da ‘ ray ax Lola Set og er Iw ee Digitized by the Internet Archive | in 2014 ~The Tropical Agriculturist AND Magazine af ihe Ceylon Agricultural Society. FOUNDED BY JOHN FERGUSON, C.M.G., 1881. EDITED BY J. G. WILLIS. Sc.D., F.L.S., Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. Vol. XXVIII. Containing Numbers | io VI, : July to December, 1906. Bacien2 A. M. & J. FERGUSON, COLOMBO, CEYLON. 1907. *F THE CEYLON BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. President: HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOB. Viee-Presidents: The Hon’ble Mr. H.C. Nicortin, Colonial |} Sir Winn1am TwyNam, K.C.M.G. Treasurer Mr H.T. S. Warp, Director of Irrigation The Hon'ble Mr. Jonn FERGUSON, C.M.G. Mr. W. ForsyTHe The Hon’ble Mr. S. C. OBEYESEKERE Mr. W. D. Gipson The Hon’ble Mr. Francis BEVEN Mr. C. P. Hayury Dr. W. G. Rockwoop, M.D. Members of the Board: Ex-Officio.—Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils The Government Agents of Provinces The Director, Royal Botanic Gardens The Controller, Experiment Station, Peradeniya The Government Entomologist The Government Mycologist The Director of the Museum The Director of Public Instruction The Government Veterinary Surgeon The Superintendent of School Gardens The Conservator of Forests Nominated Members: Western Provinces Eastern Provinee. Mr, R. Morison Mr. Varitambi Kurunathapillai » M. Kelway Bamber , OC. A. Lienard » a. W. Booth, c.c.s. ,» &, B. Denham, c.c.s. North-Western Province. », Solomon Seneviratne, Atapattu Muda- Mr. E, Scott liyar and J.P. » J. Clovis de Silva , Don Solomon Dias Bandaranaike,c.m.a. ;, G. W Dodanwela Maha Mudaliyan ,» S.N. W. Hulugalle, Adigar Dr. H. M. Fernando, M.D, Mr. W. N.S. Aserappa North-Central Province. » W. Jardine Mr, C. J.C. Mee Central Province. » §S. Sampander C. Valoopillai Mr. R. E, Paranagama, R.M. ” % Daniel Tou Ie aay G.W.I ayawardene, _Mudaliyar and J.P, » W. Dunuwille, Disava cusaaa ee: eo Taldena, R.M, Dr. Valentine de 8S. Duke Sebaeeance a ae «Northern Esgeitce. o/c g aarti bit Reais Mr, V. Casipillai Sa oe Ps eae Feeney Duncan V. Vraspillai, Adigar and 3.p. K. U. Tampaiya, District Mudaliyar. Southern Province. ,, H.O. Hoseason, J.P. » -L. B. Katugaha, p.m. . ” Mr. C. G. Simmonds Province of Sabaragamuwa, , . R. Gooneratne, Gate Mudaliyar Mr, W. Forsythe |, D. A. Gooneratne, Gate Mudaliyar » Dan. J. Jayatileke » B.T. Doole, Gate Mudaliyar » J. H. Meedeniya, 2m, Seeretary : Mr. A, N. GALBRAITH, C,0.8- ans Poel Writes Wir and INDEX. PAGE. Editorials, Lectures, Original Articles, etc :— Agricultural Banks for Ceylon _ ...268, 525 53 Society Progress Re- port, 116, 198, 351, 434, fe 16 ‘ Societies, Use and Objects of 500 Agriculture, Possibilities of Improve- ment in Village ot THO Agri-Horticultural Show, ‘Kegalle... 339 ” 9 Kelani Valley 337 » Kurunegala 335 Area under Rubber in Ceylon a 121 Board of Agriculture, Ceylon 115, 197, 390, 433, 436, 518 ' Botany, Lessonsin Elementary 97, 191, "O77, 340, 413, 505 Brand Marks on Kandyan Cattle .. 253 Cacao, CultivationinCeylon, 73, 144, 31), 380, 480 Camphor Industry, Ceylon 475 Castilloa Elastica, Introduction to the East of ... Ky 206 Coconut Germination of the oe 232 .3 Cultivation of the nae 318 i Diseases of the.. ie 489 Cotton in Ceylon 231 Crushing of Cattle by the Kandyans 407 Dry Grains of Ceylon ... 486 Encouragement of Arts and Crafts in Ceylon .. 497 Entomological Notes 82, 193, 248, 394, 492 Improvement of Local Varieties of Plants : ae 203 Irrigation in Arizona, Notes on . 271, 323 Lemongrass and Citronella in Ceylon 140 Lessons in Elementary Botany 97, 191, 277, 340, 413, 505 Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture... 98, 179, 276, 342, 422, 50 Market Gardening in Nuwara Eliya ae Mycological Notes 86 Nature of the Para Rubber Tree and Latex Extraction & 214 Poultry Notes.. Veo Op\ 250, “406, 495 Rubber and Cotton in Ceylon’ 299 FS Cultivation and Manufacture, Notes on 22 Fe Cultivation and the Future Production... 442 ie Cultivation, The Science of 3 ve Exhibition, Ceylon Hes 280 es in London Hes 367 Ae Overproduction in os 441 a Preparation of Block Ai 469 ee Price of ery) aa! ie Shipment to London oie 358 " ‘Tapping Peronsteation at Henaratgoda .. Le 460 Vulcanisation .., ae 281 Sanitation on Hstates ..- 506 Termes Gestroi, the Hevea Rubber Termite oo aoe aay 83 Tobacco Cultivation in Jafina Village Agriculture, Possibilities of Improvementin 3 Pi Pace, ..245, B15 119 Gums, Resins, Saps and Exudations:—- Achres or ChicleGum_.. Camphor Cultivation in ‘Southern Tndia ay Ceylon Industry a a Cultural Directions ne i Industry, 1905, ‘The Chinese... Chicle Gum, Tapping and Preparing Zapote Tree (Achres sapota) in Mexico RUBBER :— Castilloa Elastica: Black Water of Castilloa Coagulation of Latex by Chemicals Be al Cultivation in Nicaragua Fungi on Trees Introduction to the East. Latex Coagulating 53 Manipulation of .. a Treatment after Coagulation Belly Nicaragua, Cultivation in Resin in Young Trees Tapping Methods Yields in Mexico » otf Castilloa Cultivation in Colombia Guayule, Use of .. Hevea Brasiliensis or Para: Bark Renewal » Warieties of Block Para, Preparation of Canker Fungus Caoutchouc in Brazil Rubber a in Latex, Proportions of Characters of Hevea ; ae Cultivation in Malay Peninsula ... Science of ay Disease, Spread of Drying Rubber, Points i in Foliage, Development of Effect of Incr eased Forking, Effect of ne Fungi on Rubber Bee Inter- -crops v. Clean- weeding ea Irrigation, Cultivation under Latex, Chemical Composition of . oe Coagulation of .. ‘8 Effect of Removing ae Extraction Bs from Seed ate ne Manuring for . Trees without », Tubes Drying up.. without Rubber ... Laticiferous Cells, Origin and For. mation of .. ae kA 229 PAGE. Manuring for Latex as il 216 Hevea Trees . 449 Nature of Para Tree and Latex. Extraction ... Ap er 214 Pest, White Ant Ais 85 Planting Close, Advantages of Ae 5 Distance in ay ae 3 Pruning Young Trees sh 6 Root Disease .. we . 10,86 » Growth. n6i3 4 Rubber and Cotton, Ceylon a 299 Seed, Exports from Malaya - sais 129 ',, Packing and Exporting cae 24 Tapping Demonstration at Henarat- goda 460 BA During Flowering Period 1] - Frequency of ... ...218, 466 He High... . 461, 465 Termes Gestroi, the Hevea Termite 85 Weeding Clean v. Inter- oECee pe Yields at Henaratgoda.. Vs 462 General :— Acid in Rubber Coagulation nee 209 Ammonia on Latex, Action of .. 291 Area in Ceylon under Cultivation... 121 Burgess on the Industry in Britain As 131, 209, 292 Boom, The Rubber bt s 213 Caoutchouc Contents of Brazil Rubber... é 281 Formation in Bark . 215 Comparative Value of Plantation Rubbers Ms - 444 Consumption in America ER 137 Crépe in London Market fy 33 » Rubber 371 Cultivation and Future ‘Production 442 Culture, Truth about Rubber a 121 Dock Labourer and Rubber in London st : wa 363 Drying Rubber ate 210 Extracting Rubber, Methods of ... 445 Extraction, New Era in Kubber . 135 Formalin on Latex, Action of : 291 Grades of Rubber, Qualities of Dit: ferent 367 Industrial Demand, The ai 29 Industry in Ceylon and America, at Piantation .. 26 Me in Great Britain, Burgess on % 1st, 209, 292 In Malay Peninsula a6 . 27, 873 In Samoa i 375 Land in the Tr: opies, Rubber 0 446 Latex, Action of Ammonia and For- malin on ; 291 5, Obemical Composition of . 281 », _ Sulpburising and Colouring 285 London, Kubber in ae 367 Malaya, Rubber in aN (27 373 Manuring Rubber 449 Market, London Rubber.. 31, 137, 2277, 304, 376, 471 Masticating Rubber .. a) 212 Mixing Rubber Mi 213 Nerve in Rubber, Lack of ae 373 Olsson-Seffer on Rubber at 2 Overproduction in Rubber 441 Physical Properties and Chemical ee repesition of Rubber, Relation PlantaCion Industry in Ceylon and America eve et ABs 26 Plantation Rubber, Preferred 4 Forms of ... ~ 369 nA 5 Smoking ‘208 Price "of Rubber 2 357 Pure Rubber, Value of Chemically 454 Ratnapara, Suitability for Rubber Growing of.. st 225 Raw Rubber, Preparation of ave 209 Rubber Formation in Bark BS, 215 MA in Malaya He see Db, BID Ms Samoa oe cat 375 » Manufacture. 292 ~ Sabaragamuwa, Suitability for Rubber Growing of ... we 225 Samoa, Rubber in Bae ae 375 Sampling i in London .. As 361 Seed-bearing and Overtapping ... 224 », Parents, Selection of Me 226 Separating Strong and Wee Rubber AG us 363 Shipment to London _ ... os 358 Smoking Plantation Rubber -- 208 Solution Making ale 293 Sulpburising Rubber in ‘Ceylon 4 285 Tapping Methods 5 260, 345 Vulcanising Method and Ingre- dients ve 282 Vulcanisation.. St He 281 Washing Raw Rubber 211 Yields in 1905, Company of Plan- tation 445 o of Plantations, | Future an 448 Oils and Fats :— Citronella in Ceylon ... wy 140 a Oil, Ceylon .. Ais 142 A Test, Schimmel’s is 142 Lemongrass in Ceylon.. wie 140 BA Oil, Ceylon ... 142 Refined in Cey lon 140 Schimmel’s Citronella Test, sags and 142 Schleichera or Kusam Qil and Fat... 309 Fibres :— Bamboo for Paper-making ade 379 Bark Fibre from Calotropis bee 42 Calotropis or Madar Floss aM 44 Cotton Deterioration in Ceylon ... 204 .y Growing Notes. 41 We Improvement by Seed Selection 171 A in Ceylon re 231 SeedSelection ... 171, 208, 479 Madar Fibre Plant Abie he 2 Dye Stuffs and Tanning Substances :— Mangrove Bark, Collection and Ex- port of : ie », Leather Pr oduced from ve 39 vy » rade 39 a »; Utilisation of 36 a Barks, Varieties of ees 36 Extract, Manufacture of 38 A in Africa * es 36 Ys », Hast Indies .. a 37 Drugs and Medicinal Plants :— Cinchona Barks and Cultivation.. 46 iy Formation of Alkaloid in 47 y Growth of Bark in fan 47 Drugs, Cultivation in German East Africa of Me 50 Quinine in Cinchona Bark it 47 INDEX, D PAGE, Edible Products :— ‘Cacao Characters of Varieties 144 a Cultivation in Ceylon 73, 144 311, 380, 480, ah in Gold Coast... 146 Hi Expor tations from Ceylon, (1875-1905) 73 ef Fermentation A 380 p es Length of 5 385 ot Be Object of Nie 380 a Fermenting Chambers 381 “40 v4 in Africa 384 a sf in Java 382 $y 55 in Surinam 382 Ae bs in Trinidad 384 ee if in Venezuela .. 382 Ke in West Indies" 383 - Flower Periodicity 480 » Klowers ona Tree, Number of 483 af Foliar Periodicity cee 480 a Fruit Characters 145 3 » Colours of Varieties... 145 ” » Wall, Differences in. 145 ag in Gold Coast .. ene L4G “ Root Periodicity 480 3 Seed Characteristics 311 ih Seeds in Fruit, Number of... 313 Tree, Periodicity of : 480 Varieties, Classification of... 144 Cardamoms i in the pecs 322 Citrate of Lime : 386 Coconut Bud Rot of... 491 BS Cultivation in Trinidad... 155 5 Germination of the 232 Ny Industry of Trinidad 155 oe Notes on oe 318 a Oil Manufacture in Tri- nida Ne 157 Coconuts, Diseases of nee 489 Pests of »-. 83, 492 Coffee Cultivation in Brazil als 74 ‘ Industry in Brazil ate 154 Cola in Gold Coast 4 148 Copra Drying in Trinidad 157 ore Seed Meal and Oil as Human | 388 ey, Grains Cultivated i in a Geylvn a 391, 486 Ginger Cultivation 80 Guava Fruit Pulp 168 Maté or Paraguay Tea ... 234. Shamshu (Chinese Spirit) from Sorghum .. 169 Spices in London Market 170 Sugar Cane Growing in Trinidad... 167 » Industry of Philippines 166 Making in South India 78 Tea, Oeylon Import Duty on 4 153 % > ‘“‘Thirty Committee ” 68 », Resumé of Work of ne 69 » in Ceylon, The Oldest Ac 150 », industry, China pe 485 ie Hs in Foochow, 1905 .. 386 ,, Deteriorated, Renovation of 57 He Deterioration, Causes of ais 60 As Signs of 59 » Green Manures for oe 63 », Maté or Paraguay... 34. » Pests On 0 194, 394, oe », Pruning Deteriorated Renovation of Deteriorated.. 2B Teas, Indian Varieties of -.160 483 », weading, The World’s 1150, 482 Cattle Manure, Conservation OLjired ili Pace. Tobacco Cultivation and Curing 51, 158, 236 7 ‘a in Jaffna, Ceylon 245, 315 iA Curing 58, 161, 236, 239 a a Bxperiments in Madras.. 56 ” House ... 158 ” Growing in West Indies .. 51 . in Jamaica oe 7,242 yY Pressing and pusing 158 »* KRatoons : 56 vs Shade-Grown .. 236 a Soils.. 243 Topping Young ‘Plants 55 Vanilla Industry in Seychelles .. 320 Scientific Agriculture :— Carbonate of Lime in Soil, iat ik of Manures on 178 344. Cotton Improvement by Seed Selection 171 Seed Selection, Umportance and Necessity of a 171 Horticulture :— Cabbage Club-root in Ceylon : 91 _ Crop Diseases in Ceylon, Vegetable 92 Cut Flowers, How to Keep 400 Manures for Nuwara Eliya Gardens 90 Market Gardening in Nuware BlNa, Ceylon 88 Rotation of Crops ee os 113 Plant Sanitation :— yoconut Palm, Bud Kot of 491 is 3 Diseases of the... 489 Rhinoceros Beetleon 492 Jungle Stumps, Uprooting ae 491 Entomology : Bees Boring in Rubber .. oe 193 Black Beetle on Coconuts 83 Black-headed Caterpillar on Coco-| nuts 83 Brown Moth (Oxyodes scrobisculata) in Flight 2 404. Cacao abrips (Physopus rubrocincta) 248 Camphor Wood attacked by Beetle 492 Case Worms on Tea... 195 Cinnamon Pest (Ewproctis fraterna) 248 Cockchafer Grub, Cure for 249 Coconut Pests in Ceylon 83 Cotton Worn, The Egyptian 396 Cucumber Fly (Dacus sp.) ah 493 Entomological Notes 82, 193, 248 pes 4 Flea Beetle, to Destroy the . is 195 Lac Insect on Amherstia a 195. Lamp Traps for Insect Pests ibe 82 Longicorn Beetle 193 Mealy Bug (Phenacoccus or reas), A New af 82 Mosquitoes in Batticaloa, Ceylon. ie 84 Nettie Grubs (Thosea) in Ceylon ... 82 Pyralid Moth on Millet... 195 Rubber, Boring Bees and Wasps in 193, _ Cockchafer (enatinta 4 pin- guis) Attacking 194 is Fungus Parasite (Botr yodi- plodia elasticae) 193 Horned Teciite Attacking 194 Red Weevil on Coconuts eS 83 Pace Rhinoceros Beetle on Coconuts... 492 Sand Fly, Remedy for the a 85 Scale Bugs on Coconuts Be 84 » Insects on Coconuts as 83 Shot Hole Borer (Xyleborus forni- catus) in Tea ...394,492 5 on Shade Trees 194 Sparrow Pest in Ceylon 85 Termes Gestroi, the Hevea Rubber Termite Termite on Rubber, The Horned (Termes inanis) ste 194 Tobacco Pest (Prodenia ‘liltor ‘alis)... 493 Wasps Boring in Rubber aa 193 Mycology : Botryodiplodia Elastica on Rubber 86 “Canker ” Fungus on Rubber (Coftc- ium javanicum) 30 86 Fungi on Rubber Trees.. A 86 Fusarium on Rubber _... ae 87 Javanese Fungi on Castilloa ee 86 Mycological Notes apt as 86 Root Disease of Rubber 86 Rubber Fungus Parasite (Botryo- diplodia elasticac) sit ; 193 Live Stock :— Cattle : Brandmarks on Kandyan Cattle ... 253 Cattle Crushing by Kandyans _... 407 HA Cure for ‘licks in.. a 258 Crushing of Cattle by Kandyans. Me 407 vs. Castration in Ceylon 496 Kandyan Cattle Brandmarks ay 253 Live Stock Shows, Value of zn 408 Mulling or Crushing of Cattle dh 407 Ticks in Cattle, Cure for dee 258 Poultry : Consumption in Poultry ws 95 Cramp in Chickens oe Jas 95 Crop Bound Fowls oe aie 95 Debility in Poultry de) Ve 250 Diarrhoeain Poultry .. on 250 Diphtheria in Poultry ig 406 Diseases of Poultry Dropsy in Poultry Pa 495 Dysentery, Fowl ot a 250 Eggs and Overfeeding .. ee 252 » Study on Fowls’ .. 251 Soft or Pendulous Crop in 1 Fowls .. 96 » Shelled Eggs , Se 495 SERICULTURE—in Ceylon 1905-6 Da 409 Education: Agricultural Education in Jamaica 401 Miscellaneous :— Agricultural Banks for Ceylon.. 181, 268, 325 Society Progress Re- port 116, 198, 351, 434, 437, 516 Societies, Use and Objects of eae 500 Agriculture, Literature of Economic Botany and, 98, 179, 276, 342, 423, 504 in the Kadawatta and Meda Korles co 99 39 Pace, | Agri-Horticultural Show, Kegalle 339 %3 ” » Kelani Valley 337 » Kurunegala 335 ATCO for Running Estate Engines 425 Arts and Crafts in aon To En- courage 50 ey, 497 Board of Apnedibaren Ceylon 115, 197, 359, 483, 436, 513 Botany, Lessons in Hlementary 97, 191, 277, 340, 4183, 505 x) Literature of Economic 98, 179, 276, 342, 422, 504 Co-operative Credit in Bengal _... 419 % a in the United Provinces, India .. 830, 415 Cotton Meal and Seed as Fertilizers 425 Education in America, Industrial 423 Hindoo Labour in British Guiana 423 Irrigation Methods in Arizona __ ...271,323 Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture 98, 179, 276 342, 422, 504 Mosquitoes and Anti-Malaria Cam- paign He ae 274. Sanitatiun on Estates |. aa) 506 j Correspondence :— pouatods Vasica as a Green Mags Ac : 266 ee Hill Karth ise "BAT, 510 Beekeeping in Ceylon ... abs 114 Capillary Tubes 4 30 510 Cotton in India, * Spence” a0 346 Datura Stramonium in Assam .. 113 Kucalyptus, Swamp Gum oe 196 Febrifuge Plants aN onal 266 Ginseng Seed . “ 431 Honey Production in Europe won OTE Interesting Trees of North Ceylon 508 Tpecacuanha ... ate 113 Lemongrass Oil Extraction ait 266 Mosquitoes and Anti-malaria Oam- paigns ats 503 Mosquito Nettings and Muslins .. 267 Noria Pump, The Bo ors 5U7 Paddy Reaping Machine on 513 Peas, Improved Ceylon Native .. 431 Plantain Growing in S. India ... 511 Pruning Hevea and Cacao Trees... 507 Rotation of Crops % ee 113 Rubber Growing og 265 be Tapping } Methods 260, 345 Sarsaparilla ... 46 Bb 196 Swamp Gum .. ne 196 Tea Planting Industry i in Natal ... 263 Current Literature :— Economic Resources of Ueende. 15 349 Le Cocotier ... ane 196 Lift Irrigation 349 Memoirs of Depar tment of Agri- culture in India ies 349 Pepper, Varieties of Cultivated .. 432 Helsing to the Sugar Industry in Per Wy epatable Growing i in Porto Rico .. 432 Year Book, U.S. A. Department of Agriculture, 1905 dn wie Wea i " Bie RULES OF THE Agricultural Society of Ceylon. 1. The Society shall be called “Tax AcricunruraL Society or Crynon,” 2, The business of the General Society shal! be conducted through the Board of Agriculture of Ceylon. 3, The Board shall meet for despatch of business on the first Monday of each month at 9-30 p.m. Seven members shall form a quorum. 4, Notices of motions or questions shall be sent to the Secretary at least one week before the meeting of the Board. 5. All motions will require to be seconded and will be circulated before the Board meets. 6, A General Meeting of the Society may be called by the President at any time and may be held at any place to be fixed by him. 7, All Members of the Board will be nominated by the President, &, Candidates for Membership of the Society must be proposed by a Member of the Board for the district in which the Candidate resides or owns landed property. 9, Members of the Society shall pay a subscription of Rs. 5 per annum, 10. Payment of the subscription in advance will entitle a Member to receive all publications of the Society. All subscriptions shall be paid to the Secretary of the Board. 11, Lists of Members will be published annually in the Government Guzette and in the Journal of the Society. 12. Local Societies may be formed with a Membership of not less than twelve Members. 13. Each Local Society should be represented by a Secretary, through whom correspondence with the Board can be conducted. 14, All Local Societies will be registered at the Local Kachcheri and by the _ Secretary of the Board. 15. The Revenue Officers of the Province and District shall be ex-oficoo Members of the Local Societies within the Province. 16. Local Societies are empowered to make their own rules. 17. All Local Societies will be entitled to receive all publications of the Society on payment of an individual subseription. 18. The funds of the Agricultural Socicty will be lodged in the Bank of Madras in the name of the Agricultural Society of Cevion. The Secretary will be responsible for the accounts, and all cheques will be signed by him and the President or Vice-President of the Board of Agriculture 19. A statement of Expenditure incurred, &c., shall be tabled at each meeting of the Board. 20. All grants-in-aid of Local Societies or special experimant must be approved by the Board. 21. All accounts will be audited annually, TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST MAGAZINE OF THE CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Vou. XXVII. COLOMBO, JULY 15rx, 1906. No. 1. Some Possibilities of Improvement in Village Agriculture. LIL. | The next point to be considered is the possibility of improving native methods in agriculture. There can be no reasonable doubt that such improve- ment is possible, but here above all it is very important to know exactly what we are doing, and to be very careful to test things thoroughly and to be quite sure of their advantages before recommending or attempting to introduce them among the natives. Agriculture is a complicated art, and a change in any one item of a cultivation-process may bring entirely unforeseen and perhaps disastrous changes in other items in its train. To take a concrete illustration. "AGU, CGUNANALQ-LHDIVULS oon, CAMUWOT G [ "NODASO NI SS3YL Y3EENY VWHVd GIO YHWSA ALYIHL ‘UDIJIMODW “JH AG 0204g gq alvid 9 Saps and Rxeudations, Mr. SmitH :—I tried grass. Mr. WricHt:—The gentleman refered to had the ground under certain trees turfed, and he said that if it was practicable to turf an estate it would bea very good thing. There is one advantage about grass; the root system is not as pene- trating as the root system of many other plants. If you grow plants which throw out their roots at sucha rate and insuch a manner as to interfere with the root development of the rubber, then harm may be done. Mr. WALKER :—The trees at Henaratgoda are planted through grass. They are unweeded ? Mr. WricHt :—I understand that they were attended to for the first few years ; when a rubber estate is 5 years old, weeding is negligible. Mr. SmitH :—Coconut estates have grass and cattle are put in to feed on it. Why should not the same be the case inrubber? Why not let the grass grow and keep cattle ? Mr. WRIGHT :—Once a rubber estate is matured you cannot grow anything under the rubber. Mr. SmitH :—The estate I am thinking of is three years old. Mr. WRiaeutT :—I think that encouraging cattle on rubber places is not a very commendable thing. The cattle will probably do more damage than anything else. At the same time the protection of the soil by any means isa consideration which should not be lost sight of. I cannot say I think grass as good as some plants that might be used. What I should like to see growing is some plant of low habit that would give a lot of organic matter. Mr. FRANKLAND :—Would the sensitive plant do ? Mr. WRIGHT :—It would be beneficial, although my opinion on this question of growing crops of any kind in rubber is that they must either be considered as crops or green manures, or you must make up your mind to let the estate be clean weeded. The former is often a difficult system to work. | Mr. FRANKLAND :—But for protection of the soil ? Mr. WRIGHT :—On some estates, where Albizzias have been used and lopped when less than two years old, you can see the two-year-old Para rubber trees quite 10 feet above the level of the Albizzia plants, protecting the soil, all over the place. ‘THE FIRST PINCH.” Mr. WALKER :—What height would you recommend for the first pinch of the plant ? Mr. WriaGuHt :—I think planters will be content to tap plants from the base to 10 feet. Ido not think they will ever want to tap to 380 feet as we huve done at Henaratgoda. Therefore, if they prune soas to leavea stem 10 feet from the base and allow it to remain I think it will be quite sufficient. Mr. WALKER :—Then you prune again at 15 feet? Mr. WRiGHT:—Then let the branches grow out, one on either side; when a foot-and-a-half long prune again and let the next shoots grow until they are 5 feet long and make your final pruning and leave the tree to itself. Mr. WALKER :—The branches will be very thick if you prune over 10 feet. Mr. Wrigut :—No:Ido not think so. I do not really see your objection. 2 Gums, Resins, 10 THE QUESLION OF WIND. Mr. Uv. D. Hunt :—How does the question of wind enter into the argument ? If you increase the foliage of the tree, it is liable to be blown over. Mr. WricuHtT :—Do you think a properly established rubber tree would be easily blown over ? Mr. C. D. Hunt :—I have seen a good many. Mr. WRIGHT :—A good many Para trees have been blown over, but that was not due to wind alone. On one estate, I believe, about 200 went down ina day, but that was due to diseases affecting the roots. The manager did not know what was wrong until he pushed one of the erect trees, and down it went. However, that is an interesting question as to the effect of wind raised by Mr. Hunt. Mr. Hunt :—We do not, of course, admit we have wind here. (Laughter.) Mr. Wricut:—Would you consider that the increased foliage would tend to make the tree liable to be blown down on an average estate ? Mr. Hunt :—I have seen young trees blown over, and especially young trees grown in paddy lands. They seem not to be able to grow down as fast as they do above. Mr. Wricut :—The Para rubber tree has a well-developed and magnificent system of lateral roots and also along taproot. I should say that if a well-deve- loped Para rubber tree on good soil could be blown over many strong trees of other kinds might be blown over. ROOT DISEASE. Mr. Hunt :—Does this root disease not affect tea ? Mr. Wricut:—Of course that is a thing for Mr. Petch to reply to. It behaves to a certain extent in the same way and the treatment is somewhat similar. In the one case itis usually due to Rosselinia and in the other to a fungus called Fomes semitostus—a different fungus altogether. Mr. Petch can give you some interesting information on that point. Mr. Hunt was understood to say that he had seen rubber planted among tea become absolutely black and die from disease beginning at the top. The rubber was five years old. The tea was perfectly healthy, but the rubber tree was dead. Mr. Wriaut :—If it died from a disease beginning at the top, the cause may be different from root disease. Mr. Hunt:—Well, if you scraped away the earth, you would find a lot of greasy matter about the roots. Mr. WRIGHT :—In root disease the decay would tend to be from below upwards. Mr. Hunt :—The tree was practically dead all the way up. There were some good branches 10 feet high, but over that the main branches had lost the leaves and branches too. THE PERIODICITY OF THE PLANT. Mr. Smitu :—Have you noticed in your travels that on some places the trees are flowering now? Mr. WRIGHT :—On estates which have been tapped rather severely the periodicity of the plant is all upside down, I mean to say there is a tremendous variation. On some estates you will find the trees just putting on their new foliage, on others the trees are leafless, and others have not shed their leaves ; you will find flowers on those which have recently regained new foliage. Mr. SmitH :—I have seena tree in flower with ripe seed. Does that not mean death ? 11 Saps and Exudationss Mr. W :—If you attempt to kill most trees you usually get a copious blossom which does not usually seed ; it is the last effort to reproduce seed, and there is no doubt that the removal of the bark, very frequently, upsets the natural periodicity of the plant. The bark is the means whereby the materials in the leaves are conducted from above downwards and on which the tree feeds ; if you cut that away, it may become a very serious matter if done too often. SHOULD A FLOWERING TREE BE TAPPED ? Mr. SmitH:—Is it right to tap a tree when it is flowering ? Mr. WricHut:—That is a difficult question to decide as far as the yield obtainable during that season is concerned. Mr. SmirH :—Does it affect the seed? Mr. Wricur:—Any treatment will affect the seed in some way or other if it is severe enough. The effect of tapping upon seed is a rather complicated one. Itis possible to imagine, should you tap trees, you may induce favourable characteristics in the seed; if youtrain a tree up to give plenty of bark and produce distended latex tubes, it may lead to a similar formation in the seed and it may be an advantage to have seeds from tapped trees. But on the other hand if the ordinary tapping operation is conducted in a manner which threatens the life of the tree, it may lead to deterioration of the seed. It brings up the whole subject of whether you can induce characters which can be trans- mitted by seed, a difficult question to settle off-hand. Mr. Harries:—During February and March I noticed flowers on 4-year-old trees, but they never came to anything. They all fell off. Mr. WriGuHT :—I think trees have been known to flower and seed when 24 years old in the Straits; when they are 4 to 5 years old in Ceylon, flowering frequently occurs. Mr. HARRIES :—But why February and March? Mr. WRIGHT :—That is to some extent irregular if it occurs in February in Ceylon. The flowers usually come out a month or so after the new leaves on a young tree. Mr. Harrigs :—But this was a 4-year-old tree. Mr. WEATHERALL :—Are you sure it was a rubber tree? (Laughter.) INCREASE OF GIRTH AND BARK. Mr. B. H. JENKYNS:—Does this increase in the circumference of a tree lead to an increased thickness in the bark of the younger tree? It is a physical impossibility to tap a young tree. The bark is not thick enough and you go into the cambium every time. What I want to know is whether, by increasing the girth of the tree as you suggest, you increase the thickness of the bark ? Mr.. WRIGHT :—It is rather a complicated and technical point. The cambium produces wood internally and bark externally; these tissues are formed in a regular manner, so many wood cells being produced for a definite number of bark cells. If the cambium produces more wood, it must necessarily produce more bark, because the two tissues are produced in definite proportions. That is why— in valuing different estates—you can approximately judge the thickness of the bark by examining the rings in the wood of the stem, The broader the rings of growth in the wood, the thicker the bark. Any increase in growth almost invariably means an increase in wood and bark; it is unusual to get one growth without the other. Mr. JENKyNS:—In a pruned tree of four years old, you would have a sufficiently great thickness of bark to get a cut into it, while in an unpruned tree of the same age you probably would not. f Gums, Resins, 12 Mr. Wricut:—A tree having a circumference of 20 inches would have a bark representing to some extent the development of other parts of the tree; and if you tap trees much under 20 inches, although many estates are doing this, it is hard on the bark and the rest of the tree and must affect its future health. Mr. SmitH:—And bring on disease? Mr. WricHt:—That is a disputed question. Mr. SmitH :—But it is more liable to it? Mr. WriGHT;:—That is so in some cases. THE AGE FOR PRUNING. Mr. FRANKLIN:—At what age would you recommend pruning ? Mr. Wricut:—I would rather not consider age. The size of trees of the same age varies so much. I would first prune at 10 to 15 feet—prune to such a level that it will allow you 10 feet to tap. I do not believe that high tapping can be considered in the future. VARIETIES OF BARK ON PARA TREES. Mr. Hunrt:—What accounts for the absolutely different bark on the trees ? Some have a polished plain and pink colour and others have a very sawdusty and very crumbly bark. They seem to be distinct trees to cut. Is there any particular reason for this? Mr. WriGuHT :—It is only what occurs in most plants. You are dealing with one species, and when you have two million plants it is only natural to expect that there should be some variation. Mr. Hunt:—The pink bark is a very thin and a high-yielding one? Mr. WricHt:—Jumelle, Ule and other botanists have made or recorded observations conducted in the forests of the Amazon valley. Like others they concluded that the seedlings from five hundred seeds from the same tree might produce more varieties than can be detected in the average forest. Itisa natural variation and nothing more. Two species of Hevea have been introduced to Ceylon, but only Hevea brasiliensis has survived. Mr. Hunr:—A gentleman was visiting me, and as far as the growth and yield of my rubber was concerned, it comvared very favourably with other places, but the characteristic that struck him was the smallness of the leaves compared with the trees on other estates. Even on big trees as well as on saplings the leaves were all very small. Mr. WriGcHT:—You did not think you had got the wrong variety did you ? Mr. Hunt:—My yield compared very favourably. i Mr. WricHT:— With a tree it is very difficult to make selection experi- ments. You have to let it grow into a tree. and by the time you find out its real value it is 8 years old, and it is then time to take a rest. TAPPING ALL THE YEAR ROUND. Mr. SmitH:—Do you believe in tapping all the year round? Mr. WricHT:—That is a difficult question to answer right away. We have been conducting experiments to determine the best frequency for tapping, and it is rather curious that tapping every day has given less rubber than tapping every alternate day from trees tapped at Henaratgoda from 26th September up to date. The trees tapped every alternate day gave something over 10 Ib. 13 Saps and Exudations. per tree; those tapped every day gave far less. But the worst feature of this is that the trees tapped every day have hardly any bark left, and even if such frequent tapping had given as muchrubber as tapping every alternate day, the loss of bark alorie would have been against tapping every day. THE PRICKING SYSTEM. Mr. Hunt:—Don’t you think the pricking system is the best thing in cutting open the wounds? Mr. WriGuHt :—It is a difficult question. I ama strong believer in incision instead of excision. The extraction of latex has very little effect on the trees. In fact the majority of the plants grow well without any latex. It is the paring away of the bark that does the damage. It is only when we cannot get more milk by pricking that we pare away the bark. Mr. Hunt:—The question of cost per lb. comes in with us. Mr. Wricut :—That may be so; but I think the consideration should be how much you can get per square foot from the bark. Mr. Hunt :—Three lb. in 6 months would be better than 6 lb. in9 months to us. Mr. WRIGHT :—In some of the experiments we have got approximately one ounce of rubber per square inch of bark removed, but we only get such high yields when the bark is removed slowly. We getit by incision not excision. By paring instead of pricking we have got in some cases yields nearer one ounce per square foot instead of one ounce per square inch. It is better to allow the bark to remain on the tree for as long a period as possible rather than manufacture large yields of rubber from shavings. PRICKING versus PARING. Mr. WRiGHT—replying to Mr. Jenkyns:—You are the persons to decide whether a system of pricking or paring is best. Mr. Situ :—If I do not pare, when I put on the pricker, it simply sticks. Mr. WriauHT :—I was over an estate last week where they have these drip tins. he Superintendent tapped some trees without using the tins, and nearly the whole of the rubber coagulated in the cuts. Where the tins were used at the end of two hours the water coming out was milky showing ‘that the latex had not stopped. There was no scrap in the cut and I was interested, in speaking to the gentleman, to hear that he had reduced his scrap 75 per cent by using them. Mr. SMITH :—It is a very big order to put them on. THE LEFT-HAND AND RIGHT-HAND CUT. Mr. Hunt :—Can you tell me if there is any difference between the left-hand and the right-hand cut? Mr. WRIGHT :—I have recognised no difference whatever, so far as the yield of rubber per square inch of bark is concerned. I think most people said they got less by the left than by the right. Mr. Hunt :—Yes. Mr. WRIGHT :—It is perhaps more difficult to cut that way. There is a tremendous variation per square inch over every tree. THE VARIETIES OF PARA RUBBER TREES, Mr. Hunt :—Did not the man, who introduced Para rubber to Ceylon, bring six different varieties ? Gums, Resins, 14 ) Mr. WRIGHT :—I have never seen correspondence to that effect. The plants were sent on to Peradeniya. Some were Hevea Brasiliensis and others Hevea Spruciana. The latter was tried and proved to bea failure at that time. I hear that sometimes in the Amazon district they tap both and mix the two of them with Sapium aucuparium. CLOVER GRASS IN PLANTATIONS. Mr. FRANKLIN :—Can you tell us whether the small native clover grass would do any harm if it was allowed to grow ? Mr. WRiGuHT :—The clover you mention, if it is the same as I am thinking of, is really a useful manure and is moderately rich ia nitrogen. Mr. FRANKLIN :—If the rubber is clean weeded and it is allowed to grow in lines, would it be a good thing? Mr, HarRizs :—I think it is the same weed as grows in the Kurunegala district coconut estates. Mr. WRIGHT :—As long as it does not get round the rubber trees and make a mess, it is all right. Mr. JENKYNS :—Is it not more like a violet than a clover leaf ? Mr. HARRIES :—It grows along the ground. WHAT IS THE BEST SYSTEM OF TAPPING? Mr. Hunt :—Can you tell us which is the best system of tapping as regards the future vitality of the tree; the herring bone, spiral, semi-spiral or V systems of tapping—which do you think the best to do? Mr. WRIGHT :—Presuming that each system is carried out properly? It is rather an interesting point. If you work out the rubber obtained by tapping, you find the maximum yield in the same period of time is given by the full spiral. You get more rubber in a given period of time from the full spiral than from the herring bone or by the half-spiral ; but when you come to work out the weight of rubber obtained per unit of bark excised you find the full spiral gives you the minimum of rubber per square inch of bark cut away, and it may be considered the best system for places requiring thinning out. The half-spiral, though it gives a low yield in a given time, gives the maximum per unit of bark cut away. THE BEST PART TO PRACTISE TAPPING ON. Mr. Hunt :—Suppose you are going to do bad tapping—everyone must do a certain amount in teaching coolies and so on--is it better that the cambium should be cut near the ground or further up; or would it be better to erect staging and let them cut further up ? Mr. WRIGHT :—I am inclined to think that where you think there is very much risk you should give them a branch—the first branch you can get—-rather than give them any part of the main stem. After all is said and done, the tree itself is a moderately hardy one. Mr. Hunt :—You would get no rubber there, the bark is so small. Mr. WRIGHT :—If anything I would put them on the upper part above 6 or 10 feet. I think you will have quite enough to do to attend to the first 6 feet when you have a few thousand acres going. I do not think it matters very much what part of the tree you damage; itis so hardy. We have rather AN INTERESTING TREE IN HENARATGODA. In January, 1908, it was killed by some means or other and was cut off, about four feet from the ground. It is waterlogged and seems quite rotten, but if you tap that bark which has shown no signs of life for three solid years you will get rubber. 15 Saps and Hxudations. We are tapping that apparently dead stem every alternate day and preparing biscuits from the latex. It is a very hardy tree and I would recommend putting the cooly on the top part of it. Of course, the cooly can practise on jak trees until he gets into the habit of feeling the wood. A MEMBER :—They use an axe in the Amazon. Mr. WRIGHT :—That is the native method. They don’t cover the same parts every day. They go to a group of trees and work that and then go to another group, for three months at a time, and then go back. Mr. Hunt :—I do not see how we are going to be able in the future to do more than work patches for six months at a time. Mr. Wricut :—I am glad to hear you say that. People think it is going to be an advantage to let their trees grow up toa huge height, but you will never be able to tap above six feet when you have got 60,000 acres in bearing in Ceylon. That is one of the greatest points to consider. Ten feet at the outside will be quite enough. Mr Hunt :—-That would be a stunted tree. Mr. WRiGHT:—AIl the branches tend to grow upwards and not horizontally. THE MOST EVEN RENEWAL OF THE BARK. Mr. JENKYNS :—Which system of tapping will give the most even renewal of bark without any pits or hollows ? Mr. Wricut :—Naturally the full spiral will give the most even stem, but I do not think there is such a great advantage in having an even stem except from an artistic standpoint. Mr. JENKYNS :—For instance in the herring-bone system there must be some of the original bark left and you cannot get a perfectly even bark. Mr. WriGHT :—I wound not recommend the spiral system simply because it gives an even bark. . Mr. JENKYNS :—But you want an even bark for the second tapping. Mr. WRIGHT:—You want to get a system which allows you to cut in a definite system from above downwards through all parts of the trunk. The half spiral does that; so does the herring-bone and the full spiral, but, of course, in all other systems except the full spiral you are apt to get one side cut and the other side not cut. ‘“WARTY ” TRUNKS. Mr. JENKYNS :—I have seen old rubber trees so knotted with lumps as big as your fist that you could not get any surface to cut on. Mr. WRIGHT :—Once these are produced, it is difficult to do anything, Mr. JENKYNS :—The idea in my mind was what is the best system to avoid that and produce an even renewal of bark. Mr. WRIGHT :—The best thing where the tree is knotted or warty is to leave it alone and tap a higher part. These knots often work themselves out. Mr. HARRiES—referring to the illustration in Mr. Wright’s book of Tapping on Arampola estate, Kurunegala—asked if after the Vs had been healed over they could not extract more latex by pricking them ? Mr. WriGcaT:—If you allow too long a period between the paring and the pricking to elapse, you lose all the value. After the first cut the wound response is developed and the milk flows to heal up the wound, and when you prick you cut the inflated laticiferous tubes and get a larger flow. .Gums, Resins, 16 Mr. HARRIES :—You get a second lot by pricking ? Mr. WRIGHT :—Yes. Mr. Hunt :—What is the actual function of latex in rubber ? Mr. WricHt :—Ask me another. (Laughter.) Mr. Hunt :—Why does it rush to the wound ? Mr. WRriGHT :—It has been suggested that it may prevent insects getting in. It is, however, a minor point. Think how many plants at home and abroad grow without laticiferous tubes? Most people have concluded that latex acts more as a water storehouse than anything else. If it had any important functions, you would expect that after you had taken 25 lb. of rubber from one tree, it would show some bad signs. THE QUALITY OF RUBBER. Mr. Hunt—asked if they tapred every third day, although ines might not get the same quantity, did he think they |would get a better quality? Did not the extra time allow the latex to mature ? Mr. WricurT :—It would not be sufficiently prominent to influence the present market value of rubber. I do not think any difference would occur which would be capable of being detected by the man who buys the rubber. Mr. Hunt :—The injured rubber would travel up slower through the bark than if you were tapping every day. You would get a bigger percentage of rubbea than water ? Mr. WIRGHT :—We have been working out the quantity of rubber per known volume of latex from trees tapped for the first time, and more often than not the first tapping gives 50 per cent of water. In some case tapping the renewed bark we have got 90 per cent of water. and in most places—in the areas most frequently tapped—the percentage of water increased. You would expect that the water simply filters through one cell to another. Our experiments prove, as far as we have gone—they may be entirely contradicted afterwards—that we have got better results in weight of rubber for a given time and for a unit of excision by tapping every alternate day. Mr. Hunt :—By tapping, you mean any method of extracting rubber: Mr. WRIGHT :—It is merely a question of opening the milk tubes. We have up to the present got the best results from tapping every alternate day. A POINT ON PRUNING. ; The CHAIRMAN :—How would you prune a tree 18 months old and 20 feet high ? Mr. WRIGHT :—We are using American pruners. The length of the pruner is about the same as the wall of this building. The cooly reaches to the top of the 20 feet and he just cuts off the top. You cannot do the real true thumb-nail pruning in that way. Mr. SmitTH :— Would you cut it down to 15 feet? Mr. WRicHT :—No. You want to leave plenty of green stem so that lateral branches may arise. It is too late to prune if you let the trees grow to a certain height without sacrificing the whole principle. In your case I should be inclined to cut the terminal part away with just a few leaves. Mr. SmrirH :—I have pleasure in proposing a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Wright for the most interesting lecture he has givenus today. Mr. Wright is, unfortunately, unable to come round our estates this visit; but I hope he will be down again shortly and spend two or three days in the district. We will be able to show him some very fine properties, I think. (Applause.) The vote of thanks was accorded with much heartiness.—Ceylon Obsenuer: as. 4 Ke ia 17 Saps and Exudations. The Cultivation of the Castilloa Rubber Tree. THE METHODS EMPLOYED ON A NICARAGUA PLANTATION, II. Another point in the number of cuts is the time and labour in making the cuts. Six cuts to a tree is twice as much labour as three cuts, but if it does not give twice as much rubber it would be cheaper to make three cuts and tap a large number of treesina day. The tapping is now being done with only three cuts per tree: one at the base, one at five feet from the ground, and one half-way between these. Tapping above five feet necessitates the use of ladders, and this would mean more labour and would hardly pay with young trees. I believe the making of four cuts, the top one six feet from the ground, would give enough more than three cuts to pay if it is not too great an injury to the tree. Three methods of tapping have been used by planters around here. The first is the native method of tapping with a machete. Many wild trees have been killed by this method, and for that reason it was condemned at the beginning. I do not think the method is as bad as it has been considered. I believe the wild trees died because of the number of cuts, the short distance between them, the tapping of roots and spurs, etc., rather than owing to the depth of single cuts. Of course, the cuts are crude, and often expose too much wood, but the method is not so bad asit has been considered, and if in the future when the trees are large and the bark very thick and tough, it is found that the tapping tool cannot be used, there would be no great danger in using the machete. The second method is the single incision method. This method isfounded on the belief that it is dangerous to remove any bark from the tree. In order not to dig out a channel for the latex to run in, the cuts are made short enough to collect all the latex from each cut in one cup. The tapping is done witha chisel a little over an inch long, and a ring of cuts of this length is made around the tree in place of one cut. This method has a number of disadvantages, It involves a lot of labour to make the cuts and place the cups on the tree, etc. It requiresa large number of cups, and these cups must afterwards be washed. The number of cups which must be placed on the trees is so great that the men cannot place them carefully, therefore they frequently do not fit on the trees, and the chink between must be filled with a bit of mud, which gets into the latex and makes it much harder to manipulate. This last objection can be remedied by a different form of cup. The third method of tapping is with a tool. This method makes the same sort of incision as the machete, but makes it much more neatly, and no particular skill is necessary to do it. The tool cuts outa V-shaped piece of bark, leaving a grove in which the latex can flow. The cut is made somewhat obliquely, and the latex runs vut at the lower end where the cups are placed. Generally two cuts overlapping at their lower end, and each passing halfway round the tree are made. The cuts have been generally made nearly halfway round, but a small space between the two left at the upper ends, so as to be sure that the tree would not be greatly injured. I donot think this is necessary, as the trees are apparently not injured if the cuts overlap at each end. Idonotthink that the herringbone method is necessary or advisable for Castilloa. The vertical channel leading all of the latex into one cup at the base I should imagine would be injurious,. and the yield of Castilloa is so great that a very large cup would be necessary. The cups now being used are filled, or nearly filled, by the two cuts. The cups at the bottom cuts sometimes run over. The healing of the cut is another matter which must be considered. The general idea has been that the cut must not be made too deeply, and this is true to a certain extent. Trees here show, also, that it must, not be made 3 Gums, Resins, 18 too shallow. Between the bark and the wood is the growing part of the tree known ascambium. This part alone has the power of forming new bast and new wood. If a cut is made which does not go into the cambium, the cut will not heal over with new material. Of course it will dry up and turn black, and in this way protect the tissue under it, but the piece of bark taken out is gone for ever. On the other hand a cut made just to the cambium will heal quickly. The first signs of healing appear between one and two weeks after the cut is made. and in two months at the latest the cut is well healed. In time the whole cut will fill with new material which contains latex, and can be tapped again if necessary. Another strong reason why the tool should cut to the cambium is that not only does the shallow cut miss cutting some “milk tubes,” but it misses a very large proportion of the ‘“‘milk tubes.” The “milk tubes” are formed by the cambium in layers. The ones closest to the outside bark were formed when the tree was very young, and small in circumference, say eighteen or twenty inches. The spaces between these tubes are filled by medullary rays which run from the pith outward through the wood to the outside bark. Therefore the outermost layers contain very few milk tubes, the next more, ete., until the innermost layer has the most, since it was formed when the circumference was greatest. This is borne out by facts. A much larger yield is actually obtained by cutting into the cambium than by cutting almost into it. Another thing to be avoided is cutting too deeply. When a cut goes through the cambium into the wood, the healing commences at the edges of the cut cambium and has to spread slowly, making new cambium before it can make new bark or wood. If too much wood is exposed in this case it will often dry up before the cambium can heal over, and in that case it never heals. I have seen an old machete cut with half-an-inch of wood exposed, the bark thoroughly healed all around it. I was told that it had been that way without healing for two years. The shape of the groove cut in the tree is a caseforinvestigation. Whether the V-shape should be wide or narrow is under dispute. Those who do not believe in taking away bark would argue that it should be as narrow as possible, and yet hold the milk. At least one planter here thinks that the wider cuts yield better. I see no reason why they should except that possibly the flow would be checked in a narrower cut by its becoming blocked with rubber. I am inclined to think that the narrower the cut the better, and that it might be possible to have such a tool that the groove would be cut entirely in the outer half of the bark, the inner tubes being cut by a single blade cutting to the cambium. Such a blade could hardly cut the wood, but could cut all milk tubes. A pocket knife cut heals more quickly than any other, but of course makes no groove for the milk to flow in. WHEN TO TAP, The time to tap is another point. There appears to be no reason why the trees should not be tapped at any time during the rainy season. I should imagine that the driest season, in March and April, would be a poor time, but I have not been here during that season. Rain generally makes the milk rather watery, and makes it flow more freely, but I have never seen it so watery that it would not pay to tap, except in a tree which had been recently tapped. Tapping in heavy rain would not do, as it would wash the latex, which does not flow into the cups, and might fill up the cups and spill the latex in them. Temperature affects the flow of latex very noticeably. The yield of rubber ismuch greater in the early morning than at any other time of the day, and always decreases towards noon and increases towards night. This is not so notice- able on cool cloudy days. It would probably not be so noticeable in a shady Mis), 19 Saps and Exudations. plantation, and for this reason some people have claimed that shade-grown trees yield more. I believe that the reason temperature affects the flow is because a large amount of the water is evaporated, and the latex is more solid and does not flow so freely. COLLECTING CUPS. In gathering the latex the first consideration is the cups. The cups now used are made of sheet-tin cut to the right shape, bent round, and soldered on one edge. The side which goes against the tree is cut in a curve which can be made to fit any sized tree by slightly changing the angle against the tree. On each side of the curve isa pin which is driven into the tree to hold it. These cups are cone shaped, and on this account poor, as the latex coagulates in the point, and is hard to wash out. A round base would be an improvement. A second improvement would be to do away with the pins, make the cup of somewhat stiffer material, sharpen the curved edge, and fasten it to the tree by pushing the edge under tlie bark. This leaves no space between cup and tree for the latex to run through. The cups now employed can be used this way when the pins come off, as they frequently do, and if they were somewhat stiffer would be all right in that respect. The cups now in use are rather small. Their capacity is about sixty cc., or half a gill. A cup with a capacity of one gill should be sufficient for trees up to nine or ten years old unless the yield increases unexpectedly. COLLECTING THE ScRAP.—Gathering of latex consists not only of taking what runs into the cup, but also what remains on the tree. The first latex to flow is rather watery, and runs into the cups. This flows only a short time, giving nearly a cupful with the best-yielding six-years-old trees sometimes giving more at the base of thetree. This latex flows slowly and for some time, but has ceased in about fifteen minutes after tapping. This latex can be removed with a spoon or with the fingers. A small amount is always left in the cut which cannot be removed as latex, and when coagulated there is too little of it to be worth removing. The only way to get this latex is not to do any spooning, but to allow the latex to coagulate in the cuts and remove itin a fewdays. Rubber coagulated in this way is very clean it the trees have not too much moss on them. The objection to this is that if a heavy rain comes before the latex is coagulated it is all lost. It might bea good plan to gather in this manner in the dryer times. THE MANIPULATION OF THE LATEX OF CASTILLOA. WASHING.—When the latex is brought in from the field it contains small pieces of bark and moss (also mud in the single incision method) which must be got rid of. The bark and moss can be strained away. A certain amount of the bark, however, is very small and will go through a fine sieve. This bark can be taken out by straining through cheese-cloth, but the cloth does not last long and often breaks through the straining. Practically all the fine bark can be removed in the washing, and soit is not necessary to strain it out. It is hard tostrain pure latex, and generally water must be added to it first. It can be strained pure by working it through the sieve with the fingers, but this breaks up the bark, and much more goes through than ordinarily would do so. It might prove desirable not to add any water to the latex during its manipulation, as a small amount of latex is unavoidably lost by washing, but this would not make much difference in only one washing. Washing when mud is inthe latex and whenit is not are two different things. The globules of rubber will not rise to the top nearly as quickly when mud isin it as when thereis no mud. The first washing takes two or three hours with mud, and about fifteen minutes without. In either case a black water forms and must be run off. There seems to be no limit to the number of times which the latex can be washed and still give a dark-coloured water, but there is a limit to the rising Gums, Resins, 20 of the rubber globules. When the latex comes from the tree the rubber globules are in masses. These masses get broken up by the straining, and still further broken up by the washing until by the third washing nearly all the globules are separated. These single globules become water-soaked and get heavier. Each washing settles more slowly. The single globule, being microscopic, cannot be seen, and is lost if widely separated. Sometimes the third washing refuses to settle at all. Besides all these, there is a danger of coagulation if latex is washed too much. The latex behaves very irregularly in this respect. Apparently the temperature affects it as much as anything else. Ona warm day it sometimes coagulates at the first washing. The rubber coagulated in this manner forms in a large cake at the top of the wash- ing can, and must be cut up and the water squeezed out by aclothes wringer or rolling pin. This rubber is strong, clean and fairly dry, but is not uniform, and never can be as dry as thinner strips coagulated regularly by the blotter method. Coagulation can be avoided by washing the latex carefully stirring it pretty often, and not letting it stand long after it has settled. It also might be prevented by the addition of some chemical, such as formaldehyde or ammonia. Formaldehyde is placed in the latex in the field to keep it from coagulating. I have never observed anything which proved that it did this, and I have sometimes seen latex brought in with small pieces of rubber floating init. All these things go to show that too much washing is bad. Whether the black water is harmful to rubber or not, I cannot determine. Pieces of rubber washed once, twice, and three times all have the same strength, elasticity, and cleanliness from bark. There is a difference in the colour ; that washed most being lightest, the unwashed rubber being almost black. There is also a difference in stickiness. Unwashed rubber loses its stickiness if dried long enough. Rubber which is unwashed or washed very slightly resembles most nearly in colour a piece of Ceylon Para. As stated before, the fine bark can nearly all be got rid of by washing. This is due to the fact that the bark is heavy, and settles in the bottom of the washing can and runs out with the first rush of black water. The latex may be stirred and allowed to settle for a few minutes, and then the first black water be run off, carry- ing the bark that has settled withit. Itis then stirred again, etc., each stirring loosening more bark from the latex and allowing it to settle, until practically all is gone. COAGULATION—WET AND DRY METHODS. There appear to me to be two general classes of coagulation, which I call wet coagulation and dry coagulation. Dry coagulation is the taking away of water in some manner, leaving the solid parts of the latex globules, which are nothing more or less than rubber. Wet coagulation is the process, of addition of some chemical, or of boiling or some similar method which causes the albumin to coagu- late, drawing the latex globules together while still wet. The rubber formed by dry coagulation should be free from moisture, and generally is so, because the rubber is formed when still wet. Unless it is in a thin sheet, however, moisture is shut inside of it where it cannot be easily got out, Wet coagulation has not always this objection, for the methods used in Ceylon would be classed as wet coagulation, and yet they make very good dry rubber. Of dry coagulation the simplest method is to allow the latex to remain on the tree until coagulated. This makes good rubber, which is pretty clean unless trees have made moss on them. This rubber is not always dry if it rains between the time of coagulation and time of gathering. If allowed to stay on the tree very long it becomes very sticky, which I believe is due to getting wet and drying out again many times. I think this is the reason why people state that sun-dried rubber is sticky. It has been my experience that rubber dried in the sun is not stickier than other rubber if it is not in the sun too 21 Saps and Hxudations. long, when it is likely to be in the rain also. I believe that rubber could be easily sun-dried through glass without its becoming sticky. Another way is to drain off the surplus water and to dry the latex globules remaining until they coagulate. Thisis the blotting paper method. Blotting paper hastens the draining by soaking up a good deal of water, but there is no reason why this method could not be employed with any other paper through which water would drain, such as chemical filter paper. The question of durability and cost of the papers would come in here. Some objections have been made to the blotting paper on the ground of expense. It is thought that every sheet of rubber means a sheet of blotting paper of the same size. This is not so, as every sheet of blotter will coagulate, eight, ten, or even more sheets of rubber before it is used up. It must be remembered that there are two processes in dry coagulation. First the surplus water drains off and the globules are left; each globule con- tains water which must be got rid of before coagulation takes place unless the albumins are coagulated, when it becomes a wet coagulation. The blotter will not soak up this water in the globule, but it can be got rid of by slow drying in the air or by artificial heat of the sun’s rays. In the case of a porous tile the water is apparently soaked out of the globule immediately the rubber coagulates. I have not examined this*rubber microscopically, and cannot be sure that the globules are free from water. Pressure will also take away the water from the globules. Pressing between two blotters makes good rubber, and pressing between two porcelain tiles still better, because the tile is more durable. Another pressure method is to hang the latex up in a cloth bag, allowing all the surplus water to drain off, and then to exert pressure on the outside of the bag. This would not make uniform rubber, and it would be likely to be thick. The objection to blotting paper has been that the paper adheres to the rubber. Most of this can be scrubbed off with a brush, but this necessitates a good deal of labour. However, very little rubber will come off on the paper if it is watched carefully and taken off at the right moment. COAGULATION BY CHEMICALS AND HEAT. Wet coagulations are of two sorts: coagulation by chemicals, and coagu- lation by physical forces, such as heat. In the last category there is only one certain way that I know of, that of boiling. Coagulation by the boiling takes place differently at different times. Sometimes the latex coagulates before reaching the boiling point, and at other times not until the water is half boiled away. What makes this differenceI do not know. Boiled rubber is full of moisture, is irregular in shape, and appears to me to be weaker than other rubbers. It appears that the more boiling necessary, the weaker the rubber. I have not been able to coagulate by simply adding boiling water to the latex and leaving it to stand, as Dr. Weber recommended. The coagulation of latex before it is thoroughly washed is probably a heat coagulation. It is possible that cold, vacuum, electricity, etc., might be outside influences that could affect coagulation. COAGULATION BY CHEMICALS has some drawbacks. Most chemicals appear to weaken rubber. Chemicals are likely to be costly, and many chemical coagulations are uncertain, and depend on other conditions, such as temperature, age of latex, etc. Latex which has been a day or two out of the trees will coagulate by chemicals much more more quickly than fresh latex. ALCOHOL, of all chemicals I have used, makes the strongest rubber, and coagulates the most quickly, It appears to have no other action, and to produce no colour change on the latex or black water. The objection to alcohol is the expense, as the duty on itis heavy. The preparation known as sulpho-naphthol isa quick coagulant, but it takes some quantity of it to coagulate, and it makes Gums, Resins, 22, a very weak rubber. The coal-tar which is in it seems to enter into some sort of union with the rubber, making it sticky and destroying its strength and elasticity. If an excess of strong sulpho-naphthol is used, a black pitchy substance with the consistency of chewing-gum is formed. Acip will coagulate toa certain extent. Sulphuric acid when strong will coagulate immediately; when weak it does not coagulate at all. Rubber coagu- lated by it is generally weak in proportion to the strength of the acid. Even the strongest rubber formed by this means! is eaten on the surface. Limejuice will coagulate under certain conditions, but just what these conditions are I do not know. I have not been able to coagulate by any other acids. No other chemicals that I know of give certain coagulations. Sodium carbonate and calcium chloride have coagulated on certain occasions, but this could not be repeated. There appears to be sometimes a sort of half-coagu- lation. The latex rises to the surface, forming a thick sheet which cannot be blown apart like ordinary latex, but whichis not sufficiently solid to pick up. This half- coagulation is affected by weak solutions of acid ; sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric and lime juice; by calcium chloride, sodium hydroxide, and sodium carbonate. No matter how long such latex stands, it will not become rubber until something further is done to it. On the whole, dry coagulation is better than wet. I am of opinion that the best coagulation will be found to be pressure between porous tiles. This would make dry uniform rubber. It could be done mechanically, and the tile could be made so as to print a plantation name or letter on the rubber. —The Quarterly Journal, Liverpool. Institute of Tropical Research. (To be concluded.) Notes on the Cultivation and Manufacture of Rubber. OBSERVATIONS IN I'HE MALAY PENINSULA. PLANTING.—EHven taking into consideration the increased expense, baskets are distinctly preferable to stumps. DISTANCES FOR PLANTING.—Opinion still varies greatly as to what is the best distance to plant. Observations made on some of the principal estates on the Malay Peninsula lead to the belief that anything less than 100 trees to the acre is an extra- vagance, which present experience does not warrant. Anything more than 400 to the acre has not been attempted so far as is known, though the gardens at Singapore may be quoted as an exception. It remains to be proved whether or no close planting will ultimately give a larger yield per acre than wide. That the yield will be largely in favour of close planting during the first two or three years of tapping there can be no doubt, but how long this advantage will last has yet to be ascertained. It has been advocated — that the trees should be planted close at first and subsequently thinned ; though it is open to doubt if in the case of a field planted, say 10 x 10 ft., and thinned to 20 x 20 ft., the yield after the thinning will ever be as good as that from a field planted at the wider distance. In view of the percentage of trees of comparatively poor growth that occurs under all systems of planting, it seems advisable to plant at first such a number as will provide a margin sufficient to maintain the number of trees to the acre at not less than that desired when tkese failures have been cut out. In cases where wide planting has been supplemented at a later date by intermediate rows of trees, these appear to have universally failed. Everything considered it would seem 30 x 10ft., representing about 144 trees to the acre, is the distance which offers the greatest advantages, giving as it does a sufficient margin for cutting out afew weak trees, while the 30 feet between the i ‘a ipsa Mad wy 23 Saps and Hxudations. rows should give them all the space they are likely to need, and when the trees are tapped is a more convenient arrangement than one where they are further apart in the rows. Soi, AND DRAINAGE.—Experience has not as yet taught us what soil or situation best suits the Hevea Brasiliensis both with respect to growth and yield of latex. Undoubtedly the most rapid growth of young trees is to be found on the alluvial lands of the Peninsula. That this advantage will be permanently main- tained we have no proof. On the other hand, it may be found that the higher land where the roots can go down to a greater depth—a tap-root being the Hevea’s most characteristic point—will compensate the tree for the poorer quality of the soil by affording it a much larger cubic space to draw upon. Since in the alluvial land the tree frequently reaches water at a depth of two or three feet, while in the higher land unlimited depth is available, every foot by which the mean water level is lowered gives 400 additional cubic feet of feeding space to each tree, supposing them planted 20 x 20 feet. CULTIVATION.—There is a very wide difference of opinion with regard to the mode of cultivation, many people preferring to have no other crop on the ground with the rubber, while others consider that sucha sacrifice, where a catch crop is remunerative is not warranted by the advantage that may possibly accrue to the rubber. Coffee, tapioca and sugar represent the three principal catch crops in use in the peninsula ; and in almost all cases where they occur, the land has been under that cultivation before the rubber was planted. The two latter have been made the object of much undeserved abuse, chiefly at the hands of people who have had no experience of them. Any damage the trees may suffer may with certainty be attri- buted to want of care in the methods of cultivation required by these crops, rather than to any loss the soil may suffer by their presence, while the thorough tillage incidental to their cultivation must be of great benefit to the soil. Numerous other catch crops are to be seen, but only on a small scale, and in no instance do the rubker trees appear to be harmed by their presence. Where there is no catch crop, there is alsoa difference of opinion as to the advisability of keeping the ground absolutely clean or otherwise. Where junglehas been felled for planting rubber, itis no doubtan economy never to let weeds or grass take firm hold; but in the case of land already under grass, no harm can be done —provided that a space near the root of the tree be kept clear and the whole occasionally mown down by the scythe, and in this way even Lalang will die out when the trees shade the ground. PRUNING, &C.—As yet very little has been done in this direction, but it would seem from experiments made recently that trees topped at the age of about nine months show a marked advantage over trees that have not been so treated. TaPpPinG.—There is still a lack of knowledge and diversity of practice with regard to tapping throughout the day as against morning and evening only. It may be found that the loss that is undoubtedly sustained by the former practice is counterbalanced by its convenience. As regards the methods of tapping there seems to be a consensus of opinion, and rightly so, that the half herring-bone is best for the tree and most convenient for the tapper, and in all probability this method will be generally adopted. As to the age when tapping should begin there is no hard-and-fast rule, but when the trees have a girth of 20 inches at 3 feet from the ground there is not the slighest reason to delay the extraction of whatever latex they will yield by judicious tapping. Itis a fallacy to delay tapping after trees have attained that girth, on the score of their being too young, and much valuable rubber throughout Gums, Resins, 24 the Malay Peninsula is being left ungathered for that reason, as also in many instances for want of experienced labourfor tapping. This loss will inno way be compen- sated for by any superiority in yield in the future of the trees left untapped; rather the contrary. MANUFACTURE.—As in everything connected with the cultivation of the rubber tree there is still much to be learned in the conversion of latex into dry rubber. Much has been done during the last two years in this direction, but there is no doubt thatas yet plantation rubber does not attain the standard of strength set by the wild product. This may be entirely accounted for by the youth of the trees ; but, on the other hand, the method of curing may be partially to blame and no way has as yet been found of in any way impregnating the latex with an antiseptic agent to obtain the results attained in the case of the wild Para by the use of the smoke of the manioc nut. DryiInG.—It seems certain that with an atmosphere which, as arule, so nearly approaches saturation, drying without artificial aid can never be satisfactory —on the other hand, anything much over 110 Fahrenheit must be regarded as dangerous to the rubber—which leaves us very small scope for increasing the moisture-absorbing power of the air by heating it. Drying the rubber by means of Calcium Chloride does not seem a satisfactory solution. What is wanted, it would seem, is some process—both continuous and efficient—of drying the rubber at a moderate temperature. Another point, wherein the planters are at a great advantage, is that there isno standard or test for their product which they can apply. The buyers are understood to price the rubber simply by its appearance and feel, and to pay no attention to any test or analysis that may be put before them. If there was some standard of strength or elasticity for the rubber, the planters would have something to which they could work. J. F. R. Penang, 15th May, 1906. THE EXPORTATION AND PACKING OF HEVEA SEEDS. Under this heading some notes have been published in the ‘Journal d’ Agriculture Tropicale” by Monsieur Ulysse Bernard. On account of the fine quality of the rubber from Hevea brasiliensis it is not surprising, he remarks, that those countries owning colonies sufficiently hot and moist for the cultiva- tion of the tree have made numerous efforts to take away Brazil’s monopoly of the production which that country has held up to the present. Two factors, however, prevent the rapid extension of Hevea cultivation in the colonies; one is the difficulty foreign countries have in procuring Hevea — seeds (Brazil having interdicted the export of plants and seeds from the country) ; the other is the ease with which the seeds lose their germinating powers when long distance transport is necessary. PROHIBITIVE DUTY ON CEYLON SEED. The writer then refers to the suggested prohibitive export duty on rubber seeds in Ceylon and the Malay States, which happily was not carried through, and proceeds :— This project is now a dead letter, the Government not approving of the proposition of the planters. We know that the English Government in general has a certain repugnance to such prohibitive taxes which never succeed in preventing the propagation of any cultivation while constituting a very great inconvenience to the commercial transactions of the country. Besides, it seems 25 Saps and Exudations. —according to Berkhout—that Brazil is thinking of withdrawing the prohibitive export duties which were levied on Para seed; which indeed have only succeeded in losing for them the price of the seed sold by the English while the culti- vation has developed just the same. Further, by the mere fact of this exaggerated protection a dangerous illusion of a non-existent security has been given to the people, while in reality the Far East has become a terrible menace to the future rubber export industry of Brazil. There may well be in Brazil a repetition of what occurred in the South America Republics in connection with quinine; the formal prohibition did not prevent the secret export of seeds which were the origin of the magnificent cultivations in Java, which, after a short time, have ruined the exploitation of the tree in its native countries. DIFFICULTIES IN SEED TRANSPORT. We have said that the germination of Hevea seeds, after a long voyage, presents numerous deceptions. The Dutch East Indies have had experience of this. In September, 1904, 50,000 Hevea seeds were ordered from Ceylon by the Forest Department; not a single seed germinated. An identical result followed an order for 25,000 seeds made on a plantation in the island of Malacca by Dr. Treub, of the Buitenzorg garden, now Director of Agriculture of the Dutch Indies. During last year M. Van Den Bussche was commissioned by the Dutch Government to proceed to the Malay States for the purpose of studying the cultivation of the Hevea. Previous to his departure M. Berkhout had asked him to send him Hevea seed packed in different ways and to try, besides, the effect of an anesthetic such as ether on preserving the germinative faculty. To obtain the same results benzine was substituted for ether, and this had the effect of burning the seeds; none of those which came in contact with the benzine germinated. A package despatched from Penang on September 18, 1905, arrived on November Ist at Wageningen (Holland) the seat of the Colonial School of Agriculture at which M. Berkhout occupies one of the principal chairs. The seeds were packed as follows :— Nos. 1 and 2, wood charcoal soaked with benzine. No. 3. wood charcoal not soaked with benzine. No. 4, dried leaves. No. 5, seeds dried very carefully and packed in sand. No. 6, wood sawdust. No. 7, wood sawdust soaked with benzine. The seeds were sown, on arrival, in a small bed traversed by the pipes which heated the green-house, which produced a uniform and sustained degree of heat; the seeds were covered with lem 5, of sand to give them sufficient moisture. They were examined every two days, and as they germinated were transplanted into small pots. The following table shows the observations made during the course of the germination, from 1st to 27th November. The result was a total of 63 germinations out of 189 seeds sown, making 33 per cent; the rates of partial success given by each kind of packing were :— No. 1 and 2 nil No. 5 46% No. 3 66% No. 6 25% No. 4 46% No. 7 nil This indicates that packing in dry layers may give satisfactory results if the transport does not exceed a longer period than 6 weeks. For a voyage of much longer duration packing in a moist medium will be preferable; in thiscase » the seeds must not be too tightly packed so that the rootlets may not get interlaced and so be broken when taken out for the seed bed. 4 Gums, Resins, 26 The price of Hevea seed has gone up considerably during late years, and in Ceylon last year went up to R35 per 1,000. On the other hand accord- ing to Mr. Van Den Bussche, the price in the F.M.S. was 11.5 florins (24 frances) per 1,000, that is much less than in Ceylon. When it is realised that one rubber plantation in the Malay States has sold 1,000,000 seeds to a single German Company it can be calculated of what great importance to the English planters the sale of their seed is, and the economic danger that would be offered them if a prohibitive export duty were levied.—Translated from the French. Kinds of Rubber, PLANTATION RUBBER IN CEYLON AND AMERICA. Ceylon, thanks to the excellence of the work of its Scientific Department and the character and enterprise of the planters, is held as an example for tropical planting throughout the world. In the latest planting product, rubber, the Ceylon industry is the world’s criterion, and yet there is much that Ceylon may learn from other countries in connection with the industry, and information of what men in other lands are doing is always of service to planters of this Colony. We need, therefore, put forth no other reason for having accorded considerable space during the past week to the subject of Castilloa rubber cultivation in Nicaragua. The writer of that article put forth a number of original views and had evidently studied the subject carefully ; and not the least interesting paragraphs were those in which he compared the Castiloa elastica with Hevea Minit preferring the former, at all events for cultivation in Central America. In Mexico considerable planting is going on as we have pointed out on several occasions. Today, by courtesy of a Colombo gentleman, we have before us a report on the La Junta plantation of the Mexican Mutual Planters’ Co. This is the report on the estate to the shareholders by Dr. Henkel and Mr. Augustus Curtis, who were elected at a meeting of the shareholders to visit the place and report. The report is a handsomely got up booklet, 10 by 8 in., containing a number of plates from photographs taken on the property, which seems to be. a flourishing and very promising concern. Castilloa elastica is the cultivated tree, and the conditions of growth and cultivation there are utterly different from the East. From figures given they have some 700 trees per acre. In 1905 the seed for planting was thought to be poor, and over the 741 acres then planted ‘‘ as an extra precaution six seeds were planted at each stake instead of the usual four..... The vast surplusage of plants is available for us elsewhere on the property or for sale.” The Company started planting in 1901 when 455 acres were planted, and they have gone on each year, 85l acres being put out in 1904 and 741 in 1905, and now the total acreage under rubber is 3,298 acres! Besides this the Company has. over 450 acres in coffee and 249 in cacao. The growth of the rubber seems excellent, although the girth is not so great as might be expected; this is owing probably to the close planting adopted. Trees 44 years old, of an average height of 20 ft., girth 11 6-10 inches ; and ten trees near the road averaged 14 inches ; while ten others along a road averaged 137-10 inches in girth. Young seedlings seem to grow rapidly, those of 7 months being as high as a man’s shoulder and well covered with foliage. But when it comes to cost of labour, we notice an immense difference between Mexico and Ceylon. There they pay 14 dollar Mexican per day, or the equivalent of 75 cts. gold American, whichis over Rs. 2:20; and even at thishigh rate they only work for a task which takes the best men from 1to8 o’clock in the afternoon. This is not mentioned in the report under notice, but the information is given to us, and ; q ue 27 Saps and Exudations, our correspondent remarks :—‘‘ Yet they expect, as you will see, to pay £25 an acre profit”! Nothing like this elegant report is produced by Ceylon Planting Companies, for no extra enticement is needed to draw capital to Ceylon and the Kast; and if these expectations come to pass, the assurance for Ceylon is all the greater. As regards up-to-date information of Ceylon methods we need only refer the reader to the important interview with Mr. Herbert Wright recorded in our columns yesterday ; where the latest details are given of the use of single and— for the first time—of multiple drip tins, economic tapping, and the quality and yield of rubber from high parts of trees. Today we publish an interesting article* giving an epitome of rubber cultiva- tion in the Malay Peninsula. The writer takes a very keen interest in everything ‘connected with rubber, and he has a larger interest in the industry than perhaps any individual proprietor in the Malay Peninsula. His remarks are concise and to the point, and will be read with interest by planters.—Ceylon Observer. The World’s Rubber. RUBBER IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. Mr. A. O. Devitt, who is known to the majority of rubber planters in Ceylon, _through his lengthy visit to the Colony recently, has put in a couple of days here on his return from the Malay Peninsula homeward bound. From what he had heard preyious to his visit Mr. Devitt had expected great things of the F. M. S., and was a little disappointed. Rubber, he says, is grown there to a larger extent than in Ceylon ; that is, you see greater continuous blocks of rubber trees and larger clearings, but Ceylon need not fear competition ; there are certain advantages over there, but these are counter-balanced by certain disadvantages; certainly in the Peninsula things are being done on a large scale. Large individual estates are able to turn out big lots of rubber of the same quality and grade and similar in appearance; whereas, in dealing with Ceylon rubber, to get a large stock together of similar rubber it has to be made up with samples from all over the place. This, of course, is merely a matter for time to make good for Ceylon. On the majority of plantations washing machines are employed and ecrépe rubber turned out. One of the specially interesting observation Mr. Devitt made was that on so many estates the parings or shavings taken off in tapping are collected and put through the rollers of the washing machine, and that this operation pays for the tapping ! “On a great many estates they pay for the entire tapping by putting the parings through the crépe machine rollers,” he says. Even on the best tapped trees, Mr. Devitt remarks, some rubber will be found on the shavings, not in the shavings, but sticking to them either as small scrap or drops which have oozed out, after the latex has ceased to run, and all these should be saved, passed through the machine and turned out ascrépe. It is quite unnecessary, says Mr. Devitt, when shipping the rubber to mention that it is scrap from shavings; but the erépe should be piled in lots according to colour as pale, dark or darkish, and black crépe. Mr. Devitt highly recommends this method of treating the shavings from the tapping over- ations to all Ceylon planters as an economic operation. Sheet rubber is, however, still the more attractive form in which to make it. It looks’ very strong and well - coloured and is very attractive to buyers; and run through the rollers with water -playing on it, as is done on Lowlands and some other estates, the sheet turned out is excellent. * See 7.4.” this month, vage 22. Gums, Resins, 28 ““The growth of the trees out there is in many cases a year ahead of Ceylon; but in my opinion,” Mr. Devitt remarks, ‘after the first year of tapping there is very little difference in the yield of the trees, but I have no statistics to go upon. It isin getting the trees into bearing a year younger that they have the pull over there. But I saw many instances of backward trees (in girth) giving more rubber than surrounding trees that had gone ahead.” Herring-bone tapping seemed to be the favourite method of extracting latex. While talking on this subject of tapping mention was made of the Seremban estate, which has been under a bit of a cloud lately. The estate is now evidently under the right man in Mr. Mansergh, and we are pleased to hear that he will no doubt give the directors a different story to tell at the next annual meeting. ‘“Under great difficulties,” Mr. Devitt remarks, ‘through mutilation of the trees in tapping, he has put the first series of new cuts on most successfully ; and I think that after the first two or three months of tapping they will get into order and the trees give as good yields as any others prorerly tapped from the beginning. The rubber turned out is of excellent quality and should hold its own with the best marks on the market. Mr. Mansergh has a tight hand on the coolies who are shaping well under him and the labour difficulty should now be at an end.” Mr. Devitt went through a large part of the Malay Peninsula, but unfortu- nately was prevented by the quaratine regulations, owing to the cholera outbreak, from visiting certain estates he would like to have seen in Perak, Province Wellesley, ete: The Bukit Asahan estate was among those he visited. The estate was somewhat famous recently on account of the bad report on it published in its prospectus ; that report, Mr. Devitt thinks, was very hard on the estate. Mr. P. J. Burgess in now pulling the place round, and under European control a very appreci- able difference is already seen in the working of the estate, and it should prove a fine paying property. Johore State pleased Mr. Devitt greatly. He thinks it a most promising district with a beautiful soil. Lavadron estate is a very good example of what can be done there. At Singapore Mr. Devitt visited the Botanical Gardens but was disappointed to miss Mr. H. N. Ridley there. On Jugra estate he saw a plantation of the finest coconuts he has seen, showing immense growth, and the success is encouraging further planting of this product, which from all accounts should pay well. MOISTURE IN RUBBER. Regarding the recent letter to the Ceylon Observer on the marketing of Ceylon rubber in a moist condition from Messrs. Lewis & Peat, (see T.A., May, 1905, page 272) Mr. Devitt says the opinions in that letter were given as those of a private individual —not those of the firm. Messrs. Lewis & Peat’s desire was to have the matter brought to the notice of planters and discussed, with a view to finding out the best method of curing the rubber and marketing it; and in this their letter was very successful. ‘We know,” says Mr. Devitt, ‘“‘that Brazil Para Rubber will keep good for 60 years, whereas Ceylon will not keep like that; and we want to find out why it is, and how its qualities can be improved upon, and to get the planters to adopt the best method of curing and packing.” 29 Saps and Exudations. THE INDUSTRIAL DEMAND. POSSIBLE EFFECTS UPON THE RUBBER PLANTING BUSINESS. The question as to whether plantation rubber companies are likely to suffer from the evils attendant on the over-production of the commodity is one which has been incidental referred to in these columns during the past few moaths. It has been pointed out that so long as the world’s consumption of rubber is more than equal to the available supply there is very little danger of any material falling off in the market prices which the commodity consistently commands in London and other centres. But this very demand and the consequent high price of the better- grade rubber make it possible for the wild rubber collector to compete, and compete successfully, with the plantation owner. As our readers are by this time aware, the present margin of prefit to the planter is a very considerable one, and even when an extravagant allowance for working expenses and interest upon capital has been made, this profit is anything between 3s. and 4s. per pound. The wild rubber collectors or middlemen agencies, on the other hand, can never hope to keep their expenses down to the same equal level as the planter. The latter, asa matter of fact, can reasonably hope to make considerable reductions under this heading as years go on, and the use of machinery adapted to the rapid curing of the latex becomes more general. Those interested in the collection of wild rubber, on the other hand, have to face the fact that year after year greater distances have to be travelled to obtain sufficient supplies to make their industry a profitable one, while they also know that the manufacturer who must use rubber in his business prefers (other things being equal) to pay a slightly higher price for plantation rubber owing to its greater purity. The best grade Para, from the Middle East, may be said to average over 95 per cent. pure rubber; the best grades from the Amazon work out at something like 83 per cent. of pure rubber. The difference in these percentages is practically represented by the difference between the prices in the world’s markets, and goes far to confirm the contention that the manufacturer prefers and will naturally support the product of the plantations, provided he can be reasonably sure of obtaining fairly continuous supplies. This, as we all know, will be the casein a very few years’ time. But provided something resembling the present prices obtain it will still pay to collect wild rubber, so that the manufacturer will be able at least to await the most favourable markets (from his standpoint), and not be compelled, as he is at present, to buy inan almost hand-to-mouth fashion. But there is no reason to believe that the market will be glutted with rubber in the not far distant future. For not only are the recognised rubber industries using more and more of the commodity every year, but there are many others which, apart altogether from the selling price of rubber, are languishing or are being neglected simply on account of the uncertainty of the supply. There are also still further industries which are at the moment non-existent, but which, were rubber to cheapenu in price, would speedily become large and steady consumers. This is a point which those about to embark in rubber plantation exploitation might do well to bear in mind. For although there is no reason to anticipate any marked decline in the market price for years to come, yet the period must arrive when the price will react in obedience to the law of supply and demand. At the present moment, were plantation rubber fetching only, say, 4s. per lb., and the supply from such sources fairly large, much of the wild rubber which is now being marketed at a profit would not be collected at all, or, if so, at very little profit. No one anticipates that the six-shilling level for plantation rubber will be maintained for an indefinite period, but, on the other hand, when the supply Gums, Resins, 30 from such sources has materially increased the price is bound to react. If a planter only obtained 2s. per lb. for his rubber he would still be making a very respectable profit, while, with the exception of some very low grades, wild rubber would not pay to collect at such a selling price. It will be seen, therefore, that whatever happens, the planter will be practically master of the situation, and that even if the world’s output were to be increased to say, 100,000 tons per annum. For he has not only the certainty of a sure market for as much as he and his neighbours can produce each year, but he can, by agreeing to acceptalow, though to him still profitable, price for his product, squeeze the wild rubber out of competition with himself. It has not been necessary for the planter, as yet, to look so far ahead and to study the possibilities of the market, say ten years hence. But the manu- facturers and users of the material are, it would seem, quite alive to these possibilities, and as many of the articles they produce are more or less necessities for the richer section of the community, they fancy that they will always be ina position to prevent anything resembling a corner inrubber. In other words, they can, by bidding prices for wild rubber of the better grades which enables that commodity to be collected at a profit, practically guarantee themselves with assured supplies, equal at least to their ordinary requirements—and the actual consumers of the products of their factories will have to pay the price. That it will ever be necessary to face such a contingency is deciedly questionable. For one - thing, the danger of any combine among the world’s rubber plantation owners to squeeze out the wild rubber collectors by reducing the price of the commodity is quite outside the range of practical commercial politics. At the same time, in the years to come the supply from the rubber planta- tions might easily equal, and possibly overtake, the world’s consumption, and then prices for this commodity would inevitably fall, and possibly fall to the level when it would be impossible to market wild rubber ata profit. But the manufacturers would not suffer—iadeed, they would be the gainers, since they would obtain what is admittedly a better article than the wild product at a figure possibly much below that which obtains at the moment for low-grade wild rubber, and at the same time the plantations would not be worked at a loss. One or two manufacturers of rubber seem to incline to the belief that in the comparatively near future rubber will be selling in the market at considerably below current quotations. But there is nothing to warrant such an assumption, any more than there is anything to lead to the belief that the price will go higher either from natural causes or from the operations of any corner. Well-informed -men inthis business incline to the opinion that for some years to come, even with materially increased supplies, the price will fluctuate within narrow limits round the current quotations, and that unless marked improvements take place in the preparation of wild rubber for the market, this article will be gradually ousted by the better and purer qualities obtainable from the plantations. It would seem, then, that while the manufacturers of rubber are not likely to suffer any hardships through scarcity of supplies or dearness in price, neither are the planters to toil without a sufficient reward for their labours. The folk who may suffer—and even this, be it noted, is by no means more than a mere possibility—are those interested in the collection of wild rubber, especially when great distances have to be travelled, in the first instance, and the entrepots are far removed from the manufacturing centres of the world.— Financier. Peruano te ye igi) , 3l Saps and Kxudations. THE LONDON RUBBER MARKET. Lonpon, May llth, 1906.—At to-day’s auction, 342 packages of Ceylon and Straits Settlements Plantation grown rubber were under offer. The total weight amounted to about 15 tons, Ceylon contributing 38and Straits Settlements 12. Though this was a large offering which included several attractive parcels of fine quality sheet and biscuits, orders were rather scarce, and consequently prices marked some irregularity. Where sales were effected, the price generally realised for fine biscuits and sheet was 6s. 13d., but several parcels were withdrawn from sale for lack of support. For scrap grades also competition was less animated than at the last auction, though for the finer qualities about last rates were obtained. There was a large consignment of fine sheet and other grades from Bukit Rajah amounting to 2} tons, and the finer qualities met with good attention, realising up to 6s, 2}d. per lb. Owing to the increase in the size of the sales lately, it has been decided in the interests of the trade generally, that the auctions shall in future be held at the Commercial Sale Rooms, and this new arrangement was inaugurated to-day. Quotations for Plantation Biscuits and Sheet to-day.—6s. 1}d. to 6s. 2td., same period last year, 6s. 63d. to 6s. 83d. Plantation Scrap.—4s. to 5s, 33d., same period last year, 4s. 6d. to 5s. Fine Hard Para (South American).—5s. 3$d., same period last year, 5s. 7?d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements Planta- tion Rubber.—212 packages at 5s. 9td. per lb., against 227 packages at 5s. 114d. per lb. at last auction. Particulars and prices as follows :— CEYLON. MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB, Culloden 6 cases darkish pressed crépe, 6s. 14d.; 2 cases dark, 5s. FE.B. 1 do serap and pieces, 4s, 6d. Tallagalla 1 do fine darkish biscuits, 6s. 1jd.; 1 case fine scrap, 5s. 34d.; 2 cases dark low scrap, 2s. Warriapolla 4 do fine very pale to darkish biscuits, 6s. 14d.; 1 case darker, 6s. 14d.; 1 case good scrap 5s. 34d. Gikiyanakande 2 do fine pale worm, 6s. 2d.; 2 cases fine darkish crépe, 5s. 11d.; 1 case dark, 5s. Densworth 8 do fine darkish biscuits, 6s. 14d.; 1 case darker, 6s. 14d.; 1 case fine palish scrap, 5s. 3éd. Doranakande 2 do dark cloudy biscuits, 6s. 1jd.; 1 case rough sheet, 5s. 10d.; Fi rapes fine palish scrap, 5s. 3¢d.; 1 case good dark scrap, s. 9d. Ambatenne 2 do fine palish biscuits, 6s. 1jd.; 2 cases dark biscuits, 6s. 13d.; 1 case dark biscuits (mouldy), 6s.; 2 cases pieces, 5s. 6d.; 1 do good pale scrap, 5s. 33d.; 1 case darker, 5s. 3}d.; 1 bag dark 5s. 34d.; 1 case dark pressed, 4s. Duckwari 1 do fine pale to dark biscuits, 6s. 13d.; 1 bag fine pale scrap, 4s. 8d.; 1 package good rejected biscuits, 4s. 8d. Halgolle 1 do palish mixed scrap, 4s. 6d. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. Jebong 1 case scrappy sheet, 5s. Ofd.; 1 case fine scrap, 5s. 34d. G.M. S.B. 1 ae Sha pale scrap, 5s. 23d.; 1 case pressed scrappy sheet, gs. Skd. K.K, 1 do _ fine pale sheet, 6s. 13d.; 1 case fine Rambong ball, 4s. 33d.; 1 box scrap, ete., 4s. 9d. Beverlac 4 do fine dark biscuits, 6s. 14d. bid.; 8 cases fine dark sheet, 6s. 13d. bid.; 1 case sheet, 6s. 14d. bid.; 14 cases fine palish to darkish sheet, 6s, 13d. bid.; 6 cases darkish cloudy biscuits, 6s. 14d. bid. Gums, Resins, 82 MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. PS. TERI Ry 12 cases fine pale crépe, 6s. 2d.; 1 case fine palish crépe, 6s. Highland ‘ do fine palish crépe, 5s. 11}d.; 8 cases darkish, 5s. 13d.; 4 cases dark, brownish, 5s. 33d. 4 B. (in diamond) 1 do good rejections, 4s. 10}d.; 9 cases scrappy sheet, etc., 5s ld.; 4 cases sheet, 5s. 14d. ites i ue pus pale crépe, 6s, 24d. .E.B. do fine scrap, 5s. 03d,; 1 case rejected biscuits, ., ds. 13d. L. E. (Muar in tri- : nite, GUC. aaa angle) Straits 8 do ne pale ribbon, 6s. 2d.; 1 case dark, 5s. 3d.; 1 case darker, 5s. 5d. 4 do fine amber sheet, 6s. 13d.; 2 cases darker, 6s. Ld.; 2 cases fine palish scrap, 5s. 83d. Tiger Asahan 4 do fine amber biscuits, 6s. 1$d.; 4 cases dark biscuits, 6s. 14d. Bukit Lintang 4 do fine palish biscuits, 6s. 1éd. ; : D.W.H.S. 2 do fine darkish washed sheet, 6s. 14d.; 1 case good palish to dark washed sheet, 6s. 1$d. B.R.R. Co., Ltd. 29 do very fine large amber sheet, 6s. 2d. to 6s. 2}d.; 6 cases little darker, 6s. 13d. to 6s. 1jd.; 7 cases paler bubbled, 6s. 1d.; 5 cases good darkish scrappy sheet, 5s. 3$d.; 9 cases good scrap, 5s. Id. to 5s. 33d.; 1 case good rejections, 5s. 34d.; 3cases good cuttings, 5s. 43d.; 4 cases fine sheet rejections, 5s. 10d.; 2 cases good scrap, 5s. 2d. W. P.M. Lonpon, May 25th.— At to-days auction, 159 packages of Ceylon and Straits Settlements Plantation grown rubber were under offer. The total weight amounted to nearly 10 tons, Ceylon contributing nearly 1 and Straits Settlements 83. Since the last auction the market has maintained the quiet tone then prevailing, and except for fine biscuit and sheet qualities. demand was not very keen, and conse- quently the scrap grades were in many cases somewhat neglected, and here and there showed a decline on last rates. The bulk of the offerings was from the Straits and included one or two large invoices. Amogst these were several parcels of crépe, and the darker lots proved difficult to quit, buyers being prejudiced against the darker colours. For fine pale crépe, however, there is a strong demand, and a parcel of this to-day realised $d. per lb. more than fine sheet. A small lot of very fine pressed worm rubber was also keenly competed for and sold at 6s. 2}d. per lb. Quotations for Plantation Biscuits and Sheet to-day.—6s. 1d. to 6s. 13d., same period last year, 6s. 5d. to 6s. 9¢d. Plantation Scrap.—4s. to 5s. 3d., same period last year, 4s. 6d. to 5s. 5d. Fine Hard Para (South American).—5s. 3jd., same period last year, 5s. 84d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements Plantation Rubber.—106 packages at 5s. 93d. per lb., against 212 packages at 5s. 9jd. per Ib. at last auction. Particulars and prices as follows :— CEYLON. MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. Gikiyanakande 2 cases fine palish rolled crépe, 5s. 62d. Ambatenne 2 do good dark cloudy biscuits, 6s. 1d.; 1 bag rougher, 6s. 1d. S. A. (M. M. in es- tate mark) 1 do small palish Ceara biscuits, 6s. 1d. Rangbodde 1 do exceptionally fine very pale biscuits, 6s. 14d. F.J.W 2 do fine pale pressed worm, 6s. 24d O. B. B.C. (in dia- mond) Kondegalla 4 do fine amber sheet, 6s. 1d.; 1 case scrappy sheet, 5s. New Rasagalla 1 do fine large palish to dark biscuits, 6s. 1d. : Hapugastenne 2 do good palish to dark biscuits, 6s. ld.; 1 case good pale to darkish serap, 5s. 23d. D. (in diamond) 1 do small palish biscuits, heated, 5s. 6d.; 1 bag small lumps, 4s = hilt Saps and Hxudations. STRAITS SHTTLEMENTS. MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB, P.R. (in triangle) H, 2 cases scrappy sheet, 5s.1d.; 1 bag pale scrappy sheet, 5s. 0{d.; 1 esase palish scrap, 4s M.I. (in diamond) 2 do fine large palish to dark biscuits, 6s. 1d.; 1 case fine pale serap, 5s. 34d B.L.C. 1 do rough palish to dark crépe, 5s. L. E. (Muar in tri- angle) Straits 8 do fine pale GEene, 6s. 1$d.; 1 case good darkish crépe, 5s. 3d.; 1 case dark, : P.S.E. (in diamond) a do good ee Ghat 6s. 1d. T.O.P. 1 do good rough sheet, 6s. 1d. C. R. (R. W. and Co. in triangle) E. | 12 do fine amber sheet, 6s. 1d.; 2 cases good darkish scrap, 4s. 8id.; 1 case dark scrap and pieces, 5s. V.R.Co.Ltd. Kiang F.M.S. (in triangle)21 do fine washed scored sheet, 6s. 1d. Gula (in diamond) 1 do good rough sheet, 6s. ld.; 1 case pressed scrappy sheet 5s. 2id. S. R. 4 an triangle) 4 do good palish to darkish crépe, 5s. 63d. P.R.S 6 do fine large amber sheet, 6s. 1d.; F cases darkish scrap, 4s. 8d.; 1 case pressed scrappy sheet, 43.7 4d. G.M. S.B. 4 do scrappy sheet and scrap, 4s. 10d.; 1 case fine amber sheet, 6s. 1d.; 1 case fine palish scrap, 5s. 3d. K. M. (in diamond) . P.R, 1 case rough sheet, part uncured, 5s. 4d. S. (in diamond) S.R. 1 do low scrap, 3s. W. J. & H. THOMPSON. CREPE RUBBER IN THE LONDON MARKKET. Lonpown, May 25th.—Since our last there has been a fair demand for Plantation sorts and sales have been made at 6s. 1d.. to 6s. 2d. for both pancakes and crépe. We are glad to notice more inclination on the part of buyers to take crépe and lace, and there is no doubt plantation biscuits and sheets, as well as crépe are being taken, although in small lots, by fresh buyers who have not tried it before, as well as by those who have already tried it and are now using it regularly for various and sun- dry purposes, which is decidedly enacouraging. Parcels were offered at auctions today, amounting to about 8} tons Straits and Malay States ; and only about 18 ewts, of Ceylon. LEWIS & PEAT. Lonpon, 25th May, 1906.—Plantation Ceylon—25 cases (1 ton) offered and sold, fine biscuits 6s. 1d. to 6s. 13d., fine pale worms 6s. 27d., fine scrap 5s. 1d. to 5s. 23d., good 5s. Ojd., ordinary 4s., fair crepe 5s. 6;d., common dark 4s. Straits—134 cases (84 tons) offered and 78 sold, fine biscuit and sheet 6s. ld., fine crepe 6s. 14d., fair 5s. 8d., ordinary dark 5s., common 4s., fine scrap 5s. 2id. to 5s. 3id., good 4s. 8d. to5s., common dark 8s. Next Public Auction will be held on 8th June. CEYLON. Ambatenne 3 cases fine biscuits, 6s. Id. Gikiyanakande 5 do_ offered and 3 sold, light roll crépe, ee 6id.; dark 4s. P.R. (in triangle) H. 4 packages fair to good scrap 4s. to 5s. 1d. M.M.(inestatemark)2 do offered and 1 sold, fine biscuits, 6s. 1d. Rangbodde 1 case fine biscuits, 6s. 1a. J. W. 2 do fine pale pressed worms, 6s. 24d. New Rasagalla 2 do offered and 1 sold, fine biscuits, 6s. 1d. Hapugastenne 3 do fine biscuits, 6s. Id.; fine scrap, 5s. 23d. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. M.I. a diamond) — 3 do fine biscuits, 6s. 1d.; fine scrap 5s. 3}d. L. E. (Muar in tri- angle) 10 do fine pale crépe 6s. 13d. ; dark 5s. to 5s. 3d. 5 Gums, Reins, 34 MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. P.S.E. (in diamond) 2 cases fine sheet, 6s. 1d. C. R. (BR. W. & Cin triangle) 15 do fine sheet, 6s. 1d.; good scrap 4s. 84d. to 5s. V.R.C. Ltd. Klang F.M.S. (in triangle)32 do offered and 21 sold, fine sheet, 6s. Id. Gula (indiamond) 2 do fine sheet 6s, 1d.; fine scrap 5s, 27d. S. R.C. (in triangle) 25 do offered and 10 sold, mixed crépe, 5s. 6?d.; poor erépe, 4s. P.R. S.B. 8 do fine sheet 6s. 1d.; good scrap 4s. 8d. G.M. S.B. 6 do fine sheet 6s. Id.; fair to fine scrap 4s. 6d. to 5s. 3d. OBEC. (in diamond) 5 do fine sheet 6s. 1d.; good scrap, 5s. S. (in diamond) S.R. 1 do poor scrap, 3s. SHIPMENTS OF PLANTATION RUBBER. FROM COLOMBO AND GALLE. FROM SINGAPORE. wee ... First three months ... to tons. 1906 ... First three months ... 47. tons. 19 \5 eee $9 Bw ag 9° 1904... hy Bat) 2H FROM PENANG. 19082 4: 5 eae GuOaT Lies, 1906... First three months... 9 __,, Total Exports from Ceylon and the Straits Settlements for first three months, 1906, 87 tons. SHIPMENTS OF PLANTATION RUBBER, Total Exports from Colombo and Galle from 1st January to 28rd April: 1906... He ... do tons. | 1904 ... Ase ... 102 tons. 1904 Ae ance, || LOOS te: $n 5 Total Exports from Singapore from Ist January to 6th Amel 1906, 48} tons. GOW, WILSON: & STANTON, LTD. be) We much regret that by an inadvertence, the rubber report given in the April number (page 204), was credited to the ‘‘ India Rubber Journal.” It should have been entered as due to Messrs S. Figgis & Co., who prepared it at considerable trouble. Cultural Directions for Camphor. INSTRUCTIONS BY A JAPANESE SUPPLY CO. The Yokohama Nursery Co., Ltd., of Yokohama, publishes the following cultural directions for camphor :—Plants are quoted at the following rates :—Height 1—13 ft. : per 10 $1°30 (gold) ; per 100 $11°50 ; per 1,000 $100. SEED-BED.—Prepare in well fertilized and rich soil. Plow 18 inches deep. break the lumps finely, make dikes two feet apart for drainage and press the surface, smoothly. Mid-spring is the time of the sowing season or when the temperature ranges above 50 degrees Fahrenheit. The seeds being sown, cover them up by means of a sieve through which soil is allowed to fall to about half-an-inch and press the top lightly. Straw or hay should be spread over the bed so as to protect the seeds from being washed or blown away by storms, and also to prevent its getting too dry until they sprout, care being taken to keep the straw in place by sticks fixed into the ground. ; For one pound of seeds, a space of six square yards is usually allotted, but the more sparsely sown the better for the growth. One pound produces 2,000 plants on the average, but much naturally depends upon the state of a crop. MANURE should be given in summer and autumn. In Japan decomposed ordure mixed with oil cake is used in fluid form, but bone-dust or any similar manures will answer the purpose. No shading is required against the sun except on very hot days; water should be given in the evening. Clear off the weeds as they appear, 35 Saps and Ha«udations, TRANSPLANTING.—Next spring after a year the plants should be removed. Prepare the plantation in the same manner as the seed-bed, but the stems should be cut off at one or two inches from the base and also the ends of the roots. About 20 plants are to be planted on one square yard for another year’s culture. Manure in spring, summer and autumn as in the first season, tilling the ground and weeding occasionally. SECOND TRANSPLANTING.—In spring of the third year the plants are ready to be removed to permanent quarters. Treat the plant in the same way as in the first transplanting by cutting off the top and roots. If they are to be planted on hills or moorlands provide a space of four square yards for a tree, otherwise 7 or 8 feet apart from each other, _ The second transplanting may sound useless waste, but it is « method widely practised in a certain province. This may not be absolutely necessary to follow, and the plants can be left two or three years before being removed to tho permanent quarters, but its nature is that it does not easily get acclimatized, so the double precaution may save much in the end. Camphor can be extracted from the stems as well as the leaves. The wood of the camphor-tree is much employed in Japan for the manu- facture of cabinets, chests of drawers, wardrobes, boxes, ete. Old ones have a fine close ring grain, a cleaf yellow-brown, silky sheen, and a beautiful appearance, so that it is well adapted for veneering. Not being subject to the attacks of insects, it is very useful for such works, besides the odour of the wood imparts a delightful fresh scent to the articles stowed in the receptacles. Apart from its economic value the plant has an occult hygienic property. Giant camphor-trees of several centuries old are invariably to be met with in the precincts of temple and shrines of the southern section of Japan, and the people feel from traditional instinct a sacred sentiment towards the tree, but science has revealed the truth that it serves as a natural purifying agency against any pestilential atmosphere. Its evergreen nature, lustrous dense foliage, mighty form, extraordinary longivity and aromatic property are the features highly recommend- able wherever climatic and topographical conditions agreeable as a garden plant, especially on large estates. 36 DYE STUFFS AND TANNING SUBSTANCES. UTILISATION OF MANGROVE BARK. ” The name “mangrove” was applied by Lindley to the trees belonging to the natural order Rhizophoracese. These trees or shrubs inhabit the muddy swamps close to the seashore in tropical climates, where they frequently form forests of vast extent. The mangroves are of particular interest, owing to their peculiar habit of growth, which is described by Hamilton as follows :—‘In the economy of nature the mangrove performs a most important part, wresting annually fresh portions of land from the dominion of the sea. This is effected in a twofold manner, by the progressive advance of their roots and the aerial germination of their seeds, which do not quit their lofty cradle until they have assumed the form of actual trees, and drop into the water with their roots prepared to take possession of the mud, in advance of their parent stems. The progression by means of the roots is effected by fresh roots, which issue from the trunks at some distance above the surface of the water, and arching downwards, enter the mud. In this manner, the plants, after their descent from the parent trees, continue during their early years to advance steadily forward till they have attained a height of about fifteen feet, and gained a position considerably in advance of their parent trunks. After this fewer additions are made to the roots, but the head begins to expand in every direction, spreading its branches on all sides. These branches in turn send down long slender roots like those of the banyan tree (Ficus indica), which, rapidly elongating, descend from all varieties of height, and, reaching the water, penetrate the mud, becoming in time independent trees; thus a complicated Jabyrinth is formed.” It has long been known that all parts of the mangroves, and especially their barks, contain tannin, but it is only comparatively recently that mangrove bark has been systematically collected and imported into Europe for the use of tanners. MANGROVE BARKS SUITABLE FOR TANNING PURPOSES. The mangroves best known as yielding barks suitable for tanning purposes are Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora Mangle, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops Candolleana and Roxburghiana, and Kandelia Rheedii. Mangroves yielding barks rich in tannin are fairly widely distributed in tropical countries, and in recent years a good deal of attention has been paid to the exploitation of these materials in various countries, notably Germany and Belgium. The best-known mangrove barks in European commerce are probably those of GERMAN EAST AFRICA, which have i 63 . Rdible Prcducts. a very clumsy means of finding out the real richness of the land. But if all the indications above named give results tending to show that the soil is exhausted, it will probably be wise to have the soil examined by a chemist, in order to determine the most economical way of applying the manures which they have shown to be necessary. Limits of space do not allow me here to 20 into the question of the manures adapted to special soils and special conditions. Suffice it tosay that where the principal deterioration is in luxuriance, there the most important manure con- stituents will usually be organic matter and nitrogen, and these can best be supplied by top-dressing with good bheel soil, if available, by cattle manure, by oil cake, or by green manure. If deterioration in quality is chiefly to be treated, manure containing phosphates appear of the greatest importance. There is one class of manure whose effect has proved very great under many conditions, and the appli- cation of which costs very little—I mean green manures. GREEN MANURES. First and foremost of these in the Indian districts come the leguminous trees, of which the Albizzia stipulata is the chief. They not only manure the soil by their leaves and roots, but also improve the condition of the land in which they grow. Their effect is little seen during the first three years or so of their life, but as they become mature they produce a dark healthy colour on the tea all round them which is quite different from the remainder of the blocks in which they are planted. The best practice places them sixty feet apart throughout the tea and keeps them well lopped so that they do not overhang the tea bushes. In the second order come the leguminous bushes, of which the only one hitherto tried on an extended scale is the boga medeloa (Tephrosia candida) which has given excellent results both in Assam and Sylhet. A few seeds, generally three or four, are planted on a small heap between alternate bushes in alternate rows in April or May, and protected from the hoeing coolies by a tripod of three sticks, By the end of the season the bushes are seven or eight feet high, and from this time the whole should be kept trimmed to a narrow shape, and everything that is pruned off buried with the hoeing. This trimming should be done four or five times every year, and may well de done before every round of hoeing, and the material be buried with the hoe. The bush should be kept so that it does not interfere with the pluckers, nor materially shade the tea. At the end of three years the whole plants are pulled up, and buried in trenches between the rows of tea. This method has, as has already been said, given good results on light land, and the increased vigour in old and deteriorated tea has quickly shown itself in the yield, as well as in the appearance of the bushes, The boga medeloa has the special advantage of growing in very poor light soils, such as would not grow any erop of almost all the other green manures which have been tried. In the third rank of green manures stand the annual crops which are grown for a short time on the land and then hoed in asa whole. In India, very great results have already been obtained by the use of mati kalai (Phaseolus mungo), which is sown broadcast on the land at the end of April or the early part of May, and hoed in at the latter part of June or the early part of July. It is found unwise to allow it to remain on the land more than about eight weeks. During 1905, equally good results have been obtained on an experimental scale with the other plants, Crotolaria striata (the crop principally used for this purpose in Ceylon) dhaincha (Sesbania cannabina), a common crop of Lower Bengal. Each of these remains on the land eight to ten weeks, and is then hoed into the soil. The effect seems partially due to the considerable improvement which they always effect in the texture of the land, and partly to the very large amount of nitrogen which Edible Products, 64. they take up from the air by means of their root nodules, and so make it available as plant food for the tea. The trouble with each of them is that they will not grow on very highly exhausted soils, and in such cases demand a small quantity of cattle manure (say two tons per acre) to give them a start, after which they will grow luxuriantly. DETERIORATION OF THE TEA PLANTS. We have dealt with the methods by which deterioration of tea due to defective soil conditions or to soil exhaustion may be treated. We cannot too much insist that in any case of manifest decline the soil should be the first thing looked to, and heavy or collar pruning of the bush only adopted after becoming sure that the fundamental mischief does not lie in the exhaustion of the land. But if this is certain then the bush itself should be examined, and the cause of the decline most probably will be found there. The causes of the deterioration of a tea bush seem to be inseparable from the methods of culture. When a tree, usually eighteen to twenty feet high, is kept to four feetas a limit; when every green shoot which it throws is nipped off more or less closely; when the annual pruning of the youngest grown wood renders the course of the sap in the plant continually longer and more circuitous ; it is only natural that sooner or later (the time depend- ing on the vigour of the bush, and this on the richness of the land), the plant will begin to decline in yield, that the younger shoots will become less energetic in throwing out new leaves, and that the tea will begin to deteriorate. The result obtained is in accordance with this expectation, but there are methods of culture which hasten the day of decline, and which have made many gardens begin to ‘go off’ before the time they need have done. The earliest and still the most frequent of these is probably too hard plucking in the early part of the season. It is well known and well recognised that if a bush is to continue healthy and yielding, great care must be taken with the first and second series of shoots in the year, but, even yet, I am confident that anxiety to make tea in May and June is at the bottom of the rapid decline of many a good garden. The growth which is allowed to remain on the bush immediately after pruning is left for three reasons. First, in order to provide wood for pruning, in the next year; second, to give the bush enough leaf growth to keep it well supplied with breathing organs during the season; third, to afford plenty of leaf axils from which the secondary shoots or ‘‘flushes” may arise. To provide for the second of these purposes far more growth is necessary than would be required to supply the first and third, and it is due to the non-recognition of this fact that the early pluckings have often been too close, and numerous evil results have followed and are follow- ing. In the latter part of the season when there is amply sufficient leaf growth to feed the bush, the young shoots may be plucked absolutely close as they grow, but to do so (in North East India) even under the most favourable conditions of growth till the beginning of July, is a policy which, though it may apparently do well on a young and flourishing garden for some years, will quickly bring about a serious decline in the value of the bushes. The second principal hastening cause in the deterioration of tea bushes is incorrect pruning. The subject is too long a one to deal with here in full, It may be said, however, that in the past damage has been done by cutting too little out of the bushes, and in a less measure by cutting too much. The following points should, however, be noticed in pruning, and even if the process then costs more than it has usually been the habit to spend, the extra amount is well invested if the decline of the bushes is, by this means, delayed :— (a) All dead branches should be removed. (6) All gnarled twigs and ‘crow’s—foot’ clumps of imperfectly formed shoots (otherwise, the previous year’s banjhi flushing) should be taken out, 65 Edible Products; (c) All snags, which are seen to have little chance of healing over, might well be pruned off. (d) All ‘‘trailing” branches at the outside of the bush are better away. (e) All the previous year’s horizontal shoots at the outside of the bushes should be headed back to induce them to throw out vertical shoots. (f) All small twiggy shoots throughout the bushes, which will never give strong healthy wood for the next year, should be cut right back to the stem from which they arise. (g) The amount of new wood left on each shoot should be as little as possible (generally not more than one and a half inches), consistent with this containing one bud, dormant or otherwise. (hk) The same length of new wood should be left on each pruned shoot throughout the bush. Where deterioration of the bush has commenced, either in the normal course or hastened by incorrect pruning or plucking, there is one method of bringing it back to a healthy condition, provided always that the soil and the roots are in a thoroughly satisfactory condition. This is by ‘heavy pruning.’ Though more rational methods of annual light pruning will make heavy prun- ing necessary less often than it would be otherwise, and less often than it has been in the past, yet just as pruning at all is necessary to remove the refuse mass of twigs which plucking say, twenty or thirty times in the season, leaves in the bush, so heavy pruning is necessary to remove the refuse of several light prunings, But it is not merely a method of removing the refuse non- yielding wood from a bush; it also has an effect in directly stimulating the plant to greater exertions, and this is evidenced, if by nothing else, by the greater development of small-feeding rootlets after heavy cutting of the plant, provided the soil is such as to allow of their formation. This is probably one of the principal reasons in some cases why heavy and especially collar pruning has been such a great success. The bushes are a mass of useless wood, inade- quate feeding of the root energies occurs, and little new root growth takes place. The bush is heavily pruned or collar pruned, and allowed to rest, when the whole of the new growth spends its time in feeding roots innumerable; new and valuable rootlets make their appearance, and the result is a magnificent bush, which, if dealt with properly, gives as good a plant probably as has ever been in the place before. The amount of pruning required to stay deterioration is a matter which can only be settled by a practical man on the spot. There are, however, several guiding principles. In the first place, heavy pruning should not disturb, if possible, the shape and framework of the bush, and ifit is necessary to cut so low down that this is destroyed, collar pruning is indicated. Secondly, as few knots as possible should be left below the cutting. Again, grey lichenous growths on a bush are a sign that the wood on which they are taking place must be cut out if it cannot be made vigorous by heavy manuring. Fourthly, it seems that in almost every case manure should be applied either before or at the time of heavy pruning, at any rate if the pruning is really low. It will stimulate the bush ata time when it has suffered a great shock and so should usually be given even on a good soil. Finally, the bush must be nursed and easily treated tor a long time after the heavy or collar pruning is carried out, and in very low cutting it requires very careful cultivation, especially immediately round the stem of the bush. TREATMENT OF VERY BAD TRA. There may come a time in any garden, and it has already come in a few gardens in the older portions of Assam, where the methods hitherto mentioned seem insufficient to bring deteriorated tea back to a profitable and yielding 9 Hdible Products. 66 basis. The bushes have been collar pruned and heavy pruned until there is no opportunity for further work in this direction. Manure has been applied, but the result has not been profitable. Under these conditions what is to be done? Until recently the only answer has been to abandon the tea altogether, Objectionable as this may be, in some eases it is perhaps still the only policy, but experiments have been initiated in another direction during the last three or four years which will perhaps result in bringing back tea to a profitable condition which would otherwise fall out altogether. Kssentially the process is this. The bush is heavy pruned again, cutting wherever reasonably good wood can be obtained, the block is manured with say fifteen maunds of oil cake per acre or an equivalent amouvt of cattle manure, and then the whole is left absolutely unplucked either throughout the whole season or until August, September or even October, receiving its full share of cultivation, however, the whole time. Under these circumstances bushes often produce thicker wood than they have done for many years, which can forma basis for future growth. Whether the rejuvenation of the bushes will be permanent is a matter of time to decide. The whole question is still in the experimental stage, but there seems a likeli- hood that by this means tea, which would otherwise have to be abandoned, may be again made useful and profitable. CONCLUSION. We have now dealt with the signs of deterioration, its causes, and the methods which seem best adapted for bringing back to a profitable condition much of the teain India which has now declined from its former value. While much of the deterioration which has taken place in the past has been natural and ‘the result of age, very much more has been the result of unwise treat- ment of either the soil or the plants. In conclusion it must be urged very strongly that in the matter of dealing with tea, prevention of deterioration is very much better than any cure. A little money spent in draining, in manuring, in cultivation, in more careful pruning or a little less feverish anxiety to take the last farthing out of the bushes in the way of yield (more especially in the earlier part of the season), will often prevent a crisis such as has frequently occurred in the: history of so many tea concerns, To this aspect of the question I would most earnestly draw the attention of those gardens now ina flourish- ing condition, while the methods I have here suggested may well be applied by those in*Sthe less happy position of holding in their properties already deteriorated tea.—Agricultural Journal of India, April 12th. THE CEYLON IMPORT DUTY ON TEA. OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE. Kandy, May 16. Sir,—I hereto annex copy of correspondence with Government regarding the Ceylon Import Duty on Tea, and would ask you to kindly give it a place in the columns of your Journal for the information of those interested. EDGAR TURNER, Secretary, Planters’ Association of Ceylon. 67 Edible Products. (Correspondence referred to.) COLONIAL SECRETARY'S OFFICE, Colombo, 8rd May, 1906. Sir,—With reference to my letter of 23rd September, 1905, and previous correspondence regarding the Import Duty levied in Ceylon upon Jndian Tea, I am directed by His Excellency the Governor to forward for your information copy of a Despatch received from the Secretary of State for the Colonies enclosing a copy of a Question and Answer in the House of Commons on the subject. 2. I amto observe that the object of the Ceylon Planters is, it is under- stood, to ensure, that no tea other than that grown in Ceylon is exported from the Colony as pure Ceylon Tea, and in this desire His Excellency considers that the Planters are justified. But His Excellency regards it as worthy of the consideration of the tea producers whether the object referred to could not be secured without prohibiting the blending of tea in Uolombo in bond. Colombo is the natural centre of the world for tea blending, and if precaution be taken that all tea leaving the bonded stores is marked as blended tea in an unmistakable manner, it is not clear how the Ceylon grower can be injured. If Java or China teas are required for the market, they will go to Europe to be blended there as easily as they could be sent to Colombo, and in preventing the blending of tea here in bond the Ceylon growers seem to prevent the creation of an additional market, while Colombo is losing what would probably be a lucrative business. 3. His Excellency will therefore be glad if the Planters’ Association will consider the points raised and inform him of their views on the matter. Tam, &c., (Signed) F. J. SMITH, for Colonial Secretary. The Secretary, Planters’ Association of Ceylon, Kandy. Downing Street, 4th April, 1906. Sir,—With reference to your Despatch No. 118 of the 16th of May, 1905, I have the honour to enclose for your consideration a copy of a Question and Answer in the House of Commons on the subject of the Import Duty levied in Ceylon upon Indian Tea. 2. I would be glad to know whether your Government remains of the same Opinion as a year ago, and still considers that the present restriction should not be relaxed, or whether the conditions of the case have been altered in any way. 3. As I understand, the object of maintaining the duty is to safeguard the purity of Ceylon tea, and the Ceylon tea growers seem to think that the encourage- ment to the blending of Indian and Ceylon Teas, which would be the result of removing or modifying the present restrictions, might benefit India at the expense of Ceylon, although some additional trade would be attracted to Colombo. 4. It isa matter on which local opinion must prevail, no Imperial interest being involved; but the present policy seems to be of somewhat doubtful value, and you may be of opinion that the time has come to reconsider it. I have, ete., (Signed) ELGIN. Governor Sir H. A, Blake, G.c.M.G., ete. etc. ete. Kandy, 15th May, 1906. Sir,—I am in receipt of your letter of the 2#rd instant, covering a Despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies, on the subject of the Import Duty on Tea in Ceylon. Edible Products. 68 The subject has been before the Planters’ Association and the Chamber of Commerce many times during the last few years. ‘Che majority of both bodies are of the opinion that the advantage to be gained by allowing the blending of all teas in Colombo is problematical, and the possibility of damage to the Producers’ interest probable. What precautions are the Government of Ceylon prepared to adopt to prevent inferior teas being imported tor blending purposes, and what precautions to prevent blends being exported from Ceylon as pure Ceylon Tea? This in the opinion of my Committee would entail the establishment of a new department. I am, ete., (Signed) HE. TURNER, Secretary, P. A. of Ceylon. The Hon’ble the Colonial Secretary, Colombo. THE CEYLON “THIRTY COMMITTEE” MEETING. Minutes of a Meeting of the Thirty Committee at Victoria Commemoration Buildings, Kandy, on Saturday, (12th), at 7-30 a.m. Present :—Messrs. Jas. R. Martin, (Chairman), Hon. Mr. Edward Rosling, Messrs. Jas. Westland, G. H. Alston, Geo. Greig, R. Morison, D. Kerr, Herbert W. Unwin, W. L. Strachan, W. S. T. Saunders, Alex. Wardrop, G. C. Bliss, J. B. Coles, Alex. Fairlie, Joseph C. Dunbar, R. Huyshe Eliot, J. S. Patterson, N. W. Davies, W.Shakspeare, W. D. Gibbon, R. A. Galton, E. Turner, (Secretary). 22 Members. MISCELLANEOUS.—Laid on the Table Petition from Messrs. McMeekin & Co. and memorial signed by A. Brooke and others representing 40,000 acres, to the Secretary of State for the Colonies. Resolved :—‘‘ That the Chairman and Secretary reply on the lines as drafted.” Laid on the Table Resumé of the work done by the Thirty Committee (printed). Submitted letters from Government dated 12th March and 2nd April, 1906, re Export Duty on Tea. Submitted formal correspondence. MEMBERS OF COMMITTEE.—Read_ letters of regret from members unable to be present. Read letters from Mr. W. Forsythe, the Hon. Mr. J. N. Campbell, and Mr. W. J. Smith resigning membership of the Committee. Resolved :—That Capt. Gordon, (Passara), W. G. Sinclair, (Dimbula), and Mr. Wm. Sinclair, (Rangala), be asked to serve on the Committee in place of the above members who have resigned. CARDAMOM CEss.—Discussed means of advertising cardamoms. Resolved :— “That the Secretary write to the Department of Commercial Intelligence, India, and to the Consuls in Japan, China, Formosa and Zanzibar.” Intimated that the total collections to date amounted to Rs. 5,304-89. FINANCES.—Submitted correspondence with the Hon. the Treasurer of the Colony and following statements of Thirty Committee Accounts :— MEmo. oF THIRTY COMMITTEE ACCOUNTS. From Ist January to 30th April, 1906. To balance unexpended 81st December, 1905... Rs. 155,486°46 To Cess payments Jan-April, 1906 ... », 167,652°06 To Bank Interest ‘ 791°67 By Expenditure Ist January to 30th April, 1906, Rs. 189,994-70 By balance in National Bank : $ 5, 183,466°47 By balance of cash in hand Ka nme 469,02 Rs. 328,9380°19 Rs. 323,9380°19 69 Edible Products. CEss PAYMENTS. January, 1906 AR: Rs. 44,731°88 April, 1906 ar Rs. 48,658'28 February, ,, ay », 48,086°55 Ra SS Ea March, a xe 3, 91,175°40 Rs. 167,652°06 STATEMENT OF THIRTY COMMITTEE ACCOUNTS. Unexpended balance, 31st December, 1905 Rs. 155,486:46 Estimated Income, 1906 (170,000,000 Ib. at 30s. per 100 Ib). 5, 510,000°00 Rs. 665,486°46 Estimated Expenditure, 1906 (present amount allotted) Rs. 540,000°00 Probable unexpended balance 31st December, 1906 Re! “125,486°46 Estimated Income 1907, (175,000,000 at 20s. per 100 Ib). », 300,000°00 Rs. 475,486°46 EXPENDITURE, 1907. America £20,000 Rs. 300,000 Europe £10,000 », 150,000 Administration Contingencies » 10,000 Rs. 400,000-00 Kandy, Ist May, 1906. CEYLON ASSOCIATION IN LoNDoN.—-Submitted correspondence. CEYLON TEA ON THE CONTINENT OF EuROPE.—Submitted correspondence with Mr. J. H. Renton. It was intimated that, as Mr. Renton had repeatedly pointed out that a vote for one year certain only, prevented good business houses being interested in Ceylon teas, the grant for 1907 would be the same as 1906.— Submitted pamphlet by Mr. J. J. Marcel re the Ceylon Tea Cess and the Continental Campaign. CEYLON TEA IN AMERICA.—Submitted correspondence with Sir Stanley Bois and Mr. Walter Courtney. Read letter from Mr. Walter Courtney, in which he proposes using the P. A. stamp on all advertisements and all packet Ceylon teas in America. Read letter from Mr. Westland, objecting to the use of the P. A. stamp in the manner he has been contemplating. Resolved :—‘‘ That a cable be forwarded to Mr. Courtney requesting him to alter his intentions re the P. A. stamp.” Submitted correspondence with Mr. Wm. Mackenzie and laid on the table Mr. Mackenzie’s accounts for 1905. InDIAN TEA CESS CoMMITTEE.—Submitted correspondence.—The Thirty Committee then adjourned.—EDGAR TURNER, Secretary, “‘ Thirty Committee.” WORK DONE BY THE CEYLON “THIRTY COMMITTEE.” A RESUME. In 1887 when the export of Ceylon tea had reached 18,834,057 lbs., of which 13,282,980 went to the United Kingdom, the Planters of Ceylon foresaw the time when the supply of tea for the world would exceed the demand, and at a General Meeting, held on the 15th October, 1887, Mr. H. K Rutherford brought forward the following motion :— “That this Association recognising the importance and advantages to the Tea Industry of the Island by taking more vigorous and systematic steps to make Ceylon tea known throughout the world, strongly recommends the follow- ing project to the District Associations and to tea Planters for their support.” “That Proprietors or Agents of Estates agree (on the condition that no less than 500 estates enrol their names) to pay into the Planters’ Association of Ceylon every six months beginning from Ist January, 1888, 25 cents for every Edible Products. 70 1,000 lbs. of tea leaf plucked on their estate for the preceding six months, and that such monies so collected be used for the advertising and pushing of Ceylon tea in such manner as the Association may from time to time see fit, and in the first instance (should funds permit) that the Association do support the Glasgow, Melbourne and Brussels Hxhbibitions of 1888.” In his preamble he says:—‘‘I come to ask you to ‘invest’ your money, and I use the word advisedly.” The Resolution was seconded by Mr. Wm. Mackenzie and carried unanimously, and a second Resolution asking for the Chamber of Commerce to appoint a Committee to confer with the Committee of the Planters’ Association was also carried. This was practically the origin of the present “Thirty Committee,” though a Tea Syndicate Fund met with failure in 1886. The Ceylon Tea Fund thus inaugurated supported the various Exhibi- tions all over the world and closed in 1894, but previous to that—in view of the Chicago Exhibition of 1892—it was felt that to enable Ceylon to make a good show, it was absolutely necessary to raise a large sum, so that tea should be well advertised, and this Resolution passed in September, 1892, unanimously :— “That in view of the great importance not only to the Planting Industry but to the Colony generally, of Ceylon being adequately represented at the Chicago Exhibition, Government be requested in the first instance to levy a royalty upon tea at the Customs of 10 cents per 100 Ibs. from 1st January, 1893, and until such date as shall be agreed upon between the Government and this Association, and in the meantime from Ist October next to continue the present Railway rates on tea and to get the sum so received, namely, the royalty on Tea and the difference between the old and new railway rates as a Planters’ contribution towards the cost of the Ceylon Court at the Chicago Exhibition and the subsequent furthering of the tea enterprise in America, and further to supplement these contributions by equal amounts from the Revenue.” After the Chicago Exhibition had been paid for, the Planting commu- nity, seeing the necessity of continuing the advertising of tea in all parts of the world, the Ceylon Government agreed to continue the royalty or cess on all tea exported from the Island, and Ordinance 4 of 1894 was passed. In 1894 Ceylon exported 85,876,322 lb. of tea :— lbs. United Kingdom .. +e 76,434,117 Australia and New Zealand ... ag 7,218,838 Other British Colonies ae one 184,017 British India ss ae ae 952,751 Other Countries (Asia) — ase 178,084 Africa Bc Sch 57,087 United States of America ... a: 46,873 Canada soe co 22,858 Kurope, 11 Countries cr 281,697 (Germany :—170, 818 lb.) —_——___——_ Russia :— 43, 152 |b. 85,376,822 The Ceylon Tea Fund had spent Rs. 140,000 during the seven years of its existence, during which time it had spent money in advertising Ceylon tea at Glasgow, Brussels, Melbourne, New Zealand, South Seas and Paris Exhibitions, and in Russia, Austria, Germany, America, and elsewhere, and the Tea Kiosk in Colombo, The “Thirty Committee” has now been in existence eleven years. The satisfactory increase of deliveries in Great Britain and the annually increasing amounts shipped to Australia showed that where Black Tea was drunk Ceylon would win its way on its own merits, and all advertising at 71 Edible Products. Exhibitions was stopped in Great Britain, and, with the exception of the Coolgardie Exhibition in Australia, as our geographical position helped us there with weekly boats running between Colombo and Australia. Russia was a country we looked to, and the Tea Fund assisted Mr. Rogivue in 1890 by tea and funds to start a campaign there. Ceylon tea met with great opposition at first, owing partly to the Tea Trade of Russia being in the hands of a few very wealthy large Houses; but Mr. Rogivue’s business grew, and the result was that when he had made a good business for himself, the Russian dealers in self-defence had to handle Ceylon Teas, and in 1898 Russian Tea buyers supported the Colombo market by their presence. The necessity of any advertising of Ceylon Tea in Russia was done away with and the Trade left to itself; but should the Russian Government lower their very heavy duty on Tea to a reasonable amount, it may be necessary to again bring Ceylon Tea before the Russian public, as we have there a large population of Black Tea drinkers; but owing to the heavy cost of Tea the poorer classes are not able to purchase any large amount, as the consumption per head is but a little over 1lb. against Great Britain’s 6 lb. per head. The Duty in Russia is about 1/8$d. perlb. America is the country in whizh we have expended most money. The Chicago Exhibition cost a Jot of money, but any goud it might have done was not followed up until 1895, when Mr. Mackenzie started work there. He met with great oppo- sition from the old established firms, but by adopting the system of supporting men who would push Ceylon Teas, he has seen the direct shipments of Ceylon Tea from Ceylon rise from 46,873 Ib. in 1904 to 12,465,219 lb. in 1905. How much is due to the money expended—it is impossible to say, in the words of Mr. A. M. White, the Chairman in 1894, at a General Meeting held in 14th April, when speaking of the Ceylon Tea Fund: ‘‘ With a Fund of that nature it was impossible (demonstration was impossible) that they could say they had spent Rs. 5 here and had got back Rs. 5 or Rs. 10.” The same remark applies now; but when we consider that during the eleven years the ‘“‘ Thirty Committee” has been in existence some one hundred promi- nent Plantersand Members of the Chamber of Commerce have given their time and money to carry on the work, it seems reasonable to suppose that a large amount of the exports to other countries is due to the advertising of these teas; and certainly no member has ever in any way attempted to benefit himself. In fact it is esti- mated that it cost the ‘Thirty Committee” members at least Rs. 10,000 a year to attend the Meetings for which they receive nothing. Early in 1895 Mr. Mackenzie advised the Ceylon Planters to turn their attention to green teas if they wished to capture the American market. Little was done until 1898, when to encourage Planters the ‘“‘ Thirty Committee ” gavea bonus of 10 cents per lb., and some 90,000lb. were made from October, 1898, to the end of 1899 ; in 1900 some 600,000 lb. were made, and in 1901 1,800,000 lb. 1902 me As em ... 2,796,000 Ib. 1908 a a # ... 3,647,000 ,, 1904 i = - ... 5,107,000 ,, 1905 oe Sa ae ... 3,169,000 ,, Owing to a bonus given, the manufacture of Green Tea went ahead fast from 1900 to 1903, with the result that the end of 1903 and during 1904 saw a large stock of green teas in stock in America and Colombo, with the result that green tea fell to a very low figure. They have recovered since, and there is a steady trade in them for good desirable marks. The bonus was done away with at the end of 1904; but as Sir Stanley Bois pointed out in one of his communications from St. Louis (when he represented the Ceylon Government as Ceylon Commissioner), Edible Products. 72 Ceylon Green Tea had paved the way for an increased consumption of B!ack Teas as the Americans now know that there are other tea-producing countries besides China and Japan and—having tried our Greens—were trying the Black Teas; and he anticipated that once having drunk good black tea, they would not go back to Green Teas. A new Commissioner has been appointed to America to live in the country. His appointment is for two years, and we hope to see some tangible results from his appointment before then. Spasmodic attempts were made to advertise Ceylon Teas on the Continent of Europe, but until the Paris Exhibition of 1900 no sustained effort was made; but apart from Russia, no nation drank any appreciable quantity per head, and before we started the campaign we might have counted the cost, as it isa costly business trying to change the taste of a nation. It seems to be changing, though very slowly. The ‘‘ Thirty Committee” have voted £10,000 to Mr. Renton for 1906, and have intimated to him that they hope to vote the same amount in 1907; and if by that time no appreciable increase is shown, it seems advisable to shut down expenditure. It is, as mentioned before, impossible to prove the good done by advertising Ceylon tea in Foreign countries; but it is evident that the other tea-producing countries consider that the expansion of our Tea Trade to countries other than Great Britain is due to the work of the ‘ Thirty Committee.” The Indian tea producers, who had tried a voluntary subscription for some years to advertise their tea, approached the Indian Government on the question of a Tea Cess, and it came into force on Ist April, 1903. ——— — a ‘SAGVHS GaquHYWvW110d YAaGNN OVOVO ‘upyymany “J “H fg 004g 73 Hdible Products. The Cultivation of Cacao in Ceylon. I. By HERBERT WRIGHT. (ILLUSTRATED.) It isa matter of common knowledge that the value of Ceylon cacao has, during the last few years, fallen considerably, and had it not been found that this product could be profitably cultivated as a permanent intercrop with Para and Castilloa rubber, the industry would in all probability have remained stationary. While the value of Ceylon cacao has recently shown a decline, that of many other countries has not done so, and judging from the numerous local applications regarding the varieties to be selected, the suitability of each kind in conjunction with rubber, and other matters, it appears necessary to consider our position and see what improvements are possible. In the Matale, Kurunegala, Dumbara and other districts the combined cultivation—cacao and rubber—is rapidly extending, and seems likely to prove a very remunerative one. The output and value of cacao from Ceylon are obvious from a consideration of the following supplied by the Principal Collector of Customs, Colombo :— Statement showing the quantity and value of Cacao exported from the Island of Ceylon during the years 1875 to 1905 :— : Total Value Soan : Total Value Year. Quantity. Value.’ per ews. Year. Quantity. Value. per cwt. Cwt. qr. lb, Rs. Rs. cts. Cwt. qr. lb. Rs. Rs. cts. 1875 No heading in Returns. 1876 do 1891 20,015 2 19 1,200,940 60 00 1877 do 1892 19,176, 3), 2 1,342,378 70 00 1878 10 0 O 100 10. 00 1898 29,775 3 38 2,121,524 71 25 187 4200 2,290 54 52 | 1894 22,791 3 il 1,139,592 50 U0 1880 121 1 24 3,500 28.92 | 1895 27,522 3 20 1,128,440 41 00 1881 28213 518 15,405 54 62 | 1896 33,890 3 5 1,101,450 32 50 1882 864 0 15 46,488 53 80 | 1897 35,121 0 24 1,299,484 37 00 1883 3,076 38 20 151,961 45 Ol 1898 38,098 3 21 1,676,353 44 00 1884 9,241 1 26 323,451 85' §00' | °1899' + 42,527 2 26 1,875,047 44 00 1885 7,466 1 22 298,657 40 00 1900 =. 88,696 3 12 1,651,146 49 00 1886 13,056 0 24 548,361 2 00 1901 47,471 0 O — 2,321,381 48 89 1887 17,460 1 12 888,097 48 00 1902. 61,476 0 O 2,587,764 41 27 1888 12,281 0 6 580,975 47 50 19038 59,098 0 O 2,248,145 88 04 1889 18,849 0 18 999,005 58 00 1904 67,855 0 O 2,448,354 86 34 1890 815,942 2 1 797,125 50 00 1905. 69,431 0 O 2,488,556 35 04 The price of Rs. 70 per ewt. obtained in 1892, as against that of Rs. 385 per ewt. in 1905, takes us back to the most vital consideration, %.e., the variety or quality of the cacao grown and exported during these periods. Since the ravages of the disease or diseases affecting the stems and pods first became prominent in Ceylon, there has been a tendency to replace the old Criollo or Caracas variety with the more prolific varieties of Forastero and Amelonado, in the belief that the latter was not as liable to the ravages of parasitic fungi. Now, however, the planters are beginning to realise that all varieties of cacao at present cultivated in Ceylon are liable to be affected by the same diseases, and when the latter appear in the fluted and high stems of the Forastero variety are very difficult to effectively excise. There has been, during the last two or three years, a distinct tendency to plant the old Caracas type in preference to the Forastero; the change of variety can be shown to be one of the factors responsible for the varying value placed upon the cacao exported from Ceylon. 10 Edible Products. 74 During recent years the cultivation of shade trees for cacao has also undergone considerable change, and whereas the original plantations contained mixed species of forest types, or a preponderance of Hrythrina umbrosa, they are now giving way to Hevea brasiliensis, Hrythrina lithosperma, Castilloa elastica ete.; furthermore, the results of experiments indicate that the shade of Hrythrina lithosperma need not be permanent throughout the whole year, but may be treated so as to form a shade of varying intensity according to the seasons. In all the species mentioned above there is observable one important and common agreement, t.e., they all change their foliage annually and return large quantities of organic matter, in the form of leaves, to the soil. Methods of manur- ing have also changed, to some extent, during the period under consideration, and the effect of the change in modes of cultivation can be shown to affect the quantity or quality of the article produced. The Ceylon methods of cultivation, particularly with regard to pruning, weeding, and manuring, are almost unique, and the differences observable in Surinam, Trinidad, Samoa, Cameroon, etc., provide interesting material for our consideration. In Ceylon the methods of fermenting, washing, and curing are often quite different and sometimes quite in contradiction to those of other countries, and the effect of these processes on the quality of the article is only too fully recognised. In the opinion of many, the condition of the trees, whether they are free or suffering from disease, is of importance in determining quality and quantity. It is therefore obvious that there are several factors which need to be considered in connection with the present and past condition of the cacao industry in Ceylon. The factor which is perhaps more responsible for the range in value of the cured beans than any other is the variety of cacao selected, and with this we will deal, (To be continued.) COFFEE CULTIVATION IN BRAZIL. The coffee planters of Southern India, wishing to know exactly how their industry stood in relation to that of Brazil, the Government of India in April, 1905, at the instance of the Government of Madras, sent a Despatch to the India Office asking for information regarding the Brazilian coffee industry. Very detailed questions were asked regarding labour and wages, cultivation, area, soiland forests; the system of cultivation; the type of trees; the raising of bye-products, shade on estates, abandonment of old and opening up of new estates, etc.; crops and the curing of coffee; diseases, and pests; finance, and cost of production; climate, and physical features of the coffee districts; transport and duties. This Despatch was transferred through the Foreign Office to the British Minister in Brazil, who distributed the lists of questions to the various Consuls, inorder that they might make personal enquiry into the subject. The answers to these questions have now been collected and issued as a white paper by the India Office. Transmitting the replies from the Consuls, the British Minister in Brazil, in his Despatch dated the 6th February, 1906, says :— “The difficulty of obtaining trustworthy information of a statistical nature in this country is sufficiently recognised to render all explanation of the inability to furnish full and exhaustive reports from the various Consular districts unnecessary. The enormous area of the country, the difficulties of communica- tion and the expense of travelling preclude the possibility of acquiring minute information which could only be obtained by a personal visit to the numerous coffee planters scattered throughout a large portion of Brazil, except by experts specially appointed for the purpose, without other occupations to attend to and with considerable funds at their disposal for travelling purposes.” 75 Edible Products. RIO DE JANEIRO. The British Consul-General at Rio de Janeiro writes of his district :— “Coffee planting is the principal industry of Brazil and coffee is the principal article of export. The consumption of the world is estimated at 16,000,000 bags, the bulk of which is produced in Brazil which yields some 9,000,000 to 15,000,000 bags. The limited demand for the quantity produced caused a crisis in recent years owing to bumper crops and over-production. Since then there have been schemes to restrict production, but these have only taken effect in the State of Sa6 Paulo, in which State alone can any official statistics on this subject be obtained. Sad Paulo is the principal coffee district. Lapour.—The conditions of labour are different in each locality. It may, however, be calculated that men earn about 26 a day and women 1%, beside food. ‘‘Colonials” or those labourers established on the estate receive land and a certain number of trees in lieu of wages; others have an interest in the crop. The labour is chiefly Italian and Negro, and is bad and scarce, Immi- gration is required, but has been so badly treated that it is discouraged. Owing to extravagance the planters are mostly in difficulties and do not pay wages when due, or the men are fleeced by the truck system. It is possible for the labourers to live by the cultivation of their own plots. The work on the estate takes some nine months of the year. Note.—1 melries=2s. 2'934d. formerly, now 1s. 5d. say Re. 1 cts. 6. CULTIVATION.—It is only the principal coffee districts which are comprised in the newspaper reports; and there are large tracts of land unplanted and suitable for coffee, and these lands are likely to remain unplanted until the demand for coffee increases. It would probably not be practicable to obtain land for coffee-planting where restriction is in force, nor under the circumstances would it be likely to be profitable. There are extensive railways through the principal coffee districts, the rates vary but are high. Old fazendas are abandoned and not cultivated, but coffee is picked when the trees happen to yield. When the trees no longer bear the plantation is abandoned, and as the land is privately owned it does not revert to Govern- ment, nor is it taxed. Coffee trees yield berries up to 80 years. After bumper crops the next crop or two is smaller. Land in Sad Paulo in some districts produces 3 or 4 times as much as that in Rio de Janeiro, There does not seem to be any extension of planting, and that planting is to replace those trees that go out of bearing. There is not much planted that has yet to come into bearing. Trees begin to bear three years after planting. In Rio the land is hilly, and in Sado Paulo undulating and flat, with a red soil. There is some heavy forest and much scrub, and the undergrowth is very thick, with creepers, thorns, and grass; heavy timber is found in the forests. SystemM.—The cost of production and placing at local railway stations may be estimated at 4:300$ a bag of 60 kilos (or 132} lbs.). There are two kinds of trees cultivated in Brazil, the “‘ Bourbon” and * Criola.” The land is not manured, only weeded. No pruning, trees allowed to grow free. No artificial or other shade used. The branches of the “Bourbon” grow up, those of the “Criola” grow out and bend down. The trees grow to about eight feet high and are planted two metres apart. otherwise faulty eggs should at one be got rid of, for although in some cases a reduced diet may bring them back to their normal production, still the slightest cause will frequently prompt the organs to their previous irregularities, the fowls thus becoming unprofitable members of the flock. As has been seen the majority of troubles mentioned are preventable ones, and largely due to the poultry keeper's mistaken kindness of over feeding.— Garden and Field. Brahaniatke ° on Kandy sit Cattle, By T. B. PoHATH-KEHELPANNALA. The ancient brandmarks of the cattle* belonging to the Kandyans were . generally symbolical of the distinctive caste, village, or family to which the owner belonged. With respect to caste, the mark usually took the shape of some instru- ment or article characteristic of the profession or occupation followed Lg the people of the caste to which the owner of the cattle belonged.t In regard to village, there were certain especial marks which indicated that the owner of the cattle belonged to a particular village. Some villages had their peculiar distinguishing marks. All residents of a particular village were entitled to brand their cattle with the mark indicative of that village, irrespective of caste Tn older days, in addition to the village mark, the initia] letter of the name of the ’ owner was also branded. * This includes buffaloes also. + In Gangaboda Pattu, Galle, the brand for ane GoWiguma- i Sinhalese is an ear of paddy. Live Stock. 254 [Smpr. 1906. In the case of families, some Kandyan Chiefs, as will be instanced later, generally had their own private marks indicative of a particular family, and the cattle belonging to any member of a particular family were branded with the mark of that family. Even at the present day, the branding of cattle according to the old system is carried on to a great extent in some districts, but in others it is gradually dying out. Where cattle are now branded with the caste or village marks, one generally finds in addition the initial letters of the names of the village, gename, and the owner. It is obvious that the combination. of all these marks is highly desirable, so far as identification of cattle are concerned, as it also reduces to a minimum the possibility of cattle thefts so prevalent now in the country. The use of the caste-mark would effectually prevent cattle belonging to one caste from being stolen by another, At first glance anybody will be able to identify cattle belonging toa particular class or village by the brands, and nobody would venture to brand his cattle with a different brand than that of his own. The Kandyans, I may say, do not in the least bit view the matter of “ Jamma Nivarana” caste brands, as they are called in Matale, in the light of any invidious distinctions of caste, but they welcome it, in every way, as an effective precaution. Cattle, among the Kandyans, constitute a very valuable portion of their possessions. They play an important part in agriculture, and even form a dowry-share in Kandyan matrimony. This being so, the advisability of encourag- ing and preserving the old custom established from time immemorial of branding’ cattle according to distinctive marks needs no argument in its favour. The brandmarks are made by impressing them with a redhot iron ealled a *Suttukole,”’* which is a piece of iron about one and a half inches in length, bent into a curve at theend. The branding is done in the fore or afternoon at some hour which is considered auspicious. -* being a fairly promising industry forthe North country. For the first 9 to 12 months they had nothing there but cotton. They had enough difficulty with that. It was an extremely difficult country in which to get labour, and the coolies took life very easily and did not over-exert themselves ; and demanded 50 cents a day for doing it. It took a great deal of time and trouble and expense before they got things square and the cotton in. They got the land fairly clear, and rubber put out in October, 1904, and at intervals up till April, 1905. That was only about 16 months ago, and ' the trees were now from 8 to 15 ft. high—varying in height according to the time they were putin. The girth was anything from 3 to 6inches, and the trees were growing very satisfactorily. Mr. Mee, who was in charge of the station, had had . experience of rubber in Kalutara, and he thought that on the whole the trees were growing better than they did at Kalutara. Of course, they had not reached the tapping stage; and until they had reached that stage, he would not like to make any definite statement that rubber would succeed. Butif it succeeded. as it promised to do, it would open up a large area for cultivation when the lands in the South ‘and South-East had been taken up. They had there a very good soil. A false impression had been publicly created about the soil in the North. It came out a great deal during the opening of the Northern railway, and it was described as a desert and nothing but gravel and sand. That was by no means the case; and if anyone cared to go down to the station, they would see soil which could not be seen anywhere whatsoever in South Ceylon. Anyone who had visited the Experiment Station at Peradeniya knew they had very good soil there; but the soil at Maha-iluppalama beat the Experiment Station there hollow and was really very good indeed. Of course, going down the North country people went by the North Road, and travelled along the highest ridge of the lowcountry, : but if they came into the valleys there they would find a deep alluvial : soil which ran 10 to 15 feet deep in the centre of the valley and tapered off to from 14 feet to 5 feet deep on the sides. The depth of soil in the centre was ; at least 17 feet; they had dug that depth and still there was no stone to be seen, 5 It was a perfectly soft blackish soil like an English garden soil, and its quality é was extremely good. It was on the whole better than any soil they could see iy in the Central, South-Hast, or Uva Province, except some very fine soil on the eastern side of the range near Lunugala. } To return to the cotton crop, they sowed it in September and October according to the rains, and the first crop came in March. They must have fine » weather from the beginning of February. The flowers came out in February: the first crop was in March, and the second six weeks later, and the third crop, which was a small one and hardly worth waiting for, came about the end of June. They had had considerable difficulty with labour which cost them a good deal more trouble than it need have done. Of course they were pioneers, and he thought any one following after them would be able to bring coolies on advances and do it much cheaper. Since the railway had heen opened, they had reduced their rates from 50 cents a day to 41:25 cents, a drop of 8 or 9 cents, and they seemed inclined to do a little more work than formerly. He would not trouble them with returns, but for their Sea Island crop, which was got off a field of 20 acres, they got R87 an acre; and the return from the Egyptian crop, of which they had 30 acres at the end of 1904 and the beginning of 1905, was R71:25 an acre. The Sea Island cotton is, of course, the best grown in the world. It owed its quality entirely to selection of the seed, and if this were not very carefully selected the quality dropped imme- diately. Their seed was taken from a West Indian crop that sold for 1s. 2d., and they sold their crop for a shilling. Their seed had not been selected. The only people who could have selected it were the West Indian Agricultural Department; and they had their work cut out for them in selecting seed for themselves. They : ee eS ee ae ee ee wwe, Ocr. 1906.) 301 Saps and Hxudations. were getting in the West Indies Is. and 1s. 1d., but he saw in the last sale list that one or two got Is. 8d. The price had steadily gone up by careful selection of seed. Their seed was not selected, and the price dropped from Is. 2d. to 1s. in one crop. Now, to take cotton and rubber together. He thought that in the North country there was quite a prospect, as far as they could tell at present, of a profit- able industry in a species of cotton as a catch crop between rubber. They could vot grow it in every district as a catch crop; but in the North country where it was dry it was quite feasible. [He drew a sketch on the blackboard illustrating how rubber and cotton should be planted together.] They planted the rubber 20 feet apart with irrigation channels running down midway between the trees, so that each tree had an irrigation channel running down 10 feet on either side of it. The black soil held water very well, and that channel was only turned on a few hours a day, according to the weather, and a little trickle was quite enough to keep trees growing well. The cotton was planted 5 feet apart in the 20feet clearing between the rows of rubber. They might put in three rows of cotton approximately by moving the irrigation channel a little on one side of the middle, and during the first year they might have three rows of cotton perfectly straight. In the second year the rubber trees would have grown to a height of 10 or 12 feet and would shade the cotton. The trees would be—as most people knew, unless they were thumb-nail pruned or were ofa spreading variety—thin tall trees, and a considerable amount of sunshine would be allowed to the crop. In the second year, therefore, they would have two rows of cotton. In the third year they would have one row, and after that the rubber trees would be too large to make it worth while growing cotton, But there was still room for other catch crops. They could grow almost anything there. Although the country was dry, the air—on the whole— was damper in the North than in the Western Province. Mannar had, for instance, an average saturation of 82. At Peradeniya, which was a rainy district, the average saturation was 78. Provided they supplied the roots with water by irrigating channels, they would do well. The air was not too dry to prevent their growth. That was the positive side of the picture. A MALARIA DISTRICT. The negative side was that malaria was exceedingly bad in the North-Central Province, and any one taking up land must be prepared to face a good deal of fever himself and amongst his coolies. They were in hopes that by means of that new oil method explained by Messrs. Bamber and Green, they might be able to treat the coolies in such a way as to largely prevent their getting fever. It was idle to think that the cooly would stay in a mosquito-proof house, even if they made one. The probability was he would close the curtain with care and then sit on the verandah. One must adopt something more practical to keep him clear of the mosquitoes, and he thought there might be some hope in that method of Messrs. Bamber and Green. THE DISCUSSION. THE NEW OIL PREVENTIVE FOR MOSQUITO MALARIA. His EXCELLENCY :—Have you any specimens of the oil to-day ?—because it would be interesting to the gentlemen present to see them. The kerosine is entirely concealed. Dr. WILLIS :—Yes, I should like to call public attention to this oil method. The oil is a mixture—I forget the exact proportions—but they were given at the meeting of the Board of Agriculture a month ago. I think there were equal proportions of coconut oil and kerosene and two or three per cent of citronella with a little carbolic. His EXCELLENCY :—Citronella ? 4 J f ie : Gums, Resins, 302 [001 Bn Dr. Winuis:—Yes, and a little carbolic acid. The resultant m ixture Hae men no smell of kerosene. Citronella hasa very penetrating smell, and the mixture smells like weak citronella. but it does not evaporate so quickly as citronella does. It - leaves no smart like citronella, and will not evaporate for at least six or seven hours. If a cooly oils himself at five o'clock in the evening he ought not to be bitten by any anopheles that night, and I think the coolies would very likely be benefited. I see Dr. Christy is present, and he will be able to speak as to that. DR. CHRISTY ON THE SITUATION OF COOLY LINES. Dr. Curisty :—I think itis a very good plan indeed, but there are many other things which may be carried out very successfully. Still, the oil method is a very good one and ought to succeed. I have noticed on some of the plantations in Ceylon the cooly lines are very much at fault. They might be built on the high ridges with a hundred yards clear all round and away from the water. The coolies might be made to carry the water from down below. One might make the lines in fifty different ways so as to minimise the chances of getting malaria. His ExcELLENCY :—What part of the country, Dr. Christy, have you visited ? Dr. CuHristy :—I have been to the Kepitigalla Valley district. His ExcrELLEenNcy :—I think the Public Works, asa matter of fact, have not suffered so much as they have at Maha-iluppalama with the coolies, and they attribute it to the position of their lines and tothe excellence of the lines built by them. Have you heard anything about that ? Dr. WILLIS :—No, Sir. The coolies could have had their lines close to the bungalow, which is a mile from the Experimental Station, but every cooly is said to have preferred to go on at the Experimental Station-which is six or ten feet lower than Mr. Mee’s laboratory. There they can have little gardens around the house owing to the fertility of the soil. There is a good deal of malaria among the coolies down there, but on the other hand Mr. Mee suffers for several days in a month, sol am not sure that his bungalow is very much more proof against fever than the cooly lines. Of course, the fever varies with the season. Just now there is no malaria and there are no mosquitoes. His ExcELLENcY :—Is Mr. Mee’s house protected ? Dr, WILLIs :—No. His EXceLLEeNcy :—I thought an arrangement had been made to protect it. Dr. WILLIS said it was not put through, but there was a scheme for building an upstair bungalow. MOSQUITOES AND UPSTAIR BUNGALOWS. His EXcCELLENCY :—One of the fallacies that exist is that mosquitoes will not go upstairs. (Laughter.) I am in a position to say that they do. Mr. CARRUTHERS :—We, in the Straits, believe that fallacy, and our lines are built on brick pillars six feet from the ground. One of the resultsis thatthe — cooly uses the place underneath for his cooking, and the smoke passes through the cracks in the boards. I believe, speaking with due deference to Dr. Christy, that a3 this has a certain effect in preventing insect pests by the smoke trickling throu the room and driving the mosquitoes away. His EXcELLENCY :—Yes, there is a good deal in that. Dr. WILLIS said that in Cuba, where the coolies, though very black, dressed like white men and were of a higher class and more intelligent than the coolies: a in Ceylon, they lived inside protected lines. / “igs q +e Oct, 1906. | 303 Saps and EHxudations. ADMINISTRATION OF QUININE. His ExcELLENCY :—Have you tried administering quinine ? Dr. WILLIS :—We use it by the hundredweight I was going to say, but at least by the 20 lb. lots. His EXceELLeENcY :—Do you find a good effect ? Dr. WILLIS :—It has a certain amount of good effect. Some coolies cannot stand the country. We find two kinds of coolies stand the country best—of out- side coolies. The Batticaloa Moors and the Kurunegala Sinhalese stand it best. Of course, they have a fever of a very malignant type at Kurunegala. Of the local people, the women, for some reason that Ido not in the least understand, are very much better than the men. We have much of our work done by women coolies. The men are emaciated and listless, but the women work fairly hard. I do not know the reason for that. Mr. F. C. Routes :—Might it not be because the women sleep inside and the men on the verandahs ? Dr. Wix.is :—Possibly, His ExcELLENcY :—Yes, that might be the cause. I think the idea of the Medical Department at the present moment would be to combine these experiments —the administration of quinine with this anointing with oil. It will be very inter- esting to find that between the two the amount of sickness in the labour is materially decreased. Talking about rubber, you tell us, Dr, Willis, that the saturation of the air is greater in the Northern Province than here. Dr. WILLIS assented. WATER IN THE NORTH. His EXCELLENCY :—Well, we have all remarked that in that dry section of the country before you come to Elephant Pass you have jungle, which, even at the end of a long drought, is perfectly green. That argues to my mind that there is a certain amount of moisture in the soil at a certain depth; and for the purpose of discovering whether that is so, a water survey is being carried out by the Survey Department. _ Granting that you have at a certain depth—8 to 10 feet—soil which retains the moisture, would it be sufficient to ensure the growth of rubber and its continuance through the dry weather? Dr. WILLIS :—If the rubber got its roots down, they would be all right. Of course our experience is very limited in this district. We had rubber trees at Anuradhapura which we planted in 1894, and they grew very well up to 1898. In 1898 they would be 4 inches in diameter. Then we had a recorddrought. There was no water in any of the tanks, and thingscame to such straits that we had to lend garden coolies to help to dig wells to get drinking water for Anuradhapura, and the result was the absolute death of every rubber tree in the gardens. I imagine that, being near the ela, the roots remained near the surface. [I would not recommend anybody to try rubber there without a guaranteed supply of irrigation water, and that is a bit of a difficulty at present. His EXCELLENCY :—There is a large quantity of land available at Minneriya, Dr, WILLIS :—About 15,000 acres, but it is so far away; and that is, I think, the most malarious place in the island. However, I think that difficulty, can be removed. The district could be cleared of malaria, because the mosquitoes breed in the tank. Dr. Willis explained that owing to the sloping character of the bund there was a great deal of shallow water, which was saturated with mosquito larvee ; and if the bund was taken straight down, this could be obviated. There were 10,000 acres of land in that district—all of it dead flat, with good soil, reaching down to the 40 Gums, Resins, 304 Mahaweliganga. He thought this was the finest piece of irrigable land in Ceylon The tank was made and water was plentiful, and it only needed the malaria to be taken in hand. 4 THE NEW ANTI-MOSQUITO OIL PREPARATION. His EXcCELLENCY having asked whether there were any specimens of the oil mentioned by Dr. Willis, Mr. BAMBER said _ he had sent for some. His EXCELLENCY :—It would be interesting because a large number of gentle- men, who axe interested in that question, are present; and it would be well if they saw the oil and found out for themselves how agreeable the perfume of it is. When you mention coconut and kerosene, it does not sound very nice. I think this is the line upon which you will find the most effective defence against malaria. . Mr. Ketway BamBer ;—I think it has to be combined with everything else that can be done. His EXCELLENCY :—Quite so, there is another question in connection with this matter which it may be interesting to mention. Malaria is not the only thing from which coolies suffer. You know perfectly well that there has been a great deal of dysentery among coolies here and elsewhere and in other countries, and I may tell you that Mr. Martin— I was in hopes he would be here—informed me a short time ago that he had given his coolies tea. He gave them this tea morning and evening, and with most excellent effect. The reason is this. Coming lately as I have come from China, I may tell you there is hardly any dysentery there or any complaints of that kind, and it is because the people never drink cold water, They drink nothing but tea—or at least they call it tea. As you go along the roads in China, you see men sitting with a number of small tea cups before them and a kettle of boiling water. The tea leaves, as far as one can see, are not even withered. The man takes a few of these leaves, puts them into the kettle, fills it with boiling water, and that is what he drinks. They never drink water, and the consequence is that they never suffer from the complaints we hear so much about in Ceylon. If gentlemen, who are here so largely engaged in the production of tea, can induce their coolies to drink tea, it may have a very considerable effect, It might be worth trying. If you get four million people to drink the tea you are now sending down to the harbour, it would give you a market at your doors. (Laughter.) I mention it because it is a simple thing, and might be worth trying, Mr. JowittT :—It is a question of caste. A great number of coolies will not drink tea. The lowest castes will drink it, but not the high castes, A His EXCELLENCY :—That may be so. I would save the low caste coolies if I could. After a vote of thanks to Dr. Willis the proceedings terminated. THE LONDON RUBBER MARKET. Lonpon, August 17.—At to-day’s auction, 293 packages of Ceylon and Straits _ Settlements Plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 189 were sold. _ The total weight amounted to 14 tons, Ceylon contributing about 3 dnd Straits — Settlements nearly 11. For the finer qualities generally the market was steady with — a rather better tone. aw te a ee ee ee ee at poet ee SS Edible Products. 316 [Ocr, 1906. MANUFACTURE. C1icaRs.—The only manufacture is that of cigars. The process consists some- times in rolling pieces of tobacco in a good leaf and tying the end with a thread. It is usually done by first softening the leaves with fresh water and using the first kind of leaves for the outer coating, and the second kind and pieces inside. The cigars are tied together in small bundles of ten each, and a decoction, termed (k6da), prepared by boiling tobacco fibres in arrack toddy or young coconut water, is sprinkled over them and then they are packed in boxes. Instead of fresh water for softening the leaves first, this decoction—of a light kind—is also employed, the strong kind of it being sprinkled on cigars to impart flavour or increase the aroma which is peculiar to the Jaffna tobacco. It also serves the additional purpose of preserving the cigars from decay and damage by insects and worms. SnuFr.—A kind of snuff is also prepared by roasting tobacco leaf of the first sort and reducing it to fine powder, adding to itchunam or other substances and scents. This is used for local consumption only. The manufactured cigars are sent to Colombo and Galle principally and are sold at varying rates, viz., Rs. 2°50, Rs. 5 and Rs. 7°50 per 1,000 according to the quality of the cigars. The best kind now in the market is Mr. M. B. Swampillai’s ‘Gold Medal’ Jaffna cigars, which are sold at three different prices according to the size of each: Small size Rs. 10 per 1,000, medium size Rs. 15 per{1,000, large size Rs. 30 per 1,000. The largest trade is in tobacco leaves which are exported to Travancore and Cochin in South India. The price of leaves of the first sort is between Rs. 300 and Rs. 400 per candy weighing about 600 lb., and the second kind between Rs, 150 and Rs, 200 per candy. The quantity of tobacco leaves exported during last year was 41,230 cwt. beyond sea, and 41,596 cwt. coastwise, t.e., to Colombo, Galle and other places. I give belowa statement of the cost of cultivating one acre of land with tobacco and the income derivable by sale of tobacco leaves. An acre could be planted with 4,000 plants, and the cost of cultivation from start to finish, including cost of smoking and rent of land, would at a moderate rate be Rs. 384. If the crop proves the best, the leaves of the 4,000 plants would sell about Rs, 510, but an average crop may bring about Rs. 350 to Rs. 450 only. COST OF CULTIVATION. An acre of land can be planted with 4,000 plants :— R. «¢. 40 coolies for hoeing atlicentseach .. id 4) 23 6 00 Penning cattle for 250 days at 16 cents per day ... = -. 40 00 (or at 1 cent for a plant for mannure.) 2 pairs of bulls ploughing for 4 days at 30 cents each per day Nemes 3) 10 cartloads of leaves at Rs. 12°50 each ... ... 125 00 40 coolies for burying the leaves and arranging and d transplanting at 15 cents oan sts 6 00 4,000 plants value at Rs. 2:50 per 1,000... Ai -- 10 00 Watering for 60 days—2 men at 15 cents each per day .- 18 00 Penning sheep among plants for manure at 1 cent a plant .. -. 40 00 Hoeing—40 coolies at 15 cents each » 6 00 Tilling, weeding and making reservoirs- ~60 coolies at 15 cents each .. 9 00 Lopping off top of plants for a month in alternate days, 1 person for 16 days at 10 cents 1 60 Watering 4,000 plants, 7.e., irr igating from well—4 men at Rs. 2°50 per. 1,000 plants till the leaves are cut ... 40 00° 304 00 Rent of land Ser ah 40-000 Coconut husks &c. for smoking three times ae x ./ 20 00h Cooly lines and other contingent expenses ae ae .. 20 00m Total Expenditure ... Rs. 384 00 5 —ee SSS Oct. 1906.) 317 Edible Products. Generally 12 leaves are cut in a plant, and the 4,000 plants give leaves of the Ist Sort 20,000 leaves sold generally at Rs. 17°50 per 1,000 «. Rs, 350 2nd _ ,, 12,000 ie HG nee eee CORO LO) Maal: 2 2 tee ee ALO 3rd LB) 8,000 23 a9 ro 99 be) 3°75 99 39 see 99 30 4th 99 8,000 ” 39 ore ” 9 1°25 ” 9 see ” 10 Total Rs, 510 Which can be realised if the crop is successful. CONCLUSION. It may well be considered now in what manner the cultivator could improve his cultivation and make it a profitable concern. [ have described in detail the process of cultivation, which I think can hardly be improved upon. There is little to be taught to the Jaffna cultivator, who bestows the greatest care and attention on this cultivation. But the Agricultural Society can render him assistance in other directions in which he badly needs advice and help, First,—In the matter of Irrigation. This is a large question affecting not only tobacco plants but paddy plants and other plantations. There are in Jaffna no large tanks as in the Vanni for storage of water and for distribution when required. The entire supply of water is from wells, and considerable time and labour are spent in, raising water. It may be good to introduce some machinery for this purpose. The ‘Nona’ pump tried last year at Vasarilan was found to lift too great a quantity of water at one time so as to make it useless to the cultivator, and the well ran short of its supply in a short time. Secondly.—The Diseases to which the tobacco plants are occasionally ‘subject have never been investigated, and I think it will do a deal of good to invite scientific opinion and suggestions to prevent or remedy them. Thirdly.—As regards Curing of Tobacco much remains to be done in this direction, The present mode of curing is not at all satisfactory. In August last year when H. EK, the Governor was in our midst, he undertook to send us a tobacco expert who would be able to instruct the cultivators how to cure their tobacco well, We have heard nothing more of it. It is perhaps our own fault, The tobacco curing season is already passing away, and we have not asked Government for the expert assistance we were most in need of, Fourthly.—Markets tor Jaffna Tobacco.—At present the sale of tobacco is almost confined to South India. It is known from existing records that Jaffna tobacco was sold in Penang, Singapore, Malacca, Java and Sumatra as long ago as the early Dutch times. If the highly pungent aroma peculiar to the Jaffna tobacco leaf were overcome by scientific curing and the leaf rendered thinner and of better flavour, I think it may fetch higher prices in markets other than Travan- core and Cochin. If the product could be sent to better markets, tobacco cultivation would be found to be a very remunerative concern, At present it eannot be said to be a remunerative occupation. Fifthly,—and the most important in my opinion, is to devise measures to save the poor cultivator from the ravages of the local money-lender. In Jaffna the majority of the cultivators are poor people, They get lands for cultivation on a rental of Rs. 40 per acre per annum, which they pay soon after their tobacco leaves have been sold. They want money for buying cowdung, green leaves, coconut husks, and further expenses. They usually go to the local money-lender whose trade it is to get the money immediately from the Cheddi at the usual 12 per cent interest and give to the cultivators the small sums they want, the latter agreeing to repay the money with interest at 20 per cent as soonas their tobacco leaves are sold, Oftener than not, it is the money-lender who is also the trader in tobacco. He goes to Edible Products. 318 | (Ocr. 1906. his debtor and purchases the latter’s tobacco leaves fixing his own price in many ~ cases, and the debtor does not like to offend his creditor in the least, I merely describe what occurs in the villages, A cultivator applies for a loan of say R100 from his money-lender, The latter readily gives the money and gets a promissory note for R120 payable on demand, understanding that the amount shall be paid soon after the tobacco leaves are sold, t.e.,in 8 months at the most. So then the interest payable on R100 for 8 months is R20, 2.e., at 30 per cent per annum. It sometimes happens that the interest is deducted from the principal, and the balance only is paid obtaining a promisory note for R100, 7.e., the interest payable on R80 for 8 months is R20, which is at 374 per cent per annum, In the first case the interest paid was at 30 per cent, and in the second case at 374 per cent on a small capital. This is a sad state of things which, if allowed to continue, will sap the very vitality of the poor cultivator in course of time, and the Agricultural Society should immediately undertake to prevent it as far as possible. The assistant local Secretary, Mr. Sabaratnam, once before suggested that an agricultural credit bank should be started and worked on a small scale as is done in other agricultural countries. Nothing has as yet been done in that direction. If such a bank is considered too large an undertaking, I would suggest, to begin with, at least a credit fund be raised immediately, for the present condition of the cultivators in Jaffna necessitates such a step being undertaken, and I am confident that the miserable lot of the cultivators will be improved by it. These are merely a few suggestions which I have endeavoured to put forward in the hope that they may receive sympathetic consideration and attention, ; ps Cultivation of the Coconut. A NOTE ON THE PAPERS DEALING WITH THE COCONUT PALM IN THE / JANUARY ISSUE OF ‘‘ THE PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,” By C, DRIEBERG. These papers on the Coconut palm are essentially studies in biology, and the details of minute experiments which are described are not such as will appeal to the mind of the practical planter. For these reasons I do not recommend that the papers should be quoted locally, at least in their entirety. There are, however, a few practical facts and deductions which I give below with a view to their being brought to the notice of coconut cultivators :— It may almost be said that the physical character of soil is of greater importance than the chemical composition. The coconut requires a porous soil with water within easy reach of it (though, of course, not in a stagnant condition); in the absence of water the tree protects itself against injurious desiccation by a partial suspension of vitality, with a consequently reduced yield of crop. Given such a condition as is above referred to, the tree will thrive even though according to chemical analysis there is apparently not sufficient fertility in the soil to enable it to do so. But it must be borne in mind that the roots of the coconut draw nutriment i from a depth of at least 2 metres, (64 feet) and a distance round the tree of from 34 to 64 metres (say an average of 5 metres, 164 feet nearly). They, therefore, come in oa contact with an enormous mass of soil material and appropriate the available plant Ocr. 1906.] 319 ‘ Edible Products, Ff food scattered (very sparsely it may be) through it. It thus happens that even in poor sandy soils, which are, however, porous and provided with water, there is quite enough nourishment for the tree. Much of the food available to palms growing along the seashore is traceable to the “‘wash”—chiefly under ground—which comes from the land side and flows seaward. Such underground wash keeps the plants found along the seaboard in a - flourishing condition, while in inland and higher situations, where the soil is less permeable, plants suffer from a lack of moisture and therefore of nourishment, Irrigation is thus to be recommended for the latter descriptions of soils in _dry-seasons ; and the use of manures, particularly those furnishing mineral food, are likely to be repaid in an increased yield. To put tke matter shortly: ona loose soil where water is at hand, the roots travel about freely and find plant food which is then absorbed in the form of very dilute solutions. In higher and drier land where the soil is of a firmer texture the tree is less able to forage for itself owing to soil resistance and paucity of water. The proportion of mineral food taken up may be said to be proportional to the amount of water absorbed, It will thus be seen that it would be a manifest advantage to increase the transpiration in the plant, and so also increase the absorption of water and mineral food. This may be done in two ways— (1) by increasing the amount of water at the disposal of the roots. (2) by improving the conditions for evaporation through the leaves. Judicious irrigation will bring about the first, but the soil must not be allowed to become ‘‘ logged.” For the second there should be ample sunlight and ‘ wind.” Provided the roots are not too dry, the more the tree is exposed to these forces the better for it. To this end avoid close planting. It may be generally stated that the further apart the trees are planted the better they will thrive. Certainly up to 15 metres (50 feet nearly) any increase will appreciably increase the yield. It is the interlacing of roots and leaves, and the competition among trees for air and water that reduces their yield. The best ordinary distance is 9 metres (30 feet nearly). Itis only in exposed situations, or where intensive cultivation can be economically carried on that this distance may be reduced. The reason why trees thrive along the seaboard is attributable to the fact that their roots are able to stand the action of concentrated solutions (e.g., sea water) and the leaves delight in sunlight and wind. As with other plants it is possible to create artificial conditions as favourable, if not more so, to crop produc- tion. But the conditions referred to above must be provided even in the richest soils for the best results, viz., sunlight, water, and wind; for a lack of light, a restricted supply of water, and a still atmosphere, are unfavourable to the coconut. In selecting nuts, they should be taken from a tree in which the productive power is great in proportion to its opportunities, i.e., one that bears a proportion- ately larger number of nuts than its neighbours. It is a mistake to select nuts from _ trees which are equally prolific in a given area. Heredity (individual character) rather than environment should be looked at in this matter. Though we would not expect to find itso, both chlorine and common salt may be said, from the insignificant quantities in which they are found, to be negligible elements in the food of the palm. According to analytical results it is Fate that there is a gradual increase in the proportion of meat (kernel), copra, and oil (with a decrease of milk, indicating that the meat becomes firmer, loses water and gains oil) 42 q q 4 . 4 Edible Products. 320 [Ocr. 1906. as the nut increases in age up to three months of storing, 7.e., when they are beginning to sprout. In nuts kept for six months, though the meat is practically the same, there is a marked decrease in the proportion of copra and oil, due to decomposition or other causes. Thus both in very fresh and in over-ripe nuts there is a considerable deficiency in oil. In planting in the nursery the practice in the Philippines appears to be to cut asmall section of the husk off the top of the nut to afford more easy egress for the sprout. Asa protection against wild pig, a pit 4 or 5 feet deep is dug and the nuts planted at the bottom. “Grill-dried” copra is not so liable to be attacked by insects and monde: though it is considered inferior owing to its dark colour and smoky flavour. VANILLA INDUSTRY IN THE SEYCHELLES. A British Colonial Office report for 1905 on the trade of the Seychelles Islands gives the following particulars of the vanilla industry :— EXPORTS OF VANILLA. 1904. 1905. Rs. Rs. United Kingdom es 130,592 187,185 France Aa 148,446 136,462 Mauritius vs te 8,987 64 Switzerland... ee 8,400 8,400 Germany ae — "765 The ‘striking feature in the fone e aint statement is the continued collapse of vanilla, the staple export of the Colony for many years. Vanilla may have a future; in no place are the conditions of nature more favourable than in Seychelles, but for the present it is of little value, and the crop of 1906 is so small that it cannot be expected to exceed 20,000 kilos. Vanilla has long held the pride of place at the head of the products of Seychelles. In 1905, it has been displaced by coconut products, which have been exported to the value of Rs. 413,951, whereas vanilla has fallen in value to Rs. 282,876. The quantity exported was more than anticipated, being 48,208 kilos., or over 100,000 lbs., but the actual crop did not exceed 36,000 kilos., the surplus consisting of the balance of thé crops of 1903 and 1904, which had been held up for better prices. The crop for 1906 will not exceed 20,000 kilos., and there is only a very small stock of old vanilla held locally. The cause of the falling-off in crops in 1904, 1905, and 1906 is the period of drought in 1904, which destroyed one-third of the vines and reduced the vitality of the remainder. The crop of 1904 had been expected, judging from the flowering season of 1903, to be normal, viz., 60,000 kilos., but in consequence of the drought it reached 45,000 kilos only. The drought of 1904 checked the flowering for 1905, and a crop of 36,000 kilos. was the result. A repetition of the period of drought in 1905 led toan almost complete failure of the flowering season for the crop of 1906, when the total amount cured will not exceed one-third ‘of an average crop, and will be as small as that for 1900, without the saving grace of high prices. Favourable weather in 1906 promises a good flowering season for the crop of 1907; the vines are in good heart, and it is probable that—as far as a forecast is — possible—the crop should be up to 50,000 kilos. What the failure of the vanilla means to Seychelles may be illustrated by the fact that, for the term of ten years before 1904, the average crop represented an output of 38,476 kilos., valued at Rs. 714,096, and selling atan average price of Rs. 17°95 per kilo. In 1905, the export of vanilla was valued at Rs. 282,876, with an average price of Rs. 5°87 per kilo. And the failure means more than this, for ~ planters had been living on a scale commensurate with their recent good fortune, — ee ee ee | eg a ee ee eee eee ee ition Lt gs Ocr. 1906.] 321 Edible Products. and traders had been accorded credit ona similar scale. Credit ceased suddenly, and advances on crops and on mortage were called in, and no banking institution existed to help those planters who held valuable properties, but lacked, for the moment, means to keep them in cultivation or to supplement their resources by the introduction of new products. At this juncture the Government, being supported on the authority of the Secretary of State by a credit with the Crown agents, was enabled, under the provisions of Ordinance No. 4 of 1904, to advance to approved planters, on the security of first mortgage, sums not to exceed Rs. 100,000 in the aggregate. These loans have saved many planters from bank- ruptey, and staved off the abandonment of cultivation on several valuable properties. The amount actually lent at the close of 1905 was Rs. 67,800, when the further operation of the Ordinance had to be suspended. Although the vanilla crop for 1906 is again a failure, there has been a resolute effort on all sides to improve coconut cultivation, and to develop new industries, especially rubber cultivation; so the prospects for 1907 are more generally hopeful than for three years past. A statement showing the value, quantity, and average price of Seychelles vanilla for the last 11 years is attached :— Mica Quantity of Declared value of Average price per eats vanilla exported, vanilla. kilo. of vanilla. . Kilos. Rupees. Rs. ets. 1895 Be 4,553 60,344 IB} Bs 1896 es 81,227 936,000 29 97 1897 30,691 920,730 30 00 1898 25,177 748,810 29 74 1899 41,835 1,388,720 32 00 1900 17,569 580,877 33 06 1901 71,899 1,108,792 15 42 1902 60,862 642,381 10 55 1903 59,784 503.994 8 48 1904 aN 41,072 300,026 | a 30 1905 As 48,208 282,876 | 5 87 The quantity of vanilla cleared for London in 1905 was 22,566 kilos., valued at Rs, 187,185 ; the proportion of the crop and the total value being much asin 1904. London is looked upon as the better market when prices are good, but Paris sales are steadier when demand is dull; that conclusion is based on the fact that there are regular monthly sales in London where parcels are sometimes put up for forced sale; whereas in Paris there is no open market, but the principal buyers, having standing contracts with the wholesale consumers, are ready to buy at a figure which is not subject to market fluctuations, As the price ruled uniformly low during 1905, the proportion sent to London was no more than 46 per cent. of the total;in prosperous years the proportion sent to London has been as high as two-thirds. The exports of vanilla to Paris included more than half the erop (24,757 kilos.), valued at Rs. 186,462. The report by the Curator of the Botanic Station for the year 1905 states that the rainfall during 1905 was unfortunately distributed and the vanilla crop, for 1906 will be considerably reduced. The weather was very promising until! the end of July, but the rain fell abundantly in August and September, and the vanilla vines put forth new growth instead of flowering. Orange and lime trees should be planted ona much greater scale than they are at present for exportation as fruits, and for the production of citrate of lime. In short, the climate of Seychelles is highly benefical to the growth of citrus trees, and better attention should be paid to them. Citrate of lime isimported into the United Kingdom to the amount of 1,400 tons annually, and a Seychelles planter has succeeded in making a sample of citrate containing 65 per cent. citric acid. The lime industries are EDIE SE rodiinis! 399 tia 0c specially adapted to Seychelles labour and to the shipping difficulties of the Colony, and there is also a certain amount of profit to be derived from them by the production of hand-press oils (worth 3s. 6d. on the London market). The future of this Colony lies in tree planting on a greater scale than it is at present, and not in cultivating herbaceous plants which are so susceptible to climatic variations. Owing to the fall in the price of vanilla, the Curator was asked to prepare an extract from inferior vanilla in order to try to avoid exporting low-grade beans as such. The experiments are not yet completed, and the extracts will soon be forwarded to the Imperial Institute for valuation. A simple maceration of 400 grammes of vanilla in four litres of alcohol is not sufficient, and the modus operandi which has given the best results is the following :—The vases containing vanilla arranged in the form of a battery and alcohol at 80° to 85° allowed to remain one week in one vase before being transferred to the next containing fresh vanilla. A sort of diffusion is then practised until the four or six vases have received the alcoholic solution four or six times each, CARDAMOMS IN THE SEYCHELLES. In July a lecture was given in the Council Chamber of the Seychelles Government, and presided over by His Excellency the Governor, the subject being the Culture and Preparation of Cardamoms. This meeting was attended by forty persons, including the leading members of the community. The great analogy between Ceylon cardamoms and. the Seychelles “long- ouze” (Amomum Daniellii, Hook.) was pointed out, and specimens exhibited. The numerous ravines in which the ‘‘longouze” grows wild, and many other similar localities were described as being very suitable to Ceylon cardamoms on account of the protection from the wind andthe presence of proper shade trees. Shade and protection from the wind were shown to be the only factors worth considering, all the other climatic and agrologic conditions of the Seychelles mountains being ~ identical with those of Ceylon. The numerous uses to which cardamoms are put in India and Kurope were enumerated, and the methods of cultivation and preparation were treated in detail. The analogy between vanilla and cardamom preparation was insisted upon, and the fact emphasised that the crop of one plant followed that of the other. The cardamom seeds brought from Ceylon in February, 1903, were sown at the Botanic Station, the seedlings nursed until November, and then planted out at Capucin Crown Land. The plants were grown in poor laterite soil under shade of erioden- dron and ‘spathodea. The first flowers appeared in July, 1905, and the first ripe fruits were gathered in December, 1905. The Malabar variety ripened a few weeks earlier than the Mysore variety. Three planters applied after the meeting for cardamom plants, and all the suckers that could be disposed of, viz., 1,000 were sold during 1905. It was aseertained that Indian cardamoms were sold at Rs. 2°50 a lb. on the local market, and that the whole Seychelles crop could be consumed locally or exported to Mauritius and South Africa, thus ensuring the possibility of — establishing a secondary industry of some value in this Colony, The ravines where — cardamoms should be planted are not occupied by other plants, and those planters who have gone infor the new product have reported favourably on the growth of the suckers which they had purchased. aa The cardamom plant makes good growth in the highlands of Seychelles, and ia in the experimental plantations at Capucin the first crop was obtained twenty-six a months after planting. As statedin other parts of this report, this spice, if produced | se in this Colony, can be consumed locally and exported to Mauritius and to those ” parts of Africa near Seychelles, where Indians bulk considerably in the population, ie ae { 3823 MISCELLANEOUS. Notes on Methods of Irrigation in Arizona. II. By J. H. W. Park. | The object of the whole method of irrigation is to get as much water to pass through the plants as'possible, and to let as little of it as possible escape by seepage and evaporation. The distribution of the water through the furrows only, and not over the surface of the land, and the cultivation of the soil close the latter means of escape, and itis assumed that the water so caught in the soil is retained there to be extracted by the plants as they require it. There does not appear to be much doubt of the efficiency of the method. The retention of the water in the soil is shown by the following table taken from a report by the Professor of Agriculture in the University of Arizona, which gives the percentage of water present in the upper five feet of the soil of two fields eighty days after irrigation, the surface of one field having been cultivated and the surface of the other having been left to dry without ‘eultivation :— Cultivated. Uncultivated. First foot, moisture % G3 ys 3'8 Second ,, es 12°6 Sh 81 AMenteeh a 156 ae 10°5 Fourth ,, a 15'0 oe 11°6 But Glaieeavee a 12:1 ey 11°7 Total ut 62°6 45°7 In this case the cultivated portion contained some thirty-three per cent more water than the uncultivated portion, or roughly some two and one-half inches - of water over the whole area, and when it is remembered that the whole of the moisture stored in the soil is not available for the support of plants, the advantages of cultivation in retaining water in the soil which is so available becomes very evident. As noted in the case given abovea particular farmer received water for 23 days out of every eleven. It must not, however, be supposed that he watered the - whole of his crops once every eleven days; on the contrary he turned the supply to a portion of his crops only, and the remainder went without water for a much longer _ period, although the length of the period depended upon the nature of the crops. Crops Raised.—The whole method of irrigation may be illustrated by the following notes on some of the different kinds of crops raised and on the irrigation of them. Egyptian Cotton.—Seven-tenths of a foot of water applied to land before planting, planted in rows with furrows three feet apart, irrigated thirteen times in 186 days with a total depth of water of five feet. Yield 400 lbs, per acre. - Melons.—Seven-tenths of a foot of water applied before planting. Planted in rows on the edge of the furrows which were eight feet apart, so that the roots are watered from the furrows and the plants grow on the ground between them. Irrigated twelve times in 114 days, total depth of water used 3°3 feet. Yield 27,000 lbs, per acre. Wheat,—Sixth-tenths of a foot of water applied before planting. Seed sown broadcast and the field furrowed two feet apart, the soil from the furrows being turned over on the seed-forming plots of about 15 inches wide. No irrigation is Miscellaneous. 324 [Oct. 1906, necessary for the first two months, by which time the crop is well up and protects the soil from the sun and reduces evaporation from it. Three irrigations given in the last thirty days of the growth of the crops and the total water used was 2'2 feet deep with a yield of 2,150 lb. per acre. Peaches and Apricots,—These are planted in rows of about 15 feet apart with furrows between from which the water is run to the root of the tree. Water is given while the tree is dormant above ground, ten irrigations being given in 75 days, and then the supply of water is stopped until the fruit forms when water is again occasionally given. The total depth of water used was 3° ‘8 feet for peaches and 5 feet for apricots, and the yield 4,400 lbs. and 7,600 lbs, per acre respectively. Tomatoes.—For these the furrows were 4 feet apart. The seed was planted along the edges of the furrows. Six-tenths of afoot of water were given before sowing. The seeds were irrigated two days after planting, twenty-seven irrigations were given in 244 days, the total water used was 4°3 feet per acre, and the yield 12,3800 lbs. per acre. Indian Corn.—Six-tenths of a foot of water was applied previous to plant- ing, which was done in rows along furrows previously moistened. Five irrigations were given in thirty days, the total depth of water used being 1°5 feet. Water was used while the corn was growing and not after the ear had begun to form. General Remarks.—From the above it will be seen that ina country much drier than Ceylon it has been found possible to raise crops of an extremely varied character by the use of a quantity of water seldom exceeding one acre foot per acre of crops raised per month of their growth. As already pointed out, the evaporation from a water surface in the district is 80 inches per annum, or over six inches per month, and it must be clear that by the use of furrows which present only a small surface in comparison to the area culti- vated, the loss by evaporation must be reduced far below the loss which would occur if cultivation by flooding were practised. Anomalous as it may seem, the efficiency is to some extent also due to the extreme dryness of the climate. Rainis infrequent with the result that the soil once cultivated remains dry on the surface, and the water once caught beneath that surface is not easily evaporated. The writer does not think it can be doubted that the main reason for the efficiency of the system lies in the use of the furrows, and the extra attention which their use demands in the distribution of the water passed into them from p»int to point of the fields under cultivation, and that the cultivation of the ground in the furrow is important as a means of increasing the efficiency. Possibility of Applying the Method to Ceylon.—The writer thinks the system should be applicable to various crops in many parts of Ceylon, in spite of the fact that the rainfall is much heavier and the necessary dryness of the surface soil more difficult to obtain. It will probably be stated that the only known crop grown under irrigation in Ceylon is rice, and that for this crop the furrow method of irrigation is not suit- able. This may be true, at least the writer is not aware that any attempt to grow rice by the furrow method has ever been tried, although the growth of crops such as wheat and alfalfa would point to the possibility of doing so. With the abundant rainfall of the N. E. Monsoon, the writer sees no reason why the method of growing rice by flooding should be abandoned but that crop should be grown during the N. E. Monsoon only, and due care should be taken to use the irrigation water to supplement and not to replace the rainfall. For this purpose the land should be ploughed dry at the commencement of the Monsoon, and then sown — Ocr. 1906.] 325 Miscellaneous. and watered heavily by irrigation only after the seed has sprouted and is well up. This is the system practised largely in Texas, and it is not altogether unknown in Ceylon, as in the Jaffna Peninsula the land is often ploughed dry and sown and the crop is grown under rainfall alone. It is during the dry weather of the S. W. Monsoon that the writer believes the method of furrow irrigation could be adopted, possibly in the paddy fields themselves, for the production of those crops which are now usually grown in chenas, of which, so far as he can discover, all would be much better raised under properly regulated irrigation than on high lands under an uncertain rainfall. Quite recently he saw an excellent chena crop sown on land which had been cleared for aswedumization, and which would have perished owing to lack of rainfall, saved by irrigation, and the only reason the owners were able to give for not regularly growing such crops in this manner was that they preferred to grow paddy on the land by irrigation after the rains had practically ceased. With the saving of water which would follow in the N. E. Monsoon by dry ploughing and proper utilization of rainfall, and the further saving due to furrow irrigation in the S. W., it should be an easy matter to double the area of crops grown while the change in the nature of the crops, if the same land was cultivated twice yearly, should be of advantage to the land. In support of the contention that furrow irrigation can be used in Ceylon, the writer would point to the extreme dryness of certain months of the year in certain parts of the Northern, North-Central, North-Western, Uva and Southern Provinces. Thus the average rainfall of June, July and August has been at Mannar 1°33’, Anuradhapura 4:28’, Puttalam 3°07’ all for 34 years, at Alutnuwara it has been 2°68 for 6 years, and at Tissa, S. P., 2°87 for 31 years, and many other examples can be found. The losses by evaporation are not so well known, but ‘Mr. Parker made it 68’, at Giant’s Tank, the writer founda loss of 58 inches had occurred at Horabora in 1904, and he has been informed the loss was 72 inches last year at Kalawewa. Under these circumstances he cannot but think that furrow irrigation and cultivation of the land thereafter is possible, and that the question of the method of irrigation used in Ceylon with the proper time for sowing paddy is one worthy of more attention than it has received. Agricultural Banks for Ceylon.—IIl, | By E. S. W. SENATHI-RAJA. Funps.—The great success of the Scotch Banks, as we have seen, depended on their issue of bank notes. Several schemes were started in France, inspired by the remarkable success of the Scotch banks, to issue paper money, but they ended in disastrous failures. It was soon perceived, however, that the success of the Scotch banks was chiefly due to prudence of administration and to the suit- ability of the system to the conditions of Scotland and the national characteristics of its people. The issue of bank notes, it was found, was a convenience and an economy rather than a source of funds. Hence the issue of bank notes has not been received with favour on the European continent, and only a few land banks have the right to issue paper money. In France there is none entitled to do that. The rarity of this privilege shows that it is not generally feasible. There is, however, another great and unfailing source of funds in all the continental land banks, and that is the interest bearing mortgage-debentures (Pfandorief, obligation fonciére). Inits original form, when it was brought into use in the 18th Century, the debenture was merely a bond for an amount from four to twenty pounds, Miscellanevus. 326 , [Ocr. 1906. — Bi given by a bank to a borrower on payment of a mortgage bond executed by him. It expressly indicated the property mortgaged, and the property alone was the material guarantee for the specific bond. The bank was only an intermediary between a borrowerand lender, who were in direct relation with each other, and the bank merely gave its guarantee that the mortgage was a good one, and that payments would be duly made. The lender received the debentures from the bank, sold them in the market and converted them to money. The lender looked to the borrower for principal and interest, and not to the bank which only took proceedings against the borrower in case of non-payment. This, of course, was a great advance from the mere private system of mortgage. The man whu had money to invest, had only to buy the bonds in the market, without making any enquiry as to the value of the property mortgaged or the validity of its title. He had the guarantee of the Land Bank which was liable in the property of all its members for the guarantee. If the mortgager failed to pay up, the lender was paid by the bank. If the lender wanted the money at any particular time or for any emergency he could sell his bonds in the market, thus transferring his debt to another creditor. This took place without any expense save brokerage, ifany. If it was acase of private mortgage, where the mortgagee wanted money immediately, the mortgager must make a diligent search for another mortgagee and transfer his mortgage to himx provided he succeeded in finding one. Even then he had to incur further heavy expenses for notarial fees, stamps and registration. Moreover, the holder of bank debentures need only sell somany only as he finds necessary to do—the debentures being usually bonds for small sums—-whereas a mortgagee must transfer the whole debt or nothing. Hence the debentures of Landschaften became current stock which very soon rose to its par value and maintained its value even in the worst times. The borrower himself had loans for long terms without fear of foreclosure so long as he paid his dues. He could get as large a loan as he wished on a primary mortgage to the land bank instead of giving to two or three lenders, and borrowing money on secondary and tertiary mortgages and incurring heavy expenses. In course of time, however, a further modification was made in the form of debentures—a modification which has greatly enhanced the usefulness of debentures. The modification is this, viz., the bank issued its debentures in its own name without specifying any particular property as security. There were two advantages in this change. First, the buyers of the new bonds became creditors not of any particular individual but of the bank, and their security was not any particular property, but the whole mass of the security held by the bank, plus the dYank itself. Secondly, the debtors found it possible to reduce their capital liability, by payment of a small percentage in the shape of asinking fund. Under the old system of debentures this was impossible, as the debtors made their periodic payments of interest not to the bank itself but directly to their creditors, and no creditor would receive his principal by petty sums spread over many years. These new debentures, generally payable to bearer or to order, are those now in universal use on the Continent, and funds to any required extent could be raised by this issue. Indeed, under this system of debentures all immovable property may now be said to be capable of being mobilized. The landed property of a whole country may thus circulate in the market in the form of debenture bonds. The Credit Fon- cier de France issues its debentures in masses of ten millions to thirty-six millions — of pounds sterling, the plan adopted being to divide them into numerous series, and issue them by series as soon as loans have been effected to the value of a series. For example, in 1879 a loan of thirty-six million pounds was sanctioned and divided into 180 series, each consisting of 10,000 bonds and making a total of 1,800,000 a; % bonds. Each of the series of 10,000 bonds was of the nominal value of £200,000. In Ss RN Ie RN ee Se ge mea Bh Ee at i a ar as sea i as ce Ocr. 1906. 1 327 Miscellaneous. most cases these debentures, though issued for sums from twenty pounds and up- wards, are subdivided into detachable cowpure (or slips) of £4 or £5, so that/even poor persons may invest their savings in them. All debentures are repayable as the mortgages are redeemed. The capital repaid by borrowers is followed by a redemption of the debentures of that series. These are not repaid according to their consecutive numbers, but the numbers to be paid off are determined by lot. By this means bonds are kept up to their par yalue, and each bond is payable at par. Thus, if a three per cent is issued at £85, its market value immediately rises, for there is a chance of its being drawn at once and the holder will get repayment at par, that is, he will receive £100 for the £85 that he paid. There is the further advantage that a certain number of these bonds get large lottery prizes at the periodic drawings. Thus in the loan of £36,000,000 raised by the Credit Foncier in 1879, the 1,800,000 bonds which were issued were repayable within 60 years by six annual drawings, On anaverage therefore thirty thousand bonds worth £600,000 are repaid every year at par, and of these 600 bonds get prizes worth £86,000, every year. The debenture-holders cannot demand payment until their bonds are drawn, but they may sell themin the market at the current price. The bank pays its debts by these ordinary drawings, and sometimes when mortgages are paid in advance by special drawings. The rule which is strictly observed in regard to all debentures is that there must be an equilibrium between the debentures and the mortgaye-securities. The reason is that if the debentures are not paid off, as the mortgages are redeemed, then some of the bonds would not be covered by mortgage securities, and therefore there would not be that double guarantee of the mortgages and of the shareholders which makes the position of these banks so exceptionally strong, Certain legal privileges are attached to these debenture bonds. In France holders in due course are entitled to payment of their value or interest as the case may be, and no court can attach those sums. They are also authorised to be admitted as securities in which trust moneys may be invested. They have also certain fiscal privileges in regard to stamps, registration and transfer duties. The debentures it will be seen are an invention which is at once most ingenious and fruitful in results, and it is pregnant with vast possibilities for our country. The system, of issuing debentures makes it possible even fora poor country like Ceylon to find within its own limits all the capital necessary for its development. A land bank in Ceylon founded under the most favourable con- -ditions, that is to say under the auspices of the Agricultural Society with the guarantee and supervision of Government, will at once raise the confidence of the public, and its debenture-bonds will draw all the petty hoards from every part of the country into the coffers of the land bank. They will afford the best and safest investments for savings, and by the adoption of the French method of sub-dividing the bonds into cowpures, they may be brought within the reach of all who have any savings large or small to invest. They will add to the currency of the country, for these bonds will pass by delivery or endorsement. There will be neither legal nor fiscal expenses in the transfers. Money is placed with the bank which gives in return an interest-bearing receipt. The holder of the receipt gets the interest periodically, and his capital at the time when the bond may fall due or at the periodic drawings. But it is easily convertible into ready money by delivery or endorsement, For borrowers these debentures offer advantages which no other system can do. As the debentures are issued at the same time as the loans are contracted, the loans may be granted for as long a time as is necessary for the borrower without fear of unduly locking up capital. By the method of a sinking fund, it affords an easy method of paying off almost mperceptibly the capital debt. The sinking fund consists of small annual pay- 43 a) Be “ t C s if i Miscellaneous. 328. [Octr. 1906. ments included in the fixed annuity. The annuity remains fixed, and as the portion due to interest gradually decreases, the one allotted to sinking fund increases. Here lies the great advantage to a borrower of borrowing from a land bank, instead of borrowing from private lenders. A private lender cannot and will not receive his loan back in small payments spread over many years. When the term of the mortgage is over the whole loan must be repaid. This can only be done by further borrowing which will lead to more debt. It isa well- known fact that capital sunk in the purchase or improvement of land can only be replaced by setting apart annually a portion of the income. The founders of the Credit Foncier de France seem to have clearly apprehended this fact. The reports show that one-half of all the loans granted by the Bank bear annuities in which the payment for the sinking fund is so small as to be hardly distinguish- able. For instance, if a man borrows a sum of ten thousand rupees from the Bank for fifty years, he pays an annuity of Rs. 5°72 per cent. to the Bank of which Rs. 5°30 goes for interest and only 42 cents for the sinking fund. He will pay annually Rs. 572, and at the end of fifty years Rs. 28,600, and the annual payment of Rs. 572 0n which compound interest is calculated for fifty years wipes off both principal and interest. If he borrowed the sum from a private lender at the same rate of interest for fifty years, he would pay during the fifty years Rs. 26,500 as interest alone, and still owe him the capital of ten thousand rupees. Thisis due to the fact that as the sinking fund accumulates at compound interest, the principal debt gradually decreases, while the annuity remains constant. The result is that the portion of the annuity due to interest decreases and the portion credited to the sinking fund increases, so that at the end of the payment the sinking fund becomes 5°15 per cent. and at the end of forty years 3°28 per cent. It may be added that on the continent of Europe in almost every country all loans on the security of land are repayable only by annuity. The foregoing summary of facts collected from various sources will be sufficient, it is believed, to give one an idea of how land banks have been found necessary for the advancement of agriculture in different countries of Europe at certain periods of their economic progress, and how the problem has been solved by them. It has been suggested in some quarters that voluntary societies and popular banks like the Schulze Delitzsch in Germany and Raiffeisen in Wurtemburg will answer our purpose in Ceylon. But the condition of our society is not advanced enough for the formation and working of such voluntary societies, Even on the European continent where they have been founded, they are institu. tions of but recent growth, whereas the land banks have been in existence for more than 150 years. State aided land banks must precede, and their utility and success serve as an object lesson to the natives, before any popular banks either urban or rural can be started with any advantage to the public. The foundation of such institutions which cannot but be ephemeral in the present state of our economic progress, will, instead of helping the people, prove to be a national disaster by utterly ruining the organisation of credit. Co-operative credit societies have been in existence in India for nearly ten years, and whatis the result? Mushroom societies have come into existence by hundreds, and have perished with equal rapidity, and there are others which are eking out a miserable existence and are on the verge of extinction. And yet India is far more advanced than Ceylon in the organisation of credit, for there are classes and castes of : bankers like the Gomutte Chetties, Bamas and Natucotta Chetties, who for gener- ations have been engaged in banking, while in Ceylon we have no such organisation. The co-operative credit societies which seem to be fairly successful are very small ones witha capital of Rs. 300 or Rs. 400 established in villages where people are known toeach other. It is hardly necessary to add that it will be impossible to develop — the agricultural resources of Ceylon with the aid of such miniature societies alone. 5 Oct. 1906.] 329 Miscellaneous. The most remarkable feature in the land banks, on the continent of Europe, it is to be observed, is the impulse given to them by the governments of the different States of Europe, almost every land bank having been founded by the initiative of the Government, and placed under its direct control and supervision, In Ceylon, too, it cannot be denied that we have arrived at such a state of economic progress, that for the further development of agriculture, some institution in the nature of those land banks has become absolutely necessary. More than a hundred years have passed since the British occupation of the island, and more than three-fourths of the country is yet in a condition of waste or uncultivated land. Even in districts where forests have been cut down and lands opened up for coconut cultivation most of the native agriculturists are in great straits. By the time the coconut estates come into bearing the proprietor gets into the clutches of the Natucotta Chetty or other money lender, and not infrequently the estates pass into the hands of strangers. The cultivation of coffee, tea, cocoa and other new products by Europeans in the higher altitudes of Ceylon has only been found possible with imported eapital. If not for the introduction of that capital, it need scarcely be added that agriculture in Ceylon would bein the most backward condition. But the native agriculturists and land-owners have not the same advantage of invoking the aid of European capital in time of pressure, except on rare occasions with the help of middle men and under onerous conditions. The time is ripe therefore, it is sub- mitted, that the Government of Ceylon should come tothe aid of the people, by founding land banks under the auspices of the Agricultural Society. Unlike European States, many of which are getting more and more dependent on their manufactures and industries, Ceylon is a purely agricultural country, which for years to come must have agriculture for its mainstay. If Government initiative and assistance were found indispensable to give birth and stability to the land banks of the great, independent and highly civilised states of Europe, it needs no argument to prove that it would be impossible to establish such institutions in Ceylon or to ensure their success, without the support, encouragement and control of the Govern ment. The land banks, it isto be remembered, should be dependent for their success on the confidence which they inspire, so that their bonds may circulate in the market with the same facility as currency notes of the Government, and such a result can never be achieved without Government connection. As for the funds, there is every reason to believe that all the monies requisite for founding a land bank in Ceylon with branches in various districts can be raised in Ceylon by means of that most valuable instrument known to European land banks as debentures. When it is once known to the local public that the deben- tures of a land bank are issued under the control and supervision of the Govern- ment of Ceylon, and that they may be bought and sold and readily converted into money in the open market, there can be no doubt that most of those who have savings, even small savings, will invest their monies in them. That there are con- siderable savings in the country available for aland bank may be inferred to a certain extent from the funds that are invested in mortgages in Ceylon. According to the statistics furnished by the Registrar General, the amount of money secured by, registered mortgages in 1897 was Rs. 45,948,796 ; in 1898 Rs. 40,376,729, and in 1903 Rs. 23,097,180, As for the means to carry on the work of the land banks in Ceylon, we have a ready made machinery in each province in the Government Agents and their Assistants, with all their subordinate staff formerly employed in the collection of paddy and grain taxes. The various Kachcheries may be utilized for keeping the funds, and the revenue officers of the Government may be trusted for investigating the title and appraising the value of the lands to be mortgaged as security for the loans. Some special legislation will be necessary for the prompt one V bist Miscellaneous, 330 and speedy recovery of interest from debtors, and even there we have a precedent in — the summary methods employed for recovering grain taxes before they were abolished. Asin the case of the German Landschaften and the Credit Foncier de France, special privileges should be granted to the land banks, enabling them, for instance, to recover all dues as first charge on the property of the debtor. The provisions nevessary to protect the land banks and to establish public confidence in their stability are mere matters of detail which may be embodied in an Ordinance. In connection with the land banks, and as an auxilliary to them, it will be easy enough to establish, and there ought to be established, co-operative credit societies in each large village as those founded in India. The Government of India has enacted a special law in Act X of 1904, to facilitate the formation of such socie- ties, and the Ceylon Government may follow in the wake of its big neighbour by introducing similar legislation. Those societies will help the small village farmers, artisans and labourers. Thus with a central bank in Colombo, and branches in each province under the control and supervision of the Government, and with village co-operative credit societies the organisation of credit in Ceylon will be complete, and then there will be no reason why agriculture in Ceylon should not make as rapid progress and on modern scientific lines as it has done in Kurope and America. Without such a comprehensive system of land banks and co-operative credit societies including the entire organisation of credit, the mere foundation of petty co-operative credit societies alone will be impracticable, and can never effectually advance the progress of agriculture in Ceylon. Finally, the present, it is submitted, is the most opportune time for laying the foundation of a central land bank in Colombo, with branches in other important centres. The Ceylon Agricultural Society has opened the eyes of the people to the great advantages offered by agriculture in Ceylon on scientific lines, and has given a strong impetus to the cultivation of new products. Even villagers who had hitherto moved in ancient groves are awakening toa new life. An ever increasing number of educated youth of the country are looking out for fresh fields in which their energies might profitably be employed. And not the least important factor to be reckoned inthis matter is that inthe natural course of events, His Excellency the Governor may give up the veins of Government and retire, and his successor may not have the same enthusiasm for agricultnre. The Agricultural Society may then slacken its efforts, perhaps become purely academic in its proceedings, and finally go the way of many a similar association in the past. Native agriculture may then relapse into its usual condition of torpor. To avoid such a calamity, to enable agriculture in Ceylon to stand on a basis as firm and -unshakable as the pyramids, it is to be hoped that His Excellency the Governor who has signalised his administration by founding the Ceylon Agricultural Society, will complete the good work he has begun by inaugurating a system of agricultural banks which the Colony stands in urgent need of. CO-OPERATIVE CREDIT IN THE UNITED PROVINCES, INDIA. In the accumulation of practical experience of co-operative village banking, the United Provinces have been peculiarly fortunate. Numerous co-operative banks of this type were founded in 1901, as an immediate result to Mr. Dupernex’s labours, and the record of their success or failure has proved of the greatest advantage at the © present time, when work has been commenced on broader and more methodical lines. The village banks were constituted on the Raiffeisen model slightly modified, and were governed by a committee punchayat), which was assisted i in the a ‘ [Ocr. ive? iy: ia ee SS ee ae =e SOS eee ae eS Pe i ee Par i SS Fa re nF ee sere: | Oct. 1906.) | 331 Miscellaneous, duty of supervision by Supervisors (girdawars) and with powers strictly limited by rule. The rules provided for the details of working and prescribed (inter alia) the terms for and on which loans might be granted, the purposes for which they might be taken, the rate of interest which they should carry, and the rate which the bank should pay on the money borrowed by it. Of the banks then constituted, about one-third have survived as working bodies, the remainder being either moribund or dead. It is the purpose of this article to examine the causes which have led to the failure of so many of the institu- tions, and to describe the steps which have been taken to avoid these causes in the societies which have been reconstituted, and in those new ones which have sprung up during the course of the last twelve months. The majority of the societies had no chance of success from the outset, and it is a testimony to the soundness of co-operative principles that so many successful societies are now at work. The inception of the co-operative movement in these provinces lay not with the people but with Government, and the formation of village banks was a direct consequence of Government orders. Neither the officials nor the landlords by whose action the banks were opened, nor the members of whom they were composed, had any intimate knowledge or any practical experience of the principles of co-operative effort. It is a first essential to the success of co-operation that the members of a society should act voluntarily, and that each member should have confidence in the rectitude and honesty of those with whom he associates and for whose debts he takes upon himself the responsibility. At the outset of the movement there was in most cases no question of voluntary membership. Cultivators became members, not with any intention of contributing toa joint fund and enjoying the benefits which such a fund would confer, —not with any idea of combination in order to obtain credit at more favourable rates than are usually granted to the individual cultivator,—but partly on account of pressure brought to bear by the official or the landlord, and partly in the hope that, in virtue of the payment of a four-anna entrance fee, each member would be entitled to unlimited credit at a favourable rate of interest. The capital provided was not sufficient for the needs of all the members, and the majority of the societies contained a number of high-caste cultivators who obtained favourable consideration at the hands of the punchayat, and being held more reliable than their low-caste fellow-members, were granted loans out of proportion to their number. These loans there was every temptation not to repay, as common justice demanded that on repayment the money should be lent to some other member, who had not in the first instance received any benefit. The punchayat, consisting of members of various castes, and the members themselves in many cases recruited from almost every caste in the village to which the oper- ations of the society extended, were unable to bring effective pressure to bear, loans were not recovered, interest was allowed to run on, and'finally the bank died a not unnatural death. Such is the life history of many of the societies which were founded in 1901. A further cause of failure has lain in the rules and accounts, which were framed for the assistance and guidance of the banks. It has to be borne in mind that in the majority of cases the banks were founded in villages were no professional assistance in account-keeping could be obtained. The person, to whom this duty was confided was as a rule the sub-agent of a zamindar, or the clerk of a Court of Wards’ Estate. They did not understand the method laid down for account keeping, and in many cases were most unwilling servants of the Society. Their labours were gratuitous, and from the existence of the Society they personally could draw no profit. It was consequently to their advantage that the Society should cease its operations. Where semi-professional assistance of this description was not available, and a Miscellaneous: 332 [Ocr. 1906. literate cultivator was appointed to keep the accounts, the result has usually been — confusion. With the best of good will, the accountant-agriculturist has not been a success. In the rules, again, the village societies have found a stumbling-block. The ordinary village member looks upon them in much the same light as the Penal Code, and lives in constant dread of trouble in case of breach of their conditions. The experience gained goes to show that rules should be reduced to the minimum consistent with statutory requirements, and that much, which was originally provided for by rule, should be left either to the by-laws or to the discretion of the punchayat. This view has been accepted by the Government of India. Besides the difficulties mentioned in connection with the recruitment of members, and the rules and forms of account, there has been in the raising of capital afurther serious impediment to the success of the banks. The working capital of the societies was raised in three ways. Commonly it was collected by subscription at rates of interest very much below the market rate, from interested landholders and other native gentlemen. It was in certain instances advanced by Government, also at low rates of interest. In some cases a portion was raised from deposits by the members of the Society. In almost all cases the amount of capital supplied was insufficient for the requirements of the members, It has also been inelastic. There was no method in vogue whereby the capital of a village society could be readily expanded or contracted in accordance with the fluctuating requirements of the members. If more capital than that at present in the hands of a village society is necessary, it can only be obtained at the same rate of interest as that paid on the initial capital by the exercise of official pressure, express or implied, and this, as may be readily understood, forms a serious obstacle to expansion. At the same time the local societies, having enjoyed the advantage of the capital at a very low rate, are not willing to pay the increased rate necessary to attract the money of the ordinary investor. It would entail payment by the members of a higher rate of interest than that which they now pay on loans from the Society, and they feel, unreasonably, no doubt, but still naturally, that it is a breach of faith on the part of the punchayat to charge them two pies in the rupee for accommodation which has hitherto been provided at one pie and a half. It is, of course, highly Mesieaule that, as far as possible, the village societies should work on capital provided in the village from the members’ hoards. That this will in time be the main source of capital cannot be doubted. Experience in certain districts leads to this inevitable conclusion. In most districts, however, there is a distinct aversion to making deposits. The societies are looked upon as a freak of Government, and are not generally regarded as in any sense permanent, or as suitable places in which to deposit money. The investor of the towns has not been attracted. It is not possible that under present conditions he should be. The security of the village societies is not known to him; of their very existence he is probably in ignorance. It is, however, eminently necessary that the village societies should be brought into touch with the world of finance, if they are to be of general utility. Whatever scheme is adopted must contain, as essential features, the existence of a headquarters organisation which is ina position to deal with the large capitalists and the joint-stock banks upon a business-like method, in which it is realized that elemosynary contributions at low rates of interest must, in the nature of the case, be strictly limited in amount, and that practically un- limited capital can be obtained if the business of the societies issound and they are willing to pay a fair rate of interest for the capital required. The existing organisation societies do not meet the needs of the case. They consist of landlords and others, who have subscribed certain amounts in order to finance the existing societies. They look upon these subscriptions as of a semi-charitable nature, EER Oct. 1906. | 338 Miscellaneous. and in many cases consider that their duty in connection with co-operative societies has ceased, when they have paid the amount expected of them. They are, as a rule, not men of business, and their interest in the societies is purely ephemeral and dependent on the interest taken in those institutions by the District Officer. Such is a brief account of the initial difficulties under which the village banks in the United Provinces have laboured, and under which they provably labour elsewhere. They are of three descriptions, inasmuch as they relate to the personnel of the society, its rules and accounts, and the raising of its capital. It remains to describe the steps that have been taken to remove them. In the case of the first of these difficulties the remedial measure is obvious. Of the burdens and hardships entailed by the caste system there can be no doubt, nor is it disputed that the tendency of the system is as a rule hostile to progress and reform. Its existence and its power are, however, a very distinct indication of a method of extension of co-operative effort along the line of least resistance. If members of caste of widely varying social status are enlisted in the ranks of the same society, it is clear that the whole force of: the caste system is arrayed against successful effort. It is impossible to believe that a Brahman will become jointly responsible for the debts of a Chamar, or that the influence of a dhobi will suffice to induce a thakur to up a loan, when the latter has preferred the smiling path of recusancy. Itis also impossible to expect satisfactory combin- ation between two persons, one of whom enters the village meeting house in order to attend a general meeting of the society's members, while the other is bidden to sit in the street below. Where castes of widely varying social standing are enlisted in the same society, it is obvious that equality, which is the main spring of all co-operative effort, inevitably disappears, and that success cannot result. Itistrue that there are apparently successful banks in existence where the members are drawn from many and varying castes. Success is in such cases due to the exertions of one or more leading men, who have kept things going in practical independence of the opinions or wishes of the ordinary members. The classes for whom co-operation holds out the greatest hopes of improve- ment, both material and educational, are the lower castes. They are at present unable to command the same rates of accommodation as the high-caste agriculturist not because their honesty is less or they are more recusant, but because their individual requirements are smaller in amount. Unless they can be included in the operations of the movement it must so far be held to bea failure. They cannot be included in societies in which high-easte members are enlisted. They must have societies of their own, restricted to members of the lower castes. It seems, there- fore, on all grounds desirable that, in the absence of strong reasons to the contrary, the unit of recruitment should be not the village but the caste within the village. This will, of course, not always be possible or advisable, but where it is possible, it will probably also be advisable. The adoption of a system of caste-societies will result in the multiplication of the number of societies required to serve any given area. It will also render it impossible to demand from the village society the standard of account-keeping which is at present demanded. In the case of low-caste societies, it is improbable that account-keeping of any standard can be required. These are difficulties which have to be faced, and which will be considered later, when the Central system is described. The problem of accounts in village societies of the existing type has been met by the abolition of standard forms of account, and by empowering the punchayat to keep the accounts in any form which in their opinion best suits the requirements of the institution. This hascommonly resulted in the imuaintenance Miscellaneous. 334 [Ocr. 1506. of the ordinary forms of account of the country, the zokar bahi, the katz bahi and the zoznamcha. All that is required on the part of the Registration Department is to see that in the accounts kept up in the village, every item of receipt and every item of expenditure shall find a place, The system is not acceptable to the inspecting staff. It is urged that audit is a difficulty, and the simplicity of audit which was a noticeabbe feature of the model accounts prepared by Mr. Dupernex is regretted. The difficulty of audit is one which must be faced, but which must also be overcome. If work is to be continued on existing lines and the movement is to be widespread, and it must be to prove of any practical value, the accounts must be of a nature which the villager can understand. They are kept, not for the auditor, nor for the Collector, nor for the Registrar, but for the people. The society is theirs—they are responsible for its liabilities. It is only just that they should be permitted to keep the accounts in the manner which they prefer, with the one condition that every item of receipt and expenditure shall find a place, and that each man’s separate account shall be separately maintained. The remedy for the audit difficulty lies with the auditor. He will have to learn the village systemand the vernacular script. Until he has done so he is not fit for his duties. For the detailed rules by which the original societies were guided and governed, by-laws have been substituted. In the model by-laws which have been prepared for the guidance of the punchayat, the greatest latitude has intentionally been left to those bodies. The problem to be faced is not one of principle but one of method; and the method suited to co-operation in the Provinces can only be ' discovered by experiment. Consequently, every point, which could well be left to the punchayat for determination, has been left to that body. The terms on which a loan is granted, as to interest and repayment, the objects on which such a loan may be expended, the power to grant extensions, whether on payment of interest or not, all these are matters which are left to the judgment of the local committee. This at once raises the thorny question of unreproductive expenditure. In considering this question it is necessary to bear in mind that the circumstances of this country are very different from those of the countries where co-operative credit had its birth. The prohlem is unique. The agriculturists of these Provinces has from time immemorial pursued the same rocky financial path. He takes advances from the village money lender for seed, for cattle, for food between harvests, for the clothing of himself and his family, for the marriage of his son or his daughter, and for the disposal of his dead. His bania or village money lender has as much right in him according to all the cannons of village custom, as he himself has in his occupancy holding. Any departure from this custom of centuries at once creates a suspicion of faithlessness on the part of the borrower, not only in the breast of the money lender whom he deserts, but in the opinion of his co-villagers. Under normal circumstances and in the absence of pressure, it is incredible that one of the clientele of the village money lender will go elsewhere than to that money lender for any of his financial requirements; andit must be said that as long as he remains faithful to the money lender, the money lender also remains faithful to him. The bania does not refuse accommodation to his hereditary clients, except under stress of the most abnormal circumstances. Though rejoicing in the name of the village Shylock, the local money lender is in fact indispensable, and on the whole reasonable. The bond which he takes for advances made is more in the nature of an insurance than an instrument to be used to prove a case in Court. It very seldom actually represents the amount of the loan, and as long as the borrower makes no attempt to remove his custom elsewhere, no suit on the basis of the bond need be anticipated. If any of his debtors are, for reasons other than } 4 \ hs ey 1906.] S857 Miscellaneous. recusancy, unable to pay, they are not pressed, and of the profits of the business, probably the greater portion exist only on paper. In obedience to village custom, the money lender is bound to advance money in many cases in which he knows that a bad debt is a moral certainty. If co-operation is to be of any benefit, the society must for its members replace the bania not only with advances for seed grain, bullocks and manure, but also in their thousand and one other financial requirements. No one will willingly join a society where the benefits are confined to these minor matters, for by so doing he at once cuts his hereditary connection with his mon2zy lender, and cannot, consequently, raise elsewhere than from the society absolutely necessary accommodation for other expenditure. Until co-operative societies are prepared to replace the bania, not only with loans for reproductive, but also for legitimate and necessary, but unreproductive, expenditure, they will fail of their ultimate object, which is to extricate the agriculturist from the burden of ancestral and perpetual indebtedness. It is very generally assumed that this course will result in risky business, and that the cheapness of loans will induce even greater extravagance than at present on festivities connected with marriages, funeral and other domestic and social events. The opposite may be expected to be the case where the loans are granted by co-operative societies to their members. In these societies each and every member of the institution, including the members of the punchayat, is responsible for allloans granted to members. The punchayat will, therefore, exercise peculiar care in making loans for unreproductive purposes. It may be that a culti- vator will come to the punchayat and ask for a loan of Rs. 200 wherewith to marry his daughter. The punchayat knows his social position and his circumstances, and decides that Rs. 50 is an appropriate sum to advance for the purpose, and grants that sum. The cultivator accepts it, goes to his fellow caste-men, and though in his heart rejoicing at the curtailment of his expenditure, he explains that he was prepared to spend the larger sum, but that the punchayat refused to allow him the accommodation. He thus saves his pocket and his izzat at the same time. Had the society been debarred from advancing loans for purposes of marriage expenditure, the cultivator would probably have obtained the money from the local money lender at the expense of his connection with co-operative credit and at an exorbitant rate of interest. He would probably also have carried the burden of debt for the rest of his life, and handed it asa legacy to his successor. On the principle, therefore, that as much as possible should be left to the local committee of management, the objects for which loans may be granted have been left to its deter- mination. The result will be carefully watched, though there is at present no sign that the latitude left to that body will be abused._(By J. H. Simpson, Registrar of Co-Operative Credit Societies, U. P. India.) (To be continued.) The Kurunegaa Agri-Horticultural Show, 1906. REPORT ON CLassES A, B, C, AND D. Class A, Flowering Plants in Pots.—It was very disappointing to find that out of twenty prizes offered only three were competed for, and only one entry for each of these. The drought can hardly account for this. Class B, Cut Flowers.—The space allotted to this class was insufficient, and the exhibits were somewhat cramped. Most of the flowers were good, but there was practically no competition, and only six prizes out of the fifteen were awarded. A good bloom of Maréchal Niel Rose was awarded a special prize. Show boxes should be used. 44 Miseellaneous. 336 Class C, Foliage Plants in Pots.—The exhibits in this class were very pleasing, and much credit is due to the exhibitors, for evidently care was taken to stage clean, well-grown plants. Taking the class as a whole I was agreeably surprised, and have not seen a better grown lot at any low-country show. Class D, Ferns in Pots.—This class was very good indeed, and special mention should be made of Mr. Goonewardene’s Adiantum farleyense, which was deservedly awarded two prizes, viz., for the best A. farleyense and the best fern of any kind. J. K. NOCK, Acting Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens. REPORT ON SECTIONS FE. AND F. EK.—FRvItTs. 1to7, Plantains: not satisfactorily represented, and only one bunch was fit for eating. 8to10. Not many exhibits, but the prize oranges were specially fine. 11. Coconuts: an excellent exhibit and good competition. 12, 18, 14. Pines: nothing good. 15. Durians: none. 16. Melons: a good show. 17. Grapes: none. 18. Limes: only fair. 19. Guavas: poor. 20. Soursops: none. 21. Custard apples : fair. 22. Bullock’s heart: none. 23. Rambutans: nothing worth men- tioning. 24. Lovi-lovi: nothing worth men- tioning. 25. Papaws: only fair; fruit not mature. 26. Nam-nams:-good. 27. Jak fruits: none. 28. Breadfruit : none. 29. Best collections of fruits: one good exhibit. 30. Bilings: fair. 31. Kamerungas: good. 382. Jambus: none. 33. Nelly: only one exhibit. F.— VEGETABLES. j. Ash-pumpkins: very fine speci- mens and good competition. 2. Bottle gourds: poor. 8. Pumpkins: very largely and well represented. 4. Snake gourds: excellent. 5.and 6. Sugar-cane: only fair. 8. Turnips: only one exhibit. 9. Carrots : only one exhibit. 10. Vetakolu (luffa): very good speci- mens. 11, Beet root: two good exhibits. 12. Brinjals: good. 13. Bandakais: good specimens but too few. : hes 14. Ash-plantains: only one exhibit. 15, 16,17. Beans: very poor. 18. Princess bean : none. 19. Tomatoes: fair. 90, Lettuce: only one exhibit. 21. Sweet Potatoes: good. August 23, 1906. 22. Chilies: should have been better represented. 23. Capsicum : one excellent exhibit. 24. Cucumbers: very good. 25. Onions: good. 26. Cabbages: only one exhibit. 27. Jerusalem artichoke : none, except among the school garden collections. 28. Murungas: good. 29. Spinach: fair. 380. School garden collections: two good exhibits from Nakkawatta and Nikaweratiya. Yams: disappointing, except in the case of manioc. Two special prizes were recommended or— (1) A collection of fruits. (2) A collection of wild edible products. C. DRIEBERG. REPORT ON SECTION G. The native drugs were but a poor show—very little variety. The prize sample of coconut oil was particularly good ; the others rather poor. The tobacco was not very good, the leaves mostly being very full of holes, and it was also very damp, but this was due to the rainy weather. : 4 4 y Pl re be a Oct. 1906.] 337 Miscellaneous, The coconut poonac was good, the gingili poonac poor. The oils were mostly of fair quality, but the show was but scantily provided with them. The tree (Caravonica) cotton shown was clean and well ginned, but the staple varied much in length, as perhaps is usually the case with hybrid cottons, some of it was 14 inch, some only ? inch. The sample of Sea Island beside it was really better as regards staple, but it was dirty and discoloured. The rubber was good, and the choice between the two lots was somewhat | difficult. Neither lot was properly resilient. f JOHN C. WILLIS Kurunegala, August 23, 1906. Director. fs ee : REPORT ON SEcTIoNS J, L, M, AND R. J. Dairy Produce.—All classes poor in numbers and little competition, except for cow and buffalo ghee. The exhibit of butter by Mr. OC. A. Andree deserved special mention. It was very neatly shown. . L. Cattle.—A very good show of cattle. The travelling carts with pairs of bulls were a very good exhibit. The show of bulls was the principal part of the class. Cows were few and of no especial merit. No sheep, and only two goats were shown. M. Poultry.—The show of poultry was on the whole disappointing. They were small in size, and not cleanly shown. They should be washed before exhibiting, R. Horses.—Five ponies under 12 hands were shown. The first was a smart coan pony, and the second a nice bay 2-year old, which will develop into a good pony with care. In turnouts, only two single turnouts were shown, the first going to Mr. E. E. Gunawardena with a nice Australian horse and rubber-tyred victoria. The second was a nice moving grey cob, the property of Mudaliyar 8S, M. Fernando. An extra class for larger horses was provided, Mr. F. G. Tyrrell taking first place with a nice quality Australian mare, and Mr. W. C. Price second place with a strong bay cob, who would perhaps have fared better had he been ridden or driven and better shown. G. W,. STURGEHSS. August 28, 1906. fe SON a 7 ee ee RO Od ee Ee ee eee 3 res Re : : = ‘ % The Kelani-Valley Agri-Horticultural Show, 1906, REPORT ON FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. " #ruits.—The show of plantains was very disappointing, the only noticeable 7! exhibit being one of “ Ash” plantains from Salawa Estate (Mr. J. W. CG. de Soysa’s property). Oranges were much better, and there was very good competition here—the best sample coming from Paradise Estate. Limes were also good, the prize going to R. A. Dassanaika of Dehigahapitiya. = Soursops and rambutans were fair, and the awards for both went to Salawa Kstate. rs A very fine basket of lovi-lovi fruits gained the prize for Cader Tamby of if Dehiowita. The papaws shown were well grown, of good size and quality. The best were those shown by Agris Jayawardene of Padukka. Miscellaneous. 338 Sapodillas were poor, the only tairly good specimens coming from Salawa Estate. The good basket of nelly fruits was sent in by M. D. Julis. Paradise Estate also gained the prize for breadfruits, the exhibits of which, however, were not particularly striking. Other fruits mentioned in the catalogue were either entirely absent or unworthy of notice. Vegetables.—Exotic vegetables were very poorly represented, and this fact goes to prove that few persons, if any, grewspecially for the show. Beans, lettuces, and beets were fair, but there is no reason why these and other exotics should not have made a striking class in themselves, if a proper attempt had been made to grow them. Of yams and sweet potatoes there were excellent specimens, the collection sent in by the Mudaliyar of Hewagam Korale being the best. Maniyagama school took the prize for snake gourds, and Salawa Estate was again to the front with a fine show of bandakais and bitter gourd. Chillies, cucumbers, ash pumpkins, brinjals, luffa (vetakolu), spinach and lasia (kohilla) were all good. The best general collection of vegetables was that sent in by Juanis Appu. C. DRIEBERG, Superintendent of Schoo Gardens, Colombo, 14th September, 1906. REPORT ON CLAss IJil., A. AND B. I have the honour to report as follows on sections A. & B. of Class III, (viz., Vegetables and Commercial Products and new Products respectively), at the Agri- Horticultural Show held at Talduwa, on the 7th and 8th instant. This being the first show held in this district, these sections were perhaps more creditable than the mere list of entries suggests. The keenest competition was in coconut oil and rubber, of which there were 40 and 12 entries respectively. None of these were really of mean merit, andthe work of the judges was to select the best of what was all good. The following is a detailed account :— VEGETABLE AND COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. Exhibits. No. of Exhibits. Remarks. Coconut oil ... Ba a8 40 Ae All good Cinnamon oil a Pe . Medicinal oils 1 A large collection Tobacco 2 No prize awarded, both being disqualified Native fibres 1 Rather poor Gingelly oil.. 1 Fair Kekuna oil . 1 do Gums and resins 1 do Native dyes... -- _ Gamboge -- ~~ Coconuts GIVER Good specimens King coconuts 6 We All good Arecanuts 2m Good ! Gee Pep eee Groundnuts... on Ee Biss: Pretty fair samples Groundnut oil a ie — sn Groundnut poonac.... ra) 1 Veh dese Very IarOr disqualified Cleaned cotton its By 4 aii iy All good Rubber es ae We 12 She do (Sgd.) H. F. MACMILLAN, Curator, Peradeniya Gardens isth September, 1906. ~~ Oct. 1906.] 5; 339 Miscellaneous. CATTLE AND POULTRY CLASSES. Cattle Section.—Very few cattle were shown. The coast bulls made the best class, The exhibits of native cattle were poor. Altogether a rather disappoint- ing section. _ Poultry Section..—Was a fairly good section. The birds were conveyed to the show in larger cases, and proper pens were provided at the show. (Sed.) G. W. STORGESS, Government Veterinary Surgeon, Colombo, 10th September, 1906, @ The Kegalle Agri-Horticultural Show. Sections JI, II, III, anp IV. Ihave the honour to report as follows on Sections I, I, III, and IV at the Agri-Horticultural Show held at Kegalle on the 21st and 22nd instant. Generally speaking the show, as regards purely native products seemed to bea very satisfactory one, and in my opinion approached what such village shows should be. Order and method pervaded the general arrangements to an extent not usually seen. Section I. (Plants in Pots).—-All classes under this head were competed for, except Roses and Geraniums. Ferns in pots and Chrysanthemums in flower were quite good. Section IT. (Cut Flowers).—There was a large display of these chiefly native flowers. A rather novel (but not quite clear in meaning) class termed ‘‘ Malwattiya ” drew a large number of competitors. Section III. (Vegetables).—There was a good general collection representing every class in this section. Yams of good quality (and others as monstrosities) were much in evidence, the prize going to an excellent collection of 29 edible kinds shown by Ratemahatmaya Boyagoda. A nice exhibit of vegetables was that shown by Hettimulla School Garden. Section IV. (Fruits).—There was strong competition in plantains, oranges, papaws, and limes, but pineapples were poor, these being now out of season. Had the prizes offered in this section been less limited, a greater variety of fruit would doubtless have been brought together. | H. F. MACMILLAN, Curator, Peradeniya Gardens. 28th September, 1906. DAIRY PRODUCE AND CATTLE. Sir,—With reference to your letter No. 3974 of the 25-26 September, 1906, Ihave the honour toinform you that in the Dairy Produce Section the Exhibition of ghee and eggs was good, the remainder of the sub-classes very poor. What poultry were shown were very fair, but poor in numbers and not properly cleaned and prepared for exhibition. The Cattle Section was a good one, especially for native bulls. There might have been much more competition if owners would enter their cattle. Tam, etc., G. W. STURGESS, Government Veterinary Surgeon. Colombo, 28th Sept., 1906. Miscellaneous. al! [Ocr. 1906. Lessons in Elementary Botany. _V. By J. C. WILLIS. We must now pass on to consider the reproductive organs, remembering that the chief feature in the life history of a plantis its reproduction. It is customary to distinguish between vegetative and true methods of reproduction. The former is the : detachment of portions of the vegetative system—specialised for the purpose as in the ease of the tubers of a potato, or not, as in the case of rubber cuttings—which may grow into new plants without any further reproductive phenomena.’ True repro- duction, on the other hand, is propagation by special cells (the unit parts of plants) set apart for the purpose. These may be able to grow into new organisms without any sexual process, or they may require, as a preliminary to further growth, to fuse together in pairs, male and female. In the first case we speak of asexual reproduc- tive cells or spores ; in the second of sexual, or gametes, which by their union produce a new cell or zygote capable of further development into a new individual. The spores are contained in little capsules or sporangia seen in their typical form on the back of a ripe fern-leaf, where they are usually aggregated into groups called sori. Asarule in ferns the sori may occur on the backs of any or all of the leaves ; but in many cases they are on special, usually smaller, leaves—usually with narrow segments. In the clubmosses, near relatives of the ferns, the sporophylls, as the spore-bearing leaves are generally termed, are aggregated into cones at the end of the branches, and a somewhat similar phenomenon is seen in all the flowering plants, the flower corresponding (to a large extent) to a cone, the stamens and carpels being the sporophylls. In the ferns there is only one kind of spore, all being of the same size,, but in the selaginellas (common in upcountry jungles, creeping on the ground) there are large and small spores ; and the same is the case in other plants. : When the spores of ferns are sown upon damp soil (try this on wet sand) they germinate and give rise to delicate little green leaf-like plants, called prothalli, entirely different in structure from the ordinary fern plant. The prothallus is sexual and bears the male and female cells or gametes, which when united give a zygote capable of growing, not into a prothallus again but into a leafy fern plant like the one with which we started. The female cells remain in their receptacles on the prothallus, and the new plant is therefore attached to the prothallus for some time (allow the fern spores to grow for a considerable time and presently the young fern plants will appear on the prothalli.) We may therefore sum up the life history thus :— Fern plant——>sporophylls—-—> sporangia——> spores A | | | Vv <——male gamete<——male_ receptacles) Zygote<——female do. <——female do. yj Prothallus. In Selaginella, &c., the big spore gives a female, the small a male prothallus, In the flowering plants this same alternation goes on, but the prothallus stage is much reduced. The big spore germinates without falling off, and the small spore, or pollen grain, is carried to its neighbourhood by the wind or by insects, and germinates there. The growth of the zygote stops for a while, after a time, and we say that the seed is ripe. Before we consider the flower in detail, we must briefly describe the ways in which flowers are arranged upon the plant—the inflorescence, as it is termed. Very commonly a plant has only one inflorescence or tuft of flowers, but most often has several. —" See ee ae SS i ord al 2's ae ' 5 Oct. 1906. ] 341 Miscellaneous. The flowers may be sessile (stalkless) or on stalks. Hach flower usually arises in the axil of a leaf, termed its bract, and any leaves between the bract and the flower, on the same stalk as the flower, are termed bracteoles or bractlets. Most commonly there are either two or one, but they may be absent, or many. Sometimes the stalks of the flowers of the inflorescence all start at one point and then the bracts are generally condensed there into a whorl or involucre. the term is also given to a whorl of leaves on the same stalk as one flower. Sometimes the bract isa large leaf more or less enclosing the whole inflorescence, and is then termed a spathe. Flowers may be solitary, or two or three together in the axils of all or some of the leaves, but most commonly they are massed into inflorescences. The simplest type is the »aceme in which the main stalk grows steadily onwards, bearing lateral branches in regular succession, and each lateral branch ending in a flower (see plate). This is well seen in cress, mustard, etc. If, instead of each branch of a raceme being one-flowered, it forms a raceme itself, the resulting inflorescence is a panicle, But the definitions of inflorescences are loosely applied, and any inflorescence presenting this loosely branched appearance is usually called a panicle. If in the simple raceme we imagine all the flowers sessile, we get a spike, as in the agrimony, etc. If in a raceme the lateral stalks grow so rapidly as to keep all the flowers atone level, we get a corymb, as in eandytuft. If we imagine all the flowers of the corymb to spring at one point, we get an wmbel, and if the flowers of an umbel be imagined sessile, a head as in dandelion, goatweed, sunflower, etc., (see plate forall these). In all these inflor- escences the order of opening of the flowers is evidently towards the centre, where the youngest flowers will be, but in many inflorescences the oldest flower is in the middle and the younger ones outside. Such inflorescences are called cymes and may be of many forms, often more or less closely imitating the racemose inflor- scences (see plate). The great advantage of an inflorescence appears to be the massing of the flowers close together, so that insects are more attracted by the greater conspi- cuousness, and the chance of pollination is much greater. THE FLOWER. The flower consists essentially of a short shoot or stem, the receptacle, bearing sporophylls, the stamens and carpels. The former are usually short stalks, each ending in an anther or receptacle for the little pollen grains, the latter are generally united in various ways as we shall see. In addition to these, nearly all flowers have also a perianth or set of non-spore-bearing leaves, outside the stamens and carpels. As a general rule these are in two rows, an outer green or membranous, called the calyx, and composed of sepals, and an inner, brightly coloured, the corolla, composed of petals. In such a flower as the lily, where all the leaves are alike, we speak of the perianth, and perianth-leaves. When we examine a lot of different flowers, we find what at first sight appears to be almost infinite variety in them. Some have three, some four, some five leaves, or stamens, or carpels, ina whorl, some have no definite whorls at all; some have the petals free from one another, some united; some have no stamens or no carpels ; some have the stamens united to the petals, some not; some have convex, some concave receptacles, and so on. When we examine the flowers in detail, we find that all this immense variety can be brought under a few heads, with which we may now proceed to deal. Segregation of the Sporophyl/s (stamens and carpels), or grouping of each kind by itself, is characteristic of existing flowers. They may be all in the same Tee CP RFs age y toe ro re [Ocr. 1906. hermaphrodite or bisexual flower (these sex terms, as will be evident from what has been said above, ought not, strictly, to be applied here, but they are firmly established in botanical literature), or they may be in separate unisexual flowers, the stamens in male, the carpels in female, flowers. In bisexual flowers the carpels are in the centre, the stamens around them. — Miscellaneous. 342 As the construction of the flower is the most important feature upon which the classification of plants rests, it will be necessary to give here afew at least of the most important technical terms in use, and we shall give them after each section. Flowers may be bisexual, or unisecual (male and female). Plants with male and female flowers on the same plant, monoecious, on different plants dioccious. Reduction in number of the Sporophylls, and thew arrangement in Whoris are two very widely spread features of existing flowers. Many of the lower types of flower, for instance the buttercup, have their leaves not in definite whorls, and have a large number of stamens and carpels, but in most flowers this is not the case, and as we go up in the series of plants, the number of stamens and carpels, more especially the latter, tends to decrease. Flowers with 2, 3, 4,5, members in each whorl, di- tri- tetra- penta- merous. It the number is over ten, and, variable, it is indefinite. Members of one whorl are usually alternate to those of the next, 4.€ , occupying the gaps between them, but may be opposite to them. Cohesion, or union of similar organs, is very common. It is most usual in the carpels, very common in sepals, less so in petals, rare in the stamens. Perianth, calyx, corolla, stamens, carpels, of organs quite free from one another, polyphyllous, polysepalous, polypetalous, polyandrous, apocarpous; of coherent or united organs gamophyllous, gamosepalous, gamo- or sym- petalous, monadelphous (if all the stamens united; see below under stamens) syncarpous. The united portion is termed the tube, the free parts the limb, divided into lobes, teeth, or segments. Adhesion, or union of dissimilar organs, is also very common. The most usual case is for the stamens to be united to the petals. : Stamens united to the perianth, calyx, corolla, epiphyllous, episepalous epipetalous ; carpels and stamens united, gynandrous. (To be continued.) Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture, IX. By J. C. anus: Cotton: General.—Cotton growing in the British Empire. Emmott in “ 7.A.,” June 1904, p. 802. Cotton Improvement. Ind. Agr., June 1904, p. 180. The growing of long-staple Upland cottons. Webber in Yearbook U. S. Dpt. Agr., 1903. Consumption of Cotton in the United States. Do. p. 463. Review of the introduction of the Cotton industry into the Netherlands Indies. Van Tromp de Haas. Str. Bull., June 1904, p. 195. Caravonica Cotton. ‘‘ 7.A.,” 1904, pp. 151, 210. The structure and properties of mercerised Cotton. Imp. Inst, Bull., 1904, p. 195. Cotton growing in India. (B, C. G. A. Memorial), Ind. Pl. and Gard., Oct. 1904, p. 751. The Cotton Plant and its products. Ind. Agr., Nov. 1904, p. 341. Deutsch-Koloniale Baumwollunternehmungen. Beih. z. Tropenpfi., IV. 1908, Nos. 2, 4. Die wirthschaftliche Bedeutung des Baumwolls auf der Weltmarkte. Beih. z, Tropenpfi., V. 1904, Nos. 5, 6. CONAaFS CNS LESSONS IN Solitary in axils Bract Bracteoles Involucre Spathe Raceme Panicle Spike Corymb Umbel Head Cyme Imaginary flower in section ELEMENTARY BOTANY. Explanations of Plate ITI. Polypetalous corolla Sympetalous corolla Epipetalous stamen Hypogynous flower Perigynous flower Epigynous flower Apocarpous ovary in cross section Syncarpous multilocular axile pla- centas Syncarpous unilocular parietal pla- centas Synearpous unilocular free-central placenta al 22 23 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY BOTANY. PLATE III. ae — Oct. 1906-] 348 Miscellaneous, i; s Dn [ > bak ok ae hee eal a Cotton-growing in India. Ind. Pl. and Gard., 26 Nov. 1904, pp. 825, 842. Caravoniea Cottons and Indian famines. ‘ 7.A.,” Dec, 1904, p 374. Caravonica Cotton for Ceylon. Do. p, 420. Cotton cultivation in Egypt. Bull. Imp, Inst., Jan. 1905, p. 285. The progress of Cotton cultivation in the Sudan. Do. p. 244. Cotton growing in German Colonies. Do. p. 249. Profits of Cotton-growing in Barbados. Agr. News, 28 Jan. 1905, p, 21. Caravonica and other Cottonsin Madras. Ind. Pl. and Gard., 6 Jan. 1906, p. 7. Baumwollbau in Aegypten. Tropenpflanzer, 1905, p. 689. The Indian Cotton Industry. Ind. Pl. and Gard., 27 Jan. 1906, p. 60. Results of experiments in cultivation of Cotton in the West Indies. W. I, Bull., 6, p. 109. The Extension of Cotton cultivation. Ind. Agric., 1 May 1906, p. 148. Die Withschaftliche Bedeutung des Baumwolls auf der Weltmarkte Beih. Z. Tropenpfl. IV., 1908, No. 3, 4. Cotton Cultivation, &c.—Manuring. Queensl. Agr. J., Sept. 1899, p, 295. Cotton Cultivation. Jamaica Bull., Mar. 1904. Practical details of Cotton growing. Natal Agr. Journ., Aug. 1904, p. 780. Cultivation of Sea Island Cotton in the U.S. and the West Indies. “W. I. Bull., 1904, p. 287. The manuring of Cotton. ‘ 7.A.” Jan. 1905, p. 487. Behandlung der Baumwollboden. Der Pflanzer, 1, p. 1. Manurial experiments on Cotton in the Leward Islands. Watts. W. I. Bull., VI., 1905, p. 247. Cotton Harvesting, &c.—Cotton-seed oil industry. Jamaica Bull., V. 1898, p. 249. Cotton-seed industry in the United States. Year-book U.S. Dept. Agr. 1901; W. 1. Bull., 1903, p. 32. By-products of Cotton seeds. Ind, Agric. Afric., 1 Aug. 1908, p. 244. Picking Cotton. Agr. News, 1904, p.1. Cotton ginneries in the West Indies. Agr. News, III. } Eigreneuses. Rev. d. Cult., Col., 1904. Cotton gins and ginneries. Queens]. Agr. Journ., Aug. 1904, p. 556. Utilisation of Indian Cotton-seed. Bull. Imp. Inst., Mar. 1904, p. 58. Ginning Sea Island Cotton. Agr. News, 17 Feb. 1904, p. 55. Cotton: Diseases, &c.—West Indian Anthracnose of Cotton. W. I. Bull., V., p. 178, The Cotton boll weevil. Agr. Gaz. N. S. W., Jan. 1905, p. 238. Fungoid diseases of Cotton. W. I. Bull., 6, p. 117. Insect Pests of Cotton. do. p. 123. Cow Pea.—Disease in Java. Exp. Sta. Rec,, X., 4., 1899 p. 362. Croton.—Kino from C. Tiglium. Hocper in Ind. Forester, 31 Dec., p. 717. Cryptostegia.—C. grandiflora. Ind, Pl. and Gard., 23 Apr. 1904. OCubebs.—Hartwich, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Cubeben see Just’s Jahresb, 1898, II. 28. Sage, Note on Cubebs. Chem, and Drug., 18 Nov. 1905, p. 797, Cyanotis.—C, axillaris, a famine food. Agr. Ledger, V. P. Ser. 46. Cyperus.—Nut grass. Queensl. Agr. J., Nov. 1899, p. 460. Dammar.—Agathis loranthifolia (details and figs.) Ind. Mercuur, 18 Sept. 1900, p. 661. Date.—Tourney. The Date palm. cf. B. C. Bei., IX., p. 76. Foreign Office report on Bussorah Date season, 1897. The Date Palm for Queensland. ‘‘ 7.4.” July 1901, p. 4. The Date Palm and its culture. U. S. Dept. Agr, Yearbook, 1900, p, 453. Date Palm grafting ete. ‘7.A.” Aug. 1901, p. 88. Sur la culture du Palmier Dattier. Rev. Cult. Col., Feb. 1902, p. 88. Dattes (varietes). Journ. d Agr. trop., II., 1902, p. 110. Schweinfurth, Ueber dem Kultur des Dattels. B. C. 89, 556. Le Dattier Commun. Rev. Cult. Col., Oct. 1903, p, 197. The Date Palm. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. B. P. I., 58. The cultivation of the Date Palm. W. I. Bull., V. 159. 45 344 SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE. THE CONSERVATION OF CATTLE MANURE. The attention given to the conservation of farmyard manure in France is one of the striking things noted in his travels by an agricultural correspondent. “In the yard near the stock buildings ou one of the farms visited” he writes, *‘is a brick enclosure in constructed cement on the inner side. Beneath this, and in the centre, is a large tank into which the urine from the different buildings is conveyed by drainage. The tank is covered by an iron grille, above which the manure is stacked, the heap having vertical sides, and being built from day to day with every care. Above is a roof to keep off the rain, while in the very centre of the heap, and rising from the tank, is a pump. In the natural order of things the manure is wheeled from stable, piggery and cattle shed on to the heap, and carefully spread, so that each form of manure is well mixed, and the quality of the heap equalised as far as possible. From time to time the urine within the tank is pumped over the heap, which is kept well soaked and cool, and in this way, although some loss may occur by volatilisation, the heap is kept from fermenting too rapidly, while the liquid is largely absorbed.” Commenting upon the almost universal attention given to the saving of farmyard manure in France, this corre- spondent thus refers to its exceptional value :— ‘The value of this manure does not consist alone in the proportion of fertilising matter which it contains. Farmyard, unlike artificial manures, possesses two values, the one fertilising, the other mechanical. The mechanical condition of aloamy soilis known to be such that crops can be grown upon it with greater ease and success, while it absorbs less labour than a heavy soil. Many clays have great crop growing capacity, but only in proportion to the labour and the farmyard manure bestowed upon them. The fine mechanical condition of a loam is chiefly owing to the high percentage of organic matter which it contains. Add the same quantity of organic matter to a clay and its crop-growing value is at once improved, and improved to a considerable extent. It is for this reason that this manure, which is chiefly composed of organic matter, is of such great importance to heavy lands. Clay soils are almost useless until they have been pulverised, but even then their value is little until they have been well and repeatedly dressed with farmyard ‘manure, which prevents excessive tenacity, permits the entrance of air and water, adds warmth, and generally conduces to the crop-bearing capacivy of the soil. As the straw and other organic matter in the manure slowly decomposes, the fertility it contains is liberated; while during the decomposition heat is evolved, and heat is of great importance to plant life. What has been said applies equally to the lighter soils, for just as farmyard manure reduces the tenacity and heavy condition of clays, so it conduces to the homogeneity of the lighter soils, which are too loose, too pervious to water, and too lightly furnished with decomposing material.’—I. P. Gazette. ‘Oct. 1906. ] 345 Correspondence. RUBBER TAPPING METHODS. DEAR SirR,—The Tropical Agriculturist for September has done me the honour of publishing my letter and diagram of 18th August on the above subject, and its learned Editor has condescended to ‘‘siton” me. He says in a footnote :— “The full spiral leaves L. F. C. untapped.” With all due respect to constituted authority, I say it does not, as he will see if he folds the diagram into a cylinder till A. C. and B. D. coincide, or if he will look at a tree that has been completely spirally tapped. But, ne sutor ultra crepidam, my apology is due for the unscientifle state- ment, which I must have cribbed out of our Rubber Handbook, that ‘‘ the latex cells have the power of sealing themselves up.” Like the genial Government Agent, C.P., I now know that “the latex accumulates in other cells near by”—so near, that it takes a high-power microscope to see it. And asa mere practical tapper, who does not go about his work armed with even a magnifier, perhaps I may be forgiven this slip. What my eye sees is the whole of the last tapping line sealed up and dry, as it were, and a thin paring cut starts the flow of latex again all along the line. Now, to continue the subject matter of my previous letter. During the whole time of the Rubber Exhibition I was present in a subordinate capacity and met a great many rubber planter friends, who nearly all told me ‘‘ the spiral is doomed ”; but not one of them could give me a valid reason for saying so. Some reasons given for holding these views were :—(1) The general opinion among rubber men, (2) It is too drastic, (8) The Controller’s figures prove itis more wasteful of bark than the herring bone system, and (4) The exploded one of ringing the tree. Well, (1) general opinion is sometimes proved to be wrong. In this case it seems to have been formed by a bell-wether of the rubber flock having plunged through the hedge and the young rams are following gaily through the hole, asking no questions! (2) Any system of tapping may be made too drastic; and that is precisely what has been done in the case of the spiral, The arbitrary rule of 1 foot- spacing has been followed to the letter, and spirals and herring-bones have been clapped on to the trees alike, forgetful of the fact that the former means double the length of tapping lines of the latter on the trees and therefore, presumably, double the strain on the latter. Look atthe medals commemorative of awards of the Rubber Exhibition. The obverse is a reproduction of a Hevea monarch. The unfortunate monarch is now carrying 8 lines of spiral tapping aggregating some 56 lineal feet,—not that he could not carry three times the amount if reasonably spread over his magnificent limbs, but this is all clapped on within six feet of the ground. Please note that if he had been ‘‘ herring-boned” he would have been carrying only half of this, viz., 28 feet. Ninety percent of his lesser brethren under tapping are similarly spirally over- tappet. And (8) it is from the yields of these trees that the Controller of the Experiment Gardens has drawn his data to compare with those of the herring-bone _system, manifestly an unfair comparison, apart from the question of the varying angles of cut which I discussed before, and nobody has, so far, controverted. To make a fair comparison, either the alternate lines of the spiral should not have been cut, or the herring-bone should have been cut on both sides of the tree. This, of course, is preposterous and mere heresy to the advocates of the herring-bone system; the other side of the tree is left intact so that there may be no question of the uninterrupted flow of sap. Exactly so: and when the first side has run out, what then? Proceed to cut the herring-bone on the second, while the first is resting. Justso; and make four (out of the five) complete ringings of the tree (4) which you were so keen to avoid; or leave aspace and waste it; or trust to the lacerated bark in 5 parallel sets of lines of the old cut to take up the flow of sap; or wait a bit till it can, and lose yield? What ho! Is there any thing 4 connected with spirals so drastic or wasteful as this? I trow not—yetI make no | doubt that much swamp-gas will be belched forth to meet this new aspect of the case. Z A captious critic might say that I have ‘an axe to grind” in my advocacy of the spiral, in so far as I was a co-exhibitor at the Rubber Exhibition of several applications of the spiral system, which have been noticed in the press. Correspondence. 346 While I have criticized the bases on which the Controller has drawn his deductions as to bark excision and yield, it would be unfair to pass lightly over the fact that he was the first to point out the loss of profit as well as the shock to the tree, in too rapid excision of the bark, and the first to advocate shallow channelling and deep pricking to release the latex; and by these methods to ensure the more rapid renewal of the bark. Itis a moot point, however, whether pricking is not a ' very dangerous operation unless carefully done—at least more dangerous than , paring deeply though thinly. The farrier’s knife and adaptations of it seem to be having a good look in again, chiefly, seemingly, because of the large task in trees a cooly can do withit. I imagine this will entail a future compuisory rest for the tree—and for tapping operations too! Apologising for the length of this letter, lam, Sir, yours faithfully, ALEX. CAMERON September 29th. [Portions of the letter which do not bear upon the subject have been omitted.—ED. | ‘““SPENCE COTTON” IN INDIA. ; Sir,—Since the publication in the press of my letter on the subject of ** Spence Cotton,” [ have received innumerable congratulations from all parts of India for having been fortunate enough to discover a cotton indigenous to the country and infinitely superior both in staple and appearance to that grown in the United States of America. The immense importance of this and the wide field it opens in the future for the extension of India’s manufactures, I am glad to find, is recognised on all sides. I therefore feel confident it will interest your readers to learn the results of a trial of “Spence Cotton” inthe mills of Bombay. This Messrs. C. N, Wadia & Co., of the Centuary Mills Co., Ld., have been good enough to carry out for me, and the following is their report :— BomBAY, 11th September, 1906. J, R. Spence, Esq. “ DEAR SIR,—We have passed the four bags of ‘Spence Cotton’ through the processes of spinning and weaving, and have now the pleasure to forward you here- with sample of cloth made therefrom, which we believe is the finest that has ever been made in the power looms from Indian-grown cotton. The cloth is made from 408 warp and 50s weft, and from this trial we are satisfied that the cotton will spin a good 508 warp and 70% weft, from this cloth can be made in fine dhoties for which a great demand exists in India, particularly on the Bengal side, thanks to the Swadeshi movement. To be able to grow such cotton is one of the best things that the Indian eel ge Te a a as ae ie Siar ipa oaiih aen + fou Cea) bia - Ocr. 1906.] 347 Correspondence. mills could wish for, and will open up quite anew and very profitable {trade, if they will get machinery suitable for the longer staple. If we had had a larger quantity of cotton with which we could have continued the trial, making necessary changes, we are sure a still finer cloth could be made from it. The total loss of weight in blow room is only 8% and we would gladly give 7 annas per lb. for this eotton.” The excellence of ‘the cloth proves the correctness of the opinion I held eighteen months ago that this undoubtedly is the raw material from which the “ Dacca Muslin” was made many years ago, which acquired a world-wide reputation for the excellence of its quality. Experts in Bombay and Mysore were of the same opinion at the time. Messrs. Forbes, Forbes, Campbell & Co. have kindly consented to show samples of it at their offices in Hornby Road, to those desirous of inspecting it. Inspite of the abnormally bad season on this plantation,—for last July we had 26 inches of rain in two days and not a drop afterwards for seven months, when on the 16th February, the heavy unseasonable rain did incalculable harm,—I am glad to be able to state that my first estimate of the yield per tree has been found to be correct. Average trees a year old were marked and all the cotton carefully put into separate bags, the result being an average of 23 oz. per tree. But Iam most anxious to be absolutely on the safe side, and have therefore reduced my present minimum estimate to 1} oz. per tree, and as 5,000 are now planted to the acre, this gives a result of 400 lbs. of clean cotton or one bale per acre, The second year this is doubled, and increases enormously afterwards during the tree’s known life of twenty years. Iam exceedingly glad to read the favourable reports of the extensive trial of Egyptian seed in Sind. I have had five years’ experience of Egypt, and four years ago strongly recommended it to the commercial community of Bombay, selecting the South of Hyderabad as the most desirable spot to cultivate it. Iam naturally much gratified to find that my anticipations of its success have been amply verified. The chief difficulty, of course, is to induce cultivators to adopt the Egyptian methods in place of their present crude ones, and this must be done every season ; whereas in the case of ‘‘Spence Cotton” the difficulty has to be overcome but once in twenty years, and it will grow and flourish in any soil instead of being confined to Sind only. The immense advantage of this tree over the annual shrubis evident to the meanest eapicity. Take the yield first: the late Mr.J.N. Tata estimates the average all over India at 30 1b. of clean cotton per acre. I have visited every cotton-growing district of any importance in the country, and consider this is much too low, I am of opinion the average on non-irrigated land is from 45 to 50 1b. per acre—a deplorably poor outturn, in Egypt the average is 400 to 5001b., and in the United States 200 to 250 lb. Ihave a method which would more than double the present yield and at very little extra outlay or necessity for intelligence ; but why cultivate such rubbish at all ? Iam, Sir, Yours, faithfully, J. R, SPENCE. ANT HILL EARTH. DEAR SiR,—-I shall be obliged if you or any of your readers can enlighten me on the advantages derived by the use of earth from ant-hills in refilling holes dug in indifferent soils, wherea good surface soil is not obtainable, for the purpose of planting different products, such as, tea, rubber, cocoa &c. _ Kandy. Ks By Bi [The earth is very finely divided, but we do not know of any other advan- tages it may possess.—HD. | t 348 (Oct. 1906. Current Literature. Year-Book of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1905.—Pub- lished at the Government Printing Office, Washington; 815 pages, with 31 articles and an appendix of 44 articles, 73 coloured and photographic plates and 130 text figures; Hdited by Geo. W. Hill. This is one of the best annual agricultural publications we know of, and deals with every phase of agriculture practised in the United States, with details of the year’s progress and work in each department or branch of the many agricultural industries. The report of the Secretary to the Department, Mr. James Wilson, occupying 122 pages, reviews the year’s work and states that 1905 was another year of unsurpassed prosperity to the farmers of the country. After supplying the wants of the people there was an enormous surplus of agricultural produce for export; and to mention only two articles, the increase in the exports of cotton was valued at £1,870,000, and that of rice at £400,000. The increased prosperity of the farmers has led to a large multiplication of small farmers’ banks throughout the agricultural regions, banks for which the farmer has supplied the capital as a sound investment. ‘‘The man with the hoe has become the man with the harvester and the depositor and shareholder of the bank.” The Weather Bureau has proved a useful department to the agriculturist; and the extension of its work in the arid and sub-arid regions has been of great value in the extensive rrigation works in these parts. The Bureau of Plant Industry reports much useful work accomplished in plant sanitation and the treating of plant diseases, in achievements in cotton breeding, in work on nitrogen fixation, investigations into drugs and poisonous plants, etc. The Forest Service, the Bureau of Chemistry, the Bureau of Soils, the Office of Experiment Stations, all show continued active progress, The Bureau of Entomology shows important results gained by the introduction of beneficial insects. The introduction in California of the fig-fertilising insect of South Europe has enabled a new industry in fig-growing to be started on promising lines in that State. Other parasitic insects of various scale pests and of the Gypsy and Brown tail moths, imported pests which have proved most harmful, have been introduced into the States with beneficial results. A systematic effort is also being made to introduce silk culture in the United States, Italian worms being imported. The Year-book contains a large number of instructive, illustrated articles; photography is largely used to illustrate these, and in ‘‘ New Fruit Productions of the Department of Agriculture,” and ‘‘ Promising New Fruits,” coloured plates are a feature. Wemay note the following articles as of special interest—Diversified Farming in the Cotton Belt; Dark Fire-cured Tobacco of Virginia; The Business of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution; The Handling of Fruit for Trans- port; Effect of Inbreeding in Plants; Influence of Experiment Station Work on Culture of Field Crops; Relation of Irrigation to Dry Farming; and Opportunities in Sub-tropical Fruit-growing. The appendix of 200 pages has also numerous good articles. The whole Year-book is a splendid compilatiop, an example of the great progress in agriculture made in the past few years, and evidence of the work being done to encourage and assist the agriculturist in the United States; but, as the Secretary remarks in his report, ‘‘ great as the work undertaken and accomplished has been, and gratifying as are the results, weare still at the threshold of agri- cultural development, and the educational work which has led to such grand results has only been extended as yet to a portion of our agricultural popu- lation.”—I. E. a ‘ f ) 3 Oct, 1906.] 349 Current Literature. The Economic Resources of Uganda.—This is a report by M. T. Dawe, officer in charge, Forest and Scientific Department, Uganda, of a botanical mission through the forest districts of Buddu and the Western and Nile Provinces of the Uganda Protectorate. An interesting description is given of the country, the vegetation, the animals and the inhabitants of this hitherto little known region. The report pays particular attention to the general distribution of plants, and especially notes the distribution of Funtumia elastica and other important rubber plants, and of trees affording useful timber. An important result of the mission was the discovery of Funtumia elastica (or Kickxia elastica, as it used to be ealled), the Lagos silk rubber tree, which was not hitherto known to exist in Uganda, andits rubber had never been exploited by the natives. ‘Its discovery came, therefore, as a great boon to Uganda, seeing that at the present time rubber is of such great commercial importance, and the tree being indigenous no further proof was necessary to assure us of its suitability to our climate and soil.” Three new species of Landolphias or rubber-yielding lianas were found—Landolphia Dawei, L. subturbinata, and L. ugandensis—and also one of the Clitandras (C. orientalis). These rubber plants are illustrated by plates of botanical drawings made at Kew by Miss M. Smith. Numbers of fine timber trees were also found, and a large collection of valuable timbers made. The greater part of the districts traversed was covered with dense forests and much swamp was found in parts, while the civilization of the natives is very limited and their agriculture of the most primitive description except in a few districts. As regards land suited to planting and agriculture froma Kuropean standpoint, the ‘best is said to be in the Mboga and Bwamba countries along the Ruweunzori and Mboga ranges, up to 8,100 feet. ‘*The lower slopes of this mountain range seem to be admirably adapted to the cultivation of tea; the soil is very rich, and I should imagine the rainfall to be here quite 100 inches per year. The whole of this country constitutes one of the finest and richest districts for the purposes of cultivation that I have seen within this Protectorate.” An interesting remark is made concerning the Acholi people, who domesti- cate the wild forest bee; making ‘“‘ long cylindrical hives about 4 to 5 feet in length and 12 to18 inches in diameter, of bamboos, wattles, or bark, usually placed in low Ficus trees.” The former of these I am convinced, will, when the industry developes, have of necessity to be abandoned in consequence of the length of time and amount of labour in preparation, but while you can still send biscuits and sheet you will, I think, find buyers. 5 In conclusion, the industry regarding actual plantation rubber is young; so until shipments come in more important lines, it would be unwise to definitely decide on any one system of preparation for the London market. We at home in London watch with keen interest the development of this industry, and I can only say we like Eastern plantation rubber and want more, and hope that nothing will happen to make the prospects of good supplies less hopeful than they are now. (Applause.) THE DISCUSION. Dr. WIL.is :—Ladies and gentlemen, we have listened to two very interest- ing papers on rubber, and I feel sure they will provoke a most interesting discussion. I would call on anyonein the room to offer any remarks they may have to offer. ; Mr. JAMES RyYAN:—I should like to ask Mr. Brett and Mr. Smithett a question «propos of the price of rubber in London. I take it that the Ceylon biscuit, which is now getting a price of very close on 6s., is, from information just given me, getting about 6d. a lb. better than fine Para, which Mr. Brett has just told us shows about 20 per cent in the matter of impurities, in some cases 40. 20 per cent of 5s. is Is., and we are exporting pure rubber and getting a 6d. for our shilling. That appears to be the differential value, and I take it that the rubber imported into London from Para is subjected to the expense of washing which will give the manufacturer a great deal more, and yet he is able to give us 6d. instead of a shilling ; so that we may bear in mind that whether it be due to superstition or not, the London manufacturer is not prepared to give us the full benefit of our manufacture in the form of hard cash, and that is the way we wantit. (Laughter.) sche a Mr. SPENCER BRETT :—I assure you the reasons for the difference in price Mr. Ryan has just referred to, are far more tangible than supersition. In the first place it must be borne in mind that I gave the figures of the actual rubber contents— that is, not the actua: figures showing loss in washing from the manufacturers’ point of view. The manufacturer does not look entirely on pure rubber contents. What he has to do with is loss in washing; because Para, fine hard-cured South American, may only possess 77 per cent of pure rubber, it does not follow that it is going to lose this 23 per cent in manufacture. In fact the rough average of the loss of washing in finehard Para, I think, is 15 to 18 per cent. That is one point of importance. The next is rather more complicated. In the first place, as I have been trying hard toimpre:s upon you, your industry is very young, and I have made particular note that with other grades of rubber it has taken some time—a consider- able number of years in some instances—before the methods of preparing these — grades have been perfected; and until that has been done, you cannot arrive ata ‘ proper standard of the value. In the third place, as you all know, the importations of plantation rubber have been extremely small in comparison with the world’s — consumption, and to give you anidea I may say that the amount of plantation rubber from Ceylon and Malaya exported into London last year was 171 tons as compared with the total production of 60,000 tons, and that is spread all over the world. I think you will all agree that it gives very small scope for experiment and commercial using; so I think it is only reasonable to expect that some time must elapse and large quantities must be handled by the manufacturers before youcan have all the qualities of your produce fully recognised and appreciated. (Applause.) — ORS a, a We * 1 eka. Bi a EA, ae foyer fen Me Nov. 1906.] 371 Saps and Exudations. Mr. JAMES Ryan:—That does not alter the fact. Mr. Brett tells me that 20 per cent is lost in Para rubber by impurities. If I buy one thousand |b. of Para rubder, taking 20 per cent as the net impurities—he says 15 to 20 per cent—he gets 800 1b. of pure rubber and pays 66,000 pence for it; but if he buys 1,000 lb. of Ceylon plantation rubber, 960 lb. is pure rabber; the deduction is under 4 per cent, but he only pays 69,000 pence or an increase of 3,120 for another 160 lb. of ruabber—(Laughter).— Which means that he gets 160 lb. of Ceylon rubber at the rate of 2d, a lb. (Laughter.) ’ Mr. Spencer Brett :—I would add to my previous remarks by saying there are many other considerations. I pointed out the ones I thought the most important but, of course, one consideration is the point that has been very widely questioned indeed, and upon that no one yet can definitely give a verdict, namely, whether by the nature of the plantation rubber it will be able at any time to supplant and actually take the place of fine hard South American Para rubber. I myself am very hopeful indeed about this, and this Exhibition has greatly increased my hopefulness; but at the same time it is quite impossible at this stage of the industry to get the manufacturers to adopt all those views, and as I have already tried to explain the manufacturers go by results, and until they definitely get these results they will not be prepared to pay a high premium fora grade that they do not fully understand. On the other hand, it is being experi- mented with all this time, and I think there is not the slightest doubt that once it comes into consumption on a large scale, and is found after severe tests extending over a length of time, Iam sure that many manufacturers will handle it instead of fine hard Para. At that time, Iam equally convinced, you people will get the full advantage of the superiority of your product. (Applause.) | EXPERIMENTS IN PREPARATION METHODS. Dr. WILLIS :—Now is the time when we ought to make our experiments in the preparation of rubber for the market. As Messrs. Smithett and Brett have told us, the market is ina fluid condition and we can now try experiments with more chance of success. Supposing we go on making: biscuits for another couple of years without trying any other method, biscuits will be on the market in very large quantities, and the market will be so wedded to the biscuit that the manufacturers would begin to look very much askance at any other form of rubber. Now we only make small quantities, but itis time to try experiments of making up rubber ina different kind of way, and we ought to do that. I say this because there are a num- ber of people who say that the time for experimenting is too soon. We know biscuit will work; let us stick to biscuit and let other things be tried later on. The present is the time to try them before the market gets thoroughly wedded to biscuit, sheet or block, whatever it may be. There are so many other forms in which rubber can be placed upon the market, that now is the time to try those forms before the market gets fixed. (Applause.) It seems to me that the subject is of very great importance ; and as we have heard a good deal about it from the brokers’ point of view, we should like to hear the planting side of it put forward by some gentle- man present, who will have a perfect right to do so. CREPE RUBBER. Mr. HERBERT WRiGHT:—Mr. Smithett brought forward the question of sending crépe rubber to the London manufacturers, and he pointed out the disadvan- tage that a certain amount of material was necessarily lost, but he apparently forgot to remind us that crépe rubber, as Mr. Smithett convinced me yesterday, is the only form in which rubber can be guaranteed to arrive free from mould or from tackiness. I understood, from conversation with the Judges yesterday, that during the last few months there has been a large increase in the quantity of biscuit, and ‘even sheet rubber, which has arrived in a mouldy or tacky condition, and the appearance of the crépe during the same period was free from such defects. Gums, Resins, 372 [Nov. 1906. Mr. SmitHEeTT :—Mr. Wright is quite correct in his statement. I think we may say we have never noticed mould appearing upon fine crépe; and I think that when the trade becomes used to it, it will sell. But the question I wish to see solved is whether the loss in weight is justified by the time saved. Mr. WRiGHT :—It is much easier to manufacture rubber in that form, and the treatment that rubber has to pass through is comparable with cocoa in Ceylon. I know in other countries—South and Central America and the West Indies—they do not regularly wash their cocoa before sending it to the market, but they send itina sun-dried state. Cocoa is sent home from Ceylon asa washed material, because we want to keep up its high standard of purity. If we can associate the higher standard of purity gained by washing with freedom from the defects of mouldiness and tackiness, I think crépe will ultimately appeal to the Ceylon planters. Mr. JAMES RYAN :—It takes a very much longer time to make a given finite biscuit than given finite crA4pe. The saving in time is practically one of days. This morning a specimen of wet crépe was made in twenty minutes. I timed the machine very carefully, and from the time the latex was poured into the separator, then into the Michie-Golledge machine to be coagulated under difficulties, and it was passed through the Federated Malay States Engineering Co.’s machine, the time from start to finish was twenty minutes. With a vacuum drying machine the further operation would have taken an hour and ahalf. The result of the experiments in brick rubber that we have made to-day is equal, if not superior, to that of any rubber in the Show. We took some vacuum-dried ecrépe and subjected it to a pressure of 482 tons—three tons to the square inch of 184 square inches—-and the result was a block of rubber which, I was informed by Mr. Campbell of Lanadron, he considered superior to that which had taken the gold medal for the best rubber in the Show. The question of time and the question of packing answer themselves, because the question of ocean freight would certainly not exceed half or two-thirds at the outside of the ocean freight of a given sample of : biscuit in box, or crépe in box, or lightly blocked rubber in a box. The question resolves itself into whether the screw pressure which secured block rubber is a method which improved the quality of rubber, which some seem to think it does; or whether it deteriorates quality. Personally I have come to the conclusion that the stored-up energy in blocking rubber promises to improve the individual elasticity and resiliency of rubber—two points I am perfectly certain manufacturers look greatly to. Transparency of appearance is secured by purity. Resilience isa matter whichis inherent in the rubber itself. The other point that we have now got to look to is one which can only be determined by a very big series of experiments which have not yet been undertaken. I am sorry that Mr. Carruthers is not here this evening—(A voice: He is here.)—to show us the working of that very ingenious and excellent machine which he has devised, and which unfortunately was damaged in transit, but if he would show us the broad principles we would be glad to wait ten or fifteen minutes longer to listen toit. Rubber is very largely used in electricity. There is the point of electric resistance in rubber, and if we can secure those points of commercial purity and toughness of resilience and the rapid resistance to the strain of buffers, and for springs and coils; and if we can also get electrical resistance—and we are going to get it—if we could only get it very soon by experiments long before trees are bearing, we shall jhave solved all these problems, and you will have Ceylon at the top of the tree and Para nay, whistle down the wind. (Laughter and Applause.) Mr. CARRUTHERS :—Mr. Ryan in his winning way has forced me to get on my feet, but I do not think I have very much to say, except that I wish very much on behalf of the Farther East to thank these two gentlemen, Mr. Brett and Mr, Smithett, for the frank way in which they have told us their requirements and. oe te cad ee pee ee ee <4 tos ee Chale bs pital jada OA IE ON eo) as ' Nov. 1906.] 373 Saps and Hxudations. given us sound advice as to how we ean please our masters, the London manu- facturers. As faras I can gather, the matter, put into a nutshell, is that we must go for purity, and that we may expect not only to keep up the present high standard of our rubber and in time to improve upon it after manufacturers have had more experience with our rubber and be able to rival Para. As to the machine Mr. Ryan has kindly referred to, some two years ago I was interested in trying to devise some simple machine which would test the resiliency and elasticity of rubber, and I brought it here because I thought it would interest visitors to the Exhibition. Unfortunately, ever since I have arrived, 1 have been practically judging from eight o’clock in the morning until dark, and with this were inter- spersed various hospitable functions and other things which left me no time to put it together. I promise to do so to-morrow, so that any one may see it and judge it for himself. A hearty vote of thanks to the lecturers was proposed by Dr. J. C. Willis and was heartily accorded. THE INDUSTRY IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. Toe LaABouR PROBLEM: LAcK oF NERVE IN RUBBER. An interesting interview with Mr. EK. Val Carey, a well-known planter of the Federated Malay States, is published in the Ceylon Observer (Oct 8th). In reference to the future labour supply Mr, Carey said :— “The future seems to be perfectly bright. With regard to Indian labour I can see no reason why we should not be able to get all the coolies we want, mainly because the fixity of exchange at 2s. 4d. has sent up the remitting value of the dollar by 20 per cent; and while the dollar wages remain stationary from the point of view of the local currency equivalent, the actual result of the fixture of exchange is that we get an enormous pull in remitting value. There is no doubt, if there is, as suggested, competition over at the coast between Ceylon and the Straits for labour, the higher rates which—from a remitting point of view—weare paying over in the Straits must attract labour to us rather than Ceylon, especially in the case of new districts in either country which have not previously been established or known to coolies. Apart from Indian labour, anybody who is interested in labour over in the Straits must always remember there is the absolute assurance against a labour famine in the proximity of Java. The Javanese cooly, whois imported direct, enters into indentures to work for three years, and his cost at the end of that period, approximates, and in fact is rather less, than the wages paid to the Tamil.” ** Are Javanese plentiful and easily obtainable ?” “The last census of the island of Java was taken in 1902, I think. Java was then shown to possess 82 million inhabitants who are increasing at the rate of 600,000 per annum. The Dutch Government are face to face with this enormous population, and the need for finding supplies for them, which means increasing importation obligations every year—because they are growing so tremendously, and the country is practically cultivated up to the hill-tops—are only too anxious to place these people in localities where they feel they are being well looked after. So that to sum up, the situation, it seems to meas regards Tamil labour, is bright in the extreme. We inthe F.M.S., most of us old Ceylon men, have naturally been anxious to employ Tamils rather than Javanese; but supposing for the sake of argument we cannot atany time get sufficient labour from India, we are in the impregnable position of being able to get as many Javanese as we can possibly want.” 49 Gums, Resins, B74. “It is often said,” Mr, Carey added, “China is a further source of supply, but in actual practice the experience is that men have not much use for Chinese coolies in agricultural work, mainly for the reason that they are not able to speak their language, and to successfully work orientals one must be able to get into that intimate voc with them which can only be done by becoming familiar mae their language.” Proceeding Mr. Carey then made the following interesting statement :— “One thing which I do think is a very important question,” he said, ‘is this suggested. and I believe real, lack of nerve in our rubber in the Straits Settlements and F.M.S. Undoubtedly, without any question, rubber which is extracted from young trees is not so full of tensile strength as that from older trees. The older the tree that supplies the latex, the tougher the rubber; but that does not in my opinion amount to a sufficient reason for the absence of nerve which our rubber undoubtedly shows. I believe myself that the days of sheet and biscuit and crépe are reaching their end. The reason for that is that we know, in spite of what certain people have said to the contrary, that almost any rubber prepared in a thin form responds to the corrupting influence of the atmosphere and gradually perishes. It is not necessary to expose it to the direct rays of the sun, butif you leave it on your office table you will find as day succeeds day, your rubber becomes less and less resilient; and I put that down to the fact thatin our eagerness to secure the most rapid drying, we are placing our goods on the market in the thinnest possible forms, and therefore exposing the maximum surface to what I have called the corrupting influence of the air. At the present moment, I may say, I am having sent home a considerable sample, amounting—I hope—to 2 or 8 ewts. of rubber which has been kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. J. A. Mac- Gregor, the Manager of the Anglo-Malay Rubber Company. This rubber was some years or so ago, when in a freshly coagulated form, made up into rough balls of various sizes—owing, as I understand, to a temporary breakdown in the machinery. A certain amount of moisture was expressed by hand pressure, and the balls of freshly coagulated latex were laid down on the cement floor of the store where they were left until recently, when I saw them there. I had one of these big balls cut open, and I found it honeycombed in the centre with cells containing evidently putrid moisture, and the rubber itself had got on the outside a thin coating, black and shiny, of obviously cured rubber. The inside was perfectly white in colour—as white as the day it was taken out of the coagulating pans—and it had all the appearance of a perfectly immature product in the centre, as indeed did all on the inside of this slight black rim which was just onthe surface; but on attempting to break even the smallest portion away from this white mass, I found that the tensile strength was so tremendous, it was impossible to pick outa piece even as big asa pin’s head, I was very much impressed with this because, though Ihave not the exact facts and details as regards the age of the trees from which this rubber was obtained, I gathered from conversation with Mr. MacGregor it was just the average intake of latex from average trees ranging from 5 to 7 or 8 years of age. “Though, of course, in the absence of scientific examination by means of mechanical apparatus it was not possible to say what the tensile strength of this rubber was, still to the ordinary observer like myself it was perfectly clear it was very much greater than I had ever seen it in any other form. And the con clusion I came to was that the hardened surface had hermetically sealed the contents of the block within to such an extent that even the evaporation of the moisture had not been possible. _Nothing could escape and—as nothing could escape—no perishing influence could get in. I believe we shall find very shortly [Nov. 1906. wae “ie FP’ Teo sire Mk Riliieiel Nov. 1906.) 375 Saps and Hxudations. that if we send home our stuff in blocks which are obtained by hydraulic or any other pressures from a mass of ‘latex, this ery of tackiness and lack of nerve in our rubber will immediately cease. “JT may say that the examination of this piece of rubber took place some weeks before anyboly knew Mr. Pears was preparing rabber in block form; and, of course, the rubber I am speaking of has a perfectly different appearance from block rubber prepared by Mr. Pears which, [ understand, is quite clear. But it is analogous in every way except for its excessive freedom from impurities, such as pieces of bark, with the Para which the Amazon sends to the market, and which I have seen in large quantities in the rubber factories in America. I propose, directly I get home, to submit this lot to every conceivable test through Messrs. Gow, Wilson and Stanton, who have gota laboratory specially put up to deal with questions of this nature, and as soonas I have completed the report on it I shall communicate it probably to Ceylon as well as to the Straits with Mr. MacGregor’s permission.” Mr. Carey’s idea is that the latex should be strained and coagulated, smoke perhaps being used as an antiseptic and as much moisture as possible expressed, and then pressed into blocks. He points out that when the demand for plantation rubber for solution is supplied, the market for the Hastern product will depend upon its strength and resiliency ; and even although they may have to pay a little extra freight for sending some more moisture home, it is better to do this if extra qualities that will commend it to the buyers, such as strength and resiliency, can be obtained. RUBBER CULTIVATION IN SAMOA, The Consular Report on Samoa for 1905 contains the following account of the rubber industry there :— The Samoa Caoutchoue Company, Berlin, capital £75,000 and upwards, has commenced operations on a large tract of ground at Saluafata, 12 miles from Ania, and has planted out many thousand seeds of Hevea. Rubber cultivation being an entirely new thing in Samoa, it is impossible to makea positive and certain forecast regarding it, butin the opinion of some it offers greater advantages than eacao or coco-nut planting. That Castilloa will grow hereis quite certain; but until tapping has begun and the yield can be approximately ascertained, it is impossible to say whether this or any other rubber tree will yield sap to the same extent as is the case in their natural habitat ; but, as conjectured above, this culture appears to be likely to yield, in any case, a profitable return on the capital invested. Mr. T. Andrew furnishes the following report :— ‘In 1904 I supplied your yearly report with a few remarks on the cultivation of Hevea brasiliensis in Samoa. Since then the trees have grown rapidly; not so much in height asin girth—they are just six years old from the seed. Measuring twenty-five consecutive trees at 3 feet from the ground, the largest tree measured 244 inches in circumference ; the average of the whole was 174} inches. Considering the fact that these trees have been entirely under native supervision, with the exception of occasional visits of the owners, it may reasonably be expected that, on plantations laid out by companies and under proper supervision, the trees will present a more promising appearance than do the above under the conditions stated. ‘The measurements are by no means insignificant when compared with those made at the experimental gardens of the different districts of the zone of rubber culture. The trees in question are planted 15 by 15 feet among cacao trees, at an altitude of 1,100 feet above the sea. The aspect is favourable, and the distri bution of rain is more even than on the low-lying lands which have the same aspect. Pie Mier id) il Gums, Resins | 376 [Nov, 1906. Some of the trees are being tapped, and the result of yield and quality of the rubber will be looked forward to with interest by those engaged in the culture, and by others who are waiting for proofs of the results of the experiments. The high prices prevailing for first-class articles, and the apparently permanent demand for rubber, have given a considerable impetus to rubber cultivation in Samoa. Other companies under able management have commenced operations here. Notably the Berlin Caoutchouc Company at Saluafata, near Falefa, with an area of 6,000 to 7,000 acres. Their first clearing of 500 acres is now ready for planting out and they have about 1,000,000 young Hevea plants growing in the nurseries. The situation of this estate is ideal: a gradual] ascent from the sea, with a maximum height of, say, 600 feet above it; the rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year. The soil is splendid, containing sufficient clayey mixture to retain moisture in the event of prolonged dry weather. The whole is almost encircled by a high range of mountains 1,500 to 2,500 feet in height. Next comes Mr. Harman’s (Birmingham) Upola rubber plantation. As yet there are no details respecting the operations of this company; but, judging from the rapid progress made by the Upola Cacao Company, which is under the same mavagement, a promising prospect may safely be predicted.’ THE LONDON RUBBER MARKET. LoNnpDON, September 28th.—At to-day’s auction, 334 packages of Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 259 were sold. The total weight amounted to over 20 tons, Ceylon contributing about 2} and Straits Settlements nearly 18. The market was fairly steady for all descriptions and good general competition characterised the auction, though in many cases the prices offered for the finest grades (principally'crépe) did not come up to sellers’ ideas. A parcel consisting of 20 cases of very fine pressed blocks from the Lanadron Estate (Johore) realised the top price in the auction, viz., 5s. 10d, perlb. The best sheet and biscuits sold at from 5s. 6d. to 5s. 77d., and crépe can also be quoted at the same figure. There was a strong demand for the darkish erépe running up to about 4s, 10d. to 4s. 1ld. In Ceylons, one or two cases of fine biscuits realised 5s. 7d. per lb. Plantation fine to-day.—5s. 6d. to 53. 7+d., same period last year, 6s. 2d. to 6s. 3d. Plantation scrap.—3s. to 4s. 6d., same period last year, 3s. 10d. to 5s. 4d. Fine hard Para (South American).—5s. 1$d., same period last year, 5s. 6d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation rubber.—259 packages at 5s. 57d. per Ib., against 163 packages at 4s. 9d. per lb. at last auction. Particulars and prices as follows :— CEYLON. MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. F. B. 1 case aerar ane rejections, 4s.; 1 case dark scrap 4s.; 2 cases ditto, Ss. 13 ° Warriagalla 1 do good pale amber to darkish biscuits, 5s. 6d.; 1 bag ditto dark, 5s. 4d. Ballacadua 3 do fine pale and palish biscuits, 5s. 7d. Waharaka 1 do good darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 2 cases darkish scrap, 3s. 9d. Palli 1 do pale and palish cut biscuits, 5s. 5$d.; 1 case heated scrap and lump rejections, 4s. Ingoya 5 do fine pale to darkish biscuits, 5s, 7d.; 2 cases good palish to darkish pressed scrap, 4s. 6d. Langsland 5 do fine palish to darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d.; 4 cases good darkish — to dark biscuits, ds. 63d. _ Culloden 6 do fine pale to darkish biscuits, 5s. 7d.; Se eases good palish mt). pressed crépe, 5s. 1jd.; 2 cases ditto, very dark, 4s. 9id. Ellakande 2 do good palish to darkish biscuits, ds. 7d. Nikakotua 3 do good palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 7ds Mo) a wd 4 ee Stee ae ese Nov. 1906.] . 377 Saps and Exudutions. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. B.R.R. Co., Ltd. 9 cases eeb erépe, 4s. 97d.; 3 cases ditto, darker and inferior, 4s. 8d. Sungei Krudda 8 do good palish to darkish scrap, 4s. 45d. S.K.S. 1 do good palish scrap, 4s. 4d. Highland Est. 11 do good darkish scored sheet, 5s. 7d.; 8 cases palish to darkish crépe, 5s. 4d.; 3 cases darkish crépe, 4s. 10$d.; 5 cases darkish to black crépe, 4s. 10d. RM.P. Ltd. (in HKstate mark) 5 do good palish to darkish ecrépe, 5s. 5d.; 19 cases darkish to dark crépe, 4s. 103d. B.M.&C. D. 3 do good palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 6d.; 1 case scrap and heated biscuits, 2s. 94d. B.M.&C. C, 1 do rejections, 3s. 6d.; 1 bag ditto, 3s. 6d.; 1 case darkish pressed scrap, 3s. 3d. L.E. (Muar in trian- gle) Straits 20 do very fine strong pressed blocks, 5s. 10d.; 1 case good darkish créve, 5s.; 1 case ditto darker, 4s. 10d. S.P. Gin circle) 5 do good palish to darkish scored sheet, 5s. 7d.;1 case ditto paler, 5s. 7d.; 1 case ditto palish to darkish, 5s. 6d.; 1 case ditto darker, 5s. 6d.; 1 case darkish crépe, 4s. 11$d.; 1 case ditto darker, 4s. 10d. Do. 1 bag palish to darkish pressed scrap, 4s. 0$d. B.C. (A. in trian- , gie) 2 do palish to dark biscuits, 5s. 6d. S.R. Co. 18 do good darkish scored sheet, 5s. 6d. to 5s. 7d.; 2 cases good palish pressed crépe. 5s. 7d.; 4 cases darker, 5s. 44d.; 1 case thick darkish pressed crépe, 4s. 83d. V.R.C.O. Klang F.M.S. (in Estate mark) 24 do fine palish to darkish small scored sheet, 5s. 6?d.: 17 cases little darker, 5s. 6d.; 3 cases thick palish pressed crépe, 5s. 43d.: 12 cases darker, 4s. 10d.; 1 case black, 4s. 44d. K (in triangle) 1 do inferior pressed scrap, 3s. 53d. P.S.E. 5 fine palish sheet, 5s. 7d. S. (in triangle) 10 do good small palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 63d. [oF ° R.R. Jebong 16 do fine large palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 7d. S.B.R.C. Ltd. (in cliamond) 7 do fine large palish to darkish sheet, 5s. 74d. Camphor. THE CHINESE INDUSTRY, 1905. The business done in camphor in China, according to a Consular Report, though large compared with previous years, fell short of general expectations. The year 1905 opened under most favourable conditions; there was a strong demand for camphor on the European markets and prices ruled high, while locally it was possible to procure the article at very profitable rates, which foreshadowed a large and lucrative business. The monovoly, too, that had existed a couple of years previously had been quashed, and the upcountry native dealers, relieved of this restriction, threw themselves energetically into the manufacture and freely contracted to supply foreign merchants at reasonable prices. A considerable number of contracts were entered into in this manner. Unfortunately, however, this state of things was not permitted to last. The officials soon interfered; proclamations were put out closing certain districts and forbidding the manufacture and sale of camphor by private persons. This rendered the carrying out of the contracts entered into by native Gums, Resins, 378 : [Nov. 1906. manufacturers impossible. Representations to the authorities were without effect, and even claims made on them for losses which were proved to have been sustained through their direct obstruction of the trade, in violation of our treaty rights, failed to have effect, and it was with the utmost difficulty that business was carried on. The price of camphor on the local market—from being $70 or $80 in 1904—rose to $118 per picul in January, 1905, and to $130 towards the close of the year, while during the succeeding three months it was as high as $190. During this time the contract price in the interior ruled from $60 to $100 per picul; so that had no official interference in the free manufacture of the article intervened, a very large business would have resulted. Notwithstanding all this, however, the returns show a wonderful development in the trade since the year 1902 when camphor first made its appearance in the lists of local exports. CAMPHOR CULTIVATION IN SOUTH INDIA. RECOGNISED AS A SPECIAL PRODUCT. Mr. J. McKenzie, of Prospect estate, Nedivattam, having applied for remis- sion of assessment on 60 acres of land which he proposed to plant with camphor in Prospect estate, the CoJlector of the Nilgiris called for remarks from the Curator, Government Gardens, Ootacamund, as to the prospect of its successful cultivation in that district and the length of time for which the product would yield no return. The latter having replied that the cultivation was worth encouraging, and that it will not yield any return till the trees were five years old, the Collector recom- mended that camphor be recognised asa special product, and that the cultivation be exempted from assessment for five years, The Board having supported the Collector’s recommendation, the Govern- ment have directed that the camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora, F. Nees) may be recognised as a special product, and that the assessment on lands newly planted with that product in the Nilgiri plateau may be remitted for five complete years. Nov. 1906.] 379 FIBRES. THE BAMBOO FOR PAPER MAKING. Mr. R. W. Sindall, who has been investigating on behalf of the India Office, the suitability of Indian fibre for paper-making purposes, expressed himself as follows in an interview with a representative of ‘‘The Paper Mill” of New York :— In my opinion, the bamboo of India may some day supplant the spruce wood now being used in the manufacture of pulp for paper-making. I have made a lengthy experiment, and have found that the bamboo is practical in the manufacture of pulp. I believe that capital can be secured. I would not be surprised if a company were soon to be formed for the purpose of establishing a pulp and paper mill in Burma. While my investigation was conducted for the Government, the Govern- ment itself has no intention of building mills, but is simply desirous of ascertaining whether or not the raw product available in that country is good and can be used in the manufacture of paper. The pulp I now have in my possession as a result of my experiments, is an excellent white piece of fibre, and compares very favourably with the spruce pulp manufactured in the United States. The rice and straw found there can also be utilised in making pulp, but the native wood, cotton- wood, is not good. Water power in India is very scarce, and in the event that a pape mill is established in Burma steam power would have to be resorted to. Petroleum would beused as fuel, as it is obtainable there in large quantities and is reasonably heap. The greatest item of consideration in competition with American paper manufacturers would be labour. People of India, for the most part, are infernally lazy ; in fact, it is the women who do most of the work. The native of India can be employed for eight cents per day. I also investigated the matter of freight rates and found that the pulp can be shipped from Rangoon the principal sea port in the vicinity, to an English port for 1°35 dollar per ton At the present time there are three paper mills in India, all located near Calcutta. One has a capacity of 200 tons per week and another 150 tons, The third I did not visit. On my way home I[ stopped at Shanghai, where I found the native Chinese manufacturing paper by hand. A unique process is employed in making this paper and from the time they start on a batch to the time it is ready for market one whole year has elapsed. The wood is beaten by hand and piled along the sides of mountains to bleach in the sun.—Indian Planting and Gardening. 380 EDIBLE PRODUCTS. Cacao Cultivation in Ceylon, IV. By HERBERT WRIGHT. FERMENTATION OF CACAO. (Lllustrated.) OBJECT OF THE PROCESS. i Briefly stated, the object of fermenting cacao seeds is to remove the sugary pulp surrounding them, to promote chemical changes within the kernels, ° to convert the bitter astringent taste into a sweet one, and to improve their colour, fracture, and flavour. Such changes are brought about when large numbers’ of seeds, fresh from the fruit, are heaped together and allowed to remain in contact with one another. Though the process involves a relative high temperature’ it is very rare that the latter destroys the embryo of the seed; to.a certain extent fermentation is a continuation of the processes commenced in the seeds after maturity. Ordinary fermented seeds, if dried under unfavourable conditions will germinate, the prevention of such developments being one of the main objects of curing; this proves that the fermenting of cacao does not involve chemical changes harmful to the vitality of the seeds. The necessity of, and improvement in quality effected by, the ordinary fermentation of cacao are generally acknowledged ; nevertheless, some countries do as little fermenting as possible, and in some places this operation is entirely neglected. According to some authorities the purple colour and bitter taste of the unfermented dried seeds are wanted by some markets. In 1902, several experiments were made at the Experiment Station, Pera- deniya, with the object of effecting a good curing of seeds which had been fermented inside the fruit. In the first experiment the fruits were exposed to the sun for seven days until the wall was brown and brittle; the seeds were then cured in the sun, some after washing, others without washing. The cured seed prepared in this manner was dark in colour externally ; internally it was very uneven in colour and not at all brittle. In asecond experiment the fresh unbroken fruits were placed in a curing house, and kept ata temperature of about 100° F. for three days. The beans, fermented under such conditions, were subsequently cured in the sun as in the first experiment, and with very nearly the same results. In a third experiment fresh seeds were exposed to the sun without any fermenting, but with poor results. In none of these experiments did the results obtained justify the change in our method of fermenting. All the seeds which were fermented inside the fruit, or cured without being fermented, had to be placed along with the “black” cacao, owing to the pliable nature and uneven colour of the substance of the seed. METHODS OF FERMENTING. It is now necessary to describe the various methods of fermenting adopted in different cacao-growing countries. In Ceylon most cacao planters adopt what may be termed the natural method of fermenting, which consists of heaping _ the fresh seeds on the floor or in receptacles and covering them with leaves of the banana, ordinary cloth, or layers of these alternating with layers of earth. The fermenting floor is usually built with a slope, so that the watery products may escape during fermentation. Each heap may consist of four or more bushels of fresh seeds, _ 4 which are turned over every day to prevent the temperature rising too high and to :” — ee oe ae ‘NOS S3HL NI OVOVO ONIYNSD “uDMID YY “ft “EH y 4 4 4 x ’ : hy , y' Nov. 1906. ] | 383 Edible Products, In Mexico, aceording to one authority. holes are made in the earth and covered with sacks or leaves of bananas;in these the seeds are placed and then covered by means of sacks or leaves; the material is then left till the cacao is sufficiently fermented. In Surinam, according to the same authority, the cacao is thrown into heaps in wooden sheds and then covered with banana leaves. In certain countries of South America the seeds are put into leather bags to ferment, and left suspended till the changes are complete; large casks are often used in which the fermented cacao is placed, and the casks rolled to aid in the mixing of the fermented mass. In Grenada and Trinidad, according to Van der Held, the Strickland method is employed; this requires a transference to three separate receptacles for different fermentations, the fermentation often requiring a dozen days. FERMENTATION IN JAVA, In the opinion of Van der Held, after his experience in Java, the cacao ferments best in receptacles of wood with the minimum quantity of air. It is not absolutely necessary that these should be constructed of closed walls, but they should be capable of being covered, and situated in places sheltered from the wind. In Java the termentation is sometimes made in movable receptacles, the wooden walls of which are perforated in order to allow the by-products of fermentation to flow away. In the same island sometimes fixed receptacles of large dimensions are used. If the production of cacao is not very considerable, Van der Held recommends the use of small movable receptacles, which can be easily cleaned. Fora large estate he recommends the following :— Place the fermenting tubs or troughs in an amphitheatre, and have the walls made of movable planks capable of being slided into the grooves of supports. Each receptacle is two metres long, one broad and one deep, and is capable of holding ten piculs of fresh seeds. They should be arranged in such a manner as to be on the same level, in a row, and their number increased according to requirements. When the seeds have been ten to twelve hours in the upper trough they are transferred to the trough beneath, this being easily done on account of the movable planks forming the walls. When the cacao in the upper chamber is to be put below it is only necessary to raise the partition. Van der Held obtained the best results by changing the receptacles twice a day in order to avoid heating ; this was done between sevenand eight in the morning and four and fivein the afternoon. The bottom of the chambers is perforated, the openings being about half-a-centimetre in diameter ; these allow the liquids to flow away. A gutter is fixed to the floor to conduct the liquid to a central] point should it be required for vinegar production. FERMENTATION IN THE WEST INDIES. In the Jamaica Bulletin for August, 1900, the following process is des- eribed :—‘‘ Accumulate at least 500 pods before breaking ; you will get better results by having larger quantities. A simple box is made one foot deep and varying in length and width according to the quantity of cacao; the contents of 1,000 pods require a box 2 ft. 6inches long, 2ft. wide and 1ft. deep (inside measurements) and will fill such a box to a depth of 9 inches. It must be constructed so that no iron nails come in contact with the cacao, for iron is attacked by the ‘“‘sweatings” form- ing a black liquor which discolours the cacao. The bottom of the box is bored with many holes, and is raised from the ground on two blocks of wood. It should be under _ coverand ina clean place free from dust. No lid is required., After filling with cacao, cover with a piece of clean sacking. Each morning turnup the whole mass with the hands; the cacao which was at the side and bottom being now towards the centre. [fthe quantity is small, turn out todry on the fifth day, if larger (say over 2,000 pods) on the sixth day, t.c., after five full days’ ‘‘ sweating.” Scrub out the box thoroughly, and wash and dry the sacking before beginning a fresh _ batch. Thus by a short fermentation of a shallow mass, with plentiful access of air, Edible Products. 384 [Nov. 1906. you will get better results than by keeping the mass closely packed together in a deeper vessel. The close packing of the mass does not make it hotter ;on the con- trary the more air reaches the mass, up toa certain limit, the hotter the cacao will become. As prices stand at present you will not find it advisable to ferment for a longer time, but on the other handI cannot recommend you to shorten the time by a single day as your cacao would then retain too much of its original bitter flavour.” This method is interesting, but whether it is largely adopted in Jamaica or else- where is not quite clear. FERMENTING CACAO IN TRINIDAD. The fermenting of the cacao in Trinidad is, according to Preuss, carried out on very much thesame principle asin Surinam, though fermenting houses in the former place are frequently only protected by a roof tokeep the rain off the boxes. Many methods are adopted in the island of Trinidad. One fermenting house on La Réunion Plantation, Trinidad, consists of sixteen compartments each 1.5 metres high and about as broad, and 2 metres long. The walls are made of wood, and between each two boxes and along the sides is a layer of clay and dried grass, sometimes about 20 cm. thick, to act asa non-conductor of heat; each compartment is supplied with a lid, The boxes are filled to a depth of about one metre with fresh wet cacao, covered with a layer of banana leaves and then closed. One box is kept empty so that the seeds can be transferred at any time, and the used boxes washed out every one or two days. The seeds are first fer- mented for one or two days, after which they are transferred to an empty box and fermented again for a similar period. The transference from box to box is made every one or two days until fermentation is complete, eight days being generally required for ordinary Forastero seeds and fourteen days for Calabacillo. In some districts the cacao is fermented in bags suspended in holes in the earth, the contents being repeatedly kneaded without the sack being opened; by this means fermentation is said to be affected in about five days. Another method is that associated with Cradwick, which consists of using a cask, perforated at the bottom to allow the liquid to escape; the floor is covered with athick layer of dried banana leaves (25 cm. in thickness), and the walls are covered with a layer of the same material. The wet seeds are placed in the cask and then covered with banana leaves and allowed to ferment ; after they have fermented for about two days, those in the upper part are taken out separately and subse- quently returned first to the empty cask soas to be at the bottom during the following days, and those which were previously at the bottom now occupy the upper part. This operation is again repeated after two days’ fermenting. This method is said to be suitable for fermenting cacao from about one thousand fruits. but if more are used an undesirable temperature may occur; if the quantity is less, more banana leaves are used and the cacao often weighted during fermentation. FERMENTATION IN AFRICA. The report® of one company operating in Africa states that in the preparation | of cacao very good results have been obtained by fermenting the cacao for six days, the cured product having lost much of its bitter taste and secured a higher valuation. The same persons also report that the washing of cacao, though it always gave them aclear bright colour, has now been dispensed with, as by omitting this operation they increase their weight of cacao by 8 to 10 per cent, In West Africa, according to Johnson, the old plan of preparing the beans for market by simply drying them in the sun has been abandoned everywhere in * Kamerun Land-und Plantagen -Gesellschafé, Hamburg, D. 581, Der Tropenflanzer, Noy. 1902» it Nov. 1906. ] 585 Edible Products, favour of the fermenting method introduced by the Government Botanic Depart- ment. ‘‘The beans are now placed in heaps upon mats and then covered up with mats weighed down with stones, and left for four days if this takes place upon the same day the pods are plucked, but for three days if upon the following day ; after which they are washed in baskets.” Various fermentation experiments have been made with the purple and bitter seeds of varieties cultivated in Cameroon, and reports have been issued which are, to a certain extent, somewhat contradictory. One authority,* however, asserts that by fermenting the seeds in a particular manner it is possible to almost entirely remove the bitter unpleasant taste so frequent in purple seeds fermented in the ordinary manner. LENGTH OF FERMENTATION, Though this process is considered to be of vital importance in the production of good kinds of cacao, there is a very conspicuous variation in the time allowed for fermentation, and most people calculate when fermentation is complete by the appear- ance of the material to the naked eye and the odour of the mass of seeds. Cacao is sometimes only fermented for two days, at other times the changes are allowed to continue for twelve or even more days, and in all cases cacao of good quality is apparently produced. It may, however, be considered safe to state that those varie- ties having thin integuments and white cotyledons require the minimum time, and those with thicker integuments and purple cotyledons the maximum ; to the former class belong the Caracas, Nicaragua, and some forms of Forastero, and to the latter the Calabacillo, Amelonado, and inferior kinds of Forastero. The length of time required can cnly be determined by practice, as the cheinical and physical characters of the seeds of the same variety vary according to the plant, its diseases, and tosome extent climatic conditions. It is asserted by some that the pulp which surrounds the seeds contains, in Java, more water during the west monsoon than in the east monsoon, and that in wet weather the fermenta- tion takes place more rapidly. The time required for fermentation will also vary according to the method employed, the market for which the cacao is prepared, and the quantity being fermented. Large quantities of cacao ferment quicker than small quantities, and due allowance must be made for this, In parts of Java the cacao is allowed to ferment two nights and sometimes evcno only one night on account of the condition of the seeds from diseased specimens. After a night of fermentation the seeds from diseased specimens may germinate and produce cacao which is for the most part broken, very light, and of bad quality. Usually healthy cacao is allowed to ferment three days. In Java the Criollo does not usually require to be fermented more than four days. The Criollo or Caracas type in Ceylon and Trinidad does not usually require more than two days, though it is oftenfermented for five ; the Forastero a day longer, andthe Amelonado four or fivedays. Preuss states that the finest and sweetest cacao requires twenty-four hours aud the bitter kinds six to eight days. Fermentation is considered complete when on cutting a seed transversely one notices that the cotyl- edons have separated and the sugary liquid occupies the spaces within the seed. On drying, the beans may be brown in colour and sweet to the taste or purple and bitter to the taste, the former being the desired characteristics on most European markets. (Tv be continued. ) * Zur Kakas—Fermentation, by Dr. A. Schulte in Hofe, Der Tropenflanzer, May, 1901. Edible Products. 386 TEA INDUSTRY IN FOOCHOW IN 1905. ‘ REPORT BY MR. CONSUL HERBERT F,. BRADY. In spite of its continuous decline tea still forms by far the largest article of export of Foochow. The decline in the present year appears more marked tkan ever, the total export being valued at £386,076, as compared with £622,744 in the preceding year; this may be accounted for in some measure by the fact that at the opening of the market the price demanded for Oolongs by the native dealers was more than the foreign buyers were prepared to give, which resulted in both parties holding aloof, and little or no business in this variety of tea being done until the beginning of the present year (1906), whereas, as a rule, the bulk of shipments go forward during November and December ; the whole of the last year’s crop is therefore practically excluded from the present returns. In the prosperous days of the tea trade of some 30 years ago the value of the tea exported from Hankow and Foochow (China’s two great tea centres) was estimated to be worth £7,000,000 or £8,000,000 more or less equally divided between the two ports. In 1876 the total export from Foochow amounted to 561,168 piculs (74,822,400 1b.), of the value of £3,004,720 (Tis. 10,099,900), while that from Hankow amounted to 648,007 piculs (86,400,933 lb.), of the value of £4,182,903 (Tls. 13,892,112), at 5s. 112d. the tael. The returns for Foochow for 1905 afford a striking illustration: of the remarkable change that has taken place :—126,880 piculs (16,910,667 Ib.), of the value of £286,076 at 3s. 1-10d. the tael; and the Hankow returns show a like decrease. The Consul quotes the following remarks of a local expert :— “Prices paid by foreign buyers were lower than in the previous season, and might fairly be described as ‘reasonable,’ but, even at such prices, shipments did not give very satisfactory results. In fact it seems hopeless ever to expect satisfactory results again. Total shipments to London only amounted to 3,827,728 | lb. as against 6,985,610 lb. for the previous season; yet even this small amount proved to be more than was wanted, anda great portion could only be got rid of at prices considerably below cost. The demand on the Continent of Europe showed a decided falling off, while America did not seem to want our teas at all. In 1886-87 the output of Congou was 1,451,000 half-chests ; in 1905-06 it was 173,500 half-chests! What remains of the trade, except in the case of some fancy kinds, exists only on sufferance. Our teas are not wanted for themselves, but for blending with Indians and Ceylons, and are only taken when teas from those countries are not to be had at reasonable prices.” CITRATE OF LIME. REPORT BY THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE ON SAMPLES FROM THE SEYCHELLES. Imperial Institute, London S. W., 26th May, 1906. Sir,—I have the honour to forward a report on the citrate of a lime, prepared in the Island of Silhouette, which was sent for examination to the Imperial Institute with letter No. 29/1906 of the 6th January last. The investigation has given very promising results, in view of which the question of the production of citrate of lime upon a commercial scale in the islands is worth consideration. I have, &c., WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN. H, E. the Governor, Seychelles. Nov. 1906.] 387 Edible Products. REPORT ON CITRATE OF LIME FROM SEYCHELLES. BY PROFESSOR WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN. A sample of citrate of lime manufactured in the. Island of . Silhouette was forwarded to the Imperial Institute by the Curator of the Botanic Station, Seychelles, and is referred to ina letter from the Governor, No. 29/1906, dated the 6th January, 1906, in which a report on the value of the product was requested. Description of Sample.—The sample consisted of one pound of a pale grey powder which hada slight pleasant odour. When moistened, the citrate of lime showed a faint greyish orange-brown colour, and it gave a yellow solution when dissolved in water. Examination of Sample.—The substance was examined in the Scientific and Technical Department of the Imperial Institute and was found to contain 84°56 per cent of citrate of lime (calcium citrate) and 0°42 per cent of free acid calculated as citrie acid, these constituents being together equivalent to 66°89 per cent of crystal- ised citric acid. It contained a small quantity of iron salt, equivalent to 0°7 per cent of ferric oxide, and also a little nitrogenous and mucilaginous organic matter. ‘I'he proportion of moisture, including water of crystallisation, was 12°57 per cent. The analytical results show that this sample of citrate of limeis of good quality, and that it contains very little organic impurity in the form of mucilaginous or colouring matter. No excess of calcium carbonate is present, but the amount of ferric oxide is rather high, owing probably to the use of impure chalk in the preparation of the product. Care should be taken to use a white chalk free from rusty patches for the neutralisation of juice. The amount of moisture is also rather high, viz.,12°57 percent. Air driedcitrate of lime ought to contain only about 7 to8 per cent of moisture, and it is desirable that this percentage should not be greatly exceeded in commercial consignments. Commercial Valuation.—A portion of the saraple was submitted to a large firm of manufacturing chemists in London who use considerable quantities of citrate of lime. This firm reported that the quality of the product is extremely good, especially as regards colour, percentage of citric acid, and freedom from lime and mucilage. In these respects it is superior to many commercial samples. The chief defect is that, more iron is present than usual, but, as already pointed out, this can be easily remedied in future by carefully selecting the chalkused for neutralising the juice. The present value of citrate of lime is £70 per ton. Thisis a higher figure than has prevailed for a long time, and the normal value is £45 per ton delivered in London. Conclusions and Recommendations.—It is-clear from these results that this sample of citrate of lime from Seychelles is of good quality and compares very favourably with the material at present on the market. It would be desirable to _ prepare a commercial consignment of the product, taking precautions to avoid the presence of iron, and to forward this for sale in London so that it could be brought . to the notice of manufacturers and its value definitely determined. It is of the highest importance that the citrate should be thoroughly dry before being shipped in bulk, as the effect of any dampness is to permit fermentation, which in some cases will go on to such an extent that a substance shipped as citrate of lime arrives at its destination in the form of impure carbonate. Want of care in connection with this point acted as a serious check to the Sicilian industry for many years. WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN. 26th May, 1906. [A fair amount of trade is springing up in citrate of lime, prepared by adding lime juice to chalk, and Ceylon should take a share in i, the lime being abundant here.—ED.] Edible Products. 388 COTTONSEED OIL AND MEAL AS A HUMAN FOOD. In June, 1905, it was my pleasure to bring to the attention of the Texas cottonseed crushers at their annual convention a few self-evident truths concerning the value of cottonseed meal asa breadstuff. Since that time my interest in the subject has steadily increased, and some very practical facts have been developed. In my experience with cottonseed meal asa breadstuff no disappointment has been encountered. [invite your critical judgment on the samples of cottonseed meal bread and cake distributed for your information and possible approval. I trust that you will find these specithens pleasant to the palate and entirely free from any objectionable taste or odour. But at the outset it should be clearly understood that cottonseed meal should never be used alone in bread making. In fact, pure cotton- seed meal bread is a scientific absurdity, however practicable it may be from a culinary standpoint. Its composition would closely resemble cheese, being over rich in protein, and having no parallel in the world’s food supplies. A combination of cottonseed meal with other recognized bread stuffs will greatly enrich the flours and meals now in use, while at the same time decreasing their cost to the consuming public. Within a short time I trust that the cottonseed crushers of the South may be able to announce the actual discovery of 4,500,000 tons of anew breadstuff fit for human consumption. If so, this material will approximate in quantity and far exceed in value the wheat crop of the largest wheat growing State in this country. VALUE OF COTTONSEED. Let us consider for a moment cottonseed meal, its origin, its composition, its value. This golden product is safely wrapped by ‘‘ Dame Nature” in a wooden eradle that we call the hull, and herein the womb of the plant, hermetically sealed with five waterproof coverings, there is elaborated the richest of all feed stuffs and bread stuffs. This insures cleanliness and freedom from disease, but to make assur- ance doubly sure, we find that during the process of manufacturing the meats, the whole mass of meal is sterilized by thorough cooking in order to more perfectly express the oil. We will next compare its nutritive value with corn flour and corn meal. These are chiefly valuable for their protein, but we find that cottonseed meal contains three times as much digestible protein as the highest grade of wheat flour or the best breakfast food now upon the market. Stated percentagely we find that the nutrients run as follows :— NUTRITIVE COMPOSITION OF STANDARD BREADSTUFFS. (Pounds per hundredweight.) ee Carbohy- Water. Protein. Fat. drates. Ash. First patent flour... oo LOTR ee Oe nasa ea e First clear grade ae .. 10.3 Appin kaye?) $a) Bid sf Ve ceclede Le eae as) 1 Corn meal .. , 12,1036 ee O83 coe! DO vee ZORA EO Cottonseed mealiyaies Ae ateh A283 10 DBD BOO aie The yellow colour of cottonseed meal is due to a substance known to chemists as gossypin. It affordsa golden yellow dye for both silk and wool. The protein n our cottonseed meal, according to the Connecticut Station, consists largely of globulin, ‘“‘ agreeing in composition and general properties with the vitellin obtained from the seeds of wheat, maize, etc.” Sugar is found in cottonseed meal as deter- mined by German investigators which can be extracted with warm alcohol, obtaining about 8 per cent. of crystallizable material. To this sugar Bahm gave the name gossy pose. The above facts should encourage the scientists as wi as the oil mill interests to press the introduction of cottonseed meal as a bread stuff upon the attention of our people. Will the government help? There is literally nothing in print from our English-speaking scientists to show that any investigations have Nov. 1906. ] 389 Hdible Products. been undertaken with cottonseed meal as a human food. The introduction of macaroni wheat, its milling qualities, its value asa bread wheat has received the most careful consideration of the National Department of Agriculture, and this has resuited in the introduction and growth of durum, or hard wheats, in the great wheat growing regions of the Northwest by millions of bushels ; but when we scan government literature for information concerning cottonseed meal as a ‘human food, we seek bread only to find astone. In the report of the Bureau of Animal Industry for 1904 there is but one line of a table devoted to cottonseed meal. This merely shows in the middle of a 8-page table its digestible nutrients and relative value. But even the figures there presented seem to be counted of no value by the authors, although out of the total list of feed stuffs given in three pages of tabulated matter to show their relative money values, Southern cotton- seed meal heads the list in value per hundred pounds with the exception of a single other Southern product, peanut meal, Reckoning all of the feed stuffs of this country on their digestible features and counting the protein at 3°37 ¢. per pound, carbohydrates at 0.32c. per pound, and fats at 0.56¢, per pound, it is there shown that corn is worth 50c. per hundred pounds, wheat 57 ec. oats 48 ce. rice 39 c. linseed meal $1°09, and cottonseed meal $1°37. Nowhere else in this report of 632 pages is cottonseed meal given mention. But it cannot be argued that it is an insignificant product, for in 1905, according to census reports just published, there were 3,345,370 tons cottonseed meal. This should contribute somewhat to the gaiety of the nations and would minister to the welfare of the human race could this supply be commanded for the hungry peoples of the world, jn condition to use itas we are now so freely doing for hogs, horses, cows, sheep and all the poultry thriving in the barnyard. But referring again to the position of the Bureau of Animal Industry for the National Department of Agriculture which has engaged in experiments with food stuffs and digestion with livestock and with the human family in all parts of this country, it has just recently organized systematic experiments in co-oper- ation with the Alabama Experiment Station for a careful investigation of the feeding value of cassava roots with livestock, and other experiments with the Texas Station for the investigation of rice mill products. But there exists in the minds of many scientists and officials of this country a harsh prejudice against cottonseed meal. Northern writers in the agricultural press have for years hurled their shafts of criticism against cottonseed meal, declaring it to be an active poison and dangerous at all times and in all quantities. At the recent Louisiana Exposition dairy test held in St. Louis, Southern owners of Jersey cattle were unable to induce committees having the rations in charge to use more than 14 pounds of cottonseed meal for a cow, affirming that it would be dangerous. And yet this was the first feeding trial under government supervision in which cottonseed meal had ever been recognized as a practicable dairy feed. Some people areso slow to learn, Antagonism to the products of cottonseed may be readin nearly every annual report of the United States Dapartment of Agriculture, and yet there is no question of quality, yes, even the superiority of cottonseed products as compared wit! ot ier industrial competitors. As proof positive of this assertion, read with me the following admission appearing in the Year Book of the Department of \orieuiture for 1904, by L. M. Tolman, of the Division of Feeds, with reference to cotton ail. I commend this to your attention as a case of misdirected energy. He writes:— “The determination of the presence of small quantities of foreign fat in lavd is exceedingly (-.fficult and taxes the skill of the chemist to the utmost.” Then in discussing the failure of ordinary tests for cottonseed oil (page 395) he confesses as follows :—“In this country cottonseed oil is the cheapest fat available, and is used to a great extent. *~ * * The chemist must be able to say that the lard Edible Products. 390 (Nov. 1906. submitted to his inspection certainly has been adulterated—usually with cottonseed oil—or his testimony leaves a doubt. A great number of tests for cottonseed oil mixed with lard have been submitted, but practically without exception they have proven valueless.” If the learned chemists cannot recognize any difference between cottonseed oil and hog lard, why, then, should the government treat cottonseed oil as an outlaw? All persons eating cottonseed meal in combination with other bread stuffs have expressed great surprise at its rich flavour and its entire wholesomeness. On the 10th of May I had the pleasure of entertaining at my table the Executive Committee of the Texas Farmers’ Congress by invitation, and these guests ate freely of cottonseed meal and wheat flour muffins, and expressed their delight, satisfaction and surprise. It is worthy of note that cottonseed meal carrying about 12 per cent. of vegetable oil requires no addition of shortening material. Furthermore, it is surprisingly amenable to all of the laws of cooking, and according to the investigations of Dr, Kilgore, it renders all other foods eaten more easily digested. We are sometimes inclined to over-estimate the prejudice existing in the minds of our people (the laymen) against the use of cottonseed meal and cotton oil. As an indication of the truth of this assertion, permit me to call attention to the — fact that about two years ago the pages of “Farm and Ranch” were open for the discussion of these topics, and facts bearing, particularly upon the feeding of cottonseed meal to hogs according to the Allison method briefly stated. Since that time every issue of ‘‘ Farm and Ranch” is flooded with cottonseed meal and cotton oil articles in the nature of ‘‘come-backs,” and nearly all approving the more liberal use of these Southern products. As another evidence of the ease with which local prejudice may be broken down, I wish to personally testify that I have quite recently become a practical convert to the use of refined cottou oil for cooking and similar uses. I have used it tor weeks and months consecutively in my home to the exclusion of hog lard. My own prejudice against cotton oil for biscuit making was deep seated, because based on unfavourable experience of some fifteen years ago. Its sickening odour, when heated was familiar and still unforgotten, so that I was convinced that cotton oil could be prepared in no way that would fit it for the best table use, even when diluted with hog lard or beef suet—a ‘‘ compound lard.” That early experience was reliable as far as the product on which it was based was concerned. But invention has developed a new cotton oil—an oil freed from those old impurities which gave out the rank odour. Having used nothing but pure cotton oil as a ‘‘ cooking fat” in the home for some six months, I would be untrue to my convictions and to the valuable home product derived from Southern farms, did I not confess that cotton oil is equal in all respects for cooking purposes to the best lard. Smaller amounts of the oil are needed in cooking to secure just the correct ‘‘ shortening,” but this advantage is appreciated and understood by the dullest cook within a two week’s experience. Conviction as to its value as a cooking oil led to further experiments. If good for folks it must be good for brutes. So, when the dog was poisoned, we drenched it with cotton oil. In case of stress we ran to the can for a supply of mowing machine oil, as a matter of encouragemet to the squeaking lawn mower. It gave satisfactory results in both cases and we felt encouraged. The best improved olive oil which reaches America from Italy is said to arry a large percentage of ‘‘ American olive oil” —manufactured from the cotton. seed. I like olive oil on certain vegetables, and recklessly tried to substitute the vulgar cotton oil of American origin for the finest imported olive oil in preparing a dish of lettuce. I was even better pleased with the results. To the eye and to ity fh ON ee ee ee MY, Nie at alias Nov. 1906,] 391 Edible Products. the nerves of taste there was no difference between this plebeian of the cotton fields and the aristocrat of the Italian lazzaronis’ olive groves. I next tried it on an intelligent visitor, who unsuspiciously ate thereof. He complimented its quality, “liked the fine flavour, and was very fond of good olive oil, ete.” You may imagine his cheapened expression when told that it was ‘‘ pure imported olive oil, direct— all the way from the Dallas oil mill.” Having used cottonseed meal freely in making both corn and flour muffins, biscuit, pancakes, ginger bread, dark Graham bread, together with dark cakes of all sorts, there is no reason to doubt the entire fittedness of cottonseed meal for com- bination with other breadstuffs, If called to reduce the foregoing scattering facts to acommercial proposition at this time—preparing cottonseed meal and placing it upon the market for consumption as a bread stuff—I would advise the organiza- tion of a special company for the specific purpose of marketing cottonseed meal in an acceptable form to the consuming public. It can be done. Were I permitted to occupy the role of prophet, I would thrust back the curtain of years and see the cottonseed meal resulting from a twenty million bale crush of cottonseed, prepared as a white wholesome flour, robbed of its yellow dye, and sold in cartons upon the markets of the world as the most valuable, the most concentrated and the highest priced flour known to commerce. When at the end of ten years the South grows twenty million bales of cotton with its twenty billion pounds of seed, then the bread value of the meal in these seeds will equal in nutritive value the present crop of thirty-three billion pounds of American wheat, for such will be the result, I am satisfied, of the continued efforts of this association of Interstate Cottonseed Crushers as it meets from year to year to consider the great economic _ problem that rests upon your shoulders._(from a Paper read before the Interslate Cottonseed Crushers’ Association, Atlanta, U.S. A., by J. H. Connell.) Notes on Some of the Dry Grains Cultivated in Ceylon. / By J. F. Jowitt. In November, 1905, I received through the courtesy of Mr. C. Drieberg, Super- intendent, Government Stock Gardens, chiefly under their native names, a fine collection of seeds of cereals grown in Jaffna and the North of the Island, and from time to time he has kindly added to this collection. Iam also indebted to him for literature and letters on the subject ; amongst the letters, two particularly interesting ones from the Maniakar of Delft, the information contained in which I have availed myself of. A portion of the seeds were at once sowed in well-trenched patana soil at an elevation of 4,500 feet, and subsequently artificially manured, but owing to the poorness of the soil and the partial failure of the monsoon did not thrive. Other seed Isowed later in my kitchen garden at an elevation of 5,200 feet. At such an elevation the growth has not, naturally, been luxuriant, but it has been sufficient to enable me to identify the species and varieties. The following is alist of the Tamil names of the grains cultivated in the North, taken chiefly from a list forwarded to Mr. Drieberg by the Maniakar of Delft, to these namesI have added the Sinhalese synonyms as far as I have been able to learn them and the Botanical names. Tamil, Sinhalese. Varieties. Botanical. Mondy aid — ue — 7 Chamai i — ae — | Panicum Crus-galli — Gojara-wala ae — i var. frumen- Kuthrai-val | taceum., chamai Py — ed _ J Edible Products. 392 [Nov. 1906. Tamil. Sinhalese. Varieties, - Botanical. Ellu or Chiru ... — == Chamai Wen Heen Meneri — Panicum miliare Pani Chamai ... Meneri Panicum milia- ceum. -- re Powe Ne “ah .. Setaria glauca Tinai or an. Tana-Thani AS e ey ae Tinai Chamai or Tanakal ety Black, not seen \ Setaria italica Waraku soe Amu 08 Karal amu Paspalum serobi- culatum. -— ha ; — Abs Badu amu not seen — so a Math amu not seen Kani-pun-pillu (Pull Paddy or : Pull Rice) ... Polu omy — .. Pennisetum ty- phoideum. Muttu Cholam ... Bada Irungu ae — ... Zea Mays. Arise Cholum ... Karal Irungu Alas — .. Andropogon Sor- ghum. Kaka or Karum... _— tee — Me d Cholum ie — Ba — ies Oo Trungu ue Kalu Irungu — ... Andropogon Sor- ghum. Shada in — Asc — at do Nacheri A Kurakkan ae — ...Hleusine coracana Codai or Karutha = a — ap — Cappe mee Kalu Kurakkan ... not seen des do Marior Vellai — we — seh = Cappe ae Ella Kurakkan ... snot seen hue do I have also received notice of the following but have not seen them :— Kansa Meneri S. Val Meneri S. Mut-tan-ga pillu T. found growing with other grains in Uvaand on Kandy side, not cultivated. Koli-chudampillu T. not cultivated, grows in paddy fields and is weeded out. Never used as a grain. T shall be very grateful to any one who will kindly send me fresh specimens of those grasses marked ‘‘ not seen,” with their Tamil and Sinhalese names and the locality where collected, written on a slip of paper attached to the specimen. Panicum Crus-galli, var. frumentaceum. appears to be cultivated by Tamils under three distinct forms, viz., Mondy, Chamai and Kuthrai-val-Chamai, and by the Sinhalese under the name of Gojara-wala. Mondy, T.—This variety much resembles the wild species, Panicum Crus-galli, Marakku, S., but differs from it in its thickened crowded spikes and awnless glumes. The habit is erect, the stems are stout, leafy and much branched, leaves 18’ long by 2?’ wide in the middle, All the varieties are characterised by a peculiar horse-shoe marking at the juncture of the blade of the leaf and its sheath. The panicle in plants grown by me is 4 inches long, composed of spikes, alternate below, on all sides of the stalk above, with tufts of bristles at their bases. The spikelets are crowded on the spikes in groups of 2—3. This is Panicum frumentaceum, Roxburgh, who says: ‘There are several varieties of it known to the Hindvoo farmers. The seed is wholesome and nourishing, itis an article of diet, particularly amongst thelower classes of the natives, It yields about fifty-fold in a good soil. Cattle are fond of it,” In the Queensland Agricultural Journal tor April, 1906, Mr, F, Manson Bailey, F.L.S. Nov. 1906. ] 393 Edible Products. gives a drawing of it, and states that in that country it has made “a most luxuriant growth, stems 6 ft. in height, tender to the base, and should prove a valuable addi- tion to our fodder”; he also says that it produces a useful grain. Chamai T. (Anglice, grain).—This differs from ‘‘ Mondy” in being smaller, the stems slenderer and decumbent at their bases. Leaves smaller 5—6 inches ovate- lanceolate. The panicle is somewhat similar, but the upper spikes are all set altern- ately on one side of the stalk and do not surround it asin ‘‘Mondy”; the tufts of bristles at the base of the spikes are often wanting. The spikelets are crowded in groups of 2—3, but are smaller, being about 3mm. long as against about 5mm.in ‘‘Mondy,” Thesmall glumel often remains attached to the stalk, the spikelets falling away above it. Gojara-wala, S. (gojara, edible?—wala, grass.)—-This variety so closely resembles Chamai that I believe it to be the same grass slightly altered by climatic conditions. I grew it from seed kindly obtained for me from Uda Nuwara by my teamaker, Mr. J. A. Wijesingha. I also received a well-grown specimen from near Kurunegala, 4 feet in height, with the lower spikes over 2 inches long, alto- gether a robuster specimen than ‘anything I have been able to grow. The thicker stems, more flattened lower sheaths, stronger growth, somewhat longer, lighter coloured leaf, more elongate spikes, and these not so closely set with spikelets, and the more acute spikelets may constitute this a different variety. In Four Korales and Uda Nuwara Iam informed that ‘‘Gojara-wala” does not exceed 13—2 feet in height. Iam indebted to Mr. Wijesinghe who is acquainted with Tamil and Sanskrit as well as his mother tongue, for the English meanings of the names of the cereals and also for the uses made of the grains. “Gojara-wala” is used for conjee for the morning meal; when boiled with coconut-milk, it is considered a luxury, allowed to get hard and cut into diamond shaped pieces, itis known as “ Kiribath,” that is milk rice. Kuthrai-val-Chamai, T. (Horse-tail grass.)—This is a prostrate variety, the stems, 2 feet or more, stretching along the ground from a branched leafy base. Leaves 6—-7 inches by 2 of an inch, ovate lanceolate. The panicle exserted from the upper leaf is as long asit, and hasa triangular flattened appearance. Spikes alternate, decreasing from below upwards, the lowest léinches or more, upper about $ inch, the upper 14} inches of the rhachis unbranched but thickly studded with spikelets, bristles at base of spikelets very few. Spike-lets as in Chamai. The seeds of this variety, and those of “Chamai” and ‘ Gojara-wala” are practically indistinguishable, those of ‘‘ Mondy ” are considerably larger, rhombvidal ovoid, beaked, polished and striolate. (To be continued.) 304 [Nov. 1906. : PLANT SANITATION. Entomological Notes. By EH. ERNEST GREEN, Government Entomologist. ‘“Shot-hole-borer’ (Xyleborus fornicatus) remains a serious matter of con- sideration with tea planters,—more particularly within a radius of ten miles around Kandy. The question is being complicated by the occurrence of wound-fungi invading the galleries of the borer, and the attacks of white ants (termites) upon the fungus-infested tissues. I have reports from certain estates that, owing to the combination of these three evils the bushes are steadily deteriorating, and there is a general cry fora radical cure. I may say, at once, that I can offer little hope of such acure. Though nothing must be left untried, (and I have a further series of experiments in hand), I am not sanguine of finding any external application that will exterminate the borer and be at the same time practicable (from the point of cost) and harmless to the tree. It would be possible to coat the stems and branches with some viscid material that would prevent both the egress of the beetles then inside and the ingress of fresh insects from outside. I have already tried two such materials,—coal-tar and ‘smearoleum.’ The former completely killed the parts to which it was applied, while the latter effectually checked the development of any new shoots upon the treated surface. Such treatment fails also on the point of cost. Viscid mixtures cannot be applied by spray but must be painted on with a brush, and to answer the purpose every inch of the surface of the bark must be treated—a process occupying so much time that the cost of the work has been found to be prohibitive, even if otherwise satisfactory—which it is not. Any application that is of the nature of an air-tight coating must be injurious to such a plantas tea, in which the living tissues of the bark are un- protected by any corky superficial layer. If the stem of a healthy tea bush is even lightly scraped with the finger-nail, the green. living tissues are at once revealed. This bark contains lenticels which are functional in the respiratory processes, and any interference with their functions must injuriously effect the health of the plant. It may be said that there are possibly other mixtures that could be applied without interrupting the passage of the necessary gases. I have as yet, failed to find any such mixture that will at the same time either act as a deterrent or form a barrier against invasion by the borer. If an active poison’ such as arsenic, is employed, it would be necessary that an appreciable quantity should be ingested by the insect. But the actual superficies of the exposed surface that is operated upon by the beetle is very minute, and the perforation is very generally made in the hollow of an old leaf-scar—just the very place which would be most liable to escape the action of the poison. It is, moreover, extremely doubtful if the material excavated by the beetle is taken into its alimentary system. It is more probably merely pulverized and rejected. But though a direct cure has thus been. shown to be improbable, I am fully convinced that the pest may be not only kept in check but rendered negligible by indirect cultural methods. Indeed, I have been assured that upon one estate where such methods have been systematically employed, a field of tea that has been continuously infested by the borer since the year 1892, is now giving larger yields than it ever did before. This system is simply high cultivation, resulting © in a continuous healthy flow of sap throughout the plant—a condition most un- favourable to the increase of the borer. In my circular on the ‘Shot-hole-borer,’ wal Nov. 1906.} 395 Plant Sanitation, issued in 1903, I wrote as follows :—‘‘I have repeatedly observed that a vigorous condition of the plant: results in an obliteration of the earlier perforations and a tendency to choke out the insects that have more recently gained an entrance into the branches. The mouth of the tunnel is invaded by an ingrowth from the vigorous cambial tissues. New wood is then formed, covering up the old wound, and the plant is able to carry on all its functions without interruption.” I am still ‘prepared to fully endorse this statement. The accompanying figure represents an actual section through a piece of a tea branch where such an ingrowth has occurred. (a) shows the cortex or bark; (6) the cambium; (c) the woody tissue ; (d) section of Xyleborus tunnel ; (e) an j meal i ingrowth from the cambial e : tissue, blocking the en- LE a Oh ag trance to the _ gallery. Though burning the prun- ings is undoubtedly the most efficient method of destroying the insects con- tained therein, it has been found in practice to have the serious drawback of depriving the soil of a vast Section of tea stem (x10), showing entrance to gallery _ amount of nitrogenous of Yyleborus by ingrowth of cambial tissue. material that could be (a) bark. (6) cambium. (c) woody tissue. (d) section returned to it in the form of gallery. (e) ingrowth of cambial tissue blocking entrance of green manure. I con- ° S#lery. sider that the benefit derived by the plant from a proper burial of the green prunings will far outweigh any injury that may arise from the escape of afew of the insects. If there is much heavy wood with the prunings, this may be first separated and burnt. Where the complete destruction of prunings by fire is insisted upon, it will be found necessary to replace the material by its equivalent in either green or artificial manures, at considerably enhanced cost. Failing this the tea will undoubtedly go back,—losing stamina from its inability to withstand the repeated attacks of the pest. This question of the problematical escape of some of the insects from buried prunings is rendered negligible by the fact that it is generally impossible to ensure the complete eradication of every insect from the tea bush by anything short of collar pruning. I am strongly opposed to the excessive punishment of the bushes that is sometimes inflicted in the endeavour to cut out every borer. Such an attempt is quite futile. The points of attack being quite distinct and separate from one another, it is impossible to be sure that the pest has been eradicated without cutting up every branch; and even then there may be (and frequently are) tunnels in the main stem itself, Again,—without close examination by means of a lens—it is difficult to determine whether any particular tunnel is tenanted by the insects or has been deserted by them. I would prune an infested tea bush—equally with an unaffected one—according to its growth of wood. The object in view is the production of strong sappy shoots, and if any branch gives promise of producing such, 1 would spare it even if it bore visible signs of infestation. If the cut actually exposed the galleries of the insect, I would trim it down to a clean surface—to prevent the lodgement of water, Old hide- bound branches bearing only weak shoots should be ruthlessly excised. I must own that I was, at first, insistent upon the burning of prunings and opposed to their burial. But a careful study of the results has convinced me that the latter is the sounder principle. 0, / Plant Sanitation. 396 [Nov. 1906. . There is another possible cultural method that is now being made the subject of experiment. It has been suggested that dense shade, by inducing a more sappy growth, may render the plant unsuited for the propagation of the insect. The partial, checkered shade offered by Grevillea and Albizzia, as usually cultivated, is evidently non-deterrent. I propose to try the effect of adense shade of some fast growing tree which can be readily removed or thinned out when it has served its purpose. The common ‘dadap’ (Hrythrina lithosperma) commends itself as particularly suitable for this experiment. If this treatment proves successful it may be possible to exterminate the borer, in any particular field, by leaving it under shade fora year, then thinning out the shadeand pruning the tea. Such treatment will necessarily result in some dimunition of the crop for the period during which the tea is under treatment, but if the desired end is attained, the temporary sacrifice will be warranted. A correspondent has sent me detailed accounts of a treatment by which he reports that the beetles can be killed in the living stem. His method, as given in his own words, is as follows:—‘‘ For the destruction of the pest, scorch the bushes behind the pruners with torches made of coconut leaves. A few grevillea leaves or other rubbish lying about may be placed in the centre of the bush to help the flame. The torch is applied below to the centre and moved round the bush towards all the side branches—the insect will be found dead on its back in the cell. The white grubs (young beetles) are also killed. The cost of firing, with women and boys, is not more than Rs. 18 per acre, including torches. A cooly does 260 bushes in damp weather and 250 in fine weather,” I know, from experience, that a comparatively short exposure to heat is sufficient to kill the insects. Also that a tea bush rapidly recovers from the effects of fire. But there is one point that must be carefully determined before this treatment can be recommended. Will, as is very possible, the semi-scorched branches be rendered specially attractive to the beetles and so result in rapid reinfection ? In the above details of the experiment the cost may be considered very hich, if not prohibitive. But Iam informed that Rs.8 of the quoted figure is expended in the torches alone. It is probable that some more economic form of torch may be devised. An absorbent material soaked in kerosene could be employed. THE EGYPTIAN COTTON WORM. A NATURAL AND ECONOMIC METHOD FOR PREVENTION. By WALTER DRAPER, F.L.S. The serious loss to the Egyptian cotton crop, caused by the attack of insect pests, and the enormous area under this valuable summer product, render the subject of pest extermination sufficiently important to claim the attention of all cotton growers. Information of the metamorphosis of the cotton worm has been given from time to time by the Ministry of the Inferior through the Press, so that its various stages of egg, worm, chrysalis, and moth should be familiar to all. It is well known to botanical authorities responsible for the healthy maintenance of a large collection of plants that the checking of insect pests forms an important item in their successful management. In Egypt, where huge areas of a few kinds of plants—not indigenous to the country—are annually grown agri- culturally, natural enemies are at times bound to occur. The success of hand picking eggs and worms from infected areas has been fully demonstrated and proved, and, in a European country, this work could be carried out with comparatively little assistance; but in Egypt, the tardiness of the native cultivator to clean and keep clean his crops is a great obstacle to the ‘tal * ary « bd N Nov. 1906.] 397 Plant Sanitation, successful carrying out of this important work. The application of the simple instructions drawn up recently by the author on Nedwet el Assal is a proof of this. Unfortunately, in so suitable aclimate for the propagation of insect pests, the absence of a complete resting stage, and an almost continuous succession of broods, the working of insect life is such that it isnot untila pest has obtained a firm hold on cultivation that the evil is brought to light. From practical observation in the field. there is considerably more cotton worm in the country than is generally supposed, and the pest having once reached a certain stage, human agency can do little more than act as acheck, it being almost impossible to entirely exterminate it. A natural method, acting in co- operation with the system at present employed, is therefore required to further the success of this important work, The occurrence of insect pests on cotton can invari- ably be traced to unnatural methods of cultivation, such as late and heavy sowing, which produces weak plants and small crops; overcrowding and overwatering, which provide abundance of food and conditions favourable to pests, by producing rank, succulent, shady growth, fatal to the lower bolls and the early first picking of cotton. Vhe deteriorating effect of fertilization by inferior varieties has also to be considered. The practical agriculturist has only to look at the strong useless wood and rank foliage produced by the average crop, and to consider the strain on theland and the valuable time wasted in its production, to understand that the application of quick acting manures under the present cultural conditions would in many cases only hasten disaster by over-stimulating the plants. Moreover the folly of utilizing the unique cotton-producing characteristics of this climate and soil for producing useless wood and foliage, is apparent from the yield of last year crop. Cotton cultivated under a suitable method, by the writer, and proved by a series of practical experiments, presented the following appearance :— Healthy, bushy plants covered with flowers. Red-ripe wood. Foliage slightly yellow in colour. One and two bolls atthe base of each leaf. Flowers well above the terminal shoot. The lower branches on the ground with bolls. Sun and air to reach all parts of the plants. Instead of which, one finds large areas of over-watered cotton with soft green and unripe wood, dark rank foliage, few flowers, and the early bolls at the base of the plant shaded, of an unhealthy yellow colour, and falling from the absence of light and air. Still larger is the area of small, weak plants, caused by late planting, from which it is hopeless to expect a full crop. Should further proof be required for the necessity of reform in the cotton cultivation of Egypt, it can be found in the very large number of unripe bolls to be seen on the stacks of dry cotton stalks everywhere. The natural methods of agricultural reform in cotton cultivation, strong in their simplicity, may probably be entered into in time for next season’s crop: The object of the writer is merely to endeavour to show how the work of checking Prodenia littoralis can be assisted by nature, rather than by reform in cultivation, although they both work hand in hand. A NATURAL METHOD OF PREVENTION. Dryness prevents the deposit of the egg-nidus by the female moth. Heat and dryness combined are fatal to the young cotton worms. The production of rank, succulent foliage and shade by overwatering has been mentioned; because it is not only detrimental to the yield of a full crop, but also to show that it produces abundance of food for cotton pest in the form of chlorophyll or sap in the cells between the upper and lower epidermis or skin of the leaf. This green-coloured fluid is essential to the Jife of the cotton worm, especially in the early stage of|the hatching moreover, on such cotton foliage only are eggs deposited by the female moth 52 Plant Sanitation. 398 The polyphagous habit of the moth is such that in August eggs are deposited on the leaves of lebbek pear, plum, aristolochia fici, etc. Much remains to be learnt of the natural habits of cotton pests, which in the field differ considerably from those in captivity. EGG-DEPOSITS. One important point has been proved, viz., that the first great deposits of eggs on the cotton plants occur between the 15th of June and the 15th of July, the 20th of June to the 10th of July being the most critical period. Although the pest is somewhat gregarious, the female moth prefers to deposit her eggs on cotton a day or two after the irrigation of an‘area. The eggs hatch in about three days, They are not all deposited at one time; thus the age and size of the worms of this brood are very irregular. The writer has proved by experiments that early sown, naturally grown cotton on average land will stand from 30 to 40 days without water, and with excellent results in ripening the wood and producing an unusually heavy crop, but on light sandy soils this period would probably require some slight moditication. From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that cotton which can be kept dry during the egg-laying period is free from egg-deposits. Although it would scarcely be possible to apply this method at one time throughout the whole area of infected country, the irrigation of certain districts, by the present system of rota- tions, creates suitable places or traps for the moth to deposit her eggs. By carefully following up these rotations, the cost of labour would be considerably minimised, and the valuable time now spent in searching unlikely places might be devoted to the more thorough cleaning of egg deposits on traps formed by newly-irrigated cotton-areas. EXTERMINATING YOUNG WORMS BY HEAT AND DRYNESS. The worms, after hatching on the leaf, lower themselves to the ground by means of a web-like thread, and remain for a time under the soil of the ridges, feed ing (during the first stake of their existence) chiefly at night on the lower leaves. It is obvious from their various ages that several pickings of worms are thus necessary to clear an infected area. In this it is impossible to prevent escapes, how- ever carefully the work isdone. Propagation from this source alone is capable of much damage, and the complete extermination of this brood by a natural method is therefore extremely important. The crux of the question of the extermination of cotton pests by the assist- ance of nature, or at least the first stepping-stone to this object, is to counteract. unnatural conditions of shade and dampness, by dryness and heat. The successful application of this method can only be learnt by continuous observation in the field. It has been proved by experiment, that the heat of the mid-day sun on the surface soil of unshaded ridges is often 120° to 180° F. Cotton, if allowed to flag from dryness, contains no food in its foliage for the young larvee. It enables the sun to reach the ridges, which is fatal to the existence of the worms and fungi disease. The produc- tion of rank foliage is checked by the stoppage in the flow of sap. The green, succulent wood ripens, and produces abundance of flowers and lint, and the quality and quantity of the crop yield are considerably augmented. When once this natural method (which applies only to cotton controlled by irrigation) has become known, and success more universally established, native growers will see the advantage of taking the matter up. Reform will naturally be slow, but the gain tothe country would be enormous. The following are some of the chief pests known to attack cotton cultivated in Egypt :— (1) Prodenia Littoralis—(The Egyptian Cotton vo Feeds on rank foliage caused by overwatering, etc. 4 Nov. 1906. ] 399 Plant Sanitation. . (2) Hariasinsulana. (The Egyptian Boll-Worm). Feeds on unripe bolls of a late feeble crop, caused by unnatural conditions of cultivation. (8) Aphis sp._(The Cotton Blight) produces on succulent foliage a black fungus known as ‘“‘ Nedwet-el Assal.” of (4) Opogona grosstpella.—(The Small Boll-Worm) lately discovered by the writer. (5) Agrotis Ypsilon.—(The Cotton Cut Worm). (6) Laphygma exigua.—(The Green Cotton-Worm). (7) Oxycarenus halinpennis.—(The Cotton Stainer.) A plant-bug which sucks the sap of the cotton and lives in the unripe bolls during winter. (8) A Root Fungus ?—At present under observation. Appears only in July, caused by overwatering. (9) A Species of Red Spider.—Migrates from berseem to cotton in May. Sucks the chlorophyll from the leaves of the cotton plant. The late sowing of cotton in the Northern portion of the Delta could be obviated and the young plants pro- tected from the early cold and hot winds by the planting of suitable clumps of trees to act as wind screens. This would also prove of great assistance to the bean crop when in flower and prevent considerable crop loss.—The Egyptian Gazette. ee alfa 400 [Nov. 1906. HORTICULTURE. | . HOW TO KEEP CUT FLOWERS. {t is often hard to get cut flowers, but when obtained it is still more difficult to keep them in a satisfactory condition. To arrange them tastefully and effectively requires time and thought. The immediate removal of one fading flower will often preserve the others. Every morning flowers are taken from the vases, and beginning with the stems, refreshed by a bath of pure water—two or three minutes being long enough for the immersion—then taken out and sprinkled lightly with the hand. The water should be changed every day, and the water used for sprinkling must be fresh and pure. Sunshine resting on cut flowers is very injurious, and the room in which they are kept should be cold rather than warm. Gas saps the very life of delicate blossoms, and a bell glass placed over them at night will be found an excellent protector. But measures for the preservation of flowers should be taken before they reach the house. There is a great difference in their lasting powers, but the most fragile ones may be kept in excellent condition for forty-eight hours if gathered before the sun can stare them out of countenance and placed at once in tepid water. Those which show any signs of drooping should be dipped head foremost in cold water and gently shaken. Flowers that have travelled a long distance are speedily revived by this treatmeat. Nasturtiums, heliotrore, and, above all roses, should be gathered at night, if possible. Their stems, and those of all flowers kept in water, should be cut daily. The wistaria is a beautiful but perishable blossom that seems to pine away in disgust when transferred to the house; but the Japanese have conquered this propensity by the most heroic treatment. They burn the stems of the graceful creeper and then immerse it in spirits. Other woody plants like the hydrangea, branches of fruit blossoms, etc., can be treated in the same way. In sending flowers away, long, narrow boxes are more desirable than round ones, and square ones are between the two in keeping powers. Tin is the best material and wood the next best; yet stout paste board often delivers its perishable contents in good condition. Especially in the case of pasteboard is a stout, rough brown paper lining, over top and all, a desirable addition after wetting it thoroughly in cold water. The flowers must then be carefully arranged in layers, each layer reposing on its own bed of fresh green ferns made very moist. Slender sticks should be ; worked in under the fern beds to keep their place, and when ferns are not available . cotton wool arranged in much the same way will make a good substitute. Strong- scented ones shut upin close quarters with those of more delicate perfume will almost invariably destroy the dainty charm of the latter.—Garden and Field. Nev. 1906.] 401 EDUCATION. POPULAR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN JAMAICA. The efforts made to improve agricultural education in Jamaica during the last few years cover a good deal of ground. The first obvious requirement was a suitable text-book, and in 1891 we succeeded in getting ‘‘ Tropical Agriculture” from Dr, Nicholls. After a while, also at the instance of our educational authorities, the two ‘Tropical Readers” were compiled for use in the schools. In 1897 the Principal of Jamaica College made a tour of the Agricultural Colleges in the United States and Canada, and reported to us what other people were doing. Side by side with this we made some attempt in the Codes of 1895 to secure practical agricultural work in the schools by offering a special grant for properly cultivated school plots. During the last few years there has been steadily increasing effort to promote agricultural education both in the schools and outside of them, and the Imperial Department of Agriculture has done much to assist us both by means of its officers and by means of its publications, amongst which I am bound to mention with special gratitude Dr. Watts’ ‘‘ Nature Teaching.” Now, conspicuous amongst the lessons which lie on the surface of these our efforts in Jamaica are two points :—(1) the importance of preparing the ground by creating interest and sympathy in the work amongst the adult population, and (2) the importance of doing all that can be done to equip the teachers for the new requirements imposed upon them, before we expect practical results. Agricultural teaching, like other teaching, must be judged by its fruits. Although improvement in practical agriculture is only one of the fruits which we properly demand from the schools, it is a very important result. Our attempt in 1895 to secure practical work in elementary schools was, to all intents and purposes, a failure. The results, agriculturally, tended to bring school agriculture into contempt; educationally there was little to commend. We had made the mistake of expecting seed time and harvest to proceed with equal step. At the best it would have been a plan very slowin result to work principally through the schools, for unless we induce improved cultivation among'st the population immediately productive, we postpone to far into the future that improvement, need for which in Jamaica was imperative and urgent, and constantly becoming more urgent, as the old wasteful cultivation made suitable land scarcer, an:l| as the pressure of outside competition tightened its grasp. Nor did our plan promise sure, if slow, success, for in the absence of outside co-operation the school- master’s efforts evoked very little response. Further, the outside population was at first exceedingly apathetic and indifferent, if not actively hostile. Parents odjected to the soiling of the children’s clothes in practical work; objected to the teachers making money out of their children’s labour; contended that book learning and nothing else was what they had sent the children to school for, and that as a matter of fact they were in a better position themselves to give the practical teaching which the teachers professed. In the last contention there was often sober truth. The consequence was that the schools attempted seriously to earn the special grant, and it was often an amusing as well asa saddening spectacle to view the cultivation ‘‘ where but a few torn shrubs the place disclosed” which were the subject of claim for special grants. It would have been strange if the attitude of the peasantry had been different in this matter, and it was we who miscalculated. Emancipation was only two generations behind. With us, as in the Southern States of America, it was Education. 402 Nov. 1906. followed by silent but stolid revolt against manual and industrial work, and very insufficient measures had been taken by those who were responsible to break the violence of the transition from forced labour to free citizenship. Tropical climate did not stimulate physical exertion ; tropical luxuriance made continuous effort to secure bare subsistence almost superfluous. The discipline of the years of slavery had not tended to organise home life or to implant ambition towards the attainment of personal comfort. Whatever the changes and chances of life had been, food had been secure, and the emancipated peasant could not foresee the day when food might fail. As remuneration diminished, his service became more intermittent; he acquiesced in the oppression of outside circumstances or blamed the governing classes. When the neighbouring planter endeavoured to improve his living by improved machinery or more economical production, it was only the economy effected by reducing the price of labour that caught his observation; he saw noneed himself to make two blades of grass grow where one had grown before. Besides, while the great majority of the peasantry were outside of the range of educational influences, the few who had come under them thought that education meant nothing but book work of a conventional literary type; the schools were the children of the Churches, and one of their main objects was to teach people to read the Bible. With the best intentions they foredoomed themselves to failure by dissociating themselves from the home life and home interests of their scholars. The ministers themselves, full of zeal for the bettering of the conditions of life among the people, were mostly men in whom the educational traditions of the Reformation lingered on, or were drawn from the class of social reformers, at one time a large class in England, who firmly believed that increased knowledge was the only leverage needed to elevate the masses. The ministers were the men of superior education with whom the labouring classes had most intimate contact ; they were able to live by their education. Small wonder then has it been that we found the general population and teachers alike needing a change of ideal as complete as those classes in America whom General Amstrong at Hampton and Booker Washington at Tuskegee have been trying to convert. It is not surprising that in the face of this situation there is not as much in the way of practical agriculture in the schools in Jamaica to report as one might wish; perhaps there are hardly 100 schools now with school gardens and very many of those have been Iately started. But I believe (and I have excellent opportunity for judging sanely) that there has been very considerable change in the attitude of the general population on the subject. We need perhaps to alter somewhat the conditions under which we offer the special grant for practical work, and a Com- mittee is now considering this particular point. Wehave done what I think is the more difficult work of preparing the ground. IMPROVING THE TEACHER. The means by which we have succeeded in getting this encouraging change seem to have been in the main these :— First, we have gone some way in making school agriculture attractive by improving the teacher’s power to teach. No one can teach with enthusiasm what he does not know, and we had learnt that industrial and agricultural teaching power cannot be improvised. In our Training College course Latin and the higher mathe- matical work have been struck out; additional importance has been given to the science subjects, and particularly elementary agricultural science; more importance also to the professional subject of school management and the practice of teaching in the practising schools. At the Female Training College at Shortwood an interest- ing departure has been made in admitting a certain number of the girls, who fail in the competitive entrance examination, to a year’s probation for domestic service Nov. 1906.] 403 ‘Education. in the Institution (with opportunities for instruction at the same time) until they prove themselves fit for admission as regular students, It is easy to see what excellent results in semi-industrial training in home work are thus afforded to these future female teachers. Besides, opportunity has been given the last few years to the teachers actu- ally employed in the schools, who had no such opportunities during their training— sixty to eighty of them at a time—to get afew weeks’ special] agricultural instruction at the Mico Training College in vacation time, when the educational plant is lying idle. Part of this instruction is also practical, and in the evenings they get help in learning drawing and such other manual work as is required of them in the schools. While this does not aim at being exhaustive, it is of great assistance in starting the work on right educational lines—a point of the greatest importance. In these ways we may reckon that nearly one-half of the principal teachers now at work in our elementary schools have received some special training in the teaching and work ofagriculture. The number of schools applying for permission to undertake practical work is rapidly increasing. The number of teachers who apply for places in the special agricultural course is always much larger than can be accommodated; the difficulty is to find instructors for them while the ordinary college staff should have its holiday. I need not say that the help afforded us by the Imperial Department in supplying the services of an agricultural lecturer, Mr. Teversham, has been invaluable in this work. THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. In the second place, the operations of our Agricultural Society must be very largely credited with the improvement in popular agricultural education. Much of its effort inevitably takes the form of preaching, and the preaching of agriculture is ~ subject to the same disappointments as that of higher subjects; the proportion of result to effort is mostly small. Wehave to be comforted with the reflection that even the small result is needed, and no other way appears of obtaining it. Last year there were forty-one local branches of the Society scattered all over the Island with a total membership of 2,563. It has retained the sympathy and co-operation of the employer classes who make up its Board of Management, and many of them actively assist and guide the local Societies in their neighbourhood. The hearty co-operation of the ministers of religion has also been of great help in enlisting the confidence of the people. A nominal subscription of ls. per annum secures membership in a local branch, and although these branches are as independent as they like, they get advice and help of all kinds from the Secretary and the Committee of the Central Board, which also circulates information amongst them by means of leaflets on matters which need to be brought before them from time to time. They pay only an annual 5s. affiliation fee to the Central Society, and as their small funds accumulate they buy tools for common use, or seeds or plants for distribution among members, or buy well-bred animals to improve the local small stock—pigs and poultry. One Society has provided itself with a stud ass, and several of them have been enterprising and capable enough to carry through successful Agricultural . Shows. It may be that the establishment of the Agricultural Society will prove to be one of the biggest events in Sir Henry Blake’s administration. It shows the beginnings of co-operation amongst people whose inability to co-operate and lack of public spirit have been amongst their most discouraging characteristics. The service, social and political, which they render in affording opportunity to repre- sentatives of, every class ina District, to meet and talk over matters of common interest, and to get to know each other, is exceedingly valuable. Nota little of the improved popular attitude to agriculture is due to these Societies. Education. 404 Besides the establishment of the local branches, several of the other enter- prises of the Agricultural Society have been particularly useful. The 1s. annual subseription to the local branch secures to each member a monthly copy of the Society’s ‘“ Journal,” and 3,250 copies per month was its last reported circulation. It contains enough of useful matter to make it interesting to all classes, and amongst the lower class it is playing an important part in education in introducing the use of printed matter as a source of practical interest and information. The Agricultural Shows have been similarly serviceable. Hight shows were held last year; four others were arranged for, but were postponed in consequence of the hurricane in August, 1903. These are managed economically, for only three Shows gota grant of over £20 from the Society, and none of over £50, the rest of the money being raised locally and there are mixed Shows with prize lists varying from £50 to £200, and include exhibits of stock of all sorts and riding and driving exhibitions. Their usefulness will be increased when the instructors can devote their time at the Shows to explaining in the sheds to people interested the merits and defects of exhibits, and when we can afford to exhibit at work the appliances we encourage people to buy and use. The utmost advantage should be taken of the opportunities Shows afford as object lessons, and object lessons need explanation. The Agricultural Instructors whom [have mentioned are partly evidence of the improvement of agricultural education as well as the very useful promoters of it. A few years ago they would have been regarded as the subtle agents of the tax- collectors. We have six of these gentlemen at work, each in an appointed district for several months, and besides practical instruction and visitation they lecture to meetings under the auspices of the Jocal branches, or, where they are none of these, under the auspices of the Minister in Church or Chapel. We often now have the encouraging symptom of impatience when they are transferred out of one dis trict to another, and applications for their services long before they are available. Two years ago a small experiment was tried by this Society which has been very useful for the purposes that are the subject of my paper—the prize-holding scheme, Three parishes at a time, parishes in which agricultural instructors were working at the time, were taken as the area of operation. In each of these prizes of from £4 to £2 were offered for the best kept holdings which were entered in separate classes, under 20 acres, under 10 acres and under 5 acres, respectively. The judging, carried out by the instructor, with any help he might secure, was according to marks in which permanent crops, catch crops, buildings and fences and general arrangements were the chief sub-divisions. Sometimes nearly as many as 100 entries have been made in a single parish. As each competitor becomes a centre of subsequent ambition in his neighbourhood. people will, we hope, pay increased attention to the holdings on which they live, and aim by better and more permanent cultivation to keep their crops at home under supervision instead of offering facilities to the preedial thief by working in remote and isolated spots. As they appreciate the meaning of home comfort they may be expected to labour more sedulously to obtain it. In conclusion, Mr. Williams mentions two points which he considers of the first importance with regard to future work: One is the need for a local institution of a collegiate character where scientific agriculture in all its branches can be practised and taught for the benefit of those who in the future are to be the employers of labour, and the owners or managers of estates. Education does not usually rise up, it filters down, and the most successful means of improving popular agricultural education is undoubtedly the object lesson of properly organised work under efficient management. The other point is this: to develop agriculture as part of our work in Elementary schools we need to keep it educational, as a part of the instruction that will react upon and vitalise the whole, not asa separate subject (Nov. 1906. Nov. 1906.] 405 | Rducation. to be specialised. To secure this it is needful that the practical agriculture be always under the control of, and be tested by, those who control, guide, and value the other educational work of the school. Isee the chance of much confusion, of practical agricultural teaching being perverted to improper ends, if, as has been sometimes proposed, the practical work be delegated to purely agricultural officers. It is indeed desirable that these should teach and advise and inspire, but it is the educational value of agriculture, moral, manual, and intellectual, that | is to measure out judgment as to its success in school work. In Jamaica the difficulty is to make active and efficient and available the labour of a population of nearly 800,000 of mostly very poor people, which for various reasons is not available in the way that it is wanted, nor efficient, nor as profitable as it should be either to the labourer or the community. In improved popular education we may hope to find one of the avenues leading to the solution of our problem. There is so much thatis ethical and economic to make it a very complex problem that we must be thankful if, with the help that the Imperial Department of Agriculture has given us, we may venture to hope that we have gone a little way along the right road.—Report of J. R. Williams, Inspector of Schools, Jamaica. 58 Nov. 1906. 406 < LIVE STOCK. Poultry Notes, By G. W. STURGESS, M.R.C.V.S. DISEASES OF POULTRY.—(Continued.) DIPHTHERIA.—(Continued.) Treatment is frequently useless and is only of benefit when commenced in the very earliest stage of the disease. The ulcers and swellings may be cleaned with a weak solution of either Cyllin, Carbolic Acid, Permanganate of Potash, Hydrogen Peroxide, Lysol, Tincture of Iodine, or Corrosive Sublimate. Any loose growths should be removed. A strong mixture of Alum, Boracic Acid and Glycerine may then be painted over the partly raw surface. Tumours over the face should be lanced and their contents squeezed out. Perchloride of Ivon Solution may be used to check bleeding and a Solution of Lysol or Cyllin or Corrosive Sublimate to wash out the cavities and Idoform dusted over. The eyes may be cleaned with Boracic Acid lotion or solution of Corrosive Sublimate 1 in 4000 of water. Internally a mixture of Chlorate of Potash, Salicylic Acid and Perchloride of Iron may be given, Soft food must be given, and stimulants if necessary. For valuable birds injections of diphtheria antitoxic serum may be tried. The second form of diphtheritic inflammation mentioned is due to small parasites, gregarines or psorospermia. Thesymptoms are much the same as in the first form. The skin is more often affected—the base of the beak, nostrils, wattles earlobes, angles of the beak being commonly attacked. The disease is easily distinguished from Chicken pox. The first signs are small seed-like nodules, soon increasing in size and becoming covered by a yellowish red scab. If the eyes are affected they become swollen and closed and may be destroyed. Death may take place in four or five weeks. The treatment is much the same as for the first form—the diseased parts may be painted with Cyllin, Lysol or Boracic Acid, Alum and Glycerine mixture. Glycerine may also be given internally with such medicines as Chlorate of Potash and Salicylic Acid. Suppression.—All sick birds must be isolated, dead fowls burned or buried deeply with plenty of disinfectants. The runs should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. When new birds are purchased they should be carefully examined and suspicion aroused if there is any discharge from the nose or flow of tears. There is another disease produced by parasites which commonly attacks poultry and resembles diphtheria. It is due to a mould fungus (thought by some to be Monilia Candida). It grows on the mucous membrane of the mouth in small patches of a greyish or yellowish colour resembling paste. If a patch is scraped off the skin is seen to be reddened. The symptoms are dullness, emaciation, sour smell from the mouth, and there may be convulsions and death. Examination of the mouth at once shows the fungus growing in patches. It may be mistaken for diphtheria, however micros-. copical examination will reveal the parasitic filaments. Treatment.—Remove the deposits in the mouth gently and paint the diseased patches with Alum, Boracic Acid and Glycerine mixture or turpentine and sweet oil and keep clean and dress daily for some days. The food must be soft and nutritious, and iron tonics may be given. Live Stock. 407 [Nov, 1906. The Crushing of Cattle by the Kandyans. By T. B. PoHATH-KEHELPANALA. The art of crushing or “mulling” cattle as practised by the Kandyans dates from very ancient times. The operation is performed when the animal has reached its prime. This period of its life is known as “ Karanegima,” literally the age at which the neck gets fat and fleshy; itis at this stage that the animal becomes inflamed with passion. The action of crushing called ‘“ Karabima” or “ Vedakan Kerima” is per- formed by a skilled operator with the help of a trained assistant. It is never performed on a buffalo bull before it reaches its fifth or sixth year, nor is it under- taken before the animal has been used for ploughing. Unless the animal is subjected to this ordeal during the fattening period, it invariably becomes weak and emaciated, and utterly unfit for work ; while in some cases, the effects are fatal. The act of wasting flesh and reducing the animal to leanness, is described by the Kandyans as “ Telendirima.” A lucky day is chosen for the operation. The month of Jl (November) is considered a favourable period. This is the holiday season for the Kandyan agri- culturist : there is abundance of fodder to be had everywhere, and the animals have no work before them until the harvesting season in March and April. Punctual to the appointed hour, a pair of well-seasoned rounded bars of the Kitul (Caryota urens) or Kohomba,* like rulers, about 13 cubits long, are laid ona ‘“* Malbulat-Tattuwa”—an ornamental betel tray—and are fumigated with resin. The wooden bars are tightly bound together at one end with kitul fibre. oe * < Nov. 1906.] 431 Miscellaneous. Tn conclusion, on the particular propositions that [ have been discussing, it seems clear, both from consideration of the chemical analysis of cottonseed and cotton meal, that it is a wasteful and unwise practice to use cottonseed directly asa fertilizer, when it can be exchanged for cotton meal on a fair and equitable basis. This brings up the question, which is the real crux of the problem, how much meal should the oil-mill man give in exchange for aton of seed? With the given facts of analyses and the results of actual experiments in the field, together with the market price of oil and meal, there should be no real difficulty in reaching a mutually satisfactory basis of exchange between the producer and the oil-mill, The former should in no conceivable case receive less than 800 or 900 pounds of meal in exchange for one ton of seed, after allowing for the expense and labor of hauling to and from the point of delivery. The oil-mill man must get his expenses and profits for operating the mill out of the oil. It is quite evident that the value of the oil should be divided between the producing farmer and the oil-mill on a fair basis, and this basis must be determined mainly by the current market price for the oil. In my own experience I have found it much better to hold on to the seed until the approaching close of the crushing season, when the mill owner is hard up for seed to keep his machinery going. I have usually had no difficulty in exchanging on a basis varying from 1,400 to 1,800 pounds of meal in exchange for a ton of seed delivered at the mill. I will close this paper by saying that afarmer should not use cottonseed meal as a fertilizer solong as he has cows and beef cattle to consume it. I have been insisting that he should exchange his seed for meal and use the latter asa fertilizer rather than the former. But the true policy is to use neither seed nor meal as a fertilizer if practicable to avoid such use. Correspondence. IMPROVED CEYLON NATIVE PEAS. DEAR SirR,—I should be glad to know how I may procure a sample supply of the ‘‘native” peas spoken of by Dr. Willis in the first article of the current number of the Tropical Agriculturist. If you can assist me in this matter I shall be greatly obliged. lam, yours faithfully, HK. MACFADYEN. Jebong Estate, Perak, 4th October, 1906. [The peas can, asa rule, be bought in the bazaar. The Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, would be glad to buy them if requested.—ED. ] GINSENG SEED. DEAR Sik,—Will you forgive me if I ask you to kindly inform me where I can get ginseng seed (Panax ginseng). [have just read an article re this product in your issue of November, 1905, and would very much like to experiment. I shall be very much obliged indeed for the information. Yours truly, I. G F. MARSHALL. Burmah Forests. } Thanawady, 18th September, 1906. [Ginseng seed can at present only be easily procured, so far as I know, in the United States. The demand for ginseng is small, and Iam told by one who knows China well that the Chinaman would probably not buy stuff grown abroad.— Ep, | 432 Current Literature. Vegetable Growing in Porto Rico.—By H.C. Henricksen of the Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station, issued by the Government Printing Office, Washington, U.S.A:—This is a useful little treatise on the growing of good vegetables in the tropics; and as the conditions of Porto Rico are not very unlike those of Ceylon, the information contained in the pamphlet and the methods adopted to produce a good class of vegetable may be of use to Ceylon growers. The first chapters deal with the general cultivation of soils, manures and fertilizers, and the sowing of seeds. Diseases of plants aud insect enemies, and how to combat them with fungicides and arsenical insecticides, with illustrations of bucket and knapsack sprayers, are given. The rest of the work is taken up with detailed cultural directions for no less than thirty-nine different vegetables, and is illustrated with a number of well-produced photographic plates.—I. E. The Varieties of Cultivated Pepper.—By C. A. Barber, M.A., Government Botanist, Madras ; bulletin No, 56 of the Department of Agriculture, Madras. The pepper industry is of considerable importance in certain districts of Southern India, and this isan attempt to classify the different varieties of peppers cultivated. A number are described, and as arule the names seem to be quite local. The infer- tility of certain cultivated pepper vines is remarked upon, and this has been looked into as it was thought there might be some purely botanical explanation. It is well known that pepper blossoms may be hermaphrodite or unisexual, and in this connection it is interesting to note that ‘One of the main results of the recent visit has been to shew that, even in the cultivated vines, while the ovaries are nearly universally present, stamens are by no means always to be found. Further, the fertility of a vine depends directly on the constancy with which the stamens are present. Any large absence of stamens will show itself in spikes with berries few and far between, fertilisation depending, as in the wild forms, on the chance presence of a neighbouring staminate vine flushing at the same time. ** Observations as to the means by which the pollen of the stamens is trans- ferred from the pollen sacs of one spike to the stigmas of another are at present wanting. Butfrom a general consideration of the fact that flushing takes place during the heavy driving rains of the monsoon, it is suggested that wind and rain are necessary, and that the splashing and falling of the drops dash the pollen over the whole plant. A moderate computation would put the number of flowers in aspike at between 75 and 109. This is the number of stigmas then In a fully hermaphrodite spike the number of pollen grains would be anything up to 30,000 or 40,900, and as one pollen grain is sufficient to fertilise one ovary, it would seem that an ample reserve is available for accidental dispersal. “If this suggestion is correct, the effect of rain would be, first of all, to wet the dried up ground, and thus provide the material for the flushing of young leaves. Each new leaf is followed by aspike in the pepper at flowering time, the spike arising at the same joint as the leaf but on the opposite side. In the course of afew weeks the spike is seen to have elongated and to be covered with the little white star-like stigmas. These are very delicate and in the continued showers become covered with the wandering pollen from more advanced spikes. A further lengthening will then show the stigmas faded and the small pollen sacs peeping out on each side of the ovaries, ready to burst and scatter their pollen to other, later flowers. It would be interesting to observe if the spikes ia the upper part of the vine mature first, for that would certainly aid in the fertilising of the flowers. It must be remembered however that, in the driving — rain, pollen can be carried from one plant to another, this being regularly done 1n the wild vines of the forest, sometimes for considerable distances. SS Nov. 1906.] 438 * According to this view of the fertilisation of the pepper flowers along hot spell after the monsoon’s commencement would cause stigmas to dry up before fertilisation could be effected and many spikes would drop, for any unfertilised flower is quickly thrown off by plants. The life of the male elements is short. On the other hand, a succession of short spells of rain and sunshine would be beneficial, since sunshine is necessary for the growth of the leaves and especially for the maturing of the fruits. Plants with too heavy topshade are poor bearers; and this is probably due to this absence of sunshine. Observations on all these points are much needed and can only be made by those living on the pepper plantations. The causes of the falling of the spikes especially should be studied. Both in coffee and cacao this undesirable feature is carefully watched for and its causes noted.” The pamphlet is illustrated with photos of the Balamcotta and Kallivall peppers of Wynaad, and a magnified drawing of a pepper flower showing the various parts and the difference between the hermaphrodite and staminate flowers.—I. E. The Ceylon Board of Agriculture. The Twenty-third Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in His Excellency the Governor’s Pavilion on the grounds of the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition at Peradeniya, on Monday, 17th September, 1906, at 3 p.m. His Excellency the Governor presided. There were also present :—Hon. Mr, G. M. Fowler, Hon. Mr. J. P. Lewis, Dr. J. C. Willis, Messrs. W. D, Gibbon, Giles F. Walker, C. P. Hayley, R. Morison, A. T. Rettie, E. B. Denham, M. Kelway Bamber, T. Petch, T. J. Campbell, W. Dunuwille, G. W. Sturgess, Dr. H. M. Fernando, Messrs. E. EK. Green, Daniel Joseph, Gerard Joseph, Charles Taldena, r.M., J. H. Meedeniya, R.M., and the Secretary. The following were present as visitors:—Messrs. J. B. Carruthers, James Ryan, Hon. T. L. McClintock Bunbury, P.s., Col. H. Byrde, Messrs. Walter C. Price, H. Keyt, Tambopillai Mudaliyar (Maniagar of Jaffna), and C. Rasanayagam Mudaliyar. Business Donk. 1. The Minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed. _ 2. On the motion of the Hon. Mr. J. P. Lewis, seconded by Mr. W. D, Gibbon, it was resolved :—That the Board desires to record its regret at the death of the late Mr. T. B. Rambukwelle Ratemahatmeya, who was a member of the Board, and to express its sympathy with the members of his family. 3. List of new members was read. 4. Progress Report No. XXII was tabled. 5. Reports of the Director and the Acting Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, the Superintendent of School Gardens, and the Government Veterinary Surgeon on the sections judged by them at the Kurunegala Agri-Horticultural Show were tabled. 6. Statement of Revenue and Expenditure for the first half-year of 1906 was tabled. 7. A paper was read by Mr. E. B. Denham, c.c.s., late Secretary to the Board on ‘‘ The Use and Objects of Agricultural Societies.” On the suggestion of Mr. W. Dunuwille, His Excellency the Governor directed that the paper be translated into Sinhalese and Tamil for circulation. 434 8. Reports from the Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, the Superintendent of School Gardens, and the Government Veterinary Surgeon on the sections judged by them at the Kelani Valley Agri-Horticultural Show were tabled. 9. In connection with the report on the proposed Ordinance dealing with Agricultural Pests, which was adopted at the last meeting of the Board, the Secretary submitted a further memorandum on the subject of the proposed Ordi- nance received from Sir William Twynam. At the desire of His Excellency the Governor it was resolved that Sir William Twynam’s remarks be referred to the Sub-Committee by whom the previous report was drafted, namely:—The Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, the Government Chemist, Hon. Mr. S. C. Obeyesekere, and the Hon. Mr. F. Beven—the names of the following gentlemen being added to the Sub-Committee :—Sir William Twynam, Mr. W. D. Gibbon, Mr. Giles F. Walker and Dr. H. M. Fernando. The meeting terminated at 4-15 p.m. Agricultural Society Progress Report. XXIII. _—_——— 1. Agricultural Shows.—The Kegalla Agri-Horticultural Show was held on the 2ist and 22nd September, I was present on the first day, when the Show was opened by the Government Agent, Sabaragamuwa, Mr. R. B. Hellings. Though it was not the first time that a Show of the kind had been held at Kegalla, none had been held for several years. But, through the untiring efforts of Mr. M. Stevenson, Assistant Government Agent and Chairman of the Local Agricultural Society, a widespread interest in the Show had been aroused throughout the District ; and not only were the exhibits excellent and varied, but the number of villagers attending the Show far exceeded anything that I have seen at any previous Show. The charge for entrance on each day was only ten cents. Books of entrance tickets had been dis- tributed to every village headman throughout the district—tickets to be issued to all persons subscribing ten cents or over. In spite of the fact that a very large number of people had obtained tickets in this way, the stock of tickets for sale at the gate of the Show grounds was exhausted within an hour and a half of the open- ing of the Show. Mr. Stevenson and the members of the Kegalla Society are to be congratulated on having overcome a difficulty that almost invariably presents itself in connection with these Shows: that is, their liability to become rather a source of entertainment to the local residents of the towns in which they are held thana means of instruction to the villagers of outlying districts, whom it is more especially the object of this Society to reach. Another feature of this Show was that, while the sheds containing exhibits of produce were surrounded by an enclosure, to which admission could be obtained only by ticket, the livestock sections were shown on an open space near the roadside, no entrance fee being charged tosee them. There was also an extremely interesting collection of art work and curios in the Town Hall, while inside the main enclosure accommodation was provided for laceworkers, cloth weavers, &c. Hach class of exhibits in the enclosure was shown in a separate shed—an arrangement which added greatly to the convenience of spectators, and one which might with advantage be adopted at other shows. A point to which I should like to call the attention of all Agricultural Show Committees is the advisibility of making the passage-ways between the show counters considerably wider than is usually done. At all the Shows I have hitherto visited I have noticed that the narrowness of the passages has proved a source of inconvenience when the sheds are at all crowded, Nov. 1906. ] 435 The reports of the Government Veterinary Surgeon and the Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, on the classes judged by them at the Kegalla Show are laid on the table. 2. A meeting of the Local Agricultural Society, Nuwara Eliya, has been fixed for Thursday, the 4th October, at 2 p.m., at the Nuwara Mliya Kachcheri, to discuss matters regarding the Agri-Horticultural Show to be held during Easter Week, 1907. 3. A show of fruits and vegetables grown in Weligam Korale will be held some time in October at Telijjawila. 4. The Market Show, under the auspices of the Three Korales and Lower Bulatgama Society, will be held at Yatiyantota on the 21st instant. 5. The Agri-Horticultural Show, under the auspices of the Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) Agricultural Society, will be held on the 16th and 17th November. 6. Lemon Grass.—The Model Farm, Colombo, has a supply of Lemon Grass rootlets for sale. Application for these should be made to the Government Vete- rinary Surgeon. 7. Cotton,—Eight bags of cotton seed have been supplied free of cost by Dr, H. M. Fernando for experimental cultivation on chenas in the Mullaittivu District. 8. Foreign Vegetable Seeds.—A supply of vegetable seeds will be imported shortly, and intending cultivators are requested to communicate with me as early as possible, stating their requirements. Orders will be attended to in the order in which they are received. The varieties available are as follows :— French Dwarf Beans Cucumber | Potseed Beet Keg plant Pumpkin Cabbage Gourd Radish Capsicum Knol-Khol Spinach Carrot Lettuce Tomato Cauliflower Melon Turnip Celery Onion Vegetable Marrow Chilli Parsnip Chinese Cabbage Pea 9. Potatoes.—The Welimada Branch Society proposed to experiment with Naples potatoes. This Branch is also experimenting with various kinds of native low-country vegetables. 10. Vegetable Gardens.—The Tangalla Local Branch, at its meeting held on the 8th September, adopted a resolution: ‘‘ That a prize be offered for competition among the members of the Society for the best vegetable garden in West Giruwa Pattu, to be competed for in or about February, 1907—the prize to take the form of silver medal, price not to exceed Rs. 12°50.” 11. Seeds.—The Branch agreed at the meeting held on the 8th to apply for different varieties of seeds from the Parent Society for distribution amongst the members on payment, the competition for the medal being confined to the produce of the seeds obtained from the Ceylon Agricultural Society only. 12. Haperimental Gardens.—The Secretary of the Telijjawila Branch reports that the Village Committee have, with the approval of the Assistant Government Agent, voted Rs. 55 for making a Fruit Garden on the girls’ school _ premises at Paraduwa, Dampella. 'The money voted will be spent in procuring a wire fence and the necessary labour. Fruit trees of different varieties will be supplied free of cost from the Royal Botanic Gardens for planting in November next. 13. Publications.—-The Editors of the “ Sihala Samaya” and the ‘ Dinakara- prakasa” have kindly sent 50 copies of editions of each of their publications contain- ing translations of the minutes of the last meeting of the Buard. These copies, as usual, were distributed among the Local Branch Societies. ~_ Na oe eee 436 - YNov. 1906. - 14. Paddy: Kiushu.—Mvr. J. P. William, of Henaratgoda, writes that the Kiushu paddy sown by him did not germinate. ; Mr. V. H. Vanderstraaten reports from Kurunegala :—‘‘ I sowed 26 measures of Kiushu paddy at the end of May last; although it germinated well, the growth was very stunted, and the outturn last week was only ¢ measure of paddy.” 15. Castration of Cattle-—The Government Veterinary Surgeon reports as follows :— To date the figures are 2,621 cattle castrated belonging to 2,122 owners at 124 demonstrations. 129 men have been taught the operation. A. N. GALBRAITH, 1st October, 1906. Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. The Ceylon Board of Agriculture. The Twenty-fourth Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in the Council Chamber on Monday, October Ist, 1906, at 12 noon. His Excellency the Governor presided. Others present were:—The Hon’ble Mr. G. M. Fowler, the Hon’ble Mr. Francis Beven, Messrs. E. EK. Green, R. B. Strickland, Don Solomon Dias Bandara- nayake (Maha Mudaliyar), Dr. H. M,. Fernando, Messrs. E. B. Denham, G. A. Joseph, and the Secretary. Mr. R. P. Jayawardene was present as a visitor. BusINESS DONE. The Minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed. List of new members was read. Progress Report No. XXIII was circulated. 4. Report of the Government Veterinary Surgeon on the Kegalle Agri- Horticultural Show was read. 5. A Paper was read by Mr. E, E. Green, Government Entomologist, on the work done at the Silk Experiment Farm at Peradeniya. A brief discussion followed, in which His Excellency the Governor, the Hon’ble Mr, Fowler and Mr. Strickland took part. 6. The Secretary announced that His Excellency the Governor had been pleased to nominate Mr. R. E. Paranagama, Ratemahatmeya of Pata Dumbara, as a member of the Board for the Central Province, in succession to the late Mr. T. B. Rambukwelle Ratemahatmeya. pt 7. On the motion of the Hon’ble Mr. F. Beven, seconded by Don Solomon Dias Bandaranayake, Maha Mudaliyar, it was resolved that the thanks of the Board be conveyed to the following gentlemen for the trouble taken by them in arranging for the various exhibits shown on behalf of the Agricultural Society at the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition :— Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy, for arranging the Arts and Crafts section. Mr. M. Kelway Bamber, for exhibits of coconut products, camphor, and tobacco. Mr. E. E.. Green, for exhibit of sericulture. Mr. C. Drieberg, for exhibit of oils, fibres, and tanning and dyeing stuffs. Mr. A. E. Rajapakse, Muhandiram, for samples of cinnamon. Mr. C. E. Barber, for exhibit of cocoa and chocolate. Dr. H. M. Fernando and Mr. J. W. C. de Soysa for samples of cotton. , ; 4 i ¢ Nov, 1906] 437 Mr. J. Whitehead for demonstration in cotton ginning and dyeing. Also the Government Agents, Jaffna and Batticaloa, and the following Local Agri- cultural Societies for a variety of interesting exhibits :— Local Agricultural Societies of Telijjawila, Dumbara, Chilaw, Wellaboda Pattu (Galle), Kandaboda Pattu (Matatra), Mannar, Vavuniya, Trincomalee, and Matara. 8. The Secretary submitted a fly-whisk made of reed-bamboo sent in by the Acting Director, Colombo Museum. His Excellency the Governor desired the Secretary to make enquiries with a view to ascertaining whether any market could be found for such an article. The meeting terminated at 1-30 p.m. Agricultural Society Progress Report. XXIV. 1. Local Branches:—Dumbara Branch. Co-operative Credit Society.—At a meeting of the Committee of the Co-operative Credit Society, Dumbara, held on 30th August, at Teldeniya, the Honorary Treasurer reported that Rs. 420 had been received from twenty-two subscribers. It was agreed to purchase only 50 bushels of paddy for the Madugoda store, and that the rest of the money in hand be deposited in the Ceylon Savings Bank. Harispattu Branch.—At the Second General Meeting of this Branch held on the 28th October, it was decided that experimental gardens be opened in each Korale, situated either adjoining or near the chief school of the respective Korales It was further decided to open a seed store at Katugastota. The judging of school vegetable gardens competing for the President’s prize of Rs. 10 has been fixed for the 18th November. The following gentlemen among others have consented to become honorary members of the local society :—Messrs. Henry A, Barton, Gilbert James, W. H. Biddulph, and J. A. McAllister. Wanni Hatpattu Branch.—At ameeting of this Branch held on the 17th September it was decided to encourage cultivation of cotton on Crown chena given on liberal terms by Government. It was resolved that all headmen open vegetable gardens so as to encourage villagers to do the same, who can obtain seed on application to the Chairman ; also to take active steps to enforce penning cattle— the first step towards introducing tobacco cultivation in the hatpattu—and that members of the Society and headmen open tobacco gardens in 1907. Matale Branch.—On the 18th October I presided at a general meeting of the Matale Agricultural Society. The Honorary Secretary gave a short statement of work done since the last meeting, and mentioned that this Branch gained a gold medal offered by the Parent Society for exhibits sent in for the Imperial Institute. Reports were read from Chief Headmen reviewing their experience in experiments in vegetables, cotton, groundnuts, chilli, and six-months paddy growing. It was decided that steps should be taken for the establishment of an Hxperimental Garden in Matale town, and the Honorary Secretary was asked to try and make arrange- ments for a suitable site. It was agreed that the Agri-Horticultural Show, which was originally fixed for August last, but which had to be postponed on account of the drought, should be held next year, preferably in the early part of June. A paper was read by Mr. Tamby Rajah on “‘ Pineapple cultivation.” 57 438 [Nov. 1906. 2. Agricultural Shows: Yatiyantota Market Show.—I was present on the 21st October at the Yatiyantota Market Show, held under the auspices of the Three Korales and Lower Bulatgama Agricultural Society. The Show was opened by Mr. M. Stevenson, Assistant Government Agent, Kegalla. Mr. E. B. Denham, with whom the idea of holding a market show had originated, was also present. The date fixed for the Show was the ordinary market day, and the exhibits consisted of the fruits and vegetables ordinarily sold in the market. Money prizes, varying in value from Re.1 to Rs.10 had been subscribed by a number of planters and other gentlemen resident in the neighbourhood, as well as by headmen and members of the Local Society. All arrangements in connection with the Show were in the hands of Mr. J. H. Meedeniya, Ratemahatmeya; Mr. H. W. Boyagoda, Acting Ratemahatmeya; and Mr. J. A. Ratnayake, Honorary Secretary of the Local Society. This Show was the second of its kind, the first purely market show having been held at Minuwangoda on 7th April last. Its success proved that the presence of a band and the presentation of medals are not essential to the realization of the practical object of all such shows, namely, the encouragement of the spirit of competition and co-operation amongst the village cultivators. The display of vegetables in all classes was good, yams and chillies being especially well represented. The total cost of the Show was Rs. 462°37, Rs. 249 of which was distributed to the prize- winners. Agricultural Fair, Telijjawila.—The Agricultural Show, which was to have been held at Teljjawila in the Weligam Korale of the Matara District on the 31st October, has been postponed owing to the inclemency of the weather. The Show, which will take the form of a Market Fair, will be held on the afternoon of the 15th November, commencing at 2 p.m., at the Telijjawila Experimental Garden. The Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) Agri-Horticultural Show, under the auspices of the Local Branch Society, is fixed for the 16th and 17thinstant. Paddy fields competing for the prize offered for the best field of transplanted paddy have been judged by the second Assistant Superintendent of School Gardens; and the Gardens will be judged probably this week by a member of the staff of the Superin- tendent of School Gardens. 3. Citronella and Lemon Grass.—The Controller, Experiment Station, Peradeniya, reports as follows:—‘‘ The plots at Sita Eliya and Hakgala have been inspected and the grass distilled. In the Hakgala plots the lemon grass and citronella shoots were planted on the 4th September, 1905, on very poor soil, under the shade of large trees. The yield of fresh grass and oil was very poor. In the Sita Eliya plots the grasses were planted in nursery beds, which had been previously manured, The citronella grass was planted in October, 1905, and cut on the 20th July, 1906. unsuitable situation. It was quite certain that the beetle observed only bored into the stem after it was dead. In order to test this conclusion, the treatment which is detailed below was advised, but as far as 1 could judge when I passed the place some months afterwards nothing has been done. Quite recently one of our leading coconut planters (who had raised the question of this disease in 1903) kindly offered to show me other localities in which the disease existed, and under his guidance more valuable information was obtained. In a plantation at NaJjla, which was visited, two thousand trees are said to be affected, and though none have yet died, the number of diseased trees is increasing. It was seen that the ideas founded on the observations made previously on the palms near the canal would not hold good there, but fortunately a clue to the origin of the disease has been found in the specimens there collected. The longi- tudinal cracks in the outer tissue are a more or less normal feature of the coconut stem, They are not necessarily connected with disease, though it is probable that fungus enters through them. in the earliest stages of the disease, the sap oozes out from the trunk and causes a brown or black stain on the exterior. If the diseased region is cut into during wet weather a quantity of sap runs out. The tissue beneath the black patch decays, finally becoming dark brown or black. Instances of this appear to be fairly common. There ave numbers of old trees on which the disease has been at work for years, doing no more harm than Iccally destroying the outer tissues, the hard wood below being apparently too dense for it to operate upon. A hole, filled at first with dry fibres, is left in the stem. But in the cases which have attracted attention recently, the first black or rusty patch is followed by others, usually on the same side of the tree, and the diseased regions extend internally until the whole trunk is merely a shell enclosing a brown or black soil-like mass. There is no doubt that the progress depends on the character of the tree, and older trees appear to be less affected. But tiees of all ages are attacked, and the difference appears to depend on age only inso faras the older tree possesses a well-developed region of dense ‘‘ wood.” The trees which are killed succumb in trom four to six years. The fungus which is supposed to be the cause of the disease is wholly internal. Its spores are tormed in the decaying tissue, and are brought to the exterior by the exuding sap. In order to have the disease under observation, inoculations were made at Peradeniya with diseased tissue, and with the sap containing the spores and some bacteria. But the only trees available at Peradeniya are extremely old, and it is as yet doubtful whether the infection has been suc- cessful. It is only by making pure cultivations of the fungus and inoculating the _ trees from them that certainty can be arrived at. In addition to the Hendalla and Nalle districts, Ihave seen odd trees affected in the neighbourhood of Kandy. ‘‘The disease is fairly prevalent every- where, but so far has not done any serious mischief, It seems to have increased of late in certain localities.” ‘‘The progress of the disease is slow, taking possibly four to five years to kill the trees, but we think it is sufficiently serious to warrant attention.” These are the opinions of our leading coconut planters. The following measures were tried several years ago and have proved suc- cessful. All the diseased tissues were cut out and burnt, the wounds were then burned with a torch of rags dipped-in oil, and then covered with hot coal tar. All dead coconut. trees should be burned. With respect to the last point, the advice recently issued by the American Department of Agriculture in the Philippines may be quoted. ‘The first thing to do in coming into possession of a coconut grove, or in planting a new one, isto thoroughly clean the ground, All Duc. 1906.] 491 Plant Sanitation, manure heaps, rubbish, rotting or fallen trees should be removed and destroyed at once. Rubbish heaps and decayed trunks if fallen should be burned.” Now that America has taken a hand in tropical agriculture, we may confidently expect that coconut diseases will receive full attention; they have been the first to recognise that such work in the Tropics requires an equipment, if possible, better than they have in America. In the article on Coconuts in Watt’s Dictionary of the Economie Products of India there is a reference to a stem disease which may be the same as the one we are at present concerned with; the information, however, is not very definite, and the suggested remedy does not invite recommendation, “Palms suffer from the attacks of an insect named bhonga, which gnaws the roots of the tree. When a palm is suffering from the attacks of bhonga, a dark red juice oozes from the trank. When this is noticed, a hole three inches square is cut in the trunk from four to six feet above where the juice is coming out, and is filled with salt, which kills or drives away the insect,” The recorder does not suggest how the salt reaches the supposed insect! The Sinhalese say that the disease is the work of ‘‘Taldiya,” but what ‘‘ Taldiya” is they cannot tell. The other diseases of the coconut palm, in Ceylon do not eall for much attention. The ‘‘Bud Rot” described in Circular 15 has not been recorded from any other locality. A leat fungus, Pestalozzia palmarum, is extremely common in the low country, but as it never kills a tree itis disregarded. Up country it seems to be much less common. As its name indicates, it is a relation of the “Gray Blight” of tea; indeed, if the labels were removed from mounted spores of the two species (and there is practically nothing but spores tolay hold of in a Pestalozzia), no one will be able to relabel them with any degree of certainty. Most coconut diseases have been attributed to the effect of Pestalozzia palmarun, probably because all palm fronds bear that fungus, and it therefore occurred on the supposed specimens of any disease which have been sent to Europe. In Ceylon, it is confined to small spots on the leaves, and though it must to some extent retard the growth of the tree, it does not cause diseases of the bud or stem. The West Indian Bud Rot is still stated by some to be caused by it. A recent report from Java by Dr. Charles Bernard states that serious damage has been wrought by Pestalozzia in the case of young trees. Ina plantation containing 5,000 plants, a year old, every tree was affected. more than half were so badly affected that there was no hope of saving them, and about 1,000 had died, Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is recommended, and is practicable in the case of young palms. Assuming that the cause of the disease is correctly deter- mined, this offers a striking illustration of the possible differences in the effects of the same fungus on the same host in different countries. Uprooting Jungle Stumps. By T. PETCH. A correspondent writes from South India :— ““May I bring to your notice a plan carried out by a neighbour of mine, which is most successful. He first cuts down all the small trees; the large ones are then tackled. The roots round the tree are cut through, and the weight of the top boughs brings the tree down with a crash completely uprooting the stump, In thecase of large round-topped trees, the branches on one side can be lopped, and the tree thus made to fall in any direction, This is in my opinion a much cheaper and more satisfactory method than first felling the tree and then digging up the stump, On the Nilgiris most of the forest trees are surface rooters, and J expect it is the same with you; this makes the plan I mention most efficient.’ The method is, of course, not. put forward as a new one, bat itis one which might be adopted with advantage in future clearings, Plant Sanitation. 492 [DEc. 1906, ; Entomological N otes. By EH. Eanest GREEN, Government Entomologist. In a valuable paper on ‘The Principal Insects Attacking the Coconut Palm,’ by C.S. Banks, published in the Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 1, Nos. 2 and 3, mention is made of a native treatment employed against the attacks of the Rhino- ceros beetle. This consists in placing sand and coarse salt in the crown of the tree. . ‘The Filipinos state that the sand gets between the articulations of the head and thorax of the beetle where the constaat friction sets up an irritation which even- tually punctures the soft tissues, after which the insect dies.’ During a recent visit to Trincomalie, I was interested to find that a similar theory is maintained by the local coconut growers. The practice seems to be a sound one, and it might be employed with particular advantage on all young coconut estates. Besides the placing of sea sand in the crown of the tree, no better material could be employed for filling up the holes after the extraction of the beetles. The loose gritty sand prevents the reoccupation of the holes by other beetles—either Rhinoceros or Red Weevil, A new species of Shot-hole-borer has been noted. It has, at present, been observed only in a single tea nursery, and immediate steps for its eradication were taken, by the cremation of allthe plants. The insect is a Scolytid beetle, very similar in appearance to Xyleborus fornicatus, but considerably smaller in size, The following measurements will give an idea of the comparative sizes of the two species : — Xyleborus fornicatus, length of female 2°25 millimeters ; male 1°50 do. X ylebor us (new species), do. of female 1°75 do. do. male 1 do. There are other minute distinctions which can be detected only by the aid of a microscope. The point of attack is near the ground, just above the collar of the plant. The galleries run longitudinally up and down the pith of the plant, with a single transverse circular gallery at the point of entry. They appear to be more densely crowded with insects in all stages than are those of X. fornicatus, In every case the plant had been killed at the point of attack, the root remaining healthy and the upper part of the stem often still green (in cases of recent attack). If unchecked, this insect might possibly become a serious pest. Owners of tea nurseries should be on the watch for its appearance. In the event of its occurrence, no half measures should be permitted ; but the whole nursery should be sacrificed. We have always been led to suppose that camphor wood was immune to insect attack. But our confidence is apparently misfounded. I have recently received specimens of camphor branches attacked by a Scolytid beetle, distinct from but apparently allied to the ‘Shot-hole-borer’ of the tea plant. The insect perforates branches of over one inch, down to twigs of less thana quarter inchin diameter, The bark, for some distance above and below each point of attack, is discoloured (deep brown). The discolouration penetrates into the wood. In deserted galleries— in the larger branches—the central woody area is dead and decayed, but the bark appears to have recovered and to be carrying on its normal functions. Smaller branches are often killed outright. The galleries of the insect are transversely circular and restricted to that one point. They donotrun up or down in the branch, The beetle has a bright reddish head and thorax, with the hinder parts (abdomen. fate? werd ivr Dec. 1906.] 493 Plant Sanitation. and wing cases) blackish. Each gallery was found to contain a single female and many larvae in different stages of development. No males were observed. The infected tissues still smelt strongly of camphor, showing that this substance causes no inconvenience to the insects. It is fortunate that our system of cultivation provides an efficient check to the increase of the pest. Our camphor is distilled from the leaves and young branches of the plant. 62 8 100 ccolies @ 4 annas for weeding Pay) Bamboo props for plants @ 6 pies each a9) LO2N IS 4 coolies for 5 months @ Rs. 5 per head oa ,, 100 0 2 Watchmen for 3 months to propedt: fruit at Rs.b 5 he , 30 0 Sundry expenses pet hs Bae sy 1(0) Government tax ope ips me PP vatican) Rent for ground... Boe Me ibs psgvnaconse Pay of Agent @ Rs. 10 per mensem ... Hes ae », 120 O Total ... - Rs. 513 12 The income from the above may be estimated as follows :— 100,000 fruits (taking 50 fruits to the bunch) at Rs. 8 per 1,000 (rough, this price goes up at times to Rs, 15 per 1 000) Hi Rs. 800 0 (Assuming on an average ‘ater each plete gives ro shoots for sale after the planter takes what he requires 4,000 shoots at 6 pies each ia be ie », 125 0 Leaves... Ae OC ous a ee ao ONeO) Total ... Rs. 950 0 Expenditure a ie nas ane aM » dl3 0 Net profit per acre ... Rs. 4837 0 This is considered a fair statement, the expenditure being estimated on a liberal scale. If anything could be done with the fibre of the stems, the profits Be of course, be considerably enhanced. It would be most interesting to get comparative figures from Ceylon, and a criticism of the above statement from such well-known fruit growers as Mr, Francis” Dabiel of Colombo, and Mr. George Amarasekera of Hanwella. Yours truly, C. D, > eee a (a hats : Dec. 1906. | 518 Correspondence. PADDY REAPING MACHINE. DEAR Sir,—Can you inform me with what machine they reap the paddy fields in America, where they grow rice on a large scale ? Tam thinking of planting 700 or 800 acres with Huropean machinery, and I would like your advice. Tintend to plough with 3 furrow ploughs, and drill in the seed with drills, and then try the reaper and binder for reaping it. Do you think this mode of cultivation will work? The rice, I forgot to mention, is dry rice, or as you call it Hill-paddy, and the land is fairly level. By the present mode of cultivation it costs the Javanese twice as much to produce an acre of paddy as it costs an Australian to produce an acre of wheat. If you will kindly ‘help me with a little information on this subject, I will be very thankful, Yours sincerely. A. ALLEN. Kesamben, Java, 14th Nov., 1906. [The machines in use in America are, I believe, large combined reapers and threshers. Paddy is grown there at rates below even those of Bengal, the cheapest eastern country. Some attempts of Europeans to grow rice in Ceylon failed, but that is no proof that on flat land it might not be made profitable.—Ep. | The Ceylon Board of Agriculture. The Twenty-fifth meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in the Council Chamber at 12 noon on Monday, November 5th, 1906. His Excellency the Governor presided, Others present were:—The Hon’ble Messrs. G. M. Fowler, J. Ferguson, F Beven, S. C. Obeyesekere, Mr. H. T.S, Ward, Drs, J. C. Willis, H. M. Fernando, G. W. Sturgess, Sir William Twynam, Mr. C. Drieberg, Mr. D. S. Dias Bandara- nayake (Maha Mudaliyar) and the Secretary. Mr. L. W. A. de Soysa was present as a Visitor. BusINESs DONE, 1. The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed. 2. The Secretary read a telegram received from Mr. J. H. Meedeniya Ratemahatmeya, regretting his inability to attend the meeting. 8, List of new members was read. 4. The report of the Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, on the sections judged by him at the Kegalle Agri-Horticultural Show in September last was read. 5. Progress Report No. XXIV was circulated. The Hon’ble Mr, Ferguson asked for a list of Agri-Horticultural Shows held under the auspices of the Society. 6. After dealing with some points mentioned in the Progress Report, His Excellency the Governor informed the Board that it was no longer possible to spare the services of a member of the Civil Service as Secretary to the Society. His Excellency therefore proposed to appoint Mr. M. Kelway Bamber as Secretary to the Society, and trusted that the proposal would meet with the approval of the Board. The Hon’ble Mr. Ferguson was of opinion that the appointment of Mr. -Bamber would afford universal satisfaction, provided Mr. Bamber’s private work for the planters throughout the Island did not interfere with the performance of his duties as Secretary. The Hon’ble Mr, Obeyesekere raised the question of the cost 67 ies. 514 [DEc. 1906. of the new arrangement In reply to Mr. Ferguson, His Excellency stated that he could assure the Board that they would have the full value of Mr. Bamber’s services. Financially the new arrangement would probably cost the Island less than the present arrangement did all round. , 7. The Secretary read a letter from Mr. H. B. Rambukwelle expressing his thanks to the Board for the vote of condolence passed at its meeting on the 17th September. 8. Dr. Willis read a paper on ‘Some Possibilities in Fruit Culture in Ceylon.’ A discussion followed, in which His Excellency the Governor, Mr, Ferguson, Mr. Obeyesekere, Mr. Ward and others took part. - 9. Mr. C. Drieberg showed some samples of banana flour, ete., manufactured by an English firm. The meeting terminated at 1-15 p.m. The Twenty-sixth Meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in the Council Chamber at 12 noon on Monday, 3rd December, 1906. His Excellency the Governor presided. Others present were :—The Hon’ble Messrs. J. P, Lewis, E. Rosling, S. C. Obeyesekere, P. Arunachalam, J. Ferguson, Sir William Twynam, Drs: J. C. Willis, H. M. Fernando, the Maha Mudaliyar, Messrs. C. M. Lushington, L, W. Booth, J. Harward, EK. E. Green, M. Kelway Bamber, H. Wright, C. Drieberg, G. A. Joseph, G. W. Sturgess, and the Secretary. Mr. M. Subramaniam was present as a visitor. BUSINESS DONE. 1. The Minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed. 2, Progress Report No. XXV was circulated. 3. The Secretary announced that His Excellency had been pleased to nomi- nate Mr. C. Valoopillai of Anuradhapura asa member of the Board for the North- Central Province in succession to the late Mr. L. B. Nikawewa Disava. 4. Dr. Willis proposed that the recommendation of the Finance Committee be approved, to the effect that asum not exceeding Rs. 500 be allowed to enable Mr. C. Drieberg, Superintendent, School Gardens, to visit the Agricultural and Industrial Exhibition to be held at Calcutta in December, and to travel through the Bangalore and other districts with a view to gathering information on the subject of sericulture. Mr. E. EK. Green, Government Entomologist, seconded. The Hon’ble Mr. J. Ferguson also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. 5. The Secretary read a letter from Mr. W. D. Gibbon and a telegram from Mr. J. H. Meedeniya Ratemahatmeya, regretting their inability to attend the meeting. 6. Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy not having arrived, the reading of his paper on Native Arts and Crafts was postponed till later inthe meeting. Having made a few remarks on the subject, His Excellency the Governor, who was obliged to leave early, vacated the chair. At His Excellency’s desire the chair was taken by Mr. C. M. Lushington. 7. The Secretary read the report of the sub-Committee appointed at the meeting of September 17th to reconsider the provisions of the proposed Pests Ordinance with reference to a memorandum on the subject submitted by Sir ¢ Dec. 1906.] 515 William Twynam. A lengthy discussion followed, in which Messrs. Lushington, Arunachalam, Ferguson, Rosling and Booth and Dr. Willis took part. It was finally resolved on the motion of the Hon’ble Mr. P. Arunachalam, seconded hy the Hon’ble Mr. J. Ferguson, that in view of the fact that the report of the sub-Committee had not been long enough in the hands of members of the Board to ™ permit of its careful consideration, the discussion of the matter be deferred till the next meeting of the Board. 8 Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy read a paper on ‘‘Suggestions for the Encouragement of Indigenous Arts and Crafts in Ceylon.” A discussion followed in which Mr. Harward, Director of Public Instruction, Dr. Willis and Mr, Ferguson took part. The meeting JIA a 1-45 a m. A Special Meeting of ae Beard of Meet hieane was held in the Council Chamber at 12 noon on Monday, the 17th December, 1906, to consider the report of the sub-Committee on the proposed Pests Ordinance, In the absence of His Excellency the Governor, the chair was taken by Sir William Twynam, K.C.M.G. Others present were the Hon’ble Messrs. J. P. Lewis, S. C. Obeyesekere, J. Ferguson, c.M.G., and Francis Beven, Dr. J. C. Willis, Messrs. H. T. S. Ward, E. B. Denham, W. ianuwille Disava, Herbert Wright, M. Kelway Bamber, R. Morison, W. D. Gibbon, Daniel Joseph, R. E. Paranagama Ratemahatmeya, and the Secretary. Messrs. T. A. Carey and M. Subramaniam were present as visitors. : BUSINESS DONE. 1. Before proceeding to the business of the day the Chairman, Sir William Twynam proposed: ‘That the members of this Board desire to place on record their deep sense of the loss they have sustained in the sudden removal from their -midst of the late Hon’ble Sir Alexander Ashmore, K.C.M.G., who was a prominent member of the Board, and always a zealous worker in the promotion of its interests ; and they desire to convey to Lady Ashmore their deep and heartfelt sympathy in the sad and sudden bereavement that has befallen her.” The motion was seconded by the Hon. Mr. S.C. Obeyesekere and carried - unanimously, all standing. 2. The Secretary read a telegram from the Maha Mudaliyar and a letter from Mr. C. P. Hayley regretting their inability to be present at the meeting. 8. Dr. J. C. Willis moved the adoption of the report of the sub-Committee on the proposed Pests Ordinance, which was submitted at the meeting of the Board on the 8rd December. The Hon’ble Mr. Obeyesekere seconded. With the permission of the Chairman the Secretary, Mr. A. N. Galbraith. spoke to the motion, and suggested a slight alteration in the amended draft Ordinance put forward by the sub-Committee. The Hon’ble Mr. Obeyesekere seconded and the amendment was carried. Considerable discussion followed, in which almost all the members present; took part. Further amendments were proposed by the Secretary, seconded by Mr. Denham, and by Mr. Denham, seconded by, the Hon’ble Mr. Lewis, and passed. It was finally unanimously resolved that the report of the sub-Committee be adopted, together with the amended draft Ordinance, framed by the sub-Committee with the three further amendments referred to. The meeting terminated at 1-15. p.m, 516 Duc, 1908, Agricultural Society Progress Report, XXV. 1. Local Branches.- Two new branch societies have been formed—one for Gangaboda Pattu (Galle) and one for Hinidum Pattu, The total number of branch societies is 48, while the total membership of the Society is 1,127. It has been decided to amalgamate the Gangaboda Pattu (Matara) branch with the local branch at Matara from 1907, Gangaboda Pattwu Branch (Galle).—An inaugural meeting was held at the Baddegama Gansabhawa on the 16th October. One of the Society’s Agricultural Instructors, Mr. N. Wickramaratne, was present and assisted in the pioceedings. At a subsequent meeting on the 8rd November Mr. H. D. Perera, Mudaliyar of the Pattu, was elected President of the Society, and Mr. C. E. Gunatileka, President of the Village Tribunals, Vice-President. The new society proposes to undertake the establishment of a seed bank, the opening of an experimental garden, and an experi- ment in growing castor oil plants with a view to starting silk cultivation. Mr, M. A. Jayasinhe, Deputy Coroner, has presented the society with a piece of land at Nagoda for the experimental garden, In connection with the seed bank, it was agreed that as a beginning the members should contribute two or more bushels of paddy apiece ; that 25 per cent. interest be charged on paddy lent from the bank ; and that the contributors be at liberty to take back their paddy after five years. Seventy bushels were promised by thirty-eight members. Hinidum Pattu Branch.—The local branch at Hiniduma was formed follow- ing an inaugural meeting held at the Nagoda resthouse under the presidency of Mr. A. L. Amarasekare, Mudaliyar. The Agricultural Instructor was again present. The programme of work adopted at this meeting includes the opening of an experi- mental garden ; sericulture; popularising of school gardens, &c, Mr. Wickramaratne took with him on his tour two trays, specially made at the Peradeniya Silk Farm, containing silk worms, eggs, and cocoons, and gave ocular demonstration of the method of handling the worms. Amongst those who express- ed their interest in the subject of sericulture was the Rev. Father Schaefer of Hiniduma, who contemplates its introduction amongst the boys of his school and orphanage. This is the first occasion on which one of the Society’s Agricultural Instruc- tors has been on tour. Itis hoped that by February next, the course of training which they are at present undergoing will be sufficiently complete to justify their being regularly sent on tour in different districts. Any local societies desiring their services should apply for them in the course of the next two months. It is intended that the Instructors should visit the various local branches, attend their meetings, ® ive lectures and instruction, and ascertain in what directions the local societie require the assistance of the parent society, or the expert advice of the scientific staff at Peradeniya. Dumbara Branch.—I was present with Mr. M. Kelway Bamber, Government Chemist, at a general meeting of the Dumbara Agricultural Society, held on the 8rd November at Teldeniya. The main object of our visit was to ascertain how far Teldeniya would he a suitable centre for the experiment the Sqciety proposes to make in the improvement of native tobacco by a more scientific method of curing, A number of tobacco growers were present at the meeting and availed themselves of the opportunity to consult Mr. Bamber on the question of manuring, plucking, curing, &c. The Secretary read an interesting report of the progress of the Society since its formation in April last. 3 i Dec. 1906.} 517 A meeting of the Co-operative Credit Society followed, at which it was decided to lend money to tobacco cultivators, not exceeding Rs. 50 to each applicant. Harispattu Branch.—A meeting of the committee of this society was held on the 18th November, when rules for the management of the proposed seed paddy store were passed. The chairman, Mr. P. B Nugawela, Ratemahatmaya, and eight other members undertook to contribute between theim 85 bushels of paddy. The committee decided to allow a grant of Rs. 25 towards the opening of each of the five experimental gardens proposed. Vavuniya Branch.—At the meeting of the Vavuniya Branch held on 27th November several members undertook to experiment with rotations of crops on chenas, as follows :—Kurakkan in September, gingelly in April, manioca in July, 1907, kollu in February, manioca in July, 1908, and kurakkan in September, 1909, Forwarding Agency.—Rules were adopted for the formation of a forwarding agency, the object of which is to enable the people of the district to dispose of their produce in Colombo, Jaffna, or other suitable markets. Some cf the products with which it is proposed to deal are: ghee, honey, tamarind, limes, eggs, fowls, paddy, and cattle. Under the auspices of the agency ten black cattle locally reared were sent in October to the Colombo market, with the object of seeing how the price obtainable in Colombo compares with that paid by the itinerating Moorman who - barters for the animals on the spot in exchange for clothing, apparel, &c. | have not yet received the report of the local branch Society as to the financial result of the venture. 2. Agricultural Shows,—I was present at the Agricultural Fair held at Telijjawila on the 15th November. The fair was originally fixed for the 31st October, but had to be postponed owing to the heavy rains. It was held in the grounds of Mudaliyar J. A. Wickremeratne’s own house, the exhibition of fruit and vegetables being accommodated ina large cross-shaped building specially erected for the purpose at the Mudaliyar’s own expense. The fair was opened in the afternoon by Mr. G. M. Cookson, Assistant Government Agent, Matara. There was avery large attendance of villagers and headmen. The display of vegetables and fruit wasa creditable one, despite the bad weather of the previous month. The show building, which is intended to be a permanent one, proved itself admirably suited tothe purpose. he absence of show counters running down the centres of the wings of the building allowed a roomy passage way, a feature not usually found in such buildings, asI have had occasion to remark in a previous report. The fair was intended as a preliminary to the larger agricultural show to be held next year. Its character as a fair was emphasised by the presence of various parties of dancers, jesters, and acrobats, while the obvious prototype of the ‘‘ great wheel” at Earl’s Court was much patronised by the children. In this respect the Telijjawila show differed entirely from the market shows held at Minuwangoda and Yatiyantota. Wellaboda Pattu (Valle) Agri-Horticultural Show.—Owing to the heavy rains the local committee have been obliged to postpone this show, which was to have been held on the 16th and 17th November, at Ambalangoda. It is now fixed for the 20th and 21st December. Trincomalee Market Show.—At a committee meeting held on the 16th November, it was decided to hold a market show at the Trincomalee Town Hall on the 2nd April, 1907, commencing at 9 a.m, Batticaloa Agri-Horticultural Show.—An Agri-Horticultural Show under the auspices of the Batticaloa Agricultural Society, will be held early in 1907. bis (Dec. 1908, The Nuwara Eliya Agri-Horticuttural Show will be held on the 2nd and 3rd April next. The Telijjawila Agri-Horticultural Show will be held at Telijjawila on the 15th March, 1907. Uva Agri-Horlicultural Show will be held at Badulla early in May, 1907. Matale Agri-Horlicultural Show will be held probably eariy in June. Kandy Agri-Horiticultural Show.—The Kandy Branch has decided to hold an Agri-Horticultural Show in August, at the end of the ‘“‘ perahera” season. 3. Foreign Vegetable Seeds.—From the list of seeds quoted in the last Progress Report, No. XXIV., as having been ordered for the Society, the following varieties must be omitted, namely, French dwarf beans, capsicum, chilli, Chinese cabbage, gourd, melon, onion, parsnip, potseed, pumpkin, and spinach. Amended list is as follows :— Beans Cauliflower Lettuce Turnip Beet ‘Celery Okra Tomato Cabbage Cucumber Peas Vegetable Marrow Carrot Egg-plant Radish Kohlrabi The seeds will be distributed to applicants by the Superintendent of School Gardens, Colombo, in packets, price not exceeding 20 cents each. 4. Cotton.—56 lb. of selected Sea Island cotton seed from the West Indies has been supplied to the Dumbara Branch for experimental cultivation. Mr. T, B. Pohath-Kehelpanala of Gampola has applied for a quantity sufficient to plant half an acre. At the request of a member of the Board of Agriculture samples of locally grown Caravonica cotton—of both the “wool” and the “silk” varieties—have been sent to a gentleman of his acquaintance who is connected with the cotton trade in Liverpool. The samples were kindly supplied by Mr, J. W. C. de Soysa. d. Varieties of Indian Arecanuts.—Orders for seed nuts are now being booked and will be forwarded to India early this month. 6. Umbrella Tree.—Seeds of the ‘‘ Udai” (umbrella) tree (Accacia planifrons) have been distributed to the following districts for experimental cultivation :— Peradeniya, Henaratgoda, Galle, Chilaw, Colombo, Matugama, and Batticaloa, A few more seeds are still available. 7. Saltbush seed has been sent to applicants in the following districts :— Batticaloa, Puttalam, Balangoda, Mannar, Peradeniya, Henaratgoda, Delft, The whole supply is exhausted. 8. Jamaica Seedling Yams.—Through the courtesy of the Secretary of the Jamaica Agricultural Society tubers of yams of the following varieties have been received :—/ioscorea alata, D. sativa D. aculenta, D. triphylla. These have been distributed among the following :—Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya ; Superintendent, Silk Farm, Peradeniya; Secretaries of the Kurunegala, Nuwara Eliya, Matale, Harispattu, Badulla, Dumbara, Gangaboda Pattu (Galle), Trinco- malee, Katunayake, Three Korales and Lower Bulatgama Agricultural Societies ; Government Stock Garden; and, to individual members in Veyangoda, Colombo, Ratnapura, Badulla, Henaratgoda, Kelaniya, Mutwal, and Wanni Hatpattu. 9. Tobacco.—Two samples of tobacco grown in the Eastern Province (Tamankaduwa and Batticaloa) were received from the Secretary of the Batticaloa Agricultural Society for valuation in Colombo with an inquiry whether this tobacco would suit the purposes of curing for the foreign market. The samples have been sent to two firms in Colombo for their report. DEc. 1906. } 519 10. Improved Avocado Pears.—Three parcels containing seeds of improved varieties of avocado pears were received from the United States Department of. Agriculture. As the seeds were long on the journey and some appeared to have suffered by the voyage, the consignment was sent to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, where the seeds will be tried and supplies will be sent to applicants by the Director according to the number of plants successfully propagated. 11. Insect Pests: (1) Mealy Bug on Cotton.—Specimens of some insects found by me on the bolls of a few plants of cotton growing in the Weligama Stock Garden, when recently on a visit there in connection with the Fruit and Vegetable Show at Telijjawila, were forwarded to the Government Entomologist, who reported as follows :— “The white insect is the common ‘mealy bug’ (Dactylopius citri), I do not anticipate that this will prove a serious pest of cotton in Ceylon ; but should it show signs of increasing to a dangerous extent, it may be kept in check by spraying with kerosine emulsion. [ was unable to find the small black fly, which had probably escaped in transit. There is a small black-winged bug that frequents cotton bolls, especially after they have burst—and often swarms in the lint. It can be readily driven off by exposing the lint to the hot sun fora few hours. The name of this insect is Ovycarenus laetus,” (2) Cucumber Fly.—Specimens of a yellow fly which attacks gourds, &c., have been sent by the Trincomalee Agricultural Society to the Government Entomo- logist, who identifies them as Dacus sp., the well-known cucumber fly, and states that :— “They will attack gourds, melons, cucumbers, vegetable marrows, and all allied fruits. The only satisfactory method of circumventing this pest is to enclose the young fruits (immediately the flower has set) in muslin bags large enough to contain the mature fruit. Any diseased fruits of this kind should be systematically collected and destroyed. If allowed to rot upon the ground, the flies will mature and infest other fruits.” 12. Fruit Trees for School Gardens.—Mr. M. D. 8S. A. Wijenayake, Stock Inspector at Kurunegala, has offered to make a present of mangosteen, nutmeg, clove, and num-num plants to all school gardens in the North-Western Province. These will be sent to 26 school gardens by the Superintendent of School Gardens, who has accepted the offer. Cost of transport will be met by the Society. 13. Examination of Agricultural Instructors,—Under the scheme recently adopted of training Stock Inspectors in agricultural work, an examination in Botany, &c., was held on the Ist instant at the office of the Government Veterinary Surgeon. The papers were prepared by the Dierector, Royal Botanic Gardens, and the Controller, Experiment Station Peradeniya. The following candidates were ex amined: P. C. J. Ferando, A. M, Fernando, M. D.S. A. Wijenayake, B. D. Stephen, and D. L. Dias, and the two Agricultural Instructors of the Society—N. Wickra- _ maratne and L. A. D. Silva. 14. Castration of Cattle—The progress made with regard to castration of cattle is as follows :— Number of demonstrations held during 1906 ee aK 138 Number of cattle operated upon during 1906 ys vee 2,868 Number of owners who brought cattle during 1906 ... Seay raya) Number of men trained in the operation during 1906 bys 136 at an average cost, including all expenses, of about Rs. 1°06 per head of cattle operated upon—training of men free, 520 [DEc. 1908 15. The Society regrets the death of L. B. Nicavowe Dissawe, who was a member of the Board of Agriculture for the North-Central Province. 16. Honour to an Agriculturist.—At the Investiture of Native Ranks held on the occasion of His Majesty the King’s Birthday, 9th November, Mr. A. E. Raja- pakse, Muhandiram, Chairman of the Katunayake Branch of the Society, and a prominent agriculturist in the district, was created a Mudaliyar. “ for the excellent work done by him in the district by giving time and money in the encouragement: of the improvement of agriculture amongst the people of the country.” 17. Publications.—The paper read by Mr. EK. B. Denham, C.c.s., at the Septem- ber meeting of the Board of Agriculture, on the subject of ‘‘Uses and Objects of Agricultural Societies” is now ready in pamphlet form, and will be distributed among members. The Editor of the Sihala Samaya having forwarded 50 copies of the edition of that paper containing a translation of the proceedings of the last meeting of the Board, these were distributed among the Local Branches of the Society, as usual, A. N. GALBRAITH, Colombo, December 38, 1906. Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. 8 ie ee ca My Hip! my tie, wi phot ‘ oh bia npr Pa i SEE AE aN LY ie Ay teal Meee rie ‘a : i a see ras AY uy Hild i ab ae | Ah 2 1 a | Mh ee i ju REN f ; a PA ‘ae aca Yer PL Miah Migs KK Ls ‘ Ay BY MANS Cae sat ak th ay i A a Pit a Pyle nie iP tint a re WA sy Ralls Dt etage Cah : Lt rT 4: ¥ 4 He” ae a ae 7a ae, Du ‘iat bi saa eM i ee ML RORY 0 ind a Vite i ’ Bos vel Suey? Pts ae mae : \ , f ee Rae a 7 ee To ee nt Ny ewes Becta Cae wag Satene™