4 wk 4 ee Ere 2 a So ao ‘:, res on. at & er 4 REN Sere ie wi a ay ft . y the Internet Archive i nt i i yl a ay % ye hay Ry I pal oT ee de ea Lad a ial te an ‘ Hi ‘ a _ aa TOL The Tropical Agriculturist AND Magazine of ihe Geylon Agricultural dociety. FOUNDED BY JOHN FERGUSON, C.M.G., 1881. EDITED BY J. ©. WILLIS, Sc.D., F.L.S., Director, Royat Botanie Gardens, Peradeniya. Vol. XXX. Containing Numbers | to Vi?:"January to i ROR A. M. & J. FERGUSON, Proprietors and Publishers, COLOMBO, CEYLON. Messrs. MACLAREN & SONS, 37 & 88, SHOE LANB, LONDON, E.C., Agents for Hurope and america, 1908. June, 1908. INDEX. PAGE. A. Agricultural and Industrial seecanacatear Mysore j 58 do Banks 476 do Co-operative Society of. Natal, Rules of 347 do Improvement in Ceylon (Address by Sir H. Mc- Callum) j 676 do Society’s Annual Report, 1907-08 565 do Uses of Salt... 28 Agriculture Indian, Sir H. S. Law— rence on 143, 230, 361 do in Burma bn 55 do in Ceylon 602 do Machinery i asa 4 504 do Sir H. Blake, on Native ... 142 do Tropical, and Artificial Manures ; nod 390 ete State Aid for 390 ae -Horticultural Show, NuW eee Bliya 473, 474 ee Tree— Blighia Sa pide... 535 Algaroba Tree or Bean 5 262 Alkali and Water Logging in Irrigated Lands os 549 Amazon Rubber, Cost of... 503 Annual Report, 1907-08, Ceylon Agpri- cultura Society a 565 Apiculture, A. B.C. of Bee Culture .... 276 do Absconding Swarms of Bees 341 do (by ‘An Amateur”) oa 253, 342 do in Ceylon Ke 342 Artificial Manure and Tropical Agri- culture bce 390 do Silk in Japan 396 ge Pears: Preparation & Shipment Son 208 Ayapana, A Famous Medicine 617 B. BE 2 Banana from Ceylon, Dried Fes Dgat + do Trade of Dutch Guiana ss i th © ARQ Banks, Agricultural A ae + 476": Beans (Phaseolus lunatus), *Poinomater OD nC Properties in soa 530 do Poisonous 449 Beekeeping, a Rural Industry 560 Bees, Indian Be 48 do Young, and their Larve 613 Blighia Sapida, Akee Tree . ue 535 Board of Agriculture: Minutes 167, 264, 477 do Progress Report 168, 265, 478 do Possibilities before the 245 Bolivia, Rubber Tapping in “s Botany, Articles on the Literature of Economic 143, 229, 349 do Literature of Economic 64, 143, 228, "348, Brokers’ Reports on Tea Broom Corn, West Indian ... Burbank, Luther Burma, Agriculture in 5 do asa Market for Tea ‘do Garjan Oil in, Sources of 471 513 122 574 55 368 10 Cc. ‘Cabbage Growing for Stock in Cuba .. Cacao, An Annual Report on do Crop and Consumption, the World’s 96 do Drying of 584 do Experiments in the West Indies 427 do from the Gold Coast ae 429 do Industry of the West Indies . 536 do do of St. Thomé Bo 121 do in Ecuador 317 do Its General Culture .. 124 do Manurial Experiments on 397 do Manuring or eae 590 do New Drier 039 ets 536 do Transport of, Sced ... 432 Calabash Gourds, Possible Market for 166, 585 Calcium Cyanamide, Experiments with 336 Cam oe Annual Report for 1907...” 92 Cultivation in Ceylon 346, dic 392 6 Culture in Mysore 492 do Export of Sead from J apan .. 379 do in Burma bos 590 do Japanese bbe a 523 do Monopoly, The ... ae 420 do Synthetic ote bee 9 do The Sale of She “Bs 494 do ‘Trees, Canker i in. ott 399 Cane Sugar, Java’s Success i in ewe 122, 494 Canker in Camphor Trees , 399 Canning Pineapple 613 Cardamoms, Ceylon’s Exports for 1907 181 Carnauba Palm ... fe 585 do Wax . 90, 113, 205, 585 Cassava Starch, Industrial Prospects of 209 Cashew Tree, The bec 616 Castilloa and Hevea 383 do Rubber Tapping and Preparing, Hints on me 81 Castor Oil as a Feeding Material ae 493 Ceylon Agricultural Society, Sir Henry Blake on the 142 s«do Agricultural Society” s Annual ae Report for 1907-08 5 565 ‘do Agriculture in , 602 «odes Banana, Dried hi 284 :;G6; Cotton Growing in ... ... 490, 507 ‘do‘ Olive Cultivation in 585 do Orange Growing in and in other Tropical Lands... 99 do Planters’ Association Annual — Report a : 161 do Rice Cultivation in . aa 1 do Rubberand Tea ... At 181 do Teaand Rubber ... oad 181 do Teain America “aie 601 do do Crop Estimate for 1908... 92 do do Europe . ca 597 do do Germany... as 60L do do Japan Hos Sat 601 de do Planting Shares, Market for ach Be 90 do do Roumania 601 do do Russia 615 do ‘Trade Report 5h 274 do preyiee Agriculture in, and ia Children’s reaches and the Public oa. 152 INDEX. PaGe. China Tea Campaign ob 280 Cigars from London Grown Tobacco ... 398 Cinnamon Oil, Distillation of 525 Citrate of Lime and Concentrated Lime Jui 441, 445 do Use of soenimtul gale for Drying 442 Citronella Oil... : 319 do do in Po ta and J ava 400 do do Test f 114 Coca, 525 do Leaves, Drying of 137 Cocaine, Cheap . 451 do in India 452 Coconut and Paspalum dilatatum 394 do and Rubber 496 do Beetle Pest in South Seas... 386 do Cultivation in the Baiiepigee 306, 538 do do in Samoa 4 544 do Disease in Travancore and Ceylon ... .. 505, 589 do do inCochin.. 4 514 do do Ceylon and ‘Travancore 505 do Industry in Travancore 128 do Palm and its Enemies re 386 do do Bud-rot Disease of the 192, 589 do do Culture and Salt . 491, 506 do do in Travancore 401 do do Root Disease of the 19 do _do Salt for 386 do Planting in New Guinea __.. 387 do Products in the Philip ppines .. 306, 538 do Rubber and ariae roducts 280 do Salt in i 188 do Splitting for Co ra 544 do Stem Bleeding Disease ... 92, 193, 194, 197, 282, 283, 285, 385, 387, 498, 588 do Stem Bleeding Disease, Lecture on and Criticism... 384 do Stem Bleeding Disease, Lecture by Mr. Petch ... 285 do ‘Trees, Dead or Diseased 383 do vs. Tea Bt 195 do Water ... 12 do with reference to its Products and Cultivation in the Philippines . 806, 424 Coffee Growing in the New Hebrides, Bonus for 613 do Leaf Disease in 602 do Innocuous co 41 Coir Manufacture in Java .. 490 Colombo Tea Sales 603 Competition, Small Holdings 158 Consular Reports on the Rubber In- dustry 2 Co- Sperntie Credit Societies in Bengal 148 do Society, Rules of Natal Agricultural 347 Copra, Coconut Splittin for 544. o in Portuguese Afrita 514 Coquilho-Nuts 406 88 Corn, West Indian Broom ..,, 122 Costa Rica, Plantains in 530 Cotton Growing and Irrigation 509 do do Dutch Colonies iM 612 do do Industry for Ceylon ... 377 do ae in Central Asia 614 do in Ceylon ... . 490, 507 do Sood Selection 1906-7 13 Cottons, Different kinds, Indian 490 Cultivation and Curing of Tobacco 79 Curing and Cultivation of Tobacco _... 579 ii PacE D. Dairy Sanitation and Milk Eupply 562 Danni Palm, The.. 138 Dioscorea vs. Yams On 368 Disease among Plants, Immunity to ... 89 Distillation of Cinnamon Oil 525 Divi-Divi—a Useful Tanning Tree 93 Drugs, Trade Report on 453 Dry Weather, Loss of Water from Soil during ae ene 549 E. Edible Oil from Saftlower Seed 41 Education, Suggestions on Rural 575 Egypt, Tropical Plants for .. 618 Enemies of Para Rubber in Burma 70 Entomological Notes 17 Experiments with Rice 438 F. Famine Food in India 516 Fertilisation of Land 279 Fertility, Soil, some Factors Influencing 27 Flowering Trees of Ceylon .. 511 Formic Acid as a Coagulant for Para Rubber 606 Fructification, Why does Pruning Sti- mulate 455 Fruit Culture 69 do Industry or J amaica . 450 do Packing for Export ... 340 Fungus Diseases, Treatment of 24. do on Rubber Plants ... 69, 585 G. Gardens and the Public, Children’s 152 do Singapore Economic 613 Garjan Oil in Burma, Sources of 10 Ginger, UT asion and Eroperation of Jamaica 164 Girth of Trees, " Handy “Method of Measuring f 183 “Gootee” Method of Propagation a 470 Gourds, Possible Market for Calabash 166 xrape Fruit and Pomelo . 410, 512 Green Colour in Parts of Plants, Preser- vation of 466 Greenwood Borer and Mole Rat 263 Grevillea Robusta 399 Ground Nuts __.. 391 do Cultivation in India 436 Guttapercha in Russia 496 H. Hawau, A Mesquite Grove in 158 emp, New Manure for .. 399 Hevea Brasiliensis and Castilloa 383 do Enemies of 70 do Five-Seeded Fruit 610 do Formic Acid as a Coagulant ae 606 do Proper Distance for Planting 300 do Variation and Selec- tion in 299 Humusand the best means of Supplying it 551 i. Immunity to Disease among Plants Improved Ploughsin Tinnevelly District India, Tropical Agriculture i in Indian Agriculture, Sir H. 8. Lawrence on oes eee do Bees 450 do Dust and Hankow Brick Tea... do ‘Tea Association ae do do Bushes, Life of... Indigo, Synthetic Industrial and Agricultural Exhibition, Mysore bon Innoculation, Progress i in Legume Innocuous Coffee ay Insect Pests, Practical Remedies for ... Instrument, Newly Patented, for Rub- ber Tapping Irrigated Land, ging in Irr: igation in Beng al ‘Alkali and ‘Water Log- Jamaica Fruit Industev if do Ginger Cultivation and Prepar- ation of ap do Pimento Growing i in do Orange Trees, How to Encour- age » early Bearing do Small Holdings Competition... Java, Coir Manufacture in. AN do Tea in 3 do Mr. Welldon’ s Visit to Java’s Success in Cane Sugar Jungle Products used duri ing Famine, 1896-7, List of . s see Jute vs. Rice K. Kolanut, Studies on Kus-Kus Root, The L. Lace-making in Cottage and Factory .. Leaf Disease in Coffea robusta Legume Inoculation, Progress in Lemon Grass Oil... AD, do Juice Lettuce Culture ... Lightning and Trees Se Lime and its Relation to Agriculture ae do Citrate of—Use of Centrifugal f for Drying ... Ar do Crops and Products ... do Juice, Concentrated, and Citrate of Lime ... AG Limes, Cultivation of Literature on Economic Botany andl Agriculture Literature on Economic Botany, Recent Articles on Local Products, Notes on some Familiar London Rubber Market zs Luther Burbank ... Mi. Machinery in Agriculture Malaria and Mosquitoes ‘ Malay Rubber Growers’ Association Malaya, Planting ae setae in One do Rubber in a .. O76, 64, 143, 228, 348, 471, 143, 229, < INDEX. Pace. Mangosteens for Panama _ ..- A, 2 89 Manicoba Jaqui, and its Allies “Ae 412 556 do Species of Manihot 299 464 Manihot Glaviow Manicoba Species of, Further Notes on 299 143, 230 Manure, Experiments with Calcium 48 Cyanamide a 336 : 615 do for Vines 398 .. 614, 615 do New, for Hemp . ; 399 361 Manures, Sources and Tike ‘of Nitro- 205 genous Se 554 Market for Tea Planting Shares 90 58 do London Rubber 6 459 do Rates for Tropical Products... 482 41 Measuring Girth of Trees, vaio Me- 332, thod of ; 183 ‘*Melilot’”’ or “Pea Clover?’ 367 495 Mesquite Grove in Hawaii, A 158 Milk Supply and Dairy Sanitation 562 549 Minutes of Proceedings, Board of Agri- 365 culture ... 167, 264, 477, 576 Mixed Garden of the Rion Villager 101 do Plantations 450 Molasses 611 Mole Rat and Greenwood Borer 263 164 Mosquito Blight in Tea 921 545 Mosquitoes, and Malaria 512 do Prickly Pear Leaves a Pre- 100 ventative of .. 602 158 Mysore Agricultural and “Industrial 490 Exhibition Ne, ‘Ai 58 499 100 587 494 New Congo Rubber Co. a France . 618 do Guinea, Planting in Rubber and 546 Coconuts ... Sf 387 65 do Rubber-containing Plants 612 Nitrogenous Manures, Sources and Use of 554 Notes and Queries 67, 166, 263, 366, 476, 583 450 do on some Familiar Local Products 393 319 O. Olives Grown in Ceylon nO 585 279 Orange Growing in Ceylon ... on 196 602 do do do and other — A59 . Tropical Lands... sae 99 42] do Tree, how to Renovate an BY 380 494 do ‘Trees, how to Encourage tony 211 Bearing ade 100 91 Oranges for Health as 485 456 Overproduction of Rubber .. 84 442 P, ! 440 Packing Fruit for Export . De, 349 Paddy,” Advantage of Tr ansplanting o 46, 131 .. 441, 443 Cultivation | 496, 505 206 40 Experiment in Gowri Sanna ... 262 do Fields, Rotation of Crops in ... 297 582 do Growing and Bone Manure 196 do (Rice) Cultivation in Ceylon . 270 349 Palm, Carnauba.. é 90, 113, 205, 585 393 Palms, Diseases of a py 192 6 Panama, Mangosteens for ... 602 574 Para, Plantation vs. Wild ... 392 Paspalum Dilatatum and Coconuts 394 “¢ Pea Clover” or ‘‘Melilot” 367 504 Pears, Avocado, Preparation and Shipment 208 512 Peruvian Methods of Cultivation and 500 Tapping Rubber ey 609 502 do Rubber... ONLY 86 4 Pests, Plantation Rubber and oF 191 ae INDEX. v Pacu. : , a Pacu, Petroleum Rentdues for eeteroineline i Rubber Cultivation es FaPring, Peru- f py eine Ants yg J i oe do Beenes ‘Mr. Ban ben! ’s latest By eee 340 Pr apcle Cautie, amaica 613 do KHstate Surveyor for W. Borneo 594. do Growing in the Woat Indies, 526 do Estates, Suppressing Weeds on 371 Plant Breeding and Sutnbe Agricul- l do | Ex a ie by Mr. Herbert fel i 515, 5S rig me ato WeneeanenD ae ia ae? aa do Five-Seeded Hevea Fruit ni 610 Plantains in Costa Rica... i 530 do Formic Acid as a Coagulant for un Plantation Rubber and Pests An oe : nah Lo nS ine Bs én 392 do ves ’ owe 58! ty Usa TA Rare os: 87 do _Funtumia in Perak 52 510 Plantations, Mixed 5 Planters’ Association of Ceylon, Annual do Growers’ Association, Malay . 500 Report. i nit 161 ah ; eromies i Queensland sie 608 Planting in N. yasaland one pe 183 do do ir and’s bet aol) Notestizom N-W.P. ah 188 Views on ... Me 396 do Shares, Tea, Market for a 90 do Guayule ... vs ee Plants for Egypt, Tropical .. bf 618 do Guttapercha, in Russia 496 do Watering of 564 do Handy Method of Measuring ; Ploughs in Tinnevelly District, Impr oved aa “rhe ne et eater : 6 Poisoning by Sorghum : 44} do evea an Qe: ofeodous Prapeitiog | in Beans (Bonehi) 530 do Hints on Tapping and Preparing Le Pomelo and the Grape Fruit . 410, ol : eeeaty oy Nee ms fo do or Pummelo . 410, oo) , ok. #8 pie Possibilities before the Agricultural Society 245 clo do Consular Reports on 2 Preservation of Green Colour in Parts of de us Ce rie th vs ae Tact age ee 466 do do Tren e Ba 72 price oP Rane, 411 do in Bolivia ay 369 Prickly Pear Leaves, a Mosquito Pre- do im Brazil... -- 204, 375 ventative ; 602 do in Burma, Para, Enemies of He 70 Products, Local, NotesonSome Familiar ee Ge a eee sey a3 fet pak do in N.C.P. nia 505 do in Jamaica bb Ba 3) Progress in Legume Imncculation —... 459 do inJava ... oe 486 do Report, Board of Agriculture 68, 168, do inKalutara District. ves 487 265, 478, 565 do in Malaya Ke a 189 Propagation, ‘“Gootee” Method of _... 470 do in Mexico _ vs ve 369 Pruning Stimulates Fructification ... ae do sie) Rea unos nes ae aH ry 2 oO in 1m els as Aco Peetocar pus Tigdaats Y do in Queensland ne sid 608 do in South Coorg at ».. 611, 613 Q. do in South America ... a 495 (Quinine, State... ae ss 512 do Manicoba and its Allies 299, 412 ABA do do or Ceara ... ty 518 do Manihot Glaziovii, New species R. and there Importance Ap 198 Rice Cultivation ... ai ... 496, 505 do Meoey in British Hast Africa ... 102 do doy ¢ in Burma |). a 276 do Market 86 do do in Ceylon ... ABSA CNN! 22740) do do London _... 6 do do in Malaya ... es 4 do do 1907, 8. Figgis & Co’s. do Exhibition in Siam... Aa 615 Annual Review oa 94. do Industry in British Guiana 214 do do Smithett & Co’s. 95 do do” of the United States 42 2, 132, 214 do Mr. pemvene Latest Discoveries 617 do vs. Jute... a 65 do Co) New Process of Rotation and Tillage, Principles OLN fie. 34 Preparing ; 398 do of Crops in Paddy Fields _... 297 do New Tree (Beekrodew Tonkinon. wsts) 203 Borel ae eal Uses Sa Oi ug aoe Congo Rubber Co. in France 618 Rubber African, and Railways aN 7 fo) otes a $2, 495 do Amazon, the Cost of 503 do Over-production of 84 do Analysis of, Samples from India 516 do Palo Amarillo: a New Rubber do An Interesting Substance like.. 503 Tree 109 do and Coconuts 496 do Paraguayan MN A 488 do and Tea, Ceylon —by Sir H. Blake 181 do = Peruvian.. 86 do Artificial 618 do Pests aud Diseases of 262,263, 332,5 92, 594 do A Strange Romance of bey 182 do do do = Methods to do Axillary Buds Heh id 263 | be Employed against . 592 do Castilloa and Hevea Ae 383 do Plantation, and Pests Ae 19] do | Ceara or Manicoba .. iced 518 do. Planter’s Catechism : 370 cdo en and other Tropical do Planting Hage; Position and roducts ye We 280 rospects of the... 296 do Co.for Tonkin . ... ae 594 do ‘do Policy Ms Me 83 do —-Co., Latest Sumatra aH 82 do Plants from Cuttings ae) 396 do Containing Plants, New Ac 612 do do Fungus on ,,, «| 69,585 vi INDEX. Page. ath a ey Pact ea Ceylon and Indian, Burma as a Habe Hee i in Market for... HG + 368 do Production, British Raw 373 do Cleaning Machine oe te 591 do Prospects 483 co Colombo Sales nod ae 603 do Results,’ 607. do Cultivation in Java 499 do Samples from India, Analysis of 516 do do in the United States . 444 do Scientific Use for, A oe 694 do Distributor on the Trade Outlook 383 do Seed, Para ch g9 do Estates ‘‘Going out” in Ceylon 77 Hak wSinokedien 3] do Fine Flavoure 80 oe 76 do Sources of 37 do Indian Association 614 do Synthetic 483 do do Dust and Hankow Brick . 615 do ‘Tapping in Bolivia 79 do in 1907—the Situation in America ote rs do Newly Patontod) lmetens do in French Indo-China : 318 enter 495 do in Jamaica 118 do do of British Guinea, do in Katha p oe 399 Native 301, 415 do Largest Yield per acre in Ceylon ... 187 Ag dc Pape “The @hain do Mr. J. H. Renton’s Conta : Gamma” 79 Bite compaign sin gre BS 4 4 : o Pests Y21, 2 de Tea asa yen eu do Planting Shares, Market for India do ‘The World’s Cultivated Area . 87 and Ceylon ; 90 do ‘Trees of British Guiana, Native 301,415 0 Production of 13 do - Visit of é Well-known London do Public Sales in Colombo 78 ie Soe Seite tret andl Ua 381 Rural Baveabon, ‘Suggestions on 575 Ae ah Goconu is ne ou se do Yields, Reduced 77 S. Teak ... 454 Safllower Seed, Edible Oil from ee 41 Termite on Rubber 592 Sago Palm, The ... sah a 433 Termites (White Ants) to Destroy the Salt, Agricultural Uses of A 28 Nests of aa bon 335 do and Coconut Palm Culture . 491, 506 Test for Citronella Oil 114 School Gardening 155, 346, 366 Testing Seed, Principles of... 354 do do Educative Value of .. 225 ‘Tillage and Rebate Principles of 34 do do Teachers, Horticultural Timber: Preservation against Wood- Education for... 226 splitting 331 do do Work and the Normal Tinnevelly District, Improved Ploughs i In 556 School 224 Tobacco Breeding 351 Scientific Use for Rubber, A New 594 do Cultivation and Curing 579 Seed Testing, Principles of 354 do Experiment Station for J affna 294 Sesamum in Burma ; 319 do Growers, Hints for das 322 Siam, Rice Exhibition in 615 do _ London Grown, Cigars from . 398 Silk, Artificial, in Japan 396 Trade Report on Drugs ff 453 Singa ore Economic Gardens Yes 613 Transplanting Paddy, Advantages of . 131 Sisal Dhibre at 14, 88, 330, 611 ‘Transpiration and Anatomical Structure do do Cultivation 14 in Tropical Plants ie 229 do do Industry in Queensland 327 Transport of Seed Cacao. 432 Soil Chemistry . 340 Treatment for Coconut Stem Bleeding do Fertility, some Factors. Influencing 2 Disease 194. do Loss of Water from, panne Dry do of Fungus Diseases 24. Weather ... 549 Tree Culture by Stream and Reservoir Sorghum Poisoning : 443 —Afforestation in Water Areas 170 State Aid for Agriculturists. 390 Trees and Lightning 91 do Quinine ene 512 do and their Uses, some Beautiful Sugar as Food 320 Tropical .. ihe 570 do inJava .... 220 Trend of tHe Rubber Industry 372 Synthetic Camphor 9 ‘Tropical Agriculture and Artificial do Indigo 205 Manures ... 390 do _ Rubber 512 do do and Plant === Breeding .. 466 oMis do do a Geylon and rind Seed as a Famine Food 140 ndla ing 464 paar (Tamarindus Indica) 140 do Cultivation in N.W. Australia 493 Tapping Rubber in Bolivia 70 do Plants, Transpiration and Ana- do Young Rubber Trees 370 tomical Structure in 229 Toa and Rubber, Ceylon—by Sir Henry do Products, Market Rates for.. 482 Blake 181] do do Rubber, Coconut and do Ayapana, a Famous Medicine 617 other... 280 do Brokers’ Reports on 513 do Trees and their Uses, some do Bushes, Life of Indian ... 276 Beautiful -. 57C do Campaign, China 280 do Plants for Egypt .. na 618 INDEX, V. Vanilla Crop since 1901 118 Veterinary Notes .. 223, 344 Victoria Regia, the Giant Water- Lily «. ae 469 Vines, Manure for 398 Ww. 7 Water Lily, the Giant (Victoria Regia) 469 do Logging in Irrigated Land and Alkali 549 do Loss of, from Soil ‘during Dry Weather oes 549 Watering of Plants 564 Wattle Cultivation be 507 do Industry in Natal... 378 Wax, Carnauba . ef 90, 113, 205 do Palm, The ... ’ 423° 585 Weeds on Rubber Estates, Suppressing 371 vii PaGRr, West Indian Broom Corn ..,, She 112 do Indies, Agriculture in 526 do do »Pineapple Growing in the 526 White Ant Exterminator 4 221, 278, 509 do Petroleum Residue for Ex- terminating .. : 278 do To Destroy the N ests of 335 Wild vs. Plantation Para . ee 392 Wood Splitting, Preservation against... 331 World’s Cultivated Rubber Area, The... 87 do Cacao Crop and Consumption... 96 Y. Yams vs. Dioscorea 368 Young Bees and their Larvee 613 Zapupe Fibre Plant TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST MAGAZINE OF THE CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Vou. XXX. COLOMBO, 15ta JANUARY, 1908. No. 1. Rice Cultivation in Ceylon. In view of the facts that we import more rice than we grow, that few local cultivators will sell any rice, and that local rice is not usually prepared in sucha way as to appeal to the imported coolie, no more important subject can be brought up. Large areas of new and good land are now available under irrigation in the dry zones of Ceylon, where larger crops can be obtained than in the poorer soils of the wet zones; yet no one offers to take up these lands, other than the local villagers, whose object would seem to be as much to keep out outsiders as to use the land for cultivation for themselves. The Kandyan villager of the North-Central Province will not grow rice for sale, to any appreciable extent, though the Batticaloa Tamil or Moorman willdo so. Itis difficult to see what remedy can be applied other than increasing the population, e.g., by the importation of Tamils, perhaps even from South India. The Kandyan villager at present grows only what he himself requires, and frequently allows his fields to lie fallow for one or two or even more crop seasons. Perhapsa larger charge for the unused water would tend to make him grow a little more rice. One cannot blame him for this attitude, but it is a great difficulty in the way of agricultural improvement. It is doubtful, having regard to the increase of population, whether the area under rice cultivation in Ceylon is really increasing; the figures are too unreliable to base any calculations upon, but at least they show thatif any, the increase is but small. We shall welcome contributions, of moderate length, upon this subject from any one with special knowledge of it or of any side of it. ON hel a a her var Oa 2 [JAN. 1908, GUMS, RESINS, SAPS, AND EXUDATIONS. Consular Reports on Rubber. REPORT ON THE VENEZUELAN RUBBER INDUSTRY. The Venezuelan Rubber Industry, although rich in possibilities, cannot be regarded as of any present importance; nor does it appear probable that it will assume any very considerable dimensions in the near future. The following facts will serve to illustrate this opinion. ACTUAL ConpDITIONS.—AIl the rubber shipped from Venezuela passes through the port of Ciudad Bolivar, on the Orinoco, and amounts, according to the latest returns, tosome 200 tonsa year; the source of this supply is on the upper waters of the River Orinoco, not far from the Brazil boundary line. This may be said to constitute the actual extent of the rubber industry in this country, as apart from experiments and schemes for its cultivation in other districts of the Republic. The plant from which the above supply is extracted is known as the Hevea brasiliensis, which grows wild in the district mentioned and is found in great abundance. The inaccessible nature of the region, however, and the political conditions, combined with difficulties of labour and transport, have hitherto restricted the annual output to its present meagre limits. It may perhaps bea question as to whether some rubber of Venezuelan origin, be not shipped, with that from Brazil, through the port of Para, but this does not probably amount to anything very considerable. YIELD PER TREE.—With respect to the average yield per tree, an official publication on Venezuela, compiled in 1904, states that ‘‘in the Orinoco region the rubber tree found produces from 40 to 50 grammes of sap. In December and January, two hundred plants will produce from 12 to 14 kilos, which is equivalent to some seven kilos* of rubber. In April the sap contains more water and only yields about four to five kilos of rubber.” PrickE.—As regards the price, that publication places it between 40 and 50 pesos (equal to about £6 10s. to £8) to the hundred pounds, although the finest qualities are more expensive. METHOD OF EXTRACTION.—The method of extraction is primitive, but, I believe, effective. Incisions are made at different levels in the trunk of the tree, and the sap is allowed to drop into a vessel provided for the purpose. . A photograph illustrating this process is enclosed. EXTENT OF VENEZUELAN RUBBER RESOURCES.—It is, unfortunately, not possible to convey any just estimate as to the actual extent of the rubber-bearing districts in this country, for the region of the Upper Orinoco is practically a terra incognita. In the official publication referred to above, its extent is estimated at some thirty million ‘hectares.’ It is known to possess unbounded resources and to be capable, were the district opened up, of producing an almost unlimited supply of rubber for a large number of years; the absence of population, however, and the difficulties of every kind hitherto encountered, have disappointed all the hopes of the Venezuelan enterprise, and of the fairly numerous group of American and European capitalists who have, from time to time, interested themselves in this branch of the national wealth. PROSPECTS.—To turn from the actual to the prospective state of the industry in Venezuela, I should mention that efforts are being made by Messrs Sprick, Luis & Co., as well as by other firms on the Orinoco, to develope the dis- * About 14 Ibs. JAN. 1908. ] 3 Saps and Exudations. tricts watered by the Rivers Caura and Paragua, lying ata distance of some two hundred miles to the South and West of Ciudad Bolivar. The region is reported to possess large resources of rubber, but, so far, small quantities only have been exported as samples. EXPERIMENTAL CULTIVATION.—Some important experimental rubber cultiva- tion is now being carried out by a Senor Raimundo Fonseca on his cocoa plantations, situated upon the North Coast between La Guayra and Puerto Cabello. The work was commenced in the expectation of favourable results, and his initial efforts were carried out upon a somewhat large scale, about 100,000 trees of the description known as Castilloa Ribrens being planted. Senor Fonseca’s idea appears to have been to combine the two products of cocoa and rubber upon his property; he accordingly substituted the usual shade-trees—the two varieties are known here as ‘ guamo’ (Inga) and ‘Bucare’ or ‘bois immortel’(Hrythrina wmbrosa)—and planted the eastilloa trees in their place, hoping to secure shade for the cocoa anda profitable crop of rubber into the bargain. The ‘guamo’ and ‘bucare,’ however, draw apparently little substance from the soil, whereas the rubber trees possess unusually exhaustive properties ; and this is alsoa well-known attribute of the cocoa plant. The result was shown in the fact that the natural development of both plants was retarded, for whilst the cocoa crop was seriously diminished, the rubber plantation has been reduced to no more than some 4,000 bearing castilloa trees, and I am not aware that any exportations have been made, save as samples of the rubber produced. With the above exceptions, rubber cannot be said to be cultivated in Venezuela. [I may conclude these remarks by mentioning that the experience gained in the various cases mentioned has led to the opinion, which is one shared by the large majority of persons interested in the subject here, that the rubber-tree,—as also similar plants, such as that producing the ‘Tonga Bean’ and BalataGum is only seen at its highest yield under entirely natural, and therefore wild, conditions. All attempts to transplant, cultivate, improve, or otherwise modify the circumstances under which it is originally found would appear to be attended with disappointing results. This fact, should experience elsewhere confirm it, would apparently have to be reckoned with, by the Government of Ceylon,—and I may add that the hopes at one time entertained of producing rubberin the Island of Trinidad have also been disappointed, it is thought owing to similar causes. SUMMARY.—To sum up, I would ask that the industry in Venezuela, being still scarcely beyond the experimental stages, and labouring, as it does, under unfavourable conditions, can have no appreciable effect on the volume of the world’s supply ; on the other hand, the unbounded resources latent in the interior constitute a store of hidden wealth which, in the progress of time and enterprise, may one day raise Venezuela to a leading position amongst the countries exporting rubber to the European market. BALATA.—I have omitted any reference to the important staple trade in Balata, which is, I believe, not strictly rubber. Some thousand tons are annually shipped through Ciudad Bolivar, and a small supply comes from Maturin in the East of the Republic. Iam indebted mainly to Senor J. F. Padron, Secretary of the Chamber of Commerce, for the foregoing information. Caracas, June 20, 1906. i eet Gums, Resins, 4 (JAN. 1908, ARGENTINE.—I. British Consulate, Rosario, May 29, 1906. S1r,—I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your Circular, Com- mercial (13423) of April 28th, 1906, respecting the cultivation of rubber, and in reply ~ I have to report that in this district this industry is of no importance whatever. Ihave, &c., His Majesty’s (Signed) H. M. MALLET, Principal Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs. Honpuras.—II. British Consulate, Puerto Cortes, June 5, 1906. My Lorp,—I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your Circular, Commercial, of 28th April last, instructing me to forward full information with regard to the rubber industry in this Republic. Atleast nine-tenths of the rubber exported from this port is of the wild quality and is of a very superior grade. Scarcely any rubber has been cultivated, although there are plenty of lands available and suitable. : In consequence of the high price ruling for the gum a large number of trees have been ruined from continual tapping, and unless these trees are replaced, the export must decrease. The quantity of rubber exported from Puerto Cortesfrom July, 1904, to July, 1905 was 48,039 Ibs. T have, &c., His Majesty’s (Signed) W. J. BAIN. Principal Secretary of State, For Foreign Affairs. British Consulate, Truxilo, June 9, 1906. Sir,—With reference to your Circular, Commercial, No. 18428, in which itis requested that Consular Officers should send information respecting the position of the rubber industry in their districts, I have now to inform you, that rubber is not cultivated in my district, but about twenty thousand pounds of wild rubber are yearly exported from this Port. The prospects for a continual supply are about the same. I have, &e., A i ; (Signed) A, E. MELHADO. His Britannic Majesty’s Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Foreign Offiee, London. Rubber Cultivation in Malaya. AREA UNDER CULTIVATION. / Although statistics show that tropical America contributes about 63 per cent. of the world’s total rubber supply, tropical Africa 34 per cent., and Asia the remaining 38 per cent., British-grown rubber is steadily asserting its claim to priority with the consumer at home. The small output contributed from Asia. includes products of the Federated Malay States, Ceylon, South India, and British North Borneo, which invariably fetch the best prices in European markets; but ; without considering the wide field open for capital and judicious enterprise in JAN. 1908] Ves ‘Saps and Exudations. each of these countries, where the development of the planting industry has been placed ona par with arapid expansion of the tea industry in India and Ceylon, observations may be confined to what is being accomplished in the Federated States of Malaya, where for the most part the trees are maturing and have scarcely yet begun to yield. At the end of 1905, there were about 40,000 acres planted with rubber, and by the close of the year following this had increased to more than 85,000 acres, with between six and seven million trees. On January Ist last there were nearly 86,000 acres, half of which had been opened during 1906 on 242 different estates. The output of dry rubber was about 180 tons in 1905 and 385 tons in 1906. The reason, that, while the average has more than doubled, the number of trees has not proportionately increased is that the number of trees planted per acre during 1906 was notso great as previously. With the present yearly increase of about 10 per cent, in the consumption of rubber—a rate which is likely to be exceeded as soon as prices become easier—it must be many years before the supply can become equal to the demand. If the whole of the rubber now planted in these States should grow vigorously, without the loss of asingle tree, until the end of 1912 (when all the trees ought to be in bearing and yielding throughout the high average of 13 lb. per tree), the Federated Malaya States will then be supplying only about one-seventeenth of the world’s estimated requirements at that date. This figure—which, by the way, is given by Mr. J, B. Carruthers, the Director of Agriculture and Government Botanist of the Federated Malaya States—is calcu- lated at the present 10 percent. rate of increase in consumption, and makes no allowance fora probable higher rate. But meanwhile casualties amongst the trees must occur, for drought, excessive moisture, insect, fungoid, and bacterial pests with other accidental causes, such as sudden winds and fire, have all to be taken into account in reducing output. AVERAGE YIELD PER TREE. In going carefully through the figures compiled from the annual reports of the numerous rubber plantation companies of Malaya issued during the past six months, it is found that in the great majority of cases the yield of rubber obtained exceeded the estimate. The average yield per tree in the Federated Malaya States appears to be just over one lb. of dry rubber perannum. In the case of estates having older trees this quantity is exceeded, and if labour were always available to tap the trees to a limit, no doubt considerably higher average would be obtained. On the Consolidated Malaya Rubber Estates, where 32,693 lbs. of rubber was harvested from 11,348 trees, the average was 2°88 lbs. per tree. In the case of the Highlands and Lowlands Estate an average over 38,639 trees of nearly 24 lbs. per tree;is reported, while a yield of over 7 lbs. per tree was obtained from 807 trees widely planted to occupy 16 acres. The result of three tappings of these 807 trees was: First tapping, 2,500 lbs.; second 1,469; and third tapping 1,773 lbs.;a total of 5,742 lbs. But such results must be regarded as quite exceptional ; although the returns indicate the immense superiority in the growth and yield of trees which are given plenty of space. This fact is being slowly realised by planters in the States, who nevertheless require considerable convincing, as, naturally, they desire to get their rubber into the market as early as possible in order to benefit by high prices. They realise that they have asure market now, and perhaps feel a little uncertain respecting the future, so that one appreciates their motive in having close-planted trees during the first few years of bearing. Their view is that by the time the close-planting begins injuriously to affect the yield they will have made theirmoney. But itis always possible, of course, for estates with a large acreage tocombine the two systems, thus keeping a reserve of open-planted trees which would doubtless, by their increased yield in future years, make for the deficiencies of the close-planted. In this connection, however, Gums, Resins, 6 [JAN. 1908. it is found that there are large areas quite as well, or even better, suited for rubber cultivation than the land already taken up. During 1906, for instance, a large . area was planted in Perak than in any of the other States, an entirely new district having been opened in Lower Perak, where rubber is now growing as well as in more popular districts. Selangor has now nearly 45,000 acres under rubber cultiva- tion, Perak about 30,000, Negri Sembilan 11,000, and Pahang close upon 485. Work- ing on the various estates are 39,000 coolies, of whom nearly 30,000 are Tamils, 4,000 Javanese, 1,500 Malays, and 3,400 Chinese. When, however, the 18,000,000 trees already planted in Peninsula are all in hearing (say five years hence) about 50,000 coolies will be needed for tapping operations, apart from opening, planting, weed- ing and other work. Thus it will be seen that the labour question is of paramount importance, and now that Government recognises the importance of studying the coolies’ health and comfort, the outlook is by no means unpromising. PRICES REALISED. Turning, in conclusion, to the prices realised during the past year’s working of the various rubber companies of Malaya, it is found that a considerable decrease on the previous twelve months’ results has to be recorded. The price cf best culti- vated Para, which in January stood at 6s. 1jd., after a gradual rise of 14d. up to the end of March, began to recede in an evenly descending scale, until in December it stood at 5s. 5$d., recovering a little before the end of the year and atthe time of writing is approaching 5s. 10d. The price of Brazilian Para took practically the same course, beginning at 5s. 5d. and reaching to 5s. 1d., being as a rule about 10 per cent. to 12 per cent. below the cultivated rubber. The factors which affect the price of rubber, and which must be considered in trying to foresee the future market price of this product, are many and various. How much the demand for rubber will increase is not easy to foretell, but rubber at the present high prices continues to find fresh markets and new uses.—Indian Trade Journal, Vol. VII., No. 87, Calcutta, 28th November, 1907. LONDON RUBBER MARKET. LONDON, November 22nd, 1907.—The market continues in avery uncertain condition, Fine Plantation, in sympathy with other kinds, being about 7d. per lb. lower where sales were effected, compared with last sale quotations. The highest price of the sale, viz., 3s. 10d., was realised for two small lots of biscuits from Hattan- galla and Warriapolla, 3s. 9d. was the highest price obtained in the room for Crepe, the finest parcels of this and Block being held for about 4s. 1d. per lb. It is worthy of note that no such prices as these have been seen for Plantation Rubber since 1902, while the price of Hard Fine Para is lower than it has been since February, 1903. Serap, unlike the finer grades, did not show such a depressed market, although here also sales were only effected with difficulty at comparatively low prices, and the darker grades of Crepe and Block were mostly withdrawn for want of support. Average price of Ceylon and Malaya Plantation rubber.—To-day 90 pkgs. at 3s. lgd., corresponding sale last year 801 pkgs. 5s. 23d. Hard Fine Para to-day 3s. 4$d., corre- sponding sale last year 5s. 2d. Particulars and prices as follows :— CEYLON. Mark. Pkgs. Description. Eee Mark. Pkgs. Description. Price. BS Gn dia- Ase: Sta : a: sdk mon”) ; re higneeuoue. Heatherle 4 Good darkish to K.P.G. 6 Daren ; ee y black crepe pt, Elston 1 Rejections 110 sold,2s 1lgdto2 11g Ellakande 2 Brownecrepe 38 0 | Hattangalla 2 Fine biscuits 3 10 Culloden 23. Brownish to dark Warriapolla 4 do do 3s9d crepe 2s9dto3 0% to 3 10 JAN, 1908.] 7 Saps and Exudations. Mark, Pkgs. Description. Price. |, Mark, Pkgs, Description. Price, ‘ s. d. s. d Doranakande 3 Good biscuits 8 6 | Taldua Z a scrap x 8k Tallagalla 4 Finebiscuits 3 8 nevauhione co M.A.K. (in dia- i sold 0 mond) 1, Fine sheet 3 83 | Ambatenne Good scrap 2 63 9 Good scrap and Northumberland : Ball scrap and rejections pt. rejectiors pt. sold 1 10 sold MALAYA, P.S.E. 5 Fine sheet 3 8 | A.G. & Co. 1 or R.S. (in io . 6 eae ReSeae oe Fine sheet 3s ane (iene she 83d to 3 9 sold 3 8 E.B, & Co. 2 Eine pale end sae B.M. & Co 3 Good scrap 2 7% palish shee A.G. & Co. 3 Fine pale and ; 8 Mguad poten ee 2 : palish reve 1 Fine sheet 3 6 8s 84d to 3 9 | Beverlac 1 Good scrap PAL LONDON, December 6th, 1907.—This was about the largest auction of Plantation Rubber that has yet been held, and the stronger tone of the market was well evidenced by the good competition that was forthcoming forall grades. About one-half of the offerings were disposed of in the room at prices generally showing an advance of from about 4d. to 6d. per Ib. on last sale quotations. This is more satisfactory in view of the fact that the Bank Rate remains unchanged, and that the position in America as yet hardly admits of active business in that market. Sheet and Biscuits were in good demand and sold readily at from about 3s, 11d. to 4s. 4id. per lb., the Jatter price being realised for some very fine dark Sheet from Highlands Estate, while the highest price for Biscuits, viz., 4s. 3d, was paid for some from Arapolakande and Glencorse Estates. Crepe was rather more plentiful than other descriptions, and the quotation suffered to some extent in consequence. Some of the palest offered, viz., that from Jebong was withdrawn for higher limits, and the highest price for tne: grade was 4s, 2?d. paid for a small lot from Arapolakande. Block continues to be less sought after than other kinds, and 66 cases of fine clear amber block from Lanadron Estate were bought in for want of competition. Average price of Ceylon and Malaya Plantation rubber.—To-day 481 pkgs, at 3s. 7§d., corresponding sale last year 217 pkgs, 5s- 2?d, Hard Fine Para to-day 3s. 83d,, corre- sponding sale last year 5s. 2d. Particulars and prices as follows :— CEYLON. Kumaradola 2 Good biscuits 4 0% | Gonakella 2 Fine scrap and ane cuttings 2s G.M. 10 Lump scrap 2s 7d to 2 1 od. to 26 | vs. 7 Good biscuits Vicarton 2 Good palish bis- and sheet4sto4 0? cuits (77 lbz,) 3s K.M. (ind@’mond) 4 Darkish and dark 73d to 4.0 crepe2s4dto3 43 1 Barky scrap 2 0 3 Biscuits, scrap Matang 23 Good palish to and rejections darkish crepe 2s 6d to 2 10 3s 24d to B58 Waharaka 2 Blockandscrap 12 Good sheet 4 25 2s 7d to 4 0 3 Wet nae erepe 2 | Ambatenne i age bIScHtS ‘ 2h goran ie 3 Densworth a peor Sao ‘ 23 , : f ood sheet Sorana 6 Good | biscuits 4 2g Ean eau 4 Block scrap P| Gonakelle 1 Good biscuits 4 23 | Tallagalla 2 do do Zui Guras, Resins, [JAN. 1908, Mark. Pkgs, Description. el Mark, Pgs. » Deserinfieee tee Price, s. d. M.A.K. (in dia- oat Pena) ON MGbod biseuits Arapolakande 3 Brownish to 235 4d to darkish 3 6 7 Crepe, scrap and 4 _. 1 Good serap 3 0 rejections pt. Glencorse ae 1 Fine biscuits 4 3 sold 2s 7d to 3 0 3 Good scrap and Taldua Good biscuits 4 24 cuttings 2s 1 Scrap 2/6 53d to _, 2 103 Northumberland 1 Blockserap 2 6 Neboda 9 Good brownish Clara 1 do do 2 9 to dark crepe K.M. (indiamond)3 Good & medium 3s 13d to 3.7 biscuits 840) Aberdeen 5 Veryifine sheet 4 2 Culloden 138 Very fine pale 1 Good'pressed crepe scrap, | 210 5 Fine palish and 1 Good rejections2 6 brownish 38s Glanrhos 14 _ Good sheet and 7id to 4 0 biscuits pt. sold 11 Good dark 3.5 .85 10id to = 4 OO 2 Dark block Be} Marakona 1 Fine sheet eels Arapolakande 1 Very fine pale Gikiyanakande 7 Brownisk. to crepe 4 23 darkish erepe 7 Fine biscuits 4 3 i 3327 to 3 8 1 Good mottled Kepitagalla 12 Fine sheet 4 1 crepe 3 74 | Suduganga 2 Fine sheet 4 0 MALAYA. Golconda 7 Good sheet 4 0} | HAC. 15 Very fine pale 1 Dark block 3 0 _ crepe Of F.D.P. (in Estate Il _ Good brownish mark) 10 Good sheet4sto4 2 & dark crepe 1 Rejections 2°10 3s 5d to 3 B. & D. 11 Fine pale to R.S.(in d’mond)R.4 Good serap 2s 8 Sard roe Grepe ; K.M. (in Ss O riangle) 2 Good 6 Good darkish to Poe a api sail mee a 13 dark crepe P.S.E. 8 Fine sheet 4 2} 38 to 3 6 BS. 18 Fine sheet 4 2 Fine pale sheet Bila 19 Good serap and 2 4s to 4 1 1 Good biscuits 3 11 1 Good sheet 4 1 1 Scrap 3 6 7 Fine sheet 4 12 2 Good dark block pt. sold 2°3 9 Good to medium dark block pt. sold2s 9d to 38 0 Good palish crepe pt. sold 8s6d to 3 10 Fine pale sheet 4 1 Damansara ] S.K.R, Co. Ld. 17 A.G. & Co. 1 Mc.I. (in dia- mond) 4 Dull biscuits 3.8 S.P.S, (in circle) 7 Biscuits scrap ete. pt. sold 2s5d to2 10 Darkish pressed crepe 2 Jugra 1 V.R. Co. Ld. Klang M.S. (in tri- ; angle) 46 Good palish and mottled crepe pt. sold 3s iad to 10° Dark, 3,6 pt: 88 1?d to 3 44 rejections 2s 73d to 3 Oz 15 Dark pressed crepe & block 2 8 Sungei Krudda 4 Palish scrap 2s 10d to | 2 10} 11 Dark pressed crepe and scrap vt. sold 2 1 Mottled crepe 3 74 20 Hine sheet 4s 33d. ~ to 4 4} 386 Good palish to darkish crepe 3s 8d to 3 8h 1 Fine block 8 8 1 Gooddark block3 34 7 Good sheet and biscuits 4s to 4 1 1 Dark pressed crepe 2 11 2 Darkish to dark crepe pt. sold 3 24 6 Fine & medium block 3s33d to3 4} Linggi Plants. Highlands Glenmarie A.R.P. Co. (in estate mark) Shelford ir JAN, 1908.] 9 OILS AND FATS. SYNTHETIC CAMPHOR. FUTURE OF THE NATURAL PRODUCT, Synthetic camphor is at last an accomplished fact, and a product which is said to respond to all chemical tests of natural camphor, and to answer all its industrial requirements can now be obtained in England in commercial quantities at prices materially below the present cost of the natural article. Until a few months ago artificial camphor was a little more than scientific curiosity, but within the last two or three weeks it has been placed on the market in serious competition with the product of the camphor tree of Formosa. This event marks a new era in certain industries in which the use of camphor is essential, and will possibly be the starting-point of new commercial enterprises. In 1899, four years after the forests of Formosa became the property of Japan, the camphor industry was placed under Government monopoly, and the world became practically dependent on Japan for,its supplies. In due course, the price of camphor began to advance, and eventually reached such a figure that not only were industries dependent upon camphor crippled, but great encouragement was given to scientific research in the direction of finding a chemical substitute for the natural product which was so difficult and so costly to obtain. This price, which was at one time 50s. percwt. for the raw product, advanced to 400s., and remained there long enough todo considerable damage to industry. In fairness to Japan it must be said that certain difficulties rose in Formosa, which rendered the cost of camphor collection much higher; but as these difficulties were gradually overcome the monopoly showed no disposition to make equivalent concessions to purchasers. It is believed that the Japanese contemplated the manufacture of celluloid, and, in fact, it is stated that this industry is already carried on to some extent in Japan. Had it not been for the recent triumph of science there is a possibility thatin course of time not only would Japan have held the monopoly of camphor production, but would have secured a predominant share in all those industries in which the use of camphor is required, including such important branches of commerce such as the manufacture of celluloid, smokeless gunpowder, a certain class of disinfectants, and a number of popular medicines. FREE FROM CHLORINE. The synthesis of camphor has been promised for some time, and in fact an impure product has been obtainable on a smaliscale for more than a year. The difficulty hitherto has been to produce synthetic camphor free from chlorine at a reasonable cost, and these difficulties have just been overcome. Apparently until a few months ago the Japanese Government felt assured that both these obstacles were insurmountable, for it was not until the end of March this year that it introduced an important change in camphor distribution, and within the last four months the price of the refined natural product has dropped to the extent of 45 per cent., the last reduction, equivalent to £28 per ton, having taken placea few days ago. The price of natural camphor, however, is still substantially higher than that at which the synthetic product can be produced, and there seems to be little doubt that in course of time the competition of the synthetic article will bring the price of the Japanese product very considerably below its present reduced value. It is estimated that at least two-thirds of the world’s supply of camphor is absorbed in the manufacture of celluloid, and the new source of supply will there fore prove an enormous stimulus to this industry. Thedemand for celluloid goods 2 Org ed Oils and Fats. Sagat [JAN. 1908. " is steadily increasing, and asa result of the excessive prices that have been ruling in the camphor market, the increased demand has to some extent been met by cheap imitations of celluloid largely composed of shellac to which a very small percentage of camphor has been added. EFFECT ON TURPENTINE MARKET. Patents for the production of synthetic camphor are being worked in Germany, France, Switzerland, America and England, and most of the processes are based on the production of pinene hydrochloride from turpentine, the pinene hydrochloride being changed into isoborneol, which is oxidised to camphor. As turpentine is the most important raw material on which the synthesis relies, it is clear that the future of the camphor market depends very largely indeed on the cost of turpentine. If turpentine were to remain somewhere about its present price it is possible that in due course the value of camphor might recede to nearly . one-half figure now quoted for the refined product. Turpentine has been dearer than it is at present, and it has been very substantially cheaper, but an increased demand occasioned by the manufacture of camphor would doubtless havea hardening influence on the market, and if this were aided by an increased demand for the purpose of paint and varnish manufacture the cost of synthesising camphor might be considerably higher than at present. These are possibilities which must be taken into account, but unless some quite unforeseen circumstance should arise to enhance the value of turpentine more considerably than the influences just mentioned synthetic camphor could still be produced at very much less than the present selling price of refined natural camphor. Thete is also the possibility that cheaper methods of synthesis will be devised, and then Japan may stand in the same position with regard to synthetic camphor as does India to synthetic indigo. In appearance the new camphor is identical with natural camphor, and chemically they are the same. There is this distinction, however, between the two products— that the natural camphor rotates the plane of polarisation to the right, synthetic camphor, like other synthetic substances, has no action on polarised left. This it merely a technical difference which has no bearing on the use of the new product in the industries.—Indian Trade Journal, Vol. VII., No. 87, Caleutta,, 28th September 1907. {With the drop in price that has lately gone on, it will be more difficult to start manufacturing camphor to profit.—ED.] THE SOURCES OF GARJAN OIL IN BURMA. Only six of the fifty species of Dipterocarpus that are known to occur in the tropical forests of the south and east of the Asiatic continent are said to be indigenous to India proper. The others are more or less specific forms of the Malayan type of forest vegetation and are distributed over Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and the island of the Indian archipelago. But, whenever they are met with, the Dipterocarpus are characterized by at least two marked and constant features—(1) they are among the most lofty trees of their habitat, (2) the fibro-vascular bundles of their wood secrete and hold large quantities of fragrant, balsamic. oleo-resins. Of the eight species of the genus that are distributed over the moist or dry forests of Burma, the Dipterocarpus alatus, Roxb. (Kanyin pyu or white Kanyin), the D. laevis, Ham. (Kanyin ni or red Kanyin), and the J). turbinatus Gaertn. f (Kanyin) yield the so-called ‘Kanyin oils’; while the D, Griffithii, Migq., the D. incanus, Roxb., the D. obtusifolius, Teysm (Iu bo), the D. pilosus, Roxb. and the D. tuberculatus, Roxb. (Eng., In, In ma or female In) are the accredited sources of the ‘In Oils’ of Burma. Of these again, the Dipterocarpus turbinatus and the D. tuberculatus are the most abundantly distributed species of their respective ater JAN. 1908.] 11 Oils and Fats, groups, and consequently furnish the bulk of the products referred to the groups to which they belong, The term “ oils” as applied to these remarkable products is not only a misnomer but distinctly a misleader ; for, so far from being merely oils, these products are organic compounds consisting of mixtures of both fixed and volatile oilsand balsamic resins resembling copaiba. The groups themselves differ much in physica! ac well as chemical constitution,—the Kanyins being more nearly oils than resins while the Ins are more nearly resins than oils. Again, the method of the extraction of the product, in each case, furnishes a difference between them of some practical importance and goes far towards helping us to gain some insight into their varying compositions,—the oils of the kanyins are extracted with the aid of fire, the resins of the Ins. without such aid. For the rest, the former are thin, brown to greenish black products; the latter are thick grey-to-greyish-white exudations. Although they are frequently promiscuously distributed and some- times even occur beside each other, the species yielding the Kanyin oils evince a marked preference for the moist seclusion of the dense, damp, evergreen forests of the hills and valleys of the interior of Burma; whereas, those furnishing the In oils show a no less conspicuous predilection for the outer, open, dry forests of the lower foot hills and plains of the country. Indeed, while the former are sparsely and sporadically intermixed with the dominant trees of the cool forest that instal themselves on deep, rich soils and alluvial deposits, the latter are so eminently gregarious asto frequently form pure forests on beds of laterite, gravel, and clay. To the assemblage of varied oleo-resinous products that are obtained from species of varying characteristics such as these the one commercial name of “ Garjan Oil” hae been applied. No separate trade names exist for the different products that are really referred to under the name of garjan oil. No endeavours appear to have yet been put forth to separately obtain, examine, or determine the oils and resins of the species met with, nor has any serious or systematic attempt been made to investigate their technical value. At present they are almost universally accepts to be ‘ oils’ from the great tiger haunted forests of Burma; while, even the chemical examina- tion of the oil by Messrs. Fluckiger and Aunbury, as reported in their Pharmacogra- phia, itself appears to have been conducted upon the sample of a product of dubious origin obtained by them from the port of Moulmein. The method of extraction of the Kanyin oils is simple, crude, and needlessly wasteful. Between the months of November and May, varying with the size of the tree, one or more “‘ deep pyramidal hollows, the apices of which point towards the interior of the stem” are cut near the foot of the tree, and fire applied by means of bamboo torches to the upper surfaces of the cuts. The oil which readily trickles out at the cut ends of the vessels of the wood accumulates at the bases of the hollows and is ladled out thence once or twice a week. Soon after and as often as the oil is collected by the operator, fire is applied to the cuts, the charred surfaces of which are also occasionally chipped with a narrow bladen adze. These operations are said to be necessary to stimulate the flow of oil and to keep the pores of the wood open. A tree six feetin girth, with buta single cut, yields on an average about 20 pounds of the oilin the year. This quantity is valued at about Rs. 2 locally. The oil, as such, is however sold only when a good demand exists for it; usually it is mixed with chips of rotten wood which, on becoming quite saturated, are neatly rolled between the leaves of the screw-pine (Pandanus, spp.) or saluhicuala peltata (Roxb.), and made into torches of which from 10 to15 lakhs are annually exported from the Tenasserim ports of Mergue, Tavoy, and Moulmein alone. These torches are worth from Rs. 2'8 to Rs. 3'0 per 100 at the port of shipment. The extraction of the In oils proceeds upon similar lines to those adopted with that of the Kanyin oils. The tapping season in their cases, however, begins in August and ends in the February or March following. No fireis applied to the cuts, but Oils and Fats. 12 (J AN, 1908, their surfaces are frequently chipped clean to remove the congealed resin that clogs the pores of the wood. The yield and value of In oilare about the same locally as those of Kanyin oil. Unlike the latter, it is seldom utilized in the manu- facture of torches, but is chiefly employed, either alone or in combination with the oleo-resin of the Melanorrhea usitata, Wall, for varnishing, water-proofing, lacquering, in medicine, etc. Besides these known uses of the products Garjan oil has been suggested for utilization in the manufacture of lithographic and printing ink, as asubstitute for the Brazalian balsam of Copaiba (copaiva), in the painting or varnishing of wood work exposed to damp or insects, and asa solvent of the hydrocarbon, caoutchouc. For the last-mentioned purpose it would appear to be eminently suited because of the large quantities of essential oil it contains—almost every known essential oil being an effective solvent of caoutchouc. The wasteful and primitive methods of extracting the Garjan oilsin Burma coupled with the annual destruction of hundreds of valuable trees from overtapping or being burnt down in the fires that travel through the forests in the hot weather are mabtters that deserve the attention of those responsible for the Forest adminis- tration of the provinces of Burma. Systematic tapping under scientific treatment following the due conservation of at last those forests in which the Dipterocarpus terminatus and the D. tuberculatus at present occur spontaneously in Burma is likely to do much in the direction of assuring purity of quality and sustained quantitative yield in two of the most valuable products of the country. Such action cannot fail to revive and enlist commercial and technical interest and sympathy in the elimination and utilization of these products. It might even lead to the discovery of new uses and to the erection of new industries for their adequate and efficient utilization ; for, it is the product that seeks and finds its utilization more frequently than the industry that determines its use.—Indian Agriculturist, Vol. XXXII, No. 10, October 1907, p. 308. [Several species of Dipterocarpus occur in Ceylon. D. glandulosus, Thw., which is comparatively rare, yields dorana-tel, used instead of Garjan oil in the Colombo Lepers’ Hospital.—Ep. } Coconut Water. (Quelques recherches sur la composition de l’eau et sur les diastases du fruit de Cocos nucifera, de Kruyff in Bull. Jard. Colon. 7, 1907, p. 339). This author finds that 1. The coconut water contains saccharose, which is inverted during maturation. 2. This inversion is carried out by the action of the diastase sucrase, which is dissolved in the water. 8, This diastase is secreted by the cells of the endosperm (flesh of nut). 4. The water also contains oxydase and catalase. 5. The water of a very young fruit only contains the two latter. 6. The haustorium (organ with which the young plant feeds on the nut) contains in its cells lipase, proteolytic diastase, amylase, catalase, and feroxydase). _These researches were carried out with the object of finding a use for the water in the young coconut, but none was discovered. JAN. 1908.]} 13 FIBRES. COTTON SEED SELECTION, 1906-7. The great importance of seed selection, in the cultivation of Sea Island cotton has, for a long time been recognized, and even in the cultivation of the ordinary qualities of cotton, seed-selection is assuming a very prominent position. It has long been known that wherever a large number of plants of the same variety are grown together, slight variations are always to be found, and that is parti- cularly noticeable in a cotton field. Usually the variations are not of a very pro- nounced nature, but when each year those plants are selected which show a desir- able variation, however slight it may be, the ultimate result will be an improve- ment in the produce as a whole. Such has been the case with the Sea Island cotton seed selection experiments that have been carried onfrom year to yearin the Sea-Island cotton-growing districts of America, The cause of the variations which take place in the plants of the same species grown together cannot definitely be stated, but probably a number of different factors are responsible for them. The tendency to produce variation, as shown by Sea Island cotton, however, demands attention for two reasons: First, since it is of great service in affording material for develcping special varieties of plants and desirable qualities of cotton; and secondly, because—owing to this varying character of the individual plants—unless seed for planting purposes is specially selected from individual plants, the cotton will become less uniform in quality in each year, and so of less value. The method adopted in these experiments has been frequently referred to inthe pages of the Agricultural News ; and in the West Indian Bulletin (Vol. VII. p. 153) this method has been described at some length. Briefly, it is as follows: Each plant in the field is carefully examined as regards its general growth, freedom from disease, prolificness, and quality of cotton produced, and those plants which are most satisfactory in these characters are carefully marked. The seed-cotton from these plants is then picked separately, and subjected to a very critical examination; the best samples are determined, and from these the seed is obtained. The next season, this seed is planted in a nursery in order to produce enough for general planting purposes. All the remaining samples are discarded. When these experi- ments are conducted on any estate for the first time, each field must be very care- fully examined for specially good plants; but when the experiments have been carried on during the previous season, the plants in the nursery only are examined. The number of plants which are examined on an estate where the experiments are being carried on for the first time is naturally very large. Since about 4,000 plants is the number usually grown per acre, this means that if 20 acres of cotton are gone over, it will necessitate the consideration of many as 8(,000 plants. The Imperial Department of Agriculture has been very active in taking this work in hand, for, from the first it was realised that if the industry was to be successful, it would be necessary to start experiments, and to supply seed of the highest Possible quality. In the season of 1905-6, seed-selection experiments were com- menced in Barbados; and during that year they were conducted on seven estates. In the season 1906-7 the work was extended to ten estates in this island. During this season experiments were also started on five estates in St. Vincent, and a few plants have been selected at the experiment stationsin Antigua, St. Kitt’s, and Montserrat. In Barbados during the season of 1905-6, the number of plants selected in the field were 264, but as aresult of the final examination, seed was selected from only fourteen of these. In 1906-7, 224 plants were selected in the field, and from these, twenty-six were finally selected for seed purposes. During this same season in St. Vincent, 102 plants were selected in the field, seed being obtained Fibres. 14 [JAN. 1908, from twelve of these after the final examination. The seed from the finally selected plants is very carefully dealt with in each case. On each of the estates where the experiments are being conducted, a special plot of land is set apart as a nursery, and in this nursery the seed is carefully sown, care being taken to have the nursery in sucha position that the plants are not likely to be cross-fertilized by those in the general field. Another important factor in selecting the nursery is that the soil and situation shall be nearly as possible typical of the general conditions of the estate. The principal measurable qualities of the cotton produced by these selected plants in Barbados, during the seasons 1905-6 and 1906-7, andin St. Vincent during the season 1906-7, are clearly shown in the following table :— Average per- Average length centage pro- Average dia- of staple. portion of meter of fibre. weak fibre. Barbados ose 1905-6 50°7 mm. 27°21 0:0156 mm. Barbados seh 1906-7 47:7 mm, 24°] 0°0155 mm, St. Vincent ioe 1906-7 47°7 mm. 2°22 1°0159 mm. A comparison of these figures is interesting, since they indicate the measur- able qualities of the cotton. As regards the length of Barbados cotton, it will be seen that this reason, the staple from the selected plants is shorter than that of last year. The reasonfor thatis that, as aresult of statements made by Mr. E. Lomas Oliver during his visit to the West Indies during the early part of this year, greater importance has been attached to the strength of the cotton than to its length. In describing the relative values of the various qualities, Mr, Oliver stated that strength was of greatest importance; then came fineness, and next length. This being the case, those responsible for the selection experiments have been willing to make certain sacrifice as regard length in order to obtain strength. It will be noticed that the selected plants of this year contained much less weak fibre than those of the previous season, some of the individual plants this year containing as low as 17 per cent. weak fibre, while last year none produced less than 24 per cent. The above table does not show clearly the extent to which St. Vincent cotton scores over Barbados cotton, and it should be stated that only avery few samples of cotton produced in the latter island contained alow proportion of weak fibres, whereas this low portion of weak fibre was a very marked factor in nearly all the samples from St. Vincent. ; This year the experiments will again be continued, and we hope by these carefully and thorough means to maintain the high qualities of West Indian cotton, and thus to place the cotton industry on a more substantial footing.—Agricultural News of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies, Vol. VII, No. 1438. Barbados, 19th October, 1907. SISAL FIBRE CULTIVATION. Beginners of sisal planting, if not well posted in the subject by practical object lessons, must be often ata loss as to which of the many writers on the subject to follow. ‘““N” in “Capital” for instance would lead us to think we had tumbled upon a veritable Tom Tiddler’s ground in fibre cultivation. A sanguine temperament is a pleasing and essential trait in the successful establishing of a profitabie planting industry, but, if not toa certain extent combined with business discretion is apt to lead to disaster. Jan. 1908. ] 15 Fibres. “N”in the Article in ‘ Capital” refers frequently to this cultivation in Assam, But judging from his remarks he very evidently has had no practical experience of Sisal Cultivation. When Sisal planting was started, one of its principal virtues was its supposed indifference to the kind of soil in which it was planted. It was believed to grow best and produce a paying crop upon a soil too poor to supporta paying crop of anything else, It was even believed that a worn out tea garden would be rejuvenated into a flourishing concern by simply planting it with Sisal. ‘“‘N” says that Sisal although growing upon rich cultivated land, grows best and produces best fibre upon poor arid land. Now every Sisal plantey knows—and in some instances the knowledge is likely to be dearly bought—that although Sisal will exist on poor land it will not produce leaves giving either quality or quantity of fibre to pay for the cutting and decorticating. According to ‘‘N” the Sisal is a long-lived plant if judiciously cultivated. If by judicious cultivation he means that cultivation, which will insure a fair crop of good quality fibre, according to all practical experience of the cultivation of the plant it will shorten its life. But during itsshorter life it will produce more fibre and of better quality than it does when grown on poor land, although it may live three or four times the number of years. Contrary to being a long-lived plant it is essentially a short liver, as, like all mono-carpic perennials it dies when it flowers. ‘“N” again says that when the plant gets old,in about fifteen years the fibre deteriorates and the plant may be thrown out and replaced. This statement is so ridiculous to those who know anything about the cultivation of Sisal that it is hardly worth while commenting upon it if it were not that beginners might take it seriously. If ‘‘N” puts outa plantation of Sisal and gives it that judicious cultiva- tion already alluded t9, in fifteen years he will not have one single plant left, as before that time they will all have poled and consequently died. But taking it for granted that the plantation has been properly looked after, the new plants which have replaced the dead ones will be in full bearing, aud some of those even will be poling and dying. Whether the leaves are cut or not makes no material difference in the time of the plants poling. It used tobe thought that if the plants were cut too hard it induced early poling. This has not yet, to the writer’s knowledge, been proved, but cutting too hard certainly weakens the plant and shortens the after coming leaves. As to ‘N’s” remarks upon wet soil, the plant will not grow upon water- logged soil, but will grow luxuriantly upon asoil in which tea will not exist,—a soil, the surface of which is continually only 18inches above water level. It is nota deep rooter and has no tap root. Its roots have not even a spreading habit, and if the soil in which Sisal is planted be not of fair average, to good quality, feeding the plant must be resorted to and is absolutely essential if a profitable quantity and quality of fibre is to be obtained. A low-lying damp situation is not a desirable one for this plant owing to its restricted transpiratory system. Most Indian plants growing in such situations are provided with free canals which runalong the substance of the leaf converging at the tip. This is, supple- mentary to the ordinary transpiratory pores of the leaves and in certain conditions of the atmosphere which retards the usual transpiration, the canals come into use, and the water drips from the tip of the leaf. The Sisal plant is exceedingly deficient in transpiratory pores, and is not provided with such canals, and during a cold damp spell the transpiration is often so checked as to cause a rupture in the tissues of the leaf from pressure within, and causes an unsightly black blotch which discolours the fibre and reduces its value if the attack is severe. Fibres. 16 (JAN. 1908. ‘“N” appears to have as vague ideas about the decorticating machinery as he has about the Sisal plant itself. He alludes to the Lornella machine as being used by the Assam Planters. The writer is only aware of one Lornella machine in India, and will not be surprised if that one is relegated to that limbo of impractibles and failures, the factory scrap heap, in the near future. Engineers are very busy trying to bring out a perfect machine for decorti- cating fibre leaves. Oneis badly wanted as there is not such a thing as a perfect machine of this kind yet. The Lornella makes over 30 per cent. waste more than the small Raspador type. That is, the same weight of green leaves from which a small machine will take three pounds of dry fibre the large Lornella will only take two pounds. The Lornella will not clean the Mauritius leaf at all, but cuts it all to bits. The principal drawback to the Raspador type of machine is its comparatively small outturn. Buta battery of twelve of these small machines fitted with Barr and Thrusoris Automatic feed arrangement will more than equal the outturn of the large expensive “ Tornella.” More labour is required to handle these small machines, but this is by far and away overbalanced by their producing 30 % more fibre than the larger machine. When a “ Lornella” gets out of order, and when it does so, it gets very much out of order,—it means that the whole factory is stopped. There isno fear of this happening with the smaller machines, It will be well for intending Sisal planters to remember that Mr. Joseph Chamberlain over twenty years ago was persuaded into planting large tracts of Sisal in the Bahama Islands under the impression that it would grow upon poor land. The collapse of the undertaking is now ancient history, perhaps not known to Sisal planters generally. Sisal planting will be found to require more systematic cultivation and keeping the land in ‘‘ heart” than ever tea has had. Ifa tea garden is planted ina fairly good soil it may not perceptably require much attention ia the shape of fertilisers during the first dozen years or so. But, if a Sisal garden is treated in the same way, it may be confidently asserted that the leaves of the second planting will hardly be worth cutting. EXPERIENTIA DOCET. eames JAN. 1908.] 17 PLANT SANITATION. Entomological Notes. By E. E. GREEN, Government Entomologist. A correspondent from Polgahawela gives me some useful particulars concerning the life history of the red coconut weevil (Ahynchophorus signaticollis) He writes :—‘‘ On the 19th July last a tree which was felled to reduce the dense shade over some coconut plants, fell on a two-year-old coconut plant and seriously damaged it, pushing it out of the perpendicular and snapping it below ground level.” ‘““Within four hours there were red beetles on the tree, and on the 5th of Mavember last the tree was still green, but evidently falling to pieces, and rotten at the base. The tree was removed and carefully taken to pieces by hand. There were eleven empty cocoons with beetles near them—thirteen cocoons containing pertect beetles which began to move about when the cocoons were opened. Of these twenty-four perfect insects eighteen were males. There were some partially made cocoons with grubs in them, and some perfect cocoons within which were insects in various stages of mutation. There was but one grub which was active and had only just begun to makeacocoon. There were no cocoons in excess of the number of insects found, so I take it that none of the, beetles had yet left the tree. The whole life-history of this beetle (or weevil) seems therefore to occupy sixteen weeks from the date of the eggs being laid to the full development of the insect. There would hence be three broods a year—approximately.” My correspondent’s estimate of three broods per annum does not necessarily follow from the observed facts. There is sometimes a considerable interval between the emergence of the adult insect, and the deposition of eggs. Moreover, it is not certain that the period of development of the insect is at the same rate in different seasons. It may be delayed by cold wet weather. The red coconut weevil having come into considerable prominence lately as a coconut pest, it will be advisable to give it its correct scientific name. This has recently been determined by Mt. H. M. Lefroy (Government Entomologist for India), to whom I sent some of our specimens, as Rhynochophorus signaticollis. He writes me that R. signaticollis was orginally described from Ceylon[Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 6, ii, p. 562 (1882)]. Rhynchophorus ferrugineus is said to be larger, duller and more uniformly coloured—a description that tallies with another (less common) palm weevil that occurs in Ceylon. A correspondent writes, asking for advice ve ‘shot hole borer” (Xyleborus). It appears that he has recently obtained tea seed from an estate infested by,this pest, and has been warned by a friend that he runs the risk of introducing the borer by so doing, and that he should take the precaution of washing the seed and burning the bags in which it arrived. My correspondent asks if he should go still further and destroy the seed itself. I have replied that there is no appreciable risk in employing tea seed from a district infested by ‘‘shot hole borer.” That insect has never been known to inhabit the seed of the tea plant. Withregard to the bags, though there may be an off chance ofa wandering insect being entangled in the sacking, this chance is a very remote one, and the risk from this sourceis no greater than from the clothing of any person who might visit the estate after travelling through an infected district. Under the terms of the Pests’ Ordinance, I have recommended the prohibition of the removal of tea plants from districts in which the pest occur but I have specially exempted tea seed from this prohibition, as being unlikely to carry the infection. 3 Plant Sanitation. 18 [JAN. 1908. I have received specimens of the caterpillars of the Tussar silk moth (Antheraea paphia), said to have been found feeding upon the leaves of a Para rubber (Hevea) plant. The caterpillar is a large and voracious one, and would soon defoliate a small plant ; but its appetite would quickly draw attention to its ravages, and being a large and conspicuous insect, it can be readily seen and destroyed. The caterpillar is of a brilliant apple green colour, with vivid orange spots on the prominent tubercles. Plant-feeding caterpillars are usually unmitigated pests. But I have received specimens of the caterpillars of acommon moth(Plusia oxygramma, Hubn.) with the report that they are doing excellent service in destroying a troublesome weed (Conyza sp.). My correspondent writes :—‘‘l havea plot (of tea) of several acres under very heavy weeds, this weed (Conyza), Ageratum, and a weed like groundsel. The caterpillars are leaving the other weeds but making an absolute clean sweep of this particular weed, eating all the leaves and the top—except the ribs. I think all these weeds will die. WhatI want to know is, is the poochie harmless, and ought it to be encouraged ; or should it be exterminated as a pest of tea, rubber &c. ?” I was able to assure my correspondent that these caterpillars are very un- likely to attack the tea or any other estate produce. They are, however, some- times troublesome ina kitchen garden, where I have known them to play havoc witha bed of tomato plants. Outbreaks of ‘ Red slug’ (Heterusia) have been reported from several dis- tricts. This caterpillar confines its attentions to the older leaves of the tea plant and does not appear to relish the young flush. Extensive defoliation of the mature foliage will, however, weaken the bush. If the tea is nearly ready for pruning, this work should be taken in hand at once. The prunings should be burnt in situ, together with all fallen leaves and rubbish from below the bushes. Butif the pruning of the tea is inadvisable at the time, little can be done beyond collecting the caterpillars by hand. At the same time, the rubbish and fallen leaves should be swept.up and burnt, as many of the caterpillars will have formed their cocoons amongst the dead leaves. This caterpillar is fortunately very much parasitized by a species of fly (Exorista heterusic) which very materially aids in checking the pest. If the earlier attacks are detected, and the caterpillars collected and des- troyed while the insect is confined to afew bushes, further and more extensive trouble will be avoided. I have received specimens of Cajanus indicus—the ‘ Pigeon Pea’ or ‘ Dhal’ of India—with the leaves thickly covered witha ‘mealy bug’ (Oudablis sp.) to such an extent that the whole plant appears snowy white, I am not aware that this plant is cultivated to any extent in Ceylon, but the pest might bea serious one if introduced into India. Specimens of plantain fruits have been submitted tome with their skins badly infested by a ‘scale-bug’ (Aspidiotus destructor). The quality of the fruit does not appear to be affected in any way, though the presence of the bug is a distinct blemish to the appearance of the fruit. The aquatic larve of Dragon flies forma considerable portion of the food of imported trout in Ceylon. 1 have had the opportunity of examining the contents of the stomach of a medium-sized fish, which contained little else than the remains of these larvee. But they take their revenge in the stew pond where the large species take heavy toll from the young fry. In fact, in twocases that have come under my notice, they appear to have been responsible for the extermin- ation of practically the whole stock of young fish. 5 celia aah JAN. 1908.] 19 Plant Sanitation. A Coconut Palm Root Disease, The following isa report ona root disease of coconut palms reported from Trinidad, West Indies :— Root DisEASE.—An attack of this disease is generally first shown by the leaves. They show aslightly wilted appearance, they turn yellow, first at the tips and then gradually allover the leaflets. These dry up, blacken, hang down from the ‘cabbage,’ and often remain for a considerable time before they are shed,—a badly attacked palm often being entirely enclosed in numbers of leaves around its trunk. Frequently, however, it is noticed that the leaves do not hang down around the trunk but the petioles break across, leaving the sheathing portion on the trunk, while the foliage portions of the leaves have fallen tothe ground. Sometimes the petiole does not completely break and the foliage portion of the leaves hangs vertically downwards, attached to the portion of the petiole that is left attached to the stem, The outer leaves are sometimes those that show signs of wilting and yellow- ing first, but this is not always so, for frequently palms may be noticed in which a ‘middle’ ring of leaves becomes wilted and yellow, while rings of green leaves remain above and below. After the yellowing of the leaves, trees bearing a good crop of nuts asa rule gradually shed most if not all of them, irrespective of their size and state of develop- ment, and the flowers subsequently produced do not set. In fact, it is possible for a person to pick out with certainty trees that are diseased before any yellowing of the leaves is noticed, by carefully looking at the condition of the leavees and at the latest flowers that are being put forward. Any trees that are diseased can at once be singled out. The local conditions of the soil must be considered before a tree is definitely stated to be diseased, as the whole appearance of the diseased trees suggests a lack of water, and therefore may be confused with trees that are suffering from this cause alone in drought-affected areas. An increased supply of water, either natural or artificial, will improve the condition of drought-affected trees, but the wilted appearance of diseased trees, although it may be slightly less noticeable, is more permanent, and the symptoms do not disappear. After a number of the leaves have yellowed and died, it is only a question of time before the terminal bud falls over and becomes a putrid mass,* and the palm eventually dies,as it has no power of branching or of producing a new growing point. Trees which only present external signs of disease to the experienced observer show that apparently the roots are probably the parts which become first affected. After a considerable number of these have been rendered useless in contributing to the life of the plant, changes take place which result in asour-smelling red dis- colouration in the stem that probably commences at the level of the ground and extends upwards. The position of this red discolouration would appear to vary in the stem directly with the roots thatare affected, and it has been repeatedly noticed that when a ‘ middle’ ring of leaves shows signs of yellowing, the discolouration is found towards the centre, while if the lowest leaves become wilted, the stem presents a ring of discolouration towards the outside of the stem. The petioles also show that * When a coconut palm is affected by any disease or pest, the terminal bud, in the advanced stages, becomes involved ina rot. This must not be confused with ‘bud-rot’ which appears to be a specific disease, as the roots, stem and leaves are sound, whilethe bud isina diseased condition. Plant Sanitation. 20 (JAN. 1908, they are infested with the mycelium ofa fungus, for when the leaves become dry and hang down the fructifications push through the epidermis and form pustules of varying size and shape. Eventually, when the vitality of the tree has been reduced, the terminal bud as already noticed becomes infested with a ‘rot’ which causes the whole cabbage to fall over, resulting in the death of the tree. Specimens of leaves, roots, stems, petioles, &c., were taken from a con- siderable number of diseased trees for examination and for cultural and infection experiments. Although it has been impossible to establish with certainty the whole of the life history of the fungus in the short time that has been given to the study of this disease, yet some interesting points have been established. Microscopic examination of diseased roots was made in longitudinal and transverse sections. At once it was noticed that the cortex of the roots was abnormal. In a diseased root, the walls of the cortex cells appear to be shrunken and the cells are turgid no longer. Between the walls of consecutive cells can be seen large dark-coloured septate threads of afungus mycelium, while many of the cells themselves have become invaded by the same. When a cortex cell is threatened by the approach of a fungal thread, its cell contents appear to be altered, for large yellowish globules make their appearance. Whether these have been produced by the cell itself as a means of protection against the fungus, or whether they are the result of decomposition could not be determined, but after the mycelium has gained an entrance into the cell, these globules as well as all the other cell contents are destroyed and absorbed. The mycelium of the fungus spreads from one cell to another by piercing through the cell walls, and soon obtains an entrance into the thin-walled cells of the central cylinder and eventually into the vessels themselves. The red discolouration of the stem was carefully examined microscopically, but except in the case of trees that were very badly diseased, few mycelial threads could be detected. These in the advanced cases were similar to those noted in the roots, but I am of opinion that the red discolouration is primarily due to the disorganiza- tion of normal changes in the stem through the stoppage of supplies from the roots, rather than to any effect of the small amount of fungal mycelium found in diseased stems. PETIOLES.—It was observed that almost without exception, the petioles of the leaves of badly diseased trees showed a large number of minute ruptures of the epidermis, after they had died and had fallen to the ground. The petioles in varying stages of disease were therefore submitted to a careful microscopic examination, and it was observed that a mycelium of a fungus was found in all diseased petioles, The point of the first attack could not be determined, but it would appear that the petiole, just where it expands to ensheath the stem of the tree, is the part where the effect of the fungus is first noticed. The whole petiole gradually assumes a blackish colour, the leaflets become brown, and eventually on the dead petioles minute ruptures take place in the epidermis of the petiole just where it begins to expand before joining the stem. These give off a black powdery dust, which consists of spores of two kinds—one, single-celled and colourless, and the other two- celled and brown. The two-celled spores suggested that the fungus belonged to the genus Botryodiplodia, and therefore specimens were forwarded to Dr. N Patouillard, who has recently described several new specimens of fungi on coconuts from French Polynesia for identification and he reports as follows :— “TI have examined the specimens of parasitic fungi on petioles of coconut. eS se ee JAN. 1908. ] 21 Plant Sanitation. The epidermis is raised and split up but covers the fungus. Out of the slit a black powder which is formed of brown uniseptate spores protrudes. If asection is made through the wart-like pustules, there is found under the skin a black cellular stroma, filled with several lockets. These spaces are filled with colourless nonseptace spores. If these are placed in a damp chamber, in about 24-36 hours germination takes place, The colourless spores are therefore adult and mature. If we ccnsider the fungus in respect to its hyaline spores it must be considered a Cystospora (a large genus) or better a Fusicoccum, If the brown septate spores really belong to it and are the final end of the devel- opment, the fungus will be a Botryodiplodia. It remains then to establish that these last belong to the fungus. Itis very probable but not proved.” In working out the life history of:the fungus, it has frequently been noticed that the colourless spores become brownish in colour and afterwards become septate. Considering that no difference can be noted in the mycelia produced by the two fungi, that the wart-like pustules bear both kinds of spores, and that the colourless cells have been observed to be divided by asingle septum, I am of opinion that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that the septate brown spores are the final results (the colourless unicellular cells being the forerunners), and that therefore the fungus must be considered as a species of Botryodiplodia. The damage caused by the fungus in the roots of the disorganisation of the cortex cells has been observed, and therefore the effect this has on the cocount plant may clearly be understood. The roots of a healthy plant conduct the water and food in solution from the soil to the leaves, and therefore, when the fungus has destroyed a large number of roots, a reduction in the water-absorbing power of the ‘root system takes place. There are, however, few economic plants that so quickly repair damage to rootsas the Palme, and, therefore, the seat of the injury must extend through a large number of roots before it is of any consequence. When alarge number of roots are diseased, the water, etc., is absorbed in gradually decreasing quantities, and consequently less food substances are elaborated. Young trees do not appear to suffer o any considerable extent, for numerous instances have been noticed of young plants having quite a healthy appearance, while a number of the roots were in a diseased condition. When, however, the fruiting period comes on, a large drain is made upon the tree. ltis taxed very highly and, if the roots are diseased, wilting or yellowing of the leaves is noticed. It was observed that trees that were just coming into bearing were the most liable to succumb, although many old trees were in a diseased condition. When the root system, reduced in extent by the action of the fungus, is in. capable of supplying the needs of the plant, the leaves commence to roll up so as to reduce evaporation. Subsequently the leaves do not obtain sufficient water to keep their tissues alive, and then they gradually begin to turn yellow and to dry up, the leaves are, therefore, unable to carry on their functions, and the whole mechanism is thrown out of action. The general appearance of the plant is that of one suffering from ‘ drought.’ The petioles of the leaves are also filled with fungus mycelium. This may be noticed in all dying leaves, for their petioles are blackish in colour. No instance has been found of the mycelium passing from the petioles into the stems of the trees, and if a section be cut through a terminal bud ofa freshly diseased tree, a sharp Plant Sanitation. 22 (Jan. 1908. line of demarcation will be noticed between the diseased petioles and the healthy bud. This mycelium cuts off much food to and from the leaf, and therefore assists in the general disorganization of the functions of several parts of the plant. The general opinion of the planters of coconuts was that this disease is due to the weakness of the plants produced by the setting of immature nuts. In some districts histories of weather-beaten cargoes of green nuts been driven on the shores and the nuts used for planting purposes were held out as the cause of the trouble. This disease, however, is not limited to a few scattered trees, and evidence distinctly points to its being infectious. A tree that has become attacked by the disease is sooner or later surrounded by a large number of others showing signs of the disease. In one portion of the Cedros district, the disease has been noticed making its way gradually into other fields of coconut further South. It is, therefore, impossible to believe that the large ar2as of coconuts in Cocorite, Laventille, Guapo, Cedros, and the interlands of Mayaro were planted with immature nuts. Moreover, the fungus found inthe roots and in the petioles of diseased trees is capable of attacking vigorous trees; but anything which tended to reduce their vitality would considerably help along the fungus. Circumstances which retard growth, both of the root and shoot system, give the root fungus a much better chance. This was conspicuously brought to my notice on a portion of an estate in the Cedros district. A low-lying hollow showed that a large quantity of water was present in the soil. Such a condition was unfavourable to good develop- ment of the trees; they were stunted in growth and showed that root development was not very fncee The clayey impervious nature of the soil suggested that an elaborate system of drainage was needed in order to procure the eration necessary for vigorous plant growth. In this hollow most ot the trees had died out very rapidly, and the disease had soon spread from this portion of the estate to other parts where the soil conditions were very much more favourable. Trees on sandy soil on higher ridges were often noticed to be attacked, but itis generally in low-lying undrained hollows that the disease is the worst. This is also seen in the Guapo and Mayaro districts. These examples should suffice to show how natural peculiarities of an estate and other physical features affect the disease, but these alone cannot be sufficient to cause the death of the trees, as is often urged. The characters of the soil affect the growth of the plant, and they may also affect the fungus, and therefore it is necess- -ary to keep the condition of the soil as good as possible, in order that it may be favourable to the growth of the plant. Itis also commonly stated that lack of cultivation and manuring is the cause of the trouble, and it should not be forgotten that every effort to improve the condition of the soil and render it better adapted to the healthy and vigorous growth of the root system may be a blow at the fungus, for some of the new roots would certainly go to replace those destroyed by the parasite. The presence of a parasitic fungus in the roots and in the petioles must, therefore, be held to be the cause of the disease, and improvements in cultivation, drainage, manuring, ete., should be practised as they possibly may affect the disease indirectly by rendering the coconut plants more capable of withstanding its attacks. The distribution of this disease apears to be fairly general throughout the coconut districts, and considerable loss has been experienced in the southern end of the island. The aggregate injury throughout the colony must be very considerable, but itis only i in a few localities that serious loss has been experienced. JAN. 1908.] 23 Plant Sanitation. Numerous instances have been seen where diseased trees just coming into bearing have succumbed, and signs of old stumps surrounding them have been noticed. These examples would bear out the opinion of Mr. Hart that the disease has been present in the colony for a considerable time. It is only recently thatit has assumed dangerous proportions. On one estate alone in the Cedros district, out of a total of 25,000 trees, 3,000 have been cut down within the last twelve months, and many more are either dead or in a diseased con- dition, and in many other places the disease is already a serious annoyance. There is undoubtedly danger of further spread. This danger is emphasized by the recent rapid spread through some estates in the Cedros district, and if con- ditions favour its development and proper remedial measures are not taken to check it, the coconut industry of Trinidad will materially suffer. Already some of the smaller proprietors are beginning to feel the loss of returns, and this loss will be felt the more severely if the present prices for coconut and their products do not hold. Samples of soil from around the roots of diseased trees have been investigated microscopically, and sterile mycelium, which appeared to agree with that found inside diseased roots, was present in them. This would suggest that the mycelium is capable of spreading through the soil. This mycelium may be capable of attacking and killing the younger rootlets and then entering into the larger ones. The entry of the mycelium into the roots is still an unsolved problem, but evidence tends to show that the larger roots first show signs of infection where the small rootlets join them. In nocase has the’ mycelium been noticed on the exterior of the roots, and it would seem that it has to depend upon the rot of the smaller roots for its distribution. The roots of several young supplies that were planted upon or near to the place where diseased trees have been removed, showed on examination, the presence of a mycelium within them but not in sufficient quantities to cause their death. This indicates that infection can take place through mycelium. It would appear to be probable that the disease may spread :— (1) By mycelium through the soil from root to root. (2) By spores blown from tree to tree. (8) By germinating tubes of spores from petioles attacking either the roots of the same tree or the roots of another. (4) By germinating “chlamydospores” from decaying petioles. The best conditions for the germination of the spores depend upon the presence of suitable quantities of air and moisture, and the spread of the disease would be expected to be most rapid when the conditions are the most favourable. The distribution of fungus spores by wind and rain will be dealt with more fully under the leaf disease and, therefore, will not be discussed here. The spread of mycelium in the soil depends a good deal upon the cultivation. Any condition of the soil that is unfavourable to the coconut may favour the root disease by hindering free root development. Excessive moisture and excessive drought may be favouring conditions for the disease. The latter cannot be re- medied except by irrigation, and does not appear to be a factor of any importance in this disease. The former, excessive moisture, is noticeable in many of the low- lying portions of the States. In these hollows, the soil is often of a clayey nature— impervious to water—and, therefore, many of the air spaces between the soil parti- cles are replaced by water. The normal working and growth of the root is interfered with, and the destruction of such roots by fungal mycelium may speedily follow. The effects of excessive moisture can be lessened by careful attention to drainage and to the mechanical condition of the soil. Plant Sanitation. 24 [JAN. 1908, The present system of cultivation of coconuts in Trinidad could be improved, and the attention of all growers of coconuts should bedrawn to the progressive German colonists and to the Americans in the Philippines, where modern orchard methods are being successfully practised in the treatment of coconut estates, as improved cultivation would tend to retard the spread of disease. Although the complete life-history of the fungus and its method of spread is not yet known with certainty, it would appear that owing to its habit in penetrating and spreading in the living tissues of the root of the host plant, cure is practically outside the question where a large majority of the roots are permeated with mycelium, and therefore it is probable that only the most drastic measures are likely to provide pemanent relief. It cannot be expected that the disease can be entirely eradicated, but, by a method of what is known as “stamping out,” the amount of disease may materially be reduced and the fungus kept in check. There are six principal ways in which we may hope to attack this disease. They are :— (1) Destruction of all diseased material. (2) Isolation of diseased areas. (3) Resting of infected land before planting ‘supplies.’ (4) Spraying and application of chemicals. (5) Improved cultivation and drainage. (6) Searching for and propagating disease-resistant varieties. —Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Jamaica, pp. 114/22, June and July, 1907. TREATMENT OF FUNGUS DISEASES. In previous numbers of the Agricultural News, and inother publications of the Imperial Department of Agriculture, the attention of planters in the West Indies has repeatedly been drawn to the principal fungus diseases that affect their crops. It is here proposed to give a brief account of the methods that are com- monly adopted for the prevention of the occurrence and spread of fungus parasites. Improved methods of investigation have resulted in a vastly increased knowledge of the nature and causes of disease, and there has also been a correspond- ing advance in the treatments adopted for its prevention. In the control of many fungus parasites remarkable success has been obtained. Some ot the methods have received a wide application, and should by this time have secured the con- fidence of the planter. The chief points to be continually kept in mind when discussing the general treatment of fungus diseases may be classed under six heads: (1) care in cultural operations and in the destruction of all diseased plant tissues; (2) spraying and soaking in disinfectants for destruction of parasites; (8) rotation of Crops ; (4) raising and propagating disease resistant varieties; (5) avoiding the introduction of new plants from disease-affected localities ; (6) use of good, healthy seed. (1) Probably the most common source of plant infection arises through not promptly destroying all portions of plants that have become diseased. Such serve as centres of infection, and if they are allowed to remain, the fungi produce large quantities of spores that may infect healthy areas. The best method for the destruction of such diseased material is, of course, by burning; and this should be adopted whenever possible. Those plants or portions of plants that will not satisfactorily burn should be buried with lime—on no account should they be left lying about. It has always been recommended that all diseased cacao pods, as ee ~All JAN. 1908) 25 Plant Sanitation. well as the husks or shells of healthy pods, should be buried, and it has further been advised that all dead fruits from the cacao tree, whether diseased or not, _ should be systematically collected, and included in the general burial (Agricultural News, Vol. VI, p. 174). Where such methods have been adopted, considerable prevention of ‘‘ pod disease ” has undoubtedly resulted. Investigation into the disease affecting the coconut palm in Trinidad has also emphasized the necessity of keeping plantations as free as possible from dead or diseased trees, and it would appear that wherever careful sanitary methods have been adopted, the spread of the diseases has been considerably checked. Many other diseases might be instanced under this heading, but it is only necessary to direct the attention of planters to ‘“‘ canker,” ‘‘die back,” and ‘‘ thread” disease of cacao; ‘‘anthracose” of cotton; and ‘‘ root disease” of sugar-cane, as instances of diseases that can be controlled with fair success by care in cultural operations. Canker of cacao is caused by a wound parasite, and makes itself the more noticeable on such estates where pruning is not carefully carried out. As much ‘canker,” ‘‘die back,” and ‘‘thread