambrosia, Malachra, Mimosa, &c. Next to the above
comes the savannah on the eastern side of the island, at a rather
considerable distance from the sea. Here again the principal
growth is of grasses and cyperoids, but of a different kind,
though those of the former are not altogether excluded ; but the
finer sorts are more prevalent here, and the whole district bears
a different appearance, particularly as this savannah is enlivened
by the mauritia palm. There exists, in its vicinity, an extensive
swamp covered with many trees, among which I have remarked
the Virola in great numbers, together with the Moronodea of
Aublet. Here also is to be found a splendid Crinum, from eight
to ten feet high when in bloom, the umbel of flowers measuring
more than a foot in diameter.

The savannah of Aripo differs from the above-mentioned ; it
is, in the interior, subject to periodical but partial inundations,
and covered with grasses and herbs altogether different, and, to
the naturalist, of a much higher interest than the former speci-
mens. The soil is a kind of sand covered with vegetable detritus.
It is impossible to describe the feelings of the botanist when
arriving at a field like this, so much unlike anything he has ever
before seen. Here are full-blowing large orchids, with red,
white, and yellow flowers ; and, among the grasses, smaller ones
of great variety and as great scientific interest ; melastomaceous
! plants of various genera {Arthrosiemma and Osbeckia) — utricu-
; krias, droseras, rare and various grasses, and cyperoids of small
| sizes and fine kinds, with a species of Cassytha ; in the water,
Ceratophyllum and bog-mosses. Such a variety of forms and
colours is nowhere else to be seen, or met with, in the island.
This scenery is enlivened by groves of moriche and cabbage palms,
growing here and there in great luxuriance in the more inun-
dated spots.

The transition from this kind of savannah to the dry savannahs
of the plain, or plateau, is exemplified in those known by the
name of O'Mara and Piarco. They do not exhibit that variety
of plants which adorn those already mentioned, but they still
retain the same striking features, and the soil is undoubtedly of

A A

402 TRINIDAD.

the same composition. The grasses are higher and coarser, and
the savanDahs themselves interspersed with two small trees — the
Chaparro (Curate Ha) and a BuncJiosia j here and there also a
shrub of Miconia, or Vismia, with byttnerias, ruellias, and
osbeckias. In the water-courses are to be found two plants, viz.,
an Eriocaulou and Tonina, which are perhaps to be found also
at Aripo, together with the following : Xyris, Mayaca, Hydrolea,
and, bordering on the high wood, Bapatea.

Somewhat resembling the above, but more destitute of
similar shrubs, are the savannahs of Icacos, and those of
Savanetta and Couva. The driest, however, as also the least
interesting of our "natural savannahs/' is that situated near
Arima. It is overgrown with chaparros, under whose scanty-
shade grow coarse scrophularacese, principally Beyrickia, with a
smaller quota of grasses and cyperoids ; and, in moist spots, an
abundance of Heliconia psittacorum.

I would not, without much hesitation, class the savannahs on
the mountains — from St. Joseph to Arima — among natural
savannahs. They may possibly owe their origin to the
destruction of forests by fire, in parts where the layer of soil
was too thin to nourish a fresh generation of trees. They offer |
little interest to the botanist, and yet their exploration is
rather difficult, the high rank grass they produce — Pennisetum, \
Setaria, Andropogon, &c. — being mixed up with cutting sclerias
and others. However, whenever these savannahs have been
cleared by burning, a more interesting vegetation succeeds ; and
I have found there, among other plants, several orchids,
Bucknera, &c.

After thus endeavouring to present a picture of our forests
and savannahs, as far as their botanical character is concerned,
I will now proceed to give an account of the rivers and
swamps.

Rivers with a rapid stream are of little interest to the botanist,
and we have already noticed what plants are met with on their
banks, when speaking of ravines and waterfalls. As to plants
vegetating altogether in water, there are hardly any beyond a
few algae adhering to the roots of trees : those of a larger size
would be carried away by freshets during the wet season. But
those watercourses which are rather mere estuaries, since their
waters become salt during the dry season, deserve peculiar notice.

FLORA. OP THE ISLETS OF THE BOCAS. 403

As soon as the wet season sets in, they are seen covered with a
thick carpeting of nymphaeas, utricularias, pontederias, and
azollas. This vegetation is nearly identical with that of our
swamps or lagoons, for instance, those of Erin and Quemada ;
they exhibit, however, a few other plants which are not found at
the above place, viz., Salvinia, Limnobium, Ceratophyllum, besides
Lemna and Pistia. The half -salt or brackish swamps nourish
principally large rushes, typhas, banisterias, and Echites biflora,
Acroslichum aureum, and, nearer to the sea, Crenea and Anthery-
lium. In small water-pools or rivulets, in the plains of the
interior districts, may be found Ammania and Jussieua,
Spilanthes, several species of Nerpestes, Mayaca, and Conobea.

On sandy beaches, we observe, before all, the beautiful Ipomea
Pes Capra and another species with white flowers, a Pancratium
and a Remirea ; also several grasses of the following genera : —
Paspalum, Cenckrus, Stenotaphrum, Cyperoids, and others.
Further inward we meet with a dense shrubbery of Chrysobalanus,
Conocarpus, Paritmm, and Bactris ; and beyond these, we may,
perhaps, observe fields of Gynerium saccharoides, or the white
roseau.

The vegetation of the pitch-lake has its peculiarities, although
no particular species grows there within my knowledge. In the
middle of this curious spot there is, of course, no vegetation
whatever, since the pitch is there in a state of ebullition ; farther
off this centre, and in the water of the many crevices which
intersect the lake in every direction, the first traces of vegetation
become perceivable — such as a few conferva) and a Chara ; at a
still greater circumference, the pitch, having been long exposed
to the agencies of sun and rain, has become disintegrated, and
in this kind of soil are found a few lichens, mosses, grasses, and
cyperoids. In other places, where this layer is looser and
thicker, we find the following : — a Clusia, Chrysobalanus
icacos, Anona palustris, Xyris, bromeliacese, and ferns. The
lake itself is bounded on one side by a kind of savannah — the
sterility of this spot being marked by an undue proportion
of sclerias, ferns, and melastomaceae (Osbeckia and Spennera),
together with bromelias dotting everywhere the rank grasses.

The islets of the Bocas are overgrown with plants which are,
| as it were, peculiar to them, and on that account they deserve a
1 distinct notice. These islets are, for the most part, drier than

404 TEINIDAD.

the mainland of Trinidad, which circumstance is, undoubtedly,
the great modifying cause inducing a botanical resemblance
between the former and the Windward Islands ; whereas the
flora of Guiana preponderates on the mainland. Any person
landing on one of these islets must be struck at once with the
difference : large bromelias, cactuses, and agaves everywhere
shoot up, with their characteristic features ; and the thickets of
brushwood are composed of helicteres, crotons, capparis, and
mimosas, under whose shade thrives a luxuriant vegetation of
evolvulus, ruellias, various commelynacese, amarantacesB and
compositae, with only a very few grasses. One ridge is wholly
occupied by the beautiful Coutarea speciosa, one of the bark-
trees of the West Indies.

The primaeval forests of these small islands were probably
destroyed at an early period, so that we cannot now affirm what
they then were ; but we must conjecture they were different from
those of the mainland. The few plants which are now standing
are of trifling interest to the botanist : besides, they do not dis-
play that marvellous vigour exhibited by the general vegetation
of Trinidad. Almost constantly buffeted by strong blighting
winds, they exhibit a ruffled appearance, just as the man,
harrowed by habitual passions, bears a peculiar cast of features.
These trees belong to the genera bursera, gomphia, sabinea,
bombax, and others.

Having thus, and as far as my abilities would allow,
sketched the general features of our vegetable world in its
natural state, I must now offer a few remarks on the appearance
it takes under the fostering care of man, and the modifying
influence of cultivation. The plants which are grown, directly or
indirectly, for the purpose of ministering to the sustenance and
convenience of man, have been fully noticed in the work to which
the present paper forms an appendix : they are therefore not to
be considered here. But a few plants formerly introduced into
Trinidad have been since allowed to degenerate into a wild
state ; of these I shall first speak. I must premise, however,
that my data are not sufficiently authentic, and, of course,
this part of my sketch, at least in a few instances, admits of
doubts.

The first family which claims our attention is that of grasses
— either as having produced a few troublesome intruders, or as

WILD PLANTS. 405

having supplied useful individuals. The Guinea-grass (Panicum
jumentorum), though not, I believe, indigenous to Trinidad, is
now found wild in some localities. A panicum grows at the
Bocas islands, called Guinea-grass ; it is very nearly allied to the
former, but I am dubious as to their complete identity. Next to
this comes the Para-grass, also a panicum, introduced here at
some trouble, and which soon became an intolerable nuisance. I
must also mention the Bahama-grass (Cynodon Linearis) ; this,
however, was not perhaps intentionally introduced or propagated
in the island. The same observation applies to the coco-nut tree.

A few amarantacese — for instance, Amaranthus spinosus —
were probably of foreign extraction, and accidentally imported.
Sesamum orientale grows wild here and there, but only in single
specimens.

Among crassulaceae, the Bryophyllum calycinum deserves to
be mentioned.

A few cucurbitacese were also brought in, no doubt, originally,
as an article of sustenance; but from their immense spread
they may now be considered almost as indifferent weeds ; such
are the common pumpkin and the mexicain (Momordica
balsamina).

Several species of opuntias and cereus are to be found every-
where ; these certainly are not indigenous.

Two species of clerodendron are regular pests all round
Port-of-Spain.

If, now, we turn to those plants which grow wild, although
not indigenous, being of fortuitous introduction, our knowledge
becomes more restricted still.

An European poa grows wild in the streets and courtyards
of Port-of-Spain, and I am inclined to believe that scourge of
the gardener and planter — the nut-grass (Cyperus hydra) — to be
a foreigner.

A number of so called cosmopolitan plants — such as the
Emilia sonchifolia, Eclipta erecta, Erigeron canadense, Datura
stramonium — are, in all probability, accidentally imported
species.

Another class of plants calls for a few remarks in this place
— I mean those which follow or accompany man on his path of
settlement and in his cultivations, which cover the walls of
neglected or abandoned dwellings, and are, for the most part,

406 TRINIDAD.

sure symptoms of his former residence in their localities. They
are hardly to be met with anywhere else ; so much so, that we
can judge with certainty, by the mere presence of certain plants,
that a plantation must have existed in such or such a place ; in
fact, that we are in a rastrajo. Now where, I would ask, were
the germs of these plants previous to the eradication or decay of
the original vegetation ?

The streets of Port-of-Spain are overgrown by a number of
plants of the genera cynodon, eleusine, cyperus, alternanthera,
and euphorbia ; these appear to become the more vigorous the
more they are trodden upon. Others could not resist or survive
this treatment, and, therefore, retire into vacant courtyards and
abandoned lots — as, for instance, the peperomia, several urticas,
and amaranthi, the ElephantJiopus spicatus, Eclipta erecta,
Parthenium hysterophorus, Synedrella nodiflora, a Hedyotis,
Leonurus Sibiricus, solanum, datura, and physalis, Scoparia
dulcis, Capraria biflora, a portulacca, a sida, and others less
common. On crumbling roofs and dilapidated mason- work we
may remark a barbula, Gymnogramma calomelanos, Dactyloc-
tenium jEgyptiacum, Poa ciliaris, Tradescantia discolor, urtica,
and parietaria, Boerhavia paniculata (Rich.), eupatorium, and
sonchus, borreria, and verbena, &c. Two vines, a cissus and the
Luffa operculata, cover nearly every old wall.

On road-sides, we meet with certain of the same plants we
have just now enumerated, mixed up with a variety of species
belonging to different families. Where the road traverses culti-
vated land, the following genera prevail : — Setaria, cenchrus,
sporobolus, chloris, saccharum, andropogon, cyperus, and f uirena ;
in moist situations, spermacoce and barreria, spigelia, asclepias,
schultesia, and sabiea, hypfis and salvia, rivinia, sida, urena,
euphorbia, and croton, osbeckia, crotalaria, seschynomene, and
hedysarum : these grow in company with shrubs of the genera
hamelia, randia, rauwolfia, and lantana; also with lianes and
vines, such as convolvulacese, bignoniacese, echites, stigmophyl-
lum, paullinia, and leguminosese. A somewhat different assem-
blage prevails where the path lies through a forest : there we
find ferns of the genera adiantum, lindsaea, trichomanes, lyco-
podium, and selaginella ; xiphidium, piper, bohmeria, various
rubiaceae, acanthaceae, and bignoniacese ; petiveria, triumfetta,
melastomaceaa, and others.

FOIiMS OF VEGETATION. 407

The sides of ditches are, generally, clothed with the fol-
lowing : — Bartramia, jungermanniacese, hemionitis, asplenium
and acnemia, lycopodium and selaginella ; various grasses
and cyperoids; dorstenia, leria, cephaelis, hedysarum, and
mimosa.

Cultivated grounds have also their peculiar inhabitants.
Polypodium, aspidium, lindsaea and adiantum, large setarias,
commelynacese, pupalia, centropogon, hedysarum and aroidese
delight in cacao plantations ; paspalum and panicum, cyperus and
mariscus, conyza and ageratum, eryngium, indigofera, hedysarum
and desmodium, herpestes and drymaria, and, but too frequently,
the alectra, or cane-killer, in sugar plantations : the alectra, how-
ever, is not limited to cane-fields. In provision grounds and
recently burnt land, the following genera occur : — Poa, panicum,
cyperus, erigeron, porophyllum, emilia, spilanthus, neurolama,
erechtites, solanum, mitreola, priva, oxalis, wedelia, cenchrus,
Scoparia dulcis, Eryngium fcetidum, microtea, and croton.

In abandoned lands will grow, at first, the foregoing weeds,
and soon after, the following shrubs : — Lantana, varronia,
psidium, ochroma, cecropia, and abroma, and, among palms, the
groo-groo, acrocomia, and astrocaryum.

The vegetation of our pasture-lands is composed, in addition
to grasses and cyperoids, of hypoxis, cipura, araceae, elephanthopus,
spermacoce, spigelia, echites, Asclepias curassavica, marsypianthes,
solanum, achetaria, sauvagesia, osbeckia, hedysarum, and mimosa.

It now remains for me to enter upon the enumeration of all
the genera I have had an opportunity of observing in the island
— a list that will interest the general reader much less than the
scientific man, or the student seeking information. Before, how-
ever, commencing this task, I will give a general sketch of what
Humboldt calls " Forms of Vegetation/' and how far each of
these is represented in Trinidad.

Palms. — These are largely represented here, and among them
we have the small geonoma, from three to four feet in height, as
well as the stately Oreodoxa, or Areca oleracea, with its lofty
crest towering above our forest giants, and the climbing desmon-
cus winding upwards and downwards among its neighbours,
sometimes to an enormous length. The pinnated-leaved genera
outnumber, by far, those with fan-shaped leaves, of which there
are only three species, to my knowledge. Our palms are seen to

408 TRINIDAD.

the best advantage in the savannahs at Aripo and the Cocal,
where they form groups at shorter or longer intervals.

Bananas. — This form embraces the plantain and banana, or
Indian fig, as well as the balisiers, the ginger and arrow-root
plants. We have a rich supply of these, and no doubt, in con-
junction with the palms, they impart to our landscape some of
its choicest features. Every person of taste must have been
struck with the exquisite beauty of some of our glens and river
hollows, in the composition of whose scenery the balisiers con-
tribute an important item.

Malvace^. — Humboldt finds the type of this form in those
gigantic trees known here under the common name of silk-cottons.
The latter we have in the island, as also a few others, viz., the
wild chestnut (Carolinea) and the cork-wood (Ockroma). The
first of these trees, the bombax, presents this striking peculiarit
that, besides its enormous proportions, it affords a hospitab
home to a multitude of parasites from numerous families — su
as ferns, wild pines, orchids, and cacti, besides a host of mosse
and liverworts.

Mimosa. — The elegance of this form, both as regards branches
and foliage, cannot fail to attract the attention of an observer.
Of these, the tamarind tree is the most common example, but
certainly not the most beautiful. This is to be found in the
ingas and the genera deriving from them.

Heaths. — We have nothing like this form.

Cactus. — Excepting on the Bocas islands, these have but few
representatives here, on account of the great fertility of the soil
and the abundant atmospheric moisture.

Orchids. — It is well known that we possess many individuals
of this strange family, though they are becoming more rare in
the vicinity of cultivations — at least their finer kinds. But in
the forests they occur at every step, displaying their graceful
forms and gorgeous hues.

Casuabinas. — There are a few of these — cultivated.

Pines. — We have no pines, except a few cultivated specimens,
stunted and miserable-looking, as if longing for iC sweet home.""
There is a ridiculous exhibition of them in front of Trinity
church, Port-of- Spain.

Pothos and Akoids. — We are very rich in this form, there
being all imaginable varieties of them. From the numerous

ne

t

FORMS OF VEGETATION. ' 409

species of anthurium, growing like parasites on trees, various
species of caladium and others ; from the widely known and
useful mamure {Carludovica) , which furnishes the settlers with
natural twine and rope, down to the dumb-cane (Dieffenbachid)
and smaller aroids growing on river-sides, together with the
curious cy clan thus — all are equally interesting and attractive.
Tanias and seguines belong to this form. An interesting plant
of this class is the Montrichardia, the largest of all, covering our
half -salt, brackish swamps for miles : its seeds supply a sort of
chestnut, which certainly no one would have expected.

Lianes. — We have already had occasion to observe how rich
our forests are in this form — the truly distinctive feature of the
tropical woods. A great number of families supply examples —
the most prominent being bignonias, malpighiaceae, bauhinias,
and dilleniacese : they assume all possible forms, sometimes being
twisted together like ropes, or flattened like tapes; sometimes
they creep up the highest trees, thence to hang down in elegant
festoons, or coil around the stems, like giant serpents, attempting
to stifle their supporters. A few run along the ground, their
hooks and thorns catching or tearing the incautious hunter, who,
in return, has honoured them with the appellation of Boyaux-
Diable (devil's-guts) and Crocs-ckien (dog's-teeth). Others hang
a few feet only from the ground, in readiness to cut and tear
the clothes of the treader of their mazes. A great many, on the
other hand, supply, in case of need, as I have more than once
experienced during my rambles in our forests, an abundance of
fresh water of a deliciously cool and refreshing quality. A
large proportion of our lianes bear the finest flowers ; I need
only mention the bignonias, dolichos, norantea, the passion-flowers,
and the securidaca.

Aloes. — There is but one plant here as a representative of
this form — the agave — which grows principally at the Bocas
islands, in great numbers and with much vigour.

Grasses — mainly arborescent. — Although the bamboo, which
chiefly represents this form in our island, is a foreigner, yet it
has spread all over the colony to such an extent that it becomes,
in many places, an indispensable adjunct to our island landscape.
We possess, however, an indigenous bamboo, which may be seen
at Caroni, Chaguanas, and Couva, and also the elegant chusquea,
which we have noticed on the Tocuche,

410' TRINIDAD.

Ferns. — We have a few tree-ferns, as I have already
mentioned ; but as they grow on the top of our highest momes,
they are not easily reached. Notwithstanding, the form of
ferns has here a large number of representatives, and in many
localities they add no inconsiderable charm to the refreshing
scenery of our valleys and ravines.

Lilies. — Although we have a number of very elegant
pancratiums, crinums, and amaryllides, yet a South American
island is not exactly the spot in which a botanist would seek or
expect a rich assemblage of these plants. The only part where
the importance of this form is exhibited to any advantage is the
swamp near the savannah at the Cocal.

Willows. — Not represented here.

Myrtles. — In dry and somewhat sterile spots, we generally
meet with a peculiar vegetation, characterised by not very lar£
trees, with slender branches, small leaves of a dark shining greei
and a roughness of the stem, owing to the shedding of th(
bark. These are myrtles. But the myrtle form does not posses
here that importance it assumes in higher latitudes, and in New
Holland.

Melastomas. — If we are rather poor in myrtles, this deficiency
is compensated by the melastomacese, a form not very remote
from the preceding. The plants belonging to it are, generally,
shrubs or small trees, with dark green leaves, distinguishable by
very prominent longitudinal ribs. The flowers commonly form
large rich clusters, and are frequently very fragrant. They are
closely allied to the next class.

Laurels. — This closes the list of forms as enumerated by
Von Humboldt. He adds to this form that tribe of plants to
which belong the mammee and the Matapalo of our forests —
distinguishable by a very fine foliage and large flowers, generally
fragrant. We are, therefore, induced to aggregate to them the
moronobea — one of the finest ornaments of our woods — the
different species of clusia, also the rose-apple tree, though an
exotic.

There is one form of trees which Von Humboldt has omitted,
and which cannot fail to attract the notice of the least attentive,
as very peculiar and highly characteristic. I would call it the
Papaw form.

Papayas. — A naked trunk, or branches, crowned by a cluster

GENERA OF PLANTS.

411

of large leaves with long stalks, will characterise this form.
Besides the type-form — the papaw — we must notice the trum-
pet-tree (Cecropia peltata) and a species of panax, common in
cultivated grounds.

I have now nearly arrived at the conclusion of my task, since
it remains for me but to give a list of all the genera I have, up
to the present time, had opportunities of observing. However
long and learned this list may appear to the general reader, yet
its perusal will afford but little satisfaction to the scientific man.
It is therefore natural that, for the information of the latter, I
should prefix this bare classification by a few words of explana-
tion. Though I have been engaged now more than fourteen
years in researches connected with the vegetable world of Trini-
dad, I have rather given preference to the study of morphology,
anatomy, and physiology, contributing the results of my investi-
gations therein, from time to time, to the scientific papers of
Germany. To the lower families of plants, in particular, 1 have
not been able to devote that time and attention they deserve ;
and, as a consequence, it will appear that they have been neg-
lected. I have also already explained ,the reason for my having
refrained from determining the numerous species of plants which
compose the flora of Trinidad.

A CATALOGUE OF THE DIFFERENT FAMILIES AND
GENERA OF PLANTS EXISTING IN TRINIDAD, AS
HAYING PASSED UNDER MY OWN OBSERYATION.

Algce-

Oscillaria.

Zygnema.

Conferva.

Yancheria.

Ulva

• • A*.

. . Pers.
. . Pers.

Fungi (continued)—
Phragmidium
Didymosporiurn
Coryneum . .
Tubercularia .
Psilonia

Sphaerococeus.
Zonaria.

Fusisporium .
Bacridium .
Oidium

Chara ....

Sporotrichum
Botrytis

Csenogonium.

Aspergillus .
Eurotium .

Fungi —

Pilobolus .

Torula ....

Erysibe . .

Link.

Nees.

Fries.

Tode.

Fries.

id.

Kunz.

Link.

id.

Mich.

id.

Link.

Tode.

Pers.

Reb,

412

TRINIDAD.

Fungi (continued)
Stemonitis
Physarum.
Geaster
Nidularia .
Clatlirus .
Phallus .
Hysterium
Sphaeria .
Hypoxilon
Tremella .
Peziza . .
Helvella .
Hydnum .
Polyporus
Agaricus (a)

Hepaticce —
Riccia . .
Anthocera
Marchantia
Jungermann

Musci —

Sphagnum
Fissidens .

Bryum . .
Bartramia
Calymperes
Syrrhopodon
Barbula .
Macromitrium
Dicranum .
Hypopterygium
Mniadelphus
Neckera .
Polytrichum
Hookeria .
Hypnum .
Filices —
Gleichenia
Mertensia .
Cyathea .
Cnemidaria
Alsophila .
Lastrea
Oleanara (b)
Nephrolepis
Polystichum
Aspidium .
Blechnum
Asplenium
Diplazium
Davallia .

Gled.

Pers.

Mich.

Fries.

Mich.

id.

Fries.

Hall.

Bull.

Dill.

id.

L.

L.

Fries.

L.

Mich.
Mich.
March.
Dill.

Dill.

Hedw.

Dill.

Hedw.

Sw.

Schu.

Hedw.

Br.

Hedw.

Brid.

C. Mill.

Hedw.

P. Bea.

Sw.

Dill.

Smith.

Willd.

Presl.

Presl.

Br.

Pres.

Cavan.

Schott.

id.

id.

L.

L.

Sw.

Smith.

Filices (continued)

Lindsaea . .

Dicksonia . .

Lomaria . .

Pteris . . .

Allosorus . .

Adiantum (c)

Cheilanthes .

Vittaria . .

Polypodium .

Marginaria .

Campyloneurum

Pleopeltis . .

Phymatodes .

Monogramma

Hemionitis .

Pleurogramma

Grammitis .

Meniscium .

Gymnogramma

Polybotria

Olfersia . .

Acrostichum .

Parkeria . .

Hymenophyllum

Trichomanes .

Aneimia . .

Schizsea . .

Lygodium

Ophioglossum
Hydropterides —

Azolla . .

Salvinia .
Lycopodiacece—

Lycopoclium

Selaginella
Balanophoracece

Helosis . .
Graminacece —

Leersia

Oryza . .

Pharus . .

Zea (d) . .

Coix (e) .

Paspalum (f )

Olyra . .

Eriochloa .

Panicum (g)

Stenotaphrum

Oplismenus

Pennisetum

Cenchrus .

(a) Our edible mushroom.

(b) Hart's-tongue.

(c) Maiden-hair.

(d) Maize.

(e) Job's tears.

(f) Lancet-grass.

(g) Guinea-grass.

GENERA OF PLANTS.

413

Graminacece {continu

ed) —

Hydrocharidacece

Sporobolus . .

. . R.B.

Limnobium .

Rich.

Gynerium (a)

. . H.B.K.

Burmanniacece —

Cynodon (b) . .

. . Rich.

Dictyostega .

Miers.

Dactyloctenium .

. . Willi

Iridacece —

Chloris . .

. . Sw.

Cipura . . .

Aubl.

Leptochloa . .

. . Pal.

Hcemodoracece —

Eleusine (c) . .

. . Gaert.

Xyphidium .

Poa

. . L.

Hypoxidacece —

Orthoclada . .

. . Pal.

Hypoxia . .

L.

Streptogyna . .

. . id.

Amaryllidacece —

Chusquea (d)

. . Kunth.

Amaryllis (m)

L.

Nastus (e) . .

. . Jus.

Crinum . .

L.

Tripsacum . .

. . L.

Pancratium .

L.

Eriochrysis . .

. . Pal.

Alstrcemeria .

L.

Saccharum (f) .

. . L.

Agave (n) . .

L.

Anthistiria . .

. . L.

Bromeliacece —

Andropogon (g) .

. . L.

Ananassa (o) .

. . •

Lindl.

Ischaemum . .

. . L.

Bromelia (p) .

L.

Cyperacece —

Bilbergia (q) .

Thun.

Scleria (h) . .

. . Berg.
. . Yahl.

Pitcairnia (q)

Herit.

Rhynchospora .

Tillandsia (q)

L.

Dichromena . .

. . Rich.

Gusmannia .

R.&P.

Remirea . . .

. . Aubl.

Orchidacece —

Diplasia . . .

. . Rich.

Pleurothallis .

R.B.

Fuirena . . .

. . Rottb.

Specklinia

Lindl.

Fimbristylis . .

. . Yahl.

Lepanthes

Sw.

Isolepis . . .

. . R.B.

Stelis^ . . .

id.

Cyperus (i) . .

. . L.

Liparis. . .

Rich.

Eriocau lonacece—

Bolbophyllum

Tho.

Eriocaulon . .

. . Gron.

Polystachya .

Hook.

Toiiina ....

. . Aubl.

Epidendrum .

L.

Xyi'idacece —

Isochilus . .

R.B.

Xyris ....

. . L.

Cattleya . .
Nanodes . .

Lindl.

Mayaca . . .

. . Aubl.

id.

Commelynacece —

Trizeuxis . .

id.

Comraelyna (j) .

. . Dill.

Ornithocephalus . .

Hook.

Aneilema . . .

. . R.B.

Maxillaria

R.&P.

Callisia . . .

. . Loeffl.

Bifrenaria

Lindl.

Tradescantia . .

. . L.

Catasetum

Rich.

Dichorisandra .

. . Mich.

Stanhopea

Hook.

Juncacece —

Gongora . .

•

R.&P.

Rapatea . . .

. . Aubl.

Coryanthes (r

) . . .

Hook.

Pontederiacece —

Peristera . .

id.

Pontederia . .

. . L.

Cymbidium .

Sw.

Smilacece —

Cyrtopodium

R.B.

Smilax (k) . .

. . Tourn.

Cyrtoptera .

Lindl.

Dioscoreacece —

Notylia . .

id.

Rajania . . .

. . L.

Ionopsis . .

H.B.K.

Dioscorea (1) . .

. . Plum.

Rodriguezia .

R.&P

(a) White roseau.

(g) Lemon-

grass. (m) Lily.

(b) Bahama-grass.

(h) Sword-

grass. (n)

Langue-boeuf.

(c) Pied-poule.

(i) Nut-gr

iss. (o)

Pine-apple.

(d) Vine bamboo.

(j) Herbe-

aprasse. (p)

Caratas.

(e) Common bamboo.

irilla. (q)

Wild pine-apple.

(f) Sugar-cane.

(1) Yam.

w

Macaque

414

TRINIDAD.

Orchidacece (continued) —

Burlingtonia ,

Macrodenia

Cryptarrhena

Oncidium (a).

Fernandezia

Dichsea

Brassia

Angrsecum

Habenaria

Spiranthes

Pelexia

Prescottia .

Cleistes .

Epistephium

Yanilla

Schomburgkia

Batemania

Paphinia .
Zingiberacece —

Alpinia (b)

Costus (c).
CannacecB —

Thalia . .

Maranta (d)

Calathea (e)

Canna (f ) .
Musacece —

Heliconia (g)
Naiadacece —

Zostera. .
Lemnacea? —

Lemna . .
Aracece —

Pistia . .

Caladium (h)
L Philodendron (i)

DiefOenbachia (j)

Monstera (k) .

Montricliardia

Massowia . .

Anthurium .
Typhacece —

Typha . . .

Lindl.

KB.

id.

Sw.

R&P.

Lindl.

RB.

Thou.

Willd.

Rich.

Poit.

Lindl.

Rich.

H.B.K.

Sw.

Lindl.

id.

id.

L.
L.

L.

Plum.

Meyer.

L.

L.
L.

L.

Vent.

Schott.

id.

Adans.

Criiger.

Koch.

Schott.

Tourn.

PandanacecB —
Carludovica (1)
Cyclanthus .

Palmacece —
Oreodoxa (m)
Mauritia (n) .
Geonoma . .
Manicaria (o)
Copernicia (p)
Thrinax . .
Desmoncus (q)
Bactris (r)
Guilielma (s) .
Acrocomia (t)
Astrocaryum .
Elais . . .
Cocos (u) . .

Taxacece —

Podocarpus .

Piperacece —
Piper (v) . .
Peperomia (w)
Ottonia (x) .

Ceratophyllacece —
Ceratophyllum

Ulmacece —

Celtis . . .

Moracece —

Morus (y) . .
Ficus (z) . .
Dorstenia (aa)

Artocarpacece —
Brosimum (bb)
Cecropia (cc).
Coussapoa
Trophis . .

Urticacece —
Urtica(dd) .
Boehmeria
Parietaria . .

Lacistemacece —
Lacistema . .

Amarantaceoe —
Iresine . . .

R&P.
Poit.

Willd.

L. son.

Willd.

Gaert.

Mart.

L. son.

Mart.

Jacq.

Mart.

id.

Meyer.

Jacq.

L.

Herit.

L.
R.&P.

Spren.

L.

Toun

id.
id.
Plum.

Sw.
L.
Aubl.
P.Br.

Tourn.

Jacq.

Tourn.

Sw.

Willd.

(a) Butterfly and flies.

(b) Mardi-gras.

(c) Canne-de-riviere.

(d) Arrow-root.

(e) Aruma.

(f) Tuluma.

(g) Balisier.
(h) Tanias.
(i) Serine.

(j) Seguine-diable.

(k) Ceriman.

(1) Mamure.

(m) Mountain cabbage.

(n) Moriclie.

(o) Timit.

(p) Carat.

(q) Groo-groo.

(r) Black rosea u.

(s) Pirijao.

(t) Groo-groo.

(u) Coco-palm,
(v) Black pepper,
(w) Herbe-couressc.
(x) Potomo.
(y) Fustic,
(z) Wild fig-tree,
(aa) Contra-yerva.
(bb) Moussara.
(cc) Trumpet-tree,
(dd) Nettle.

GENERA OF PLANTS.

415

AmarantacecB {continued) —

Alternanthera (a) . . Forsk.

Gomphrena . . . . L.

Pupalia Mart.

Amaranthus (b) . . L.

Chamissoa H.B.K.

Polygonacece —

Polygonum . . . . L.

Coccoloba(c). . . . Jacq.
Nyciaginacece —

Boerhaavia . . . . L.

Pisonia Plum.

Monimiacece —

Siparouna Aubl.

Tetratome .... Popp.
Lauracece —

Aiovea Aubl.

Ocotea id.

Cassytha L.

Hernandiacece —

Hernandia (d)
Proteacece —

Rhopala (e) . . . . Aubl.
Aristolochiacece —

Aristolochia (f) . . . Tourn.
Plantaginacece —

Plantago (g) . . . . L.
Plumbaginacece —

Plumbago Tourn.

Composite —

Odontoloma .... H.B.K.

Sparganophorus . . Yent.

Vernonia Schre.

Elephanthopus . . . L.

Rolandra Rottb.

Liabum Adans.

Pectis L.

Isocarpha R. B.

Ageratum L.

Hebeclinium . . . . de C.

Eupatorium (h) . . . Tourn.

Mikania(i) .... Willd.

Erigeron . . . . . de C.

Conyza Less.

Baccharis L.

Plucliea (j).... Cass.

Eclipta L.

Clibadium (k) . . . L.

Composite {continued)

Ambrosia (1)

Parthenium

Wedelia .

Melanthera

Wulffia .

Gymnopsis

Leighia

Bidens . .

Cosmos

Verbesina

Spilanthes

Synedrella

Porophyllum

Calea . .

Neurolsena (n

Erechtites

Emilia . .

Leria . .

Sonchus .
Lobeliacece —

Lobelia

Laurentia .

Centropogon
Pongatiece —

Pongatium
Rubiacece —

Borreria (n)

Spermacoce

Diodia . .

Cephaelis .

Palicourea

Psychotria

Coifea (o) .

Faramea .

Chiococca (p)

Lygodisodea

Nonatelia .

Sabicea

Hamelia .

Isertia . .

Gonzalea .

Hedyotis .

Sipanea

Calycophylk

Manettia .

Hillia . .

Coutarea (q)

Tourn.

L.

Jacq.

Rohr.

Neck.

deC.

Cass.

L.

Cai.

Less.

Jacq.

Gaert.

Vail.

R.B.

id.

Baffin.

Cass.

deC.

L.

L.

Neck.
Presl.

Jus.

Meyer.

L.

Sw.

Aubl.

L.

L.

Rich.

P. B.

R. &P.

Aubl.

id.

Jacq.

Schreb.

Pers.

Lam.

Aubl.

deC.

Mutis.

Jacq.

Aubl.

(a) Herbe-a-vache.

(b) Spinach.

(c) Sea-side grape.

(d) Mirobolant.

(e) Aguatapana.

(f) Snake -root.

(g) Plantain.

(h) Herbe-a-pino.

(i) Guaco.

(j) Guerit-tout.

(k) Barbasco.

(1) Altamisa.

(m) Herbe-a-pique.
(n) Macornette.
(o) Coffee,
(p) Petit branda.
(q) Bocas bark.

416

TRINIDAD.

Rubiacece (continued)-

Nauclea .

Bertiera .

Randia

Genipa. .

Ainaioua .
Oleacece —

Linociera .
Loganiacece —

Strychnos .
Apocynacece —

Allainanda

Yallesia .

Thevetia .

Rauwolfia.

Tabernseinontana

Echites

Dipladenia
Asclepiadacece —

Metastelma

Sarcostemma.

Philibertia

Asclepias .

Gonolobus

Marsdeiiia
Gentianaceee —

Yoyria . .

Schultesia .

Lisianthus

Coutoubea

Slevogtia .

Mitreola .
Spigeliacece —

Spigelia (a)
Labiatece —

Ocimum (b)

Marsypianthes

Hyptis (c)

Salvia . .

Leonurus .

Leonotis .
Verbenacece —

Lippia . .

Yerbena (d)

Priva . .

Lantana (e)

Tamonia .

Hosta . .

Yitex(f) .

Citharexylon

Duranta .

(a) Brinvilliers.

(b) Petit baume.

(c) Frombasin.

(d) Yerveino.

(e) Cariaquite.

L.

Aubl.
Houst.
Bl.
Aubl.

Sw.

L.

R.&P.

L.

Plum.
L.
P. B.

Al.

R.B.

id.

H.B.K.

L.

Rich.

R.B.

Aubl.
Mart.
P. B.
Aubl.
Rich.
L.

L.

Mart.

Jacq.

L.

L.

Pers.

L.

L.

Adan.

L.

Aubl.

Jacq.

L.

L.

L.

Verbenacece (continued)

Petrsea . . .

Amasonia . .

iEgiphila . .
Myoporacece —

Avicennia (g)

Bontia . . .
Gordiacece —

Cordia (h)
JEJhretiacece —

Ehretia . .

Beurreria . .

Tournef ortia .

Heliotropium
Convolvulacece —

E volvulus.

Convolvulus

Calonyction

Quamoclit

Batatas (i)

Pharbitis .
Hydroleacece —

Hydrolea

Wigandia
Solanacece —

Nicotiana .

Solandra .

Physalis .

Solanum .

Oestrum .
Scrophulariacece

Browallia .

Brunfelsia

Capraria (j)

Herpestes .

Achetaria .

Buchnera .

Scoparia (k)

Alectra (1)
Acanthacece —

Thunbergia

Hygrophila

Ruellia . .

Aphelandra

Eranthemum

Blechum .

Dicliptera

Tricbanthera
Bignoniacece —

Tecoma (m)

Spathodea (n)

(f) Fiddle-wood, or bois-

lezard.

(g) Mangrove,
(b) C>-p.

(i) Sweet potato.

(j) The-pays.
(k) Sweet broom.
(1) Cane-killcr.
(m) Poui.
(n) Cable-vine

GENERA OP PLANTS.

417

Bignoniacece {continued) —

Bignonia (a) . . . . Jus.
Gesneriacece —

Columnea Plum.

Besleria Plum.

Drymonia Mart.

Gesnera id.

Gloxinia Herit.

Rytidophylluin . . . Mart.

Conradia id.

Crescentiacece —

Crescentia (b) . . . L.
TJtricularice —

Utricularia . . . . L.
Myrsinacece —

Myrsine ..... L.

Ardisia Sw.

Jacquinia L.

Sapotaceae —

Clirysophyllum (c) . . L.

Sabatia Sw.

Achras(d) .... P. B.

Lucuma Jus.

Ebenacece —

Diospyros ...... L.

Ericacece —

Clethra L.

Thibaudia Par.

Umbelliferce —

Hydrocotyle .... Tourn.

Spananthe .... Jacq.

Eryngium Tourn.

Araliacece —

Panax L.

Ampelidacece —

Cissus L.

Loranthacece —

Yiscum L.

Loranthus . . . . L.
Menispermacece —

Cissampelos (e) . . . L.
Myristicacece —

Myristica (f ) . . . . L.
Anonacece —

Uvaria (g) L.

Anona (h) . . . . L.
Dilleniacece —

Curatella (i) . . . . L.

Dilleniacece. {continued) —

Doliocarpus

Tetracera .
Ranunculacece—

Clematis .
Papaveracece —

Argemone
Cruciferce —

Nasturtium (j)

Lepidium .

Sinapis. .
Capparidacece —

Cleome

Capparis .

Cratseva (k)

Hermupoa
Nymphceacece —

Nymphaea (1)
Droseracece —

Drosera .
Violacece —

Alsodeia .
Sauvagesiacece—

Turneracece —

Turnera .
Samydacece —

Samyda .

Gasearia .
Bixacece —

Bixa (m) .

Flacourtia (n
loracece —

Ryania . .

Passifiora (o)
Papayacece —

Carica (p) .
Cucurbitacece —

Feuillea (q)

Melothria .

Anguria .

Bryonia (r)

Luffa(s) .

Momordica (t)
Begoniaceae —

Begonia (u)
Cactacece —

Cerus . .

Rol.
L.

L.
Tourn.

R.B.

id.
Tourn.

deC.

L.

L.

Loeffl.

Neck.

L.

Thou.

L.

Plum.

L.
Jacq.

L.

Comm.

Yahl.

JU8.

L.
L.
L.
L.

Tourn.
L.

L.
Hau.

(a) Cable-vine.

(b) Calabash.

(c) Cainito.

(d) Sapodilla and Balata.

(e) Pareira-brava.

(f) White cedar.

(g) Fruta de Burro.

B B

(h) Sour-sop.
i) Chaparrio.
"Water-cress.
) Toco.
(1) Water-lily,
(m) Arnotto.
(n) Governor-plum.

Granadilla.

Papaw.

Secua.
(r) Bryony.
(s) Torchon,
(t) Mexicain.
(u) Wood-sorrel.

418

TRINIDAD.

Cactacece {continued)

Rhipsalis .

Opuntia (a)

Pereskia (b)

Phyllocactus
Portulacece —

Sesuvium .

Cypselea .

Portulaca (c)

Talinum .
Caryophyllacece-

Drymaria .
Phytolaccacece—

Petiveria .

Rivina , .

Microtea .

Phytolacca
Malvacece —

Urena . .

Pavonia .

Hibiscus (d)

Paritium .

Thespesia .

Sida (e) .

Malachra (f )
Sterculiacece —

Pachira

Bombax (g)

Ochroma (h)

Helicteres

Sterculia (i)
Byttneriacece —

Byttneria .

Guazuma (3)

Waltheria .

Melochia .
Tiliaceoe —

Sloanea

Apeiba . .

Triurnfetta

Muntingia
Ternstroemiacecu

Marila . ,

Quuna .
Clusiacece —

Clusia (k) . .

Calophyllum (1)

(a) Prickly-pear.

(b) Gooseberry.

(c) Purslane.

(d) Ochro.

(e) Broom-plant

(f) Mallow.

(g) Ceyba.

(h) Cork-wood,
(i) Mahaut.

Gaert.
Tourn.
Plum.
Link.

L.

Turp.
Tourn.
Adans.

Willd.

Plum.
L.

Sw..
Tourn.

L.

Cav.

L.

A. Jus.

Corr.

Kunth.

L.

Aubl.

L.

Sw.

L.

L.

Loeffl.
Plum.
L.
L.

L.

Aubl.
Plum.
L.

Sw.
Aubl

L.
L.

Clusiacece (continued)

Moronobea (m) .
Marcyraviacece —

Norantea (n)

Marcgravia
Hypericacece —

Yismia (0)
Meliacece —

Trichilia .

Guarea . .

Carapa (p)
Cedrelacece —

Cedrela (q)
Malpighiacece —

Hirsea . .

Triopteris .

Tetrapteris

Banisteria

Stigmaphyllon

Buncliosia
Erythroxylacece —

Erythroxylum
Sapindacece —

Cardiospermum

Seriana . .

Paullinia . .

Sapindus (r) .

Melicocca (s) .

Dodonsea . .
Polygalaceoe —

Polygala . .

Catacoma . .

Securidaca (t)
Hippocrateacece —

Hippocratea (a)

Tontelea . .
Bhamnacece —

Gouania . .
Chailletiaceoe —

Chailletia . .
Euphorbiacece —

Pedilanthus .

Euphorbia (v)

Dalechampia .

Hura (w) . .

Hippomane (x)

Microstachis .

Aubl.

Aubl.
Plum.

Yell.

L.
L.

Aubl.

Jacq.

L.

Car.

L.

A.J.

Rich.

L.

Plum.

L.

L.

L.

L.

L.

Bent.

L.

L.
Aubl.

Jacq.

deC.

Neck.

L.

Plum.

L.

L.

A. Jus.

0) E1m-

(k) Matapalo.

(1) Galba.

(m) Mountain-mangrove.

(n) Prince of Wales'

feather,
(o) Bois-sang.
(p) Carapa, or crapaud.
(q) Cedar.

(r) Savonette.

(s) Quenepe.

(t) Liane-paques.

(u) Sto. Domingo-nut.

(v) Euphorbs.

(w) Sand-box.

(x) Manchineel.

GENEEA OF PLANTS.

419

Euphorbiacece (continued)-

Tragia . . .

Acalypha . .

Omphalea . .

Mabea . . .

Jatropha (a) .

Curcas (b). .

Croton . . .

Phyllanthus .

Stillingia . .
Anarcadiacece —

Anarcadium (c)
Spondiacece —

Spondias (d) .
Burseracem —

Icica . . .

Bursera . .
ConnaraceoB —

Connarus . .

Omphalobium
Ochnacece —

Gomphia . .
Simaroubacece —

Quassia (e) .
Rutacece —

Esenbeckia (f)
Oxalidacece — •

Oxalis . . .
Combretacece —

Bucida (g) .

Terminalia (h)

Conocarpus (i)

Poivrea . .

Combretum .

Cacoucia . .
Bhizophoracece —

Rhizophora (j)
Legnotidece —

Cassipourea .
Onagracece —

Jussieua . .
Isythracece —

Ammannia .

Crenea . . .

Antherylium .
Melastomacece —

Spennera . .

Heteronoma .

Chactogastra

(a) Manioc.

(b) Medicinier.

(c) Cashew.

(d) Wild-plum,ormonbin.

(e) Bitter ash.

(f) Gasparil.
(g; Olivier.

Plum.

L.

L.

Aubl.

Kunth.

Adans.

L.

Sw.

Gard.

Rottb.

L.

Aubl.
Jacq.

L.

Gaert.

Schreb.
deC.
Kunth.
L.

L.
L.

Gaert.
Comm.
Loeffl.
Aubl.

Lam.

Aubl.

L.

Houst.

Aubl.

Rohr.

Mart.

id.

deC.

Melastomacece {continued) —

Arthrostemma . . . Par.

Osbeckia L.

Pterolepis . . . . de C.

Clidemia Don.

Tchudya de C.

Ossaca id.

Sagrsea id.

Oonostegia .... Don.

Diplochiton . . . . de C.

Pogonorhynchus . . Cr.

Henriettea . . . . de C.

Loreya id.

Tetrazygia .... Rich.

Miconia R. & P.

Glossocentrum . . . Cr.

Cremanium .... Don.

Chaenopleura . . . Rich.
Myrtacece —

Psidium (k) . . . . L.

Myrtus (1) .... Tourn.

Myrcia de C.

Marlierea St. Hil.

Lecythidacece —

Lecythis (m). . . . Loeffl.

Couroupita (n) . . . Aubl.
Drupacece —

Prunus (o) . . . . L.
Chrysobalanaceai —

Chrysobalanus (p) . . L.

Hirtella L.

Parinarium .... Jus.
Papilionaceo3 —

Crotalaria . . . . L.

Psoralea L.

Indigofera (q) . . . L.

Tephrosia Pers.

Sabinea de C.

Sesbania Pers.

JEschinomene . . . L.

Desmodium . . . . de C.

Rhadinocarpus . . . ~Vog.

Clitoria L.

Neurocarpum . . . Desy.

Centrosema . . . . de C.

Galactia P. B.

Canavalia de C.

Mucuna (r) . . . . Adans.

Erythrina (s) . . . L.

(h) Almond-tree.

(i) Black mangrove.

(j) Red mangrove.

(k) G-uava.

(1) Pimento, or bois d'Inde.

(m) Guatecare.

(n) Bomb-tree.

o) Noyau.

p) Icacos.
(q) Indigo,
(r) Cowhage.
(s) Bois-immortel.

420

Papilionacece (continued)-
Phaseolus (a)
Dolichos (b) .
Eriosema . .
Rhynchosia .
Abrus (c) . .
Amerimnum .
Drepanocarpus
Machserium (d)
Andira (e)
Mora (f ) .
Caesalpinia
Parkinsonia
Cassia (g) . .
Hyinenifia (h)
Caulotretus (i)

(a) Beans.

(b) Stump-pea.

(c) Liquorice.

(d) Roble(P).

(e) Angelim.

(f) Mora.

TRINIDAD.

Papilionacece (continued) —

L.

Bauhinia (j)

. . . Plum.

L.

Macrolobium

. Schr.

deC.

Copaifera (k).

. L.

id.

Brownea (1) .

. Jacq.

L.

Swartzia . .

. Willd.

P. B.

Pentaclethra .

. Bent.

Mey.

Entada . .

. L.

Pers.

Desmanthus .

. Bent.

Lam.

Mimosa (m) .

. L.

Bent.

Acacia (n)

. Willd.

Plum.

Calliandra .

. Bent,

id.

Inga (o) ; . .

. P. B.

L.

Pithecolobium

. Mart.

L.

Enterolobium

. . id.

Rich.

(g) Stinking- weed, and (1) Palo-rosa.

others. (m) Sensitive-plant.

(h) Locust.

(n) Acacia.

(i)- Tasajo-liane. (o) Pois-doux.

(j) Pata-de

-vaca.

(k) Balsam-

capivi.

CHAPTER XII.

HISTORICAL OUTLINE.

I have been urged by some friends to render this new edition
more complete by adding an historical sketch of Trinidad. I
must confess that I would never have attempted the task had I
been left altogether dependent on my own resources ; but I for-
tunately found in the " History of Trinidad," by E. L. Joseph,
and specially in Mr. G. Borders " Histoire de la Trinidad,"
the information and assistance which otherwise I would never
have been able to procure. Mr. Borde was even good enough
to place at my disposal the MS. of the second volume of his
history. To Mr. Fraser, also, I am indebted for information
respecting the government of the Commissioners and Sir Thomas
Hislop. However, I am alone responsible for what is reported
from the time of Sir Henry Macleod to the present day. This
sketch I publish for what it is worth ; a mere record of the more
interesting events connected with the annals of the colony.

As already stated, Trinidad was discovered on the 31st of
July, 1492, by the great navigator, Christopher Columbus.
' ' About mid-day," says Washington Irving, " a mariner at the
mast-head beheld the summits of three mountains arising above
the horizon. As the ships drew nearer, it was seen that these
three mountains were united at the base.

" Columbus had determined to give the first land he should
behold the name of the Trinity. The appearance of these three
mountains, united into one, struck him as a singular coincidence,
and, with a solemn feeling of devotion, he gave the island the
name of ' La Trinidad/ which it bears at the present day."
These mountains, rising at the back of Punta Tablas, are known
as the "Three Sisters." The south-eastern point was next
sighted, and received the name of " Point Galera," instead of
f Point Galeota," by which it is now known.

422 TRINIDAD.

Columbus immediately sailed westward along the southern
coast, looking for a safe roadstead and water. He anchored in a
small bay, probably that of Moruga, where he took a supply of
water. The next day he again dropped anchor, most likely in
the bay of Erin. On landing he saw on the sandy beach human
footsteps, and picked up some fishing implements.

Here and there were thatched huts and patches of cultivated
grounds. It was during his navigation along the coast that
Columbus discovered, towards the south, a low land, which he
designated by the name of " Isla Santa/'' This Isla Santa was
nothing else but part of the Delta of the Orinoco, or of the
continent of South America ; and from that day we should date
the discovery of the Continent, not by Amerigo Vespucci, but by
Columbus. The next day he was off Point Jicacos, or " Punta
Arenal," as he termed it, forming with a line of rocks a narrow
pass, near which he anchored his vessels. To the principal
these rocks he gave the name of " El Gallo," and to the ps
itself that of " Boca de la Sierpe," or the serpent's moutl
"Whilst at anchor his caravel was approached by a large cane
with some twenty-five islanders; they, however, stood at
distance, and soon paddled off to the shore.

During the night of the 2nd o£ August he had the opporti
nity of witnessing the phenomenon of a ground swell; his
vessels were lifted up by the surge, whilst one of the caravels
lost its anchor. Some time in the year 1877 an anchor was
found imbedded in the sand at Constance Estate, Point Jicacos,
and deemed to be the anchor lost by Columbus. Mr. Fr.
Agostini, the owner of La Constance Estate, had the same sent
to the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1878.

Columbus on leaving his anchorage at "Punta Arenal/'
entered the Gulf of Paria, and, on finding its water nearly fresh
at places, came to the conclusion that some large rivers must
discharge their contents into it, and gave the Gulf the name of
" Mar Dulce " — the fresh sea. After some days' sailing in the
Gulf, Columbus debouched into the Atlantic, through the Grand
Boca.

The island, of which the name was " Cain/' as reported by
Sir Walter Raleigh, or " Yere " — the land of humming-birds —
according to Joseph, was, as it appears, well settled and pretty
densely inhabited by Caribs, who were subdivided into smaller

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 423

tribes; viz., the Nepoios, Yaios, Carinapagotos, and Cumana-
gotos; also by Aruacas, Chaymas, Tamanacos, Chaguanas,
Salivas, and Quaquas. As it appears, these people were formed
into two confederacies, or leagues, with two chiefs, Buchumar and
Maruane. These aborigines were well made and brave.

The island was visited in succession by several adventurers.
In 1499 by Ojeda, in partnership with Amerigo Vespucci and
Juan de la Cosa ; a little later by Pedro Alonso Nino ; in De-
cember, same year, by Vicente Yanez Pinzon, both companions
of Columbus in former voyages; and in 1500 by Diego de Lope.
It appears also that Christobal Guerra, the companion of Nino,
sailed in 1501 for the Gulf of Paria. In 1502, Alonzo de Ojeda
made a second voyage to Trinidad. Pearls seem to have been
the principal, if not the sole, article of trade.

To the year 1510 no attempt had yet been made to conquer
or civilise the island. In that year, however, the Provincial of
the Dominicans sent two of his religious to Trinidad, with the
object of converting its inhabitants to Christianity. They were
at first successful, as the Indians manifested a willingness to
become Christians and be baptized. A Spanish vessel having
anchored in the Gulf meanwhile, the Indians, instead of keeping
aloof as they were wont to do, received the new comers with
great demonstrations of friendship, as compatriots of the
reverend fathers. They were easily induced to come on board to
bargain ; but when a sufficient number had been thus enticed,
the captain weighed anchor, and sailed with the poor deluded
creatures. The natives, being convinced that the monks had
connived at the treacherous act, would have massacred them on
the spot but for their promise that they would obtain the release
of the prisoners. They were allowed a few months of respite ;
but the release of the prisoners having been refused at Santo
Domingo, the poor monks were made to atone for the crime of
the kidnappers. Subsequently unscrupulous adventurers did not
hesitate to resort to the nefarious practices of their predecessors ;
and the poor natives of Trinidad were either carried off and sold
into slavery, or killed by thousands whilst defending their inde-
pendence.

Some thirty years had elapsed since the discovery of Trinidad,
and no attempt had yet been made to settle it permanently.
The time, however, was near at hand when, from its geographical

424 TEINIDAD.

position, it began to attract attention. The Royal Treasurer at
Porto Rico, Don Antonio Sedeiio, asked for, and obtained, a licence
to conquer the island; and, in the year 1528, the king, by letters
patent, appointed him Governor and Captain-General of Trinidad.
Sedeiio then returned to Porto Rico to make his preparations; and
in the beginning of the year 1530 he left that island with two
vessels and seventy men. He was, on his landing on the
southern coast — at Erin, it is supposed — cordially received by
the natives and one of their caciques, or chiefs, called Chacomar.
His first act was the construction of a fortified building.
He treated the natives conciliatorily, and paid generously for
whatever assistance they gave him. But both provisions and
money became scarce ; and Sedefio, being unable to pay for
food, did not scruple to plunder the provision grounds of the
natives. The exasperated Indians resisted, and came to the
determination of driving the invaders away by all means
Fighting began in earnest, and the Spaniards were reduced t<
the last extremities. Sedeiio in this stress sought and obtaine
advice from his friend Chacomar ; and, by following his direc-
tions, was, for some short time, relieved from starvation and left
undisturbed. Fighting, however, was soon resumed, and the
fortified barracks furiously assailed; but the assailants were
repulsed with great slaughter. The position had become most
critical, and it was agreed that Sedefio should go to Porto Rico
for provisions and fresh reinforcements, and that his companions
should temporarily retire to the neighbouring continent, where
they expected to be left unmolested. In order, however, to be
prepared for all eventualities, they erected a fortified enclosure,
where they collected whatever provisions they could procure.
This enclosure, or fort, was built near Cano Perderuales. He
appointed as his lieutenant and commander of the fort one Juan
Gonzales, and sailed for Porto Rico. Soon after his departure,
the Spaniards were attacked by the Indians, and reduced to the
last straits. They were timely relieved by Geronimo de Ortal,
a rival of Sedefio, who induced them to break faith to their
Governor, with the exception of Gonzales and a few others.
Sedefio, who had returned from Porto Rico, retook possession of
the fort by misleading its commandant, Captain Agustin
Delgado, whom he took as his associate; he then sailed for
Trinidad, after appointing Bartolomeo Gonzales commandant

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 425

of the fort. It was not long before he was compelled to return
to the continent to retake possession of the fortified house on the
coast of Paria, which had been delivered up to one Alonzo de
Hen-era, by Gonzales. Herrera and Gonzales were made prisoners
and taken over to Trinidad, and Delgado appointed commander.
Sedeflo had constant quarrels, now. with Herrera, then with the
Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo. He was of violent temper and
rather unscrupulous. His own men revolted against him and
made him prisoner, but, dissensions having occurred among them,
he was soon relieved. Finding himself in a precarious position,
he decided on again returning to Porto Rico, leaving Agustin
Delgado as his lieutenant in the island. During his absence,
Diego de Ortal landed in Trinidad, and was joined by Delgado ;
they then both left the island for the continent.

Sedeflo, finding it difficult to enrol people for the conquest of
Trinidad, began to give countenance to the reports respecting the
marvellous riches of the neighbouring continent, and thus suc-
ceeded in enlisting 140 men and procuring fifty horses, which
troop he directed to the main where he had been authorised to
establish his head-quarters. There he attempted to dissuade his
men from going in search of the promised treasures, and to
induce them to complete the conquest of Trinidad, but in vain.
He was compelled to follow them, but was soon after poisoned by
a slave woman, and died in 1540. Thus ended the first Spaniard
who had attempted the conquest of Trinidad, and who may be
said to have been its first Governor.

From the death of Sedeflo to the year 1570, say during a
period of thirty years, the Gulf of Paria was visited only by
slave dealers, who had but one object in view — Indian slave
trading.

About this year, 1570, a Creole of Santo Domingo, Juan
Ponce, made application to the Spanish Government, and obtained
letters patent permitting the conquest, and granting to him the
government of Trinidad. Being bent on success, Ponce took
with him some monks and a few emigrants, and arrived safely in
Trinidad some time at the end of 1571. The natives showed
resistance, and had, as effective auxiliaries, mosquitoes and other
vermin, which played mischief with the intruders ; they died by
scores, a small number only having succeeded in leaving the
island. As to Don Juan Ponce, it is not known what became of

426 TUINIDAD.

him. He probably succumbed to the cachexy which had deci-
mated his people.

In 1576 two missionaries, members of the Society of Jesus,
came to Trinidad, and settled at Puerto de los Hispanioles (Port-
of- Spain), where they began to preach the Gospel to the Indians;
but they soon abandoned the task, and retired to the continent.

It is a well-known fact that the great object of those who
flocked to the New World was to enrich themselves by the
discovery of precious stones and precious metals. About this
time the Dorado was the great attraction. It was supposed to
lie in Guiana, and many already had been the efforts directed
towards the discovery of that inexhaustibly rich country, accord-
ing to the rumours propagated by the Indians and one Juan
Martinez, otherwise Juan Martin de Albujar.

The province of Guiana formed part, as it seems, of the
Government, or Capitania- General, of New Grenada, of whicl
Gonzalo Ximenes de Quesada was Captain-General. He had as
companion one Antonio de Berrio y Orufia, an enterprising an(
upright man of great energy. Don Antonio de Berrio, having
married Quesada's niece, was left by him sole heir of his large
fortune, on condition that he would prosecute the conquest o]
the Dorado. He, therefore, set on his undertaking in earnest,
and came down the Meta and the Orinoco, losing on his waj
down the rivers a large number of men and beasts. There ht
heard more of the Dorado. Being, however, unable to commence
the conquest of that fairy land, he came to Trinidad, there to
make his preparations. It was about the year 1584. De Berrio,
after firmly establishing himself in Trinidad, went to Margarita
and Cumana in search of reinforcements ; he then returned to
the island, and succeeded in subjugating the natives, and estab-
lishing a regular form of government. He then decided on
building a town, some six miles to the eastward of Puerto de los
Hispanioles, and gave it the name of " San Jose de Oruna/'
which was for several years the capital of the island. The site
was well chosen on an eminence, with the river Saint Joseph
running by, to the Caroni, which it joined about two miles south-
ward. He also built another town on the right bank of the
Orinoco at the spot known as " San Tome de Guiana," or
" Vieja Guiana."

Spain pretended to be the sole power which had a right to

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 427

the lawful possession of the New World ; and it may be said
that she was mistress of the continent from Mexico down to
Chili. The other nations being jealous of her dominion and
covetous of her great riches, privateers — French, English, and
Dutch — were suffered to organise a regular warfare against her
commerce ; and whenever Spain was at war with any foreign
country, they joined in attacking her merchant navy at sea and
her dependencies on land.

More intimately connected with the history of Trinidad, at
this period, are the two expeditions of Sir Walter Raleigh in
search of the Dorado. It was in the year 1594 that he preluded
his expedition by sending Captain Widdhon to Trinidad, with
the object of getting information respecting the Dorado. It
seems that, whilst anchored off Port-of- Spain, a party of English
ventured out in the neighbourhood, but were never seen again.
The probability is that they were killed by the Spaniards, or at
their instigation.

On the 22nd of March, 1595, Sir Walter Raleigh arrived at
Trinidad, and anchored in the Gulf. He was well received by
the Spaniards, which did not deter him from entering into
relation with the Indians, from whom he received full informa-
tion respecting the small number of men in the island, the town
of San Jose, where de Berrio was then staying, and directions
for reaching the capital. De Berrio, who had reason to suspect
the intentions of the English, had sent messages to the Governors
of Margarita and Cumana asking for assistance. On the other
hand, Sir Walter Raleigh, who had found ready concurrence
among the caciques, or chiefs of the Indians, decided on attacking
de Berrio and his town. As related by him, " taking a time of
much advantage, he set upon the Corps de Garde, Port-of- Spain,
in the evening, and having put the soldiers to the sword, he sent
Captain Culfield onward with sixty men, and soon followed with
forty more, to the attack of San Jose de Orufia. The city was
taken at daybreak, and set on fire at the request of the Indians.
Don Antonio de Berrio fought bravely at the head of his men,
but was made prisoner.-" Sir Walter then returned to Puerto de
los Hispanioles, bringing with him de Berrio and one of his
lieutenants as prisoners.

Raleigh then set off on his expedition to the Dorado, taking
de Berrio with him ; the Governor was, however, released when

428 TRINIDAD.

Sir Walter left the island to return to Europe. Having" decided
to remain at San Tome, de Berrio left one of his lieutenants in
command of the island. The latter, with the aid of the few-
soldiers who had escaped and other inhabitants, began rebuilding
San Jose. De Berrio meanwhile was making preparations for
the discovery and conquest of the Dorado; but he met with
only disastrous results, and died at San Tome in 1597, disap-
pointed.

" This Berrio," says Walter Raleigh, " is a gentleman well
descended, and has long served the Spanish King in Milan,
Naples, the Low Countries, and elsewhere, very valiant and
liberal, and a gentleman of great assuredness, and of a great
heart."

He was succeeded by his son, Don Fernando. Don Fernando,
having been deprived of his command, was superseded by Dor
Sancho Alquiza, who acted as Governor to the year 1615.
However, Don Fernando succeeded in obtaining his restoratioi
to power ; but, as a successor had been meanwhile appointed
Don Alquiza — viz., Don Diego Palomeque de Acuna — it wz
agreed that the latter should retain the government of Trinids
and Guiana for two years — from 1616 to 1619. Don Diegr
Palomeque had instructions to protect Guiana against the pre-
meditated invasion of Sir Walter Raleigh. Lieutenant Ramc
took command of the island

At the end of the year 1617, Sir Walter Raleigh came
anchor under El Gallo, and from there sent boats to attack
San Tome. The town was taken by storm after a stern resis-
tance, and the brave Acufia was killed.

After the capture of Santo Tome, the English began to
search for supposed hidden treasures ; but they were incessantly
harassed by the few surviving Spaniards and the Indians. They
then decided on ascending the Orinoco and its affluents, in the
hope of finding provisions and discovering gold ; none could be
found, and, after a few weeks, they returned to San Tome, where
they were again attacked by the Spaniards and Indians. Sir
Lawrence Keymis, seeing no prospect of succeeding, rowed down
the river and arrived at Trinidad. He was scornfully received
by Sir Walter, and committed suicide.

This was the last attempt to conquer Guiana and occupy the
Dorado. For many years this region of Dorado was regarded as

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 429

a myth ; but it has proved, in our days, to be a reality. The
province of Guiana seems to be very rich in the precious metal.
Gold has been found in many places ; the Callao mine is reported
as very rich ; quite lately nuggets have been found at a place
called La Pastora.

Don Diego Palomeque being dead, de Berrio resumed his
government in 1618 and died in 1622, after a somewhat quiet
government.

What was the condition of Trinidad at the death of Don
Fernando? The native population had been thinned by war,
starvation, and kidnapping, and the' European population was
still very small. There was not any regular trade between the
island and foreigners. San Jose, the capital, had about six
hundred inhabitants.

It was about this time that the various European nations,
jealous of the power acquired in America by Spain, and annoyed
at their systematic exclusion, began to show opposition and try
their strength in the Antilles. French, English and Dutch
adventurers, secretly encouraged and supported by their respective
governments, contrived to occupy the smaller islands, and to
form regular associations under the name of Buccaneers and
Filibusters. These combined to make depredations on the
Spaniards, both on land and at sea. In 1640 the Dutch attacked
Trinidad, and captured the town of San Jose. The inhabitants
had abandoned the place, and the enemy was disappointed at
finding no booty. On descending the river Caroni they were
met by the Spaniards and Indians, who inflicted on them heavy
losses, compelling them to retire to Essequibo unsuccessful. In
1672 the British attacked the island, under the leadership of Sir
Tobias Bridges from Barbados. He had landed his troops on the
eastern coast, but suffered heavily in his attempt to reach St.
Joseph, through the thick forest which covered the whole island.
In 1677 Trinidad was once more invaded by the French, under the
command of the Marquis de Maintenon, who had orders to attack
the Spaniards and their colonies. De Maintenon ransacked the
colony and carried away the spoils. The progress of the island
was thus arrested, and great misery prevailed.

Trinidad was then a dependency of the government of Nueva
Andalusia, and was governed by delegates from Cumana. The
following gentlemen, according to Salcedo, acted as Governors

430 TRINIDAD.

during the period extending from 1640 to 1687 : Martin de
Mendoza y la Hoz ; Juan de Urpin ; Christobal de Vera ; Pedro
de Brizuela ; Pedro de Padilla ; Juan de Viedena ; Jose de Aspe
y Zufiiga; Francisco Ventura y Rada; Juan Bautista de
Valdez ; Juan Bravo de Acufia ; Diego Ximenes de Aldama ;
Francisco de Rivera y Galindo ; and Juan de Padilla y Guar-
diala.

It was about this time (1687) that one Rodriguez Leite,
conceived the idea of bringing the Indians to civilisation, not bj
compulsion, but by persuasion. He, therefore, prepared a plai
of evangelical missions, and addressed a memorial to the Bisho]
of Porto Rico, which was, by him, forwarded to the Court of
Spain with pressing recommendations. Accordingly a Royal
Cedula was issued in 1687, prescribing the formation of villages
or missions of convert Indians, who were declared exempt froi
all taxation for a period of twenty years. They could no mort
be compelled to work on private properties. These missions wert
established by the Aragonese Capuchin Fathers. It was alsc
about this time that a Governor was appointed for Trinidad,
Don Antonio de Leos y Echales, the colony still remaining
dependency of Cumana. To him we may trace a regular civil
organisation. Before his appointment the Spanish colonists tool
unauthorised possession of the public lands, whether they worke(
them or not.

Five missions, or villages, were established by the Capuchii
Fathers ; viz., that of Purissima Conception, where San Fernand<
is now built ; that of Annunciacion of Savanna Grande, now th<
village of Savanna Grande or Princestown ; that of San Jose,
in Montserrat, near the Mayo river, at a spot where there still
exist a few vestiges of the old village ; that of Santa Anna de
la Savanetta, on Rivulet Estate; and that of San Francisco
de Arenales, somewhere near Tumpuna. The Indians of this
village, having heard that the Governor was coming on a visit
of inspection, took fright and traitorously murdered the mis-
sionaries, after which they laid in ambush for the Governor and
his suite, whom they also massacred. However, they paid dearly
for their treachery, as they were chased like wild beasts, and
killed almost to the last man.

In the year 1690 the French attacked Trinidad, under the
conduct of Levassor de la Touche. The leader was severely

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 431

wounded at the attack of San Jose de Orufia, but was allowed
to retire unmolested.

The colony at last began to enjoy some peace, and agriculture
to receive some share of attention. The principal article culti-
vated was cacao, which was proclaimed by Gumilla as superior, for
its fine aroma, to the cacao of Caracas and other places. It was
so much praised that the crops were bought beforehand. The
Governors, at this period, were Felipe de Antieda, Christobal de
Guzman, Pedro de Yarza, Martin Perez de Anda y Salazar.
Don Felipe de Artieda it was who, at the urgent request of
the colonists, obtained such changes in the organisation of the
missions as permitted the employment of the Indians as labourers
on private properties. The Reverend Fathers strenuously opposed
the change, but a Royal Cedula, dated 15th August, 1703,
changed the then existing missions into doctrinal missions, with
a civil chief appointed by the Governor, under the title of
corregidor, or magistrate. Three doctrinal missions were then
established; viz., that of Tacarigua, among the Tacariguas tribe;
that of Cuara or Caura, at the entrance of the valley of the same
name; and that of Arauca or Arouca, on the territory of the
Aruacas Indians.

The prosperity of the colony had now reached its culminating
point, cacao selling at a very high price. But in the year 1727,
according to Gumilla, not a disease of the trees exactly, but a
blight attacking the pods under certain atmospherical influences,
destroyed the crops. The trees were apparently healthy, got
flowers and young fruits, but none came to maturity. Cacao
cultivation being the only resource of the island, complete, irretriev-
able ruin followed. The starving people abandoned the colony,
and the population, exclusive of the Indians, had been reduced, in
the year 1733, to the scanty number of 162 adults; of these
twenty-eight only were white. The colonists had sought refuge
on the neighbouring continent, taking with them their slaves,
plate, and jewellery. The public revenue fell to the derisory
sum of 231 dols. Rank vegetation overran the cultivated fields
and covered the dwellings.

The Governor, Don Aredondo, had retired from the govern-
ment in 1730, and delivered it up to Don Bartolomeo de Adunate
y Rada, who died three years later. Under his administration,
Trinidad had sunk in the deepest misery.

432 TRINIDAD.

Gumilla mentions that about the year 1732 the soil sank at
Point la Brea, and gave origin to the lake ; but it is well known
that asphaltum existed there before the occurrence.

After the death of Don Bartolomeo, the colony was
administered by the two alcades, Jose Orbay and Pedro
Ximenes. It was about this time that the Capitania-General
of Caracas was established, of which Trinidad became a de-
pendency.

The colony, however, was slowly recovering from its depressec
condition, and the census of 1733 had given, exclusive of tl
Indians, 2,000 inhabitants, of whom 500 were whites, and about
1,500 blacks and mestizos, slaves and free people. The revenue
had risen to 1,200 dols.

In October, 1735, Don Esteban Simon de Lilian y Vei
took from the alcades, Orbay and Ximenes, the government oi
the island. Twelve years after the cacao blight, in 1739,
terrible epidemic of small-pox ravaged the colony. The Governoi
left for Cumana, without notification to the Cabildo, but hi
appointed Major Espinosa to act during his absence. The
Cabildo, considering his appointment illegal, would not recognis
his authority. The major called out the militia; the Cabild(
interfered, and the militia sided with the popular authorities.
The two alcades, Orbay and Ximenes, then took in hand the
administration of the colony. On his return to Trinidad, Do]
Esteban met with strong opposition on the part of the people
virulent accusations were brought against him ; matters waxee
worse and worse; the Governor was arrested, sent to Port-of
Spain, and put in irons. The Cabildo, which, meanwhile, hae
remained inactive, issued a decree, declaring Don Lilian fallei
from his position of Governor and an usurper, proving by this
and other harsh measures its connivance with the mob. Mean-
time Major Espinosa had gone to Cumana to report the events.
The Governor of Cumana was ordered to proceed to Trinidad, and to
release the prisoner. Don Feliz Espinosa landed at Port-of- Spain
at the head of a strong body of troops, and released the Governor.
The latter, however, broken down by his long captivity and
cruel sufferings, was unable to resume his functions. The two
alcades, M. Lozado and Soto, were sent to prison and put in
irons, whilst their accomplices were sentenced to ten years'
banishment. The goods of the two alcades were confiscated,

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 433

and the proceeds applied to defraying the expenses of the suits
instituted and the expedition.

Captain Feliz Espinosa administered the colony as Acting
Governor for a period of six months, when Juan Jose de Salcedo
was appointed Governor. He also had to quarrel with the
Cabildo, but, in order to have peace, let things alone. The in-
habitants who had been banished were allowed to return. The
Governor having been laid prostrate by an attack of apoplexy,
the alcades came forward, claiming the administration of the
colony. Don Juan de Salcedo was succeeded by Captain Fran-
cisco Nanclares. He also, as his predecessors, had to suffer from
the interference of the Cabildo in the administration of the
public affairs of the colony. Governor Nanclares had for his
successor Colonel Don Pedro de la Moneda (1757). Unable to
find a suitable house in San Jose de Orufia, de la Moneda retired
to Port-of- Spain, which thereby became the chief town, the
illustrious Cabildo being left in peaceful occupation of San
Jose.

It was about this time that an attempt was successfully
made to re-introduce the cacao plant. A new species, the Cacao
f or aster oy which being hardier, though not yielding the same fine
quality, succeeded beyond expectation. It is this cacao which is
still cultivated in our days. It was also about this time that
the Aragonese Capuchin Fathers formed new missions, by con-
gregating together the native Indians ; viz., at Arima, Toco,
Siparia, and, on the eastern coast, at Matura, Cumana and
Salibia.

The Cabildo, nothing daunted, persevered in showing seditious
dispositions; a conspiracy was even planned against the Governor;
but being discovered in time, miscarried, on which occasion the
Governor addressed to the Cabildo a most severe and cutting
rebuke. Colonel de la Moneda governed wisely, and was pro-
moted to the government of Popayan.

Captain Don Jacinto San Juan was appointed his successor,
and fixed his residence in Port-of-Spain. It appears that against
this Governor also the Cabildo conspired ; and he had to resign
in the hands of Don Antonio Gil, about the year 1762. A
conspiracy was weaved against this new Governor also, at San
Tome de Guiana, but failed. The Governor having left for Mar-
garita, appointed Don Juan de Bruno to act in his place. Don
c c

434 TRINIDAD.

Juan was relieved from his functions, in 1766, by Captain Don
Jose de Flores. He also, during the whole time he was Governor,
had to resist the pretensions of the Cabildo, apparently intent
to throw difficulties in the way rather than assist in conducting
the affairs of the colony. Thoroughly disgusted with the people,
Governor Flores asked repeatedly to be relieved from his office ;
but it was only in 1773 that Don Juan Yaldez y Varza assumed
the government of the island. He was energetic, and succeeded
in defeating the ill dispositions of the Cabildo.

It may be said that, during a period of fifty years, and from
the failure of the cacao crop, the colony had dragged on a
miserable existence, and suffered from the persisting antagonism
of the Cabildo, which evidently could not have been actuated by
a sense of patriotic opposition, but by vanity and interestec
motives.

Thus had Trinidad been gradually reduced to the state oi
marasmus, from which it could not be expected to recover except
by an infusion of healthy blood. The population was scanty,
amounting to about 1,000 souls, exclusive of the Indians
Immigration, therefore, seemed to be the only remedy. But
where to seek immigrants, and by what allurements induct
them to come and settle in the colony ?

In November, 1765, Charles III., the successor of Ferdi-
nand VI., had issued a decree allowing commercial intercourse
between the islands of Cuba, Santo Domingo, Porto Rico,
Margarita, and Trinidad. The trade of these colonies, hitherto
restricted to Cadiz and Sevilla, and to the importation of national
manufactures, was permitted with all the principal ports of
the mother country and the Balearic and Canary islands,
without any distinction of products, except wines and other
spirituous liquors. It abolished all vexatious restrictions on
navigation, imposing a duty of three per cent, and seven per cent,
respectively, on all national and foreign articles, either as exports
from or imports to the Spanish ports.

Several of the French colonies — viz., Tobago, Grenada, St.
Vincent, and Dominica — had been ceded to England by the
Treaty of Paris in 1763. National prejudices, stronger then than
at present, had inspired harsh measures, and made the domination
of the conquerors felt to the utmost. The conquered communi-
ties became downcast and sulky. Several of those islands —

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 435

Grenada in particular — had suffered from the ravages of a most
destructive ant (the Parasol ant?), and discouragement every-
where prevailed.

There lived then in Grenada a colonist of good birth, married
to an English lady, one Philip Rose Roume de Saint Laurent.
On hearing favourable reports of Trinidad, Saint Laurent decided
on trying his fortune in that island. Before doing this, how-
ever, he thought it prudent to visit the island, and have an inter-
view with the Governor. Saint Laurent might have led a quiet
and honoured life in his native land ; but his noble heart had
bled at the sight of his countrymen's sufferings, and he came to
the determination of attempting something for their relief.

Roume de Saint Laurent landed in Trinidad May, 1777,
and began at once the visit of the island. He was highly pleased
with all that he saw — with the fertility of the soil and the many
natural advantages it possessed. He, therefore, entered into
relations with Governor Falquez, and endeavoured to persuade
him that, however encouraging the cedula of Charles III., it
could not have for its effects to induce foreigners to migrate in
any numbers. He then insisted on the prospects of a large
immigration from the French islands, if sufficient inducements
were proffered; otherwise they would emigrate to the United
States. Falquez listened to him with interest, and advised him
to address a memorial embodying his views to the Court of
Madrid. Before leaving the island, and as a token of his earnest-
ness, Saint Laurent bought some land in the valley of Diego-
Martin.

On his return to Grenada he depicted Trinidad as a most
desirable country, and urged his countrymen to cast their lot in
that colony. Luckily the memoir of Saint Laurent has been
preserved, and may be read in Mr. Borders " Histoire de la
Trinidad/' Governor Falquez died in Port-of-Spain about this
time, July, 1797.

Roume de Saint Laurent had submitted his memoir to
Falquez before forwarding the same to the Court of Spain ; the
Governor had approved and endorsed it. Lieutenant-Colonel
Don Martin de Salaverria was then sent to Trinidad from
Caracas, with instructions to adopt such measures as could
advance agriculture, increase the population, and develop com-
merce.

436 TRINIDAD.

The Court of Spain had not yet come to any decision
respecting Saint Laurent's scheme; they, nevertheless, had
appointed two Governors, a civil administrator, and a commander
of the troops, viz., Don Rafael Delgado and Colonel Salaverria.
Don Rafael advised Saint Laurent to go to Caracas and try to
secure the good-will and concurrence of the intendant of that
town. But Saint Laurent preferred, as a preliminary measure,
to pay a cursory visit to the smaller Antilles, with the view t<
inducing immigration to Trinidad. He took with him for dis
tribution French and English copies of the cedula granted by th(
king. On returning from this voyage he started for Caracj
with the object of submitting his plan to the intendant, Doi
Jose de Sabalos, and obtaining his acquiescence in the same.
Don Sabalos approved the plan, and promised his support at th(
Court of Madrid. Saint Laurent, in order to avoid furthei
delays, decided to go to Spain. Passing through Paris, he sa^
there Count d'Aranda, who approved his decision, and urge(
him to continue his voyage. Saint Laurent's plan was approved,
and the Cedula of Colonisation was issued shortly after. Pending
the arrival of Captain Don Jose Maria Chacon, appointed Captain-
General, Don Juan Franciso Machado acted as Governor, witl
instructions to carry into effect the plan of colonisation adopte<
by the Government, the cedula promulgating the same having
been signed in November, 1781.

As we may trace the colonisation of Trinidad to this ceduk
of 1783, the reader will, no doubt, be glad to know its principal
clauses. This document consisted of twenty-eight articles, some
of which are unimportant as referring to general matters. Th*
first article enacts that all new colonists must be Catholics.
Article 2 requires the new comers to take the oath of alle-
giance to the King of Spain, and to observe the laws of the
Indies, the king then granting them, gratis and in perpetuity,
the lands they may have a claim to. Article 3 determines the
quantity of land to which every new comer will be entitled, viz.,
each white person of either sex to four fanegar and twenty-
sevenths (thirty-two acres) ; half that quantity for every slave
lie may introduce, the grants being prepared in such manner
that all grantees may have land of bad, indifferent, and good
quality ; these grants to be registered in a book of population,
showing the individuality and name of each colonist, the elate of

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 137

his admission, the number of persons composing his family, his
quality, and lineage ; and authentic copies of all such grants shall
be delivered to them, which shall serve as titles of property.
Article 4 enacts that every free negro and persons of colour shall
be entitled to one-half of the quantity granted to white people.
Article 5 stipulates that, after five years' residence, the new
colonists shall become naturalised Spanish subjects, they and
their children, and that they shall be eligible for public employ-
ment. Article 6 stipulates that no capitation or personal tax
shall be enacted from the new colonists ; they shall only pay a
yearly tax of one dollar. By Article 7 the new colonists are
authorised to retire from the island, on forfeiting their grants
and paying ten per cent, on all that they may have accumulated.
Article 8 relates to such as may die in the island ; their heirs
may inherit, provided they are Roman Catholics, and agree to
reside in the colony ; if the heirs do not choose to reside, they
pay 15 per cent. Articles 9 and 10 grant power of bequeathing,
and permission to leave the colony, under certain restrictions.
Article 11 exempts the colonists from tithes for a space of ten
years. Article 12 also exempts the people from all duties on
articles sold. Article 13 obliges the new settlers to be armed,
though not obliged to join the militia, except in urgent cases.
Articles 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 regulate commercial inter-
course with the French islands.

It was also under that cedula that a code was issued for the
good government of the slaves, a code as liberal as any ^previously
published anywhere else.

Article 21 orders that, from the province of Caracas, animals
— viz., horned cattle, horses, and mules — shall be sent to the
island, to be sold there at first cost. Articles 22 and 23 regulate
commercial transactions in certain cases, and the admission, free
of duty, of agricultural implements. Article 24 is relative to
the admission of priests speaking foreign languages. By
Articles 26, 28, the colonists are permitted to lay before the
king regulations for the government of their slaves ; also to send
memorials to Madrid, through the Governor, praying for the
redress of any grievances.

Spain, being not in a position to colonise Trinidad with her
own people, did wisely in attempting its colonisation with the
concourse of foreigners.

438 TRINIDAD.

Two months after the date of the cedula, the government of
the colony was assumed ad interim by Captain Barruto.

In September, 1780, Don Jose Maria Chacon, captain of the
navy, arrived in Trinidad, with the title of Governor and Captain-
General. Governor Chacon was the man to carry into execution
the plan suggested by Roume de Saint Laurent. He was well
informed, clever, and prudent — a perfect gentleman, who could
speak French and English fluently enough. He at once caused
copies of the Cedula of Colonisation to be circulated in the
French and English colonies. Soon immigrants from St. Yin-
cent, Martinique, Guadaloupe, Dominica, and Grenada — but from
the latter island especially — began to flock to Trinidad in search
of a home, and with the object of bettering their condition.

Governor Chacon, being anxious to execute the conditions of
the cedula, gave to the immigrants a ready and warm reception,
treated them with consideration, and thus succeeded in securing
the confidence of the new settlers. But he met, as natural, with
opposition on the part of the Spanish colonists. They had taken
possession of, and divided among themselves, large tracts of the
best land of the island. They, of course, showed a determination
to retain possession of entire districts, which, however, had never
been surveyed or granted, and were not under cultivation. When
it was attempted to grant lands to the new comers, claims were
proffered and suits instituted. The Governor had to proclaim, in
July, 1785, a law regulating their position, and protecting the
public demesne. It was ill received by the Spaniards, and created
dissensions between the two classes of colonists. Governor
Chacon, nevertheless, persevered; and so successful was this
immigration, that, from 1784 to 1789, the population of Trinidad
had increased from 1,000 to 10,422. This immigration consisted
not only of white families, with their slaves, but of most
respectable black and coloured people.

Governor Chacon extended to all equal protection ; and the
provisions of the cedula were enforced, it may be said, without
fear or favour. Nor did he lose sight of the aborigines, but
managed to group them under corregidors, or magistrates, and,
with that object in view, formed the existing missions into two
villages, viz., Arima — consisting of the missions of Tacarigua,
Arouca, Caura, and Arima ; and of Savana Grande — comprising
Montserrat, Savanetta, and Naparima. He also brought

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 439

together the black Caribs of St. Vincent, who had emigrated to
the island, at Salibia, on the eastern coast.

It was Governor Chacon who diverted the course of the
Ariapita river (to-day, St. Ann) from its former bed to the foot
of the Laventille Hills, where it bears the name of Dry river.
This was done at the cost of 3,600 dollars, of which the Governor
generously contributed 1,000 dollars. This took place in 1787.

The greatest accord prevailed ; and the new colonists, among
whom were men of talent, and most honourable, grateful for the
benefits conferred, gave their ready support to the Governor.
Many were appointed commandantes. It was Mr. de Laforest
who prepared the slave code, and who suggested the building of
a wharf. Mr. de Deshayes had proposed to bring to town the
St. Ann's water.

Governor Chacon had to organise the whole administration
of the colony, and, aided by the concourse of the immigrants,
succeeded beyond expectation. Several royal decrees were issued,
diminishing the duties on goodsa and extending the privileges
which had been granted for only a short time.

As a consequence of the French Revolution war had been
proclaimed, and the archipelago had become the theatre of bloody
warfare, viz., at Martinique, Guadaloupe, St. Lucia, St. Vincent,
and Grenada.

Governor Chacon, naturally enough, began to feel anxious
about the safety of the colony entrusted to his care ; he parti-
cularly distrusted some French refugees nourishing republican
predilections, and was in perpetual fear of some disturbance.

A British expedition had left England and sailed for Bar-
badoes, with the object of attacking the French colonies ; St.
Vincent, St. Lucia, Grenada, and Martinique had been com-
pelled to submit. But Victor Hughes, delegate of the Conven-
tion and Governor of Guadaloupe, had resisted the attack of the
English, and organised a fleet of privateers, who attacked the
enemy's merchant vessels wherever opportunity offered. Hardly
pressed by the British navy, some of them had taken refuge in
the Gulf. Captain Vaughan, of the Alarm, and Captain Skinner,
of the Zebra, received orders to chase them. Some of their
vessels were destroyed by the Zebra, but the crews escaped and
retired to Port-of-Spain, where, soon after, they had a row with
some men of the Alarm, on which occasion Captain Vaughan

440 TEINIDAD.

landed with a party of armed marines — thus committing a
breach of the neutrality of Trinidad. In October, 1796, war
was declared between Spain and England. In January of the
same year a Spanish squadron, consisting of four ships and a
frigate, with about 800 men, had entered the Gulf, under the
command of Don Ruiz de Apodaca, a chance being thus given
to Chacon of defending the island.

On the other hand, the British fleet, having left Martinique
with orders to take possession of Trinidad, entered the Bocas on
the 16th of February, 1797. It consisted of eight men-of-war,
two frigates, and eight sloops, besides two transports, carrying
900 guns and 6,700 men.

It must be acknowledged that Governor Chacon had made
no defensive preparations, but no defence was possible. This he
and Apodaca clearly saw. They therefore agreed to offer nc
resistance, and to put the vessels on fire to prevent their falling
into the hands of the enemy. Chacon surrendered without
firing a gun. A capitulation was signed, and the island delivered
up to General Abercrombie and Admiral Harvey. Thus ended
the dominion of Spain over Trinidad. Chacon and Apodaca
were tried by court-martial and condemned, the former for not
having defended the colony as he ought to have done, and the
latter for having prematurely burnt his ships. Trinidad was
finally ceded to England by the Treaty of Amiens in 1802.

At the time of the capture of Trinidad by the British,
colonisation had made fair progress under the conditions of the
cedula of 1785. The population, which in 1773 was only 1,000
inhabitants, exclusive of the Indians, had increased to 18,600 in
1797. The conqueror made no changes in the administrative
organisation of the island ; but, on the contrary, adopted the
policy of the late Governor, and treated the colonists with due
consideration. The colony continued to prosper under the new
government. The colonists, particularly those of French descent,
being energetic and industrious, had introduced various cultures,
and when the island was transferred to Great Britain there
existed a grand total of 468 estates, of which 159 were sugar
estates, 130 coffee, 103 cotton, 70 tobacco, several indigo, 6
cacao plantations, besides a good many young cacao cultivations,
representing a cultivated area of 37,960 acres.

Immediately after the surrender of the island, Sir Ralph

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 441

Abercrombie issued a proclamation assuring the inhabitants of
the full and entire security of their persons and property as
held under the articles of the capitulation, informing those who
considered themselves as French citizens that means would be
provided for their safe conveyance to some other colony; and
calling- upon all those who chose to remain in Trinidad to make
oath of allegiance to his Britannic majesty.

All muskets and ammunition were called in, and ordered to
be brought to the nearest fort and delivered to the commandant.

He also issued a commission to Mr. Nihell, an Irish gentle-
man, and owner of El Dorado estate, and who had held the
office of alcade of the first election, or chief magistrate, appoint-
ing him magistrate, judge, and auditor in and over the whole
island. Mr. NihelFs honesty and integrity were unquestion-
able, and his nomination was well received. Under the Spanish
rule, the Governor was the chief magistrate, but he had a legal
counsel who assisted him whenever he sat as judge.

About two months after the signing of the capitulation,
General Abercrombie took his departure from the island, leaving
as Governor and Commander-in-Chief his aide-de-camp, Colonel
Thomas Picton, whom he vested with ample powers, and directed
to execute the Spanish law as well as he could, and to do justice
according to his conscience. He left with him about 1,000 men,
of whom 500, mostly Germans, belonged to theHompesh regiment.
This number was, soon after, reduced to 520 by desertion and
maladies. Of those only 260 were Germans, the rest having
deserted.

Picton's task was a most difficult one. He had to deal, in a
conquered country, with a motley aggregation of various nation-
alities, races, and languages. He knew that the Spanish Govern-
ment were anxiously looking for an opportunity to resume the
island. The Governor had, therefore, to display foresight and
uncommon energy to protect the colony against hostile attacks,
and keep internal peace. He saw at once that he ought to look
for support to the old colonists, and he did not hesitate to seek
advice from those best acquainted with the people. The popula-
tion was composed mainly of immigrants who had suffered from
the evils of war, and had sought refuge in Trinidad, with the
object of bettering their condition. Such men must have looked
with confidence to a soldier like Picton, who had proved, by

44.2 TllINIUAD.

words and deeds,, his determination to crush disorder and uphold
peace. They proved his firmest supporters. Having succeeded
in obtaining- the confidence of the most respectable inhabitants
of the colony, he did not hesitate to venture in forming a
militia, which proved very useful in enforcing order in the rural
districts, whilst it permitted the disposal of the troops for more
important duties.

On the 29th of June, 1801, General Picton was appointed
by the home Government " Civil and Military Governor " of
Trinidad. He was at the same time notified that the Courts of
Judicature which existed before the capitulation should be con-
tinued in the exercise of all the judicial powers belonging to them
in criminal and civil cases, and that he was vested with all such
judicial powers as belonged to his predecessors, and should
exercise them in like manner as they were exercised previous to
the surrender of the island.

The Governor called a meeting of the principal inhabitants,
communicated the royal will, and then appointed a council ol
advice, consisting of five members, comprising a Spaniard,
Frenchman, and three Englishmen.

On the proclamation of the Treaty of Amiens, which finalb
ceded Trinidad to Great Britain, a number of Scotch and British
adventurers actually poured into Trinidad from the neighbouring
colonies, especially those which had been temporarily occupied hj
the British forces — men of doubtful character, who, however,
considered themselves entitled to all sorts of consideration, as
British-born subjects. They formed, as they thought, the Eng-
lish party. They at once declared themselves opponents of
Picton, who, on the other hand, found staunch supporters in the
old colonists, who had given unmistakable proof of their loyalty.
The Governor was not the man to be cowed by such opposition,
and he deprived two of their leaders of their commission in the
Trinidad militia. They tried by all means to detract the govern-
ment of Sir Thomas Picton and to injure his character, and it
must be conceded that their efforts were not unsuccessful.
Colonel Fullarton found in them ready auxiliaries in his war
against Picton.

Mr. Pitt having been compelled to resign, Lord Sidmouth
became Premier. It was then decided, by way of experiment, I
suppose, to place the government of Trinidad in commission ; an

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 443

unwarrantable experiment, as proved by the results. Three
commissioners were named, Colonel Fullarton, Governor Picton,
and Commodore Samuel Hood. Why was Fullarton, a man in
every respect inferior to Picton, appointed first commissioner ?
This is a mystery. The government of the colony was trans-
ferred to the commission in January, 1803, the first commis-
sioner having* arrived at that time. General Picton had
governed the colony for a period of nearly six years, from April,
1797, to January, 1803, under trying and most difficult circum-
stances. The condition of the colony, when it was placed under
commission, may be fairly judged by the following figures : —

Population, 1797.

Men.

Women. Boys.

Girls.

Total.

Whites

929

590 ... 301 ...

266

2,086

Free coloured

1,196

... 1,624 ... 895 ...

751

... 4,466

Indians ...

305

401 ... 190 ...

186

... 1,082

Slaves

4,164

... 3,505 ... 1,232 ...

1,108

... 10,009

6,594

M20 2,618

Population, 1803.
Whites.

2,311

17,643

English

663 ^

Spanish

505 I 2,261

French

1,093 J

Free coloured.

English

599^

Spanish

1,751 I 5,275

French

2,925 J

Indians
Slaves

.'.'. '.'.'. 20^564 | 21>618

... Total 29,154

Produce, 1796.

Hhds.

159 Sugar estates

7,800

130 Coffee

»»

... 130

60 Cacao

5,

96,000

103 Cotton

>>

... 224,000

From the pamphlet, " Political Account of the Island of
J Trinidad," I take the following figures : —

1799— Sugar

lium ...

Melases

Cacao

Coffee

Cotton

1800— Sugar

Rum

Melases

Cacao

Coffee

Cotton

lbs.

9,895,634

gals.

194,488

M

142,637

lbs.

258,390

>>

335,913

»

323,415

>>

9,895,534

gals.

194,488

»

128,507

lbs.

284,170

»

469,614

>»

317,395

444

TRINIDAD.

1801— Sugar

.. lbs.

15,461,912

Rum

.. gals.

343,113

Melases

>>

173,369

Cacao

lbs.

324.720

Coffee

>>

328,664

Cotton

>>

262,997

1802— Sugar

>>

14,164,984

Eum

.. gals.

350,049

Melases

5>

143,237

Cacao

_. lbs.

138,699

Coffee

?>

278,274

Cotton

>»

190,210

The colony had, therefore, made fair progress under the stern,
but at the same time judicious, administration of Governor
Picton. The existing roads had been improved, and new on<
established. When the commission took charge of the govern-
ment there was found in the public chest the very fair sum ol
100,000 dols.

It would seem that Colonel Fullarton had left England wit]
the mission, assumed or real, to find fault with the genei
administration of the Governor and to thwart his actions, for h<
had scarcely been in the island a few weeks than he began t<
censure the conduct of his brother commissioner, and to institul
a sort of inquiry into his administration. He actually brougl
most serious charges against Picton ; very soon all turned to coi
fusion and bickering. Colonel Fullarton had clandestinely lei
the island, and Picton, unable to bear any longer the vexations
to which he had been submitted, sent in his resignation ii
February. It was accepted, and in June he left the colony,
highly regretted by those whom he had saved from anarchy.
Before leaving Trinidad, he read to the council an address
which contained a full expose of what he had done, upon
which a resolution was passed, expressing the regret of the
council at the departure of the Governor, and their apprehensions
with regard to the tranquillity and the safety of the colony.
He was also presented with an address, signed by a large number
of the most respectable inhabitants of the colony. Commodore
Hood, who had seldom acted in his capacity of commissioner,
had also left for active service ; so Fullarton remained sole com-
missioner, virtually Governor-in-Chief.

The council having declined meeting him on his return to
Trinidad, was dismissed, and a new one appointed. Fortunately,
however, this distressing condition of affairs was not allowed to

co:

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 445

ntinue long. On the 20th of July Brigadier- General Hislop
landed in Port-of- Spain, with the commission of Lieutenant-
Governor.

When Colonel Fullarton arrived in Trinidad as first com-
missioner in January, 1803, the colony was just emerging, thanks
to the prudent and energetic measures of its Governor, from a
disturbed and very difficult situation. Instead of showing common
discretion in his proceedings, he at once began to manifest his
opposition to General Picton, criticising his general conduct,
and bringing against him sweeping charges of the most serious
character. The result was discord and mistrust; the good under-
standing so necessary between the different classes of colonists
was disturbed, and the progress of the colony arrested. His
departure was hailed as a relief. General Maitland, who had
been appointed commander of the forces under the commission,
also left the island, on which occasion he received an address
from the Cabildo. In his reply we find the following words :
1 1 will not throw away this opportunity of expressing, in union
with you, that I greatly honour and esteem Brigadier- General
Picton. In a period of public danger, when the colony was
beset with traitors and shaken by the unruly behaviour of a
disorderly soldiery, his undisturbed mind awed the factions, sub-
dued the danger, and saved the colony/'

General Hislop was a good soldier, but possessed little
abilities as a civil governor, and may be said to have taken little
interest in the administration of the affairs of the colony.
Fortunately he had secured the services of an able, active
secretary ; but that secretary was not over-scrupulous, and the
accusation of corruption brought against him, as it appears, was
but too well founded. Sir Thomas Hislop, on taking the
government of the island, re-appointed, with the consent of the
home Government, the council which had been dismissed by
Colonel Fullarton. On his arrival he found it necessary to stop
the construction, at Point Gourde, of considerable fortifications,
as wholly ineffective for the protection of the harbour ; but at
once proceeded to erect, at the Fort George mountain, strong
military works. I should here mention that about the middle of
1805 the combined fleets of France and Spain had been des-
patched to the West Indies; Nelson at once followed in pursuit.
Having received false information respecting the movements of

>

446 TRINIDAD.

the enemy, he came to seek them in Trinidad. On his vessels
appearing off the north coast, alarm spread through the laud, it
being thought that they were the combined fleet. Martial law
was at once proclaimed, and the militia called out. The town
was declared untenable, and the inhabitants were invited to send
any valuable property to the fort, and the merchants their books.
The Governor marched up to the batteries with the regular
troops, militia, and volunteers, leaving the town at the mercy ol
the supposed enemy. Nelson entered the Gulf and immediateb
retired. It was only then that the mistake was discovered, whei
the inhabitants and the military returned to Port-of- Spain.

Towards the end of this year, in December, a plot was dis
covered amongst the slaves in Diego-Martin, having for i1
object the massacre of the white men, and in which a great pai
of the negro population was implicated. It had originated,
it appears, with some French negroes from the old coloni(
Four slaves were executed, and others severely punished
flogging and banishment.

It was under Governor Hislop that a first attempt was mad<
to introduce into the island Asiatic immigrants.

Sometime in the year 1806 the ship Fortitude left Maca(
for Trinidad with 192 men and one single woman. She anchored
in the harbour on the 12th of October, but the poor deluded
Chinese would not stay, and, with the exception of twenty -three
who remained in the colony, the rest re-embarked for China in
the very same vessel which had brought them. These twenty-
three individuals were located at Cocorite, a very unhealthy
locality. They eventually turned gardeners, fishermen, or pork-
butchers. Of course this first attempt at introducing immigrants
from the East was a complete failure.

In 1807 the slave trade was abolished by Act of Parliament.

In 1809 an event occurred which sadly illustrated the state
of legislation in Trinidad, and the wanton negligence of the
Government in that very important matter. One Mr. Lebis,
having flogged one of his slaves to death, was brought before
the court. Judge Smith presided. The advocate of the defen-
dant, Mr. George Knox, argued in his defence that Lebis could
not be judged by the slave law of 1789, that law having never
been confirmed by the Audiencia at Caracas ; that he could not
be judged by Picton's slave law, as that law had not received in

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 447

time the royal sanction. Judge Smith was obliged to admit the
validity of the argument, and Lebis was discharged. Of course
laws had been framed : they actually existed ; but having never
been confirmed, they could not be enforced. The very appoint-
ment of Judge Smith was discussed, and the legality of his
commission called into question. Beset with difficulties, he was
almost constantly at war, now with the Governor, now with the
Council or Cabildo. He left Trinidad worried, and was replaced
by Judge Bigge. The colonists on that occasion became con-
vinced that new legislation was required, and decided on
petitioning Government for English laws. Subscription lists
were circulated, and a committee appointed, consisting of the
most respectable white inhabitants of the island. It was agreed
to send to England Mr. G. Knox, barrister, as a delegate, to
plead the cause of the colonists. But as it appears the coloured
class was virtually excluded from participation in the advantages
of the measure, they therefore met and prepared a counter
petition, not because they wished to retain the Spanish laws,
but because they were averse to special legislation. The minis-
ters, who wished to keep Trinidad as an experimental colony,
took advantage of this circumstance to refuse the prayer, under
the plea that it was not the wish of the majority to have
English laws.

The West India body in London was averse to granting
English laws and a British constitution to Trinidad. They
looked with some jealousy at the newly-conquered colony, with
its foreign elements.

Mr. Marryat, however, presented in Parliament two motions,
one for extending to the island English legislation, and one for
granting a constitution. They were both lost on a division.

On the 24th of March, 1808, Port-of-Spain was almost com-
pletely destroyed by an accidental conflagration, as it appears.
The buildings were of wood, and three-fourths of the town were
burnt down ; thousands were ruined, and hundreds turned to
beggary. It must be acknowledged that faint efforts were made
to arrest the conflagration, probably from the conviction that
without water all efforts were unavailable. The loss was about
£500,000. Assistance came from many quarters : Parliament
voted £50,000 ; Governor Hislop gave £1,000 ; Picton gener-
ously contributed £4,000— a sum which the colonists had given

448 TRINIDAD.

him as a token of their appreciation of his services as Governor j
the sum was declined. The neighbouring islands contributed
largely. As a consequence of the calamitous occurrence, a law
was passed forbidding the building of houses with inflammable
materials.

General Hislop, as well as Governor Picton, had made it a
duty to encourage insurrectional movements in the continental
dependencies of Spain. In 1806, Miranda, encouraged by the
British Government, attempted to revolutionise that part of the
Spanish Main nearest to Trinidad. He had at his disposal several
vessels and a troop of about 200 men ; he was also joined by
a considerable number of volunteers from Trinidad, and had also
the assistance of Admiral Cochrane. Miranda, as is well known,
failed in his attempt.

General Hislop, who had left on leave in January, 181
returned in March, to leave finally in May. He had for s
cessor Major-General W. Monro, who was sworn as Lieutenan
Governor in May.

General Monro, in his civil capacity and social dispositio
very much resembled his predecessor. He left almost entire
the cares and toils of government to his secretary and a Mem
of Council. This secretary was not better than the one at t'
service of Sir Thomas Hislop. He indulged in convivial partie
with his friends, but would not trouble himself much about the
administration of the colony entrusted to his care.

It was during his government, in the year 1811, that a royal
order was issued to enforce the registration of the slaves. The
measure was opposed by the planters, as fraught with most
injurious results. It was, nevertheless, enforced.

The war waged by the colonists against Spain on the neigh-
bouring continent was still raging, though with adverse vicissi-
tudes. Trinidad was then — as it ever was, and still is — the
asylum of the weaker party — not, perhaps, to its advantage, as
proved by the rash measures adopted against the commerce of the
island by the reigning president, Guzman Blanco (1883) . England
was at peace with Spain, and could not, without a breach of
faith, encourage the insurgent colonists. However, Santiago
Marino, with several others, managed to prepare, in some valley
of the north coast, an expedition, which landed on the opposite
coast of the Gulf, and took possession of Guiria. These few men

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 449

were the nucleus of a force of about 5,000 men, which joined
Bolivar, and materially assisted the insurgents. On this occasion
Governor Munro issued a proclamation, threatening to confiscate
the property of any who would join in the enterprise.

The rebuilding of Port-of- Spain was, in the meantime, pro-
ceeding satisfactorily.

General Munro left in May, 1813, having thus governed the
colony for two years.

He had for his successor a civilian, a man in every respect
different from him — active, abstemious, and deeply interested in
the government of the colony entrusted to his care. Sir James
Ralph Woodford, Baronet, landed in Trinidad on the 14th June,
1813, and governed the island during fifteen years — from June,
1813, to April, 1828. He died at sea on the 16th of May, that
year, during his return passage to England.

Sir Ralph was a perfect gentleman, having refined and aristo-
cratic manners, which he knew how to value in others, and the
example of which must have imparted to society that polish
which for so many years distinguished Trinidad society. He
was in his person graceful and dignified. No Governor was ever
more amiable in domestic relations, and these kind dispositions
he manifested towards the colonists, whatever their nationality
or origin — a trait, let me say, characteristic of our best Governors,
Sir Ralph Woodford, Lord Harris, and Sir Arthur Gordon. He
always exacted to the utmost what he considered due to his
position as Governor. Though fond of display on public occasions,
Sir Ralph accepted, with perfect good grace, the scanty hospitality
which at times was offered him in the country by poor planters.
Sir Thomas Picton had, by his stern energy, preserved the
colony to the British Crown. Sir Ralph Woodford, by his
activity and high administrative qualities, improved it beyond
expectation ; always ready, indefatigable, constantly on the alert
in the interest of the colony, he would inquire into all matters
connected with the welfare of Trinidad. He was always prepared
to listen to those whom he knew took an interest in the island.
He had made it a rule occasionally to visit the different quarters
into which the colony was divided, and to inquire into their
wants, and the condition of the roads especially. Sir Ralph was
a man of taste, and never considered it beneath his dignity "to
enter into details. He particularly took a pride in the rebuilding

D D

450 TEINIDAD.

of Port-of-Spain and the embellishment of the city, which owes to
him its present appearance ; he would ride over the town to see
with his own eyes before taking* any decisive steps. He laid out
Brunswick Square, and had Marine Square Promenade planted
after the land had been recovered from the sea and made up ;
he saw the New Market House finished. He also directed the
formation of the Botanic Gardens at Saint Ann, which he placed
under the management of Mr. Lockhart.

In 1816 he laid the foundation-stone of the Catholic cath
dral, and of Trinity Church, the Anglican cathedral. He
also laid, in 1815, the foundation-stone of the Church of S
Jose de Oruna.

It was under the government of Sir Ralph Woodford, and
his request, that a Catholic bishop was appointed for Trinid
which previously formed part of the diocese of Guiana, or Ango
tura. Doctor Buckley, Bishop of Gerren in partibus infideliu
arrived here in March, 1820, as Vicar- Apostolic for the British
and Dutch West Indies; he lived on the most friendly term
with the Governor, and died, two months before his friend,
March, 1828, much regretted by persons of all denominations.

Dr. Coleridge, who had been appointed Bishop of Barbado
and the Windward Islands, visited Trinidad in March, 1825/ on
a pastoral tour.

I should here mention that Sir Ralph Woodford always
showed the greatest respect for the Catholic Church, of which, as
Governor, he was patron ; and consideration also for the Catholic
inhabitants. Of course Sir Ralph was not without his faults :
he was haughty, bore opposition with impatience, had of his
magisterial powers an exaggerated idea, and at times adminis-
tered arbitrarily ; yet it cannot be said that he was tyrannical.
He, I believe, never did aught but that which he thought to be
for the good of the colony ; in fact, during his long administra-
tion, Sir Ralph Woodford proved an efficient and good Governor.
He has left his imprint on the colony, and may be proposed — in
important matters at least — as a model administrator. To judge
him fairly we should go back to the epoch in which he lived ;
he may not have been in advance of, but surely he was not
behind, his time.

I have said that Trinidad always was a safe asylum for the
refugees from the Spanish Main. I must acknowledge, however,

:

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 451

that Sir Ralph Woodford on all occasions manifested his pre-
ference for the royalists, whom he treated with consideration ;
not so the republicans, whom he distrusted. But it was never
proved that he treated them harshly, or refused them admittance
into the island.

To the first Spanish settlers the Crown had made grants of
land under certain conditions ; but, as a rule, those grants were
not regularly surveyed or registered, so that the occupants could
not, in the greatest number of cases, exhibit their titles to such
concessions. They, nevertheless, contended that they were lawful
owners, and either refused to sell at all to the new comers,
or demanded exorbitant prices. Governor Chacon, who was
determined to carry into execution the provisions of the cedula,
and to protect the new colonists, instituted a searching inquiry
into the titles of the occupants, and then issued a proclamation
calling upon them to prove the validity of their occupancy ; fail-
ing which, they were to obtain new grants. Of course the pro-
clamation was ill received, and the measure which it proposed to
enforce regarded as highly arbitrary. This interference of
Governor Chacon created discontent and rancour.

Sir Ralph Woodford, who, of course, could not be ignorant of
the fact, did not hesitate — in an evil hour, no doubt — to revive
the unpleasant question. He knew well that many of the colo-
nists would not be able to produce indisputable titles ; and he
made up his mind to search for those titles, and to inquire into
the grants made by the Crown of Spain — not only those made
during and since the year 1783, but also before that epoch. The
grantees were called to satisfy the Governor as to the legality
of their occupancy ; or, in case they could not do so, to take
new grants on paying certain fees. This interference was viewed
with jealousy, and strenuously opposed. More; the Governor
aimed a blow at those who possessed lands by virtue of the
cedula of 1783, but had neglected to register them in the Libre
Becerro, as prescribed. The law required also that at least one-
fifth of the lands granted should be under cultivation. Sir
Ralph threatened to resume possession of the whole, or part of
all such lands whenever this condition had not been fulfilled
Again, quit-rent was exacted for all the grants; and other
vexatious measures were adopted. Soon after, however, the
quit-rent was remitted on all lands granted before the conquest.

452 TRINIDAD.

The Governor had not it all his own way ; pamphlets were
written and petitions signed, supporting the rights of the land-
owners. These measures of Sir Ralph Woodford had their evil
consequences. Discontent prevailed, and the titles of property
being questioned, confidence was shaken, and the value of pro-
perty lowered. This was an egregious error of Governor Wood-
ford, and a political blunder, especially as the question might
have been easily settled by simply causing the disputed grant
to be re-surveyed and registered.

The whole matter was laid before Parliament, when Mr.
Hume moved for the appointment of a Commission to report oi
the state of the island. Messrs. H. Maddock and Eortunati
Dwarris were appointed commissioners, and ordered to proceed
Trinidad to inquire into and report upon the state of the lan(
and the land question. Subsequently Mr. Jabez Henry ws
appointed chief commissioner, Mr. Maddock having been oblige
to leave. The question was fully considered by the other coi
missioners, and finally settled to the entire satisfaction of tl
colonists, after twelve years of incessant litigation. We ougl
to suppose that Governor Woodford acted either at the insti^
tion or with the tacit support of the Government.

On two different occasions, in 1819 and 1823, there wei
rumours of a rising amongst the negroes ; fortunately matters
were not as bad as first reported ; the alarm soon subsided — only
some wild talking among a few discontented slaves, but no
actual plot.

In 1824 a law was passed for the protection of slaves ; and
in 1826 a royal proclamation was published removing certain
vexatious regulations respecting the free blacks and people of
colour.

In May, 1818, the town of San Fernando was destroyed by
fire. Liberal sums were subscribed in aid of the sufferers.

In 1813 the minutes of the Cabildo were ordered to be kept
in English ; and in 1814 the English language was, for the first
time, used in the law courts.

An Order in Council was also published in 1823, making
changes in the tribunals of the island.

Sir Ralph Woodford was absent from the colony a short
time in 1820, during which absence Lieutenant- Colonel Young
acted as Lieutenant-Governor ; again, in 1821-22, Colonel Young

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 453

was Lieutenant-Governor. When he left, in 1828, on sick
leave, Major Capadose was sworn in as Lieutenant-Governor,
but acted only for a very short time, and was superseded by
Sir Charles Smith, who, in turn, was supplanted by Colonel
Farquharson.

The successor of Sir Ralph Woodford, Major-General Sir
Lewis Grant, was a man of little energy, and never cared much
for the colony. There is nothing interesting to record during his
government. The constitution of the council was modified in
1831, and it was made to consist of six official and six unofficial
members, all nominees of the Crown.

In 1832 several laws were enacted regulating the treatment
of the slaves; organic changes were also introduced in the
organisation of our courts of law, the Honorable George Scotland
being then Chief-Justice. Governor Grant left the island in
April, 1833 ; he had been twice in England on leave, and was
replaced a& interim by Colonel Doherty and by Sir Charles
Smith, who had been appointed, acting after the death of Sir
Ralph Woodford.

Governor Grant was succeeded, in 1833, by Sir George Fitz-
gerald Hill, Baronet, colonel of the Londonderry Regiment of
Militia. Like his predecessor, Sir George Hill governed peace-
ably, and never paid much attention to the exigencies of govern-
ment; he evidently had a preference for the laissez alter system.

Two remarkable events, however, marked the period of his
administration. On the 1st of August, 1834, the abolition of
slavery and its transformation into apprenticeship were pro-
claimed. The ignorant negroes could not understand the subtle
distinction between apprenticeship and slavery, nor the motives for
establishing prsedial and non-praedial apprenticeship ; they could
not understand why domestics, who worked under cover, and
whose occupations were more comfortable, were apprenticed for
only four years, whilst they, who worked outside, exposed to the
inclemencies of the seasons, were condemned to two years more
of apprenticeship. They, of course, manifested their discontent
by refusing to work ; a certain number repaired to the capital to
ask for redress, and there behaved riotously. A few leaders were
arrested, and punished by flogging. This act of severity had its
salutary effect, and order was soon restored. The resistance of
the apprentices was, as a rule, rather passive than otherwise.

454 TEINIDAD.

The four years o£ non-prsedial apprenticeship were drawing
to a close ; it was thought prudent and only fair to proclaim
emancipation of all, prsedial as well as non-prsedial ; and a reso-
lution was passed by the Legislative Council granting complete
freedom, as from the 1st August, 1838 — a measure which had
become unavoidable, and had the approbation of the planting
body.

The other event to which I desire to refer is the mutiny, at
St. Josej)h, of the soldiers belonging to the 1st West Indis
Regiment. They were newly-liberated Africans, who had beei
induced to enlist as soldiers, but who knew nothing of th<
obligations they had contracted. They revolted, because thej
considered they were not treated as free men. About 280 oi
them were barracked at St. Joseph : on the night of the 17tl
of June, 1837, they rose, and at once set fire to some huts whicl
served for their use ; they next attacked the officers' quarters,
and fired at them — fortunately with no effect, as they knew not
how to handle their muskets. A party of them left the to)
about seven o'clock, marching eastward, in the hope, as thej
thought, of reaching their country. They were met at Arima bj
the militia; some were killed, and the rest dispersed in the
woods. That wild, unjustifiable mutiny, cost about thirty lives,
including three chiefs, who were sentenced to death and ex<
cuted.

In 1834 a number of emigrants from Fayal and Madeira
were landed in Trinidad; that immigration was not followed
up.

It was under the government of Sir George Hill that a few
Mico schools were established in the island. They, however,
were not carried on for any length of time.

Sir George Hill died in Trinidad in 1839, and the governr
ment of the colony was assumed by Sir Murray Macgregor,
Governor-General of the Windward Islands, for only a short
time, and till the appointment of Colonel Sir Henry McLeod.

Of the Governors who administered the colony since emanci-
pation I shall say very little, especially as some of them are still
living. I will only notice the most interesting events as they
occurred to the present day, and any important measure adopted.

Sir Henry McLeod governed the colony from April, 1840,
to April, 1846. He was active and prudent, and his management

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 455

of the finances of the colony highly satisfactory. When he
retired he left a replenished chest — a fortunate circumstance, since
the colony had to pass, during the government of his successor,
Lord Harris, through a most serious crisis. Sir Henry, a staunch
Protestant, was the first Governor, since the capitulation, who
declined the title of Patron of the Catholic Church, and scrupled
to perform the duties that title imposed ; and yet, as Governor,
he was simply discharging a perfunctory obligation.

The Bishop courteously acquiesced in the scrupulosity of the
Governor, but had not on this occasion the full approval of the
Catholics.

This act of Sir Henry McLeod was as a preliminary step to
a more serious move.

Religious equality virtually existed in the colony. The
Ecclesiastical Ordinance of 1844 should be regarded as an in-
fringement of that equality.

It was proclaimed in February of the following year, and
purported to be " for the better regulation of the duties of the
united Church of England and Ireland in the colony, and for
insuring the more effectual performance of the same.-" The
island was divided into parishes, and rectories were constituted.
To this there could not be any objection ; but the amount of the
different salaries was fixed by law. Salaries were also voted for
clerks and sextons ; glebe lands were attached to each rectory.
The rectory house of Trinity Church was to be kept in repair at
the public expense. It was further declared that "on the
passing of the Ordinance all laws, ordinances, and canons ecclesi-
astical, which were then used and enforced in England, should
be accepted, esteemed, and taken to be in full force and virtue
within the island/'' This was establishing the supremacy of the
Church of England in Trinidad. This Ordinance was strongly
opposed by the Catholics, though they were well aware of the
existence of the letters patent granted by her Majesty on the
21st day of August, 1843. The Ecclesiastical Ordinance created
jealousy and an uneasy feeling in the colony, and had for its
effect the perpetuation of existing differences. It remained in
force till the year 1870.

Sir Henry McLeod had for his successor Lord Harris. He
administered the colony from April, 1846, to March, 1854, a
most critical period in the history of Trinidad. I do not hesitate

456 TRINIDAD.

to say it was fortunate that Lord Harris was called to govern
during that critical time. The high position he held, as a peer
of the realm, afforded him opportunities, which a man in a less
exalted position could not have, of serving the interests of the
colony. Lord Harris, in his despatches to Lord Grey, appears as
an independent character and an unprejudiced man, always
ready to plead the cause of the much-abused colonists ; he
resolutely and candidly exposed the difficulties resulting, not
only from the depressed condition of the market and the poverty
of the people, but mainly from the wandering dispositions of the
emancipated class.

Lord Harris clearly perceived the dangers of the situation,
but knew where to look for a remedy ; that remedy he found
in Asiatic immigration, which to all unprejudiced minds appeared
as the only means of relieving the colony. He unhesitatingly
set to work, and did not rest satisfied till, by dint of perseverance,
he succeeded in removing all objections, and in conciliating the
Colonial Office to our system of immigration. The first essays
were not very encouraging, not through his fault surely, since
he perseveringly insisted on the necessity of a serious control
and the adoption of stringent regulations. " My desire/' said
Lord Harris, "has been impartially to study the interests of
both parties, at the same time never to lose sight of the fact
that the Coolies are placed here under peculiar circumstances, as
utter strangers in a foreign land, and therefore requiring the
zealous and increasing care of the Government ; that they are
also far from being the best class of the Indian labouring
population ; are naturally dissolute and depraved in their habits
if left to themselves, and much inclined to fall into habits of
drinking and of wandering idle about the country, and therefore
require also the close supervision of Government. " The Governor
deserved to succeed, and he did succeed. I should not be just
and fair if I did not recognise the effective assistance given to
the Governor by Mr. Ch. Warner, the then Attorney- General ;
he may be said to have been the indefatigable, clever, and
felicitous collaborator of Lord Harris in this question of immi-
gration. To both the colony owes a debt of gratitude.

Lord Harris had undertaken the government of Trinidad
eight years after emancipation had been proclaimed.

During those eight years things had been allowed to continue

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 457

as before, and yet a new plan of administration had become
necessary. The powers entrusted to the commandants had been
much curtailed : the roads could be no more kept in repair by
corvees.

Lord Harris had the island divided into two principal
divisions, the northern and the southern ; each division was sub-
divided into four counties, and each county into two districts and
into wards ; these wards were, in most cases, the old Spanish
quarters. To each ward Lord Harris appointed a warden — a
respectable inhabitant of the ward, as a rule ; to each warden
was attached a clerk paid from the funds of the ward. One of
the objects of Lord Harris in establishing wards and appointing
unpaid officers was to prepare the people for the exercise of
municipal privileges.

It had become urgent, under the new regime of liberty, to
provide local funds for local purposes — aland tax was established.
It had also become necessary to provide for the maintenance of
the public roads — road boards were formed. The warden, an
unpaid officer, had unfortunately been entrusted with multifarious
duties which he could not perform : he had to make yearly
returns of produce grown or manufactured; to prevent squat-
ting ; to detain lumber, &c, suspected to be cut on crown lands ;
provide work for the poor ; fix the rates ; pay all moneys into
the colonial treasury; he was road officer, payer, &c. — a great
deal too much for a man who had to attend to his own private
affairs.

This was a mistake of Lord Harris, which, later, led to many
changes in the territorial administration of the colony, as organised
by him.

Fully alive to the evils of squatting, or the illegal occupation
of crown lands, the Governor attempted its suppression. An
Order in Council dated October, 1838, gave power to the stipen-
diary magistrates for the removal of persons having taken, or who
would take, possession of lands without probable claim. A
proclamation had been issued in June, 1847, with the object of
enforcing this Order in Council. Lord Harris determined to give
all facilities for the removal of squatters ; extended the summary
jurisdiction conferred on the stipendiary magistrates to all
justices of the peace ; information, as regards public lands, was
to be preferred by the Surveyor-General ; in respect of private

458 TRINIDAD.

lands, by the owner ; and in respect of abandoned lands, by any
one. Where lands belonged to the Government, or were aban-
doned, possession was given to the warden or Surveyor- General ;
where land belonged to private persons, to the owner. It must
be acknowledged that the object contemplated by the measure was
not attained; probably because it was not properly enforced.
Ten years later the well-directed efforts of Sir Arthur Gordon
were crowned with signal success.

A most important measure introduced by Lord Harris was
his system of primary education. I regret to be obliged to say
that it was an altogether Godless system ; ministers of religion
were excluded from the school-room, so also all direct religious
teaching. This measure of Lord Harris, when proposed, was
disapproved by Catholics, and even by Protestants. It is still
partly in force. I dare say that, in its results, it was not very
encouraging. Certainly morality has not improved in the island ;
quite the reverse. The plan of Lord Harris was complete in its
scope ; for it contemplated the establishment of normal schools
both for boys and girls, and of a school of secondary instruction,
all on the same system. Of course Lord Harris meant well
but he allowed himself to be influenced by the then prevailing
notion that Government owed to the subjects only secular in-
struction, at least in communities composed of various religious
denominations. That in all such cases the State should be bound
to give only secular instruction is safe enough, but that it should
exclude religious teaching and the ministers of religion altogether
from the school-room, is simply exorbitant. It was teaching
the people that the State does not care about religion and the
morals it teaches.

In the year 1851 an Ordinance was passed for supplying
Port-of-Spain and vicinity with water, a benefaction which can-
not be too highly appreciated. Previously the inhabitants of
the town drew their supply of water from wells, the contents
of which were, in most cases, contaminated by the percolation of
privy stuff ; or from tanks in which rain water was collected.
Bathing was then a rare luxury. The rate payable was calcu-
lated according to the annual rental, an arrangement which was
highly beneficial to the poorer classes ; a house assessed at £100
sterling annually paying five times as much as a house rented
at £20.

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 459

It was under the government of Lord Harris, in 1853, that
an Ordinance was passed for the regulation of municipal corpora-
tions in the island. Port-of-Spain and San Fernando were
constituted boroughs, under the title of Mayor and Burgesses of
Port-of-Spain, and Mayor and Burgesses of San Fernando.
Port-of-Spain was divided into five wards, each ward being
represented by three councillors. Under the old constitution,
the Governor was the president of the Town Council, but the
meetings were presided over by a vice-president. The Governor
signed the minutes, and had a right of veto. The exercise of
that right of veto was, on more than one occasion, a cause of
conflict between the Town Council and the Governor.

A much regrettable event occurred during the government of
Lord Harris. A serious riot took place on the 1st of October,
1852; the military were called out, and had to make use of
their arms; one person was killed, and several others were
wounded. The immediate cause was the indiscriminate enforce-
ment of certain regulations, which, however, were not applicable
to debtors ; they had been cancelled, but a public meeting had
been called; the people became highly excited, and assembled
riotously round the Government- house ; there the conflict took
place.

Lord Harris was unassuming, persevering, and straight-
forward. His charity was unbounded, and no poor were ever
sent away unassisted ; and more than one indigent respectable
family received from him substantial pecuniary aid. The exports
and imports of the colony had fallen off, and the revenue had
decreased in proportion ; the funds were hardly sufficient to pay
the salaries of the public officers. The Governor had come to
the determination of retrenching from those salaries, beginning
with his own. The colony, however, was not brought to such
an extremity.

During the whole time of his office, Lord Harris never left
the island, thus devoting his whole time to the administra-
tion of the colony entrusted to his care. He is one of the few
Governors of Trinidad who, on leaving, were accompanied by
the regrets and good wishes of the colonists ; even those who
had disapproved some of his acts were afterwards compelled to
recognise his sterling qualities.

Commodore Sir Charles Elliot succeeded to Lord Harris, and

460 TRINIDAD.

governed the colony from March 1854, to October, 1856. In
this year, 1850, he had an Ordinance passed " amending- and
consolidating the law with regard to the appointment of wardens
and their powers and duties,'''' and giving power to the Governor
" to form such and so many wards as he should see fit into
wards unions, and to appoint one warden for the several wards
comprised in such unions/'' The wardens became salaried
officers; and, remarkable enough, none of the thirty-two wardens
who had served gratuitously under Lord Harris were appointed
to the well-paid offices created by the Ordinance of 1856, though
several, to my knowledge, would have gladly accepted the
situation.

In August, 1854, cholera broke out in the island, and was
most fatal. About that time the Court of Rome had sent, as
legate to the West Indies, the Right Reverend Dr. Spaccapietra.
Trinidad was one of the islands he had instruction to visit.
Archbishop Smith had just died, and Bishop Spaccapietra was
appointed archbishop in his stead. The good prelate soon won
the sympathy and admiration of all by his unremitting exertions
during the prevalence of the pestilence : energetic, indefatigable,
he would respond, by night and by day, to the call even of the
lowest ; by the poorest class he was venerated as a father and a
benefactor. But Dr. Spaccapietra was a foreigner, and Governor
Elliot, no doubt incited by sectarian friends, would not recognise
him as archbishop, and withdrew his salary. This was regarded
by the Catholics as unjustifiable interference ; public meetings
were held all over the island ; a committee was elected, called
the Catholic Committee ; petitions, most numerously signed, were
addressed to the Secretary of State and her Majesty the Queen,
claiming for the Catholics of Trinidad the rights guaranteed to
them by the capitulation. In this they were supported by a party
of Protestants. The Governor, nothing moved, persisted in his
determination to annoy the Catholics. A committee had been
appointed to collect funds for the relief of the orphans and widows
of the Crimean war. All the ministers of religion, including the
Baptist minister, were named members of the committee ; but
the Catholic archbishop was excluded, under the pretext that he
was a foreigner and could not be recognised. This exclusion
was, by the Catholics, considered as a gratuitous insult and a
grievance ; a petition was addressed to her Majesty, complaining

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 461

of the indignity inflicted, and praying for redress. Soon after
the reception of the petition, a despatch was sent to the Governor
instructing him to recognise as head of the Roman Catholic
Church in the colony any dignitary presenting credentials from
the Court of Rome, and whom the Catholics would recognise as
such. Thus ended — to the general satisfaction, I dare say — the
unseemly and most unpleasant contention with Sir Charles Elliot.
Archbishop Spaccapietra was recognised as head of the Roman
Catholic Church in Trinidad, and the arrears of his salary were
paid him ; these he handed over to the Crimean fund. Sir
Charles Elliot had governed the colony for a little more than two
years.

On his retiring from the government of Trinidad, Robert
William Keate, Esq., was appointed his successor. I regret to
say that he allowed himself to be guided by coterie influences —
a most dangerous mistake in a mixed community like this.
Governors should always keep free from such influence, lest
they should, by acting partially, create antagonism. The prin-
cipal act of Mr. Keate was the establishment, in 1863, of the
Queen's Collegiate School of Secondary Instruction, on the plan
of the Queen's Colleges in Ireland. The Catholics were averse
to the school, contending that they could not and would not
avail themselves of the advantages it proffered, as it was a purely
secular institution ; that the school, though maintained at the
public expense, would, in fact, be so maintained for only a por-
tion of the population. They suggested that the Protestants and
the Catholics should establish their own schools, which the
Government would then assist. Their suggestions were dis-
regarded, and no account taken of their complaints.

In August, 1863, an Ordinance was passed "for amending
the law with regard to the solemnisation and registration of
marriages.'" Such an Ordinance was needed to remedy abuses
of a serious nature and rather demoralising. Some of the pro-
visions of the Ordinance were such, however, as to cause uneasi-
ness and anxiety in the minds of the Catholics, who otherwise
approved the main object to be obtained. The Ordinance re-
quired that all buildings for the celebration of marriages should be
registered ; notice of every intended marriage was to be given to
the district-registrar, who, twenty-one days after receiving such
notice, would deliver a certificate, upon which the marriage

462 TRINIDAD.

ceremony could be performed by the minister, in the place named
in the certificate. Marriages solemnised in any other place than
the building specified in the certificate are declared null and void ;
ministers of religion unduly solemnising marriages are deemed
guilty of felony, and made liable to imprisonment, with or with-
out hard labour, for any period not exceeding three years.
Marriages may be contracted before the district-registrar. Civil
marriage was thus established ; religious marriage in an unautho-
rised place decreed null and void at law ; and the minister of
religion unduly solemnising any marriage declared a felon. The
Catholics strongly remonstrated against some of the clauses of the
Ordinance, observing that they held marriage as a sacrament of
the Church, and that the law, by some of its provisions, interfered
with the free action of the clergy ; that the delay of twenty-one
days, and the obligation of solemnising marriages in registered
places, hindered the administration of the sacred rite in articulo
mortis, when such administration could not be delayed.

In the year 1865 an Ordinance was passed, altering in cer-
tain particulars the provisions of the Ordinance of 1863, and
giving satisfaction to the Catholics, under certain conditions,
with regard to the solemnisation of marriage in articulo mortis.
Marriages contracted under these conditions were of no effect as
marriages in law.

Governor Keate had made up his mind to establish under-
ground sewerage in the town, which he had divided into dis-
tricts for the purpose. The scheme was generally disapproved,
on the plea of a scanty supply of water, insufficient declivity,
and the careless habits of the people. Sewers were laid down in
only one district.

Governor Keate was absent from the island from April, 1860,
to May, 1861, during which time the Government was adminis-
tered by Lieutenant-Governor James Walker.

The Honourable J. H. Thomas Manners Sutton succeeded
Governor Keate. There is nothing worth chronicling during his
government — which lasted from September, 1864, to March,
1866, about eighteen months — except the Ordinance already
mentioned for amending the law of marriage.

Governor Manners Sutton had for his successor Sir Arthur
Gordon. Previous to his arrival the colony had been adminis-
tered— from April, 1866, to November, same year — by Edw.

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 463

Everard Rushworth, Esq. Governor Manners Sutton and Mr.
R/Ushworth had their serious attention called to the question of
squatting", a very important matter really.

The government of Sir Arthur Gordon may be said to have
inaugurated a new era in the politics of Trinidad. It would
seem that he had for mission to undo several things which had
been done by some of his predecessors. He made important
changes in the system of public education introduced by Lord
Harris, the principal of which was the permission granted to
impart religious teaching in the school-room. The Board of
Education was remodelled, and an executive committee formed,
consisting of the Governor and eight members, four of whom
must be non-Catholics, aud four Roman Catholics. Schools of
primary education were divided into two classes — those estab-
lished and maintained by the Government, and those established
by local managers and receiving aid from the public funds of the
colony. Ministers of religion, or persons appointed by them
were permitted to give religious instruction in the Government
schools. With the object of promoting secondary education,
he established, in the place of the Queen's Collegiate School, a
college, called the Royal College of Trinidad. The manage-
ment of the college was vested in a council, styled the College
Council, with power, among other things, to declare any school
of secondary education to be a school in connection with the
Royal College, and entitled to aid from the public funds of the
colony, such aid to consist of a fixed salary to the principal or
head-master of the school — of capitation grants, under certain
conditions, to the pupils. This was a liberal scheme, showing
respect for the rights of the tax-payer and deference for the
religious sentiments of the people, who had no more reason for
refusing to participate in the advantages afforded by the Govern-
ment.

In February, 1870, Governor McLeod's Ecclesiastical Ordi-
nance was repealed, save a few sections, and religious equality
re-established, all Christian denominations being called to share
proportionately in the Ecclesiastical Fund.

Governor Gordon was particularly successful in his efforts to
suppress squatting. He first declared an upset price of crown
lands, viz., £1 per acre, and 10s. for lagoon lands. Next,
squatters were not only allowed, but invited, to legalise their

434 TRINIDAD.

position by purchasing the lands they occupied. An Ordinance was
passed in October, 1868, "for facilitating' the plantation and
settlement of crown lands/' making it lawful for the Governor
to constitute districts and appoint commissioners, such districts
to be surveyed and settled under the direction of the commis-
sioner. Persons desirous of petitioning for the ungranted lands
they occupied were allowed six months for doing so from the
appointment of the commissioner ; those not petitioning remaine
liable to prosecution. The district of Montserrat was inhabite
by a large number of squatters, mostly Spanish peons, anxious
to retain their holdings. Mr. Robert Mitchell was appoint
commissioner, and at once set to work visiting every corner o
his district, and almost every squatter in it. Petitions soo
poured in, and the district became settled in a very short time
Governor Gordon, by opening the crown lands for competition
and declaring an upset price for the same, cut short all pretex
for complaints, and, by forming districts and appointing commis
sioners, did, in my opinion, hit upon the best plan for checkin
squatting. The appointment of commissioners was especially
felicitous expedient.

Many amendments which successive experience had point
out had been made to the first Immigration Ordinance; every
Governor, in succession, had his share in improving the Act.
Sir Arthur Gordon, however, may claim the honour of having
consolidated in one Ordinance, June, 1870, the different Ordi-
nances enacted up to that date. As consolidated by Governor
Gordon, the Ordinance of June, 1870, is the law in force.

An important Act was enacted for rendering certain offenc
punishable on summary conviction.

An Ordinance was passed for enabling aliens to obtain the
privileges of British-born subjects in the island — an Ordinance of
some importance in a colony like Trinidad, which requires popu-
lation and immigrants.

Governor Gordon established a house of refuge for the
reception and relief of destitute persons residing in the rural
districts. The destitute residing in Port-of-Spain were already
provided for by the Municipality.

A most important measure had been introduced by Sir Arthur
Gordon ; this was the Ordinance " for the declaration of titles to
land, and to facilitate its transfer."" It was based on Mr. Torrens'

es
be

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 465

Act, in force in Australia. The execution of the provisions of the
Ordinance was entrusted to the Registrar-General's department.
Under the Act the Governor may appoint deputy registrars and
examiners of titles, also lands titles commissioners. Land
alienated in fee from the crown after the commencement of the
Ordinance was subject to its provisions ; but it remained
optional to bring under the provisions of the Ordinance such
lands as had been granted prior to the day it came into opera-
tion. It is indisputable that this Ordinance would have had for
its effect to facilitate the transfer of land and to fix titles, and
this would have been obtained at a very small cost to the
landholders, and yet the Ordinance, though passed some twelve
years ago, and declared as taking effect from the 1st of January,
1871, has never been put in force, nor has it been repealed, so far
as I know. How are we to account for this oversight ? It was
insinuated that great difficulties would be encountered in enforc-
ing its clauses in the case of lands granted before its passing ;
but such difficulties could not be anticipated as regards grants
made after the 1st of January, 1871, and how many acres have
been granted since that epoch ? But had the law been put in
force, the interests of the legal profession would have suffered,
and naturally enough lawyers show themselves antagonistic to
the measure. But as far as I can understand the economy of
the Act, the public would have gained substantial advantage had
it taken effect. Had not Sir Arthur Gordon left the colony
almost immediately after the Ordinance had been passed, he cer-
tainly would have put it in force.

When Sir Arthur Gordon took the administration of the
colony, Governmental influence was in the hands of a few per-
sonages having exclusive views. The reforms projected by the
Governor were ill-received by the party, and they strove to ob-
struct his way ; but Sir Arthur was not the man to desist from
measures which he considered just and fair. Unable to tame
his opponents into acquiescence, he did not hesitate to crush
them.

I shall not presume to pass a judgment on the administration
of Sir Arthur Gordon. If some of his reforms were hailed with
undisguised satisfaction by the majority of the people, fchey
were, on the other hand, censured and opposed by those who
must grieve at the loss of their influence. This, however, I can

E E

466 TRINIDAD.

say, since the adoption of those reforms, all unpleasant contro-
versies and invidious recriminations on delicate subjects have
apparently ceased.

Governor Gordon was absent from the colony from June to
November, 1868; Cornelius H. Kortright, Esq., was adminis-
trator till the arrival, in 1870, of James Robert Longden, C.M.G.,
appointed Governor. Governor Longden was prudent and
cautious. He laid the foundation-stone of Saint Ann House in
July, 1873, and had the good fortune of sanctioning and foster-
ing the construction of the first railway laid in the island, from
Port-of-Spain to Arima. He left the colony before it was in-
augurated.

He had an Ordinance passed to enable the West India and
Panama Telegraph Company to land their cable and construct
telegraphs in the island, thus connecting Trinidad with the other
West India islands and with the United States and Europe.
The first message was received here on 28th July, 1866.

In 1870 an Ordinance was passed, making it lawful for the
Governor to appoint district medical officers. The medical
officers have to visit all estates being worked by indentured
immigrants, and all paupers in their district ; they are also
public vaccinators. Previous to the appointment of district
medical officers, the medical attendants of estates were chosen
by the proprietors. The object of the Ordinance was, evidently,
to place under the control of the Government the medical service
of all estates having indentured immigrants.

The Immigration Ordinance was amended, and a minimum
salary of twenty-five cents fixed for day and night work in the
field.

An Ordinance was passed for the establishment of reforma-
tory schools, but nothing has been done yet.

Mr. W. H. Rennie, who acted as Administrator from July,
1872, to May, 1873, had the Income-tax Ordinance repealed.

In April, 1874, William Wellington Cairns, Esq., C.M.G.,
arrived in the island as Governor, but left almost immediately
after, the Colonial Secretary, the Hon. J. Scott Bushe, being
appointed Administrator.

Henry Turner Irving, Esq., C.M.G., was appointed Governor,
and arrived in the colony on the 20th of November, 1874.
Governor Irving was active, and finding that there was room for

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 467

improvement in several branches of the public service, diligently
set to work. The Department of Public Works evidently re-
quired remodelling. The old staff had become insufficient and
inadequate to the requirements of the service; the establish-
ment of railways, and the extension through newly-settled
districts of roads, required a more numerous personnel. An
Ordinance was therefore passed in June, 1875, for the appoint-
ment of a Director of Public Works, who should take the charge
and management of all public works and public buildings, and
the superintendence of all public roads, and perform such other
duties as by any Ordinance might be imposed upon him.
Authority was given to the Governor to appoint assistants,
who would then exercise any of the duties imposed, or any of
the powers exercisable by the Director of Public Works. The
director was made a corporation sole, capable of suing and being
sued.

The department has been unmercifully criticised. The criti-
cism, however, did not bear on the creation of the department,
but on the manner in which it was conducted. The works
undertaken, including the formation of roads and the building
of bridges, have not been, in many cases, satisfactorily completed.
The amount expended has been beyond precedent. But, in the
opinion of all sensible men, the director had too much to do, and
of course could not exercise over his subordinates that control
which alone can secure success and economy. The details of the
service, especially with regard to roads, were never properly
regulated. I believe that this important branch of the public
service is open to great improvements. What those improve-
ments should be, it is not for me to say in this short historical
outline.

The most important measure introduced by Sir Henry Irving
was Ordinance No. 15, of 1875, "to facilitate the establishment
of schools of primary education." It was an improvement on
the scheme of Sir Arthur Gordon. Schools of primary educa-
tion established by private individuals, on being allowed by the
Board of Education, became entitled to aid from the public-
funds of the colony on certain conditions, the aid consisting of
| an annual capitation grant. This called at once in existence a
number of denominational schools. The measure was received
with general satisfaction.

468 TRINIDAD.

In May, 1873, an Ordinance was passed to amend the law
with regard to immigrants ; a mean death-rate was declared,
calculated on the average death-rate of all indentured immigrants
in the colony ; in case o£ excessive death-rate on any plantation,
no allotment of new immigrants ; regulations were made re-
specting day and task work, and provisions introduced for
offences of immigrants.

Another important measure was the Ordinance for the
custody of lunatics. For many years only lunatics who had
committed assaults or were dangerous were confined in the
asylum. Under the new law all classes of lunatics became ad-
missible.

In 1876 the law with regard to wardens was amended; again
in 1878, power being given to the Governor to proclaim provinces;
the colony was consequently divided into two provinces, the
northern and the southern, and two commissioners appointed.

A volunteer force was also formed, subject, as far as possible,
to the regulations for the voluntary force in England; the volun-
teers may be called on for military service in any emergency.

As an amendment to the Wardens' Ordinance, the rate
leviable on lands was made an uniform tax, and buildings
exempted under former Ordinances became rateable — a fair
arrangement, which was well received by all landowners.

In 1879 an Ordinance was passed "for constituting one
Supreme Court, and for other purposes relating to the better
administration of justice'''' — an Ordinance imitated from tht
English law, and entitled "the Judicature Ordinance/''

Governor Irving was absent from the colony once, from
December, 1877, to February, 1878, when the colony was ad-
ministered by the Hon. J. Scott Bushe, Colonial Secretary, and
George William des Vaeux, Esq., C.M.G. On his leaving
finally in July, 1880, and pending the arrival of his successor,
the colony was administered by Wm. A. G. Young, Esq.,
Lieutenant-Governor of British Guiana, from August, 1880, to
November, same year.

The present Governor of Trinidad is Sir Sanford Freeling.

I will conclude this chapter with a few general remarks.

Every Governor in succession had to revise, alter, and amend the

Immigration Ordinance as first passed ; this was natural enough,

and is easily understood. The Ordinance was, at first, as an

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 469

embryo measure, and has been gradually developed into a com-
prehensive mature scheme which, I believe, leaves little room for
further improvement.

With regard to the management of the crown lands, great
hesitation may be said to have prevailed since the abolition of
the Court of Intendant. This court, as existing under the
Spanish Government, was assisted by the Surveyor General or
Commissary of Population, a well-organised department. It
was finally done away with in 1868, and an Ordinance passed
"for regulating the sale of crown lands.' ' Regulations were
made at different times, lastly by our present Governor, Sir
Sanford Freeling ; they are, in my opinion, well digested and
comprehensive.

In all countries the construction and maintenance of public
roads are subject to fixed rules. It was not so in Trinidad ; for
many years they were left in the hands of incompetent persons
having no notions of civil engineering ; road boards, either
central or local, were established with certain powers, and soon
after changed, because they were unsuccessful in their efforts to
perform the work to the satisfaction of the tax-payers. The
roads of the colony have been lately placed under the charge
and superintendence of the Director of Public Works, and the
direction of qualified officers. It is to be hoped that no more
important changes will be required.

APPENDIX

SUGGESTIONS

FOR

Organising a Central ^grirnltural (fomtnitto,

AND

ESTABLISHING MODEL FARMS IN THE ISLAND OF TRINIDAD.

♦

To His Excellency the Right Honourable Lord Harris, Governor
of Trinidad.

My Lord, — Under the present depressed state of agricultural
and other affairs in Trinidad, and at a time when entirely new
principles seem to govern the policy of the British Government
and the Colonial Office with regard to the colonies ; when we are
left, in total reliance on our own resources, to struggle with
foreign slave-countries raising similar produce to our own — we
must strain every nerve to continue the unequal contest and
preserve to our children the landed property which is their sole
inheritance.

We cannot depend upon a protection, which is most peremp-
torily refused to our demands ; immigration and an adequate
supply of human labour are precarious aids ; the wisest step,
therefore, as also the surest, is to avail ourselves of those means
which are placed within our reach, namely — science and improved
methods, both in cultivation and manufacture.

But, my lord, if individual information, and facts gathered
by a few planters, may ultimately be of service to colonial agri-
culture, it is evident that facts carefully collected and collated by
order of a competent body, systematically arranged by well-
informed and practical men, so as to form a system of local

OBJECT OP MODEL YARMS. 471

husbandry based thereupon, and made public by means of the
local press — must be of the greatest benefit to the landholders
and the community at large.

In countries, such as England, where thousands of acres are
the property of wealthy landlords, where scientific information is
at ready command, private individuals may, either by their own
exertions or by liberal encouragements, correct the theory or
improve the practice of agriculture ; and yet agricultural
societies, even there, are of the greatest advantage.

But in countries, like France, where properties are subdivided
into small allotments, and particularly in such colonies as the
West Indies, where the proprietary body is either impoverished
or actually bordering on ruin, individual exertions generally
remain sterile, and voluntary societies are powerless to do
good.

It has, therefore, been deemed necessary in France to form
model farms, and to organise a " Central Board of Agriculture *
under the control of the Government.

The West India islands, compared with France, are in a
still worse position than the latter as compared with England ;
and model farms, with agricultural schools, supported by the
Government, are the only channels through which to convey to
the people theoretical as well as practical instruction, and the
only means for eventually improving the art of husbandry in
this archipelago.

Sincerely impressed with this conviction — myself a humble
individual, but deeply interested in the prosperity of this fine
colony — I presume to intrude on your lordship's valuable time
by offering, for your perusal, the following ideas, or sketch of a
model farm. Such an establishment, properly conducted, would,
in my opinion, be of no less benefit to Trinidad than any past
or present scheme for immigration.

At no other period, perhaps, will the Colonial Government
have a better opportunity of purchasing, at a moderate rate, one
of the numerous sugar-estates now abandoned, and investing the
same as Colonial property. In case the Government could spare
a sufficient sum of money, two model farms might be established
—one in Victoria, and the other in St. George; say, in Nap*
rima for the former, and Tacarigua, or St. Joseph, for the latter
county.

472 TRINIDAD.

The cultivation of the sugar-cane and the manufacture of
sugar should be the chief object of those establishments ; but
the culture of cacao and the raising of ground -provisions should
also be liberally encouraged ; in fact, the farms would be expected
to produce a full supply of vegetable food for the people thereon
employed.

The farm should be placed under the management of a
( ' director/' a person conversant with the various sciences con-
nected with agriculture ; viz., with botany, chemistry, meteor-
ology, and possessing a knowledge of soils, together with the
principles of agricultural science ; certain moral qualifications
should also be exacted as a standard of character.

The whole administration and conduct of the farm should
be placed entirely under his control and management.

It would be the duty of the " director " to keep correct books
and accounts, referrible to the quarterly or monthly examination
of a u Central Agricultural Committee/'' to be by them investi-
gated and approved previous to payment.

The director to have a liberal salary — independent of which
he should receive no allowance either for overseers, servants, or
other dependents.

Whereas a model farm would be of very little avail to the
community without a school being attached to it, from which,
as a source, the youth of the colony might draw information, a
building could be fitted up on the farm for the reception of
nine or more scholars above the age of fourteen years ; such
scholars to be admitted on their producing a certificate of good
character, and sufficient proficiency in reading, writing, and
arithmetic.

The pupils to be governed by stringent regulations, and to
be exclusively placed under the authority of the director.

The course of instruction to be both theoretical and
practical.

Theoretical instruction to consist of lectures on the principles
of botany, chemistry, meteorology, and agrology ; also of expla-
nations of the various implements and operations of husbandry.
The lectures to be delivered once in the week, and to be public.
The pupils to be furnished with elementary books on the various
sciences ; they might also be required to take notes of the lectures
delivered.

AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. 473

The practical instruction to be conducted as follows : —

1st year. — The pupil to superintend everything connected
with the live-stock and farming-implements. He should, under
the control of the director, attend to the pasture, fences, stables,
carts, ploughs, &c, and have under his authority the cartmen,
crook-boys, &c. He should learn to break and train animals, to
dress and bleed the same when sick, to drive a cart, conduct a
plough, and to attain a ready skill, manual or directory, in the
usage of other implements.

2nd year. — The pupil would superintend the field-work, the
drainage and preparation of- land, planting, weeding, cutting
canes, and other operations — under the immediate control of one
of the senior, or third year's pupils.

3rd year. — During the three months immediately following
the end of the crop, say, during June, July, and August, the
senior pupils will superintend the field-labours, together with the
second year's pupils; they will then take under their charge all
the preparations for the ensuing crop-season — such as the re-
pairing and putting in order the mill and the boiling-house,
preparing specifications for mason, cooper, and carpenter's work,
including the necessary materials. During the crop it will be
their duty to superintend the boiling-house, and to conduct all
operations connected with the manufacture of sugar.

A public examination to take place at the end of the year,
and a prize to be awarded to each class — unless, however, the
pupils should not be found sufficiently improved.

Each pupil to pay a premium of 200 dollars for the first
year, 100 dollars for the second, and to receive 100 dollars as
overseer's salary for the third year. The money received to be
placed to the account or credit of the farm. The pupils to be
boarded at the expense of Government for the first two years,
and by the farm during the third year — the latter as part of
overseer's salary.

Although I attach great importance to chemical analyses,
yet I am of opinion that superior and more economical results
would be gained, without material difference to the colonists, by
obtaining analyses of soils and plants from chemists in Europe,
rather than by forming a laboratory and having a chemist
attached to the establishment in the island.

" Central Agricultural Committee."— Events have fully

474 TRINIDAD.

proved that voluntary societies do not and cannct beneficially
operate, and the reasons are obvious. It then becomes the duty
of the Government to take the matter into their own hands. A
" Central Agricultural Board, or Committee/' should be estab-
lished by law, to consist of six or more members — the director
or directors of the model farms, and the Government botanist,
being ex-officio members; the others to be appointed by the
Governor. All the members to be required punctually to attend
the meetings of the " Committee/' under a penalty of £1 for
non-attendance unless good excuse is given : the botanist to act
as secretary.

It would be the duty of the u Central Committee " to prepare
a general plan for the management of the model farm ; they
should examine the books and accounts of the director, and
approve the latter for payment, on being found correct. It
would also be within the province of the ' ' Central Committee "
to collect facts connected with the agriculture of the colony ;
and, for that purpose, to prepare such local questions as may be
deemed of importance, for circulation among the proprietors of
estates and intelligent planters, in the different parts of the
colony. A digest of interesting facts, observations, and contri-
butions should be published, for general information, in a
journal, to be entitled the " Trinidad Annual Register of
Agriculture/' the said journal to be aided and supported by
the Government.

As the model farm ought to be made, as far as possible, a
self-supporting establishment, all net revenues should be em-
ployed— first, to repay the purchase-money; and this being
effected, the entire proceeds should thenceforth be kept as a
reserve against contingencies, and for the general promotion of
agricultural objects and interests.

Although the model farm and the " Central Committee " are
here made to be mutually dependent, they may still exist sepa-
rately and independently. I am, however, fully aware of the
many difficulties which may attend the establishment of a model
farm in Trinidad. Prejudice and routine will, under existing
circumstances, raise their cry against such an institution ; and
but a few, it is to be feared, will be awakened to its advantages
— I would say, to its blessings. On the other hand, the
formation of a " Central Committee " rests entirely with the

OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED. 475

executive, and, if properly organised, would, I believe, work
successfully.

Men are fond of distinction, and were the members of the
" Central Committee " to derive some importance from the
appointment, it is to be anticipated they would gladly devote
time and attention to the object of the institution. I therefore
suggest that the committee should be consulted on all matters
connected with or affecting the agricultural interest of the
colony, as is the case in France. That body would then be, not
a mere sugar-planters' committee, but would include cacao and
other planters. It would thus be enabled to turn its attention
to the cultivation of ground-provisions, tobacco, and oleaginous
plants, the growth of which could be encouraged by the sale of
crown lands to such natives and immigrants as might be disposed
to devote labour or capital to that species of culture.

The committee should be appointed, primarily, by the Governor
— the vacancies to be afterwards filled from a list of candidates
prepared by the committee, the qualifications for the distinction
being of a peculiar description.

I beg, in continuation, to offer a few remarks on the model
farms.

It is to be expected that any scheme for the formation of
model farms in Trinidad will meet, if not with disparaging
criticism, or even opposition, at least with perfect indifference.
The capital to be invested in the purchase and improvement of
the farm will be considered as so much cash abstracted from the
public purse, to gratify a chimerical project. Partly to invalidate
this objection, I consider that the formation of the "Central
Committee'''' ought to precede the establishment of the farm.
The control exercised by the former would be a sort of guarantee
to the public of success in the latter.

We have already had superabundant proofs that it is difficult
to rouse the planters even to a sense of their best interests. If,
on the one hand, we find reasons for this in their ignorance of
agricultural science and the art of husbandry, on the other,
we may also trace this apathetic unconcern to the following
cause : —

Perceiving, in the midst of their distress— brought on either
by the present commercial crisis, or the glut of their staple,
which has been thrown into, and still remains in the market—

476 TRINIDAD.

that the British Government have abandoned their former policy
with regard to slave produce, the colonists are induced to believe
that the mother-country is determined to allow them to die a
lingering death, rather than to afford them support by Protection.
Strongly impressed with that conviction, they regard the new
policy of the Government as the chief, nay, the sole cause of
their present grievances, and they are still under the impression
that no remedy will alleviate their distress, but the one coupled
with measures of relief from the home Government. The conse-
quence is, that very little has been attempted in the improve-
ment of colonial agriculture; and whilst our eyes have been
widely open to the dereliction of the mother-country, they have
been closed, and are still blind, to our own faults and short-
comings.

I readily admit that the reproaches urged by her Majesty's
ministers and our adversaries are, to a certain extent, justly
grounded ; but, however presumptuous I may appear in offering
an opinion in a matter so grave, I dare contend that much credit
is not due to our opponents at home for ascribing the sum total
of our misfortunes to our ignorance, and our want of industry
and energy. Wrong we may be in deducing our distresses from
a single source ; but still more faulty are those who trace the
same to far less powerful causes ; viz., lack of information an<
despondency — the latter of these being but a very natural conse-
quence of our present position.

But, should it be for once admitted that ignorance and
supineness are the real causes of our present miserable position,
her Majesty's minister for the colonies could not offer any reason-
able objection to the adoption of a plan, which, in all probability,
would effectually and widely contribute as much to a diffusion ol
knowledge as to the general improvement of agriculture, an<
which must eventually advance the prosperity of the colony anc
the welfare of its inhabitants.

As to the probable success of the undertaking, I may refer
the beneficial results already secured by individual efforts, anc
from the encouragements so generously afforded by your Excel-
lency. It is true that, on a candid examination of the practical
advantages hitherto obtained, we are led to confess that little
has, as yet, been realised ; but, when we take into consideratioi
that the stronghold of prejudice has been shaken, and thai

WANT 0E THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE. 477

the minds of many have been opened to better doctrines, we
have reason to rejoice at the result, and to hope for further
improvement.

The formation of a school connected with the model farm is,
in my opinion, the surest and speediest plan for sweeping away
the accumulated rubbish of errors that has, for years, obstructed
the path of progress, for creating a new era in our agricultural
economy, and for facilitating the onward march of a steady
reform.

In fact, there is no systematic or rational instruction or
training, under our present routine, for those who look forward
to agricultural pursuits. A youth is, for a few years, engaged
as an overseer by a manager or proprietor, who takes but little
or no trouble in schooling his subordinate, to whom, even other-
wise, he could impart but very little information. If the youth
be active, intelligent, and honest, he turns out to be a tolerable
manager, after some three or four years of apprenticeship. But
he, like his former master, must depend upon his ignorant
boilerman for the quality of his sugar, and in the entire process
of manufacture, since that branch of plantership — the most
difficult and the most important — does not form a part of the
practical instruction of the planter, but is entirely left to the
blind routine of a man who knows nothing of the composition of
the juice of the cane, or of the effects of those agents he daily
employs to extract therefrom a saccharine compound. No won-
der, then, if we send to the home market the filthy produce
commonly called muscovado, with an immense percentage of
uncrystallised sweets in the form of molasses. We have strong
motives to complain of a scarcity of labour, but our opponents
have also some reasons for asserting that we do not know how
to make available the labour we already do, or can, command.
So long as we hoped for Protection, such language might have
been deemed treasonable to our own interests ; but at the present
crisis it is only true, and ought to have the influence of truth.
Skill and science are, indeed, the grand desiderata; but, if
science and practical instruction be not placed within the reach
of the planters, they certainly cannot be expected to improve by
mere desire or intuition.

This, however, is not all. If we bring ourselves to inquire
and scrutinise, we may discover further difficulties arising either

478 TRINIDAD.

from absenteeism, or from that reluctance to agricultural pursuits
which is characteristic of the emancipated population.

More than one-half of the sugar-estates of the colony has
become the property of merchants at home — a natural conse-
quence of the exorbitant rate of interest paid to those capitalists
for loans of money, supplies, and other charges, a result, also,
greatly encouraged and hastened by the extravagant tactics, and
the laissez a Her (almost allied to fatalism) of the planters.
Those merchants who have by force become proprietors find
themselves in nearly the same predicament as the former owners
— a want of good managers, whilst attorneys unable efficiently
to superintend or control the general management of their pro-
perties are active agents in their ruin. It is therefore to be
anticipated that the absentee proprietors, labouring under the
same disadvantages as the old proprietary body of the island,
will be ultimately roused to a sense of their own interests, and
adopt some better system for the management of their properties.
The following would be, in my opinion, the best and most
advantageous, both for that class of proprietors and for the
general welfare : — The manager should become a participator in
the net profits of the estate : but, as it would be but justice to
insure him a regular maintenance, he should also receive a small
fixed salary — say of 500 dollars — in addition to 10 per cent, of
the net proceeds. Under this system, the manager would have
the sole and entire superintendence of the property, except in
such cases in which material changes should be required, such as
alterations in the general disposition of the buildings, apparatuses,
&c. He should be allowed to procure his supplies at the lowest
rate, instead of drawing them from the attorney's store. The
attorney would be furnished with the pay-lists and all other
accounts ; he would ship the produce and pay the necessary
duties and expenses thereon ; as also all amounts due by the
manager in service of the property, after being furnished with
authentic vouchers. The manager would prepare a detailed
estimate of probable expenditure for the ensuing twelvemonths
— from the 1st of July, each year. On the other hand, he should
be entitled to demand and receive the exact accounts of the sales
and proceeds of produce.

This plan is simple, just, and safe. The manager, placed in
this position, will have the same interest in the estate as the

DIGNITY OF AGRICULTURAL LABOUR. 479

proprietor himself. Some prospects will be thus afforded him of
improving his condition by industry ; he will be encouraged fa »
settle himself comfortably in marriage, and may, eventually,
become a proprietor in his own right ; also, in case the absent
proprietor should be desirous of parting with his estate, he could
safely enter into an advantageous arrangement with his former
manager.

Now it is evident that the absentee proprietor cannot adopt
the proposed plan if the class of managers, generally, do not offer
sufficient professional guarantees. The formation of an agricul-
tural school, and certificates delivered by the " Central Com-
mittee/'' would afford such guarantees ; and the adoption of the
proposed plan would also be a powerful inducement to the youth
of the colony to improve themselves in the science of agriculture
and the art of husbandry.

The reluctance evinced by all classes to field occupations
has its origin in a deep-rooted prejudice, the offspring of slavery.
Rural occupations are generally deemed a loss of caste in
plodding labourers, and are considered as the special province
of the ignorant. The command of God is, " In the sweat of
thy face shalt thou eat bread/' but slavery had made the com-
mand of God a prescription of man ; and the slave, obliged to
toil for the benefit of his master, viewed the obligation of
working as a curse, whilst the master regarded the occupations
of a slave (except in an interested light) as unworthy of his
attention. It is, to all, clear and evident that, whilst we are
loudly demanding an increase of field-labour, there is a glut of
tradesmen and petty shopkeepers in the island. An agricultural
school would have the effect of ennobling rural pursuits, and of
raising agricultural occupations in the estimation of the com-
munity. This is the reason that the strictest obligations should
characterise the training and service of the pupils, as also a high
salary be paid to the director of the farm — the former to insure
the stability and promote the final objects of the establishment,
the latter, to secure the services of a respectable and competent
individual.

The pupils should be boarded by the director, on an adequate
allowance being made for the necessary expenditure.

In conclusion, I suggest that the growth of fruit-t:
ground-provisions, and the more delicate vegetables — those of

480 TRINIDAD.

Europe included — should be encouraged. In aid of this design
better methods of culture could be easily and successfully sub-
stituted for the present routine, and superior agricultural imple-
ments be made to supersede the hoe and cutlass. Plantains,
manioc, Indian corn — even tanias, yams, and potatoes, might be
cultivated with the plough and the cultivator. Let the example
be exhibited on the model farms, and many of the middle classes
will be, at once, satisfied to cultivate their own lands, and thus
secure an honourable subsistence to their families ; whilst a cheap
and abundant supply of wholesome provisions could be regularly
furnished to our markets. The white man will, himself, prepare
his field with the plough and harrow, and drive the cultivator
through his plantain walks or young manioc rows ; the
coloured man, by improving his condition, will rise in the social
scale, and those baneful prejudices — the greatest obstacle to the
prosperity of this fine island — will then vanish like noxious
exhalations before the rising sun.

I have the honour to be, my lord,
Your Excellency's most obedient humble .servant,

L. A. A. de Veeteuil, M.D.P.
Port-op-Spain.

Such was the scheme I submitted for Lord Harris' con-
sideration some time in the year 1850. My opinions have not
since changed, and I am still strongly convinced that the estab-
lishment of a model farm, with a school of agriculture attached,
would confer incalculable benefits on the community. Moreover,
as juvenile depravity is on the increase, and the number of
youthful criminals augmenting to an alarming extent, such an
establishment might be rendered subservient as a penitentiary
for that class of offenders, where they could receive primary
instruction, religious teaching, and industrial training.

To the plan, in the abstract, no one, I believe, can offer any
serious objection; by many, I know, its realisation will be
deemed impossible : to the latter I answer — it has been realisec
elsewhere to the fullest extent, and with manifold advantages.

MINERAL COALS.

During their survey of Trinidad, Messrs. Wall and Sawkins
discovered seams of coal, which they reported to be of very good
quality. This fuel cannot fail to be a most valuable addition to
the already numerous and valuable resources of the colony.

The coal has been found at Pointe Noire, between Manzanilla
and the mouth of the river Oropuche. The coal district would
extend, according to all appearances, from the eastern coast to
the Gulf, across the counties of St. Andrew, Caroni, and part
of St. George. Unfortunately it was surveyed on an extent of
only nine miles.

At Pointe Noire the coal is quite near the surface, and
consequently can be worked at little expense, and with prospects
of immediate return.

From the work of Messrs. Wall and Sawkins I have the
following information.

The geological conditions indicate that the fuels of the island
are contained in strata of recent origin, the carbonaceous
deposits of the eastern coast being probably middle Tertiary,
whilst that of the southern coast may be of even later date.
Preliminary experiments having established considerable diver-
sity in the qualities of the coals, the leading varieties only were
selected and subjected to as complete an examination as practic-
able. The results are summarised in the following paragraphs : —

The specific gravity of the whole of the local specimens is
comprised within the usual limits — 1*2 to 1*4.

Sulphur does not exist in excess in any of the island speci-
mens j in some the amount is very trifling.

The colonial fuels are less perfectly mineralised than those
of the English formation.

The whole of the specimens from Trinidad having been
collected from the outcrops of the .beds to which they belong
are in a more or less deteriorated condition, on which account an
improvement may be confidently anticipated in the following
particulars : a decrease in the amount of ashes; a decrease in the
water mechanically mixed ; and an increase in the illuminating

¥ v

482 TRINIDAD.

Should it be considered advisable to select some of these fuels
for trial of their practical value on an extended scale, Nos. 18
and 13 from Pointe Noire seem best adapted for general pur-
poses ; but for steam navigation No. 2, from the same district,
unites the valuable properties of superior density, only slight
caking tendency, and holding together well under transit.

Specimens were sent to the Museum of Practical Geology
for examination; and here is the verdict of Sir Eoderick
Murchison : —

" Having examined the fossil remains which are associated
with the combustible, I may now inform you that they are of a
very recent Tertiary age. Hence the combustible comes, geologi-
cally, within the class of lignites, which are of very inferior
value to the coal of real Carboniferous age.

" At the same time it is right to state that some Tertiary
lignites possess an amount of calorific value which, in tracts
where the old coal does not exist, renders them of considerable
importance. Thus nearly all the Austrian steamers in the
Adriatic are worked by Tertiary coal, which in the relation of its
calorific value to the old coal is about 60 to 100.

"No. 15 by distillation furnishes a considerable quantity of
hydrocarbon, and No. 18 would probably be valuable for gas
making ; but a large quantity of material will be required to
make satisfactory experiments in regard to their economic value.

" These results, favourable as they are, being obtained from
surface specimens which have been deteriorated by weathering, do
not convey a fair idea of the value of the fuel which may be
obtained from subterranean workings.

" It remains, of course, to be ascertained in the island whether
the beds of lignite can be easily worked by horizontal galleries ;
for if the fuel is attainable at a small cost, it may prove highly
valuable to the colony.

(Signed) " Roderick L. Murchison."

On a subsequent visit to the district adjacent to Pointe
Noire, the surveyors managed to obtain about twelve and a half
tons of coal. The whole of that quantity was conveyed by men
to Manzanilla for embarkation to Port-of- Spain. A ton of the
fuel was taken on board of H.M. steamer Buzzard for trial. In

MINERAL COALS. 4g3

the following letter from the commander of the ship we have
the results obtained : —

" H.M.S. Buzzard, at Barbados,
"January 6, 1859.

" I have the honour to inform you that the coals I took on
board the Buzzard at Trinidad were fairly tried in one furnace
on board this ship. The opinion of Mr. Gilham, the chief
engineer, and my own also, is, they are far superior to what we
expected.

" The small quantity that I had to burn had been so long
exposed to the air, rain, and heat of climate, that they were
very much deteriorated.

" The coals give a very bright flame, with great heat and
little smoke, but burnt so fiercely that we expended at the rate
of seventy-two tons per diem.

■ ( I certainly am of opinion, and also Mr. Gilham, that if
coals were dug deeper in the vein they would prove of great use
to steamers with tubular boilers.

" I have the honour, etc.,

(Signed) " Francis Peel,

" Commander."

The same vessel having visited Trinidad a few weeks later,
the residue of the coal was taken on board and tried in the Gulf.
The particulars ascertained were that "whilst the steam was
raised and retained at the requisite pressure with equal or greater
facility than with the ordinary fuels used, the consumption was,
however, much more rapid than in the case of the English,
Scotch, or Welsh coals."

With such facts before me, I repeat what I have already
stated, that it is a matter for regret that Messrs. Wall and Saw-
kins were not encouraged and assisted in completing their survey
of the coal district. They might have come upon seams at such
localities wherefrom the transport of the coals would have been
easy and unexpensive. But when we look to the report of the
surveyors, to the opinion of Sir Roderick Murchison, to the trial
made on board the Buzzard, I believe I only express a reason-
able opinion when I say that it is highly desirable that the local
Government should put our mineral fuels to a fair test ; and

484 TRINIDAD.

that, with such object in view, it should not shrink from ex-
pending a few thousand pounds in bringing our coals within
reach of our planters, our railways, engines, or steam vessels.
This could not be considered as a rash step, inasmuch as we
have the opinion of Sir Roderick Murchison, that "some Ter-
tiary lignites possess an amount of calorific value which, in tracts
where the old coal does not exist, renders them of considerable
importance/'' as exemplified on board the " Austrian steamers in
the Adriatic, which are worked by Tertiary coal." It cannot be a
rash step when we have the statement that the Pointe Noire
coals were " far superior to what was expected ; " that " they
gave a very bright flame, with great heat and little smoke, and
burnt fiercely ; " that " the steam was raised and retained at the
requisite pressure with equal or greater facility than with the
ordinary fuels used," though " the consumption was much more
rapid than in the case of the English, Scotch, or Welsh coals.-"

According to Sir Roderick Murchison, No. 18 would prob-
ably be valuable for gas making.

We have again the opinion of the surveyors, of Sir Roderick
Murchison, and of Commander Peel, fchat the specimens, being
more or less deteriorated by weathering, do not convey a fair
idea of the value of the fuel which may be obtained from
subterranean workings.

Of course let the Government obtain coals from such sub-
terranean workings, and then, but only then, shall we be
able to pronounce upon the importance and value of our coal
formation.

k

Camsu k Company, Limited, Belle Sauvage Works, London, E.G.

998

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY